,! ,legacy ( ,,greece ,essays by ,,gilb]t ,,murray1 ,w4 ,r4 ,,+e1 ,j4 ,,burnet1 ,,sir ,t4 ,l4 ,,hea?1 ,d',,arcy ,w4 ,,?ompson1 ,,*>les ,,s+]1 ,r4 ,w4 ,,liv+/on1 ,a4 ,,toynbee1 ,a4 ,e4 ,,zimm]n1 ,,p]cy ,,g>dn]1 ,,sir ,,reg9ald ,,blomfield ,edit$ by ,r4 ,w4 ,,liv+/one ,illu/ration ,,ox=d ,,at ,,! ,,cl>5don ,,press ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,engl& ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press1 ,,ox=d ,,by ,,john ,,johnson ,,pr9t] ,,to ,,! ,,univ]sity ,9 spite ( _m diff]5ces1 no age has _h clos] aff9ities ) ,anci5t ,greece ?an our own2 none has bas$ its deep] life s l>gely on ideals :i* ! ,greeks br\ght into ! _w4 ,hi/ory does n repeat itself4 ,yet1 if ! tw5tie? c5tury se>*$ ?r\gh ! pa/ = its ne>e/ spiritual k91 x is 9 ! fif? & foll[+ c5turies be=e ,*ri/ t !y w\ld be f\nd4 ,aga9 & aga91 z we /udy ,greek ?\ght & lit]ature1 beh9d ! veil wov5 by "t & di/ance1 ! face t meets u is our own1 y\ng]1 ) few] l9es & wr9kles on its features & ) m def9ite & delib]ate purpose 9 its eyes4 ,= ^! reasons we are to-day 9 a position1 z no o!r age has be51 to und]/& ,anci5t ,greece1 to le>n ! lessons x tea*es1 &1 9 /udy+ ! ideals & =tunes ( m5 ) :om we h s mu* 9 common1 to ga9 a full] p[] ( und]/&+ & e/imat+ our own4 ,?is book--! fir/ ( its k9d 9 ,engli%--aims at giv+ "s idea ( :at ! _w owes to ,greece 9 v>i\s realms ( ! _s & ! intellect1 & ( :at x c /ill le>n f h]4 ,,! ,,editor4 ,octob] #aiba4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,greece ,,to ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,by ,,gilb]t ,,murray1 ,f4,b4,a41 ,regius ,pr(essor ( ,greek 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d #a ,,religion4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,+e1 ,d4,d41 ,dean ( ,/4 ,paul's #be ,,philosophy4 ,by ,j4 ,,burnett1 ,f4,b4,a41 ,pr(essor ( ,greek 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,/4 ,&rews #eg ,,ma!matics ,,& ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,sir ,t4 ,l4 ,,hea?1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,k4,c4,v4,o41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ig ,,natural ,,sci5ce4 ,by ,d',,arcy ,w4 ,,?ompson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,/4 ,&rews #acg ,,biology4 ,by ,,*>les ,,s+]1 ,lectur] 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london #afc ,,m$ic9e4 ,by ,,*>les ,,s+] #bja ,,lit]ature4 ,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,liv+/one1 ,fell[ ( ,corpus ,*ri/i ,college1 ,ox=d #bdi ,,hi/ory4 ,by ,,arnold ,,toynbee1 ,koras ,pr(essor ( ,byzant9e & ,mod]n ,greek ,language1 ,lit]ature1 & ,hi/ory 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london #bhi ,,political ,,?\ght4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,zimm]n1 late ,wilson ,pr(essor ( ,int]national ,politics1 ,univ]sity ,college ( ,wales1 ,ab]y/wy? #cba ,,! ,,lamps ,,( ,,greek ,,art4 ,by ,,p]cy ,,g>dn]1 ,f4,b4,a41 ,m]ton ,pr(essor ( ,classical ,ar*aeology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d #cec ,,ar*itecture4 ,by ,sir ,,reg9ald ,,blomfield1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,r4,a4 #cig ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,greece ,,to ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,if ! value ( man's life on e>? is to be measur$ 9 doll>s & miles & horse-p[]1 anci5t ,greece mu/ c\nt z a pov]ty-/rick5 & a m9ute t]ritory2 its eng9es & implem5ts 7 ne>] to ! spe> & b[ ( ! savage ?an to our own telegraph & a]oplane4 ,ev5 if we neglect m]ely mat]ial ?+s & take z our /&>d ! actual a*ievem5ts ( ! race 9 conduct & 9 k1 ! av]age cl]k :o goes to t[n daily1 idly glanc+ at 8 morn+ newspap]1 is probably a bett] behav$ & inf9itely bett] in=m$ p]son ?an ! av]age ,a!nian :o sat spellb\nd at ! trag$ies ( ,aes*ylus4 ,x is only by ! /&>d ( ! _s1 to :i* ! ?+ a*iev$ is little & ! quality ( m9d t a*iev$ x mu*1 :i* c>es less = ! sum ( k atta9$ ?an = ! love ( k1 less = mu* good polic+ ?an = "o free act ( h]oism1 t ! great age ( ,greece c be judg$ z some?+ extraord9>y & unique 9 value4 ,by ?is /&>d1 if x is a legitimate & reasonable "o to apply1 we %all be able to und]/& :y classical ,greek lit]ature 0 ! basis ( education ?r\gh\t all lat] antiquity2 :y its re-discov]y1 h[ev] fragm5t>y & h[ev] imp]fectly und]/ood1 0 able to intoxicate ! ke5e/ m9ds ( ,europe & con/itute a k9d ( spiritual ',re-bir?'1 & h[ its fur!r & fur!r exploration may be /ill a task wor? m5's sp5d+ _! lives ^u & capable ( giv+ mank9d guidance z well z inspiration4 ,b is su* a /&>d legitimate & reasonable8 ,we %all ga9 no?+ by unanalys$ phrases4 ,b ,i ?9k surely x is m]ely ! natural /&>d ( any philosophical hi/orian4 ,suppose x is argu$ t an av]age optician at ! pres5t day kn[s m optics ?an ,rog] ,bacon1 ! inv5tor ( spectacles2 suppose x is argu$ t !re=e he is1 z f> z optics g1 a great] man1 & t ,rog] ,bacon has no?+ to tea* u2 :at is ! answ]8 ,x is1 ,i suppose1 t ,rog] ,bacon1 receiv+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( k f 8 tea*]s1 _h t 9 him :i* turn$ x to unsuspect$ directions & made x imm5sely great] & m fruitful4 ,! av]age optician has probably add$ a little to :at he 0 taught1 b n mu*1 & has d\btless =gott5 or confus$ a good deal4 ,s t1 if by /udy+ ,rog] ,bacon's life or 8 books we c\ld get into t\* ) 8 m9d & acquire "s ( t special mov+ & inspir+ quality ( 81 x w\ld help u f> m ?an w\ld ! m]e k ( ! optician4 ,?is tru? is no d\bt h>d to see 9 ! case ( purely te*nical sci5ce2 9 books ( wid] range1 su* z ,d>w9's = in/ance1 x is easy = any read] to feel ! pres5ce ( a really great m9d1 produc+ inspiration ( a diff]5t sort f t ( ! mo/ excell5t up-to-date exam9ation text-book4 ,9 philosophy1 religion1 poetry1 & ! highe/ k9ds ( art1 ! greatness ( ! au?or's m9d seems z a rule to be all t matt]s2 "o almo/ ignores ! date at :i* he work$4 ,?is is because 9 te*nical sci5ces ! elem5t ( m]e fact1 or m]e k1 is s enorm\s1 ! elem5ts ( imag9ation1 "*1 & ! l s v small4 ,h5ce1 books on sci5ce1 9 a progressive age1 v quickly become 'out ( date'1 & ea* new edition usually sup]s$es ! la/4 ,x is ! r>e/ ?+ = a "w ( sci5ce to survive z a text-book m ?an t5 ye>s or s4 ,newton's ,pr9cipia is almo/ an isolat$ in/ance among mod]n writ+s4 ,yet !re are "s few su* books4 ,up till ab\t ! ye> #aijj ! elem5ts ( geometry 7 regul>ly taught1 ?r\gh\t ,europe1 9 a text-book writt5 by a ,greek call$ ,eucleides 9 ! f\r? or ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4#a ,t text-book la/$ ov] two ?\s& ye>s4 ,n[1 ( c\rse1 p h discov]$ a numb] ( faults 9 ,euclid1 b x has tak5 !m all t "t to d x4 #a ,s9ce ?is pap] 0 fir/ writt5 ,euclid1 ,book ,i1 9 ! ,greek1 has be5 edit$ ) a comm5t>y by ,sir ,?omas ,hea? 7,cambridge ,press1 #aibj74 ,x is full ( int]e/ & in/ruction4 ,aga91 ,i knew an old g5tleman :o told me t1 at a good ,engli% s*ool 9 ! e>ly n9ete5? c5tury1 he _h be5 taught ! pr9ciples ( gramm> out ( a writ] call$ ,dionysius ,?rax1 or ,d5is ( ,?race4 ,d5is 0 a ,greek ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c41 :o made or c>ri$ out ! rem>kable discov]y t !re 0 su* a ?+ z a sci5ce ( gramm>1 i4 e4 t m5 9 _! daily spee* 7 unconsci\sly obey+ an extraord9>ily subtle & intricate body ( laws1 :i* 7 capable ( be+ /udi$ & r$uc$ to ord]4 ,d5is did n make ! :ole discov]y himself2 he 0 l$ to x by 8 ma/] ,ari/>*us & o!rs4 ,& 8 book _h be5 re-edit$ sev]al times 9 ! n9ete5-hundr$ odd ye>s be=e ?is old g5tleman 0 taught x4 ,to take a ?ird case3 all ?r\gh lat] antiquity & ! middle ages ! sci5ce ( m$ic9e 0 bas$ on ! writ+s ( two anci5t doctors1 ,hippocrates & ,gal54 ,gal5 0 a ,greek :o liv$ at ,rome 9 ! e>ly ,empire1 ,hippocrates a ,greek :o liv$ at ! isl& ( ,cos 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,a great "p ( ! hi/ory ( mod]n m$ic9e is a /ory ( emancipation f ! dead h& ( ^! great anci5ts4 ,b "o little treatise attribut$ to ,hippocrates 0 9 active use 9 ! tra9+ ( m$ical /ud5ts 9 my own day 9 ,scotl& & is /ill 9 use 9 "s ,am]ican ,univ]sities4 ,x 0 ! ,oa? tak5 by m$ical /ud5ts 9 ! classic age ( ,greece :5 !y solemnly fac$ ! duties ( _! pr(ession4 ,! disciple swore to hon\r & obey 8 tea*] & c>e = 8 *ildr5 if ev] !y 7 9 ne$2 always to help 8 pati5ts to ! be/ ( 8 p[]2 nev] to use or pr(ess to use magic or *>ms or any sup]natural means2 nev] to supply poison or p]=m illegal op]ations2 nev] to abuse ! special position ( intimacy :i* a doctor naturally obta9s 9 a sick h\se1 b always on ent]+ to rememb] t he goes z a fri5d & help] to e individual 9 x4 ,we h giv5 up t oa? n[3 ,i suppose we d n believe s mu* 9 ! value ( oa?s4 ,b ! man :o fir/ drew up t oa? did a great de$4 ,he realiz$ & def9$ ! mean+ ( 8 high call+ 9 words :i* doctors ( unkn[n tongues & undiscov]$ c\ntries accept$ f him & felt to express _! aims = well ov] two ?\s& ye>s4 ,n[ :at d ,i want to illu/rate by ^! ?ree in/ances8 ,! rapidity ) :i* we are n[ at la/ ?r[+ (f ! la/ ve/iges ( ! yoke ( ,greece8 ,no1 n t4 ,i want to po9t out t ev5 9 ! realm ( sci5ce1 :]e progress is s swift & books s %ort-liv$1 ! ,greeks ( ! great age _h su* g5ius & vitality t _! books liv$ 9 a way t no o!rs h liv$4 ,let u get away f ! ?\ght ( ,euclid z an inky & imp]fect ,engli% s*ool-book1 to t anci5t ,eucleides :o1 ) exce$+ly few books b a l>ge table ( s& let into ! floor1 plann$ & discov]$ & put toge!r & re-%ap$ ! fir/ laws ( geometry1 till at la/ he _h writt5 "o ( ! great simple books ( ! _w1 a book :i* %\ld /& a pill> & beacon to mank9d long aft] all ! political _w t ,eucleides knew _h be5 swept away & ! k+s he s]v$ 7 conqu]$ by ! ,romans1 & ! ,romans 9 c\rse ( "t conqu]$ by ! b>b>ians1 & ! b>b>ians !mselves1 ) mu* lab\r & reluctance1 p>tly by means ( ,eucleides' book1 ev5tually educat$2 s t at la/1 9 our own day1 !y c manage to le>n _! geometry )\t x4 ,! "t has come = ,euclid to be sup]s$$2 let him g4 ,he has surely held ! tor* = mank9d long en\gh2 & books ( sci5ce are born to be sup]s$$4 ,:at ,i want to sugge/ is t ! same extraord9>y vitality ( m9d :i* made ,hippocrates & ,euclid & ev5 ,d5is ( ,?race la/ _! two ?\s& ye>s1 0 also put by ! ,greeks ( ! great age into ^? activities :i* are1 = ! mo/ "p at any rate1 n p]i%able or progressive b et]nal4 ,?is is a simple po9t1 b x is s important t we mu/ dwell on x = a mom5t4 ,if we read an old treatise on m$ic9e or me*anics1 we may admire x & feel x a "w ( g5ius1 b we also feel t x is obsolete3 its "w is ov]2 we h got beyond x4 ,b :5 we read ,hom] or ,aes*ylus1 if once we h ! p[] to admire & und]/& _! writ+1 we d n = ! mo/ "p h any feel+ ( hav+ got beyond !m4 ,we h done s no d\bt 9 all k9ds ( m9or ?+s1 9 g5]al k1 9 details ( te*nique1 9 civilization & ! l2 b h>dly any s5sible p]son ev] imag9es t he has got beyond _! ess5tial quality1 ! quality t has made !m great4 ,d\btless !re is 9 e art an elem5t ( m]e k or sci5ce1 & t elem5t is progressive4 ,b !re is ano!r elem5t1 too1 :i* does n dep5d on k & :i* does n progress b has a k9d ( /ation>y & et]nal value1 l ! beauty ( ! dawn1 or ! love ( a "m = h] *ild1 or ! joy ( a "y animal 9 be+ alive1 or ! c\rage ( a m>tyr fac+ torm5t4 ,we _c = all our progress get beyond ^! ?+s2 !re !y /&1 l light ^u ! m\nta9s4 ,! only "q is :e!r we c rise to !m4 ,& x is ! same ) all ! greate/ bir?s ( human imag9ation4 ,z f> z we c speculate1 !re is n ! fa9te/ probability ( any poet ev] sett+ to "w on1 let u say1 ! ess5tial effect aim$ at by ,aes*ylus 9 ! ,cass&ra-sc5e ( ! ,agamemnon1 & do+ x bett] ?an ,aes*ylus4 ,! only ?+ :i* ! human race has to d ) t sc5e is to und]/& x & get out ( x all ! joy & emotion & wond] t x conta9s4 ,?is et]nal quality is p]haps cle>e/ 9 poetry3 9 poetry ! mixture ( k matt]s less4 ,9 art !re is a con/ant developm5t ( tools & m$ia & te*nical processes4 ,! mod]n arti/ c feel t1 ?\gh he _c1 p]haps1 make z good a /atue z ,pheidias1 he c\ld "h & !re h taught ,pheidias some?+3 & at any rate he c try 8 art on subjects f> m v>i$ & m /imulat+ to 8 imag9ation4 ,9 philosophy ! mixture is m subtle & m pr(\nd4 ,philosophy always dep5ds 9 "s s5se ^u sci5ce1 yet ! be/ philosophy seems g5]ally to h 9 x "s et]nal quality ( creative imag9ation4 ,plato wrote a dialogue ab\t ! con/itution ( ! _w1 ! ,timaeus1 :i* 0 highly influ5tial 9 lat] ,greece1 b seems to u1 ) our va/ly sup]ior sci5tific k1 almo/ nons5sical4 ,yet :5 ,plato writes ab\t ! !ory ( k or ! ultimate mean+ ( ,ju/ice or ( ,love1 no good philosoph] c af=d to leave him aside3 ! *ief "q is :e!r we c rise to ! height & subtlety ( 8 ?\ght4 ,& "h ano!r po9t em]ges1 equally simple & equally important if we are to und]/& our relation to ! pa/4 ,suppose a man says3 ',i q und]/& t ,plato or ,aes*ylus may h _h f9e ideas1 b surely any?+ ( value :i* !y said mu/ long be=e ?is h become common prop]ty4 ,!re is no ne$ to g back to ! ,greeks = x4 ,we d n g back & read ,cop]nicus to le>n t ! e>? goes r\nd ! sun4' ,:at is ! answ]8 ,x is t su* a view ignores exactly ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! progressive & ! et]nal1 betwe5 k & imag9ation4 ,if ,h>vey discov]s t ! blood is n /ation>y b circulates1 if ,cop]nicus discov]s t ! e>? goes r\nd ! sun & n ! sun r\nd ! e>?1 ^? discov]ies c easily be communicat$ 9 ! mo/ abbreviat$ =m4 ,if a me*anic inv5ts an improvem5t on ! telephone1 or a social re=m] puts "s good usage 9 ! place ( a bad "o1 9 a few ye>s we %all probably all be us+ ! improvem5t )\t ev5 kn[+ :at x is or say+ ,?ank y4 ,we may be z /upid z we l1 we h 9 a s5se got ! good ( x4 ,b c "o apply ! same process to ,macbe? or ,romeo & ,juliet8 ,c any "o tell u 9 a few words :at !y come to8 ,or c a p]son get ! good ( !m 9 any way except "o--! way ( vivid & lov+ /udy1 foll[+ & feel+ ! au?or's mean+ all ?r\gh8 ,to suppose1 z ,i believe "s p d1 t y c get ! value ( a great poem by /udy+ an ab/ract ( x 9 an encyclopa$ia or by read+ cursorily an av]age translation ( x1 argues really a k9d ( m5tal defici5cy1 l deafness or col\r-bl9dness4 ,! ?+s t we h call$ et]nal1 ! ?+s ( ! _s & ! imag9ation1 always seem to lie m 9 a process ?an 9 a result1 & c only be rea*$ & enjoy$ by someh[ go+ ?r\gh ! process aga94 ,if ! value ( a p>ticul> walk lies 9 ! sc5]y1 y d n get t value by tak+ a %ort cut or us+ a fa/ motor-c>4 ,9 look+ back1 !n1 ^u any vital & significant age ( ! pa/ we %all f9d objects ( two k9ds4 ,fir/1 !re w be ?+s l ! ,v5us ( ,milo or ! ,book ( ,job or ,plato's ,republic1 :i* are int]e/+ or preci\s 9 !mselves1 because ( _! own inh]5t qualities2 secondly1 !re w be ?+s l ! ,roman code ( ! ,twelve ,tables or ! inv5tion ( ! pr9t+-press or ! record ( c]ta9 great battles1 :i* are int]e/+ *iefly because !y are causes ( o!r & great] ?+s or =m knots 9 ! great web ( hi/ory--! fir/ hav+ arti/ic int]e/1 ! second only hi/orical int]e/1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x is obvi\s t 9 any concrete case !re is g5]ally a mixture ( bo?4 ,n[ ,anci5t ,greece is important 9 bo? ways4 ,= ! arti/ or poet x has 9 a q extraord9>y degree ! quality ( beauty4 ,= in/ance1 to take a contra/ ) ,rome3 if y dig ab\t ! ,roman ,wall 9 ,cumb]l& y w f9d quantities ( objects1 alt>s1 inscriptions1 figur9es1 weapons1 boots & %oes1 :i* are full ( hi/oric int]e/ b are n mu* m beautiful ?an ! cont5ts ( a mod]n rubbi% heap4 ,& ! same is true ( mo/ excavations all ov] ! _w4 ,b if y dig at any classical or sub-classical site 9 ! ,greek _w1 h[ev] unimportant hi/orically1 practically e object y f9d w be beautiful4 ,! wall itself w be beautiful2 ! inscriptions w be beautifully cut2 ! figur9es1 h[ev] *eap & simple1 may h "s int5tional grotesques among !m1 b ! re/ w h a special tru?fulness & grace2 ! vases w be ( good %apes & ! patt]ns w be beautiful patt]ns4 ,if y happ5 to dig 9 a bury+-place & come across "s epitaphs on ! dead1 !y w practically all--ev5 :5 ! v]ses d n q scan & ! words are wrongly spelt--h ab\t !m ?is inexplicable t\* ( beauty4 ,i am anxi\s n to write nons5se ab\t ?is4 ,"o c\ld prove ! po9t 9 detail by tak+ any collection ( ,greek epitaphs1 & t is ! only way 9 :i* x c be prov$4 ,! beauty is a fact1 & if we try to analyse ! s\rces ( x we %all p]haps 9 "p und]/& h[ x has come to pass4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n a beauty ( ornam5t2 x is a beauty ( /ructure1 a beauty ( rightness & simplicity4 ,comp>e an a?lete 9 flannels play+ t5nis & a /\t dignit>y smo!r$ 9 gold robes4 ,or comp>e a good mod]n ya*t1 swift1 li!1 & pla91 ) a lumb]+ heavily gild$ sixte5?-c5tury galleon1 or ev5 ) a ,*9ese /ate junk3 ! ya*t is f> ! m beautiful ?\gh %e has n a hundr$? "p ( ! ornam5t4 ,x is %e h]self t is beautiful1 because h] l9es & /ructure are "r4 ,! o!rs are ess5tially clumsy &1 !re=e1 ugly ?+s1 dabb$ ov] ) gold & pa9t4 ,n[ anci5t ,greek ?+s = ! mo/ "p h ! beauty ( ! ya*t4 ,! ,greeks us$ pa9t a good deal1 b ap>t f t a ,greek temple is almo/ z pla9 z a %$3 p accu/om$ to arabesques & /a9$ glass & g>goyles c v (t5 see no?+ 9 x4 ,a ,greek /atue has z a rule no ornam5t at all3 a "y man rac+ or pray+1 an old man ?9k+1 !re x /&s express$ 9 a /ately & simple conv5tion1 true or false1 ! anatomy & ! surfaces "r or wrong1 aim+ at no beauty except ! true/4 ,x w\ld probably seem q dull to ! mak] ( a m$iaeval wood5 figure ( a k+ :i* ,i rememb] see+ 9 a t[n 9 ! ea/ ( ,europe3 a cr[n blaz+ ) _m-col\r$ glass1 a long crimson robe cov]$ ) ornam5ts & b5ea? !m an idiot face1 no bones1 no muscles1 no attitude4 ,t is n :at a ,greek meant by beauty4 ,! same quality holds to a great ext5t ( ,greek poetry4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 t ! arti/ic conv5tion 0 ! same1 or at all simil>1 = treat+ /one & = treat+ language4 ,greek poetry is /atuesque 9 ! s5se t x dep5ds greatly on its organic /ructure2 x is n 9 ! lea/ s 9 ! s5se ( be+ cold or col\rless or /iff4 ,b ,greek poetry on ! :ole has a b>5ess & sev]ity :i* disappo9ts a mod]n read]1 accu/om$ z he is to lavi% ornam5t & exagg]ation at e turn4 ,x has ! same simplicity & /raight=w>dness z ,greek sculpture4 ,! poet has some?+ to say & he says x z well & truly z he c 9 ! suitable /yle1 & if y are n int]e/$ y are n4 ,) "s exceptions :i* expla9 !mselves he does n play a ?\s& pretty tricks & antics on ! way1 s t y may =get ! dullness ( :at he says 9 amusem5t at ! drap]ies 9 :i* he wraps x4 ,b "h comes an app>5t difficulty4 ,greek poetry1 we say1 is v direct1 v simple1 v free f irrelevant ornam5t4 ,& yet :5 we translate x into ,engli% & look at our translation1 our ma9 feel+1 ,i ?9k1 is t someh[ ! glory has gone3 a ?+ t 0 high & lordly has become poor & mean4 ,any dec5t ,greek s*ol> :5 he op5s "o ( 8 anci5t poets feels at once ! pres5ce ( some?+ l(ty & r>e--some?+ l ! atmosph]e ( ,p>adise ,lo/4 ,b ! language ( ,p>adise ,lo/ is elaborately twi/$ & embelli%$ into l(t9ess & r>ity2 ! language ( ! ,greek poem is simple & direct4 ,:at does ?is mean8 ,i c only suppose t ! normal language ( ,greek poetry is 9 itself 9 "s s5se sublime4 ,mo/ critics accept ?is z an obvi\s fact1 yet1 if true1 x is a v /range fact & wor? ?9k+ ab\t4 ,x dep5ds p>tly on m]e euphony3 ,khaireis horn fs is probably m beautiful 9 s\nd ?an ',y rejoice to see ! light'1 b euphony _c be ev]y?+4 ,! s\nd ( a great deal ( ,greek poetry1 ei!r z we pron\nce x1 or z ! anci5ts pron\nc$ x1 is to mod]n e>s almo/ ugly4 ,x dep5ds p>tly1 p]haps1 on ! actual /ructure ( ! ,greek language3 philologi/s tell u t1 view$ z a specim51 x is 9 /ructure & gr[? & 9 p[] ( express+ ?+s1 ! mo/ p]fect language !y "k4 ,& c]ta9ly "o (t5 f9ds t a ?\ght c be express$ ) ease & grace 9 ,greek :i* becomes clumsy & involv$ 9 ,lat91 ,engli%1 ,fr5* or ,g]man4 ,b nei!r ( ^! causes goes1 ,i ?9k1 to ! root ( ! matt]4 ,:at is x t gives words _! "* & makes a /yle high or l[8 ,obvi\sly1 _! associations2 ! company !y habitually keep 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o use !m4 ,a ^w :i* belongs to ! language ( b>s & billi>d saloons w become p]meat$ by ! normal /&>d ( m9d preval5t 9 su* places2 a ^w :i* sugge/s ,milton or ,c>lyle w h ! flav\r ( ^? m5's m9ds ab\t x4 ,i !re=e _c resi/ ! conclusion t1 if ! language ( ,greek poetry has1 to ^? :o "k x intimately1 ?is special quality ( ke5 au/]e beauty1 x is because ! m9ds ( ! poets :o us$ t language 7 habitually ton$ to a high] level bo? ( int5sity & ( nobility ?an ours4 ,x is a f9] language because x expresses ! m9ds ( f9] m54 ,by 'f9] m5' ,i d n necess>ily mean m5 :o behav$ bett]1 ei!r by our /&>ds or by _! own2 ,i mean m5 to :om ! f9e ?+s ( ! _w1 sunrise & sea & />s & ! love ( man = man1 & /rife & ! fac+ ( evil = ! sake ( good1 & ev5 common ?+s l meat & dr9k1 & evil ?+s l hate & t]ror1 _h1 z x 71 a ke5] edge ?an !y h = u & r\s$ a swift] & a nobl] reaction4 ,let u resume ?is argum5t be=e go+ fur!r4 ,we />t f ! indisputable fact t ! ,greeks ( ab\t ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 did = "s reason or o!r produce v>i\s works ( art1 build+s & /atues & books1 especially books1 :i* in/ead ( dec5tly dy+ or fall+ out ( fa%ion 9 ! lifetime ( ! m5 :o made !m1 la/$ on & c /ill cause high ?\ghts & int5se emotions4 ,9 try+ to expla9 ?is /range fact we notice t ! ,greeks _h a great & p]vad+ in/9ct = beauty1 & = beauty ( a p>ticul> k9d4 ,x is a beauty :i* nev] lies 9 irrelevant ornam5t1 b always 9 ! v ess5ce & /ructure ( ! object made4 ,9 lit]ature we f\nd t ! special beauty :i* we call ,greek dep5ds p>tly on ! directness1 tru?fulness1 & simplicity ) :i* ! ,greeks say :at !y want to say1 & p>tly on a special ke5ness & nobility 9 ! language1 :i* seems to be ! natural expression ( ke5 & noble m9ds4 ,c we 9 any way put all ^! ?+s toge!r s z to expla9 !m--or at any rate to hold !m toge!r m cle>ly8 ,an extremely old & (t5 mislead+ metaphor w help u4 ,p h said3 ',! _w 0 "y !n4' ,( c\rse1 /rictly speak+1 x 0 n4 ,9 ! total age ( ! _w or ( man ! two ?\s& odd ye>s betwe5 u & ,p]icles d n c\nt = mu*4 ,nor c we imag9e t a man ( sixty felt any m juv5ile 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ?an he does n[4 ,x 0 j ! o!r way1 because at t "t !re 7 no spectacles or false tee?4 ,yet 9 a s5se ! _w 0 "y !n1 at any rate our we/]n _w1 ! _w ( progress & humanity4 ,= ! beg9n+s ( ne>ly all ! great ?+s t progressive m9ds n[ c>e = 7 !n be+ laid 9 ,greece4 ,y\?1 p]haps1 is n exactly ! "r ^w4 ,!re are c]ta9 plants--"s k9ds ( aloe1 = in/ance--:i* cont9ue = an indef9ite numb] ( ye>s 9 a sl[ r\t9e ( ord9>y life close to ! gr\nd1 & !n sudd5ly1 :5 !y h /or$ en\gh vital =ce1 gr[ t5 feet high & bur/ into fl[]1 aft] :i*1 no d\bt1 !y die or %[ signs ( exhau/ion4 ,ap>t f ! dy+1 x seems z if some?+ l t happ5$ f "t to "t to ! human race1 or to su* p>ts ( x z really be> fl[]s at all4 ,= mo/ races & nations dur+ ! mo/ ( _! life are n progressive b simply /agnant1 sometimes j manag+ to pres]ve _! /&>d cu/oms1 sometimes slipp+ back to ! sl\gh4 ,t is :y hi/ory has no?+ to say ab\t !m4 ,! hi/ory ( ! _w consi/s mo/ly 9 ! memory ( ^? ages1 q few 9 numb]1 9 :i* "s "p ( ! _w has ris5 above itself & bur/ into fl[] or fruit4 ,we ourselves happ5 to live 9 ! mid/ or possibly 9 ! close ( "o su* p]iod4 ,m *ange has probably tak5 place 9 daily life1 9 ideas1 & 9 ! g5]al aspect ( ! e>? dur+ ! la/ c5tury ?an dur+ any f\r o!r c5turies s9ce ! ,*ri/ian era3 & ?is fact has t5d$ to make u look on rapid progress z a normal condition ( ! human race1 :i* x nev] has be54 ,& ano!r su* p]iod ( bloom1 a bloom comp>atively %ort 9 "t & n>r[ 9 area1 b amaz+ly swift & int5se1 occurr$ 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! ,balkan p59sula f ab\t ! six? to ! f\r? c5turies be=e ,*ri/4 ,n[ x is ?is k9d ( bloom :i* fills ! _w ) hope & !re=e makes x "y4 ,take a man :o has j made a discov]y or an inv5tion1 a man happily 9 love1 a man :o is />t+ "s great & successful social movem5t1 a man :o is writ+ a book or pa9t+ a picture :i* he kn[s to be good2 take m5 :o h be5 fight+ 9 "s great cause :i* be=e !y f\ght seem$ to be hopeless & n[ is triumphant2 ?9k ( ,engl& :5 ! ,armada 0 j defeat$1 ,france at ! fir/ dawn ( ! ,revolution1 ,am]ica aft] ,yorkt[n3 su* m5 & nations w be above !mselves4 ,_! p[]s w be /rong] & ke5]2 !re w be exhil>ation 9 ! air1 a s5se ( walk+ 9 new pa?s1 ( dawn+ hopes & untri$ possibilities1 a confid5ce t all ?+s c be won if only we try h>d en\gh4 ,9 t s5se ! _w w be "y4 ,9 t s5se ,i ?9k x 0 "y 9 ! "t ( ,!mi/ocles & ,aes*ylus4 ,& x is t y\? :i* is half ! secret ( ! ,greek _s4 ,& "h ,i may meet an objection t has p]haps be5 lurk+ 9 ! m9ds ( _m read]s4 ',all ?is1' !y may say1 'pr(esses to be a simple analysis ( kn[n facts1 b 9 reality is %e] idealization4 ,^! ,greeks :om y call s noble h be5 long s9ce expos$4 ,an?ropology has turn$ its se>*lights ^u !m4 ,x is n only _! pl\ghs1 _! weapons1 _! musical in/rum5ts1 & _! pa9t$ idols t resemble ^? ( ! savages2 x is ev]y?+ else ab\t !m4 ,_m ( !m 7 sunk 9 ! mo/ degrad+ sup]/itions3 _m practis$ unnatural vices3 9 times ( great fe> "s 7 apt to ?9k t ! be/ m$ic9e 0 a human sacrifice4 ,aft] t1 x is h>dly wor? m5tion+ t _! social /ructure 0 l>gely bas$ on slav]y2 t !y liv$ 9 petty little t[ns1 l s _m wasps' ne/s1 ea* at w> ) its next-door neighb\r1 & half ( !m at w> ) !mselves6' ,if our anti-,greek w5t fur!r he w\ld probably cease to speak ! tru?4 ,we w /op him :ile we c /ill agree ) him4 ,^! *>ges are on ! :ole true1 &1 if we are to und]/& :at ,greece means1 we mu/ realize & dige/ !m4 ,we mu/ keep hold ( two facts3 fir/1 t ! ,greeks ( ! fif? c5tury produc$ "s ( ! noble/ poetry & art1 ! f9e/ political ?9k+1 ! mo/ vital philosophy1 kn[n to ! _w2 second1 t ! p :o he>d & saw1 nay p]haps1 ev5 ! p :o produc$ ^! wond]s1 7 sep>at$ by a ?9 & prec>i\s int]val f ! savage4 ,scrat* a civiliz$ ,russian1 !y say1 & y f9d a wild ,t>t>4 ,scrat* an anci5t ,greek1 & y hit1 no d\bt1 on a v primitive & =midable be+1 some:]e betwe5 a ,vik+ & a ,polynesian4 ,t is j ! magic & ! wond] ( x4 ,! spiritual ef=t impli$ is s trem5d\s4 ,we h read /ories ( savage *iefs conv]t$ by ,*ri/ian or ,buddhi/ mission>ies1 :o )9 a ye> or s h turn$ f drunk5 corroborees & bloody wit*-smell+s to a life t is n only godly b ev5 philan?ropic & /atesmanlike4 ,we h se5 ! ,japanese lately g ?r\gh "s c5turies ( normal gr[? 9 ! space ( a g5]ation4 ,b 9 all su* examples m5 h only be5 foll[+ ! tea*+ ( a sup]ior civilization1 & aft] all1 !y h n end$ by produc+ works ( extraord9>y & orig9al g5ius4 ,x seems q cle> t ! ,greeks ow$ exce$+ly little to =eign influ5ce4 ,ev5 9 _! decay !y 7 a race1 z ,pr(essor ,bury obs]ves1 accu/om$ 'to take little & to give mu*'4 ,!y built up _! civilization = !mselves4 ,we mu/ li/5 ) due att5tion to ! critics :o h po9t$ out all ! remnants ( savag]y & sup]/ition t !y f9d 9 ,greece3 ! slave-driv]1 ! feti%-wor%ipp] & ! m$ic9e-man1 ! trampl] on wom51 ! blood?ir/y hat] ( all outside 8 own t[n & p>ty4 ,b x is n ^? p t con/itute ,greece2 ^? p c be f\nd all ov] ! hi/orical _w1 common] ?an blackb]ries4 ,x is n any?+ fix$ & /ation>y t con/itutes ,greece3 :at con/itutes ,greece is ! movem5t :i* leads f all ^! to ! ,/oic or fif?-c5tury 'sophi/' :o condemns & d5ies slav]y1 :o has aboli%$ all cruel sup]/itions & prea*es "s religion bas$ on philosophy & humanity1 :o claims = wom5 ! same spiritual rights z = man1 :o looks on all human creatures z 8 bre?r51 & ! _w z '"o great ,city ( gods & m5'4 ,x is t movem5t :i* y w n f9d else:]e1 any m ?an ! /atues ( ,pheidias or ! dialogues ( ,plato or ! poems ( ,aes*ylus & ,euripides4 ,f all ?is two or ?ree results foll[4 ,= "o ?+1 be+ built up s swiftly1 by su* ke5 ef=t1 & f s l[ a />t+-po9t1 ,greek civilization 01 amid all its glory1 curi\sly un/able & full ( flaws4 ,su* flaws made x1 ( c\rse1 mu* worse = ^? :o liv$ 9 x1 b !y h>dly make x less int]e/+ or in/ructive to ^? :o /udy x4 ,r ! contr>y4 ,aga91 ! ne> neighb\rhood ( ! savage gives to ! ,greek m9d c]ta9 qualities :i* we ( ! saf] & solid] civilizations w\ld give a great deal to possess4 ,x spr+s swift & /raight4 ,x is nev] jad$4 ,its wond] & int]e/ ab\t ! _w are fre%4 ,& la/ly !re is "o curi\s & v important quality :i*1 unless ,i am mi/ak51 belongs to ,greek civilization m ?an to any o!r4 ,to an extraord9>y degree x />ts clean f nature1 ) almo/ no entanglem5ts ( elaborate cre$s & cu/oms & traditions4 ,i am n1 ( c\rse1 =gett+ ! prehi/oric ,m9oan civilization1 nor yet ! peculi> =ms--mo/ly simple en\gh--into :i* ! traditional ,greek religion fell4 ,x is possible t ,i may be a little misl$ by my own habit ( liv+ mu* among ,greek ?+s & s =gett+ ?r\gh long famili>ity h[ odd "s ( !m once seem$4 ,b :5 all all[ances are made1 ,i ?9k t ?is clean />t f nature is1 on ! :ole1 a true claim4 ,if a ?\ghtful ,european or ,am]ican wants to /udy ,*9ese or ,indian ?+s1 he has n only to le>n c]ta9 data ( hi/ory & my?ology1 he has to "w 8 m9d into a p>ticul> attitude2 to put on1 z x 71 spectacles ( a p>ticul> sort4 ,if he wants to /udy m$iaeval ?+s1 if he takes ev5 s univ]sal a poet z ,dante1 x is some?+ ! same4 ,curi\s views ab\t ! ,pope & ! emp]or1 a crabb$ s*ola/ic philosophy1 a /range & to ! mod]n m9d r horrible !ology1 float+ ^u ! flames ( ,hell3 all ^! h someh[ to be tak5 into 8 imag9ation be=e he c und]/& 8 ,dante4 ,) ,greek ?+s ?is is v mu* less s4 ,! hi/orical & imag9ative backgr\nd ( ! v>i\s great poets & philosoph]s is1 no d\bt1 highly important4 ,a great "p ( ! "w ( mod]n s*ol>%ip is n[ devot$ to gett+ x cle>]4 ,b on ! :ole1 putt+ aside = ! mom5t ! possible inadequacies ( translation1 ,greek philosophy speaks /raight to any human be+ :o is will+ to ?9k simply1 ,greek art & poetry to any "o :o c use 8 imag9ation & enjoy beauty4 ,he has n to put on ! fett]s or ! bl9k]s ( any new sy/em 9 ord] to und]/& !m2 he has only to get rid ( 8 own--a mu* m pr(itable & less tr\blesome task4 ,?is p>ticul> conclusion w sc>cely1 ,i ?9k1 be disput$1 b ! po9t pres5ts difficulties & mu/ be dwelt ^u4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x does n mean t ,greek art is :at we call 'naturali/' or 'reali/'4 ,x is m>k$ly ! rev]se4 ,art to ! ,greek is always a =m ( ,sophia1 or ,wisdom1 a ,te*n ) rules t h to be le>nt4 ,its air ( utt] simplicity is deceptive4 ,! pill> t looks m]ely /raight is really a ?+ ( subtle curves4 ,! fun]al bas-relief t seems to repres5t 9 ! simple/ possible mann] a woman say+ good-bye to h] *ild is arrang$1 plane beh9d plane1 ) ! mo/ delicate skill & sometimes ) delib]ate falsification ( p]spective4 ,!re is always "s conv5tion1 "s idealization1 "s t\* ( ! light t nev] 0 on sea or l&4 ,yet all ! "t1 ,i ?9k1 ,greek art rema9s 9 a rem>kable degree close to nature4 ,! arti/'s eye is always on ! object1 &1 ?\gh he repres5ts x 9 8 own /yle1 t /yle is always normal & temp]ate1 free f affectation1 free f exagg]ation or morbidity &1 9 ! e>li] p]iods1 free f conv5tionality4 ,x is art )\t d\bt2 b x is natural & normal art1 su* z grew spontane\sly :5 mank9d fir/ tri$ 9 fre$om to express beauty4 ,= example1 ! language ( ,greek poetry is m>k$ly diff]5t f t ( prose1 & !re are ev5 cle> diff]5ces ( language betwe5 diff]5t /yles ( poetry4 ,& fur!r1 ! poetry is v seldom ab\t ! pres5t4 ,x is ab\t ! pa/1 & t an ideal pa/4 ,:at we h to notice !re is t ?is k9d ( rule1 :i* has be5 usual 9 all great ages ( poetry1 is app>5tly n an artificial or arbitr>y ?+ b a t5d5cy t grew up naturally ) ! fir/ great expressions ( poetical feel+4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is clos5ess to nature1 ?is abs5ce ( a unify+ or hide-b\nd sy/em ( ?\ght1 act+ toge!r ) o!r causes1 has l$ to ! extraord9>y v>iety & _m-sid$ness :i* is "o ( ! mo/ puzzl+ *>ms ( ,anci5t ,greece z contra/$1 say1 ) ,israel or ,assyria or e>ly ,rome4 ,geographically x is a small c\ntry ) a highly ind5t$ coa/-l9e & an int]ior cut into a great numb] ( almo/ isolat$ valleys4 ,politically x 0 a confus$ unity made up ( num]\s indep5d5t /ates1 "o wall$ city ( a few ?\s& inhabitants be+ q en\gh to =m a /ate4 ,& ! citiz5s ( ^! /ates 71 ea* ( !m1 r excessively capable ( =m+ op9ions ( _! own & fight+ = !m4 ,h5ce came 9 practice mu* isolation & faction & g5]al weakness1 to ! detrim5t ( ! ,greeks !mselves2 b ! same cause l$ 9 ?\ght & lit]ature to imm5se v>iety & vitality1 to ! great ga9 ( u :o /udy ! ,greeks aft]w>ds4 ,!re is h>dly any type ( ?\ght or /yle ( writ+ :i* _c be p>allel$ 9 anci5t ,greece1 only !y w !re be se51 z x 71 9 _! e>li] & simpl] =ms4 ,traces ( all ! ?+s t seem mo/ un-,greek c be f\nd some:]e 9 ,greek lit]ature3 voluptu\sness1 asceticism1 ! wor%ip ( k1 ! contempt = k1 a!ism1 pietism1 ! religion ( s]v+ ! _w & ! religion ( turn+ away f ! _w3 all ^! & almo/ all o!r po9ts ( view "o c ?9k ( are repres5t$ some:]e 9 ! records ( t "o small p4 ,& !re is h>dly any s+le g5]alization 9 ?is *apt] :i* ! au?or himself c\ld n controv]t by examples to ! contr>y4 ,y feel 9 g5]al a great abs5ce ( all fett]s3 ! human m9d free1 r inexp]i5c$1 int5sely int]e/$ 9 life & full ( hope1 try+ 9 e direction = t excell5ce :i* ! ,greeks call$ aret1 & guid$ by "s peculi> in/9ct t[>d ,temp]ance & ,beauty4 ,! v>iety is !re & mu/ n be =gott52 yet amid ! v>iety !re are c]ta9 g5]al or c5tral *>act]i/ics1 mo/ly due to ?is same quality ( fre%ness & clos5ess to nature4 ,if y look at a ,greek /atue or bas-relief1 or if y read an av]age piece ( ,ari/otle1 y w v likely at fir/ feel bor$4 ,:y8 ,because x is all s normal & tru?ful2 s s+ul>ly free f exagg]ation1 p>adox1 viol5t emphasis2 s de/itute ( ^? fasc9at+ by-=ms ( insanity :i* appeal to "s simil> fa9t elem5t ( insanity 9 ourselves4 ',we are sick'1 we may exclaim1 '( ! sight ( ^! h&some1 p]fectly heal?y m5 ) grave faces & normal bones & muscles6 ,we are sick ( be+ told t ,virtue is a mean betwe5 two extremes & t5ds to make m5 happy6 ,we %all n be int]e/$ unless "s "o tells u t ,virtue is ! utt] abnegation ( self1 or1 x may be1 ! extreme & ru?less ass]tion ( self2 or aga91 t ,virtue is all an infam\s mi/ake6 ,& = /atues1 give u a hagg>d man ) />v$ body & cav]n\s eyes1 curs+ ,god--or give u some?+ roll+ 9 fat & col\r4444' ,:at is at ! back ( ?is sort ( feel+8 :i* ,i admit (t5 takes m reasonable =ms ?an ^! ,i h sugge/$4 ,x is ! same psy*ological cause t br+s ab\t ! *anges ( fa%ion 9 art or dress3 :i* loves '/unts' & makes ! =tunes ( yell[ newspap]s4 ,x is bor$om or ennui4 ,we h _h too mu* ( ,a2 we are sick ( x1 we "k h[ x is done & despise x2 give u "s ,b1 or bett] /ill "s ,z4 ,& aft] a /rong dose ( ,z we %all crave = ! beg9n+ ( ! alphabet aga94 ,b n[ ?9k ( a p]son :o is n bor$ at all2 :o is1 on ! contr>y1 imm5sely int]e/$ 9 ! _w1 ke5 to *oose good ?+s & reject bad ones2 full ( ! desire = k & ! excitem5t ( discov]y4 ,! joy to him is to see ?+s z !y are & to judge !m normally4 ,he is n bor$ by ! sight ( normal1 heal?y muscles 9 a heal?y1 well-%ap$ body2 he is delight$4 ,if y di/ort ! muscles = emotional effect1 he w\ld say ) disappo9tm5t3 ',b t is ugly6' or ',b a man's muscles d n g l t6' ,he w h not$ t te>s are salt & r w>m2 b if y say l a mod]n poet t y\r h]o9e's te>s are 'm hot ?an fire1 m salt ?an ! salt sea'1 he w probably ?9k y\r /atem5t api?anon 'unp]suasive'1 & !re=e psy*ron '*ill+'4 ,x is p]haps especially 9 ! religi\s & moral sph]e t we are accu/om$ to ! habitual use ( ec/atic language3 expressions t are only true ( exalt$ mom5ts are us$ by u z ! commonplaces ( ord9>y life4 ',x is a ?\s& times worse to see ano!r suff] ?an to suff] oneself4' ',true love only desires ! happ9ess ( ! belov$ object4' ,?is k9d ( 'high falut9'' has become "p ( our regul> m5tal habit1 j z dead metaphors by ! bu%el are a "p ( our daily language4 ,consequ5tly we are a little *ill$ & disappo9t$ by a language 9 :i* p h>dly ev] use a metaphor except :5 !y vividly realize x1 & nev] utt] h]oic s5tim5ts except :5 !y are wr\ght up to ! pit* ( feel+ !m true4 ,does ?is mean t ! ,greek always rema9s1 s to speak1 at a normal temp]ature1 t he nev] has int5se or bl9d+ emotions8 ,n 9 ! lea/4 ,x %[s a lack ( fai? 9 ! value ( life to imag9e su* a conclusion4 ,x implies t y c only rea* great emotion by pret5ce1 or by habitually exagg]at+ small emotions1 :]eas probably ! exact rev]se is ! case4 ,:5 ! great ?+ comes1 !n ! ,greek w h ! great ^w & ! great ?\ght ready4 ,x is ! habitual exagg]ator :o w p]haps be bankrupt4 ,& aft] all--! great ?+s are sure to come6 ,! p[] ( see+ ?+s /raight & kn[+ :at is beautiful or noble1 q undi/urb$ by mom5t>y bor$oms or *anges ( ta/e1 is a v r>e gift & nev] p]haps possess$ 9 full by any "o4 ,b !re is a pr(\nd rule ( art1 bidd+ a man 9 ! mid/ ( all 8 /udy ( v>i\s /yles or 8 pursuit ( 8 own peculi> imag9ations1 f "t to "t se retremp] dans la nature--'to /eep himself aga9 9 nature'4 ,& 9 some?+ ! same way x seems z if ! _w ought f "t to "t to /eep itself aga9 9 ,hell5ism3 t is1 x ought1 amid all ! v>y+ affectations & extravagances & *anges ( conv5tion 9 art & lett]s1 to h "s c>eful reg>d = ^? :i* arose :5 man fir/ awoke to ! mean+ ( tru? & beauty & saw ! _w freely z a new ?+4 ,is ?is exagg]ation8 ,i ?9k n4 ,b no full def5ce ( x c be attempt$ "h4 ,9 ?is essay we h be5 conc]n$ almo/ entirely ) ! arti/ic int]e/ ( ,greece4 ,x w\ld be equally possible to dwell on ! hi/orical int]e/4 ,!n we %\ld f9d t1 = t bran* ( mank9d :i* is responsible = we/]n civilization1 ! se$s ( almo/ all t we c\nt be/ 9 human progress 7 s[n 9 ,greece4 ,! conception ( beauty z a joy 9 itself & z a guide 9 life 0 fir/ & mo/ vividly express$ 9 ,greece1 & ! v laws by :i* ?+s are beautiful or ugly 7 to a great ext5t discov]$ !re & laid d[n4 ,! conception ( ,fre$om & ,ju/ice1 fre$om 9 body1 9 spee* & 9 m9d1 ju/ice betwe5 ! /rong & ! weak1 ! ri* & ! poor1 p5etrates ! :ole ( ,greek political ?\ght1 & 01 amid obvi\s flaws1 actually realiz$ to a rem>kable degree 9 ! be/ ,greek communities4 ,! conception ( ,tru? z an end to pursue = its own sake1 a ?+ to discov] & puzzle out by exp]im5t & imag9ation & especially by ,reason1 a conception ess5tially alli$ ) t ( ,fre$om & oppos$ bo? to an>*y & to bl9d ob$i5ce1 has p]haps nev] 9 ! _w be5 m cle>ly grasp$ ?an by ! e>ly ,greek writ]s on sci5ce & philosophy4 ,"o /&s amaz$ sometimes at ! p]fect fre$om ( _! ?\ght4 ,ano!r conception came r lat]1 :5 ! small ,city ,/ates ) exclusive rights ( citiz5%ip _h be5 m]g$ 9 a l>g] :ole3 ! conception ( ! univ]sal fell[%ip betwe5 man & man4 ,greece realiz$ soon aft] ! ,p]sian w> t %e _h a mission to ! _w1 t ,hell5ism /ood = ! high] life ( man z aga9/ b>b>ism1 = ,aret1 or ,excell5ce1 z aga9/ ! m]e ef=tless av]age4 ,fir/ came ! crude patriotism :i* reg>d$ e ,greek z sup]ior to e b>b>ian2 !n came reflection1 %[+ t n all ,greeks 7 true be>]s ( ! light1 nor all b>b>ians its enemies2 t ,hell5ism 0 a ?+ ( ! _s & n dep5d5t on ! race to :i* a man belong$ or ! place :]e he 0 born3 !n came ! new ^w & conception an?rpots1 humanitas1 :i* to ! ,/oics made ! _w z "o bro!rhood4 ,no p kn[n to hi/ory cle>ly =mulat$ ^! ideals be=e ! ,greeks1 & ^? :o h spok5 ! words aft]w>ds seem = ! mo/ "p to be m]ely e*o+ ! ?\ghts ( old ,greek m54 ,^! ideas1 ! pursuit ( ,tru?1 ,fre$om1 ,beauty1 ,excell5ce are n ev]y?+4 ,!y h be5 a leav5 ( unre/ 9 ! _w2 !y h held up a light :i* 0 n always com=t+ to ! eyes to see4 ,!re is ano!r ideal :i* is g5]ally /rong] & may1 = all we "k1 9 ! end /amp !m out z evil ?+s4 ,!re is ,submission in/ead ( ,fre$om1 ! dead5+ or brutaliz+ ( ! s5ses in/ead ( ,beauty1 ! acceptance ( tradition in/ead ( ! pursuit ( ,tru?1 ! belief 9 halluc9ation or passion in/ead ( ,reason & ,temp]ate ,?\ght1 ! obscur+ ( di/9ctions betwe5 good & bad & ! acceptance ( all human be+s & all /ates ( m9d z equal 9 value4 ,if some?+ ( ?is k9d %\ld prove 9 ! end to be "r = man1 !n ,greece w h play$ ! "p ( ! great wreck] 9 human hi/ory4 ,%e w h held up false lights :i* h lur$ our %ip to dang]\s places4 ,b at any rate1 ?r\gh calm & /orm1 %e does hold h] lights2 %e lit !m fir/ ( ! nations & held !m dur+ h] %ort reign ! cle>e/2 & :e!r we believe 9 an individual life f\nd$ on ,fre$om1 ,reason1 ,beauty1 ,excell5ce & ! pursuit ( ,tru?1 & an int]national life aim+ at ! fell[%ip betwe5 man & man1 or :e!r we ?9k ^! ideals ! great sn>es ( human politics1 !re is good cause = "s ( u 9 ea* g5]ation at ! co/ ( "s "t & tr\ble to /udy su* important =ces :]e !y fir/ appe> consci\sly 9 ! m9ds ( our spiritual ance/ors4 ,9 ! ?\ght & art ( anci5t ,greece1 m ?an any o!r1 we %all f9d ^! =ces1 & also to "s ext5t _! great opposites1 fre%1 clean & comp>atively uncomplicat$1 ) e va/ issue wr\ght out on a small mat]ial scale & e problem /at$ 9 its l[e/ t]ms4 ,,gilb]t ,,murray4 ,,religion ,^? :o write ab\t ! ,greeks mu/ bew>e ( a h]esy :i* is v rife j n[--! !ory ( racialism4 ,political e?nology1 :i* is no g5u9e sci5ce1 excus$ ! ambition ( ! ,g]mans to !mselves1 & help$ !m to wage w>2 x has sugge/$ to ! ,allies a me?od ( wag+ peace4 ,! false & mis*iev\s doctr9e ( sup]ior & inf]ior races is us$ to ju/ify oppression 9 ,europe1 & murd] by torture 9 ,am]ica4 ,x w n help u to und]/& ! ,greeks4 ,! ,greeks 7 a nation ( spl5did mongrels1 made up ( ! same elem5ts1 diff]5tly mix$1 z ourselves4 ,_! fam\s beauty1 :i* _h almo/ disappe>$ :5 ,cic]o visit$ ,a!ns1 0 ma9ly ! result ( a heal?y outdoor life & physical tra9+1 comb9$ ) a v becom+ co/ume4 ,!y 7 probably n h&som] ?an ,ox=d r[+ crews or ,eton boys4 ,_! fl[]+ "t ( g5ius 0 due to ! same causes :i* produc$ simil> results 9 ! ,italian ,r5aissance4 ,! city-/ate is a =c+-h\se ( brilliant a*ievem5t1 ?\gh x quickly uses up its human mat]ial4 ,we _c ev5 reg>d ! ,greeks z a homog5e\s mix$ race4 ,! ,sp>tiates 7 almo/ pure ,nordics2 ! ,a!nians almo/ pure ,m$it]raneans4 ,! e>ly coloni/s1 f :om sprang s _m ( ! greate/ names 9 ! ,hell5ic roll ( hon\r1 are n likely to h kept _! blood pure4 ,nor 0 !re ev] a ,greek culture %>$ by all ! ,greeks4 ,! ,sp>tan sy/em1 t ( a small fight+ tribe encamp$ 9 a subject c\ntry1 recalls t ( ,*aka's ,zulus2 ,arcadia 0 bucolic1 ,aetolia b>b>\s1 ,boeotia /olid1 ,mac$onia half outside ! pale4 ,! consci\sness ( race among ! ,greeks c\nt$ practically = ab\t z mu* z ! consci\sness ( be+ :ite m51 or ,*ri/ians1 does 9 mod]n civilization4 ,greece = our purposes means n a race1 b a culture1 a language & lit]ature1 & /ill m an attitude t[>ds life1 :i* = u beg9s ) ,hom]1 & p]si/s1 ) _m *anges b no breaks1 till ! clos+ ( ! ,a!nian lecture-rooms by ,ju/9ian4 ,! *anges no d\bt 7 great1 :5 politically ,greece 0 liv+ ,greece no m1 & :5 ! be>]s ( ! tradition 7 no long] ! l9eal desc5dants ( ^? :o e/abli%$ x4 ,b ! tradition1 en%r9$ 9 lit]ature1 9 monum5ts1 & 9 social cu/oms1 surviv$4 ,! civilization ( ! ,roman ,empire 0 n ,italian b ,greek4 ,aft] ! six? c5tury1 ,hell5ism--! language1 ! lit]ature1 & ! attitude t[>ds life--0 practically lo/ to ! ,we/ = ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s4 ,x 0 recov]$ at ! ,r5aissance1 & f t "t to ?is has be5 a pot5t elem5t 9 we/]n civilization4 ,! ,d>k ,ages1 & ! e>ly ,middle ,ages1 are ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! ,we/ 0 cut (f f ,hell5ism4 ,yet ev5 !n ! sev]ance 0 n complete4 ,= ^! 7 ! ages ( ! ,ca?olic !ocracy2 & if we _h to *oose "o man z ! f\nd] ( ,ca?olicism z a !ocratic sy/em1 we %\ld h to "n nei!r ,augu/9e nor ,/4 ,paul1 /ill less ,jesus ,*ri/1 b ,plato1 :o 9 ! ,laws sket*es out ) wond]ful presci5ce ! conditions = su* a polity1 & ! =m :i* x w\ld be compell$ to take4 ,ev5 9 speculative ?\ght we "k t ,augu/9e ow$ mu* to ! ,platoni/s1 ! ,s*oolm5 to ,ari/otle1 ! my/ics to ! pupil ( ,proclus :om !y call$ ,dionysius4 ,only ,greek sci5ce1 & ! sci5tific _s1 7 almo/ completely lo/1 & a beg9n+ de novo _h to be made :5 ! ,we/ %ook (f its fett]s4 ,hell5ism !n is n ! m9d ( a p>ticul> e?nic type1 nor ( a p>ticul> p]iod4 ,x 0 n de/roy$1 ?\gh x 0 emasculat$1 by ! loss ( political fre$om2 x 0 nei!r kill$ nor di$ a natural dea?4 ,its philosophy 0 cont9u\s f ,?ales to ,proclus1 & aga9 f ,fic9o & ,pico to ,lotze & ,bradley1 aft] a long sleep :i* 0 n dea?4 ,its religion passes into ,*ri/ian !ology & cultus )\t any real break4 ,! e>ly ,*ur* spoke 9 ,greek & ?\ght 9 ,greek4 ,9 ! days ( ,greek fre$om to be a ,greek _h meant to be a citiz5 ( a ,greek canton2 aft] ,alex&] x meant to h ,greek culture4 ,none ( ! great ,/oics 7 natives ( ,greece prop]2 ,z5o himself 0 a ,semite4 ,( ! lat] ,greek writ]s1 ,m>cus ,aurelius 0 a ,romaniz$ ,spani>d1 ,plot9us possibly a ,copt1 ,porphyry & ,lucian ,syrians1 ,philo1 ,/4 ,paul1 & probably ! ,f\r? ,evangeli/ 7 ,jews4 ,^! m5 all belong to ! hi/ory ( ,greek culture4 ,& if ^! 7 ,greeks h[ %all we d5y ! "n to ,raphael & ,mi*ael ,angelo1 to ,sp5s] & ,sidney1 to ,keats & ,%elley8 ,:5 ,blake wrote-- ,! sun's light :5 he unfolds x1 ,dep5ds on ! organ t beholds x1 he 0 summ+ up1 n only ! philosophy ( ! ,lake ,poets b ! fundam5tal dogma ( ! mature/ ,greek ?\ght4 ,w\ld n ,plato h rejoic$ 9 ,mi*ael ,angelo's confession ( fai?1 :i* ,wordswor? has translat$ = u8 ,heav5-born1 ! s\l a heav5w>d c\rse mu/ hold2 ,beyond ! visible _w %e so>s to seek 7,= :at delights ! s5se is false & weak7 ,ideal ,=m1 ! univ]sal m\ld4 ,! wise man1 ,i affirm1 c f9d no re/ ,9 t :i* p]i%es2 nor w he l5d ,8 he>t to aught t do? on "t dep5d4 ,has ! highe/ aspect ( ,greek religion ev] be5 bett] express$ ?an by ,wordswor? himself1 to :om1 z to ,blake1 x came by inspiration & n f books8 ,:ile yet a *ild1 & long be=e 8 "t ,_h he p]ceiv$ ! pres5ce & ! p[] ,( greatness2 & deep feel+s _h impress$ ,s vividly great objects t !y lay ,^u 8 m9d l sub/ances1 ^: pres5ce ,p]plex$ ! bodily s5se4 ,! _s ( man does n live only on tradition2 x c draw direct f ! f\nta9-head4 ,we are deal+ ) a p]man5t type ( human culture1 :i* is rightly nam$ aft] ! ,greeks1 s9ce x atta9$ its *ief glory 9 ! lit]ature & art ( ! ,hell5ic cities1 b :i* _c be sep>at$ f we/]n civilization z an ali5 importation4 ,)\t :at we call our debt to ,greece we %\ld h nei!r our religion nor our philosophy nor our sci5ce nor our lit]ature nor our education nor our politics4 ,we %\ld be m]e b>b>ians4 ,we ne$ n speculate h[ mu* we might ultimately h discov]$ = ourselves4 ,our civilization is a tree :i* has its roots 9 ,greece1 or1 to borr[ a m appropriate metaphor f ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 x is a riv] :i* has receiv$ afflu5ts f e side2 b its head wat]s are ,greek4 ,! cont9uity ( ,greek ?\ght & practice 9 religion & religi\s philosophy is especially important1 & x is necess>y to emphasize x because ! accid5t ( our educational curriculum leaves 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ /ud5ts a broad *asm betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! ,*ri/ians1 ignores ! lat] ,greek philosophy ( religion altoge!r1 & traces ,*ri/ian dogma back to ,pale/9e1 ) :i* x has v little connexion4 ,our s5se ( cont9uity is dull$ 9 ano!r way4 ,!re is a t5d5cy to isolate c]ta9 aspects ( ,hell5ic life & ?\ght z *>act]i/ic1 & to /amp o!rs1 :i* are equally f\nd among ! anci5t ,greeks1 z untypical & exceptional4 ,9 ! sph]e ( religion1 ) :i* we are conc]n$ 9 ?is essay1 we are bidd5 to reg>d ,plato & ,euripides z rebels aga9/ ! national tradition1 & n z normal products ( _! age & c\ntry4 ,i d n feel at lib]ty to pick & *oose 9 ?is fa%ion4 ,a national "* may be be/ exemplifi$ 9 its rebels1 a religion 9 its h]etics4 ,if ,nietzs*e 0 "r 9 call+ ,plato a ,*ri/ian be=e ,*ri/1 ,i d n !re=e reg>d him z an unhell5ic ,greek4 ,r1 ,i trace back to him1 & s to ,greece1 ! religion & ! political philosophy ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 & ! ,*ri/ian type ( my/icism4 ,if ,euripides anticipat$ to an extraord9>y degree ! dev\t agno/icism1 ! vague pan!ism1 ! humanit>ian s5tim5t ( ! n9ete5? 7r ?an ( ! tw5tie?7 c5tury1 ,i d n consid] t he 0 a freak 9 fif?-c5tury ,a!ns1 b t ,greece %[$ u ! way ev5 9 pa?s :]e we h n be5 us$ to look to h] = guidance4 ,i am equally reluctant to assume1 )\t evid5ce1 t ! lat] ,platonism1 :e!r we call x religion or philosophy1 is unhell5ic4 ,x is q unnecess>y to look = ,asiatic influ5ces 9 a s*ool :i* clung close to ! ,attic tradition4 ,x is m to ! purpose to %[ h[ a religi\s philosophy ( my/ical revelation & introspection grew naturally out ( ! old] nature-philosophies1 j z 9 our own day metaphysics & sci5ce h bo? be5 driv5 back ^u ! !ory ( k & psy*ology4 ,x %\ld n be necess>y to rem9d ,hell5i/s t ',"k ?yself' pass$ = ! supreme ^w ( wisdom 9 ! classical p]iod1 or t ,h]acleitus reveal$ 8 me?od 9 ! words ',i se>*$ myself'4 ,we %all come pres5tly to c]ta9 p>ts ( our mod]n h]itage :i* are n ,greek ei!r by orig9 or by aff9ity4 ,^! w n be f\nd 9 ,euripides or ,plato any m ?an 9 ,h]odotus or ,sophocles4 ,b "s developm5ts ( religion :i* our ,hell5i/s p>ticul>ly dislike1 & are !re=e anxi\s to disclaim z ali5 to ,greek ?\ght & practice1 su* z asceticism1 sacram5tal magic1 religi\s p]secution1 & timid reliance on au?ority1 are maladies ( ! ,greek _s1 & came into ! ,*ur* f ,hell5i/ic & n f ,jewi% s\rces4 ,x 0 ,clean!s :o wi%$ to treat ,ari/>*us z ! ,*ur* treat$ ,galileo1 = anticipat+ ,galileo's discov]y4 ,x 0 ,plut>*1 or r 8 rev]$ fa!r1 :o said1 ',y seem to me to be h&l+ a v great & dang]\s subject1 or r to be rais+ que/ions :i* ought n to be rais$ at all1 :5 y "q ! op9ion we hold ab\t ! gods1 & ask reasons & pro(s = ev]y?+4 ,! anci5t & ance/ral fai? is en\gh2 & if on "o po9t its fix$ & traditional "* be di/urb$1 x w be und]m9$ & no "o w tru/ x'4 ,x is true t ,celsus accus$ ! ,*ri/ians ( say+1 ',d n inquire2 only believe4' ,b ?is 0 n ! attitude ( ,clem5t & ,orig51 /ill less ( t mo/ c\rage\s pione] ,/4 ,paul2 x 0 r ! attitude ( ! av]age dev\t pagan4 ,at ?is "t ! def5ce ( popul> sup]/ition 0 no long] a matt] ( m]e policy b ( he>tfelt ne$4 ,m>cus ,aurelius 0 a great immolator ( :ite c[s4 ,! ,*ri/ians 7 dislik$1 n z sup]/iti\s1 b z impi\s4 ,alex&] ( ,abunotei*os expell$ ',*ri/ians & ,epicureans' by "n f 8 sances4 ,lucian is ! ,voltaire ( a cr$ul\s age4 ,z = sac]dotal magic1 ,ovid explicitly ascrib$ ! ex op]e op]ato doctr9e to ! ,greeks4 ,graecia pr9cipium moris fuit2 illa noc5tes impia lu/ratos pon]e facta putat1 a nimium faciles1 qui tri/ia crim9a ca$is flum9ea tolli posse putatis aqua4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 0 ! la/ great creative a*ievem5t ( ! classical culture4 ,x is nei!r ,asiatic nor m$iaeval 9 its ess5tial "*4 ,x is n ,asiatic2 ,*ri/ianity is ! lea/ ,ori5tal ( all ! great religions4 ,! ,semites ei!r %ook x (f & rev]t$ to a ,judaism purg$ ( its ,hell5ic elem5ts1 or enroll$ !mselves ) f]v\r "u ! bann] ( ,islam1 :i* ,we/cott call$ 'a petrifi$ ,judaism'4 ,*ri/ian missions h _h no success 9 any ,asiatic c\ntry4 ,nor is !re any?+ specifically m$iaeval ab\t ,ca?olicism4 ,x pres]v$ ! idea ( ,roman imp]ialism1 aft] ! secul> empire ( ! ,we/ _h disappe>$1 & ev5 kept ! tradition ( ! secul> empire alive4 ,x modell$ all its ma*9]y on ! ,roman ,empire1 & consecrat$ ! ,roman claim to univ]sal dom9ion1 ) ! ,roman law ( maie/as aga9/ all :o disput$ its au?ority4 ,ev5 its fav\rite p5alty ( ! 'av5g+ flames' is borr[$ f ! lat] ,roman codes4 ,x ma9ta9$ ! (ficial language ( antiquity1 & ! imp]ial title ( ! autocrat :o reign$ on ! ,sev5 ,hills4 ,nor 7 ! e>ly ,*ri/ians s anxi\s z is (t5 suppos$ to disclaim ?is cont9uity4 ,at fir/1 x is true1 _! apologetic 0 direct$ to prov+ _! cont9uity ) ,judaism2 b ,judaism ceas$ to c\nt = mu* aft] ! de/ruction ( ! ,holy ,city 9 ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 & ! second-c5tury apologi/s appeal = tol]ation on ! gr\nd t ! be/ ,greek philosoph]s taught v mu* ! same z :at ,*ri/ians believe4 ',we tea* ! same z ! ,greeks'1 says ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 '?\gh we alone are hat$ = :at we tea*4' ',"s among u'1 says ,t]tullian1 ':o are v]s$ 9 anci5t lit]ature1 h writt5 books to prove t we h embrac$ no t5ets = :i* we h n ! support ( common & public lit]ature4' ',! tea*+s ( ,plato'1 says ,ju/9 aga91 'are n ali5 to ^? ( ,*ri/2 & ! same is true ( ! ,/oics4' ',h]acleitus & ,socrates liv$ 9 accordance ) ! div9e ,logos'1 & %\ld be reckon$ z ,*ri/ians4 ,clem5t says t ,plato wrote 'by inspiration ( ,god'4 ,augu/9e1 mu* lat]1 f9ds t 'only a few words & phrases' ne$ be *ang$ to br+ ,platonism into complete accord ) ,*ri/ianity4 ,! e?ics ( contempor>y paganism1 z ,h>nack %[s1 ) special ref]5ce to ,porphyry1 are almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,*ri/ians ( 8 day4 ,!y diff] 9 _m po9ts f ! /&>ds ( #ejj ye>s e>li] & f ^? ( #a1ejj ye>s lat]1 b ! div]g5ces are nei!r racial nor cr$al4 ,ca?olic ,*ri/ianity is hi/orically cont9u\s ) ! old civilization1 :i* inde$ cont9u$ to live 9 ?is region aft] its o!r traditions & cu/oms _h be5 %att]$4 ,!re are few o!r examples 9 hi/ory ( s great a diff]5ce betwe5 appe>ance & reality4 ,outw>dly1 ! cont9uity ) ,judaism seems to be unbrok51 t ) paganism to be brok54 ,9 reality1 ! opposite is ! fact4 ,?is mo/ important tru? has be5 obscur$ f _m causes4 ,! gap 9 hi/ory made by our educational tradition has be5 already m5tion$4 ,& our hi/ories ( ! e>ly ,*ur* are too (t5 w>p$ by an un=tunate bias4 ,*ri/ianity has be5 judg$ at its be/1 paganism at its wor/4 ,! rhetorical d5unciations ( writ]s l ,s5eca1 ,juv5al1 & ,tacitus are tak5 at _! face value1 & few h rememb]$ ! conv5tion :i* oblig$ a satiri/ to be sca?+1 or ! political prejudice ( ! ,/oics aga9/ ! mon>*y1 or ! non-repres5tative "* ( fa%ionable life 9 ! capital4 ,! mod]n ,*ur* hi/orian1 z ,mr4 ,b5n says1 has ga!r$ 8 exp]i5ce 9 a college quadrangle or a ca!dral close1 & kn[s little en\gh ab\t 8 own c\ntry1 next to no?+ ab\t :at morality 0 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 & no?+ at all ab\t :at x /ill is 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe4 ,9 ! mo/ rec5t books1 h[ev]1 !re is a real desire to hold ! scales fairly1 & ,*ri/ianity has no?+ to fe> f an imp>tial judgem5t4 ,!re is also an assumption1 :i* we f9d ev5 9 su* le>n$ writ]s z ,h>nack & ,hat*1 t ! ,hell5ic elem5t 9 ,*ri/ianity is an accretion :i* trans=m$ ! new religion f its orig9al purity & half-paganiz$ ,europe aga94 ,!y w\ld l to prove t und]nea? ,ca?olicism 0 a primitive ,prote/antism1 :i* ow$ no?+ to ,greece4 ,! tru? is t ! ,*ur* 0 half ,greek f ! fir/1 ?\gh1 z ,i %all say pres5tly1 ! orig9al ,gospel 0 n4 ,/4 ,paul 0 a ,jew ( ! ,disp]sion1 n ( ,pale/9e1 & ! ,*ri/ianity to :i* he 0 conv]t$ 0 ! ,*ri/ianity ( ,/eph51 n ( ,james ! ,"l's bro!r4 ,8 lat] epi/les are /eep$ 9 ! phraseology ( ! ,greek my/]ies4 ,! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews & ! ,f\r? ,gospel are un9telligible )\t "s k ( ,philo1 ^: !ology is m ,greek ?an ,jewi%4 ,9 ! conflict ab\t ! nature ( ! future life1 x 0 ! ,greek es*atology :i* prevail$ ov] ! ,jewi%4 ,/4 ,paul's fam\s decl>ation1 ',we look n at ! ?+s :i* are se51 b at ! ?+s :i* are n se52 = ! ?+s :i* are se5 are temporal1 b ! ?+s :i* are n se5 are et]nal'1 is pure ,platonism & q ali5 to ,jewi% ?\ght4 ,judaic ,*ri/ianity 0 a local affair1 & _h a v %ort life4 ,fur!r1 too mu* is made ( ! conflict betwe5 ! (ficial cults ( paganism & ,*ri/ian public wor%ip4 ,x is =gott5 h[ completely1 9 ,hell5i/ic times1 religion & philosophy 7 fus$4 ,)\t "u-e/imat+ ! simple piety :i*1 especially 9 c\ntry di/ricts1 /ill atta*$ itself to ! temples & _! ritual1 we may say confid5tly t ! vital religion ( ! empire 0 associat$ ) ! my/]y-religions & ) ! discipl9e ( ! 'philosophic life'4 ,x is 9 ?is region t ! cont9uity ( ,ca?olicism ) ,hell5ism is ma9ly to be f\nd4 ,! philosoph]s at ?is "t 7 prea*]s1 confessors1 *apla9s1 & mission>ies4 ,! cl]ical pr(ession1 9 ne>ly all its activities1 is directly desc5d$ f ! ,hell5i/ic philosoph]s4 ,?is claim ( cont9uity may seem p>adoxical :5 we rememb] ! savage p]secutions ( ! ,*ri/ians by ! imp]ial gov]nm5t4 ,( ^! p]secutions !re 7 sev]al causes4 ,! empire1 l all empires ( ! same type1 re/$ p>tly on religi\s support4 ,augu/us enc\rag$ 8 c\rt poets to advocate a revival ( piety & s\nd morals4 ,a gov]nm5t _c inquire into religi\s conviction1 b x c en=ce con=mity & outw>d respect = ! =ms ( wor%ip z 'by law e/abli%$'4 ,! ,*ri/ians & ,epicureans 7 held guilty ( ! same political (f5ce--'a!ism'4 ,! ,/ate _h no qu>rel ) ! my/]y-religions1 :i* 7 a private matt]1 b op5 disrespect to ! national deities 0 flat disloyalty4 ,! pagans c\ld n und]/& :y ! ,*ur* w\ld make no t]ms ) ! fusion ( religions 7 !okrasia7 :i* seem$ to !m ! natural result ( ! fusion ( nationalities4 ,apuleius makes ,isis say1 :5 %e reveals h]self to ,lucius1 'cuius num5 unicum multi=mi specie1 ritu v>io1 nom9e multiiugo totus v5]atur orbis'2 & %e !n rec\nts h] v>i\s names4 ,?is m ?an tol]ant hospitality ( ! _s seem$ to ! mix$ population ( ! empire ! logical recognition ( ! actual political situation1 & ^? :o delib]ately /ood outside x 7 at lea/ pot5tially enemies ( society4 ,?is 0 ! real qu>rel betwe5 ! ,*ur* & ! empire4 ,x is ! old ,/ate religion :i* ,augu/9e attacks1 ridicul+ ! innum]able ,roman godl+s ^: names he p]haps f\nd 9 ,v>ro4 ,x is true t ,plato1 ,euripides1 & ,x5ophanes _h attack$ ! (ficial my?ology ) h>dly less asp]ity2 b !y did n escape c5sure1 & ! ,*ri/ian ali5ation f ! ,olympians 0 f> m fundam5tal4 ,! pagan revival "u ! empire 0 r l ,neo-,ca?olicism 9 ,france4 ,x 0 patriotic1 nationali/ic1 & cons]vative1 r ?an /rictly religi\s4 ,celsus1 9 8 lo/ book aga9/ ! ,*ri/ians1 seems to h appeal$ to _! patriotism1 urg+ !m to support _! c\ntry & its gov]nm5t 9 dang]\s times4 ,z ! ,*ur* grew 9 numb]s & p[]1 & ! old traditions crumbl$ away1 l>gely f ! fall 9 ! bir?-rate among ! upp] & middle classes1 ! cons]vatives became m anxi\sly atta*$ to _! own culture1 & saw 9 ,*ri/ianity a '%apeless d>kness' :i* ?reat5$ to ext+ui% 'all ! beautiful ?+s 9 ! _w'4 ,we c p>tly sympa?ize ) ?is al>m1 ?\gh n ) ! fooli% policy :i* x inspir$4 ,! e>ly p]secutions 7 l ,russian 'pogroms'1 in/igat$ or conniv$ at by ! gov]nm5t z a safety valve = popul> discont5t4 ,= at ?is "t ! common p hat$ ! ,*ri/ians1 & half believ$ ! mon/r\s /ories ab\t !m4 ,! attacks 7 n cont9u\s1 & 7 half-he>t$1 v unlike ! sy/ematic ext]m9ation ( ,jews & ,prote/ants 9 ,spa94 ,at ,alex&ria ,hadrian f\nd a money-lov+ population wor%ipp+ ,*ri/ & ,s>apis almo/ indiff]5tly4 ,a wrong impression is =m$ if we picture to ourselves two sections ( society engag$ 9 con/ant w>4 ,! fir/ real w> 0 ! la/1 "u ,diocletian2 x 0 to decide :e!r paganism or ,*ri/ianity 0 to be ! /ate religion4 ,h[ev]1 !re is no d\bt t ! p]secutions help$ to seal ! fate ( ! old culture4 ,h>nack traces ?ree /ages 9 ! ,hell5ization ( ,*ri/ianity4 ',9 ! e>lie/ ,*ri/ian writ+s1 ap>t f ,paul1 ,luke1 & ,john'1 he _c f9d any consid]able traces ( ,greek influ5ce4 ',! real influx ( ,greek ?\ght & life' began ab\t #acj4 ,! exception is s important z to make ?is /atem5t ( little or no value4 ,aft] #acj1 he says1 '! philosophy ( ,greece w5t /raight to ! core ( ! new religion'4 ,a c5tury or s lat]1 ',greek my/]ies & ,greek civilization 9 ! :ole range ( its developm5t ex]cise _! influ5ce on ! ,*ur*1 b z yet n its my?ology & poly!ism2 ^! 7 /ill to come'4 ',ano!r c5tury _h to elapse be=e ,hell5ism z a :ole & 9 e phase ( its developm5t 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,*ur*4' ,! process :i* he describes began1 9 fact1 z soon z ,*ri/ian prea*]s us$ ! ,greek language1 & 0 nev] s complete z he says4 ,! ,logos-,*ri/ology1 to :i* he ju/ly attributes ! greate/ importance1 is already pres5t 9 ,/4 ,paul's epi/les2 ! "n only is want+2 & ! %>p contradiction :i* he f9ds betwe5 ! ,*ri/ian idea ( a revelation made ?r\gh a p]son at a c]ta9 date1 & ! ,greek idea ( an appreh5sion ( timeless & *angeless tru?1 always op5 to individuals aft] ! appropriate discipl9e1 0 fac$ & 9 "p ov]come by ! ,greek ,fa!rs4 ,h>nack also reg>ds ,gno/icism z an embodim5t ( ! g5u9ely ,greek view ( revelation1 =gett+ t or?odox ,platonism 0 z ho/ile to ,gno/icism z ! ,*ur* itself4 ,9 reject+ ,gno/icism1 ! ,*ur* 9 fact decid$ = g5u9e ,hell5ism aga9/ a corrupt$ & b>b>iz$ developm5t ( x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no p]iod at :i* we c speak ( a complete conque/ ( ,*ri/ianity by ,greek ideas4 ,!re 0 a l>ge "p ( ! old tradition :i* p]i%$ ) its def5d]s1 :o1 obey+ ! melan*oly law :i* directs human survival1 di$ out to make way = immigrants & = ! =m]ly subm]g$ classes1 ! p ) few wants1 :o 7 indiff]5t to a culture :i* !y _h nev] be5 all[$ to %>e4 ,"o m cause ( misund]/&+ may be illu/rat$ f ! writ+s ( ,mat!w ,arnold4 ,he divides ! human race into ,hebraiz]s & ,hell5iz]s1 & classifies ! mod]n ,engli% & ,am]icans z ,hebraiz]s4 ,! fundam5tal maxim ( ,hebrew e?ics1 accord+ to him1 is ',walk by ! light y h'2 ( ,greek e?ics1 ',take he$ t ! light :i* is 9 !e is n d>kness'4 ,! ,hebraiz] is consci5ti\s b un5light5$2 ! ,hell5iz] is cle>-head$ b unscrupul\s4 ,pr(essor ,santayana has lately not$ ! same diff]5ce betwe5 ! type ( "* develop$ by ! ,lat9 nations & by ! ,anglo-,saxons4 ,! ,m$it]ranean civilization1 old] & m sophi/icat$1 is c>eful to get its values "r2 ! nor!rn man is b5t on do+ some?+ big1 no matt] :at1 & foll[s ,cl\gh's advice3 ,g6 say n 9 ?9e he>t1 ,& :at !n1 7 x accompli%$1 ,7 ! wild impulse allay$1 :at is ! use & ! good8 ,b ,santayana does n make ! mi/ake ( reg>d+ ! ,re=mation z a return to ,pale/9ian ,*ri/ianity4 ,?is 01 inde$1 ! op9ion ( ! ,re=m]s !mselves2 b all religi\s innovation seeks to base itself on "s old tradition4 ,*ri/ianity at fir/ s\ght = its cr$5tials 9 ,judaism1 ?\gh ! ,jews saw v quickly t x 'de/roy$ ! ,law'4 ,! belief ( ! ,re=m]s 0 plausible2 = !y reject$ j ^? p>ts ( ,ca?olicism :i* _h no?+ to d ) ,pale/9e1 b 7 tak5 ov] f ! old ,hell5ic or ,hell5i/ic culture4 ,b ! residuum 0 less ,jewi% ?an ,teutonic4 ,on "o side1 inde$1 ! ,re=mation 0 a return to ,hell5ism f ,romanism4 ,e>ly ,*ri/ian philosophy 0 ma9ly ,platonic2 e>ly ,*ri/ian e?ics 7z exemplifi$ especially 9 writ]s l ,ambrose7 7 ma9ly ,/oical4 ,!re _h be5 a consid]able fusion ( ,plato & ! ,/oa among ! ,neoplatoni/s1 s t x 0 easy = ! two to fl\ri% toge!r4 ,augu/9e bani%$ ,/oical e?ics f ! ,*ur*1 & !y 7 reviv$ only at ! ,re=mation4 ,calv9ism is simply baptiz$ ,/oicism2 x is logically pan!i/ic1 s9ce x ackn[l$ges only "o effective w 9 ! univ]se4 ,! cre$ ( n9ete5?-c5tury sci5ce is v simil>4 ,puritanism 0 n at all l ,judaism1 9 spite ( its fondness = ! ,old ,te/am5t2 x 0 v l ,/oicism4 ,! ,re=mation 0 a revolt aga9/ ,lat9 !ocracy & ! h]$it>y paganism ( ! ,m$it]ranean peoples2 x 0 n really a return to pre-,hell5ic ,*ri/ianity4 ,x %elt]$ ! humanism ( ,erasmus & ! late-fl[]+ ,engli% ,r5aissance1 & ,*ri/ian ,platonism has n[h]e _h a m fl\ri%+ record ?an 9 ,prote/ant ,brita94 ,at ! pres5t "t a m dra/ic revolt is 9 progress among ! plebs urbana1 :i* does 9 tru? ?reat5 ) de/ruction ':at we owe to ,greece'4 ,! indu/rial revolution has g5]at$ a new type ( b>b>ism1 ) no roots 9 ! pa/4 ,= ! second "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,europe1 cont9uity is 9 dang] ( be+ lo/4 ,a g5]ation is gr[+ up1 n un$ucat$1 b educat$ 9 a sy/em :i* has little connexion ) ,european culture 9 its hi/orical developm5t4 ,! ,classics are n taught2 ! ,bible is n taught2 hi/ory is n taught to any effect4 ,:at is ev5 m s]i\s1 !re are no social traditions4 ,! mod]n t[nsman is drac93 he has =gott5 ! habits & s5tim5ts ( ! village f :i* 8 =efa!rs came4 ,an unnatural & unheal?y mode ( life1 cut (f f ! sweet & humaniz+ influ5ces ( nature1 has produc$ an unnatural & unheal?y m5tality1 to :i* we %all f9d no p>allels 9 ! pa/4 ,its *ief *>act]i/ic is pr(\nd secul>ity or mat]ialism4 ,! typical t[n artisan has no religion & no sup]/itions2 he has no ideals beyond ! visible & tangible _w ( ! s5ses4 ,?is ( c\rse op5s an impassable gulf betwe5 him & ,greek religion1 & a /ill wid] gulf betwe5 him & ,*ri/ianity4 ,! attempts :i* are occasionally made1 especially 9 ?is c\ntry1 to dress up ! ,lab\r movem5t z a return to ! ,pale/9ian ,gospel1 are little %ort ( grotesque4 ,! contra/ is well summ$ up by ,bel=t ,bax1 9 a passage quot$ by ,pr(essor ,g>dn]4 ',accord+ to ,*ri/ianity1 reg5]ation mu/ come f )94 ,! e?ics & religion ( mod]n socialism on ! contr>y look = reg5]ation f )\t1 f mat]ial conditions & a high] social life4' ,"h ! gauntlet is ?r[n d[n to ,*ri/ & ,plato alike4 ,q logically ! new _s is 9 revolt aga9/ :at x calls intellectualism1 :i* means ! application ( ! dry light ( reason to ! problems ( human life4 ,x wi%es to sub/itute = reason :at "s ( its philosoph]s call in/9ct1 b :i* %\ld r be call$ s5tim5t & emotion4 ,!re is no reconciliation betwe5 ?is view ( life & ,hell5ism4 ,= sci5ce is ! elde/ & de>e/ *ild ( ! ,greek _s4 ,"o ( ! great battles ( ! future w be betwe5 sci5ce & its enemies4 ,! misologi/s h numb]s on _! side2 b ',nature'1 :om all ! ,greeks hon\r$ & tru/$1 w be ju/ifi$ 9 h] *ildr54 ,! new _s is especially bitt] aga9/ ! ,/oical e?ics1 :i* z we h se5 7 tak5 ov]1 ) ! ,platonic metaphysics1 by ,*ri/ianity4 ,/oicism tea*es m5 to v5]ate & obey natural law2 to accept ) pr\d equanimity ! mis=tunes ( life2 to be b5efic5t1 b to inhibit ! emotion ( pity2 to be self-reliant & self-conta9$2 to practise self-d5ial = ! sake ( self-conque/2 & to reg>d ?is life z a /]n s*ool ( moral discipl9e4 ,all ?is is simply dete/able to ! new _s1 :i* is s5tim5tal1 undiscipl9$1 & h$oni/ic4 ,x rememb]s ! h>dness ( ,puritanism1 & has no admiration = its virtues4 ,x is (t5 said t ! mod]n man has entirely lo/ ! ,greek love ( beauty4 ,?is is1 ,i ?9k1 untrue1 & unju/ to our pres5t civilization1 unlovely z x und\bt$ly is 9 _m ways4 ,x is curi\s t mod]n critics ( ! ,greeks h n call$ att5tion to ! ae/hetic obtus5ess :i* %[$ itself 9 ! defective reaction ( ! anci5ts aga9/ cruelty4 ,x 0 n t !y exclud$ beautiful actions f ! sph]e ( ae/hetics2 !y nev] ?\ght ( sep>at+ ! beautiful f ! good 9 ?is way4 ,b !y 7 n disgu/$ at ! torture ( slaves1 ! exposure ( new-born *ildr51 or ! massacre ( ! population ( a revolt$ city4 ,! same call\sness appe>s 9 ! ,italian cities at ! ,r5aissance2 ,ezzel9o 0 a contempor>y ( ! great ar*itects & pa9t]s4 ,i _c avoid ! conclusion t x is connect$ 9 "s obscure way ) ! arti/ic creativ5ess ( ^! two closely simil> epo*s4 ,! extreme s5sibility to physical suff]+ :i* *>act]izes mod]n civilization arose toge!r ) indu/rialism1 & is mo/ m>k$ 9 ! mo/ highly indu/rializ$ c\ntries4 ,x has syn*roniz$ ) ! complete eclipse ( spontane\s & unconsci\s arti/ic production1 :i* we deplore 9 our "t4 ,evelyn1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 0 /ill able to visit a prison 9 ,p>is to gratify 8 curiosity by see+ a prison] tortur$1 & ?\gh he did n /ay to ! end ( ! exhibition he %[s t 8 /oma* 0 n easily turn$4 ,x is c]ta9 t our repugnance to su* sights is ae/hetic r ?an moral1 & probable t x is /ronge/ 9 ! l[] social /rata4 ,sev]al ye>s ago ,i w5t to ! fir/ night ( a r fooli% play ab\t anci5t ,rome1 9 :i* an e>ly ,*ri/ian is br\ght 9 to be v mildly tortur$ on ! /age4 ,at ! fir/ crack ( ! :ip my neighb\rs sprang f _! seats1 cry+1 ',%ame6 ,/op t6'2 & ! sc5e _h to be remov$ 9 subsequ5t p]=mances4 ,! op]atives 9 a c]ta9 factory /opp$ ! eng9es = an h\r because !y he>d a cat mew+ among ! ma*9]y4 ,hav+ ) difficulty rescu$ ! animal f be+ cru%$ !y /rangl$ x4 ,! explanation ( ?is extreme susceptibl5ess mu/ be left to psy*ologi/s2 b ,i am conv9c$ t we h "h a case ( transf]r$ ae/hetic s5sibility4 ,we c walk unmov$ d[n ! /reets ( ,plai/[1 b we _c be> to see a horse beat54 ,! ,a!nians set up no ,alb]t ,memorials1 b !y tortur$ slave-girls 9 _! law-c\rts & s5t _! prison]s to "w 9 ! horrible gall]ies ( ! ,laureion silv]-m9es4 ,?is em]g5ce ( a new _s1 :i* seems to be almo/ indep5d5t ( all traditions1 makes x difficult to e/imate our pres5t indebt$ness to ,greece 9 matt]s ( religion4 ,x w\ld be difficult ev5 if ! indu/rial revolution _h n tak5 place4 ,! nor!rn ,europeans h h>dly yet atta9$ to self-expression4 ,_! religion is a mixture ( ,greek1 ,lat91 & ,hebrew elem5ts :i* refuse to be h>moniz$1 & :i* 9 ?is c\ntry sometimes cla% ) ! ideal ( a g5tleman1 t lay religion ( ! ,engli%-speak+ peoples1 :i* has no long] any connexion ) h]aldry or prop]ty 9 l&4 ,! ,engli% g5tleman is n a ,greek any m ?an he is a ,jew4 ,8 code makes ,odysseus an amus+ rascal2 ,a*illes a viol5t & sulky savage2 & ,ari/otle's megalopsy*os 7z has be5 said7 is r l a nobleman 9 a novel by ,disraeli1 b n l any o!r sort ( g5tleman4 ,! ,engli%man is by nature religi\s2 b ,*ri/ianity 9 its develop$ =m is a ,m$it]ranean religion2 9 all ext]nal features x might h be5 v diff]5t if x _h be5 fir/ plant$ nor? ( ! ,alps4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a *ronic confusion 9 ,prote/antism :i* makes its conflicts ) ! ,lat9 ,*ur* l ! battles ( undiscipl9$ b>b>ians aga9/ well-drill$ troops4 ,nev]!less1 ?\gh x is s difficult to sep>ate out ! v>i\s ?reads :i* make up ! tangl$ ske9 ( our mod]n religion1 x may be wor? :ile to make ! attempt to di/+ui%1 fir/1 ^? p>ts ( curr5t ,*ri/ianity :i* are n ,greek1 9 ! wide s5se :i* ,i h *os5 = ! ^w1 & !n ^? :i*1 9 ! same s5se1 are ,greek by orig9 or aff9ity4 ,among ^? elem5ts :i* are n ,greek1 ! fir/ place mu/ be giv5 to ! orig9al ,gospel1 ( :i* ,i h said no?+ yet4 ,our records ( ! ,galilean m9i/ry1 conta9$ 9 ! ?ree synoptic ,gospels1 7 n compil$ till long aft] ! ev5ts :i* !y describe1 & mu/ n be us$ uncritically4 ,b 9 my op9ion1 at any rate1 ! sub/ance ( ! tea*+ ( ,*ri/ comes out v cle>ly 9 ^! books4 ,no ,hell5ic influ5ce c be trac$ 9 x2 !re is n ev5 any sign ( ! ,hell5iz$ ,judaism :i* = u is repres5t$ by 8 contempor>y ,philo4 ,b nei!r is x possible to call ! ,gospel ,jewi%1 except ) _m qualifications4 ,*ri/ came be=e 8 c\ntrym5 z a prophet2 he delib]ately plac$ himself 9 ! l9e ( ! prophetic tradition4 ,l o!r prophets ( 8 nation1 he did n altoge!r es*ew ! framework ( apocalyptic :i* 0 at t "t ! natural m\ld = prophecy4 ,b he prea*$ nei!r ! popul> nationalism1 nor ! popul> ecclesia/icism1 nor ! popul> e?ics4 ,8 c\ntrym5 reject$ him z soon z !y und]/ood him4 ,! ,gospel 01 z ,/4 ,paul said1 a new creation4 ,x is mo/ significant t x at once introduc$ a new e?ical t]m9ology4 ,! ,greek words :i* we translate love 7or *>ity71 joy1 peace1 hope1 humility1 are no "p ( ! /ock-9-trade ( ,greek morali/s be=e ,*ri/4 ,m5 d n co9 new words = old ideas4 ,tak5 z a :ole ! ,gospel is pr(\ndly orig9al2 & a ,*ri/ian c f9d /rong evid5ce = 8 belief t 9 ,*ri/ a revelation 0 made to humanity at l>ge1 9 :i* ! religion ( ! ,_s1 9 its pure/ & mo/ univ]sal =m1 0 = ! fir/ "t pres5t$ to mank9d4 ,?is revelation has to a consid]able ext5t pass$ into ! common consci\sness ( ! civiliz$ _w2 b its implications 9 matt]s ( conduct1 individual1 social1 & int]national1 are /ill imp]fectly und]/ood & h nev] be5 act$ ^u1 except feebly & sporadically4 ,x is a reproa* to u t ! tea*+ ( ,*ri/ mu/ be reg>d$ z only "o ( _m elem5ts :i* make up :at we call ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,quak]s1 z a body1 seem to me to come ne>e/ to :at a g5u9ely ,*ri/ian society w\ld be4 ,secondly1 ! ,greeks escap$ ! evils ( prie/ly gov]nm5t4 ,! ,ori5tal type ( !ocracy1 ) :i* !y 7 famili> 9 ! ,egypt ( ! ,ph>aohs1 0 ali5 to _! civilization4 ,_! sacrifices 7 = ! mo/ "p ( ! g5ial type1 a communion-meal ) ! god4 ,b ev5 9 ,greece we mu/ rememb] ! gloomy *?onian rites1 & ! degradations ( ,orphism m5tion$ by ,plato 9 ! ,republic4 ',!y p]suade n only individuals b :ole cities t expiations & atonem5ts = s9 may be made by sacrifices & amusem5ts :i* fill a vacant h\r1 & are equally at ! s]vice ( ! liv+ & ( ! dead2 ! latt] sort !y call my/]ies1 & !y r$eem u f ! pa9s ( hell1 b if we neglect !m no "o kn[s :at awaits u4' ,?is exploitation ( sacram5talism 0 common en\gh 9 ,greece2 b ! *>act]i/ic ,caes>o-,papism ( ,byzantium & mod]n imp]ialism 0 :olly =eign to ,hell5ism4 ,x 0 introduc$ by ,con/ant9e z "p ( ! ,ori5taliz+ ( ! empire begun by ,diocletian4 ,z ,seeley says1 ',con/ant9e pur*as$ an indefeasible title by a *>t]4 ,he gave c]ta9 lib]ties & receiv$ 9 return passive ob$i5ce4 ,he ga9$ a sanction = ! ,ori5tal !ory ( gov]nm5t2 9 return he accept$ ! law ( ! ,*ur*4 ,he became irresponsible to 8 subjects on condition ( becom+ responsible to ,*ri/4' ,! ,greeks nev] _h a book-religion1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,judaism became1 & ,islam always 01 a book-religion4 ,b !y 7 9 "s dang] ( treat+ ,hom] & ,hesiod z inspir$ scriptures4 ,to u x is pla9 t a long religi\s hi/ory lies beh9d ,hom]1 & t ! treatm5t ( ! gods 9 ,epic poetry proves t !y _h almo/ ceas$ to be ! objects ( religi\s feel+4 ,"s ( !m are ev5 comic *>act]s1 l ! devil 9 ,scotti% folklore4 ,to turn ^! poems into sacr$ lit]ature 0 to c\rt ! ridicule ( ! ,*ri/ians4 ,b ,hom] 0 nev] suppos$ to conta9 '! fai? once deliv]$ to ! sa9ts'2 no religion ( au?ority c\ld be built ^u him1 & ,greek speculation rema9$ f> m unfett]$ ?an ! ?\ght ( ,*ri/5dom has be5 until our own day4 ,^? :o h obs]v$ ! actual /ate ( ,*ri/ianity 9 ,m$it]ranean c\ntries _c lay mu* /ress on ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,*ri/ian mono!ism & pagan poly!ism4 ,! e>ly ,*ur* f\ght aga9/ ! t5d5cy to int]pose objects ( wor%ip betwe5 ,god & man2 b ,m>iolatry came 9 ?r\gh a loophole1 & ! wor%ip ( ! masses 9 ,roman ,ca?olic c\ntries is f> m pagan ?an ! s]vice-books4 ,9 ! imag9ation ( _m simple ,ca?olics1 ,jesus1 ,m>y1 & ,joseph are ! *ief pot5tates 9 _! ,olympus4 ,! doctr9e ( ! creation ( ! _w 9 "t1 :i* 0 d5i$ by mo/ pagan ?9k]s & affirm$ by mo/ ,*ri/ian div9es1 belongs to philosophy r ?an to religion4 ,! disbelief 9 ! pre-exi/5ce ( ! s\l1 a doctr9e :i* = ,greek ?\ght /&s or falls ) ! belief 9 survival aft] dea?1 is m important1 & may be p>tly attributable to ,jewi% influ5ce4 ,b pre-exi/5ce does n seem to h be5 believ$ by ! majority ( ,greeks1 & 9 fact almo/ disappe>s f ,greek ?\ght betwe5 ,plato & ! ,neoplatoni/s4 ,x is possible t ! ,py?agorean & ,platonic doctr9e may /ill h a future4 ,!re are "s :o w insi/ t ^! diff]5ces are insignificant by ! side ( ! fact t ,*ri/ianity 0 ! ideali/ic side ( a revolt ( ! prolet>iat aga9/ ! :ole social ord] ( ! "t4 ,?is notion1 :i* made ,*ri/ 'le bon sans-culotte'1 has aga9 become popul> lately2 "s h ev5 comp>$ ! e>ly ,*ri/ians ) ,bol%eviks4 ,x is a fair "q to ask at :at p]iod ?is 0 ev5 approximately true4 ,*ri/ & 8 apo/les belong$ to ! prosp]\s peasantry ( ,galilee1 a well-educat$ & com=table middle class4 ,! dome/ic slaves ( weal?y ,romans1 :o embrac$ ! new fai? 9 l>ge numb]s1 7 legally def5celess1 b by no means mis]able or degrad$4 ,aft] ! second c5tury ! comp>ison ( ! ,*ri/ians to mod]n revolutioni/s becomes too absurd = discussion4 ,!re is a good deal ( rhetorical declamation ab\t ri*es & pov]ty 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,fa!rs2 b un=tunately ! ,*ur* seems to h done v little to prote/ aga9/ ! cry+ economic inju/ices ( ! f\r? & fif? c5turies4 ,f fir/ to la/ !re 0 no?+ ( ! ',sp>tacus' movem5t ab\t ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,z soon z ! p]secutions ceas$1 ! bi%ops took _! place naturally among ! nobility4 ,:5 we turn to ! obligations ( mod]n religion to ,greece1 x is difficult to "k :]e to beg94 ,! conception ( philosophy z an ars viv5di is *>act]i/ically ,greek4 ,no?+ c be fur!r f ! tru? ?an to call ! ,greeks 'intellectuali/s' 9 ! disp>ag+ s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is n[ (t5 us$4 ,! object ( philosophy 0 to tea* a man to live well1 & ) t object to ?9k rightly ab\t ,god1 ! _w1 & himself4 ,?is close union betwe5 metaphysics1 morals1 & religion has rema9$ z a p]man5t possession ( ! mod]n _w4 ,e philosoph] is n[ expect$ to %[ ! be>+ ( 8 sy/em on morality & religion1 & ! criticism is (t5 ju/ifi$ t h[ev] bold ! speculations ( ! ?9k]1 he is c>eful1 :5 he comes to conduct1 to be conv5tional en\gh4 ,! ,hell5i/ic comb9ation ( ,platonic metaphysics ) ,/oic e?ics is /ill ! dom9ant type ( ,*ri/ian religi\s philosophy4 ,x is curi\s to obs]ve h[ compet+ t5d5cies 9 ^! sy/ems--! praise ( isolat$ deta*m5t & ( active social sympa?y--h cont9u$ to /ruggle aga9/ ea* o!r )9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,! place ( asceticism 9 religion is s important1 & s mu* has be5 writt5 r un9tellig5tly ab\t ! contra/ betwe5 ,hell5ism & ,*ri/ianity 9 ?is matt]1 t ,i propose to deal ) x1 briefly inde$1 b ) a little m detail ?an a /rict att5tion to proportion w\ld ju/ify4 ,x has (t5 be5 assum$ t a nation ( a?letes1 :o made h]oes ( ,h]acles & ,!seus1 ,a*illes & ,hector1 c\ld h _h no?+ b contempt = ! ascetic ideal4 ,b 9 tru? asceticism has a cont9u\s hi/ory )9 ,hell5ism4 ,ev5 ,hom] kn[s ( ! prie/s ( *illy ,dodona1 ! ,selli1 ^: b>e feet are unwa%$1 & :o sleep on ! gr\nd4 ,?is is probably n1 z ,wilam[itz-,moell5dorff ?9ks1 a description ( savage life1 b ( an ascetic s*ool ( prophets4 ,= ! fa/days :i* introduc$ ! ,!smophoria 7 obs]v$ by ! ,a!nian matrons 9 ! same way2 !y w5t un%od & sat on ! b>e e>?2 & we may comp>e ! ,nudip$alia1 ord]$ by ! ,romans 9 "t ( de>? & m5tion$ by ,petronius & ,t]tullian4 ,prophets & prophetesses fa/$ at ,miletus1 ,colophon1 & o!r places4 ,national fa/s 7 ord]$ 9 times ( calamity or dang]1 & ,t>5tum kept a ye>ly fa/ ( ?ankfulness = deliv]ance f a siege4 ,! flagellation ( boys at ,sp>ta h>dly comes into acc\nt1 be+ probably a sub/itute = human sacrifice2 b ! cont9uance ( ! cruel rite till ne>ly ! end ( antiquity causes surprise4 ,! wor%ip ( ,dionysus ,zagreus 9 ,?race 0 accompani$ by ascetic practices be=e ,py?agoras4 ,veget>ianism1 :i* has always play$ an important "p 9 ! ascetic life1 0 obligatory on all ,py?agoreans2 b 9 ?is s*ool !re 0 ano!r motive besides ! desire to mortify ! fle%4 ,^? :o believe 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls into ! bodies ( animals mu/ reg>d fle%-eat+ z little bett] ?an cannibalism4 ,! ,py?agorean & ! ,orphic rules ( life 7 well kn[n ?r\gh\t antiquity1 & 7 probably obey$ by l>ge numb]s4 ,! rule ( cont95ce 0 f> less /rict ?an 9 ! ,ca?olic 'religi\s' life2 b ,emp$ocles1 accord+ to ,hippolytus1 advis$ ab/95ce f m>riage & procreation1 & ! t5d5cy to reg>d celibacy z "p ( ! 'philosophic life' increas$ /eadily4 ,! ,cynic ,anti/h5es is quot$ by ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria z hav+ express$ a wi% to '%oot ,aphrodite1 :o has ru9$ s _m virtu\s wom5'4 ,b ! asceticism ( ! e>ly ,cynics & ( "s ,/oics 0 bas$ n on self-devotion & spirituality b on ! desire = indep5d5ce1 & (t5 took repulsive =ms4 ,( "s among !m x may be said t !y did n object to s5sual pleasure1 !y only object$ to hav+ to pay = x4 ,desire = self-suffici5cy is always "p ( asceticism1 b 9 ! ,*ri/ian sa9ts x has be5 a small "p4 ,! ,greeks :o practis$ x 7 f fir/ to la/ too anxi\s to be invuln]able2 ?is 0 ! ma9 attraction ( ! philosophic life f ! "t ( ,anti/h5es1 & x rema9$ ! ma9 attraction to ! end4 ,b ,cynicism & ,/oicism 7:i* t5d to run toge!r7 became g5tl]1 m humane1 & m spiritual "u ! ,roman empire4 ,s5eca1 ,epictetus1 & ,m>cus ,aurelius (t5 seem to be half ,*ri/ian4 ,direct influ5ce ( ,*ri/ian e?ics at ?is e>ly p]iod is p]haps unlikely2 x is en\gh to suppose t ! _s ( ! age affect$ 9 a simil> way all cre$s & d5om9ations4 ,self-mortification t5d$ to assume m & m viol5t =ms1 till x culm9at$ 9 ! /range ab]rations ( ,egyptian eremitism4 ,x is impossible to reg>d ^! z ei!r ,greek or ,*ri/ian2 !y indicate a pa?ological /ate ( society1 :i* c be p>tly b n entirely acc\nt$ = by ! conditions ( ! "t4 ,aft] a few c5turies a f> m :olesome type ( mona*ism supplant$ ! h]mits2 ! an*orites ( ! ,middle ,ages reta9$ ! solit>y life1 b 7 v unlike ! crazy savages ( ! ,!baid4 ,9 mod]n times1 ^? :o h be5 mo/ "u ! ,greek _s h g5]ally liv$ ) au/]e simplicity1 b )\t any ( ! viol5t self-discipl9e :i* is said to be /ill practis$ by "s dev\t ,ca?olics4 ,! assidu\s practice ( self-ma/]y & ! mo/ sp>+ indulg5ce 9 ! pleasures ( s5se are ! 'philosophic life' :i* ! ,greek _s recomm5ds z ! highe/4 ,! be/ ,greeks w\ld blame ! life ( an ,engli% cl]gyman1 pr(essor1 or philosoph] z too self-indulg5t2 we (t5 =get h[ frugally & h>dily ! ,greeks liv$ at all times4 ,b "h we h to consid] ! diff]5ces ( climate1 & ! app>5t necessity ( a r g5]\s diet = ! ,nordic race4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,greek my/]ies ^u ,*ri/ianity is a ke5ly debat$ "q1 9 :i* passion & prejudice play too l>ge a "p4 ,! in=mation necess>y = =m+ a judgem5t has be5 mu* enl>g$ by rec5t discov]ies 9 ,egypt & else:]e1 &1 z usually happ5s1 ! importance ( ! new facts has be5 sometimes exagg]at$4 ,prote/ant !ology has on ! :ole m9imiz$ ! influ5ce ( ! my/]ies1 & has po/-dat$ x1 f an unwill+ness to all[ t !re 0 already a /rong ,ca?olic elem5t 9 ! ,*ri/ianity ( ! fir/ c5tury4 ,or?odox ,ca?olicism has ignor$ x f diff]5t b equally obvi\s motives4 ,mod]ni/ ,ca?olicism has 9 my op9ion ant$at$ ! irruption ( crude sacram5talism into ! ,*ur*1 & has greatly ov]/at$ its importance 9 ! religion ( ! fir/-c5tury ,*ri/ians4 ,?is s*ool practically d5ies any?+ m ?an a half-accid5tal cont9uity betwe5 ! prea*+ ( ! hi/orical ,*ri/1 :om !y /rangely suppose to h be5 a m]e apocalypti/1 "o ( ! _m ,messiahs or ,mahdis :o arose at ?is p]iod 9 ,pale/9e1 & ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 :i* accord+ to !m belong$ to ! same type ( religion z ! wor%ip ( ,isis & ,mi?ra4 ,ano!r bone ( cont5tion is ! value ( ! my/]y-religions ( ,greece4 ,! v able ,g]man s*ol>s :o h writt5 on ! subject1 su* z ,reitz5/e9 & /ill m ,rohde1 seem to me mu* too unsympa!tic 9 _! treatm5t ( ! my/]y-cults4 ,la/ly1 "s compet5t critics h lately urg$ t ?is side ( ,*ri/ianity ow$ m to ,judaism--,hell5iz$ ,judaism1 ( c\rse--?an has be5 hi!rto suppos$4 ,plato 9 ! ,pha$o says t '^? :o e/abli%$ our my/]ies decl>e t all :o come to ,hades un9itiat$ w lie 9 ! mud2 :ile he :o has be5 purifi$ & initiat$ w dwell ) ! gods'4 ,=1 z !y say 9 ! my/]ies1 ',_m are ! ?yrsus-be>]s1 b few are ! inspir$'4 ,?is sacram5talism 0 n un*all5g$1 z we h already se5 f ,plato himself4 ,diog5es is said to h ask$ :e!r ! robb] ,pataecion 0 bett] (f 9 ! o!r _w ?an ! h]o ,epam9ondas1 because ! =m] _h be5 initiat$1 & ! latt] _h n4 ,b ,orphism1 ?\gh liable to degradation1 purifi$ & elevat$ ! old ,bac*ic rites4 ,z ,miss ,h>rison says1 ! ,bac*anals hop$ to atta9 unity ) ,god by intoxication1 ! ,orphics by ab/95ce4 ,! way to salvation 0 n[ ?r\gh 'hol9ess' 7 hosiots74 ,to ! initiat$ ! assurance 0 giv51 ',happy & bless$ "o6 ,?\ %alt be a god in/ead ( a mortal4' ,to be a god meant = a ,greek simply to be immortal2 ! ,orphic sa9t 0 deliv]$ f ! pa9ful cycle ( recurr+ bir?s & dea?s4 ,& ,orphic purity 0 ma9ly1 ?\gh n entirely1 ! result ( moral discipl9e4 ,cumont says t ! my/]y-cults br\ght ) !m two new ?+s--my/]i\s means ( purification by :i* !y propos$ to cleanse away ! defilem5ts ( ! s\l1 & ! assurance t an immortality ( bliss w\ld be ! rew>d ( piety4 ,! tru?1 says ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,k5n$y1 0 pres5t$ to !m 9 ! guise ( div9e revelations1 esot]ic doctr9es to be c>efully conceal$ f ! gaze ( ! pr(ane1 doctr9es :i* plac$ 9 _! h&s a p[]ful app>atus = ga9+ deliv]ance f ! assaults ( malici\s demonic influ5ces1 & above all = ov]com+ ! rel5tless tyranny ( fate4 ,?is demonology 0 believ$ ev]y:]e "u ! ,roman empire1 ! p]iod ( :i* ,mr4 ,k5n$y is ?9k+ 9 ?is s5t5ce1 & x has un=tunately left m traces 9 ,/4 ,paul's epi/les ?an we l to all[4 ,! =mation ( bro!rhoods = my/ic wor%ip 0 also an important /ep 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek religion4 ,^! bro!rhoods 7 cosmopolitan1 & seem to h fl\ri%$ especially at great seaports4 ,!y 7 ?or\ghly popul>1 draw+ mo/ ( _! support f ! l[] classes1 & )9 !m national & social di/9ctions 7 ignor$4 ,_! ultimate aim _c be summ$ up bett] ?an 9 ,mr4 ,k5n$y's words--'to raise ! s\l above ! transi5cy ( p]i%able matt] ?r\gh actual union ) ! ,div9e'4 ,x has be5 usual to di/+ui% betwe5 ! dignifi$ & (ficially recogniz$ my/]ies1 l ^? ( ,eleusis1 & ! indep5d5t volunt>y associations1 "s ( :i* became important4 ,b !re 0 probably no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,9 nei!r case 0 !re mu* def9ite tea*+2 ! aim1 z ,ari/otle says1 0 to produce a c]ta9 emotional /ate 7 ou ma!9 ti de9 alla pa!974 ,a passion-play 0 enact$ amid ! mo/ impressive surr\nd+s1 & we ne$ n d\bt t ! moral effect 0 b5eficial & sometimes pr(\nd4 ,:5 ! ,egyptian my/]ies ( ,isis & ,osiris 7 fus$ ) ! ,hell5ic1 a type ( wor%ip 0 evolv$ :i* 0 />tl+ly l ,*ri/ianity4 ,a fam\s ,egyptian text conta9s ! promise3 ',z truly z ,osiris lives1 %all he ! wor%ipp] live2 z truly z ,osiris is n dead1 %all he n die4' ,! ?anksgiv+ to ,isis at ! end ( ! ,metamorphoses ( ,apuleius is v beautiful 9 itself1 ?\gh x is an odd t]m9ation ( a lic5ti\s novel4 ,! ,h]metic lit]ature also conta9s doctr9e ( a m>k$ly ,johann9e type1 z notably 9 a pray] to ,isis3 ',glorify me1 z ,i h glorifi$ ! "n ( ?y son ,horus4' ,i agree ) ^? critics 7,cumont1 ,ziel9ski1 & o!rs7 :o atta* ! 'high]' ,h]metic tea*+ to g5u9ely ,hell5ic s\rces4 ,b x is n necess>y to ascribe all ! high] tea*+ to ,greece & ! l[] to ,egypt4 ,mu* ( ,/4 ,paul's !ology belongs to ! same circle ( ideas z ^! my/]ies4 ,especially important is ! psy*ology :i* divides human nature into _s1 s\l1 & body1 _s be+ ! div9e elem5t into :i* ^? :o are sav$ are trans=m$ by ! 'k ( ,god'4 ,?is k is a sup]natural gift1 :i* 79 ! ,poim&res7 conf]s 'deification'4 ,/4 ,paul usually pref]s ',pneuma' z ! "n ( ?is highe/ "p ( human nature2 9 ! ,h]metic lit]ature x is n easy to di/+ui% betwe5 ,pneuma & ,n\s1 :i* holds exactly ! same place 9 ,neoplatonism4 ,! notion ( salvation z consi/+ 9 ! k ( ,god is n infrequ5t 9 ,/4 ,paul2 comp>e1 = example1 #a ,cor4 xiii4 #ab & a /ill m important passage1 ,phil4 ii4 #h-aj4 ,?is k 0 p>tly communicat$ by visions & revelations1 to :i* ,/4 ,paul attribut$ "s importance2 b on ! :ole he is consi/5t 9 treat+ k z ! cr[n & consummation ( fai?4 ,! pneumatic trans=mation ( ! p]sonality is ! c5tre ( ,/4 ,paul's es*atology4 ',?\gh our outw>d man p]i%1 our inw>d man is r5ew$ day by day4' ,! 'spiritual body' is ! vehicle ( ! trans=m$ p]sonality2 = 'fle% & blood _c inh]it ! k+dom ( ,god'4 ,! expression 'to be born aga9' is common 9 ! my/]y lit]ature4 ,x w\ld be easy to f9d _m o!r p>allels 9 ,/4 ,paul's epi/les1 9 ! ,johann9e books :i* are ! be/ comm5t>y ^u !m1 & 9 ! !ology ( ! ,greek ,fa!rs1 :i* prove ! close connexion ( e>ly ,*ri/ianity ) ! my/]y-religions ( ! empire4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago x might h be5 wor? :ile to draw out ^! resemblances 9 great] detail1 ev5 9 s summ>y a survey z ?is4 ,b at pres5t ! t5d5cy is1 if n to ov]-e/imate ! debt ( ! ,*ri/ian religion to ,hell5i/ic ?\ght & wor%ip1 at any rate to ignore ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! high] elem5ts 9 ! my/]y-religions1 :i* ! new fai? c\ld gladly & readily assimilate1 & ! l[] type1 ! !osophy1 magic1 & !urgy1 :i* 0 n 9 ! l9e ( ,hell5ic developm5t1 & is n to be f\nd 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,w5dl&1 always a judici\s critic1 has said v truly t ,/4 ,paul /&s to ! my/]y-religions z ,plato to ,orphism2 !y are n ! c5tre ( 8 religi\s life1 b !y gave him effective =ms ( expression = 8 religi\s exp]i5ce4 ,or1 z ,we9el says1 ',/4 ,paul's doctr9e ( ! ,_s & ( ,*ri/ is n an imitation ( my/]y-doctr9e1 b inmo/ p]sonal exp]i5ce metaphysically int]pret$ aft] ! mann] ( 8 "t4' ,writ]s l ,loisy1 :o say t = ,/4 ,paul ,jesus 0 'a ,savi\r ,god1 aft] ! mann] ( ,osiris1 ,attis1 or ,mi?ra'1 & :o proce$ to draw out obvi\s p>allels betwe5 ! suff]+s1 dea?1 & resurrection ( ^! my?ological p]sonages & ! gospels ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 surely =get t ,/4 ,paul 0 a ,jew1 & t !re are "s trans=mations ( :i* ! religi\s m9d is incapable4 ,he nev] speaks ( ,*ri/ z a ',savi\r ,god'4 ,ev5 m p]v]se are ! argum5ts :i* are us$ to prove t ! c5tre ( ,/4 ,paul's religion 0 a gross & mat]iali/ic sacram5tal magic4 ,! apo/le1 ^: antipa?y to ritual 9 e %ape is /amp$ ^u all 8 writ+s1 :o ?anks ,god t he baptiz$ v few ( ! ,cor9?ians1 :o decl>es t ',*ri/ s5t him n to baptize b to prea* ! ,gospel'1 is accus$ ( reg>d+ baptism z 'an opus op]atum :i* secures a man's admission into ! k+dom ap>t f ! "* ( 8 future conduct'4 ,& yet 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans1 z ,we9el says1 'baptism only once ent]s 8 m9d1 & ! ,"l's ,supp] n ev5 once'4 ,baptism = him is no opus op]atum1 b a c]emony ( social significance1 a symbol condition+ a deep] exp]i5ce ( div9e grace1 already embrac$ by fai?4 ,^! same critics proce$ to illu/rate ,/4 ,paul's doctr9e ( ! ,"l's ,supp] by ref]5ces to ! religion ( ! ,aztecs & o!r b>b>ians4 ,b x is h>dly wor? :ile to argue ) ^? :o suppose t a man ) ,/4 ,paul's upbr++ & culture c\ld h dalli$ ) ! notion ( 'eat+ a god'4 ,! 'table ( ! ,"l' is ! table at :i* ! ,"l is ! spiritual ho/1 n ! table on :i* 8 fle% is plac$4 ,does any "o suppose t '! table ( demons' :i* is contra/$ ) ! 'table ( ! ,"l' is ! table at :i* demons are eat58 ,demons _h no bodies1 z we le>n f ! ouk eimi daimonion zmaton ( a well-kn[n passage 9 a ,new ,te/am5t manuscript4 ,crude sacram5talism c]ta9ly came 9 lat]4 ,its p>5tage may be trac$1 if we w1 to ^? my/]y-mong]s :om ,plato m5tions ) disapproval4 ,if ,hell5ism is ! "n ( a way ( ?9k+1 ?is =m ( religion is n heal?y ,hell5ism2 t x 0 held by _m ,hell5es _c be d5i$4 ,! biblical doctr9e ( ! ,fall ( ,man1 :i* ! ,hebrews w\ld nev] h evolv$ = !mselves1 rema9$ an otiose dogma 9 ,jewi% religion4 ,x 0 revivifi$ 9 ,*ri/ianity "u ,greek influ5ce4 ,man1 z ,emp$ocles & o!rs _h taught1 0 'an exile & vagabond f ,god'2 8 body 0 8 tomb2 he is clo!d 9 'an ali5 g>m5t ( fle%'4 ,he is 9 a fall5 /ate & ne$s r$emption4 ,hell5ism _h become a religion ( r$emption2 ! empire 0 q ready to accept ?is "p ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,! s9 ( ,adam became ! fir/ sc5e 9 ! great drama ( humanity1 :i* l$ up to ! ,atonem5t4 ,at ! same "t ! :ole process 0 nev] m]e hi/ory2 its deepe/ mean+ 0 enact$ 9 ! life-/ory ( ea* individual4 ,greek ?\ght gave ?is turn to dogmas :i* = a ,jew w\ld h be5 a flat hi/orical recital4 ,9 mod]n times ! e>li] sc5es 9 ! /ory1 at any rate1 are look$ ^u z little m ?an ! dramatization ( ! normal exp]i5ce ( a human s\l4 ,b ,greek ?\ght1 :ile x rema9$ true to type1 nev] took s9 s tragically z ,*ri/ianity has done4 ,! /ruggle aga9/ evil has become /]n] ?an x ev] 0 = ! ,greeks4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ! l>ge majority ( pr(ess+ ,*ri/ians d n tr\ble !mselves mu* ab\t _! s9s1 & t ! be/ ( ! ,greeks 7 ?or\ghly 9 e>ne/ 9 seek+ to am5d _! lives4 ,r$emption 0 br\ght to e>? by a ,r$eem] :o 0 bo? ,god & ,man4 ,?is aga9 0 9 accordance ) ,greek ideas4 ,! ,m$iator betwe5 ,god & ,man mu/ be fully div9e1 s9ce an int]m$iate ,be+ w\ld be 9 t\* ) nei!r side4 ,! victory ( ,a?anasius 0 9 no s5se a defeat = ,hell5ism4 ,! only difficulty = a ,greek ?9k] 0 t an ,inc>nate ,god ought to be impassible4 ,?is 0 a puzzle only = philosoph]s2 popul> religion saw no difficulty 9 a ,*ri/us pati5s4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,logos br\ght ,*ri/ianity into direct aff9ity ) bo? ,platonism & ,/oicism1 & ! ,second ,p]son ( ! ,tr9ity 0 inve/$ ) ! same attributes z ! ,n\s ( ! ,neoplatoni/s4 ,b ! attempts to equate ! ,tr9ity ) ! ?ree div9e hypo/ases ( ,plot9us 0 no m successful ?an ! lat] attempt ( ,hegel to set ! ,tr9ity 9 ! framework ( 8 philosophy4 ,! subject ( es*atology is s va/ t x is hopeless to deal ) x1 ev5 9 ! mo/ summ>y fa%ion1 9 "o p>agraph4 ,x is usually said t ! resurrection ( ! body is a ,jewi% doctr9e1 ! immortality ( ! s\l a ,greek doctr9e4 ,b ! ,jews 7 v sl[ to br+ ! idea ( a future life into _! liv+ fai?2 to ?is day x does n seem to be ( mu* importance 9 ,judaism4 ,"s =m ( ,mill5>ianism--a reign ( ! sa9ts on e>?--w\ld seem to be ! natural =m = ,jewi% hopes to take4 ,?is belief1 :i* 0 ! e>lie/ m\ld into :i* ! treasure ( ! new revelation 0 p\r$1 has nev] q disappe>$ f ! ,*ur*1 & 9 times ( excitem5t & upheaval x t5ds to reass]t itself4 ,! mature/ ,greek philosophy reg>ds et]nity z ! div9e mode ( exi/5ce1 :ile mortals are born1 live1 & die 9 "t4 ,man is a microcosm1 9 t\* ) e rung ( ! ladd] ( exi/5ce2 & he is pot5tially a 'p>ticipator' 9 ! div9e mode ( exi/5ce1 :i* he c make 8 own by liv+1 s f> z may be1 9 deta*m5t f ! va9 %ad[s & p]i%able goods ( e>?4 ,t ?is conception ( immortality has _h a great influ5ce ^u ,*ri/ian ?\ght & practice ne$s no demon/ration4 ,x is & always has be5 ! religion ( ! my/ic4 ,b ! ,orphic tradition1 ) its pictures ( purgatory & ( et]nal bliss & torm5t1 has on ! :ole dom9at$ ! o!r two 9 popul> ,*ri/ian belief4 ,x has be5 /ripp$ ( its accessories--! belief 9 re9c>nation & ! transmigration ( s\ls1 doctr9es :i* ma9ta9 a some:at uneasy exi/5ce )9 ! s*eme ( ! ,neoplatoni/s4 ,! picture ( future retribution is ev5 m t]rify+ )\t !m4 ,bo? ! philosophical & ! popul> beliefs ab\t ! o!r _w are f> m ,greek ?an ,jewi%2 b ! attempt to hold ^! v discrepant beliefs toge!r has r$uc$ ,*ri/ian es*atology to extreme confusion1 & _m ,*ri/ians h giv5 up ! attempt to =mulate any !ories ab\t :at are call$ ! f\r la/ ?+s4 ,on su* a my/]i\s subject1 def9it5ess is nei!r to be expect$ nor desir$4 ,! orig9al ,gospel does n enc\rage ! natural curiosity ( man to "k 8 future fate2 & ! ?ree types ( es*atology :i* we h describ$ h all _! value z repres5t+ diff]5t aspects ( religi\s fai? & hope4 ,we mu/ aft] all confess ! tru? ( ,/4 ,paul's words1 t 'eye ha? n se51 nor e> he>d1 nei!r ha? x ent]$ into ! he>t ( man to conceive1 ! ?+s t ,god ha? prep>$ = !m t love him'4 ,! same apo/le rem9ds u t 'n[ we see ?r\gh a mirror1 9 riddles1 & "k only 9 "p'2 ! face to face vision1 & ! k :i* unites ! kn[] & ! kn[n1 may be ours :5 we h f9i%$ our c\rse4 ,9 ^! words1 :i* recall ,plato's fam\s my? ( ! ,cave1 ,/4 ,paul is fundam5tally at "o ) ! ,platoni/s2 & x may well be t x is by ?is pa? t our contempor>ies may recov] t belief 9 et]nal life :i* is at pres5t burn+ v dimly among u4 ,9 conclusion1 :at has ! religion ( ! ,greeks to tea* u t we are mo/ 9 dang] ( =gett+8 ,9 a ^w1 x is ! fai? t ,tru? is our fri5d1 & t ! k ( ,tru? is n beyond our rea*4 ,fai? 9 hone/ seek+ 7 ztsis7 is at ! he>t ( ! ,greek view ( life4 ',^? :o w\ld rightly judge ( tru?'1 says ,ari/otle1 'mu/ be arbitrators1 n litigants'4 ',happy is he :o has le>nt ! value ( rese>*' 7 hi/oria71 says ,euripides 9 a fragm5t4 ,curiosity1 z ! ,greeks knew & ! ,middle ,ages knew n1 is a virtue1 n a vice4 ,nature1 = ,plato1 is ,god's viceg]5t & reveal]1 ! ,s\l ( ! univ]se4 ,human nature is ! same nature z ! div9e2 no "o has proclaim$ ?is m /rongly4 ,nature is = u2 *aos & 'necessity' are ! enemy4 ,! divorce betwe5 religion & humanism began1 x mu/ be admitt$1 "u ,plato's successors1 :o unhappily 7 indiff]5t to natural sci5ce1 & did n ev5 foll[ ! be/ light t 0 to be _h 9 physical k4 ,9 ! ,d>k ,ages1 :5 ! l9k ) ,greece 0 brok51 ! sep>ation became absolute4 ,! luxuriant my?ology ( ! e>ly ,greeks 0 n unsci5tific4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( k gaps 7 fill$ up by ! imag9ation1 & ! 'me?od ( trial & error'4 ,! dramatic fancy :i* creates my?s is ! raw mat]ial ( bo? poetry & sci5ce4 ,( c\rse religi\s my?s may come to be a b> to progress 9 sci5ce2 !y d s :51 9 a rationaliz+ age1 ! "q comes to be "o ( fact or fiction4 ,x is a mi/ake to suppose t ! fai? ( a 'po/-rational' age1 to use a phrase ( ,santayana1 c be ! same z t ( an unsci5tific age1 ev5 :5 x uses ! same =mulas4 ,! ,greek _s itself is n[ call+ u away f "s ( ! ve/m5ts ( ,greek tradition4 ,! *oice be=e u is betwe5 a 'po/-rational' traditionalism1 fundam5tally sceptical1 pragmati/ic1 & intellectually di%one/1 & a tru/ 9 reason :i* re/s really on fai? 9 ! div9e ,logos1 ! self-reveal+ s\l ( ! univ]se4 ,x is ! belief ( ! pres5t writ] t ! unfl9*+ eye & ! op5 m9d w br+ u aga9 to ! feet ( ,*ri/1 to :om ,greece1 ) h] long tradition ( free & fe>less inquiry1 became a spe$y & will+ captive1 br++ h] manifold treasures to ,him1 9 ! well-gr\nd$ confid5ce t ,he 0 n come to de/roy b to fulfil4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,+e4 ,,philosophy ,if we consid] ! philosophical t5d5cies ( ! day1 we %all probably obs]ve fir/ ( all t ! artificial wall ( p>tition betwe5 philosophy & sci5ce--& especially ma!matical sci5ce--is beg9n+ to we> v ?94 ,on ! o!r h&1 we _c fail to notice a reaction aga9/ :at is call$ intellectualism4 ,?is reaction takes _m =ms1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic p]haps ( :i* is a r5ew$ int]e/ 9 ,my/icism4 ,x leads also to a /rong insi/5ce on ! practical aspect ( philosophic ?\ght1 & to a view ( its be>+ on :at _h be5 reg>d$ z prim>ily !oretical issues1 :i* is kn[n by ! r un=tunate "n ( ,pragmatism4 ,n[ x is j on ^! po9ts t we h mo/ to le>n f ! ,greeks1 & ,greek philosophy is !re=e ( special importance = u at ! pres5t "t4 ,at its be/1 x 0 nev] divorc$ f sci5ce1 :ile x f\nd a way ( reconcil+ itself bo? ) ! int]e/s ( ! practical life & ) my/icism )\t 9 any way abat+ ! claims ( ! intellect4 ,x is solely f ^! po9ts ( view t x is propos$ to reg>d ,greek philosophy "h4 ,x w\ld be futile to attempt a summ>y ( ! :ole subject 9 ! space available1 & su* a summ>y w\ld h no value4 ,_m ?+s w !re=e be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce :i* are important 9 !mselves & w\ld h to be fully treat$ 9 a complete acc\nt4 ,all t c be done n[ is to indicate ! po9ts at :i* ,greek philosophy seems to t\* our actual problems4 ,x w be se5 t "h1 z else:]e1 'all hi/ory is contempor>y hi/ory'1 & t ! pres5t c only be und]/ood 9 ! light ( ! pa/4 ,! ^w 'philosophy' is ,greek & s is ! ?+ x d5otes4 ,unless we are to use ! t]m 9 s wide a s5se z to empty x ( all special mean+1 !re is no evid5ce t philosophy has ev] come into exi/5ce any:]e except "u ,greek influ5ces4 ,9 p>ticul>1 my/ical speculation bas$ on religi\s exp]i5ce is n itself philosophy1 ?\gh x has (t5 influ5c$ philosophy pr(\ndly1 & = ?is reason ! pan!ism ( ! ,upani%ads _c be call$ philosophical4 ,x is true t !re is an ,indian philosophy1 & inde$ ! ,h9dus are ! only anci5t p besides ! ,greeks :o ev] _h "o1 b ,indian sci5ce 0 demon/rably borr[$ f ,greece aft] ! conque/ ( ,alex&]1 & !re is e reason to believe t ^? ,indian sy/ems :i* c be reg>d$ z g5u9ely philosophical are a good deal m rec5t /ill4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! e>lie/ au!nticat$ in/ance ( a ,greek ?9k] com+ "u ,indian influ5ce is t ( ,pyrrho 7#cbf ,b4 ,c471 & :at he br\ght back f ! ,ea/ 0 r ! ideal ( quietism ?an any def9ite philosophical doctr9e4 ,! b>ri] ( language 0 suffici5t to prev5t any int]c\rse on important subjects1 = nei!r ! ,greeks nor ! ,indians c>$ to le>n any language b _! own4 ,( c\rse philosophy may culm9ate 9 !ology1 & ! be/ ,greek philosophy c]ta9ly does s1 b x beg9s ) sci5ce & n ) religion4 ,by philosophy ! ,greeks meant a s]i\s endeav\r to und]/& ! _w & man1 hav+ = its *ief aim ! discov]y ( ! "r way ( life & ! conv]sion ( p to x4 ,x w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be true to say t ! ^w _h always borne ?is special s5se4 ,at any rate ! correspond+ v]b 7 philosophe97 _h at fir/ a f> wid] range4 ,= in/ance1 ,h]odotus 7i4 #cj7 makes ,croesus say t ,solon _h travell$ f> & wide 'z a philosoph]' 7 philosophen71 & x is cle> f ! context t ?is ref]s to t love ( travel = ! sake ( ! 'wond]s' to be se5 9 /range l&s :i* 0 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,ionian ,greeks 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,t is made q pla9 by ! phrase '= ! sake ( sightsee+' 7 !ris he9ek57 ) :i* ! ^w is c\pl$4 ,aga91 :5 ,?ucydides 7ii4 #dj7 makes ,p]icles say ( 8 fell[ citiz5s 'we foll[ philosophy )\t loss ( manl9ess' 7 philosoph\m5 aneu malakias71 x is c]ta9ly n ( philosophy 9 ! special s5se he is ?9k+4 ,he is only contra/+ ! culture ( ,a!ns ) ! some:at effem9ate civilization ( ! ,ionians 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,ev5 9 ! next c5tury1 ,isocrates tri$ to rev]t to ?is wid] s5se ( ! ^w1 & he regul>ly uses x ( ! art ( political j\rnalism :i* he imp>t$ to 8 pupils4 ,tradition ascribes ! fir/ use ( ! t]m 'philosophy' 9 ! m re/rict$ s5se indicat$ above to ,py?agoras ( ,samos1 an ,ionian :o f\nd$ a society = its cultivation 9 s\!rn ,italy 9 ! latt] half ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,x is notori\sly difficult to make any positive /atem5ts ab\t ,py?agoras1 see+ t he wrote no?+2 b x is saf] on g5]al gr\nds to ascribe ! lead+ ideas ( ! sy/em to ! ma/] r ?an to 8 foll[]s4 ,moreov]1 ?is p>ticul> tradition is confirm$ by ! fact1 = :i* !re is suffici5t evid5ce1 t ! "n 'philosoph]s' orig9ally designat$ ! ,py?agoreans 9 a special way4 ,= in/ance1 we "k t ,z5o ( ,elea 7c4 #dej ,b4 ,c47 wrote a book ',aga9/ ! ,philosoph]s'1 & 9 8 m\? t c only mean ',aga9/ ! ,py?agoreans'4 ,n[ ! ,py?agorean use ( ! t]m dep5ds on a c]ta9 way ( reg>d+ man1 :i* !re is good reason = ascrib+ to ,py?agoras himself4 ,x has become m or less ( a commonplace n[1 b we mu/ try to seize x 9 its orig9al fre%ness if we wi% to und]/& ! associations ! ^w 'philosophy' came to h = ! ,greeks4 ,to /ate x briefly1 x is ! view t man is some?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ,god & '! o!r animals' 7 talla za74 ,z comp>$ ) ,god1 he is 'm]e man'1 liable to error & dea? 7bo? ( :i* are spok5 ( z specially human1 an?rp9a72 z comp>$ ) '! o!r animals'1 he is k9dly & capable ( civilization4 ,! ,lat9 ^w humanus took ov] ?is d\ble mean+1 :i* is some:at arbitr>ily m>k$ 9 ,engli% by ! spell+s human & humane4 ,n[ x is cle> t1 = a be+ subject to error & dea?1 wisdom 7 sophia7 9 ! full s5se is impossible2 t is = ,god alone4 ,on ! o!r h&1 man _c be cont5t1 l '! o!r animals' to rema9 9 ignorance4 ,if he _c be wise1 he c at lea/ be 'a lov] ( wisdom'1 & x foll[s t 8 *ief end w be 'assimilation to ,god s f> z possible' 7 homoisis t ! kata to dynaton71 z ,plato put x 9 ! ,!aetetus4 ,! ma!matical /udies ( ! ,py?agoreans soon br\ght !m face to face ) ! idea ( a con/ant approximation :i* nev] rea*es its goal4 ,!re is1 !n1 suffici5t gr\nd = accept+ ! tradition :i* makes ,py?agoras ! au?or ( ?is special s5se ( ! ^w 'philosophy' & = connect+ x ) ! division ( liv+ creatures into ,god1 m5 & '! o!r animals'4 ,if ! lat] ,py?agoreans w5t a /ep fur!r & classifi$ rational animals into gods1 m5 & 'su* z ,py?agoras'1 t 0 due to ! en?usiasm ( disciple%ip1 & is really a fur!r indication ( ! g5u9ely ,py?agorean "* ( ?is :ole range ( ideas4 ,we may take x1 !n1 t ! ^w 'philosophy' _h acquir$ its special s5se 9 s\!rn ,italy be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,x is ev5 m c]ta9 t ?is s5se 0 well kn[n at ,a!ns1 at lea/ 9 c]ta9 circles1 n long aft] ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,to all appe>ance1 ?is 0 ! "w ( ,socrates 7#dgj-cii ,b4,c474 ,:atev] view may be tak5 ( ! philosophy ( ,socrates or ( its relation to t exp\nd$ 9 ,plato's e>li] dialogues 7a po9t :i* ne$ n be discuss$ "h71 x is at lea/ n op5 to "q t he 0 p]sonally intimate ) ! lead+ ,py?agoreans :o _h tak5 refuge at ,!bes & at ,phlius 9 ! ,peloponnesus :5 _! society came to be reg>d$ z a dang] to ! /ate at ,croton & else:]e 9 s\!rn ,italy4 ,t happ5$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury1 & ,socrates mu/ h made ! acqua9tance ( ^! m5 n long aft]4 ,at t "t x w\ld be q natural = !m to visit ,a!ns2 b1 aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w> 7#dca ,b4 ,c471 all int]c\rse ) !m mu/ h ceas$4 ,!y 7 resid5t 9 enemy /ates1 & ,socrates 0 fight+ = 8 c\ntry4 ,) ! exception ( ! brief int]val ( ! ,peace ( ,nicias 7#dba ,b4 ,c471 he c h se5 no?+ ( !m = ye>s4 ,nev]!less x is cle> t !y did n =get him2 = we mu/ accept ,plato's /atem5t 9 ! ,pha$o t _m ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ philosoph]s ( ! "t came to ,a!ns to be ) ,socrates :5 he 0 put to dea?1 & t ^? ( !m :o c\ld n come 7 eag] to he> a full acc\nt ( :at happ5$4 ,x is highly significant t1 ev5 be=e ?is1 two "y disciples ( ! ,py?agorean ,philolaus1 ,simmias & ,cebes1 _h come f ,!bes & atta*$ !mselves to ,socrates4 ,= t we h ! evid5ce ( ,x5ophon z well z ( ,plato1 & ,x5ophon's /atem5t is ( real value "h2 = x 0 j dur+ ^! few ye>s t he himself associat$ ) ,socrates1 ?\gh he saw him = ! la/ "t a ye> or two be=e 8 trial & dea?4 ,:atev] o!r inf]5ces may be drawn f ^! facts1 !y are suffici5t to prove t ,socrates _h become acqua9t$ ) "s ( ! lead+ philosoph]s ( ! ,greek _w be=e he 0 =ty1 & to make x highly probable t x 0 he :o introduc$ ! ^w 'philosophy' 9 its ,py?agorean s5se to ! ,a!nians4 ,s mu* = ! ^w2 we h next to ask h[ !re came to be su* a ?+ z philosophy at all4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t ,py?agoras 0 an ,ionian1 & we %\ld naturally expect to f9d t he br\ght at lea/ ! beg9n+s ( :at he call$ philosophy f ea/]n ,hellas4 ,n[ x has be5 po9t$ out t ,greek philosophy 0 bas$ on sci5ce1 & sci5ce orig9at$ at ,miletus on ! ma9l& ( ,asia ,m9or ne>ly opposite ! isl& ( ,samos1 :i* 0 ! orig9al home ( ,py?agoras4 ,! e>ly ,milesians 71 9 fact1 m5 ( sci5ce r ?an philosoph]s 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,! two ?+s 7 n diff]5tiat$ yet1 h[ev]1 & ! traditional acc\nt ( ! matt]1 accord+ to :i* ,greek philosophy beg9s ) ,?ales 7c4 #ehe ,b4 ,c471 is aft] all q ju/ifi$4 ,! rudim5t>y ma!matical sci5ce ( :i*1 z expla9$ else:]e 9 ?is volume1 he 0 ! orig9ator 9 fact l$ him & 8 successors to ask c]ta9 que/ions ab\t ! ultimate nature ( reality1 & ^! que/ions 7 ! beg9n+ ( philosophy on its !oretical side4 ,x is true t ! ,milesians 7 unable to give any b ! crude/ answ]s to ^! que/ions1 & v likely !y did n realise _! full importance4 ,^! e>ly inquir]s only want$ to "k :at ! _w 0 made ( & h[ x work$1 b ! complete break ) my?ology & traditional views :i* !y effect$ cle>$ ! way = ev]y?+ t foll[$4 ,x 0 no small ?+ t !y 7 able to disc>d ! old doctr9e ( :at 7 aft]w>ds kn[n z ! 'elem5ts'--,fire1 ,air1 ,e>?1 & ,wat]--& to reg>d all ^! z /ates ( a s+le sub/ance1 :i* pres5t$ diff]5t appe>ances accord+ z x 0 m or less r>efi$ or cond5s$4 ,moreov]1 ,anaxim&] at lea/ 7c4 #edf ,b4 ,c471 ! successor ( ,?ales1 %ook himself free ( ! idea t ! e>? requir$ support ( "s k9d to keep 9 its place4 ,he held t x swung free 9 space & t x rema9$ :]e x 0 because !re 0 no reason = x to fall 9 "o direction r ?an ano!r4 ,9 g5]al ^! e>ly cosmologi/s saw t weight 0 n an inh]5t quality ( bodies & t x c\ld n be us$ to expla9 any?+4 ,on ! contr>y1 weight 0 itself ! ?+ to be expla9$4 ,anaxim&] also not$ ! importance ( rot>y or vortex motion 9 ! cosmical s*eme1 & he inf]r$ t !re might be an indef9ite numb] ( rotat+ sy/ems 9 addition to t ) :i* we are imm$iately acqua9t$4 ,he also made "s v important obs]vations ( a biological "*1 & he ann\nc$ t man mu/ be desc5d$ f an animal ( a diff]5t species4 ,! "y ( mo/ animals1 he said1 c f9d _! food at once1 :ile t ( ! human species requires a prolong$ p]iod ( nurs+4 ,if1 !n1 man _h be5 orig9ally su* z he is n[1 he c\ld nev] h surviv$4 ,all ?is1 no d\bt1 is rudim5t>y sci5ce r ?an philosophy1 b x 0 ! beg9n+ ( philosophy 9 ?is s5se1 t x completely trans=m$ ! traditional view ( ! _w1 & made ! rais+ ( m ultimate problems inevitable4 ,?is trans=mation 0 effect$ 9 complete indep5d5ce ( religion4 ,:at we may call secul>ism 01 9 fact1 *>act]i/ic ( all ea/]n ,ionian sci5ce to ! end4 ,we mu/ n be misl$ by ! fact t ,anaxim&] call$ 8 innum]able worlds 'gods' & t 8 successor ,anaxim5es spoke ( ,air z a 'god'4 ,^! 7 nev] ! gods ( any city & 7 nev] wor%ipp$ by any "o1 & !y did n !re=e answ] at all to :at ! ord9>y ,greek meant by a god4 ,! use ( ! t]m by ! ,milesians means r t ! place once occupi$ by ! gods ( religion 0 n[ be+ tak5 by ! great fundam5tal ph5om5a ( nature1 & ! lat] ,greeks 7 q "r1 f _! own po9t ( view1 9 call+ t a!ism4 ,ari/ophanes *>act]izes ?is way ( speak+ v accurately inde$ 9 ! ,cl\ds :5 he makes ,/repsiades sum up ! tea*+ he has receiv$ 9 ! words ',vortex has driv5 out ,zeus & reigns 9 8 /ead'1 & :5 he makes ,socrates swe> by ',*aos1 ,respiration & ,air'4 ,s too ! ,milesians spoke ( ! prim>y sub/ance z 'ageless & dea?less'1 :i* is a ,hom]ic phrase us$ to m>k ! diff]5ce betwe5 gods & m51 b ?is only means t ! emotion =m]ly atta*$ to ! div9e 0 n[ be+ transf]r$ to ! natural4 ,! ,milesians1 !n1 _h =m$ ! conception ( an et]nal matt] out ( :i* all ?+s are produc$ & into :i* all ?+s return1 & ! conception ( ,matt] belongs to philosophy r ?an to sci5ce4 ,b besides ?is !y _h laid ! f\ndations ( geometry1 & t l$ 9 o!r h&s to ! =mulation ( ! correlative conception ( ,limit or ,=m4 ,x is ne$less to enum]ate "h ! ,milesian & ,py?agorean contributions to plane geometry2 x w be suffici5t to rem9d ! read] t !y cov]$ mo/ ( ! gr\nd ( ,euclid1 ,books ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iv1 & ,,vi1 & probably also ( ,book ,,iii4 ,9 addition1 ,py?agoras f\nd$ ,ari?metic1 t is1 ! sci5tific !ory ( numb]s 7 ari?mtik71 z oppos$ to ! practical art ( calculation 7 logi/ik74 ,we also "k t he discov]$ ! sph]icity ( ! e>?1 & ! num]ical ratios ( ! int]vals betwe5 ! concordant notes ( ! octave4 ,x is obvi\s t he 0 a sci5tific g5ius ( ! fir/ ord]1 & x is also cle> t 8 me?ods includ$ ^? ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! discov]y ( ! e>?'s sph]ical %ape 0 due to obs]vation ( eclipses1 & t ( ! int]vals ( ! octave c only h be5 bas$ on exp]im5ts ) a /ret*$ /r+1 ?\gh ! actual exp]im5ts attribut$ by tradition to ,py?agoras are absurd4 ,x 0 no d\bt ?is la/ discov]y t l$ him to =mulate 8 doctr9e 9 ! /rik+ say+ ',?+s are numb]s'1 ?us def9itely giv+ ! priority to ! elem5t ( =m or limit in/ead ( to ! indet]m9ate matt] ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,py?agoras fur!r diff]$ f 8 pr$ecessors 9 "o respect :i* prov$ ( vital mom5t4 ,s f> 0 he f ignor+ religion1 t he f\nd$ a society 9 s\!rn ,italy :i* 0 prim>ily a religi\s community4 ,x is q possible t he 0 influ5c$ by ! gr[? ( ! ,orphic societies :i* _h begun to spread ev]y:]e 9 ! c\rse ( ! six? c5tury1 b 8 religion diff]$ f ! ,orphic 9 _m ways4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,apollo & n ,dionysus 0 ! *ief god ( ! ,py?agoreans1 & all our evid5ce po9ts to ! conclusion t ,py?agoras br\ght 8 religion1 z he _h br\ght 8 sci5ce1 f ea/]n ,hellas1 ?\gh r f ! isl&s ( ! ,aegean ?an f ma9l& ,ionia4 ,he 0 mu* influ5c$1 we c /ill see1 by c]ta9 traditions ( ! temple ( ,delos1 :i* _h become ! religi\s c5tre ( ! ,ionic _w4 ,!re _h1 ( c\rse1 be5 pl5ty ( religi\s speculation among ! ,greeks be=e ,py?agoras1 & x 0 ( a type n unlike t we f9d 9 ,india1 ?\gh !re are insup]able difficulties 9 ! way ( assum+ any ,aegean influ5ce on ,india or any ,indian influ5ce on ! ,aegean at ?is date4 ,x may be t ! beg9n+s ( su* ideas g back to ! "t :5 ! ,greeks & ! ,h9dus 7 liv+ toge!r1 ?\gh x is /ill m likely t bo? ! ,greeks & ! ,indians 7 affect$ by a movem5t orig9at+ 9 ! nor?1 :i* br\ght to bo? ( !m a new view ( ! s\l4 ,! ,delian leg5d ( ! ,hyp]boreans may be ?\ght to po9t 9 ?is direction4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ! ma9 purpose ( ! religi\s obs]vances practis$ by ! ,orphics & ,py?agoreans alike 0 to secure by means ( 'purifications' 7 ka?>moi7 ! ransom 7 lysis7 ( ! s\l1 :i* 0 reg>d$ z a fall5 god1 f ! puni%m5t ( imprisonm5t 9 successive bodies4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t ,py?agoras display$ any p>ticul> orig9ality 9 ?is "p ( 8 tea*+4 ,x all dep5ds on ! doctr9e ( transmigration or rebir? 7 pal+5esia71 :i* is (t5 incorrectly designat$ by ! late & inaccurate t]m 'metempsy*osis'4 ,!re is no d\bt t ,py?agoras taught ?is1 & also ! rule ( ab/95ce f animal fle% :i* is its natural coroll>y1 b su* ideas _h be5 well kn[n 9 _m p>ts ( ,greece be=e 8 "t4 ,! real difficulty is to see ! connexion betwe5 all ?is & 8 sci5tific "w4 ,"h we are ( c\rse conf9$ to inf]5ces f :at we are told by lat] writ]s2 b1 if ! doctr9e :i* ,plato makes ,socrates exp\nd 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ,pha$o is ,py?agorean1 z x is g5]ally suppos$ to be1 we may say t :at ,py?agoras did 0 to tea* t1 :ile ! ord9>y me?ods ( purification 7 well en\gh 9 _! way1 ! be/ & true/ purification = ! s\l 0 j sci5tific /udy4 ,x is only 9 "s su* way z ?is t we c expla9 ! religi\s note :i* is *>act]i/ic ( all ! be/ ,greek sci5ce4 ,x involves ! doctr9e t ! ,!oretic ,life is ! highe/ way ( life = man1 a belief /ill held by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & to :i* we %all h to return4 ,we may note at once1 h[ev]1 t x is n an 'intellectuali/' ideal4 ,!re is no "q ( idle contemplation2 x is a /r5u\s way ( life1 ! aim ( :i* is ! s\l's salvation1 & x gives rise to an eag] desire to conv]t o!r m54 ,j = t reason1 ! ,py?agorean philosoph] w take "p 9 practical life :5 ! opportunity (f]s1 & he w ev5 rule ! /ate if call$ ^u to d s4 ,! ,py?agorean society 0 a proselytiz+ body f ! fir/1 & x tri$ to br+ 9 all x c\ld rea*1 )\t di/9ction ( nationality1 social position1 or sex 7= wom5 play$ a great "p 9 x f ! fir/74 ,x 0 precisely its zeal = ! re=m ( human life1 & its attempt to set up a ,rule ( ! ,sa9ts 9 ! cities ( s\!rn ,italy t l$ to its unpopul>ity4 ,if ! ,py?agoreans _h cont5t$ !mselves ) idle speculation1 !y w\ld n h be5 massacr$ or =c$ to take refuge 9 flight1 a fate :i* ov]took !m be=e ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,x soon prov$1 h[ev]1 t ! ,py?agorean doctr9e 9 its entirety 0 too high a "o = its adh]5ts1 & a rift betwe5 ,py?agorean religion & ,py?agorean sci5ce 0 inevitable4 ,^? :o 7 capable ( appreciat+ ! sci5tific side ( ! movem5t w\ld t5d m & m to neglect ! religi\s rule :i* x prescrib$1 & we f9d accord+ly t be=e ! end ( ! fif? c5tury ! lead+ ,py?agoreans1 ! m5 ^: names we "k1 are fir/ ( all m5 ( sci5ce1 & m & m incl9$ to drop :at !y d\btless reg>d$ z ! sup]/iti\s side ( ! doctr9e4 ,9 ! end !y 7 absorb$ 9 ! new philosophical s*ools :i* arose at ,a!ns4 ,! mass ( ! fai?ful1 on ! o!r h&1 took no int]e/ 9 ari?metic1 geometry1 music1 & a/ronomy1 & ) !m to foll[ ,py?agoras meant to g b>efoot & to ab/a9 f animal fle% & beans4 ,^! cont9u$ ! tradition ev5 aft] sci5tific ,py?agoreanism _h become ext9ct z su*1 & !y 7 a fav\rite subject ( ridicule ) ! comic poets ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,x is easy = u to see n[ t all ?is indicates a real weakness 9 ,py?agoreanism4 ,sci5ce & religion are n to be br\ght into union by a simple process ( juxtaposition4 ,we d n "k h[ f> ,py?agoras himself 0 consci\s ( ! ambiguity ( 8 position2 x w\ld n be surpris+ if he came to feel x t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 & we "k = c]ta9 t he liv$ long en\gh to witness ! beg9n+s ( ! revolt aga9/ 8 society 9 ,croton & else:]e4 ,x is = ?is reason t he remov$ to ,metapontum :]e he di$1 & :]e ,cic]o 0 able to visit 8 tomb long aft]w>ds4 ,we %all see lat] :at ! weak po9t 9 8 sy/em 01 & we %all h to consid] h[ ! discord he _h left unresolv$ 0 ultimately ov]come4 ,= ! pres5t1 x is m important to note t he 0 ! real f\nd] bo? ( sci5ce1 & ( philosophy z we und]/& !m n[4 ,x is specially true ( sci5ce t x is ! fir/ /eps :i* are ! mo/ difficult1 & ,py?agoras left a suffici5t a*ievem5t 9 ma!matics beh9d him = o!rs to elaborate4 ,! ,greeks took less ?an ?ree c5turies to complete ! edifice1 & t 0 *iefly due to ,py?agoras1 :o _h laid ! f\ndations truly & well4 ,we h n[ se5 h[ ! two great conceptions ( ,matt] & ,=m 7 rea*$2 ! next problem ,greek philosophy _h to face 0 t ( ,motion4 ,at fir/ ! fact ( movem5t _h simply be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,! ,ionian t5d5cy 0 to see motion ev]y:]e2 x 0 re/ t _h to be expla9$1 or r ! appe>ance ( x4 ,h[ev]1 :5 ! new conception ( an et]nal matt] began to be tak5 s]i\sly1 difficulties made !mselves felt at once4 ,if reality 0 reg>d$ z cont9u\s1 x appe>$ t !re 0 no room = any?+ else1 n ev5 = empty space1 :i* c\ld only be id5tifi$ ) ! unreal1 & x 0 easy to %[ t ! unreal c\ld n exi/4 ,b1 if !re is no empty space1 x seems impossible t !re %\ld be any motion1 & ! _w ( :i* we suppose ourselves to be aw>e mu/ be an illusion4 ,su*1 briefly /at$1 0 ! position tak5 up by ano!r ,ionian ( s\!rn ,italy1 ,p>m5ides ( ,elea 7c4 #dge ,b4 ,c471 :o _h begun z a ,py?agorean1 b _h be5 l$ to apply ! rigor\s me?od ( reason+ introduc$ into geometry ) su* success by ! ,py?agoreans to ! old "q ( ! nature ( ! _w :i* _h occupi$ ! ,milesians4 ,! rem>kable ?+ ab\t ! e>lie/ geomet]s is1 9 fact1 t !y did n =mulate ! conception ( ,space1 :i* seems to u at ! pres5t day fundam5tal4 ,!y 7 able to avoid x because !y possess$ ! conception ( ,matt]1 & reg>d$ ,air z ! normal /ate ( ! mat]ial sub/ratum4 ,! confusion ( air ) empty space is1 ( c\rse1 a natural "o1 ?\gh x may be consid]$ surpris+ t x %\ld n h be5 detect$ by ! f\nd]s ( geometrical sci5ce4 ,su* failures to draw all ! consequ5ces f a new discov]y are common en\gh1 h[ev]1 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific ?\ght4 ,p>m5ides cle>$ up ?is ambiguity1 n by affirm+ ! exi/5ce ( empty space1 b by d5y+ ! possibility ( su* a ?+1 ev5 be=e x _h be5 ass]t$ by any "o4 ,he saw t ! ,py?agoreans really impli$ x1 ?\gh !y 7 q unconsci\s ( ! fact4 ,he is int]e/+ to u z ! fir/ philosoph] :o ?\ght ( exp\nd+ 8 sy/em 9 v]se4 ,x 0 n a v happy ?\ght1 z ! argum5ts 9 :i* he deals d n readily l5d !mselves to ?is mode ( expression1 & we may be ?ankful t none ( 8 successors except ,emp$ocles foll[$ 8 example4 ,x has ! v great inconv5i5ce ( mak+ x necess>y to use diff]5t words = ! same ?+ to suit ! exig5cies ( metre4 ,& if !re ev] 0 an argum5t t dem&$ precise /atem5t1 x 0 t ( ,p>m5ides4 ,z x is1 8 poem has ! faults we %\ld look = 9 a metrical v]sion ( ,euclid4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,p>m5ides is ! fir/ philosoph] ( :om we h suffici5t rema9s to enable u to foll[ a cont9u\s argum5t2 = we h no?+ ( ,py?agoras at all1 & only deta*$ fragm5ts ( ! re/4 ,we c see t he 0 ready to foll[ ! argum5t :]ev] x might lead4 ,he took ! conception ( matt] :i* _h be5 elaborat$ by 8 pr$ecessors & he %[$ t1 if x is to be tak5 s]i\sly1 x mu/ lead to ! conclusion t reality is cont9u\s1 f9ite1 & sph]ical1 ) no?+ outside x & no empty space )9 x4 ,= su* a reality motion is impossible1 & ! _w ( ! s5ses is !re=e an illusion4 ,( c\rse t 0 n a result 9 :i* x 0 possible = m5 to acquiesce = long1 & hi/orically speak+1 ! ,eleatic doctr9e mu/ be reg>d$ z a r$uctio ad absurdum ( e>li] speculation4 ,!re is no reason to believe1 h[ev]1 t ,p>m5ides himself meant x to be und]/ood 9 ?is way4 ,he believ$ firmly t he _h f\nd ! tru?4 ,sev]al attempts 7 made to escape ! conclusions ( ,p>m5ides1 & !y all />t by ab&on+ ! assumption ( ! homog5eity & cont9uity ( matt] :i* _h be5 implicit 9 ! e>li] sy/ems1 ?\gh x 0 fir/ br\ght to ! light ( day by ,p>m5ides4 ,"h aga9 ! influ5ce ( contempor>y sci5ce on philosophic ?\ght is cle>ly m>k$4 ,emp$ocles ( ,agrig5tum 7c4 #dfj ,b4 ,c471 ! only citiz5 ( a ,dorian /ate :o f9ds a place 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( sci5ce & philosophy1 0 ! f\nd] ( ! ,sicilian s*ool ( m$ic9e1 & x 0 probably 8 pre-occupation ) t sci5ce t l$ him to revive ! old doctr9e ( ,fire1 ,air1 ,e>?1 & ,wat]1 :i* ! ,milesians _h ca/ aside1 b :i* l5t itself readily to ! physiological !ories ( ! day4 ,he did n use ! ^w aft]w>ds translat$ 'elem5ts' 7 /oi*eia7 = ^!4 ,x means lit]ally 'lett]s ( ! alphabet'1 & appe>s to h be5 fir/ employ$ 9 ?is connexion by ! ,py?agoreans at a lat] date1 :5 !y f\nd x necess>y to take acc\nt ( ! new !ory4 ,emp$ocles spoke ( ! 'f\r roots' ( ?+s1 & by ?is he meant to imply t ^! f\r =ms ( matt] 7 equally orig9al & altoge!r disp>ate4 ,t furni%$ at lea/ a p>tial answ] to ! argum5ts ( ,p>m5ides1 :i* dep5d$ on ! assumption t matt] 0 homog5e\s4 ,he also f\nd x necess>y to assume two s\rces ( motion or =ces1 z we might call !m1 ?\gh ,emp$ocles ?\ght ( !m z sub/ances1 "o ( :i* t5d$ to sep>ate ! 'f\r roots' & ! o!r to comb9e !m4 ,^! he call$ ,love & ,/rife1 & he suppos$ ! life ( ! _w to take ! =m ( alt]nate cycles1 9 :i* "o or ! o!r prevail$ 9 turn4 ,9 all ?is he 0 pla9ly influ5c$ by 8 physiological /udies4 ,he ?9ks ( ! _w z an animal organism subject to :at are n[ call$ anabolism & catabolism4 ,! details ( ! !ory make ?is q cle>4 ,a simil> doctr9e 0 taught by ,anaxagoras 7c4 #dfj ,b4 ,c471 :o came f ,clazom5ae 9 ,asia ,m9or to ,a!ns aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s1 & 0 "o ( ! tea*]s ( ,p]icles4 ,8 doctr9e ( 'se$s'1 9 :i* ! traditional 'opposites'--wet & dry1 cold & hot--7 comb9$ 9 diff]5t proportions1 is r m subtle ?an t ( ,emp$ocles1 & x is possible to see 9 x a curi\s anticipation ( c]ta9 features 9 mod]n *emi/ry4 ,anaxagoras too felt x necess>y to assume a =ce or s\rce ( motion1 b he ?\ght t "o w\ld suffice to acc\nt = ! rotation 7 p]i*rsis7 to :i* he attribut$ ! =mation ( ! _w4 ,he call$ t =ce ,m9d 7 n\s71 b 8 own description ( x %[s t he reg>d$ x z corporeal1 ?\gh he ?\ght x 0 some?+ m t5u\s & unmix$ ?an o!r bodies4 ,!re is little d\bt t he select$ ! t]m 9 ord] to m>k ! id5tity ( ! s\rce ( motion 9 ! _w ) t 9 ! animal organism4 ,t aga9 is 9 accordance ) ! sci5tific int]e/s ( ! "t4 ,9 8 a/ronomical !ories1 h[ev]1 ,anaxagoras %[$ himself a true ea/]n ,ionian1 & lagg$ f> beh9d ! ,py?agoreans4 ,= him1 z = ! ,ionians ( ! ,aegean d[n to & includ+ ,democritus1 ! e>? 0 flat1 & ! eddy or vortex :i* gave rise to ! _w 0 /ill rotation 9 a plane4 ,a m satisfy+ answ] to ,p>m5ides 0 ! doctr9e ( ,atomism1 :i* frankly accept$ ! exi/5ce ( space1 & ass]t$ t x 0 j z real z body4 ,! fir/ h9t ( su* a solution 0 giv5 by ,melissus 7c4 #ddd ,b4 ,c471 :o 0 a ,samian b a memb] ( ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,he said1 ',if ?+s are a _m1 !n ea* ( !m mu/ be su* z ,i h %[n ! ,"o to be4' ,t 0 meant z a r$uctio ad absurdum2 b1 :5 ,leucippus ( ,miletus 7c4 #ddj ,b4 ,c471 :o _h also /udi$ 9 ! s*ool ( ,elea1 v5tur$ to ass]t ! exi/5ce ( ! ,void1 !re 0 no long] any reason = %irk+ ! conclusion :i* ,melissus _h /at$ only to %[ its impossibility4 ,! atoms are1 9 fact1 j ! cont9u\s indivisible ,"o ( ,p>m5ides multipli$ ad inf9itum 9 an inf9ite empty space4 ,on t side at lea/1 ! !ory ( body 0 n[ complete1 & ! "q ask$ by ,?ales 0 answ]$1 & x is ( great int]e/ to obs]ve t ?is 0 br\ght ab\t by ! r5ewal ( int]c\rse betwe5 ! ,ionians ( ,italy & ^? ( ! ,aegean1 a r5ewal :i* 0 made possible by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,a!nian ,empire4 ,no?+ makes u feel ! hi/orical connexion m vividly ?an ! re-em]g5ce ( ! names ( ,miletus & ,samos aft] all ^! ye>s4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 c]ta9 m fundam5tal problems :i* ,atomism c\ld n solve1 & :i* 7 fir/ attack$ at ,a!ns itself4 ,s f>1 x w be not$1 ,a!ns has play$ no "p at all 9 our /ory1 & 9 fact no m ?an two ,a!nians ev] became philosoph]s ( ! fir/ rank4 ,x is true t !y 7 call$ ,socrates & ,plato1 s ! exception is a consid]able "o4 ,x 0 ! f\ndation ( ! ,a!nian ,empire t made ,a!ns ! natural meet+-place ( ! mo/ div]se philosophical & sci5tific views4 ,x 0 "h t ! ea/ & we/ ( ,hellas came toge!r1 & t ! two /reams ( tradition became "o1 ) ! result t a new tradition 0 />t$ :i*1 ?\gh (t5 int]rupt$ = a "t1 cont9ues to ! pres5t day4 ,if we wi% to und]/& ! developm5t ( ,greek philosophy1 x is ( ! fir/ importance t we %\ld realize ! intellectual f]m5t :i* exi/$ at ,a!ns 9 ! great days ( ! ,p]iclean age4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ already t ,anaxagoras ( ,clazom5ae _h settl$ !re1 & x 0 n long be=e 8 example 0 foll[$ by o!rs4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,z5o ( ,elea 7c4 #dej ,b4 ,c471 ! fav\rite disciple ( ,p>m5ides1 _h a consid]able foll[+ at ,a!ns4 ,he made x 8 bus9ess to *ampion ! doctr9e ( 8 ma/] by %[+ t ^? :o refus$ to accept x 7 oblig$ to give _! ass5t to views :i* 7 at lea/ z repugnant to common s5se1 & 9 ?is way he incid5tally did mu* = ma!matics & philosophy by rais+ ! difficulties ( inf9ite divisibility & cont9uity 9 an acute =m4 ,all t is some?+ q ap>t f ! influ5ce ( ! 'sophi/s' at a r lat] date1 ?\gh !y too came bo? f ! ea/ & f ! we/1 & ?\gh !y _h be5 influ5c$ by ! m /rictly philosophical s*ools ( ^! regions4 ,x 0 into ?is ,a!ns t ,socrates 0 born 7#dgj ,b4 ,c47 ab\t t5 ye>s aft] ! battle ( ,salamis1 & he 0 naturally expos$ to all ^! conflict+ influ5ces1 ( :i* ,plato has giv5 u a vivid description 9 ! ,pha$o1 f 8 e>lie/ y\?4 ,he _c1 9 fact1 be und]/ood at all unless ?is hi/orical backgr\nd is kept con/antly 9 view4 ,!re c be no reasonable d\bt t at a v e>ly age he atta*$ himself to ,ar*elaus1 an ,a!nian :o _h succe$$ ,anaxagoras1 :5 t philosoph] _h to leave ,a!ns = ,lampsacus4 ,ion ( ,*ios1 a contempor>y witness1 said t ,socrates _h visit$ ,asia ,m9or ) ,ar*elaus1 & t appe>s to ref] to ! siege ( ,samos1 :5 ,socrates 0 "u ?irty4 ,!re is no reason :atev] to d\bt ! /atem5t1 :i* ,plato makes m ?an once1 t he _h met ,p>m5ides & ,z5o at a /ill e>li] date4 ,at any rate1 ! influ5ce ( ,z5o on ! dialectic ( ,socrates is unmi/akable4 ,we may also take x t he 0 famili> ) all sorts ( ,orphic & ,py?agorean sect>ies4 ,aes*9es ( ,sphettos wrote a dialogue entitl$ ,telauges1 9 :i* he repres5t$ ,socrates z rally+ ! extreme asceticism ( ! /rict foll[]s ( ,py?agoras4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 z we c =m a picture ( him = ourselves1 he 0 n ! sort ( man to become ! disciple ( any "o4 ,he 0 a g5u9e ,a!nian 9 respect ( :at is call$ 8 'irony'1 :i* implies a c]ta9 humor\s res]ve :i* kept him f all extravagances1 h[ev] int]e/$ he might be 9 ! extravagances ( o!rs4 ,nev]!less1 :ile /ill q a "y man1 he _h someh[ acquir$ a reputation = 'wisdom'1 ?\gh he himself disclaim$ any?+ ( ! sort4 ,he _h also1 x appe>s1 ga!r$ r\nd him a circle ( 'associates' 7 hetairoi74 ,! only direct evid5ce we h = ^! e>ly days is ! ,cl\ds ( ,ari/ophanes 7#dbc ,b4 ,c471 :i* is ( c\rse a com$y & mu/ n be tak5 too lit]ally4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a comic poet :o knew 8 bus9ess 7& surely ,ari/ophanes did7 c\ld h>dly pres5t a well-kn[n man to ! ,a!nian public 9 a mann] :i* _h no relation to fact at all4 ,x is =tunate t !re is a passage 9 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia 7i4 #f7 :i* seems to supply u ) ! v backgr\nd we ne$ to make ! ,cl\ds intelligible4 ,x repres5ts ,socrates 9 an entirely diff]5t light f t 9 :i* he appe>s 9 ! re/ ( ! "w1 & x c h>dly be ,x5ophon's own inv5tion4 ,x seems to ref] to a "t :5 ,plato & ,x5ophon 7 babies1 if n to a "t be=e !y 7 born1 & x is probable t x comes f "s lit]>y s\rce :i* we c no long] trace4 ,we are told1 !n1 t ,antiphon ! sophi/ 0 try+ to deta* 8 companions 7 syn\sia/ai7 f ,socrates1 & a conv]sation foll[$ 9 :i* he *>g$ him ) tea*+ 8 foll[]s to be mis]able r ?an happy1 & add$ t he 0 "r n to *>ge a fee = 8 tea*+1 s9ce 9 fact x 0 ( no value4 ,x w be se5 t ?is implies a regul> relation betwe5 ,socrates & 8 foll[]s :i* 0 suffici5tly well kn[n to ar\se pr(essional jeal\sy4 ,socrates does n attempt to d5y ! fact4 ,he says t :at he & 8 companions d is to sp5d _! "t toge!r 9 /udy+ ! wisdom ( ! m5 ( old :i* !y h left beh9d !m 9 books1 & t1 if !y come ^u any?+ :i* !y ?9k is good1 !y extract x = _! own use1 & c\nt x great ga9 if1 9 do+ ?is1 !y become fri5ds to "o ano!r4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is sugge/s some?+ q diff]5t f ! curr5t view ( ,socrates z a talk] at /reet corn]s1 some?+ mu* m l a regul> s*ool1 & t1 s f> z x goes1 x expla9s ! burlesque ( ,ari/ophanes4 ,! ,socrates ( :om we "k mo/ is1 h[ev]1 q diff]5tly engag$4 ,he has devot$ 8 life to a mission to 8 fell[ m51 & especially to 8 fell[ citiz5s4 ,if we may s f> tru/ ,plato's ,apology1 ! occasion ( t 0 ! answ] receiv$ f ! ,delphic oracle by ,*a]ephon1 :om we "k f ,ari/ophanes z "o ( ! lead+ disciples ( ,socrates 9 ! e>li] "p ( 8 life4 ,*a]ephon ask$ ! god ( ,delphi :e!r !re 0 any "o wis] ?an ,socrates1 & ?is ( c\rse implies t ,socrates _h a reputation = 'wisdom' be=e 8 mission began4 ,! oracle decl>$ t !re 0 no "o wis]1 & ,plato makes ,socrates say 9 ! ,apology t ?is 0 ! real beg9n+ ( t mission4 ,he set out at fir/ to prove t ! oracle 0 wrong1 & = t purpose he tri$ to discov] "s "o wis] ?an himself1 a se>* 9 :i* he 0 disappo9t$1 s9ce he c\ld only f9d p :o ?\ght !y 7 wise1 & no "o :o really 0 s4 ,he !re=e conclud$ t :at ! oracle really meant 0 t ,socrates 0 wis] ?an o!r p 9 "o respect only4 ,nei!r he nor any "o else 0 really 'wise'1 b ,socrates 0 wis] ?an ! re/ because he knew he 0 n wise & !y ?\ght !y 74 ,x ought to be cle> t ?is is mo/ly 'irony'1 & x is n to be suppos$ t ,socrates atta*$ undue importance to ! oracle1 :i* he speaks ( q lightly1 b he c\ld h>dly h told ! /ory at all unless x 0 g5]ally kn[n t 8 mission did 9 fact date r\ghly f t p]iod ( 8 life4 ,hi/orically x w\ld probably be tru] to say t ! outbreak ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>1 9 :i* ,socrates s]v$ ) great di/9ction z a hoplite1 m>k$ ! decisive turn+-po9t4 ,x 0 9 ! camp at ,potidaea t he once /ood 9 a trance = tw5ty-f\r h\rs 7#dca ,b4 ,c471 & t seems to po9t to "s great psy*ological *ange1 :i* may v well h be5 occasion$ or accel]at$ by 8 exp]i5ces 9 ! w>4 ,at any rate we n[ f9d him entirely devot$ to ! conv]sion ( 8 fell[ citiz5s1 & we mu/ try to und]/& :at ! message he _h = !m 04 ,9 ! ,apology ,socrates decl>es t 8 mission 0 div9ely impos$ ^u him1 s t he d>e n neglect x1 ev5 if x %\ld lead to 8 dea?1 z 9 fact x did4 ,! tone "h is q diff]5t f ! half-humor\s /yle 9 :i* he deals ) ! ,delphic oracle1 & ev5 ! 'div9e sign'4 ,t only w>n$ him n to d ?+s1 mo/ly q trivial ?+s1 :i* he 0 ab\t to d1 & nev] told him to d any?+2 ?is1 on ! contr>y1 0 a positive comm&1 laid ^u him by ,god1 & !re c be no d\bt t ,plato means u to und]/& ?is to h be5 ! inn]mo/ conviction ( ,socrates4 ,x is h>d to believe t ,plato c\ld h misrepres5t$ 8 ma/]'s attitude on su* a po9t4 ,he 0 pres5t at ! trial1 & ! ,apology mu/ h be5 writt5 n v long aft]w>ds1 :5 ! memory ( x 0 /ill fre% 9 p's m9ds4 ,n[ ,plato tells u q cle>ly t :at ,socrates tri$ to get ! ,a!nians to und]/& 0 ! duty ( 'c>+ = _! s\ls' 7 psy*s epimeleio74 ,t is confirm$ f o!r s\rces1 & inde$ x is g5]ally admitt$4 ,! phrase has1 h[ev]1 become s famili> t x does n at once /rike u z any?+ v new or important4 ,to an ,a!nian ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ h seem$ v /range inde$4 ,! ^w translat$ 's\l' 7 psy*7 occurs (t5 en\gh1 no d\bt1 9 ! lit]ature ( ! p]iod1 b x is nev] us$ ( any?+ = :i* we c\ld be call$ ^u to 'c>e' 9 ! s5se evid5tly int5d$ by ,socrates4 ,its normal use is to d5ote ! brea? ( life1 ! 'gho/' a man 'gives up' at ! mom5t ( dea?4 ,x c !re=e be r5d]$ by 'life' 9 all cases :]e !re is a "q ( risk+ or los+ life or ( cl++ to x :5 we ought to be prep>$ to sacrifice x1 b x is n us$ = ! seat ( consci\s life at all4 ,x is sometimes employ$ to signify ! seat ( ! dream-consci\sness or ( :at is n[ call$ ! subconsci\s or sublim9al self1 b nev] ( ! ord9>y wak+ consci\sness :i* is ! seat ( k & ignorance1 goodness & badness4#b ,on ! o!r h&1 t use ( ! ^w is q common 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 & x may be inf]r$ t ?is *ange 0 due to ,socrates4 ,m ?an once ,ari/ophanes ridicules him = hold+ "s /range view ( ! 's\l'1 & ^! je/s 7 made at a "t :5 ,plato 0 only a *ild4 ,we _c1 ( c\rse1 expect to get any v def9ite idea f !m z to ! real tea*+ ( ,socrates on ?is subject1 b x is n impossible to see :at x 01 if we take into acc\nt ! views ( ! s\l :i* _h be5 held by ! philosophical s*ools ( ea/]n & we/]n ,ionia4 #b ,see my pap] on ',! ,socratic ,doctr9e ( ! ,s\l'4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,briti% ,academy1 #aiae-af1 pp4 #bce sqq4 ,! ,ionians ( ,asia ,m9or _h c]ta9ly id5tifi$ ! s\l ) t 9 u :i* is consci\s1 & :i* is ! seat ( goodness & badness1 wisdom & folly2 b !y did n reg>d x z :at we call ! self or treat x z an individual4 ,anaxim5es & 8 s*ool held t ! s\l 0 :at !y call$ ,air1 b t 0 j because !y reg>d$ ,air z ! prim>y sub/ance ( :i* all ?+s are made4 ,! s\l 0 some?+1 9 fact1 t comes to u f outside 7 ?yra!n7 by means ( respiration4 ,z ,diog5es ( ,apollonia expresses x1 x is 'a small portion ( ! god'1 t is1 ( ! prim>y sub/ance1 enclos$ 9 a human body = a "t1 & return+ at dea? to ! l>g] mass ( ! same sub/ance outside4 ,! =mula ',e>? to e>? & air to air' 0 accept$ z an adequate description ( :at takes place at dea?4 ,! we/]n ,ionians1 & especially ! ,py?agoreans1 held a v diff]5t view4 ,= !m1 ! s\l 0 some?+ div9e4 ,x 01 9 fact1 a fall5 god1 imprison$ 9 ! body z a puni%m5t = ant5atal s91 & x des]v$ our c>e 9 ?is s5se1 t x 0 our *ief bus9ess 9 life to purify x s z to secure its release f ! necessity ( re9c>nation 9 ano!r body4 ,b1 dur+ ?is pres5t life1 !y held t ?is div9e elem5t slumb]s1 except 9 prophetic dreams4 ,z ,p9d> puts x1 ',x sleeps :5 ! limbs are active4' ,nei!r ( ^! views 0 famili> to ! ord9>y ,a!nian1 b ,socrates ( c\rse knew bo? well1 & felt satisfi$ ) nei!r4 ,:5 he spoke ( ! s\l he did n mean any my/]i\s fall5 god :i* 0 ! tempor>y t5ant ( ! body1 b ! consci\s self :i* x lies ) u to try to make wise & good4 ,on ! o!r h&1 8 insi/5ce on our duty to 'c>e =' x is q inconsi/5t ) ! view t x is m]ely some?+ extr9sic1 z all ! ea/]n ,ionians d[n to ,anaxagoras _h taught4 ,x is1 on ! contr>y1 our v self1 ! ?+ 9 u :i* is ( m importance to u ?an any?+ else :atev]4 ,x 0 to ?is doctr9e ( ! s\l & our duty to x t ,socrates felt he mu/ conv]t mank9d & especially 8 fell[-citiz5s4 ,x 0 a /range & novel doctr9e !n2 &1 if x has become a commonplace s9ce1 t only %[s t he 0 successful1 if n 9 p]suad+ 8 fell[m5 to act on ?is k1 at lea/ 9 mak+ !m aw>e ( x4 ,x 0 9 ?is way t ,socrates heal$ ! rift betwe5 sci5ce & religion :i* _h prov$ fatal to ! ,py?agorean society1 & x may be sugge/$ t ! significance ( 8 tea*+ is n exhau/$ yet4 ,z has be5 indicat$ above x is to be f\nd cle>ly /at$ 9 ,plato's ,apology ( ,socrates1 & x furni%es ! only clue to a "r und]/&+ ( ! great s]ies ( ,platonic dialogues d[n to & includ+ ! ,republic 9 :i* ,socrates is repres5t$ z ! *ief speak]4 ,:e!r ,plato add$ mu* or little ( 8 own to ! doctr9e ( 8 ma/] 9 ^! dialogues is an int]e/+ hi/orical problem1 b x ne$ n conc]n ! ord9>y read]1 at lea/ 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,we "k f ! allusions ( ,ari/ophanes t ,socrates himself taught a new doctr9e ( ! s\l :5 ,plato 0 a *ild1 & no sympa!tic read] c fail to see t ! passage ( ! ,apology to :i* we h ref]r$ is int5d$ to be a fai?ful acc\nt ( t doctr9e4 ,all ! re/ is simply its legitimate developm5t1 & x is n ( v great importance = u to det]m9e :e!r t developm5t is due to ,socrates or to ,plato4 ,! inspiration :i* has be5 d]iv$ f ^! writ+s by _m g5]ations w n be less5$ by any decision we may come to on ?is po9t1 s long z we keep cle>ly 9 m9d t ! new doctr9e ( s\l is _! pr9cipal !me1 & t ?is mu/ be und]/ood 9 ! light ( ! doctr9es :i* _h prep>$ ! way = x4 ,:at ,socrates did 0 really ?is4 ,he deep5$ ! mean+ ( ! ,ea/]n ,ionian doctr9e by in=m+ x ) "s ( ! feel+ & emotion :i* _h *>act]iz$ ! ,py?agorean tea*+ on ! subject1 :ile on ! o!r h& he rationaliz$ ! ,py?agorean !ory by id5tify+ ! s\l ) our consci\s p]sonality4 ,n[ if ?is is a correct acc\nt ( :at ,socrates taught1 he mu/ be reg>d$ z inaugurat+ an entirely new p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,t is impli$ 9 ! common t]m ',presocratics' g5]ally appli$ to 8 pr$ecessors1 ?\gh ! ord9>y textbooks are by no means cle> z to ! gr\nds = assign+ ?is pre-em95t position to ,socrates4 ,we c also see h[ natural x 0 = him to lay su* emphasis on ! conv]sion ( s\ls z he c]ta9ly did4 ,t purpose cont9u$ to dom9ate ,greek philosophy to ! v end4 ,no d\bt successive s*ools v>i$ 9 _! conception ( :at conv]sion meant1 b t is ! l9k :i* b9ds !m all toge!r4 ,9 fact1 x gave rise to a new lit]>y =m1 ! 'hortatory disc\rse' 7 protreptikos logos71 :i* 0 m & m cultivat$ z "t w5t on1 & 0 at la/ tak5 ov] by ! fa!rs ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur* along ) mu* else ( a m fundam5tal "*4 ,x has be5 not$ already t ,socrates _h foll[]s among all ! lead+ philosophical s*ools ( ! "t1 & ! possibility is n to be exclud$ t we may /ill le>n m ( him f ! discov]y ( new s\rces4 ,= ! pres5t1 ! recov]y ( "s new & fairly ext5sive fragm5ts ( ! ,alcibiades ( ,aes*9es ( ,sphettos is ! *ief addition to our s\rces ( in=mation4 ,we "k t ,aes*9es 0 a disciple ( ,socrates1 & ! tradition ( antiquity 0 t 8 dialogues gave ! mo/ fai?ful picture ( ! man z he really 04 ,if s1 t 0 probably because ,aes*9es _h no philosophy ( 8 own4 ,= u ! *ief importance ( ! new fragm5ts is t1 if we read !m along ) ^? already kn[n 7& x is un=tunate t ! old & ! new h n yet be5 pr9t$ toge!r71 !y /rongly confirm ! impression we get f ,plato ( ! mann] ( ,socrates & 8 me?od ( argum5t1 & t helps to reassure u z to ! ess5tially hi/orical "* ( ! ,platonic ,socrates4 ,! fragm5ts ( ,aes*9es also corroborate ,plato by %[+ t ! conv]sion ( ,alcibiades 7^: life he _h sav$ :5 a "y man7 0 "o ( ! ?+s t lay ne>e/ 8 he>t4 ,b ! real successor ( ,socrates 01 ( c\rse1 ,plato himself 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c474 ,x is n possible to give ev5 an outl9e ( ,plato's philosophy "h4 ,inde$ ! "t has h>dly come = t yet1 ?\gh mu* admirable "w is n[ be+ done1 especially by a ,fr5* pr(essor1 ,m4 ,rob91 :i* promises m c]ta9 conclusions ?an h yet be5 possible4 ,all t c be attempt$ "h is to indicate ! attitude ( ,plato to "s ( ! problems we h be5 discuss+4 ,8 v great contributions to ! !ory ( k w be pass$ ov]1 z !y are beg9n+ to be well und]/ood1 & ! ,!aetetus 9 p>ticul>1 ) its sequel ! ,sophi/1 is m & m com+ to occupy its rightful place z ! be/ introduction to philosophy 9 g5]al4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 j to notice 9 pass+ a fundam5tal "q ( me?od :i* ! ,platonic dialogues !mselves sugge/4 ,x is ?is4 ,:ile ,socrates is pres5t 9 e "o ( !m except ! ,laws1 he takes practically no "p 9 "s ( !m1 & ! dialogues 9 :i* ?is is ! case are kn[n on o!r gr\nds to belong to ! lat] ye>s ( ,plato's life4 ,!re mu/ be "s reason = ?is1 & x is obvi\sly prud5t to treat ^! lat] dialogues 9 ! fir/ in/ance z our prim>y evid5ce = ,plato's own views4 ,inde$1 x is only aft] 8 philosophy has be5 recon/ruct$ f ^! s\rces & f ! sometimes obscure ref]5ces to x 9 ,ari/otle1 t x w be safe to attempt an answ] to ! "q ( h[ mu* !re may be 9 ! dialogues ( 8 e>ly life :i* is prop]ly to be assign$ to ,plato himself r ?an to ,socrates4 ,t is a hi/orical "q ( great int]e/2 b1 z has be5 said1 ! solution ( x1 if t %\ld ev] prove possible1 w\ld n greatly affect ! impression t ,a!nian philosophy leaves ^u u z a :ole4 ,n[1 if we consid] ,plato's lat]1 & presumably !re=e mo/ indep5d5t writ+s1 we f9d1 j z we %\ld expect f a disciple ( ,socrates1 t ! doctr9e ( s\l holds ! fir/ place1 b t x has c]ta9 features ( its own :i* !re is no suffici5t gr\nd = attribut+ to ,socrates4 ,we are too apt to ?9k ( ,plato z ma9ly occupi$ ) :at is call$ ! '!ory ( ,ideas'1 a !ory :i* is discuss$ once or twice 9 8 e>li] dialogues1 & :i* is !re ascrib$ to ,socrates1 b :i* plays no "p at all 9 8 mature works4 ,!re ! *ief place is und\bt$ly tak5 by ! doctr9e ( ! s\l1 & we c see t x is ( ! fir/ importance = ,plato4 ,s\l is reg>d$ z ! s\rce ( all motion 9 ! _w1 because x is ! only ?+ 9 ! _w t moves )\t be+ itself mov$ by any?+ else4 ,x is ?is & ?is alone t enables ,plato to acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( ! _w & ( mank9d1 & to avoid ! !ory ( 'two worlds' into :i*1 z he po9ts out 9 ! ,sophi/1 '! fri5ds ( ! ,ideas'1 :oev] !y may h be51 7 only too apt to fall4 ,9 ,plato ?is view ( ! s\l culm9ates 9 !ology ( a k9d :i* he n[h]e attributes to ,socrates4 ,he repres5ts him1 inde$1 z a man ( a deeply religi\s nature1 b we d n ga!r t he _h felt ! ne$ ( a =mal doctr9e ( ,god4 ,plato1 on ! o!r h&1 has left u ! fir/ sy/ematic def5ce ( ,!ism we "k (1 & x is bas$ entirely on 8 doctr9e ( s\l z ! self-mov$ mov]4 ,b ! highe/ s\l1 or ,god1 is n only ! ultimate s\rce ( motion1 b also supremely good4 ,n[1 s9ce !re are _m ?+s 9 ! _w :i* are n good1 & s9ce x w\ld be blasphemy to attribute ^! to ,god1 !re mu/ be o!r s\ls 9 ! _w :i* are relatively at lea/ indep5d5t4 ,god is n1 directly at lea/1 ! cause ( all ?+s1 b x is n easy to discov] ! relation 9 :i* ^! o!r s\ls are ?\ght ( z /&+ to ,god4 ,9 ! ,timaeus1 ! matt] is put 9 ?is way4 ,! s\l ( ! _w1 & all o!r s\ls human & div9e1 are ! "w ( ! ,creator1 :o is id5tifi$ ) ,god1 & !y are n inh]5tly inde/ructible1 s9ce any?+ t has be5 made c be unmade4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 practically inde/ructible1 s9ce ,god made all ?+s because ,he 0 good & wi%$ !m also to be z good z possible4 ,8 goodness1 !re=e1 w n suff] ,him to de/roy :at ,he has once made4 ,t ( c\rse is my?ically express$1 & ,plato is n committ$ to x z a /atem5t ( 8 own belief1 s9ce x is only ! acc\nt :i* ,timaeus puts into ! m\? ( ! ,creator4 ,we c see1 h[ev]1 :at 0 ! problem ) :i* he 0 occupi$1 & x is n p]haps illegitimate to inf] t he approa*$ ! "q :i* /ill baffles speculation f ! po9t ( view t ,god's omnipot5ce1 z we %\ld call x1 is limit$ by 8 goodness4 ,?is is a mu* m important limitation ?an t impos$ by ! exi/5ce ( matt]1 to :i* ,timaeus also ref]s4 ,9 t1 he is simply foll[+ ! tradition ( ! ,py?agorean society to :i* he belong$1 z is %[n by 8 id5tification ( matt] ) space1 or r ) 'room'4 ,s f> z c be se5 at pres5t1 we are n entitl$ to ascribe ?is view to ,plato )\t m ado1 b t is a po9t on :i* ! la/ ^w has n yet be5 said4 ,! description ( ! creation giv5 by ,timaeus is ( c\rse to be reg>d$ z my?ical 9 its details1 b x has features f :i* we may le>n a good deal z to ! direction tak5 by ,plato's ?\ghts ab\t ! _w4 ,9 p>ticul>1 :ile ! important "p play$ by geometry is q intelligible 9 ! m\? ( a ,py?agorean1 he makes use ( c]ta9 !ories :i* we "k to belong to ! mo/ rec5t ma!matics ( ! day1 9 p>ticul> ! complete doctr9e ( ! five regul> solids1 :i* 0 due to ,!aetetus1 :o 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ memb]s ( ! ,academy1 & :om ,plato repres5ts z hav+ made ! acqua9tance ( ,socrates j be=e ! ma/]'s dea?4 ,!aetetus di$ "y1 b we "k en\gh ( him to feel sure t he 0 "o ( ! few great orig9al ma!maticians :o h appe>$ 9 hi/ory4 ,9 ! ,timaeus ! !ory ( ! regul> solids is us$ to get rid once m ( ! doctr9e ( f\r ultimate 'elem5ts'4 ,^!1 ,timaeus says1 are s f> f be+ elem5ts or lett]s ( ! alphabet1 t !y are n ev5 syllables4 ,! way 9 :i* ! s-call$ elem5ts are built up out ( molecules correspond+ 9 _! configuration to ! regul> solids1 & ! explanations ( _! transmutation into "o ano!r bas$ on ! geometrical con/ruction ( ^! figures1 is apt to /rike ! av]age read] z fanta/ic1 b "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ liv+ ma!maticians & physici/s has /at$ t he is /ruck mo/ ( all by _! resemblance to ! sci5tific !ories ( ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 to avoid ha/y judgem5ts on ?is po9t4 ,x is at any rate easy to und]/& h[ ! /udy ( ma!matics came to hold ! prepond]at+ place x did 9 ! ,platonic ,academy4 ,9 accordance ) ! plan ( ?is pap]1 some?+ mu/ n[ be said ( ,plato's attitude to ! practical life1 a po9t on :i* x is v easy to make mi/akes4 ,no "o has insi/$ m /rongly ?an he has on ! primacy ( ! ,!oretic ,life4 ,! philosoph] is ! man :o is 9 love ) ! spectacle ( all "t & all exi/5ce & t is :at deliv]s him f petty ambitions & l[ desires4 ,he has made ! toilsome asc5t out ( ! ,cave 9 :i* ! mass ( m5 dwell1 & 9 :i* !y only behold ! %ad[s ( reality4 ,b1 ev5 9 ?is en?usia/ic description ( ! philosophic life1 an equal /ress is laid on ! duty ( philosoph] to desc5d into ! ,cave 9 turn & to rescue z _m ( _! =m] fell[-prison]s z may be1 ev5 aga9/ _! w1 by turn+ !m to ! light & dragg+ !m up into ! _w ( tru? & reality4 ,x is q easy to und]/&1 9 view ( ?is1 t ,plato devot$ "s ( ! be/ ye>s ( 8 life to practical affairs & t he rel9qui%$ ! /udies ( ! ,academy = a "t 9 ord] to direct ! education ( ,dionysius ,,ii4 ,! ?+ appe>$ well wor? do+2 = ,greek civilization 9 ,sicily1 & consequ5tly1 z we c n[ see1 ! civilization ( we/]n ,europe1 0 s]i\sly ?reat5$ by ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,!y _h be5 held at bay by ,dionysius ,i1 b aft] 8 dea? ev]y?+ dep5d$ on 8 successor4 ,n[ ! education ( ,dionysius ,,ii _h be5 completely neglect$1 b he _h good natural abilities1 & 8 uncle ,dion1 :o 0 ,plato's fri5d1 0 ready to answ] = 8 good int5tions4 ,plato c\ld n turn a deaf e> to su* a call4 ,un=tunately ,dionysius 0 va9 & ob/9ate1 & he soon became impati5t ( ! s]i\s /udies :i* ,plato rightly reg>d$ z necess>y to prep>e him = 8 task4 ,! result 0 a gr[+ e/rangem5t betwe5 ,plato & 8 pupil1 :i* made x impossible to hope = a successful issue to ! plans ( ,dion4 ,x is unnecess>y to tell ! :ole /ory "h1 b x is "r to say t !re 0 no?+ at all impracticable 9 :at ,plato und]took1 & t he 0 c]ta9ly ju/ifi$ 9 hold+ t ! education ( ,dionysius mu/ be complet$ be=e x w\ld be safe to entru/ him ) ! *ampion%ip ( ! cause ( ,hell5ism 9 ! we/4 ,8 failure to make any?+ ( ,dionysius did n lead ,plato to ab&on 8 ef=ts to heal ! w\nds ( ,hell5ism4 ,"o ( ! /udies mo/ ard5tly pursu$ 9 ! ,academy 0 ,jurisprud5ce1 ( :i* he is ! real f\nd]4 ,x 0 n uncommon = ,greek /ates to apply to ! ,academy = legislators to codify exi/+ law or to frame a new code = colonies :i* _h j be5 f\nd$4 ,t is ! real explanation ( ! rem>kable "w entitl$ ! ,laws1 :i* mu/ h occupi$ ,plato = _m ye>s1 & :i* 0 probably begun :ile he 0 /ill direct+ ! /udies ( ,dionysius4 ,x appe>s to h be5 left unf9i%$2 =1 :ile "s p>ts ( x are highly elaborat$1 !re are o!rs :i* make ^u u ! impression ( be+ a fir/ draft4 ,ev5 s1 x is a great "w if we reg>d x f ! prop] po9t ( view4 ,x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 a codification ( ,greek1 & especially ,a!nian law1 ( c\rse ) ^? re=ms & improvem5ts :i* sugge/ !mselves :5 ! subject is sy/ematically treat$1 & x =m$ ! basis ( ,hell5i/ic1 & ?r\gh t ( ,roman law1 to :i* ! _w owes s mu*4 ,!re is no m useful corrective ( ! popul> notion ( ,plato z an unpractical vision>y ?an ! c>eful /udy ( ! dulle/ & mo/ te*nical p>ts ( ! ,laws 9 ! light ( ! ,in/itutes4 ,no attempt has be5 made "h to describe ! sy/em ( ,plato z a :ole1 & inde$ ! "t has n yet come :5 su* an attempt c pr(itably be made4 ,we h no direct k ( 8 tea*+ 9 ! ,academy2 = we only possess ! works :i* he wrote ) a wid] public 9 view4 ,9 ! case ( ,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb ,b4 ,c471 a simil> res]vation mu/ be made1 ?\gh = j ! opposite reason4 ,we h only fragm5ts ( 8 publi%$ works & :at we possess is ma9ly ! gr\ndwork ( 8 lectures 9 ! ,lyceum4 ,x w be se5 t !re is /ill v mu* to be done "h too4 ,f ! nature ( ! case1 notes = lectures take a great deal = grant$ t w\ld be m fully expla9$ :5 ! lectures 7 deliv]$1 & "s ( ! mo/ important po9ts are h>dly develop$ at all4 ,nev]!less !re are c]ta9 ?+s :i* come out cle>ly en\gh1 & x s happ5s t !y are po9ts ( great importance f :i* we c le>n some?+ ) reg>d to ! philosophical problems ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is desirable to po9t out t ,ari/otle 0 n an ,a!nian1 b an ,ionian f ! nor!rn ,aegean1 & t he 0 /rongly influ5c$ by ea/]n ,ionian sci5ce1 especially by ! sy/em ( ,democritus 7:i* ,plato does n appe> to h kn[n7 & by ! m$ical !ories ( ! "t4 ,t is :y he is s unsympa!tic to ! we/]n s*ools ( philosophy1 & especially to ! ,py?agoreans & ! ,eleatics4 ,emp$ocles alone1 :o 0 a biologi/ l himself1 & ! f\nd] ( a m$ical s*ool1 f9ds fav\r 9 8 eyes4 ,he is n1 !re=e1 at home 9 ma!matical matt]s & 8 sy/em ( ,physics c only be reg>d$ z retrograde :5 we comp>e x ) t ( ! ,academy4 ,he did inde$ accept ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s sph]icity1 b ) t exception 8 cosmological views mu/ be call$ reaction>y4 ,:]e he is really great is 9 biology1 a field ( rese>* :i* 0 n entirely neglect$ by ! ,academy1 b :i* _h be5 treat$ z second>y 9 comp>ison ) ma!matics & a/ronomy4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ,plato & ,ari/otle 9 ?is respect seems to repeat on a high] plane t betwe5 ,py?agoras & ,emp$ocles1 & ?is sugge/s some?+ l a law ( philosophical developm5t :i* may p]haps ?r[ light on ! pres5t situation4 ,x seems z if ?is alt]nation ( ! ma!matical & ! biological int]e/ 0 fundam5tal 9 ! developm5t ( sci5tific ?\ght & t ! philosophy ( diff]5t p]iods takes its col\r f x4 ,! philosophy ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 dom9at$ 9 ! ma9 by biological conceptions1 :ile x seems z if t ( ! tw5tie? 0 to be *iefly ma!matical 9 its outlook on ! _w4 ,we mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 make too mu* ( su* =mulas1 b x is in/ructive to /udy su* alt]nations 9 ! philosophy ( ! ,greeks1 :]e ev]y?+ is simpl] & m easily appreh5d$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,ari/otle _h be5 a memb] ( ! ,academy = tw5ty ye>s1 & t c\ld n fail to leave its m>k ^u him4 ,?is no d\bt expla9s ! fact1 :i* has (t5 be5 not$1 t !re are two opposite & inconsi/5t /ra9s 9 all ,ari/otle's ?9k+4 ,on ! "o h&1 he is det]m9$ to avoid ev]y?+ 'transc5d5tal'1 & 8 dislike ( ,py?agorean & ,platoni/ ma!matics is ma9ly due to t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 despite 8 capti\s & sometimes unfair criticisms ( ,plato1 he evid5tly admir$ him greatly & _h be5 mu* influ5c$ by him4 ,x may be sugge/$ t ! tone ( 8 criticisms is p>tly due to 8 annoyance at f9d+ t he c\ld n %ake (f 8 ,platonism1 d :at he w\ld4 ,?is is borne out by ! fact t1 :5 he has come to ! fur!/ po9t to :i* 8 own sy/em w take him1 he is apt to take refuge 9 metaphors ( a my?ical or 'transc5d5tal' "*1 = :i* we are n prep>$ 9 any way & ( :i* no explanation is v\*saf$ u4 ,t is p>ticul>ly ! case :5 he is deal+ ) ! s\l & ! fir/ mov]4 ,on ! :ole 8 acc\nt ( ! s\l is simply a developm5t ( ea/]n ,ionian !ories1 & we feel t we are f> remov$ inde$ f ! ,platoni/ conception ( ! s\l's priority to ev]y?+ else4 ,b1 :5 he has told u t ! highe/ & mo/ develop$ =m ( s\l is ,m9d1 we are sudd5ly surpris$ by ! /atem5t t ,m9d 9 ?is s5se is m]ely passive1 :ile !re is ano!r =m ( x :i* is sep>able f matt]1 & t alone is immortal & ev]la/+4 ,?is has giv5 rise to endless controv]sy :i* does n conc]n u "h1 b x seems be/ to int]pret x z an involunt>y outbur/ ( ! ,platonism ,ari/otle c\ld n :olly r5\nce4 ,v simil> is ! passage :]e he tries to expla9 h[ ! fir/ mov]1 ?\gh itself unmov$1 communicates motion to ! _w4 ',x moves x l a ?+ belov$1' he tells u1 & leaves u to make :at we c ( t4 ,& yet we _c help feel+ t1 9 passages l ?is1 we come f> ne>] to ! beliefs ,ari/otle really c>$ ab\t ?an we d any:]e else4 ,at he>t he is a ,platoni/ 9 spite ( himself4 ,ari/otle's attitude to ! practical life is also dep5d5t on ,plato's4 ,9 ! ,t5? ,book ( ! ,e?ics he puts ! claims ( ! ,contemplative ,life ev5 high] ?an ,plato ev] did1 s t ! practical life appe>s to be only ancill>y to x4 ,he does n feel 9 ! same degree z ,plato ! call = ! philosoph] to desc5d once m into ! ,cave = ! sake ( ! prison]s !re1 & altoge!r he seems f> m indiff]5t to ! practical int]e/s ( life4 ,nev]!less he foll[$ ,plato's lead 9 giv+ mu* ( 8 "t to ! /udy ( ,politics & t too ) ! di/9ctly practical aim ( tra9+ legislators4 ,he has (t5 be5 criticiz$ = 8 failure to see t ! days ( ! city-/ate 7 numb]$1 & = ! way 9 :i* he ignores ! rise ( an imp]ial mon>*y 9 ! p]son ( 8 own pupil ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is n q fair4 ,ari/otle _h a heal?y dislike ( pr9ces & c\rts1 & ! city-/ate /ill appeal$ to him z ! normal =m ( political organization4 ,he c\ld n believe t x w\ld ev] be sup]s$$1 & he wi%$ to contribute to its bett] adm9i/ration4 ,he _h1 9 fact1 a mu* m cons]vative outlook ?an ,plato1 :o 0 incl9$ to ?9k ) ,isocrates1 t ! revival ( mon>*y 0 ! only ?+ t c\ld pres]ve ,hell5ism z ?+s 7 !n4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ,ari/otle 0 n himself a citiz5 ( any free /ate1 & t he c\ld h>dly be expect$ to h ! same political in/9cts z ,plato1 :o belong$ by bir? to ! gov]n+ classes ( ,a!ns & _h inh]it$ ! lib]al traditions ( ! ,p]iclean ,age4 ,?is comes out be/ ( all p]haps1 9 ! attitude ( ! two philosoph]s to ! "q ( slav]y4 ,9 ! ,laws1 :i* deals ) exi/+ conditions1 ,plato ( c\rse recognizes ! de facto exi/5ce ( slav]y1 ?\gh he is v s5sible ( its dang]s & makes _m legislative proposals ) a view to _! mitigation4 ,9 ! ,republic1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e !re is no ne$ to tr\ble ab\t exi/+ conditions1 he makes ,socrates picture = u a community 9 :i* !re are app>5tly no slaves at all4 ,ari/otle is also anxi\s to mitigate ! wor/ abuses ( slav]y1 b he ju/ifies ! in/itution z a p]man5t "o by ! consid]ation t b>b>ians are 'slaves by nature' & t x is = _! own int]e/ to be 'liv+ tools'4 ,?is insi/5ce ^u ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 ,greeks & b>b>ians mu/ h seem$ an ana*ronism to _m ( ,ari/otle's contempor>ies & x _h be5 expressly d5\nc$ by ,plato z unsci5tific4 ,! imm$iate effect ( ,ari/otle's rejection ( ,platoni/ ma!matics 0 "o he c]ta9ly nei!r =esaw nor int5d$4 ,x 0 to make a brea* betwe5 philosophy & sci5ce4 ,ma!matical sci5ce1 :e!r ,ari/otle realiz$ x or n1 0 /ill 9 ! vig\r ( its fir/ y\?1 & ma!maticians 7 /irr$ by ! a*ievem5ts ( ! la/ g5]ation to attempt ! solution ( /ill high] problems4 ,if ! ,lyceum turn$ away f !m1 !y 7 q prep>$ to c>ry on ! ,academic tradition by !mselves1 & !y succe$$ = a "t beyond all expectation4 ,! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 01 9 fact1 ! ,gold5 ,age ( ,greek ma!matics1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t ?is 0 due to ! emancipation ( ma!matics f philosophy4 ,if t 7 true1 x w\ld be v important = u to "k x2 b x c1 ,i ?9k1 be %[n t x is n true4 ,! great ma!maticians ( ! ?ird c5tury 7 c]ta9ly c>ry+ on ! tradition ( _! pr$ecessors :o _h be5 philosoph]s z well z ma!maticians1 & x is n to be wond]$ at t !y 7 able to d s = a "t4 ,b ! really /rik+ fact is surely t ,greek ma!matics became /]ile 9 a comp>atively %ort "t1 & t no fur!r advance 0 made till ! days ( ,desc>tes & ,leibniz1 ) :om philosophy & ma!matics once m w5t h& 9 h&4 ,nor 0 ! effect ( ?is divorce on philosophy itself less disa/r\s4 ,!ophra/us cont9u$ ,ari/otle's "w on ,ari/otle's l9es1 & f\nd$ ! sci5ce ( ,botany z 8 pr$ecessor _h f\nd$ t ( ,zoology1 b ! ,p]ipatetic ,s*ool practically di$ out ) him & _h v little influ5ce till ! /udy ( ,ari/otle 0 reviv$ long aft]w>ds by ! ,neoplatoni/s4 ,= ! pres5t1 ! divorce ( sci5ce & philosophy 0 complete4 ,! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans _h bo?1 inde$1 a sci5tific sy/em1 b _! philosophy 0 9 no s5se bas$ ^u x4 ,! attitude ( ,epicurus to sci5ce is p>ticul>ly well m>k$4 ,he took no int]e/ 9 x :atev] z su*1 b he us$ x z an in/rum5t to free m5 f ! religi\s fe> to :i* he attribut$ human unhapp9ess4 ,= t purpose1 ! sci5ce ( ! ,academy1 :i* _h l$ up to a !ology1 0 obvi\sly unsuitable1 &1 l a true ea/]n ,ionian z he 01 ,epicurus h>k$ back to ! atomic !ory ( ,democritus1 add+ to x1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 ?+s :i* really made nons5se ( x1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! !ory ( absolute weight & lightness1 :i* ,ari/otle _h un=tunately taught4 ,! ,/oics too 7 corporeali/s1 & f\nd su* sci5ce z !y requir$ 9 ! sy/em ( ,h]aclitus1 ?\gh !y also adopt$ = polemical purposes mu* ( ,ari/otle's ,logic1 tak+ pa9s1 h[ev]1 to alt] 8 t]m9ology4 ,bo? ^! s*ools1 9 fact1 :ile rema9+ fai?ful to ! idea ( philosophy z conv]sion1 =got t x _h always be5 bas$ on sci5ce 9 its be/ days4 ,x 0 ?is1 no d\bt1 :i* *iefly comm5d$ ,/oicism & ,epicureanism to ! ,romans1 :o 7 nev] really int]e/$ 9 sci5ce4 ,bo? ,/oicism & ,epicureanism made a practical appeal1 ?\gh ( a diff]5t k9d1 & t s]v$ to ga9 cr$it = !m at ,rome4 ,! ,academy :i* ,plato _h f\nd$ /ill cont9u$ to exi/1 ?\gh x 0 div]t$ f its orig9al purpose n m ?an a g5]ation aft] ,plato's dea?4 ,ma!matics1 we h se51 _h made itself indep5d5t1 & ! mo/ press+ necessity ( ! "t 0 c]ta9ly ! criticism ( ! new dogmatism :i* ! ,/oics _h introduc$4 ,t 0 really c>ry+ on "o side ( ,platonism & n ! lea/ important4 ,x is true inde$ t ! ,academy appe>s to u at ?is di/ance ( "t ma9ly z a s*ool ( scepticism1 b we mu/ rememb] t its scepticism 0 direct$ entirely to ! s5sible _w1 z to :i* ! attitude ( ,plato himself 0 n fundam5tally diff]5t4 ,! real sceptics always refus$ to admit t ! ,academics 7 sceptics 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 & x is possible t ! tradition ( ,platonism prop] 0 nev] :olly brok54 ,at any rate1 by ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c41 we beg9 to notice t ,/oicism t5ds to become m & m ,platonic4 ,! /udy ( ,plato's ,timaeus came into fav\r aga91 & ! comm5t>y :i* ,posidonius 7c4 #ajj ,b4 ,c47 wrote ^u x _h great influ5ce on ! developm5t ( philosophy d[n to ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x is ?is p]iod ( eclecticism :i* is reflect$ = u 9 ! philosophical writ+s ( ,cic]o4 ,x _h great importance = ! hi/ory ( civilization1 b x is f> remov$ f ! _s ( g5u9e ,greek philosophy4 ,t 0 dead = ! pres5t1 & x did n come to life aga9 till ! ?ird c5tury ( our era1 :5 ,platonism 0 reviv$ at ,rome by ,plot9us4 ,x is only q rec5tly t hi/orians ( ,greek philosophy h begun to d ju/ice to ',neoplatonism'4 ,t is p>tly due to ! contempor>y philosophical t5d5cies not$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is pap]1 & p>tly to hi/orical inve/igations into ! philosophy ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* is m & m se5 to be dep5d5t ma9ly on ,neoplatonism d[n to & includ+ ! sy/em ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,x 0 9 fact ! mo/ decisive fact 9 ! hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,european civilization t ,plot9us f\nd$ 8 s*ool at ,rome r ?an at ,a!ns or ,alex&ria2 = t is h[ ,we/]n ,europe became ! real heir to ! philosophy ( ,greece4 ,e "o kn[s1 ( c\rse1 t ,plot9us 0 a 'my/ic'1 b ! t]m is apt to sugge/ q wrong ideas ab\t him4 ,he is (t5 spok5 ( /ill z a man :o introduc$ ori5tal ideas into ,greek philosophy1 & he is popul>ly suppos$ to h be5 an ,egyptian4 ,t is mo/ improbable2 &1 if x 7 true1 x w\ld only make x ! m rem>kable t1 ?\gh he c]ta9ly /udi$ at ,alex&ria = elev5 ye>s1 he nev] ev5 m5tions ! religion ( ,isis1 :i* 0 s fa%ionable at ,rome 9 8 day1 & :i* _h fasc9at$ s g5u9e a ,greek z ,plut>* "s g5]ations be=e4 ,!re is no d\bt t :at ,plot9us believ$ himself to be tea*+ 0 g5u9e ,platonism1 & t he _h prep>$ himself = ! task by a c>eful /udy ( ,ari/otle & ev5 ( ,/oicism1 s f> z t s]v$ 8 purpose4 ,no d\bt he 0 too great a man to make himself ! m]e m\?piece ( ano!r's ?\ght2 b1 = all t1 he 0 ! legitimate successor ( ,plato1 & x may be add$ t ,m4 ,rob91 :o has tak5 ^u himself ! ardu\s task ( extract+ ,plato's real philosophy f ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 has come to ! conclusion t !re is a great deal m ',neoplatonism' 9 ,plato ?an is sometimes suppos$4 ,plot9us is a my/ic1 !n1 ?\gh n at all 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is (t5 misus$4 ,he sets be=e 8 disciples a 'way ( life' :i* leads by /ages to ! highe/ life ( all1 b t is j :at ,py?agoras & ,plato _h done1 & x is only ! cont9uation ( a tradition :i* goes back among ! ,greeks to ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s be=e ! "t ( ,plot9us4 ,8 aim1 l t ( 8 pr$ecessors1 is ! conv]sion ( s\ls to ?is way ( life1 & he diff]s f su* ?9k]s z ! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans 9 hold+ t ! 'way ( life' to :i* he calls !m mu/ be bas$ once m on a sy/ematic doctr9e ( ,god1 ! ,_w & ,man4 ,! result 0 t ! divorce :i* _h exi/$ = c5turies betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy 0 once m annull$4 ,we _c say1 inde$1 t ,plot9us himself made any special /udy ( ,ma!matics1 b !re is no d\bt at all t 8 foll[]s did1 & x is due to !m1 & especially to ,proclus1 t we "k z mu* ( ,greek ,ma!matics z we d4 ,proclus 0 inde$ ! sy/ematiz] ( ! doctr9e ( ,plot9us1 ?\gh he diff]s f him on c]ta9 po9ts1 & 8 influ5ce on lat] philosophy _c be ov]e/imat$4 ,x c be di/9ctly trac$ ev5 9 ,desc>tes1 :om x rea*$ ?r\gh a numb] ( *annels1 ! /udy ( :i* has rec5tly be5 und]tak5 by a ,fr5* s*ol>1 ,pr(essor ,gilson1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,/rasb\rg4 ,:5 8 rese>*es are complete1 ! cont9uity ( ,greek & mod]n philosophy w be pla9ly se51 & ! "p play$ by ,platonism 9 ! mak+ ( ! mod]n ,european m9d w be made manife/4 ,we %all !n und]/& bett] ?an ev] :y ,greek philosophy is a subject ( p]5nial int]e/4 ,! hi/ory ( ,greek philosophy is1 9 fact1 ! hi/ory ( our own spiritual pa/1 & x is impossible to und]/& ! pres5t )\t tak+ x into acc\nt4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! ,platoni/ tradition und]lies ! :ole ( we/]n civilization4 ,x 0 at ,rome1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 t ,plot9us taught1 & x 0 9 c]ta9 ,lat9 translations ( ! writ+s ( 8 s*ool t ,/4 ,augu/9e f\nd ! basis = a ,*ri/ian philosophy he 0 seek+4 ,x 0 ,augu/9e's great au?ority 9 ! ,lat9 ,*ur* t made ,platonism its (ficial philosophy = c5turies4 ,x is a complete mi/ake to suppose t ! ?9k+ ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 dom9at$ by ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle4 ,x 0 n till ! ?irte5? c5tury t ,ari/otle 0 kn[n at all1 & ev5 !n he 0 /udi$ 9 ! light ( ,platonism1 j z he _h be5 by ,plot9us & 8 foll[]s4 ,x 0 only at ! v close ( ! ,middle ,ages t he acquir$ ! pr$om9ance :i* has made s /rong an impression on ! c5turies t foll[$4 ,x 0 f ! ,platoni/ tradition1 too1 t ! sci5ce ( ! e>li] ,middle ,ages came4 ,a consid]able portion ( ,plato's ,timaeus _h be5 translat$ into ,lat9 9 ! f\r? c5tury by ,*alcidius ) a v elaborate comm5t>y bas$ on anci5t s\rces1 :ile ! ,consolation ( ,philosophy1 writt5 9 prison by ! ,roman ,platoni/ ,boe?ius 9 ,a4 ,d4 #ebe1 0 easily ! mo/ popul> book ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x 0 translat$ into ,engli% by ,alfr$ ! ,great & by ,*auc]1 & into _m o!r ,european languages4 ,x 0 on ^! f\ndations t ! ,fr5* ,platonism ( ! twelf? c5tury1 & especially t ( ! ,s*ool ( ,*>tres1 0 built up1 & ! influ5ce ( t s*ool 9 ,engl& 0 v great inde$4 ,! names ( ,grossete/e & ,rog] ,bacon may j be m5tion$ 9 ?is connexion1 & x w\ld n be h>d to %[ t ! special "* ( ! contribution :i* ,engli% writ]s h be5 able to make to sci5ce & philosophy is 9 l>ge measure attributable to ?is influ5ce4 ,b ! int]e/ ( ,greek philosophy is n only hi/orical2 x is full ( in/ruction = ! future too4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,locke1 philosophy has be5 apt to limit itself to discussions ab\t ! nature ( k1 & to leave que/ions ab\t ! nature ( ! _w to speciali/s4 ,! hi/ory ( ,greek philosophy %[s ! dang] ( ?is unnatural division ( ! prov9ce ( ?\ght1 & ! m we /udy x1 ! m we %all feel ! ne$ ( a m compreh5sive view4 ,! 'philosophy ( ?+s human'1 z ! ,greeks call$ x1 is only "o dep>tm5t among o!rs1 & ! !ory ( k is only "o dep>tm5t ( t4 ,if /udi$ 9 isolation f ! :ole1 x mu/ inevitably become "o-sid$4 ,f ,greek philosophy we c also le>n t x is fatal to divorce speculation f ! s]vice ( mank9d4 ,! notion t philosophy c\ld be s isolat$ w\ld h be5 :olly un9telligible to any ( ! great ,greek ?9k]s1 & mo/ ( all p]haps to ! ,platoni/s :o are (t5 *>g$ ) ?is v h]esy4 ,above all1 we c le>n f ,greek philosophy ! p>am\nt importance ( :at we call ! p]sonality & !y call$ ! s\l4 ,x 0 j because ! ,greeks realiz$ ?is t ! g5u9ely ,hell5ic idea ( conv]sion play$ s great a "p 9 _! ?9k+ & 9 _! lives4 ,t1 above all1 is ! lesson !y h to tea*1 & t is :y ! writ+s ( _! great philosoph]s h /ill ! p[] to conv]t ! s\ls ( all t w receive _! tea*+ ) humility4 ,j4 ,,burnet4 ,,ma!matics ,,& ,,a/ronomy ,x has be5 well said t1 if we w\ld /udy any subject prop]ly1 we mu/ /udy x z some?+ t is alive & gr[+ & consid] x ) ref]5ce to its gr[? 9 ! pa/4 ,z mo/ ( ! vital =ces & movem5ts 9 mod]n civilization _h _! orig9 9 ,greece1 ?is means t1 to /udy !m prop]ly1 we mu/ get back to ,greece4 ,s x is ) ! lit]ature ( mod]n c\ntries1 or _! philosophy1 or _! art2 we _c /udy !m ) ! det]m9ation to get to ! bottom & und]/& !m )\t ! way po9t+ ev5tually back to ,greece4 ,:5 we ?9k ( ! debt :i* mank9d owes to ! ,greeks1 we are apt to ?9k too exclusively ( ! ma/]pieces 9 lit]ature & art :i* !y h left u4 ,b ! ,greek g5ius 0 _m-sid$2 ! ,greek1 ) 8 insatiable love ( k1 8 det]m9ation to see ?+s z !y are & to see !m :ole1 8 burn+ desire to be able to give a rational explanation ( ev]y?+ 9 heav5 & e>?1 0 j z irresi/ibly driv5 to natural sci5ce1 ma!matics1 & exact reason+ 9 g5]al1 or logic4 ,to quote f a brilliant review ( a well-kn[n "w3 ',to be a ,greek 0 to seek to "k1 to "k ! primordial sub/ance ( matt]1 to "k ! mean+ ( numb]1 to "k ! _w z a rational :ole4 ,9 no _s ( p>adox "o may say t ,euclid is ! mo/ typical ,greek3 he w\ld "k to ! bottom1 & "k z a rational sy/em1 ! laws ( ! measurem5t ( ! e>?4 ,plato1 too1 lov$ geometry & ! wond]s ( numb]s2 he 0 ess5tially ,greek because he 0 ess5tially ma!matical4444 ,& if "o ?us f9ds ! ,greek g5ius 9 ,euclid & ! ,po/]ior ,analytics1 "o w und]/& ! motto writt5 ov] ! ,academy1 mdeis agemetrtos eisit4 ,to "k :at ! ,greek g5ius meant y mu/ 7if "o may speak en a9igmati7 beg9 ) geometry4' ,ma!matics1 inde$1 plays an important "p 9 ,greek philosophy3 !re are1 = example1 _m passages 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle = ! int]pretation ( :i* "s k ( ! te*nique ( ,greek ma!matics is ! fir/ ess5tial4 ,h5ce x %\ld be "p ( ! equipm5t ( e classical /ud5t t he %\ld h read sub/antial portions ( ! works ( ! ,greek ma!maticians 9 ! orig9al1 say1 "s ( ! e>ly books ( ,euclid 9 full & ! def9itions 7at lea/7 ( ! o!r books1 z well z selections f o!r writ]s4 ,von ,wilam[itz-,moell5dorff has includ$ 9 8 ,grie*is*es ,lesebu* extracts f ,euclid1 ,ar*im$es & ,h]on ( ,alex&ria2 & ! example %\ld be foll[$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,acqua9tance ) ! orig9al works ( ! ,greek ma!maticians is no less necess>y = any ma!matician wor?y ( ! "n4 ,ma!matics is a ,greek sci5ce4 ,s f> z pure geometry is conc]n$1 ! ma!matician's te*nical equipm5t is almo/ :olly ,greek4 ,! ,greeks laid d[n ! pr9ciples1 fix$ ! t]m9ology & inv5t$ ! me?ods ab initio2 moreov]1 !y did ?is ) su* c]ta9ty t 9 ! c5turies :i* h s9ce elaps$ !re has be5 no ne$ to recon/ruct1 /ill less to reject z uns\nd1 any ess5tial "p ( _! doctr9e4 ,consid] fir/ ! t]m9ology ( ma!matics4 ,almo/ all ! /&>d t]ms are ,greek or ,lat9 translations f ! ,greek1 &1 al?\gh ! ma!matician may be taught _! mean+ )\t kn[+ ,greek1 he w c]ta9ly grasp _! significance bett] if he kn[s !m z !y arise & z "p ( ! liv+ language ( ! m5 :o inv5t$ !m4 ,take ! ^w isosceles2 a s*oolboy c be %[n :at an isosceles triangle is1 b1 if he kn[s no?+ ( ! d]ivation1 he w wond] :y su* an app>5tly outl&i% t]m %\ld be necess>y to express s simple an idea4 ,b if ! m]e appe>ance ( ! ^w %[s him t x means a ?+ ) equal legs1 be+ comp\nd$ ( isos1 equal1 & skelos1 a leg1 he w und]/& its appropriat5ess & w h no difficulty 9 rememb]+ x4 ,equilat]al1 on ! o!r h&1 is borr[$ f ! ,lat91 b x is m]ely ! ,lat9 translation ( ! ,greek isopleuros1 equal-sid$4 ,p>allelogram aga9 c be expla9$ to a ,greekless p]son1 b x w be f> bett] und]/ood by "o :o sees 9 x ! two words p>alllos & gramm & realizes t x is a %ort way ( express+ t ! figure 9 "q is conta9$ by p>allel l9es2 & we %all be/ und]/& ! ^w p>allel itself if we see 9 x ! /atem5t ( ! fact t ! two /raight l9es s describ$ g alongside "o ano!r1 ' p>' alllas1 all ! way4 ,simil>ly a ma!matician %\ld "k t a rhombus is s call$ f its resemblance to a =m ( sp9n+-top 7 rhombos f rhemb1 to sp97 & t1 j z a p>allelogram is a figure =m$ by two pairs ( p>allel /raight l9es1 s a p>allelepip$ is a solid figure b\nd$ by ?ree pairs ( p>allel planes 7 p>alllos1 p>allel1 & epip$os1 plane72 incid5tally1 9 ! latt] case1 he w be sav$ f writ+ 'p>allelopip$'1 a mon/rosity :i* has disfigur$ n a few textbooks ( geometry4 ,ano!r good example is ! ^w hypot5use2 x comes f ! v]b hypote9e9 7c4 hypo & acc4 or simple acc471 to /ret* "u1 or1 9 its ,lat9 =m1 to subt5d1 :i* t]m is us$ q g5]ally = 'to be opposite to'2 9 our phraseology ! ^w hypot5use is re/rict$ to t side ( a "r-angl$ triangle :i* is opposite to ! "r angle1 be+ %ort = ! expression us$ 9 ,eucl4 i4 #dg1 h tn or?n gnian hypote9\sa pleura1 '! side subt5d+ ! "r angle'1 :i* acc\nts = ! fem99e p>ticipial =m hypote9\sa1 hypot5use4 ,if ma!maticians _h _h m ,greek1 p]haps ! misspelt =m 'hypothenuse' w\ld n h surviv$ s long4 ,to take an example outside ! ,elem5ts1 h[ c a ma!matician prop]ly und]/& ! t]m latus rectum us$ 9 conic sections unless he has se5 x 9 ,apollonius z ! erect side 7 or?ia pleura7 ( a c]ta9 rectangle 9 ! case ( ea* ( ! ?ree conics8#c ,! ^w ord9ate c h>dly convey any?+ to "o :o does n "k t x is :at ,apollonius describes z '! /raight l9e drawn d[n 7f a po9t on ! curve7 9 ! prescrib$ or orda9$ mann] 7 tetagm5s katgm57'4 ,asymptote aga9 comes f asympttos1 non-meet+1 non-secant1 & _h ) ! ,greeks a m g5]al signification z well z ! n>r[] "o :i* x has = u3 x 0 sometimes us$ ( p>allel l9es1 :i* also 'd n meet'4 #c ,9 ! case ( ! p>abola1 ! base 7z di/9ct f ! 'erect side'7 ( ! rectangle is :at is call$ ! abscissa 7,gk4 apotemnom51 'cut (f'7 ( ! ord9ate1 & ! rectangle itself is equal to ! squ>e on ! ord9ate4 ,9 ! case ( ! c5tral conics1 ! base ( ! rectangle is '! transv]se side ( ! figure' or ! transv]se diamet] 7! diamet] ( ref]5ce71 & ! rectangle is equal to ! squ>e on ! diamet] conjugate to ! diamet] ( ref]5ce4 ,aga91 if we take up a textbook ( geometry writt5 9 accordance ) ! mo/ mod]n ,education ,bo>d circul> or ,univ]sity syllabus1 we %all f9d t ! phraseology us$ 7except :]e made m colloquial & less sci5tific7 is almo/ all pure ,greek4 ,! ,greek tongue 0 extraord9>ily well adapt$ z a vehicle ( sci5tific ?\ght4 ,"o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ,euclid's language :i* 8 comm5tator ,proclus is mo/ fond ( emphasiz+ is its m>vell\s exactness 7 akribeia74 ,! language ( ! ,greek geomet]s is also wond]fully concise1 not)/&+ all appe>ances to ! contr>y4 ,"o ( ! compla9ts (t5 made aga9/ ,euclid is t he is 'diffuse'4 ,yet 7ap>t f abbreviations 9 writ+7 x w be f\nd t ! exposition ( correspond+ matt]s 9 mod]n elem5t>y textbooks g5]ally takes up1 n less1 b m space4 ,&1 to say no?+ ( ! p]fect f9i% ( ,ar*im$es's treatises1 we %all f9d 9 ,h]on1 ,ptolemy & ,pappus v]itable models ( concise /atem5t4 ,! purely geometrical pro( by ,h]on ( ! =mula = ! area ( a triangle1 ,ds7s-a77s-b77s-c71 & ! geometrical propositions 9 ,book ,i ( ,ptolemy's ,syntaxis 7includ+ ',ptolemy's ,!orem'7 are cases 9 po9t4 ,! pr9ciples ( geometry & ari?metic 79 ! s5se ( ! !ory ( numb]s7 are /at$ 9 ! prelim9>y matt] ( ,books ,i & ,,vii ( ,euclid4 ,b ,euclid 0 n _! discov]]2 !y 7 gradually evolv$ f ! "t ( ,py?agoras onw>ds4 ,ari/otle is cle> ab\t ! nature ( ! pr9ciples & _! classification4 ,e demon/rative sci5ce1 he says1 has to d ) ?ree ?+s1 ! subject-matt]1 ! ?+s prov$1 & ! ?+s f :i* ! pro( />ts 7 ex hn74 ,x is n ev]y?+ t c be prov$1 o!rwise ! *a9 ( pro( w\ld be endless2 y mu/ beg9 some:]e1 & y mu/ />t ) ?+s admitt$ b indemon/rable4 ,^! are1 fir/1 pr9ciples common to all sci5ces :i* are call$ axioms or common op9ions1 z t '( two contradictories "o mu/ be true'1 or 'if equals be subtract$ f equals1 ! rema9d]s are equal'2 secondly1 pr9ciples peculi> to ! subject-matt] ( ! p>ticul> sci5ce1 say geometry4 ,fir/ among ! latt] pr9ciples are def9itions2 !re mu/ be agreem5t z to :at we mean by c]ta9 t]ms4 ,b a def9ition ass]ts no?+ ab\t ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( ! ?+ def9$4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! v>i\s ?+s def9$ has to be prov$ except 9 ! case ( a few prim>y ?+s 9 ea* sci5ce ! exi/5ce ( :i* is indemon/rable & mu/ be assum$ among ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce2 ?us 9 geometry we mu/ assume ! exi/5ce ( po9ts & l9es1 & 9 ari?metic ( ! unit4 ,la/ly1 we mu/ assume c]ta9 o!r ?+s :i* are less obvi\s & _c be prov$ b yet h to be accept$2 ^! are call$ po/ulates1 because !y make a dem& on ! fai? ( ! le>n]4 ,euclid's ,po/ulates are ( ?is k9d1 especially t kn[n z ! p>allel-po/ulate4 ,! me?ods ( solution ( problems 7 no d\bt fir/ appli$ 9 p>ticul> cases & !n gradually sy/ematiz$2 ! te*nical t]ms = !m 7 probably inv5t$ lat]1 aft] ! me?ods !mselves _h become e/abli%$4 ,"o me?od ( solution 0 ! r$uction ( "o problem to ano!r4 ,?is 0 call$ apagg1 a t]m :i* seems to occur fir/ 9 ,ari/otle4 ,b in/ances ( su* r$uction occurr$ long be=e4 ,hippocrates ( ,*ios r$uc$ ! problem ( duplicat+ ! cube to t ( f9d+ two mean proportionals 9 cont9u$ proportion betwe5 two /raight l9es1 t is1 he %[$ t1 if ! latt] problem c\ld be solv$1 ! =m] 0 !reby solv$ also2 & x is probable t !re 7 /ill e>li] cases 9 ! ,py?agorean geometry4 ,next !re is ! me?od ( ma!matical analysis4 ,?is me?od is said to h be5 'communicat$' or 'expla9$' by ,plato to ,leodamas ( ,?asos2 b1 l r$uction 7to :i* x is closely ak971 analysis 9 ! ma!matical s5se mu/ h be5 9 use mu* e>li]4 ,analysis & its correlative syn!sis are def9$ by ,pappus3 '9 analysis we assume t :i* is s\ght z if x 7 already done1 & we inquire :at x is f :i* ?is results1 & aga9 :at is ! antec$5t cause ( ! latt]1 & s on1 until by s retrac+ our /eps we come ^u some?+ already kn[n or belong+ to ! class ( pr9ciples4 ,b 9 syn!sis1 rev]s+ ! process1 we take z already done t :i* 0 la/ arriv$ at 9 ! analysis1 &1 by arrang+ 9 _! natural ord] z consequ5ces :at 7 be=e antec$5ts & successively connect+ !m "o ) ano!r1 we arrive f9ally at ! con/ruction ( t :i* 0 s\ght4' ,! me?od ( r$uctio ad absurdum is a v>iety ( analysis4 ,/>t+ f a hypo!sis1 namely ! contradictory ( :at we desire to prove1 we use ! same process ( analysis1 c>ry+ x back until we arrive at some?+ admitt$ly false or absurd4 ,ari/otle describes ?is me?od 9 v>i\s ways z r$uctio ad absurdum1 pro( p] impossibile1 or pro( lead+ to ! impossible4 ,b "h aga91 ?\gh ! t]m 0 new1 ! me?od 0 n4 ,! p>adoxes ( ,z5o are classical in/ances4 ,la/ly1 ! ,greeks e/abli%$ ! =m ( exposition :i* /ill gov]ns geometrical "w1 simply because x is dictat$ by /rict logic4 ,x is se5 9 ,euclid's propositions1 ) _! sep>ate =mal divisions1 to :i* specific names 7 aft]w>ds assign$1 7#a7 ! enunciation 7 protasis71 7#b7 ! sett+-out 7 ek!sis71 7#c7 ! diorismos1 be+ a re-/atem5t ( :at we are requir$ to d or prove1 n 9 g5]al t]ms 7z 9 ! enunciation71 b ) ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> data conta9$ 9 ! sett+-out1 7#d7 ! con/ruction 7 kataskeu71 7#e7 ! pro( 7 apodeixis71 7#f7 ! conclusion 7 symp]asma74 ,9 ! case ( a problem x (t5 happ5s t a solution is n possible unless ! p>ticul> data are su* z to satisfy c]ta9 conditions2 9 ?is case !re is yet ano!r con/itu5t "p 9 ! proposition1 namely ! /atem5t ( ! conditions or limits ( possibility1 :i* 0 call$ by ! same "n diorismos1 def9ition or delimitation1 z t appli$ to ! ?ird con/itu5t "p ( a !orem4 ,we h s f> endeav\r$ to indicate g5]ally ! f9ality & ! abid+ value ( ! "w done by ! creators ( ma!matical sci5ce4 ,x rema9s to summ>ize1 z briefly z possible1 ! hi/ory ( ,greek ma!matics accord+ to p]iods & subjects4 ,! ,greeks ( c\rse took :at !y c\ld 9 ! %ape ( elem5t>y facts 9 geometry & a/ronomy f ! ,egyptians & ,babylonians4 ,b "s ( ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! ,greek g5ius ass]t !mselves ev5 9 _! borr[+s f ^! or o!r s\rces4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e else1 we see _! directness & conc5tration2 !y always knew :at !y want$1 & !y _h an un]r+ in/9ct = tak+ only :at 0 wor? hav+ & reject+ ! re/4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by ! /ory ( ,py?agoras's travels4 ,he consort$ ) prie/s & prophets & 0 initiat$ into ! religi\s rites practis$ 9 diff]5t places1 n out ( religi\s en?usiasm 'z y might ?9k' 7says our in=mant71 b 9 ord] t he might n ov]look any fragm5t ( k wor? acquir+ t might lie hidd5 9 ! my/]ies ( div9e wor%ip4 ,?is /ory also illu/rates an important advantage :i* ! ,greeks _h ov] ! ,egyptians & ,babylonians4 ,9 ^? c\ntries sci5ce1 su* z x 01 0 ! monopoly ( ! prie/s2 &1 :]e ?is is ! case1 ! fir/ /eps 9 sci5ce are apt to prove ! la/ also1 because ! sci5tific results atta9$ t5d to become involv$ 9 religi\s prescriptions & r\t9e obs]vances1 & s to end 9 a collection ( lifeless =mulae4 ,=tunately = ! ,greeks1 !y _h no organiz$ prie/hood2 untrammell$ by prescription1 traditional dogmas or sup]/ition1 !y c\ld give _! reason+ faculties free play4 ,?us !y 7 able to create sci5ce z a liv+ ?+ susceptible ( developm5t )\t limit4 ,greek geometry1 z also ,greek a/ronomy1 beg9s ) ,?ales 7ab\t #fbd-edg ,b4 ,c471 :o travell$ 9 ,egypt & is said to h br\ght geometry f !nce4 ,su* geometry z !re 0 9 ,egypt arose out ( practical ne$s4 ,rev5ue 0 rais$ by ! taxation ( l&$ prop]ty1 & its assessm5t dep5d$ on ! accurate fix+ ( ! b\nd>ies ( ! v>i\s hold+s4 ,:5 ^! 7 remov$ by ! p]iodical flood+ due to ! ris+ ( ! ,nile1 x 0 necess>y to replace !m1 or to det]m9e ! taxable area indep5d5tly ( !m1 by an art ( l&-survey+4 ,we conclude f ! ,papyrus ,rh9d 7say #agjj ,b4 ,c47 & o!r docum5ts t ,egyptian geometry consi/$ ma9ly ( practical rules = measur+1 ) m or less accuracy1 7#a7 su* areas z squ>es1 triangles1 trapezia1 & circles1 7#b7 ! solid cont5t ( measures ( corn1 c41 ( diff]5t %apes4 ,! ,egyptians also con/ruct$ pyramids ( a c]ta9 slope by means ( ari?metical calculations bas$ on a c]ta9 ratio1 se-qe1 namely ! ratio ( half ! side ( ! base to ! height1 :i* is 9 fact equival5t to ! co-tang5t ( ! angle ( slope4 ,! use ( ?is ratio implies ! notion ( simil>ity ( figures1 especially triangles4 ,! ,egyptians knew1 too1 t a triangle ) its sides 9 ! ratio ( ! numb]s #c1 #d1 #e is "r-angl$1 & us$ ! fact z a means ( draw+ "r angles4 ,b !re is no sign t !y knew ! g5]al prop]ty ( a "r-angl$ triangle 7 ,eucl4 ,i4 #dg71 ( :i* ?is is a p>ticul> case1 or t !y prov$ any g5]al !orem 9 geometry4 ,no d\bt ,?ales1 :5 he 0 9 ,egypt1 w\ld see diagrams drawn to illu/rate ! rules = ! measurem5t ( circles & o!r plane figures1 & ^! diagrams w\ld sugge/ to him c]ta9 simil>ities & congru5ces :i* w\ld set him ?9k+ :e!r !re 7 n "s elem5t>y g5]al pr9ciples und]ly+ ! con/ruction & relations ( diff]5t figures & p>ts ( figures4 ,?is w\ld be 9 accord ) ! ,greek in/9ct = g5]alization & _! wi% to be able to acc\nt = ev]y?+ on rational pr9ciples4 ,! foll[+ !orems are attribut$ to ,?ales3 7#a7 t a circle is bisect$ by any diamet] 7,eucl4 ,i1 ,def4 #ag71 7#b7 t ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle are equal 7,eucl4 ,i4 #e71 7#c7 t1 if two /raight l9es cut "o ano!r1 ! v]tically opposite angles are equal 7,eucl4 ,i4 #ae71 7#d7 t1 if two triangles h two angles & "o side respectively equal1 ! triangles are equal 9 all respects 7,eucl4 ,i4 #bf74 ,he is said 7#e7 to h be5 ! fir/ to inscribe a "r-angl$ triangle 9 a circle1 :i* mu/ mean t he 0 ! fir/ to discov] t ! angle 9 a semicircle is a "r angle 7cf4 ,eucl4 ,,iii4 #ca74 ,elem5t>y z ^! ?+s are1 !y repres5t a new dep>ture ( a mom5t\s k9d1 be+ ! fir/ /eps t[>ds a !ory ( geometry4 ,on ?is po9t we _c d bett] ?an quote "s rem>ks f ,kant's preface to ! second edition ( 8 ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft4 ',ma!matics has1 f ! e>lie/ times to :i* ! hi/ory ( human reason goes back1 7t is to say7 ) t wond]ful p ! ,greeks1 travell$ ! safe road ( a sci5ce4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t x 0 z easy = ma!matics z x 0 = logic1 :]e reason is conc]n$ ) itself alone1 to f9d1 or r to build = itself1 t royal road4 ,i believe on ! contr>y t ) ma!matics x rema9$ = long a case ( grop+ ab\t--! ,egyptians 9 p>ticul> 7 /ill at t /age--& t ?is trans=mation mu/ be ascrib$ to a revolution br\ght ab\t by ! happy inspiration ( "o man 9 try+ an exp]im5t1 f :i* po9t onw>d ! road t mu/ be tak5 c\ld no long] be miss$1 & ! safe way ( a sci5ce 0 /ruck & trac$ out = all "t & to di/ances illimitable4444 ,a light broke on ! fir/ man :o demon/rat$ ! prop]ty ( ! isosceles triangle 7:e!r 8 "n 0 ,?ales or :at y w74444' ,?ales also solv$ two problems ( a practical k9d3 7#a7 he %[$ h[ to measure ! di/ance ( a %ip at sea1 & 7#b7 he f\nd ! heights ( pyramids by means ( ! %ad[s ?r[n on ! gr\nd by ! pyramid & by a /ick ( kn[n l5g? at ! same mom5t2 "o acc\nt says t he *ose ! "t :5 ! l5g?s ( ! /ick & ( its %ad[ 7 equal1 b 9 ei!r case he argu$ by simil>ity ( triangles4 ,9 a/ronomy ,?ales pr$ict$ a sol> eclipse :i* 0 probably t ( ! #bh? ,may #ehe ,b4 ,c4 ,n[ ! ,babylonians1 z ! result ( obs]vations cont9u$ ?r\gh c5turies1 _h discov]$ ! p]iod ( #bbc lunations aft] :i* eclipses recur4 ,x is mo/ likely !re=e t ,?ales _h he>d ( ?is p]iod1 & t 8 pr$iction 0 bas$ ^u x4 ,he is fur!r said to h us$ ! ,little ,be> = f9d+ ! pole1 to h discov]$ ! inequality ( ! f\r a/ronomical seasons1 & to h writt5 works ,on ! ,equ9ox & ,on ! ,sol/ice4 ,aft] ,?ales come ! ,py?agoreans4 ,( ! ,py?agoreans ,ari/otle says t !y appli$ !mselves to ! /udy ( ma!matics & 7 ! fir/ to advance t sci5ce1 go+ s f> z to f9d 9 ! pr9ciples ( ma!matics ! pr9ciples ( all exi/+ ?+s4 ,( ,py?agoras himself we are told t he atta*$ supreme importance to ! /udy ( ari?metic1 advanc+ x & tak+ x out ( ! region ( practical utility1 & aga9 t he trans=m$ ! /udy ( geometry into a lib]al education1 exam9+ ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce f ! beg9n+4 ,! v ^w ma?mata1 :i* orig9ally meant 'subjects ( in/ruction' g5]ally1 is said to h be5 fir/ appropriat$ to ma!matics by ! ,py?agoreans4 ,9 say+ t ari?metic began ) ,py?agoras we h to di/+ui% betwe5 ! uses ( t ^w !n & n[4 ,ari?mtik ) ! ,greeks 0 di/+ui%$ f logi/ik1 ! sci5ce ( calculation4 ,x is ! latt] ^w :i* w\ld cov] ari?metic 9 our s5se1 or practical calculation2 ! t]m ari?mtik 0 re/rict$ to ! sci5ce ( numb]s consid]$ 9 !mselves1 or1 z we %\ld say1 ! ,!ory ( ,numb]s4 ,ano!r way ( putt+ ! di/9ction 0 to say t ari?mtik dealt ) absolute numb]s or numb]s 9 ! ab/ract1 & logi/ik ) numb]$ ?+s or concrete numb]s2 ?us logi/ik includ$ simple problems ab\t numb]s ( apples1 b[ls1 or objects g5]ally1 su* z are f\nd 9 ! ,greek ,an?ology & sometimes involve simple algebraical equations4 ,! ,!ory ( ,numb]s !n began ) ,py?agoras 7ab\t #egb-dig ,b4 ,c474 ,x includ$ def9itions ( ! unit & ( numb]1 & ! classification & def9itions ( ! v>i\s classes ( numb]s1 odd1 ev51 prime1 composite1 & sub-divisions ( ^! su* z odd-ev51 ev5-times-ev51 c4 ,aga9 !re 7 figur$ numb]s1 namely1 triangul> numb]s1 squ>es1 oblong numb]s1 polygonal numb]s 7p5tagons1 hexagons1 c47 correspond+ respectively to plane figures1 & pyramidal numb]s1 cubes1 p>allelepip$s1 c41 correspond+ to solid figures 9 geometry4 ,! treatm5t 0 mo/ly geometrical1 ! numb]s be+ repres5t$ by dots fill+ up geometrical figures ( ! v>i\s k9ds4 ,! laws ( =mation ( ! v>i\s figur$ numb]s 7 e/abli%$4 ,9 ?is inve/igation ! gnomon play$ an important "p4 ,orig9ally mean+ ! upright ne$le ( a sun-dial1 ! t]m 0 next us$ = a figure l a c>p5t]'s squ>e1 & !n 0 appli$ to a figure ( t %ape put r\nd two sides ( a squ>e & mak+ up a l>g] squ>e4 ,! ari?metical application ( ! t]m 0 simil>4 ,if we repres5t a unit by "o dot & put r\nd x ?ree dots 9 su* a way t ! f\r =m ! corn]s ( a squ>e1 ?ree is ! fir/ gnomon4 ,five dots put at equal di/ances r\nd two sides ( ! squ>e conta9+ f\r dots make up ! next squ>e 7#c71 & five is ! second gnomon4 ,g5]ally1 if we h n dots s arrang$ z to fill up a squ>e ) n = its side1 ! gnomon to be put r\nd x to make up ! next squ>e1 7n#a71 has #bn#a dots4 ,9 ! =mation ( squ>es1 !re=e1 ! successive gnomons are ! s]ies ( odd numb]s foll[+ #a 7! fir/ squ>e71 namely #c1 #e1 #g1 444 ,9 ! =mation ( oblong numb]s 7numb]s ( ! =m n7n#a771 ! fir/ ( :i* is #a4 #b1 ! successive gnomons are ! t]ms aft] #b 9 ! s]ies ( ev5 numb]s #b1 #d1 #f4444 ,triangul> numb]s are =m$ by add+ to #a 7! fir/ triangle7 ! t]ms aft] #a 9 ! s]ies ( natural numb]s #a1 #b1 #c 4442 ^! are !re=e ! gnomons 7by analogy7 = triangles4 ,! gnomons = p5tagonal numb]s are ! t]ms aft] #a 9 ! ari?metical progression #a1 #d1 #g1 #aj 444 7) #c1 or #e-b1 z ! common diff]5ce7 & s on2 ! common diff]5ce ( ! successive gnomons = an a-gonal numb] is a-#b4 ,f ! s]ies ( gnomons = squ>es we easily d$uce a =mula = f9d+ squ>e numb]s :i* are ! sum ( two squ>es4 ,=1 ! gnomon #bn#a be+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! successive squ>es n & 7n#a71 we h only to make #bn#a a squ>e4 ,suppose t #bn#am2 !re=e n7m-#a71 & 7m-#a7m7m#a71 :]e m is any odd numb]4 ,?is is ! =mula actually attribut$ to ,py?agoras4 ,py?agoras is said to h discov]$ ! !ory ( proportionals or proportion4 ,?is 0 a num]ical !ory & !re=e 0 applicable to comm5surable magnitudes only2 x 0 no d\bt some:at on ! l9es ( ,euclid1 ,book ,,vii4 ,connect$ ) ! !ory ( proportion 0 t ( means1 & ,py?agoras 0 acqua9t$ ) ?ree ( ^!1 ! ari?metic1 geometric1 & sub-contr>y 7aft]w>ds call$ h>monic74 ,9 p>ticul> ,py?agoras is said to h introduc$ f ,babylon into ,greece ! 'mo/ p]fect' proportion1 namely3 a37ab7_/#bb;ab_/7ab73b1 :]e ! second & ?ird t]ms are respectively ! ari?metic & h>monic mean betwe5 a & b4 ,a p>ticul> case is #ab3ih3f4 ,?is be>s ^u :at 0 probably ,py?agoras's greate/ discov]y1 namely t ! musical int]vals correspond to c]ta9 ari?metical ratios betwe5 l5g?s ( /r+ at ! same t5sion1 ! octave correspond+ to ! ratio #b3a1 ! fif? to #c3b & ! f\r? to #d3c4 ,^! ratios be+ ! same z ^? ( #ab to #f1 #h1 #i respectively1 we c und]/& h[ ! ?ird t]m1 #h1 9 ! above proportion came to be call$ ! 'h>monic' mean betwe5 #ab & #f4 ,! ,py?agorean ari?metic z a :ole1 ) ! developm5ts made aft] ! "t ( ,py?agoras himself1 is ma9ly kn[n to u ?r\gh ,nicoma*us's ,introductio ari?metica1 ,iambli*us's comm5t>y on ! same1 & ,!on ( ,smyrna's "w ,expositio r]um ma!matic>um ad leg5dum ,platonem utilium4 ,! ?+s 9 ^! books mo/ des]v+ ( notice are ! foll[+4 ,fir/1 !re is ! description ( a 'p]fect' numb] 7a numb] :i* is equal to ! sum ( all its p>ts1 i4e4 all its integral divisors includ+ #a b exclud+ ! numb] itself71 ) a /atem5t ( ! prop]ty t all su* numb]s end 9 #f or #h4 ,f\r su* numb]s1 namely #f1 #bh1 #dif1 #habh1 7 kn[n to ,nicoma*us4 ,! law ( =mation = su* numb]s is fir/ f\nd 9 ,eucl4 ,,ix4 #cf prov+ t1 if ! sum 7,sn7 ( n t]ms ( ! s]ies #a1 #b1 #b1 #b 444 is prime1 !n ,sn4#bn-#a is a p]fect numb]4 ,secondly1 ,!on ( ,smyrna gives ! law ( =mation ( ! s]ies ( 'side-' & 'diamet]-' numb]s :i* satisfy ! equations #bx-y#a4 ,! law dep5ds on ! proposition prov$ 9 ,eucl4 ,,ii4 #aj to ! effect t 7#bxy7-#b7xy7#bx-y1 :5ce x foll[s t1 if x1 y satisfy ei!r ( ! above equations1 !n #bxy1 xy is a solution 9 high] numb]s ( ! o!r equation4 ,! successive solutions give values = y_/x1 namely #a_/a1 #c_/b1 #g_/e1 #ag_/ab1 #da_/bi1 4441 :i* are successive approximations to ! value ( #b 7! ratio ( ! diagonal ( a squ>e to its side74 ,! occasion = ?is me?od ( approximation to #b 7:i* c be c>ri$ z f> z we please7 0 ! discov]y by ! ,py?agoreans ( ! incomm5surable or irrational 9 ?is p>ticul> case4 ,?irdly1 ,iambli*us m5tions a discov]y by ,?ym>idas1 a ,py?agorean n lat] ?an ,plato's "t1 call$ ! epan?ma 7'bloom'7 ( ,?ym>idas1 & am\nt+ to ! solution ( any numb] ( simultane\s equations ( ! foll[+ =m3 xxx 444 xn-#a s1 xx a1 xx a1 444 xxn-#a an-#a1 ! solution be+ x77aa 444 an-#a7-s7_/7n-#b74 ,! rule is /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 b ! above repres5tation ( its effect %[s t x is a piece ( pure algebra4 ,! ,py?agorean contributions to geometry 7 ev5 m rem>kable4 ,! mo/ fam\s proposition attribut$ to ,py?agoras himself is ( c\rse ! !orem ( ,eucl4 ,i4 #dg t ! squ>e on ! hypot5use ( any "r-angl$ triangle is equal to ! sum ( ! squ>es on ! o!r two sides4 ,b ,proclus also attributes to him1 besides ! !ory ( proportionals1 ! con/ruction ( ! 'cosmic figures'1 ! five regul> solids4 ,"o ( ! said solids1 ! dodecah$ron1 has twelve regul> p5tagons = faces1 & ! con/ruction ( a regul> p5tagon involves ! cutt+ ( a /raight l9e '9 extreme & mean ratio' 7,eucl4 ,,ii4 #aa & ,,vi4 #cj71 :i* is a p>ticul> case ( ! me?od kn[n z ! application ( areas4 ,?is me?od 0 fully work$ out by ! ,py?agoreans & prov$ "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful 9 all ,greek geometry4 ,! mo/ elem5t>y case appe>s 9 ,eucl4 ,i4 #dd1 #de1 :]e x is %[n h[ to apply to a giv5 /raight l9e z base a p>allelogram ) "o angle equal to a giv5 angle & equal 9 area to any giv5 rectil9eal figure2 ?is con/ruction is ! geometrical equival5t ( ari?metical division4 ,! g5]al case is t 9 :i* ! p>allelogram1 ?\gh appli$ to ! /raight l9e1 ov]laps x or falls %ort ( x 9 su* a way t ! "p ( ! p>allelogram :i* ext5ds beyond or falls %ort ( ! p>allelogram ( ! same angle & bread? on ! giv5 /raight l9e itself 7exactly7 z base is simil> to any giv5 p>allelogram 7,eucl4 ,,vi4 #bh1 #bi74 ,?is is ! geometrical equival5t ( ! solution ( ! mo/ g5]al =m ( quadratic equation axmx,c1 s f> z x has real roots2 ! condition t ! roots may be real 0 also work$ out 7,eucl4 ,,vi4 #bg74 ,x is 9 ! =m ( 'application ( areas' t ,apollonius obta9s ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( ea* ( ! conic sections1 &1 z we %all see1 x is f ! t]m9ology ( application ( areas t ,apollonius took ! ?ree names p>abola1 hyp]bola1 & ellipse :i* he 0 ! fir/ to give to ! ?ree curves4 ,ano!r problem solv$ by ! ,py?agoreans 0 t ( draw+ a rectil9eal figure :i* %all be equal 9 area to "o giv5 rectil9eal figure & simil> to ano!r4 ,plut>* m5tions a d\bt :e!r x 0 ?is problem or ! !orem ( ,eucl4 ,i4 #dg on ! /r5g? ( :i* ,py?agoras 0 said to h sacrific$ an ox4 ,! ma9 p>ticul> applications ( ! !orem ( ! squ>e on ! hypot5use1 e4 g4 ^? 9 ,euclid1 ,book ,,ii1 7 also ,py?agorean2 ! con/ruction ( a squ>e equal to a giv5 rectangle 7,eucl4 ,,ii4 #ad7 is "o ( !m1 & corresponds to ! solution ( ! pure quadratic equation xab4 ,! ,py?agoreans knew ! prop]ties ( p>allels & prov$ ! !orem t ! sum ( ! ?ree angles ( any triangle is equal to two "r angles4 ,z we h se51 ! ,py?agorean !ory ( proportion1 be+ num]ical1 0 inadequate 9 t x did n apply to incomm5surable magnitudes2 b1 ) ?is qualification1 we may say t ! ,py?agorean geometry cov]$ ! bulk ( ! subject-matt] ( ,books ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iv & ,,vi ( ,euclid's ,elem5ts4 ,! case is less cle> ) reg>d to ,book ,,iii ( ! ,elem5ts2 b1 z ! ma9 propositions ( t ,book 7 kn[n to ,hippocrates ( ,*ios 9 ! second half ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 we conclude t !y1 too1 7 "p ( ! ,py?agorean geometry4 ,la/ly1 ! ,py?agoreans discov]$ ! exi/5ce ( ! incomm5surable or irrational 9 ! p>ticul> case ( ! diagonal ( a squ>e 9 relation to its side4 ,ari/otle m5tions an anci5t pro( ( ! incomm5surability ( ! diagonal ) ! side by a r$uctio ad absurdum %[+ t1 if ! diagonal 7 comm5surable ) ! side1 x w\ld foll[ t "o & ! same numb] is bo? odd & ev54 ,?is pro( 0 d\btless ,py?agorean4 ,a ^w %\ld be add$ ab\t ! ,py?agorean a/ronomy4 ,py?agoras 0 ! fir/ to hold t ! e>? 7& no d\bt ea* ( ! o!r heav5ly bodies also7 is sph]ical 9 %ape1 & he 0 aw>e t ! sun1 moon & planets h indep5d5t movem5ts ( _! own 9 a s5se opposite to t ( ! daily rotation2 b he seems to h kept ! e>? 9 ! c5tre4 ,8 successors 9 ! s*ool 7"o ,hicetas ( ,syracuse & ,philolaus are alt]natively cr$it$ ) ?is innovation7 actually ab&on$ ! geoc5tric idea & made ! e>?1 l ! sun1 ! moon1 & ! o!r planets1 revolve 9 a circle r\nd ! 'c5tral fire'1 9 :i* resid$ ! gov]n+ pr9ciple ord]+ & direct+ ! movem5t ( ! univ]se4 ,! geometry ( :i* we h s f> spok5 belongs to ! ,elem5ts4 ,b1 be=e ! body ( ! ,elem5ts 0 complete1 ! ,greeks _h advanc$ beyond ! ,elem5ts4 ,by ! second half ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 !y _h inve/igat$ ?ree fam\s problems 9 high] geometry1 7#a7 ! squ>+ ( ! circle1 7#b7 ! trisection ( any angle1 7#c7 ! duplication ( ! cube4 ,! great names belong+ to ?is p]iod are ,hippias ( ,elis1 ,hippocrates ( ,*ios1 & ,democritus4 ,hippias ( ,elis inv5t$ a c]ta9 curve describ$ by comb9+ two uni=m movem5ts 7"o angul> & ! o!r rectil9e>7 tak+ ! same "t to complete4 ,hippias himself us$ 8 curve = ! trisection ( any angle or ! division ( x 9 any ratio2 b x 0 aft]w>ds employ$ by ,d9o/ratus1 a bro!r ( ,eudoxus's pupil ,m5ae*mus1 & by ,nicom$es = squ>+ ! circle1 :5ce x got ! "n tetragniz\sa1 quadratrix4 ,hippocrates ( ,*ios is m5tion$ by ,ari/otle z an in/ance to prove t a man may be a di/+ui%$ geomet] &1 at ! same "t1 a fool 9 ! ord9>y affairs ( life4 ,he occupies an important place bo? 9 elem5t>y geometry & 9 relation to two ( ! high] problems above m5tion$4 ,he 01 s f> z is kn[n1 ! fir/ compil] ( a book ( ,elem5ts2 & he 0 ! fir/ to prove ! important !orem ( ,eucl4 ,,xii4 #b t circles are to "o ano!r z ! squ>es on _! diamet]s1 f :i* he fur!r d$uc$ t simil> segm5ts ( circles are to "o ano!r z ! squ>es on _! bases4 ,^! propositions 7 us$ by him 9 8 tract on ! squ>+ ( lunes1 :i* 0 int5d$ to lead up to ! squ>+ ( ! circle4 ,! ess5tial portions ( ! tract are pres]v$ 9 a passage ( ,simplicius's comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's ,physics1 :i* conta9s sub/antial extracts f ,eudemus's lo/ ,hi/ory ( ,geometry4 ,hippocrates %[$ h[ to squ>e ?ree p>ticul> lunes ( diff]5t k9ds & !n1 la/ly1 he squ>$ ! sum ( a circle & a c]ta9 lune4 ,un=tunately ! la/-m5tion$ lune 0 n "o ( ^? :i* c be squ>$1 s t ! attempt to squ>e ! circle 9 ?is way fail$ aft] all4 ,hippocrates also attack$ ! problem ( d\bl+ ! cube4 ,!re are two v]sions ( ! orig9 ( ?is fam\s problem4 ,accord+ to "o /ory an old tragic poet _h repres5t$ ,m9os z hav+ be5 dissatisfi$ ) ! size ( a cubical tomb erect$ = 8 son ,glaucus & hav+ told ! ar*itect to make x d\ble ! size :ile reta9+ ! cubical =m4 ,! o!r /ory says t ! ,delians1 suff]+ f a pe/il5ce1 consult$ ! oracle & 7 told to d\ble a c]ta9 alt> z a means ( /ay+ ! plague4 ,hippocrates did n inde$ solve ! problem ( duplication1 b r$uc$ x to ano!r1 namely t ( f9d+ two mean proportionals 9 cont9u$ proportion betwe5 two giv5 /raight l9es2 & ! problem 0 ev] aft]w>ds attack$ 9 ?is =m4 ,if x1 y be ! two requir$ mean proportionals betwe5 two /raight l9es a1 b1 !n a3xx3yy3b1 :5ce b_/a7x_/a71 &1 z a p>ticul> case1 if b#b;a1 x#b;a1 s t1 :5 x is f\nd1 ! cube is d\bl$4 ,democritus wrote a l>ge numb] ( ma!matical treatises1 ! titles only ( :i* are pres]v$4 ,we ga!r f "o ( ^! titles1 ',on irrational l9es & solids'1 t he wrote on irrationals4 ,democritus realiz$ z fully z ,z5o1 & express$ ) no less piquancy1 ! difficulty connect$ ) ! cont9u\s & ! inf9itesimal4 ,?is appe>s f 8 dilemma ab\t ! circul> base ( a cone & a p>allel section2 ! section :i* he means is a section 'indef9itely ne>' 7z ! phrase is7 to ! base1 i4 e4 ! v next section1 z we might say 7if !re 7 "o74 ,is x1 said ,democritus1 equal or n equal to ! base8 ,if x is equal1 s w ! v next section to x be1 & s on1 s t ! cone w really be1 n a cone1 b a cyl9d]4 ,if x is unequal to ! base & 9 fact less1 ! surface ( ! cone w be jagg$1 l /eps1 :i* is v absurd4 ,we may be sure t ,democritus's "w on ',! contact ( a circle or a sph]e' discuss$ a l difficulty4 ,la/ly1 ,ar*im$es tells u t ,democritus 0 ! fir/ to /ate1 ?\gh he c\ld n give a rigor\s pro(1 t ! volume ( a cone or a pyramid is "o-?ird ( t ( ! cyl9d] or prism respectively on ! same base & hav+ equal height1 !orems fir/ prov$ by ,eudoxus4 ,we come n[ to ! "t ( ,plato1 & "h ! great names are ,ar*ytas1 ,!odoras ( ,cyr5e1 ,!aetetus1 & ,eudoxus4 ,ar*ytas 7ab\t #dcj-cfj ,b4 ,c47 wrote on music & ! num]ical ratios correspond+ to ! int]vals ( ! tetra*ord4 ,he is said to h be5 ! fir/ to write a treatise on me*anics bas$ on ma!matical pr9ciples2 on ! practical side he inv5t$ a me*anical dove :i* w\ld fly4 ,9 geometry he gave ! fir/ solution ( ! problem ( ! two mean proportionals1 us+ a wond]ful con/ruction 9 ?ree dim5sions :i* det]m9$ a c]ta9 po9t z ! int]section ( ?ree surfaces1 7#a7 a c]ta9 cone1 7#b7 a half-cyl9d]1 7#c7 an an*or-r+ or tore ) inn] diamet] nil4 ,!odorus1 ,plato's tea*] 9 ma!matics1 ext5d$ ! !ory ( ! irrational by prov+ incomm5surability 9 c]ta9 p>ticul> cases o!r ?an t ( ! diagonal ( a squ>e 9 relation to its side1 :i* 0 already kn[n4 ,he prov$ t ! side ( a squ>e conta9+ #c squ>e feet1 or #e squ>e feet1 or any non-squ>e numb] ( squ>e feet up to #ag is incomm5surable ) "o foot1 9 o!r words t #c1 #e 444 #ag are all incomm5surable ) #a4 ,!odorus's pro( 0 evid5tly n g5]al2 & x 0 res]v$ = ,!aetetus to compreh5d all ^! irrationals 9 "o def9ition1 & to prove ! prop]ty g5]ally z x is prov$ 9 ,eucl4 ,x4 #i4 ,mu* ( ! cont5t ( ! re/ ( ,euclid's ,book ,x 7deal+ ) comp\nd irrationals71 z also ( ,book ,,xiii on ! five regul> solids1 0 due to ,!aetetus1 :o is ev5 said to h discov]$ two ( ^? solids 7! octah$ron & icosah$ron74 ,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c47 0 probably n an orig9al ma!matician1 b he 'caus$ ma!matics 9 g5]al & geometry 9 p>ticul> to make a great advance by reason ( 8 en?usiasm = !m'4 ,he enc\rag$ ! memb]s ( 8 s*ool to specialize 9 ma!matics & a/ronomy2 e4 g4 we are told t 9 a/ronomy he set x z a problem to all e>ne/ /ud5ts to f9d ':at are ! uni=m & ord]$ movem5ts by ! assumption ( :i* ! app>5t motions ( ! planets may be acc\nt$ ='4 ,9 ,plato's own writ+s are f\nd c]ta9 def9itions1 e4 g4 t ( a /raight l9e z 't ( :i* ! middle cov]s ! ends'1 & "s int]e/+ ma!matical illu/rations1 especially t 9 ! second geometrical passage 9 ! ,m5o 7#hf;,e-#hg;,c74 ,to ,plato himself are attribut$ 7#a7 a =mula 7n-#a77bn77n#a7 = f9d+ two squ>e numb]s ! sum ( :i* is a squ>e numb]1 7#b7 ! inv5tion ( ! me?od ( analysis1 :i* he is said to h expla9$ to ,leodamas ( ,?asos 7ma!matical analysis 01 h[ev]1 c]ta9ly1 9 practice1 employ$ long be=e74 ,! solution1 attribut$ to ,plato1 ( ! problem ( ! two mean proportionals by means ( a frame resembl+ t :i* a %oemak] uses to measure a foot1 c h>dly be 84 ,eudoxus 7#djh-cee ,b4 ,c471 an orig9al g5ius second to none 7unless x be ,ar*im$es7 9 ! hi/ory ( our subject1 made two discov]ies ( supreme importance = ! fur!r developm5t ( ,greek geometry4 7#a7 ,z we h se51 ! discov]y ( ! incomm5surable r5d]$ inadequate ! ,py?agorean !ory ( proportion1 :i* appli$ to comm5surable magnitudes only4 ,x w\ld no d\bt be possible1 9 mo/ cases1 to replace pro(s dep5d+ on proportions by o!rs2 b ?is involv$ great inconv5i5ce1 & a slur 0 ca/ on geometry g5]ally4 ,! tr\ble 0 rem$i$ once = all by ,eudoxus's discov]y ( ! great !ory ( proportion1 applicable to comm5surable & incomm5surable magnitudes alike1 :i* is exp\nd$ 9 ,euclid's ,book ,v4 ,well might ,b>r[ say ( ?is !ory t '!re is no?+ 9 ! :ole body ( ! elem5ts ( a m subtile inv5tion1 no?+ m solidly e/abli%$'4 ,! key/one ( ! /ructure is ! def9ition ( equal ratios 7,eucl4 ,v1 ,def4 #e72 & tw5ty-?ree c5turies h n abat$ a jot f its value1 z is pla9 f ! facts t ,wei]/rass repeats x ^w = ^w z 8 def9ition ( equal numb]s1 & x corresponds almo/ to ! po9t ( co9cid5ce ) ! mod]n treatm5t ( irrationals due to ,d$ek9d4 7#b7 ,eudoxus discov]$ ! me?od ( exhau/ion = measur+ curvil9e> areas & solids1 to :i*1 ) ! ext5sions giv5 to x by ,ar*im$es1 ,greek geometry owes its greate/ triumphs4 ,antiphon ! ,sophi/1 9 connexion ) attempts to squ>e ! circle1 _h ass]t$ t1 if we inscribe successive regul> polygons 9 a circle1 cont9ually d\bl+ ! numb] ( sides1 we %all sometime arrive at a polygon ! sides ( :i* w co9cide ) ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle4 ,w>n$ by ! unansw]able argum5ts ( ,z5o aga9/ inf9itesimals1 ma!maticians sub/itut$ = ?is ! /atem5t t1 by cont9u+ ! con/ruction1 we c inscribe a polygon approa*+ equality ) ! circle z ne>ly z we please4 ,! me?od ( exhau/ion us$1 = ! purpose ( pro( by r$uctio ad absurdum1 ! lemma prov$ 9 ,eucl4 ,x4 #a 7to ! effect t1 if f any magnitude we subtract n less ?an half1 & !n f ! rema9d] n less ?an half1 & s on cont9ually1 !re w sometime be left a magnitude less ?an any assign$ magnitude ( ! same k9d1 h[ev] small73 & ?is aga9 dep5ds on an assumption :i* is practically conta9$ 9 ,eucl4 ,v1 ,def4 #d1 b is g5]ally kn[n z ! ,axiom ( ,ar*im$es1 /at+ t1 if we h two unequal magnitudes1 _! diff]5ce 7h[ev] small7 c1 if cont9ually add$ to itself1 be made to exce$ any magnitude ( ! same k9d 7h[ev] great74 ,! me?od ( exhau/ion is se5 9 op]ation 9 ,eucl4 ,,xii4 #a-b1 #c-g ,cor41 #aj1 #af-ah4 ,props4 #c-g ,cor4 & ,prop4 #aj prove t ! volumes ( a pyramid & a cone are "o-?ird ( ! prism & cyl9d] respectively on ! same base & ( equal height2 & ,ar*im$es expressly says t ^! facts 7 fir/ prov$ by ,eudoxus4 ,9 a/ronomy ,eudoxus is fam\s = ! beautiful !ory ( conc5tric sph]es :i* he inv5t$ to expla9 ! app>5t motions ( ! planets &1 p>ticul>ly1 _! app>5t /ation>y po9ts & retrogradations4 ,! !ory appli$ also to ! sun & moon1 = ea* ( :i* ,eudoxus employ$ ?ree sph]es4 ,he repres5t$ ! motion ( ea* planet z produc$ by ! rotations ( f\r sph]es conc5tric ) ! e>?1 "o )9 ! o!r1 & connect$ 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,ea* ( ! inn] sph]es revolves ab\t a diamet] ! ends ( :i* 7poles7 are fix$ on ! next sph]e enclos+ x4 ,! out]mo/ sph]e repres5ts ! daily rotation1 ! second a motion along ! zodiac circle2 ! poles ( ! ?ird sph]e are fix$ on ! latt] circle2 ! poles ( ! f\r? sph]e 7c>ry+ ! planet fix$ on its equator7 are s fix$ on ! ?ird sph]e1 & ! spe$s & directions ( rotation s arrang$1 t ! planet describes on ! second sph]e a curve call$ ! hippop$e 7horse-fett]71 or a figure ( eight1 ly+ along & longitud9ally bisect$ by ! zodiac circle4 ,! :ole arrangem5t is a m>vel ( geometrical +5uity4 ,h]aclides ( ,pontus 7ab\t #chh-cae ,b4 ,c471 a pupil ( ,plato1 made a great /ep =w>d 9 a/ronomy by 8 decl>ation t ! e>? rotates on its own axis once 9 #bd h\rs1 & by 8 discov]y t ,m]cury & ,v5us revolve ab\t ! sun l satellites4 ,m5ae*mus1 a pupil ( ,eudoxus1 0 ! discov]] ( ! conic sections1 two ( :i*1 ! p>abola & ! hyp]bola1 he us$ = solv+ ! problem ( ! two mean proportionals4 ,if a3xx3yy3b1 !n xay1 ybx & xyab4 ,^! equations repres5t1 9 ,c>tesian co-ord9ates1 & ) rectangul> axes1 ! conics by ! int]section ( :i* two & two ,m5ae*mus solv$ ! problem2 9 ! case ( ! rectangul> hyp]bola x 0 ! asymptote-prop]ty :i* he us$4 ,we pass to ,euclid's times4 ,a little old] ?an ,euclid1 ,autolycus ( ,pitane wrote two books1 ,on ! ,mov+ ,sph]e1 a "w on ,spha]ic = use 9 a/ronomy1 & ,on ,ris+s & ,sett+s4 ,! =m] "w is ! e>lie/ ,greek textbook :i* has rea*$ u intact4 ,x 0 be=e ,euclid :5 he wrote 8 ,pha5om5a1 & !re are _m po9ts ( contact betwe5 ! two books4 ,euclid fl\ri%$ ab\t #cjj ,b4 ,c4 or a little e>li]4 ,8 great "w1 ! ,elem5ts 9 ?irte5 ,books1 is too well kn[n to ne$ description4 ,no "w presumably1 except ! ,bible1 has _h su* a reign2 & future g5]ations w come back to x aga9 & aga9 z !y tire ( ! v>iegat$ sub/itutes = x & ! confusion result+ f _! bewild]+ multiplicity4 ,aft] :at has be5 said above ( ! gr[? ( ! ,elem5ts1 we c appreciate ! rem>k ( ,proclus ab\t ,euclid1 ':o put toge!r ! ,elem5ts1 collect+ _m ( ,eudoxus's !orems1 p]fect+ _m ( ,!aetetus's & also br++ to irrefragable demon/ration ! ?+s :i* 7 only some:at loosely prov$ by 8 pr$ecessors'4 ,?\gh a l>ge portion ( ! subject-matt] _h be5 inve/igat$ by ^? pr$ecessors1 ev]y?+ goes to %[ t ! :ole arrangem5t 0 ,euclid's own2 x is c]ta9 t he made great *anges 9 ! ord] ( propositions & 9 ! pro(s1 & t 8 innovations began at ! v beg9n+ ( ,book ,i4 ,euclid wrote o!r books on bo? elem5t>y & high] geometry1 & on ! o!r ma!matical subjects kn[n 9 8 day4 ,! elem5t>y geometrical works include ! ,data & ,on ,divisions 7( figures71 ! fir/ ( :i* survives 9 ,greek & ! second 9 ,arabic only2 also ! ,pseud>ia1 n[ lo/1 :i* 0 a sort ( guide to fallacies 9 geometrical reason+4 ,! treatises on high] geometry are all lo/2 !y include 7#a7 ! ,conics 9 f\r ,books1 :i* cov]$ almo/ ! same gr\nd z ! fir/ ?ree ,books ( ,apollonius's ,conics1 al?\gh no d\bt1 = ,euclid1 ! conics 7 /ill1 z ) 8 pr$ecessors1 sections ( a "r-angl$1 an obtuse-angl$1 & an acute-angl$ cone respectively made by a plane p]p5diul> to a g5]ator 9 ea* case2 7#b7 ! ,porisms 9 ?ree ,books1 ! importance & difficulty ( :i* c be inf]r$ f ,pappus's acc\nt ( x & ! lemmas :i* he gives = use ) x2 7#c7 ! ,surface-,loci1 to :i* aga9 ,pappus furni%es lemmas2 "o ( ^! implies t ,euclid assum$ z kn[n ! focus-directrix prop]ty ( ! ?ree conics1 :i* is abs5t f ,apollonius's ,conics4 ,9 appli$ ma!matics ,euclid wrote 7#a7 ! ,pha5om5a1 a "w on sph]ical a/ronomy 9 :i* ho horizn 7)\t kyklos or any qualify+ words7 appe>s = ! fir/ "t 9 ! s5se ( horizon2 7#b7 ! ,optics1 a k9d ( elem5t>y treatise on p]spective3 ^! two treatises are extant 9 ,greek2 7#c7 a "w on ! ,elem5ts ( ,music4 ,! ,sectio ,canonis1 :i* has come d[n "u ! "n ( ,euclid1 c1 h[ev]1 h>dly be 8 9 its pres5t =m4 ,9 ! p]iod betwe5 ,euclid & ,ar*im$es comes ,ari/>*us ( ,samos 7ab\t #caj-bcj ,b4 ,c471 fam\s = hav+ anticipat$ ,cop]nicus4 ,accept+ ,h]aclides's view t ! e>? rotates ab\t its own axis1 ,ari/>*us w5t fur!r & put =w>d ! hypo!sis t ! sun itself is at re/1 & t ! e>?1 z well z ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 & ! o!r planets1 revolve 9 circles ab\t ! sun4 ,we h ?is on ! unque/ionable au?ority ( ,ar*im$es1 :o 0 only "s tw5ty-five ye>s lat]1 & :o mu/ h se5 ! book conta9+ ! hypo!sis 9 "q4 ,we are told too t ,clean!s ! ,/oic ?\ght t ,ari/>*us ought to be indict$ on ! *>ge ( impiety = sett+ ! ,he>? ( ! ,univ]se 9 motion4 ,"o "w ( ,ari/>*us1 ,on ! sizes & di/ances ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 :i* is extant 9 ,greek1 is highly int]e/+ 9 itself1 ?\gh x conta9s no ^w ( ! helioc5tric hypo!sis4 ,?or\ghly classical 9 =m & /yle1 x lays d[n c]ta9 hypo!ses & !n d$uces !refrom1 by rigor\s geometry1 ! sizes & di/ances ( ! sun & moon4 ,if ! hypo!ses _h be5 exact1 ! results w\ld h be5 correct too2 b ,ari/>*us 9 fact assum$ a c]ta9 angle to be #hg :i* is really #hi #ej'1 & ! angle subt5d$ at ! c5tre ( ! e>? by ! diamet] ( ei!r ! sun or ! moon to be #b1 :]eas we "k f ,ar*im$es t ,ari/>*us himself discov]$ t ! latt] angle is only #a_/b4 ,! effect ( ,ari/>*us's geometry is to f9d ari?metical limits to ! values ( :at are really trigonometrical ratios ( c]ta9 small angles1 namely #a_/ah s9 #c #a_/bj1 #a_/de s9 #a #a_/fj1 #a cos #a #hi_/ij4 ,! ma9 results obta9$ are 7#a7 t ! diamet] ( ! sun is betwe5 #ah & #bj times ! diamet] ( ! moon1 7#b7 t ! diamet] ( ! moon is betwe5 #b_/de?s & #a_/cj? ( ! di/ance ( ! c5tre ( ! moon f our eye1 & 7#c7 t ! diamet] ( ! sun is betwe5 #ai_/crds & #dc_/f?s ( ! diamet] ( ! e>?4 ,! book conta9s a good deal ( ari?metical calculation4 ,ar*im$es 0 born ab\t #bhg ,b4 ,c4 & 0 kill$ at ! sack ( ,syracuse by ,m>cellus's army 9 #bab ,b4 ,c4 ,! /ories ab\t him are well kn[n1 h[ he said ',give me a place to /& on1 & ,i w move ! e>?' 7 pa b kai k9 tan gan72 h[1 hav+ ?\ght ( ! solution ( ! problem ( ! cr[n :5 9 ! ba?1 he ran home nak$ %\t+ 1 heurka1 heurka2 & h[1 ! capture ( ,syracuse hav+ f\nd him int5t on a figure drawn on ! gr\nd1 he said to a ,roman soldi] :o came up1 ',/& away1 fell[1 f my diagram4' ,( 8 "w few p "k m ?an t he inv5t$ a tubul> screw :i* is /ill us$ = pump+ wat]1 & t = a long "t he foil$ ! attacks ( ! ,romans on ,syracuse by ! me*anical devices & eng9es :i* he us$ aga9/ !m4 ,b he ?\ght meanly ( ^! ?+s1 & 8 real int]e/ 0 9 pure ma!matical speculation2 he caus$ to be engrav$ on 8 tomb a repres5tation ( a cyl9d] circumscrib+ a sph]e1 ) ! ratio #c_/b :i* ! cyl9d] be>s to ! sph]e3 f :i* we inf] t he reg>d$ ?is z 8 greate/ discov]y4 ,ar*im$es's works are all orig9al1 & are p]fect models ( ma!matical exposition2 _! wide range w be se5 f ! li/ ( ^? :i* survive3 ,on ! ,sph]e & ,cyl9d] ,i1 ,,ii1 ,measurem5t ( a ,circle1 ,on ,conoids & ,sph]oids1 ,on ,spirals1 ,on ,plane ,equilibriums ,i1 ,,ii1 ! ,s&reckon]1 ,quadrature ( ! ,p>abola1 ,on ,float+ ,bodies ,i1 ,,ii1 & la/ly ! ,me?od 7only discov]$ 9 #aijf74 ,! difficult ,cattle-,problem is also attribut$ to him1 & a ,lib] ,assumptorum :i* has rea*$ u ?r\gh ! ,arabic1 b :i* _c be 8 9 its pres5t =m1 al?\gh "s ( ! propositions 9 x 7notably t ab\t ! ',sal9on'1 salt-cell>1 & o!rs ab\t circles inscrib$ 9 ! arblos1 %oemak]'s knife7 are q likely to be ( ,ar*im$ean orig94 ,among lo/ works 7 ! ,catoptrica1 ,on ,sph]e-mak+1 & inve/igations into polyh$ra1 includ+ ?irte5 semi-regul> solids1 ! discov]y ( :i* is attribut$ by ,pappus to ,ar*im$es4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! geometrical works are direct$ to ! measurem5t ( curvil9e> areas & volumes2 & ,ar*im$es employs a me?od :i* is a developm5t ( ,eudoxus's me?od ( exhau/ion4 ,eudoxus app>5tly approa*$ ! figure to be measur$ f bel[ only1 i4 e4 by means ( figures successively inscrib$ to x4 ,ar*im$es approa*es x f bo? sides by successively inscrib+ figures & circumscrib+ o!rs also1 !reby compress+ !m1 z x 71 until !y co9cide z ne>ly z we please ) ! figure to be measur$4 ,9 _m cases 8 proc$ure is1 :5 ! analytical equival5ts are set d[n1 se5 to am\nt to real integration2 ?is is s ) 8 inve/igation ( ! areas ( a p>abolic segm5t & a spiral1 ! surface & volume ( a sph]e1 & ! volume ( any segm5ts ( ! conoids & sph]oids4 ,! newly-discov]$ ,me?od is especially int]e/+ z %[+ h[ ,ar*im$es orig9ally obta9$ 8 results2 ?is 0 by a clev] me*anical me?od ( 7!oretically7 weigh+ inf9itesimal elem5ts ( ! figure to be measur$ aga9/ elem5ts ( ano!r figure ! area or cont5t ( :i* 7z ! case may be7 is kn[n2 x am\nts to an avoidance ( integration4 ,ar*im$es1 h[ev]1 w\ld only admit t ! me*anical me?od is useful = f9d+ results2 he did n consid] !m prov$ until !y 7 e/abli%$ geometrically4 ,9 ! ,measurem5t ( a ,circle1 aft] prov+ by exhau/ion t ! area ( a circle is equal to a "r-angl$ triangle ) ! p]p5dicul> sides equal respectively to ! radius & ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle1 ,ar*im$es f9ds1 by %e] calculation1 upp] & l[] limits to ! ratio ( ! circumf]5ce ( a circle to its diamet] 7:at we call p74 ,?is he does by inscrib+ & circumscrib+ regul> polygons ( #if sides & calculat+ approximately _! respective p]imet]s4 ,he beg9s by assum+ z kn[n c]ta9 approximate values = #c1 namely #acea_/ghj #c #bfe_/aec1 & 8 calculations involve approximat+ to ! squ>e roots ( sev]al l>ge numb]s 7up to sev5 digits74 ,! text only gives ! results1 b x is evid5t t ! extraction ( squ>e roots pres5t$ no difficulty1 not)/&+ ! comp>ative inconv5i5ce ( ! alphabetic sy/em ( num]als4 ,! result obta9$ is well kn[n1 namely #c-a_/g p #c-aj_/ga4 ,! ,plane ,equilibriums is ! fir/ sci5tific treatise on ! fir/ pr9ciples ( me*anics1 :i* are e/abli%$ by pure geometry4 ,! mo/ important result e/abli%$ 9 ,book ,i is ! pr9ciple ( ! lev]4 ,?is 0 kn[n to ,plato & ,ari/otle1 b !y _h no real pro(4 ,! ,ari/otelian ,me*anics m]ely 'ref]s' ! lev] 'to ! circle'1 ass]t+ t ! =ce :i* acts at ! great] di/ance f ! fulcrum moves ! sy/em m easily because x describes a great] circle4 ,ar*im$es also f9ds ! c5tre ( gravity ( a p>allelogram1 a triangle1 a trapezium & f9ally 79 ,book ,,ii7 ( a p>abolic segm5t & ( a portion ( x cut (f by a /raight l9e p>allel to ! base4 ,! ,s&reckon] is rem>kable = ! developm5t 9 x ( a sy/em = express+ v l>ge numb]s by ord]s & p]iods bas$ on p[]s ( myriad-myriads 7#aj1jjj74 ,x also conta9s ! important ref]5ce to ! helioc5tric !ory ( ! univ]se put =w>d by ,ari/>*us ( ,samos 9 a book ( 'hypo!ses'1 z well z hi/orical details ( previ\s attempts to measure ! size ( ! e>? & to give ! sizes & di/ances ( ! sun & moon4 ,la/ly1 ,ar*im$es inv5t$ ! :ole sci5ce ( hydro/atics4 ,beg9n+ ! treatise ,on ,float+ ,bodies ) an assumption ab\t uni=m pressure 9 a fluid1 he fir/ proves t ! surface ( a fluid at re/ is a sph]e ) its c5tre at ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,o!r propositions %[ t1 if a solid floats 9 a fluid1 ! weight ( ! solid is equal to t ( ! fluid displac$1 &1 if a solid heavi] ?an a fluid is weigh$ 9 x1 x w be light] ?an its true weight by ! weight ( ! fluid displac$4 ,!n1 aft] a second assumption t bodies :i* are =c$ upw>ds 9 a fluid are =c$ upw>ds along ! p]p5dicul>s to ! surface :i* pass ?r\gh _! c5tres ( gravity1 ,ar*im$es deals ) ! position ( re/ & /ability ( a segm5t ( a sph]e float+ 9 a fluid ) its base entirely above or entirely bel[ ! surface4 ,book ,,ii is an extraord9>y t\r de =ce1 inve/igat+ fully all ! positions ( re/ & /ability ( a "r segm5t ( a p>aboloid float+ 9 a fluid accord+ 7#a7 to ! relation betwe5 ! axis ( ! solid & ! p>amet] ( ! g5]at+ p>abola1 & 7#b7 to ! specific gravity ( ! solid 9 relation to ! fluid2 ! t]m 'specific gravity' is n us$1 b ! idea is fully express$ 9 o!r words4 ,almo/ contempor>y ) ,ar*im$es 0 ,erato/h5es ( ,cyr5e1 to :om ,ar*im$es d$icat$ ! ,me?od2 ! preface to ?is "w %[s t ,ar*im$es ?\ght highly ( 8 ma!matical ability4 ,he 0 inde$ recogniz$ by 8 contempor>ies z a man ( great di/9ction 9 all bran*es1 ?\gh ! names ,beta & ,p5ta?los#d appli$ to him indicate t he j fell bel[ ! fir/ rank 9 ea* subject4 ,ptolemy ,eu]getes appo9t$ him to be tutor to 8 son 7,philopator71 & he became libr>ian at ,alex&ria2 he recogniz$ 8 obligation to ,ptolemy by erect+ a column ) a graceful epigram4 ,9 ?is epigram he ref]r$ to ! e>li] solutions ( ! problem ( duplicat+ ! cube or f9d+ ! two mean proportionals1 & advocat$ 8 own 9 pref]5ce1 because x w\ld give any numb] ( means2 on ! column 0 fix$ a bronze repres5tation ( 8 appliance1 a frame ) "r-angl$ triangles 7or rectangles7 movable along two p>allel grooves & ov] "o ano!r1 toge!r ) a cond5s$ pro(4 ,! ,platonicus ( ,erato/h5es evid5tly dealt ) ! fundam5tal notions ( ma!matics 9 connexion ) ,plato's philosophy1 & seems to h begun ) ! /ory ( ! orig9 ( ! duplication problem4 #d ,?is ^w prim>ily means an all-r\nd a?lete1 a w9n] 9 all five ( ! sports con/itut+ ! p5ta?lon1 namely jump+1 discus-?r[+1 runn+1 wre/l+1 & box+ 7or javel9-?r[+74 ,! mo/ fam\s a*ievem5t ( ,erato/h5es 0 8 measurem5t ( ! e>?4 ,ar*im$es quotes an e>li] measurem5t :i* made ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? #cjj1jjj /ades4 ,erato/h5es improv$ ^u ?is4 ,he obs]v$ t at ! summ] sol/ice at ,sy5e1 at noon1 ! sun ca/ no %ad[1 :ile at ! same mom5t ! upright gnomon at ,alex&ria ca/ a %ad[ correspond+ to an angle betwe5 ! gnomon & ! sun's rays ( #a_/ej? ( f\r "r angles4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ,sy5e & ,alex&ria be+ kn[n to be #e1jjj /ades1 ?is gave = ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? #bej1jjj /ades1 :i* ,erato/h5es seems lat]1 = "s reason1 to h *ang$ to #beb1jjj /ades4 ,on ! mo/ probable assumption z to ! l5g? ( ! /ade us$1 ! #beb1jjj /ades give ab\t #g1hej miles1 only #ej miles less ?an ! true pol> diamet]4 ,9 ! "w ,on ! ,measurem5t ( ! ,e>? ,erato/h5es is said to h discuss$ o!r a/ronomical matt]s1 ! di/ance ( ! tropic & pol> circles1 ! sizes & di/ances ( ! sun & moon1 total & p>tial eclipses1 c4 ,besides o!r works on a/ronomy & *ronology1 ,erato/h5es wrote a ,geographica 9 ?ree books1 9 :i* he fir/ gave a hi/ory ( geography up to date & !n pass$ on to ma!matical geography1 ! sph]ical %ape ( ! e>?1 c41 c4 ,apollonius ( ,p]ga 0 ) ju/ice call$ by 8 contempor>ies ! ',great ,geomet]'1 on ! /r5g? ( 8 great treatise1 ! ,conics4 ,he is m5tion$ z a fam\s a/ronom] ( ! reign ( ,ptolemy ,eu]getes 7#bdg-bbb ,b4 ,c472 & he d$icat$ ! f\r? & lat] ,books ( ! ,conics to ,k+ ,attalus ,i ( ,p]gamum 7#bda-aig ,b4 ,c474 ,! ,conics1 a colossal "w1 orig9ally 9 eight ,books1 survives z to ! fir/ f\r ,books 9 ,greek & z to ?ree m 9 ,arabic1 ! eigh? be+ lo/4 ,f ,apollonius's prefaces we c judge ( ! relation ( 8 "w to ,euclid's ,conics1 ! cont5t ( :i* answ]$ to ! fir/ ?ree ,books ( ,apollonius4 ,al?\gh ,euclid knew t an ellipse c\ld be o!rwise produc$1 e4 g4 z an oblique section ( a "r cyl9d]1 !re is no d\bt t he produc$ all ?ree conics f "r cones l 8 pr$ecessors4 ,apollonius1 h[ev]1 obta9s !m 9 ! mo/ g5]al way by cutt+ any oblique cone1 & 8 orig9al axes ( ref]5ce1 a diamet] & ! tang5t at its extremity1 are 9 g5]al oblique2 ! fundam5tal prop]ties are f\nd ) ref]5ce to ^! axes by 'application ( areas'1 ! ?ree v>ieties ( :i*1 application 7 p>abol71 application ) an excess 7 hyp]bol7 & application ) a defici5cy 7 elleipsis71 give ! prop]ties ( ! ?ree curves respectively & acc\nt = ! names p>abola1 hyp]bola1 & ellipse1 by :i* ,apollonius call$ !m = ! fir/ "t4 ,! pr9cipal axes only appe>1 z a p>ticul> case1 aft] x has be5 %[n t ! curves h a l prop]ty :5 ref]r$ to any o!r diamet] & ! tang5t at its extremity1 in/ead ( ^? aris+ out ( ! orig9al con/ruction4 ,! fir/ f\r ,books con/itute :at ,apollonius calls an elem5t>y introduction2 ! rema9+ ,books are specializ$ inve/igations1 ! mo/ important be+ ,book ,v 7on normals7 & ,book ,,vii 7ma9ly on conjugate diamet]s74 ,normals are treat$1 n 9 connexion ) tang5ts1 b z m9imum or maximum /raight l9es drawn to ! curves f diff]5t po9ts or classes ( po9ts4 ,apollonius discusses su* que/ions z ! numb] ( normals t c be drawn f "o po9t 7accord+ to its position7 & ! con/ruction ( all su* normals4 ,c]ta9 propositions ( great difficulty enable u to d$uce q easily ! ,c>tesian equations to ! evolutes ( ! ?ree conics4 ,sev]al o!r works ( ,apollonius are describ$ by ,pappus z =m+ "p ( ! ',treasury ( ,analysis'4 ,all are lo/ except ! ,sectio ,rationis 9 two ,books1 :i* survives 9 ,arabic & 0 publi%$ 9 a ,lat9 translation by ,halley 9 #agjf4 ,x deals ) all possible cases ( ! g5]al problem 'giv5 two /raight l9es ei!r p>allel or int]sect+1 & a fix$ po9t on ea*1 to draw ?r\gh any giv5 po9t a /raight l9e :i* %all cut (f int]cepts f ! two l9es 7measur$ f ! fix$ po9ts7 be>+ a giv5 ratio to "o ano!r'4 ,! lo/ treatise ,sectio ,spatii dealt simil>ly ) ! l problem 9 :i* ! int]cepts cut (f h to conta9 a giv5 rectangle4 ,! o!r treatises includ$ 9 ,pappus's acc\nt are 7#a7 ,on ,det]m9ate ,section2 7#b7 ,contacts or ,tang5cies1 ,book ,,ii ( :i* is entirely devot$ to ! problem ( draw+ a circle to t\* ?ree giv5 circles 7,apollonius's solution c1 ) ! aid ( ,pappus's auxili>y propositions1 be satisfactorily re/or$72 7#c7 ,plane ,loci1 i4 e4 loci :i* are /raight l9es or circles2 7#d7 ,neuseis1 ,incl9ationes 7! g5]al problem call$ a neusis be+ to ins]t betwe5 two l9es1 /raight or curv$1 a /raight l9e ( giv5 l5g? v]g+ to a giv5 po9t1 i4 e4 s t1 if produc$1 x passes ?r\gh ! po9t1 ,apollonius re/rict$ himself to cases :i* c\ld be solv$ by 'plane' me?ods1 i4 e4 by ! /raight l9e & circle only74 ,apollonius is also said to h writt5 7#e7 a ,comp>ison ( ! dodecah$ron ) ! icosah$ron 7inscrib$ 9 ! same sph]e71 9 :i* he prov$ t _! surfaces are 9 ! same ratio z _! volumes2 7#f7 ,on ! co*lias or cyl9drical helix2 7#g7 a ',g5]al ,treatise'1 :i* app>5tly dealt ) ! fundam5tal assumptions1 c41 ( elem5t>y geometry2 7#h7 a "w on unord]$ irrationals1 i4 e4 irrationals ( m complicat$ =m ?an ^? ( ,eucl4 ,book ,x2 7#i7 ,on ! burn+-mirror1 deal+ ) sph]ical mirrors & probably ) mirrors ( p>abolic section also2 7#aj7 kytokion 7'quick deliv]y'74 ,9 ! la/-nam$ "w ,apollonius f\nd an approximation to p clos] ?an t 9 ,ar*im$es's ,measurem5t ( a ,circle2 & possibly ! book also conta9$ ,apollonius's exposition ( 8 notation = l>ge numb]s accord+ to 'tetrads' 7successive p[]s ( ! myriad74 ,9 a/ronomy ,apollonius is said to h made special rese>*es reg>d+ ! moon1 & to h be5 call$ e 7,epsilon7 because ! =m ( t lett] is associat$ ) ! moon4 ,he 0 also a ma/] ( ! !ory ( epicycles & ecc5trics4 ,) ,ar*im$es & ,apollonius ,greek geometry rea*$ its culm9at+ po9t2 inde$1 )\t "s m ela/ic notation & ma*9]y su* z algebra provides1 geometry 0 practically at ! end ( its res\rces4 ,= "s "t1 h[ev]1 !re 7 capable geomet]s :o kept up ! tradition1 fill+ 9 details1 devis+ alt]native solutions ( problems1 or discov]+ new curves = use or inve/igation4 ,nicom$es1 probably int]m$iate 9 date betwe5 ,erato/h5es & ,apollonius1 0 ! inv5tor ( ! con*oid or co*loid1 ( :i*1 accord+ to ,pappus1 !re 7 ?ree v>ieties4 ,diocles 7ab\t ! end ( ! second c5tury ,b4 ,c47 is kn[n z ! discov]] ( ! cissoid :i* 0 us$ = duplicat+ ! cube4 ,he also wrote a book p]i pyrein1 ,on burn+-mirrors1 :i* probably discuss$1 among o!r =ms ( mirror1 surfaces ( p>abolic or elliptic section1 & us$ ! focal prop]ties ( ! two conics2 x 0 9 ?is "w t ,diocles gave an indep5d5t & clev] solution 7by means ( an ellipse & a rectangul> hyp]bola7 ( ,ar*im$es's problem ( cutt+ a sph]e into two segm5ts 9 a giv5 ratio4 ,dionysodorus gave a solution by means ( conics ( ! auxili>y cubic equation to :i* ,ar*im$es r$uc$ ?is problem2 he also f\nd ! solid cont5t ( a tore or an*or-r+4 ,p]seus is kn[n z ! discov]] & inve/igator ( ! spiric sections1 i4 e4 c]ta9 sections ( ! speira1 "o v>iety ( :i* is ! tore4 ,! spire is g5]at$ by ! revolution ( a circle ab\t a /raight l9e 9 its plane1 :i* /raight l9e may ei!r be ext]nal to ! circle 79 :i* case ! figure produc$ is ! tore71 or may cut or t\* ! circle4 ,z5odorus 0 ! au?or ( a treatise on ,isometric figures1 ! problem 9 :i* 0 to comp>e ! cont5t ( diff]5t figures1 plane or solid1 hav+ equal cont\rs or surfaces respectively4 ,hypsicles 7second half ( second c5tury ,b4 ,c47 wrote :at became kn[n z ',book ,,xiv' ( ! ,elem5ts conta9+ supplem5t>y propositions on ! regul> solids 7p>tly drawn f ,ari/aeus & ,apollonius72 he seems also to h writt5 on polygonal numb]s4 ,a m$iocre a/ronomical "w 7 ,anaphorikos7 attribut$ to him is ! fir/ ,greek book 9 :i* we f9d ! division ( ! zodiac circle into #cfj p>ts or degrees4 ,posidonius ! ,/oic 7ab\t #ace-ea ,b4 ,c47 wrote on geography & a/ronomy "u ! titles ,on ! ,ocean & p]i metern4 ,he made a new b faulty calculation ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? 7#bdj1jjj /ades74 ,p] contra1 9 a sep>ate tract on ! size ( ! sun 79 refutation ( ! ,epicurean view t x is z big z x looks71 he made assumptions 7p>tly guesswork7 :i* give = ! diamet] ( ! sun a figure ( #c1jjj1jjj /ades 7#ci-a_/d times ! diamet] ( ! e>?71 a result mu* ne>] ! tru? ?an ^? obta9$ by ,ari/>*us1 ,hipp>*us1 & ,ptolemy4 ,9 elem5t>y geometry ,posidonius gave c]ta9 def9itions 7notably ( p>allels1 bas$ on ! idea ( equidi/ance74 ,gem9us ( ,rhodes1 a pupil ( ,posidonius1 wrote 7ab\t #gj ,b4 ,c47 an encyclopa$ic "w on ! classification & cont5t ( ma!matics1 includ+ ! hi/ory ( ea* subject1 f :i* ,proclus & o!rs h pres]v$ notable extracts4 ,an-,nairz 7an ,arabian comm5tator on ,euclid7 reproduces an attempt by "o ',aganis'1 :o appe>s to be ,gem9us1 to prove ! p>allel-po/ulate4 ,b f ?is "t onw>ds ! /udy ( high] geometry 7except spha]ic7 seems to h langui%$1 until t admirable ma!matician1 ,pappus1 arose 7t[>ds ! end ( ! ?ird c5tury ,a4 ,d47 to revive int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,f ! way 9 :i*1 9 8 great ,collection1 ,pappus ?9ks x necess>y to describe 9 detail ! cont5ts ( ! classical works belong+ to ! ',treasury ( ,analysis' we ga!r t by 8 "t _m ( !m _h be5 lo/ or =gott51 & t he aim$ at no?+ less ?an re-e/abli%+ geometry at its =m] level4 ,no "o c\ld h be5 bett] qualifi$ = ! task4 ,presumably su* int]e/ z ,pappus 0 able to ar\se soon flick]$ out2 b 8 ,collection rema9s1 aft] ! orig9al works ( ! great ma!maticians1 ! mo/ compreh5sive & valuable ( all our s\rces1 be+ a h&book or guide to ,greek geometry & cov]+ practically ! :ole field4 ,among ! orig9al ?+s 9 ,pappus's ,collection is an enunciation :i* am\nts to an anticipation ( :at is kn[n z ,guld9's ,!orem4 ,x rema9s to speak ( ?ree subjects1 trigonometry 7repres5t$ by ,hipp>*us1 ,m5elaus1 & ,ptolemy71 m5suration 79 ,h]on ( ,alex&ria71 & algebra 7,diophantus74 ,al?\gh1 9 a s5se1 ! beg9n+s ( trigonometry g back to ,ar*im$es 7,measurem5t ( a ,circle71 ,hipp>*us 0 ! fir/ p]son :o c be prov$ to h us$ trigonometry sy/ematically4 ,hipp>*us1 ! greate/ a/ronom] ( antiquity1 ^: obs]vations 7 made betwe5 #afa & #abf ,b4 ,c41 discov]$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 calculat$ ! mean lun> mon? at #bi days1 #ab h\rs1 #dd m9utes1 #b-a_/b seconds 7:i* diff]s by less ?an a second f ! pres5t accept$ figure671 made m correct e/imates ( ! sizes & di/ances ( ! sun & moon1 introduc$ great improvem5ts 9 ! in/rum5ts us$ = obs]vations1 & compil$ a catalogue ( "s #hej />s2 he seems to h be5 ! fir/ to /ate ! position ( ^! />s 9 t]ms ( latitude & longitude 79 relation to ! ecliptic74 ,he wrote a treatise 9 twelve ,books on ,*ords 9 a ,circle1 equival5t to a table ( trigonometrical s9es4 ,= calculat+ arcs 9 a/ronomy f o!r arcs giv5 by means ( tables he us$ propositions 9 sph]ical trigonometry4 ,! ,spha]ica ( ,!odosius ( ,bi?ynia 7writt51 say1 #bj ,b4 ,c47 conta9s no trigonometry4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! ,spha]ica ( ,m5elaus 7fl4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajj7 extant 9 ,arabic2 ,book ,i ( ?is "w conta9s propositions ab\t sph]ical triangles correspond+ to ! ma9 propositions ( ,euclid ab\t plane triangles 7e4g4 congru5ce !orems & ! proposition t 9 a sph]ical triangle ! ?ree angles are toge!r great] ?an two "r angles71 :ile ,book ,,iii conta9s g5u9e sph]ical trigonometry1 consi/+ ( ',m5elaus's ,!orem' ) ref]5ce to ! sph]e & d$uctions !refrom4 ,ptolemy's great "w1 ! ,syntaxis1 writt5 ab\t ,a4 ,d4 #aej & orig9ally call$ ,ma?matik syntaxis1 came to be kn[n z ,megal syntaxis2 ! ,arabs made up f ! sup]lative megi/os ! ^w al-,maji/i :i* became ,almage/4 ,book ,i1 conta9+ ! necess>y prelim9>ies to ! /udy ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 gives a ,table ( ,*ords 9 a circle subt5d$ by angles at ! c5tre ( increas+ by half-degrees to #ahj4 ,! circle is divid$ into #cfj moirai1 p>ts or degrees1 & ! diamet] into #abj p>ts 7 tmmata72 ! *ords are giv5 9 t]ms ( ! latt] ) sexagesimal fractions 7e4 g4 ! *ord subt5d$ by an angle ( #abj is #ajcp #ec #bc74 ,! ,table ( ,*ords is equival5t to a table ( ! s9es ( ! halves ( ! angles 9 ! table1 =1 if 7crd4 #b a7 repres5ts ! *ord subt5d$ by an angle ( #b a 7crd4 #b a7_/#abj s9 a4 ,ptolemy fir/ gives ! m9imum numb] ( geometrical propositions requir$ = ! calculation ( ! *ords4 ,! fir/ ( ^! f9ds 7crd4 #cf7 & 7crd4 #gb7 f ! geometry ( ! inscrib$ p5tagon & decagon2 ! second 7',ptolemy's ,!orem' ab\t a quadrilat]al 9 a circle7 is equival5t to ! =mula = s9 7-7 ?-ph1 ! ?ird to t = s9 ?4 ,f 7crd4 #gb7 & 7crd4 #fj7 ,ptolemy1 by us+ ^! propositions successively1 d$uces 7crd4 #a7 & 7crd4 71 f :i* he obta9s 7crd4 #a7 by a clev] int]polation4 ,to complete ! table he only ne$s 8 f\r? proposition1 :i* is equival5t to ! =mula = cos 77 ?ph4 ,ptolemy wrote o!r m9or a/ronomical works1 mo/ ( :i* survive 9 ,greek or ,arabic1 an ,optics 9 five ,books 7f\r ,books almo/ complete 7 translat$ into ,lat9 9 ! twelf? c5tury71 & an attempt$ pro( ( ! p>allel-po/ulate :i* is reproduc$ by ,proclus4 ,h]on ( ,alex&ria 7date unc]ta92 he may h liv$ z late z ! ?ird c5tury ,a4 ,d47 0 an almo/ encyclopa$ic writ] on ma!matical & physical subjects4 ,he aim$ at practical utility r ?an !oretical complet5ess2 h5ce1 ap>t f ! int]e/+ collection ( ,def9itions :i* has come d[n "u 8 "n1 & 8 comm5t>y on ,euclid :i* is repres5t$ only by extracts 9 ,proclus & an-,nairz1 8 geometry is mo/ly m5suration 9 ! %ape ( num]ical examples work$ out4 ,z ^! c\ld be indef9itely multipli$1 !re 0 a temptation to add to !m & to use ,h]on's "n4 ,h[ev] mu* ( ! sep>ate works edit$ by ,hults* 7! ,geometrica1 ,geodaesia1 ,/]eometrica1 ,m5surae1 ,lib] geponicus7 is g5u9e1 we mu/ n[ reg>d z m au?oritative ! g5u9e ,metrica discov]$ at ,con/ant9ople 9 #ahif & edit$ by ,h4 ,s*ne 9 #aijc 7,teubn]74 ,book ,i on ! measurem5t ( areas is specially int]e/+ = 7#a7 its /atem5t ( ! =mula us$ by ,h]on = f9d+ approximations to surds1 7#b7 ! elegant geometrical pro( ( ! =mula = ! area ( a triangle ,d s 7s-a7 7s-b7 7s-c71 a =mula n[ kn[n to be due to ,ar*im$es1 7#c7 an allusion to limits to ! value ( p f\nd by ,ar*im$es & m exact ?an ! #c-a_/g & #c-aj_/ga obta9$ 9 ! ,measurem5t ( a ,circle4 ,book ,i ( ! ,metrica calculates ! areas ( triangles1 quadrilat]als1 ! regul> polygons up to ! dodecagon 7! areas ev5 ( ! heptagon1 enneagon1 & h5decagon are approximately evaluat$71 ! circle & a segm5t ( x1 ! ellipse1 a p>abolic segm5t1 & ! surfaces ( a cyl9d]1 a "r cone1 a sph]e & a segm5t !re(4 ,book ,,ii deals ) ! measurem5t ( solids1 ! cyl9d]1 prisms1 pyramids & cones & fru/a !re(1 ! sph]e & a segm5t ( x1 ! an*or-r+ or tore1 ! five regul> solids1 & f9ally ! two special solids ( ,ar*im$es's ,me?od2 full use is made ( all ,ar*im$es's results4 ,book ,,iii is on ! division ( figures4 ,! plane portion is mu* on ! l9es ( ,euclid's ,divisions 7( figures74 ,! solids divid$ 9 giv5 ratios are ! sph]e1 ! pyramid1 ! cone & a fru/um !re(4 ,incid5tally ,h]on %[s h[ he obta9$ an approximation to ! cube root ( a non-cube numb] 7#ajj74 ,quadratic equations are solv$ by ,h]on by a regul> rule n unlike our me?od1 & ! ,geometrica conta9s two int]e/+ indet]m9ate problems4 ,h]on also wrote ,pneumatica 7:]e ! read] w f9d su* ?+s z siphons1 ,h]on's ,f\nta91 p5ny-9-!-slot ma*9es1 a fire-eng9e1 a wat]-organ1 & _m arrangem5ts employ+ ! =ce ( /eam71 ,automaton-mak+1 ,belopoeca 7on eng9es ( w>71 ,catoptrica1 & ,me*anics4 ,! ,me*anics has be5 edit$ f ! ,arabic2 x is 7except = consid]able fragm5ts7 lo/ 9 ,greek4 ,x deals ) ! puzzle ( ',ari/otle's ,:eel'1 ! p>allelogram ( velocities1 def9itions (1 & problems on1 ! c5tre ( gravity1 ! di/ribution ( weights betwe5 sev]al supports1 ! five me*anical p[]s1 me*anics 9 daily life 7qu]ies & answ]s74 ,pappus cov]s mu* ! same gr\nd 9 ,book ,,viii ( 8 ,collection4 ,we come1 la/ly1 to ,algebra4 ,problems involv+ simple equations are f\nd 9 ! ,papyrus ,rh9d1 9 ! ,epan!ma ( ,?ym>idas already ref]r$ to1 & 9 ! ari?metical epigrams 9 ! ,greek ,an?ology 7,plato alludes to ?is class ( problem 9 ! ,laws1 #hai ,b1 ,c72 ! ,an?ology ev5 includes two cases ( indet]m9ate equations ( ! fir/ degree4 ,! ,py?agoreans gave g5]al solutions 9 rational numb]s ( ! equations xyz & #bx-y#a1 :i* are indet]m9ate equations ( ! second degree4 ,! fir/ to make sy/ematic use ( symbols 9 algebraical "w 0 ,diophantus ( ,alex&ria 7fl4 ab\t ,a4 ,d4 #bej74 ,he us$ 7#a7 a sign = ! unkn[n quantity1 :i* he calls ari?mos1 & comp5dia = its p[]s up to ! six?2 7#b7 a sign 7,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,symbol7 ) ! effect ( our m9us4 ,! latt] sign probably repres5ts ,,li1 an abbreviation = ! root ( ! ^w leipe9 7to be want+72 ! sign = ari?mos 7,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,symbol7 is mo/ likely an abbreviation = ! lett]s ar2 ! comp5dia = ! p[]s ( ! unkn[n are ,d,y = dynamis1 ! squ>e1 ,k,y = kybos1 ! cube1 & s on4 ,diophantus %[s t he solv$ quadratic equations by rule1 l ,h]on4 ,8 ,ari?metica1 ( :i* six books only 7out ( ?irte57 survive1 conta9s a c]ta9 numb] ( problems lead+ to simple equations1 b is mo/ly devot$ to indet]m9ate or semi-det]m9ate analysis1 ma9ly ( ! second degree4 ,! collection is extraord9>ily v>i$1 & ! devices resort$ to are highly +5i\s4 ,! problems solv$ are su* z ! foll[+ 7fractional z well z integral solutions be+ admitt$73 ',giv5 a numb]1 to f9d ?ree o!rs su* t ! sum ( ! ?ree1 or ( any pair ( !m1 toge!r ) ! giv5 numb] is a squ>e'1 ',to f9d f\r numb]s su* t ! squ>e ( ! sum plus or m9us any "o ( ! numb]s is a squ>e'1 ',to f9d ?ree numb]s su* t ! product ( any two plus or m9us ! sum ( ! ?ree is a squ>e'4 ,diophantus assumes z kn[n c]ta9 !orems ab\t numb]s :i* are ! sums ( two & ?ree squ>es respectively1 & o!r propositions 9 ! ,!ory ( ,numb]s4 ,he also wrote a book ,on ,polygonal ,numb]s ( :i* only a fragm5t survives4 ,) ,pappus & ,diophantus ! li/ ( orig9al writ]s on ma!matics comes to an end4 ,aft] !m came ! comm5tators ^: names only c be m5tion$ "h4 ,!on ( ,alex&ria1 ! editor ( ,euclid1 liv$ t[>ds ! end ( ! f\r? c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,to ! fif? & six? c5turies belong ,proclus1 ,simplicius1 & ,eutocius1 to :om we c nev] be grateful en\gh = ! preci\s fragm5ts :i* !y h pres]v$ f works n[ lo/1 & p>ticul>ly ! ,hi/ory ( ,geometry & ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy by ,ari/otle's pupil ,eudemus4 ,su* is ! /ory ( ,greek ma!matical sci5ce4 ,if any?+ c\ld enhance ! m>vel ( x1 x w\ld be ! consid]ation ( ! %ortness ( ! "t 7ab\t #cej ye>s7 )9 :i* ! ,greeks1 />t+ f ! v beg9n+1 br\ght geometry to ! po9t ( p]=m+ op]ations equival5t to ! integral calculus &1 9 ! realm ( a/ronomy1 actually anticipat$ ,cop]nicus4 ,t4 ,l4 ,,hea?4 ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,ari/otle ,!re is a little essay ( ,goe!'s call$1 simply1 ,die ,natur4 ,x comes among ^? tracts on ,natural ,sci5ce 9 :i* ! poet & philosoph] turn$ 8 re/less m9d to problems ( light & col\r1 ( leaf & fl[]1 ( bony skull & k9dr$ v]tebra2 & x s\nds l a prose-poem1 a noble paean1 eulogiz+ ! love & glorify+ ! /udy ( ,nature4 ,"s tw5ty-five hundr$ ye>s be=e1 ,anaxim&] _h writt5 a book ) ! same title1 ,conc]n+ ,nature1 p]i physes3 b its subject 0 n ! same4 ,x 0 a v>iant ( ! old traditional cosmogonies4 ,x told ( h[ 9 ! beg9n+ ! e>? 0 )\t =m & void4 ,x s\ght to trace all ?+s back to ! ,inf9ite1 to apeiron--to ,t :i* kn[s no b\nds ( space or "t b is be=e all worlds1 & to ^: bosom aga9 all ?+s1 all worlds1 return4 ,= ,goe! ,nature meant ! beauty1 ! all b s5su\s beauty ( ! _w2 = ! old] philosoph] x 0 ! my/]y ( ! ,creative ,_s4 ,?an ,nature1 9 ,goe!'s s5se1 no !me is m famili> to u1 = :om _m a poet tells ! /ory & _m a less] poet e*oes ! conceit2 b if !re be any:]e 9 ,greek su* ov]t praise & wor%ip ( ,nature's beauty1 ,i _c call x to m9d4 ,yet 9 ,lat9 ! div9i gloria ruris is prais$ & ,natura da$ala r]um wor%ipp$1 z we are wont to praise & wor%ip !m1 = _! own sweet sakes4 ,x is "o ( ! ways1 "o ( ! simpl] ways1 9 :i* ! ,roman _w seems ne>] to u ?an ! ,greek3 & n only seems1 b is s4 ,= comp>$ ) ! great e>ly civilizations1 ,rome is mod]n & ( ! ,we/2 :ile1 draw h] close z we may to our he>ts1 ,greece br+s along ) h] a brea? ( ! ,ea/ & a :isp] ( remote antiquity4 ,a ,tuscan g5tleman ( to-day1 l a ,roman g5tleman ( ye/]day1 is at he>t a husb&man1 l ,cato2 he is ruris amator1 l ,horace2 he gets him to 8 little f>m or v9ey>d 7,o rus1 qu&o te aspiciam671 l ,atticus or ! y\ng] ,pl9y4 ,z ,bacon prais$ 8 g>d51 s does ,pl9y praise 8 f>m1 ) its cornfields & mead[l&1 v9ey>d & woodl&1 or*>d & pa/ure1 bee-hives & fl[]s4 ,t ,god made ! c\ntry & man made ! t[n 0 7long be=e ,c[p]7 a say+ ( ,v>ro's2 b 9 ,greek ,i c ?9k ( no su* apoph!gm4 ,z ,s*ill] puts x1 ! ,greeks look$ on ,nature ) _! m9ds m ?an ) _! he>ts1 nor ev] clung to h] ) outspok5 admiration & affection4 ,& ,humboldt1 ass]t+ 7z ,i w\ld d7 t ! portrayal ( nature1 = h] own sake & 9 all h] manifold div]sity1 0 =eign to ! ,greek idea1 decl>es t ! l&scape is always ! m]e backgr\nd ( _! picture1 :ile _! =egr\nd is fill$ ) ! affairs & actions & ?\ghts ( m54 ,b all ! :ile1 z 9 "s old ,italian picture--( ,dom5i*9o or ,albani or ,leon>do himself--! subord9at$ backgr\nd is delicately trac$ & exquisitely beautiful2 & sometimes we come to value x 9 ! end m ?an all ! re/ ( ! composition4 ,deep d[n 9 ! love ( ,nature1 :e!r x be ( ! s5sual or intellectual k9d1 & 9 ! art ( obs]vation :i* is its outcome & fir/ expression1 lie ! roots ( all our ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,all ! _w ov] ^! are ! h]itage ( all m51 ?\gh ! inh]itance be ri*] or poor] "h & !re3 !y are %[n =? 9 ! lore & wisdom ( hunt] & fi%]man1 ( %eph]d & husb&man1 ( arti/ & poet4 ,! natural hi/ory ( ! anci5ts is n en%r9$ 9 ,ari/otle & ,pl9y4 ,x p]vades ! va/ lit]ature ( classical antiquity4 ,= all we may say ( ! retic5ce ) :i*1 ! ,greeks proclaim x1 x greets u nobly 9 ,hom]1 x s+s to u 9 ,anacreon1 ,sicilian %eph]ds tune _! pipes to x 9 ,!ocritus3 & anon 9 ,virgil we dream ( x to ! coo ( doves & ! s\nd ( bees' indu/ri\s murmur4 ,n only f su* great names z ^! d we rea* ! lett] & ! _s ( anci5t ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,we mu/ g a-w&]+ into ! by-ways ( lit]ature4 ,we mu/ eke out ! sci5tific treatises ( ,ari/otle & ,pl9y by help ( ! fragm5ts :i* rema9 ( ! works ( su* naturali/s z ,speusippus or ,alex&] ! ,myndian2 add to ! famili> /ories ( ,h]odotus ! ,indian tales ( ,ctesias & ,mega/h5es2 sit ) ,a!naeus & 8 fri5ds at ! supp] table1 glean+ f cook & epicure1 li/5+ to ! m]ry idle troop ( convivial g5tlem5 capp+ v]ses & sp9n+ y>ns2 read ,x5ophon's treatise on ,hunt+1 /udy ! didactic poems1 ! ,cynegetica & ,halieutica1 ( ,oppian & ( ,ovid4 ,& !n aga9 we may h>k back to ! great] _w ( lett]s1 :]e9 poet & s*ol>1 f petty fabuli/ to ! great dramati/s1 f ,hom]'s maje/y to ,lucian's wit1 %>e 9 ! love ( ,nature & enliv5 ! delicate backgr\nd ( _! /ory ) allusions to bea/ & bird4 ,su* allusions1 ref9$ at fir/ by art & hall[$ at la/ by famili> memory1 lie treasur$ 9 m5's he>ts & en%r9e !mselves 9 our noble/ lit]ature4 ,take1 ( a ?\s& cr[d+ in/ances1 t great passage 9 ! ,iliad :]e ! ,greek ho/1 disemb>k+ on ! pla9s ( ! ,scam&]1 is lik5$ to a migrat+ flock ( cranes or geese or long-neck$ swans1 z !y fly pr\dly ov] ! ,asian mead[s & alight scream+ by ,cay/]'s /ream--& ,virgil e*oes m ?an once ! famili> l9es4 ,! crane 0 a well-kn[n bird4 ,its l(ty flight br+s x1 aga9 9 ,hom]1 to ! v gates ( heav54 ,hesiod & ,p9d> speak ( its f>-(f cry1 he>d f above ! cl\ds3 & t x 'obs]v$ ! "t ( its com+'1 'intellig5t ( seasons'1 0 a prov]b old 9 ,hesiod's day--:5 ! crane signall$ ! approa* ( w9t]1 & :5 x bade ! husb&man make ready to pl\gh4 ,x foll[s ! pl\gh1 9 ,!ocritus1 z p]si/5tly z ! wolf ! kid & ! peasant-lad 8 swee!>t4 ,! discipl9e ( ! migrat+ cranes1 ! s]ri$ w$ge ( _! ranks 9 flight1 ! good ord] ( ! re/+ flock1 are (t51 & (t5 fancifully1 describ$4 ,ari/otle records h[ !y h an appo9t$ lead]1 :o keeps wat* by night & 9 flight keeps call+ to ! lagg>ds2 & all ?is old /ory ,euripides1 ! mo/ naturali/ic ( ! great trag$ians1 puts into v]se3 ,! ord]$ ho/ ( ,libyan birds avoids ,! w9try /orm1 ob$i5t to ! call ,( _! old lead]1 pip+ to 8 flock4 ,la/ly1 ,milton ga!rs up ! _s & ! lett] ( ^! & _m ano!r anci5t allusion to ! migrat+ cranes3 ,"p loosely w+ ! region2 "p m wise1 ,9 common rang$ 9 figure1 w$ge _! way ,intellig5t ( seasons1 & set =? ,_! a]y c>avan1 high ov] seas ,fly+1 & ov] l&s2 ) mutual w+ ,eas+ _! flight2 s /e]s ! prud5t crane4 ,b ! natural hi/ory ( ! poets is a /ory )\t an end1 & 9 our e/imation1 h[ev] brief x be1 ( anci5t k1 !re are o!r matt]s to be consid]$1 & o!r po9ts ( view :]e we mu/ take our /&4 ,:5 we consid] ! sci5ce ( ! ,greeks1 & come quickly to love x & sl[ly to see h[ great x 01 we likewise see t x 0 re/rict$ z comp>$ ) our own1 curi\sly p>tial or p>ticul> 9 its limitations4 ,! practical & 'useful' sci5ces ( *emi/ry1 me*anics1 & eng9e]+1 :i* 9 our mod]n _w cr[d ! o!rs to ! wall1 are abs5t altoge!r1 or s conceal$ t we =get & pass !m by4 ,ma!matics is en?ron$ high ov] all1 z x is meet %e %\ld be2 & ( unconte/$ "r %e occupies h] ?rone c5tury aft] c5tury1 f ,py?agoras to ,proclus1 f ! scatt]$ s*ools ( e>ly ,hell5ic civilization to ! rise & fall ( ! great ,alex&r9e ,univ]sity4 ,ne> beside h] sits1 f ( old1 ! daught]-sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy2 & ^! twa9 7 wor%ipp$ by ! greate/ sci5tific intellects ( ! ,greeks4 ,b ?\gh we d n he> ( !m nor read ( !m1 we mu/ n suppose = a mom5t t ! practical or te*nical sci5ces 7 lack+ 9 s ri* & complex a civilization4 ,*9a1 t mo/ glori\s ( all liv+ monum5ts ( ,antiquity1 tells u no?+ ( h] own *emi/ry1 b we "k t x is !re4 ,peep into a ,*9ese t[n1 walk ?r\gh its n>r[ /reets1 ?rong$ b quiet1 :]e9 !re is nei!r rumbl+ ( coa*es nor rattl+ ( :eels1 & y %all see ! ne>e/ ?+ on e>? to :at we he> ( ,syb>is4 ,to ! production ( ^? gl[+ silks & delicate porcela9s & f9e metal-"w has gone a va/ /ore ( *emical k1 traditional & empirical4 ,s 0 x1 precisely1 9 anci5t ,greece2 & ,plato knew t x 0 s--t ! dy]1 ! p]fum]1 & ! apo!c>y _h subtle arts1 a subtle sci5ce ( _! own1 a sci5ce n to be belittl$ nor despis$4 ,we may pass "h & !re by dilig5t se>* f conjecture to assurance2 analyse a pigm5t1 an alloy or a slag2 discov] f an old] record ?an ! ,greeks'1 ! *emical prescription :]e) an ,egyptian pr9cess d>k5$ h] eyes1 or /udy ! pictur$ he>?1 bell[s1 ov51 crucibles ) :i* ! foll[]s ( ,tubal-,ca9 smelt$ _! ore4 ,once 9 a way1 b seldom1 d we meet ) anci5t *emi/ry ev5 9 ,greek lit]ature4 ,!re is a curi\s passage 7its text is faulty & ! translation h>d7 9 ! /ory ( ! ,argonauts1 :]e ,m$ea concocts a magic brew4 ,%e put div]s h]bs 9 x1 h]bs yield+ col\r$ juices su* z saffl[] & alkanet1 & soapwort & fleawort to give consi/5cy or 'body' to ! lye2 %e put 9 alum & blue vitriol 7or sulphate ( copp]71 & %e put 9 blood4 ,! magic brew 0 no m & no less ?an a dye1 a r$ or purple dye1 & a prodigi\s deal ( *emi/ry _h gone to ! mak+ ( x4 ,= ! copp] 0 !re to produce a 'lake' or copp]-salt ( ! vegetable alkaloids1 :i* copp]-lakes are among ! mo/ brilliant & mo/ p]man5t ( col\r+ matt]s2 ! alum 0 !re z a 'mordant'2 & ev5 ! blood 0 d\btless !re incorporat$ = bett] reasons ?an sup]/iti\s ones1 9 all probability = ! purpose ( cl>ify+ 7by means ( its coagulat+ album57 ! see?+ & turbid brew4 ,! ',orphic' v]sion ( ! /ory1 9 :i* ?is passage occurs1 is probably an ,alex&r9e compilation1 & :e!r ! +r$i5ts ( ! brew _h be5 "p ( ! anci5t leg5d or 7 m]ely sugge/$ to ! poet by ! k ( 8 own day we _c tell2 9 ei!r case ! prescription is old en\gh1 & is at lea/ pre-,byzant9e by a few c5turies4 ,su* z x is1 x does n /& alone4 ,o!r fragm5ts ( anci5t *emi/ry1 m or less ak9 to x1 h be5 ga!r$ toge!r2 9 ,gal5's book on ,! mak+ ( ,simples1 9 ,pl9y1 9 ,paulus ,aeg9eta1 & = t matt] 9 c]ta9 ,egyptian papyri 7especially a c]ta9 v fam\s "o1 /ill extant1 ( :i* ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria speaks z a secret or 'h]metic' book71 we c trace ! brok5 & scatt]$ /ones ( a great edifice ( anci5t *emi/ry4 ,nev]!less1 all ?is weight ( *emical le>n+ figures scantily 9 lit]ature1 & is conspicu\sly abs5t f our conception ( ! natural g5ius ( ! ,greeks4 ,we h no reason to suppose t anci5t *emi/ry1 or any "p ( x1 0 ev] peculi>ly ,greek1 or t ?is sci5ce 0 ! especial prop]ty ( any nation :atsoev]2 moreov] x 0 a trade1 or a bundle ( trades1 ^: trade-secrets 7 too preci\s to be reveal$1 & s con/itut$ n a sci5ce b a my/]y4 ,s has x always be5 ) *emi/ry1 ! mo/ cosmopolitan ( sci5ces1 ! mo/ secret ( arts4 ,quietly & /eal?ily x crept ?r\gh ! _w2 ! t9k] br\ght x ) 8 sold] & 8 flux2 ! ,african tribes :o 7 ! fir/ work]s 9 iron pass$ x on to ! great metallurgi/s :o =g$ ,damascan & ,tol$an /eel4 ,?is 'trade' ( ,*emi/ry 0 nev] a sci5ce = a ,g5tleman1 z philosophy & ma!matics 72 & ,plato1 greate/ ( philosoph]s1 0 "o ( ! greate/ ( g5tlem54 ,long1 long aft]w>ds1 ,ox=d said ! same ?+ to ,rob]t ,boyle--t ,*emi/ry 0 no prop] avocation = a g5tleman2 b he ?\ght o!rwise1 & ! 'bro!r ( ! ,e>l ( ,cork' became ! ,fa!r ( sci5tific ,*emi/ry4 ,n[ ,i take x t 9 reg>d to biology ,ari/otle did mu* ! same ?+ z ,boyle1 break+ ?r\gh a simil> tradition2 & h]e9 "o ( ! greate/ ( 8 great s]vices is to be f\nd4 ,!re 0 a weal? ( natural hi/ory be=e 8 "t2 b x belong$ to ! f>m]1 ! huntsman1 & ! fi%]man--) some?+ ov] 7d\btless7 = ! s*oolboy1 ! idl]1 & ! poet4 ,b ,ari/otle made x a sci5ce1 & won a place = x 9 ,philosophy4 ,he did = x j :at ,py?agoras _h done 7z ,proclus tells u7 = ma!matics 9 an e>li] age1 :5 he disc]n$ ! philosophy und]ly+ ! old empirical art ( 'geometry'1 & made x ! basis ( 'a lib]al education'4#e #e 4 epi de t\tois ,py?agoras tn p]i autn philosophian eis s*ma paideias eleu!r\ mete/s54 ,procli ,comm5t4 ,euclidis lib4 ,i1 ,prolegom4 ,,ii 7p4 #fe1 ed4 ,fri$le974 ,! ,m$it]ranean fi%]man1 l ! ,*9ese fi%]man or ! ,japanese1 has /ill1 & always has _h1 a wide k ( all t p]ta9s to & accompanies 8 craft4 ,our ,scotti% fi%]m5 h a limit$ vocabul>y1 :i* sc>ce ext5ds beyond ! names ( ! few common fi%es ) :i* ! m>ket is suppli$4 ,b at ,m>seilles or ,g5oa or 9 ! ,levant !y h names = _m hundr$s ( species1 ( fi% & %ell-fi% & cuttle-fi% & worms & corall9es1 & all mann] ( swimm+ & creep+ ?+s2 !y "k a va/ deal ab\t ! habits ( _! lives1 f> m1 sometimes1 ?an d we 'sci5tific m5'2 !y are naturali/s by tradition & by trade4 ,nei!r1 by ! way1 mu/ we =get ! anci5t m$ical & anatomical le>n+ ( ! great ,aesculapian guild1 nor ! /ill m recondite k possess$ by v>i\s prie/hoods 7aga9 l _! bre?r5 ( to-day 9 ,*9a & ,japan7 ( ! sev]al creatures1 sacr$ fi%1 pigeons1 gu9ea-f[l1 snakes1 cuttlefi%1 & :at n1 :i* "t out ( m9d !y _h re>$1 t5d$1 & v5]at$4 ,( :at new facts ,ari/otle actually discov]$ x is impossible to be sure4 ,c\ld x ev] be prov$ t he discov]$ _m1 or c\ld x ev5 be %[n t ( 8 own h& he discov]$ no?+ at all1 x w\ld affect b little our e/imate ( 8 greatness & our admiration ( 8 le>n+4 ,he 0 ! fir/ ( ,greek philosoph]s & g5tlem5 to see t all ^! ?+s 7 good to "k & wor?y to be told4 ,?is 0 8 great discov]y4 ,i h s\ght else:]e to %[ t ,ari/otle sp5t two ye>s1 ! happie/ ye>s p]haps ( all 8 life--a long honeymoon--by ! sea-side 9 ! isl& ( ,mytil5e1 aft] he _h m>ri$ ! little ,pr9cess1 & be=e he began ! h>d "w ( 8 life3 be=e he taught ,alex&] 9 ,mac$on1 & long be=e he spoke urbi et orbi 9 ! ,lyceum4 ,"h x 0 t he le>n$ ! great bulk ( 8 natural hi/ory1 9 :i*1 wide & g5]al z x is1 ! ?+s ( ! sea h f fir/ to la/ a notable pr$om9ance4 ,i h tri$ to illu/rate else:]e 7z _m ano!r writ] has done7 some?+ ( ! v>iety & ! dep? ( ,ari/otle's k ( animals--*oos+ an example "h & !re1 b only draw+ a little wat] f an inexhau/ible well4 ,a fam\s case is t ( ! 'molluscs'1 :]e ei!r ,ari/otle's k 0 exceptionally m9ute1 or :]e x has come d[n to u ) unusual complet5ess4 ,^! are ! cuttle fi%1 :i* h n[ surr5d]$ _! ,ari/otelian "n ( 'molluscs' to t great] gr\p :i* is se5 to include !m1 toge!r ) ! %ell-fi% or 'o/racod]ma' ( ,ari/otle4 ,^! cuttle-fi%es are creatures t we seldom see1 b 9 ! ,m$it]ranean !y are an article ( food & _m k9ds are kn[n to ! fi%]m54 ,all or wellnigh all ( ^! _m k9ds 7 kn[n to ,ari/otle4 ,he describ$ _! =m & _! anatomy1 _! habits1 _! developm5t1 all ) su* fai?ful accuracy t :at we c add to-day seems ( second>y importance4 ,he beg9s ) a me?odical description ( ! g5]al =m1 tells u ( ! body & f9s1 ( ! eight arms ) _! r[s ( suck]s1 ( ! abnormal position ( ! head4 ,he po9ts out ! two long arms ( ,sepia & ( ! calam>ies1 & _! abs5ce 9 ! octopus2 & he tells u1 :at 0 only confirm$ ( late1 t ) ^! two long arms ! creature cl+s to ! rock & sways ab\t l a %ip at an*or4 ,he describes ! great eyes1 ! two big tee? =m+ ! beak2 & he dissects ! :ole /ructure ( ! gut1 ) its long gullet1 its r\nd crop1 its /oma* & ! little coil$ coecal div]ticulum3 dissect+ n only "o b sev]al species1 & not+ diff]5ces t 7 n obs]v$ aga9 till ,cuvi] re-dissect$ !m4 ,he describes ! funnel & its relation to ! mantle-sac1 & ! ink-bag1 :i* he %[s to be l>ge/ 9 ,sepia ( all o!rs4 ,& "h1 by ! way1 he seems to make "o ( ^? app>5t errors t1 z x happ5s1 turn out to be ju/ifi$3 = he tells u t 9 ,octopus1 unlike ! re/1 ! funnel is on ! upp] side2 ! fact be+ t :5 ! creature lies prone ^u ! gr\nd1 ) all its arms outspread1 ! funnel-tube 7in/ead ( be+ flatt5$ out b5ea? ! creature's pro/rate body7 is long en\gh to protrude upw>ds betwe5 arms & head1 & to appe> on "o side or o!r !re(1 9 a position app>5tly ! rev]se ( its natural "o4 ,he describes ! "* ( ! cuttle-bone 9 ,sepia1 & ( ! horny p5 :i* takes its place 9 ! v>i\s calam>ies1 & notes ! lack ( any simil> /ructure 9 ,octopus4 ,he dissects 9 bo? sexes ! reproductive organs1 not+ )\t exception all _! ess5tial & complicat$ p>ts2 & he _h figur$ ^! 9 8 lo/ volume ( anatomical diagrams4 ,he describes ! v>i\s k9ds ( eggs1 &1 ) /ill m surpris+ k1 %[s u ! little embryo cuttle-fi%1 ) its great yolk-sac atta*$1 9 app>5t contra/ to ! *ick's1 to ! little creature's develop+ head4 ,b !re is "o o!r rem>kable feature t he knew ages be=e x 0 r$iscov]$1 almo/ 9 our own "t4 ,9 c]ta9 male cuttle-fi%es1 9 ! bre$+ season1 "o ( ! arms develops 9 a curi\s fa%ion into a long coil$ :ip-la%1 & 9 ! act ( bre$+ may !n be transf]r$ to ! mantle-cavity ( ! female4 ,cuvi] himself knew no?+ ( ! nature or ! function ( ?is sep>at$ arm1 & inde$1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 x 0 he :o mi/ook x = a p>asitic worm4 ,b ,ari/otle tells u ( its use & its tempor>y developm5t1 & ( its /ructure 9 detail1 & 8 description tallies closely ) ! acc\nts ( ! mo/ rec5t writ]s4 ,a sc>cely less m9ute acc\nt foll[s ( ! ',malaco/raca' or cru/aceans1 ! lob/]s & ! crabs1 ! %rimps & ! prawns1 & o!rs ( _! k9d1 a *apt] to :i* ,cuvi] devot$ a celebrat$ essay4 ,!re be _m k9ds ( crabs--! common k9d1 ! big 'granny' crabs1 ! little horsem5-crabs1 t scamp] ov] ! s& & :i* are = ! mo/ "p empty1 t is to say1 ^: respiratory cavities are exceptionally l>ge2 & !re are ! fre%wat] crabs4 ,!re are ! little %rimps & ! big hump-back$ fell[s1 or prawns2 !re are ! 'crangons' or squillae2 & ! big lob/]s & ! crawfi% or 'lang\/es'1 _! sp9y c\s9s4 ,we read ab\t _! beady eyes1 :i* turn e way2 ab\t _! big r\gh ant5nae & ! small]1 smoo!r pair betwe52 ! great tee?1 or m&ibles2 ! c>apace ) its project+ ro/rum1 ! jo9t$ abdom5 ) ! tail-f9s at ! end1 & ! little flaps bel[ on :i* ! female drops h] spawn4 ,9 m or less detail ^! ?+s are sev]ally describ$1 & ! _m limbs sev]ally enum]at$1 9 "o k9d aft] ano!r4 ,! descriptions ( ! lob/] & ! lang\/e are p>ticul>ly m9ute1 & ! comp>ison or contra/ betwe5 ! two is drawn ) elaborate precision4 ,9 ! =m]1 besides o!r diff]5ces betwe5 male & female1 ! female is said to h ! 'fir/ foot' 7or leg7 bifurcate1 :ile 9 ! male x is undivid$4 ,x seems a trifl+ matt]1 b x is true2 x is s small a po9t t ,i se>*$ long be=e at la/ ,i f\nd m5tion made ( x 9 a ,g]man monograph4 ,! puzzl+ ?+ is t x is 7z we %\ld say7 ! la/ & n ! fir/ leg :i* is s di/+ui%$2 b aft] all1 x is only a conv5tion ( our own to c\nt ! limbs f be=e backw>ds4 ,to inspect a lob/]'s limbs1 we lay x on its back 7z ,ari/otle did71 & see ! legs ov]lapp+1 ea* h9d] "o above ! "o be=e2 ! h9dmo/ is ! fir/ we see1 & ! "o we mu/ fir/ lift up to inspect ! o!rs4 ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( fi%es is a prodigi\s hi/ory ( habits1 food1 migrations1 modes ( capture1 times & ways ( spawn+1 & anatomical details2 b x is n "h t we c elucidate or ev5 illu/rate ?is a/oni%+ ,i*?yology4 ,x is n always easy to und]/&--b ! ob/acle lies (t51 ,i take x1 9 our own ignorance4 ,! id5tification ( species is n always pla91 = "h z else:]e ,ari/otle did n reckon ) a "t or place :]e ! famili> words ( ,greek %\ld be unkn[n or _! homely significance =gott54 ,among ! great ho/ ( fi%-names !re are sev]al ref]r+1 someh[ or o!r1 to ! ,grey ,mullet1 :i* puzzle bo? naturali/ & lexicograph]4 ,a "y (fic] told me ! o!r day h[ he _h wat*$ an ,arab fi%]man empty+ out 8 creel ( ,grey ,mullet on "s ,syrian bea*1 & ! ,arab gave f\r if n five names to z _m diff]5t k9ds1 betwixt :i* my fri5d c\ld see no diff]5ce :atsoev]4 ,_h my fri5d be5 an i*?yologi/ he w\ld d\btless h notic$ t "o _h eyelids & ! o!rs none2 t "o _h little bru%es on its lips1 ano!r a small b wide-op5 slit "u ! jaw1 ano!r a yell[ spot on its gill-cov]s1 & s on4 ,! ,mullets are a difficult gr\p1 b ,ari/otle1 l ! ,arab fi%]man1 evid5tly recogniz$ _! f9e di/9ctions & employ$ ! appropriate names4 ,aga91 ,ari/otle speaks ( a c]ta9 ne/-build+ fi%1 ! 'phycis'1 & reg>d+ ?is ,cuvi] fell into error 7:]e once ^u a "t ,i foll[$ him74 ,9 ,cuvi]'s "t !re 0 b "o ne/-build+ fi% kn[n su* z to suit1 app>5tly1 ! passage1 namely ! little black goby2 b aft] ,cuvi]'s day ! ne/-build+ habits ( ! 'wrasses' became kn[n to naturali/s1 z !y _h d\btless be5 kn[n ages be=e to ! fi%]m5--& to ,ari/otle4 ,l almo/ e o!r little po9t on :i* we happ5 to t\*1 we might make ?is "o ! />t+-po9t 7"h comes 9 ! delight & fasc9ation ( ! int]pret]'s task67 = o!r /ories4 ,speusippus1 ,plato's successor 9 ! ,academy1 0 bo? philosoph] & naturali/1 & we may take x1 if we please1 t 8 lean+ t[>ds biology1 & ! biological tr5d :i* at ?is "t became m & m m>k$ 9 ,a!nian philosophy1 7 n unconnect$ ) ! great impulse :i* ,ari/otle _h giv54 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ,speusippus wrote a book p]i ,homoin ',conc]n+ ,resemblances'2 & ?is1 ( :i* we only possess a few fragm5t>y s5t5ces1 mu/ h be5 a v curi\s & an int]e/+ book4 ,he m5tions1 among o!r simil> cases1 t our little fi% phycis has a close outw>d semblance to ! sea-p]*2 & ?is is en\gh to cl9* ! pro( t ,ari/otle's ne/-build+ fi% 0 n a goby b a wrasse4 ,! :ole purport ( ,speusippus's book seems to h be5 to discuss h[1 or :y1 ) all ,nature's app>5tly inf9ite v>iety1 c]ta9 animals h a s+ul>ly close resemblance to c]ta9 o!rs1 ?\gh !y be q di/9ct 9 k9d4 ,x is a problem :i* p]plexes u /ill1 :5 we are a/oni%$ & ev5 delud$ by ! lik5ess betwe5 a wasp & a hov]-fly1 a m]l9 & a cuckoo4 ,9 c]ta9 extreme cases we call x 'mimicry'1 & invoke hypo!ses to acc\nt = ?is 'mimetic' resemblance2 & ^? ( u :o reject ^! hypo!ses mu/ fa9 take refuge 9 o!rs1 z f>-rea*+ 9 _! way4 ,?is at lea/ we "k1 t ,speusippus seiz$ ^u a real problem ( biology1 ( la/+ int]e/ & ev5 ( fundam5tal importance4 ,to come back to ,ari/otle & 8 fi%es1 let u glance at "o little po9t m4 ,! reproduction ( ! eel is an anci5t puzzle1 :i* has f\nd its full solution only 9 our own day4 ,:ile ! salmon1 = in/ance1 comes up ! riv] to bre$ & goes d[n aga9 to ! sea1 ! eel goes d[n to ! ocean to spawn1 & ! old eels come back no m b p]i% 9 ! great wat]s4 ,! eel's egg develops into a little flatt5$1 transp>5t fi%1 altoge!r diff]5t 9 outw>d appe>ance f an eel1 :i* turns aft]w>ds into a "y eel or 'elv]'2 & ,pr(essor ,grassi1 :o _h a big %>e 9 elucidat+ ! :ole matt]1 tells u ! curi\s fact t he f\nd ! ,sicilian fi%]m5 well acqua9t$ ) ! little transp>5t l>va 7! ,leptocephalus ( mod]n naturali/s71 t !y knew well :at x 01 & t !y _h a "n = x--,cas5tula4 ,n[ ,ari/otle1 9 a passage :i* ,i ?9k has be5 mu* misund]/ood 7& :i* we mu/ admit to be 9 "p errone\s71 tells u t ! eel develops f :at he calls gs ent]a1 a ^w :i* we translate1 lit]ally1 ! 'guts ( ! e>?'1 & :i* comm5tators int]pret z 'e>?worms'6 ,b 9 ,sicilian ,doric1 gs ent]a w\ld at once become gas ent]a2 & betwe5 ',gas5t]a' & ! mod]n ,sicilian ',cas5tula' !re is sc>ce a hairbread?'s diff]5ce4 ,s we may be p]mitt$ to suppose t "h aga9 ,ari/otle 0 s+ul>ly & accurately in=m$2 & t he knew by sight & "n ! little l>va ( ! eel1 ^: discov]y & id5tification is "o ( ! mode/ triumphs ( rec5t inve/igation4 ,ari/otle's _m pages on fi%es are delightful read+4 ,! anatomi/ may read ( su* recondite matt]s z ! plac5ta vitell9a ( ! smoo? dog-fi%1 :]eby ! vivip>\s embryo is n\ri%$ )9 ! womb1 aft] a fa%ion analog\s to t ( mammalian embryology--a ph5om5on br\ght to light anew by ,johannes ,mll]1 & :i* excit$ him to en?usia/ic admiration ( ,ari/otle's m9ute & fai?ful anatomy4 ,aga9 we may read ( ! p]iodic migration ( ! tunnies1 ( ! great net or 'madrague' 9 :i* !y are captur$1 & ( ! wat*m51 ! ?ynnoskopoi1 ! 'hoo]s' ( our anci5t ,corni% fi%]y1 :o give w>n+ f t[] or headl& ( ! approa*+ %oal4 ,! /ud5t may le>n :at mann] ( fi% x 0 7! great ,eagle-ray7 ) ^: b>b$ f9-sp9e--mo/ primitive ( spe>-heads--,ulysses 0 sla92 & aga91 he may le>n n a little ab\t t n>k1 or torp$o1 to :i* ,m5o comp>$ 8 ma/] ,socrates1 9 a some:at ambigu\s complim5t4 ,9 rambl+ fa%ion ,ari/otle has a deal to tell u ab\t insects1 & he has left u a sort ( treatise on ! :ole natural hi/ory ( ! bee4 ,he knew ! sev]al inmates ( ! hive1 ?\gh l o!rs ( 8 day 7save1 p]haps1 only ,x5ophon71 & l ,%akespe>e too1 he took ! que5-bee = a k+4 ,he describes ! build+ ( ! comb1 ! lay+ ( ! eggs1 ! provision ( ! l>vae ) food4 ,he discusses ! v>i\s qualities ( honey & ! fl[]s f :i* ^! are drawn4 ,he is le>n$ 9 ! diseases & ! enemies ( bees4 ,he tells u _m curi\s ?+s ab\t ! economy ( ! hive & ! arts ( ! bee-keep]1 "s ( :i* ?+s h a v mod]n & famili> look ab\t !m3 = in/ance1 ! use ( a net or scre5 to keep out ! drones1 a net s nicely contriv$ t ^! /urdy fell[s are j kept out1 :ile ! lean]1 sl5d]] work]s are j let 94 ,b x w\ld be a long1 long /ory to tell ( ,ari/otle's k ( ! bee1 & to comp>e x ) :at is1 haply1 ! /ill deep] skill & le>n+ ( t ma/] ( bee-craft1 ,virgil4 ,!n1 hav+ p]fect fre$om to g :i!rsoev] we *ose & to foll[ ! bees across ! b\ndless fields ( anci5t lit]ature1 we might read ( ! wild bees & ( _! honey out ( a rock1 & ( ! hive-bees too1 9 ,hom]2 foll[ !m to _! fir/ leg5d>y home 9 ,crete1 :]e ! infant ,jupit] 0 f$ on honey--z a baby's lips are t\*$ ) x ev5 unto ?is day2 trace _! association ) ,pros]p9e & h] "m1 or _! subtl] connexion ) ,ephesian ,diana2 f9d 9 ! poets1 f ,hesiod to ! lat] ,an?ology1 a hundr$ sweet ref]5ces--to ! bee-tree 9 ! oak-wood1 to ! fl[]y hill ,hymettus4 ,p]haps1 at la/1 we might ev5 happ5 on ! place :]e ,orig5 seems s /rangely to =e%ad[ ,%akespe>e--speak+ ( ! k+ ( ! bees ) 8 ret9ue ( c\rti]s 78 (fic]s ( sorts71 ! relays ( workm5 7! poor me*anic port]s cr[d+ 971 ! puni%m5t ( ! idle 7:]e "s1 l magi/rates1 correct at home71 ! w>s1 ! vanqui%$1 & ! plund] 7:i* pillage !y ) m]ry m>* br+ home ,to ! t5t-royal ( _! ,emp]or74 ,g back to ,ari/otle1 & we may li/5 to him aga9 :ile he talks ( _m o!r k9dr$ insects3 ( ! humble-bee & its k9d1 ( ! mason-bee ) its h>d r\nd ne/ ( clay1 ( ! robb]-bees1 & ( ! v>i\s wasps & hornets2 or 7/ill m curi\sly & unexpect$ly7 ( ! hunt]-wasp or 'i*neumon'1 & h[ x kills ! spid]1 c>ries x home to its ne/1 & lays its eggs 9 its poor body1 t ! little wasp-grubs may aft]w>ds be f$4 ,or aga9 ( ! great wasps :i* he calls ,an?r5ae1 & h[ !y *ase ! big flies1 & cut (f _! heads1 & fly away ) ! re/ ( ! c>cass--all agree+ to ! v lett] ) :at ,h5ri ,fabre tells u ( a c]ta9 l>ge wasp ( ,s\!rn ,europe1 & h[ x captures ! big 'taons' or horse-flies3 ',p\r donn] le c\p de grce leurs ,taons mal sacrifis1 et se dbattants encore entre les pattes du ravisseur1 j'ai vu des ,bembex m*onn] la tte et le ?orax des victimes4' ,v]ily1 !re is no?+ new "u ! sun4 ,) ! metamorphoses ( v>i\s insects ,ari/otle 0 well acqua9t$4 ,he knew h[ ! h\se-fly passes its e>ly /ages 9 a dung-hill1 & h[ ! grubs ( ! big horse-flies & ,tabanids live 9 decay$ wood2 h[ c]ta9 little flies or gnats are eng5d]$ 7z he calls x7 9 ! slime ( v9eg>4 ,he relates ) great c>e & accuracy ! life-hi/ory ( ! common gnat1 f its aquatic l>va1 ! little r$ 'blood-worm' ( our pools2 he describes !m wriggl+ ab\t l t9y bits ( r$ we$1 9 ! wat] ( "s half-empty well2 & he expla9s1 f9ally1 ! *ange by :i* !y become /iff & motionless & h>d1 until a husk breaks away & ! little gnat is se5 sitt+ ^u x2 & by & by ! sun's heat or a puff ( w9d />ts x (f1 & away x flies4 ,"s ( ^! /ories are inde$ rem>kable1 = ! ev5ts relat$ are m or less hidd5 & obscure2 & s1 ) all ?is k at h&1 x is n a little /range t ,ari/otle has v little inde$ to tell u ab\t ! f> m obvi\s ph5om5a ( ! life-hi/ory ( ! butt]fly1 & ( ! sev]al k9ds ( butt]flies & mo?s4 ,he does tell u briefly t ! butt]fly comes f a cat]pill>1 :i* lives on cabbage-leaves & fe$s voraci\sly1 !n turns into a *rysalis & eats no m1 nor has x a m\? to eat )al2 x is h>d &1 z x 71 dead1 b yet x moves & wriggles :5 y t\* x1 & aft] a :ile ! husk bur/s & out comes ! butt]fly4 ,! acc\nt is good en\gh1 s f> z x goes1 b nev]!less ,ari/otle %[s no affection = ! butt]fly1 does n l+] & dally ov] x1 tells no /ories ab\t x4 ,?is is all ( a piece ) ! re/ ( ,greek lit]ature1 & poetry 9 p>ticul>1 :]e allusions to ! butt]fly are scanty & r>e4 ,i ?9k ! ,greeks f\nd some?+ om9\s or uncanny1 some?+ n to be lightly spok5 (1 9 t all b disembodi$ _s :i* we call a butt]fly1 & !y call$ by ! "n ( psy*1 ! ,s\l4 ,!y _h a curi\s "n 7 nekydallos7 = ! pupa4 ,x s\nds l a 'little corpse' 7 nekys72 & l a little corpse )9 its %r\d or c(f9 ! pupa sleeps 9 its cocoon4 ,a late poet describes ! butt]fly 'com+ back f ! grave to ! light ( day'2 & c]ta9 ( ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1 ,/4 ,basil 9 p>ticul>1 po9t ! moral accord+ly1 & draw a d\btless "t-hon\r$ allegory ( ! ,resurrection & ! ,life f ! grub :i* is n dead b sleepe?1 & ! butt]fly :i* 7z x 77 is rais$ 9 glory4 ,( "o l>ge mo?1 ,ari/otle gives u an acc\nt :i* has be5 a puzzle to _m4 ,?is beg9s z a great grub or cat]pill>1 ) 7z x 77 horns2 &1 gr[+ by easy /ages1 x sp9s at l5g? a cocoon4 ,!re is a class ( wom5 :o unw9d & reel (f ! cocoons1 & aft]w>ds weave a fabric ) ! ?read2 & a c]ta9 woman ( ,cos is cr$it$ ) ! inv5tion ( ?is fabric4 ,?is is1 at fir/ sight1 a pla9 & /raight=w>d description ( ! silkworm2 b we "k t x 0 n till long aft]w>ds1 ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s aft]1 9 ,ju/9ian's reign1 t ! silkworm & ! mulb]ry-tree :i* is its food 7 br\ght out ( ! ,ea/ into ,byzant9e ,greece4 ,we le>n some?+ ( ?is ,coan silkworm f ,pl9y1 :o tells u t x liv$ on ! a% & oak & cypress tree2 & f ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria & o!r ( ! ,fa!rs we glean a little m--= in/ance1 t ! l>va 0 cov]$ ) ?ick-set hairs1 & t ! cocoon 0 ( a loose mat]ial some?+ l a spid]'s web4 ,all ?is agrees 9 e p>ticul> ) a c]ta9 l>ge mo? 7,lasiocampa otus71 :i* sp9s a r\gh cocoon n unlike t ( our ,emp]or mo?1 & lives 9 s\?-ea/]n ,europe1 fe$+ on ! cypress & ! oak4 ,_m o!r silkworms besides ! true or common "o are /ill employ$1 worms :i* yield ! ,tussore silks ( ,india & o!r k9dr$ silks 9 ,japan2 & s likewise 0 ?is r\gh silky fabric spun & wov5 9 ,hellas1 until 9 c\rse ( "t x 0 surpass$ & sup]s$$ by ! f9] produce ( ! ',s]ic worm'1 & ! old] indu/ry di$ out & 0 utt]ly =gott54 ,ere we leave ! subject ( insects let u l+] a mom5t ov] "o :i* ! ,greeks lov$1 & lov$ mo/ ( all4 ,:5 z s*oolboys we fir/ began to read our ,?ucydides1 we met 9 ! v beg9n+ ) ! /ory ( h[ ri* ,a!nians wore ,gold5 ,gras%opp]s 7z ! s*oolma/] calls !m7 9 _! hair4 ,^! gold5 ornam5ts 71 ( c\rse1 no common gras%opp]s1 b ! little ,cicadas1 ^: %>p *irrup seem$ delightful music to ! ,greeks4 ,x is unpleasant to our e>s1 z ,br[n+ f\nd x2 b 9 a multitude ( ,greek poets1 9 ,alcaeus & ,anacreon & all ?r\gh ! :ole ,an?ology1 we he> its praise4 ,we h x1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,birds3 ,?\gh ! hot sun be %9+ 9 ! sky ,9 ! deep fl[]y mead[-grass ,i lie3 ,to li/5 to ! %rill melodi\s tune ,( crickets1 ?rill$ to ec/asy at noon4 ,( ?is famili> & belov$ insect ,ari/otle gives a copi\s acc\nt4 ,he describes two sep>ate species1 :i* we /ill recognize easily2 a l>g] "o & ! bett] s+]1 ! o!r small] & ! fir/ to come & la/ to g ) ! summ] season4 ,he recogniz$ ! curi\s vocal organ1 or vibratory drum1 at ! cicada's wai/1 & saw t "s cicadas possess$ x & o!rs n2 & he knew1 z ! poets also knew1 t x 0 ! males :o sang1 :ile _! wives li/5$ & 7 sil5t4 ,he tells h[ ! cicada is abs5t f treeless c\ntries1 z1 = in/ance1 f ,cyr5e 7& :y1 ,i wond]1 does he g all ! way to ,cyr5e = 8 illu/ration871 nei!r is x he>d 9 deep & sunless woods2 b 9 ! olive-groves y he> x at its be/1 = an olive-grove is sp>se & ! sun comes ?r\gh4 ,!n he tells u briefly1 b ) rem>kable accuracy1 ! /ory ( ! creature's life3 h[ ! female1 ) h] long ovipositor1 lays h] eggs deep d[n 9 dead1 holl[ twigs1 su* z ! canes on :i* ! v9es are propp$2 h[ ! brood1 :5 !y escape f ! egg1 burr[ und]gr\nd2 h[ lat] on !y em]ge1 especially 9 ra9y wea!r1 :5 ! ra9s h s(t5$ ! soil2 h[ !n ! l>va *anges into ano!r =m1 ! s-call$ 'nymph'2 & h[ at la/1 :5 summ] comes1 ! sk9 ( ! nymph breaks & ! p]fect insect issues =?1 *anges col\r1 & beg9s to s+4 ,9 ,ari/ophanes1 9 ,!ocritus1 9 ,lucretius1 ,virgil1 ,m>tial1 & 9 ! ,an?ology1 we may ga!r up a ho/ ( poetical allusions to ! natural hi/ory ?us simply epitomiz$4 ,! ,book ab\t ,animals1 ! ,hi/oria ,animalium z we say1 f :i* ,i h quot$ ^! few examples ( ,ari/otle's /ore ( in=mation1 may be tak5 to repres5t ! fir/ necess>y /age ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,!re is a k9d ( manual philosophy 7z old ,"l ,monboddo call$ x7 :i* inve/igates facts :i* escape ! vulg>1 & may be call$ ! anecdotes or secret hi/ory ( nature4 ,9 ?is fasc9at+ pursuit ,gilb]t ,:ite excell$1 & ,john ,ray & _m ano!r--! :ole bro!rhood ( simple naturali/s4 ,b su* accumulat$ k ( facts is b ! f\ndation ( a philosophy2 & 'no?+ des]ves ! "n ( philosophy1 except :at expla9s ! causes & pr9ciples ( ?+s'4 ,ari/otle w\ld h done mu* _h he m]ely %[n 7z ,gilb]t ,:ite %[$ to ! c\ntry g5tlem5 ( 8 day7 t ! m9ute obs]vation ( nature 0 some?+ wor? ! s*ol> & ! g5tleman's :ile2 b1 f> m ?an ?is1 he made a ,sci5ce ( natural k1 & set x once = all )9 ! realm ( ,philosophy4 ,he set x side by side ) ! m anci5t sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy1 :i* = _m hundr$ ye>s 9 ,egypt & ! ,ea/1 & = "s few c5turies 9 ,hellas1 _h occupi$ ! m9d ( philosoph]s & ! att5tion ( educat$ m54 ,i h quot$ be=e a great s5t5ce 9 :i* he expla9s 8 purpose1 & makes excuse = 8 tem]ity4 ',! glory1 d\btless1 ( ! heav5ly bodies fills u ) m delight ?an ! contemplation ( ^! l[ly ?+s2 = ! sun & />s are born n1 nei!r d !y decay1 b are et]nal & div9e4 ,b ! heav5s are high & af> (f1 & ( cele/ial ?+s ! k t our s5ses give u is scanty & dim4 ,! liv+ creatures1 on ! o!r h&1 are at our door1 & if we s desire x we may ga9 ample & c]ta9 k ( ea* & all4 ,we take pleasure 9 ! beauty ( a /atue1 %all n !n ! liv+ fill u ) delight2 & all ! m if 9 ! _s ( philosophy we se>* = causes & recognize ! evid5ces ( design4 ,!n w nature's purpose & h] deep-seat$ laws be ev]y:]e reveal$1 all t5d+ 9 h] multitud9\s "w to "o =m or ano!r ( ! ,beautiful4' ,ari/otle's volum9\s writ+s h come d[n to u ?r\gh _m grave vicissitudes4 ,! greate/ ( !m all are happily intact1 or v ne>ly s2 b "s are lo/ & o!rs h suff]$ disord] & corruption4 ,! "w kn[n z ! ',p>ts ( ,animals' op5s 7z our text has x7 ) a *apt] :i* seems meant = a g5]al exordium to ! :ole s]ies ( biological treatises2 & ,i "k no *apt] 9 all ,ari/otle's books :i* bett] %[s 79 pla9] ,engli% or easi] ,greek7 ! ma/]-h& ( ! great ,tea*] & ,philosoph]4 ,he beg9s by tell+ u 7x has ev] s9ce be5 a common say+7 t e sci5ce1 e bran* ( k1 admits ( two sorts ( pr(ici5cy--t :i* may prop]ly be t]m$ sci5tific k1 & t :i* is )9 ! rea* ( ord9>y educat$ m54 ,he proce$s to discuss ! 'me?od' ( sci5tific inquiry1 :e!r we %\ld beg9 ) ! specific & proce$ to ! g5]al1 or :e!r we are to deal fir/ ) common or g5]ical *>act]s & !reaft]w>d ) special peculi>ities4 ,are we entitl$ to treat ( animals1 z is done 9 ma!matical a/ronomy1 by deal+ fir/ ) facts or ph5om5a & !n proce$+ to discov] & relate _! sev]al causes8 ,at once ?is leads to a brief discussion 7elaborat$ else:]e7 ( ! two great ,causes1 or aspects ( cause--! f9al cause & ! 'mov+' or effici5t cause--! reason :y or ! purpose = :i*1 & ! antec$5t cause :i*1 ( necessity1 br+s a ?+ to be su* z x is4 ,"h is "o ( ! great crucial que/ions ( philosophy1 & ,ari/otle's lean+ to ! side ( ! ,f9al ,cause has be5 a dom9ant influ5ce ^u ! m9ds ( m5 ?r\gh\t ! :ole hi/ory ( le>n+4 ,emp$ocles _h tak5 ano!r view3 he held t ! ra9 comes :5 x li/e?1 or '( necessity'2 t we h no "r to suppose x comes to make ! corn gr[ 9 spr+1 any m ?an to spoil ! autumn %eaves3 t ! tee? gr[ by ! op]ation ( "s natural 7or physical7 law1 & t _! app>5t & und\bt$ fitness = cutt+ & gr9d+ is n purposeful b co9cid5t2 t ! backbone is divid$ into v]tebrae because ( ! antec$5t =ces1 or flexions1 :i* act ^u x 9 ! womb4 ,& ,emp$ocles proce$s to ! great evolution>y d$uction1 ! cle> prevision ( ,d>w9's philosophy1 t fit & unfit arise alike1 b t :at is fit to survive does survive & :at is unfit p]i%es4 ,! /ory is f> too long & ! !me involv$ too grave & difficult = treatm5t "h4 ,b ,i w\ld v5ture to sugge/ t ,ari/otle incl9$ to slur ov] ! physical & lean ! m to ! f9al cause1 = ?is simple reason 7:atev] o!r reasons !re may be71 t he 0 a bett] biologi/ ?an a physici/3 t he lack$ some:at ! ma!matical turn ( m9d :i* 0 intr9sic to ! old] s*ools ( philosophy4 ,= bett] = worse ! c\rse he took1 ! *oice he made1 0 ( incalculable import1 & _h p[] = c5turies to guide 7d>e we say1 to bias7 ! tea*+ ( ! s*ools1 ! progress ( le>n+1 & ! inn]mo/ beliefs ( m54 ,9 ?is "o %ort b pregnant *apt] ( ,ari/otle's !re is f> m ?an we c hope ev5 to epitomize4 ,he has mu* to say 9 x ( 'classification'1 an important matt] inde$1 & he discusses x z a great logician %\ld1 9 all its rig\r4 ,_m comm5tators h s\ght = ,ari/otle's 'classification ( animals'2 = my "p ,i h nev] f\nd x1 &1 9 our s5se ( ! ^w1 ,i am c]ta9 x is n !re4 ,an unb5d+1 un*ang+ classification ( animals w\ld h be5 some?+ =eign to all 8 logic2 x is all v well1 x becomes practically necess>y1 :5 we h to arrange our animals on ! %elves ( a museum or 9 ! arid pages ( a 'sy/ematic' catalogue2 & x takes a new complexion :51 or if1 we c atta9 to a real or hi/orical classification1 foll[+ l9es ( actual desc5t & bas$ on prov5 facts ( hi/orical evolution4 ,b ,ari/otle 7z x seems to me7 nei!r 0 b\nd to a museum catalogue nor indulg$ 9 visions ei!r ( a complete scala naturae or ( an hypo!tical phylog5y4 ,he classifi$ animals z he f\nd !m2 &1 z a logician1 he _h a di*otomy = e diff]5ce :i* pres5t$ itself to 8 m9d4 ,at "o "t he divid$ animals into ^? ) blood & ^? )\t1 at ano!r into ! air-brea!rs & ! wat]-brea!rs2 into ! wild & ! tame1 ! social & ! solit>y1 & s on 9 endless ways besides4 ,at ! same "t he _h a quick eye = ! great natural gr\ps1 su* 'g5]a' 7z he call$ !m7 z ,fi% or ,bird1 ,insect or ,mollusc4 ,s x comes to pass t1 :ile he fa%ion$ no h>d & fa/ s*eme ( classification1 & w\ld und\bt$ly 7,i hold7 h ?\ght x va9 to d s1 ! ?reads ( 8 sev]al p>tial or tempor>y classifications come toge!r aft] all1 ?\gh 9 a some:at hazy patt]n1 yet 9 a v beautiful & coh]5t p>ti-col\r$ web4 ,& ?\gh 8 ord] is n always our ord]1 yet a c]ta9 exquisite ord]l9ess is ( ! v ess5ce ( 8 ?\ght & /yle4 ,x is ! *>act]i/ic :i* ,molire hits ^u 9 ,les ,femmes savantes1--',je m'atta*e p\r l'ordre au pripattisme'4 ,be=e he f9i%es ! great *apt] ( :i* we h begun to speak he indicates t !re are m ways ?an "o ( relat+1 or classify+1 our facts2 t1 = in/ance1 x may be equally prop] & necess>y to deal n[ ) ! animals & _! sev]al p>ts or prop]ties1 & at ano!r "t ) ! p>ts or prop]ties z su*1 expla9+ & illu/rat+ !m 9 turn by ! sev]al animals :i* display or possess !m4 ,! ',p>ts ( ,animals' is1 !n1 a coroll>y1 a necess>y coroll>y1 to ! m anecdotal ,hi/oria ,animalium4 ,& yet aga91 !re is a ?ird alt]native--to discuss ! great functions or actions or pot5tialities ( ! organism1 z x 7 fir/ ( all 9 ! ab/ract1 & !n to correlate !m ) ! p>ts :i* 9 ?is or t creature are provid$ & are 'design$' to effect !m4 ,?is involves ! conception & ! writ+ ( sep>ate physiological treatises on su* !mes z ,respiration1 ,locomotion1 on ,sleep+ & ,wak+1 & la/ly 7& 9 "s respects ! mo/ ambiti\s1 mo/ erudite1 & mo/ a/oni%+ ( !m all7 ! great acc\nt ( ! ,g5]ation ( ,animals4 ,s ! :ole range1 we might say ! :ole conceivable range1 ( biological sci5ce is sket*$ out1 & ! great] "p ( ! great canvas is pa9t$ 94 ,b to br+ x into t\* ) human life1 & to make good its claim to ! high places ( philosophy1 we mu/ g yet f>!r & /udy ,life itself1 & :at m5 call ! ,s\l4 ,s gr[s ! great conception4 ,we beg9 ) trivial anecdote1 ) ! ?+s t fi%]man1 huntsman1 peasant "k2 ! sci5ces ( zoology1 anatomy1 physiology take %ape be=e our v eyes2 & by ev5+ we sit humbly at ! feet ( ! great tea*] ( ,life itself1 ! hi/orian ( ! ,s\l4 ,x is n = u to attempt to %[ t ev5 "h ! /ory does n end1 b ! highe/ *apt]s ( philosophy beg94 ,!n1 :5 we rememb] t ?is %ort n>rative ( ours is b ! fa9te/ adumbration ( "o side only ( ! philosoph]'s _m-sid$ task & ent]prise1 we beg9 to rise t[>ds a compreh5sion ( ,rog] ,bacon's say+1 t 'al?\gh ,ari/otle did n arrive at ! end ( k1 he set 9 ord] all p>ts ( philosophy'4 ,9 ! same _s a mod]n critic decl>es3 ',il n'a seulem5t df9i et con/itu *acune des p>ties de la sci5ce2 il en a de plus montr le li5 et l'unit'4 ,ari/otle1 l ,%akespe>e1 is full ( old saws1 tags ( wisdom1 jewels five words long4 ,"h is su* a "o1 good = tea*] & pupil alike-- ,dei pi/eue9 ton man?anonta4 ,x tells u t ! road to ,le>n+ lies ?r\gh ,fai?2 & x means t to be a s*ol> "o %\ld h a he>t z well z bra9s4 ,by reason p>tly ( extrane\s int]polation1 b d\btless also ?r\gh a l+]+ cr$ulity f :i* ev5 philosoph]s are n immune1 we f9d 9 ,ari/otle _m a /range /ory4 ,! goats t brea! ?r\gh _! e>s1 ! vulture impregnat$ by ! w9d1 ! eagle t dies ( hung]1 ! /ag caught by music1 ! salam&] :i* walks ?r\gh fire1 ! unicorn1 ! manti*ore1 are b a few ( ! ',vulg> ,errors' or ',receiv$ ,t55ts' 7z ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne has x7 :i* are p]petuat$1 n orig9at$1 9 ! ,hi/oria ,animalium4 ,"s ( !m come1 ?r\gh ,p]sia1 f ! f>!r ,ea/3 & o!rs 7we meet ) !m once m 9 ,horapollo ! ,egyptian prie/7 are b ! exot]ic or allegorical expression ( ! arcana ( anci5t ,egyptian religion4 ,s x comes to pass t = two ?\s& ye>s & ?r\gh\t all l&s m5 h come to ,ari/otle1 & f\nd 9 him in=mation & in/ruction--t :i* !y desir$4 ,arab & ,moor & ,syrian & ,jew treasur$ 8 books :ile ! we/]n _w sat 9 d>kness2 ! great c5turies ( ,s*ola/icism hung ^u 8 words2 ! olde/ ( our ,univ]sities1 ,bologna1 ,p>is1 ,ox=d1 7 bas$ ^u 8 tea*+1 yea1 all b e/abli%$ = 8 /udy4 ,:]e he has be51 !re1 se5 or unse51 8 influ5ce rema9s2 ev5 ! ,moor & ! ,arab f9d 9 him1 to ?is day1 a tea*] aft] _! own he>ts3 a tea*] ( et]nal v]ities1 tell+ ( sleep & dreams1 ( y\? & age1 ( life & dea?1 ( g5]ation & corruption1 ( gr[? & ( decay3 a guide to ! book ( ,nature1 a reveal] ( ! ,_s1 a prophet ( ! works ( ,god4 ,! purpose ( ^! little essays1 ,i h be5 told 7?\gh ,i _h half =gott5 x71 is to help ?\gh ev] s little to def5d & ju/ify ! /udy ( ! language & ! va/ lit]ature ( ,greece4 ,x is a task = :i* ,i am unfitt$ & unprep>$4 ,:5 ,oliv] ,goldsmi? propos$ to tea* ,greek at ,leyd51 :]e he '_h be5 told x 0 a desid]atum'1 ! ,pr9cipal ( t celebrat$ ,univ]sity met him 7z we all "k7 ) weighty objections4 ',i nev] le>n$ ,greek'1 said ! ,pr9cipal1 '& ,i don't f9d t ,i h ev] miss$ x4 ,i h _h a ,doctor's cap & g[n )\t ,greek4 ,i h t5 ?\s& flor9s a ye> )\t ,greek2 &1 9 %ort'1 cont9u$ he1 'z ,i don't "k ,greek1 ,i d n believe !re is any good 9 x4'--,i h he>d or read ! /ory aga9 & aga91 = is x n writt5 9 ! ,vic> ( ,wakefield8 ,b ,i nev] he>d t any man1 n ,goldsmi? himself1 attempt$ to confute ! argum5t4 ,i agree = ! mo/ "p ) ! ,pr9cipal1 & c see cle>ly t all ! ,greek t ,goldsmi? knew1 & all ! ,greek 9 all ! _w1 w\ld h meant no?+ & done no?+ = him4 ,b !re is & w be _m ano!r :o f9ds 9 ,greek wisdom & sweet ,hell5ic spee* some?+ :i* he ne$s mu/ h1 & lack+ :i* he w\ld be poor inde$3 some?+ :i* is z a /aff 9 8 h&1 a light ^u 8 pa?1 a lant]n to 8 feet4 ,9 ?is workaday _w we may /ill easily possess ourselves1 z ,gibbon says ! subjects ( ! ,byzant9e ,?rone1 ev5 9 _! l[e/ s]vitude & depression1 7 /ill possess$1 '( a gold5 key t c\ld unlock ! treasures ( antiquity1 ( a musical & prolific language t gives a s\l to ! objects ( s5se1 & a body to ! ab/ractions ( philosophy'4 ,our v lives seem prolong$ by ! recollection ( antiquity2 =1 z ,cic]o says1 n to "k :at has be5 transact$ 9 =m] times is to cont9ue always a *ild4 ,i borr[ ! citation f ,dr4 ,johnson1 :o rem9ds u also ( a say+ ( ,ari/otle himself1 t z /ud5ts we ought fir/ to exam9e & und]/& :at has be5 writt5 by ! anci5ts1 & !n ca/ our eyes r\nd ^u ! _w4 ,& ,johnson prefaces bo? quotations by ano!r3 ,tibi res antiquae laudis et artis +r$ior1 sanctos ausus reclud]e fontes4 ,b n[ ,i1 :o h d>$ to draw my t9y draft f ,ari/otle's great well1 seem aft] all to be seek+ an excuse1 seek+ x 9 example & precept4 ,precept1 at lea/1 ,i "k to be ( no avail4 ,my fa!r sp5t all ! _m days ( 8 life 9 ! /udy ( ,greek2 y might suppose x 0 = ,wisdom's sake1--b my fa!r 0 a mode/ man4 ,! fact is1 he did x = a simpl] reason /ill1 a v curi\s reason1 to be :isp]$ r ?an told3 he did x = love4 ,nigh =ty ye>s ago1 ,i fir/ /epp$ out on ! ea/-w9dy /reets ( a c]ta9 lean & hungry t[n 7lean1 ,i mean1 z reg>ds s*ol>%ip7 :]e x 0 to be my lot to sp5d !reaft] _m & _m a ye>4 ,& ! v fir/ ?+ ,i saw !re 0 an inscription ov] a v humble doorway1 ',hic mecum habitant ,dante1 ,c]vantes1 ,molire'4 ,x 0 ! home ( a poor s*oolma/]1 :o z a tea*] ( languages ek$ out ! scanty pr(its ( 8 s*ool4 ,i 0 n a little com=t$ by ! ann\ncem5t4 ,s ! poor s*ol>1 look+ on ! ragg$ regim5t ( 8 few books1 is help$1 consol$1 exalt$ by ! reflection3 ,hic mecum habitant 444 ,hom]us1 ,plato1 ,ari/oteles4 ,& 7 "o 9 a mom5t ( inadv]t5ce to inquire ( him :y he occupi$ himself ) ,greek1 he might p]*ance /amm] 7l ,dom9ie ,sampson7 an almo/ in>ticulate reply2 b m probably he w\ld be /rick5 spee*less by ! enorm\s outrage ( ! reque/1 & ! reason ( 8 devotion w\ld be hidd5 f ! que/ion] = ev]4 ,d',,arcy ,,w5twor? ,,?ompson4 ,,biology ,be=e ,ari/otle ,:at is sci5ce8 ,x is a "q t _c be answ]$ easily1 nor p]haps answ]$ at all4 ,none ( ! def9itions seem to cov] ! field exactly2 !y are ei!r too wide or too n>r[4 ,b we c see sci5ce 9 its gr[? & we c say t be+ a process x c exi/ only z gr[?4 ,:]e does ! sci5ce ( biology beg98 ,aga9 we _c say1 b we c wat* its evolution & its progress4 ,among ! ,greeks ! accurate obs]vation ( liv+ =ms1 :i* is at lea/ "o ( ! ess5tials ( biological sci5ce1 goes back v f>4 ,! ^w ,biology1 us$ 9 our s5se1 w\ld1 x is true1 h be5 an impossibility among !m1 = bios ref]s to ! life ( man & c\ld n be appli$1 except 9 a /ra9$ or metaphorical s5se1 to t ( o!r liv+ ?+s4#f ,b ! ideas we associate ) ! ^w are cle>ly develop$ 9 ,greek philosophy & ! f\ndations ( biology are ( great antiquity4 #f ,! ^w ,biology 0 introduc$ by ,gottfri$ ,re9hold ,treviranus 7#aggf-ahcg7 9 8 ,biologie od] die ,philosophie d] leb5d5 ,natur1 #f vols41 ,gtt+51 #ahjb-bb1 & 0 adopt$ by ,j4-,b4 de ,lam>ck 7#agdd-ahbi7 9 8 ,hydrogologie1 ,p>is1 #ahjb4 ,x is probable t ! fir/ ,engli% use ( ! ^w 9 its mod]n s5se is by ,sir ,william ,lawr5ce 7#aghc-ahfg7 9 8 "w ,on ! ,physiology1 ,zoology1 & ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man1 ,london1 #ahai2 !re are e>li] ,engli% uses ( ! ^w1 h[ev]1 contra/$ ) biography4 ,! ,greek p _h _m roots1 racial1 cultural1 & spiritual1 & f !m all !y inh]it$ v>i\s p[]s & qualities & d]iv$ v>i\s ideas & traditions4 ,! mo/ sugge/ive s\rce = our purpose is t ( ! ,m9oan race :om !y dispossess$ & ^: l&s !y occupi$4 ,t highly gift$ p exhibit$ 9 all /ages ( its developm5t a m>vell\s p[] ( graphically repres5t+ animal =ms1 ( :i* ! fam\s ,cretan friezes1 ,vaphio cups 7,fig4 #e71 & ,myc5ean lions provide well-kn[n examples4 ,x is difficult n to believe t ! ,m9oan elem5t1 ent]+ into ! mosaic ( peoples t we call ! ,greeks1 0 9 "p at lea/ responsible = ! l graphic p[] develop$ 9 ! ,hell5ic _w1 ?\gh little contact has yet be5 demon/rat$ betwe5 ,m9oan & ar*aic ,greek ,art4 ,= ! e>lie/ biological a*ievem5ts ( ,greek peoples we h to rely l>gely on in=mation glean$ f arti/ic rema9s4 ,x is true t we h a few fragm5ts ( ! works ( bo? ,ionian & ,italo-,sicilian philosoph]s1 & 9 !m we read ( !oretical speculation z to ! nature ( life & ( ! s\l1 & we c ?us =m "s idea ( ! fir/ attempts ( su* work]s z ,alcmaeon ( ,croton 7c4 #ejj ,b4 ,c47 to lay b>e ! /ructure ( animals by dissection4#g ,! ph>macopia also ( "s ( ! e>lie/ works ( ! ,hippocratic collection betrays consid]able k ( bo? native & =eign plants4#h ,moreov]1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! pages ( ,h]odotus & o!r e>ly writ]s is a good deal ( casual in=mation conc]n+ animals & plants1 ?\gh su* mat]ial is second-h& & gives u little in=mation conc]n+ ! habit ( exact obs]vation t is ! necess>y basis ( sci5ce4 #g ,! rema9s ( ,alcmaeon are giv5 9 ,h4 ,diel's ,die ,fragm5te d] ,vorsokratik]1 ,b]l91 #aijc1 p4 #ajc4 ,alcmaeon is consid]$ 9 ! companion *apt] on ,greek ,m$ic9e4 #h ,especially ! p]i gynaikeis physios1 ,on ! nature ( woman1 & ! p]i gynaikein1 ,on ! diseases ( wom54 ,some?+ m is1 h[ev]1 reveal$ by e>ly ,greek ,art4 ,we are 9 possession ( a s]ies ( vases ( ! sev5? & six? c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era %[+ a clos5ess ( obs]vation ( animal =ms t tells ( a p awake to ! /udy ( nature4 ,we h ?us portray$ = u a numb] ( animals--plants seldom or nev] appe>--& among ! be/ r5d]$ are wild creatures3 we see antelopes quietly fe$+ or />tl$ at a s\nd1 birds fly+ or pick+ worms f ! gr\nd1 fall[ de] =c+ _! way ?r\gh ?ickets1 br[s+ peacefully1 or gallop+ away1 bo>s fac+ ! h\nds & dogs *as+ h>es1 wild cattle =m+ _! def5sive circle1 hawks seiz+ _! prey4 ,_m ( ^! exhibit m9utely accurate obs]vation4 ,! v direction ( ! hairs on ! animals' coats has sometimes be5 closely /udi$1 & (t5 ! muscles are well r5d]$4 ,9 "s cases ev5 ! d5tition has be5 f\nd accurately portray$1 z 9 a six?-c5tury repres5tation on an ,ionian vase ( a lioness--an animal !n v r>e on ! ,ea/]n ,m$it]ranean littoral1 b /ill kn[n 9 ,babylonia1 ,syria1 & ,asia ,m9or4 ,! details ( ! "w %[ t ! arti/ mu/ h exam9$ ! animal 9 captivity 7,figs4 #a & #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,lioness & "y f an ,ionian vase ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 f\nd at ,ca]e 9 ,s\!rn ,etruria 7,l\vre1 ,salle ,e1 ,no4 #bih71 f ,le ,dess9 des ,animaux en ,grce d'aprs les vases pe9ts1 by ,j4 ,mor91 ,p>is 7,r5\>d71 #aiaa4 ,! animal is draw+ itself up to attack its hunt]s4 ,! scanty mane1 ! =m ( ! paws1 ! udd]s1 & ! d5tition are all heavily ?\gh accurately repres5t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,a1 ,jaw bones ( lion2 ,b1 head ( lioness f ,ca]e vase 7,fig4 #a71 aft] ,mor94 ,note ! c>eful way 9 :i* ! arti/ has di/+ui%$ ! mol> f ! cutt+ tee?4 ,animal pa9t+s ( ?is ord] are f\nd scatt]$ ov] ! ,greek _w ) special c5tres or s*ools 9 su* places z ,cyprus1 ,boeotia1 or ,*alcis4 ,! v "n = a pa9t] 9 ,greek1 zoographos1 recalls ! att5tion paid to liv+ =ms4 ,by ! fif? c5tury1 9 pa9t+ !m z 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( ,art1 ! supremacy ( ,attica _h ass]t$ itself1 & !re are _m beautiful ,attic vase-pa9t+s ( animals to place by ! side ( ! magnific5t horses' heads ( ! ,p>!non 7,fig4 #f74 ,9 ,attica1 too1 0 e>ly develop$ a *>act]i/ic & closely accurate type ( repres5tation ( m>9e =ms1 & ?is atta9$ a wid] vogue 9 ,s\!rn ,italy 9 ! f\r? c5tury4 ,f ! latt] p]iod a numb] ( di%es & vases h come d[n to u be>+ a l>ge v>iety ( fi% =ms1 portray$ ) an exactness t is int]e/+ 9 view ( ! att5tion to m>9e creatures 9 ! surviv+ lit]ature ( ,ari/otelian orig9 7,fig4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,pa9t+s ( fi% on plates4 ,italo-,greek "w ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,f ,mor94 ,a4 ,s>gus vulg>is4 ,b4 ,cr5ilabrus m$it]raneus4 ,c4 ,uranoscopus scab]8 ,^! arti/ic products are m ?an a m]e reflex ( ! daily life ( ! p4 ,! habits & positions ( animals are obs]v$ by ! hunt]1 z are ! =ms & col\rs ( fi% by ! fi%]man2 b ! me?ods ( huntsman & fi%] d n acc\nt = ! accurate portrayal ( a lion's d5tition1 ! correct numb]+ ( a fi%'s scales or ! close /udy ( ! lie ( ! fea!rs on ! head1 & ! pads on ! feet1 ( a bird ( prey 7,fig4 #d74 ,) obs]vations su* z ^! we are 9 ! pres5ce ( some?+ wor?y ( ! "n ,biology4 ,?\gh b little lit]ature on t topic e>li] ?an ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle has come d[n to u1 yet bo? ! "* ( 8 writ+s & su* pa9t+s & pictures z ^!1 sugge/ ! exi/5ce ( a /rong int]e/ & a wide lit]ature1 biological 9 ! mod]n s5se1 antec$5t to ! f\r? c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,head & talons ( ! ,sea-eagle1 ,haliatus albicilla3 ,a1 ,f an ,ionic vase ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,b1 ,drawn f ! object4 ,f ,mor94 ,greek sci5ce1 h[ev]1 exhibits ?r\gh\t its hi/ory a peculi> *>act]i/ic diff]5tiat+ x f ! mod]n sci5tific /&po9t4 ,mo/ ( ! "w ( ! ,greek sci5ti/ 0 done 9 relation to man4 ,nature int]e/$ him ma9ly 9 relation to himself4 ,! ,greek sci5tific & philosophic _w 0 an an?ropoc5tric _w1 & ?is comes out 9 ! ov]:elm+ mass ( m$ical z di/9ct f biological writ+s t h come d[n to u4 ,su*1 too1 is ! s5tim5t express$ by ! poets 9 _! descriptions ( ! animal creation3 ,_m wond]s !re be1 b naught m wondr\s ?an man3 99 99 99 99 99 ,! light-witt$ birds ( ! air1 ! bea/s ( ! weald & ! wood ,he traps ) 8 wov5 sn>e1 & ! brood ( ! br9y flood4 ,ma/] ( cunn+ he3 ! savage bull1 & ! h>t ,:o roams ! m\nta9 free1 are tam$ by 8 inf9ite art4 ,& ! %aggy r\gh-man$ /e$ is brok5 to be> ! bit4 ,sophocles1 ,antigone1 v]ses #cdb ff4 7,translation ( ,f4 ,/orr47 ,x is ?us n surpris+ t our fir/ sy/ematic treatm5t ( animals is 9 a practical m$ical "w1 ! p]i diaits1 ,on diet1 ( ! ,hippocratic ,collection4 ,?is v peculi> treatise dates f ! lat] "p ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,x is /rongly "u ! influ5ce ( ,h]acleitus 7c4 #edj-dge7 & conta9s _m po9ts ( view :i* reappe> 9 lat] philosophy4 ,all animals1 accord+ to x1 are =m$ ( fire & wat]1 no?+ is born & no?+ dies1 b !re is a p]petual & et]nal revolution ( ?+s1 s t *ange itself is ! only reality4 ,man's nature is b a p>allel to t ( ! univ]sal nature1 & ! arts ( man are b an imitation or reflex ( ! natural arts or1 aga91 ( ! bodily functions4 ,! s\l1 a mixture ( wat] & fire1 consumes itself 9 infancy & old age1 & increases dur+ adult life4 ,"h1 too1 we meet ) t s+ul> doctr9e1 n )\t be>+ on ! c\rse ( lat] biological ?\ght1 t 9 ! foetus all p>ts are =m$ simultane\sly4 ,on ! proportion ( fire & wat] 9 ! body all dep5ds1 sex1 temp]1 temp]am5t1 intellect4 ,su* speculative ideas sep>ate ?is book f ! sob] me?od ( ! m typical ,hippocratic m$ical works ) :i* inde$ x has little 9 common4 ,aft] hav+ discuss$ ^! !oretical matt]s ! "w turns to its own practical conc]ns1 & 9 ! c\rse ( sett+ out ! natures ( foods gives 9 effect a r\gh classification ( animals4 ,^! are set =? 9 gr\ps1 & f among ! l>g] gr\ps only ! reptiles & insects are miss+4 ,! li/ has be5 describ$1 p]haps h>dly ) ju/ification1 z ! ,coan classificatory sy/em4 ,we h "h1 inde$1 no sy/em 9 ! s5se 9 :i* t ^w is n[ appli$ to ! animal k+dom1 b we h yet "s sort ( def9ite arrangem5t ( animals accord+ to _! suppos$ natures4 ,! passage op5s ) mammals1 :i* are divid$ into dome/icat$ & wild1 ! latt] be+ m5tion$ 9 ord] accord+ to size1 next foll[ ! l&-birds1 !n ! wat]-f[l1 & !n ! fi%es4 ,^! fi% are divid$ into 7#a7 ! haunt]s ( ! %ore1 7#b7 ! free-swimm+ =ms1 7#c7 ! c>tilag9\s fi%es or ,sela*ii1 :i* are n s nam$ b are plac$ toge!r1 7#d7 ! mud-lov+ =ms1 & 7#e7 ! fre%-wat] fi%4 ,f9ally come inv]tebrates arrang$ 9 "s sort ( ord] accord+ to _! /ructure4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! 'classification' is ! sep>ation ( ! fi% f ! rema9+ v]tebrates & ( ! inv]tebrates f bo?4 ,( ! fifty animals nam$ no less ?an tw5ty are fi%1 ab\t a fif? ( ! numb] /udi$ by ,ari/otle1 b we mu/ rememb] t "h only edible species are m5tion$4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! "w %[s at lea/ t 9 ! fif? c5tury !re 0 already a close & accurate /udy ( animal =ms1 a /udy t may ju/ly be call$ sci5tific4 ,! pr$om9ance ( fi% & _! classification 9 great] detail ?an ! o!r gr\ps is n an unexpect$ feature4 ,! ,m$it]ranean is especially ri* 9 ^! =ms1 ! ,greeks 7 a m>itime p1 & ,greek lit]ature is full ( imag]y drawn f ! fi%]'s craft4 ,f ,m9oan to ,byzant9e times ! v>iety1 beauty1 & col\r ( fi% made a deep impression on ,greek m9ds z reflect$ 9 _! art4 ,mu* m important1 h[ev]1 = subsequ5t biological developm5t ?an su* obs]vations on ! nature & habits ( animals1 is ! s]vice t ! ,hippocratic physicians r5d]$ to ,anatomy & to ,physiology1 dep>tm5ts 9 :i* ! /ructure ( man & ( ! dome/icat$ animals /&s ap>t f t ( ! re/ ( ! animal k+dom4 ,x is ) ! nature & con/itution ( man t mo/ ( ! surviv+ e>ly biological writ+s are conc]n$1 & 9 ^! dep>tm5ts are unmi/akable t5d5cies t[>ds sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial4 ,?us we h division & description ( ! body 9 sev5s f ! p]iph]y to ! c5tre & f ! v]tex to ! sole ( ! foot1#i or a division into f\r regions or zones4#aj ,! tea*+ conc]n+ ! f\r elem5ts & f\r hum\rs too became ( great importance & "s ( x 0 lat] adopt$ by ,ari/otle4 ,we also meet num]\s me*anical explanations ( bodily /ructures1 comp>isons betwe5 anatomical conditions enc\nt]$ 9 relat$ animals1 exp]im5ts on liv+ creatures1#aa sy/ematic incubation ( h5's eggs = ! /udy ( _! developm5t1 p>allels drawn betwe5 ! developm5t ( plants & ( human & animal embryos1 !ories ( g5]ation1 among :i* is t :i* 0 aft]w>ds call$ 'pang5esis'--discussion ( ! survival ( ! /rong] ov] ! weak]--almo/ our survival ( ! fitte/--& a !ory ( inh]itance ( acquir$ *>act]s4#ab ,all ^! ?+s %[ n only ext5sive k b also an attempt to apply su* k to human ne$s4 ,:5 we consid] h[ ev5 9 lat] c5turies biology 0 l9k$ ) m$ic9e1 & h[ p[]ful & fundam5tal 0 ! influ5ce ( ! ,hippocratic writ+s1 n only on _! imm$iate successors 9 antiquity1 b also on ! ,middle ,ages & "r into ! n9ete5? c5tury1 we %all recognize ! significance ( ^! developm5ts4 #i p]i hebdomadn4 ,! ,greek text is lo/4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 an e>ly & b>b>\s ,lat9 translation1 & !re has rec5tly be5 pr9t$ an ,arabic comm5t>y4 ,g4 ,b]g/rass]1 ,pseudogal5i 9 ,hippocratis de septimanis comm5t>ium ab ,hunn9o ,q4 ,f4 arabice v]sum1 ,leipzig1 #aiad4 #aj p]i n\sn d4 #aa p]i k>dis4 #ab ,especially 9 ! p]i gons4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,,m9oan ,,gold ,,cup4 ,,sixte5? ,,c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,,horse',s ,,head4 ,,f ,,p>!non4 #ddj ,b4 ,c4 ,su* 0 ! "* ( biological ?\ght )9 ! fif? c5tury1 & a g5]ation inspir$ by ?is movem5t produc$ "s notewor?y works 9 ! p]iod :i* imm$iately foll[$4 ,9 ! treatise p]i trophs1 ,on n\ri%m5t1 :i* may p]haps be dat$ ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c41 we le>n ( ! pulse = ! fir/ "t 9 ,greek m$ical lit]ature1 & read ( a physiological sy/em :i* la/$ until ! "t ( ,h>vey1 ) ! art]ies aris+ f ! he>t & ! ve9s f ! liv]4 ,( ab\t ! same date is a "w p]i k>dis1 ,on ! he>t1 :i* describes ! v5tricles z well z ! great vessels & _! valves1 & comp>es ! he>t ( animals ) t ( man4 ,a little lat]1 p]haps #cij ,b4 ,c41 is ! treatise p]i s>kn1 ,on muscles1 :i* conta9s mu* m ?an its title sugge/s4 ,x has ! old sy/em ( sev5s &1 inspir$ p]haps by ! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus 7c4 #edj-dge71 describes ! he>t z s5d+ air1 fire1 & movem5t to ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body ?r\gh ! vessels :i* are !mselves con/antly 9 movem5t4 ,! infant 9 its "m's womb is believ$ to draw 9 air & fire ?r\gh its m\? & to eat 9 ut]o4 ,! action ( ! air on ! blood is comp>$ to its action on fire4 ,9 contra/ to "s ( ! o!r ,hippocratic treatises ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is 9 ! backgr\nd2 mu* att5tion1 h[ev]1 is giv5 to ! special s5ses4 ,! bra9 res\nds dur+ audition4 ,! olfactory n]ves are holl[1 lead to ! bra91 &1 convey volatile sub/ances to x :i* cause x to secrete mucus4 ,! eyes also h be5 exam9$1 & _! coats & hum\rs r\ghly describ$2 an allusion1 ! fir/ 9 lit]ature1 is p]haps made to ! cry/all9e l5s1 & ! eyes ( animals are comp>$ ) ^? ( man4 ,!re is evid5ce n only ( dissection b ( exp]im5t1 & 9 ef=ts to comp>e ! resi/ance ( v>i\s tissues to su* processes z boil+1 we may see ! small beg9n+ ( *emical physiology4 ,an abl] "w ?an any ( ^!1 b exhibit+ less p[] ( obs]vation is a treatise1 p]i gons1 ,on g5]ation1 t may p]haps be dat$ ab\t #chj ,b4 ,c4#ac ,x exhibits a writ] ( mu* philosophic p[]1 v anxi\s = physiological explanations1 b hamp]$ by ignorance ( physics4 ,he has1 9 fact1 ! weaknesses & 9 a m9or degree ! /r5g? ( 8 successor ,ari/otle1 ( ^: great "w on g5]ation he gives u a =e-ta/e4 ,he sets =? 9 consid]able detail a doctr9e ( pang5esis1 n :olly unlike t ( ,d>w94 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( inh]itance he supposes t vessels rea* ! se$1 c>ry+ ) !m samples f all p>ts ( ! body4 ,he believes t *annels pass f all ! organs to ! bra9 & !n to ! sp9al m>r[ 7or to ! m>r[ direct71 !nce to ! kidneys & on to ! g5ital organs2 he believes1 too1 t he kn[s ! actual location ( "o su* *annel1 = he obs]ves1 wrongly1 t incision beh9d ! e>s1 by int]rupt+ ! passage1 leads to impot5ce4 ,z an outcome ( ?is !ory he is prep>$ to accept inh]itance ( acquir$ *>act]s4 ,! embryo develops & brea!s by mat]ial transmitt$ f ! "m ?r\gh ! umbilical cord4 ,we enc\nt] "h also a v detail$ description ( a specim5 ( exfoliat$ membrana mucosa ut]i :i* our au?or mi/akes = an embryo1 b 8 rem>ks at lea/ exhibit ! mo/ eag] curiosity4#ad #ac ,! ?ree works p]i gons1 p]i physios paidi\1 p]i n\sn d1 ,on g5]ation1 on ! nature ( ! embryo1 on diseases1 book ,,iv1 =m really "o treatise on g5]ation4 #ad p]i physios paidi\1 ,on ! nature ( ! embryo1 #ac4 ,! same exp]i5ce is describ$ 9 ! p]i s>kn1 ,on ! muscles4 ,! au?or ( ?is "w on g5]ation is ?us a 'biologi/' 9 ! mod]n s5se1 & among ! passages exhibit+ him 9 ?is light is 8 comp>ison ( ! human embryo ) ! *ick4 ',! embryo is 9 a membrane 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is ! navel ?r\gh :i* x draws & gives its brea?1 & ! membranes arise f ! umbilical cord4444 ,! /ructure ( ! *ild y w f9d f fir/ to la/ z ,i h already describ$4444 ,if y wi%1 try ?is exp]im5t3 take tw5ty or m eggs & let !m be incubat$ by two or m h5s4 ,!n ea* day f ! second to t ( hat*+ remove an egg1 break x1 & exam9e x4 ,y w f9d exactly z ,i say1 = ! nature ( ! bird c be lik5$ to t ( man4 ,! membranes y w see proce$ f ! umbilical cord1 & all t ,i h said on ! subject ( ! infant y w f9d 9 a bird's egg1 & "o :o has made ^! obs]vations w be surpris$ to f9d an umbilical cord 9 a bird's egg4'#ae #ae p]i physios paidi\1 ,on ! nature ( ! embryo1 #bi4 ,! same int]e/ t he exhibits = ! developm5t ( man & animals he %[s also = plants4 ',a se$ laid 9 ! gr\nd fills itself ) ! juices !re conta9$1 = ! soil conta9s 9 itself juices ( e nature = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants4 ,?us fill$ ) juice ! se$ is di/5d$ & swells1 & !reby ! p[] 7 faculty h dynamis7 diffus$ 9 ! se$ is compress$ by pneuma & juice1 & bur/+ ! se$ becomes ! fir/ leaves4 ,b a "t comes :5 ^! leaves c no long] get n\ri%$ f ! juices 9 ! se$4 ,!n ! se$ & ! leaves erupt bel[1 = urg$ by ! leaves ! se$ s5ds d[n t "p ( its p[] :i* is yet conc5trat$ )9 x & s ! roots are produc$ z an ext5sion ( ! leaves4 ,:5 at la/ ! plant is well root$ bel[ & is draw+ its nutrim5t f ! e>?1 !n ! :ole gra9 disappe>s1 be+ absorb$1 save = ! husk1 :i* is ! mo/ solid "p2 & ev5 t1 decompos+ 9 ! e>?1 ultimately becomes invisible4 ,9 "t "s ( ! leaves put =? bran*es4 ,! plant be+ ?us produc$ by humidity f ! se$ is /ill s(t & moi/4 ,gr[+ actively bo? above & bel[1 x _c z yet be> fruit1 = x has n ! quality ( =ce & res]ve 7 dynamis is*yr kai pi>a7 f :i* a se$ c be precipitat$4 ,b :51 ) "t1 ! plant becomes firm] & bett] root$1 x develops ve9s z passages bo? upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 & x draws f ! soil n only wat] b m abundantly also sub/ances t are d5s] & fatt]4 ,w>m$1 too1 by ! sun1 ^! act z a f]m5t to ! extremities & give rise to fruit aft] its k9d4 ,! fruit ?us develops mu* f little1 = e plant draws f ! e>? a p[] m abundant ?an t ) :i* x />t$1 & ! f]m5tation takes place n at "o place b at _m4'#af #af p]i physios paidi\1 ,on ! nature ( ! embryo1 #bb4 ,nor does our au?or hesitate to draw an analogy betwe5 ! plant & ! mammalian embryo4 ',9 ! same way ! infant lives )9 its "m's womb & 9 a /ate correspond+ to ! heal? ( ! "m 444 & y w f9d a complete similitude betwe5 ! products ( ! soil & ! products ( ! womb4' ,! e>ly ,greek lit]ature is s scantily provid$ ) illu/rations drawn f botanical /udy1 t x is wor? consid]+ ! rem>kable comp>ison ( g5]ation ( plants f cutt+s & f se$s 9 ! same "w4 ',z reg>ds plants g5]at$ f cutt+s 444 t "p ( a bran* :]e x 0 cut f a tree is plac$ 9 ! e>? & !re rootlets are s5t out4 ,?is is h[ x happ5s3 ,! "p ( ! plant )9 ! soil draws up juices1 swells1 & develops a pneuma 7 pneuma is*ei71 b n s ! "p )\t4 ,! pneuma & ! juice conc5trate ! p[] ( ! plant bel[ s t x becomes d5s]4 ,!n ! l[] end erupts & gives =? t5d] roots4 ,!n ! plant1 tak+ f bel[1 draws juices f ! roots & transmits !m to ! "p above ! soil :i* ?us also swells & develops pneuma2 ?us ! p[] f be+ diffus$ 9 ! plant becomes conc5trat$ & budd+1 gives =? leaves4444 ,cutt+s1 !n1 diff] f se$s4 ,) a se$ ! leaves are borne fir/1 !n ! roots are s5t d[n2 ) a cutt+ ! roots =m fir/ & !n ! leaves4'#ag #ag ,ibid4 #bc4 ,b ) ^! works ( ! e>ly "p ( ! f\r? c5tury ! fir/ /age ( ,greek biology rea*es its f9e/ developm5t4 ,lat] ,hippocratic treatises :i* deal ) physiological topics are on a l[] plane1 & we mu/ seek "s ext]nal cause = ! failure4 ,nor h we f> to seek4 ,?is p]iod saw ! rise ( a movem5t t _h ! mo/ pr(\nd influ5ce on e dep>tm5t ( ?\ght4 ,we see ! adv5t into ! ,greek _w ( a great intellectual movem5t z a result ( :i* ! dep>tm5t ( philosophy t dealt ) nature rec$$ be=e ,e?ics4 ,( t intellectual revolution--p]haps ! greate/ ! _w has se5--,a!ns 0 ! site & ,socrates 7#dgj-cii7 ! protagoni/4 ,) ! movem5t itself & its *>act]i/ic fruit we are n conc]n$4 ,b ! great successor & pupil ( its f\nd] gives u 9 ! ,timaeus a picture ( ! dep? to :i* natural sci5ce c be degrad$ 9 ! ef=t to give a specific teleological mean+ to all p>ts ( ! visible ,univ]se4 ,! book & ! picture :i* x draws1 d>k & repulsive to ! m9d tra9$ 9 mod]n sci5tific me?od1 en?rall$ ! imag9ation ( a l>ge "p ( mank9d = wellnigh two ?\s& ye>s4 ,organic nature appe>s 9 ?is "w ( ,plato 7#dbg-cdg7 z ! deg5]ation ( man :om ! ,creator has made mo/ p]fect4 ,! s*ool t held ?is view ultimately decay$ z a result ( its failure to advance positive k4 ,z ! c5turies w5t by its views became fur!r & fur!r divorc$ f ph5om5a1 & ! biz>re developm5ts ( lat] ,neoplatonism /& to ?is day z a w>n+ aga9/ any sy/em :i* %all neglect ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,b 9 its decay ,platonism dragg$ sci5ce d[n & de/roy$ by neglect ne>ly all e>li] biological mat]ial4 ,ma!matics1 n be+ a ph5om5al /udy1 suit$ bett] ! ,neoplatonic mood & cont9u$ to advance1 c>ry+ a/ronomy ) x = a :ile--a/ronomy t affect$ ! life ( man & t soon became ! h&maid ( a/rology2 m$ic9e1 too1 t det]m9$ ! conditions ( man's life 0 also *]i%$1 ?\gh (t5 mi/ak5ly1 b pure sci5ce 0 doom$4 ,b ?\gh ! e?ical view ( nature ov]:elm$ sci5ce 9 ! end1 ! adv5t ( ! mighty figure ( ,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb7 /ay$ ! tide = a "t4 ,yet ! writ] on ,greek ,biology rema9s at a disadvantage 9 contra/ ) ! ,hi/orian ( ,greek ,ma!matics1 ( ,greek ,a/ronomy1 or ( ,greek ,m$ic9e1 9 ! scant9ess ( ! mat]ials = pres5t+ an acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( 8 /udies be=e ,ari/otle4 ,! huge =m ( t magnific5t naturali/ completely ov]%ad[s ,greek z x does mu* ( lat] ,biology4 ,,*>les ,,s+]4 ,aft] ,ari/otle ,all ,ari/otle's surviv+ biological works ref] prim>ily to ! animal creation4 ,8 "w on plants is lo/ or r has surviv$ z ! m]e/ corrupt$ fragm5t4 ,we are =tunate1 h[ev]1 9 ! possession ( a c\ple ( complete works by 8 pupil & successor ,!ophra/us 7#cgb-bhg71 :i* may n only be tak5 to repres5t ! ,ari/otelian attitude t[>ds ! plant _w1 b also give u an inkl+ ( ! g5]al /ate ( biological sci5ce 9 ! g5]ation :i* succe$$ ! ma/]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,ari/otle ,f ,,h]culaneum ,probably "w ( f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,^! treatises ( ,!ophra/us are 9 _m respects ! mo/ complete & ord]ly ( all anci5t biological works t h rea*$ our "t4 ,!y give an idea ( ! k9d ( int]e/ t ! work+ sci5ti/ ( t day c\ld develop :5 inspir$ r by ! g5ius ( a great tea*] ?an by ! p[] ( 8 own ?\ghts4 ,!ophra/us is a p$e/rian :]e ,ari/otle is a creature ( w+s1 he is 9 a relation to ! ma/] ( ! same ord] t ! morphologi/s ( ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 7 to ,d>w94 ,= a c\ple ( g5]ations aft] ! appe>ance ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species 9 #ahei ! indu/ry & ability ( naturali/s all ov] ! _w 7 occupi$ 9 work+ out 9 detail ! /ructure & mode ( life ( liv+ ?+s on ! basis ( ! ,evolution>y philosophy4 ,ne>ly all ! "w on morphology & mu* ( t on physiology s9ce 8 "t might be treat$ z a comm5t>y on ! works ( ,d>w94 ,^! volumes ( ,!ophra/us give ! same impression4 ,!y repres5t ! rema9s--alas1 almo/ ! only biological rema9s--( a s*ool work+ "u ! impulse ( a great idea & spurr$ by ! memory ( a great tea*]4 ,z su* !y af=d a p>allel to mu* sci5tific "w ( our own day1 produc$ by m5 )\t g5ius save t provid$ by a vision & a hope & an ideal4 ,( su* m5 x is impossible to write z ( ,ari/otle4 ,_! lives are summ$ up by _! actual a*ievem5t1 & s9ce ,!ophra/us is an ord]ly writ] ^: works h desc5d$ to u 9 good /ate1 he is a v suitable in/ance ( ! actual /&>d ( a*ievem5t ( anci5t biology4 ',)\t vision ! p p]i%' & ! v brea? ( life ( sci5ce is drawn1 & c only be drawn1 f t v small b& ( prophets :o f "t to "t1 dur+ ! ages1 h provid$ ! great g5]alizations & ! great ideals4 ,9 ?is light let u exam9e ! "w ( ,!ophra/us4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any adequate sy/em ( classification1 almo/ all botany until ! sev5te5? c5tury consi/$ ma9ly ( descriptions ( species4 ,to describe accurately a leaf or a root 9 ! language 9 ord9>y use w\ld (t5 take pages4 ,mod]n botani/s h inv5t$ an elaborate t]m9ology :i*1 h[ev] hide\s to eye & e>1 has ! cr[n+ m]it ( help+ to abbreviate sci5tific lit]ature4 ,botanical writ]s previ\s to ! sev5te5? c5tury 7 sub/antially )\t ?is special mode ( expression4 ,x is p>tly to ?is lack t we owe ! p]si/5t attempts ?r\gh\t ! c5turies to repres5t plants pictorially 9 h]bals1 manuscript & pr9t$1 & ?us ! possibility ( an adequate hi/ory ( plant illu/ration4 ,!ophra/us seems to h felt acutely ! ne$ ( botanical t]ms1 & !re are cases 9 :i* he seeks to give a special te*nical mean+ to words 9 m or less curr5t use4 ,among su* words are c>pos fruit1 p]ic>pion se$ vessel p]ic>p1 & metra1 ! ^w us$ by him = ! c5tral core ( any /em :e!r =m$ ( wood1 pi?1 or o!r sub/ance4 ,x is f ! usage ( ,!ophra/us t ! exact def9ition ( fruit & p]ic>p has come d[n to u4#ah ,we may easily disc]n also ! purpose = :i* he introduces into botany ! t]m metra1 a ^w mean+ prim>ily ! womb1 & ! vacancy 9 ! ,greek language :i* x 0 made to fill4 ',metra1' he says1 'is t :i* is 9 ! middle ( ! wood1 be+ ?ird 9 ord] f ! b>k & ?us l to ! m>r[ 9 bones4 ,"s call x ! he>t 7 k>dian71 o!rs ! inside 7 ent]inn71 yet o!rs call only ! inn]mo/ "p ( ! metra itself ! he>t1 :ile o!rs aga9 call ?is m>r[4'#ai ,he is ?us inv5t+ a ^w to cov] all ! diff]5t k9ds ( core & import+ x f ano!r /udy4 ,?is is ! me?od ( mod]n sci5tific nom5clature :i* h>dly exi/$ = botani/s ev5 z late z ! sixte5? c5tury ( our era4 ,! real f\ndations ( our mod]n nom5clature 7 laid 9 ! lat] sixte5? & 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury by ,cesalp9o & ,joa*im ,jung4 #ah ,x is possible t ,!ophra/us d]iv$ ! ^w p]ic>p f ,ari/otle4 ,cp4 ,de anima1 ii4 #a1 #dab b #b4 ,9 ! passage 1 to phyllon p]ik>pi\ skepasma1 to de p]ik>pion k>p\1 9 ! ,de anima ! ^w does n1 h[ev]1 seem to h ! full te*nical =ce t ,!ophra/us gives to x4 #ai ,hi/oria plant>um1 i4 #b1 vi4 ,!ophra/us und]/ood ! value ( developm5tal /udy1 a conception d]iv$ f 8 ma/]4 ',a plant'1 he says1 'has p[] ( g]m9ation 9 all its p>ts1 = x has life 9 !m all1 :]e=e we %\ld reg>d !m n = :at !y are b = :at !y are becom+4'#bj ,! v>i\s modes ( plant reproduction are correctly di/+ui%$ 9 a way t passes beyond ! only surviv+ e>li] treatise t deals 9 detail ) ! subject1 ! ,hippocratic "w ,on g5]ation4 ',! mann] ( g5]ation ( trees & plants are ^!3 spontane\s1 f a se$1 f a root1 f a piece torn (f1 f a bran* or twig1 f ! trunk itself1 or f pieces ( ! wood cut up small4'#ba ,! m>vel ( g]m9ation mu/ h awak5$ admiration f a v e>ly date4 ,we h already se5 x occupy+ a m anci5t au?or1 & x _h also be5 "o ( ! *ief preoccupations ( ,ari/otle4 ,x is ?us n rem>kable t ! process %\ld impress ,!ophra/us1 :o has left on record 8 views on ! =mation ( ! plant f ! se$4 #bj ,ibid4 i4 #a1 iv4 #ba ,hi/oria plant>um1 ii4 #a1 i4 ',"s g]m9ate1 root & leaves1 f ! same po9t1 "s sep>ately f ei!r end ( ! se$4 ,?us :eat1 b>ley1 spelt1 & all su* c]eals g]m9ate f ei!r end1 correspond+ to ! position ( ! se$ 9 ! e>1 ! root f ! /\t l[] "p1 ! %oot f ! upp]2 b ! two1 root & /em1 =m a s+le cont9u\s :ole4 ,! bean & o!r legum9\s plants are n s1 b 9 !m root & /em are f ! same po9t1 namely1 _! place ( atta*m5t to ! pod1 :]e1 x is pla91 !y h _! orig94 ,9 "s cases !re is a process1 z 9 beans1 *ick peas1 & especially lup9es1 f :i* ! root gr[s d[nw>d1 ! leaf & /em upw>d4444 ,9 c]ta9 trees ! bud fir/ g]m9ates )9 ! se$1 &1 z x increases 9 size1 ! se$s split--all su* se$s are1 z x 71 9 two halves2 aga91 all ^? ( legum9\s plants h pla9ly two lobes & are d\ble--& !n ! root is imm$iately ?ru/ out4 ,b 9 c]eals1 ! se$s be+ 9 "o piece1 ?is does n happ51 b ! root gr[s a little be=e ! %oot4 ',b>ley & :eat come up monophyll\s1 b peas1 beans1 & *ick peas polyphyll\s4 ,all legum9\s plants h a s+le woody root1 f :i* gr[ sl5d] side roots 444 b :eat1 b>ley1 & ! o!r c]eals h num]\s sl5d] roots by :i* !y are matt$ toge!r4444 ,!re is a contra/ betwe5 ^! two k9ds2 ! legum9\s plants h a s+le root & h _m side-gr[?s above f ! s+le /em 444 :ile ! c]eals h _m roots & s5d up _m %oots1 b ^! h no side-%oots4'#bb #bb ,hi/oria plant>um1 viii4 #a1 i4 ,!re c be no d\bt t "h is a piece ( m9ute obs]vation on ! behavi\r ( g]m9at+ se$s4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 dicotyl$ons & monocotyl$ons is accurately set =?1 ?\gh ! /ress is laid n s mu* on ! cotyl$on\s "* ( ! se$ z on ! relation ( root & %oot4 ,9 ! dicotyl$ons root & %oot are repres5t$ z spr++ f ! same po9t1 & 9 monocotyl$ons f opposite poles 9 ! se$4 ,no fur!r effective "w 0 done on ! g]m9at+ se$ until ! inv5tion ( ! microscope1 & ! appe>ance ( ! "w ( ,highmore 7#afac-he71bc & ! mu* m se>*+ inve/igations ( ,malpighi 7#afbh-id7bd & ,grew 7#afda-agab7be aft] ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! obs]vations ( ,!ophra/us are1 h[ev]1 s accurate1 s lucid1 & s complete t !y might well be us$ z leg5ds = ! plates ( ^! writ]s two ?\s& ye>s aft] him4 #bc ,na?aniel ,highmore1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,g5]ation1 ,london1 #afea4 #bd ,m>cello ,malpighi1 ,anatome plant>um1 ,london1 #afge4 #be ,nehemiah ,grew1 ,anatomy ( ,vegetables begun1 ,london1 #afgb4 ,mu* has be5 writt5 z to ! k ( ! sex ( plants among ! anci5ts4 ,x may be /at$ t ( ! sexual elem5ts ( ! fl[] no anci5t writ] _h any cle> idea4 ,nev]!less1 sex is (t5 attribut$ to plants1 & ! simile ( ! ,loves ( ,plants ent]s into works ( ! poets4 ,plants are frequ5tly describ$ z male & female 9 anci5t biological writ+s also1 & ,pl9y goes s f> z to say t "s /ud5ts consid]$ t all h]bs & trees 7 sexual4#bf ,yet :5 su* passages c be te/$ x w be f\nd t ^! s-call$ males & females are usually diff]5t species4 ,9 a few cases a /]ile v>iety is describ$ z ! male & a f]tile z ! female4 ,9 a small residuum ( cases dici\s plants or fl[]s are reg>d$ z male & female1 b ) no real compreh5sion ( ! sexual nature ( ! fl[]s4 ,!re rema9 ! palms1 9 :i* ! k ( plant sex _h advanc$ a trifle f>!r4 ',) dates'1 says ,!ophra/us1 '! males %\ld be br\ght to ! females2 = ! males make ! fruit p]si/ & rip51 & ?is "s call by analogy to use ! wild fig 7 olyn?aze974#bg ,! process is ?us3 :5 ! male is 9 ! fl[] !y at once cut (f ! spa! ) ! fl[] & %ake ! bloom1 ) its fl[] & du/1 ov] ! fruit ( ! female1 &1 if x is ?us treat$1 x reta9s ! fruit & does n %$ x4'#bh ,! f]tiliz+ "* ( ! spa! ( ! male date palm 0 famili> 9 ,babylon f a v e>ly date4 ,x is record$ by ,h]odotus#bi & is repres5t$ by a frequ5t symbol on ! ,assyrian monum5ts4 #bf ,pl9y1 ,naturalis hi/oria1 xiii4 #d4 #bg ,! curi\s ^w olyn?aze91 "h translat$ to use ! wild fig1 is f olyn?os1 a k9d ( wild fig :i* seldom rip5s4 ,! special mean+ "h giv5 to ! ^w is expla9$ 9 ano!r "w ( ,!ophra/us1 ,de causis plant>um1 ii4 #i1 xv4 ,aft] describ+ caprification 9 figs1 he says 1 ' to de epi tn pho9ikn symba9on ou tauton m51 e*ei de t9a homoiotta t\t di' ho kal\s9 olyn?aze9 aut\s ',! same ?+ is n done ) dates1 b some?+ analog\s to x1 :5ce ?is is call$ ' olyn?aze9'4 #bh ,hi/oria plant>um1 ii4 #h1 iv4 #bi ,h]odotus i4 #aic4 ,! comp>ison ( ! f]tilization ( ! date palm to ! use ( ! wild fig ref]s to ! practice ( ,caprification4 ,!ophra/us tells u t !re are c]ta9 trees1 ! fig among !m1 :i* are apt to %$ _! fruit prematurely4 ,to rem$y ?is '! device adopt$ is caprification4 ,gall insects come out ( ! wild figs :i* are hang+ !re1 eat ! tops ( ! cultivat$ figs1 & s make !m swell'4#cj ,^! gall-insects 'are eng5d]$ f ! se$s'4#ca ,!ophra/us di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! process z appli$ to ! fig & ! date1 obs]v+ t '9 bo? fig & date ! male aids ! female--= !y call ! fruit-be>+ palm female--b :il/ 9 ! "o !re is a union ( ! two sexes1 9 ! o!r ?+s are diff]5t'4#cb #cj ,hi/oria plant>um1 ii4 #h1 i4 #ca ,ibid4 ii4 #h1 ii4 #cb ,hi/oria plant>um1 ii4 #h1 iv4 ,!ophra/us 0 n v successful 9 di/+ui%+ ! nature ( ! prim>y elem5ts ( plants1 ?\gh he 0 able to sep>ate root1 /em1 leaf1 /ipule1 & fl[] on morphological z well z to a limit$ ext5t on physiological gr\nds4 ,= ! root he adopts ! famili> def9ition1 ! only "o possible be=e ! rise ( *emi/ry1 t x 'is t by :i* ! plant draws up n\ri%m5t'1#cc a description t applies to ! acc\nt giv5 by ! pre-,ari/otelian au?or ( ! "w p]i gons1 ,on g5]ation4 ,b ,!ophra/us %[s by _m examples t he is capable ( foll[+ out morphological homologies4 ,?us he kn[s t ! ivy regul>ly puts =? roots f ! %oots betwe5 ! leaves1 by means ( :i* x gets hold ( trees & walls1#cd t ! mi/letoe w n spr\t except on ! b>k ( liv+ trees into :i* x /rikes its roots1 & t ! v peculi> =mation ( ! mangrove tree is to be expla9$ by ! fact t '?is plant s5ds out roots f ! %oots till x has hold on ! gr\nd & roots aga93 & s !re comes to be a cont9u\s circle ( roots r\nd ! tree1 n connect$ ) ! ma9 /em1 b at a di/ance f x'4#ce ,he does n succe$1 h[ev]1 9 di/+ui%+ ! real nature ( su* /ructures z bulbs1 rhizomes1 & tub]s1 b reg>ds !m all z roots4 ,nor is he m successful 9 8 discussion ( ! nature ( /ems4 ,z to leaves1 he is m def9ite & satisfactory1 ?\gh :olly 9 ! d>k z to _! function2 he is q cle> t ! p9nate leaf ( ! r[an tree1 = in/ance1 is a leaf & n a bran*4 #cc ,ibid4 i4 #a1 ix4 #cd ,ibid4 iii4 #ah1 x4 #ce ,de causis plant>um1 ii4 #bc4 ,not)/&+ 8 lack ( insight z to ! nature ( sex 9 fl[]s1 he atta9s to an approximately correct idea ( ! relation ( fl[] & fruit4 ,"s plants1 he says1 'h ! fl[] ar\nd ! fruit itself z v9e & olive2 ! fl[]s ( ! latt]1 :5 !y drop1 look z ?\gh !y _h a hole ?r\gh !m1 & ?is is tak5 = a sign t x has blossom$ well2 = if ! fl[] is burnt up or sodd51 ! fruit falls ) x1 & s x does n become pi]c$4 ,mo/ fl[]s h ! fruit case 9 ! middle1 or x may be ! fl[] is on ! top ( ! p]ic>p z 9 pomegranate1 apple1 pe>1 plum1 & myrtle 444 = ^! h _! se$s bel[ ! fl[]4444 ,9 "s cases aga9 ! fl[] is on top ( ! se$s !mselves z 9 444 all ?i/le-l plants'4#cf ,?us ,!ophra/us has succe$$ 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! hypogyn\s1 p]igyn\s1 & epigyn\s types ( fl[]1 & has almo/ come to reg>d its relation to ! fruit z ! ess5tial floral elem5t4 #cf ,hi/oria plant>um1 i4 #ac1 iii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,,!ophra/us ,f ,,villa ,,albani ,copy 7second c5tury ,a4 ,d487 ( e>li] "w ,!ophra/us has a p]fectly cle> idea ( plant di/ribution z dep5d5t on soil & climate1 & at times seems to be on ! po9t ( pass+ f a /atem5t ( climatic di/ribution into "o ( real geographical regions4 ,! g5]al "q ( plant di/ribution long rema9$ at1 if x did n rec$e f1 ! position :]e he left x4 ,! usefulness ( ! manuscript & e>ly pr9t$ h]bals 9 ! ,we/ 0 = c5turies m>r$ by ! ret5tion ( plant descriptions prep>$ = ! ,greek ,ea/ & ,lat9 ,s\?1 & ^! works 7 sav$ f complete ineffectiv5ess only by an occasional appeal to nature4 ,) ! dea? ( ,!ophra/us ab\t #bhg ,b4 ,c4 pure biological sci5ce sub/antially disappe>s f ! ,greek _w1 & we get ! same type ( det]ioration t is lat] enc\nt]$ 9 o!r sci5tific dep>tm5ts4 ,sci5ce ceases to h ! motive ( ! desire to "k1 & becomes an appli$ /udy1 subs]vi5t to ! practical arts4 ,x is an attitude f :i* 9 ! end appli$ sci5ce itself mu/ suff] also4 ,yet ! c5turies t foll[ 7 n )\t biological writ]s ( v great ability4 ,9 ! m$ical s*ool ( ,alex&ria anatomy & physiology became plac$ on a firm basis f ab\t #cjj ,b4 ,c41 b always 9 ! position subord9ate to m$ic9e t !y h s9ce occupi$4 ,two great names ( t s*ool1 ,h]ophilus & ,erasi/ratus1 we mu/ consid] else:]e4#cg ,_! works h disappe>$ & we h ! m]e/ fragm5ts ( !m4 ,9 ! la/ pre-,*ri/ian & ! fir/ two po/-,*ri/ian c5turies1 h[ev]1 !re 7 sev]al writ]s1 portions ( ^: works h surviv$ & are ( great biological importance4 ,among !m we include ,crateuas1 a botanical writ] & illu/rator1 :o greatly develop$1 if he did n actually introduce1 ! me?od ( repres5t+ plants sy/ematically by illu/ration r ?an by description4 ,?is me?od1 important /ill1 0 ev5 m important :5 !re 0 no prop] sy/em ( botanical nom5clature4 ,crateuas by 8 pa9t+s ( plants1 copies ( :i* h n improbably desc5d$ to our "t1 began a tradition :i*1 fix$ ab\t ! fif? c5tury1 rema9$ almo/ rigid until ! re-discov]y ( nature 9 ! sixte5?4 ,he 0 physician to ,mi?ridates ,,vi ,eupator 7#abj-fc ,b4 ,c471 b 8 "w 0 well kn[n & appreciat$ at ,rome1 :i* became ! place ( resort = ,greek tal5t4#ch #cg ,see ! companion *apt] on ,greek ,m$ic9e4 #ch ,! surviv+ fragm5ts ( ! works ( ,crateuas h rec5tly be5 pr9t$ by ,m4 ,wellmann z an app5dix to ! text ( ,dioscorides1 ,de mat]ia m$ica1 #c vols41 ,b]l91 #aijf-ag1 iii4 pp4 #add-f4 ,! s\rce & fate ( 8 plant draw+s are discuss$ 9 ! same au?or's ,krateuas1 ,b]l91 #ahig4 ,celsus1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #bj ,b4 ,c41 wrote an excell5t "w on m$ic9e1 b gives all too little glimpse ( anatomy & physiology4 ,rufus ( ,ephesus1 h[ev]1 9 ! next c5tury practis$ dissection ( apes & o!r animals4 ,he describ$ ! decussation ( ! optic n]ves & ! capsule ( ! cry/all9e l5s1 & gave ! fir/ cle> description t has surviv$ ( ! /ructure ( ! eye4 ,he reg>d$ ! n]ves z orig9at+ f ! bra91 & di/+ui%$ betwe5 n]ves ( motion & ( s5sation4 ,he describ$ ! oviduct ( ! %eep & rightly held t life 0 possible )\t ! sple54 ,! second ,*ri/ian c5tury br+s u two writ]s :o1 :ile sci5tifically inconsid]able1 act$ z ! ma9 c>ri]s ( su* tradition ( ,greek biology z rea*$ ! ,middle ,ages1 ,pl9y & ,dioscorides4 ,pl9y 7,a4 ,d4 #bc-gi71 ?\gh a ,lat91 owes almo/ ev]y?+ ( value 9 8 encyclopa$ia to ,greek writ+s4 ,9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory we h a collection ( curr5t views on ! nature1 orig91 & uses ( plants & animals su* z we might expect f an intellig5t1 indu/ri\s1 & hone/ memb] ( ! l&$ class :o 0 devoid ( critical or special sci5tific skill4 ,sci5tifically ! "w is contemptible1 b x dem&s m5tion 9 any /udy ( ! legacy ( ,greece1 s9ce x 01 = c5turies1 a ma9 conduit ( ! anci5t tea*+ & obs]vations on natural hi/ory4 ,read ?r\gh\t ! ages1 alike 9 ! d>ke/ z 9 ! m enlight5$ p]iods1 copi$ & recopi$1 translat$1 comm5t$ on1 extract$ & abridg$1 a l>ge "p ( ,pl9y's "w has gradually pass$ into folk-keep+1 s t ?r\gh its ag5cy ! gipsy =tune-tell] ( to-day is /ill recit+ g>bl$ v]sions ( ! =mulae ( ,ari/otle & ,hippocrates ( two & a half mill5nia ago4 ,! fate ( ,dioscorides 7fl\ri%$ ,a4 ,d4 #fj7 has be5 n dissimil>4 ,8 "w ,on ,mat]ia ,m$ica consi/s ( a s]ies ( %ort acc\nts ( plants1 arrang$ almo/ )\t ref]5ce to ! nature ( ! plants !mselves1 b q invaluable = its t]se & /rik+ descriptions :i* (t5 include habits & habitats4 ,its hi/ory has %[n x to be "o ( ! mo/ influ5tial botanical treatises ev] p5n$4 ,x provid$ mo/ ( ! little botanical k t rea*$ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x furni%$ ! *ief /imulus to botanical rese>* at ! "t ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,x has decid$ ! g5]al =m ( e mod]n ph>macopia4 ,x has practically det]m9$ mod]n plant nom5clature bo? popul> & sci5tific4 ,translat$ into ne>ly e language f ,anglo-,saxon & ,bohemian to ,arabic & ,hebrew1 appe>+ bo? ab/ract$ & 9 full 9 innum]able beautifully illum9at$ manuscripts1 "s ( :i* are /ill among ! faire/ treasures ( ! great national libr>ies1 ,dioscorides1 ! drug-mong]1 appeal$ to s*ola/iciz$ m9ds = c5turies4 ,! frequ5cy ) :i* fragm5ts ( him are enc\nt]$ 9 papyri %[s h[ popul> 8 "w 0 9 ,egypt 9 ! ?ird & f\r? c5turies4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ datable ,greek codices 9 exi/5ce is a glori\s volume ( ,dioscorides writt5 9 capitals1#ci ?\ght wor?y to =m a w$d+ gift = a lady :o 0 ! daught] ( "o ,roman emp]or & ! betro!d ( a second4#dj ,! illu/rations ( ?is fif?-c5tury manuscript are a v valuable monum5t = ! hi/ory ( art & ! *ief adornm5t ( :at 0 once ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,vi5na#da 7figs4 #i-aj74 ,illu/rat$ ,lat9 translations ( ,dioscorides 7 9 use 9 ! "t ( ,cassiodorus 7#dij-ehe74 ,a "w bas$ on x1 simil>ly illu/rat$1 b be>+ ! "n ( ,apuleius1 is among ! mo/ frequ5t ( m$iaeval botanical docum5ts & ! e>lie/ surviv+ specim5 is contempor>y ) ,cassiodorus himself4#db ,aft] ! revival ( le>n+ ,dioscorides cont9u$ to attract an imm5se am\nt ( philological & botanical ability1 & scores ( editions ( 8 works1 _m ( !m nobly illu/rat$1 p\r$ out ( ! presses ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i ,,sogkos ,,tryph]os ,crepis paludosa1 ,mn4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj ,,g]anion ,g]anium pyr5aicum1 ,l4 ,fif?-c5tury draw+s f ,,juliana ,,anicia ,m4,s41 copi$ f orig9als ( fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 787 #ci ,! manuscript 9 "q is ,m$4 ,graec4 #a at :at 0 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,vi5na4 ,x is kn[n z ! ,con/ant9opolitanus4 ,aft] ! w> x 0 tak5 to ,/4 ,m>k's at ,v5ice1 b ei!r has be5 or is ab\t to be re/or$ to ,vi5na4 ,a facsimile ( ?is gr& manuscript 0 publi%$ by ,sij?(f1 ,leyd51 #aijf4 #dj ,! lady 9 "q 0 ,juliana ,anicia1 daught] ( ,anicius ,olybrius1 ,emp]or ( ! ,we/ 9 #dgb1 & 8 wife ,placidia1 daught] ( ,val5t9ian ,,iii4 ,juliana 0 betro!d 9 #dgi by ! ,ea/]n ,emp]or ,z5o to ,!odoric ! ,o/rogo?1 b 0 m>ri$1 probably 9 #dhg :5 ! manuscript 0 pres5t$ to h]1 to ,areob9dus1 a high milit>y (fic] "u ! ,byzant9e ,emp]or ,ana/asius4 #da ,! importance ( ?is manuscript z well z ! position ( ,dioscorides z m$ical botani/ is discuss$ by ,*>les ,s+] 9 an article ',greek ,biology & ! ,rise ( ,mod]n ,biology'1 ,/udies 9 ! ,hi/ory & ,me?od ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 ii1 ,ox=d1 #aiba4 #db ,?is manuscript is at ! ,univ]sity ,libr>y at ,leyd51 :]e x is numb]$ ,voss ,q #i4 ,b ! greate/ biologi/ ( ! late ,greek p]iod1 & inde$ "o ( ! greate/ biologi/s ( all "t1 0 ,claudius ,gal5 ( ,p]gamon 7,a4 ,d4 #aca-bja74 ,gal5 devot$ himself to m$ic9e f an e>ly age1 & 9 8 tw5ty-fir/ ye> we he> ( him /udy+ anatomy at ,smyrna "u ,pelops4 ,) ! object ( ext5d+ 8 k ( drugs he e>ly made long j\rneys to ,asia ,m9or4 ,lat] he proce$$ to ,alex&ria1 :]e he improv$ 8 anatomical equipm5t1 & "h1 he tells u1 he exam9$ a human skeleton4 ,x is inde$ probable t 8 direct practical acqua9tance ) human anatomy 0 limit$ to ! skeleton & t dissection ( ! human body 0 no long] c>ri$ on at ,alex&ria 9 8 "t4 ,?us 8 physiology & anatomy _h to be d]iv$ ma9ly f animal s\rces4 ,he is ! mo/ volum9\s ( all anci5t sci5tific writ]s & "o ( ! mo/ volum9\s writ]s ( antiquity 9 any dep>tm5t4 ,we are n "h conc]n$ ) ! m$ical mat]ial :i* ma9ly fills ^! huge volumes1 b only ) ! physiological views :i* n only prevail$ 9 m$ic9e until ,h>vey & aft]1 b also gov]n$ = fifte5 hundr$ ye>s alike ! sci5tific & ! popul> ideas on ! nature & work+s ( ! animal body1 & h = c5turies be5 emb$d$ 9 our spee*4 ,a k ( ^! physiological views ( ,gal5 is necess>y = any und]/&+ ( ! hi/ory ( biology & illum9ates _m lit]>y allusions ( ! ,middle ,ages & ,r5aissance4 ,betwe5 ! f\ndation ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool & ! "t ( ,gal51 m$ic9e 0 divid$ among a great numb] ( sects4 ,gal5 0 an eclectic & took portions ( 8 tea*+ f _m ( ^! s*ools1 b he 0 also a naturali/ ( great ability & indu/ry1 & knew well ! value ( ! exp]im5tal way4 ,yet he 0 a some:at w9dy philosoph] &1 prid+ himself on 8 philosophic p[]s1 did n hesitate to draw conclusions f evid5ce :i* 0 by no means always adequate4 ,! physiological sy/em t he ?us succe$$ 9 build+ up we may n[ briefly consid] 7fig4 #aa74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/rat+ ,gal5's physiological tea*+4 ,! basic pr9ciple ( life1 9 ! ,gal5ic physiology1 is a _s1 anima or pneuma1 drawn f ! g5]al _w-s\l 9 ! act ( respiration4 ,x ent]s ! body ?r\gh ! r\gh art]y 7 tra*eia artria1 art]ia asp]a ( m$iaeval notation71 ! organ kn[n to our nom5clature z ! tra*ea4 ,f ?is tra*ea ! pneuma passes to ! lung & !n1 ?r\gh ! ve9-l art]y 7 artria phlebds1 art]ia v5alis ( m$iaeval writ]s1 ! pulmon>y ve9 ( our nom5clature71 to ! left v5tricle4 ,"h x w be be/ to leave x = a mom5t & trace ! vascul> sy/em along a diff]5t r\te4 ,+e/$ food1 pass+ d[n ! alim5t>y tract1 0 absorb$ z *yle f ! inte/9e1 collect$ by ! portal vessel1 & convey$ by x to ! liv]4 ,t organ1 ! site ( ! innate heat 9 ,gal5's view1 _h ! p[] ( elaborat+ ! *yle into v5\s blood & ( imbu+ x ) a _s or pneuma :i* is innate 9 all liv+ sub/ance1 s long z x rema9s alive1 ! natural spirits 7 pneuma physikon1 spiritus naturalis ( ! m$iaevals74 ,*>g$ ) ?is1 & also ) ! nutritive mat]ial d]iv$ f ! food1 ! v5\s blood is di/ribut$ by ! liv] ?r\gh ! ve9s :i* arise f x 9 ! same way z ! art]ies f ! he>t4 ,^! ve9s c>ry n\ri%m5t & natural spirits to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,iecur fons v5>um1 ! liv] z ! s\rce ( ! ve9s1 rema9$ ?r\gh ! c5turies ! wat*word ( ! ,gal5ic physiology4 ,! blood 0 held to ebb & fl[ cont9u\sly 9 ! ve9s dur+ life4 ,n[ f ! liv] arose "o great vessel1 ! hepatic ve91 f division ( :i* ! o!rs 7 held to come (f z bran*es4 ,( ^! bran*es1 "o1 our common v5a cava1 ent]$ ! "r side ( ! he>t4 ,= ! blood t x convey$ to ! he>t !re 7 two fates possible4 ,! great] "p rema9$ a:ile 9 ! v5tricle1 p>t+ ) its impurities & vap\rs1 exhalations ( ! organs1 :i* 7 c>ri$ (f by ! art]y-l ve9 7 phleps artrids1 ! m$iaeval v5a art]ialis1 our pulmon>y art]y7 to ! lung & !n exhal$ to ! out] air4 ,^! impurities & vap\rs gave its poison\s & suffocat+ "* to ! brea?4 ,hav+ p>t$ ?us ) its impurities1 ! v5\s blood ebb$ back aga9 f ! "r v5tricle into ! v5\s sy/em4 ,b = a small fraction ( ! v5\s blood t ent]$ ! "r v5tricle ano!r fate 0 res]v$4 ,?is small fraction ( v5\s blood1 *>g$ /ill ) ! natural spirits d]iv$ f ! liv]1 pass$ ?r\gh m9ute *annels 9 ! septum betwe5 ! v5tricles & ent]$ ! left *amb]4 ,arriv$ !re1 x enc\nt]$ ! ext]nal pneuma & became !reby elaborat$ into a high] =m ( _s1 ! vital spirits 7 pneuma ztikon1 spiritus vitalis71 :i* is di/ribut$ toge!r ) blood by ! art]ial sy/em to v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,9 ! art]ial sy/em x also ebb$ & fl[$1 & might be se5 & felt to pulsate !re4 ,b among ! great art]ial vessels t s5t =? art]ial blood ?us *>g$ ) vital spirits 7 c]ta9 vessels :i* asc5d$ to ! bra94 ,be=e rea*+ t organ !y divid$ up into m9ute *annels1 ! rete mirabile 7 plegma megi/on ?auma71 & pass+ into ! bra9 became conv]t$ by ! action ( t organ into a yet high] type ( spirits1 ! animal spirits 7 pneuma psy*ikon1 spiritus animalis71 an e!real sub/ance di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body by ! /ructures kn[n to-day z n]ves1 b believ$ !n to be holl[ *annels4 ,! ?ree fundam5tal faculties 7 dynameis71 ! natural1 ! vital1 & ! animal1 :i* br\ght into action ! correspond+ functions ( ! body1 ?us orig9at$ z an expression ( ! primal =ce or pneuma4 ,?is physiology1 we may emphasize1 is n d]iv$ f an inve/igation ( human anatomy4 ,9 ! human bra9 !re is no rete mirabile1 ?\gh su* an organ is f\nd 9 ! calf4 ,9 ! human liv] !re is no hepatic ve91 ?\gh su* an organ is f\nd 9 ! dog4 ,dogs1 calves1 pigs1 be>s1 &1 above all1 ,b>b>y apes 7 freely dissect$ by ,gal5 & 7 ! creatures f :i* he d]iv$ 8 physiological ideas4 ,_m ( ,gal5's anatomical & physiological errors are due to 8 attribut+ to "o creature ! /ructures f\nd 9 ano!r1 a fact t only v gradually dawn$ on ! ,r5aissance anatomi/s4 ,! :ole k possess$ by ! _w 9 ! dep>tm5t ( physiology f ! ?ird to ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ne>ly all ! biological conceptions till ! ?irte5?1 & mo/ ( ! anatomy & mu* ( ! botany until ! sixte5? c5tury1 all ! ideas ( ! physical /ructure ( liv+ ?+s ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages1 7 conta9$ 9 a small numb] ( ^! works ( ,gal54 ,! biological works ( ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us l+]$ prec>i\sly 9 a few r>e manuscripts 9 ! mona/]ies ( ! ,ea/2 ! total output ( hundr$s ( ye>s ( ,alex&rian & ,p]gam5ian activities 0 utt]ly de/roy$2 ! ,ionian biological works1 ( :i* a sample has by a miracle surviv$1 7 =gott52 b ^! va/1 w9dy1 ill-arrang$ treatises ( ,gal5 l+]$ on4 ,translat$ into ,lat91 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 & ,hebrew1 !y saturat$ ! intellectual _w ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,comm5t$ on by lat] ,greek writ]s1 :o 7 !mselves 9 turn translat$ into ! same li/ ( languages1 !y 7 yet aga9 s]v$ up "u ! names ( su* ,greek writ]s z ,oribasius1 ,paul ( ,aeg9a1 or ,alex&] ( ,tralles4 ,:at is ! secret ( ! vitality ( ^! ,gal5ic biological conceptions8 ,! answ] c be giv5 9 f\r words4 ,gal5 is a teleologi/2 & a teleologi/ ( a k9d ^: views happ5$ to fit 9 ) ! prevail+ !ological attitude ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :e!r ,*ri/ian1 ,moslem1 or ,jewi%4 ,accord+ to him ev]y?+ :i* exi/s & displays activity 9 ! human body orig9ates 9 & is =m$ by an intellig5t be+ & on an intellig5t plan1 s t ! organ 9 /ructure & function is ! result ( t plan4 ',x 0 ! ,creator's inf9ite wisdom :i* select$ ! be/ means to atta9 8 b5efic5t ends1 & x is a pro( ( ,8 omnipot5ce t he creat$ e good ?+ accord+ to ,8 design1 & !reby fulfill$ ,8 w4'#dc #dc ,a good in/ance ( ,gal5's teleological po9t ( view is af=d$ by 8 classical description ( ! h& 9 ! p]i *reias tn en an?rp\ smati morin1 ,on ! uses ( ! p>ts ( ! body ( man1 i4 #a4 ,?is passage is available 9 ,engli% 9 a tract by ,?omas ,bellott1 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,aft] ,gal5 !re is a ?\s& ye>s ( d>kness1 & biology ceases to h a hi/ory4 ,! m9d ( ! ,d>k ,ages turn$ t[>ds !ology1 & su* rema9s ( ,neoplatonic philosophy z 7 absorb$ into ! religi\s sy/em 7 little likely to be ( aid to ! sci5tific attitude4 ,"o dep>tm5t ( positive k mu/ ( c\rse p]si/4 ,m5 /ill suff]$ f ! infirmities ( ! fle% & /ill s\ght relief f !m4 ,b ! books f :i* t advice 0 s\ght _h no?+ to d ) g5]al pr9ciples nor ) k z su*4 ,!y 7 ! mo/ wret*$ ( ! treatises t /ill masqu]ad$ "u ! names ( ,hippocrates & ,gal51 mo/ly m]e =mul>ies1 antidot>ies1 or p]haps at be/ symptom li/s4 ,&1 :5 ! depression ( ! we/]n intellect _h pass$ its wor/1 !re 0 /ill no biological mat]ial on :i* x c\ld be n\ri%$4 ,! prevail+ int]e/ ( ! b>b>ian _w1 at la/ beg9n+ to settle into its h]itage ( antiquity1 0 ) ,logic4 ,( ,ari/otle !re surviv$ 9 ,lat9 dress only ! ,categories & ! ,de int]pretatione1 ! m]ciful legacy ( ,boe?ius1 ! la/ ( ! philosoph]s4 ,_h a translation ( ,ari/otle's ,hi/oria animalium or ,de g5]atione animalium surviv$1 _h a ,lat9 v]sion ( ! ,hippocratic "w ,on g5]ation or ( ! treatises ( ,!ophra/us ,on plants rea*$ ! e>li] ,middle ,ages1 ! :ole m5tal hi/ory ( ,europe might h be5 diff]5t & ! r$iscov]y ( nature might h be5 ant$at$ by c5turies4 ,b ?is 0 a *ange ( he>t = :i* ! _w _h long to wait2 some?+ mu* less 0 ! e>lie/ biological gift ( ,greece4 ,! gift1 :5 x came1 came 9 two =ms1 "o ( :i* has n be5 adequately recogniz$1 b bo? are equally h] legacy4 ,^! two =ms are1 fir/ly1 ! well-kn[n "w ( ! e>ly translators &1 secondly1 ! t>dily recogniz$ "w ( c]ta9 s*ools ( m9or art4 ,! e>lie/ biological treatises to become accessible 9 ! we/ 7 r5d]$ n f ,greek b f ,arabic4#dd ,! fir/ ( !m 0 p]haps ! treatise p]i myn k9ses1 ,on movem5t ( muscles ( ,gal51 a "w :i* conta9s m ?an its title sugge/s & inde$ sets =? mu* ( ! ,gal5ic physiological sy/em4 ,x 0 r5d]$ into ,lat9 f ! ,arabic ( ,joannitius 7,huna9 ibn ,i%aq1 #hji-gc71 probably ab\t ! ye> #abjj1 by "o ,m>k ( ,tol$o4 ,x attract$ little att5tion1 b v soon aft] biological works ( ,ari/otle began to become accessible4 ,! fir/ 0 probably ! fragm5t ,on plants4 ,! ,greek orig9al ( ?is is lo/1 & besides ! ,lat91 only an ,arabic v]sion ( a =m] ,arabic translation ( a ,syriac r5d]+ ( a ,greek comm5t>y is n[ kn[n6 ,su* a "w appe>$ f ! h& ( a translator kn[n z ,alfr$ ! ,engli%man ab\t #abbj or a little lat]4 ,nei!r x nor ano!r "w f ! same translator1 ,on ! motion ( ! he>t1 :i* s\ght to e/abli% ! primacy ( t organ on ,ari/otelian gr\nds1 c be said to conta9 any ( ! _s ( ! ma/]4#de #dd ,! e>ly ,european translations f ! ,arabic are tabulat$ ) unp>allel$ le>n+ by ,m4 ,/e9s*neid]1 ',die ,europis*5 ,ueb]setzung5 aus dem ,arabis*5 bis ,mitte des #ag4 ,jahrhund]ts'1 9 ! ,sitzungsb]i*te d] kais4 ,akad4 d] ,wiss5s*aft5 9 ,wi51 cxlix & cli1 ,vi5na1 #aijd & #aije4 #de ,c4 ,h4 ,hask9s1 ',! reception ( ,arabic sci5ce 9 ,engl&1' ,engli% ,hi/orical ,review1 ,london1 #aiae1 p4 #ef4 ,a little bett] ?an ^! is ! "w ( ! wiz>d ,mi*ael ! ,scot 7#aage8-abcd874 ,rog] ,bacon tells u t ,mi*ael 9 #abcj 'appe>$ at ,ox=d1 br++ ) him ! works ( ,ari/otle 9 natural hi/ory & ma!matics1 ) wise expositors1 s t ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle 0 magnifi$ among ! ,lat9s'4#df ,scott produc$ 8 "w ,de animalibus ab\t ?is date & he includ$ 9 x ! ?ree great biological works ( ,ari/otle1 all r5d]$ f an inf]ior ,arabic v]sion4#dg ,alb]tus ,magnus 7#abjf-hj7 _h n z yet a translation direct f ! ,greek to g ^u = 8 great comm5t>y on ! ,hi/ory ( animals1 b he dep5d$ on ,scott4 ,! biological works ( ,ari/otle 7 r5d]$ into ,lat9 direct f ! ,greek 9 ! ye> #abfj probably by ,william ( ,mo]beke4#dh ,su* translations1 appe>+ 9 ! full s*ola/ic age :5 ev]y?+ 0 aga9/ direct obs]vation1 _c be said to h fall5 on a f]tile gr\nd4 ,!y pres5t$ an ord]$ acc\nt ( nature & a good me?od ( inve/igation1 b ^? 7 gifts to a society t knew little ( _! real value4#di #df ,rog] ,bacon1 ,opus majus1 edit$ by ,j4 ,h4 ,bridges1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahig-aijj4 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #ff4 #dg ,on ! ,ari/otelian translations ( ,scott see ,a4 ,h4 ,qu]feld1 ,mi*ael ,scottus und se9e ,s*rift1 ,de secretis naturae1 ,leipzig1 #aiai2 & ,c4 ,h4 ,hask9s1 ',mi*ael ,scot & ,fr$]ick ,,ii' 9 ,isis1 ii4 #bej1 ,brussels1 #aibb4 #dh ,j4 ,g4 ,s*neid]1 ,ari/otelis de animalibus hi/oriae1 ,leipzig1 #ahaa1 p4 cxxvi4 ,l4 ,dittmey]1 ,guilelmi ,mo]bek5sis translatio comm5tationis ,ari/otelicae de g5]atione animalium1 ,dill+51 #aiae4 ,l4 ,dittmey]1 ,de animalibus hi/oria1 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 #di ,! subject ( ! ,lat9 translations ( ,ari/otle is trav]s$ by ,a4 & ,c4 ,j\rda91 ,re*]*es critiques sur l'ge des traductions lat9es d',ari/ote1 #bnd ed41 ,p>is1 #ahdc2 ,m4 ,grabmann1 ,=s*ung5 ub] die late9is*5 ,ari/oteles ,ub]setzung5 des ,,xiii4 ,jahrhund]ts1 ,mn/] i_/,w41 #aiaf2 & ,f4 ,w/5feld1 ,die ,ub]setzung5 arabis*] ,w]ke 9 das ,late9is*e seit dem ,,xi4 ,jahrhund]t1 ,gtt+51 #ahgg4 ,yet ! adv5t ( ^! texts 0 co9cid5t ) a return+ desire to obs]ve nature4 ,alb]t1 ) all 8 s*ola/icism1 0 no contemptible naturali/4 ,he may be said to h begun fir/-h& plant /udy 9 mod]n times s f> z lit]>y records are conc]n$4 ,8 book ,de vegetabilibus conta9s excell5t obs]vations1 & he is wor?y ( inclusion among ! fa!rs ( botany4 ,9 8 va/ treatise ,de animalibus1 hamp]$ z he is by 8 le>n+ & v]bosity1 he %[s himself a true obs]v] & "o :o has absorb$ some?+ ( ! _s ( ! great naturali/ to ^: works he _h devot$ a lifetime ( /udy & on :i* he pr(esses to be comm5t+4 ,we see cle>ly ! leav5 ( ! ,ari/otelian _s work+1 ?\gh ,alb]t is /ill a s*oolman4 ,we may select = quotation a passage on ! g5]ation ( fi%1 a subject on :i* "s ( ,ari/otle's mo/ rem>kable descriptions rema9$ unconfirm$ till mod]n times4 ,^! descriptions impress$ ,alb]t 9 ! same way z !y d ! mod]n naturali/4 ,to ^? :o "k no?+ ( ! /imulat+ p[] ( ! ,ari/otelian biological works1 ,alb]t's description ( ! embryos ( fi% & 8 accurate di/9ction ( _! mode ( developm5t f t ( birds1 by ! abs5ce ( an allantoic membrane 9 ! "o & its pres5ce 9 ! o!r1 mu/ surely be />tl+4 ,alb]t dep5ds on ,ari/otle--a ?ird-h& v]sion ( ,ari/otle--b does n slavi%ly foll[ him4 ',betwe5 ! mode ( developm5t 7ana?omiam g5]ationis7 ( birds' & fi%es' eggs !re is ?is diff]5ce3 dur+ ! developm5t ( ! fi% ! second ( ! two ve9s :i* ext5d f ! he>t z describ$ by ,ari/otle 9 birds does n exi/4 ,= we d n f9d ! ve9 :i* ext5ds to ! out] cov]+ 9 ! eggs ( birds :i* "s wrongly call ! navel because x c>ries ! blood to ! ext]ior p>ts2 b we d f9d ! ve9 t corresponds to ! yolk ve9 ( birds1 = ?is ve9 imbibes ! n\ri%m5t by :i* ! limbs increase4444 ,9 fi%es z 9 birds1 *annels ext5d f ! he>t fir/ to ! head & ! eyes1 & fir/ 9 !m appe> ! great upp] p>ts4 ,z ! gr[? ( ! "y fi% increases ! album5 decreases1 be+ incorporat$ into ! memb]s ( ! "y fi%1 & x disappe>s entirely :5 developm5t & =mation are complete4 ,! beat+ ( ! he>t 444 is convey$ to ! l[] "p ( ! belly1 c>ry+ pulse & life to ! inf]ior memb]s4 ',:ile ! "y fi% are small & n yet fully develop$ !y h ve9s ( great l5g? :i* take ! place ( ! navel-/r+1 b z !y gr[ & develop1 ^! %ort5 & contract into ! body t[>ds ! he>t1 z we h said ab\t birds4 ,! "y fi% & ! eggs are enclos$ & 9 a cov]+1 z are ! eggs & "y ( birds4 ,?is cov]+ resembles ! dura mat] ( ! bra91 & b5ea? x is ano!r correspond+ !re=e to ! pia mat] ( ! bra9 :i* conta9s ! "y animal & no?+ else4'#ej #ej ,! enorm\s ,de ,animalibus ( ,alb]t ( ,cologne is n[ available 9 an edition by ,h4 ,/adl]1 ,alb]tus ,magnus ,de ,animalibus ,libri ,,xxvi na* d] cln] ,urs*rift1 #b vols41 ,mn/] i_/,w41 #aiaf-ba4 ,! quotation is translat$ f vol4 i1 pp4 #dfe-f4 ,9 ! next c5tury ,conrad von ,meg5b]g 7#acji-ih7 produc$ 8 ,book ( ,nature1 a complete "w on natural hi/ory1 ! fir/ ( ! k9d 9 ! v]nacul>1 f\nd$ on ,lat9 v]sions1 n[ r5d]$ direct f ! ,greek1 ( ! ,ari/otelian & ,gal5ic biological works4 ,x is well ord]$ & op5s ) a sy/ematic acc\nt ( ! /ructure & physiology ( man z a type ( ! animal creation1 :i* is !n sy/ematically describ$ & foll[$ by an acc\nt ( plants4 ,conrad1 ?\gh guid$ by ,ari/otle1 uses 8 own eyes & e>s1 & ) him & ,alb]t ! era ( direct obs]vation has begun4#ea #ea ,conrad's "w is conv5i5tly edit$ by ,h4 ,s*ultz1 ,das ,bu* d] ,natur von ,conrad von ,meg5b]g1 die er/e ,naturges*i*te 9 deuts*] ,spra*e1 9 ,neu-,ho*deuts*e ,spra*e be>beitet1 ,greifswald1 #ahig4 ,conrad's "w is bas$ on t ( ,?omas ( ,cantimpr 7#abja-gj74 ,b !re 0 ano!r dep>tm5t 9 :i* ! legacy ( ,greece f\nd an ev5 e>li] appreciation4 ,= c5turies ! illu/rations to h]bals & be/i>ies _h be5 copi$ f h& to h&1 cont9u+ a tradition t _h its rise ) ,greek arti/s ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,b _! "w1 copi$ at ea* /age )\t ref]5ce to ! object1 mov$ con/antly f>!r f resemblance to ! orig9al4 ,at la/ ! illu/rations became little b =mal patt]ns1 a /ate 9 :i* !y rema9$ 9 "s late copies prep>$ z rec5tly z ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,b at a c]ta9 p]iod a *ange set 91 & ! arti/1 no long] cont5t to rely on tradition1 appeals at la/ to nature4 ,?is new /irr+ 9 art corresponds ) ! new /irr+ 9 lett]s1 ! ,arabian revival--itself a legacy ( ,greece1 ?\gh sadly det]iorat$ 9 transit--t gave rise to s*ola/icism4 ,9 mu* ( ! beautiful c>v$ & sculptur$ "w ( ! ,fr5* ca!drals ! new movem5t appe>s 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,at su* a place z ,*>tres we see ! attempt to r5d] plants & animals fai?fully 9 /one z e>ly z #abdj or be=e4 ,9 ! easi] m$ium ( p>*m5t ! same t5d5cy appe>s ev5 e>li]4 ,:5 once x beg9s ! process progresses sl[ly until ! great recov]y ( ! ,greek texts 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 :5 x is aga9 accel]at$4 ,dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury ! en]gy ( botani/s & zoologi/s 0 l>gely absorb$ 9 produc+ mo/ c>efully annotat$ & illu/rat$ editions ( ,dioscorides & ,!ophra/us & acc\nts ( animals1 habits1 & /ructure t 7 int5d$ to illu/rate ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 :ile ! anatomi/s explor$ ! bodies ( man & bea/ to confirm or refute ,gal54 ,! great monographs on birds1 fi%es1 & plants ( ?is p]iod1 o/5sibly little b comm5t>ies on ,pl9y1 ,ari/otle1 & ,dioscorides1 repres5t really ! fir/ important ef=ts ( mod]n times at a natural hi/ory4 ,!y pass naturally into ! encyclopa$ias ( ! lat] sixte5? c5tury1 & ^! into ! physiological works ( ! sev5te5?4 ,ari/otle 0 nev] a dead h& 9 ,biology z he 0 9 ,physics1 & ?is = ! reason t he 0 a great biologi/ b 0 n a great physici/4 ,) ! advance ( ! sixte5? c5tury ! works ( ,ari/otle1 & to a less ext5t ^? ( ,dioscorides & ,gal51 became ! great /imulus to ! f\ndation ( a new biological sci5ce4 ,mat?ioli 7#aebj-gg71 9 8 comm5t>y on ,dioscorides 7fir/ edition #aedd71 :i* 0 "o ( ! fir/ works ( its type to appe> 9 ! v]nacul>1 made a numb] ( fir/-h& obs]vations on ! habits & /ructure ( plants t is />tl+ ev5 to a mod]n botani/4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,gal5ic physiology1 express$ also 9 num]\s works 9 ! vulg> tongue & r\s+ ! curiosity ( ! physicians1 became ! cle> p>5t ( mod]n physiology & comp>ative anatomy4 ,b1 above all1 ! ,ari/otelian biological works 7 f]tiliz]s ( ! m9d4 ,x is v int]e/+ to wat* a f9e obs]v] su* z ,fabricius ab ,acquap5d5te 7#aecg-afai7 lay+ ! f\ndations ( mod]n embryology 9 a spl5did s]ies ( fir/-h& obs]vations1 treat+ 8 own great rese>*es almo/ z a comm5t>y on ,ari/otle4 ,:at an impressive contra/ to ! arid physics ( ! "t bas$ also on ,ari/otle6 ',my purpose'1 says ,fabricius1 'is to treat ( ! =mation ( ! foetus 9 e animal1 sett+ out f t :i* proce$s f ! egg3 = ?is ought to take prec$5ce ( all o!r discussion ( ! subject1 bo? because x is n difficult to make out ,ari/otle's view ( ! matt]1 & because 8 treatise on ! ,=mation ( ! ,foetus f ! egg is by f> ! fulle/1 & ! subject is by mu* ! mo/ ext5sive & difficult4'#eb #eb ,hi]onimo ,fabrizio ( ,acquap5d5te1 ,de =mato foetu1 ,padua1 #afjd4 ,! indu/ri\s & c>eful ,fabricius1 ) a wond]ful tal5t = obs]vation lit n by 8 own lamp b by t ( ,ari/otle1 be>s a relation to ! ma/] mu* l t held by ,ari/otle's pupil 9 ! fle%1 ,!ophra/us4 ,! works ( ! two m51 ,fabricius & ,!ophra/us1 be> inde$ a resemblance to ea* o!r4 ,bo? rely on ! same gr\p ( g5]al ideas1 bo? progress 9 mu* ! same ord]$ calm f obs]vation to obs]vation1 bo? h an inspiration :i* is effici5t & /imulat+ b bel[ ! greate/1 bo? are en?usia/ic & effective z inve/igators ( fact1 b timid & ineffective 9 draw+ conclusions4 ,b ,fabricius 0 m happy 9 8 pupils ?an ,!ophra/us1 = we may wat* ! same ,ari/otelian ideas f]m5t+ 9 ! m9d ( ,fabricius's successor1 ! greate/ biologi/ s9ce ,ari/otle himself1 ,william ,h>vey 7#aegh-afeg74ec ,?is writ]'s "w ,on g5]ation is a c>eful comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's "w on ! same topic1 b x is a comm5t>y n 9 ! old s5se b 9 ! _s ( ,ari/otle himself4 ,ea* /atem5t is weigh$ & te/$ 9 ! light ( exp]i5ce1 & ! y\ng] naturali/1 ) all 8 rev]5ce = ,ari/otle1 does n hesitate to criticize 8 conclusions4 ,he exhibits an indep5d5ce ( ?\ght1 an +5uity 9 exp]im5t1 & a p[] ( d$uction t places 8 treatise z ! middle t]m ( ! ?ree great works on embryology ( :i* ! o!r memb]s are ^? ( ,ari/otle & ,k>l ,ern/ von ,ba] 7#agif-ahgf74ed #ec ,william ,h>vey1 ,ex]citationes de g5]atione animalium1 ,london1 #afea4 #ed ,k>l ,ern/ von ,ba]1 ,ueb] die ,entwickelungsges*i*te d] ,?i]e1 ,knigsb]g1 #ahbh-cg4 ,) ! second half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury & dur+ a l>ge "p ( ! eighte5? ! biological works ( ,ari/otle attract$ less att5tion4 ,! battle aga9/ ! ,ari/otelian physics _h be5 f\ght & won1 b ) !m ! biological works ( ,ari/otle unju/ly pass$ into ! %ad[ t ov]hung all ! idols ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! r$iscov]y ( ! ,ari/otelian biology is a mod]n ?+4 ,! collection ( ! va/ weal? ( liv+ =ms absorb$ ! en]gies ( ! g5]ations ( naturali/s f ,ray 7#afbg-agje7 & ,will\ghby 7#afce-gb7 to ,raumur 7#afhc-ageg7 & ,l9naeus 7#agjg-aggh7 & beyond to ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! magnitude & fasc9ation ( ! "w seems almo/ to h exclud$ g5]al ideas4 ,) ! end ( ?is p]iod & ! adv5t ( a m philosophical type ( naturali/1 su* z ,cuvi] 7#agfi-ahcb7 & memb]s ( ! ,sa9t-,hilaire family1 ,ari/otle came aga9 to 8 own4 ,s9ce ! dawn ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & s9ce naturali/s h be5 9 a position to v]ify ! "w ( ,ari/otle1 8 reputation z a naturali/ has cont9u\sly ris54 ,johannes ,mll] 7#ahja-eh71 ,ri*>d ,ow5 7#ahjd-ib71 ,george ,h5ry ,lewes 7#ahag-gh71 ,william ,ogle 7#ahbg-aiab7 are a few ( ! long l9e ( ^? :o h d]iv$ direct inspiration f 8 biological "w4 ,) improv$ mod]n me?ods ( inve/igation ! problems ( g5]ation h absorb$ a l>ge am\nt ( biological att5tion1 & int]e/ has become specially conc5trat$ on ,ari/otle's "w on t topic :i* is p]haps1 at ! mom5t1 m widely read ?an any biological treatise1 anci5t or mod]n1 except ! works ( ,d>w94 ,t great naturali/ wrote to ,ogle 9 #ahhb3 ',f quotations ,i _h se5 ,i _h a high notion ( ,ari/otle's m]its1 b ,i _h n ! mo/ remote notion :at a wond]ful man he 04 ,l9naeus & ,cuvi] h be5 my two gods1 ?\gh 9 v diff]5t ways1 b !y 7 m]e s*oolboys to old ,ari/otle4' ,,*>les ,,s+]4 ,,m$ic9e 1 4 ,hrophilos de en t ,diaittik kai sophian phs9 anepideikton kai te*nn adlon kai is*yn anagni/on kai pl\ton a*reion kai logon adynaton1 hygieias ap\ss4 ,h]ophilos1 a ,greek philosoph] & physician 7c4 #cjj ,b4 ,c471 has truly writt5 't ,sci5ce & ,art h equally no?+ to %[1 t ,/r5g? is incapable ( ef=t1 ,weal? useless1 & ,eloqu5ce p[]less if ,heal? be want+'4#ee ,all peoples !re=e h _h _! me?ods ( treat+ ^? dep>tures f heal? t we call disease1 & among peoples ( high] culture su* me?ods h be5 r$uc$ 9 mo/ cases to some?+ resembl+ a sy/em4 ,9 antiquity1 z n[1 a v>iety ( su* sy/ems 7 9 vogue1 & ^? nations :o practis$ ! art ( writ+ f an e>ly date h left consid]able records ( _! m$ical me?ods & doctr9es4 ,we may ?us =m a fairly good idea ( ! m$ical pr9ciples ( ! ,mesopotamian1 ! ,egyptian1 ! ,iranian1 ! ,indian1 & ! ,*9ese civilizations4 ,mu* 9 ^! sy/ems1 z 9 ! m$ical proc$ure ( m primitive tribes1 0 bas$ ^u "s !ory ( disease :i* fitt$ 9 ) a l>g] !ory ( ! nature ( evil4 ,( ^! !ories ! commone/ 0 & is ! demonic1 ! view t reg>ds deviation f ! normal /ate ( heal? z due ei!r to ! attacks ( sup]natural be+s or to _! actual entry into ! body ( ! suff]]4 ,a m$ical sy/em bas$ on su* a view is susceptible ( great elaboration 9 a high] civilization1 b n be+ f\nd$ on obs]vation is h>dly capable ( indef9ite developm5t1 = a po9t mu/ ultimately be rea*$ at :i* ! m9d recoils f complex conclusions f> remote f obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,! m$ic9e ( ! anci5t & settl$ civilization ( su* a p z ! ,assyro-,babylonians1 = in/ance1 ( :i* sub/antial traces h be5 recov]$1 is h>dly1 if at all1 m effective1 ?\gh f> m sy/ematiz$1 ?an t ( _m a wild & unlett]$ tribe t may be obs]v$ to-day4 ,( su* m$ic9e z ?is we may give an acc\nt1 b we c h>dly write a hi/ory4 ,we _c e/abli% ^? elem5ts ( cont9uity & ( developm5t f :i* alone hi/ory c be con/ruct$4 #ee ,! works ( ,h]ophilus are lo/4 ,?is f9e passage has be5 pres]v$ = u by ,sextus ,empiricus1 a ?ird-c5tury physician1 9 8 pros tois ma?matik\s aitirrtikoi1 :i* is 9 ess5ce an attack on all positive philosophy4 ,x is an ent]ta9+ fact t we %\ld h to g to su* a "w = rema9s ( ! greate/ anatomi/ ( antiquity4 ,! passage is 9 ! section direct$ aga9/ e?ical writ]s1 xi4 #ej4 ,x is ! di/9ction ( ! ,greeks alone among ! nations ( antiquity t !y practis$ a sy/em ( m$ic9e bas$ n on !ory b on obs]vation accumulat$ sy/ematically z "t w5t on4 ,! claim c be made = ! ,greeks t "s at lea/ among !m 7 deflect$ by no !ory1 7 deceiv$ by no !urgy1 7 hamp]$ by no tradition 9 _! se>* = ! facts ( disease & 9 _! attempts at int]pret+ its ph5om5a4 ,only ! ,greeks among ! anci5ts c\ld look on _! heal]s z physicians 7 naturali/s1 physis nature71 & t ^w itself /&s z a la/+ rem9d] ( _! a*ievem5t4#ef #ef ,! ^w physikos1 ?\gh x pass$ ov] into ,lat9 7,cic]o7 ) ! mean+ naturali/1 acquir$ ! connotation ( sorc]] among ! lat] ,greek writ]s4 ,p]haps ! ^w physicianus 0 introduc$ to make a di/9ction f ! *>m-mong]+ physicus4 ,9 lat] ,lat9 physicus & m$icus are almo/ always int]*angeable4 ,at a c]ta9 /age 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,we/]n _w--! exact po9t 9 "t may be disput$ b ! ev5t is admitt$ by all--m5 turn$ to explore ! treasures ( ! anci5t wisdom & ! :ole mass ( ,greek m$ical le>n+ 0 gradually laid be=e ! /ud5t4 ,t mass conta9$ mu* dross1 mat]ial t surviv$ f e>ly z f late ,greek times :i* 0 h>dly1 if at all1 sup]ior to ! debas$ compositions t circulat$ 9 ! "n ( m$ic9e 9 ! middle c5turies4 ,b ! recov]$ ,greek m$ical writ+s also conta9$ "s mat]ial ( ! pure/ & mo/ sci5tific type1 & t mat]ial & ! _s 9 :i* x 0 writt51 =m ! debt ( mod]n m$ic9e to antiquity4 ,x is a debt ! value ( :i* _c be exagg]at$4 ,! physicians ( ! revival ( le>n+1 & = long aft]1 d\btless p9n$ _! fai? too mu* to ! writt5 ^w ( _! ,greek =be>s & s\ght to imprison ! free _s ( ,hippocrates & ,gal5 9 ! rigid wall ( _! own r$iscov]$ texts4 ,! great m$ical pione]s ( a some:at lat] age1 enrag$ by ?is attempt1 ! real nature ( :i* 0 l>gely hidd5 f !m1 n infrequ5tly revolt$ & rightly revolt$ aga9/ ! bondage to ! ,greeks 9 :i* !y _h be5 br\ght up4 ,yet x is sure t ^! mod]n discov]]s 7 ! true inh]itors ( ! ,greeks4 ,)\t ,h]ophilus we %\ld h _h no ,h>vey & ! rise ( physiology might h be5 delay$ = c5turies2 _h ,gal5's works n surviv$1 ,vesalius w\ld nev] h recon/ruct$ ,anatomy1 & ,surg]y too might h /ay$ beh9d ) h] lagg>d si/]1 ,m$ic9e2 ! ,hippocratic collection 0 ! necess>y & ackn[l$g$ basis = ! "w ( ! greate/ ( mod]n cl9ical obs]v]s1 ,?omas ,syd5ham1 & ! tea*+ ( ,hippocrates & ( 8 s*ool is ! sub/antial basis ( in/ruction 9 ! w>ds ( a mod]n hospital4 ,9 ! pages :i* foll[ we propose !re=e to review ! g5]al "* ( m$ical k 9 ! be/ ,greek p]iod & to consid] briefly h[ mu* ( t great h]itage rema9$ accessible to ! e>li] mod]n physicians4 ,! read] w ?us be able to =m "s e/imate ( ! degree to :i* ! legacy has be5 pass$ on to our own times4 ,x is evid5t t among su* a gr\p ( peoples z ! ,greeks1 v>y+ 9 /ate ( civilization1 9 m5tal p[]1 9 geographical & economic position & 9 g5]al outlook1 ! practice ( m$ic9e c h be5 by no means uni=m4 ,)\t any me?od ( c5traliz+ m$ical education & /&>diz+ tea*+ !re 0 a great v>iety ( doctr9es & ( practice 9 vogue among !m1 & mu* ( ?is 0 on a l[ level ( folk cu/om4 ,su* l[] grade mat]ial ( ,greek orig9 has come d[n to u 9 abundance1 ?\gh mu* ( x1 curi\sly en\gh1 f a lat] "t4 ,b ! ov]:elm+ mass ( e>li] ,greek m$ical lit]ature sets =? = u a pure sci5tific ef=t to obs]ve & to classify disease1 to make g5]alizations f c>efully collect$ data1 to expla9 ! orig9 ( disease on rational gr\nds1 & to apply rem$ies1 :5 possible1 on a reason$ basis4 ,we may ?us re/ fairly well assur$ t1 despite s]i\s & irrep>able losses1 we are /ill 9 possession ( "s ( ! v f9e/ products ( ! ,greek m$ical intellect4 ,!re is ample evid5ce t ! ,greeks inh]it$1 9 common ) _m o!r peoples ( ,m$it]ranean & ,asiatic orig91 a :ole sy/em ( magical or at lea/ non-rational ph>macy & m$ic9e f a remot] ance/ry4 ,/rik+ p>allels c be drawn betwe5 ^! folk elem5ts among ! ,greeks & ! m$ical sy/ems ( ! e>ly ,romans1 z well z ) ! m$ic9e ( ! ,indian ,v$as1 ( ! anci5t ,egyptians1 & ( ! e>lie/ ,european b>b>ian writ+s4 ,x is ?us reasonable to suppose t ^! elem5ts1 :5 !y appe> 9 lat] ,greek writ+s1 repres5t m primitive folk elem5ts work+ up1 "u ! influ5ce ( social dis9tegration & consequ5t m5tal det]ioration1 ?r\gh ! upp] /rata ( ! lit]ate ,greek _w4 ,b ) ^! elem5ts1 int5sely int]e/+ to ! an?ropologi/1 ! psy*ologi/1 ! e?nologi/1 & to ! hi/orian ( religion1 we are n "h greatly conc]n$4 ,important z !y are1 !y con/itute no "p ( ! special claim ( ! ,greek p to di/9ction1 b r aid u 9 unit+ ! ,greek m5tality ) t ( o!r k9dr$ peoples4 ,"h we %all r discuss ! c\rse ( ,greek sci5tific m$ic9e prop]1 ! type ( m$ical doctr9e & practice1 capable ( developm5t 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 t =ms ! basis ( our mod]n sy/em4 ,we are conc]n$1 9 fact1 ) ! e>lie/ evolution>y m$ic9e4 ,we ne$ h>dly discuss ! fir/ orig9s ( ,greek ,m$ic9e4 ,! mat]ial is scanty & ! conclusions some:at d\btful & p]haps premature1 = ! discov]y ( a consid]able fragm5t ( ! hi/orical "w ( ,m5on1 a pupil ( ,ari/otle1 conta9+ a description ( ! views ( "s ( ! precursors ( ! ,hippocratic s*ool1 r5ews a hope t m ext5d$ inve/igation may yield fur!r in=mation z to ! s\rces & nature ( ! e>lie/ ,greek m$ical writ+s4#eg ,! /udy ( ,mesopotamian />-lore has l9k$ x up ) e>ly ,greek a/ronomical sci5ce4 ,! ef=ts ( cunei=m s*ol>s h n1 h[ev]1 be5 equally successful = m$ic9e1 & on ! :ole ! g5]al t5d5cy ( mod]n rese>* is to give less weight to ,mesopotamian & m to ,egyptian s\rces ?an _h previ\sly be5 admitt$2 ?us v rec5tly an ,egyptian m$ical papyrus ( ab\t #agjj ,b4 ,c4 has be5 describ$ :i* be>s a di/9ct resemblance to "s ( ! ,hippocratic treatises4#eh ,a numb] ( drugs1 too1 habitually us$ by ! ,greeks1 su* z ,&ropogon1 ,c>damoms1 & ,sesame ori5talis1 are ( ,indian orig94 ,!re are also ! ,m9oan cultures to be consid]$1 & ?\gh our k is n yet suffici5t to speak ( ! h]itage t ,greek m$ic9e may or may n h d]iv$ f t s\rce1 x seems n improbable t ,greek hygi5e may "h owe a debt4#ei ,omitt+1 !re=e1 ?is e>ly epo*1 we pass direct to ! lat] p]iod1 betwe5 ! six? & f\r? c5turies1 f :i* docum5ts h actually come d[n to u4 #eg ,?is fragm5t has be5 publi%$ 9 vol4 iii1 "p #a1 ( ! ,supplem5tum ,ari/otelicum by ,h4 ,diels z ,anonymi ,lond95sis ex ,ari/otelis ,iatricis ,m5onis et ,aliis ,m$icis ,eclogae1 ,b]l91 #ahic4 ,see also ,h4 ,bekh & ,f4 ,spt1 ,anonymus ,lond95sis1 ,auszuge e9es ,unbekannt5 aus ,ari/oteles-,m5ons ,h&bu* d] ,m$iz91 ,b]l91 #ahif4 #eh ,z we g to press !re appe>s a prelim9>y acc\nt ( ! v rem>kable ,edw9 ,smi? papyrus1 see ,j4 ,h4 ,brea/$ 9 ,recueil d'tudes egyptologiques ddies la mmoire de ,*ampollion1 ,p>is #aibb1 & ,new ,york ,hi/orical ,society ,bullet91 #aibb4 #ei ,x is tempt+1 also1 to connect ! ,asclepian snake cult ) ! prom95ce ( ! s]p5t 9 ,m9oan religion4 ,! e>lie/ m$ical s*ool ( :i* we h def9ite in=mation is t ( ,cnidus1 a ,lac$aemonian colony 9 ,asiatic ,doris4 ,its orig9 may p]haps rea* back to ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,we h actual records t ! tea*]s ( ,cnidus 7 accu/om$ to collect sy/ematically ! ph5om5a ( disease1 ( :i* !y _h produc$ a v complex classification1 & we probably possess also sev]al ( _! actual works4 ,! physicians ( ,cos1 _! only contempor>y critics ^: writ+s h surviv$1 consid]$ t ! ,cnidian physicians paid too mu* att5tion to ! actual s5sations ( ! pati5t & to ! physical signs ( ! disease4 ,! mo/ important ( ! ,cnidian doctr9es 7 drawn up 9 a s]ies ( ,s5t5ces or ,aphorisms1 & ^!1 x appe>s1 inculcat$ a treatm5t along ,egyptian l9es ( ! symptom or at mo/ ! disease1 r ?an ! pati5t1 a /atem5t borne out by ! cont5ts ( ! gynaecological works ( probable ,cnidian orig9 includ$ 9 ! s-call$ ',hippocratic ,collection'4 ,a few names ( ,cnidian physicians h1 moreov]1 come d[n to u ) titles ( _! works1 & a lat] /atem5t t !y practis$ anatomy4 ,!re c be little d\bt too t ! ,cnidian s*ool drew also on ,p]sian & ,indian ,m$ic9e4 ,! orig9 ( ! s*ool ( ! neighb\r+ isl& ( ,cos 0 a little lat] ?an t ( ,cnidus & probably dates f ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,( ! ,coan s*ool1 or at lea/ ( ! g5]al t5d5cies t x repres5t$1 we h a magnific5t & copi\s lit]>y monum5t 9 ! ,corpus ,hippocraticum1 a collection :i* 0 probably put toge!r 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 by a commission ( ,alex&rian s*ol>s at ! ord] ( ! book-lov+ ,ptolemy ,sot] 7reign$ #cbc-bhe ,b4 ,c474 ,! elem5ts ( :i* ?is collection is compos$ are ( v>y+ dates f ! six? to ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 & ( v>y+ value & orig91 b !y ma9ly repres5t ! po9t ( view ( physicians ( ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,greek _w 9 ! fif? & f\r? c5turies4 ,! mo/ obvi\s feature1 ! out/&+ elem5t t at once /rikes ! mod]n obs]v] 9 ^! ',coan' writ+s1 is ! enorm\s emphasis laid on ! actual c\rse ( disease4 ',x appe>s to me a mo/ excell5t ?+'1 s op5s "o ( ! greate/ ( ! ,hippocratic works1 '= a physician to cultivate pronoia4#fj ,=ekn[+ & =etell+ 9 ! pres5ce ( ! sick ! pa/1 pres5t1 & future 7( _! symptoms7 & expla9+ all t ! pati5ts are neglect+1 he w\ld be believ$ to und]/& _! condition1 s t m5 w\ld h confid5ce to entru/ !mselves to 8 c>e4444 ,?us he w\ld w9 j respect & be a good physician4 ,by an e>li] =eca/ 9 ea* case he w\ld be m able to t5d ^? aright :o h a *ance ( surviv+1 & by =esee+ & /at+ :o w die1 & :o w survive1 he w escape blame4444'#fa #fj ,?is ^w pronoia1 z ,gal5 expla9s 7 eis to ,hippokrat\s progn/ikon1 ,k4 xviii1 ,b4 p4 #aj71 is n us$ 9 ! philosophic s5se1 z :5 we ask :e!r ! univ]se 0 made by *ance or by pronoia1 nor is x us$ q 9 ! mod]n s5se ( prognosis1 ?\gh x includes t too4 ,pronoia 9 ,hippocrates means kn[+ ?+s ab\t a pati5t be=e y are told !m4 ,see ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1 ',"s ,greek m$ical t]ms ) ref]5ce to ,luke & ,liddell & ,scott1' ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,m$ic9e 7,section ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e71 xiii1 p4 #abd1 ,london1 #aibj4 #fa ,progno/ics #a4 ,j z ! ,cnidians by divid+ up diseases accord+ to symptoms ov]-emphasiz$ diagnosis & ov]-elaborat$ treatm5t1 s ! ,coans laid v great =ce on prognosis & adopt$ !re=e a l>gely expectant attitude t[>ds diseases4 ,bo? ,cnidian & ,coan physicians 7 held toge!r by a common bond :i* 01 hi/orically if n actually1 relat$ to temple wor%ip4 ,physicians leagu$ toge!r 9 ! "n ( a god1 z 7 ! ,asclepiadae1 might escape1 & did escape1 ! bas] !urgic elem5ts ( temple m$ic9e4 ,( ^! !y 7 z devoid z a mod]n ,ca?olic physician might be expect$ to be free f ! absurdities ( ,l\rdes4 ,b ! extreme cult ( prognosis among ! ,coans may n improbably be trac$ back to ! m$ical lore ( ! temple soo?say]s ^: div9e om5s 7 replac$ by indications ( a physical nature 9 ! pati5t himself4#fb ,we are tempt$ too to l9k x ) t process ( a/ronomical & a/rological prognosis practis$ 9 ! ,mesopotamian civilizations f :i* ,ionia imitat$ & d]iv$ s mu*4 ,religion _h ?us ! same relation to m$ic9e t x w\ld h ) a mod]n 'religi\s' m$ical man z sugge/+ ! motive & det]m9+ ! g5]al direction ( 8 practice ?\gh )\t influ5ce on ! details & me?od4 #fb ,!re is a discussion ( ! relation ( ! ,asclepiadae to temple practice 9 an article by ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1 ',! ,asclepiadae & ! ,prie/ ( ,asclepius1' 9 ,/udies 9 ! ,hi/ory & ,me?od ( ,sci5ce1 edit$ by ,*>les ,s+]1 vol4 ii1 ,ox=d1 #aiba4 ,dur+ ! developm5t ( ! ,coan m$ical s*ool along ^! l9es 9 ! six? & fif? c5turies1 !re 0 go+ on a mo/ rem>kable movem5t at ! v o!r extreme ( ! ,greek _w4 ,into ! c\rse & g5]al importance ( ,sicilian philosophy x is n our place to ent]1 b t extraord9>y movem5t 0 n )\t its rep]cussion on m$ical !ory & practice4 ,v important 9 ?is direction 0 ,emp$ocles ( ,agrig5tum 7c4 #ejj-;c4 #dcj ,b4 ,c474 ,8 view t ! blood is ! seat ( ! 'innate heat'1 emphyton !rmon1 he took f folk belief--'! blood is ! life'--& ?is innate heat he closely id5tifi$ ) s\l4 ,m pr(itable 0 8 doctr9e t brea?+ takes place n only ?r\gh :at are n[ kn[n z ! respiratory passages b also ?r\gh ! pores ( ! sk94 ,8 tea*+ l$ to a belief 9 ! he>t z ! c5tre ( ! vascul> sy/em & ! *ief organ ( ! 'pneuma' :i* 0 di/ribut$ by ! blood vessels4 ,?is pneuma 0 equival5t to bo? s\l & life1 b x 0 some?+ m4 ,x 0 id5tifi$ ) air & brea?1 & ! pneuma c\ld be se5 to rise z %imm]+ /eam f ! %$ blood ( ! sacrificial victim--= 0 n ! blood its natural home8 ,!re 0 a pneuma1 too1 t int]p5etrat$ ! univ]se ar\nd u & gave x ^? qualities ( life t x 0 felt to possess4 ,anaxim5es 7c4 #faj-;c4 #ede ,b4 ,c471 an ,ionian pr$ecessor ( ,emp$ocles1 may be said to h def9$ = u ^! functions ( ! pneuma2 1 hoion h psy* h hmet]a ar ousa synkratei hmas1 holon ton kosmon pneuma kai ar p]ie*ei1 ',z our s\l1 be+ air1 su/a9s u1 s pneuma & air p]vade ! :ole univ]se'2#fc b x is ! speculation ( ,emp$ocles himself t came to be reg>d$ z ! basis ( ! ,pneumatic ,s*ool 9 ,m$ic9e :i* _h lat] v important developm5ts4 #fc ,! works ( ,anaxim5es are lo/4 ,?is phrase ( 81 h[ev]1 is pres]v$ by ! lat] writ] ,aetios4 ,ano!r e>ly memb] ( ! ,we/]n s*ool :o made important contributions to m$ical doctr9e--9 :i* relation alone we ne$ consid] him--0 ,py?agoras ( ,samos 7c4 #ehj-;c4#dij ,b4 ,c474 ,= him numb]1 z ! pure/ conception1 =m$ ! basis ( philosophy4 ,unity 0 ! symbol ( p]fection & correspond$ to ,god ,himself4 ,! mat]ial univ]se 0 repres5t$ by #b1 & 0 divid$ by ! numb] #ab1 :5ce we h #c worlds & #d sph]es4 ,^! 9 turn1 accord+ at lea/ to ! lat] ,py?agoreans1 give rise to ! f\r elem5ts1 e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]--a prim>y doctr9e ( m$ic9e & ( sci5ce d]iv$ p]haps f anci5t ,egypt & surviv+ = m ?an two mill5nia4 ,! ,py?agoreans taught1 too1 ( ! exi/5ce ( an animal s\l1 an emanation ( ! s\l ( ! univ]se4 ,9 all ?is we may di/+ui% ! g]m ( t doctr9e ( ! relation ( man & univ]se1 microcosm & macrocosm1 :i*1 suppress$ z irrelevant 9 ! ,hippocratic works1 reappe>s 9 ! ,platonic & especially 9 ! ,neoplatonic writ+s1 & =ms a v important dogma 9 lat] m$ic9e4 ,a pupil ( ,py?agoras & an old] contempor>y ( ,emp$ocles 0 ,alcmaeon ( ,croton 7c4 #ejj ,b4 ,c471 :o began to con/ruct a positive basis = m$ical sci5ce by ! practice ( dissection ( animals1 & discov]$ ! optic n]ves & ! ,eu/a*ian tubes4 ,he ev5 ext5d$ 8 rese>*es to ,embryology1 describ+ ! head ( ! foetus z ! fir/ "p to be develop$--a ju/ifiable d$uction f appe>ances4 ,alcmaeon introduc$ also ! doctr9e t heal? dep5ds on h>mony1 disease on discord ( ! elem5ts )9 ! body4 ,curiosity z to ! di/ribution ( ! vessels 0 excit$ by ,emp$ocles & ,alcmaeon & l$ to fur!r dissection1 & ,alcmaeon's pupils ,acron 7c4 #dhj ,b4 ,c47 & ,pausanias 7c4 #dhj ,b4 ,c471 & ! lat] ,phili/ion ( ,lokri1#fd ! contempor>y ( ,plato1 all made anatomical inve/igations4 #fd ,= ! "w ( ^! physicians see especially ,m4 ,wellmann1 ,fragm5tsammlung d] grie*is*5 ,a]zte1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,b]l91 #aija4 ,! views ( ,emp$ocles1 & especially 8 doctr9e t reg>d$ ! he>t z ! ma9 site ( ! pneuma1 ?\gh reject$ by ! ,coan s*ool z a :ole1 7 n )\t influ5ce on ,ionia4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 ! philosoph] ( pneumatism1 a late fif?-c5tury writ] :o mu/ h be5 contempor>y ) ,hippocrates ! ,great1 himself made an inve/igation ( ! blood vessels2 & ! influ5ce ( ! same s*ool may be trac$ 9 a little "w p]i k>dis1 ,on ! he>t1 :i* is ! be/ anatomical treatise ( ! ,hippocratic ,collection4 ,?is "w describes ! aorta & ! pulmon>y art]y z well z ! ?ree valves at ! root ( ea* ( ! great vessels1 & x speaks ( exp]im5ts to te/ _! validity4 ,x treats ( ! p]ic>dium & ( ! p]ic>dial fluid & p]haps ( ! musculi papill>es1 & contra/s ! ?ickness ( ! walls ( "r & left v5tricles4 ,! au?or consid]s t ! left v5tricle is empty ( blood--z inde$ x is aft] dea?--& is ! s\rce ( ! innate heat & ( ! absolute intellig5ce4 ,^! views fit 9 ) ! doctr9es ( ,emp$ocles1 s t we may p]haps ev5 v5ture to reg>d ?is "w z a surviv+ docum5t ( ! ,sicilian s*ool4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t we h "h ! fir/ h9t ( human dissection1 = ! au?or tells u t ! he>ts ( animals may be comp>$ to t ( man4 ,! di/9ction ( hav+ be5 ! fir/ to write on human anatomy1 z su*1 belongs h[ev]1 probably to a lat] writ]1 ,diocles1 son ( ,ar*idamus ( ,c>y/us1 :o liv$ 9 ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4#fe #fe ,gal51 p]i anatomikn en*eirsen1 ,on anatomical prep>ations1 #a1 ,k4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhb4 ,we may n[ turn to ! ,hippocratic ,corpus z a :ole4 ,?is collection consi/s ( ab\t #fj or #gj sep>ate works1 writt5 at v>i\s p]iods & 9 v>i\s /ates ( pres]vation4 ,at be/ only a v small proportion ( !m c be attribut$ to ,hippocrates1 b ! discussion ( ! g5]al "q ( ! 'g5u95ess' ( ! works is n[ admitt$ to be futile1 = x is c]ta9 t we h no crit]ia :atev] to det]m9e :e!r or no a p>ticul> "w be f ! p5 ( ! ,fa!r ( ,m$ic9e1 & ! mo/ we c ev] say ( su* a treatise is t x appe>s to be ( 8 s*ool & 9 8 _s4 ,yet among ! great gifts ( ?is collection to our "t & to all "t are two :i* /& out above all o!rs1 ! picture ( a man1 & ! picture ( a me?od4 ,! man is ,hippocrates himself4 ,( ! actual details ( 8 life we "k next to no?+4 ,8 p]iod ( greate/ activity falls ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,he seems to h l$ a w&]+ life4 ,born ( a long l9e ( physicians 9 ! isl& ( ,cos1 he ex]t$ 8 activities 9 ,?race1 ,abd]a1 ,delos1 ! ,propontis 7,cyzicus71 ,?asos1 ,!ssaly 7notably at ,l>issa & ,meliboea71 ,a!ns1 & else:]e1 dy+ at ,l>issa 9 extreme old age ab\t ! ye> #cgg ,b4 ,c4 ,he _h _m pupils1 among :om 7 8 two sons ,!ssalus & ,dracon1 :o also und]took j\rneys1 8 son-9-law ,polybus1 ( ^: works a fragm5t has be5 pres]v$ = u by ,ari/otle1#ff toge!r ) ?ree o!r ,coans be>+ ! names ,apollonius1 ,dexippus1 & ,praxagoras4 ,?is is practically all we "k ( him ) c]ta9ty4 ,b ?\gh ?is glimpse is v dim & di/ant1 yet we _c exagg]ate ! influ5ce on ! c\rse ( m$ic9e & ! value = physicians ( all "t ( ! traditional picture t 0 e>ly =m$ ( him & t may inde$ well be drawn aga9 f ! works be>+ 8 "n4 ,9 beauty & dignity t figure is beyond praise4 ,p]haps ga9+ 9 /atel9ess :at he loses 9 cle>ness1 ,hippocrates w ev] rema9 ! type ( ! p]fect physician4 ,le>n$1 obs]vant1 humane1 ) a pr(\nd rev]5ce = ! claims ( 8 pati5ts1 b an ov]ma/]+ desire t 8 exp]i5ce %all b5efit o!rs1 ord]ly & calm1 di/urb$ only by anxiety to record 8 k = ! use ( 8 bro!r physicians & = ! relief ( suff]+1 grave1 ?\ghtful & retic5t1 pure ( m9d & ma/] ( 8 passions1 ?is is no ov]drawn picture ( ! ,fa!r ( ,m$ic9e z he appe>$ to 8 contempor>ies & successors4 ,x is a figure ( "* & virtue :i* has _h an e?ical value to m$ical m5 ( all ages comp>able only to ! influ5ce ex]t$ on _! foll[]s by ! f\nd]s ( ! great religions4 ,if "o ne$$ a maxim to place ^u ! /atue ( ,hippocrates1 none c\ld be f\nd bett] ?an t f ! book ,p>angeliai1 ,precepts3 n g> p> philan?rpi p>e/i kai philote*ni ',:]e ! love ( man is1 !re also is love ( ! ,art4'#fg #ff ,hi/oria animalium1 iii4 #c1 :]e x is ascrib$ to ,polybus4 ,! same passage is1 h[ev]1 repeat$ twice 9 ! ,hippocratic writ+s1 viz4 9 ! p]i physios an?rp\1 ,on ! nature ( man1 ,littr1 vi4 #eh1 & 9 ! p]i o/en physios1 ,on ! nature ( bones1 ,littr1 ix4 #agd4 #fg ,p>angeliai1 #f4 ,! num]\s bu/s ( him :i* h rea*$ our "t are no portraits4 ,b ! be/ ( !m are some?+ mu* bett] & m helpful to u ?an any portrait4 ,!y are idealiz$ repres5tations ( ! k9d ( man a physician %\ld be & 0 9 ! eyes ( ! be/ & wise/ ( ! ,greeks4#fh #fh ,see ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,hippocrates ,briti% ,museum1 second or ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,asclepius ,briti% ,museum1 f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,! me?od ( ! ,hippocratic writ]s is t kn[n to-day z ! 'inductive'4 ,)\t ! va/ sci5tific h]itage t is 9 our own h&s1 ) only a comp>atively small numb] ( obs]vations drawn f ! ,coan & neighb\r+ s*ools1 surr\nd$ by all mann] ( biz>re ori5tal religions 9 :i* no adequate relation ( cause & effect 0 recogniz$1 & above all con/antly urg$ by ! exub]ant g5ius = speculation ( t ,greek p 9 ! mid/ ( :om !y liv$ & ^: intellectual temptations !y %>$1 !y rema9 nev]!less1 = ! mo/ "p1 pati5t obs]v]s ( fact1 sceptical ( ! m>vell\s & ! unv]ifiable1 hesitat+ to !orize beyond ! data1 yet eag] always to g5]alize f actual exp]i5ce2 calm1 fai?ful1 effective s]vants ( ! sick4 ,!re is almo/ no type ( m5tal activity kn[n to u t 0 n exhibit$ by ! ,greeks & _c be p>allel$ f _! writ+s2 b c>eful & con/ant return to v]ification f exp]i5ce1 express$ 9 a record ( actual obs]vations--! habitual me?od adopt$ 9 mod]n sci5tific dep>tm5ts--is r>e among !m except 9 ^! e>ly m$ical au?ors4 ,! _s ( _! practice _c be bett] illu/rat$ ?an by ! words ( ! s-call$ ',hippocratic oa?'4 ,t docum5t1 ?\gh ( late date 9 its pres5t =m1 ?r[s a flood ( light on ! e?ics ( ,greek m$ic9e4 ',i swe> by ,apollo ! physician & ,asclepius & ,hygieia & ,panacea1 invok+ all ! gods & goddesses to be my witnesses1 t ,i w fulfil ?is ,oa? & ?is writt5 cov5ant to ! be/ ( my p[] & ( my judgm5t4 ',i w look ^u him :o %all h taught me ?is art ev5 z on m9e own p>5ts2 ,i w %>e ) him my sub/ance1 & supply 8 necessities if he be 9 ne$2 ,i w reg>d 8 (fspr+ ev5 z my own bre?r51 & w tea* !m ?is art1 if !y desire to le>n x1 )\t fee or cov5ant4 ,i w imp>t x by precept1 by lecture & by all o!r mann] ( tea*+1 n only to my own sons b also to ! sons ( him :o has taught me1 & to disciples b\nd by cov5ant & oa? accord+ to ! law ( ! physicians1 b to none o!r4 ',! regim5 ,i adopt %all be = ! b5efit ( ! pati5ts to ! be/ ( my p[] & judgm5t1 n = _! injury or = any wrongful purpose4 ,i w n give a deadly drug to any "o1 ?\gh x be ask$ ( me1 nor w ,i lead ! way 9 su* c\nsel2 & likewise ,i w n give a woman a pess>y to procure abortion4 ,b ,i w keep my life & my art 9 purity & hol9ess4 ,:atsoev] h\se ,i ent]1 ,i w ent] = ! b5efit ( ! sick1 refra9+ f all volunt>y wrongdo+ & corruption1 especially s$uction ( male or female1 bond or free4 ,:atsoev] ?+s ,i see or he> conc]n+ ! life ( m51 9 my att5dance on ! sick or ev5 ap>t f my att5dance1 :i* ought n to be blabb$ abroad1 ,i w keep sil5ce on !m1 c\nt+ su* ?+s to be z religi\s secrets4 ',if ,i fulfil ?is oa? & conf\nd x n1 be x m9e to enjoy life & art alike1 ) good repute among all m5 = all "t to come2 b may ! contr>y befall me if ,i transgress & violate my oa?4'#fi #fi ,translation by ,pr(essor ,ar?ur ,platt4 ,respect$ equally ?r\gh\t ! ages by ,arab1 ,jew1 & ,*ri/ian1 ! oa? rema9s ! wat*word ( ! pr(ession ( m$ic9e4#gj ,! e?ical value ( su* a decl>ation c\ld n escape ! att5tion ev5 ( a ,byzant9e =mali/1 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t 9 our olde/ ,greek manuscript ( ! ,hippocratic text1 dat+ f ! t5? c5tury1 ?is magnific5t passage is head$ by ! words 'f ! oa? ( ,hippocrates accord+ z x may be sworn by a ,*ri/ian4'#ga #gj ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be admitt$ t 9 ! ,hippocratic collection are brea*es ( ! oa?1 e4 g4 9 ! induction ( abortion relat$ 9 p]i physios paidi\4 ,!re is evid5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! au?or ( ?is "w 0 n a m$ical practition]4 #ga ,rome ,urb9as #fd1 fo4 #aaf4 ,:5 we exam9e ! ,hippocratic corpus m closely1 we disc]n t n only are ! treatises by _m h&s1 b !re is n ev5 a uni=m op9ion & doctr9e runn+ ?r\gh !m4 ,?is is well br\ght out by "s ( ! m fam\s ( ! phrases ( ?is rem>kable collection4 ,?us a well-kn[n passage f ! ,airs1 ,wat]s1 & ,places tells u t ! ,scy?ians attribute a c]ta9 physical disability to a god1 'b x appe>s to me'1 says ! au?or1 't ^! affections are j z mu* div9e z are all o!rs & t no disease is ei!r m div9e or m human ?an ano!r1 b t all are equally div9e1 = ea* ( !m has its own nature1 & none ( !m arise )\t a natural cause4' ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! au?or ( ! great "w on ,progno/ics advises u t :5 ! physician is call$ 9 he mu/ seek to asc]ta9 ! nature ( ! affections t he is treat+1 & especially 'if !re be any?+ div9e 9 ! disease1 & to le>n a =ekn[l$ge ( ?is also4'#gb ,we may note too t ?is s5t5ce almo/ imm$iately prec$es :at is p]haps ! mo/ fam\s ( all ! ,hippocratic s5t5ces1 ! description ( :at has s9ce be5 t]m$ ! ,hippocratic facies4 ,?is wond]ful description ( ! signs ( dea? may be giv5 z an illu/ration ( ! habitual attitude ( ! ,hippocratic s*ool t[>ds prognosis & ( ! v c>eful way 9 :i* !y not$ details3 ',he ! physician %\ld obs]ve ?us 9 acute diseases3 fir/1 ! c\nt5ance ( ! pati5t1 if x be l to ^? :o are 9 heal?1 & especially if x be l itself1 = ?is w\ld be ! be/2 b ! m unlike to ?is1 ! worse x is2 su* w\ld be ^!3 %>p nose1 holl[ eyes1 collaps$ temples2 e>s cold1 contract$1 & _! lobes turn$ out2 sk9 ab\t ! =ehead r\gh1 di/5d$1 & p>*$2 ! col\r ( ! :ole face gre5i% or dusky4 ,if ! c\nt5ance be s at ! beg9n+ ( ! disease1 & if ?is _c be acc\nt$ = f ! o!r symptoms1 inquiry mu/ be made :e!r he has pass$ a sleepless night2 :e!r 8 b[els h be5 v loose2 or :e!r he is suff]+ f hung]2 & if any ( ^! be admitt$ ! dang] may be reckon$ z less2 & x may be judg$ 9 ! c\rse ( a day & night if ! appe>ance ( ! c\nt5ance proce$ f ^!4 ,b if none ( ^! be said to exi/1 & ! symptoms d n subside 9 t "t1 be x kn[n = c]ta9 t dea? is at h&4'#gc #gb ,khlewe91 i4 #gi1 reg>ds ?is z an int]polat$ passage4 #gc ,littr1 ii4 #aab2 ,khlewe91 i4 #gi4 ,! texts v>y3 ,khlewe9 is foll[$ except 9 ! la/ s5t5ce4 ,aga91 9 ! "w ,on ! ,art ( ,m$ic9e we read3 ',i hold x to be physicianly to ab/a9 f treat+ ^? :o are ov]:elm$ by disease'1#gd a prud5t if inhumane proc$ure among a p :o might reg>d ! doctor's p[]s z p>tak+ ( ! nature ( magic1 & p]haps a wise c\rse to foll[ at ?is day 9 "s places n v f> f ,cos4 ,yet 9 ! book ,on ,diseases we are advis$ ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( an incurable disease 'to give relief ) su* treatm5t z is possible'4#ge #gd ,p]i te*ns1 #c4 #ge ' ,p]i n\sn a'1 #f4 ,fur!rmore1 works by au?ors ( ! ,hippocratic s*ool /& sometimes 9 a position ( direct controv]sy ) ea* o!r4 ,?us 9 ! treatise ,on ! ,he>t an exp]im5t is set =? :i* is held to prove t a "p at lea/ ( imbib$ fluid passes into ! cavity ( ! lung & !nce to ! p>ts ( ! body1 a popul> error 9 antiquity :i* recurs 9 ,plato's ,timaeus4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 is specifically held to be fallaci\s by ! au?or ( ! "w ,on ,diseases1 :o is support$ by a polemical section 9 ! surviv+ ,m5on fragm5t4 ,passages l ^! h conv9c$ all /ud5ts t we h to deal 9 ?is collection ) a v>iety ( works writt5 at diff]5t dates by diff]5t au?ors & "u diff]5t conditions1 a /ate t may be well und]/ood :5 we reflect t among ! ,greeks m$ic9e 0 a progressive /udy = a f> long] p]iod ( "t ?an has yet be5 ! case 9 ! ,we/]n _w4 ,an acc\nt ( su* a collection c !re=e only be giv5 9 ! mo/ g5]al fa%ion4 ,! sy/em or sy/ems ( m$ic9e t we %all ?us attempt to describe 0 9 vogue up to ! ,alex&rian p]iod1 t is1 to ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,anatomy & physiology1 ! basis ( our mod]n sy/em1 0 /ill a v weak po9t 9 ! k ( ! pre-,alex&rians4 ,! surface =m ( ! body 0 intimately /udi$ 9 connexion especially ) fractures1 b !re is no evid5ce 9 ! lit]ature ( ! p]iod ( any clos] acqua9tance ) human anatomical /ructure4#gf ,! same fact is well borne out by ,greek ,art1 = 9 its noble/ p]iod ! arti/ betrays no evid5ce ( assi/ance d]iv$ f anatomization4 ,su* evid5ce is n f\nd until we come to sculpture ( ,alex&rian date1 :5 ! some:at /ra9$ attitudes & exagg]at$ musculature ( c]ta9 works ( ! s*ool ( ,p]gamon sugge/ t ! arti/ d]iv$ h9ts1 if n direct in=mation1 f anatomi/s :o1 we "k1 7 active at t "t4 ,x is n improbable1 h[ev]1 t sep>ate bones1 if n complete skeletons1 7 commonly /udi$ e>li]1 = ! surgical works ( ! ,hippocratic collection1 & especially ^? on fractures & dislocations1 give evid5ce ( a k ( ! relations ( bones to ea* o!r & ( _! natural position 9 ! body :i* c\ld n be obta9$1 or only obta9$ ) greate/ difficulty1 )\t ?is aid4 #gf ,a ref]5ce to dissection 9 ! p]i ar?rn1 ,on ! jo9ts1 #a1 appe>s to ! pres5t writ] to be ( ,alex&rian date4 ,!re are 9 ! ,hippocratic works a c]ta9 numb] ( comp>isons betwe5 human & animal /ructures t w\ld h be5 made possible by surgical op]ations & occasional accid5ts4 ,! view has be5 put =w>d t "s anatomical k 0 d]iv$ ?r\gh ! practice ( augury f ! entrails ( sacrificial animals4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 improbable t a sy/em s sci5tific & s little relat$ to temple practice w\ld h _h mu* to le>n f ^! s\rces1 &1 moreov]1 s9ce we "k t animals 7 actually dissect$ z e>ly z ! "t ( ,alcmaeon x w\ld be unnecess>y to invoke ! aid ( ! prie/s4 ,! unkn[n au?or ( ! p]i topn tn kata an?rpon1 ,on ! sites ( diseases 9 man1 a "w writt5 ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c41 decl>es inde$ t 'physical /ructure is ! basis ( m$ic9e'1 b ! =mal treatises on anatomy t we possess f ,hippocratic times give ! g5]al anatomical /&>d ( ! corpus1 & x is a v disappo9t+ "o4 ,! tract ,on ,anatomy1 ?\gh probably ( mu* lat] date 7p]haps c4 #ccj ,b4 ,c471 is inf]ior ev5 to ! treatise ,on ! ,he>t 7p]haps ( ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c474 ,physiology & ,pa?ology are almo/ z mu* 9 ! backgr\nd z anatomy 9 ! ,hippocratic collection4 ,z a =mal discipl9e & "p ( m$ical education we f9d no trace ( ^! /udies among ! pre-,alex&rian physicians4 ,b ! meagr5ess ( ! numb] ( asc]ta9$ facts did n prev5t mu* speculation among a p eag] to seek ! causes ( ?+s4 ,( t speculation we le>n mu* f ! fragm5ts ( contempor>y m$ical writ]s & philosoph]s1 f ! m$ical works ( ! ,alex&rian p]iod1 & to "s ext5t f ! ,hippocratic writ+s !mselves4 ,b ! wis] & m sob] among ! writ]s ( ! ,hippocratic corpus 7 b5t on some?+ o!r ?an ! causes ( ?+s4 ,_! pre-occupation 0 prim>ily ) ! suff]+ pati5t1 & ! be/ ( !m !re=e exclud$--& we may assume consci\sly--all b ! r>e/ ref]5ces to su* speculation4 ,! g5]al /ate ( heal? ( ! body 0 consid]$ by ! ,hippocrati/s to dep5d on ! di/ribution ( ! f\r elem5ts1 e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]1 ^: mixture 7crasis7 & c>d9al prop]ties1 dryness1 w>m?1 coldness1 & moi/ness1 =m ! body & its con/itu5ts4 ,to ^! correspond ! c>d9al fluids1 blood1 phlegm1 yell[ bile & black bile4 ,! fundam5tal condition ( life is ! innate heat1 ! abdication ( :i* is dea?4 ,?is innate heat is greate/ 9 y\? :5 mo/ fuel is !re=e requir$1 b gradually decl9es ) age4 ,ano!r necessity = ! support ( life is ! pneuma :i* circulates 9 ! vessels4 ,all ?is may seem fanciful en\gh1 b we may rememb] t ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury _h wan$ be=e ! doctr9e ( ! hum\rs :i* _h !n la/$ = at lea/ tw5ty-two c5turies became obsolete1 & p]haps x /ill survives 9 c]ta9 mod]n sci5tific developm5ts4 ,moreov]1 ! f9e/ & mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,hippocratic works ei!r d n m5tion or b casually ref] to ^! !ories :i* are n ess5tial to _! ma9 pre-occupation4 ,_! task ( obs]vation ( symptoms1 ( ! sep>ation ( ! ess5tials f ! accid5ts ( disease1 & ( g5]alization f exp]i5ce c\ld g on unaffect$ by any view ( ! nature ( man & ( ! _w4 ,ev5 treatm5t1 :i* mu/ almo/ ( necessity be bas$ on "s !ory ( causation1 0 little deflect$ by a view ( elem5ts & hum\rs on :i* x 0 impossible to act directly1 :ile !rapeutics 0 fur!r safegu>d$ f su* influ5ce by ! doctr9e ( ,nature z ! heal] ( diseases1 n\sn physeis itroi1 ! vis m$icatrix naturae ( ! lat] ,lat9 writ]s & ( ! pres5t day4 ,diseases are to be cur$1 9 ! ,hippocratic view1 by re/or+ ! di/urb$ h>mony 9 ! relation ( ! elem5ts & hum\rs4 ,^!1 9 fact1 t5d naturally to an equilibrium & 9 mo/ cases if left to !mselves w be br\ght to ?is /ate by ! natural t5d5cy to recov]y4 ,! process is kn[n z pepsis or1 to give x ! ,lat9 =m1 coctio1 & ! turn+-po9t at :i* ! effects ( ?is process exhibit !mselves is ! crisis1 a t]m :i*1 toge!r ) "s ( its orig9al cont5t1 has /ill a place 9 m$ic9e4 ,su* a turn+-po9t does 9 fact occur 9 _m diseases1 especially ^? ( a zymotic "*1 on c]ta9 special days1 ?\gh undue emphasis 0 laid by ! ,greek physicians ^u ! exact num]ical "* ( ! ev5t4 ,x 0 no unimportant duty ( ! physician to assi/ nature by br++ 8 rem$ies to be> at ! critical times4 ,if ! crisis is want+1 or if ! rem$ies are appli$ at ! wrong mom5t1 ! disease may become incurable4 ,b diseases 7 only imm$iately or proximately caus$ by di/urbances 9 ! balance or h>mony ( ! hum\rs4 ,?is 0 a m]e hypo!sis1 z ! ,hippocrati/s !mselves well knew4 ,!re 7 o!r m remote causes :i* came into ! actual purview ( ! physician1 conditions :i* he c\ld & did /udy4 ,su* conditions 71 = in/ance1 injudici\s modes ( life1 exposure to climatic *anges1 advanc+ age1 & ! l4 ,_m ( ^! c\ld be directly correct$4 ,b = ^? t c\ld n !re 7 v>i\s !rapeutic measures at h&4 ,t human bodies are & normally rema9 9 a /ate ( heal?1 & t on ! :ole !y t5d to recov] f disease1 is an attitude s famili> to u to-day t we sc>cely ne$ to be rem9d$ ( x4 ,we live "s tw5ty-?ree c5turies lat] ?an ,hippocrates2 = "s sixte5 ( ^? c5turies ! civiliz$ _w ?\ght t to reta9 heal? p]iodical ble$+s & potions 7 necess>y2 = ! la/ c5tury or two we h be5 gradually return+ on ! ,hippocratic position6 ,! *ief glory ( ! ,hippocratic collection reg>d$ f ! cl9ical po9t ( view is p]haps ! actual description ( cases4 ,a numb] ( ^!--=ty-two 9 all--h surviv$4#gg ,!y are n only unique z a collection = ne>ly #b1jjj ye>s1 b !y are /ill to ?is day models ( :at succ9ct cl9ical records %\ld be1 cle> & %ort1 )\t a sup]flu\s ^w1 yet ) all t is mo/ ess5tial1 & exhibit+ m]ely a desire to record ! mo/ important facts )\t ! lea/ attempt to prejudge ! case4 ,!y illu/rate to ! full ! ,greek g5ius = seiz+ on ! ess5tial4 ,! writ] %[s n ! lea/ wi% to exalt 8 own skill4 ,he seeks m]ely to put ! data be=e ! read] = 8 guidance "u l circum/ances4 ,x is a reflex ( ! _s ( full hone/y 9 :i* ^! m5 liv$ & work$ t ! great majority ( ! cases are record$ to h di$4 ,two ( ?is rem>kable little collection may be giv53 ',! woman ) qu9sy1 :o lodg$ ) ,ari/ion3 h] compla9t began 9 ! tongue2 voice in>ticulate2 tongue r$ & p>*$4 ,fir/ day1 %iv]$1 !n became heat$4 ,?ird day1 rigor1 acute fev]2 r$di% & h>d swell+ on bo? sides ( neck & *e/2 extremities cold & livid2 respiration elevat$2 dr9k return$ by ! nose2 %e c\ld n swall[2 alv9e & ur9>y dis*>ges suppress$4 ,f\r? day1 all symptoms exac]bat$4 ,fif? day1 %e di$4' #gg ,!y are to be f\nd z an ,app5dix to ,books ,i & ,,iii ( ! ,epidemics & emb$d$ 9 ,book ,,iii4 ,we probably h "h to d ) a case ( diph!ria4 ,! qu9sy1 ! p>alysis ( ! palate lead+ to return ( ! food ?r\gh ! nose1 & ! difficulty ) spee* & swall[+ are typical results ( ?is affection :i* 0 "h complicat$ by a spread ( ! septic processes into ! neck & *e/1 a n uncommon sequela ( ! disease4 ,! rapid onset ( ! conditions is r unusual1 b may be expla9$ if we reg>d ! case z a mild & unnotic$ diph!ria1 subsequ5tly complicat$ by p>alysis & by second>y septic infection1 = :i* reasons %e came "u obs]vation4 ',9 ,?asos1 ! wife ( ,dele>ces :o lodg$ on ! pla91 ?r\gh sorr[ 0 seiz$ ) an acute & %iv]+ fev]4 ,f fir/ to la/ %e always wrapp$ h]self up 9 h] b$clo!s2 kept sil5t1 fumbl$1 pick$1 bor$ & ga!r$ hairs f ! clo!s2 te>s1 & aga9 laught]2 no sleep2 b[els irritable1 b pass$ no?+2 :5 urg$ drank a little2 ur9e ?9 & scanty2 to ! t\* ! fev] 0 slight2 coldness ( ! extremities4 ,n9? day1 talk$ mu* incoh]5tly1 & aga9 sank into sil5ce4 ,f\rte5? day1 brea?+ r>e1 l>ge1 & spac$1 & aga9 hurri$4 ,sev5te5? day1 aft] /imulation ( ! b[els %e pass$ ev5 dr9ks1 nor c\ld reta9 any?+2 totally ins5sible2 sk9 p>*$ & t5se4 ,tw5tie? day1 mu* talk1 & aga9 became compos$1 !n voiceless2 respiration hurri$4 ,tw5ty-fir/ day1 di$4 ,h] respiration ?r\gh\t 0 r>e & l>ge2 %e 0 totally ins5sible2 always wrapp$ up 9 h] b$clo!s2 ?r\gh\t ei!r mu* talk1 or complete sil5ce4' ,?is second case is 9 "p a description ( l[ mutt]+ delirium1 a common end ( cont9u$ fev]s su* z1 = in/ance1 typhoid4 ,! description closely resembles ! condition kn[n n[ 9 m$ic9e z ! 'typhoid /ate'4 ,incid5tally ! case conta9s a ref]5ce to a type ( brea?+ common among ! dy+4 ,! respiration becomes deep & sl[1 z x s9ks gradually into quietude & becomes r>] & r>] until x seems to cease altoge!r1 & !n x gradually becomes m rapid & s on alt]nately4 ,?is type ( brea?+ is kn[n to physicians z ',*eyne-,/okes' respiration 9 commemoration ( two di/+ui%$ ,iri% physicians ( ! la/ c5tury :o br\ght x to ! att5tion ( m$ical m54#gh ,rec5tly x has be5 p>tially expla9$ on a physiological basis4 ,we may note t !re is ano!r & ev5 bett] p5-picture ( ,*eyne-,/okes respiration 9 ! ,hippocratic collection4 ,x is 9 ! fam\s case ( ',philescos :o liv$ by ! wall & :o took to 8 b$ on ! fir/ day ( acute fev]'4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! six? day he di$ & ! physician notes t '! respiration ?r\gh\t 0 l t ( a p]son recollect+ himself & 0 l>ge & r>e'4 ,*eyne-,/okes brea?+ is admirably describ$ z 't ( a p]son recollect+ himself'4 #gh ,john ,*eyne 7#aggg-ahcf7 describ$ ?is type ( respiration 9 ! ,dubl9 ,hospital ,reports1 #ahah1 ii1 p4 #baf4 ,an extreme case ( ?is condition _h be5 describ$ by ,*eyne's namesake ,george ,*eyne 7#afga-agdc7 z ! fam\s ',case ( ! ,hon4 ,col4 ,t[n%5d' 9 8 ,engli% ,malady1 ,london1 #agcc4 ,william ,/okes 7#ahjd-gh7 publi%$ 8 acc\nt ( ,*eyne-,/okes brea?+ 9 ! ,dubl9 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,m$ical ,sci5ces1 #ahdf1 ii1 p4 #gc4 ,su* records z ^! may be contra/$ ) c]ta9 o!rs t h come d[n f ,greek antiquity4 ,we may in/ance two /eles discov]$ at ,epidaurus 9 #ahhe1 be>+ acc\nts ( =ty-f\r temple cures4 ,! foll[+ two are fair samples ( ! cures !re describ$3 ',ari/agora ( ,troiz54 ,%e _h tape-worm1 & :ile %e slept 9 ! ,temple ( ,asclepius at ,troiz51 %e saw a vision4 ,%e ?\ght t1 z ! god 0 n pres5t1 b 0 away 9 ,epidaurus1 8 sons cut (f h] head1 b 7 unable to put x back aga94 ,!n !y s5t a mess5g] to ,asclepius ask+ him to come to ,troiz54 ,mean:ile day came1 & ! prie/ actually saw h] head cut (f f ! body4 ,! next night ,ari/agora _h a dream4 ,%e ?\ght ! god came f ,epidaurus & fa/5$ h] head on to h] neck4 ,!n he cut op5 h] belly1 & /it*$ x up aga94 ,s %e 0 cur$4' ',a man _h an abdom9al abscess4 ,he saw a vision1 & ?\ght t ! god ord]$ ! slaves :o accompani$ him to lift him up & hold him1 s t 8 abdom5 c\ld be cut op54 ,! man tri$ to get away1 b 8 slaves caught him & b\nd him4 ,s ,asclepius cut him op51 rid him ( ! abscess1 & !n /it*$ him up aga91 releas+ him f 8 bonds4 ,/raightway he dep>t$ cur$1 & ! floor ( ! ,abaton 0 cov]$ ) blood4'#gi #gi ,! ,epidaurian inscriptions are giv5 by ,m4 ,fra5kel 9 ! ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graec>um ,,iv1 #iea-f1 & are discuss$ by ,m>y ,hamilton 7,mrs4 ,guy ,dick9s71 ,incubation1 ,/4 ,&rews1 #aijf1 f ^: translation ,i h quot$4 ,fur!r inscriptions are giv5 by ,cavvadias 9 ! ,ar*aiologike ,ephem]is1 #aiah1 p4 #aee 7issu$ #aiba74 ,9 ! records ( almo/ all temple cures1 a great numb] ( :i* h surviv$ 9 a wide v>iety ( docum5ts1 an ess5tial elem5t is ! process ( enkoimsis1 incubation or temple sleep1 usually 9 a special sleep+-place or ,abaton4 ,! process has a close p>allel 9 c]ta9 mod]n ,greek *ur*es & 9 places ( wor%ip mu* fur!r ,we/2 !re are ev5 traces ( x 9 ^! isl&s1 & x is m ?an probable t ! ,*ri/ian practice is desc5d$ by direct cont9uity f ! pagan4#hj ,! :ole "* ( ! temple treatm5t 0--& is--( a k9d to sugge/ to ! pati5t t he %\ld dream ( ! god1 an ev5t :i* !re=e usually takes place4 ,su* treatm5t by sugge/ion is applicable only to c]ta9 classes ( disease & is always liable to fall into ! h&s ( fanatics & impo/ors4 ,! difficulty t ! hone/ practition] enc\nt]s is t ! suff]]1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 c h>dly be br\ght to believe t 8 ailm5t is :at 9 fact x is1 a lesion ( ! m9d4 ,x is ?is :i* gives ! miracle-mong] 8 *ance4 #hj ,we are almo/ told z mu* 9 ! apocryphal ,gospel ( ,nicodemus1 #a1 a "w probably compos$ ab\t ! end ( ! f\r? c5tury4 ,exam9e = a mom5t ! two cases f ,epidaurus1 :i* are q typical ( ! s]ies4 ,we obs]ve t ! fir/ is describ$ simply z a case ( 'tape-worm' )\t any ju/ification = ! diagnosis4 ,x is n unfrequ5t n[adays = ?9 & anxi\s pati5ts to /ate1 simil>ly )\t ju/ification1 t !y suff] f ?is condition4 ,!y attribute c]ta9 common ga/ric exp]i5ces to ?is cause ( :i* p]haps !y h le>n$ f s5sational adv]tisem5ts1 & !n !y ask cure = a condition :i* !y !mselves h diagnos$1 b :i* has no exi/5ce 9 fact4 ,su* a case is (t5 appropriately treat$ by sugge/ion4 ,?\gh ! elaborat5ess ( ! sugge/ion 9 ! temple cure is a little />tl+1 yet x c easily be p>allel$ f ! leg5ds ( ! ,*ri/ian sa9ts4 ,moreov]1 we mu/ rememb] t we are n "h deal+ ) an acc\nt set d[n by ! pati5t h]self1 b ) an edificatory inscription put up by ! temple (ficials4 ,9 ! second inscription1 ! man ) an abdom9al abscess1 we h a mu* simpl] /ate ( affairs4 ,x is evid5t t an op]ation 0 actually p]=m$ by ! prie/ masqu]ad+ z ,asclepius1 :ile ! pati5t 0 held d[n by ! slaves4 ,he is assur$ t all is a dream & dep>ts cur$ ) ! tell-tale comm5t '& ! floor ( ! ,abaton 0 cov]$ ) blood'4 ,^! cases might be multipli$ indef9itely )\t great pr(it = our p>ticul> !me1 = 9 su* matt]s !re is no developm5t1 no evolution1 no hi/ory4 ,!re c be no d\bt t a v l>ge "p ( ,greek practice 0 on ?is level1 z is a small "p ( mod]n m$ic9e1 b x is n a level ) :i* we are "h deal+ & we %all !re=e pass x by4 ,b a ^w ( caution mu/ be add$4 ,su* temple wor%ip has be5 comp>$ ) mod]n psy*o-analysis4 ,t me?od1 l all me?ods1 has d\btless be5 abus$ at times2 b x is 9 ess5ce1 unlike ! temple sy/em1 a purely sci5tific process by :i* ! ultimate basis ( ! pati5t's delusions are laid b>e & demon/rat$ to him4 ,!re is inde$ ano!r side to ^! ,asclepian temples4 ,!y gradually develop$ along ! l9es ( our heal? resorts & develop$ _m ( ! qualities--lovely & unlovely--t we associate ) c]ta9 cont95tal wat]+ places4 ,on ! bad side !y became gossip+ c5tres or ev5 some?+ little bett] ?an bro!ls1 z we may ga!r f ! ,mimes ( ,h]ondas4 ,on ! good side !y =m$ a quiet refuge among beautiful & int]e/+ surr\nd+s :]e ! sick1 exhau/$1 & convalesc5t might ga9 ! b5efits t accrue f pure air1 f9e sc5]y1 & a regul> & regulat$ mode ( life4 ,x is m ?an probable too t ! op5 air & mann] ( liv+ b5efit$ _m cases ( incipi5t ph?isis4 ,return+ to ! ,hippocratic collection1 ! purely surgical treatises w be f\nd no less rem>kable ?an ^? ( cl9ical obs]vation4 ,a v able surgeon1 ,francis ,adams 7#agif-ahfa71 :o 0 em95t z a ,greek s*ol>1 gave x z 8 op9ion 9 ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t no sy/ematic writ] on surg]y up to 8 "t _h giv5 s good & s complete an acc\nt ( c]ta9 dislocations1 notably ( ! hip-jo9t1 z t to be f\nd 9 ! ,hippocratic collection4 ,"s types ( injury to ! hip1 z describ$ 9 ! ,hippocratic writ+s1 7 c]ta9ly o!rwise q inadequately kn[n until describ$ by ,sir ,a/ley ,coop] 7#agfh-ahda71 himself a peculi>ly ,hippocratic "*4#ha ,! v]dict ( ,adams 0 probably j1 ?\gh s9ce 8 "t ! surg]y ( dislocations1 aid$ especially by ,x-rays1 has be5 enabl$ to pass v def9itely beyond ! ,hippocratic position4 ,admirable1 too1 is ! ,hippocratic description ( dislocation ( ! %\ld] & ( ! jaw4 ,9 dislocation ( hip1 %\ld]1 or jaw1 z 9 mo/ simil> lesions1 !re is consid]able de=mity produc$4 ,! nature & mean+ ( ?is de=mity is describ$ ) rem>kable exactness by ! ,hippocratic writ]1 :o also sets =? ! result+ disability4 ,! pr9ciples & inde$ ! v details ( treatm5t 9 ^! cases are1 save = ! use ( an anae/hetic1 practically id5tical ) ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,! processes are un=tunately n suitable = detail$ quotation & description "h1 b !y are ( special int]e/ s9ce a graphic record ( !m has come d[n to u4 ,!re exi/s 9 ! ,laur5tian ,libr>y at ,flor5ce a n9?-c5tury ,greek surgical manuscript :i* conta9s figures ( surgeons r$uc+ ! dislocations 9 "q4 ,!re is good reason to suppose t ^! m9iatures are copi$ f figures fir/ prep>$ 9 pre-,*ri/ian times _m c5turies e>li]1 & we may "h see ! actual processes ( r$uction ( su* fractures1 z conduct$ by a surgeon ( ! direct ,hippocratic tradition#hb 7see ,figs4 #c1 #d74 #ha ,a/ley ,pa/on ,coop]1 ,treatise on ,dislocations & ,fractures ( ! ,jo9ts1 ,london1 #ahbb1 & ,obs]vations on ,fractures ( ! ,neck & ! ,?ighbone1 c41 ,london1 #ahbc4 #hb ,?is fam\s manuscript is kn[n z ,laur5tian1 ,plut>* #gd1 #g1 & its figures h be5 reproduc$ by ,h4 ,s*ne1 ,apollonius von ,kitium1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,illu/ration3 ,f ,,ms4 ( ,,apollonius ,,( ,,kitium1 ( ,n9? ,c5tury ,copi$ f pre-*ri/ian orig9al ,fig4 #c ,,r$uc+ ,,dislocat$ ,,%\ld] ,fig4 #d ,,r$uc+ ,,dislocat$ ,,jaw ,9 keep+ ) all ?is is mo/ ( ! surgical "w ( ! collection4 ,we are almo/ />tl$ by ! mod]n s\nd ( ! :ole proc$ure z we run ?r\gh ! r\gh note-book ' kat' itreion1 ,conc]n+ ! ,surg]y1 or ! m elaborate treatise p]i itr\1 ,on ! ,physician1 :]e we may read m9ute directions = ! prep>ation ( ! op]at+-room1 & on su* po9ts z ! managem5t ( light bo? artificial & natural1 scrupul\s cleanl9ess ( ! h&s1 ! c>e & use ( ! in/rum5ts1 ) ! special precautions ne$$ :5 !y are ( iron1 ! dec5cies to be obs]v$ dur+ ! op]ation1 ! g5]al me?od ( b&ag+1 ! plac+ ( ! pati5t1 ! use & abuse ( spl9ts1 & ! ne$ = tid9ess1 ord]1 & cleanl9ess4 ,_m ( ^! directions are enl>g$ ^u 9 o!r surgical works ( ! collection1 among :i* we f9d especially full in/ructions = b&ag+ & = ! diagnosis & treatm5t ( fractures & dislocations4 ,a v fair repres5tation ( su* a surg]y z ^! works describe is to be f\nd on a vase-pa9t+ ( ,attic orig9 ( ! e>li] "p ( ! fif? c5tury1 &1 !re=e1 a g5]ation be=e ,hippocrates 7see fig4 #e74 ,!re are also sev]al beautiful repres5tations on vases ( ! actual processes ( b&ag+ 7fig4 #f74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,a ,,greek ,,cl9ic ,,( ,,ab\t #dhj-dgj ,b4 ,c4 ,f a vase-pa9t+4 ,9 ! c5tre sits a physician hold+ a lancet & ble$+ a pati5t f ! m$ian ve9 at ! b5d ( ! "r elb[ into a l>ge op5 bas94 ,above & beh9d ! physician are susp5d$ ?ree cupp+ vessels4 ,to ! "r sits ano!r pati5t await+ 8 turn2 8 left arm is b&ag$ 9 ! region ( ! biceps4 ,! figure beyond him smells a fl[]1 p]haps z a pres]vative aga9/ infection4 ,beh9d ! physician /&s a man lean+ on a /aff2 he is w\nd$ 9 ! left leg1 :i* is b&ag$4 ,by 8 side /&s a dw>fi% figure ) disproportionately l>ge head1 ^: body exhibits de=mities typical ( ! developm5tal disease n[ kn[n z ,a*ondroplasia2 9 addition to ^! de=mities we note t 8 body is hairy & ! bridge ( 8 nose sunk52 on 8 back he c>ries a h>e :i* is almo/ z tall z himself4 ,talk+ to ! dw>f is a man lean+ on a long /aff1 :o has ! rema9s ( a b&age r\nd 8 *e/4 ,see ,e4 ,potti]1 ',une ,cl9ique grecque au ,ve sicle 7vase antique du collection ,peztel7'1 ,fondation ,eugne ,piot1 ,monum5ts et ,mmoires1 xiii4 #adi1 ,p>is1 #aijf4 7,"s ( our int]pretations diff] f ^? ( ,m4 ,potti]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a kylix f ! ,b]l9 ,museum ( ab\t #dij ,b4 ,c4 ,x be>s ! inscription ,,sosias ,,epoi,,s51 ,sosias made 7me71 & repres5ts ,a*illes b&ag+ ,patroclus1 ! names ( ! two h]oes be+ writt5 r\nd ! m>g94 ,! pa9t] is ,euphronios1 & ! "w is reg>d$ z ! ma/]piece ( t great arti/4 ,! left upp] arm ( ,patroclus is injur$1 & ,a*illes is b&ag+ x ) a two-roll$ b&age1 :i* he is try+ to br+ d[n to ext5d ov] ! elb[4 ,! treatm5t ( ! h&s1 a dep>tm5t 9 :i* ,euphronios excell$1 is p>ticul>ly f9e4 ,a*illes 0 n a tra9$ surgeon1 & x w be obs]v$1 f ! position ( ! two tails ( ! b&age1 t he w h "s difficulty :5 x comes to its f9al fa/5+6 ,among ! surgical proc$ures ( :i* descriptions are to be f\nd 9 ! ,hippocratic writ+s are ! op5+ ( ! *e/ = ! condition kn[n z empyema 7accumulation ( pus )9 ! pleura frequ5tly foll[+ pneumonia71 & treph9+ ! skull 9 cases ( fracture ( t "p--two fundam5tal op]ations ( mod]n surg]y4 ,surgical art has advanc$ enorm\sly 9 our own times1 yet a text-book conta9+ mu* t is useful to ?is day might be prep>$ f ^! surgical cont5ts ( ! collection alone4 ,:5 we pass to ! works on ,m$ic9e1 9 ! re/rict$ s5se1 we ent] into a region m difficult & p]haps ev5 m fasc9at+4 ,we are no long] deal+ ) simple lesions ( kn[n orig91 b ) ! effects ( disease & deg5]ation1 ( ! ess5tial "* ( :i* ! ,hippocratic writ]s c\ld 9 ! nature ( ! case "k v little4 ,rigidly gu>d+ !mselves f any attempt to expla9 disease by m imm$iate & hypo!tical causes & ?us div]t+ ! read]'s en]gies 9 ! m$ically useless direction ( vague speculation--! preval5t m5tal vice ( ! ,greeks--! be/ ( ^! physicians are cont5t if !y c put =w>d g5]aliz$ conclusions f actually obs]v$ cases4 ,_m ( _! ?\ghts h n[ become h\sehold words1 & !y h become s1 l>gely z a direct h]itage f ^! anci5t physicians4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ideas s famili> to u 7 ) !m ! result ( long & c>efully record$ exp]i5ce & are l no?+ t we enc\nt] 9 ! m$ic9e ( o!r anci5t nations4 ,su* conclusions are be/ set =? p]haps 9 ! wond]ful book ( ! ,aphorisms f :i* we may p]mit ourselves a few quotations3 ',life is %ort1 & ! ,art long2 ! opportunity fleet+2 exp]im5t dang]\s1 & judgem5t difficult4 ,yet we mu/ be prep>$ n only to d our duty ourselves1 b also pati5t1 att5dants1 & ext]nal circum/ances mu/ co-op]ate4'#hc #hc ,! fir/ l9es are ! s\rce ( ! fam\s l9es 9 ,goe!'s ,fau/3 ',a* ,gott6 die ,kun/ i/ lang ,und kurz i/ uns] ,leb51 ,mir wird bei me9em kritis*5 ,be/reb5 ,do* (t um ,kopf und ,bus5 bang4' ,9 ?is "o memorable p>agraph1 s cond5s$ 9 ! orig9al z to be almo/ untranslatable1 he :o 'fir/ sep>at$ m$ic9e f philosophy' puts aside at once all speculative int]e/ :ile 9 ! actual pres5ce ( ! sick4 ,8 :ole en]gy is conc5trat$ on ! case 9 h& ) t peculi> attitude1 at once imp]sonal & int5sely p]sonal1 t has s9ce be5 ! m>k ( ! physician1 & t has made ( ,m$ic9e bo? a sci5ce & an art4 ',= extreme diseases1 extreme me?ods ( cure4'#hd ',! ag$ endure fa/+ mo/ easily2 next adults2 next "y p]sons1 & lea/ ( all *ildr51 & especially su* z are ! mo/ lively4' ',gr[+ bodies h ! mo/ innate heat2 !y !re=e require ! mo/ n\ri%m5t1 & if !y h x n !y wa/e4 ,9 ! ag$ !re is little heat1 & !re=e !y require little fuel1 = x w\ld be ext+ui%$ by mu*4 ,simil>ly fev]s 9 ! ag$ are n s acute1 because _! bodies are cold4' ',9 disease sleep t is labori\s is a deadly symptom2 b if sleep relieves x is n deadly4' ',sleep t puts an end to delirium is a good symptom4' ',if a convalesc5t eats well1 b does n put on fle%1 x is a bad symptom4' ',food or dr9k :i* is a little less good b m palatable is to be pref]r$ to su* t is bett] b less palatable4' ',! old h g5]ally few] compla9ts ?an "y2 b ^? *ronic diseases :i* d befall !m g5]ally nev] leave !m4' #hd ,! extreme ( treatm5t ref]s 9 ! orig9al to ! extreme re/riction ( diet1 es akribein1 b ! mean+ ( ! ,aphorism has always be5 tak5 z m g5]aliz$4 ,"h we h a gr\p ( obs]vations1 "s ( :i* h become lit]ally h\sehold words1 nor is x difficult to und]/& h[ su* say+s h pass$ f pr(essional into lay keep+4 ,?is magnific5t book ( ,aphorisms 0 v e>ly translat$ into ,lat91 probably be=e & c]ta9ly n lat] ?an ! six? c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 & ?us became accessible ?r\gh\t ! ,we/4 ,manuscripts ( ?is ,lat9 v]sion1 dat+ f ! n9? & t5? c5turies ( our era1 h surviv$ 9 ! actual places 9 :i* !y 7 writt51 at ,monte ,cass9o 9 ,s\!rn ,italy & at ,e9si$eln 9 ,switz]l&1 & 9 #iia ! book ( ,aphorisms 0 well kn[n & closely /udi$ at ! ,ca!dral s*ool ( ,*>tres4 ,f ,france ! ,aphorisms rea*$ ,engl&1 & !y are m5tion$ 9 docum5ts ( ! t5? or elev5? c5tury4 ,by n[1 too1 ! book _h be5 translat$ into ,syriac & lat] into ,arabic & ,hebrew1 s t 9 ! true m$iaeval p]iod x 0 kn[n bo? ,ea/ & ,we/1 & 9 ! v]nacul> z well z ! classical tongues4 ,f ! ori5tal dialects sev]al fur!r translations 7 aga9 made into ,lat94 ,an enorm\s numb] ( manuscripts ( ! "w h surviv$ 9 almo/ e ,we/]n dialect1 & ^! %[ on ! :ole t ! text has be5 surpris+ly little tamp]$ )4 ,9 ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury "s ( ! bett]-kn[n ,aphorisms 7 absorb$ into a v popul> ,lat9 poem t w5t =? 9 ! "n ( ! m$ical s*ool ( ,sal]no1 ?\gh ) a false ascription to a yet e>li] date4 ,! ,sal]nitan poem1 be+ itself translat$ into e ,european v]nacul>1 fur!r help$ to br+ ,hippocrates into e home4 ,b by no means all ! ,aphorisms are ( a k9d t c\ld well become absorb$ into folk m$ic9e4 ,x is only ^? conc]n+ frequ5tly recurr+ /ates to :i* ?is fate c\ld befall4 ,! book conta9s also a numb] ( notes on r>e conditions seldom se5 or not$ save by m$ical m54 ,su* are ! foll[+ v acute obs]vations3 ',spasm sup]v5+ on a w\nd is fatal4' ',^? seiz$ ) tetanus die )9 f\r days1 or if !y survive s long !y recov]4' ',a convulsion1 or hiccup1 sup]v5+ on a copi\s dis*>ge ( blood is bad4' ',if aft] sev]e & grave w\nds no swell+ appe>s1 x is v s]i\s4' ,^! f\r s5t5ces all conc]n w\nds4 ,! fir/ two ref] to ! disease tetanus1 :i* is v liable to sup]v5e on w\nds f\l$ ) e>?1 especially 9 hot & moi/ localities4 ,! disease is *>act]iz$ by a s]ies ( pa9ful muscul> contractions :i* 9 ! m sev]e & fatal =m may become a cont9u\s spasm1 a type t is ref]r$ to 9 ! fir/ s5t5ce4 ,x is true ( tetanus t ! lat] ! onset aft] ! w\nd is su/a9$ ! bett] ! *ance ( recov]y4 ,?is is br\ght out by ! second s5t5ce4 ,! ?ird & f\r? s5t5ces record unt[>d symptoms foll[+ a sev]e w\nd1 n[ well recogniz$ & wat*$ = by e surgeon4 ,!re 71 ( c\rse1 innum]able illu/rations ( ! tru? ( ^! ,aphorisms 9 ext5sive w\nds1 especially ^? involv+ cru%$ limbs1 9 ! late w>4 ',ph?isis occurs mo/ commonly betwe5 ! ages ( eighte5 & ?irty-five4' ',di>rha sup]v5+ on ph?isis is mortal4' ,! p]iod giv5 by ! ,aphorisms = ! maximum frequ5cy ( onset ( ! disease is closely borne out by mod]n obs]vations4 ,! second ,aphorism is equally valid2 cont9u$ di>rha is a v frequ5t antec$5t ( ! fatal ev5t 9 *ronic ph?isis1 & po/-mortem exam9ation has %[n t second>y involvem5t ( ! b[el is an exce$+ly common condition 9 ?is disease4 ,no less rem>kable is ! foll[+ say+3 ',9 jaundice x is a grave matt] if ! liv] becomes indurat$4' ,jaundice is a common & comp>atively trivial symptom foll[+ or accompany+ a l>ge v>iety ( diseases4 ,9 & by itself x is ( little importance & almo/ always disappe>s spontane\sly4 ,!re is a small gr\p ( pa?ological conditions1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ?is is n ! case4 ,! commone/ & mo/ important ( ^! are ! fatal affections ( cirrhosis & canc] ( ! liv] 9 :i* t organ may be felt to be enl>g$ & h>d5$4 ,if !re=e ! liv] c be s felt 9 a case ( jaundice1 x is1 z ! ,aphorism says1 ( grave/ import4 ,repres5tations ( su* cases h actually come d[n to u f ,greek times4 ,?us on a monum5t erect$ at ,a!ns to ! memory ( a physician :o di$ 9 ! second c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era we may see ! process ( cl9ical exam9ation 7fig4 #g74 ,! physician is palpat+ ! liv] ( a dw>fi% figure ^: swoll5 belly1 wa/$ limbs1 & anxi\s look tell ( "s su* condition z t describ$ 9 ! ,aphorism4 ,! ridge caus$ by ! enl>g$ liv] c ev5 be detect$ on ! /atue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,a!nian ,,fun]>y ,,monum5t ,second c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,briti% ,museum ,inscription reads3 ',jason1 also call$ ,dekmos1 ! ,a*>nian1 a physician'1 foll[$ by 8 g5ealogy4 ,by side ( pati5t /&s a cupp+ vessel4 ',we mu/ att5d to ! appe>ances ( ! eyes 9 sleep z pres5t$ f bel[2 = if a portion ( ! :ite be se5 betwe5 ! clos+ eyelids1 & if ?is be n connect$ ) di>rha or sev]e purg+1 x is a v bad & mortal symptom4' ,9 ?is1 ! la/ ,aphorism :i* we %all quote1 we see ! ,hippocratic physician actually mak+ 8 obs]vations4 ,n[ dur+ sleep ! eyeball is turn$ upw>d1 s t if ! eye be !n op5$ & exam9$ only ! :ite is se54 ,9 ! lat] /ages ( all wa/+ & *ronic diseases ! eyelids t5d n to be clos$ dur+ sleep4 ,su* pati5ts1 z is well kn[n1 (t5 die ) ! eyes op5 & sometimes exhibit+ only ! :ites4 ,b ! ,hippocratic physician 0 n cont5t to make only passive obs]vation2 he also took active measures to elicit ! 'physical signs'4 ,9 mod]n times a l>ge1 p]haps ! *ief1 task ( ! /ud5t ( m$ic9e is to acquire a k ( ^! s-call$ physical signs ( disease1 ! tradition ( :i* has be5 gradually rebuilt dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies4 ,among ! mo/ important measures 9 :i* he le>ns to acquire facility is t ( auscultation4 ,?is useful process has come specially into vogue s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! /e?oscope 9 #ahai by ,la5nec1 :o d]iv$ valuable h9ts = x f ! ,hippocratic writ+s4 ,auscultation is sev]al times m5tion$ & describ$ by ! ,hippocratic physicians1 :o us$ ! direct me?od ( li/5+ & n ! m$iate me?od devis$ by ,la5nec4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 cases 9 :i* ! mod]n physician /ill f9ds ! old] non-in/rum5tal ,hippocratic me?od sup]ior4 ,9 ! ,hippocratic "w p]i n\sn1 ,on diseases1 we read ( a case ) fluid 9 ! pleura t 'y w place ! pati5t on a seat :i* does n move1 an assi/ant w hold him by ! %\ld]s1 & y w %ake him1 apply+ ! e> to ! *e/1 s z to recognize on :i* side ! sign occurs'4 ,?is sign is /ill us$ by physicians & is kn[n z ,hippocratic succussion4 ,9 ano!r passage 9 ! same "w ! symptoms ( pleurisy are describ$ & 'a creak l t ( lea!r may be he>d'4 ,?is is ! well kn[n pleuritic rub :i* ! physician is accu/om$ to seek 9 su* cases1 & ( :i* ! creak ( lea!r is an excell5t repres5tation4 ,su* quotations give an insight into ! g5]al me?od & attitude ( ! ,hippocratics4 ,( an art su* z m$ic9e1 :i* ev5 9 ^? times _h a long & rational tradition beh9d x1 x is impossible to give m ?an ! m]e/ glimpse 9 su* a review z ?is4 ,! actual practice is f> too complex to set d[n briefly4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! anci5t tea*+ z reg>ds epidemic disease at :i* we mu/ cursorily glance4 ,! ,hippocratic physicians & inde$ all antiquity 7 z yet ignorant ( ! nature1 & 7 b dimly aw>e ( ! exi/5ce1 ( infection4#he ,= !m acute disease 0 some?+ impos$ on ! pati5t f outside1 b h[ x rea*$ him f outside & :at x 0 t ?us rea*$ him !y 7 /ill admitt$ly ignorant4 ,9 ?is dilemma !y turn$ to prolong$ obs]vation & not$ z a result ( repeat$ exp]i5ce t epidemic diseases 9 _! _w _h *>act]i/ic seasonal & regional di/ributions4 ,"o c\ntry 0 n q l ano!r1 nor 0 "o season l ano!r nor ev5 "o ye> l ano!r4 ,by a s]ies ( c>efully collat$ obs]vations z to h[ regions1 seasons1 & ye>s diff]$ f ea* o!r1 !y succe$$ 9 lay+ ! basis ( a rational /udy ( epidemiology :i* gave rise to ! notion ( an 'epidemic con/itution' ( ! diff]5t ye>s1 a conception :i* 0 v f]tile & /imulat+ to ! great cl9icians ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies & is by no means )\t value ev5 = ! mod]n epidemiologi/4 ,! "w ( ! mod]n fa!rs ( epidemiology 0 consci\sly bas$ on ,hippocrates4 #he ,! anci5ts knew almo/ no?+ ( infection z appli$ specifically to disease4 ,all e>ly peoples--includ+ ,greeks & ,romans--believ$ 9 ! transmission ( qualities f object to object4 ,?us purity & impurity & good & bad luck 7 infections1 & diseases 7 held to be infections 9 t s5se4 ,b !re is little evid5ce 9 ! belief ( ! special infectivity ( disease z su* 9 antiquity4 ,"s few diseases are1 h[ev]1 unequivocally ref]r$ to z infecti\s 9 a limit$ numb] ( passages1 e4 g4 oph?almia1 scabies1 & ph?isis 9 ! p]i diaphoras pyretn1 ,on ! diff]5tiae ( fev]s1 ,k4 vii1 p4 #bgi4 ,! ref]5ces to infection 9 antiquity are detail$ by ,c4 & ,d4 ,s+]1 ',! sci5tific position ( ,girolamo ,fraca/oro'1 ,annals ( ,m$ical ,hi/ory1 vol4 i1 ,new ,york1 #aiag4 ,be=e p>t+ ) ! ,hippocratic physician a ^w mu/ be said z to 8 !rapeutic means4 ,8 g5]al arm\ry may be describ$ z resembl+ t ( ! mod]n physician ( ab\t two g5]ations ago4 ,dur+ ^? two g5]ations we h1 x is true1 add$ to our li/ ( effective rem$ies b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re has be5 by common cons5t a return to ! ,hippocratic simplicity ( treatm5t4 ,aft] re/ & quiet ! c5tral factor 9 treatm5t 0 ,dietetics4 ,?is sci5ce reg>d$ ! age--',old p]sons use less nutrim5t ?an "y'2 ! season--',9 w9t] abundant n\ri%m5t is :olesome1 9 summ] a m frugal diet'2 ! bodily condition--',lean p]sons %\ld take little food1 b ?is little %\ld be fat1 fat p]sons on ! o!r h& %\ld take mu* food1 b x %\ld be lean'4 ,respect 0 also paid to ! dige/ibility ( diff]5t foods--':ite meat is m easily dige/ible ?an d>k'--& to _! prep>ation4 ,wat]1 b>ley wat]1 & lime wat] 7 recomm5d$ z dr9ks4 ,! dietetic pr9ciples ( ! ,hippocratics1 especially 9 connexion ) fev]s1 are sub/antially ^? ( ! pres5t day1 & x may be said t ! g5]al m$ical t5d5cy ( ! la/ g5]ation 9 ^! matt]s has be5 an ev5 clos] approximation to ! ,hippocratic4 ',! m we n\ri% unheal?y bodies ! m we injure !m'2 ',! sick ^u :om fev] seizes ) ! greate/ sev]ity f ! v outset1 mu/ at once subject !mselves to a rigid diet'2 ',complete ab/95ce (t5 acts well1 if ! /r5g? ( ! pati5t c 9 any way su/a9 x'2 yet ',we %\ld exam9e ! /r5g? ( ! sick1 to see :e!r !y be 9 condition to ma9ta9 ?is sp>e diet to ! crisis ( ! disease'4 ',9 ! application ( ^! rules we mu/ always be m9dful ( ! /r5g? ( ! pati5t & ( ! c\rse ( ea* p>ticul> disease1 z well z ( ! con/itution & ord9>y mode ( life 9 ea* disease4' ,besides diet ! ,hippocratic physician _h at 8 disposal a consid]able v>iety ( o!r rem$ies4 ,ba?s1 inunctions1 cly/]s1 w>m & cold suffusions1 massage & gymna/ic1 z well z g5tl] ex]cise are among !m4 ,he probably employ$ cupp+ & ble$+ r too freely1 & we h sev]al repres5tations ( ! in/rum5ts us$ = ^! op]ations 7fig4 #h74 ,he 0 no great us] ( drugs & seldom names !m except1 we may note1 9 ! works on ! treatm5t ( wom51 :i* are probably ( ,cnidian orig9 & :5ce ! great] "p ( ! #cjj con/itu5ts ( ! ,hippocratic ph>macopia are d]iv$4 ,?us 8 li/ ( drugs is small b sev]al kn[n to him are /ill us$ by u4 ,! "w ( ^! m5 may be summ$ up by say+ t )\t dissection1 )\t any exp]im5tal physiology or pa?ology1 & )\t any in/rum5tal aid !y pu%$ ! k ( ! c\rse & orig9 ( disease z f> z x is conceivable t m5 9 su* circum/ances c\ld pu% x4 ,?is 0 done z a process ( pure sci5tific induction4 ,_! surg]y1 ?\gh h>dly bas$ on anatomy1 0 gr\nd$ on ! mo/ c>efully record$ exp]i5ce4 ,9 !rapeutics !y all[$ !mselves nei!r to be deceiv$ by false hopes nor l$ aside by va9 traditions4 ,yet 9 diagnosis1 prognosis1 surg]y & !rapeutics alike !y 7 9 _m dep>tm5ts unsurpass$ until ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & to "s ( _! me?ods we h rev]t$ 9 ! tw5tie?4 ,p]si/+ ?r\gh\t ! ages z a m or less def9ite tradition1 :i* atta9$ cle>] =m dur+ & aft] ! sixte5? c5tury1 ,hippocratic me?ods h =m$ ! basis ( all dep>tm5ts ( mod]n advance4 ,b ! hi/ory ( ,greek m$ic9e did n end ) ! ,hippocratic collection2 9 _m respects x may inde$ be held only to beg9 !re2 yet we nev] get aga9 a glimpse ( s high an e?ical & pr(essional /&>d z t :i* ^! works convey4 ,f ,alex&rian times onw>ds1 too1 ! hi/ory ( ,greek m$ic9e becomes l>gely a hi/ory ( v>i\s s*ools ( m$ical ?\ght1 ea* ( :i* has only a p>tial view ( ! c\rse & nature ( m$ical k4 ,! unravell+ ( ! c\rse & tea*+s ( ^! sects has long be5 a pre-occupation ( pr(ess$ m$ical hi/orians1 b ! g5]al read] c h>dly take an int]e/ 9 diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,dogmati/s1 ,empirics1 & ,me?odi/s ^: doctr9es are z dead z !mselves4 ,9 ?is lat] ,alex&rian & ,hell5i/ic age ! ,greek intellect is no less active ?an be=e1 b !re is a *ange 9 ! ta/e ( ! mat]ial4 ,a g5]al decay ( ! _s is reflect$ 9 ! m$ical z 9 ! lit]>y products ( ! "t1 & we nev] aga9 feel t elevation ( a beautiful & calmly righte\s pres5ce t brea!s ?r\gh ! ,hippocratic collection & gives x a peculi> aroma4 ,we %all pass ov] ! g5]al c\rse ( lat] ,greek m$ic9e ) great rapidity4 ,a def9ite m$ical s*ool 0 e/abli%$ at ,alex&ria & o!rs p]haps at ,p]gamon & else:]e4 ,a!ns1 aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle & 8 pupils1 passes entirely into ! backgr\nd & is ( no importance s f> z m$ic9e is conc]n$4 ,at ,alex&ria1 :]e a great m$ical libr>y 0 collect$1 anatomy began to be /udi$ & two m5 ^: discov]ies 7 ( prim>y importance = ! hi/ory ( t subject1 ,erasi/ratus & ,h]ophilus1 e>ly practis$ !re4 ,) anatomy z a basis m$ical education c\ld become mu* m sy/ematic4 ,x is a v great mis=tune t ! works ( ^! two em95t m5 h disappe>$4 ,( ,h]ophilus fragm5ts h surviv$ emb$d$ 9 ! works ( ,gal5 7,a4 ,d4 #acj-bja71 ,caelius ,aurelianus 7fif? c5tury71 & o!rs4 ,^! fragm5ts h be5 ! subject ( "o ( ! e>lie/1 mo/ labori\s1 & mo/ successful attempts made 9 mod]n times to recon/ruct ! lo/ "w ( an anci5t au?or4#hf ,= ,erasi/ratus our *ief s\rce ( in=mation are two polemical treatises direct$ aga9/ him by ,gal54 ,rec5tly1 too1 a little m in=mation conc]n+ ! works ( bo? m5 has become available f ! ,m5on papyrus4 #hf ,k4 ,f4 ,h4 ,m>x1 ,h]ophilus1 e9 ,beitrag zur ,ges*i*te d] ,m$iz91 ,k>lsruhe1 #ahch4 ,x has be5 f\nd possible to recon/ruct especially a treatise on anatomy by ,h]ophilus ) a consid]able %[ ( probability4 ,he op5$ by giv+ g5]al directions = ! process ( dissection & foll[$ ) detail$ descriptions ( ! v>i\s sy/ems1 n]v\s1 vascul>1 gl&ul>1 dige/ive1 g5]ative1 & osse\s4 ,!re 0 a sep>ate section on ! liv]1 a small "p ( :i* has surviv$4 ,x is ( 8 acc\nt ( ! n]v\s sy/em t we h p]haps ! be/ record1 & x is evid5t t he has advanc$ f> beyond ! ,hippocratic position4 ,9 ! bra9case he saw ! membranes t cov] ! bra9 & di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! c]ebrum & c]ebellum4 ,he atta9$ to "s k ( ! v5tricles ( ! bra91 ! cranial & sp9al n]ves1 ! n]ves ( ! he>t1 & ! coats ( ! eye4 ,he di/+ui%$ ! blood s9uses ( ! skull1 & ! torcul> ,h]ophili 7w9epress ( ,h]ophilus71 a s9us describ$ by him1 has pres]v$ 8 "n 9 mod]n anatomical nom5clature4 ,he ev5 made out m m9ute /ructures1 su* z ! little depression 9 ! f\r? v5tricle ( ! bra91 kn[n to mod]n anatomi/s z ! calamus scriptorius1 :i* /ill be>s ! "n :i* he gave x 7 kalamos h graphom571 because x seem$ to him1 z ,gal5 tells u1 to resemble ! p5s !n 9 use 9 ,alex&ria4#hg ,we /ill use1 too1 8 t]m duod5um 7 ddekadaktylos ekphysis twelve-f+] ext5sion71 = z ,gal5 assures u1 ,h]ophilus 's nam$ ! fir/ "p ( ! inte/9e be=e x is roll$ into folds'4#hh ,! duod5um is a ,u-%ap$ section ( ! inte/9e foll[+ imm$iately on ! /oma*4 ,be+ fix$ d[n beh9d ! abdom9al cavity x _c be fur!r convolut$1 & ?is acc\nts = ,gal5's description ( x4 ,x is ab\t twelve f+]s' bread? long 9 ! animals dissect$ by ,h]ophilus4 #hg ,gal51 p]i anatomikn en*eirsen1 ,on anatomical prep>ations1 ix4 #e 7la/ s5t5ce74 #hh ,gal51 p]i phlebn kai artrin anatoms1 ,on ! anatomy ( ve9s & art]ies1 i4 ,erasi/ratus1 ! slightly y\ng] ,alex&rian contempor>y ( ,h]ophilus1 has ! cr$it ( fur!r anatomical discov]ies4 ,he describ$ correctly ! action ( ! epiglottis 9 prev5t+ ! entrance ( food & dr9k into ! w9dpipe dur+ ! act ( swall[+1 he saw ! lacteal vessels 9 ! mes5t]y1 & pursu$ fur!r ! anatomy ( ! bra94 ,he improv$ on ! anatomy ( ! he>t1 & describ$ ! auriculo-v5tricul> valves & _! mode ( closure4 ,he di/+ui%$ cle>ly ! motor & s5sory n]ves4 ,he seems to h adopt$ a def9itely exp]im5tal attitude--a v r>e ?+ among anci5t physicians--& a description ( an exp]im5t made by him has rec5tly be5 recov]$4 ',if'1 he says1 'y take an animal1 a bird1 = example1 & keep x = a "t 9 a j> )\t giv+ x food & !n weigh x toge!r ) its excreta y w f9d t !re is a consid]able loss ( weight4'#hi ,! exp]im5t is a simple "o1 b x 0 ab\t n9ete5 hundr$ ye>s be=e a mod]n pr(essor1 ,sanctorio ,santorio 7#aefa-afcf71 ?\ght ( repeat+ x4#ij #hi ,! quotation is f *apt] xxxiii1 l9e #dd ( ! ,anonymus ,lond95sis4 ,h4 ,diels1 ,anonymus ,lond95sis 9 ! ,supplem5tum ,ari/otelicum1 vol4 iii1 p>s #a1 ,b]l91 #ahic4 #ij ,sanctorio ,santorio1 ,oratio 9 ar*ilyceo patav9o anno #afab habita2 de m$ic9a /atica aphorismi4 ,v5ice1 #afad4 ,! anatomical advances made by ! ,alex&rian s*ool naturally react$ on surgical effici5cy4 ,! improvem5t s effect$ may be ga!r$1 = in/ance1 f an acc\nt ( ! anatomical relation%ips 9 c]ta9 cases ( dislocation ( ! hip giv5 by ! ,alex&rian surgeon ,hegetor1 :o liv$ ab\t #ajj ,b4 ,c4 ,9 8 book p]i aitin1 ,on causes ( disease1 he asks ':y 7c]ta9 surgeons7 d n seek ano!r way ( r$uc+ a luxation ( ! hip4444 ,if ! jo9ts ( ! jaw1 %\ld]1 elb[1 knee1 f+]1 c41 c be replac$1 ! same1 !y ?9k1 mu/ be true ( all p>ts1 nor c !y give an acc\nt ( :y ! femur _c be put back into its place4444 ,!y might h kn[n1 h[ev]1 t f ! head ( ! femur arises a ligam5t :i* is ins]t$ into ! socket ( ! hip bone 444 & if ?is ligam5t is once ruptur$ ! ?igh bone _c be reta9$ 9 place'4#ia ,?is passage conta9s ! fir/ description ( ! /ructure kn[n to mod]n anatomi/s z ! ligam5tum t]es1 a /rong fibr\s b& :i* unites ! head ( ! femur ) ! socket into :i* x fits 9 ! hip bone1 l ! /r+ t b9ds ! cup & ball ( a *ild's toy4 ,?is ligam5t is ruptur$ 9 c]ta9 sev]e cases ( dislocation ( ! hip4 #ia ,?is is ! only passage ( ,hegetor's writ+ t has surviv$4 ,x has be5 pres]v$ 9 ! "w ( ,apollonius ( ,citium4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! s*ool at ,alex&ria1 m$ical tea*+ rapidly became organiz$1 b ?r\gh\t ! :ole c\rse ( antiquity x suff]$ f ! abs5ce ( any?+ 9 ! nature ( a /ate diploma4 ,any "o c\ld practise1 ) ! result t _m quacks1 cranks1 & fanatics 7 to be f\nd among ! ranks ( ! practition]s :o (t5 7 or _h be5 slaves4 ,! great ,alex&rian s*ool1 h[ev]1 did mu* to pres]ve "s sort ( pr(essional /&>d1 & above all its anatomical discipl9e help$ to ?is end4 ,betwe5 ! f\nd+ ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool & ,gal5 we are n ri* 9 m$ical writ+s4 ,ap>t f fragm5ts & m9or productions1 ! works ( only five au?ors h surviv$ f ?is p]iod ( ov] f\r hundr$ ye>s1 namely1 ,celsus1 ,dioscorides1 ,aretaeus ( ,cappadocia1 & two ,ephesian au?ors be>+ ! names ( ,rufus & ,soranus4 ,! "w ( ,celsus ( ! end ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 is a ,lat9 treatise1 probably translat$ f ,greek1 & is ! surviv+ m$ical volume ( a complete cyclopa$ia ( k4 ,9 spite ( its unpromis+ orig9 x is an excell5t comp5dium ( its subject & %[s a good deal ( advance 9 _m respects beyond ! ,hippocratic position4 ,! moral tone too is v high1 ?\gh )\t ! l(ty & deta*$ beauty ( ,hippocrates4 ,anatomy has greatly improv$1 & ) x surgical proc$ure1 & ! "w is probably repres5tative ( ! be/ ,alex&rian practice4 ,! ph>macopia is m copi\s1 b has n yet become burd5some4 ,! g5]al l9e ( treatm5t is s5sible & humane & ! language concise & cle>4 ,among o!r items he describes d5tal practice1 ) ! indications = & me?ods ( too? extraction1 ! wir+ ( tee?1 & p]haps a d5tal mirror4 ,!re is an excell5t acc\nt ( :at might be ?\ght to be ! mod]n op]ation = removal ( ! tonsils4 ,celsus is /ill commemorat$ 9 mod]n m$ic9e by ! area ,celsi1 a n uncommon disease ( ! sk94 ,! ,de re m$ica is 9 fact "o ( ! v be/ m$ical text-books t h come d[n to u f antiquity4 ,x has _h a romantic hi/ory4 ,=gott5 dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 x 0 br\ght to light by ! classical s*ol> ,gu>9o ( ,v]ona 7#acgd-adfj7 9 #adbf1 & a bett] copy 0 discov]$ by 8 fri5d ,lamola 9 #adbg4 ,ano!r copy 0 f\nd by ,?omas ,p>5tucelli 7#acig-adee71 aft]w>ds ,pope ,ni*olas ,v 9 #addc1 & ! text 0 lat] /udi$ by ,politian 7#aded-id74 ,?\gh "o ( ! late/ ( ! great classical m$ical texts to be discov]$1 x 0 "o ( ! fir/ to be pr9t$ 7,flor5ce1 #adgh71 & x ran ?r\gh v _m e>ly editions & _h great influ5ce on ! m$ical r5aissance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,,votive ,,tablet repres5t+ cupp+ & ble$+ in/rum5ts f ,temple ( ,asclepius at ,a!ns4 ,9 c5tre is repres5t$ a fold+ case conta9+ scalpels ( v>i\s =ms4 ,on ei!r side are cupp+ vessels4 ,aft] ,celsus comes ,dioscorides 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,he 0 a ,greek milit>y surgeon ( ,cilician orig9 :o s]v$ "u ,n]o1 & 9 him ! ,greek intellect is obvi\sly beg9n+ to flag4 ,8 "w is prodigi\sly important = ! hi/ory ( botany1 yet s f> z rational m$ic9e is conc]n$ he is almo/ negligible4 ,he beg9s at ! wrong end1 ei!r giv+ li/s ( drugs ) ! symptoms t !y are said to cure or to relieve1 or li/s ( symptoms ) a s]ies ( nam$ drugs4 ,cl9ical obs]vation & record are :olly abs5t1 & ! _s ( ,hippocrates has dep>t$ f ?is elaborate ph>macopia4 ,) ! second c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era we t]m9ate ! creative p]iod ( ,greek m$ic9e4 ,we are provid$ ) ! works ( f\r important writ]s ( ?is c5tury1 ( :om ?ree1 ,rufus ( ,ephesus1 ,soranus ( ,ephesus1 & ,aretaeus ( ,cappadocia1 ?\gh valuable = =m+ a picture ( ! /ate ( m$ic9e 9 _! day1 7 )\t sub/antial influ5ce on ! c\rse ( m$ic9e 9 lat] ages4 ,rufus ( ,ephesus1 a little junior to ,dioscorides1 has left u ! fir/ =mal "w on human anatomy & is ( "s importance 9 ! hi/ory ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,9 m$ic9e he is memorable z ! fir/ to h describ$ bubonic plague1 & 9 surg]y = 8 description ( ! me?ods ( arre/+ haemorrhage & 8 k ( ! anatomy ( ! eye4 ,a "w by him ,on g\t 0 translat$ into ,lat9 9 ! six? c5tury1 b rema9$ unkn[n till mod]n times4 ,soranus ( ,ephesus 7,a4 ,d4 c4 #ij-;c4 #aej71 an acute writ] on gynaecology1 has left a book :i* illu/rates well ! anatomy ( 8 day4 ,x ex]cis$ an influ5ce = _m c5turies to come1 & a ,lat9 ab/ract ( x prep>$ ab\t ! six? c5tury by "o ,mos*ion has come d[n to u 9 an almo/ contempor>y manuscript4#ib ,x is int]e/+ z oppos+ ! ,hippocratic !ory t ! male embryo is orig9at$ 9 ! "r & ! female 9 ! left half ( ! womb1 a fallacy d]iv$ orig9ally f ,emp$ocles & ,p>m5ides1 b p]petuat$ by ,lat9 translations ( ! ,hippocratic treatises until ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,8 "w 0 adorn$ by figures1 & "s ( ^!1 naturally greatly alt]$ by copyi/s1 b /ill n inf9itely remov$ f ! facts1 h surviv$ 9 a manuscript ( ! n9? c5tury1 & give u a di/ant idea ( ! appe>ance ( anci5t anatomical draw+s4#ic ,we may assi/ our imag9ation a little fur!r1 9 =m+ an idea ( :at su* diagrams 7 l1 ) ! help ( c]ta9 o!r m$iaeval figures repres5t+ ! =m & di/ribution ( ! v>i\s anatomical 'sy/ems'1 ve9s1 art]ies1 n]ves1 bones1 & muscles :i* are probably traceable to an ,alex&rian orig94#id #ib ,leyd5 ,voss #d #i99 ( ! six? c5tury is a fragm5t ( ?is "w4 #ic ,v4 ,rose1 ,sorani ,ephesii vetus translatio ,lat9a cum additis ,graeci textus reliquiis1 ,leipzig1 #ahhb2 ,f4 ,we9dl]1 ,ges*i*te d] gynkologis*-anatomis*5 ,abbildung1 ,dresd51 #aijh4 #id ,! discov]y & attribution ( ^! figures is ! "w ( ,k4 ,sudh(f4 ,a bibliography ( 8 writ+s on ! subject w be f\nd 9 a ',/udy 9 ,e>ly ,r5aissance ,anatomy' 9 ,c4 ,s+]'s ,/udies 9 ! ,hi/ory & ,me?od ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 i1 ,ox=d1 #aiag4 ,aretaeus ( ,cappadocia 0 probably a contempor>y ( ,gal5 7second half ( ! second c5tury ,a4 ,d474 ,z a cl9ical au?or 8 reputation /&s high1 p]haps too high1 8 descriptions ( pneumonia1 empyema1 diabetes1 & elephantiasis hav+ especially drawn att5tion4 ,9 treatm5t he uses simple rem$ies1 is n affect$ by polyph>macy1 & sugge/s _m +5i\s me*anical devices4 ,x w\ld appe> t ,aretaeus is n an indep5d5t writ]1 b ma9ly a compil]4 ,he relies l>gely on ,ar*ig5es1 a di/+ui%$ physician contempor>y ) ,juv5al1 ^: works h p]i%$ save ! fragm5ts pres]v$ 9 ?is mann] by ,aretaeus & ,aetius4 ,aretaeus 0 a v popul> writ] among ! ,greeks 9 all ages1 b he 0 n translat$ into ,lat91 & 0 unkn[n 9 ! ,we/ until ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury4#ie ,he is philologically int]e/+ z /ill us+ ! ,ionic dialect4 #ie ,fir/ ,lat9 edition ,v5ice1 #aeeb2 fir/ ,greek edition ,p>is1 #aeed4 ,!re rema9s ! huge ov]%ad[+ figure ( ,gal54 ,! enorm\s mass ( ! surviv+ "w ( ?is man1 ! dictator ( m$ic9e until ! revival ( le>n+ & beyond1 t5ds to ?r[ out ( p]spective ! :ole ( ,greek m$ical records4 ,! works ( ,gal5 alone =m ab\t half ( ! mass ( surviv+ ,greek m$ical writ+s1 & occupy1 9 ! /&>d edition1 tw5ty-two ?ick1 closely-pr9t$ volumes4 ,^! cov] e dep>tm5t ( m$ic9e1 anatomy1 physiology1 pa?ology1 m$ical !ory1 !rapeutics1 z well z cl9ical m$ic9e & surg]y4 ,9 /yle !y are v]bose & heavy & v frequ5tly polemical4 ,!y are saturat$ ) a teleology :i*1 at times1 becomes excessively t$i\s4 ,9 ! anatomical works1 masses ( teleological explanation dilute ! acc\nt ( (t5 imp]fectly describ$ /ructures4 ,yet to ?is elem5t we owe ! pres]vation ( ! mass ( ,gal5's works1 = 8 int5sely teleological po9t ( view appeal$ to ! !ological bias bo? ( ,we/]n ,*ri/ianity & ( ,ea/]n ,islam4 ,intol]able z lit]ature1 8 works are a valuable treasure h\se ( m$ical k & exp]i5ce1 cu/om1 tradition1 & hi/ory4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,hippocratic corpus1 s 9 ! case ( ! ,gal5ic corpus we are deal+ to "s ext5t ) mat]ial f v>i\s s\rces4 ,9 ! case ( ,gal51 h[ev]1 we h a good /&>d ( g5u95ess1 = he has left u a li/ ( 8 books :i* c be *eck$ (f aga9/ ^? :i* we actually possess4 ,! g5]al /&po9t ( ! ,gal5ic is n unlike t ( ! ,hippocratic writ+s1 b ! noble vision ( ! l(ty-m9d$1 pure-s\l$ physician has utt]ly pass$ away4 ,9 8 place we h an acute1 hone/1 v cont5ti\s fell[1 bri/l+ ) en]gy & ( prodigi\s indu/ry1 n unk9dly1 b lov+ /rife1 a ?or\ghly 'aggressive' "*4 ,he loves tru?1 b he loves argum5t q z mu*4 ,! value ( 8 philosophical writ+s1 ( :i* "s h surviv$1 _c be discuss$ "h1 b x is evid5t t he is frequ5tly satisfi$ ) purely v]bal explanations4 ,an +5i\s physiologi/1 a born exp]im5t]1 an excell5t anatomi/ & eag] to improve1 possess+ a good k ( ! human skeleton & an accurate acqua9tance ) ! int]nal p>ts s f> z ?is c be d]iv$ f a mo/ indu/ri\s devotion to dissection ( animals1 equipp$ ) all ! le>n+ ( ! s*ools ( ,p]gamon1 ,smyrna1 & ,alex&ria1 & ri* ) ! exp]i5ce ( a va/ practice at ,rome1 ,gal5 is ess5tially an 'effici5t' man4 ,he has ! grace to ackn[l$ge con/antly & repeat$ly 8 indebt$ness to ! ,hippocratic writ+s4 ,su* 0 ! man ^: rema9s1 along ) ! ,hippocratic collection1 =m$ ! ma9 m$ical legacy ( ,greece to ! ,we/]n _w4 ,"s ( ,gal5's works are m]e drug li/s1 little sup]ior to ^? ( ,dioscorides2#if ) ! depression ( ! intellig5ce t correspond$ ) ! break up ( ! ,roman ,empire1 x 0 ^! t 7 *iefly seiz$ on & di/ribut$ 9 ! ,we/4 ,attractive too to ! debas$ intellect ( ! late ,roman _w 7 c]ta9 spuri\s1 sup]/iti\s1 & a/rological works t circulat$ 9 ! "n ( ,gal5 & ,hippocrates4#ig ,! ,greek m$ical writ]s aft] ,gal5 7 b 8 imitators & ab/ractors1 b ?r\gh "s ( !m ,gal5's works rea*$ ! ,we/ at a v e>ly p]iod 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,su* ab/ractors :o 7 e>ly translat$ into ,lat9 7 ,oribasius 7#cbe-djc71 ,paul ( ,aeg9a 7#fbe-fij71 & ,alex&] ( ,tralles 7#ebe-fje74 ,( ! be/ & mo/ sci5tific ( ,gal5's works ! ,middle ,ages knew little or no?+4 #if e4 g4 p]i krases kai dynames tn hapantn ph>makn & ! ph>maka4 #ig e4 g4 ,de d9amidiis ,gal5i1 ,secreta ,hippocratis & _m a/rological tracts4 ,lat] ,gal5 & ,hippocrates became a little m accessible1 n by translation f ! ,greek1 b by translation f ! ,arabic ( a ,syriac v]sion4 ,! fir/ "w to be s r5d]$ 0 a v]sion ( ,aphorisms ( ,hippocrates :i*1 h[ev]1 z we h se51 7 already available 9 ,lat9 dress1 toge!r ) ! ,hippocratic ,regim5 9 acute diseases1 & c]ta9 works ( ,gal5 z corruptly int]pret$ by ,isaac ,judaeus4 ,^! 7 r5d]$ f ,arabic into ,lat9 by ,con/ant9e1 an ,african adv5tur] :o became a monk at ,monte ,cass9o & di$ !re 9 #ajhg4 ,con/ant9e 0 a wret*$ craftsman ) an imp]fect k ( bo? ,arabic & ,lat94 ,m effective 0 ! great twelf?-c5tury translator f ! ,arabic1 ,g]>d ( ,cremona 7di$ #aahe71 :o turn$ _m m$ical works into ,lat9 f ,arabic1 & :o 0 foll[$ by a :ole ho/ ( imitators4 ,yet m important = ! advance ( m$ic9e1 h[ev]1 0 ! le>n$ revival ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,9 ! ma9 t revival 0 bas$ on translations f ,arabic1 b a c]ta9 numb] ( works 7 also r5d]$ direct f ! ,greek4 ,dur+ ! ?irte5? c5tury ,ari/otle's sci5tific works began to be treat$ 9 ?is way1 b m important = ! c\rse ( m$ic9e 7 ^? ( ,gal51 & !y _h to wait till ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,! long treatise ( ,gal51 p]i *reias tn en an?rp\ smati morin1 ,on ! uses ( ! bodily p>ts 9 man1 0 translat$ f ! ,greek into ,lat9 by ,ni*olas ( ,reggio 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,?is "w1 ) all its defects1 0 by f> ! be/ acc\nt ( ! human body !n available4 ,_m manuscripts ( ! ,lat9 v]sion h surviv$1 & x 0 translat$ into sev]al v]nacul>s1 includ+ ,engli%1 & pr(\ndly influ5c$ surg]y4 ,! r5d]+ into ,lat9 ( ?is treatise1 & its wide di/ribution1 may be reg>d$ z ! />t+-po9t ( mod]n sci5tific m$ic9e4 ,its appe>ance is moreov] a "p ( ! ph5om5on ( ! reviv$ int]e/ 9 dissection :i* _h begun to be practis$ 9 ! ,univ]sities 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1#ih & 0 a g5]ally accept$ discipl9e 9 ! f\rte5? & fifte5?4#ii #ih ,dissection ( animals 0 practis$ at ,sal]no z e>ly z ! elev5? c5tury4 #ii ,! s\rces ( ! anatomical k ( ! ,middle ,ages are discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! foll[+ works3 ,r4 ,r4 von ,tply1 ,/udi5 zur ,ges*i*te d] ,anatomie im ,mittelalt]1 ,vi5na1 #ahih2 ,k4 ,sudh(f1 ,tradition und ,naturbeoba*tung1 ,leipzig1 #aijg2 & also num]\s articles 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,m$iz9 und ,naturwiss5s*aft52 ,*>les ,s+]1 ',a ,/udy 9 ,e>ly ,r5aissance ,anatomy'1 9 ,/udies 9 ! ,hi/ory & ,me?od ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 i1 ,ox=d1 #aiag4 ,until ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury progress 9 anatomy 0 almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,dur+ ! fifte5? c5tury m ,gal5ic & ,hippocratic texts 7 recov]$ & gradually turn$ into ,lat91 b /ill )\t vitally affect+ ! c\rse ( ,anatomy4 ,! actual pr9t+ ( collect$ editions ( ,hippocrates & ,gal5 came r late1 = ! debas$ ta/e ( ! ,r5aissance physicians cont9u$ to pref] ,dioscorides & ! ,arabs1 ( :om num]\s editions appe>$1 s t m$ic9e made no advance correspond+ to ! progress ( s*ol>%ip4 ,! ,hippocratic works 7 fir/ pr9t$ 9 #aebe1 & an isolat$ edition ( ! inf]ior ,gal5 9 #adij1 b ! real advance 9 ,m$ic9e 0 n made by direct /udy ( ^! works4 ,s long z !y 7 treat$ 9 ! old s*ola/ic _s su* works 7 ( no m value ?an ^? ( ! ,arabi/s or o!rs inh]it$ f ! ,middle ,ages4 ,ev5 ,hippocrates c be spoilt by a comm5t>y1 & x 0 n until ! inve/igator began actually to comp>e 8 own obs]vations ) ^? ( ,hippocrates & ,gal5 t ! real value ( ^! works became app>5t4 ,! dep>tm5t 9 :i* ?is happ5$ fir/ 0 ,anatomy1 & su* revolution>ies z ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#adeb-aeah71 :o nev] publi%$1 & ,vesalius 7#aead-aefd71 ^: great "w appe>$ 9 #aedc1 7 really bas+ _! "w on ,gal51 ?\gh !y 7 mu* occupi$ 9 prov+ ,gal5's errors4 ,antonio ,b5ivi5i 7di$ #aejb71 an eag] prophet ( ! new _s1 reviv$ ! ,hippocratic tradition by actually collect+ notes ( a few cases ) accompany+ records ( dea?s & po/-mortem f9d+s1 among :i* x is int]e/+ to obs]ve a case ( app5dicitis4#ajj ,8 example 0 occasionally foll[$ dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury1 z = in/ance1 by ! ,portuguese ,jewi% physician ,amatus ,lusitanus 7#aeaa-;c4 #aefb71 :o pr9t$ no few] ?an sev5 hundr$ cases2 b ! real revival ( ! ,hippocratic tradition came 9 ! next c5tury ) ,syd5ham 7#afbd-afhi7 & ,bo]haave 7#affh-agch71 :o 7 consci\sly work+ on ! ,hippocratic basis & endeav\r+ to ext5d ! ,hippocratic exp]i5ce4 #ajj ,b5ivi5i's notes 7 publi%$ po/hum\sly4 ,"s ( ! spuri\s ,greek works ( ! ,hippocratic collection h also case notes4 ,la/ly surg]y came to pr(it by ! revival4 ,! greate/ ( ! sixte5?-c5tury surgeons1 ! lovable & lov+ ,ambroise ,p> 7#aeaj-aeij71 ?\gh he 01 z he himself humbly confess$1 an ignorant man kn[+ nei!r ,lat9 nor ,greek1 c be %[n to h d]iv$ mu* f ! works ( antiquity1 :i* 7 circulat+ 9 translation 9 8 day & 7 ?us filt]+ d[n to ! unle>n$4 ,texts ( ,hippocrates & ( ,gal5 _h =m$ an integral "p 9 ! m$ical in/ruction ( ! univ]sities f _! comm5cem5t 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! fir/ ,greek text ( ! ,aphorisms ( ,hippocrates appe>$ 9 #aecb1 edit$ by no less a h& ?an t ( ,franois ,rabelais4 ,) ! fur!r recov]y ( ! ,greek texts & prep>ation ( bett] translations1 ^! became almo/ ! sole mode ( in/ruction dur+ ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies4 ,! translators became legion & _! compet5ce v>i$4 ,"o highly skill$ translator1 h[ev]1 is ( special int]e/ to ,engli% read]s4 ,?omas ,l9acre 7#adfj8-aebd71 ,physician to ,h5ry ,,viii1 ,tutor to ! ,pr9cess ,m>y1 f\nd] & fir/ presid5t ( ! ,college ( ,physicians1 a b5efactor ( bo? ! anci5t ,univ]sities & "o ( ! e>lie/1 able/1 mo/ typical1 & mo/ exasp]at+ ( ! ,engli% humani/s1 sp5t mu* en]gy on ?is "w ( translation = :i* 8 abilities peculi>ly fitt$ him4 ,he 0 responsible = no less ?an six important works ( ,gal51 ( :i* "o1 ! ,de temp]am5tis et de inaequali intemp]ie1 pr9t$ at ,cambridge 9 #aeba1 0 among ! e>lie/ books impress$ 9 t t[n & is said to be ! fir/ pr9t$ 9 ,engl& = :i* ,greek types 7 us$4 ,x has be5 hon\r$ by reproduction 9 facsimile 9 mod]n times4 ,su* works z ^!1 purely lit]>y ef=ts1 _h great vogue = a c5tury & m1 & 7 mu* 9 use 9 ! ,univ]sities4 ,^! humani/ic products sometimes produc$1 among ! advocates ( ! new sci5tific me?od1 a degree ( fury :i* 0 only rivall$ by t ( "s ( ! humani/s !mselves t[>ds ! translators f ! ,arabic4 ,b ^! are n[ dead fires4 ,z ! cl9ical & sci5tific me?ods ( tea*+ ga9$ gr\nd1 textual /udies rec$$ 9 m$ical education1 z ,hippocrates & ,gal5 !mselves w\ld h wi%$ !m to rec$e4 ,! texts ( ,hippocrates & ,gal5 h n[ ceas$ to occupy a place 9 any m$ical curriculum4 ,yet all :o "k ^! writ+s1 "k too1 n only t _! _s is /ill ) u1 b t ! works !mselves =m ! backgr\nd ( mod]n practice1 & t _! v phraseology is /ill 9 use at ! b$side4 ,mod]n m$ic9e may be truly describ$ z 9 ess5ce a creation ( ! ,greeks4 ,to realize ! nature ( our m$ical sy/em1 "s k ( its ,greek s\rces is ess5tial4 ,x w\ld inde$ be a bad day = m$ic9e if ev] ?is debt to ! ,greeks 7 =gott51 & ! loss w\ld be at lea/ z mu* e?ical z intellectual4 ,b !re is happily no fe> ( ?is1 = ! figure & _s ( ,hippocrates are m real & liv+ to-day ?an !y h be5 s9ce ! great collapse ( ! ,greek sci5tific intellect 9 ! ?ird & f\r? c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,,*>les ,,s+]4 ,! au?or has to ?ank ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,liv+/one1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1 ,pr(4 ,a4 ,platt1 & ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,beazley = corrections & sugge/ions4 ,,lit]ature ,a man walk+ d[n ,%aftesbury ,av5ue f ,piccadilly to ,*>+ ,cross ,road passes ! ,lyric ,!atre4 ,if x is ! ev5+1 a dramatic p]=mance is probably tak+ place inside4 ,x may be a trag$y1 or "s =m ( com$y4 ,if x is a musical com$y & he ent]s1 he w see elaborate sc5]y & a play :i* may op5 ) a prologue & :i* is p>tly compos$ ( dialogue betwe5 ! v>i\s *>act]s1 p>tly ( songs 9 v>i\s metres sung by a *orus to ! accompanim5t ( an or*e/ra4 ,z ! words 9 italics indicate1 our imag9>y pass]-by w h se51 ?\gh he may n h suspect$ x1 a symbol ( ! indelible m>k :i* ! ,greeks h set on ! ae/hetic & intellectual life ( ,europe1 & ( ! liv+ pres5ce ( ,greece 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,an anci5t ,a!nian might be />tl$ at ! sight ( a musical com$y & its *orus1 b he w\ld be look+ at 8 own *ild1 a desc5dant1 h[ev] di/ant1 deg5]ate1 & h>d to recognize1 ( t *orus :i* ) dance & song mov$ r\nd ! alt> ( ,dionysus 9 ! !atre ( 8 home4 ,! same impr9t1 cle> or fa9t1 is on all our lit]>y =ms1 except p]haps "o4 ,epic1 lyric1 elegiac1 dramatic1 didactic1 poetry1 hi/ory1 biography1 rhetoric & oratory1 ! epigram1 ! essay1 ! s]mon1 ! novel1 lett] writ+ & lit]>y criticism are all ,greek by orig91 & 9 ne>ly e case _! "n betrays _! s\rce4 ,rome raises a d\btful claim to satire1 b ! sub/ance ( satire is pres5t 9 ! ,old ,com$y1 & ! =m seems to h exi/$ 9 writ+s n[ lo/4 ,!re are ev5 "o or two g5res1 su* z ! imag9>y spee*1 :i* ,greece inv5t$ & :i* are n1 =tunately1 f\nd 9 mod]n lit]ature4 ,:5 ! curta9 rose on ,hom]1 ,european lit]ature did n exi/3 long be=e x falls on ! late ,byzant9es1 ! l9es 7 laid on :i* x has mov$ up to our own day4 ,?is is ! entire "w ( a s+le p1 politically weak1 num]ically small1 mat]ially poor--accord+ to ! economy ( nature :i* 9 ?+s ( ! m9d & ! _s gives a g]m9at+ p[] to few4 ,! ,greeks are ju/ly admir$ = individual poems1 plays1 & pieces ( writ+2 b x 0 some?+ ev5 great] to h explor$ ! possibilities ( lit]ature s f> t po/]ity1 :ile x has develop$ ,greek g5res1 has n hi!rto be5 able to add to !m4 ,?is is "o "p ( ! ,greek ,legacy to lit]ature4 ,ano!r "p are ! works !mselves4 ,lit]ature c only be judg$ by read+ x1 & c]ta9ly x _c be *>act]iz$ 9 a few pages4 ,b a man ignorant ( ,greek & anxi\s to e/imate its value might =m "s idea by inquir+ ! op9ions ( qualifi$ judges4 ,he w\ld f9d !m unanim\s3 ,i suppose x is true t no man ( em95ce qualifi$ to speak has ev] spok5 ( ,greek lit]ature 9 any tone b "o4 ,! fir/ te/imony is t ( ! ,romans4 ,x is borne by _! lit]ature1 />t+ 9 translations f ,greek1 adopt+ "o aft] ano!r ( _! g5res1 p]meat$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh 7& mo/ ( all 9 ! greate/ writ]s7 by imitations1 rem9isc5ces1 influ5ces ( ,greek1 confess+ & glory+ 9 ! debt4 ',9 le>n+1' says ,cic]o1 '& 9 e bran* ( lit]ature1 ! ,greeks are our ma/]s4'#aja ,a ,roman boy %\ld beg9 8 /udies ) ,greek1 ,qu9tilian ?\ght1 'because ,lat9 le>n+ is d]iv$ f ,greek4'#ajb ,! same note is repeat$ 9 ! lit]ature ( ! ,r5aissance1 & re-e*o$ by ! mo/ v>i\s voices ( our own c5tury4 #aja ,tusc4 #a4 #a4 #b4 #ajb ,in/4 ,or4 ,i4 #a4 #ab4 ',?\gh "o ( ! ,greek trag$ians may seem r great] & m complete ?an ano!r1 _! "w z a :ole has a s+le p]vad+ quality4 ,x is m>k$ by gr&eur1 excell5ce1 sanity1 complete humanity1 a high philosophy ( life1 a l(ty way ( ?9k+1 a p[]ful intuition 7,ans*auung74 ,we f9d ^! qualities 9 _! surviv+ lyric & epic poetry z well z 9 _! drama3 we f9d !m 9 _! philosoph]s1 orators1 & hi/orians &1 to an equally high degree1 9 _! surviv+ sculpture4'#ajc #ajc ,goe!1 ,gespr*e1 #c4 #chg4 ',beside ! great ,attic poets1 l ,aes*ylus & ,sophocles1 ,i am absolutely no?+4'#ajd #ajd ,ibid41 #c4 #ddc4 ',he spoke ) great animation ( ! advantage ( classical /udy1 ,greek especially4 ,:]e1 he said1 w\ld "o look = a great] orator ?an ,demo/h5es2 or f9] dramatic poetry1 next to ,%aksp]e1 ?an t ( ,aes*ylus or ,sophocles1 n to speak ( ,euripides4 ,h]odotus he ?\ght ! mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive book1 next to ! ,bible1 :i* _h ev] be5 writt54'#aje #aje ,wordswor?1 ,table-talk4 ',! p]iod :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! bir? ( ,p]icles & ! dea? ( ,ari/otle is und\bt$ly1 :e!r consid]$ 9 itself or ) ref]5ce to ! effects :i* x has produc$ ^u ! subsequ5t de/9ies ( civiliz$ man1 ! mo/ memorable 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4444 ,! wrecks & fragm5ts ( ^! subtle & pr(\nd m9ds1 l ! ru9s ( a f9e /atue1 obscurely sugge/ to u ! gr&eur & p]fection ( ! :ole4 ,_! v language 444 9 v>iety1 9 simplicity1 9 flexibility1 & 9 copi\sness1 excels e o!r language ( ! we/]n _w4' ,!n1 aft] "s words on _! sculpture1 he adds3 '_! poetry seems to ma9ta9 a v high1 ?\gh n s disproportionate a rank1 9 ! comp>ison' 7) o!r lit]atures74#ajf #ajf ,%elley1 ,on ! ,mann]s ( ! ,anci5ts4 ',! ,greeks are ! mo/ rem>kable p :o h yet exi/$4444 ,!y 7 ! beg9n]s ( ne>ly ev]y?+1 ,*ri/ianity except$1 ( :i* ! mod]n _w makes its boa/4444 ,!y 7 ! fir/ p :o _h a hi/orical lit]ature2 z p]fect ( its k9d 7?\gh n ! highe/ k9d7 z _! oratory1 _! sculpture1 & _! ar*itecture4 ,!y 7 ! f\nd]s ( ma!matics1 ( physics1 ( ! inductive /udy ( politics1 ( ! philosophy ( human nature & life4 ,9 ea* !y made ! indisp5sable fir/ /eps1 :i* are ! f\ndation ( all ! re/4'#ajg #ajg ,mill1 ,diss]tations1 ii4 #bhc f4 ',i h gone back to ,greek lit]ature ) a passion q a/oni%+ to myself4444 ,i felt z if ,i _h nev] kn[n be=e :at intellectual enjoym5t 04 ,oh t wond]ful p6 ,!re is n "o art1 n "o sci5ce1 ab\t :i* we may n use ! same expression :i* ,lucretius has employ$ ab\t ! victory ov] sup]/ition ,primum ,graius homo4 ,i ?9k myself v =tunate 9 hav+ be5 able to return to ^! great ma/]s :ile /ill 9 ! full vig\r ( life & :5 my ta/e & judgem5t are mature4 ,mo/ p read all ! ,greek t !y ev] read be=e !y are five-&-tw5ty4444 ,a "y man1 :atev] 8 g5ius may be1 is no judge ( su* a writ] z ,?ucydides4 ,i _h no high op9ion ( him t5 ye>s ago4 ,i h n[ be5 read+ him ) a m9d accu/om$ to hi/orical rese>*es & to political affairs2 & ,i am a/oni%$ at my own =m] bl9dness1 & at 8 greatness4 ,i c\ld n be> ,euripides at college4 ,i n[ read my recantation4 ,he has faults und\bt$ly4 ,b :at a poet6'#ajh #ajh ,macaulay1 ,life & ,lett]s1 i4 #dc4 ,^! m5--& !re is no difficulty 9 add+ to _! numb]--are n only qualifi$ b unprejudic$ witnesses4 ,!y h no p>ti pris4 ,!y _c be accus$1 z s*oolma/]s & dons are sometimes accus$1 ( hold+ %>es 9 a great ,trad+ ,bank ( ,greece & ,rome ,unlimit$1 & hav+ a p]sonal motive = _! en?usiasm4 ,nor c x be said t !y admir$ ,greece because !y knew no?+ bett]4 ,all--,goe! no less ?an ! o!rs--_h ,engli% lit]ature 9 _! h&s1 knew x well & appreciat$ its greatness4 ,yet ?is1 giv5 9 _! own words1 is ! impression :i* ,greek made on !m4 ,securus iudicat orbis t]r>um2 & ! v]dict "h is pla94 ,x is cle> t we h 9 ,greek a surviv+ body ( poetry & prose :i* is ( unique int]e/ to any "o :o c>es = lit]ature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i h tri$ to give a summ>y answ] to ! "q1 ,:at did ! ,greeks a*ieve8 ,!y inv5t$ e lit]>y g5re :i* we "k1 !y laid ! l9es :i* ,european lit]ature has foll[$1 !y creat$ a body ( prose & poetry :i* has won ! homage ( ! _w4 ,! fur!r "q1 ,:at c ! _w /ill le>n f !m1 is less easy to answ]4 ,! answ] lies 9 ,greek lit]ature1 & ! ess5ce ( a lit]ature _c be extract$ & bottl$ 9 a numb] ( ab/ract =mulae4 ,no lit]ature is great 9 virtue ( its qualities1 :i* are always some?+ less ?an ! lit]ature itself1 b only 9 s f> z x exp&s to ! bread? ( ! univ]se & climbs to its height4 ,?is is ! f9al te/ :i* mu/ be appli$4 ,h[ f> ,greek lit]ature satisfies x1 c be judg$ f ! te/imonies :i* h be5 quot$ above4 ,rememb]+ ?is let u delib]ately n>r[ our view & talk ( qualities3 & "h1 n>r[+ x aga91 let u conf9e ! discussion to c]ta9 qualities1 :i* are f\nd inde$ 9 all lit]atures1 b are else:]e nei!r s univ]sal nor c>ri$ to s high a p[]4 ,no "o c ?9k ( ,greek lit]ature )\t ?9k+ ( !m2 !y live on ! lips ( its admir]s1 & 9 !m ! inspiration ( ,greek lit]ature is *iefly en%r9$4 ,^! ess5tial qualities are ,simplicity1 ,p]fection ( ,=m1 ,tru? & ,beauty4 ,greek lit]ature is mu* m ?an ^! qualities4 ,! ,agamemnon1 ! ,o$ipus1 ! ,bac*ae are n to be expla9$ :olly by !m4 ,! greatness ( ^! plays is p>tly some?+ individual1 & p>tly x is :at makes ,k+ ,le> or ,fau/ or ,br& great3 & t is nei!r entirely nor ma9ly simplicity or beauty or tru? or =m4 ,b my object is to emphasize qualities = :i* ,greek is exceptional1 & ?\gh "s critics may h talk$ ( ! beauty ( ,greek lit]ature till beauty 0 absurdly suppos$ to be its *ief or only quality1 !y 7 "r to recognize ! prom95ce ( beauty !re1 & ?\gh tru? is a m>k ( ! greate/ writ+ 9 all languages1 x is m univ]sal 9 ,greek ?an 9 any o!r lit]ature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a read] turn$ f ,milton to ,hom]1 f ,%akespe>e to ,sophocles1 f ,plato or ,ari/otle to "s mod]n "w on e?ics1 politics1 or lit]>y criticism1 he w\ld f9d "o po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>li] & ! lat] writ]s 9 ! great] simplicity ( ! =m]4 ,!y are brief]3 ! ,o$ipus ,tyrannus has #aecj l9es :ile ! fir/ two acts ( ,hamlet alone h m ?an #afjj1 & ,greek hi/ories & philosophical writ+s are correspond+ly %ort] ?an _! mod]n c\nt]p>ts4 ,! :ole ( ,?ucydides c\ld be pr9t$ 9 a tw5ty-f\r page issue ( ,! ,times1 & leave room to sp>e2 ! essay ( ,ari/otle on ,poetry1 :i* = g5]ations dictat$ ! pr9ciples ( dramatic writ+1 has =ty-five %ort pages2 ! ,republic ( ,plato1 :i* has influ5c$ ?\ght m ?an any o!r philosophic "w1 has a little ov] ?ree hundr$4 ,brevity inde$ is n always simplicity1 & x is possible to be at once simple & l5g?y4 ,b any "o :o exam9es ^! ,greek writ]s w f9d t !y are brief1 because1 avoid+ bypa?s & by-plots1 elaboration or m9ute detail1 !y /rike out ! c5tral features ( _! picture ) an ef=tless economy ( l9e4 ,_! writ+ has a d\ble quality4 ,x %[s a firm hold on ! c5tral & fundam5tal ?+s3 & x pres5ts !m unmix$ ) & unconfus$ by m9or issues1 s t !y /& out l =e/ trees :i* no und]gr[? ( bru%wood masks4 ,x is important to make ?is di/9ction1 = all great lit]ature has ! fir/ ( ^! qualities2 ! second is l>gely an accid5t ( "t4 ,z civilization moves fur!r f its orig91 x _c b receive a ?\s& tribut>ies t cont9ually augm5t its volume1 & col\r & confuse its /reams3 at ! s\rces x fl[s cle> & untr\bl$4 ,! int]e/s ( an e>ly age are ! primal & ess5tial int]e/s ( human nature & ! lit]ature ( su* an age pres5ts !m unalloy$ & uncomplicat$ by less] issues4 ,9 ! ?9k]s ! ma9 & fundam5tal problems /& cle>ly out1 & ,plato & ,?ucydides take u /raight to !m4 ,! poets make _! poetry f emotions & int]e/s t are z old z man1 & h none ( ! ref9em5ts & complications :i* education & a long inh]itance ( culture sup]add to ! ess5tial /uff ( human nature4 ',y ,greeks are always *ildr51' said ! ,egyptian prie/ to ,solon2 & he spoke ! tru? 9 a s5se :i* he did n mean4 ,! ,greeks' feel+s 7 n dull$ or sophi/icat$ by ! damnosa h]$itas ( ! pa/4 ,nei!r _! life nor _! m5tal atmosph]e 0 complicat$4 ,!y _h n '?\ght !mselves into we>9ess'4 ,!y 7 ! *ildr5 ( ! _w1 & !y unit$ ! />tl+ acut5ess1 directness1 & simplicity ( *ildr5 to ! intellects ( m54 ,pat] took ,la ,gioconda ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci to symbolize ! diff]5ce ( mod]n & anci5t art1 & to illu/rate ! intricacy & complication ( ! =m]1 z comp>$ ) ! simplicity ( ! latt]4 ',h]s is ! head1' he writes ( ! ,monna ,lisa1 '^u :i* all ! ends ( ! _w are come1 & ! eyelids are a little we>y4 ,x is a beauty wr\ght out f )9 ^u ! fle%1 ! deposit1 little cell by cell1 ( /range ?\ghts & fanta/ic rev]ies & exquisite passions4 ,set x = a mom5t beside "o ( ^? :ite goddesses or beautiful wom5 ( antiquity1 & h[ w\ld !y be tr\bl$ by ?is beauty1 into :i* ! s\l ) all its maladies has pass$6 ,all ! ?\ghts & exp]i5ce ( ! _w h et*$ & m\ld$ !re1 9 t :i* !y h ( p[] to ref9e & make expressive ! outw>d =m4444 ,%e is old] ?an ! rocks among :i* %e sits2 l ! vampire1 %e has be5 dead _m times & le>n$ ! secrets ( ! grave2 & has be5 a div] 9 deep seas1 & keeps _! fall5 day ab\t h] 4442 & all ?is lives only 9 ! delicacy ) :i* x has m\ld$ ! *ang+ l9eam5ts1 & t+$ ! eyelids & ! h&s4 ,! fancy ( a p]petual life1 sweep+ toge!r t5 ?\s& exp]i5ces1 is an old "o2 & mod]n ?\ght has conceiv$ ! idea ( humanity z wr\ght ^u by1 & summ+ up 9 itself1 all modes ( ?\ght & life4 ,c]ta9ly ,lady ,lisa might /& z ! embodim5t ( ! old fancy1 ! symbol ( ! mod]n idea4' ,slightly fanciful & ,pat]esque z ^! words are1 !y are sub/antially true1 z any "o :o sets ,monna ,lisa by a piece ( fif?-c5tury sculpture c easily see4 ,!re is ! same contra/ betwe5 ,greek lit]ature & our own4 ,h[ 'tr\bl$' w\ld ,hom] or ,sophocles be by ! writ+s ( ,br[n+ or ,m]$i?1 ( ,h5ry ,james or ,conrad1 9 :om s _m eddies & cross-curr5ts ( ?\ght & exp]i5ce unite4 ,comp>e ! /ory ( ,hector & ,&roma*e ) "s fam\s passage f any ( ^! writ]s4 ',s spake glori\s ,hector & /ret*$ out 8 arm to 8 boy4 ,b ! *ild %runk cry+ to ! bosom ( 8 fair-girdl$ nurse1 dismay$ at ! look ( 8 de> fa!r & 9 fe> ( ! bronze & ! horsehair cre/ t nodd$ fi]cely f 8 helmet's top4 ,!n 8 de> fa!r & 8 lady "m laugh$ al\d3 =?) glori\s ,hector took ! helmet f 8 head & laid x1 all gleam+1 on ! e>?2 !n kiss$ he 8 de> son & danc$ him 9 8 arms1 & spoke 9 pray] to ,zeus & all ! gods1 ,o ,zeus & all ye gods1 grant t ?is my son may be z ,i am1 pre-em95t among ! ,trojans1 & z valiant 9 might1 & may he be a great k+ ( ,troy4 ,s he spoke & laid 8 son 9 8 de> wife's arms2 & %e took him to h] fragrant bosom1 smil+ ?r\gh te>s4 ,& h] husb& _h pity to see h] & c>ess$ h] ) 8 h&1 & spoke & call$ h] by h] "n3 ,de> "o1 ,i pray !e be n ( ov]sorr[ful he>t2 no man aga9/ my fate %all s5d me to my dea?2 b de/9y1 ,i we51 no man ha? escap$4 ,s spake glori\s ,hector & took up 8 horsehair-cre/$ helmet2 & 8 de> wife dep>t$ to h] home1 (t5 look+ back & lett+ fall great te>s4 ,& %e came to ! well-built h\se ( man-slay+ ,hector1 & f\nd !re9 h] _m h&maid5s1 & /irr$ lam5tation 9 !m all4 ,s !y wept = ,hector1 :ile he yet liv$1 9 8 h\se2 = !y ?\ght t he w\ld no m come back to !m f battle4'#aji ,^! are emotions %>$ by mank9d tw5ty c5turies be=e ,*ri/ & tw5ty c5turies aft] him1 common equally to ,%akespe>e or ,napoleon & to ! /upide/ & lea/ educat$ ( mank9d2 & ^! emotions are express$ ) a simplicity z elem5tal z !mselves4 ,subjects z simple may be f\nd 9 our lit]ature2 expression z direct w\ld be h>d to f9d4 ,ev5 a primitive l ,*auc] is ! heir ( dimly appreh5d$ inh]itances f ,greece & ,rome1 & is haunt$ by fancies f lo/ & liv+ fairyl&s ( lit]ature4 ,x is 9 our ,bible t we f9d ! elem5tal feel+s ( ,hom] & an expression ev5 m direct4 ',& %e dep>t$ & w&]$ 9 ! wild]ness ( ,be]%eba4 ,& ! wat] 0 sp5t 9 ! bottle1 & %e ca/ ! *ild "u "o ( ! %rubs4 ,& %e w5t & sat h] d[n ov] aga9/ him a good way (f1 z x 7 a b[%ot3 = %e said1 ,let me n see ! dea? ( ! *ild4 ,& %e sat d[n ov] aga9/ him1 & lift up h] voice1 & wept4'#aaj #aji ,hom]1 ,iliad1 vi4 #dff ff4 7) omissions3 *iefly f ! translation ( ,lang1 ,leaf1 & ,my]s74 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t1 ( ! ?ree figures 9 ?is sc5e1 ! husb& w be dead 9 a few days1 :ile )9 a ye> ! wife w be a slave & ! *ild ?r[n f ! city wall4 #aaj ,g5esis xxi4 #ad f4 ,l ! writ] ( ! ,p5tateu*1 ,hom] liv$ 9 a _w ^: emotions 7 elem5tal1 & writ+ ( ?is k9d came naturally to him4 ,! weight ( tradition began to weigh on succe$+ ages1 b x nev] became heavy1 because ! accumulations 7 small & ! _w 0 /ill comp>atively simple4 ,also its poets & prose writ]s mov$ 9 ! fields ( action z soldi]s & politicians1 cont9ually confront+ ! realities ( life1 & kn[+ !m z !y are1 n z !y appe> 9 a /udy4 ,?us _! topics are c5tral1 ! writ+ is simple4 ,! subjects ( ! ,o$ipus ,tyrannus or ! ,h]cules ,fur5s might be call$ morbid2 b n ! h&l+ ( !m by ,sophocles & ,euripides4 ,! unnatural elem5t is 9 ! backgr\nd & almo/ unnotic$2 ! int]e/ lies 9 ! spectacle ( great m5 9 ov]:elm+ disa/]--an elem5tal !me & belong+ to ! g5]al life ( man4 ,! treatm5t is z simple z 9 ,hom]1 ! figures few1 subord9ate int]e/s out ( sight1 ! light ?r[n full on ! c5tral trag$y4 ,h5ce comes a r>e int5sity1 an imm$iacy ( impression1 a s5se ( ne>ness to ! ?+ describ$1 :i* w /rike anyone :o reads ! mess5g]'s spee* 9 ! ,h]cules ,fur5s1 or ! sc5e :]e ! id5tity ( ,o$ipus is discov]$1 or inde$ any great passage 9 ,greek ,drama4 ,?is simplicity ( treatm5t p]si/s1 :5 ) ,m5&] & ! ,alex&rians we pass into a _w m l our own & f9d lit]ature1 /ill simple 9 =m1 b m arti/ic1 m intellectual1 m lit]>y1 less c5trally & fundam5tally human4 ,x w\ld be fooli% to dem& t mod]n writ]s %\ld h ! simplicity ( ,hom] or ! age ( ,p]icles1 or to pret5d t !y _c be great )\t x4 ,e age mu/ & w h its own lit]ature1 reflect+ ! m9ds & circum/ances ( ^? :o write x4 ,nor is ! advantage entirely on ! side ( ! ,greeks4 ,a drama ( ,%akespe>e or a novel ( ,tol/oi1 ) _! long roll ( dramatis p]sonae1 are m l life ?an a ,greek trag$y ) its abs5ce ( byplot & its few1 c5tral1 *>act]s4 ,a mod]n hi/orian w\ld h record$ & discuss$ aspects ( ! hi/ory ( fif?-c5tury ,greece :i* ,?ucydides ignores4 ,mod]n lit]ature may claim t1 ) less int5sity1 x has great] amplitude & a m fai?ful pres5tation ( ! complexity ( life4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ,greeks are free f t dom9ance ( ! abnormal :i* is "o dang] ( mod]n lit]ature2 !y d n explore sexual & o!r ab]rations or enc\rage _! read]s to explore !m4 ,!y are also free f t dom9ance ( ! uness5tial1 :i*1 9 life z 9 lit]ature1 is a m innoc5t b m subtle & p]haps equally ru9\s vice4 ,t is :y _! simplicity is refre%+ & salut>y4 ,porro unum necess>ium4 ,9 life human be+s return f a di/ract+ v>iety ( int]e/s to a few simple ?+s2 or1 if !y d n return1 run ! risk ( los+ _! s\ls4 ,9 lit]ature1 :i* is ! %ad[ ( life1 !y ne$ to d ! same4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! simplicity ( ,greek lit]ature is accompani$ by ! highe/ lit]>y art4 ,no?+ c\ld be m surpris+4 ,! primitive conditions t pres]ve simplicity are app>5tly incompatible ) te*nical p]fection1 :i* is a late-born *ild ( lit]ature & ! creation ( matur$ ta/e1 long exp]im5t1 & pati5t "w4 ,b 9 ,greek1 & p]haps only 9 ,greek1 navet & art g h& 9 h&4 ,!re is some?+ almo/ uncanny 9 ,hom]'s union ( ! two3 x is a p>adox t ! "* ( ,a*illes1 ! dea? ( ,hector1 ! primitive cunn+ ( ,odysseus1 %\ld be portray$ 9 su* a metre & su* a vocabul>y2 x seems unnatural t s highly wr\ght & ref9$ a m$ium %\ld be us$ to depict ! life & ideas ( a society :i* is ne>] to savag]y ?an to civilization4 ,b unnatural or n1 s x is4 ,! mo/ obvi\s quality ( ,greek lit]ature is its =m1 ! high level ( its te*nique4 ,!re are exceptions3 ! e>li] plays ( ,aes*ylus are crude 9 conception1 ! prose ( ,gorgias is z fanta/ic z t ( ,lyly1 ! s5t5ces ( ,?ucydides are (t5 awkw>d & ungrammatical2 ,aes*ylus /&s at ! orig9 ( drama1 ,gorgias & ,?ucydides are ! creators ( p]iodic prose1 & !y h ! weaknesses ( pione]s4 ,b 9 g5]al1 ,greek "w 9 poetry & prose is highly wr\ght & f9ely f9i%$2 & s rapidly did _! art f9d itself1 t )9 ! lifetime ( ,aes*ylus ,sophocles rea*$ ! highe/ level ( dramatic & lit]>y te*nique1 & )9 a g5]ation f ,?ucydides ,plato evolv$ 8 unequall$ /yle4 ,an arti/ic in/9ct 0 9 ! blood ( ! ,greeks1 & betrays itself ?r\gh\t _! lit]ature1 9 ! *oric odes ) _! complicat$ respond5cies & subtle v>iations2 9 ,plato arrang+ & re>rang+ ! fir/ eight words ( 8 ,republic2 9 ! int]e/ :i* ! ,greeks took 9 ! !ory ( lit]>y art1 seek+ "h z else:]e logon didonai1 to give an acc\nt ( _! practice4 ,h[ mu* m !y reflect$ on x ?an we d1 ! ,rhetoric ( ,ari/otle1 ! ,de ,compositione ( ,dionysius & ! endless writ+s ( ! rhetoricians %[4 ,?is is univ]sally admitt$1 b ju/ice is m r>ely done to ev5 cle>] evid5ce ( ! ,greek gift = te*nique4 ,o!r nations h und]/ood ! art ( writ+1 & left ^? monum5ts 9 words :i* are z unsub/antial & fleet+ z air1 yet m imp]i%able ?an brass or /one2 b no nation has creat$ lit]>y art 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ,greeks creat$ x1 or develop$1 z !y did1 ! v>i\s lit]>y g5res out ( no?+4 ,!y _h no models or guides or ext]nal help4 ,rome _h ,greek lit]ature to foll[ & h]self gave patt]ns to h] successors2 b ! ,greeks made :at !y made out ( no?+1 & are ?us creators 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w1 & z no o!r p h be54 ,two in/ances1 ,hom] & ! ,greek ,drama1 w s]ve to %[ ?is4 ,9 ! dawn ( a lit]ature at lea/1 we expect r\ghness & crudity1 an unc]ta9 judgem5t & a falt]+ h&2 b ! fir/ kn[n ,greek poem1 l ,a!na 9 ! my?1 is born full gr[n & mature4 ,yet its mak]s made ! /ory & ! ri* language & ! elaborate & unrivall$ metre = !mselves4 ,x does n less5 ?is a*ievem5t t ! ,hom]ic poems may h be5 ! f9e fl[] ( a p]iod ( poetic gr[?2 ! "w t w5t to =m !m 0 done by ,greeks4 ,b x ne$s imag9ation to appreciate ! difficulty ( ! task :i* !y und]took unconsci\sly & p]=m$ )\t !ory or delib]ate purpose by ! m]e light ( nature4 ,x is h>d to create ev5 a primitive poetic vocabul>y1 :]e "o does n exi/1 & !re is no?+ primitive ab\t ' ' ' 1 hoi d' hs t' aigypioi gampsny*es ankylo*eilai petr eph' hypsl megala klazonte ma*ntai1 or ' 1 1 4#aaa hosson d' eroeides anr id5 oph?almois9 hm5os en skopi1 leussn epi o9opa ponton1 tosson epi?rsk\si !n hyps*ees hippoi4 #aaa ,iliad1 xvi4 #dbh f43 ',z vultures ) crook$ talons & curv$ beaks t ^u "s high crag fight1 scream+ l\dly4' ,ibid4 v4 #ggj f43 ',z f> z a man's view ranges 9 ! haze1 z he sits on a po9t ( outlook & gazes ov] ! w9e-d>k sea1 s f> at a spr+ leap ! l\d-neigh+ horses ( ! gods4' ,x is h>d1 z ! beg9n+s ( ,roman poetry %[1 to devise a metre :i* is n r\gh1 unmusical1 or ev5 grotesque3 yet = ri*ness & /r5g? ?is fir/ metre ( ,europe has nev] be5 rivall$ by ! ,greeks or by any "o else4 ,! same natural te*nical skill appe>s 9 m subtle ?+s ev5 ?an metre or language4 ,hom] is born kn[+ by "s in/9ct ! pr(\nd secret ( lit]>y art :i* ,ari/otle =mulat$ c5turies lat] z ! pr9ciple ( unity ( ,action4 ,! plot ( a play1 he writes 9 ! ,poetics1 '%\ld h = its subject a s+le action1 :ole & complete1 ) a beg9n+1 a middle1 & an end4444 ,x w diff] 9 /ructure f hi/orical compositions1 :i* ( necessity pres5t n a s+le action1 b a s+le p]iod1 & all t happ5$ )9 t p]iod to "o p]son or to _m1 little connect$ toge!r z ! ev5ts may be4444 ,su* is ! practice1 we may say1 ( mo/ poets4 ,"h aga9 ! transc5dant excell5ce ( ,hom] appe>s4 ,he nev] attempts to make ! :ole w> ( ,troy ! subject ( 8 poem4 ,x w\ld h be5 too va/ a !me1 & n easily embrac$ 9 a s+le view3 :ile if he _h kept x 9 mod]ate limits x w\ld h be5 ov]-complicat$ by ! v>iety ( incid5ts4 ,z x is1 he deta*es a s+le portion4'#aab ,once /at$1 ! pr9ciple ( unity ( action becomes a commonplace ( lit]>y art4 ,b1 z ! ,annals ( ,ennius or ! ,fa]ie ,que5 %[1 x is n obvi\s until /at$1 & ! poets f ^: practice ,ari/otle made 8 induction1 mu/ h _h a r>e te*nical in/9ct unconsci\sly to pres]ve unity ( int]e/ ?r\gh ! complications ( a long epic or drama4 ,su* a*ievem5ts 7 only possible to a p ) a natural g5ius = lit]>y art4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! ,greeks ! v>i\s elem5ts ( lit]ature f\nd _! telos & a*iev$ _! natural =m1 almo/ ) ! same in/9ctive evolution by :i* a se$ unfolds to its pr$e/9$ %ape4 #aab ,poetics1 c4 #bc 7tr4 ,but*]74 ,?is c be illu/rat$ ev5 bett] f ,greek drama4 ,a mod]n au?or :o wi%es to write a play may n f9d ! task easy1 b he kn[s ! g5]al =m :i* a drama has to take & ! g5]al pr9ciples to be foll[$ 9 writ+ x4 ,! "r l5g? is giv5 him1 ! division into sc5es & acts1 ! me?ods ( exposition & dialogue1 ! conception ( a dn\em5t1 ! law ( unity ( action1 & ! re/4 ,! fa!rs ( ,greek trag$y _h no su* help4 ,!y _h no drama 9 our s5se ( ! ^w1 b simply a b& ( fifty p]sons dress$ l satyrs1 & danc+ r\nd an alt> & s++ a song4 ,out ( ?is any?+ or no?+ might h be5 made4 ,! ,greeks1 ) ! in/9ctive & un]r+ motions ( g5ius1 develop$ f x ! highe/ & mo/ elaborate ( lit]>y =ms1 & )9 a hundr$ ye>s are writ+ plays :i* ,%elley classes ) ,k+ ,le>1 & :i* ,sw9burne c call1 'probably1 on ! :ole1 ! greate/ spiritual "w ( man'4 ,9 div9+ ! pr9ciples ( lit]>y art & evolv+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( lit]ature no p c be comp>$ to ! ,greeks1 & probably none c %[ a mass ( "w execut$ ) s uni=mly high a f9i%4 ,b :5 we comp>e writ] ) writ] we %all f9d individual arti/s to rival !m4 ,?\gh ! /r5g? ( ,engli% lit]ature does n lie 9 te*nical p]fection1 ,milton1 ,pope1 & ,t5nyson--to "n no o!rs--h 9 _! diff]5t ways z firm a grasp ( x z any ,greek1 & x c be le>n$ f ,fr5* writ]s1 ) :om x is ! rule r ?an ! exception1 z well z f ! ,greeks4 ,?is is h>dly true ( ano!r quality ( ,greek writ+1 :i* may be class$ ) te*nical f9i%1 ?\gh x is 9 fact some?+ m4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic features ( ,greek2 yet on fir/ acqua9tance1 x is (t5 disconc]t+ & ev5 di/a/eful4 ,if a read] new to ! classics op5$ ,?ucydides1 8 fir/ impression w\ld probably be "o ( jejun5ess1 ( baldness4 ,if1 fre% f ,%elley or ,t5nyson1 he came across ! epigram ( ,simonides on ! ,sp>tan dead at ,!rmopylae1 '1 1 1#aac xe9'1 angelle9 ,aak$aimoniois hoti tde keime?a1 tois ke9n rhmasi pei?om5oi1 he might see little 9 x b a prosaic want ( col\r4 ,?is exce$+ simplicity or economy is a /umbl+-block to ^? :o are accu/om$ to ! expansive mod]n mann]4 ,yet su* a read] w\ld h be5 mak+ ! acqua9tance ( "s ( ! f9e/ ?+s 9 ,greek lit]ature1 :i* is always at its greate/ :5 mo/ simple1 & he w\ld h be5 face to face ) a *>act]i/ic quality ( x4 #aac ',/rang]1 tell ! ,sp>tans t we lie "h1 obey+ _! words4' ,! contra/ ) ! usual ,engli% mann] may be illu/rat$ by quot+ a fam\s epigram--,b5 ,jonson's epitaph on a boy actor3 ,weep ) me1 all y t read ,?is little /ory2 ,& "k1 = :om a te> y %$1 ,dea?'s self is sorry4 ',twas a *ild t s did ?rive ,9 grace & feature1 ,z heav5 & nature seem$ to /rive ,:i* own$ ! creature4 ,ye>s he numb]$ sc>ce ?irte5 ,:5 ,fates turn$ cruel1 ,yet ?ree fill$ zodiacs _h he be5 ,! /age's jewel2 ,& did act 7:at n[ we moan7 ,old m5 s duly1 ,z soo? ! ,p>cae ?\ght him "o1 ,he play$ s truly4 ,s1 by error1 to 8 fate ,!y all cons5t$2 ,b1 view+ him s9ce1 alas1 too late6 ,!y h rep5t$4 ,^! l9es--& !y are n ! :ole ( ! poem--are en\gh to illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,greek me?od & ! ,engli%1 ! latt] ri* & pr(use1 foll[+ ! fl[ ( an opul5t fancy1 ! =m] retic5t & re/ra9$1 leav+ ! read]'s imag9ation room & ne$ to play its "p4 ,!re are mat]ials = half-a-doz5 epigrams 9 ,b5 ,jonson's poem4 ,_h he be5 ,simonides or ,plato1 he w\ld h /opp$ aft] ! f\r? l9e &1 9 ! op9ion ( "s critics1 by sav+ 8 pap] he w\ld h improv$ 8 poem4 ,9 _! !ory & 9 _! practice ! ,greek writ]s 7 true to ?is pr9ciple ( ,economy4 ,_! prov]bs proclaim x '! half is great] ?an ! :ole'3 's[ ) ! h& & n ) ! :ole sack4' ,! great passages ( _! lit]ature illu/rate x4 ,x is to be f\nd no less 9 ,?ucydides' acc\nt ( ! siege ( ,syracuse & 9 ! close ( ! ,pha$o or ! ,republic ?an 9 ! dea? ( ,hector or ! meet+ ( ,priam & ,a*illes4 ,! ,greek writ]s may h emotions t w\ld seem to dem& vehem5t & ext5d$ expression1 topics to inspire a poet & tempt him to amplify !m2 b resi/+ ! temptation !y set ! facts d[n quietly & pass on practically )\t comm5t4 ,! close ( ! ,pha$o exemplifies ?is re/ra9t4 ,plato has j relat$ ) sev]e economy ( detail ! dea? ( 8 ma/]4 ,8 comm5t on ! ev5t :i* sadd5$ & conf\nd$ 8 :ole life is b ?is3 ',su*1 ,e*ecrates1 0 ! dea? ( our fri5d1 ! be/ man1 ,i ?9k1 t ,i h ev] kn[n1 ! wise/ too & ! mo/ j4'#aad #aad ,pha$o1 #aah ,b4 ,!re are noble examples ( retic5ce & economy 9 ,engli% lit]ature1 "s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s ( :i* c be trac$ to classical influ5ce2 b no "o w\ld cont5d t ^! qualities are ! rule 9 our great writ]s4 ,! ,engli% g5ius is ri* & lavi% r ?an re/ra9$4 ,x is less 9 its nature to write l ,sappho1 1 ' 1 1 1 1#aae ,hesp]e1 panta ph]n osa pha9olis esk$as' aus1 ph]eis o91 ph]es aiga1 ph]eis apy mat]i paida1 #aae fr4 #ie3 ',/> ( ev5+1 br++ all ?+s t bright dawn has scatt]$1 y br+ ! %eep1 y br+ ! goat1 y br+ ! *ild back to its "m4' ?an l ,byron1 ,o ,hesp]us1 ?\ br+e/ all good ?+s-- ,home to ! we>y1 to ! hungry *e]1 ,to ! "y bird ! p>5t's brood+ w+s1 ,! welcome /all to ! o'er-lab\r$ /e]2 ,:ate'er ( peace ab\t our he>?/one cl+s1 ,:ate'er our h\sehold gods protect ( de>1 ,are ga!r$ r\nd u by ?y look ( re/2 ,?\ br+'/ ! *ild too to its "m's brea/4 ,some?+ may be said 9 fav\r ( bo? me?ods4 ,amplitude ( treatm5t & fullness ( detail enri* ! imag9ation :ile economy /imulates x4 ,! latt] may become jejune1 & is safe only 9 ! h&s ( great writ]s3 ! =m] is apt to provide too ri* a fea/ & to leave ! full-f$ m9d in]t4 ,ev]y?+ is done = x & no?+ left x to d4 ,economy on ! o!r h& ?r[s ! read] on 8 own res\rces4 ,x sets ! imag9ation w&]+ 9 ! fields ( inf9ity4 ,"s read]s f9d ?is "o ( ! ess5tial delights ( lit]ature1 ?\gh o!rs pref] t ! au?or %\ld take !m by ! h& & indicate e detail ) ! precision ( ! sign-po/s at a ,g]man ,kurort4 ,economy is ! reflection 9 lit]ature ( t sphrosyn1 :i* is ! mo/ deeply-root$ ( ,greek ideals1 ! mo/ untranslatable ( ,greek words4 ,b x 0 help$ by an accid5t4 ,if ! art ( pr9t+ 7 lo/1 mod]n works w\ld contract )9 n>r[] limits1 & ! ,greek economy 0 enc\rag$ by ! fact t ,fu/ 0 n yet born4 ,we1 :o d n rely on h&-copy+ = ! propagation ( our books1 naturally write at great] l5g?3 & :ile x loses 9 concis5ess1 lit]ature has a comp5sat+ ga9 9 amplitude4 ,b ! habit ( writ+ = money1 :i* enc\rages abundant production1 & ! exi/5ce ( ! pr9t+-press1 :i* makes x easy1 expose u to dang]s f :i* ! anci5ts 7 free4 ,! newspap]s are ! wor/ (f5d]s1 say+ _m ?+s :i* ne$ n be said at all1 & say+ ev]y?+ 9 a sup]flu\s & excessive way4 ,b lit]ature suff]s h>dly less4 ,! greate/ figures ( ! la/ fifty ye>s1 su* z ,br[n+1 ,m]$i?1 ,h>dy & ,conrad1 dilute _! pages ) uness5tial1 if n inf]ior1 /uff1 & produce writ+ :i* has n receiv$ ! summa manus4 ,_h _! "w be5 less by a half--a mode/ r$uction--x w\ld h be5 m p]fect because m "t c\ld h be5 devot$ to x1 m p[]ful because ea* /roke w\ld h be5 precise & /rong1 m tell+ because ^! /rokes w\ld n h be5 comb9$ ) ineffective bl[s4 ,?is is ev5 tru] ( less] m5 & o!r =ms ( lit]ature4 ,x is because ! ,agricola ( ,tacitus ext5ds to b ?irty pages1 t ! biography ( a ,roman civil s]vant ( no great g5ius w outlive ^? ( f> great] m54 ,! art ( omission is ! art :i* ,engli% writ]s mo/ ne$ to le>n2 ! lit]>y lima is _! lea/-h&l$ tool4 ,bo? art & tool 7 p]fectly und]/ood & con/antly us$ by ! ,greeks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ?ird m>k ( ,greek ,lit]ature1 ) :i* ,i h to deal1 is p]haps its mo/ important1 c]ta9ly its mo/ univ]sal quality4 ,x is tru?fulness4 ,! ,greeks told no few] lies ?an o!r races1 b !y _h ! desire & ! p[] to see ! _w z x is4 ,by ?is ess5tial quality !y gave ,europe ! conception ( philosophy & sci5ce4 ,^! we inh]it f !m alone2 ,pale/9e & our ,g]man ance/ors nei!r creat$ !m1 nor %[ any signs ( ! temp] t creates !m1 & ,rome receiv$ h] %>e f ,greece4 ,! ^w ',tru?fulness' may seem to sugge/ ! realism ( "s mod]n writ]s4 ,b ! ,greek tru?fulness 0 diff]5t4 ,x %\ld be di/+ui%$ f ! lab\r$ deta*m5t & pa9ful imp>tiality ( su* a writ] z ,flaub]t1 ^: realism conceals him 9 ! same s5se z ! walls ( ! eng9e-room conceal ! pant+ ma*9es )94 ,! ,greek ,tru?fulness is spontane\s1 natural1 & ef=tless--! native quality ( ! arti/1 :o sees1 & =gets himself 9 ! vision4 ,nor has x any?+ to d ) photographic realism4 ,x has n ! imp]sonality ( t me?od or its flat & lifeless effect4 ,a man1 & no ma*9e1 makes ! picture1 feel+ int5sely :at he sees1 & ?\gh ?is int5sity does n di/ort 8 vision1 we are consci\s1 z we read1 ( a human p]sonality1 & we feel ! electric ?rill ( life4 ,nor is x ak9 to t type ( mod]n realism1 :i*1 l a noxi\s drug1 lays hold on ! spirits & depresses ! he>t--! realism :i* pa9ts s black a picture ( human life1 t x affects u physically l days ( cont9u$ fog1 & gives u no m complete & tru?ful a picture ( ! _w4 ,!re is h>dly any ,greek writ]1 p]haps none at all1 ( :om ?is c be said4 ,_m mod]ns c fai?fully describe :at is disagreeable1 b _! effects are (t5 brutal & always depress+4 ,! gift ( portray+ suff]+ & evil ) unfl9*+ tru?1 yet ( convey+ o!r feel+s ?an ^? ( m]e horror1 is res]v$ = few4 ,its r>ity p]haps expla9s ! r>ity ( great trag$y1 ( :i* x seems to be a condition t x %all tru?fully %[ :at is d>ke/ 9 life1 )\t leav+ a f9al & dom9ant s5se ( gloom4 ,! great ,greek writ]s possess$ ?is secret4 ,!y are z s5sitive to evil & suff]+ z any writ] & fully z fai?ful 9 record+ !m4 ,b :]eas o!r m5 are simply depress$ or disgu/$ or appall$1 lose _! vital =ces1 & gaze 9 p>alys$ fasc9ation1 ^! writ]s1 9 virtue ( a s5se :i* is m ae/hetic ?an moral1 are aw>e ( trem5d\s issues1 see 9 sordid suff]+ ! agonies ( a lab\r+ univ]se1 & feel awe & wond]1 n m]e disgu/ & di/ress1 at :at human be+s suff] & endure4 ,t is :y ,hom] leaves u ) ano!r feel+ ?an depression1 :5 he tells h[ ,priam begg$ 8 son's body f ! man :o kill$ him4 ',s ,priam ent]$ unse5 ( !m & /ood ne> & clasp$ ) 8 h&s ! knees ( ,a*illes & kiss$ ! t]rible murd]\s h&s t _h sla9 s _m ( 8 sons4 ,b ,a*illes 0 amaz$ at ! sight ( ,priam1 & amaz$ 7 ! re/1 & !y look$ at ea* o!r4 ,& ,priam entreat$ & address$ him4 ,rememb] y\r own fa!r1 godlike ,a*illes3 he is ( l ye>s ) me1 & /&s on ! hateful road ( old age4 ,p]haps ! neighb\rs r\nd ab\t h>ry him & !re is none to keep mis]y & ru9 f him4 ,yet :5 he he>s t y are alive1 he rejoices & hopes1 day 91 day out1 to see 8 de> son return+ f ,troy4 ,b ,i am utt]ly wret*$1 = ,i begat ! be/ ( sons 9 ,troy1 & none ( !m is left4 ,! "o ,i _h1 :o 0 ! /ay ( ,troy & its p1 y kill$ b n[ z he f\ght = 8 c\ntry--ev5 ,hector4 ,respect ! gods1 ,a*illes1 & pity me1 & rememb] y\r own fa!r4 ,i am m unhappy ?an he4 ,i h fac$ :at no o!r mortal man ev] yet fac$--to /ret* my h& to ! face ( my sons' slay]4'#aaf ,!re is suff]+ & evil en\gh "h1 & !re is no attempt to disguise or less5 !m4 ,yet mo/ read]s1 ,i ?9k1 w\ld read ?is passage ) diff]5t feel+s f ^? provok$ by ! close ( ,madame ,bov>y or ( ,jude ! ,obscure4 ,its tru?fulness is nei!r ugly nor depress+4 #aaf ,iliad1 xxiv4 #bgg f4 7) omissions74 ,nor aga9 is ! ,greek tru?fulness id5tical ) objectivity4 ,an objective writ] tells 8 /ory & conveys 8 impressions1 z f> z possible1 by relat+ facts )\t comm5t+ ^u !m4 ,dramati/s & noveli/s are compell$ by ! nature ( _! art to be objective 9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w 7?\gh ,field+ & ,?ack]ay 9 ! "o field1 & ,ibs5 & ,%aw 9 ! o!r1 manage to make _! comm5ts ) _! own lips1 n ^? ( _! *>act]s74 ,b su* a writ] w\ld n ( necessity be m tru?ful or imp>tial ?an any "o else4 ,he c di/ort tru? z ?or\ghly by select+ c]ta9 facts & ignor+ o!rs z by mak+ mislead+ comm5ts4 ,he may be viol5tly "o-sid$ & pres5t only ! facts t support 8 view1 ?us indirectly putt+ himself into :at he writes q z fully z a confess$ p>tizan1 ?\gh less op5ly4 ,su* a writ] is objective1 b 8 objectivity ) him is no m ?an a lit]>y me?od4 ,n[ x is true t ! ,greeks use ?is me?od1 tell+ a /ory )\t p]sonal comm5ts1 n only 9 _! epics & plays :]e ?is me?od is natural1 b also 9 _! hi/ories & else:]e4 ,?ucydides = in/ance tells ! /ory ( a great w>1 yet 8 comm5ts on x are few1 & are ma9ly giv5 9 ! dramatic & w\ld-be objective =m ( spee*es by lead+ m5 ( ! day4 ,b ! ,greeks h objectivity 9 a f> m important s5se ?an ?is4 ,_! objectivity is no lit]>y device b a quality ( m9d4 ,!y h ! p[] ( /&+ alo( f matt]s 9 :i* !y are p]sonally int]e/$1 & survey+ !m f outside l imp>tial spectators1 ) ! ke5e/ int]e/1 b )\t bias4 ,z ! ,delphic prie/ess 9 ! act ( prophecy lo/ h] individuality & became ! m\?piece ( ! god1 s ! ,greek all[$ facts to speak = !mselves1 became _! m\?piece & bani%$ ! intrusive ego4 ,if !re=e we call ! ,greeks objective1 all ?is mu/ be includ$ 9 our def9ition ( ! ^w4 ,we %all und]/& ,greek 'tru?fulness' be/1 if1 dropp+ philosophical t]ms1 & =gett+ mod]n mean+s1 we rememb] a say+ ( ,anaxagoras1 :o1 :5 ask$ = :at purpose he 0 born1 repli$3 ',to contemplate ! works ( nature4' ,! dis9t]e/$ passion = contemplat+ ?+s1 :i* ga!r$ inquir+ gr\ps r\nd ,socrates to discuss :at ju/ice & fri5d%ip mean1 or :e!r goodness is k & c be le>nt1 has its c\nt]p>t 9 lit]ature4 ,! ,greeks 7 fasc9at$ by ! spectacle ( man & ! _w1 & _! fasc9ation is se5 n only 9 _! =mal philosophy4 ,( _! poets too x may be said t !y 7 born to see ! _w & human life--n to moralize or to indulge 9 s5tim5t or rhetoric or my/icism ab\t x1 b to see x4 ,keats's description ( ! poetic temp]am5t fits !m closely3 ',x has no self1 x is ev]y?+ & no?+4444 ,x enjoys light & %ade4444 ,a poet is ! mo/ unpoetical ( any?+ 9 exi/5ce1 he is cont9ually 91 =1 & fill+ "s o!r body4' ,9 su* a mood m5 w write lit]ature t may ju/ly be call$ tru?ful4 ,avoid+ ! didactic1 !y w n di/ort tru? to suit p]sonal bias2 avoid+ rhetoric1 !y w n sacrifice x to f9e phrases2 avoid+ s5tim5t & fancy1 !y w n gratify _! own or _! he>]'s feel+s at ! exp5se ( tru?2 avoid+ my/icism1 !y w n move away f facts into a _w ( emotions4 ,_! c>e w be to see ?+s1 & _! delight w be 9 ! m]e vision4 ,!y w e*o ! words ( ,keats1 ',if a sp>r[ comes be=e my w9d[s1 ,i take "p 9 its exi/5ce & pick ab\t ! gravel'#aag3 !y w n treat x z ,%elley treats ! skyl>k1 or ev5 z ,keats & ,wordswor? treat ! night+ale4 ,h]e9 is "o ( ! secrets ( ,greek poetry1 = ! ,greek poets1 m ?an any o!rs1 br+ u 9 a mann] entirely simple & natural into imm$iate contact ) :at !y describe1 & ?us escape ! ?\s& di/ortions = :i* epigram1 rhetoric1 s5tim5t1 fancy1 my/icism & romanticism are responsible4 ,?is secret may be call$ 'directness'4 ,x is ! habit ( look+ /raight & /eadily at ?+s1 & describ+ !m z !y are1 ! v contr>y ( ! habit ( didactic comm5t & ( rhetorical or emotional inflation4 ,! 'direct' writ]1 9 ! fulle/ ext5t t is possible1 keeps himself & 8 feel+s 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,he does n all[ ! mi/s :i* rise f a man's p]sonality to come betwe5 him & 8 subject4 #aag ,i h tak5 ^! quotations ( ,keats f ,bradley1 ,ox=d ,lecture on ,poetry1 p4 #bch4 ,a few in/ances ( directness w give a bett] idea ( x ?an _m def9itions4 ,! epigram quot$ a few pages back %[s h[ ! ,greek writ] lets 8 subject speak in/ead ( express+ 8 own feel+s ab\t x4 ,s does ! foll[+ epitaph1 plac$ by a fa!r on 8 son's grave4 4#aah ,ddeket ton paida patr ape?ke ,philippos en?ade tn polln elpida ,nikoteln4 #aah ,callima*us1 ,epigr4 #bj3 ',8 fa!r ,philip laid "h to re/ 8 twelve-ye> old son1 8 high hope1 ,nicoteles4' ,! b]eav$ fa!r says no?+ ( 8 sorr[1 or ! greatness ( 8 loss1 b records 8 son's "n & age & says t he 0 8 fa!r's 'high hope'1 & s do+ gives u ev]y?+4 ,simonides does n express 8 own feel+s ab\t ! h]oism ( ! ,sp>tan dead2 _! grave speaks = !m to ! pass]-by4 ,nor is ?is a m]e lit]>y me?od1 a way ( writ+ :i* /ates facts & leaves !m to make an impression by _! own weight1 unaid$ by comm5t or explanation4 ,a comp>ison ( ,b5 ,jonson's epigram ) ! ,greek epitaph1 w %[ t directness is mu* m ?an ?is4 ,! fancies ) :i* ,jonson closes are pretty2 b !y are false1 = !y are really incompatible ) deep feel+3 ! ,greek directness nev] loses f sight ! dead *ild2 x sees only t & ! fa!r's sorr[4 ,! foll[+ extract deals ) a v diff]5t subject1 b illu/rates directness equally well4 ,! sc5e is ! ,a!nian colony ( ,amphipolis on ! ,/ruma2 ! dramatis p]sonae are ! ,sp>tan g5]al ,brasidas :o wi%es to capture x1 & ! ,a!nian ,?ucydides :o 0 !n at ,?asos1 di/ant half a day's sail f ,amphipolis4 ',z soon z ,?ucydides he>d ! news ab\t ,brasidas1 he sail$ quickly to ,amphipolis 444 9 ord] to g>rison x if possible be=e x c\ld capitulate1 or at any rate to occupy ,eion 7its seaport74 ,mean:ile ,brasidas1 fe>+ ! arrival ( ! ,a!nian fleet at ,?asos & he>+ t ,?ucydides 444 0 "o ( ! lead+ m5 ( ! c\ntry1 did 8 utmo/ to get possession ( ! city be=e he arriv$4444 ,he !re=e (f]$ mod]ate t]ms4444 ,^! t]ms 7 accept$1 & ! city 0 surr5d]$ to him4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ! same day ,?ucydides & 8 %ips sail$ into ,eion1 b n until ,brasidas _h tak5 possession ( ,amphipolis3 ano!r night1 & he w\ld h seiz$ ,eion4'#aai ,! gi/ ( ! /ory conta9$ 9 ?is extract is pla94 ,! ,sp>tan g5]al ,brasidas seiz$ ! important t[n ( ,amphipolis1 & ! ,a!nian g5]al came too late to save x4 ,b :o w\ld guess t ! ,a!nian g5]al ,?ucydides 0 ! hi/orian ,?ucydides :o wrote ^! words1 & t ! episode :i* he "h describes ) su* deta*m5t & neutrality e>n$ him p]petual exile "u pa9 ( dea?1 f ! c\ntry :i* he passionately lov$8 ,?ucydides has told ! b>e facts1 objectively1 z if !y relat$ to "s "o else1 )\t a comm5t1 )\t a ^w ( prote/1 excuse1 explanation or regret on ! cr[n+ disa/] ( 8 life4 ,he writes ( himself 9 ! ?ird p]son4 ,?is is n ! way 9 :i* mod]n g5]als write ( _! mi%aps1 b x is ! ,greek way4 ,?ucydides has =gott5 himself & 8 feel+s2 he sees only ! disa/r\s day :5 he sail$ up ! ,/ruma ) 8 %ips & f\nd ! gates ( ,amphipolis clos$ aga9/ him4 ,he ignores himself s f> t he does n call x disa/r\s1 ?\gh disa/r\s x 0 = himself & 8 c\ntry4 ,) ! same deta*m5t he speaks ( ! enslavem5t ( ,melos & ! trag$y ( ,syracuse1 ?\gh he ?9ks1 & makes u feel1 t ! "o 0 ! cr[n+ crime1 ! o!r ! cr[n+ disa/] ( 8 c\ntry4 ,he n>rates ! pla9 facts & leaves ! read] to draw 8 inf]5ces4 ,if we did n "k t he 0 an ,a!nian1 we c\ld h>dly tell f 8 hi/ory :e!r he took ! side ( ,a!ns or ,sp>ta 9 ! w>2 s entirely are he & 8 feel+s kept 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,yet he 0 an ard5t patriot1 & he is describ+ ! w> 9 :i* 8 c\ntry lo/ supremacy & empire4 ,no hi/orian ( ! w> ( #aiad-ah1 :e!r on ! ,alli$ or ! ,g]man side1 is likely to write ( x 9 ?is way4 #aai ,?uc4 iv4 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf 7tr4 ,j[ett1 ma9ly74 ,! art ( ,hom] has ! same quality ( deta*m5t4 ,he is a ,greek1 writ+ ( a t5 ye>s' w> betwe5 ,greeks & ,asiatics1 yet mo/ ( 8 read]s sympa?ize ) ,hector r ?an ) ,a*illes4 ,he himself pref]r$ nei!r1 b saw & felt equally ) bo?2 ) ! h]o :o f\ght ! los+ battle = ,troy1 & ) him :o lo/ 8 fri5d1 &1 intoxicat$ ) sorr[1 c\ld see & feel no?+ b a passion ( rev5ge4 ,x w\ld seem h>dly possible to write ! close ( ! #bbnd ,book ( ! ,iliad1 :]e ! h]oes meet1 )\t tak+ sides2 we1 no d\bt1 %\ld take ,hector's side4 ,b ,hom] /&s ap>t f ! qu>rel1 & sees bo? m5 & ! feel+s ( bo?1 writ+ ) ! p5 ( ! ,record+ ,angel1 n ( ! ,judge4 ,:at he or ,?ucydides ?\ght 9 ea* case c only be guess$ at4 ,!y h pres5t$ ! facts )\t comm5t1 & ! facts tell _! own tale1 expla9 !mselves1 c>ry ) !m ! feel+s !y %\ld evoke1 & %9e by _! own light1 l ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea4 ,little ?9k+ is ne$$ to see t ! direct1 deta*$1 objective temp] is ! g5]ative pr9ciple ( ! ,greek a*ievem5t1 = x is ! p>5t ( sci5ce & philosophy1 :i* are ! *ildr5 ( a desire to see ?+s 9 !mselves z !y are1 & n z ! se] might wi% !m to be4 ,! effects ( ?is temp] 9 poetry c be appreciat$ by a comp>ison ( c]ta9 ph5om5a ( our own lit]ature :i* are abs5t f ,greek4 ,! comp>ison w indicate1 too1 :at mod]n writ]s c le>n f ! ,greeks1 & enable u to judge :e!r ! lessons are ne$$4 ,! habit ( keep+ ! eye on ! subject1 :i* is ! ess5ce ( directness1 disc\rages1 & inde$ excludes1 conv5tionality1 s5tim5talism1 fancifulness1 :i* prev5t a writ] f see+ & record+ life z x is4 ,^! fail+s are always ) u1 & z ,i h giv5 "o in/ance ( _! work+ 9 ,b5 ,jonson's epigram & h discuss$ ! matt] else:]e1#abj ,i %all pass to diseases :i* are m p>ticul>ly mod]n1 & ) :i* directness is equally at w>4 #abj ,! ,greek ,g5ius & its ,mean+ to u1 pp4 #gd ff4 ,! ri*ness ( ! ,engli% language is 9 itself a dang]4 ,engli%1 l ,lat91 l5ds itself sup]bly to rant+1 a capacity discov]$ by ! ,elizabe?ans4 ,mod]n writ]s t5d to m delicate excess1 & h exploit$ ! musical quality ( ,engli%4 ,?is is cle> f su* a collection z ! ,ox=d ,book ( ,victorian ,v]se1 :i* fai?fully repres5ts ! output ( ! age1 & conta9s "s f9e poetry1 b also a v l>ge p]c5tage ( :at ,horace call$1 ,v]sus inopes r]um nugaeque canorae4 ,!re is an intol]able deal ( sack to a v little bread among ! imitators ( ,t5nyson4 ,to su* rhetorical or musical trifles no bett] antidote c be f\nd ?an ,greek lit]ature1 = !re is no rhetoric 9 x1 & :at melodi\s no?+s x conta9$1 7 p>odi$ 9 its own age & h scantily surviv$ to ours4 ,9 g5]al x avoid$ bo? by its directness4 ,! rhetoric ( ,lucan or ,byron1 ! pr$om9ance ( s\nd ov] s5se 9 "s ( ,%elley & mu* ( ,sw9burne arise because ^? poets %ut _! eyes to ! real _w & become lo/ 9 ! music ( words4 ,! ,greek1 />t+ ) facts1 n ) s\nds or ) feel+s ab\t facts1 c\ld n easily become ! victim ( words4 ,! temptation did n arise = him1 or if x did1 8 s9 0 easily detect$4 ,h]e9 he is a good model1 especially = poets :o are apt to lose sight ( ! e>? & pass into an une>?ly p>adise ( vague feel+s4 ,= ! greate/ poetry is ! poetry ( ?+s1 n ( words1 & to :atev] regions ! ,muse may take h] flight1 %e c only be safe if %e />ts f ,e>?1 & keeps h] communication ) x op54 ,directness is also a protection aga9/ t lit]ature ( egotism :i* is ! excess into :i* subjective poetry easily falls4 ,legitimate :5 kept )9 b\nds1 ! habit ( putt+ oneself into :at "o writes c become an (f5ce1 & f ?is (f5ce ,engli% lit]ature is n free4 ,no "o c compla9 because ,milton & ,wordswor? are less deta*$ ?an ,%akespe>e or ,sophocles2 b ! subjectivity ( ,byron or ,c>lyle is v diff]5t4 ,_! subject is cont9ually d>k5$ by ! %ad[ ( _! p]sonality2 x suff]s a p>tial1 at times a total1 eclipse4 ,*ilde ,h>old sees himself 9 all t he sees1 projects himself into ,belgium1 ,a!ns & ,rome1 & col\rs ! blue/ skies ) ! jaundic$ hues ( 8 temp]am5t4 ,?is is almo/ equally true ( ,c>lyle's pupils1 ,rusk9 & ,fr\de1 &1 among ! mod]ns1 ( a sw>m ( m9or poets & noveli/s1 :o display be=e ! public ! pageant ( _! indignant or ble$+ he>ts4 ,egotism is a fault ( mann]s z mu* z ( morals1 & has its peculi> effect & its appropriate p5alty4 ,its effect is to di/ract a man's att5tion f major to m9or issues1 f ! l>ge _w to ! small self2 its p5alty is t x we>ies its audi5ce1 & ! next g5]ation1 if n its own1 dislikes ! cont9ual obtrusion ( an elem5t 9 :i* x has no int]e/4 ,h5ce oblivion1 (t5 unju/1 is ! puni%m5t :i* ! egoti/ suff]s4 ,ev5 our age1 int]e/$ z x is 9 p]sonalities1 has little "t to sp>e = ^? ( ,byron or ,c>lyle2 x is too busy ) ! *>act]s ( its own contempor>ies to tr\ble ab\t ^? ( its pr$ecessors4 ,b no ,greek writ] is =gott5 = ?is cause4 ,:atev] _! o!r (f5ces1 ! ,greeks are free f lit]>y egotism4 ,directness turn$ _! eyes to ! ext]nal _w1 & taught !m to see ev5 !mselves f )\t4 ,egotism is a m9or defect 9 ,engli% lit]ature4 ,to "s x may ev5 seem to be a virtue4 ,a m s]i\s weakness1 :i* our lit]ature %>es ) o!r mod]n lit]atures1 is "o-sid$ness or incomplet5ess ( view1 :i* reveals itself by a s]ies ( reactions1 & 9 ,engl& has tak5 ! =m ( an oscillation betwe5 s5tim5talism & a r cruel realism1 ! latt] be+ dom9ant at ! pres5t "t4 ,^! two s*ools repres5t excesses ( temp]am5t1 ! "o ( g5]osity & k9dl9ess1 ! o!r ( tru?2 & among our writ]s ( g5ius ,dick5s & ,h>dy typify !m well4 ,! "o s*ool desire 9 fiction to rew>d _! good *>act]s & puni% ! bad1 j z !y w\ld wi% t life %\ld d2 & tru? is n all[$ to ?w>t _! b5evol5ce or _! indignation4 ,9 defiance ( all probability ,micawb] & ,mr4 ,mell make a success ( life 9 ,au/ralia1 ?\gh tru? cries out t !y 7 born to be failures2 :ile ! foot ( puni%m5t moves m swiftly & visibly 9 ! pages ( ,dick5s ?an x does 9 fact4 ,!n comes ! v]aci\s p]son1 :o1 gr[+ indignant at a trave/y ( life t misleads ! read] & insults tru?1 gives u ! opposite extreme 9 an imag9$ _w :]e ! %ad[s are deep5$ & ! high lights c>efully block$ out4 ,scott & ,dick5s picture a _w 9 :i* at ! end vice f9ds itself 9 ! gutt] :ile virtue m>ries ! h]o9e4 ,lat]1 ,?omas ,h>dy has giv5 u ,jude ! ,obscure & ,tess ( ! ,d',urb]villes4#aba ,"h is a prote/1 a r$ress+ ( ! balance1 by an advocate :o rises to supply a side ( ! case :i* has be5 ignor$4 ,yet once aga9 ,tru? is violat$1 & by h] sworn s]vant2 = ! _w t ,h>dy portrays is n ! _w z x is4 ,:5 ,dick5s makes ,mr4 ,micawb] ! ,di/rict ,magi/rate ( ,port ,middlebay1 he is n repres5t+ life1 b say+ :at he & 8 audi5ce w\ld l to believe 9 ord] to feel com=table :5 !y close ! book4 ,z a prote/ !re=e aga9/ him 9 ! next g5]ation comes ,?omas ,h>dy1 :o aft] record+ ! mis]able end ( ,tess1 writes ',! ,presid5t ( ! immortals _h end$ 8 sport ) ,tess'4 ,9 s writ+ he is no true record] any m ?an 0 ,dick5s1 b ! self-appo9t$ ,judge ( a univ]se :i* he conceives to be cruel4 #aba ,9 ^! novels & 9 ,! ,dyna/s ,mr4 ,h>dy all[s 8 p]sonal views to depress "o side ( ! scales3 9 8 less] novels he has (t5 %[n t he c hold ! balance ev54 ,?is di/9ction %\ld be borne 9 m9d 9 all ! criticisms ( 8 "w1 :i* ,i h v5tur$ to make4 ,nei!r ,dick5s nor ,h>dy c be call$ unv]aci\s writ]s2 bo? give a picture ( life t is true up to a po9t4 ,h>dy1 9 p>ticul>1 errs less by di/ortion ?an by omission2 he sees "o side ( life1 b at ! exp5se ( ano!r side2 he fails to hold ! balance fairly1 & lacks ! l>ge *>ity ( ! univ]se4 ,bo? writ]s are incomplete4 ,no "o c\ld say ( !m1 :at is completely true ( mo/ ,greek writ]s & l>gely true ( all1 t !y see life /eadily & see x :ole4 ,/ill less c ?is be said ( _! foll[]s1 :o1 aft] ! fa%ion ( disciples1 imitate & develop _! defects1 & oscillate betwe5 s5tim5tal falsity1 & ! />kness & brutality :i* h be5 famili> 9 ,engli% lit]ature dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s & 9 ,fr5* lit]ature = a mu* long] p]iod4 ,none ( ^! writ]s1 n ev5 ! be/1 is direct4 ,l ,dick5s1 !y consult _! g5]\s he>ts1 or1 worse1 ask3 ',c tru? be told )\t mak+ ! public angry8' ,or1 l ,h>dy1 !y veil a didactic purpose "u ! "n ( realism1 & regi/] a bitt] p]sonal prote/ aga9/ ! cruelty ( life4 ,9 ei!r case !y n>r[ _! view1 & see ! _w ?r\gh a mi/ ( temp]am5t4 ,?is po9t may be illu/rat$ by exam9+ a fam\s passage f ,hom]1 & !n ask+ h[ a s5tim5tal & a reali/ic writ] might h treat$ x4 ,imag9e ! dea? ( ,hector 9 ! h&s ( ,dick5s or ,h>dy4 ,! fir/ mo/ probably w\ld n h p]mitt$ x to occur1 or1 if he _h1 w\ld h made ,a*illes ! villa9 ( ! piece & emphasiz$ & develop$ ! trag$y 9 ! mann] ( 8 dea? sc5es1 till he _h we>i$ ! read] ) pa?os4 ,confront$ ) su* a trag$y he w\ld h giv5 ! re9 to emotion4 ,mr4 ,h>dy1 we may guess1 w\ld be impress$ less by ! pa?os ( ! sc5e1 ?an by ! savag]y ( ,a*illes & ! misgov]nm5t ( a univ]se 9 :i* su* ?+s 7 possible1 & he w\ld n h let ^! morals escape 8 read]s4 ,by small t\*es1 by /ress+ suitable incid5ts1 he w\ld h made ! trag$y m tragic1 & ! brutality m brutal4 ,x is ?us t he has treat$ ! dea? ( ,jude4 ,by s do+1 bo? ,dick5s & ,h>dy 9 _! diff]5t ways1 w\ld h be5 all[+ _! own p]sonalities r ?an ! facts to speak1 &1 see+ only "o side ( ! /ory1 w\ld h made x less complicat$ ?an life & less complete4 ,b 9 ! ,iliad we see no?+ ( ,hom]'s p]sonality & he> no voice b t ( ! facts4 ,! /ory tells itself )\t ! height5+ ( artifice4 ,! two m5 are br\ght be=e our eyes--,hector1 ! la/ hope ( ,troy1 ) 8 wife & *ild wait+ = him at home--,a*illes1 mad ) ! memory ( 8 dead fri5d4 ,!re is no judgem5t & no comm5t1 b only ! ?+ z x 04 ,to ^? :o w\ld ma9ta9 t ,dick5s or ,h>dy give an accurate picture ( ! _w1 !re are two answ]s4 ,fir/1 _! _w is n ! _w z ,%akespe>e or ,m]$i? sees x2 ?is = _m p]sons w be a suffici5t dispro( ( its reality4 ,second1 ! hi/ory ( ,engli% & ,fr5* lit]atures has be5 = ! la/ #aej ye>s a hi/ory ( successive reactions4 ,! classical s*ool 0 foll[$ by ! romantics1 ! romantics by ! reali/s2 ea* 0 a prote/ & a reaction aga9/ its pr$ecessor4 ,^! sw]v+ movem5ts mu/ h a cause4 ,n[ !re are no reactions 9 lit]ature unless !re is "s excess to provoke !m4 ,! exi/5ce ( a reaction is a symptom ( disease1 & n only w\ld x nev] take place ap>t f disease1 b !re is always a *ance t x may g too f>2 = z 9 ! body1 s 9 ! _w ( lett]s1 a balance once di/urb$ is difficult to re/ore4 ,b ,greek lit]ature1 unlike our own & unlike ,fr5*1 at no /age develop$ by reaction4 ,its epic poets are foll[$ by ! lyri/s & ^! by ! trag$ians3 trag$y passes into ! ,new ,com$y1 :i* is foll[$ by ! le>n$ & arti/ic poetry ( ,alex&ria4 ,9 prose ! unp]iodic /yle ( ,h]odotus is succe$$ by ! /yle ( ,?ucydides2 :ile ,plato & ! v>i\s orators develop diff]5t types ( writ+4 ,none ( ^! /yles1 h[ev]1 & none ( ^! writ]s1 are 9 reaction aga9/ "o ano!r4 ,"s traces ( reaction aga9/ ! ,hom]ic outlook ( ,sophocles may p]haps be f\nd 9 ,euripides4 ,b ?is contra/ lies betwe5 two individual writ]s & n betwe5 two lit]>y s*ools1 & has no analogy ) ! relation ( ! romantic to ! classical or to ! reali/ movem5ts4 ,x is f> less m>k$1 = in/ance1 ?an ! contra/ betwe5 ,voltaire & ,victor ,hugo or t betwe5 ,victor ,hugo & ,flaub]t4 ,!re is no reaction 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek lit]ature1 because at no /age is !re any excess to react f2 & !re is no excess1 because ! ,greek writ]s are direct & objective1 because !y are mirrors t reflect life1 n imp]fect l5ses t di/ort x ea* accord+ to its own imp]fection4 ,! lit]ature ( ! ,elizabe?ans "h resembles ,greek4 ,x is inde$ m wayw>d1 m fanciful1 m p]sonal1 m luxuriant ?an ! ,greek2 b x is on ! :ole m dis9t]e/$1 fre] f any didactic b5t1 m incl9$ to contemplate life = its own sake ?an ! lit]ature ( any succe$+ epo* 9 ,engl&4 ,s9ce ! ,puritans a didactic /ra9 has cont9ually appe>$ 9 our writ]s4 ,we h _h revolts & prote/s1 & !n1 by reaction1 m prote/s & revolts4 ,h[ev] admirable 9 morals1 ?is ,prote/antism is injuri\s 9 lit]ature1 =1 l all rebellions1 x ends 9 excess & de/roys ! ev5-balanc$ temp] :i* is ess5tial to ! creation ( ! greate/ lit]ature4 ,?is didactic temp]1 (t5 disguis$ z realism1 has nev] be5 /rong] ?an 9 our own age1 :5 _m :o might h f\nd _! pr(ession 9 ! ,*ur*es are div]t$ to o!r pa?s & seek 9 lit]ature an outlet t 9 ! pa/ w\ld h be5 f\nd 9 ! pulpit4 ,messrs4 ,wells1 ,%aw1 ,galswor?y--to m5tion no o!rs--are p>sons manqus1 :o 7 design$ by nature to write n plays or novels b s]mons4 ,or r !y are dual p]sonalities3 cl]gyman & creative writ] h be5 comb9$ 9 !m & ! cl]gyman has corrupt$ ! poet4 ,! unsatisfi$ appetite = prea*+ :i* a hundr$ ye>s ago w\ld h be5 quiet$ by writ+ an evangelical tract1 to-day issues 9 a novel or a play4 ,! moral diff]s1 ! =m *anges1 ! int5tion & temp] are ! same4 ,x is ungrateful to cavil at ?is moraliz+ & didactic temp]1 :i* animates a l>ge "p ( ! nation & is responsible = mu* ( ! ,briti% a*ievem5t4 ,b its place is 9 ! _w ( action n 9 t ( lett]s1 & x does n produce ! greate/ lit]ature or ! true/ ?\ght4 ,! ,greeks might h ga9$ by a great] infusion ( x3 we1 on ! o!r h&1 c le>n some?+ f _! intellectual dis9t]e/$ness :i* 9 political & social controv]sies w\ld make oppos+ views m intelligible & ! pa? to tru? easi] & pla9]1 9 lit]ature w\ld free u f excesses t are foll[$ by reaction to a contr>y excess1 & 9 national life w\ld gu>d u f ! mat]ialism :i* besets an indu/rial & comm]cial age4 ,x is n conf9$ to ! ,greeks2 b by no p is ! ideal ( intellectual tru? m cle>ly & univ]sally exhibit$ ?an by ^? :o fir/ br\ght x into an indiff]5t _w1 & :o built ^u x _! lit]ature & art no less ?an _! sci5ce & philosophy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! la/ quality ( ,greek lit]ature ( :i* ,i wi% to speak is n "o :i* we %\ld expect to f9d 9 comb9ation ) tru?fulness2 x is c]ta9ly v r>e 9 mod]n reali/s4 ,yet ! ,greek in/9ct = beauty is beyond "q4 ,!re is ! evid5ce ( ,w9ckelmann1 :o1 liv+ 9 a _w t _h =gott5 ,greek1 r$iscov]$ x2 or ( ,keats1 :o 0 n br\ght up to ! famili>ity ) ,greek t bre$s obtus5ess & indiff]5ce1 b made acqua9tance ) x :5 he 0 ( an age to judge4 ,! impression made bo? on ,keats & ,w9ckelmann is t ( a new & surpass+ beauty4 ,!re is ! evid5ce ( '! beautiful my?ology ( ,greece'1#abb ! (fspr+ ( an untaught folk-imag9ation1 & s f> ri*] 9 ! quality ( beauty ?an ! my?ology ( ! ,nor?4 ,ev5 9 ! sawdu/ ( a my?ological diction>y ! /ories ( ,atalanta1 ,n>cissus1 ,pygmalion1 ,orpheus & ,eurydice1 ,phae?on1 ,m$usa keep _! magic4 #abb ,keats1 ,preface to ,endymion4 ,! foll[+ extract f ! hymn ( ,demet] may illu/rate ?is beauty1 ?\gh x is n "o ( ! greate/ passages ( ,greek lit]ature & its writ] is unkn[n4 ,x is ! /ory ( ! ,e>? ,"m & h] daught] ,p]sephone3 1 1 ' 1 ' ' ' '1 1 1 ' ' 1 ' ' 4 ' ' ' 1 #abc hn ,aidneus hrpax51 dk5 de b>yktypos euryopa ,zeus1 paiz\san k\rsi syn kean\ ba?ykolpois an!a t' a9ym5n1 rhoda kai krokon d' ia kala leimn' am malakon kai agallidas d' hyak9?on n>kisson ?'1 hon physe dolon kalukpidi k\r ,gaia ,dios b\lsi *>izom5 ,polydekt1 ?auma/on ganonta2 sebas to ge pas9 ide/hai a?anatois te !ois de ?ntois an?rpois2 t\ kai apo rhizs hekaton k>a exepephykei1 kz' hdi/' odm1 pas d' ouranos eurys hyp]! gaia te pas' egelasse kai halmyron oidma ?alasss4 h d' ara ?ambsas' rexato *]s9 ham' amph kalon a?yrma labe92 *ane de *?n euryagyia ,nysion am p$ion1 t or\s5 anax ,polydegmn hippois a?anatoisi4 #abc ,hymn to ,demet]1 l4 #b ff4 ,! translation is ma9ly f ,pat]1 ,greek ,/udies4 ',:om1 by ! cons5t ( f>-see+1 deep-?und]+ ,zeus1 ,aidoneus c>ri$ away1 z %e play$ ) ! deep-bosom$ daught]s ( ,ocean1 ga!r+ fl[]s 9 a mead[ ( s(t grass & roses & crocus & fair violets & iris & hyac9?s & ! /range glory ( ! n>cissus :i* ! ,e>?1 fav\r+ ! desire ( ,aidoneus1 br\ght =? to sn>e ! fl[]-l girl4 ,a wond] x 0 to all1 immortal gods & mortal m54 ,a hundr$ blossoms grew up f ! roots ( x1 & v sweet 0 its sc5t1 & ! broad sky above1 & all ! e>? & ! salt wave ( ! sea laugh$ to see x4 ,%e 9 wond] /ret*$ out h] two h&s to take ! lovely play?+3 !reupon ! wide-way$ e>? op5$ 9 ! ,nysian pla9 & ! k+ ( ! great nation ( ! dead sprang out ) 8 immortal horses4' ,turn f ?is to "s p>allel poem 9 ,engli% lit]ature1 su* z ,o5one or ,ti?onus4 ,beautiful z ,t5nyson is1 ! ,greek has a bett] beauty1 a beauty n ( words or metaphors or highly-wr\ght art1 b simpl]1 m spontane\s & m in/9ctive1 z ?\gh n man b nature h]self 0 speak+4 ,two writ]s1 :o are qualifi$ to judge by be+ !mselves among ! great poets ( ! _w1 & :o knew & appreciat$ o!r lit]atures1 b speak 9 ?is way ab\t ,greek alone1 h te/ifi$ to ! uniqu5ess ( ?is beauty4 ,goe! says /iffly b precisely3 '9 ! pres5ce ( antiquity ! m9d feels itself plac$ 9 ! mo/ ideal /ate ( nature2 & ev5 to ?is day ! ,hom]ic hymns h ! p[] ( free+ u1 at any rate1 = mom5ts1 f ! t]rible burd5 :i* ! tradition ( _m hundr$s ( ye>s has roll$ ^u u4' ,9 ^! words ,goe! has t\*$ on ! simplicity & ! naturalness ( ,greek beauty1 9 contra/ to ! m exotic & elaborate beauty ( :i* m$iaeval & mod]n art & lit]ature are full4 ,keats writ+ ab\t ! ,grecian urn also _h 9 8 m9d ! lib]at+ p[] ( ,greek beauty3 ,?\1 sil5t =m1 do/ tease u out ( ?\ght ,z do? et]nity2 ,cold ,pa/oral6 ,:5 old age %all ?is g5]ation wa/e ,?\ %alt rema91 9 mid/ ( o!r woe ,?an ours1 a fri5d to man1 to :om ?\ say/1 ',beauty is tru?1 tru? beauty'--t is all ,ye "k on e>? & all ye ne$ to "k4 ,^! words po9t to ano!r trait ( ,greek beauty1 :i* any "o :o has se5 ,greek /atues mu/ h felt3 x does n provoke speculation j z x does n excite desire1 because no elem5ts are m+l$ ) x t might /ir su* feel+s4 ,x has no admixture1 b is m]e beauty1 s\ght = itself4 ,n only is ,greek beauty diff]5t 9 quality f our own1 b x is m abundant4 ,?is surely w\ld be ! v]dict ( an imp>tial critic :o comp>$ ,hom]1 ! lyri/s1 ! trag$ians1 ,plato1 ,!ocritus1 ! epigrammati/s1 ) ! correspond+ names 9 mod]n lit]atures4 ,x am\nts to a diff]5t way ( view+ ! _w2 ! ,greeks 7 m s5sitive to beauty ?an we are1 j z "s p are m s5sitive ?an o!rs to col\rs or s\nds1 to moral or intellectual issues4 ,?is is curi\sly illu/rat$ 9 _! treatm5t ( tragic !mes4 ,!re is no want ( trag$y 9 ,hom] or ! dramati/s--_! view ( life is probably d>k] ?an our own--& !y h be5 prais$ = a pessimism t fac$ & admitt$ ! black tru?4 ,yet ! cl\d ( evil is cont9ually brok5 by rays ( beauty4 ,?us ,hom] lights up ! tragic p>t+ ( ,hector & ,&roma*e by ! /ory ( ! *ild & ! nodd+ plumes1 yet does n use ! incid5t1 z _m writ]s w\ld h us$ x1 to height5 ! trag$y1 :i* inde$ x nei!r emphasizes nor dim9i%es3 x is m]ely a gratuit\s t\* ( delight 9 *ildr51 z accid5tal & natural z ! bright] mom5ts :i*1 9 life if n 9 reali/ic novels1 div]sify ! d>ke/ h\rs4 ,?us too ,aes*ylus preludes ! bloody slaught] ( ,salamis ) ! :ite horses ( ! dawn1 ! e*oes 9 ! cliffs1 ! foam :it5+ b5ea? ! o>s1 & :5 he speaks ( ! isl& :]e ! ,p]sians are but*]$1 does n =get ! dances 9 :i* ,pan rejoic$ !re ( old4 ,?us1 aga91 "o ( ! mo/ tragic mom5ts 9 ! ,hippolytus is foll[$ by ! song1 ,c\ld ,i take me to "s cav]n = m9e hid+1 ,9 ! hill-tops :]e ! ,sun sc>ce ha? trod2 ,or a cl\d make ! home ( m9e abid+1 ,z a bird among ! bird-droves ( ,god6 ,c\ld ,i w+ me to my re/ amid ! ro> ,( ! deep ,adriatic on ! %ore1 ,:]e ! wat] ( ,eridanus is cle>1 ,& ,pha?on's sad si/]s by 8 grave ,weep into ! riv]1 & ea* te> ,gleams1 a drop ( amb]1 9 ! wave4#abd #abd ll4 #gcb f4 7tr4 ,murray74 ,! union ( beauty & trag$y may be a p>adox1 b no read] c miss its p[]4 ,! m]e /ory ( ,hector's dea? z told by ,hom] is poignant1 ev5 :5 read 9 an ,engli% translation3 ! magic ( ! orig9al language & metre d\bles ! effect4 ,! comb9ation ( ^! two app>5tly inconsi/5t ?+s1 :i* is "o ( ! m>ks ( ,greek poetry1 is1 ( c\rse1 f\nd 9 o!r lit]atures2 ! description ( ,ophelia's dea? 9 ,hamlet is an in/ance ( x4 ,b no drama except ,greek has t regul> int]weav+ ( trag$y ) exquisite lyrics by :i* "s ( its mo/ p[]ful effects are secur$4 ,effect is ! wrong ^w to use1 = we h "h no lit]>y trick1 b a view ( life1 :i* is naturally complete & cle>sight$1 :i* is s5sitive to ! beauty t no evil c de/roy1 :i* sees ! spl5d\r 9 trag$y itself1 & rememb]s t ?\gh ! days ( d>kness are _m x is a pleasant ?+ = ! eyes to behold ! sun4 ,?is philosophy1 impli$ ?r\gh\t ,greek lit]ature1 comm5ds x to _m p4 ,^? :o disagree ) ! philosophy w n qu>rel ) ! beauty itself4 ,hell5ism is "o ( ! =ces :i* are cont9ually be+ buri$ & re-f\nd1 & :i*1 l talismans1 h a di/urb+ p[] :5 !y fall afre% into human h&s4 ,^? :o read ! lit]ature ( ! age :i* r$iscov]$ ,greek w see t x br\ght above all a s5se ( lib]ation & expansion4 ,at ! ,r5aissance z 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ,greece f\nd ! _w 9 *a9s1 & broke !m & ?rew d[n ! prison walls4 ,! fett]s ( ! two epo*s 7 diff]5t1 b fre$om 0 br\ght1 at ! ,r5aissance p>tly1 & 9 ! age ( ,w9ckelmann entirely1 by ! vision ( beauty :i* ,greece exhibit$4 ,our own age has _m *a9s & kn[s well ! burd5 ( :i* ,goe! spoke4 ,x has multipli$ ugl9ess f> fa/] ?an beauty1 & its writ]s1 prolific1 int]e/+1 & ?\ghtful z !y are1 d n help x "h4 ,x may well f9d1 z o!r ages h f\nd1 9 ?is quality ( ,greek lit]ature a heal+ & lib]at+ p[]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,engli% lit]ature is surpass$ by none1 b its defects or dang]s are at po9ts :]e ,greek is /rong4 ,greek simplicity recalls u to ! c5tral int]e/s ( ! human he>t4 ,greek tru?fulness is a *all5ge to see ! _w z x is & %un ! empt9ess ( m]e music1 ! falsities ( rhetoric or s5tim5t1 ! incomplet5ess ( writ]s :o1 in/ead ( see+ life z a :ole1 ignore or emphasize a "p ( x z _! own sympa?ies dictate4 ,greek beauty is a memorial ( an aspect ( ! univ]se to :i* ages ( ?\ght are (t5 bl9d4 ,greek te*nique is a lesson 9 '=m' & a rem9d] ( its place 9 lit]ature4 ,nor is ! /udy ( ,greek a dang] to our national g5ius4 ,contact ) highly develop$ =eign models may w>p or cramp a lit]ature 9 its infancy1 b _c h>m x :5 full gr[n & robu/4 ,! native "* is !n too firmly e/abli%$ to be corrupt$1 & x is pure ga9 to h ano!r /&>d = comp>ison1 = detection ( weaknesses & _! cure4 ,a ref]5ce to ,engli% lit]ature w support ?is view & %[ t ?\gh ! influ5ce ( ,greek !re has (t5 be5 great1 x has n be5 di/ort+4 ,consid] ! ,engli% poets :o owe mo/ to ,greece--,milton1 ,gray1 ,%elley1 ,keats1 ,l&or1 ,t5nyson1 ,mat!w ,arnold1 ,sw9burne1 ,bridges4 ,x w\ld puzzle any critic to f9d a common d5om9ator betwe5 ^! m51 or to trace back to ,greece any univ]sal feature 9 _! poetry1 except p]haps p]fection ( =m4 ,te*nical p]fection is n s s]i\s or frequ5t a vice 9 ,engli% writ]s1 t x c be compla9$ (1 & ev5 ?is common elem5t vani%es1 if we add to ! poets already quot$ ! ,br[n+s1 :o priz$ & und]/ood ,greek & ! ,greek _s z well z any ( !m4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem /range t ,%elley & ,keats1 ,arnold & ,sw9burne1 :o 7 n m]ely passionate admir]s ( ,greece b drew _! *ief inspiration f h]1 %\ld be s diff]5t 9 /yle & matt]4 ,! explanation is simple4 ,"s influ5ces are tyrann\s2 !y impose !mselves1 !y dom9ate1 !y enslave4 ,b !re is a bett] & r>] type ( influ5ce1 :i* /imulates & inspires yet leaves ! poet free to develop 8 own g5ius ) enl>g$ horizons & quick5$ s5sibilities4 ,greek influ5ce on our writ]s has be5 ( ?is k9d2 p]haps because its lit]ature is s+ul>ly free f ! artifice & mann]ism :i* l5d !mselves to mimicry & seems l ,nature ) h] _m voices speak+4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,liv+/one4 ,,hi/ory ,i ,! ,relation%ip betwe5 ,anci5t ,greek & ,mod]n ,we/]n ,civilization ,anci5t ,greek society p]i%$ at lea/ z long ago z ! sev5? c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,_m hi/orians w\ld date its dea? a good _m c5turies e>li]1 & all w\ld agree t ev5 if !re are symptoms t life /ill l+]$ 9 ! body d[n to ?is "t1 its m5tal & physical en]gies _h long fail$1 & t ! *ange f le?>gy to dea? 0 h>dly p]ceptible :5 x came4 ,?us ev5 on ! mo/ cauti\s reckon+1 !re is an int]val ( ?irte5 c5turies betwe5 ! close ( ,greek hi/ory & our own times1 & ! great age ( ,greek hi/ory--! "t :5 ,anci5t ,greek society 0 9 its prime1 :5 x 0 %ap+ its own de/9y & deflect+ ! de/9y ( its neighb\rs--is sep>at$ f our g5]ation by m ?an two ?\s& ye>s4 ,:at legacy has come d[n1 ?r\gh ^! great p]iods ( "t1 f ,anci5t ,greek society to ! contempor>y _w8 ,be=e try+ to answ] ?is big "q1 let u consid] a small] "o3 ,:at is ! legacy ( ,anci5t ,greek ,hi/ory to our own society8 ,t portion ( contempor>y humanity :i* inhabits ,we/]n ,europe & ,am]ica con/itutes a specific society1 = :i* ! mo/ conv5i5t "n is ',we/]n ,civilization'1 & ?is society has a relation%ip ) ,anci5t ,greek society :i* o!r contempor>y societies--= in/ance1 ^? ( ,islam1 ,india1 & ,*9a--h n4 ,x is its *ild4 ,?is description ( ! relation%ip betwe5 ,anci5t ,greece & ! mod]n ,we/]n _w may be some?+ m ?an a metaphor1 = societies l individuals are liv+ creatures1 & may !re=e be expect$ to exhibit ! same ph5om5a4 ,at any rate ! metaphor illu/rates ! facts4 ,to beg9 )1 ! hi/ories ( ! two societies ov]lap4 ,! orig9s ( mod]n ,we/]n society may be trac$ back a c5tury or two be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 :5 ! l&s & races ( ,we/]n ,europe came into contact ) ! ,levant1 :]e ,greek society _h gr[n up & 0 !n 9 its maturity4 ,! g]m ( ,we/]n society fir/ develop$ 9 ! body ( ,greek society1 l a *ild 9 ! womb4 ,! ,roman ,empire 0 ! p]iod ( pregnancy dur+ :i* ! new life 0 %elt]$ & nurtur$ by ! old4 ,! ',d>k ,age' 0 ! crisis ( bir?1 9 :i* ! *ild broke away f its p>5t & em]g$ z a sep>ate1 ?\gh nak$ & helpless1 individual4 ,! ,middle ,ages 7 ! p]iod ( *ildhood1 9 :i* ! new creature1 ?\gh immature1 f\nd itself able to live & gr[ indep5d5tly4 ,! f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies1 ) _! m>k$ *>act]i/ics ( transition1 may /& = pub]ty1 & ! c5turies s9ce ! ye> #aejj = our prime4 ,! metaphor works out suffici5tly well to ?r[ light on our p>ticul> problem3 ! legacy bequea!d to ! ,mod]n ,we/ by ,anci5t ,greece4 ,*ildr5 'inh]it' f _! p>5ts 9 sev]al s5ses ( ! ^w4 ,!re are features & in/9cts physically transmitt$ f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,!re are imitations 9 e>ly *ildhood ( ! p>5t's spee* & ge/ure :i* are n p]haps /rictly pr$et]m9$ by ! relation%ip1 b :i* are yet p]=m$ subconsci\sly & are 9 fact s inevitable t ! *ild is nev] aw>e t x is ex]cis+ *oice 9 ! matt]4 ,& !re is delib]ate & consci\s imitation at a lat] /age :5 ! *ild is suffici5tly mature to appreciate its p>5t's "*4 ,^! sev]al =ms ( 'legacy' f p>5t to *ild diff] prim>ily 9 ! ext5t to :i* ! acceptance & use ( !m dep5ds ^u ! *ild's own w1 & x w probably be admitt$ t ! legacies :i* are ! less c]ta9 to be transmitt$ are also ! m important if ! transmission happ5s to take place4 ,= example1 a *ild's life & "* are m affect$ by delib]ate imitation ( its p>5t at a relatively advanc$ age ?an by ! un*os5 inh]itance ( "s p>ticul> col\r ( hair & eye or %ape ( *9 or pit* ( temp]am5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :ile ! inh]itance ( ^! latt] *>act]i/ics f "o among a limit$ numb] ( ance/ral /ra9s is inevitable1 ! volunt>y legacy may nev] be transmitt$ at all4 ,! *ild w n claim x unless he kn[s 8 p>5t & admires or respects him4 ,! p>5t's premature dea? or removal or ! lack ( suffici5t sympa?y betwe5 ! p>5t & ! *ild c 9 ?is case inhibit ! transmission1 & ! pot5tial legacy1 ) its mom5t\s possibilities ( influ5ce ^u ! *ild's c>e]1 w nev] 9 fact be bequea!d4 ,^! consid]ations may guide u 9 an analysis ( ! legacy :i* we h receiv$ f our p>5t society--! civilization ( ,anci5t ,greece4 ,fir/1 has ,anci5t ,greece transmitt$ to u any?+ comp>able to ! physical & psy*ological legacy ( an individual human p>5t to h] *ild8 ,?is is a difficult "q = u to answ]1 j z x is difficult = memb]s ( ! same family to appreciate ! 'family lik5ess' betwe5 !m4 ,a ,moslem or ,h9du or ,*9aman c\ld judge bett] ?an we4 ,b x is c]ta9ly possible t ! comp>ative simil>ity ( climatic conditions & ! comp>ative unity ( racial /ock has creat$ a clos] relation%ip betwe5 ^! two societies ?an betwe5 ei!r "o ( !m & any o!r4 ,! poetry & philosophy & social life & political in/itutions ( ,anci5t ,greece & ! ,mod]n ,we/ may conceivably con/itute a s+le species :5 contra/$ ) ! in/itutions ( o!r civilizations4 ,a mod]n ,we/ ,european or ,am]ican may h a great] innate appreciation = ,hom] ?an = ! ,old ,te/am5t or = ,sokrates ?an = ,buddha or ,confucius4 ,! p>allel :i* hi/orians s (t5 draw1 or imply1 betwe5 ! conflict ( ,anci5t ,greece ) ! ,anci5t ,ea/ & t ( ! ,mod]n ,we/ ) ! ,mod]n ,ea/ may re/ on a real k9%ip betwe5 ! two ,occid5tal civilizations z contra/$ ) _! respective ,ori5tal neighb\rs4 ,b ?is is unc]ta9 & on ! :ole unpr(itable gr\nd4 ,:5 we come to ! 'subconsci\sly *os5' type ( legacy1 ! analogy ) ! relation%ip betwe5 p>5t & *ild becomes m evid5t4 ,legacies ( ?is type f ,anci5t ,greek society are prom95t 9 ! ,middle ,ages--! *ildhood ( mod]n ,we/]n civilization :i* foll[$ ! ',d>k ,age' crisis ( bir?4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ne$s ( our "y ,we/]n society z x /ruggl$ to its feet 0 a symbol ( its unity--some?+ correspond+ to ! atta9m5t ( self-consci\sness by ! individual human be+--& = ?is x borr[$ ! la/ con/ructive idea ( ! ,anci5t ,greek _w4 ,! m$iaeval ',holy ,roman ,empire' _h q a diff]5t purpose & function1 9 ! *ildhood ( mod]n ,we/]n civilization1 f ! purpose & function ( ! ,roman ,empire 9 ! old age ( ,anci5t ,greece4 ,b ! "y civilization did n ?9k ( inv5t+ a new in/itution = its individual ne$s4 ,9 its subconsci\s pursuit ( its own developm5t x conceiv$ itself to be reviv+ "o ( ! cu/oms ( its v5]able p>5t4 ,! political ?9k]s ( ,*>lemagne's day nev] imag9$ t ! idea ( _w unity c\ld be embodi$ 9 any o!r =m4 ,aga91 a c5tury or s lat]1 c]ta9 portions ( ,we/]n society1 especially ! populations ( ,nor? & ,c5tral ,italy & ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 _h outdi/anc$ ! re/ 9 economic developm5t & ne$$ in/itutions ( local self-gov]nm5t to give _! economic vitality free play4 ,9 ?is case1 aga91 ,we/]n civilization rev]t$ to an ,anci5t ,greek in/itution & reviv$ ! 'city-/ate'4 ,a little lat] /ill1 ! rapidly gr[+ & diff]5tiat+ body ( ,we/]n civilization 0 impell$ t[>ds t]ritorial expansion1 & s\ght x1 l ,anci5t ,greece 9 a simil> p]iod1 r\nd ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is m$iaeval movem5t ( expansion1 :i* is commonly call$ ! ,crusades1 b :i* made itself felt 9 ,spa9 & ,sicily & ! ,aegean z well z 9 ! ',holy ,l&'1 is a rem>kable p>allel to ! propagation ( ,anci5t ,greek city-/ates r\nd ! same %ores betwe5 ab\t #gej & #fjj ,b4 ,c4 ,9 drift+ back ^u ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! m$iaeval ,we/ 0 se>*+ = new realms to conqu]1 b x 0 really captur$ by ! romance ( its ance/ral home4 ,"h1 !n1 are ?ree prom95t features 9 m$iaeval ,we/]n hi/ory--! ,holy ,roman ,empire1 ! ,flemi% & ,italian communes1 & ! ,crusades--:i* 7 legacies f ,anci5t ,greek hi/ory 9 ! s5se ( be+ subconsci\s rev]sions to ! habits ( ! p>5t society4 ,b h ^! m$iaeval legacies f ,anci5t ,greece be5 really important con/itu5ts 9 our hi/ory view$ z a :ole8 ,h !y n r be5 false gr[?s :i* l$ to little or no?+8 ,! ,holy ,roman ,empire 0 nev] m ?an a mirage4 ,! s5se ( unity 9 ! mod]n ,we/]n _w is d]iv$ n f ?is b f a really orig9al in/itution1 ! e>ly ,papal ,*ur*1 9 :i* any legacy f ,anci5t ,greece w\ld be h>d to disc]n4 ,! national /ates ( mod]n ,europe & ,am]ica are d]iv$ n f m$iaeval ,gh5t or ,bruges or ,flor5ce or ,v5ice b f ! new1 ?\gh clumsy1 feudal communities ( m$iaeval ,engl& & ,france4 ,& ! expansion ( ,we/]n society has n foll[$ ! direction indicat$ by ! ,crusades4 ,! false trail ( ! ,m$it]ranean 0 practically ab&on$ aft] less ?an ?ree c5turies' trial4 ,! true doma9 ( mod]n ,we/]n civilization has be5 f\nd 9 regions :i* ,anci5t ,greece h>dly explor$3 ,nor!rn ,g]many & ,sc&9avia & ! ,briti% ,isles1 ! ,nor? ,sea & ! ,baltic1 ! ,atlantic & ! cont95t ( ,am]ica4 ,?us our m$iaeval legacies f ,anci5t ,greece--! subconsci\s rev]sions ( *ildhood--are hi/orical curiosities r ?an vital l9ks betwe5 ! two civilizations4 ,our really important legacy f ,anci5t ,greece 0 adopt$ ) full consci\sness & delib]ation :5 we /ood on ! ?re%old ( our own maturity4 ,! legacy ( ?is ?ird type :i* we h receiv$ f ,anci5t ,greece has be5 giv5 ! g5]al "n ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,x 0 a det]m9$ & successful attempt1 on ! "p ( our society1 to le>n ev]y?+ t ! lit]>y & arti/ic rema9s ( our great pr$ecessor c\ld tea* u4 ,x lay )9 our *oice to /udy ^! rema9s or to pass !m by1 & ! fact t we *ose to /udy !m has be5 "o ( ! greate/ & ! mo/ =tunate decisions 9 ! c>e] ( our civilization4 ,! sev]al aspects ( ?is acceptance ( :at ,anci5t ,greece _h to (f] h be5 treat$ already 9 ! o!r *apt]s 9 ?is volume4 ,"h x is m]ely necess>y to po9t out t ! ,r5aissance 0 a /udy & assimilation n only ( ,anci5t ,greek lit]ature & art1 b ( ar*itecture1 natural sci5ce1 ma!matics1 philosophy1 political ideas1 & all ! o!r high] expressions ( a great society4 ,! absorption ( ?is va/ curr5t ( life l>gely acc\nts = ! wond]ful impetus :i* has reveal$ itself 9 ,we/]n civilization dur+ ! la/ f\r c5turies4 ,has ! curr5t n[ sp5t its =ce8 ,has ! legacy adopt$ f\r c5turies ago be5 us$ up & exhau/$8 ,"u ! inspiration ( ,anci5t ,greece1 has ! mod]n ,we/ n[ creat$ a lit]ature1 art1 ar*itecture1 sci5ce1 ma!matics1 philosophy1 & political ?\ght :i* equal or surpass ! ,anci5t patt]ns & turn !m f an inspiration into an encumbrance8 ,t seems to be ! fundam5tal "q beh9d ! controv]sy ab\t ! /udy ( ,anci5t ,greek life 9 ,engl& to-day4 ,p]haps ! answ] may be f\nd--if we may g back to our metaphor--9 ! uniqu5ess ( ! individual p]sonality4 ,if "o consid]s ! relations ( a p>5t & *ild1 or inde$ ( any two human be+s1 x is evid5t t ! "o c\ld nev] exhau/ all t c\ld be le>nt f ! p]sonality ( ! o!r4 ,! "o might acquire e physical1 m5tal1 & moral atta9m5t t ! o!r c\ld display1 & yet ! o!r's unique individuality w\ld rema9--an inexhau/ible subject ( /udy1 ?r[+ p]petual new light ^u ! life ( ! obs]v] himself & ( 8 fell[ human be+s4 ,?is is true ( any two human be+s1 b if ! two happ5 to be p ( comm&+ "* & g5ius x becomes a truism :i* x w\ld be almo/ ludicr\s to "q4 ,let u apply ?is to ! /udy n ( "o individual b ( "o society by ano!r1 & let u take ! case 9 po9t1 9 :i* ! two societies happ5 to be great civilizations4 ,! /udy ( a great civilization has a unique value1 n m]ely = memb]s ( ano!r civilization :i* /&s to x 9 ! relation ( *ild to p>5t1 b = e seek] aft] k :o has a civilization ( 8 own4 ,?is ultimate & mo/ preci\s legacy ( ,anci5t ,greece is at ! disposal ( ,moslems1 ,h9dus1 & ,*9ese1 z well z ,we/]n]s4 ,= receiv+ x !re are two qualifications3 a good und]/&+ & an op5 m9d4 ,,ii ,anci5t ,greek ,civilization z a ,"w ( ,art ,civilizations are ! greate/ & ! r>e/ a*ievem5ts ( human society4 ,innum]able societies h be5 com+ into be+ & p]i%+ dur+ _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 & h>dly any ( !m h creat$ civilizations4 ,"o c c\nt ! civilizations on "o's f+]s4 ,we h _h p]haps ?ree 9 ,europe3 ! ,m9oan 9 ! ,aegean ,isl&s 7! dates #djjj-aajj ,b4 ,c4 r\ghly cov] its hi/ory72 ! ,greek or ,graeco-,roman r\nd ! coa/s ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7its hi/ory ext5ds betwe5 ! elev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 & ! sev5? c5tury ,a4 ,d472 & our mod]n ,we/]n civilization r\nd ! coa/s ( ! ,atlantic1 :i* began to em]ge f twilight 9 ! eigh? c5tury ,a4 ,d4 & is /ill 9 exi/5ce4 ,!n !re are ! anci5t civilizations ( ,egypt & ,l[] ,mesopotamia1 :i* 7 fir/ dom9at$ by ,anci5t ,greece & !n amalgamat$ into ! s+le ,middle ,ea/]n civilization ( ,islam2 & !re are ! civilizations ( ,india & ,*9a4 ,ev5 if we c\nt z civilizations ! societies exi/+ 9 ,mexico & ,p]u be=e ! ,spani% ,conque/1 ! total numb] ( kn[n indep5d5t civilizations1 comp>$ ) ! total numb] ( kn[n human societies1 is v small4 ,& x is s because ! a*ievem5t is a/oni%+ly difficult4 ,!re are two con/ant factors 9 social life--! _s ( man & its environm5t4 ,social life is ! relation betwe5 !m1 & life only rises to ! height ( civilization :5 ! _s ( man is ! dom9ant p>tn] 9 ! relation%ip--:5 in/ead ( be+ m\ld$ by ! environm5t 7z x is 9 ! tropical =e/s ( ,c5tral ,africa & ,brazil71 or simply hold+ its own aga9/ ! environm5t 9 a k9d ( equilibrium 7z x does on ! /eppes ( ,c5tral ,asia or ,arabia1 among ! nomads71 x m\lds ! environm5t to its own purpose1 or 'expresses' itself by 'impress+' itself ^u ! _w4 ,! /udy ( a civilization is n diff]5t 9 k9d f ! /udy ( a lit]ature4 ,9 bo? cases "o is /udy+ a creation ( ! _s ( man1 or1 9 m famili> t]ms1 a "w ( art4 ,civilization is a "w ( art--9 ! lit]al mean+ ( ! phrase & n m]ely by a metaphor4 ,x is true t works ( art are made by individuals1 civilization by a society4 ,b :at "w ( art is !re 9 :i* ! individual arti/ owes no?+ to o!rs8 ,& a civilization1 ! "w ( c\ntless individuals & _m g5]ations1 diff]s 9 ?is respect f a poem or a /atue n 9 k9d b only 9 degree4 ,x is a social "w ( art1 express$ 9 social action1 l a ritual or a play4 ,"o _c describe x bett] ?an by call+ x a trag$y ) a plot1 & hi/ory is ! plot ( ! trag$y ( civilization4 ,/ud5ts ( ! drama1 f ,ari/otle onw>ds1 seem to agree t ne>ly all ! great trag$ies 9 lit]ature are expositions ( q a few fundam5tal plots4 ,& x is possible t ! great trag$ies ( hi/ory--t is1 ! great civilizations t h be5 creat$ by ! _s ( man--may all reveal ! same plot1 if we analyse !m rightly4 ,ea* civilization--= in/ance1 ! civilization ( ,m$iaeval & ,mod]n ,europe & aga9 t ( ,anci5t ,greece--is probably a v>iant ( a s+le !me4 ,& to /udy ! plot ( civilization 9 a great exposition ( x--l ! ,hell5ic exposition or our own ,we/]n exposition--is surely ! "r goal ( a humane education4 ,b ( c\rse "o asks3 ,:y /udy ,anci5t ,hell5ic civilization r ?an ours8 ,! /udy ( any "o civilization is s complex1 x dem&s s _m prelim9>y & subord9ate /udies--l+ui/ic1 in/itutional1 economic1 psy*ological--t x is likely to absorb all "o's en]gies4 ,! greate/ hi/orians h g5]ally conf9$ !mselves to ! /udy ( a s+le civilization1 & ! great ,greek hi/orians--,h]odotus1 ,?ucydides1 & ,polybius--conc5trat$ on _! own1 & only /udi$ o!rs 9 s f> z _! own came into contact ) !m4 ,cle>ly1 p :o are go+ to be hi/orians1 n = life1 b z an education = life1 mu/ make _! *oice4 ,!y mu/ practically conf9e !mselves to /udy+ "o civilization if !y are to reap ! fruits ( /udy at all1 & 9 ?is case x is natural to ask3 ,:y /udy ,hell5ism r ?an our own hi/ory8 ,!re are two obvi\s argum5ts 9 fav\r ( /udy+ mod]n hi/ory4 ,x seems m famili> & x seems m useful4 ,& x w\ld be a mi/ake to misrepres5t ^! argum5ts by /at+ !m only 9 _! crud] =ms4 ',famili>' does n mean 'easy'1 & to say t mod]n hi/ory seems m useful ?an anci5t does n mean t ! /udy ( x is a clos] approximation to a ,pelman c\rse4 ,!re is an exce$+ly crude view ( education among "s p j n[--p]haps x is l>gely due to ! w>1 & may disappe> l o!r ugly effects ( ! w>--:i* incl9es to conc5trate education on appli$ *emi/ry1 say1 or eng9e]+1 ) a vague idea t p ^: education has be5 devot$ to ^! subjects w be m capable ( compet+ ) =eign]s 9 ! dye indu/ry or ( work+ 9 munition factories 9 ! next em]g5cy4 ,9 ! same way1 conceivably1 conc5tration on mod]n hi/ory might be suppos$ to equip a /ud5t = secur+ concessions abroad = a firm1 or = w9n+ a p>liam5t>y election4 ,( c\rse1 ?is attitude1 ?\gh x is r widespread j n[1 is absurd4 ,! fallacy lies 9 confus+ ! g5]al !oretical k ( a subject acquir$ ?r\gh be+ educat$ 9 x ) ! te*nical k & p]sonal exp]i5ce :i* "o mu/ h to turn ! same subject to practical acc\nt 9 aft] life4 ,!re is no diff]5ce ( op9ion on ?is po9t betwe5 'humani/s' & 'sci5ti/s'4 ,! issue is betwe5 p :o d n appreciate ! value ( ! pursuit ( k z an end 9 itself1 & ^? :o d appreciate x & :o !re=e und]/& :at education means4 ,true lov]s ( k & true believ]s 9 education w be f\nd on ! same side 9 ?is controv]sy1 :e!r ! subject ( _! /udy happ5s to be ! _s ( man or ! laws ( its environm5t4 ,b ap>t f t crude utilit>ianism1 :i* is z unsci5tific z x is un-humane1 a s]i\s argum5t = /udy+ mod]n r ?an anci5t hi/ory c also be /at$ f ! humane & ! sci5tific po9t ( view4 ,x may be argu$ t ! direct exp]i5ce we h ( our own civilization makes x possible = u to h a deep]1 & !re=e a m humane & sci5tific1 und]/&+ ( x ?an we c ev] h ( ,anci5t ,greece4 ,& "o might g on to argue1 on gr\nds ( humanism alone1 t su* a compreh5sion ( ! "* & orig9s ( our civilization w\ld h a m pr(\nd humaniz+ influ5ce ^u its developm5t ?an a less intimate /udy ( a diff]5t civilization c\ld produce4 ,?is argum5t is b\nd to appeal to ! g5]ation :i* has exp]i5c$ ! w>4 ,! w> is obvi\sly "o ( ! great crises ( our civilization4 ,x is l a conflagration light+ up ! dim pa/ & ?r[+ x into p]spective4 ,! w> makes x impossible = u to take our own hi/ory = grant$4 ,we are b\nd to inquire into ! causes ( su* an a/oni%+ cata/rophe1 & z soon z we d t we f9d ourselves inquir+ into ! evolution ( ,we/]n ,civilization s9ce x em]g$ f ! ,d>k ,age4 ,! %ock ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w> gave j ! same intellectual /imulus to ,?ucydides1 & made him preface 8 hi/ory ( t w> ) a critical analysis1 brief b unsurpass$1 ( ! orig9s ( ,hell5ic civilization--! fam\s introductory *apt]s ( ,book ,i4 ,may n ^! *apt]s po9t ! road = u & c\nsel u to conc5trate ^u ! /udy ( our own hi/ory8 ,?is "q des]ves v s]i\s consid]ation1 n m]ely f ! utilit>ian1 b f ! sci5tific & humane po9t ( view4 ,b ! answ] is n a =egone conclusion4 ,!re is a case = /udy+ ! civilization ( ,anci5t ,greece :i* c be summ$ up 9 f\r po9ts1 z foll[s3 7i7 ,9 ,greek hi/ory ! plot ( civilization has be5 work$ out to its conclusion4 ,we c sit z spectators ?r\gh ! :ole play2 we c say3 ',?is or t is ! crisis2 f ?is po9t onw>ds ! end is inevitable2 or if ?is actor _h act$ o!rwise 9 ^? circum/ances ! issue w\ld n nave be5 ! same4' ,we c grasp ! /ructure ( ! trag$y & divide x into acts4 ,b 9 our own hi/ory we are l play]s 9 ! middle ( ! piece1 & ?\gh we may be able to say ',?is is ! ?ird act or ! f\r? act'1 we _c say ',?is is ! la/ act or ! la/ b "o'4 ,we _c =etell ! future2 ! "w ( art we are /udy+ is incomplete1 & !re=e we _c possibly appreh5d x z an arti/ic :ole1 h[ev] vivid may be our exp]i5ce ( isolat$ sc5es & situations4 ,! fir/ po9t 9 fav\r ( ,greek hi/ory is its complet5ess & its true p]spective f our po9t ( view4 7ii7 ,! second is t ! hi/orical exp]i5ce ( ! ,greeks has be5 m f9ely express$ ?an ours4 ,its expression is 9 all ,greek art & lit]ature--= x is a great mi/ake to suppose t hi/orical exp]i5ce is express$ 9 s-call$ hi/orical records alone4 ,! great poets ( ,greece are ( z mu* assi/ance 9 und]/&+ ! m5tal hi/ory ( ,greece 7:i* is aft] all ! ess5tial elem5t 9 any hi/ory7 z ! philosoph]s & hi/orians4 ,& ,greek hi/orical exp]i5ce or m5tal hi/ory is bett] express$ 9 ,greek lit]ature ?an ours is 9 ! lit]ature ( mod]n ,europe4 ,)\t attempt+ to comp>e ! two lit]atures z lit]atures x c be said ) "s confid5ce t ! surviv+ ma/]pieces ( ,greek lit]ature give a bett] insight into ! subjective side ( ,greek hi/ory--into ! emotions & speculations :i* arose out ( ! vicissitudes ( ,greek society & 7 its mo/ spl5did creations--?an any insight into ! subjective side ( mod]n hi/ory :i* we c obta9 by /udy+ x ?r\gh mod]n lit]ature4 7iii7 ,! ?ird po9t is express$ 9 ! conclud+ phrase ( ,ari/otle's def9ition ( trag$y 7,poetics1 vi4 #b74 ',trag$y'1 he says1 'is an imitation ( an action t is s]i\s1 complete1 & ( a c]ta9 magnitude 444 ?r\gh pity & fe> effect+ ! prop] ka?>sis or purgation1 ( ^! emotions4' 7,but*]'s translation47 ,?is ^w ka?>sis--purgation1 purification1 cleans+1 dis*>ge--has be5 ! subject ( int]m9able controv]sy among s*ol>s1 b any "o acqua9t$ ) ,anci5t ,greek lit]ature :o has liv$ ?r\gh ! w> w und]/& :at x means4 ,c]ta9ly ! writ] f\nd1 9 ! wor/ mom5ts ( ! w>1 t passages f ! classics--"s l9e ( ,aes*ylus or ,lucretius or ,virgil1 or ! s5se ( "s spee* 9 ,?ucydides1 or ! impression ( "s mood ( bitt]ness or s]5ity 9 a dialogue ( ,plato--w\ld come into 8 m9d & give him relief4 ,^! m5 _h travell$ along ! road on :i* our feet 7 set2 !y _h travell$ x f>!r ?an we1 travell$ x to ! end2 & ! wisdom ( great] exp]i5ce & ! poignancy ( great] suff]+ ?an ours 0 express$ 9 ! beauty ( _! words4 ,9 ! writ]'s p]sonal exp]i5ce t relief 0 obta9$ f acqua9tance ) ,greek civilization z express$ 9 ,greek lit]ature4 ,x put "o 9 communication ) a diff]5t civilization f our own--) p :o _h exp]i5c$ all & m ?an we _h exp]i5c$1 & :o 7 n[ at peace beyond ! _w ( "t & *ange4 ,ka?>sis1 !n1 is ! emotional value :i* is peculi> to ! /udy ( a diff]5t civilization1 & :i* "o _c get1 at any rate ) ! same int5sity1 by ! /udy ( 8 own4 7iv7 ,?is emotional value has its intellectual c\nt]p>t 9 ! comp>ative me?od ( /udy1 :i* "o gets by /udy+1 n 8 own circum/ances1 b circum/ances comp>able to1 )\t be+ id5tical )1 8 own4 ,?is is a commonplace 9 ! field ( language4 ,! /udy ( ,anci5t ,greek is g5]ally admitt$ to h m educative value = an ,engli%man ?an ! /udy ( mod]n ,fr5* or ,g]man1 because ,greek & ,engli% embody ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( human language 9 entirely indep5d5t =ms ( expression1 :ile ,fr5* & ,engli%1 9 addition to ! elem5ts common to all language1 %>e ! special backgr\nd ( ! ,bible & ! ,classics1 :i* h giv5 !m an ext5sive common /ock ( phraseology & imag]y4 ,?is applies equally to ! /udy ( civilization4 ,"o le>ns m by /udy+ ,anci5t ,greek religion & comp>+ x ) ,*ri/ianity ?an by /udy+ ,*ri/ianity 9 ignorance ( o!r religi\s ph5om5a2 & "o le>ns m ab\t in/itutions by /udy+ ! ,greek city-/ate & comp>+ x ) ! mod]n national /ate ?an by m]ely /udy+ ! evolution ( ! national /ate 9 mod]n ,europe4 ,if we take utility to mean intellectual & n practical utility--& z humani/s & sci5ti/s we d--we may claim )\t p>adox t ! /udy ( ,greek civilization is valuable j because x is n our own4 ,^!1 !n1 are f\r po9ts 9 fav\r ( ,greek hi/ory3 we possess ! :ole trag$y1 x is a magnific5t expression ( ! plot1 & x has a peculi> emotional value & a peculi> intellectual value :i* ! drama 9 :i* we ourselves are actors _c h = u4 ,at ?is po9t x is necess>y to give a sket* ( ! plot ( ,greek hi/ory--e "o mu/ make 8 own sket*2 ! writ] (f]s 8 to provoke ! read] to make 8 own--& !n to illu/rate ! second po9t1 ! beauty ( ! expression1 by quot+ half a doz5 passages f anci5t au?ors4 ,! o!r two po9ts--! ca?>tic & ! comp>ative value ( ,greek hi/ory--are matt]s ( p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,i h little d\bt t ! read] w exp]i5ce !m himself if he takes up ?is /udy s]i\sly & f a broad po9t ( view4 ,,iii ,! ,plot ( ,anci5t ,greek ,civilization ,! g5esis ( ,anci5t ,greek civilization is c]ta9ly lat] ?an ! twelf? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 :5 ,m9oan civilization1 its pr$ecessor1 0 /ill 9 process ( dissolution2 & ! t]m9ation ( ,anci5t ,greek civilization mu/ c]ta9ly be plac$ be=e ! eigh? c5tury ,a4 ,d41 :5 mod]n ,we/]n civilization1 its successor1 _h already come into be+4 ,betwe5 ^! extreme po9ts we _c exactly date its beg9n+ & end1 b we c see t x cov]s a p]iod ( sev5te5 or eighte5 c5turies4 ,x is easi] to divide ! trag$y into acts4 ,we c at once disc]n two dramatic crises--! outbreak ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w> & ! f\ndation ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,we c = conv5i5ce take precise dates--#dca ,b4 ,c4 & #ca ,b4 ,c4--& gr\p ! action into ?ree acts or phases1 "o be=e1 "o betwe51 & "o aft] ^! critical mom5ts4 ,x is be/ to give ! analysis 9 tabul> =m3 ,act ,i 7#aa? c5t4-#dca ,b4 ,c474 #a4 ,synoikismos 7=mation ( ! city-/ate1 ! cell ( ,greek society71 #aa? c5t4-#gej ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,colonization 7propagation ( ! city-/ate r\nd ! ,m$it]ranean71 #gej-fjj ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,economic revolution 7*ange f ext5sive to int5sive gr[?71 #fjj-ejj ,b4 ,c4 #d4 ,conf$]ation 7repulse ( ,ori5tal univ]sal empire & creation ( an int]-/ate f$]ation1 ! ,delian ,league71 #ejj-dca ,b4 ,c4 ,act ,,ii 7#dca ,b4 ,c4-#ca ,b4 ,c474 #a4 ,! ,greek w>s 7failure ( int]-/ate f$]ation71 #dca-cee ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,! ,ori5tal w>s 7! sup]man1 conque/ ( ! ,ea/1 /ruggle = ! spoils1 b>b>ian invasion71 #cee-bgb ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,! fir/ rally 7*ange ( scale & fre% exp]im5ts 9 f$]ation--,seleucid ,asia1 ,roman ,italy1 ,aetolian & ,a*aean ',unit$ ,/ates'71 #bgb-bah ,b4 ,c4 #d4 ,! ,roman w>s 7de/ruction ( f\r great p[]s by "o2 deva/ation ( ! ,m$it]ranean _w71 #bah-adf ,b4 ,c4 #e4 ,! class w>s 7capitalism1 bol%evism1 ,napoleonism71 #adf-ca ,b4 ,c4 ,act ,,iii 7#ca ,b4 ,c4-#g? c5t4 ,a4 ,d474 #a4 ,! second rally 7f9al exp]im5t 9 f$]ation--compromise betwe5 city-/ate autonomy & capitali/ic c5tralization71 #ca ,b4 ,c4-,a4 ,d4 #ahj4 #b4 ,! fir/ dissolution 7ext]nal front brok5 by tribesm51 int]nal by ,*ri/ianity71 ,a4 ,d4 #ahj-bhd4 #c4 ,! f9al rally 7,con/ant9e ton dmon prosetairizetai--tribesm5 on to ! l&1 bi%ops into ! bureaucracy71 ,a4 ,d4 #bhd-cgh4 #d4 ,! f9al dissolution 7break ( tradition71 ,a4 ,d4 #cgh-g? c5t4 ,?is analysis is & mu/ be subjective4 ,e "o has to make 8 own1 j z e "o has to appreh5d = himself ! =m ( a "w ( art4 ,b h[ev] ! hi/orian may analyse ! plot & gr\p x into acts1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! action is cont9u\s1 & t ! fir/ em]g5ce ( ! ,greek city-/ate 9 ! ,aegean & ! la/ traces ( municipal self-gov]nm5t 9 ! ,roman ,empire are phases 9 ! hi/ory ( a s+le civilization4 ,x may seem a p>adox to call ?is civilization a unity4 ,b ! /udy ( ,greek & ,lat9 lit]ature leaves no d\bt 9 "o's m9d t ! diff]5ce ( language !re is less significant ?an ! unity ( =m1 & t "o is really deal+ ) a s+le lit]ature1 ! ,hell5ic1 :i* 9 _m ( its bran*es 0 imitat$ & propagat$ 9 ! ,lat9 language1 j z x 0 to a less] ext5t 9 ,hebrew1 or lat] on 9 ,syriac & ,arabic4 ,! unity is ev5 m app>5t :51 in/ead ( conf9+ our att5tion to lit]ature1 we reg>d ! :ole field ( civilization4 ,x is n really possible to draw a di/9ction betwe5 ,greek hi/ory & ,roman hi/ory4 ,at mo/ "o c say t at "s po9t ,greek hi/ory ent]s on a phase :i* x may be conv5i5t to di/+ui% v]bally by connect+ x ) ! "n ( ,rome4 ,to take ! case ( ! ,roman ,empire--! read] may possibly h be5 surpris$ to f9d ! ,roman ,empire treat$ z ! ?ird act 9 ! trag$y ( ,greece2 yet :5 "o /udies ! ,empire "o f9ds t x 0 ess5tially a ,greek in/itution4 ,in/itutionally x 0 at bottom a f$]ation ( city-/ates1 a solution ( ! political problem ) :i* ,greek society _h be5 wre/l+ s9ce ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,& ev5 ! non-municipal elem5t1 ! c5traliz$ bureaucratic organization :i* ,augu/us spread l a f9e1 almo/ impalpable net to hold 8 f$]ation ( municipalities toge!r1 0 l>gely a fruit ( ,greek adm9i/rative exp]i5ce4 ,z papyrology reveals ! adm9i/rative sy/em ( ! ,ptolemaic ,dyna/y--! ,greek successors ( ,alex&] :o prec$$ ! ,caes>s 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,egypt--we are le>n+ t ev5 ^? in/itutions ( ! ,empire :i* h be5 reg>d$ z mo/ un-,greek may h be5 borr[$ ?r\gh a ,greek int]m$i>y4 ,imp]ial jurisprud5ce1 aga91 int]pret$ ,roman municipal law into ! law ( a civilization by read+ into x ! pr9ciples ( ,greek moral philosophy4 ,& ,greek1 n ,lat91 0 /ill ! language 9 :i* mo/ ( ! greate/ lit]ature ( ! ,imp]ial p]iod 0 writt54 ,"o ne$ only m5tion works :i* are /ill widely read & :i* h influ5c$ our own civilization--,plut>*'s ,lives1 ,m>cus ,aurelius' ,m$itations1 & ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,!y are all writt5 9 ,greek1 & :o w v5ture to ass]t t ! age 9 :i* !y 7 writt5 falls outside ,greek hi/ory1 or t ! social exp]i5ce :i* produc$ !m 0 n an act 9 ! trag$y ( ,hell5ic civilization8 ,ev5 /ati/ically ! ,empire 0 m ,greek ?an any?+ else4 ,probably a consid]able majority ( its inhabitants spoke ,greek z a l+ua franca1 if n z _! "m-tongue4 ,ne>ly all ! great indu/rial & comm]cial c5tres 7 9 ! ,greek or ,hell5iz$ prov9ces4 ,possibly1 dur+ ! fir/ two c5turies ( ! ,empire1 m ,greek 0 spok5 ?an ,lat9 by ! prolet>iat ( ,rome itself4 ,! ,greek core ( ! ,roman ,empire play$ ! "p ( ,we/]n ,europe 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,! ,lat9iz$ prov9ces 7 ?9ly populat$1 backw>d1 & only sup]ficially initiat$ into ! frat]nity ( civilization4 ,lat9iz$ ,spa9 & ,africa 7 ! ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,lat9iz$ ,gaul & ,brita9 ! ,russia ( ! ,anci5t ,greek _w4 ,! pulse ( ! ,empire 0 driv5 by a ,greek he>t1 & x beat comp>atively feebly 9 ! non-,greek extremities4 ,,iv ,! ,lit]>y ,expression ( ! ,plot ,& n[1 aft] hav+ sugge/$ a read+ ( ! plot1 x is "t to let ! actors speak = !mselves4 ,!re is only space to quote half a doz5 passages1 b !y h be5 *os5 to illu/rate ! critical sc5es & situations 9 ! drama z x has be5 sket*$ out1 & !y may p]suade ! read] t !re is some?+ to be said = ! pres5t int]pretation4 ,we %all n dwell on ! p]iod ,i h call$ ! fir/ act--t is1 ! p]iod be=e #dca ,b4 ,c4 ,b ! read] is recomm5d$1 aga91 n to lay aside ! ,greek poets :5 he takes up ! ,greek hi/orians4 ,hom] w reveal m ( ! op5+ sc5es ?an ,h]odotus2 & ! exaltation ( _s produc$ by ! repulse ( ! ,p]sians1 & express$ in/itutionally 9 ! f\ndation ( ! ,delian ,league1 c h>dly be realiz$ emotionally )\t ! poetry ( ,aes*ylus4 ,b ! philosoph]s & sci5ti/s are indisp5sable too4 ,pr(essor ,burnet's ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 or 8 ,greek ,philosophy f ,?ales to ,plato1 ?r[s light on hi/ory & n m]ely on ! ,greek !ory ( k4 ,& ! read] %\ld make acqua9tance ) ! little "w on ',atmosph]es1 ,wat]s1 & ,localities' emanat+ f ! ,hippokratean s*ool ( m$ic9e4 ,x is only ?irty-eight pages 9 ! ,teubn] text 7,hippocratis ,op]a1 vol4 i71 & x gives cle>] expression ?an ,h]odotus to ! fif?-c5tury sci5tific po9t ( view4 ,"h is "o passage :i* might h be5 writt5 9 ,victorian ,engl&4 ,! writ] is describ+ a peculi> disease preval5t among ! nomads ( s\!rn ,russia4 ',! natives'1 he rem>ks1 'believe t ?is disease is s5t by ,god1 & !y rev]5ce & wor%ip its victims1 9 fe> ( be+ /rick5 by x !mselves4 ,i too am q ready to admit t ^! ph5om5a are caus$ by ,god1 b ,i take ! same view ab\t all ph5om5a & hold t no s+le ph5om5on is m or less div9e 9 orig9 ?an any o!r4 ,all are uni=m & all may be div9e1 b ea* ph5om5on obeys a law1 & natural law kn[s no exceptions4' ,x is h>d to leave ?is fir/ act ( ! trag$y4 ,x is a triumph ( y\?1 & ! phrase 9 :i* ,h]odotus sums up ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,sp>ta expresses ! prevail+ _s ( e>ly ,hell5ic civilization4 ,ana te edramon kai eu!n?san3 ',!y %ot up & ?rove4' ,b !re is ano!r phrase 9 ,h]odotus :i* ann\nces ! second act--an om9\s phrase :i* came s natural to him t "o may notice ab\t a doz5 in/ances ( x 9 8 hi/ory4 ,edei g> t de9i g5e/hai kaks3 ',evil _h to befall s-&-s1 & !re=e'--! /ory ( a cata/rophe foll[s 9 ea* case4 ,! ?\ght beh9d ! phrase is express$ 9 ,solon's words to ,croesus 7,h]odotus1 ,bk4 ,i1 *4 #cb73 ',croesus1 ,i "k t ,god is ev] envi\s & disord]+' 7 t>a*des71 '& y ask me ab\t ! de/9y ( man6' ,note ! epi!t translat$ 'disord]+'2 we %all meet ! ^w t>a* aga94 ,x is ! bitt] phrase ( a man :o liv$ on f ! great age into ! w>1 b n s bitt] z ! tru? :i* ! writ] c\ld n br+ himself :olly to express4 ',no s+le ph5om5on'1 z contempor>y ,greek sci5ce realiz$1 'is m or less div9e ?an any o!r'1 & ! 'envi\s & disord]+' p[]1 :i* wreck$ ,greek civilization1 0 n an ext]nal =ce1 b ! v _s ( man by :i* t civilization _h be5 creat$4 ,!re is a puzzl+ l9e 9 ,hom] :i* is appli$ once or twice to features 9 a l&scape--= in/ance1 to a riv]3 ',! gods call x ,xan?os1 mank9d ,skam&ros4' ,s we might say ( ! d[nfall ( ,greece3 ! ,greeks attribut$ x to ! malignity ( ,god1 b ! div9e oracles gave a diff]5t answ]4 ,:y did ! ,conf$]acy ( ,delos break d[n & ,greece lose h] y\? 9 a ru9\s w>8 ,because ( ! evil 9 ! he>ts ( m5--! envy ar\s$ by ! political & comm]cial greatness ( ,a!ns 9 ! gov]n+ classes ( ,sp>ta & ,cor9?2 & ! covet\sness ar\s$ by sudd5 greatness 9 ! ,a!nians1 tempt+ _! /atesm5 to degrade ! presid5cy ( a free conf$]acy into a dom9ion ( ,a!ns ov] ,greece1 & tempt+ ! ,a!nian prolet>iat1 & ! prolet>iat 9 ! conf$]ate /ates1 to misuse democracy = ! exploitation ( ! ri* by ! poor4 ,envy & covet\sness begat inju/ice1 & inju/ice disloyalty4 ,! city-/ates1 9 _! rivalry = dom9ion or _! res5tm5t aga9/ ! dom9e]+ ( "o /ate ov] ano!r1 =got _! loyalty to ! common weal ( ,greece & f\ght ea* o!r = empire or lib]ty4 ,& ! weal?y & well-born citiz5s =got _! loyalty to ! city 9 _! bl9d1 rancor\s feud aga9/ ! prolet>iat t 0 /ripp+ !m ( prop]ty & p[]1 & betray$ _! community to =eign enemies4 ',/range h[ mortals blame ! gods4 ,!y say t evil is our h&iwork1 :5 9 tru? !y br+ _! suff]+s on !mselves4 ,by _! own folly !y =ce ! h& ( fate4 ,see1 n[1 h[ ,aigi/hos =c$ x 9 tak+ ! w$d$ wife ( ,atreides & slay+ h] "l :5 he return$1 yet he _h %e] de/ruction be=e 8 eyes1 = we ourselves _h =ew>n$ him n to slay ! k+ nor w$ 8 wife1 or v5geance w\ld come by ,atreides' son ,ore/es1 :5e'er he %\ld gr[ to manhood & long = 8 home4 ,s spake our mess5g]1 b ) all 8 wisdom he did n s(t5 ! he>t ( ,aigi/hos1 & n[ he has paid 9 full' 7,odyssey1 a #cb-dc74 ,^! l9es f ! fir/ canto ( ! ,odyssey 7 imag9$ by a g5]ation :i* c\ld /ill af=d to err1 b z ,greece approa*$ h] h\r ( de/9y1 h] prophetic inspiration grew cle>]4 ,! poets ( ! six? c5tury 7 haunt$ m insi/5tly ?an ! ,hom]idai by ! possibilities ( disa/] inh]5t 9 success ( e k9d--9 p]sonal prosp]ity1 9 milit>y victory1 & 9 ! social triumph ( civilization4 ,!y trac$ ! mis*ief to an ab]ration ( ! human _s "u ! %ock ( sudd51 unexpect$ atta9m5t1 & !y realiz$ t bo? ! accumulat$ a*ievem5t ( g5]ations & ! great] promise ( ! future might be lo/ irretrievably by failure at ?is critical mom5t4 ',surfeit 7 koros7 bre$s s9 hubris :5 prosp]ity visits unbalanc$ m9ds4' ,9 slightly diff]5t words1 ! prov]b recurs 9 ! collections ( v]ses attribut$ to ,!ognis & to ,solon4 ,its mak] refra9$ f add+ :at 0 9 8 & 8 he>]s' ?\ghts1 t hubris1 once eng5d]$1 bre$s ai--! complete & c]ta9 de/ruction into :i* ! s9n] walks ) unsee+ eyes4 ,b ! :ole moral my/]y1 to its remorseless end1 0 utt]$ aga9 & aga9 9 passionate words by ,aes*ylus1 :o consci\sly disc>d$ ! primitive magical det]m9ism 9 :i* ,h]odotus aft]w>ds va9ly s\ght relief4 -- ' '1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 -- 1 4 ,philei de tikte9 hubris m5 palaia nea-- z\san en kakois brotn hubris tot' t?'1 hote to kyrion mol phaos tok\1 daimona t' etan1 ama*on1 apolemon1 ani]on ?rasos1 melai-- nas mela?rois9 ,atas1 eidom5as tokeus94 ,b ,old ,s9 loves1 :5 comes ! h\r aga91 ,to br+ =? ,new1 ,:i* laughe? lu/y amid ! te>s ( m52 ,yea1 & ,unru?1 8 comrade1 :]e) none ,may plead nor /rive1 :i* d>e? on & on1 ,kn[+ n fe> nor any holy ?+2 ,two fires ( d>kness 9 a h\se1 born true1 ,l to _! anci5t spr+4 7,agamemnon1 vv4 #gfc-ga1 ,murray's transl47 ,! poet ( ! cr[n+ victory ov] ,p]sia 0 fill$ ) awe1 z well z exultation1 at ! possibilities = good or evil :i* 8 triumphant g5]ation held 9 _! h&s4 ,7 !y true metal or base8 ,! times w\ld te/ !m1 b he _h no d\bt ab\t ! inexorable law4 4 ,ou g> e/9 epalxis pl\t\ pros koron &ri laktisanti megan diks bmon eis aphaneian4 ,nev] %all /ate nor gold ,%elt] 8 he>t f a*+ ,:oso ! ,alt> ( ,ju/ice old ,spurne? to night unwak+4 7,agamemnon1 vv4 #cha-d1 ,murray's transl47 ,! ,agamemnon 0 writt5 :5 ,a!ns /ood at ! height ( h] glory & h] p[]1 & be=e h] sons1 foll[+ ! devices ( _! he>ts1 'l a boy *as+ a w+d bird'1 _h set a fatal /umbl+-block 9 ! way ( _! city1 or smir*$ h] ) an intol]able /a94 ,! g5]ation ( ,m>a?on =ebod$ ! cata/rophe ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>1 yet ! %ock1 :5 x came1 0 beyond _! p[]s ( imag9ation1 & ! effect ( x on ! m9d ( ,greece 0 fir/ express$ by ! g5]ation :i* 0 smitt5 by ! w> 9 e>ly manhood4 ,?is is h[ x 0 felt by ,?ucydides 7iii4 #hb73 ',s ! class-w> at ,korkyra grew m & m savage1 & x made a p>ticul> impression because x 0 ! fir/ outbreak ( an upheaval t spread 9 "t ?r\gh almo/ ! :ole ( ,greek society4 ,9 e /ate !re 7 conflicts ( class1 & ! lead]s ( ! respective p>ties n[ procur$ ! int]v5tion ( ! ,a!nians or ! ,lak$aimonians on _! side4 ,9 peace-"t !y w\ld h _h nei!r ! opportunity nor ! incl9ation to call 9 ! =eign]1 b n[ !re 0 ! w>1 & x 0 easy = any p>ty ( viol5ce to get _! oppon5ts cru%$ & !mselves into p[] by an alliance ) "o ( ! bellig]5ts4 ,?is recrudesc5ce ( class-w> br\ght "o calamity aft] ano!r ^u ! /ates ( ,greece--calamities t occur & w cont9ue to occur z long z human nature rema9s :at x is1 h[ev] !y may be modifi$ or occasionally mitigat$ by *anges ( circum/ance4 ,"u ! fav\rable conditions ( peace-"t1 communities & individuals d n h _! h&s =c$ by ! logic ( ev5ts1 & c !re=e act up to a high] /&>d4 ,b w> /rips away all ! m>g9s ( ord9>y life & breaks 9 "* to circum/ance by its brutal tra9+4 ,s ! /ates 7 torn by ! class-w>1 & ! s5sation made by ea* outbreak _h a s9i/] effect on ! next--9 fact1 !re 0 some?+ l a competition 9 p]fect+ ! f9e art ( conspiracies & atrocities4444 7iii4 #hc7 ',?us ! class-w> plung$ ,greek society into e k9d ( moral evil1 & hone/y1 :i* is ! *ief con/itu5t ( idealism1 0 laugh$ out ( exi/5ce 9 ! prevail+ atmosph]e ( ho/ility & suspicion4 ,no argum5t 0 cog5t en\gh & no pl$ge solemn en\gh to reconcile oppon5ts4 ,! only argum5t t appeal$ to ! p>ty mom5t>ily 9 p[] 0 ! unlikelihood ( _! rema9+ !re long & ! consequ5t advisability ( tak+ no risks ) _! enemies4 ,& ! /upid] ! combatants1 ! great] _! *ances ( survival1 j because !y 7 t]rifi$ at _! defici5cies1 expect$ to be outwitt$ & outmanuvr$1 & !re=e plung$ recklessly into action1 :ile _! sup]iors 9 intellect1 :o tru/$ to _! wits to protect !m & disda9$ practical precautions1 7 (t5 caught def5celess & br\ght to de/ruction4' ,!re is ! effect ( ! great ,greek w> ^u ! fir/ g5]ation4 ,?ucydides1 ( c\rse1 _h a s5sitive & emotional temp]am5t4 ,he is always controll+ himself & re9+ himself 94 ,b "o is /ruck by an outbur/ ( ! same feel+ 9 a y\ng] man1 ,x5ophon1 :o 0 ord9>ily 9 h>mony ) 8 age & 0 probably r unimag9ative & self-complac5t by nature4 ,! w> _h giv5 ,x5ophon 8 opportunity z a soldi] & a writ]4 ,he 0 n incl9$ to qu>rel ) ! 'envi\s & disord]+' p[]s t _h ru9$ ,greek civilization4 ,b 9 ! la/ p>agraph ( ! ,hi/ory ( 8 ,own ,times he is c>ri$ away1 = he has j be5 describ+ ! battle ( ,mant9ea 7#cfb ,b4 ,c471 9 :i* he _h lo/ 8 son4 ',! result ( ! battle'1 he writes1 'disappo9t$ e "o's expectations4 ,almo/ ! :ole ( ,greece _h mobiliz$ on "o side or ! o!r1 & x 0 tak5 = grant$ t if x came to an action1 ! victors w\ld be able to d :at !y lik$ & ! vanqui%$ w\ld be at _! m]cy4 ,b ,provid5ce s dispos$ x t bo? sides 444 claim$ ! victory & yet nei!r _h ga9$ a foot ( t]ritory1 a s+le city or a p>ticle ( p[] beyond :at !y _h possess$ be=e ! battle4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re 0 m unsettlem5t & disord] 7 t>a*7 9 ,greece aft] ! battle ?an be=e x4 ,b ,i d n propose to c>ry my n>rative fur!r & w leave ! sequel to any o!r hi/orian :o c>es to record x4' 7,hell5ica1 vii4 #e f947 ,space =bids quotation f ,plato1 b ! read] is recomm5d$1 :ile /udy+ 8 metaphysics = 8 philosophy1 to note 8 moods & emotions = ! light !y ?r[ ^u ! hi/ory ( 8 lifetime4 ,plato's long life--#dbg to #cdg ,b4 ,c4--practically co9cid$ ) ! fir/ phase ( ! second act ( ! trag$y--! s]ies ( w>s t began 9 #dca ,b4 ,c41 & t _h r$uc$ ! ,greek city-/ates to complete disunion & exhau/ion by #cee4 ,plato belong$ to ! cultur$ gov]n+ class :i* 0 hit h>de/ by ^! fir/ disa/]s4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-n9e1 aft] witness+ ! d[nfall ( ,a!ns1 he _h to witness ! judicial murd] ( ,sokrates--! greate/ man ( ! old] g5]ation1 :o _h be5 appreciat$ & lov$ by ,plato & 8 fri5ds4 ,plato's own mo/ promis+ pupil1 :om he _h m>k$ out = 8 successor1 0 kill$ 9 action 9 a p>ticul>ly aimless recrudesc5ce ( ! w>4 ,plato's political disillusionm5t & p]v]sity are easy to und]/&4 ,b x is curi\s & int]e/+ to wat* ! cla% betwe5 8 political bitt]ness & 8 intellectual s]5ity4 ,9 ! intellectual & arti/ic sph]e--z a writ]1 musician1 ma!matician1 metaphysician--he /ood consci\sly at ! z5i? ( ,greek hi/ory2 b :5ev] he turn$ to politics he seems to h felt t ! spr+ _h gone out ( ! ye>4 ,he in/9ctively ant$at$ ! sett+ ( 8 dialogues4 ,! *>act]s ne>ly all belong to ! g5]ation ( ,sokrates1 :i* _h gr[n to manhood be=e ! w> & ^: memories conjur$ up ! glory t ! w> _h ext+ui%$4 ,note1 also1 8 'o!r-worldl9ess'1 = x is a feature t comes into ,greek civilization ) him & gradually p]meates x4 ,he turns f sci5ce to !ology1 f ! _w ( "t & *ange to ! _w ( ar*etypes or ideas4 ,he turns f ! social religion ( ! city-/ate to a p]sonal religion = :i* he takes symbols f primitive my?ology4 ,he turns f politics to utopias4 ,b ,plato only liv$ to see ! fir/ phase ( ! cata/rophe4 ,z we wat* ! rema9d] ( ?is second act--^? f\r t]rible c5turies t foll[$ ! ye> #dca ,b4 ,c4--!re come tid+s ( calamity aft] calamity1 l ! messages ( disa/] 9 ! ,book ( ,job1 & z ! _w crumbles1 p t5d m & m to lay up _! treasure else:]e4 ,9 ! ,laws1 ,plato places 8 utopia no f>!r away ?an ,crete4 ,two c5turies lat] ! foll[]s ( ,ari/onikos ! ,bol%evik1 outlaw$ by ! cities ( ,greece & ,asia1 proclaim !mselves citiz5s ( ! ,city ( ! ,sun4 ,two c5turies lat] /ill1 ! foll[]s ( ,jesus ( ,naz>e?1 despair+ ( ?is _w1 pray = its de/ruction by fire to make way = ! ,k+dom ( ,heav54 ,plato's /ate ( m9d gives ! atmosph]e ( ! fir/ phase aft] ! cata/rophe4 ,= ! second phase--! conque/ ( ! ,ea/ & ! /ruggle = ! spoils--! read] may be ref]r$ to ,mr4 ,edwyn ,bevan's ,lectures on ! ,/oics & ,sceptics & to ,pr(essor ,gilb]t ,murray's ,conway ,memorial lecture on ,! ,/oic ,philosophy4 ,!y w %[ him a sy/em ( philosophy :i* is no long] a pure product ( speculation b is prim>ily a moral %elt] erect$ ha/ily to meet ! /orms ( life4 ,! ?ird phase--! rally ( civilization 9 ! middle ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4--is mirror$ 9 ,plut>*'s lives ( ! ,sp>tan k+s ,agis & ,kleom5es4 ,any "o :o reads !m w feel ! gallantry ( ?is rally & ! pa?os ( its failure4 ,& !n comes ! f\r? phase--! ,roman w>s aga9/ ! o!r great p[]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean _w4 ,! ,hannibalic w> 9 ,italy 01 v probably1 ! mo/ t]rible w> t !re has ev] be51 n except+ ! rec5t w> 9 ,europe4 ,! horror ( t w> haunt$ lat] g5]ations1 & its m]e memory made oblivion seem a desirable release f an intol]able _w4 ,nil igitur mors e/ ad nos neque p]t9et hilum1 qu&oquidem natura animi mortalis habetur4 et velut anteacto nil tempore s5simus aegri1 ad conflig5dum v5i5tibus undique ,po5is1 omnia cum belli trepido concussa tumultu horrida contremu]e sub altis ae!ris oris1 9 dubioque fu]e utrorum ad regna cad5dum omnibus humanis esset t]raque m>ique1 sic1 ubi non erimus1 cum corporis atque animai discidium fu]it quibus e sumus unit] apti1 scilicet haud nobis quicquam1 qui non erimus tum1 accid]e omn9o pot]it s5sumque mov]e1 non si t]ra m>i miscebitur et m>e caelo4 ,t is a passage ( ,lucretius 7iii4 #hcj-hdb7 :i* foll[s ^u an elaborate argum5t to prove t dea? de/roys p]sonality & t ! s\l is n immortal4 ,"h is an attempt at a translation3 ',s dea? is no?+ to u & matt]s no?+ to u1 s9ce we h prov$ t ! s\l is n immortal4 ,& z 9 "t pa/ we felt no ill1 :5 ! ,pho5icians 7 p\r+ 9 to battle on e front1 :5 ! _w rock$ ) ! %ock & tumult ( w> & %iv]$ f c5tre to firmam5t1 :5 all mank9d on sea & l& mu/ fall "u ! victor's empire & victory 0 9 d\bt--s1 :5 we h ceas$ to be1 :5 body & s\l1 ^: union is our be+1 h be5 p>t$1 !n no?+ c t\* u--we %all n be--& no?+ c make u feel1 no1 n if e>? is conf\nd$ ) sea & sea ) heav54' ,lucretius wrote t ab\t a hundr$ & fifty ye>s aft] ,hannibal evacuat$ ,italy1 b ! horror is /ill vivid 9 8 m9d1 & 8 poetry ar\ses x 9 our m9ds z we li/54 ,! writ] w nev] =get h[ ^? l9es kept runn+ 9 8 head dur+ ! spr+ ( #aiah4 ,b ! victors suff]$ ) ! vanqui%$ 9 ! common ru9 ( civilization4 ,! :ole ,m$it]ranean _w1 & ! deva/at$ area 9 ,italy mo/ ( all1 0 %ak5 by ! economic & social revolutions :i* ! ,roman w>s br\ght 9 _! tra94 ,! prolet>iat 0 oppress$ to su* a degree t ! unity ( society 0 p]man5tly de/roy$ & ,greek civilization1 aft] be+ ?reat5$ ) a viol5t ext9ction by ,bol%evik outbreaks--! slave w>s 9 ,sicily1 ! insurrection ( ,ari/onikos & ! massacres ( ,mi?radates 9 ,anatolia1 ! outbreaks ( ,sp>takos & ,catil9a 9 ,italy--0 ev5tually supplant$ by a rival civilization ( ! prolet>iat--! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,! revolution>y la/ phase 9 ! second act--! f9al phase be=e ! f\ndation ( ! ,empire--has left its expression 9 ! cry ( ! ,son ( ,man3 ',! foxes h holes & ! birds ( ! air h ne/s1 b ! ,son ( ,man ha? n :]e to lay 8 head4' ,x 0 "o ( ^? anonym\s phrases t are 9 all m5's m\?s because !y express :at is 9 all m5's he>ts4 ,tib]ius ,grac*us us$ x 9 8 public spee*es at ,rome2 two c5turies lat] x reappe>s 9 ! disc\rses ( ,jesus ( ,naz>e?4 ,ergo int] sese p>ibus concurr]e telis ,romanas acies it]um vid]e ,philippi1 nec fuit indignum sup]is bis sangu9e no/ro ,ema?iam et latos ,haemi p+uesc]e campos4444 ,di patrii1 ,indigetes1 et ,romule1 ,ve/aque mat] quae ,tuscum ,tib]im et ,romana ,palatia s]vas1 hunc saltem ev]so iuv5em succurr]e saeclo ne prohibete4 satis iam pridem sangu9e no/ro ,laom$onteae luimus p]iuria ,troiae4444 vic9ae ruptis int] se legibus urbes arma f]unt2 saevit toto ,m>s impius orbe2 ut cum c>c]ibus sese effud]e quadrigae1 addunt 9 spatio1 et fru/ra ret9acula t5d5s f]tur equis auriga neque audit currus hab5as4 7,georgics1 i4 #dhi seqq47 ',!re=e ,philippi saw ,roman armies turn _! swords aga9/ ea* o!r a second "t 9 battle1 & ! gods felt no pity t ,ema?ia & ! broad pla9s ( ,haemus %\ld twice be fatt5$ ) our blood4444 ',gods ( our fa!rs1 gods ( our c\ntry1 god ( our city1 goddess ( our he>?s :o wat*e/ ov] ,tuscan ,tib] & ,roman ,palat9e1 =bid n ?is la/ savi\r to succ\r our fall5 g5]ation4 ,our blood has fl[$ too long4 ,we h paid 9 full = ! s9s ( our =efa!rs--! brok5 fai? ( anci5t ,troy4444 ',! bonds are brok5 betwe5 neighb\r cities & !y meet 9 arms4 ,ungodly w> rages ! _w ov]4 ,! *>iots laun*$ on ! race ga!r spe$ z !y g2 va9ly dragg+ on ! re9s ! driv] is swept away by 8 /e$s & ! team he$s n ! bridle4' ,x is a pray] = ! lift+ ( ! curse1 & ?is "t ! 'envi\s & disord]+' p[]s gave e>4 ,! *>iote] rega9$ control1 & we are c>ri$ on to ! ?ird act ( ! trag$y1 9 :i* no small "p ( its beauty & a v great "p ( its significance is to be f\nd4 ,! imp]ial peace c\ld n save ! body ( ,greek civilization--! f\r c5turies ( w> _h inflict$ mortal w\nds2 b possibly x sav$ its s\l4 ,al?\gh ,augu/us _h n ! abilities ( ,caes>1 he felt & piti$ ! sorr[s ( ! _w1 & he succe$$ 9 express+ ! pity & rep5tance1 ! ru?fulness = & piety t[>ds ! pa/1 :i* 7 a/ir 9 ! spirits ( 8 g5]ation4 ,b :at phrase is adequate to *>act]ize ! ,empire8 ,! words ',decl9e & ,fall' sugge/ !mselves1 b h[ %\ld !y be appli$8 ,gibbon took ! second c5tury ( ! ,empire1 ! age ( ! ,anton9es1 z ! ,gold5 ,age ( ! ,anci5t ,_w1 & trac$ ! decl9e & fall ( ! ,empire f ! dea? ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! pres5t read+ ( ! plot is "r1 ! fatal cata/rophe occurr$ six c5turies e>li]1 9 ! ye> #dca ,b4 ,c41 & ! ,empire itself 0 ! decl9e & fall ( ,greek civilization4 ,b 0 x only t8 ,"o is apt to ?9k s :5 "o reads ! di>y ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 & pictures him 9 8 qu>t]s at ,c>nuntum1 fight+ f9ely b hopelessly on two fronts--aga9/ ! b>b>ians on ! ,danube & ! sadness 9 8 own s\l4 ',human life6 ,its duration is mom5t>y1 its sub/ance 9 p]petual flux1 its s5ses dim1 its physical organism p]i%able1 its consci\sness a vortex1 its de/9y d>k1 its repute unc]ta9--9 fact1 ! mat]ial elem5t is a roll+ /ream1 ! spiritual elem5t dreams & vap\r1 life a w> & a soj\rn+ 9 a f> c\ntry1 fame oblivion4 ,:at c see u ?r\gh8 ,"o ?+ & "o only--philosophy1 & t means keep+ ! _s )9 u unspoil$ & undi%on\r$1 n giv+ way to pleasure or pa91 nev] act+ un?9k+ly or deceitfully or ins9c]ely1 & nev] be+ dep5d5t on ! moral support ( o!rs4 ,x also means tak+ :at comes cont5t$ly z all "p ( ! process to :i* we owe our own be+2 &1 above all1 x means fac+ dea? calmly--tak+ x simply z a dissolution ( ! atoms ( :i* e liv+ organism is compos$4 ,_! p]petual trans=mation does n hurt ! atoms1 s :y %\ld "o m9d ! :ole organism be+ trans=m$ & dissolv$8 ,x is a law ( nature1 & natural law c nev] be wrong4' 7 ,mrkos ,antn9os eis eautn1 ii f947 ,b aft] quot+ ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ! fir/ citiz5 ( ! ,empire1 x is necess>y to add a quotation f ,paul ( ,t>sos1 a citiz5 :o has z good a claim z any o!r to be he>d3 ',h[ are ! dead rais$ up8 ,) :at body d !y come8 ,?\ fool1 t :i* ?\ s[e/ is n quick5$1 except x die4444 ,x is s[n 9 corruption1 x is rais$ 9 incorruption2 x is s[n 9 di%on\r1 x is rais$ 9 glory2 x is s[n 9 weakness1 x is rais$ 9 p[]4' 444 ,x />tles u to be rem9d$ t ^! two actors appe>$ on ! /age 9 ! same act ( ! drama1 & t ,paul actually play$ 8 "p a c5tury be=e ,m>cus play$ 84 ,paul's voice sugge/s n only a y\ng] g5]ation b q a diff]5t play4 ,8 ?\ght 9 ! l9es j quot$ is inspir$ by a pr$ecessor :om ,m>cus reg>d$ z "o ( ! innum]able prophets ( ! prolet>iat4 ',except a corn ( :eat fall into ! gr\nd & die1 x abide? alone1 b if x die1 x br+e? =? mu* fruit4' ,! say+ 0 includ$ 9 ! miscellane\s traditions ab\t ,jesus ( ,naz>e? :i* 7 pass+ f m\? to m\? among ! illit]ate masses1 b :i* _h n begun to excite ! curiosity ( ! educat$ classes 9 ,m>cus's day4 ,:at w\ld ! s*ol> h made ( x if a collection ( ^! traditions _h fall5 "u 8 eye1 scrawl$ on bad pap] 9 b>b>\s ,greek8 ,little en\gh1 = he w\ld h miss$ ! :ole backgr\nd ( 8 own s5tim5t & ?\ght1 :i* 0 no?+ less ?an ! backgr\nd ( ,greek civilization4 ,great lit]>y memories cr[d ! brief passage ( 8 di>y quot$ above--,epiktetos & ,lucretius & ! ,/oa1 ,plato & ,sokrates1 ,demokritos & ! ,hippokratean s*ool ( m$ic9e f :i* we took our fir/ quotation1 & simpl] m9ds & m primitive arti/s 9 ! dim g5]ations beh9d4 ,we are c>ri$ "r back ?r\gh ! trag$y at :i* we h be5 look+ on4 ,! two m5 are worlds ap>t1 9 spite ( ! fact t _! propositions1 :5 we /rip !m nak$1 are mu* ! same4 ',! organism is trans=m$ & dissolv$4'--',t :i* ?\ s[e/ is n quick5$ except x die4' ,!y are bo? repres5t+ dea? z a phase 9 ! process ( nature1 b x is n till we grasp ! simil>ity ( ! ?\ght t we fully realize ! diff]5ce 9 ! outlook & ! emotion4 ,"u ! smoo? surface ( ! ,empire !re 0 a great gulf fix$ betwe5 ! 'b\rgeois' society ( ! city-/ates & ! desc5dants ( ! slaves import$ dur+ ! ,roman ,w>s2 b ! ,empire1 by gradually alleviat+ ! mat]ial condition ( ! prolet>iat1 ins5sibly affect$ _! po9t ( view4 ,! developm5t ( _! religion--! "o inali5able possession c>ri$ by ! slaves f _! ,ori5tal homes--is an index ( ! psy*ological *ange4 ,9 ! la/ phase ( ! ,second ,act1 ! ',r$ ,gu>ds' ( ,sicily & ,anatolia _h be5 l$ by prophets & prea*]s ( _! ,ori5tal gods4 ,_! religion _h l5t itself to _! revolution>y /ate ( m9d4 ,b "u ! ,empire1 z desc5dants ( ! plantation-slaves succe$$ 9 pur*as+ _! fre$om & =m+ a new class ( %opkeep]s & cl]ks1 _! religion correspond+ly reflect$ _! rise 9 ! _w4 ,!y rema9$ indiff]5t1 if n ho/ile1 to ! ,imp]ial ,hell5ic tradition1 b !y began to aspire to a k+dom ( _! own 9 ?is _w z well z 9 ! next4 ,! =ce :i* _h brok5 out desp]ately 9 ! crazy wond]-work+ ( ,eun\s ( ,enna & _h !n inspir$ ! 'o!r-worldly' exaltation ( ,paul ( ,t>sos1 0 soon conduct$ into ! walls ( *apels1 & ! local associations ( ,*ri/ian *apel-go]s 7 /eadily l9k$ up into a f$]ation s p[]fully organiz$ t ! ,imp]ial f$]ation ( city-/ates _h ev5tually to *oose betwe5 go+ into p>tn]%ip ) x or be+ supplant$4 ,?us ! empire ( :i* ,m>cus & ,paul 7 citiz5s 0 m ?an ! ?ird act 9 ! trag$y ( ,anci5t ,greece4 ,:ile x ret>d$ ! inevitable dissolution ( "o civilization x conceiv$ its successor1 & :51 aft] ,m>cus's dea?1 imp]ial /atesman%ip fail$1 & ! anci5t organism long pres]v$ by its skill at la/ broke d[n1 ! %ock did n ext+ui% new & old toge!r1 b br\ght ! new life to bir?4 ,by ! sev5? c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 :5 ,anci5t ,greek civilization may be said f9ally to h dissolv$1 our own civilization 0 ready to '%oot up & ?rive' & repeat ! trag$y ( mank9d4 ,! writ] c be/ express 8 p]sonal feel+ ab\t ! ,empire 9 a p>able4 ,x 0 l ! sea r\nd ^: %ores its network ( city-/ates 0 /rung4 ,! ,m$it]ranean seems at fir/ sight a poor sub/itute = ! riv]s t h giv5 _! wat]s to make x4 ,^? 7 liv+ wat]s1 :e!r !y ran muddy or cle>2 ! sea seems j salt & /ill & dead4 ,b z soon z we /udy ! sea1 we f9d movem5t & life !re also4 ,!re are sil5t curr5ts circulat+ p]petually f "o "p to ano!r1 & ! surface-wat] t seems to be lo/ by evaporation is n really lo/1 b w desc5d 9 di/ant places & seasons1 ) its bitt]ness all di/ill$ away1 z life-giv+ ra94 ,& z ^! surface-wat]s are drawn (f into ! cl\ds1 _! place is tak5 by l[] lay]s cont9ually ris+ f ! dep?s4 ,! sea itself is 9 con/ant & creative motion1 b ! influ5ce ( ?is great body ( wat] ext5ds f> beyond its %ores4 ,"o f9ds x s(t5+ ! extremes ( temp]ature1 quick5+ ! vegetation1 & prosp]+ ! life ( animals & m51 9 ! di/ant he>t ( cont95ts & among peoples t h nev] he>d its "n4 ,,arnold ,,toynbee4 ,,political ,,?\ght ,9 a survey ( ! legacy ( ,anci5t ,greece to our mod]n civilization & its problems1 x might well seem at fir/ sight z ?\gh ! political contribution ( ,greece c\ld be ignor$4 ,greek art1 ,greek lit]ature1 ,greek philosophy are among ! _w's abid+ possessions1 = ! human passions & que/ion+s :i* gave !m bir? & ! human ne$s to :i* !y m9i/] w la/ z long z human life itself4 ,b ,greek political ?9k+ is s mu* b\nd up ) ! peculi> & evanesc5t ext]nal conditions ( fif? & f\r? c5tury ,greece1 c5tres inde$ s exclusively r\nd ! special problems ( its intellectual metropolis1 ,a!ns1 t its int]e/ might appe> to h pass$ away ) ! rgime to :i* x owes its exi/5ce4 ,! ,agamemnon & ! ,antigone1 ) _! tea*+s ( de/9y & duty1 ! ,h]mes ( ,olympia & ! ,p>!non frieze1 ) _! ev]-irresi/ible *>m ( y\?fulness1 ! ,pha$o ) its discussion ( immortality1 ! ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle ) _! /ill subtl] & m ab/ruse speculations1 s\rce ( s mu* ( our ,*ri/ian doctr9e & apologetic--all ^! require little def5ce aga9/ ! ,phili/9e ( to-day1 if only he c be induc$ to gaze at 8 int5d$ victim be=e he deliv]s 8 bl[4 ,b ,?ucydides ) 8 long & detail$ acc\nt ( an int]-tribal or int]-municipal w>1 deck$ out ) %am spee*es :i* 7 nev] deliv]$3 ,plato ) 8 imag9>y ,utopia1 half a small ,greek prov9cial t[n1 half an impossible & un5durably regim5t$ sociali/ model community1 bas$ on a f9e-drawn & fallaci\s comp>ison betwe5 ! qualities ( ! human s\l & ! class-divisions :i* happ5$ to prevail 9 ! ,greek society ( ! "t3 ,ari/otle ) 8 labori\s inve/igations into ! municipal pa?ology ( 8 day & 8 detail$ prescriptions = ! bett]m5t ( 8 fell[-prov9cials & _! in/itutions--:at h we to d ) all ?is 9 an age ( _w problems & conflicts & ( n m]ely cont95t-wide b int]national ideas & projects ( organization8 ,! fir/ duty ( any "o :o seeks to int]e/ ! mod]n read] 9 ,greek political discussion is to be p]fectly frank & lucid ab\t its limitations4 ,he ne$ h no cause to be afraid t1 :5 ^! h be5 writt5 (f f 8 prospectus1 !re w be too little ( value rema9+4 ,^! limitations c be summ>iz$ "u two ma9 heads4 ,!y arise1 fir/ly1 f a diff]5ce ( scale1 & secondly1 f a diff]5ce ( outlook1 betwe5 anci5t & mod]n political ?\ght4 ,! diff]5ce ( scale leaps to ! eye at once1 al?\gh its consequ5ces are n all ( !m s obvi\s4 ,anci5t ,greece 01 = political purposes1 a cong]ies ( sov]eign /ates1 g5]ally c5tr+ r\nd ! urban metropolis ( a rural di/rict small] ?an t ( an av]age ,engli% c\nty4 ,! mat]ial ^u :i* ,greek political ?\ght work$ 01 !re=e1 f our mod]n po9t ( view n only small-scale b almo/ ,lilliputian4 ,?is c be/ be appreciat$ :5 we consid] h[ _m gradations ( scale are int]pos$ 9 ! mod]n _w betwe5 ! gov]nm5t ( a t[n or di/rict ( ! size ( fif?-c5tury ,a!ns & ! gov]nm5t ( our own sov]eign /ate1 ! ,briti% ,commonweal?4 ,a!ns 0 f> small] ?an ,le$s1 ,johannesburg1 or ,*icago3 yet to be ,mayor ( any ( ^! is n to fill a position ( comm&+ responsibility1 z political responsibility is und]/ood 9 ! l>ge-scale _w ( to-day4 ,! ,am]ican ,/ate1 ! ,s\? ,african prov9ce & ,dom9ion & 7= c]ta9 purposes7 ! ,engli% ,c\nty /& betwe5 ! giant municipality & ! sov]eign p>liam5t4 ,to a ,briti% ,premi] pass+ f a coal /rike :i* reacts ^u ! trade ( ! entire _w to an ,imp]ial ,conf]5ce engag$ 9 trac+ out an agre$ l9e ( policy on ! ,pacific ,"q1 ! problems ( a ,p]icles1 or ev5 ( an ,alex&]1 w\ld seem b *ild's play4 ,let u see :at results f ?is diff]5ce ( scale4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,greek political ?\ght al?\gh 7z we %all see7 x aim$ at univ]sality1 at arriv+ at c]ta9 def9ite laws or conclusions ab\t politics1 nev] succe$$ 9 dive/+ itself ( a c]ta9 elem5t ( local or national individuality4 ,:5 ,plato & ,?ucydides ?9k & write ( '! ,/ate' !y are also ?9k+ ( ! ,city--! same ^w1 polis1 s]ves inde$ = ! two--& n m]ely ( ! ,city1 i4 e41 ( any municipality1 b ( a p>ticul> city4 ,!re are elem5ts 9 ,greek political ?\ght :i*1 j because !y owe _! inspiration to ,a!ns1 c nev] be univ]saliz$4 ,a treatise on education 9 :i* g5]al psy*ological conclusions 7 int]m+l$ ) conclusions bas$ on exp]i5ce at "s ,engli% s*ool ) a v unique tradition1 w\ld require to be c>efully exam9$ & appli$ ) caution to ! problems ( adolesc5t life 9 ,japan or ,nig]ia4 ,simil>ly1 9 s f> z ,greek political ?\ght is ,a!nian or 7to use a mu* disput$ t]m 9 :at ,i hold to be its prop] s5se7 national1 x is n truly political4 ,! di/9ction t ,i am try+ to draw is a difficult "o & _c be und]/ood )\t a %ort digression ab\t ! nature ( ! /udy ( politics4 ,politics is ! /udy or activity ( gov]nm5t1 ( ! managem5t ( ! public or common affairs ( m54 ,we ne$ 'politicians'1 m5 :o w devote !mselves to meet+ ! dem& = ! managem5t ( our common affairs--we ne$ !m n because we are ,engli%m51 ,iri%m51 or ,am]icans1 b because we are human be+s liv+ toge!r 9 society1 & because our co-op]ative relations & activities require to be guid$ & controll$4 ,:e!r ! 'politician' is a tyrant or a ,m9i/] ( ! p is n "h to ! po9t2 ! po9t is t he is ! manag] ( :at ! ,romans call$ res publica1 ! ,lat9 = ! good old ,engli% ^w ',commonweal?'4 ,politics is !re=e prim>ily conc]n$ ) ! practical problems aris+ out ( ! fact t a numb] ( diff]5t human be+s are liv+ toge!r1 & ! m diff]5t !y are & ! small] _! greate/ common measure1 ! m truly political d su* problems become4 ,! fir/ bus9ess1 ( ! politician or gov]nor is1 z ,ari/otle said1 to see t m5 %all live 7! tw9 problems ( supply & def5ce71 8 second to see t !y %all live well 79 ! fir/ in/ance ! problems ( heal? & physical developm5t & well-be+74 ,9 ! la/ analysis pure politics1 z our great gr&*ildr5 may discov] if ev] ! ,_w-,/ate becomes a reality1 is ma9ly conc]n$ ) adm9i/ration1 adm9i/ration ( ! affairs common to all 9 ! int]e/s ( all4 ,n[ anci5t ,greek politics 7 entangl$1 & mod]n politics also are /ill too l>gely entangl$1 ) ! discussion ( matt]s :i* are n common at all1 & d n con/itute ! mat]ial ( politics 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w--) que/ions aris+1 n out ( ! common ne$ = a common law1 b out ( ! inn] ultimate & in]adicable diff]5ces betwe5 ! v>i\s nations & o!r gr\p+s ( mank9d4 ,:5 ! ,league ( ,nations or ! ,dubl9 ,city ,c\ncil is discuss+ an epidemic ( small-pox or ! improvem5t ( "s dock or :>f1 or s*ools = mo!rs1 or ! problem ( juv5ile employm5t x is deal+ ) common int]e/s :i* affect human be+s z human be+s3 x is on ! plane ( politics prop]4 ,b :5 ! ,dubl9 ,city ,c\ncil1 foll[+ 9 ! wake ( ! n9ete5? c5tury democratic movem5t ?r\gh\t ,europe1 puts =w>d "s proposal 9 ord] to give satisfaction to ! s5tim5t t ,irel& be+ ! home ( a nation ought to be a sov]eign /ate1 & :5 ! ,league ( ,nations is ask$ to deal ) ! political situation creat$ by ! cla% ( cont5d+ nationalisms 9 ! ,briti% ,isles or else:]e1 bo? bodies1 z gov]n+ bodies1 are out ( _! dep?3 = !y are fac$ ) an impossible task4 ,e/abli%$ to deal ) politics prop]1 ) ! common affairs ( m5 z m51 !y are b\nd to fl\nd] helplessly :5 !y are cajol$ into ! ?orny intimate & 7let x be add$7 f> m fasc9at+ region ( national & individual p]sonality--to a region :]e1 ! deep] y p5etrate1 ! less common1 uni=m1 /&>diz$ or /&>dizable are ! int]e/s involv$1 & ! less susceptible ( be+ 'settl$'1 or ev5 und]/ood1 by ! r\gh & ready politician accu/om$ to deal ) matt]s 9 ! bulk & to measure up ! results on a quantitative reckon+ 9 ! cold & cosmopolitan language ( /ati/ics4 ,9 read+ ! ,greek political writ]s !n1 we mu/ be c>eful to di/+ui% ! univ]sal f ! local & ephem]al elem5t4 ,! latt] is inde$ ( great int]e/ & value2 b we %all t5d to miss ! really preci\s & p]man5t elem5ts 9 _! ?\ght if we d n take pa9s to dis5tangle ,?ucydides ! disillusion$ ,a!nian patriot f ,?ucydides ! sci5tific hi/orian & psy*ologi/1 & ,plato ! ari/ocrat born out ( due season f ,plato ! unrivall$ /ud5t ( human nature & ( ! p]man5t ne$s ( human society4 ,! failure to recognize ?is di/9ction has l$ to mu* misund]/&+ & %all[ ?9k+ 9 attempts to apply ,greek ideas & maxims too lit]ally to mod]n life4 ,x is only too common to he> ,engli%m51 ^: k ( politics & hi/ory1 outside ! newspap]s1 is conf9$ to /ray rem9isc5ces f a n v ard5t pursuit ( ! classics 9 _! s*ool & college days1 bas+ confid5t pr$ictions ( ! failure ( mod]n democracy on "s obit] dictum ( ,?ucydides or ,plato & assess+ ! fate ( ! ,briti% ,commonweal? 9 t]ms borr[$ f "s judgem5t ( ,sallu/ or ,tacitus on its :olly diff]5t ,roman prototype4 ,x is flippancy or p$antry l ?is :i* gives rise to ! onslaughts ( a ,cobd5 or ,h]b]t ,sp5c] or an ,h4 ,g4 ,wells & to ! practical man's suspicion ( a classical education4 ,"o might z well g to la/ ye>'s m>ket reports = guidance 9 a bus9ess deal ( to-day z h rec\rse to ,plato1 or1 = t matt]1 to ,mac*iavelli1 9 an exi/+ political em]g5cy4 ,if a classical education1 design$ z x is 9 ,engl& to promote '"*' r ?an 'intellect' 7a vici\s di/9ction :i* leaves no room = su* a quality z intellectual integrity7 (t5 leaves beh9d x b a meagre residuum ( k & ideas1 x %\ld at lea/ cause ! public s*ool man ( ye/]day & ! ,london clubman ( to-day to realize ! limitations ( 8 field ( /udy & to ab/a9 f confid5t political g5]alization4 ,! ,lab\r ,m4,p4 :o once rem>k$ to ! writ]1 propos ( an ,indian debate1 t he _h be5 9 ! ,h\se j long en\gh to "k t all he knew ab\t ,india 0 t he knew no?+ ab\t x1 _h be5 br\ght up1 if n 9 a bett] at lea/ 9 a canni] s*ool4 ,!re is no s\nd] tra9+ = ! /ud5t ( politics & hi/ory1 or inde$ ( any s]i\s subject1 ?an to "k ev]y?+ ab\t some?+1 :e!r x be ! *ronological ord] ( ,plato's dialogues or ! problem ( humidity 9 weav+-%$s1 or ab\t plac+ a field or keep+ a wicket4 ,t is :y ! ,duke ( ,well+ton :o1 if he lack$ ! intellectuality ( a ,fo*1 at lea/ knew bo? 8 ,engl& & 8 own job ( milit>y sci5ce1 select$ ! play+ fields r ?an ! classical classrooms ( ,eton z ! home & tra9+-gr\nd ( t conc5trat$ & dis9t]e/$ endeav\r ( m9d & _s :i* _h c>ri$ 8 army ?r\gh pati5t ye>s ( ef=t to victory4 ,x is all to ! good t our classical devotees1 fac$ ) criticism & competition f _m qu>t]s1 %\ld be acquir+ bo? a great] humility & a great] s]i\sness4 ,our fir/ caution !n1 is t ,greek political ?\ght is bo? national & univ]sal1 & t we mu/ le>n to di/+ui% :at p]ta9s to nationality f :at p]ta9s to gov]nm5t4 ,a second result :i* fl[s f ! small-scale "* ( ,greek politics is t we n[h]e f9d an adequate treatm5t ( ! problem ( =eign relations4 ,=eign policy is "o ( ! weak spots ( mod]n democracy2 x is1 p]haps1 ! elem5t 9 our political te*nique :i* is mo/ 9 ne$ ( ?or\ghgo+ revision4 ,we h yet to induce ! mod]n citiz5 to pay cont9u\s att5tion to issues :i*1 al?\gh !y are seem+ly remote f 8 purview1 may at any mom5t %ake ! :ole fabric ( 8 ev]yday exi/5ce2 &1 :5 we h done ?is1 we h to p]suade him to approa* ^! _w-problems n 9 ! _s ( a competitive aggr&izem5t b ) a view to discov]+ :at is ! be/ l9e ( policy 9 ! int]e/s ( ! _w z a :ole4 ,s long z ! peoples rema9 self-absorb$1 ! gov]nm5ts w cont9ue to conduct _! mutual relations on a basis ( individual self-int]e/1 & ! meet+s ( ! ,assembly ( ! ,league ( ,nations w rema9 :at !y are at pres5t1 n ga!r+s ( /atesm5 solely b5t1 ea* f 8 own angle & upbr++1 on ! welf>e ( humanity1 b b>t]+s ( politicians :o 7) r>e exceptions7 h come to ! fair to d ! be/ bus9ess !y c = _! own cli5ts4 ,n[ ,?ucydides & ,plato give u no help = ! ,league ( ,nations4 ,su* a phrase z '! int]e/s ( humanity z a :ole' w\ld h be5 politically mean+less to !m4 ,!y did n ?9k ( humanity z a :ole2 !y ?\ght ( x z divid$ %>ply into two sections1 ,greeks & ,b>b>ians1 & ( ! ,greek _w z a small oasis ( intellig5ce & culture r+$ r\nd by a wide & indef9ite expanse ( b>b>ism4 ,we also1 x is true1 speak ( 'advanc$' & 'backw>d' peoples3 b ! latt] are n1 z !y 7 to ! ,greeks1 a =midable mass1 tribe ^u tribe1 ( milit>y p[] ext5d+ up to & beyond ! kn[n or leg5d>y conf9es ( ! _w2 !y are *ild-races "u our wat*ful c>e & control4 ,we h explor$ & survey$ ! :ole e>?1 & :]e we f9d weakness or inf]iority1 we e/abli% a tru/ee%ip4 ,to ! ,greeks1 ev] on _! gu>d aga9/ b>b>ian inroads f nor?1 s\?1 ea/ & we/1 f ,scy?ians & ,libyans1 ,p]sians & ,c>?ag9ians1 ! m&ate clause ( ! ,cov5ant w\ld h seem$ bo? !oretically undesirable & practically impossible4 ,no ,greek writ] ev] dream$ ( a sy/em ( int]national co-op]ation betwe5 ! gov]nm5ts ( ! _w z m5 !n knew x4 ,all ( !m ?\ght 9 t]ms ( competition & ev]-recurr5t w>f>e or1 at be/1 ( a prec>i\s balance ( p[]4 ,ev5 ,plato's ,utopia _h its soldi] class2 & !y 7 real soldi]s1 n m]ely police4 ,9 ?is respect1 at any rate1 vanqui%$ ,g]many1 ) practically ! :ole ( h] population reliev$ f milit>y duty & available = productive tasks1 has ! advantage ov] ! mo/ ideal con/ruction ( anci5t ,greece4 ,!re is a fur!r po9t to be not$ "u ?is head4 ,if ,greek ?\ght gives u no guidance 9 =eign policy1 x is no m helpful1 except v indirectly1 9 ano!r difficult region1 t ( indu/rial policy4 ,! problem ( indu/rial policy1 or :at is sometimes r\ghly describ$ z ! ,lab\r problem1 may p]haps be ?us /at$3 h[ to secure or ma9ta9 = civiliz$ mank9d 7or = our own p>ticul> section ( x7 ! goods & s]vices x ne$s1 :il/ at ! same "t provid+ ju/ice & fre$om = ^? :o produce !m4 ,to put x m %ortly1 h[ to secure t a good life = ! consum] %all be compatible ) a good life = ! produc]4 ,x is a problem :i* goes to ! root ( democracy3 = ! _w has nev] yet kn[n a "t :5 ! increase ( weal? & ! consequ5t gr[? ( ref9em5t & civilization 9 ! upp] section ( ! community did n lead to degradation & inju/ice 9 ! l[]4 ,"h too ! ,greeks c give u no help4 ,!y did n ev5 face ! problem b fail to solve x1 l ! ,romans4 ,_! mat]ial civilization 0 s simple t ! problem h>dly arose = !m at all--except 9 c]ta9 cases1 su* z t ( ! m9e-slaves4 ,b ! fact t !y acquiesc$1 )\t a tw+e ( consci5ce or a trace ( rep9+1 9 ! in/itution ( slav]y indicates h[ !y w\ld probably h fac$ x _h x aris54 ,confront ,plato ) ! complexity ( mod]n indu/ry1 prove to him1 z any mod]n lectur] c\ld1 t1 = ,nor!rn man at any rate1 life c only be ma9ta9$ )\t degradation on a basis ( widespread indu/rialism & ) our famili> equipm5t ( railways1 /eam%ips1 telephones1 et hoc g5us omne1 & x is safe to pr$ict t he w\ld fail to give ! reply :i* ! mod]n re=m] w\ld expect f him4 ,in/ead ( embrac+ "o ( ! _m curr5t v>ieties ( socialism :i* masqu]ade z 8 ba/>d prog5y1 he w\ld ei!r accept 8 int]locutor's premisses & tell him to build up 8 preci\s nor!rn civilization on a basis ( slav]y2 or he w\ld reject !m & advise him1 ) ,samuel ,butl]1 to make a bonfire ( ! ma*9es4 ,! latt] is1 inde$1 ! m probable alt]native2 = x is t to :i* ! m ?\ghtful & prophetic 7p]haps "o c add also1 ! m ,hell5ic7 ( our mod]n guides are turn+4 ,:5 m5 s div]se z ,tagore ! ,indian sage & ,ra!nau ! ,g]man ,tru/ magnate tell u t ! disease f :i* we are suff]+ is 'me*anization'1 & t our cry+ ne$ is = great] simplicity1 x seems safe to pr$ict t ,plato w\ld n reject ! possibility ( provid+ a 'good life' = ! mod]n man 9 a _w dive/$ ( mo/ ( ! rattl+ & t9kl+ p>aph]nalia ( :i* ! n9ete5? c5tury s plum$ itself z ! inv5tor4 ,let u pass n[ to our second limitation1 t aris+ n f ! diff]5ce ( scale b f ! diff]5ce ( outlook betwe5 ,greek & mod]n speculation4 ,we c be/ sum ?is up by say+ t :]eas mod]n political ?\ght1 l mod]n ?\ght g5]ally1 works f ! inn] to ! out]1 f ! individual to ! /ate & society1 ! anci5t ?9k]s habitually "w 9 ! opposite direction1 sett+ ! int]e/s ( ! community or /ate above ^? ( ! individual4 ,?is is :at ,fu/el de ,c\langes int5d$ to convey :5 he decl>$ t anci5t man _h no conception ( ! mean+ ( lib]ty4 ,lib]ty is no d\bt a some:at confus+ & ambigu\s t]m2 x is h>d to cut x loose f its political associations1 f national indep5d5ce & democratic self-gov]nm5t4 ,we c p]haps !re=e improve ^u ! ,fr5* writ] by say+ t ! ,greek political ?9k]s d n recognize1 or d n make prop] all[ance =1 ! rights & responsibilities ( ! individual s\l4 ,j z !y fail$ to di/+ui% betwe5 ,nationality & ,gov]nm5t1 s !y fail$ also to di/+ui% betwe5 ,consci5ce & ,public duty4 ,socrates1 inde$1 meet+ 8 dea? 9 ob$i5ce bo? to ,consci5ce & ,law1 _h a glimpse ( ! high] tru?2 b 8 foll[]s did n take up ?is side ( 8 message or1 9 s f> z !y did s 9 _! /udy ( individual morality1 !y did n relate x to _! !ories ( politics4 ,x 0 a great] ?an ,socrates :o summ$ up & put ! problem ) 8 incomp>able directness & irony3 ,r5d] unto ,caes> ! ?+s :i* are ,caes>'s & unto ,god ! ?+s :i* are ,god's4 ,if ?is _h be5 said 9 ! pres5ce ( ,?ucydides1 ! ke5e/ practical bra9 t appli$ itself to ,greek political ?9k+1 he simply w\ld n h kn[n :at x meant4 ,to him ,caes> & ,god1 or1 to translate !m into 8 own language1 ,a!ns & ,a!na1 7 n oppos+ b practically id5tical t]ms4 ,:5 ! ,a!nian1 z he describ$ him1 'sp5t 8 body1 z a m]e ext]nal tool1 9 ! city's s]vice & c\nt$ 8 m9d z mo/ truly 8 own :5 employ$ on h] behalf1' he 01 accord+ to ! univ]sal ,greek belief1 s]v+ bo? 8 ,god & 8 neighb\r1 bo? 8 own highe/ good & ! noble/ ( ! _w's causes4 ,8 life 0 a unity3 = he _h n yet le>n$ to dis5tangle 8 s\l f ! s\l ( ! ,city or ! h]d1 or 8 ,god f ! god ( ,israel or ( ,a!ns4 ,! ,greek ?9k]s1 z we %all see1 s9c]ely endeav\r$ to di/+ui% betwe5 ! 'good citiz5' & '! good man' & to base ! ,/ate on f\ndations ( ! _s2 b _! "w 0 vitiat$ by _! failure to realize ! ext5t & urg5cy ( ! claim ( ! individual s\l4 ,m5 mu/ be spiritually free be=e !y c co-op]ate politically on ! highe/ t]ms4 ,9 ! la/ analysis ! weakness ( ,greek political speculation c be trac$ back to ! weakness ( ,greek religion4 ,ev5 ,plato play$ ) ,pagan or?odoxy & gave ! ,delphic ,apollo a titul> place 9 8 ,utopia1 prov+ himself z timid 9 t\*+ ,greek sup]/itions z ,engli% ?9k]s to-day are 9 t\*+ ! ,mon>*y4 ,x is ?is basis ( ins9c]ity :i* reveals itself ?r\gh\t ! sup]/ructure4 ,greek political ?\ght conta9s already ! g]ms ( ! disease :i*1 c5turies lat]1 l$ m51 plebeians fir/1 lat] patricians also1 to turn away f ! outworn symbols t /ood = ! union ( ,*ur* & ,/ate & to seek com=t 9 a religion :i*1 if x und]m9$ & ev5tually ov]turn$ ! la/ & greate/ ( ! anci5t ,empires1 e/abli%$ ! ,city ( ! ,s\l ^u a firm & endur+ basis4 ,julian's ,vici/i ,galilaee m>k$ ! end ( "o /ra9 or tradition 9 anci5t political ?\ght :i*1 orig9at+ 9 ! local wor%ips ( ! ,city-,/ate1 _h la/$ on1 ) ga!r+ mom5tum1 until1 all ov] ! kn[n _w1 m5 b[$ ! knee be=e ! alt> ( ,caes>1 ! ,god-,emp]or4 ,f ?is !re 0 no way =w>d except ?r\gh revolution2 & mank9d paid1 9 ! night ( ! ,d>k ,ages1 = s9s ( compromise & ins9c]ity committ$ dur+ long c5turies ( enlight5m5t4 ,! liabilities ?us frankly /at$1 let u turn to ! assets4 ,! fir/ valuable contribution ! ,greeks made to political /udy 0 t !y inv5t$ x4 ,x is n too mu* to say t1 be=e fif?-c5tury ,greece1 politics did n exi/4 ,!re 7 p[]s & pr9cipalities1 gov]nm5ts & subjects1 b politics no m exi/$ ?an *emi/ry exi/$ 9 ! age ( al*emy4 ,an imitation ( an idea1 z ,plato has taught u1 is n ! same z an idea2 nor is ! imitation ( a sci5ce ! same z a sci5ce4 ,rameses & ,nebu*adnezz>1 ,croesus ! ,lydian & ,cyrus ! ,p]sian1 rul$ ov] great empires2 b )9 _! dom9ions !re 7 no politics because !re 7 no public affairs4 ,!re 7 only ! private affairs ( ! sov]eign & 8 rul+ class4 ,gov]nm5t & all t p]ta9$ to x1 f milit>y s]vice & taxation to ! supply ( wom5 = ! royal h>em1 0 simply ! expression ( ! p[] & desire ( ! rul]4 ,! great advance made by ,greece 0 to h recogniz$ t public or common int]e/s exi/ & to h provid$1 fir/ = _! managem5t1 & secondly = _! /udy4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,greeks 7 ! fir/ to rescue ! body politic f *>latans & to h& x ov] to physicians4 ,h[ great an a*ievem5t ?is 0 we c be/ recognize :5 we consid] h[ l>ge a place ! true /udy ( politics1 & ! t]ms & ideas to :i* x has giv5 rise1 fills 9 ! life ( ! mod]n man--especially ( ! mod]n ,engli%man4 ,ju/ice & lib]ty1 law & democracy1 p>liam5t & public op9ion--all ^! & _m m we owe to ! peasants & craftsm5 ( ! small ,greek republics :o1 hav+ felt ! ne$ = a bett] managem5t ( _! humble conc]ns1 set to "w to provide x1 ) ! same inv5tiv5ess1 ! same adaptation ( means to end1 :i* l$ !m1 9 o!r fields1 to ! inv5tion ( ! classic temple or ( ! drama4 ,if x is go+ too f> to say t e mod]n politician owes 8 /ock-9-trade ( g5]al ideas to ! ,greeks1 !re are c]ta9ly few :o d n owe !m _! p]orations4 ,?is is n ! place to enl>ge on ! features ( ,greek political organization or to po9t out ! v>i\s elem5ts 9 ,greek political !ory or practice :i* h prov$ ( p]man5t value4 ,only a v summ>y appreciation c be attempt$4 ,b c]ta9 po9ts c be pick$ out z be+ ( special int]e/ to ! citiz5 ( to-day4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,greeks1 hav+ made cle> to !mselves t public or common affairs exi/$1 sat d[n resolutely to /udy !m4 ,conv9c$ believ]s 9 reason1 !y did n fall into ! conv5i5t ,engli% fallacy ( believ+ t in/itutions are n made b 'gr['1 or t difficulties :i* seem too ?orny = timid f+]s to t\* w settle !mselves by be+ left alone4 ,political problems1 !y felt1 7 caus$ by m51 by ! int]action ( human wills & desires1 & by m51 by ! consci\s & delib]ate application ( human intellig5ce1 !y c\ld & mu/ be solv$4 ,9 spite ( _! belief 9 my/]i\s p[]s :i* control ! de/9ies ( m5 & nations1 !y did n ?9k x dec5t to ab&on public affairs to ,provid5ce2 nor did !y av]t _! gaze f !m z too mundane = ! squeami% intellectual to h&le & turn !m ov] to ! t5d] m]cies ( ! ignorant & less scrupul\s demagogue or doctr9aire4 ,_! public affairs 7 no m int]e/+ ?an ours3 !y 7 inde$ consid]ably less int]e/+--unless we are prep>$ to argue t ! election ( g5]als to comm& an army f> small] ?an ! ,swiss is a m arre/+ issue ?an ! *oice ( a gov]nm5t to be> rule ov] #djj millions ( m5 on five cont95ts1 or t ! "q ( peace or w> betwe5 two small neighb\r+ m\nta9 t]ritories outweighs 9 int]e/ ! discussion ( ! relations betwe5 ! :ite & yell[ races ( mank9d4 ,&1 if ,greek politics 7 n int]e/+ 9 !mselves1 !y suff]$ /ill fur!r by comp>ison ) ! o!r topics :i* lay ready to claim ! ,greek citiz5's att5tion4 ,! mod]n vot] :o is too idle to ca/ 8 ballot1 w give up to bus9ess or to pleasure1 to motor-c> & music-hall1 ! "t & ! tr\ble t he owes to humanity4 ,:5 ! ,a!nian sp5t a hot & exhau/+ day 7= :y %\ld we ?9k _! n]ves less susceptible to gl>e ?an ours87 li/5+ to a p>liam5t>y debate or to a lawsuit on a h>d /one seat 9 ! op5 air1 he 0 po/pon+ till to-morr[1 or till 8 crops & fruit-trees p]mitt$ him ! leisure1 ! discussion ( "s ma/]piece ( drama or "s new issue ( human ?\ght :i* _h leapt dur+ ! la/ few days or mon?s f ! bra9 ( a fell[ citiz5 into immortality4 ,if x is h>d = ! citiz5 ( ,new ,york to sp>e ! "t to de?rone ,tammany1 or = ! electors ( ,great ,brita9 to uproot its m outw>dly respectable analogue on ?is side ( ! ,atlantic1 :5 8 life1 & 8 newspap]s1 are full ( vulg> & ephem]al di/ractions1 h[ mu* h>d] mu/ x h be5 = a ,euripidean en?usia/1 or a /ud5t ( ,socrates or ,protagoras1 to desc5d = long days to solid e>? 9 ord] to /rike a b>ga9 ) a ,?racian *iefta9 or to assess "s poor devil's damages 9 dra*mae6 ,let u hon\r1 n pity or despise !m1 = hav+ ?\ght x "r to d s1 = hav+ delib]ately det]m9$ to infuse into public affairs1 9 !mselves s drab & dull1 s defici5t 9 ! f95ess & subtlety :i* *>act]ize m5's m intimate conc]ns1 ! int]e/ d]iv$ f ! v fact t hone/1 s9c]e1 & able m9ds devot$ !mselves to _! /udy4 ,z ,huxley c\ld make ! geological procession ( ! ages revolve r\nd a piece ( *alk1 & ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow5 recon/ruct primitive man f ! bone ( 8 great toe1 s ! citiz5 ( ,a!ns1 z we see him depict$ = u 9 ! pages ( ,?ucydides1 c\ld raise ! great p]man5t issues ( politics1 & cause !m to rema9 liv+ = u two ?\s& ye>s lat]1 9 debates :i* 7 o/5sibly conc]n$ ) m]e prov9cial trivialities4 ,:5 su* 0 ! atmosph]e creat$1 no wond] t ^? :o /ay$ away 7 held up to obloquy 9 an expression 7 idits7 ( :i* our ,engli% 'idiot' is ! exact transcription4 ,let u dwell = a mom5t on ! attitude ( m9d 9 :i* ! ,greek citiz5 approa*$ political problems4 ,he 0 bo? a ,cons]vative & a ,radical2 or r1 he br\ght to politics ! be/ ( ,cons]vatism toge!r ) ! be/ ( ,radicalism4 ,he 0 a ,cons]vative because he rev]5c$ tradition & recogniz$ ! p[] & value ( cu/om4 ,none ( our mod]n ,cons]vative writ]s & def5d]s ( ! exi/+ ord]1 n ,burke himself or ,bism>ck or ,*ateaubri&1 _h a deep] s5se ?an ! ,a!nian = '^? unwritt5 ord9ances ^: transgression br+s admitt$ %ame'4 ,a!ns 0 a ,cons]vative democracy4 ,mo/ democracies1 despite ! labels ( _! politicians1 are 9 reality ,cons]vative2 = ! common man ^: rgime !y repres5t is ,cons]vative f ! v nature ( 8 life & occupation2 x takes leisure & travel1 or a wid] education ?an any democracy has z yet be/[$ on its "y p1 to lift ! m9ds ( ! mass ( m5 out ( ! rut ( habit4 ,b ,a!ns 0 f> m ,cons]vative ?an ! mod]n democracies ) :om we are acqua9t$4 ,:]e ! ,briti% public rebukes an awkw>d writ] by conspir+ to boycott 8 books1 s t1 unless he has private means1 he is ev5tually sil5c$1 :]e ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 go+ a /ep f>!r1 d5y 8 works ! privilege ( ! mails1 ,a!ns does n scruple to adm9i/] hemlock1 &1 if an lite is indignant or sorr[ful1 ! democracy applauds4 ,ev5 at ! height ( ! rec5t ,r$ ,t]ror ! ,unit$ ,/ates nev] w5t s ,cons]vative z ?is4 ,?is %\ld help u to realize ! rock-firm basis ( tradition1 ( use & wont1 ( patri>*al sanctities1 :i* und]lay ! work+ ( fif?-c5tury ,a!nian democracy z we wat* its app>5t vicissitudes4 ,! citiz5 c\ld use 8 m9d z freely z he w\ld on ! mat]ial pres5t$ to him = 8 consid]ation2 b !re 0 a po9t at :i* ! ,/ate1 & 8 own in/9cts1 cri$ ',halt'2 &1 except 9 r>e cases1 he obey$4 ,x is only fair to add t ! mo/ enlight5$ mod]n op9ion w\ld entirely support ! ,a!nian view aga9/ ! discussion ( 'unwritt5 laws' 9 ,p>liam5t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,cons]vative ,a!nian democrat & ! mod]n ,lib]al 9 su* matt]s is1 n t ! "o refuses1 :ile ! o!r dem&s1 ! discussion ( life's sanctities 9 ,p>liam5t & law-c\rt1 b t ! "o appeals to cu/om & ! o!r to consci5ce z ! sanction ( ! unwritt5 law itself4 ,:e!r x be ! gods or man1 ! law ( ! he>? or ( ! he>t1 t is at issue1 bo? agree t :at is private & holy has no place 9 ! =um ( common debate4 ,b1 )9 ^! well-recogniz$ limits1 ! ,greek citiz5 0 a ,radical2 t is to say1 he 0 ready to apply 8 reason to public affairs )\t fe> or prejudice4 ,he lov$ /raight & s9c]e ?9k+2 he tri$ h>d to face ! real situation be=e him & n to be cl\d$ or l$ a/ray by side-issues or inhibitions4 ,!re is _m a lesson 9 common hone/y to be le>nt by our politicians & public 9 ! spee*es ( ,?ucydides4 ,%all[ critics h be5 kn[n to dub !m cynical1 an adjective :i* ! ,engli%1 adepts 9 self-deception1 are fond ( apply+ to nations s9c]] 9 self-analysis ?an !mselves4 ,:5 we refuse =mally to reop5 an issue on :i* action is 9 fact be+ tak5 daily1 because x is a p>ty "q & a ,coalition gov]nm5t is 9 p[]1 :5 we leave to ! heal+ m]cies ( "t a problem ) reg>d to :i* inaction itself con/itutes a policy1 :5 we delib]ately inv5t p>ty labels or election cries design$ to confuse ! m9d ( ! vot] & to di/ract him f ! real issue1 :5 our politicians h become pr(essionals 9 ! art ( :at ,?ucydides describ$ z '! use ( fair phrases to arrive at guilty ends' & a ,briti% ,premi]1 m euphemi/ically1 z 'political /rategy'1 we might d worse ?an sit d[n to read1 m>k1 le>n1 dige/1 & apply to our mod]n situations1 ! immortal spee*es or essays 9 :i* ,?ucydides lays b>e = u ! he>t ( ! political life ( 8 day1 & to let !m act z a purge ( "s ( our own too sug>y diet4 ,! bitt]-sweet ( tru? is n always popul> on ! hu/+s2 b x is good fe$+ = ! pla9 citiz51 :e!r anci5t or mod]n4 ,?is leads on to a fur!r reflection4 ,! ,greeks1 9 _! political ?9k+1 7 ess5tially reali/s1 r ?an ideali/s4 ,?is is true ( all ! ,greek writ]s1 ev5 ^? :o1 l ,plato1 />t+ f ! m>ket-place ( ,a!ns1 lead u up to a ,utopia 9 ! cl\ds4 ,!y 7 reali/s 9 t !y bas$ _! political /udies on ! _w z x is & human nature z x is1 r ?an on "s p]sonal & fanciful conception ( :at man & ! _w ought to be4 ,to put x 9 o!r words1 !y are reali/s because !y are psy*ologi/s1 because !y appli$ ! psy*ological me?od to political problems4 ,t !y 7 ! fir/ to d s goes )\t say+3 = no "o be=e !m _h appli$ any me?od at all1 except 9 ! mo/ r\gh-&-ready mann]4 ,b !y did x s p]fectly1 ) su* utt] & arti/ic simplicity1 t ^? :o foll[$ !m accept$ or criticiz$ _! results )\t obs]v+ ! basis ( human /udy on :i* !y 7 built up1 & x is only 9 q rec5t ye>s1 ?r\gh ! "w ( pati5t inquir]s :o1 l ,graham ,wallas1 h lab\r$ sy/ematically 9 bo? fields1 t politics & psy*ology h once m be5 drawn toge!r4 ,x may p]haps seem /range to a mod]n read] to be told t1 9 ?is v important respect1 ,?ucydides1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle are s\nd] 9 _! me?od ?an ! :ole long l9e ( political ?9k]s & /atesm5 up to our own day4 ,let ! read] :o d\bts x turn to ! texts4 ,he w f9d t all ! ?ree writ]s :om ,i h nam$ toil$ at ! /udy ( human nature be=e !y set p5 to pap]4 ,! ,republic op5s ) sev]al books ( psy*ological analysis1 no d\bt at times a little fanta/ic 9 its attempts at premature classification1 b full ( life & reality1 & n only ,greek reality b human reality4 ,ari/otle prec$es 8 "w on ,politics1 9 :i* he embodi$ ! results ( a /udy ( all ! available political & con/itutional mat]ial ( 8 day--= a ,greek c\ld "w l a mod]n ,g]man or ,am]ican !sis-grubb] :5 he tri$--) a book on ,e?ics :i* is /ill reg>d$1 q rightly1 z a /&>d "w = ! mod]n /ud5t4 ,z = ,?ucydides1 8 k ( m51 ! fruit ( pati5t exp]i5ce deep5$ by disappo9tm5t1 is felt beh9d e l9e ( 8 book1 z "o descries x 9 ! features ( 8 undeg5]ate desc5dant ,v5izelos4 ,turn n[ to ! mod]ns4 ,:]e 9 ,hobbes or 9 ,b5?am1 9 ,locke or ,burke or ,r\sseau1 9 ! individuali/s or ! ,sociali/s1 ! ,hegelians or ! an>*i/s1 d we f9d1 until q rec5tly1 a really wide & op5-m9d$ attempt to see man z he is8 ,our e>s are assail$ by a *orus ( cat*words1 bas$ on "s arbitr>y & ephem]al e/imate ( m5's reactions to outw>d ev5ts & in/itutions4 ,m5 argue backw>ds & =w>ds z to :e!r 'human nature c be *ang$'1 :e!r man is guid$ solely by self-int]e/1 or is only wait+ to be set free f sordid c>es to be guid$ solely by 8 love = 8 fell[s1 :e!r fe> or hope1 cu/om or ! s5se ( adv5ture1 =m 8 natural & mo/ compell+ spur to action4 ,mean:ile 9 ! great debate1 9 ,burke's ,reflections z 9 ,m>x's ,capital1 9 ,ma9e & ,mill & ,mazz9i1 z among ! hacks :o vulg>ize _! results 9 text-books & election lit]ature1 man z he is has vani%$ beh9d a cl\d ( doctr9e or v]biage4 ,we ne$ ! simplicity1 or cynicism1 ( ! ,greeks to recall u to realities4 ,let u = a mom5t imag9e ,?ucydides face to face ) ! problems ( our po/-w> _w ( to-day4 ,we h only to read 8 immortal analysis ( ! w>-mood ( ,greece1 & ( ! n]v\s & emotional ph5om5a :i* accompani$ x1 to realize t 8 fir/ ef=t w\ld h be5 to expla9 u to ourselves4 ,he w\ld n all[ u to acquiesce idly 9 our vague disillusionm5t1 our impati5ce ( =eign]s1 our suspicion ( ! idealisms ( ! ,wilson br&4 ,he w\ld trace our discont5t ru?lessly to its s\rces & hold up to our eyes ! /range comp\nd ( sorr[ & fatigue1 impati5ce & disappo9tm5t1 aspiration & helplessness :i* makes u :at we are4 ',! w>-mood br\ght ) x _m & t]rible symptoms su* z h occurr$ & w always cont9ue to occur1 s long z human nature rema9s :at x is2 ?\gh 9 a sev]] or mild] =m1 accord+ to ! v>iety ( ! p>ticul> cases4' ,?ucydides w\ld h _h eyes = x 9 all its =ms1 mild or sev]e1 simple or complex1 pitiful or repulsive4 ,he w\ld %[ u ! ,engli% upp] & middle class1 %ak5 out ( its com=t & complac5cy1 its easy & patroniz+ security1 by ! %ock ( w> & b]eavem5t1 fac+ a future ( unkn[n & t]rify+ ideas & =ces1 ) ! brutal tax-ga!r] adm9i/]+ ! c\p de grce to its equanimity3 ! work+ class1 call$ to fight = a cause :i* x b dimly und]/ood1 9 ! hope ( a new _w :i* victory 0 to call into be+1 exhort$ by ! nation's lead]s to be z d>+ 9 its home policies z 9 ! tr5*es1 & !n confront$ ) a _w ( fail+ m>kets & impov]i%$ cu/om]s & ) ! full rig\r ( ! m]ciless laws ( supply & dem& :i*1 j because x _h wi%$ !m out ( exi/5ce1 x _h gr[n accu/om$ to believe c\ld be ignor$1 oscillat+1 accord+ to age1 temp]am5t or exp]i5ce1 betwe5 resignation & impot5t fury1 betwe5 old-fa%ion$ trade-unionism & ! late/ fa%ion 9 extremism3 ,france1 em]g+ n]ve-rack$ f a fifty ye>s' obsession & a five ye>s' nightm>e1 half-dead ) sorr[ & susp5se1 yet too pr\d 9 victory to own h] weakness1 look+ r\nd1 half-defiant1 half-wi/ful1 among h] allies = "o :o c und]/& h] unspok5 ne$1 & long+1 ) all ! int5sity ( h] s5sitive nature1 to be able to resume1 9 security & quietness ( m9d1 ! arts & activities ( normal life 9 :i* %e has be51 & w be aga91 ! ,a!ns ( ! mod]n _w3 ,g]many1 t\gh] 9 fibre ?an h] we/]n neighb\r yet equally %ak5 & exhau/$3 a l& ( %eep )\t a %eph]d1 ru%+ hi!r & ?i!r seek+ = a direction & a ,weltans*auung1 h] amaz+ p[]s ( indu/ry & conc5tration & h] ri* & turbid life ( feel+ runn+ to wa/e = lack ( *annell$ guidance3 ,belgium1 self-confid5t1 indu/ri\s & rejuv5at$3 ,italy1 made "o at la/ & measur+ h] /r5g? to face ! tasks ( a new epo* 9 h] hi/ory3 &1 beh9d1 ! great new surg+ _w ( ! ,slav1 f ! discipl9$ en?usiasm ( ,prague1 "u h] philosoph]-presid5t1 to ! bir?-agonies ( a new ,russia 9 ! grip ( ! r\gh tyrant-physicians ( ! ,kreml94 ,all ?is a mod]n ,?ucydides w\ld attempt to set be=e u1 n =gett+ ! cons]vative =ces & ! gods ( ! old] g5]ation1 ! great ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant1 ,moslem & ,sociali/ traditions1 ! p[] ( ! bank]s & ! m]*ants1 ! univ]sities & ! press1 & all ! v>i\s types ( humanity produc$ & hall-m>k$ by _! activity4 ,& !n1 & n till !n1 hav+ %[n u :at we are1 ea* ( u 9 8 ni*e & all ( u toge!r 9 our little corn] 9 ! va/ ,temple ( mank9d1 hav+ made u see our pettyisms & or?odoxies aga9/ a univ]sal backgr\nd ( "t & space1 he w\ld h brok5 sil5ce & all[$ himself to speak to u ( rem$ies4 ,"k y\rself is ! fir/1 p]haps ! only1 message ( ! sci5tific hi/orian to our bewild]$ age4 ,b by :at "r1 x w be ask$1 9 ?is age ( ,wiss5s*aft & ,fa*m5s*51 ( specialism & rese>*-in/itutes & organiz$ intellectual production1 d y speak ( ,?ucydides z a sci5tific hi/orian8 ,"h is a man :o1 )\t a univ]sity degree or any univ]sity tra9+ at all1 aft] a brief milit>y c>e] = :i* he took no /aff college c\rse 7z witness 8 g5]al%ip71 sits d[n to write a *ronicle ( ! w> 9 :i* he play$ a "p1 bas+ 8 acc\nt simply on 8 own exp]i5ce & on ! te/imony ( su* eye-witnesses z he 0 able to meet4 ,any tiro on ! hi/ory /aff at a mod]n college or univ]sity c\ld pr$ict ! result--"o ( ^? bulky volumes1 full ( detail & po/-pr&ial rem9isc5ce1 9 :i* spl5etic eld]ly g5tlem5 h s (t5 s\ght to ju/ify _! own exi/5ce1 & to call d[n damnation on ! ,w> ,(fice1 be=e an indiff]5t public4 ,h[ c any?+ bett] be expect$ f a m]e soldi]1 a r\gh practical man1 untra9$ 9 ! arts ( rese>*1 9 collect+ facts on slips ( pap] & arrang+ & re-arrang+ !m till an induction em]ges1 9 look+ up ref]5ce books 9 libr>ies & 'li/+' !m 9 a neat alphabetical bibliography1 totally ignorant ( ! ,hilfswiss5s*aft51 ! labori\s subsidi>y /udies on ! basis ( :i* sci5tific hi/ory is built up1 ignorant ev5 ( =eign languages1 :o has read no sociology1 & is n ev5 aw>e ( its exi/5ce1 ^: geographical /udies are limit$ to 8 own j\rneys & ! tales ( 8 fri5ds1 :o1 f9ally1 has ! imp]t95ce to int]sp]se 8 n>rative ) fictiti\s spee*es1 ?us de/roy+ any pret5ce at a sci5tific "* = 8 treatise1 & reveal+ x 9 its true nature z a m]e "w ( art or imag9ation8 ,x may inde$ be d\bt$ :e!r a mod]n tra9$ libr>ian1 work+ accord+ to ! classification laid d[n by ! /&>d ,congress libr>y at ,wa%+ton1 w\ld1 :5 8 att5tion 0 drawn to x1 admit s (f5d+ a writ] on to 8 hi/ory %elves at all4 ,8 place1 he w\ld probably say1 is ) ! prose-poets1 or ) ! writ]s ( hi/orical fiction next door to !m4 ,yet turn to ! op5+ *apt]s ( ,?ucydides' book4 ,y w f9d mo/ ( ! sci5ces on :i* long mod]n treatises are writt53 b y w f9d some?+ m3 y w f9d !m bl5d$ into a unity4 ,let ^? :o d5y t ,?ucydides 0 a sociologi/1 :o cont9ue to claim t ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 inv5tor ( ! horrid ^w1 inv5t$ also ! sci5ce1 re-read ,?ucydides' acc\nt ( ! evolution 7= x 0 z an evolution t he saw & depict$ x7 ( ,greek society f ! e>lie/ times to 8 own day4 ,let ^? :o cry up an?ropology exam9e into 8 treatm5t ( leg5d & cu/om & 8 p[]1 untra9$ 9 ,sem9> or in/itute1 to use x z sociological evid5ce4 ,let ! geograph]s1 too =getful sometimes t man is n ! creature ( environm5t alone1 refre% _! m9ds by recall+ ^? brilliant sallies 9 geographical ?9k+ 9 :i* he expla9s "s ( ! features ( e>ly ,greek settlem5t & city-build+4 ,x is n only or?odox hi/ory1 ( ! s*ool ( ,ranke1 ( :i* ,?ucydides is ! fa!r & inspir]3 !re is n "o ( ! _m movem5ts :i* h s\ght to broad5 out hi/orical /udy 9 rec5t ye>s1 f ,buckle & ,leplay & ,vidal de la ,bla*e d[n to ! psy*o-analy/s ( our own day & ( to-morr[ :o w n f9d 9 ,?ucydides "s gleam+ anticipation along ! pa? ( _! own ?\ght4 ,"h we t\* ^u :at is p]haps ! c>d9al m]it ( ! ,greek political ?9k]s1 z x is ( ! ,greek contribution z a :ole4 ,!y saw all ! problems3 b saw ea* 9 its place )9 ! l>g] :ole4 ,!y 'saw life /eadily & saw x :ole'4 ,mat!w ,arnold's l9e is hackney$ en\gh2 b x _c be bett]$4 ,to put ! same ?\ght 9 ano!r way1 ! ,greeks 7 natural ,ca?olics1 :ile we ( to-day1 especially on ! political field1 are con/antly relaps+ into an unhelpful ,prote/antism4 ,by ,ca?olicism ,i mean no?+ doctr9al1 or inde$ religi\s at all1 b simply ! habit ( m9d :i* insi/s on look+ at ! :ole be=e ! p>ts1 at sett+ ! common be=e ! sectional int]e/1 & 9 sweet5+ & h>moniz+ ! inevitable contr>ieties & antagonisms ( life by rema9+ /eadily consci\s ( its major & reconcil+ int]e/s4 ,a ,ca?olic is "o ^: intellect1 to use ! words ( ,newman1 himself1 despite 8 religi\s label1 "o ( ! greate/ ( ! tribe1 '_c be p>tial1 _c be exclusive1 _c be impetu\s1 _c be at a loss1 _c b be pati5t1 collect$ & maje/ically calm1 because x disc]ns ! end 9 e beg9n+1 ! orig9 9 ea* end1 ! law 9 e int]ruption1 ! limit 9 ea* delay1 because x ev] kn[s :]e x /&s & h[ its pa? lies f "o po9t to ano!r'4 ,prote/antism1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! attitude ( prote/1 ( revolt1 ( indignation3 ! _s :i* is consci\s only ( :at x is aga9/1 & is too ignorant1 or too angry1 to survey ! :ole field ( problems involv$ 9 its prote/ or to ?9k out an alt]native s*eme4 ,if ! ,greeks c r5d] u no o!r s]vice 9 our discont5ts !y c at lea/ lift u1 by ! example ( _! wide & fe>less vision1 out ( our petty ,prote/ant rebelli\sness & recrim9ation & plant our feet solidly on ! rock ( /eady ,ca?olic ?9k+4 ,take a few in/ances1 drawn f ,plato1 ( :at ,i call ! ,ca?olic _s4 ,p]haps ! mo/ difficult & unsettl+ ( all our mod]n problems is t ( ! relations betwe5 m5 & wom5 9 a society :i* has grant$ or is ab\t to grant to wom5 complete equality ( rights & opportunities )\t hav+ effect$ ! correspond+ inn] revolution ( ?\ght & s5tim5t4 ,mascul9e society1 9 o!r words1 despite a multitude ( pr(essions1 has n yet admitt$1 /ill less assimilat$1 ! educat$ woman into its ranks4 ,"h is a problem ) f> rea*+ & mo/ difficult implications :i* ,plato discuss$ m ?an two ?\s& ye>s ago1 b 9 h[ diff]5t a _s f s _m ( ! 'fem9i/s' ( to-day4 ,n t he 0 less 'advanc$' 9 8 speculations3 he 0 ready to face all t !re 0 to face & to g a good deal f>!r 9 8 sugge/ions ( policy ?an w\ld be reg>d$ z pr9table 9 a mod]n ,engli% or ,am]ican review4 ,b 8 _s is ?r\gh\t p]fectly s]5e &1 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w1 sci5tific1 s t he c "w out 8 argum5t to ! end )\t a trace ( squeami%ness or false mode/y4 ,:]e %all we f9d 9 our mod]n discussions ( wom5's employm5t1 equal "w = equal pay1 & ! l1 ! c5tral po9t s simply & cle>ly /at$ z 9 ! foll[+ s5t5ce3 ',!n1 if we f9d ei!r ! male or ! female sex excell+ ! o!r 9 any art or o!r pursuit1 we %all say t ?is p>ticul> pursuit mu/ be assign$ to "o & n to ! o!r2 b if we f9d t ! diff]5ce simply consi/s 9 ?is1 t ! female conceives & ! male begets1 we %all n all[ t t goes any way to prove t a woman diff]s f a man ) ref]5ce to ! subject ( :i* we are speak+1 & we %all /ill consid] t our gu>dians & _! wives %\ld foll[ ! same pursuits4' ,if all our mod]n discussion 7 z clean & direct z ?is1 we %\ld h made great] progress 9 ?is subject by n[4 ,greek intellectual integrity1 & cl>ity ( ?\ght & expression1 7 n hamp]$ by a fe/]+ & ob/ructive legacy ( :at x is a libel on a great movem5t to describe z ,puritanism4 ,take a second example--! influ5ce ( occupation on "*4 ,?is is a subject :i* goes to ! root ( _m ( our social problems =1 till we h /udi$ ! reactions ( diff]5t classes ( employm5t1 n only on ! body b on ! m9d1 & p]fect$ our me?ods ( vocational guidance1 we %all /ill h left op5 "o ( ! greate/ av5ues to unhapp9ess4 ,! mod]n inquir] w f9d a v int]e/+ adumbration ( ?is l9e ( ?\ght 9 ! ,republic2 & if "h1 z 9 ! problem ( ! relations betwe5 m5 & wom51 he f9ds ,plato's rem$ies some:at dra/ic1 & is incl9$ to diss5t f 8 veto on actors & acrobats1 let him consid] ! appall+ ext5t to :i*1 dur+ rec5t g5]ations1 ! consum] has be5 pamp]$ at ! exp5se ( ! produc]1 & ask himself h[ (t51 :5 he att5ds a music-hall z a n>cotic aft] a di/ract+ day1 or :5 he r+s up on ! telephone or books a ticket at a railway (fice1 he consid]s ! k9d ( life to :i* he is an accomplice 9 condemn+ ^? :o m9i/] to 8 ne$s & desires4 ,plato believ$ 9 ! value ( beauty &1 be+ m ?an a m]e mod]n ae/hete1 held no sk9deep cre$4 ,he knew & und]/ood ! vital significance ( rhy?m & h>mony1 ( grace & fre$om1 9 ! outw>d ord] ( life z 9 ! s\l2 & if he f\nd himself plung$ d[n 9 ! c5tre ( "o ( our mod]n hives ( progress he w\ld h "s se>*+ que/ions to ask4 ,= 'abs5ce ( grace' he tells u '& bad rhy?m & bad h>mony are si/]s to bad words & bad nature' & 'we w\ld n h our gu>dians re>$ among images ( evil z 9 a f\l pa/ure & !re day by day1 & little by little1 ga!r impressions f all t surr\nds !m1 until at la/ a great mass ( evil ga!rs 9 _! inmo/ s\ls & !y "k x n'4 ,has ! mo/ widespread malady ( our "t ev] be5 bett] diagnos$2 & d n our capitali/ & sociali/ physicians1 ) _! m]ely mat]ial rem$ies1 look v small by ! side ( ?is comm&+ & conv9c+ simplicity ( /atem5t8 ,we h dwelt ^u "s ( ! special directions 9 :i* ,?ucydides & ,plato c be ( help to u4 ,let u n[ turn briefly to ! ?ird ( ! great triad4 ,ari/otle is1 ( c\rse1 ! mo/ sy/ematic ?9k] ( ! ?ree3 & x is j = t v reason t ! two elem5ts already not$ 9 ,greek political ?\ght1 ! local & ephem]al & ! univ]sal1 are mo/ closely int]wov5 & mo/ baffl+ to dis5tangle4 ,tutor ( ,alex&] ?\gh he 01 8 m9d is incapable ( /epp+ outside ! city-/ate framework4 ,8 ,e?ics is half a treatise on human nature1 half a book1 ak9 to ! ,*>act]s ( ,!ophra/us1 on deportm5t = a ,greek citiz54 ,no wond] t successive g5]ations ( ,engli% und]graduates h fail$ to respond to ! human excell5ce or social *>m1 ( 8 h]o or p>agon1 describ$ z '! big-s\l$' or 'magnific5t man'4 ,simil>ly ! ,politics is a book 9 :i* x ne$s a tra9$ read]1 already famili> ) ,greek life1 to pick out ! univ]sal f ! p>ticul> & draw 8 own mod]n conclusions4 ,b :5 y h read1 say1 ! fir/ book ( ! ,politics 9 ?is _s1 :5 y h rul$ out f :at is said ( ! ,/ate all t p]ta9s solely to ! ,city1 :5 y h made all[ance = ! haz>d\s biological1 psy*ological1 & sociological g5]alizations 7'man is m ( a political animal ?an bees or o!r greg>i\s animals'1 'he :o is by nature n 8 own b ano!r's & n a man is by nature a slave'1 '! /ate is by nature cle>ly prior to ! family & to ! individual1 s9ce ! :ole is ( necessity prior to ! "p'71 bas$1 z ! examples %[1 on ! embryonic condition ( ^? sci5ces at ! "t1 y h a l>ge residuum ( practical wisdom t is & w rema9 ( value to ! mod]n _w4 ,let u look = a mom5t at "o elem5t 9 ?is legacy1 = x has rec5tly become a subject ( mu* controv]sy--,ari/otle's conception ( ! ,/ate1 & ( its relation to o!r social & political gr\p+s4 ,z has already be5 said1 ,greek political ?\ght is op5 to criticism = unduly neglect+ ! claim ( ! individual4 ,ari/otle is less op5 to ?is indictm5t ?an ei!r ( 8 great compe]s3 he does inde$ all[1 = c]ta9 fav\r$ individuals1 an inn] or '!oretical' life1 z he calls x1 remote f ! conc]ns ( ! ,city-,/ate & almo/1 except = its excessive intellectuality1 recall+ ! mona/ic ideal ( ! ,middle ,age4 ,b ?is is only = ! fewe/4 ,nev]!less x involv$ ! admission t beh9d ! citiz5 rema9$ ! man1 :o might conceivably on occasion h 8 rights1 t 'political sci5ce'1 z he says1 'does n make m5'1 z ,?ucydides reg>d$ ,a!ns z mak+ ,a!nians1 'b receives !m f nature & uses !m'4 ,& ! ju/ification = ?is tak+ ov] ( human nature by ! /ate1 ?is subjection ( man ov] ! :ole or "p ( 8 nature1 is cle>ly set =?4 ,x is t 'man :5 p]fect$ i4 e4 tak5 ov] & educat$ by ! ,/ate is ! be/ ( animals1 b1 :5 sep>at$ f law & ju/ice1 he is ! wor/ ( all'1 or1 z he puts x 9 ano!r place1 ! man :o does n p>ticipate 9 ,/ate or city life is 'ei!r a bea/ or a god'--m likely 7z ! ord] ( ! words indicates7 ! =m]4 ,9 o!r words1 x is law & ju/ice1 n1 z ,?ucydides w\ld h x1 an exaltation ( ! _s to its highe/ p[]1 nor1 z ,plato prea*es1 "s organic id5tification betwe5 ! inn] life ( ! s\l & ! outw>d ord] ( society1 :i* is ! basis & ju/ification ( politics4 ',x is ju/ice'1 he says1 us+ ! ^w 9 a /rict1 n a platonic or metaphysical s5se1 ':i* is ! bond ( m5 9 /ates1 & ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 i4 e4 ! det]m9ation ( :at is j1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( ord] 9 political society4' ,n[1 ) ?is pr9ciple cle>ly laid d[n1 & ) ! claim ( ! individual ?us p>tially or at lea/ implicitly recogniz$1 x is easi] to und]/& ,ari/otle's intransigeant attitude t[>ds ! claims ( associations o!r ?an ! /ate1 a po9t on :i* mu* rec5t controv]sy has turn$4 ',e /ate'1 s 8 ,politics op51 'is an association ( "s k9d1 & e association is e/abli%$ ) a view to "s good4444 ,b if all associations aim at "s good1 ! /ate1 or political association1 :i* is ! highe/ ( all & :i* embraces all ! re/1 aims1 & 9 a great] degree ?an any o!r1 at ! highe/ good4' ,9 o!r words1 9 cases ( conflict ( allegiance betwe5 ! /ate or political association & "s o!r =m ( gr\p+1 :e!r ,*ur* or ,trade ,union or pr(essional or humanit>ian organization1 ! claim ( ! /ate mu/ take prec$5ce4 ,?is doctr9e has be5 mu* attack$ z involv+ an indef5sible ',/ate absolutism'1 a d5ial ( 'p]sonality' to less] gr\ps1 ev5 z a negation ( ! "r to less] loyalties4 ,mr4 ,figgis1 9 a numb] ( sugge/ive1 if unconv9c+1 writ+s1 has recall$ ! !ories ( ! ,jesuits & o!r anti-/ate m9orities & prote/ants on ?is subject1 re9=c+ !m f ! ,noncon=mi/ & ,trade ,union !ories or incl9ations ( our own day3 & a :ole s*ool ( y\ng] 'progressive' intellectuals made bold to foll[ him4 ,! assault on /ate-sov]eignty has1 h[ev]1 already be5 br\ght to a /&/ill by ! impact ( fact4 ,/range z x may appe> 9 an age ( sect>ianism & rebel !oriz+1 ! w> reveal$ ! tru? t ! mass ( mank9d1 n[ z 9 anci5t ,greece1 respond at ne$ to ! call ( citiz5%ip3 t :5 ! cry goes up summon+ ea* & all to ! t5ts1 x is n ?is or t little tab]nacle b ! protect+ %elt] ( ! l>g] & m truly repres5tative /ate organizations to :i* m5 flock2 t ! sects & conv5ticles :i* h f$ ! en?usiasm & provid$ ! activity ( leisure h\rs _c ma9ta9 _! appeal :5 ! :ole fabric ( our society is 9 dang]4 ,exclusive ( ^? :o refus$ allegiance on true gr\nds ( consci5ce1 & ! despicable remnant :o %amm$ a simil> conviction1 ! numb] ( ,engli%m5 :o def9itely set allegiance to "s o!r political or social gr\p+ be=e allegiance to ! /ate 0 surpris+ly small4 ,s little are fundam5tal loyalties1 or ! dictates ( an unanalys$ common s5se1 affect$1 9 ?is c\ntry1 by f9e-spun !ories & argum5ts4 ,b :at we call$ commons5se views1 aft] all1 c be analys$ & ought to be analys$4 ,& !re is a v s\nd & practical reason1 z ,ari/otle knew1 :y m5 pref] ! /ate to less] associations4 ,x is because ! /ate leaves !m m free4 ,^? :o talk ( /ate-absolutism are ignor+ ! simple tru? t !re is no tyranny l ! tyranny ( ne> neighb\rs4 ,! small] ! gr\p ! tight] its /ranglehold ov] y\r life & activities4 ,gr\ps & less] loyalties are highly necess>y1 & inde$ desirable1 9 our mod]n l>ge-scale society2 b !y involve m51 & especially weak-will$ & ?\ghtless m51 9 f> great] dang]s ?an _! l>g] citiz5%ip4 ,:at ! confessional at its wor/ may be to a woman1 pr(essional or bus9ess or o!r loyalty may be to a man4 ,! mod]n _w is full ( m5 :o h b>t]$ away _! integrity ( s\l to pres]ve ! unity ( ! p>ty or ! unbrok5 tradition ( ! organization or ! int]e/s ( ! trade or ev5 ! exi/5ce ( ! bus9ess4 ,if ! secrets ( all he>ts c\ld be reveal$1 h[ _m high (ficials & dignit>ies 9 ,*ur* & ,p>ty1 9 ,trade ,union & employ]s' f$]ation1 w\ld be discov]$ to be ?9k+ & ev5 say+ 9 private :at _! less] loyalties =bid !m to proclaim 9 public to _! fell[-guildsm54 ,! /ate1 9 its l>g] field1 may sometimes commit t]rible blund]s & ev5 crimes2 b at lea/1 9 ^! days ( l>ge-scale gov]nm5t1 x does n expose its citiz5s to ! daily falsehoods & hypocrisies1 to ! insidi\s clogg+ ( ! :eels ( progress ) ! grit ( petty p]sonal consid]ations1 :i* seem inevitable 9 ! life ( ! small] gr\p+s ( m5 & wom54 ,se5 9 ?is light1 ! /ate /&s out z ! gu>dian n only ( ju/ice b ( fre$om1 ( an inn] fre$om ( s\l & _s ) :i* ! pr(essional & syndicali/ attitude ( m9d is s (t5 9 flagrant1 if unav[$1 contradiction4 ,if all ?is 0 n visible to ,ari/otle :5 he p5n$ 8 immortal op5+ p>agraph ( ! ,politics1 he is at lea/ entitl$ to ! cr$it ( hav+ laid 8 doctr9e ( /ate-sov]eignty on a f\ndation s sure t ov] tw5ty c5turies ( discussion f ! ,/oics & ,cynics1 ?r\gh ,augu/9e & ,dante1 d[n to ,r\sseau & ,l591 h n be5 able to %ake x4 ,aga9/ ,*ur* & ,soviet1 z aga9/ sage & h]mit & an>*i/1 ! t]ritorial /ate /ill holds its own ov] ! :ole civiliz$ _w2 & ! late/ con/ruction ( idealism at ,g5eva1 misnam$ ?\gh x is1 is b an association ( su* /ates1 f> l>g] inde$ 9 av]age size1 b ( ! same k9d & composition z ^? ^u :i* ! ,greek philosoph] fix$ z ! true object ( political /udy & ! mo/ effective & endur+ ag5cy = secur+ a good life = civiliz$ mank9d4 ,:at are ! *ief & mo/ endur+ ?\ghts :i* contact ) ! ,greek political ?9k]s leaves ) u8 ,!y are surely tw(old1 ! fir/ conc]n+ ! mat]ial ( politics1 ! second conc]n+ ! m5 & wom5 ( to-day :o are call$ to be citiz5s4 ,public affairs1 we feel1 s f> f be+ a tiresome preoccupation or 'a dirty bus9ess' are "o ( ! great p]man5t int]e/s ( ! race3 if !y 7 n too trivial or too debas+ = great arti/s l ,?ucydides & ,plato1 we ne$ n fe> le/ !y be too trivial or debas+ = ourselves4 ,& if !y are n b5ea? our /udy1 nei!r %\ld !y elude x by be+ enwrapp$ 9 cl\ds ( rhetoric or 9 ! cotton-wool ( s5tim5tality4 ,! ,greeks %\ld tea* u1 once & = all1 t ! common affairs ( mank9d are matt] to ?9k ab\t z well z to feel ab\t4 ,:at di/+ui%es :at we call a 'good' /atesman & a 'public-spirit$' citiz5 f _! less truly political colleagues is n t !y h w>m] feel+s--!re are z _m affectionate sons & lov+ husb&s among ! tools ( politics z among ! elect--b ! fact t by a resolute use ( ! relat$ p[]s ( intellect & imag9ation !y h be5 able to raise _! feel+s on to a high] plane & to face great issues ) a m9d attun$1 n to ! famili> appeal ( he>? & home1 b to ! gr&] & m difficult music ( humanity4 ,! psy*ologi/s are tea*+ u1 9 ! individual life1 h[ we c 'sublimate' our emotions1 :5 life d5ies !m an outlet on ! level ( our desire1 by rais+ !m to a high] & m r>ifi$ range ( feel+ & action4 ,z we c sublimate our love ( individuals1 s we c sublimate our love ( c\ntry1 n qu5*+ or d5y+ our patriotism1 b consci\sly divid+ & apportion+ x4 ,we mu/ le>n to pres]ve = our blood & nation t preci\s "p ( our gift ( s]vice :i*1 j because x is intimate & ( ! family1 _c be (f]$ directly to humanity2 b we mu/ le>n also ! m difficult lesson ( transf]r+ to ! int]national /age1 ! ar5a :]e m51 because !y are m51 lab\r at common tasks & seek a greate/ common measure ( co-op]ation1 all ^! int]e/s & loyalties :i* safely & rightly belong !re4 ,?is is ! claim & call ( ! mod]n ,caes>1 :e!r 8 sep>ate capitals rema91 z !y are to-day1 9 ,london1 ,p>is1 ,wa%+ton1 & ! o!r c5tres ( /ate-sov]eignty1 or :e!r mank9d c rise1 if n 9 our own day1 to ! level ( a s+le allegiance4 ,we %all neglect t call at our p]il4 ,=1 unless we r5d] unto ,caes> t :i* is prop]ly 81 unless we disc>d our un?9k+ & divisive nationalisms1 our noble s5tim5ts w avail u no?+ &1 9 ! civil w> ( ! angels1 patriotism aga9/ patriotism1 ,mammon & ,beelzebub w come into _! own4 ,9 ^! days ( l>ge-scale organization & mammo? syndicates1 x takes a ,caes>1 a multi-national gov]nm5t1 to keep a giant tru/ at bay4 ,_h ! l& ( ,wa%+ton & ,l9coln be5 brok5 up into sep>ate gov]nm5ts in/ead ( drawn toge!r into a s+le t]ritory ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 private int]e/s w\ld h tak5 & defeat$ ea* gov]nm5t 9 detail1 & fre$om w\ld h vani%$ f ! l&--unless inde$1 9 "s conflict ( devil ) devil1 ( bank & railroad aga9/ oil & lumb]1 ! angels crept once m into _! own4 ,! same reason+ applies to ! small] gov]nm5ts 9 o!r cont95ts to-day4 ,local patriotism is b a /ripl+ ,david 9 face ( ! ,golia?s ( mod]n comm]cialism4 ,m & m m5 w be driv51 if n by reason1 !n by exploitation & suff]+1 to le>n ! lesson ( :at is /ill mi/ak5ly ?\ght ( z imp]ialism until !y f9d !mselves cry+ out1 ) ! apo/le ( ! ,g5tiles1 :o f\ght 8 own battle aga9/ nationalism1 ',i appeal unto ,caes>4' ,b ! ,greeks h a message = u n only z reg>ds ! mat]ial ( our politics b z reg>ds ourselves4 ,:at c we d to help humanity =w>d 9 ^! problems ( its common affairs8 ,! age ( ,utopia-dreams is ov]4 ,we "k n[ t mod]n sci5ce has made ! _w "o place & t social salvation is n to be f\nd1 z ! e>ly sociali/s imag9$1 by flee+ f ! haunts ( m5 & f\nd+ "s model city 9 a wild]ness4 ,we mu/ make our contribution "h & n[1 9 ! drab _w 9 :i* fate has set u4 ,if we _c hope to turn x into ,utopia1 let u at lea/ make x z mu* l ,utopia z we c4 ,?is1 aft] all1 is ,plato's message1 ev5 9 ! mo/ ideali/ic & vision>y ( 8 books4 ,! fam\s passage is wor? quot+ 9 detail3 ',!n d y ?9k any less ( our argum5t because we _c prove t x is possible to f\nd a /ate ( ! k9d we h describ$8' ',surely n1' he said4444 ',!n d n compel me to %[ t :at we h decid$ 9 our argum5t c\ld 9 all respects be reproduc$ 9 exp]i5ce4 ,if we manage to discov] h[ a /ate c\ld be organiz$ 9 any close correspond5ce to our description1 !n y mu/ all[ t we h discov]$ t y\r comm&s c\ld be realiz$4 ,w y n be cont5t ) t8 ,i c]ta9ly %\ld be4' ',yes1 ,i w1' he said4 ',!n next app>5tly we mu/ try to discov] 444 :at is ! smalle/ *ange by :i* a /ate might arrive at ?is mann] ( con/itution4444' ',mo/ c]ta9ly1' he said4 ',well1 !re is "o *ange1' ,i said1 ':i* ,i ?9k we c\ld c]ta9ly prove w\ld br+ ab\t ! revolution4 ,x is c]ta9ly nei!r a small nor an easy *ange1 b x is possible4' ',:at is x8' he said4 ',n[1' ,i said1 ',i am at ! v topic :i* we lik5$ to ! greate/ wave4 ,spok51 h[ev]1 x %all be1 ev5 ?\gh x is likely to deluge me ) laught] & ridicule4444 ,consid] !n :at ,i am ab\t to say4' ',say on1' he said4 ',unless1' ,i said1 'lov]s ( wisdom be> sov]eign rule 9 /ates1 or ^? :o are n[ call$ sov]eigns & gov]nors become s9c]e & capable lov]s ( wisdom1 & gov]nm5t & love ( wisdom be br\ght toge!r1 & unless ! num]\s natures :o at pres5t pursue ei!r gov]nm5t or wisdom1 ! "o to ! exclusion ( ! o!r1 be =cibly deb>r$ f ?is behavi\r1 !re w be no respite f evil1 my de> ,glaucon1 = /ates1 nor1 ,i fancy1 = humanity2 nor w ?is con/itution1 :i* we h j describ$ 9 our argum5t1 come to t realization :i* is possible = x & see ! light ( day4 ,x is ?is :i* has = s long made me hesitate to speak4 ,i saw h[ p>adoxical x w\ld s\nd4 ,= x is giv5 to few to p]ceive t no o!r con/itution c\ld ev] br+ happ9ess ei!r to /ates or individuals4' ,?us f> ! philosoph] ( antiquity4 ,8 words are sometimes int]pret$ z a cry = "s philosoph]-g5ius to take ! task ( gov]nm5t out ( our too feeble grasp4 ,b t is n 8 message = u4 ,! age 9 :i* philosoph]-emp]ors 7 possible has pass$ beyond recall4 ,to u ,plato's words are an appeal to become1 ea* & all ( u1 9 our own sph]e1 lov]s ( wisdom accord+ to ! measure ( our ability4 ,if we w\ld am5d ! _w ar\nd u--& x is 9 sore ne$ ( am5dm5t--our fir/ duty is to es*ew falsehood & to foll[ tru? 9 our own lives1 9 our ?\ghts & actions4 ,revolutions spr+ n f )\t inw>ds b f )9 outw>ds2 & x is (t5 :5 ! ext]nal _w seems mo/ sick & sorr[ful1 :5 selfi%ness & irresponsibility sit en?ron$ 9 ! _w's seats ( gov]nm5t1 t ! p[] ( tru? is mo/ active 9 ! sil5t region ( ! s\l1 /r5g!n+ x 9 ord] t x may issue =? once aga9 to impress man's unconqu]able purpose ( ord]1 ju/ice & fre$om ^u ! recalcitrant mat]ial :i* =ms ! /uff ( m5's common problems on ?is small globe ( ours4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,zimm]n4 ,,! ,,lamps ,,( ,,greek ,,art ,amid ! sup]ficialities & /ruggles ( ! _w ar\nd u1 x is refre%+ to turn back = a mom5t to ! mell[ wisdom ( ,mat!w ,arnold2 & ,i w />t ) a quotation f ,lit]ature & ,dogma3 ',z well imag9e a man ) a s5se = sculpture n cultivat+ x by ! help ( ! rema9s ( ,greek art1 or a man ) a s5se = poetry n cultivat+ x by ! help ( ,hom] & ,%akespe>e1 z a man ) a s5se = conduct n cultivat+ x by ! help ( ! ,bible4' ,to ,arnold ! ,bible1 ,hom]1 ,%akespe>e1 ,greek art1 are ! great & et]nal classics1 :i* = all "t mu/ be ! /imulus & ! models = ! greate/ ( human a*ievem5ts4 ,beyond d\bt 9 ! fifty ye>s s9ce ,arnold wrote !re has be5 a m>k$ drift away f classics ( e k9d4 ,to ackn[l$ge classics at all seems a survival ( ! _s ( ari/ocracy4 ,we are conv9c$ t we are bett] ?an our fa!rs1 & mu/ break away f _! tutelage4 ,9 "s degree ?is arises out ( ! unre/ & n]v\s /ra9 produc$ by ! great w>4 ,b x does n come only f n]v\s t5sion4 ,x is a def9ite t5d5cy ( society1 :i* has to be consid]$ on its m]its by all :o feel call$ on to take a %>e 9 ! _w movem5t4 ,we _c ignore ^? :o are drift+ away f ! settl$ an*orages1 or we run ! risk ( be+ ignor$ ourselves4 ,! task has fall5 to me to try to give reasons :y ,greek art has /ill a claim on our att5tion4 ,among ,engli%m5 ! appreciation ( art nev] has be5 & nev] c be z ke5 z ! appreciation ( poetry & philosophy4 ,b on ! o!r h& ,i ?9k x c be %[n t 9 ! field ( art our debt to ,greece is ev5 great] ?an 9 ! field ( philosophy & poetry4 ,= 9 ^! latt] we h a c]ta9 national g5ius1 & h produc$ classics recogniz$ ?r\gh ,europe4 ,b 9 art our a*ievem5ts h be5 b mod]ate2 & at ! pres5t "t a liv+ s5se ( art is probably r>] among u ?an 9 any highly civiliz$ c\ntry except ,am]ica4 ,i w beg9 ) a bold ass]tion1 :i* ,i hope to ju/ify z we proce$4 ,b = anci5t ,greece1 ! art ( ,europe w\ld to-day be on mu* ! same level z ! fanta/ic & degrad$ art ( ,india4 ,& b = ! cont9u$ influ5ce ( ,greek art1 t ( ,europe w\ld cont9ually be 9 dang] ( drift+ into *aotic extravagance4 ,9 ! c5tury be=e ! ,p]sian w>s ( #ejj-dhj ,b4 ,c41 ,greece1 bo? ,ionian & ,dorian1 0 ?r[+ out fre% %oots ( life 9 e direction1 break+ ?r\gh ! cru/ ( ar*aic conv5tion1 produc+ a new /&>d ( excell5ce1 9 poetry1 9 philosophy1 9 hi/ory1 & 9 art4 ,9 e prov9ce1 morals1 intellect1 imag9ation1 ,greece 0 /rik+ out1 to ! "r & ! left4 ,& 9 ! c5tury aft] ! ,p]sian w>s1 %e reap$ ! full h>ve/ ( h] spl5did s[+1 & produc$ ! ma/]pieces :i* h rema9$ ev] s9ce memorable1 to ! /udy ( :i* ea* g5]ation recurs1 & :5ce x le>ns ( :at human nature is capable4 ,aft] #djj ,b4 ,c4 !re 0 n1 z _m suppose1 a sudd5 decl9e 9 ! quality ( arti/ic production4 ,_m ( ! works ( ! lat] c5turies 7 9 _! way almo/ unsurpassable4 ,! philosophy ( ,ari/otle1 ! poetry ( ,!ocritus1 su* /atues z ! ,aphrodite ( ,melos & ! ,victory ( ,samo?race1 are great lights = all "t4 ,b ! works ( maturity h seldom ! *>m :i* m>ks ^? :i* are full ( ! optimism & promise ( y\?4 ,rusk9 has writt5 an admirable "w on ! ,sev5 ,lamps ( ,ar*itecture1 a "w :i*1 ?\gh x sometimes passes into extravagance1 is full ( sugge/ion & ev5 inspiration4 ,x seems to me /range t :ile ! economic views ( ,rusk91 full ( g5]osity1 b also want+ 9 measure & any basis ( fact1 %\ld /ill be curr5t among u1 8 writ+s on art1 9 :i* 8 g5ius _h full c\rse1 %\ld be comp>atively neglect$4 ,h[ev] t may be1 z "o :o has be5 greatly /imulat$ by ^? writ+s1 ,i propose to try to produce a fa9t e*o ( "o ( !m by speak+ successively ( ! lamps ( ,greek art1 lamps :i* give u light & s]ve to %[ our way4 ,i f9d 9 ,greek art eight notable features3 7#a7 ,humanism1 7#b7 ,simplicity1 7#c7 ,balance & ,measure1 7#d7 ,naturalism1 7#e7 ,idealism1 7#f7 ,pati5ce1 7#g7 ,joy1 7#h7 ,fell[%ip4 ,z my space is closely limit$ ,i _c attempt to develop ! subject ( ,greek art 9 all its prov9ces & 9 all its be>+s4 ,i mu/ limit myself to ! art ( sculpture1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic bran*1 & ! only bran* :i* has left u suffici5t mat]ials = ! =mation ( a satisfactory notion4 ,& ,i mu/ limit myself fur!r to su* ( ! sculpture z repres5ts ! human =m4 ,9 ! repres5tation ( "s animals1 su* z ! horse1 ! lat] ,greeks produc$ "s wond]ful examples1 b 9 ! depiction ( animals o!r peoples h rivall$ !m1 :]eas 9 ! depiction ( m5 & wom5 !y /& alone4 ,i ,humanism4 ,?ree great discov]ies lay op5 to ! awak5$ _s ( man1 :5 he began to realize & reflect ^u 8 surr\nd+s4 ,! fir/ 0 ! discov]y ( ,god1 :i* 0 ma9ly ! "w ( ! ,prophets ( ,israel1 ?\gh no d\bt ,greece add$ mu* on ! intellectual side2 & ! religions bo? ( ,judaea & ,greece 7 c>ri$ to a high] po9t by ,*ri/ianity4 ,! second 0 ! discov]y ( man himself1 :i* 0 9 all ess5tials ! great "w ( ,greek ?9k]s & writ]s4 ,! ?ird1 begun 9 ,greece1 has be5 c>ri$ v mu* f>!r 9 mod]n times1 ! discov]y ( nature & h] laws4 ,i ?9k t reflection w %[ t ( ! ?ree discov]ies ! la/ is ! lea/ important1 = ?\gh x has va/ly *ang$ ! habits & ! surr\nd+s ( mank9d1 & has (f]$ him long vi/as ( mat]ial progress1 yet x has n *ang$ 8 nature mu*1 nor add$ greatly to 8 happ9ess4 ,we "k h[ ! delights ( ?\ght1 ( art1 ( poetry & music h ov]come b>b>ism & giv5 to multitudes a new pleasure 9 exi/5ce4 ,b ! results ( sci5tific progress h n z yet done all t we might h hop$ = mank9d4 ,e great discov]y 9 physical sci5ce has be5 turn$1 prim>ily1 n to ! welf>e b to ! de/ruction ( mank9d4 ,! ocean-go+ %ip is track$ by ! subm>9e2 air-%ips are us$ to drop bombs on def5celess cities1 "s ( ! mo/ notable a*ievem5ts ( *emi/ry are poison-gases4 ,we may ( c\rse hope t ?is is b a pass+ phase1 & t bright] times are be=e u4 ,b ,i v5ture to sugge/ t ! true road to progress _c be f\nd unless we pres]ve ! ,jewi% & ! ,greek po9ts ( view4 ,we mu/ n lose sight ( ! e?ical & religi\s be>+ ( sci5ce1 & n be cont5t ) m]ely reg>d+ x z a means ( exploit+ ! mat]ial _w4 ,in/ead ( h>ness+ ! =ces ( nature to true human ends1 to happ9ess1 we h all[$ !m to be us$ = any purpose1 moral or immoral1 by any "o :o by cunn+ or pu%+ has ga9$ control ( !m4 ,we h dehumaniz$ ! _w1 & all[$ x to ride r\gh %od ov] human life4 ,! discov]y ( man & 8 capacities1 !n1 is ! great gift ( ,greece to ! _w4 ,!re 7 epics be=e ! ,iliad1 b no epic full ( *>m1 ( trag$y1 ( te>s & laught]4 ,!re 7 philosoph]s be=e ,socrates2 b !y 7 busi$ 9 try+ to f9d ! physical con/itu5ts ( ! _w4 ,socrates took up ! motto ( ,delphi ',"k ?yself'1 & became ! prog5itor ( all :o /udy ! nature ( duty & ( happ9ess4 ,9 ! same way !re 0 mu* art 9 ! _w be=e ! rise ( ,greece1 9 ,egypt1 9 ,mesopotamia1 9 ,crete4 ,b x 0 n a humani/ art4 ,x repres5t$ ! wor%ip ( ! ,gods1 battles1 & sieges1 ! life ( ! fields4 ,b ! human figures 9 ^! sc5es 7 conv5tional3 !re 0 no?+ 9 !m to /ir ! f9] feel+s1 to produce a love ( beauty1 to raise man above ! ord9>y daily level4 ,! ,greeks knew ( e>li] works ( art2 b !y decl9$ to be s$uc$1 z ! ,pho5icians & ,etruscans 7 s$uc$1 into a facile imitation ( !m4 ,!y realiz$1 no d\bt subconsci\sly r ?an consci\sly1 t !y 7 call$ to set =? a new & human art1 & _h 9 !m p[]s :i* c\ld produce x4 ,!y began a process :i* develop$ ) a/oni%+ rapidity1 & :i* _c cease1 unless1 z seems n[ n impossible1 b>b>ism re9vades a we>y _w4 ',man is ! measure ( all ?+s' is ! doctr9e ascrib$ to ,protagoras ( ,abd]a1 :i* %ock$ ! p ( ,a!ns & is attack$ by ,plato 9 8 m con/ructive mood4 ,x is a doctr9e l5d+ itself to abuse1 & /ill m to c>icature2 b x is really ! tea*+ ( ,socrates no less ?an ( ,protagoras2 & x has held its own f 8 times to ^? ( ! ,utilit>ians & ,pragmati/s4 ,c]ta9ly x is at ! basis ( ! ,greek view ( life1 9 :i* man ) 8 feel+s1 8 faculties1 & 8 endeav\rs1 /&s 9 ! =egr\nd1 & all else appe>s z a vague backgr\nd4 ,x 0 q natural t z ! ,greek ?9k]s int]pret$ all exp]i5ce 9 relation to human p[]s & faculties1 s ! arti/s ( ,greece ?\ght ( all nature 9 t]ms ( ! human body4 ,?us :ile ! /]n mono!ism ( lat] ,israel absolutely prohibit$ ! repres5tation 9 art ( any liv+ ?+1 & especially ( man1 ,greek arti/s entirely devot$ !mselves to su* repres5tation4 ,! great result ( ! work+ ( ! _s ( humanism 9 ,greek art 0 ! repres5tation ( ! ,gods 9 human =m4 ,!re is /ill preval5t among u a survival ( ! ,jewi% hatr$ ( ! repres5tation ( ! div9e elem5t 9 ! _w by ! mimetic art ( sculpture4 ,we /ill repeat1 day by day1 ! ,jewi% comm&m5t1 ',?\ %alt n make to ?yself any grav5 image'4 ,n[ ,i am n go+ to f9d any fault ) ! int5se feel+ ( iconoclasm1 :i* 0 "o ( ! ma9spr+s ( ,jewi% religion4 ,i h no d\bt t 9 ! developm5t ( t religion1 hatr$ & contempt = ! idols ( ! surr\nd+ nations 0 ( ine/imable value to ! race4 ,! /ruggle1 ev] r5ew$1 aga9/ ! invasion ( idolatry 0 necess>y to ! developm5t ( t pure prophetic religion :i* x 0 ! highe/ mission ( ! ,jewi% race to set =? & propagate 9 ! _w4 ,i w\ld n ev5 speak aga9/ ! e*oes ( x 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,to ! ,moslems ( our days1 z to ! anci5t ,jews1 x appe>s to be a necess>y coroll>y ( any l(ty & spiritual conception ( ! div9e4 ,& :5 we read ( ! de/ruction ( religi\s images by our ,puritan ance/ors we _c )hold f !m an inn] sympa?y4 ,! hatr$ ( images 0 "o side ( ! pure & passionate belief 9 spiritual religion :i* x 0 ! mission ( ! great ,re=m]s to revive & propagate 9 ,europe4 ,b x is possible to appreciate ?is side ( religion )\t be+ bl9d to o!r aspects ( x4 ,our religion comes n only f ,judaea1 b also f ,greece4 ,! ,jewi% passion = ! div9e righte\sness lies at its roots4 ,b t passion is consi/5t ) n>r[ness1 bigotry1 inhumanity4 ,= ! modifications ( x :i* come f ! work+ ( ! _s ( humanism we h to turn to ! ,hell5es1 = ! feel+ ( ! lik5ess 9 nature betwe5 ,god & man1 ! love ( ! beauty ( ! creat$ works ( ,god1 ! joy 9 :atev] is sweet1 :atev] is comely1 :atev] is *>m+4 ,! beauty & maje/y ( ,god appeal$ to ! ,greek1 z ! unapproa*able transc5d5ce ( ,god inspir$ ! ,jew4 ,s x fell to ! ,greek arti/s to try to set =? 9 m>ble & 9 bronze ! g5tl] & m social side ( ! div9e nature4 ,!re is a sweet reasonabl5ess 9 ! words ( ,maximus ( ,tyre3 ',! ,greek cu/om is to repres5t ! ,gods by ! mo/ beautiful ?+s on e>?--pure mat]ial1 ! human =m1 consummate art4 ,! idea ( ^? :o make div9e images 9 human %ape is q reasonable1 s9ce ! _s ( man is ne>e/ ( all ?+s to ,god & mo/ godlike4' ,! :ole hi/ory ( ,greek sculpture1 f its rise 9 ! six? c5tury to its decl9e 9 ! ?ird1 is inspir$ by ?is desire to repres5t ! div9e by ! mo/ beautiful ?+s on e>?4 ,! sculpture ( ! great nations ( ! ,ea/1 ,egypt & ,assyria1 is full ( figures ( ! ,gods1 & ( sc5es ( wor%ip4 ,b ^! figures d n rise above ! human4 ,! gods appe> z conv5tional figures1 m]e ord9>y m5 & wom54 ,& to di/+ui% !m f mortal be+s1 ! arti/s ( ! ,ea/ proce$ 9 ! mann] ( symbolism3 !y make additions to ! human types :i* are to signify ! div9e attributes1 b d n really embody !m4 ,!y add w+s to repres5t ! swiftness ( ! deity1 w+s n meant = actual flight1 b only symbols ( rapid motion4 ,!y repres5t !m z victori\sly ov]?r[+ wild bea/s & mon/]s1 :i* /& = ! p[]s ( evil1 ev] b5t on ?w>t+ _! action4 ,9 "s ( _! mo/ ar*aic works1 ! ,greeks fall into ! imitation ( ?is way4 ,!y repres5t ,apollo flank$ by two vanqui%$ griff9s1 ,artemis ) w+s1 & hold+ 9 h] h&s captive lions4 ,b _! arti/ic s5se soon revolt$ aga9/ su* crude & clumsy ways ( repres5tation4 ,!y began to try to repres5t ! div9e "* ( _! deities1 n by arbitr>y & ext]nal symbols1 b by modify+ ! human types 9 ! direction ( ! ideal4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 9 lat] art we f9d survivals ( e>ly symbolism 9 ! =m ( an attribute4 ,h]mes is /ill w+$1 b ! w+s are transf]r$ to 8 cap or 8 boots4 ,zeus may /ill c>ry ! ?und]bolt1 ! symbol ( 8 rule ov] ! /orm4 ,apollo may be /ill radiate1 comb9+ human =m ) ! rays :i* proce$ f ! visible sun4 ,b ^! are only survivals1 & d n affect ! process1 c>ri$ on by arti/ aft] arti/ & s*ool aft] s*ool1 by :i* ! gods absorb$ ev] m fully ! qualities ( ! mo/ p]fect manhood4 ,zeus1 z fa!r ( gods & m51 is an idealization ( ! human fa!r1 comb9+ ju/ice & dignity ) b5evol5ce & k9dness2 ,a!na becomes ! embodim5t ( ! div9e reason & wisdom1 p]haps ! mo/ fully idealiz$ ( all ! =ms ( ! gods1 s9ce ?is arm$ & victori\s virg9 ) wisdom seat$ on h] br[ _h little 9 common ) ! seclud$ & dome/ic wom5 ( h] city ( ,a!ns4 ,apollo has n ! muscles ( ! tra9$ a?lete1 b 9 8 nobl5ess ( c\nt5ance & p]fect symmetry ( %ape1 he /&s = all t a "y man might gr[ t[>ds by self-re/ra9t & aspiration4 ,at a some:at l[] level ,h]akles be>s ! =m ( ! wre/l]1 admirably proportion$ b m p[]ful ?an ev5 ! greate/ ( a?letes2 ,h]mes is ! ideal runn]1 e muscle adapt$ to swift & li! movem5ts4 ,?us 9 ! types ( ! gods :i* 7 produc$ :5 ,greek art 0 at its be/ we h a s]ies ( sup]m5 & sup]wom5 :o repres5t ! highe/ & be/ to :i* mortals c hope to atta91 types embody+ ! highe/ p]fection ( body & m9d4 ,! influ5ce ( ^? types has gone on f c5tury to c5tury1 nev] 9 ! d>ke/ ages :olly =gott51 & s]v+ at all times to r$eem human nature f f\lness & degradation4 ,all ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( art !y h be5 act+ z a rais+ & purify+ elem5t4 ,x 0 n until ! decay ( ! ,olympic religion 9 ! f\r? c5tury t ^! types fell to a l[] level4 ,! s5se ( beauty 9 ! arti/ rema9$ z ke5 z ev]1 ! te*nique ( art ev5 improv$1 b ! religion ( humanism 0 debas$ by less noble t5d5cies1 & ! gods took on too mu* n ! nature ( man z he might become1 b ! =m ( man z he actually is 9 ! _w4 ,n ! =ms only ( ! gods1 b ! hi/ory ( _! appe>ances on e>? & _! deal+s ) mank9d f\nd expression 9 pa9t+ & relief4 ,plato1 z we "k1 condemn$ ! my?s ( ! gods z unwor?y f ! e?ical po9t ( view4 ,b we %all misjudge my?s if we suppose t !y 7 actually believ$ 91 or s]v$ to regulate conduct4 ,:at !y did 0 greatly to fur!r ! picturesqu5ess & joy ( life4 ,& :5 !y became less important 9 cultus !y surviv$ 9 poetry1 & s]v$ greatly to temp] ! h>% prose ( actual life4 ,we mu/ rememb] t "s ( ! ,jewi% tales :i* h s mu* int]e/$ & *>m$ our =efa!rs are h>dly to be def5d$ on /rict e?ical pr9ciples1 yet !y h be5 a leav5+ & wid5+ influ5ce4 ,:o w\ld wi% to expel f *ur*es ! /ories ( ,adam & ,eve1 ( ,joseph & ,david1 on gr\nds ( e?ical purism8 ,! life ( ! _m is n s highly decorat$ t we %\ld wi% to expel f x elem5ts s pleas+4 ,z ! ,gods t5d m & m to take =ms beautiful b entirely human1 s d ! notable features ( ! l&scape1 riv]s & m\nta9s1 sky & sea1 take on !mselves human %ape4 ,sun & moon1 w9d & /orm1 are completely humaniz$4 ,! society ( ,olympus1 ! p[]s manife/$ 9 nature1 appe> 9 sculpture z a human society1 b ( m ?an human beauty & dignity4 ,& su* r5d]+ ( ! gods leads1 z we %all pres5tly see1 to an ideal r5d]+ ( m54 ,z ! gods come d[n 9 ! lik5ess ( m51 s m5 are rais$ to ! level ( ! gods4 ,h5ce ! intr9sic & inexhau/ible idealism ( ,greek sculpture1 to :i* ,i w pres5tly return4 ,few works ( art m fully & m attractively %[ ! an?ropomorphic t5d5cy ( ,greek art ?an ! sunrise vase ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,x %[s u ! :ole morn+ pageant ( nature humaniz$4 ,on ! "r appe>s ! sun-god driv+ a *>iot ( w+$ horses1 :o rise out ( ! sea4 ,be=e him ! />s1 repres5t$ z y\?s1 plunge into ! wat]4 ,to ! left is ! moon-goddess on horseback1 sett+ beh9d ! hills1 on "o ( :i* is a m\nta9-god 9 an attitude ( surprise4 ,be=e ! sun hurries ,eos1 ! w+$ dawn1 :o by a bold citation ( my?ology is repres5t$ z pursu+ ,cephalus ! hunt]1 ( :om %e 0 enam\r$4 ,we h ! features ( ! daybreak2 b !y are all repres5t$ n z facts ( nature1 b 9 _! influ5ce on ,gods & m54 ,i d n figure ?is vase1 z ,i h already done s 9 my ,pr9ciples ( ,greek ,art2 b in/ead ,i give an almo/ equally beautiful repres5tation f ! lid ( a toilet vase 9 ! ,sab\r(f ,collection at ,b]l94 ,we h "h ! same ?ree figures ( ! sun-god1 ! moon-goddess1 & ! w+$ dawn1 :o1 h[ev]1 9 ?is case is driv+ a *>iot4 ,! =m ( ! :ole gr\p & ! radiate symbol 9 ! mid/ /&s admirably = ! vault ( heav5 7,fig4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,vase ,,repres5t+ ,,sunrise ,ano!r extreme example ( an?ropomorphism is ! embodim5t ( ! su/a9+ p[] ( ! pill> 9 ! s-call$ ,c>yatids ( ! ,ere*!um 7,fig4 #b74 ,really !y are ,corae1 maid5s d$icat$ to ,a!na1 & will+ly 9 h] s]vice be>+ up ! weight ( ! ar*itrave ( h] temple4 ,possibly ! notion is n :olly satisfactory2 b if x be tol]at$1 c\ld x h be5 m nobly c>ri$ out8 ,! squ>e & /alw>t =m ( ! wom51 ! mass ( hair :i* /r5g!ns _! necks1 ! easy pose1 all make u feel t ! task is n beyond _! /r5g? or oppressive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,c>yatid ( ,ere*!um ,beside ! ,greek ,c>yatid ,i mu/ be all[$ to place a mod]n v]sion1 by ,rod94 ,= ! p[] & ! te*nique ( ,rod9 ,i h great admiration2 b :5 8 works are plac$ beside ^? ( ,greece1 we feel at once _! inf]iority 9 dignity1 9 simplicity1 9 ideality 7,fig4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,,c>yatid by ,rod9 ,,ii ,! second lamp ( ,greek art is ,simplicity4 ,! arti/ sees q cle>ly :at he desires to produce1 & sets ab\t produc+ x )\t hesitation1 )\t self-consci\sness1 ) no beat+ ab\t ! bu%4 ,( c\rse ! m primitive & less conv5tional a society is1 ! easi] x is = arti/s to be simple4 ,9 a complicat$ society simplicity & directness are apt to be confus$ ) :at is commonplace or ev5 ) ! fooli%4 ,! simplicity ( ,wordswor? & ( ,t5nyson does sometimes cross ! l9e4 ,! ,greeks _h ! great advantage ( com+ be=e o!r cultivat$ peoples1 s t !re 0 no commonplace to avoid4 ,!y c\ld be simple1 z ! wild rose & ! primrose are simple4 ,:at c\ld be m simple ?an ! ,iliad8 ,! same simplicity m>ks ,greek sculpture4 ,x requires no great ex]cise ( ! intellect to und]/& x4 ,x pres5ts e figure 9 a cle> & unsophi/icat$ way4 ,z !re is no m sure sign ( a f9e nature ?an ! abs5ce ( self-consci\sness1 s !re is no m sure sign ( greatness 9 art ?an simplicity4 ,! ,greeks did n /rive to be orig9al1 to make p />e1 to d ! unusual4 ,"o ( ! mo/ usual subjects 9 ,greek relief is a battle betwe5 male w>riors & ,amazons4 ,su* battles adorn _m temples4 ,& 9 e case !y are di/9ctive 9 /yle4 ,"o c\ld n mi/ake a gr\p f ! temple at ,phigaleia = a gr\p f ! ,mausoleum4 ,& !re is no sam5ess3 almo/ e gr\p has "s po9t or t\* ( its own1 :i* makes x a v>iety on ! usual !me4 ,"o ,amazon is fall+ f h] horse1 "o is ask+ = qu>t]1 "o is foll[+ up a retreat+ foe4 ,b no gr\p is insi/5t t ! pass]-by %\ld look at x4 ,! relief 0 ! decoration ( a temple2 & if its orig9ality drew m5's att5tion f ! temple itself1 or f ! ,deity seat$ en?ron$ )91 x might ju/ly be accus$ ( imp]t95ce1 ( exce$+ due measure4 ,! sculptor did 8 be/2 b he 0 c>eful to d no?+ :i* 0 out ( h>mony ) its surr\nd+s4 ,he sank himself 9 8 "w4 ,& ev5 :5 he 0 engag$ on a m s]i\s sub/antive "w1 :at he mo/ avoid$ 0 ! incongru\s & unbecom+4 ,he s work$ t ! att5tion ( ! spectator 0 conc5trat$ n on ! "* ( ! workman%ip1 b on ! p]son or ! subject portray$4 ,! idea :i* he tri$ to incorporate 9 m>ble or bronze 0 n 8 own ?\ght ab\t ! subject1 b ! "* :i* really belong$ to x 9 ! m9d ( ! p4 ,?is s+l5ess ( purpose is well illu/rat$ by a /ory ab\t ! pa9t] ,protog5es4 ,he pa9t$ ! figure ( a ,satyr1 & beside x1 z a trifle1 he ins]t$ a p>tridge4 ,b :5 he f\nd t admiration = ! lifelik5ess ( ! p>tridge t5d$ to di/ract ! att5tion ( visitors f ! ma9 figure1 he pa9t$ x out4 ,no d\bt simplicity implies limitation4 ,x is n easy 9 any age to /rike ! deepe/ note )\t "s surr5d] ( simplicity4 ,! high] phases ( ! m5tal & spiritual life1 my/icism1 symbolism1 & ! l are n to be express$ ) complete simplicity 9 any =m ( art4 ,"o _c d5y t ! ,greek view ( life 0 limit$2 t ! ,greeks did n attempt to repres5t 9 art ! highe/ aspirations ( ! s\l4 ,x 0 an entirely p]v]t$ +5uity :i* s\ght a g5]ation ago to f9d my/ic mean+ 9 ! repres5tations on ,greek vases4 ,attempts to portray ! ,deities ( ! ,my/]ies sc>cely c\nt z works ( art4 ,su* figures z ,sabazius1 ,isis1 ,mi?ras1 only come into anci5t art 9 its decad5ce4 ,i w\ld n ma9ta9 t ! mod]n _w1 ) its inf9itely v>i$ emotions1 or ! high] aspirations ( religions l ! ,*ri/ian or ! ,buddhi/1 c\ld be satisfi$ ) su* simple s*emes z ^? ( ,greek sculpture1 :i* appeal to human in/9ct & human intellig5ce r ?an to ! m recondite emotions4 ,su* emotions1 h[ev]1 9 my op9ion1 d n f9d any appropriate embodim5t 9 ! arts ( :i* ,i am treat+--! graphic & pla/ic arts4 ,9 poetry !y h at all times f\nd a noble expression2 & 9 mod]n days a p]haps /ill complet] expression 9 music1 :i* 0 9 pre-,*ri/ian days 9 a v rudim5t>y condition4 ,b pa9t+ is b ill suit$ to ! r5d]+ ( ^! vague aspirations4 ,& /ill m unsuit$ is sculpture1 ! mo/ imitative & objective ( all ! arts4 ,! attempts :i* h be5 made 9 rec5t ye>s by "s sculptors to give a my/ic turn to _! art seems to me doom$ to failure by ! ess5tial nature ( sculpture4 ,a ,we/]n m9d c h little sympa?y ) ! art :i* has mov$ mo/ on my/ic l9es1 ! art ( ,india1 :i* 9 su* ef=ts has ab&on$ ! se>* = beauty1 & s giv5 up ! really arti/ic po9t ( view4 ,m]e prett9ess no d\bt is an unsatisfy+ ideal3 b a l(ti] beauty1 9 h>mony ) ! _w ar\nd u & ! s\l )9 u1 is ano!r ?+4 ,9 ord] t simplicity may be 9 ! highe/ degree admirable1 x mu/ be comb9$ ) two o!r qualities--int5se love ( beauty1 & ! utmo/ pati5ce 9 execution4 ,x mu/ n lead on ! "o side to a m]e unideal copy ( nature1 nor on ! o!r to a ha/y & slov5ly k9d ( "w4 ,! figure already m5tion$1 ! ,c>yatid ( ! ,ere*!um1 is a model ( p]fect simplicity4 ,= fur!r illu/ration ( ! quality ,i h *os5 ! bronze *>iote] f ,delphi1 & ! ,artemis f ,gabii1 n[ 9 ! ,l\vre4 ,! =m] 7,fig4 #d7 is a y\? ( noble family1 clad 9 ! long dress necess>y to protect f ! w9d a man driv+ a *>iot4 ,! latt] 7,fig4 #e71 a "w ( ! s*ool ( ,praxiteles1 repres5ts a "y girl fa/5+ h] dress on h] %\ld]4 ,bo? are z free z !y c be f any attempt at novelty or orig9ality3 yet no "o ) any ta/e c\ld = a mom5t hesitate to pron\nce !m admirable4 ,! object ( ! arti/ 0 to make works z p]fect z possible4 ,& to t end he goes /raight1 )\t any complication1 & )\t ! lea/ c>e t o!rs may h done simil> works1 aga9/ :i* he mu/ ass]t orig9ality4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d ,,*>iote] ( ,delphi ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,,artemis ( ,gabii ,beside ! two figures ,i h cit$ ,i place a m mod]n gr\p 7,fig4 #f71 also by a man ( g5ius1 ,pet] ,vis*]4 ,x has ! same simplicity & ! same c>e 9 execution z ! ,greek works1 b 9 beauty x w n comp>e ) !m2 & "o feels regret t s great an arti/ %\ld h sp5t 8 p[]s on s unsuitable a subject z ! rivets & plates ( a suit ( arm\r4 ,! lady1 ?\gh n )\t *>m1 seems artificial & affect$ beside ! exquisite fre%ness ( ! girl ( ,praxiteles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,,knight ,,& ,,lady ,by ,pet] ,vis*] ,,iii ,! ?ird lamp ( ,greek art is ,balance & ,measure1 ! recognition ( limit & law4 ,?is is mo/ obvi\s 9 ar*itecture1 & especially 9 its mo/ *>act]i/ic production1 ! temple4 ,! =m ( ! temple1 :5 once e/abli%$1 rema9$ fix$1 )9 c]ta9 limits ( v>iation1 = all "t4 ,a mo/ accompli%$ writ]1 ,m4 ,b\tmy1 has admirably %[n h[ all ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! temple are relat$ "o to ! o!r1 h[ a plan1 a consi/5t rhy?m1 runs ?r\gh\t x4 ,ea* "p has a def9ite function1 :i* x accompli%es 9 ! simple/ & cle>e/ way4 ,! pill>s are made simply to support1 & _! %ape & slight decoration is 9 accordance ) t purpose4 ,_! =m ensures a maximum ( /ability4 ,! *annel+ or flut+ c>ries ! eye ( ! spectator upw>ds to ! capital :i* swells outw>ds to support ! heavy /raight l9e ( ! cornice4 ,above ! cornice1 ! grooves ( ! triglyphs c>ry on ! l9es ( flut+ f ! columns t[>ds ! ro(4 ,! walls ( ! temple are n prim>ily int5d$ to support1 b to enclose ! sacr$ cella1 & are adorn$ only at _! upp] edge1 z a curta9 might be1 ) a decorative frieze4 ,! :ole build+ is ?\ght out z a home = ! /atue ( ! deity :i* x encloses2 & no "p is all[$ to adorn itself except 9 subord9ation to ?is g5]al purpose4 ,l ! %ells ( molluscs or ! hives ( bees1 x is ! direct embodim5t ( an idea1 a purpose1 only a consci\s & reflective1 n a m]ely in/9ctive purpose4 ,! sculptural decoration1 :i* is s /rik+ a feature ( ! temple1 is also c>efully subord9at$ to purpose & idea4 ,no "p ( ! /ructure :i* be>s a /ra91 if we except "o or two e>ly & unsatisfactory exp]im5ts1 0 decorat$4 ,! bus9ess ( column & ar*itrave 0 to be> weight2 & if !y 7 ornate !y w\ld seem less well adapt$ to t purpose4 ,only 9 p>ts ( ! build+ :i* 7 f ! po9t ( view ( con/ruction otiose1 su* z p$im5t & metope1 0 ! art ( ! sculptor all[$ to play2 & ev5 !n x 0 b\nd to play appropriately to ! nature ( ! deity )9 & ! fe/ivals ( :i* ! temple 0 to be ! focus4 ,!re 0 no room = cross-purposes or di/urb+ ?\ghts4 ,?is rigidity ( =m & subord9ation to reason is z *>act]i/ic ( ,attic trag$ies z ( temples4 ,x w\ld inde$ be possible to "w out a close p>allel betwe5 ! two =ms ( art4 ,b we mu/ return to our imm$iate subject1 sculpture4 ,temple sculpture exhibits ! qualities ( balance & measure 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,9 case ( ! p$im5t !re is a c5tral po9t1 j "u ! apex1 :]e ! dom9ant figures ( ! sc5e portray$ are plac$2 & on ei!r side ( ?is c5tral figure or gr\p1 figure balances figure1 until we come to ! corn]s1 :i* are occupi$ by recl9+ =ms1 dy+ w>riors1 or riv]-gods or spectators4 ,9 case ( ! metope1 ! squ>e field is fill$ ) two or ?ree figures balanc$ ab\t a c5tral l9e1 a s*eme self-conta9$ & h>moni\s1 :i* may be comp>$ to a geometrical diagram1 & c>ries simplicity to ! f>!/ po9t4 ,rhy?m1 balance1 symmetry are ! translation into sculpture ( ! _s ( discipl9e & self-control1 :i* ! ,greeks le>n$ by h>d necessity4 ,! civilization ( ! ,ionians 9 ,asia is a brilliant sunrise1 an ov]fl[+ ( ! delight 9 life1 9 beauty1 9 ! ex]cise ( all ! faculties1 :i* = a "t dom9at$ ,greece itself4 ,& _! art 0 joy\s & free4 ,! arti/s ( ,ionia invad$ ,a!ns 9 ! six? c5tury1 visit+ ! luxuri\s c\rt ( ,peisi/ratus1 & inspir+ ,peloponnesus1 ev5 ,sp>ta1 z ! excavations ( ! ,briti% ,s*ool 9 ,a!ns h abundantly %[n4 ,b ! ,ionians 7 trodd5 d[n "u ! heavy foot ( ,p]sia3 excess ( fre$om & want ( cohesion & discipl9e 0 _! ru94 ,! ,great ,k+ ( ,p]sia 0 det]m9$ to trample 9 a l mann] on ,greece ,prop]2 & he w\ld h succe$$ b = ! discipl9e & devotion ( ! ,dorians4 ,x 0 ! ,sp>tans1 aid$ by ! brilliant milit>y tal5t ( ,miltiades & ,!mi/ocles1 :o sav$ ,greece f slav]y4 ,a milit>y ca/e1 l ! ,templ>s & ,hospitall]s ( m$iaeval ,europe1 !y furni%$ ! backbone ( ! ,greek army & disp]s$ ! hordes ( ,asia z easily z did ! h>dy ,mac$onians ( ,alex&] ! ,great a c5tury & a half lat]4 ,! ,a!nians1 ) _! quick wits1 und]/ood :5ce came _! salvation1 & 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! fif? c5tury ! tide ( ,ionian influ5ce 0 turn$ back1 & ,dorian mann]s1 ,dorian dress1 ,dorian art1 became dom9ant f ,!ssaly to ,laconia4 ,x is precisely ! ,dorian ideas ( discipl9e1 ( measure1 ( self-control1 :i* ent]+ into ! art ( ,greece made x a noble & cont9u\s developm5t1 in/ead ( a m]e brilliant fla%4 ,plato 0 well aw>e ( ! dang]s :i* beset ! ,a!nians f _! extreme v]satility & want ( rev]5ce1 & he =esaw h[ ^! qualities w\ld 9 ! end de/roy ! civilization :i* !y _h adorn$4 ,he s cle>ly saw ?is t he 0 incl9$ to pref] ! conv5tional & monoton\s art ( ,egypt to ! brilliant ,greek art ( 8 own "t4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 to c>ry e?ical prejudice to ! l5g? ( fanaticism1 & to transgress ! v law ( mod]ation :i* inspir$ him4 ,b x 0 only 9 8 old age t he w5t ?us f>4 ,?is c>eful balance & proportion may be obs]v$1 z has (t5 be5 po9t$ out1 9 ! designs ( ,greek vases1 :]e ! pa9t$ subject n only is 9 itself a balanc$ s*eme1 b is also plann$ 9 relation to ! %ape ( ! vases !mselves4 ,a gr\p suitable to an amphora w\ld look out ( place on a dr9k+ cup4 ,& 9 ! cup itself ! outside requires a diff]5t treatm5t f ! inside4 ,! :ole is plann$ n m]ely to give free scope to ! arti/1 b to be appropriate1 fitt+1 h>moni\s4 ,our fir/ figure well illu/rates ?is !sis4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( sub/antive sculpture1 figures or gr\ps made to /& by !mselves 9 m>ket-place or portico1 ! ,greek love ( h>mony1 or z !y w\ld h put x1 ( rhy?m & symmetry prevails3 anci5t critics 9 ^? acc\nts ( ,greek sculpture1 ( :i* fragm5ts h come d[n to u 9 ! writ+s ( ,pl9y & ,qu9tilian1 lay great /ress on ^! features4 ,!y %[ u t :]eas 9 e>ly art a m]ely ext]nal & me*anical balance _h prevail$1 9 ! c\rse ( ! fif? c5tury ?is love ( ord] & measure 0 tak5 into ! v be+ ( art4 ,py?agoras ( ,rhegium1 ^: works are un=tunately lo/ to u1 made great progress 9 rhy?m & symmetry4 ,8 contempor>ies1 ,myron & ,polycleitus1 :o c>ri$ ! a?letic art ( ,peloponnesus almo/ to its highe/ po9t1 7 celebrat$1 ,myron = ! rhy?m 9 motion :i* he infus$ into 8 sculpture1 ,polycleitus = ! c>eful balance ( 8 a?letes & ! sy/em ( proportion :i* he embodi$ 9 _! figures4 ,pheidias 0 m ess5tially ideal ?an ei!r ( ^!1 z we %all pres5tly see1 b he also mo/ dilig5tly pres]v$ 9 ! ,p>!non & o!r works a _s ( measure & reasonabl5ess4 ,measure & balance 9 art diff] widely f m]e conv5tion4 ',ord] is ,heav5's fir/ law4' ,all f9e "* is =m$1 n by foll[+ r&om impulses z !y arise1 b by mak+ !m con=m to reason & duty1 discipl9+ !m z wild horses are discipl9$ & taught to s]ve mank9d4 ,horses inde$ may be ov]-discipl9$1 & by cruelty all _s may be tak5 out ( !m4 ,& m5 may be ov]-discipl9$1 s t _! impulses die away f inanition4 ,! ,sp>tans 7 ov]-discipl9$2 & ?r\gh con/ant repression ( natural t5d5cies !y became m]e ma*9es1 & be=e long di$ out4 ,b reasonable re/ra9t impos$ on /rong natural t5d5cies produces noble results 9 all sph]es ( activity4 ,! same ?+ is true 9 art4 ,measure & discipl9e d n ( c\rse make x easi] to produce works ( art2 = 9 ! nature ( ! case discipl9e is at fir/ griev\s & is felt z a b>ri]4 ,b = ! production ( good & la/+ works ( art1 discipl9e & law are necess>y4 ,take z an example ! art :i* is simple/1 poetry4 ,x is easi] to write blank v]se ?an to write sonnets4 ,b x is f> easi] to write good sonnets ?an good blank v]se1 simply because ! con/ant re/ra9t ( ! =m /imulates ?\ght & inv5tion1 prev5ts too great ha/e1 ex]cises ! +5uity4 ,9 ! same way ! some:at rigid laws ( composition ( p$im5t metope & frieze compell$ ! ,greek arti/ to ?9k out s*emes suitable to ^? =ms4 ,x w\ld n be possible to f9d a bett] example ( ord] & balance 9 reliefs ?an is furni%$ by ! magnific5t s>cophagus f ,sidon 7,fig4 #g71 on "o side ( :i* is repres5t$ "o ( ! victories ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem a confus$ mle4 ,b :5 we look clos] we see c>eful arrangem5t und]ly+ ! app>5t disord]4 ,alex&]1 *>g+ f ! left1 is balanc$ by ,p>m5io *>g+ f ! "r3 ! horseman 9 ! middle betwe5 ! lead]s seems to come out ( ! backgr\nd2 & on ei!r side ( him is a fight+ gr\p1 to ! left a ,mac$onian foot soldi] fight+ a ,p]sian on foot1 to ! "r a light-arm$ ,greek resi/+ a ,p]sian horseman4 ,two ,p]sian ar*]s balance "o ano!r4 ,!re are 9 ! sc5e five ,greeks to eight ,p]sians1 indicat+ ! num]ical sup]iority ( ! latt]4 ,& if we knew m ab\t ! battle we %\ld probably f9d its pr9cipal phases h9t$ at 9 ! gr\ps4 ,! relief tells u f> m ab\t ! battle ?an w\ld a naturali/ic repres5tation ( "o corn] ( ! field4 ,! ,greek arti/ c\ld n "w )\t us+ 8 reason & 8 s5se ( ord] z well z 8 skill$ h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,s>cophagus ,,f ,,sidon ,,iv ,! f\r? notable quality ( ,greek art is ,naturalism4 ,pa9t+ & sculpture1 be+ repres5tative or mimetic arts1 are dep5d5t = _! effects on ! c>eful obs]vation & lov+ /udy ( nature4 ,probably ?is is n ! feature 9 works ( ,greek sculpture :i* w\ld be mo/ conspicu\s to a mod]n eye4 ,& x _c be d\bt$ t ! habit ( exact obs]vation produc$ by mod]n nature /udies1 our famili>ity ) su* helps to sight z telescopes & magnify+ glasses1 our con/ant use ( photography1 h made mo/ ( u bett] acqua9t$ ) ! ph5om5a ( ! _w ab\t u ?an 7 ! ,greeks4 ,b comp>$ ) ! works ( prec$+ ages1 ,greek sculpture mu/ h seem$ amaz+ly naturali/4 ,ev5 works ( ! ar*aic p]iod1 l ! p$im5ts f ,aeg9a1 %[ a k ( ! human =m inf9itely m accurate ?an any to be f\nd 9 ,assyrian palaces or ,egyptian temples4 ,!re is probably always a good deal ( illusion 9 ! m9ds ( ! s*ools :i* are con/antly spr++ up1 :i* pr(ess to break away f all conv5tions & to g back to nature h]self4 ,to rea* nature except ?r\gh human s5ses & human comb9ations is q impossible4 ,& any arti/ :o det]m9es to give u nature m]ely z ! photographic plate or ! me*anical ca/ gives x to u simply wa/es 8 p[]s1 & produces a result ( no int]e/ :atev] to any "o4 ,accord+ to ,pl9y ,lysippus pr(ess$ to take nature alone = 8 tea*]2 b 9 fact ! works ( ,lysippus1 s f> z we c recov] or trace !m1 are full ( mo/ def9ite /yle4 ,an arti/ has to look at nature ?r\gh 8 own eyes1 & ^? eyes give to :at he sees a "* bas$ 9 "p on 8 own p]sonality4 ,ev]y?+ he sees is refract$ 9 ! wat]s ( 8 subjectivity1 f :i* he _c escape4 ,nev]!less1 ! :ole hi/oric c\rse ( ,greek sculpture is /eep$ 9 ! /udy ( nature2 & we see z x proce$s m & m cle>ly ! results ( c>eful obs]vation4 ,! arti/ _h 9 fact opportunities = ! /udy ( :at he consid]$ ! "o important gr\p ( ph5om5a1 human bodies1 su* z a mod]n arti/ _c hope to compass4 ,9 ! ba?s & gymnasia :]e all "y m5 ( free bir? sp5t "p ( _! morn+s 9 runn+1 leap+1 wre/l+1 or swimm+1 he c\ld daily wat* ! beautiful bodies ( a?letes 9 e v>iety ( pose & action4 ,he knew !m z a tra9] kn[s horses1 or a fanci] kn[s dogs4 ,he w\ld h little ne$ ( a special model2 b w\ld daily obs]ve "s fre% detail ( muscles1 "s notable pose :i* he c\ld add f memory to 8 conception ( ! human body4 ,b 9 ! greate/ p]iods ( art naturalism is n pr$om9ant4 ,its con/antly work+ t5d5cy is kept 9 *eck by noble ideas & noble /yle4 ,!re is 9 ! developm5t ( sculpture a con/ant approa* to nature1 b no?+ ( ! nihilism :i* looks on all aspects ( nature z equally fit subjects = art4 ,! arti/s ( ! p$im5ts ( ,aeg9a c\ld n br+ !mselves to conceal ! beautiful bodies ( ! fight+ w>riors by rigid arm\r l t copi$ 9 ,vis*]'s gr\p4 ,?us we f9d ! p>adox ( arm$ m5 9 battle1 b )\t arm\r4 ,! utmo/ pa9s are tak5 ) ! nude limbs4 ,9 ! wond]ful bronze *>iote] f\nd at ,delphi 7,fig4 #d71 :i* dates f ab\t #dgj ,b4 ,c41 ! g>m5t necess>y to protect ! man f ! ru% ( air is v simply treat$2 b ! arms & feet1 :i* ! g>m5t does n conceal1 are wr\ght ) m>vell\s accuracy & tru? to nature4 ,x seems almo/ z if ! arti/ 7 comp5sat+ himself = ! extremely simple "w on ! drap]y by an almo/ excessively close /udy ( nature :]e x 0 possible4 ,! head1 on ! o!r h&1 is typical & n individual2 = 9 fact individual portraits 7 sc>cely possible at ! "t4 ,?is w\ld be ! place to speak ( ,greek portraits1 if space all[$ x4 ,i w only po9t out ! errone\sness ( ! popul> view1 t ,greek portraits 7 conv5tional & un9t]e/+2 & t x 0 ! ,romans :o introduc$ individuality into portraiture4 ,x is /range t a view :i* is utt]ly false %\ld h ga9$ su* curr5cy4 ,x is true t ,greek portraits ( ! fif? & ev5 ! f\r? c5tury h 9 !m mu* ( ! type1 & individual traits are s(t5$ 9 accord ) ! /rongly idealiz+ t5d5cies ( ! age4 ,b f ! ?ird & second c5turies we h a great numb] ( portraits :i* are 9 ! highe/ degree *>act]i/ic & individual1 a wond]ful gall]y ( philosoph]s & poets & /atesm5 :i* = lifelik5ess _c be surpass$4 ,all ! f9e/ ( ! portraits ( ,romans 7 by ,greek arti/s4 ,i c give b "o example ( really f9e ,greek portraiture1 a /atue ( ,demo/h5es ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 7,fig4 #h74 ,x is a portrait inde$4 ,! long lean arms & ! pose are q z individual & *>act]i/ic z ! face ) its melan*oly expression & deep l9es ( anxiety4 ,we h ! man f head to foot2 n z is s (t5 ! case 9 mod]n /atues1 a portrait head set on a conv5tional body4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,,demo/h5es ,by ,polyeuctus ,= comp>ison ) ,demo/h5es ,i set a /atue ( a great mod]n /atesman1 ,abraham ,l9coln1 by ,b>n>d 7,fig4 #i71 n ! be/ /atue ( him1 b "o :i* is approv$ by _m4 ,x aims at tru?1 b only atta9s c>icature1 by exagg]at+ ,l9coln's awkw>dness & angul>ity1 ! size ( 8 h&s & feet1 & ! anxiety 9 8 face4 ,?is exagg]ation has be5 prov$ by a comp>ison ) _m photographs ( ,l9coln1 :i* %[ t he 0 c>eful 9 dress & by no means want+ 9 dignity4 ,! /atue ( ,demo/h5es is m>vell\s = tru?2 b x adds a t\* ( pa?os2 ! /atue ( ,l9coln misses ! tru?1 ?r\gh exagg]at+ ! lea/ pleas+ features ( ! subject4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,,abraham ,,l9coln ,by ,b>n>d ,:5 we want to asc]ta9 h[ close ,greek sculpture c\ld come to actual fact1 we turn f ! great ideal age to ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod4 ,lysi/ratus1 ! bro!r ( ,lysippus1 began to take m\lds 9 pla/] f individual faces4 ,at ! great m$ical s*ool ( ,alex&ria ! anatomy ( ! human frame1 f :i* e>li] ages 9 a _s ( piety _h %runk1 became usual3 "s ( ! great physicians1 su* z ,h]ophilus & ,erasi/ratus1 be+ not$ = ! complet5ess ( _! /udy ( anatomy4 ,9 ! art ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 we see ! inevitable result ( su* /udies 9 a m precise & le>n$ r5d]+ ( ! muscles & ! sk94 ,& arti/s no long] hesitat$ to repres5t bodies wa/$ ) toil & exposure to ! wea!r1 or emaciat$ ) fa/+4 ,!re are _m su* figures 9 our museums1 %[+ a m>vell\sly close /udy ( ! =ms ( peasants & old wom5 & *ildr54 ,i figure "o ( ^!1 pres]v$ 9 ! museum ( ! ,cons]vatori ( ! ,capitol at ,rome1 an ag$ %eph]dess c>ry+ a lamb 7,fig4 #aj74 ,b x w be obs]v$ t close z ?is =m is to ! facts ( common life1 !re is yet 9 x no?+ repulsive4 ,x is 9 a s5se a type r ?an an individual1 a poem ( nature r ?an a portrait4 ,x is p>allel to ! pa/orals ( ,!ocritus4 ,x /rongly contra/s ) su* loa?some figures z "s mod]n sculptors 9 _! exagg]at$ love ( fact1 ev5 if repulsive1 h inflict$ ^u u1 su* z ! ,vieille ,haulmire ( ,rod9 7,fig4 #aa71 a figure ( an ag$ & decay$ pro/itute4 ,i "k1 ( c\rse1 t "s critics w\ld def5d ! la/-m5tion$ "w on e?ical gr\nds1 z %[+ h[ hide\s ! decay ( s5sual beauty may become2 b ,i v5ture to d\bt :e!r sculpture is an appropriate vehicle = a moral lesson ( t k9d1 because x c only repres5t & _c expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj ,,ag$ ,,%eph]dess ,alex&rian ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa ,,la ,,vieille ,h,,aulmi,,re ,by ,rod9 ,v ,s we come to ! fif? lamp ( ,greek art1 ,ideality4 ,x is 9 ! idealism ( _! r5d]+ ( ! body ( man t ! ,greeks h surpass$ all o!r peoples & left an imp]i%able record4 ,! hi/ory ( ,greek art is ! hi/ory ( a se>* = beauty1 = poetry1 = :atev] c *>m & delight4 ,9 ! e>lie/ sculptural works ( ,greece1 z ,lange ! ,dane 0 ! fir/ to po9t out1 we f9d n a direct imitation ( ! facts ( ! visible _w1 b impressions tak5 f t _w1 /or$ 9 ! memory1 & put toge!r 9 accordance ) subjective purpose r ?an objective law4 ,x is inde$ ?us t clev] *ildr5 "w1 :5 9 ! picture-writ+ ( _! sket* books !y violate ! laws ( p]spective by comb9+ sep>ate aspects & memories ( an object into an inconsi/5t :ole4 ,!y w n omit any peculi>ity ( a p]son :i* happ5s to h /ruck !m1 ev5 :5 9 ! pr(ile :i* !y sket* x w\ld be invisible4 ,!y ?9k ( a face z turn$ t[>ds !m1 ( legs z walk+ pa/ !m4 ,e face mu/ h two eyes1 e body two arms1 :e!r !y w\ld be visible "u ! natural conditions or n4 ,9 e>ly ,greek reliefs x is common to f9d ! body d[n to ! wai/ full-face1 ! body bel[ ! wai/ 9 pr(ile1 ) no transition betwe5 ! two4 ,! well-kn[n metopes f ,sel9us 9 ,sicily are good examples4 ,x is a k9d ( proc$ure common to ! e>ly art ( all peoples4 ,b ! ,greeks diff] f o!r nations 9 ?is2 t :5 !y improv$ away ^! e>ly crudities !y reta9$ ! pr$om9ance ( ?\ght ov] ?+s1 ( man ov] nature1 9 a ^w ( ! ideal elem5t 9 art4 ,!y reg>d$ ! body ( man n1 z ! mat]iali/s d1 z man himself1 b z a %ell produc$ by ! inn] work+ ( ! _s1 to be se5 by ! eyes ( ?\ght & imag9ation1 z well z by ! bodily eyes4 ,h5ce !y 7 always aspir+ f t :i* exi/s 9 appe>ance to t :i* lies beh9d ! m]e ph5om5on4 ,!y realiz$ t nature1 :5 %e produces an individual1 nev] :olly succe$s1 %e falls %ort ( ! idea4 ,& ! arti/ by a lov+ sympa?y ) ! creative ,_s1 may v5ture to improve :at %e has made1 to c>ry out h] int5tions m fully1 to incorporate m completely ! idea4 ,! ,greek arti/1 appreciat+ & v5]at+ ! body1 tries to raise x to a high] & m p]fect level4 ,a simple k9d ( idealism may be f\nd 9 a?letic art4 ,9 _! practice ( a?letics ! ,greeks did n1 l ! mod]ns1 ?9k only ( ! numb] ( feet an a?lete c\ld leap1 or ! space ( "t he w\ld take to run a di/ance4 ,!y ?\ght also ( 8 =m1 ( ! rhy?mic & h>moni\s "* ( 8 action4 ,if an a?lete %[$ ugly =m1 !y w\ld hiss him1 z !y w\ld an incompet5t actor4 ,mo/ ( _! ex]cises 7 done to ! accompanim5t ( ! flute4 ,9 all ! /atues ( a?letes :i* h come d[n to u1 n "o %[s an inh>moni\s developm5t1 p[]ful *e/ & weak legs1 or muscul> legs & poor arms4 ,x is m ?an probable t z ! features ( ,alex&] ! ,great influ5c$ ! portraits ( 8 (fic]s & foll[]s1 s ! specially beautiful =ms ( "s ( ! a?letes :o 7 mo/ admir$1 t5d$ to create a type1 some?+ ( :i* appe>s 9 all ! a?lete figures ( ! "t4 ,no d\bt any "o :o is well acqua9t$ ) ,greek types & ) ! =ms ( mod]n a?letes w obs]ve t ! ,greek physical build is n id5tical ) t ( our days4 ,! equable climate & ! un/ra9$ life ( ! "y m5 produc$ some?+ m r\nd$ & fle%y ?an we see 9 ! nor?4 ,our a?letes are less h>moni\sly built1 ) m prom95t s9ews1 m h>% & wiry 9 type4 ,an ,am]ican tra9] :o is also a sculptor1 ,dr4 ,tait ,mc,kenzie1 work+ z "s ( ! ,greek sculptors work$1 f ! av]age measurem5ts ( a numb] ( "y m51 has produc$ types ( /r5g? & beauty1 by no means exactly l ! /atues ( ,greece1 b 9 _! way almo/ equally beautiful4 ,i in/ance ! beautiful fif?-c5tury figures ( ,greek box]s1 s(t5$ by idealism1 b admirable = /r5g? & symmetry2 & ! ,apoxyom5os1 a man scrap+ himself ) a /rigil1 z 0 ! cu/om 9 ! ba?s 7,fig4 #ab74 ,?is is a "w ( ! ?ird c5tury1 aft] ! arti/s _h import$ _! k ( anatomy into _! works1 :i* _h effects bo? good & bad4 ,& beside ! ,apoxyom5os ,i place an a?lete by ,tait ,mc,kenzie1 produc$ f ! c>eful comp>ison & measurem5ts ( hundr$s ( "y a?letes ( ,h>v>d & ,philadelphia 7,fig4 #ac74 ,?is is a "w ( mod]n idealism produc$ by simil> processes to ^? to :i* we owe ! excell5ce ( ,greek a?letic sculpture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab ,,a?lete ,,) ,,/rigil ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac ,,a?lete1 by ,tait ,mc,kenzie ,! types ( female beauty come into ,greek sculpture lat] ?an ! types ( male beauty4 ,9 ,ionian & e>ly ,attic sculpture wom5 appe> closely wrapp$ up 9 drap]y4 ,pheidias & 8 contempor>ies did n v5ture to repres5t undrap$ wom54 ,!y %[$ ! beauties ( ! female =m n ap>t f1 b by ! help (1 drap]y4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ! age ( ,praxiteles & ,scopas to repres5t ! ,goddess ( ,love 9 ! guise ( a nude woman2 & ,praxiteles made an apology = ! innovation by introduc+ ! motive ( ba?+ z an explanation & a palliation4 ,& ev5 ! ,aphrodite ( ,praxiteles is rem>kably free f all attempt at s5su\s attraction1 or self-consci\sness4 ,solid1 noble1 & /ately 9 =m1 %e is a type or model r ?an an individual4 ,lat] sculptors1 x is true1 dep>t$ f ?is l9e ( simple h>moni\sness1 & tri$ to make ! figure m attractive to ! av]age man4 ,b x does n become weak1 & x does n become vulg>4 ,! noble ,aphrodites ( ! f\r? c5tury h fix$ ! type ( female beauty 9 s*ool aft] s*ool ( arti/s d[n to our own "t4 ,?is ideal is p]haps = u be/ incorporat$ 9 ! ,aphrodite ( ,melos 9 ! ,l\vre1 a "w ( ! ,hell5i/ic age1 comb9+ ) ! great f\r?-c5tury tradition a p]fection ( detail & an in=m+ life :i* belong to a lat] "t4 ,b :ile mo/ p ( ta/e pr(ess a devotion to h]1 t devotion is usually unt+$ by k or real appreciation2 = !re c\ld h>dly be a great] contra/ ?an t betwe5 ! bodily =ms ( ! ,goddess ( ,melos & ^? ( ! wom5 :o are mo/ admir$ 9 our days4 ,i 0 almo/ dispos$ to figure side by side ! ,goddess & ! bodily =ms :i* figure 9 our fa%ion plates4 ,! fa%ion plates d n repres5t wom5 z !y are1 b z !y w\ld l to be2 !y repres5t n ! actual1 b ! mod]n ideal4 ,& :at an ideal6 ,"s read]s may smile at ! notion ( tak+ s]i\sly ^! ephem]al productions4 ,b no "o w\ld take !m lightly :o 0 famili> ) ! facts ( psy*ology4 ,we well "k t :5 c]ta9 types ( wom5 are set con/antly be=e ! ris+ g5]ation z beautiful & to be imitat$ !y w necess>ily ex]cise a great influ5ce on ! future ( ! race4 ,"y m5 w look out = su* types to admire & to c\rt3 "y wom5 w try to resemble !m4 ,! hide\s mi/ake 9 ae/hetics w ex]cise a con/ant dragg+ p[]1 pull+ ! "y away f ! light & ! air ( heav5 t[>ds ! caves ( evil spirits4 ,few m *>m+ repres5tations ( "y womanhood 9 ,greece exi/ ?an ! ,artemis f ,gabii already cit$ 7,fig4 #e74 ,"o mu/ confess t ! div9e elem5t 9 x is b slight4 ,b :at c\ld be fre%]1 simpl]1 m exquisitely natural8 ,no d\bt z 9 ! case ( m51 s 9 ! case ( wom51 we mu/ make all[ance = race & climate4 ,a full & rotund developm5t ( physique is f> r>] 9 nor!rn ?an 9 s\!rn ,europe4 ,! ,engli% race is tall]1 less solidly built1 slight] ?an ! anci5t ,greek4 ,among u h>d t5dons usually take ! place ( solid muscles4 ,& ! practise ( a?letic games by wom5 und\bt$ly t5ds to make !m 9 "s respects con=m m to ! male type4 ,9 mod]ation physical ex]cises may improve heal? & /r5g? )\t t5d+ to deprive ! vital organs ( n\ri%m5t4 ,b ! ov]tra9$ woman is f>!r f ! heal?y life ( nature ?an ! ov]tra9$ man4 ,& :e!r ! ov]ex]tion be ( ! body or ( ! intellig5ce1 x t5ds to de/roy true womanl9ess4 ,x is a pity t "s sculptor does n d = ! ideal ( womanhood :at ,dr4 ,tait ,mc,kenzie has done = ! ideal ( a?letic manhood4 ,( c\rse ! process w\ld n be ! same4 ,no "o wants an ideal type ( ! female a?lete1 unless we wi% to re/ore ! race ( ,amazons1 b we d sorely ne$ to h be=e our eyes types :i* embody ! physical ideal ( effici5t womanhood4 ,at pres5t :ile nude womanhood 9 art con=ms 9 a great measure to ! ,greek tradition1 clo!d womanhood foll[s ! types ( ! /reet1 modifi$ by ! baseless caprices ( fa%ion4 ,! two /& 9 unreconcil$ contra/4 ,! ,greeks :5 pa9t+ wom5 on a vase (t5 drew _! figures 9 outl9e be=e !y add$ clo!s4 ,b any "o :o tries to draw ! outl9e ( ! female figure b5ea? ! clo!s on a fa%ion-plate w /& agha/ at :at he has produc$4 ,cic]o repeats an in/ructive /ory 9 reg>d to ! pa9t] ,zeuxis1 :o liv$ ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,he 0 commission$ to make = ! p ( ,croton a pa9t+ ( ,hel5 ( ,troy4 ,he fir/ inquir$1 :at seems to h be5 a matt] ( common k1 :o 7 ! mo/ beautifully made "y m5 9 t city1 :i* 0 not$ = its a?letes4 ,he next ask$ t he %\ld be all[$ to /udy ! =ms ( ! si/]s ( ^! m51 judg+ t ! si/]s mu/ p>take ( ! beauty ( ! bro!rs4 ,out ( ^! he select$ five girls = m cont9u$ /udy1 & by su* aid produc$ 8 picture4 ,we _c suppose t he w\ld be s clumsy z to select at r&om beautiful details f ea* ( ! five2 9 t way he w\ld produce only an eclectic mon/rosity4 ,b1 work+ 9 ! pres5ce ( beautiful examples1 8 s5se ( beauty w\ld rise 9 tone to ! highe/ ( :i* he 0 capable4 ,9 ?is /ory sev]al po9ts are notewor?y4 ,x %[s t ! type ( beauty 9 m5 0 m advanc$ & m g5]ally recogniz$ ?an ! type ( beauty 9 wom54 ,& x %[s ! ,greek arti/ic m9d ev] on ! wat* to cat* "s new note ( beauty to add to ! traditional /ock4 ,pr(essor ,brcke1 9 8 excell5t "w on ! beauties ( ! human =m1 obs]ves t 9 ! ideal /atues ( ,greece _m features may be discov]$ :i* 9 ! actual _w ( m5 & wom5 are v r>e1 b ! *>m ( :i* c sc>cely be disput$4 ,!re w5t on f s*ool to s*ool1 & f p]iod to p]iod1 a sort ( accumulation ( beauty :i* 0 ev] increas+4 ,e beautiful model :i* 0 /udi$ add$ some?+ to :at ,brcke calls ! /ock ( beauty at ! disposal ( arti/s4 ,,vi ,! six? lamp ( ,greek art is ,pati5ce 9 /riv+ aft] p]fection4 ,9 ! f9] "w ( ,greek sculptors "o f9ds an utt]ly ungrudg+ exp5diture ( "t & c>e :i* rem9ds "o ( ! work+ ( ,nature h]self1 ,nature :o is nev] 9 a hurry1 :o is nev] cont5t$ ) a ha/y sket*1 b works reg>dless ( "t4 ,we are told ( ,protog5es t he sp5t sev5 ye>s on a s+le figure1 & ,i ?9k he w\ld h sp5t sev5 m if he _h ?\ght t he c\ld !reby h improv$ 8 pa9t+4 ,no?+ /rikes "o m /rongly 9 su* works z ! *>iote] ( ,delphi & ! ,h]mes ( ,praxiteles ?an ! pa9s tak5 ) e detail4 ,x is by c>eful "w1 cont9u$ ?r\gh successive g5]ations1 t sculpture atta9$ su* ma/]y 9 ! repres5tation ( ! muscles ( ! body z we f9d 9 ! ,borghese fight+ figure ( ! ,l\vre1 & su* delicacy 9 ! r5d]+ ( drap]y z we f9d 9 ! ,victories ( ! ,balu/rade at ,a!ns1 or ! ,victory ( ,samo?race4 ,b ! delicacy & m9ut5ess ( ,greek "w is ( c\rse mo/ obvi\s 9 ! reliefs ( co9s & 9 gems4 ,! co9s 7 n prim>ily meant to please ! eye1 b to circulate 9 ! fi%-m>ket2 yet a multitude ( ! dies are s exquisitely f9i%$ t !y lose little :5 magnifi$ to _m diamet]s1 & w be> ! mo/ critical exam9ation4 ,! intaglio gems 7 meant = ! seal+ ( docum5ts1 ! seal tak+ ! place ( ! mod]n signature2 b ! figures ^u seals are 9 _! way z f9i%$ z great works ( sculpture4 ,seals ev5 m usually ?an co9s ga9 r ?an lose if !y are enl>g$4 ,yet !y 7 execut$ )\t ! help ( magnify+ glasses4 ,_! subjects are tak5 f ! wide/ field1 ! figures ( deities1 tales f my?ology1 portraits1 animal =ms2 l ! co9s !y introduc$ z an und]curr5t to ! prosaic life ( e day an elem5t ( poetry & imag9ation4 ,,vii ,! sev5? lamp1 :i* goes z naturally ) idealism z c>e & pati5ce g ) naturalism1 is joy1 joie de vivre4 ,keats has express$ ! ,greek s5se ( art 9 an immortal l9e1 ',a ?+ ( beauty is a joy = ev]'4 ,x 0 ! ov]fl[+ gladness :i* lies at ! root ( creation & evolution :i* took et]nal =m 9 ! pa9t+ & sculpture ( ! ,greeks & inspir$ all _! works4 ,! same irrepressible joy :i* gives col\r to ! fl[]s1 sweetness to ! fruit1 song to ! birds1 & sexual desire to mank9d rea*$ "h "o ( its mo/ p]fect manife/ations4 ,! life ( ! ,greeks 0 by no means "o ( unmix$ happ9ess4 ,ea* city 0 n unfrequ5tly at w> ) its neighb\rs2 & ! p5alty ( complete defeat 0 sometimes ! raz+ ( its walls1 ! slaught] ( its m51 & ! enslavem5t ( its wom54 ,disease1 ev5 plague1 con/antly ravag$ ! l&2 & ! res\rces ( mod]n surg]y & mod]n anae/hetics 7 n pres5t to curb _! ravages4 ,! life ( ! majority 9 c\ntry huts1 & /ill m 9 ! slums ( ! cities1 mo/ ( all 9 ! m9es1 0 r\gh] & m sordid ?an is ! case 9 ! mod]n _w1 9 c\ntries 9 _! normal /ate4 ,& ! p _h n ev5 t hope ( a bless$ h]eaft] :i* su/a9$ ! p ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,yet "u all ^! cl\ds1 _! _s 0 hopeful & aspir+4 ,& _! art reflects ev] ! bright] side ( ?+s4 ,surely !y 7 wise & "r4 ,we seek out works ( art n to fo/] pessimism b to inspire optimism1 n to %[ u ! _w ( nature on its repulsive side1 b to reveal to u h[ mu* und]ly+ beauty is to be f\nd 9 x4 '',tis life n dea? = :i* we pant1 ,m life & full] t we want4' ,at ! same "t1 ,greek art 9 "s =ms 0 extremely s]i\s & ke5ly alive to ! d>k] side ( exi/5ce4 ,! ,greeks inv5t$ trag$y1 ! poetical reflection ( ! sev]ity ( fate4 ,w\ld any mod]n audi5ce be f\nd1 :i* w\ld be prep>$ to sit = a :ole summ] day li/5+ eag]ly to ! gr& expression by su* poets z ,aes*ylus & ,sophocles ( ! p[] ( ,nemesis1 ! in/ability ( all prosp]ity1 ! mis=tunes :i* hunt ^? :o h ! ill luck to displease ! gods8 ,surely n4 ,& n 9 ,greek trag$y only1 b 9 elegiac poetry & 9 epigram1 we f9d p]fect reflections ( our mo/ gloomy moods4 ,b = su* expressions ( sorr[ & despair ! ,greeks felt t sculpture1 & ev5 pa9t+1 7 n suitable vehicles4 ,!y belong to moods1 & are n suitable = illu/ration 9 ! m>ket place & ! temple4 ,! roads :i* l$ to ,greek cities 7 frequ5tly bord]$ ) monum5tal tombs4 ,if 9 ! reliefs & inscriptions ( ^! tombs !re _h be5 any tell+ e*o ( ! sorr[ & regret ( b]eav$ survivors1 e "o w\ld h ent]$ ! cities 9 a black mood4 ,z x is1 z e "o :o has be5 9 ! museums ( ,a!ns kn[s1 ! sepul*ral arti/s c>efully avoid$ any?+ :i* might h>r[ ! feel+s4 ,!y repres5t$ ! dead at _! be/1 engag$ 9 victori\s w>f>e1 or 9 a?letic sports or 9 ! happy family circle4 ,a g5tle air ( melan*oly c\ld n be avoid$2 b !re 0 no?+ to %ock1 no?+ to oppress ! spirits4 ,! deceas$ repres5t$ seem$ /ill to %>e ! occupations & pleasures ( ! liv+1 n to be %ut (f f ! _w ( happ9ess4 ,milton has express$1 9 8 magnific5t prose1 ! pr(\nd joy ( ! _w ( ! ,r5aissance at ! recov]y ( ! ,bible1 & free lib]ty ( read+ x1 aft] x _h be5 %ut away f ! laity by ! organiz$ ,*ur*4 ,equally int5se1 & m exub]ant1 0 ! delight ( s*ol>s & arti/s1 :5 ! asceticism & pessimism ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* _h giv5 bir? to su* bodies z ! ,c>melite monks & ! m5dicant fri>s1 gave way be=e ! revival ( ,greek lit]ature & art4 ,! _w seem$ sudd5ly to h r5ew$ its y\?4 ,no d\bt ! sudd5 expansion l$ to f\l excesses2 b x 0 yet a great l&m>k 9 human progress4 ,,viii ,! eigh? light ( ,greek art is ,fell[%ip4 ,p]haps !re is no quality 9 x :i* is m in/ructive = our days ?an ?is4 ,! extreme individualism :i* is ! mo/ rem>kable *>act]i/ic ( mod]n times lays ! utmo/ /ress on ! "r or ! duty ( an arti/ to express himself 9 8 "w1 to "w out 8 own ve9 ( orig9ality1 to give to ! _w a r5d]+ ( 8 own qualities & individuality4 ,& no d\bt no great arti/ c help do+ ?is 9 a measure4 ,:5 he works he mu/ be himself2 he c only see ! _w ?r\gh ! m$ium ( 8 "* & tal5ts4 ,& z e man is a microcosm1 a reflection 9 m9iature ( ! great _w ( human be+s1 :at is really good & orig9al 9 an arti/ mu/ appeal to some?+ 9 ! human _w2 mu/ h a mean+ = p ( a c]ta9 class or a c]ta9 tra9+1 or a c]ta9 c\ntry4 ,b :e!r an arti/ is ! bett] = a consci\s attempt ?us to ext]nalize 8 p]sonality2 :e!r he is improv$ by be+ self-consci\s & reflective 9 8 art is a diff]5t "q4 ,sc>cely any feature ( ,greek art is m impressive to a /ud5t ?an its cont9u\s & un9t]rupt$ c\rse4 ,:5 once x has />t$ x does n turn back1 b goes =w>d /eadily1 = a "t ris+ sup]ior to difficulty aft] difficulty1 atta9+ a high] & high] level1 !n 9 ! fif? c5tury bran*+ out 9 v>i\s directions into /yles & gr\ps1 !n go+ on ) great te*nical skill1 b ) a loss ( inspiration4 ,x is a c\rse ( evolution z /eady z t ( any k9d ( plant or animal4 ,?is %[s t x did n dep5d ^u ! rise ( successive m5 ( tal5t or g5ius1 ea* ( :om 0 int5t on express+ himself2 b ^u ! rise & influ5ce ( successive arti/ic s*ools1 ea* ( :i* did n m]ely foll[ ! p]sonality ( a f\nd] or tea*]1 b /ood = a phase 9 ! developm5t ( ! common life ( ! ,greek p4 ,! s*ools 7 ,ionian or ,dorian1 ,attic or ,argive1 & h>moniz$ ) ! :ole civilization ( su* fractions ( ! race4 ,ionian art w5t ) ! gay & pleasure-lov+ ways ( ! ,asiatic coa/4 ,dorian art reflect$ ! re/ra9t1 ! balance1 ! self-control ( ! p ( ,peloponnesus4 ,attic art n only con=m$ to ! ref9$ ta/e ( ! p ( ,a!ns1 b suit$ also ! /rong m5tal bias ( ! mo/ intellectual city :i* ev] exi/$4 ,( c\rse ^! s*ools did n fl\ri% 9 complete isolation "o f ! o!r2 city influ5c$ city & arti/ arti/2 b 9 a f> less degree ?an w\ld be ! case n[4 ,a s*ool ( sculpture 0 a species2 & all ! individuals ( ! species 7 m l "o ano!r ?an !y 7 l any ( _! contempor>ies outside4 ,?us :5 we exam9e any "w ( ,greek sculpture1 be=e ! eclectic s*ools came into be+1 we f9d x easy to det]m9e its p]iod1 (t5 )9 n>r[ limits1 & we are usually able to assign x ) confid5ce to a p>ticul> s*ool1 imp]fect z is our k ( ! hi/ory ( ,greek art4 ,b we c sc>cely ev] say t x is ! "w ( an individual arti/1 unless x /&s on a basis be>+ ! au?or's "n1 or unless anci5t critics & hi/orians h left u detail$ descriptions ( a "w :i* survives4 ,i am speak+ ( ,greek orig9als2 ! copies ( e>li] works made by ,greek arti/s ( a late p]iod = ,roman gall]ies are (t5 s confus$ 9 /yle & s c>eless 9 execution t !y s]ve only to mislead1 ev5 if !y h escap$ ! ,italian re/or] ( rec5t date4 ,great & connect$ s]ies ( /atues & reliefs1 su* z con/itute ! sculptural adornm5t ( su* temples z t ( ,zeus at ,olympia or ! ,p>!non or ! ,mausoleum1 are ! jo9t productions ( a numb] ( sculptors :o work$ toge!r1 no d\bt "u ! g5]al sup]vision ( "s ar*itect or *ief mason1 b probably "u v little control4 ,su* works comb9e consid]able v>iety 9 execution ) a g5]al simil>ity s great t a sup]ficial obs]v] does n see _! diff]5ces4 ,public op9ion 9 ,london seems to hold t ,pheidias made ! :ole ( ! p$im5ts & ! frieze ( ! ,p>!non2 ?\gh 9 "s cases contigu\s figures are s m>k$ly v>i\s amid ! g5]al lik5ess z to prove sep>ate h&s4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,ere*!um at ,a!ns !re is extant a long li/ ( paym5ts to a numb] ( arti/s = ! sev]al figures ( ! frieze4 ,!re 0 no g5]al contractor1 no arti/ :o hir$ 8 masons by ! day1 b e man :o produc$ "o ( ! figures 9 relief 0 paid = x sixty dra*mas1 )\t reg>d to its difficulty or its simplicity4 ,x is comp>atively easy to get a set ( skill$ /one-masons to c>ry out ) exactness a plan ( :i* all ! details are work$ out = !m1 & :i* requires only fai?ful copy+4 ,& x mu/ h be5 easy = a set ( ,egyptian sculptors :o made _! figures accord+ to a rigid conv5tional patt]n to produce a uni=m result4 ,b = a numb] ( skill$ work]s :o 7 all[$ great lib]ty 9 detail to produce an h>moni\s :ole 0 inf9itely h>d]4 ,& t ! ,greek masons regul>ly accompli%$ ?is result %[s h[ /rong ^u !m 0 ! influ5ce ( ! s*ool4 ,nor did !y m]ely "w f nature2 b _! production 0 ( an idealiz+ k9d4 ,x is cle> t !y mu/ h _h n m]ely simil> tools & simil> me*anical processes1 b ! same purposes & ideals4 ,!y mu/ h _h :at we %\ld call a collective p]sonality4 ,x is m ?an probable t among ! work]s on ! ,p>!non 7 ,alcam5es & ,agoracritus1 two sculptors :o rose to great fame4 ,x is c]ta9 t among ! work]s on ! ,ere*!um 0 ,praxias1 a pupil ( ,calamis1 & probably a relative ( ,praxiteles4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 arti/ & mason1 s m>k$ 9 our day1 sc>cely exi/$ 9 ,greece4 ,! mason :o _h tal5t became a not$ sculptor2 & ! sculptor1 in/ead ( mak+ a model 9 wax or pla/]1 set to "w1 l ,mi*elangelo1 on ! block ( m>ble himself4 ,probably sometimes1 l ,b5v5uto ,cell9i1 he ca/ 8 own bronze /atues4 ,g5]ally 9 all great p]iods ( art !re is su* fell[%ip4 ,& 9 sculpture 9 p>ticul> ! design & ! execution are s closely connect$ t x is an abuse to assign ! two functions to diff]5t m51 & ev5 to diff]5t classes ( m54 ,greece 0 pre-em95tly ! l& ( productive guilds1 ( families ( arti/s1 ( gr\ps ( work]s :o 7 ( "o he>t & "o _s1 & :o !re=e work$ 9 "o /yle4 ,"o ( ! close/ p>allels to a ,greek s*ool ( sculpture is to be f\nd 9 ! gr\p ( ,pre-,raphaelite arti/s ( ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 ,morris1 ,burne-,jones1 ,rossetti1 ,millais1 ,coll9s1 & _! companions4 ,?is gr\p _h a religi\s or ideal />t+-po9t 9 ! reviv$ ,anglo-,ca?olicism :i* arose 9 ,ox=d at ! "t1 & !y _h pr9ciples ( art 9 common :i* !y embodi$ 9 _! "w4 ,_! pa9t+s1 be=e !y div]g$ "o f ano!r1 =m a di/9ct species1 & h an int]e/ = ! hi/orian ( civilization great] ?an t ( any o!r ,engli% s*ool4 ,,ix ,9 ord] t we may e/imate ! influ5ce ( ,greek art on ! civilization ( ,europe1 x is necess>y briefly to trace its reappe>ances ?r\gh ! ages4 ,its fir/ conque/ 0 ,rome4 ,! victori\s ,roman ,g5]als1 ,m>cellus1 ,scipio1 ,flam99us1 ,mummius1 & o!rs1 br\ght to ! imp]ial city1 to adorn _! triumphs1 an imm5se quantity ( ,greek sculpture & pa9t+s1 ( :i* !y robb$ ! great /oreh\ses ( works ( art 9 ! temples & /oae ( ,hellas1 ,sicily1 & ,asia ,m9or4 ,! e>li] ,emp]ors1 especially ,n]o1 foll[$ _! example1 s t 9 ! "t ( ,pl9y ! naturali/ all ! public places ( ,rome 7 cr[d$ ) sculptures ( bronze & m>ble & ) ! pa9t$ ma/]pieces ( great arti/s4 ,x became fa%ionable = weal?y ,romans1 su* z ,hort5sius & ,cic]o1 to /ock _! c\ntry-h\ses ) su* works4 ,ev5 s1 ! dem& 0 n satisfi$2 & ,greek arti/s 7 import$ into ,rome1 :]e !y set up great work%ops1 & p\r$ out an incessant /ream ( fre% works ( art4 ,( su* our mod]n museums are full4 ,g5]ally speak+ !y are ( little arti/ic m]it1 copies ( v>i\s degrees ( excell5ce ( ! great works ( e>li] g5]ations4 ,= ! ,roman plutocrats _h little ta/e4 ,because c]ta9 figures or gr\ps _h a great reputation1 & especially because !y _h be5 pur*as$ at a high price by ,greek cities & k+s1 ! ,roman collector lik$ to h copies ( !m 9 8 villa2 & ! arti/s :o produc$ ^! copies 7 m]e work]s = hire1 )\t orig9ality & )\t aspirations4 ,sometimes :5 employ$ on su* works z ! ,ar* ( ,titus1 or ! ,column ( ,trajan1 ! novelty ( ! !me /imulat$ ! arti/ to attempt some?+ ( a m orig9al k9d4 ,& occasionally ! fire )9 took c\rse & produc$ a f9] "w ?an ord9>y4 ,"u ! art-lov+ ,emp]or ,hadrian !re 0 a sort ( ,/4 ,m>t9's summ] ( sculpture2 b its productions 7 smoo?1 elegant & ref9$ r ?an orig9al or int]e/+4 ,! *>m ( art 0 n appreciat$ by ! ,roman p2 only ! few :o pr(ess$ cultivation really c>$ :e!r a figure 0 good or bad1 & ev5 ! few 7 a little a%am$ ( _! pref]5ces4 ,into ! ,roman ,empire1 9 ! fir/ ?ree c5turies ( our era1 ,*ri/ianity gradually ate its way4 ,x orig9at$ among ! ,jews1 to :om all repres5tation ( liv+ ?+s 0 hateful4 ,& x develop$ "u ! influ5ce ( ,greek ori5tal my/icism1 :i* _h no k9%ip ) sculpture & pa9t+2 & s f> z x _h any expression 9 ^? arts work$ 9 ! direction ( t symbolism aga9/ :i* ,greek art 0 a prote/4 ,?us we c\ld n expect any fre% inspiration = art f e>ly ,*ri/ianity2 on ! contr>y1 ,*ri/ianity w\ld "w ^u x z a blight+ influ5ce4 ,if we exam9e ! rema9s ( ,*ri/ian art 9 ^? e>ly c5turies1 9 s>cophagus & mural pa9t+1 we f9d t x m]ely copi$ ! contempor>y pagan art1 only *ang+ ! subjects portray$1 & introduc+ a fur!r developm5t 9 ! symbolic int]pretation ( ord9>y sc5es4 ,*ri/ianity (f]$ almo/ no field = ! ex]cise ( ,greek an?ropomorphism4 ,! latt] 0 closely b\nd up ) poly!ism & h]o-wor%ip4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,apo/les & ,sa9ts1 :o took ! place ( ! pagan ,deities1 7 m5 :o _h liv$ on ! e>? & ^: de$s belong$ n to my?ology b to hi/ory1 al?\gh at ! "t ! l9e betwe5 hi/ory & my?ology 0 n cle>ly drawn1 & hi/ory 0 l>gely dilut$ ) my?4 ,a few imp]sonations ( nature1 su* z riv]-gods1 l+]$ on 9 ! pa9t+s ( ! ,roman catacombs4 ,& w+$ g5ii 7 common !re1 :e!r cupids or *]ubs x w\ld be h>d to say4 ,b !re 0 no realm into :i* arti/ic fancy c\ld /ray1 fill+ x ) sup]-m5 & sup]-wom54 ,angels might be portray$2 b !y all came f ! ,jewi% angelology2 & !re 0 no arti/ic tradition z to _! types3 x 0 only lat] t ! types ( ,mi*ael1 ,raphael1 ,gabriel1 & o!rs 7 di/+ui%$4 ,! second pr9ciple ( ,greek art1 balance & symmetry1 _h almo/ disappe>$ 9 pagan art 9 ! ,anton9e age4 ,! reliefs ( triumphal ar*es & ( s>cophagi are cr[d$ ) figures ins]t$ )\t ord] or me?od4 ,ev5 ! mural pa9t+s ( ,pompeii h escap$ f control2 & %[ no purposeful arrangem5t4 ,law & ord] h giv5 place to individual fancy1 unless 9 cases :]e e>li] s*emes are adopt$4 ,& ) arti/ic arrangem5t has disappe>$ all attempt to idealize1 to produce =ms nobl] & m beautiful ?an ^? se5 e day4 ,! figure ( ,ant9\s is ! late/ 9 :i* we f9d any attempt to produce a type ( ideal beauty4 ,ev5 ! ,virg9 ,m>y & h] ,son are depict$ )\t any attempt to r5d] !m beautiful4 ,nor inde$ does naturalism f>e bett] ?an idealism4 ,! repres5tation ( ! human body is no long] /udi$4 ,! figures are clo!d3 & ! clo?+ is purely conv5tional1 :ile ! features ( ! l&scape are f> less c>efully introduc$ ?an 9 ,hell5i/ic ,greek art4 ,9 fact "o feels t ! arti/ _h little int]e/ 9 8 art4 ,sc5es f ! ,old & ! ,new ,te/am5t are ! usual subjects4 ,b ! depiction is little m ?an picture-writ+1 m]e copies ( traditional gr\ps4 ,! only ?+ reg>d$ z ( any int]e/ is ! mean+4 ,! e?ical & spiritual po9t ( view ov]lies & smo!rs any int]e/ 9 ! repres5tation4 ,& ?is pr$om9ance ( ! didactic elem5t ov] ! s5se ( proportion1 ! love ( beauty1 ! appreciation ( nature prevails m & m z ,europe sl[ly moves t[>ds ! d>k ages4 ,! lamps ( ,greek art burn m & m dimly4 ,!y are nev] :olly ext+ui%$2 = 9 all ages !re are born arti/s to :om !y are ! light ( life2 & 9 m$iaeval c>v+s "o f9ds "h & !re a t\* ( humanism1 mo/ (t5 9 grotesque or satyric figures4 ,we mu/ nev] =get t "s ( ! lat] ma/]pieces ( ,greek "w1 su* z ! ,column ( ,trajan & ! ,ar* ( ,b5ev5tum1 7 always to be se54 ,& little z !y 7 appreciat$ by ord9>y p1 an arti/ "h & !re d]iv$ f !m "s appreciation ( ! beauty ( humanity4 ,!n 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ! dry bones began to come toge!r4 ,! brea? ( fre% life /irr$ ,europe1 or at lea/ p>ts ( ,europe1 su* z ,nor? ,italy1 ,s\!rn ,g]many1 ,ea/]n ,france4 ,! magnific5t ,go?ic ,ca!drals ris+ 9 ! nor? call$ =? ! tal5t ( ! pa9t] & ! sculptor = _! adornm5t4 ,a great ,*ri/ian art arose1 & 9 ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies fl\ri%$ widely4 ,c]ta9 qualities ( high art x c]ta9ly _h4 ,x 0 light$ by ! lamp ( fell[%ip4 ,! sculpture 0 ! "w n ( individuals1 b ( guilds1 gr\ps ( work]s ( ! same /yle1 & inspir$ by ! same motives4 ,x atta9$ to great beauty 9 decoration1 9 ! adaptation to ar*itectural purpose ( ! =ms ( plants & fl[]s4 ,:]e x 0 mo/ defective 0 9 ! r5d]+ ( ! human =m1 :e!r nude or drap$1 = 9 su* matt]s ! arti/s _h no s*ool+ to be comp>$ ) t ( ! ,greeks4 ,:5 ! full ,r5aissance came ) ! disp]sion ( ! educat$ ,greeks ?r\gh ,europe1 !re 0 a consci\s reawak5+ ( ! arti/ic influ5ce ( ,greece1 contemporane\sly ) ! reviv$ int]e/ 9 ,greek lit]ature & philosophy4 ,a few great works ( anci5t sculpture1 ! ,laocoon1 ! ,dy+ ,gaul ( ! ,capitol1 ! ,apollo ,belv$]e 7 discov]$2 & collections ( anci5t gems & co9s 7 =m$ by _m ( ! weal?y4 ,we c judge f ! life ( ,b5v5uto ,cell9i h[ pr(\nd 0 ! effect produc$ by su* discov]ies4 ,! great ,italians ( ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies felt z if !y _h climb$ out ( d>kness into light4 ,to rival works ( ,greek art 0 look$ ^u z ! highe/ ambition :i* an arti/ c\ld *]i%4 ,sculptors s great z ,donatello & ,mi*elangelo took ! scanty rema9s ( ,greek ma/]pieces z _! models1 & measur$ _! atta9m5ts by ! degree ( success :i* !y rea*$ 9 copy+ !m4 ,! lamps ( ,greek balance & symmetry1 ,greek idealism1 & ,greek naturalism 7 rek9dl$1 & ! cr[d ( arti/s vi$ "o ) ano!r 9 walk+ by _! light4 ,we may m>k f\r /ages 9 ! r$iscov]y ( ,greek sculpture4 ,! fir/ is ! ,italian ,r5aissance already m5tion$4 ,! second orig9at$ 9 ! visit ( ,w9ckelmann to ,italy 9 #agee1 & ! application by ,goe! & ,less+ ( 8 discov]ies to ! judgem5t ( contempor>y art4 ,x t5d$ greatly to ! rais+ & purify+ ( ! arti/ic ta/e ( ,europe4 ,! spl5did promise ( ! ,r5aissance _h deg5]at$ into ! mann]ism & extravagance ( ,b]n9i & 8 contempor>ies4 ,w9ckelmann call$ x back to simplicity1 to self-re/ra9t1 to ideality4 ,b be=e long ?is tea*+ also 0 p]v]t$2 & su* sculptors z ,?orwalds5 & ,canova 7 misl$ by ! defects ( ! inf]ior examples ( ,greek sculpture1 :i* 7 ! only ones accessible to ,w9ckelmann1 into a slavi% copy ( ! antique or works ( an artificial gr& /yle4 ,!n came ! ?ird wave ( reviv$ ,greek influ5ce1 :5 ! sculptures ( ! ,p>!non f\nd a home 9 ,london1 & critics 7 able to obs]ve h[ inf9itely sup]ior ! ma/]pieces ( a really great age 7 to ! copies ( ,roman times & ! adaptations ( ! ,hell5i/ic age4 ,:5 ,haydon ! pa9t] fir/ saw ! ,p>!non m>bles he 0 imm5sely impress$2 b t :i* /ruck him mo/ /rongly 0 n ! ideality1 = :i* !y h s9ce become prov]bial1 b ! wond]ful naturalism ( mu* ( _! detail 9 contra/ to ! gr&iose conv5tions ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,! f\r? /age 9 our k ( ,greek sculpture comes f ! v fruitful excavations on ,greek soil1 especially at ,a!ns1 ,olympia1 & ,delphi1 :i* h %[n u h[ widely v>i$ is ! range ( ! anci5t sculptors1 h[ _m _! /yles1 h[ admirable _! te*nique4 ,?is ext5sion ( our k has n1 x is true1 z yet mu* affect$ contempor>y art1 z art 0 affect$ by ! tea*+s ( ,w9ckelmann & ! publi%+ ( ! m>bles ( ! ,p>!non4 ,until la/ ye> !re 0 no book 9 ,engli% sett+ =? ! results ( ! excavations ( ,delphi2 & !re is ev5 n[ no book 9 ,engli% p]=m+ ! same s]vice = ! excavations at ,olympia4 ,sculptors are s little educat$ 9 ! hi/ory ( _! craft1 t !y d n easily le>n f new s\rces ( k4 ,b by degrees1 beyond d\bt1 ! new views ( ,greek art w filt] d[n to !m4 ,a few rec5tly discov]$ sculptures1 su* z ! ,*>iote] ( ,delphi1 ! ,h]mes ( ,praxiteles1 ! bronze head f ,b5ev5tum 9 ! ,l\vre1 ! ,demet] ( ,cnidus1 h by _! ov]p[]+ *>m affect$ arti/s & art4 ,& mo/ sculptors pr(ess a great admiration = ,greek works1 notably ,rod91 :o1 al?\gh ! t5d5cy ( 8 works is n 9 a classical direction1 yet uses ! /ronge/ language 9 prais+ ! ,greek ma/]pieces4 ,b 9 g5]al ! t5d5cy ( art t[>ds extreme individualism & ! se>* aft] novelty h m ?an c\nt]act$ ! some:at %all[ admiration ( sculptors = :at is antique4 ,x ,at pres5t religion & culture alike are /ruggl+ aga9/ ! waves ( b>b>ism re9vad+4 ,x is n my bus9ess to speak "h ( ! =ces :i* are try+ to cru% religion among u4 ,b ,i may fitly conclude by sket*+ "s ( ! t5d5cies aga9/ :i* culture bas$ ^u t ( ,greece is our be/ antidote4 ,if ,i h rightly set =? ! pr9ciples ( ,greek lit]ature & art 9 pa/ pages1 ! nature ( _! influ5ce "u pres5t conditions w be cle>4 ,i mu/ v5ture on a p>allel :i* seems to me v sugge/ive1 ?\gh "s read]s may reg>d x z risky4 ,!re are two great /&>ds set up 9 ! pa/1 to control ! wayw>d fanaticisms ( m51 & to keep !m )9 ! b\nds ( reason & good s5se4 ,! /&>d 9 religion is set by ! ,new ,te/am5t3 ! /&>d 9 art is set by ,greece4 ,z at ! ,r5aissance ! peoples ( ,europe w5t back = _! inspiration & _! models to ! lit]ature & ! art ( ,hellas1 s at ! ,re=mation !y1 or at all ev5ts ! ,teutonic races1 w5t back to ! e>ly records ( ,*ri/ianity1 appeal+ to !m aga9/ ! v5ality & corruption ( ! dom9ant ,*ur*4 ,& ev] s9ce1 at int]vals1 !re has aris51 alike 9 ! field ( culture & 9 t ( religion1 an e*o ( ! appeal to ! classical pa/4 ,x is to ! ,new ,te/am5t t ,apo/les l ,john ,wesley & ,george ,fox made _! appeal1 sett+ up 9 opposition to ! conv5tions & worldl9ess ( ! ,*ur* 9 _! times ! spirituality & simplicity ( ! apo/olic age1 j z ,goe! & ,less+ turn$ m5's m9ds f :at 0 contr>y to reason & good ta/e 9 _! surr\nd+s to ,greek beauty & simplicity4 ,& h[ev] "s ( ! foll[]s ( ,wesley & ,fox may h gone beyond due b\nds t[>ds fanaticism1 yet 9 e bran* ( ! ,*ri/ian ,society ! influ5ce ( ^? mod]n prophets has be5 r5ovat+ & purify+1 j z ! s*ools ( critics :i* foll[$ ,goe! t5d$ greatly to increase among u sweetness & light4 ,9 our s*ools & colleges1 until q lately1 ! religion ( ! ,new ,te/am5t & ! tradition ( ! ,greek & ,roman ,classics h gone toge!r1 ! "o pres]v+ u f sup]/ition & mat]ialism 9 religion1 ! o!r mak+ w> ^u ! inh]it$ b>b>isms & brutalities :i* we h f our n v di/ant ance/ors4 ,! _s ( an>*y 9 religion w\ld p]suade u t !re is no div9e sanction = goodness & no et]nal /amp on vice1 t morality is a matt] ( conv5tion :i* e society & e nation has a "r to inv]t if x judges su* inv]sion 9 ! l9e ( its int]e/s4 ,! _s ( an>*y 9 art proclaims t all ! works ( nature are equally beautiful or equally ugly1 t no?+ :i* exi/s is unfit to be repres5t$ 9 our gall]ies & public places1 t s long z a picture or a /atue ar\ses a s5tim5t x does n matt] :e!r ! s5tim5t be "o ( delight & aspiration or "o ( horror4 ,if once ! idea ( beauty z ! end to be aim$ at be expell$ f art1 art s9ks l a /one to ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,"s p are ready to tol]ate any mon/rosity 9 art1 h[ev] remote f nature1 h[ev] (f5sive to dec5cy1 h[ev] repugnant to humanity4 ,! :ole arti/ic inh]itance ( ! race f ! day :5 m5 began to climb out ( b>b>ism is liable to be ?r[n away by an age :i* has unb\nd$ confid5ce 9 its own wisdom4 ,i %\ld1 h[ev]1 be sorry to /op at ?is po9t1 = ,i might leave on read]s ! impression t ,i am 9 fav\r ( ! m]e imitation ( works ( ,greek art4 ,t is by no means my view4 ,9 ! la/ c5tury sev]al sculptors1 ov]p[]$ by ! *>m ( ! antique1 produc$ /atues :i* closely foll[$ anci5t patt]ns1 su* z ! ,hope & ! ,hebe ( ,?orwalds51 "s ( ! /atues ( ,rau* & ,s*ad[1 & ! t9t$ ,v5us ( ,gibson4 ,su* works 7 necess>ily /illborn2 !y _h n 9 !m any brea? ( ! life ( a new age1 any attempt to con=m to *ang$ conditions4 ,v diff]5t 0 ! foll[+ ( ! antique by ,mi*elangelo4 ,he admir$ ) en?usiasm su* works ( ! ,greek *isel z he knew2 b he produc$ n dull & academic reflections ( !m1 b works ( ! mo/ spl5did orig9ality & ! greate/ *>m4 ,he imbib$ n ! lett] b ! _s ( ,greek art2 & ev5 succe$$ bett] ?an mo/ arti/s 9 comb9+ t _s ) a brea? ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! p>allel :i* ,i h drawn may be c>ri$ f>!r4 ,a rev]sion to ! lett] ( ! ,new ,te/am5t writ]s has be5 (t5 attempt$ by consid]able religi\s lead]s ( our "t1 especially ,tol/oi & ! ,quak]s4 ,!y h gone back to ! injunctions ( ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 & tri$ lit]ally to abide by !m4 ,b x has become app>5t to all b fanatics t su* proc$ure w\ld be fatal to civil gov]nm5t & civiliz$ life4 ,x is ! _s n ! lett] ( ! tea*+ ( ,jesus :i* is life-giv+4 ,9 j ! same way an acceptance ( ! m]e ext]nals ( ,greek art w\ld n help u at all2 b a revival ( its _s w\ld be a great inspiration to mod]n arti/s4 ,! lamps ( ,greek art w give light 9 any age4 ,greek idealism1 ,greek balance & measure1 ,greek love ( :at is natural & heal?ful1 ,greek simplicity & mod]ation are ( ! v ess5ce ( good art 9 all ages4 ,we c no m revive ! exact conditions "u :i* art arose ?an we c import into ,engl& ! cle> air1 ! bright sun1 ! cle>-cut %ad[s ( ! ,greek l&scape4 ,b we c /ill look up to ! philosophy1 ! poetry1 & ! art ( ,greece z classical1 z a revelation ( :at is mo/ pleas+ & mo/ endur+ 9 human nature4 ,& if we neglect !m & reject !m f ! education ( our *ildr51 we %all de/roy :at has be5 ev] s9ce ! ,r5aissance ! s\rce ( pure joy & ref9$ feel+ 9 ! majority ( cultur$ m52 we %all make a great gap :i* mat]ial prosp]ity1 a deep] k ( ! secrets ( nature1 ! inv5tion ( fre% modes ( amusem5t1 c nev] fill4 ,& if we tru/ m]ely to ! reflections ( ! ,greek _s 9 mod]n lit]ature & art1 we %all be act+ z ! ,roman ,*ur* 9 its d>k] ages has act$1 9 %utt+ away f ! p rec\rse to ! prim>y docum5ts ( religion1 & oblig+ !m to be cont5t ) su* int]pretations ( ^? docum5ts z ! rul+ hi]>*y judg$ to be useful4 ,we mu/ reta9 ! "r ( appeal to our classical examples1 :e!r 9 religion1 9 lit]ature1 or 9 art4 ,arnold 0 "r4 ,! ,bible1 ,hom]1 ,%akespe>e1 ,greek art rema9 ! />s by :i* we may direct our c\rse ov] /ormy seas4 ,p4 ,,g>dn]4 ,,ar*itecture ,nobody has ev] disput$ ! beauty ( ,greek ,ar*itecture4 ,we recognize ! ju/ice ( a description ( ! ,p>!non z 'le suprme ef=t du gnie la p\rsuite du beau'2 b ! layman mu/ sometimes ask himself :at does x mean8 ,:]e did x come f1 :]e did x g to1 :y is x ?\ght s beautiful1 h[ 0 x t ?is p relatively insignificant 9 p[]1 9 t]ritory1 & 9 numb]s1 0 able to atta9 to ?is a/oni%+ supremacy 9 art8 ,^! are que/ions n easily answ]$4 ,! evid5ce is fragm5t>y & n always conclusive1 ! ru9s ( a few temples & build+s1 a te*nical treatise by a g>rul\s ?ird-rate writ] 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,a4 ,d41#abe ! anecdotes ( an indefatigable collector#abf a little lat]1 ! notes ( a travell] 9 ! second c5tury1#abg & ! mat]ials collect$ by ! pati5t rese>* ( s*ol>s & ar*aeologi/s1 piec$ toge!r on m or less +5i\s hypo!ses4 ,inde$1 a great "p ( :at is writt5 on ,greek ,ar*itecture is simply hypo!sis4 ,!re is n mu* to g on1 yet ,greek ,ar*itecture 7& by ?is ,i mean ! ar*itecture ( ! six? & fif? c5turies ,b4 ,c47 rema9s "o ( ! great out/&+ facts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,ar*itecture ( ! ,we/]n _w1 & ! ,art ( ! age ( ,p]icles is ! f\nta9-head to :i* arti/s /ill return4 #abe ,vitruvius1 ,de ,ar*itectura4 #abf ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 ,hi/oria ,naturalis1 xxxvi4 #abg ,pausanias1 ,hellados ,p]igsis4 ,:]e t art sprang f1 & h[ x grew1 is l>gely a matt] ( speculation4 ,!re h be5 leg5ds ( civilizations wip$ out 9 trem5d\s cataclysms t left no trace beh9d !m4 ,vague sugge/ions are made t ! cradle ( ! race 0 9 ,asia4 ,all we "k = c]ta9 is t ! e>lie/ civilizations ( :i* actual hi/orical evid5ce rema9s are ^? ( ,*aldea & ,egypt1 & t ! art ( ^! c\ntries rea*$ a high degree ( atta9m5t long be=e we come ^u ! e>lie/ traces ( art ( any sort 9 ,greece4 ,t bo? ^! c\ntries contribut$ 9 v>y+ degrees to ! art ( ,greece is c]ta91 b t is n ! :ole ( ! /ory4 ,z we %all see1 ano!r elem5t comes into play1 :i* made ( t art almo/ a new creation1 diff]+ 9 outlook & ideal f any art t prec$$ x1 /amp$ by ! g5ius ( a vigor\s nor!rn race ) a "* all its own4 ,! art ( ! ,ea/ & ! art ( ! ,we/ nev] really fus$4 ,!re is a diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 ! joy\s vitality ( pure ,greek art1 & ! gloomy vision ( ,asia1 ) its crav+ = ! va/ & t]rible1 its sombre imag9ation1 its lack ( humanity & indiff]5ce to ! individual4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 till f> d[n 9 ! progress ( hi/ory t ?is diff]5tiation ass]ts itself4 ,greek art is relatively a late developm5t4 ,! ,great ,pyramid at ,ghizeh 0 built "s #b1jjj ye>s be=e a /one 0 laid ( ! masonry ( ,myc5ae4 ,! ,hall ( ,columns ( ,k>nak1 ) its columns sixty feet high1 0 probably coeval ) ! ,treasury ( ,atreus3 9 o!r words1 :5 ! art ( ,greece & ( ! isl&s 0 sc>cely out ( ! b>b>ic /age1 a wond]ful art _h be5 9 exi/5ce across ! ,m$it]ranean f "t immemorial4 ,bo? ,egypt & ,*aldea atta9$ a high degree ( civilization long be=e ! ,dorians 7 ev] he>d (4 ,at "s remote p]iod ! ,egyptian influ5ce p5etrat$ to ,crete & ,cyprus1 ! isl&s ( ! ,aegean1 & ! ma9l& ( ,greece2 & ! int]m$i>ies 7 ! ,pho5icians1 t ent]pris+ race ( m]*ant adv5tur]s1 ^: home 0 9 ,syria1 & ^: fleets trav]s$ ! ,m$it]ranean f ,ea/ to ,we/4 ,! ,pho5icians 7 trad]s & n arti/s4 ,9 ,egypt !y came into contact ) a highly develop$ art1 beyond _! compreh5sion 9 its ess5tial features1 yet includ+ details :i* c\ld easily be appreh5d$ by _! quick comm]cial intellig5ce4 ,:]ev] !y t\*$ on _! voyages1 ,cyprus1 ,crete1 ! s\!rn isl&s ( ! ,aegean1 ! ma9l& ( ,greece1 ! s\? ( ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,c>?age1 ! ,bale>ic isl&s1 ,spa9 9 ! f> we/1 !y probably c>ri$ ) !m1 = trad+ purposes1 m9or articles ( ,egyptian workman%ip :i* may h suppli$ h9ts to ! indig5\s peoples4 ,:]e !y e/abli%$ settlem5ts1 !y reproduc$ :at !y c\ld recollect ( ! me?ods ( ,egyptian ar*itecture1 possess+ at second-h& a k ( te*nical me?ods 9 advance ( any?+ )9 ! k ( ! p among :om !y settl$4 ,rudim5t>y anticipations ( ! ,ionic volute are f\nd 9 ,pho5ician capitals1 vague rem9isc5ces ( :at ! trad]s _h se5 9 ,egypt & else:]e4 ,moreov]1 ! ,pho5icians1 :o possess$ ! skill ( sailors 9 ! use ( tackle1 w\ld h _h little difficulty 9 h&l+ l>ge /ones set dry 9 m or less regul> c\rses1 :i* 0 a *>act]i/ic feature ( ,cretan & ,myc5aean build+4 ,x is too soon to describe ! "w z ar*itecture4 ,x is d\btful if ! ,pho5icians possess$ any aptitude = ! arts4 ,_! rle 0 t ( int]m$i>ies only4 ,obscure z 0 ! "p play$ by ! ,pho5icians 9 ! e>ly orig9s ( art 9 ,greece & ! isl&s1 !re 0 ano!r *annel ?r\gh :i* ,ea/]n influ5ces came to be> on its developm5t1 :i* is ev5 m unc]ta94 ,to ! we/ ( ,*aldea & nor? ( ,syria1 dwelt a race ( :i* little is kn[n1 ! ,hittites4 ,c>*emi%1 _! capital1 0 on ! upp] ,euphrates1 nor?-ea/ ( ,antio*1 & _! p[] appe>s to h ext5d$ we/w>d ?r\gh ,asia ,m9or to ! %ores ( ! ,aegean4 ,dr4 ,sayce says t 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 x ext5d$ f '! banks ( ! ,euphrates to ! %ores ( ! ,aegean1 includ+ bo? ! cultur$ ,semites ( ,syria & ! rude b>b>ians ( ! ,greek ,seas'1 he ev5 says t ! ,hittites 'br\ght ! civilization ( ! ,ea/ to ! b>b>\s tribes ( ! di/ant ,we/'4 ,:at actually rema9s ( ,hittite art h>dly be>s out ?is /atem5t4 ,:5 ! ,hittite p[] 0 at its height1 ,m9oan 'art' _h long be5 practis$ 9 ,crete1 & accord+ to ! mo/ popul> *ronology1 _h already pass$ its prime & giv5 way to ! art ( ,myc5ae & ,tiryns4 ,! scanty evid5ce ( ,hittite art consi/s ( bas-reliefs ( figures & animals cut on ! face ( rocks along ! natural c>avan r\tes ?r\gh ,asia ,m9or f ,ea/ to ,we/4 ,?is & ! evid5ce ( seals & engrav$ gems %[ t ,hittite art 0 d]iv$ fir/ f ,*aldea1 lat] f ,egypt4 ,x und\bt$ly ex]cis$ "s influ5ce on ! art ( ! e>ly ,greek settl]s on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,aegean1 & gave x an ,asiatic ca/1 :i* x nev] lo/ ?r\gh\t all its lat] developm5ts4 ,= ! ,greeks ( ,asia ,m9or nev] really und]/ood ! au/]e ideal ( ,doric art4 ,ionian art cross$ we/w>d to ,greece1 b ! ,dorian nev] w5t ea/4 ,x 0 ! art ( a /rong nor!rn race1 t f\nd no place = itself among ! s(t] peoples ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,at ?is po9t we c take up ! fir/ rudim5t>y beg9n+s ( ,greek art4 ,! discov]ies ( ! la/ =ty ye>s h prov$ ! exi/5ce 9 ,crete & ,cyprus1 ,s\!rn ,greece1 & ! isl&s ( ! ,aegean1 ( an ar*aic art ( obscure orig91 ( v great int]e/1 & ( rem>kable atta9m5t 9 c]ta9 directions1 long be=e ! e>lie/ beg9n+s ( :at we mean :5 we speak ( ,greek ar*itecture4 ,s f> z ar*itecture is conc]n$1 ?is ar*aic art is ( relatively m9or importance4 ,x plays a small "p1 if any1 9 subsequ5t developm5ts1 & ?\gh en?usia/ic explor]s claim to f9d 9 x anticipations ( ! details ( mod]n dome/ic ar*itecture1 ! evid5ce produc$ is unconv9c+4 ,great movem5ts 9 ! arts always owe "s debt to ! p]iods t h prec$$ !m1 b ,m9oan & ,myc5aean art1 at any rate 9 reg>d to ar*itecture1 0 r ! la/ ^w ( a decay+ civilization ?an ! fir/ h]ald ( ! glori\s art ( ,greece 9 ! six? & fif? c5turies ,b4 ,c4 ,we are /ill f> back 9 remote ages1 remote t is s f> z ,greek art is conc]n$1 any:]e betwe5 #bjjj & #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 or ev5 e>li]1#abh back 9 ! ,m9oan age ( ,crete ) its rudim5t>y ar*itecture1 & its relatively high excell5ce 9 ! crafts1 & 9 ! age ( ,myc5ae & ,tiryns1 ! age t produc$ ! ,lion ,gate at ,myc5ae1 & t /range half-b>b>ic "w1 if ,i may be p>don$ ! t]m1 ! ,treasury ( ,atreus4 ,x is wor? paus+ to consid] ^! ar*aic build+s1 n s mu* to %[ a relation%ip to lat] "w 7:i* sc>cely exi/$71 z to call att5tion to ! fact t ! ,m9oan & ,myc5aean build]s 7 mov+ unconsci\sly 9 a direction t w\ld nev] h l$ to ! column & l9tel ar*itecture ( ! sev5? & six? c5turies ,b4 ,c4 ,x might h l$ to "s =m ( dome con/ruction1 x c\ld nev] h l$ to ! ,doric ( ! ,sicilian temples4 ,no /rong] evid5ce ( ! g5ius ( ! ,dorian invad]s c\ld be produc$ ?an t1 ) ?is unpromis+ art 9 possession1 !y 7 yet able 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree or f\r c5turies to create ,greek ar*itecture4 ,! design ( ! ,lion ,gate is a /range jumble ( ill-adju/$ motives4 ,x is set 9 a wall ( great /ones r\ghly squ>$ & laid dry4 ,two monoli? jambs support a huge l9tel1 camb]$ 9 ! middle l ! tie-beams ( our sixte5?-c5tury ro(s4 ,above ! l9tel ! c\rses are ga!r$ ov]1 leav+ betwe5 _! l[] faces & ! top ( ! l9tel a triangul> space ( a /eep pit* 7ab\t #fj71 9 :i* 0 ins]t$ a frontispiece c>v$ on a s+le /one repres5t+ two lions /&+ up on ei!r side ( an ar*aic column support+ a fragm5t ( a rudim5t>y ar*itrave4#abi ,! h]aldic pose ( ! lions & ! te*nique ( _! sculpture1 s sugge/ive ( ,assyrian reliefs ) _! spl5did s5se ( muscul> =m & en]gy1 are f> ahead ( an ar*itecture t is /ill b>b>ic1 sc>cely ar*itecture at all4 ,!re is "h no?+ to sugge/ ! ,doric ( ,pae/um & ,sel9us1 mu* to recall ! megali?ic build+s ( ,syria1 & ! sculpture ( ! f>!r ,ea/4 #abh ,sir ,ar?ur ,evans has drawn up an +5i\s *ronology ( ,e>ly ,m9oan 7#bhjj-bbjj ,b4 ,c471 ,middle ,m9oan 7#bbjj-agjj ,b4 ,c471 & ,late ,m9oan 7#agjj-abjj ,b4 ,c474 ,! evid5ce is almo/ entirely t ( pott]y discov]$ on ! site4 ,! :ole "q ( ! relations ( ,m9oan to ,myc5aean art1 & ( ?is ar*aic art to ! e>li] civilizations ( ,egypt & ,*aldea1 is v obscure & unc]ta94 #abi ,! h]aldic treatm5t ( ! lions is ( ,ea/]n orig94 ,! ,greeks _h a tradition t ! *iefta9s ( ,myc5ae came f ,lydia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,lion ,,gate1 ,,myc5ae ,! ,treasury ( ,atreus is /ill m rem>kable1 n only because x %[s m skill 9 build+1 b because its design is bas$ on a /ructural motive :i* seems to h be5 :olly ab&on$ by ! successors ( ! ,myc5aean build]s4 ,! ,treasury ( ,atreus 7or ,tomb ( ,agamemnon7 0 excavat$ 9 a hill1 & consi/s ( a long passage ab\t #abj ft4 by #ba ft4 wide1 ) reta9+ walls ( megali?ic masonry on ei!r side1 t]m9at+ 9 a great entrance doorway4 ,?is doorway is flank$ on ei!r side by columns tap]+ d[nw>ds1 & decorat$ ) *evrons 9 a mann] v simil> to ,norman "w ( ! elev5? c5tury1 & app>5tly int5d$ solely = ornam5t4#acj ,! entrance op5$ into a circul> dom$ *amb] ab\t #dh ft4 #f 94 9 diamet]1 #de ft4 #d 94 high1 out ( :i* op5$ ano!r small] *amb]4 ,! dome1 9 section1 is built on ! curve ( a p>abola1 =m$ ) c\rses project+ ov] "o ano!r1 & n set out radial to ! curve ( ! dome--9 o!r words x is n a true dome or ar*1 b a succession ( corbels4 ,! int]nal face ( ! dome is dress$ d[n1 & 0 cov]$ ) ornam5t ( "s sort1 :e!r metal rosettes1 or enamell$ t]ra-cotta1 or :olly 9 metal1 possibly ! fam\s gold ( ,myc5ae1 is n kn[n4 ,! :ole ( ?is *amb] 0 cov]$ 9 ) a m\nd ( e>?1 9 accordance ) ! primitive cu/om ( conceal+ ! *iefta9's grave4 ,x is impossible to f9d1 9 ?is extremely int]e/+ monum5t or 9 ! dom$ *amb] ( ,or*om5os 9 ,boeotia1 any trace ( future developm5ts 9 ,greek ar*itecture4 ,bo? 9 int5tion & 9 its psy*ological backgr\nd x seems almo/ z remote f ! ,doric ,temple z ! ,great ,pyramid itself4 ,9 po9t ( fact ar*itecture 0 /ill 9 a rudim5t>y /age4 ,x has be5 prov$ abundantly t ,ar*itecture comes late 9 ! sequ5ce ( ! ,arts4 ,p c\ld draw well1 long be=e !y c\ld design4 ,among ! cavem51 = example1 !re 7 admirable draughtsm51 b !y _h to make _! draw+s on ! sides ( caves4 ,t !re exi/$ 9 ! ,m9oan & ,myc5aean ages skilful pott]s & metal-work]s1 is %[n by ! vases ( ,knossos & ! gold cups f\nd at ,vaphio ne> ,sp>ta2 t !y built habitable build+s & decorat$ !m to ! be/ ( _! ability is also prov$1 z1 = example1 ! palace ( ,tiryns1 b x has n yet be5 %[n t _! build]s rea*$ ! degree ( skill$ design1 at :i* build+ becomes ar*itecture4 ,ar*itecture _h n yet f\nd itself 9 ,greece4 #acj ,portions ( ^! columns are n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,!n some:]e ab\t #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 came ! ,dorian invasions1 & ! art ( ,crete & ,myc5ae vani%$ into space--possibly ! leg5d 0 "r :i* said t ! conqu]$ p ( ! ma9l& c>ri$ x away ) !m to ,asia4 ,anyh[1 ! ?ree or f\r c5turies foll[+ ! ,dorian invasions are a blank :i* future rese>* may fill out = u1 & s f> z art is conc]n$1 !re appe>s to h be5 a dt5te1 dur+ :i* ! new race 0 settl+ d[n to its conque/1 f9d+ itself1 & assimilat+ some?+ at any rate ( ! old] civilization4 ,! survival ( su* build+s z ! ,treasury ( ,atreus %[ t ! ,dorians 7 n simple b>b>ians1 de/roy+ all t came 9 _! way4 ,ev5 ,sp>ta 9 its e>li] days 0 n a m]e milit>y ma*9e4 ,discov]ies made 9 #aijf-i sugge/ t f ! n9? to ! sev5? c5turies ,b4 ,c4 ,sp>ta _h "s sort ( an art ( its own %[+ traces ( ,asiatic influ5ce 9 its pott]y--a little lat] ,sp>ta conclud$ an alliance ) ,croesus1 ,k+ ( ,lydia1 & ,ba?ycles1 an arti/ ( ,magnesia 9 ,ionia1 0 treat$ ) hon\r 9 ,sp>ta4 ,! ,dorians 7 some?+ m ?an fight]s1 !y seem to h possess$ "s sort ( civilization1 & to h be5 end[$ ) a natural capacity = ! arts1 :i* aft] two or ?ree c5turies ( exp]im5t w f9d its own spl5did expression )9 v def9ite & orig9al l9es4 ,! leg5d ( ! return ( ! ,h]acleidae 0 to be ju/ifi$ by _! lat] hi/ory4 ,no m]ely imitative race c\ld h evolv$ ! p]fect mann] ( ! great ,doric temples f ! scraps ( ,egypt & ! ,ea/1 & ! rudim5t>y build+s ( ,crete & ,myc5ae4 ,greek ar*itecture = ! purpose ( ?is /udy is ,dorian ar*itecture1 & its elem5ts are simple4 ,x 0 evolv$ 9 ! design ( _! temples1 & ) ! exception ( _! !atres x 0 summ$ up 9 ^! temples4 ,f ! p]iod dur+ :i* ,greek ar*itecture 0 be+ built up to its maturity1 say f ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 to ! completion ( ! ,p>!non 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 ! :ole life ( ! ,greek 0 col\r$ & dom9at$ by 8 religion & its obs]vances2 & 8 religion 0 n ! s9i/] my/]y ( ,egypt1 b on ! :ole a *e]ful op5-air ,pan!ism t glori$ 9 ! life & beauty ( ! visible _w 9 :i* he liv$4 ,he himself 0 cont5t to live 9 a poor h\se1 s long z he _h 8 m>ket-place1 8 c]emonial !atre1 & ! glori\s temples ( 8 ,gods4 ,moreov]1 to :atev] dep?s ! ,a!nians may h sunk 9 ! "t ( ,/4 ,paul1 9 ! h]oic days ( ,p]icles !y 7 rem>kable = con/ancy ( purpose & ! /eadfa/ness ( _! ideals4 ,!y /ood on ! anci5t ways1 & x nev] occurr$ to !m to ab&on ! tradition ( _! fa!rs1 _! bus9ess 0 to c>ry x =w>d to p]fection4 ,! result 0 t ! ar*itecture ( _! temples proce$$ on l9es t long use _h made sacrosanct2 & its te*nique is summ$ up 9 ! hi/ory ( two ord]s1 ! ,doric & ! ,ionic4#aca #aca ,! ord]1 ,i may say = ! un9itiat$1 means ! complete ordonnance ( ! column1 ! ar*itrave re/+ imm$iately on its capital1 ! frieze & ! cornice4 ,x is ! f9al expression ( ! simple device ( ! po/ & l9tel1 ( ! beam re/+ on ! heads ( two or m po/s2 & !re is little d\bt t 9 its ultimate orig91 ! ,ord] is ! translation into /one ( ! details ( a rudim5t>y wood5 con/ruction4 ,n[1 ! ord]1 its "*1 dim5sions & disposition1 ) ! wall ( ! ,cella 7or enclos$ %r9e7 )9 ! colonnade1 summ$ up ! elem5ts1 ! vocabul>y1 if "o may s put x1 ( ,greek ar*itecture2 & we come "h at ! outset on a curi\s quality ( ! ,greek g5ius1 & "o t diff]5tiates x f ! ,roman4 ,! prop]ties ( wood & /one z mat]ials are cle>ly diff]5t1 ?+s c be done ) ! "o :i* are impossible ) ! o!r2 b ! ,greeks ei!r did n realize ?is or did n tr\ble _! heads ab\t x4 ,!y f\nd t ! po/ & l9tel 0 a simple means ( build+1 & !y adopt$ x z _! p]man5t me?od ( con/ruction4 ,if ! span became too wide1 !y ?ick5$ ! po/s 7! columns ( ,pae/um are #g ft4 9 diamet]7 & increas$ ! /r5g? ( ! beam 7! ar*itrave74 ,h5ce ! va/ solidity ( ! ,doric ord] ( ! temples ( ,sicily & ,magna ,graecia4 ,! ,greek 0 incuri\s ab\t con/ruction qua con/ruction4 ,he f\nd1 9 ! column & ! l9tel1 means p]fectly adequate to realize 8 ideal ( high unalt]able beauty1 & he 0 cont5t4 ,! ,romans1 :o = a "t 7 satisfi$ ) ^! simple me?ods1 became impati5t ( ! con/ructive limitation ( ! po/ & l9tel4 ,!y want$ to cov] 9 great spaces1 & to leave ! floor un5cumb]$2 & conc5trat+ on ?is !y arriv$ at ! ar*1 ! vault1 & ! dome1 & s became ! greate/ build]s ( ! _w4 ,to !m1 ! ord]s 7 a m]e appanage ( decoration1 :i* !y nev] prop]ly appreciat$1 ( :i* !y mi/ook ! int5tion1 adopt$ ! wor/ elem5ts1 & (t5 en\gh made a gross misuse4 ,! ,greeks took ano!r l9e4 ,!y adopt$ ! column & l9tel once = all z ! only possible me?od ( con/ruction1 & devot$ all _! lab\rs to ! incessant ref9em5t ( ?is type1 elim9at+ ! uness5tial1 arriv+ by con/ant selection at ! mo/ p]fect expression ( _! purpose1 & _! purpose 0 n t ( ! ,roman & ! mod]n ar*itect1 ma9ly utilit>ian1 x 0 direct$ entirely to ! ae/hetic appeal1 ! appeal to ! emotions ?r\gh beauty ( l9e1 ( =m1 & 9 a less degree ( col\r4 ',! :ole fabric ( ,greek art goes to pieces :5 x is br\ght into contact ) a purely utilit>ian nation l ,rome4'#acb #acb ,hell5i/ic ,sculpture1 by ,guy ,dick9s1 p4 #he4 ,! au?or1 :o wrote ) some?+ ( ! insight ( ! arti/ z well z ! accurate k ( ! s*ol>1 di$ ( w\nds1 on ! ,somme1 9 #aiaf4 ,( ! two ord]s1 ! ,doric & ! ,ionic1 ! ,doric seems to me ! pure/ embodim5t ( ! true ,greek _s1 9 its faultless =m1 & its au/]e re/ra9t & rejection ( ! uness5tial4 ,x 01 moreov]1 ! ord] p> excell5ce ( ! ,greek temple ( ! ma9l&4 ,! ,ere*!um 0 ! only ,ionic temple ( fir/-rate importance 9 ,greece1 & ! employm5t ( ! ,ionic ord] 9 ,greece 0 conf9$ to int]iors & m9or build+s4 ,z = ! ,cor9?ian ord]1 ! fav\rite ord] ( ! ,romans1 x 0 sc>cely recogniz$ by ! ,greeks4 ,9 all _! great temples1 9 ,greece1 9 ,sicily1 & ,magna ,graecia1 !y us$ ! ,doric ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,temple ,,( ,,neptune ,,at ,,pae/um ,h[ ?is ord] 0 arriv$ at we d n really "k4 ,+5i\s conjectures h be5 made z to its orig9 9 wood5 con/ruction1 & ?\gh "s ( ^! conjectures are m probable ?an o!rs !y leave u pretty well :]e we 7 9 reg>d to ! /ages by :i* x rea*$ its f9al =m4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! ,doric column orig9at$ 9 ! wood5 po/ ( ! e>lie/ temples1 su* z are suppos$ to h exi/$ 9 ! ,h]aion at ,olympia4 ,! squ>e po/ w\ld h its angles tak5 (f1 & become an octagon1 & ! fur!r elim9ation ( ! angles w\ld gradually produce a =m ne>ly circul> 9 plan1 9 :i* ! arrises ( ! *amf]$ angles w\ld rema91 & ?is might easily sugge/ to arti/s s s5sitive z ! ,greeks1 _! fur!r ref9em5t & def9ition by a slight holl[ betwe5 ! arrises :i* w\ld con/itute ! flut+s ( ! ,doric column4 ,its d]ivations f ! ,m9oan & ,myc5aean columns seems mo/ improbable4 ,!re are two ess5tial p>ts 9 ! ,doric column1 ! %aft & ! capital 7! ,greeks did n use any base = ?is ord]74 ,! ,m9oan columns tap] d[nw>ds in/ead ( upw>ds1 an utt]ly uncon/ructional =m1 & ?\gh 9 ! palace ( ,knossos & at ,tiryns columns ( ?is %ape appe> to h be5 us$ to c>ry l9tels1 ! /one columns on ei!r side ( ! entrance to ! ,treasury ( ,atreus at ,myc5ae 7 us$ = decorative & n = /ructural purposes4 ,on ! o!r h& columns ( great massiv5ess tap]+ upw>ds _h be5 us$ long be=e 9 ,egypt2 & ?\gh !re is evid5ce aga9/ x1 x /ill seems probable t ! sugge/ion ( ! %aft ( ! ,doric column may h come f ,egypt4 ,we fir/ f9d x 9 ,greece 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 at ! p]iod :5 ,psammeti*us ,i 7#fga-fag ,b4 ,c47 op5$ ,egypt to ,greek trade & settlem5t4 ,! ,greek colony ( ,naukratis on ! we/ side ( ! ,nile delta 0 f\nd$ by ,milesians ab\t #fej ,b4 ,c4 & by ! middle ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 def9ite trade relations 7 e/abli%$ betwe5 ,naukratis & ! ma9l& ( ,greece4 ,! ,greek settlem5t at ,daphnae on ! ea/]n arm ( ! ,nile appe>s to h be5 f\nd$ at ab\t ! same "t z ,naukratis1 9 bo? cases ) ! sanction & enc\ragem5t ( ! ,egyptian k+4 ,! e>lie/ ,doric temples 9 ,greece1 ,sicily1 & ,magna ,graecia date f ! end ( ! sev5? c5tury & e>ly "p ( ! six? c5tury4 ,! ne>ness ( date makes x probable t ! %aft ( ! ,doric ord] _h its orig9 9 ! ,egyptian column se5 by "s quick-witt$ ,greek :5 trad+ 9 ,egypt4 ,:5 we come to ! capital ( ! column1 ! rles seem to be rev]s$1 = we f9d no?+ 9 ,egyptian ar*itecture to sugge/ ! e*9us m\ld+ "u ! squ>e abacus ( ! ,doric column2 :]eas ! ,myc5aean column _h a rudim5t>y capital :i* may h sugge/$ ! idea ( ! ,doric capital4 ,b ! notable ?+ ab\t x is t :5 we fir/ come across ! ,doric capital 9 ,sicily & ,greece1 x is already f> 9 advance ( any?+ t _h gone be=e x 9 ,greece1 & x is q diff]5t f ! columns ( ,egypt4 ,9 ! ,doric temple ( ,cor9? 7#fej-fjj ,b4 ,c47 ! columns h already rea*$ ! type =m1 ! tap]$ %aft ) its entasis or slight convex curvature 9 outl9e1 its massive solidity 7! ratio is "o ( diamet] to f\r & a qu>t] ( height71 & ! bold p>abolic curve ( ! e*9us m\ld+ "u ! abacus ( its cap4 ,9 ?is =m1 ! ,doric column 0 an absolutely fre% note 9 ar*itecture4 ,ar*aic ?\gh !y 71 ^! columns at ,cor9? %[ t ! ,greeks 7 already on ! track ( ^? ref9em5ts ( =m1 ^? optical corrections & comp5sations1 :i* diff]5tiate ,greek ar*itecture f t ( any o!r race4 ,! exagg]ation 9 ! entasis ( ! ar*aic column disappe>s1 its tap]+ 0 dim9i%$1 its height increas$1 & ! ov]hang ( ! capitals r$uc$1 till 9 ! ,!seion 7#dfe ,b4 ,c47 & ! ,p>!non 7#dej-dch ,b4 ,c47 we rea* ! f9al inimitable type4 ,! column1 :i* at ,pae/um 0 n mu* ov] f\r times ! height ( its correct diamet]1 is n[ ov] five times1 ! great ov]hang+ capitals are r$uc$ to reasonable dim5sions1 ! dep? ( ! entablature is dim9i%$1 ! axis ( ! column is slightly incl9$ inw>ds to give ! impression ( /ability1 ! %afts h ! slight curve or 'entasis' j suffici5tly m>k$ to prev5t ! outl9e ( ! column look+ incurv$2 ! l9es ( ! /ylobate1 or cont9u\s base1 on :i* ! columns /&1 & ! entablature :i* !y c>ry1 h a slight rise t[>d ! c5tre 9 ord] to correct ! impression ( ! l9es s9k+ 9 ! middle2 ! columns at ! angles are ?ick5$1 because /&+ free ) ! light all r\nd !m !y w\ld o!rwise appe> small] ?an ! columns /&+ aga9/ ! backgr\nd ( ! build+4 ,no?+ 0 left to *ance2 e aspect ( ! build+1 ! relation ( e "p to ! :ole1 & ( ! :ole to its "p1 0 /udi$ pr(\ndly1 s t !re %\ld be no failure 9 its p]fect h>mony4 ,except 9 ,egyptian ar*itecture1 & !re to a mu* small] ext5t1 no?+ l ?is _h be5 done be=e4 ,:at ! ,greeks did1 0 to =mulate a rhy?mical ar*itecture1 9 :i* ea* "p /ood 9 a def9ite & consid]$ relation to ! :ole1 s t ev5 9 _! ru9$ /ate ^! ,doric temples give an irresi/ible impression ( a great idea1 a great ar*itectural epic1 9 :i* ea* detail1 h[ev] beautiful1 0 subord9at$ to ! unity ( ! conception z a :ole4 ,x is ?is ab/ract quality :i* lifts ,greek ,doric s f> above ! ambiti\s art ( lat] ages1 & inde$ above all b ! v f9e/ "w ( any p]iod ( ar*itecture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,,doric ,,temple1 ,,cor9? ,_m attempts h be5 made to discov] ! secret ( ?is wond]ful p]fection ( proportion4 ,t ! ,greeks _h a sy/em ( _! own1 t !y work$ to def9ite ratios ( dim5sion & numb]1 & employ$ graphic me?ods ( det]m9+ _! proportions1 su* z ! use ( triangles & ! l to det]m9e ! limits ( _! designs1 seems c]ta94 ,b no contempor>y acc\nt ( any su* sy/em rema9s2 & all ! explanations t are giv5 are ex po/ facto1 made by !ori/s analys+ exi/+ build+s1 n by ar*itects design+ new ones4 ,"s f\r or five hundr$ ye>s lat] ,vitruvius compil$ a treatise on ar*itecture1 9 :i*1 foll[+ ! doctr9es ( ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 he exp\nd$ a ,greek !ory ( proportion on ! basis ( ! human figure4 ,vitruvius is obscure1 & does n seem to h be5 c]ta9 himself :e!r ! proportion ( ! p>ts ( a design 7 to be> a relation to ! :ole1 analog\s to t ( memb]s ( a human body to ! body z a :ole1 or :e!r ! proportions ( ! ord] 7 to be tak5 f ! actual proportions ( ! human body2 & he complicates ! position by ref]5ce to ! 'p]fect numb]s' ( ! ,greeks4 ,b "h aga9 he 0 unc]ta9 :e!r ! 'p]fect numb]' 0 t5 or six4 ,aft] :i*1 & hav+1 9 8 ref]5ce to ! human figure z ! canon ( proportion1 unwitt+ly set a trap = ! s*ol>s & arti/s ( ! ,r5aissance1 he drops ! subject & digresses into a g5]al classification ( temples1 ) =mal rules = ! plac+ & dim5sions ( columns1 :i* h =m$ ! /aple ( treatises on classical ar*itecture ev] s9ce4 ,"o %\ld speak ) gratitude ( ! lab\rs ( ,vitruvius1 because1 aft] all1 8 is ! only te*nical treatise left u on ! subject2 b he appli$ to ! pure ,greek temples a sy/em evolv$ c5turies lat] by critics & !ori/s2 he 0 ?9k+ *iefly ( ,roman v]sions ( ,greek ar*itecture1 & he 0 m int]e/$ 9 te*nical rules & precepts = ! use ( ar*itects ?an 9 t ab/ract beauty :i* 0 all ! ,greek c>$ =4 ,no classification1 h[ev] labori\s1 w rea* ! my/]y ( ,greek ar*itecture4 ,its beauty is too subtle to be r$uc$ to any =mula4 ,! ,doric ord] reign$ supreme ?r\gh\t ! great p]iod f ! six? till ! end ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,x fail$ ) ! failure ( ! high ideals ( ,a!ns4 ,o!r =ces came into play to :i* x no long] respond$1 & lat] ,greek critics ev5 f\nd fault ) ! ,doric ord] = c]ta9 'm5dosae et inconv5i5tes symmetriae'2#acc b t ord]1 ! true symbol ( ! sons ( ,h]acles1 0 "o ( ! mo/ mom5t\s contributions ev] made to ! art ( ar*itecture4 ,x 0 ! keynote ( ,greek ar*itecture ?r\gh\t its f9e/ p]iod4 ,lat] x 0 sup]s$$ by ! ,ionic ord]1 & :5 ,rome became p>am\nt 9 ! we/]n _w1 t1 9 its turn1 yield$ its place ( pride to ! ,cor9?ian ord]1 opul5t1 luxuri\s1 a little vulg>1 a true regi/] ( ! l[]+ ( ! s5se & /&>d ( beauty t foll[$ ! d[nfall ( ,a!ns4 #acc ,vitruvius1 iii4 #a4 ,! difficulty 01 t if ! triglyph 0 plac$ on ! angle ( ! build+ 7! practice ( ! ,greeks7 & ! next triglyph 0 plac$ ov] ! axis ( ! column1 ! metope 7or panel7 betwe5 ^! two triglyphs w\ld be l>g] ?an ! metopes betwe5 ! triglyphs axial ov] ! o!r columns4 ,! ,greeks solv$ x by r$uc+ ! wid? ( ! end int]columniation1 b lat] critics dislik$ ?is1 & solv$ x by remov+ ! end triglyph f ! angle & plac+ x axial ov] ! end column4 ,mean:ile1 on ! o!r side ( ! ,aegean1 ! ,ionic ord] 0 rea*+ its p]fect =m ?r\gh a simil> process ( sy/ematic ?\ght on a type def9itely adopt$4 ,! ,greek colonies 9 ,asia ,m9or 7 ( v e>ly orig94 ,leg5d attribut$ _! f\ndation to ! e>li] inhabitants ( ,greece1 driv5 out by ! ,dorians4 ,by ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ! ,greek colonies 7 well e/abli%$ on ! we/ & s\?-we/ coa/s ( ,asia ,m9or1 & _h evolv$ _! own *>act]i/ic ar*itectural idiom 9 ! ,ionic ord] & its column1 m sl5d] ?an ! ,doric1 ) its m\ld$ base & its /range *>act]i/ic capital1 unsuitable f ! con/ructional po9t ( view 9 /one or m>ble1 yet ultimately atta9+ ! exquisite beauty ( l9e & modell+ ( ! capitals ( ! ,ere*!ion at ,a!ns4 ,two ?+s seem fairly c]ta9 z to ! orig9 ( ?is capital2 fir/1 t x 0 d]iv$ f ! wood5 horizontal head-pieces fix$ on po/s to r$uce ! be>+ ( ! primitive wood5 l9tels2 &1 secondly1 t ! fir/ sugge/ion ( ! volute rea*$ ! ,ionian ,greeks f ! ,ea/4 ,a crude anticipation ( ! volute is f\nd 9 ,pho5ician "w1 & x also appe>s on a ,hittite relief at ,boghaz ,keui 9 ! middle ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,its orig9 9 ei!r case 0 ori5tal1 & we h "h ! o!r motive 9 ,greek ar*itecture1 ,ea/]n1 at any rate exotic1 &1 z comp>$ ) ,doric1 almo/ ali5 to ! true ,greek g5ius4 ,yet ?is a/oni%+ p gave x a =m z f> remov$ f its b>b>\s orig9als1 z ! ,doric capitals ( ! ,p>!non f ! capitals ( ! columns ( ,myc5ae1 & :5 ! ,greeks ( bo? sides ( ! ,aegean drew toge!r aft] ! defeat ( ! ,p]sians1 ! ,ionic ord] cross$ ! sea1 & assum$ a place ( hon\r 9 ! temples ( ,greece1 /ill1 h[ev]1 ) r>e exceptions1 9 subord9ation to ! ,doric ord]4 ,9 ! colonies 9 ,asia ,m9or1 ! supremacy ( ! ,ionic ord] _h long be5 recogniz$4 ,! ,ionic temple ( ,h]a at ,samos1 #cfh ft4 long by #agh ft4 wide1 is suppos$ to h be5 built at ! end ( ! six? or e>ly 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 & ?is 0 ! =]unn] ( ! great f\r?-c5tury temples ( ,ionia1 built :5 ,ar*itecture _h *ang$ its direction & ,hell5i/ic ,art 0 beg9n+ its adv5tur\s c>e]4 ,) ^! two ord]s z ! t]ms & idioms ( expression ! ,greeks built up ! ar*itecture ( _! temples4 ,_! plans 7 ! simple/ possible4 ,! rudim5t>y type 0 a simple *amb] or cella1 ) a loggia op5 to ! air except = two columns /&+ betwe5 ! two extremities ( ! side walls1 :i* t]m9at$ 9 pila/]s kn[n z 'antae'4#acd ,! next /age 0 to br+ ! colonnade =w>d1#ace /age numb] ?ree repeat$ ! column at ! o!r end ( ! build+1#acf /age numb] f\r cont9u$ ! colonnade along ! sides1#acg /age numb] five d\bl$ ! colonnade on all f\r sides1#ach & /age numb] six reta9$ ! out] r[s ( columns b omitt$ ! inn] r[ along ! sides1 leav+ a wide passage-way all r\nd ! ma9 build+4#aci ,vitruvius gives a fur!r classification by ! spac+ ( columns :i* w be f\nd 9 all ! h&books ( classic ar*itecture4 ,) m9or v>iations 9 detail1 ^! types rema9$ con/ant = ! temples ( ,greece & ,rome4 ,! pr9cipal alt]ations occurr$ 9 ! ext5sion ( ! temple prop]1 at ! exp5se ( ! surr\nd+ colonnade4 ,9 ! ,ar*aic temples1 su* z ! old] temples ( ,sel9us 9 ,sicily 7six? c5tury ,b4 ,c471 ! portico & colonnade occupy ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! site4 ,9 ! temple ( ,hephae/us 7,!seion7 at ,a!ns 7fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c47 ! cella occupies only a little m ?an half ! total area1 & 9 ! ,p>!non1 built "s tw5ty ye>s lat]1 ! size ( ! cella is /ill fur!r increas$4 ,mo/ ( ^! temples 7 cov]$ 94 ,hypae?ral temples1 9 :i* ! cella 0 op5 to ! sky1 are m5tion$ by ,vitruvius1 & x is probable t "s ( ! l>g] ones at any rate 7 p>tly op5 to ! sky4 ,b h[ ! op5+s 7 arrang$ is almo/ entirely a matt] ( conjecture4 ,! ro( us$ 0 ( a v flat pit*1 "o ( height to f\r ( base1 lat] x 0 ev5 flatt]1 & ?is dictat$ ! slope ( ! p$im5ts4 ,?is ro( cov]$ ! :ole ( ! build+1 t is1 bo? ! cella & ! colonnades on ei!r side ( x1 & z ! ,greeks 7 ignorant ( ! pr9ciple ( ! triangulat$ truss built up ( beams 9 compression & t5sion1 !y 7 at a loss to "k h[ to c>ry _! ro( )\t pu%+ out _! walls4 ,h5ce ! great solidity ( _! build+s1 & ! r clumsy exp$i5t ( ! colonnades 9 ! int]iors ( temples :i* appe> to h be5 ! only means !y c\ld ?9k ( to c>ry ! ro(4 ,"o has to be> x 9 m9d 9 ?9k+ ( ,greek ar*itecture1 t ! ,greeks 7 n con/ructors 9 ! s5se t ! ,romans 72 !y built well1 & ! be/ ( _! masonry 0 extraord9>ily skilful--only by unusual skill 9 ! cutt+ & sett+ ( /one c\ld !y h c>ri$ out ! delicate curves 9 ! columns & o!r p>ts ( _! build+s--b con/ruction1 9 ! s5se ( ! inv5tion ( new me?ods to meet difficult conditions1 did n int]e/ ! ,greek1 & "o _c help ?9k+ t ! ,greeks may h be5 m successful ) ! outside ( _! build+s ?an ) ! inside4 ,x seems cle> t !y devot$ mo/ ( _! att5tion to ! ext]nal elevations4 ,x is n really kn[n = c]ta9 h[ !y lit _! temples1 ?\gh ( c\rse all sorts ( sugge/ions ( top-light+ h be5 made4 ,x is possible t 9 "s cases !y 7 lit only f ! pr9cipal entrance1 & x is c]ta9 t ! ,greek did n want = ! int]ior ( 8 temple any su* floods ( light z are necess>y "u our nor!rn skies4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he enjoy$ a mo/ brilliant & p5etrat+ light1 s t )9 8 colonnades reflect$ light 0 amply suffici5t to %[ ! friezes & o!r ornam5ts1 & he did n hesitate to use /rong prim>y col\rs to height5 & expla9 _! effect1 :]ev] he f\nd x necess>y4 ,9 ! second place1 )9 ! %r9e itself1 o!r consid]ations came into play4 ,a c]ta9 lum9\s atmosph]e1 r ?an positive light 0 :at 0 aim$ at1 & ! deep %ad[s ( ^! int]nal colonnades might h help$ ?is effect1 add+ to ! my/]y ( ! figure ( ! ,god4 #acd ,vitruvius gives ?is z ! 'a$es 9 antis'4 #ace ,pro-/yle 7colonnade 9 front74 #acf ,amphipro-/yle 7colonnade at bo? ends74 #acg ,p]ipt]al 7s+le colonnade all r\nd74 #ach ,dipt]al 7d\ble colonnade all r\nd74 #aci ,pseudo-dipt]al 7inn] r[ ( columns omitt$74 ,?is1 too1 may be ! explanation ( :at mu/ /rike an ar*itect z an anomaly ( design1 ! ,greek habit ( plac+ enorm\s figures 9 ! int]ior ( _! temples4 ,! ,greek1 9 8 own way1 0 a v religi\s man4 ,9 8 temple1 he 0 do+ 8 utmo/ to set =? ! maje/y ( 8 ,god1 & if x 0 necess>y = ?is purpose he 0 ev5 prep>$ to sacrifice 8 pr9ciples z an arti/1 to ignore ! scale ( 8 int]ior & ! rhy?mic h>mony ( 8 design1 by ! introduction ( gigantic figures4 ,! eye judges by :at x kn[s1 & ! readie/ way ( arriv+ at "s idea ( ! size ( a build+ or a monum5t is by relat+ x to ! normal size ( ! human figure4 ,vitruvius1 9 8 confus$ way1 sugge/$ t ! human figure 0 ! canon & /&>d ( ar*itectural design1 b h[ is x possible to det]m9e ! scale ( a build+ :i* conta9$ a figure at lea/ six times ! size ( a man1 rea*+ f ! floor to ! ro(8 ,! *ryselephant9e figure ( ,zeus at ,olympia1 made by ,pheidias1 is suppos$ to h be5 "s ?irty-five feet high1 & to h rea*$ ne>ly to ! ro(1 pass+ ! d\ble ti] ( columns & ! gall]y above ! aisles ( ! cella4 ,moreov]1 ?is god 0 repres5t$ z seat$ on 8 ?rone1 s t by no possibility c\ld x h be5 9 scale ) ! build+ s f> z ! ar*itecture 0 conc]n$4 ,ev5 ! gigantic temple ( ,zeus at ,agrig5tum ) its ext]nal columns #fa ft4 #i 94 9 height1 & l>ge en\gh = a man to /& )9 "o ( ! flut+s ( ! columns1 c\ld h>dly h /ood up to figures on su* a scale z ?is4 ,su* a viol5t contra/ 9 scale broke ! pr9ciple ( symmetria1 t /rict relation ( ! "p to ! :ole :i* ! ,greek arti/s ma9ta9$ else:]e ) scrupul\s c>e4 ,arti/s ) su* a consummate s5se ( proportion z ! ,greeks possess$ w\ld h>dly h made a mi/ake "h1 & ! conclusion "o comes to is t :]e _! religion 0 9 "q1 ev]y?+ _h to give way4 ,inde$1 "o c imag9e ! trem5d\s effect ( ?is colossal figure se5 dimly 9 ! half-light ( ! cella1 fill+ ! :ole temple ) its pres5ce4 ,! same anomaly 9 scale occurr$ 9 ! ,akropolis at ,a!ns1 :]e ! va/ figure ( ,a!ne ,proma*os mu/ h r$uc$ ! beautiful ,c>yatides ( ! ,ere*!um to insignificance4 ,m4 ,*oisy makes a gallant ef=t to %[ t ?is want ( relation%ip 9 scale1 & also 9 ! sit+ ( ! temples1 0 delib]ate & consid]$4 ,z a fact1 ! g5]al rule t seems to h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! "t ( ,p]icles 0 t new temples %\ld always be built on ! site ( ! old] ones1#adj b axis l9es 7 neglect$1 & ev5 ! masses ( ! ,propylaea1 beautiful build+ z x mu/ h be51 did n balance4 ,! ,akropolis 0 j a collection ( unrelat$ build+s1 & 9 ! great ,tem5os ( ,delphi ! v>i\s monum5ts 7 all anyh[4#ada ,! ,sacr$ ,way me&]$ ab\t l an ,s1 & ! only me?od x obs]v$ 0 to cle> ! v>i\s treasuries & %r9es :i* appe> to h be5 scatt]$ ab\t )9 ! enclosure1 ) a disreg>d ( ea* o!r little less ?an brutal--a r sugge/ive symbol ( ! int]nec9e rivalry ( ! small ,greek /ates4 ,at ,delphi1 also1 !re 0 a huge figure ( ,apollo ,sitalkas said to h be5 sev5te5 metres high1 :i* mu/ h be5 hopelessly out ( scale4 ,! fact 0 t ,greek ar*itects ( ! fif? c5tury _h n yet arriv$ at ! conception ( ! city z a :ole4 ,!y _h an admirable eye = a site1 = example1 ! position ( ! ,p>!non itself1 & ! temple ( ,h]a ,lac9ia at ,agrig5tum plac$ high above ! sea1 b x is unhi/orical to inve/ ev5 ! ar*itects ( ! ,p>!non & ! ,propylaea ) a k & outlook :i* 0 n ?\ght ( till a hundr$ ye>s lat]4 ,ev5 ! ,greek ar*itects & sculptors ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 7 n omnisci5t1 yet )9 _! limits1 9 _! ma/]y ( :at !y set !mselves to d1 ! arti/s ( ! age ( ,p]icles rema9 unapproa*able1 & !irs 0 ! ,gold5 ,age ( ,ar*itecture4 ,!y _h fix$ = all "t ess5tial elem5ts ( ! art1 & _h set up a /&>d ( atta9m5t 9 pure =m :i* no subsequ5t ar*itecture has ev] be5 able to rea*4 #adj ,! ,ere*!um 0 an exception4 #ada ,see ,delphi1 by ,dr4 ,fr$]ick ,p\ls51 p4 #eb4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! ,sacr$ ,way 0 9 exi/5ce be=e ! %r9es 7 built1 & t its w&]+s 7 necessitat$ by ! gradi5ts ( ! hillside4 ,no sort ( attempt1 h[ev]1 seems to h be5 made to correct ?is1 or to treat x z an elem5t ( design4 ,! fall ( ,a!ns clos$ ?is spl5did *apt]1 b ,greek ar*itecture 0 by no means done )4 ,! ,silv] ,age1 ! ,hell5i/ic art t foll[$1 is ( int5se int]e/4 ,) ! rise ( ! ,mac$onian mon>*y ! /age ( hi/ory %ift$ f ! ma9l& to ! ,ionian colonies on ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,cities su* z ,ephesus & ,miletus became imm5sely prosp]\s1 ,mausolus ( ,halic>nassus1 ! ,attalids ( ,p]gamon1 possess$ weal? t w\ld h be5 unimag9able to ! ,greeks ( ,m>a?on4 ,! ,city ,/ate1 fight+ desp]ately = its exi/5ce1 inspir$ by high ideals ( patriotism & religion1 0 a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,^! ,greeks ( ,ionia 7 well cont5t to enjoy ! com=t & prosp]ity ( a settl$ civilization )\t hav+ to fight = x2 & ! :ole atmosph]e ( _! exi/5ce mu/ h be5 diff]5t f ! /r5u\s life ( ,greece 9 ! fif? c5tury4 ,moreov]1 ! ,ionian ,greek1 influ5c$1 ev5 if subconsci\sly1 by ! _s ( ,asia1 0 by temp]am5t unable to ma9ta9 ! intellectual level ( ! ,doric ar*itecture ( ! ma9l&2 & a diff]5ce appe>s 9 ! :ole ori5tation ( art1 9 sculpture p]haps ev5 m ?an 9 ar*itecture4 ,! hi/ory ( ,hell5i/ic art has yet to be writt54 ,x has be5 describ$ z decad5t1 & x 0 und\bt$ly responsible = "s v poor /uff1 b x also produc$ ! ',victory' ( ,samo?race1 "o ( ! f9e/ ?+s ev] done 9 sculpture1 & "s v rem>kable developm5ts 9 ar*itecture4 ,x is n to be judg$ by ! /&>ds ( ! art t prec$$ x4 ,! ,ionian ,greek ( ! f\r? & ?ird c5turies ,b4 ,c4 broke away f ! tradition ( ! ma9l&1 a tradition always r ali5 to 8 in/9cts4 ,8 int]e/ lay less 9 a some:at imp]sonal religion ?an 9 ! ass]tion ( 8 own individuality4 ,he did n und]/& ! l(ty patriotism1 & ! high ideal ( ab/ract beauty t _h inspir$ ,p]icles & 8 arti/s 9 ! ,akropolis2 inde$1 !re is a curi\sly mod]n feel+ ab\t mu* ( 8 "w1 :i* became m m>k$ z he came "u ! dom9ance ( ,rome4 ,! individualism1 ! realism1 ! revivalism1 & ! comm]cialism ( mod]n art1 7 all anticipat$ by ! ,hell5i/ic arti/s ( ,ionia1 ( ,rhodes1 ( ,alex&ria1 & ( ,a!ns itself 9 ! ,roman p]iod4 ,civilization 0 becom+ m complex1 & "o f9ds ?is reflect$ 9 ,hell5i/ic art1 at once m florid ?an ! ,doric ( ! f\r? c5tury1 yet also m skilful 9 its h&l+ ( complicat$ problems ( plann+ & design4 ,no "o want$ ar*aic simplicity :5 ! weal? ( ,asia 0 fl[+ into ! treasuries ( ! ,ionian /ates1 & ! expression ( ?is opul5t ease is f\nd 9 _! magnific5t temples1 su* z ! ?ird temple ( ,artemis at ,ephesus1 ( :i* ! out] colonnade measur$ #cdb ft4 #f 94 by #afc ft4 #i 941 or ! va/ temple ( ,apollo ,didymaeus at ,miletus1 #afe ft4 wide by #cfj ft4 long out to out ( ! colonnades2 or ! amaz+ monum5t ( ,mausolus ( ,c>ia at ,halic>nassus1 or ! great alt> ( ,p]gamon4 ,fragm5ts ( ! columns ( ! ,temple ( ,artemis1 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 tell ( its size & ri*ness1 !y also give ! fir/ h9t ( ! d[nfall ( art & civilization :i* 0 to foll[ c5turies lat]4 ,! ,greeks ( ! great p]iod _h kept ! /ructural p>ts ( _! build+ free ( ornam5t4 ,x w\ld nev] h occurr$ to !m to int]f]e ) ! l9es ( ! column 9 any way t w\ld contradict its purpose2 b ! ,greek ar*itects ( ,ephesus n only plac$ _! columns on p$e/als 7mak+ !m s f> less /able 9 appe>ance71 b !y adorn$ ! l[] "p ( _! ,ionic columns ) figures1 ( admirable execution1 b p]fectly inappropriate 9 ! position !y occupy4 ,"o _c imag9e ,pheidias mak+ a mi/ake su* z ?is4 ,spl5did 9 execution z ,hell5i/ic sculpture (t5 01 x won its place at ! exp5se ( ar*itecture2 "o looks 9 va9 = t selection & re/ra9t :i* give its undy+ di/9ction to ! e>li] "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,,temple ,,( ,,!seus1 ,,a!ns ,! ,greeks ( ! fif? c5tury realiz$ t ar*itecture is an art ) a def9ite purpose o!r ?an t ( a m]e vehicle = sculpture1 & t x makes its ae/hetic appeal by its own inh]5t qualities ( rhy?m1 & proportion1 spac+1 mass1 & outl9e4 ,?\gh !y us$ sculpture & col\r to height5 & int5sify ! effect ( _! ar*itecture1 !y saw v cle>ly ! function ( ! arts 9 relation to ea* o!r1 & kept _! sculpture & _! col\r 9 /rict relation to ! ae/hetic purpose ( _! ar*itecture4 ,x is a po9t on :i* lat] ar*itects w5t lam5tably a/ray4 ,a great deal ( e>ly ,r5aissance "w is m]e ornam5tation ( build+s1 inde$ 9 build+s su* z ! ,c]tosa ( ,pavia ! ar*itecture has almo/ ceas$ to exi/2 & mo/ ( ! bad ar*itecture ( ! la/ fifty ye>s is due to ! deplorable fallacy t ornam5t is ar*itecture4 ,! columns ( ,ephesus1 ! sculpture ( ! alt> ( ,p]gamon1 brilliant z !y 7 9 te*nical accompli%m5t1 7 ! fir/ h9t ( t decl9e :i* 0 9 "t to und]m9e ! :ole fabric ( ! ,arts4 ,ar*itecture 0 depos$ f its high intellectual dom9ance4 ,x t5d$ m & m to become a conv5tional affair1 & x 0 an easy transition f ! exub]ance ( ,hell5i/ic art to ! po9t-blank vulg>ity ( ,roman ornam5tal ar*itecture4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 inevitable t ! f9e simplicity ( ,p]iclean art %\ld vani% ) its ideals1 & "o f9ds a c]ta9 comp5sation 9 ! ext5sion ( ! range & outlook ( ar*itecture1 :i* we owe to ! ,hell5i/ic ar*itects ( ! f\r? & succe$+ c5turies ,b4 ,c4 ,s f> z p]fection ( =m 0 conc]n$1 x 0 impossible to c>ry ! art beyond ! /age to :i* ,ict9us & ,callicrates _h br\ght x2 b !re /ill rema9$ some?+1 & some?+ v important1 to be done4 ,axial plann+1 ! consid]ation ( ! relation ( build+ to build+1 seem to h be5 outside ! consci\sness ( ,greeks ( ! fif? c5tury1 & ea* build+ 0 treat$ z an unrelat$ unit4 ,b ! inconv5i5ce ( ?is1 its loss ( opportunity1 & ! necessity ( ord] & me?od1 mu/ h become app>5t1 z civilization became m complex & m exact+4 ,by ! end ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ! tradition ( ar*itectural te*nique 0 firmly e/abli%$1 & ar*itects 7 able to turn _! att5tion to problems ( l>ge plann+1 & ^! !y seem to h h&l$ ) extraord9>y skill4 ,s f>1 :at _h be5 done 9 ?is direction _h be5 due to religi\s inspiration1 z 9 ! processional ways lead+ to ! ,egyptian temples or ! av5ue ( figures at ,bran*idae4 ,:at ! ,hell5i/ic ar*itects did 0 to ?9k out consecutive s*emes ( city plann+1 9 :i* ! dom9ant motive ( arrangem5t 0 arti/ic4 ,!y _h le>nt to treat ! temples1 ! public build+s1 ! op5 spaces & approa*es1 z ! elem5ts ( "o h>moni\s composition1 9 :i* ! utmo/ use 0 made ( ! natural opportunities ( ! site4 ,at ,ephesus1 = example1 !re is suppos$ to h exi/$ a consecutive s*eme1 l>g] ?an any?+ ( ! k9d c>ri$ out ev5 9 ,france 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ?\gh ! evid5ce1 x %\ld be not$1 is l>gely conjectural4 ,z pres5t$ by sangu9e & en?usia/ic re/or]s ! s*eme 0 magnific5t4 ,next ! port1 & fac+ x on "o side1 0 ! ,ars5al1 a regul> build+ op5+ on to a c\rt surr\nd$ by a colonnade1 :i* aga9 op5$ on to ! great ',place'1 a squ>e enclosure "s #hej ft4 wide nor? & s\?1 by #fej ft4 ea/ & we/1#adb surr\nd$ by a colonnade on all f\r sides1 ) exh$rae1 or semicircul> recesses4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is ,place 0 an oblong wat]-piece1 ab\t #cjj ft4 by #bjj ft41 & on ! f>!r side1 opposite ! ,ars5al build+s1 7 ! ,s5ate ,h\se & o!r public build+s2 & beh9d ^! & to ! "r & left ( !m ! ,!atre & ! ,/adium1 p>tly excavat$ 9 ,m\nt ,coressus4 ,! ,ars5al1 ! great ,place ) its wat]-piece1 & ! public build+s1 7 laid out on an axis l9e1 & on a regul> rectangulat$ plan4 #adb ,! ,place ,v5dme measures #dej ft4 #dbj ft42 ,grosv5or ,squ>e ab\t #fej #ecj2 & ,l9coln's ,inn ,fields ab\t #hjj #fcj1 measur$ f wall to wall ( build+s4 ,a s*eme su* z ?is 7if x is possible to accept a conjectural re/oration71 ?\ght out 9 all its be>+s1 meant a real advance 9 ! range ( ar*itecture4 ,x is useless to look = ! faultless beauty ( ! fif? c5tury1 b ! res\rcefulness & skill ( ! ,hell5i/ic ar*itects gave a new mean+ to ! art2 & inde$ !y might almo/ be said to h e/abli%$ ! fir/ /age 9 ! developm5t ( its mod]n practice4 ,x 0 f ^! able ,hell5i/ic ar*itects t ! ,romans le>nt ! monum5tal plann+ ( _! cities1 & = c5turies ! ar*itects mo/ frequ5tly employ$ 7 ,greeks ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,at ?is po9t1 ,hell5i/ic ar*itecture m]ges into ,roman1 & loses its di/9ctive "*4 ,?r\gh ,roman x passes on to mod]n ar*itecture1 & s 9 a s5se ! *a9 is complete2 b betwe5 ?is lat] art & pure ,greek ar*itecture !re is a great gulf fix$1 diff]5ces n only ( te*nique b ( outlook1 ( ideal1 & ( temp]am5t4 ,! mighty ,doric ( ,pae/um1 ,sel9us1 & ,sege/a1 ! ,!seion & ! ,p>!non1 rema9s = all "t ! p]fect expression ( ! s\l ( anci5t ,greece4 ,x is "o ( ! ironies ( hi/ory t :5 9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies s*ol>s & arti/s awoke to ! fact t !re _h be5 a great ar*itecture 9 ! pa/ !y %\ld h kn[n ( no o!r v]sion ( x b ! ,roman4 ,:at spl5did developm5ts might h foll[$ if ! f9] spirits ( ! ,r5aissance1 ,alb]ti1 ,bramante1 or ,p]uzzi1 _h f\nd$ _! !ories ( ar*itecture on ! temples ( ,sicily & ,magna ,graecia1 in/ead ( on ! debas$ examples ( ,imp]ial ,rome6 ,!y1 at lea/1 w\ld h caught a glimpse ( ! beauty ( ab/ract =m & p]fect h>mony1 ! secret ( :i* seems to h be5 reveal$ to ! ,greeks alone among ! peoples ( ! _w--& to !m = only a transi5t p]iod ( _! hi/ory4 ,un=tunately1 :5 ,greek ar*itecture 0 discov]$ 9 ! second half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 x became ! %ibbole? ( ! 'virtuosi'4 ,! national traditions1 bo? ( ,france & ,engl&1 7 lo/1 ,greek ar*itecture became ! fa%ion1 & ! misguid$ en?usiasm ( p$ants & amateurs insi/$ on lit]al reproductions :i* complet$ ! ext9ction ( ar*itecture z a v]nacul> art1 & replac$ x by ! s]ies ( revivalisms f :i* x has suff]$ = ! la/ "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s4 ,consci\s & delib]ate t9k]+ ) ! art ( ar*itecture end$ by de/roy+ x4 ,we c nev] hope to revive ,greek ar*itecture1 nor %\ld we attempt to d s4 ,!re 0 once a well-kn[n ,scot* ar*itect :o held t ! column & ! l9tel 0 ! only p]missible =m ( con/ruction1 & ) ?is limitation & ill-select$ ,greek details he produc$ "s fanta/ically ugly build+s4 ,foll[+ a simil> l9e ( ?\ght a fam\s critic ( ! la/ c5tury condemn$ me?ods ( con/ruction n sanction$ by ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,bo? 7 wide ( ! m>k2 because1 above & beyond all te*nical details ( ar*itecture is ! _s 9 :i* x is approa*$1 ! intellectual outlook ( ! arti/ on 8 art1 & ?is may express itself 9 widely diff]+ =ms4 ,9 ,greek ar*itecture ( ! ,gold5 p]iod1 t outlook 0 def9ite & di/9ctive1 & x 0 "o t has a v urg5t lesson = u to-day4 ,! aim & ideal ( ! ,greek 0 beauty ( =m1 & ?is beauty1 :i* he s\ght 9 ! fir/ in/ance z ! expression ( 8 religion1 ultimately became almo/ a religion 9 itself4 ,to ! realization ( ?is ideal he devot$ all 8 p[]s1 sp>+ himself no pa9s 9 *a/5+ 8 "w till x _h atta9$ ! utmo/ p]fection possible4 ,he m]g$ himself 9 ?is "w1 )\t ?\ght ( ! expression ( himself 9 8 vision ( a div9e & immutable beauty4 ,x h>dly occurr$ to him t 8 individual emotions 7 wor? pres]v+4 7,9 ! sculpture ( ! great p]iod ! expression ( ! face is usually "o ( unruffl$ calm47 ,al?\gh religi\s emotion 0 ! s\rce & inspiration ( 8 "w1 8 "w 0 imp]sonal4 ,he 0 alo( f t fev]i% anxiety = self-revelation :i* has made mu* mod]n art s int]e/+ pa?ologically1 & s dete/able o!rwise4 ,nor aga9 _h he any?+ ( ! virtuoso ab\t him4 ,to him te*nique 0 n an end 9 itself4 ,9 ,hell5i/ic art x became s1 b n 9 ! ,gold5 ,age4 ,inde$1 he 0 sometimes almo/ c>eless ( exact modell+1 & 9 ar*itecture he did n use ! ord] z a m]e exhibition ( s*ol>%ip4 ,9 8 se>* = beautiful =m1 he /ood ^u ! anci5t ways1 pati5t & s]5e1 mov+ /eadily to 8 appo9t$ end4 ',a9si procde le gnie grec1 mo9s s\cieux du n\veau que du mieux1 il reporte v]s l'puration des =mes l'activit que d'autres dp5s5t en innovations s\v5t /riles1 jusqu' ce qu'enf9 il atteigne l'exquise mesure dans les ef=ts1 et dans les expressions l'absolue ju/esse4'#adc ,!re h be5 r>e p]iods s9ce1 :5 ,ar*itecture has mov$ ) ! same calm unhesitat+ purpose1 ,go?ic ar*itecture1 = example1 9 ! twelf? & ?irte5? c5turies1 & c]ta9 phases ( eighte5?-c5tury ar*itecture 9 ,france & ,engl&1 :5 tradition 0 /ill active & vital1 & arti/s 7 cont5t to let well alone4 #adc ,*oisy1 ,hi/ory ( ,ar*itecture1 vol4 i1 p4 #bih4 ,mod]n conditions seem to be :olly aga9/ ! ,greek /&po9t 9 art4 ,! ,arts are 9 ! melt+-pot1 ! old /&>ds ( atta9m5t are trampl$ "u foot1 & ! prophets prophesy falsely4 ,q lately we 7 ask$ to f9d our inspiration 9 ! feti%es ( ! ,gold ,coa/1 & if ! aim ( ! arti/ is to out/rip 8 bre?r5 9 brutality1 ! advice is s\nd4 ,a rec5t critic ju/ifi$ ! antics ( c]ta9 arti/s by ! necessity !y 7 "u ( adv]tis+ !mselves4 ,t1 no d\bt1 is ! readie/ way to imm$iate success4 ,b ! "q = ! critic is1 n ! p]sonal advancem5t ( ! arti/ b ! value ( 8 "w2 & "o w\ld ask if any good "w at any p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( art has be5 inspir$ by ?is ambition to %\t l\d] ?an "o's neighb\rs4 ,c]ta9ly1 ! /&po9t ( ! ,greek 0 ! exact opposite4 ,he did n seek adv]tisem5t & notoriety4 ,he 0 happy ) 8 inn] vision ( beauty1 & int5t only on its realization4 ,he _h n ! smalle/ desire to %ock or />tle any "o4 ,!re are occasions :5 %ock tactics are necess>y1 b !y are n necess>y e day 9 ! week1 nor is x necess>y to make a clean sweep ( ! pa/ be=e "o sets to "w 9 "o's own little corn] ( art4 ,:at is want$ 9 mod]n art is "s consci\sness ( ?is old ,greek _s1 "s recognition ( its value4 ,! ,greeks ( ! age ( ,p]icles want$ nei!r revivalism nor revolution2 !y mov$ =w>d1 )\t ha/e or anxiety1 on traditional l9es1 & !y 7 able to d s because _! art 0 s int]wov5 ) _! life t1 9 ! pla/ic arts1 !y c\ld no m h *ang$ _! me?ods ( expression ?an !y c\ld h *ang$ _! mann] ( spee*4 ,t high outlook on life is lo/ & h>dly to be recov]$ "u mod]n conditions ( social life & political gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 p]haps only possible "u ! true democracy ( ! small ,greek city /ate1 :5 e citiz5 took 8 %>e 9 ! ord]$ life ( ! community4 ,yet ! ,greek ideal rema9s4 ,9 our fitful fev] ( hone/ int5tion & wrong judgem5t1 high endeav\r & po9t-blank comm]cialism1 ,greek art1 ! art ( ,pheidias & ,ict9us1 is /ill ! wise "m to :om we mu/ return4 ,! lesson ( ! ,p>!non is ! lesson ( a /eadfa/ vision ( beauty1 held high above individual ef=t & failure1 realiz+ itself n 9 complex detail or calculat$ ecc5tricity1 b 9 a s]5e & exquisite simplicity ( =m4 ,x tea*es u t 9 ! arts !re are no %ort cuts1 & t an>*y1 ! de/ruction ( :at has be5 won = u 9 ! pa/1 is n advance b ! /raight road to ! bottomless pit ( b>b>ism4 ,in/ead ( repudiat+ ! "w ( 8 fa!rs1 ! ,greek c>ri$ x on to its p]fection1 & built 8 palace ( art on a sure f\ndation because he turn$ nei!r to ! "r h& nor to ! left1 b /eadily set 8 face t[>ds ! light4 ,,reg9ald ,,blomfield4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,transcrib]'s ,notes & ,errata ,greek text is foll[$ by ! translit]at$ v]sion 9 braces4 ,! foll[+ typographical errors h be5 correct$4 ,error ,correction back black /$fa/ /eadfa/ ,! foll[+ words are f\nd 9 hyph5at$ & unhyph5at$ =ms 9 ! text4 ,! numb]s ( in/ances are giv5 9 p>5!ses4 cuttle-fi% 7#b7 cuttlefi% 7#a7 fre%-wat] 7#a7 fre%wat] 7#a7 pre-occupation 7#d7 preoccupation 7#a7 preoccupations 7#a7 re-arrang+ 7#a7 re>rang+ 7#a7 re-discov]y 7#b7 r$iscov]y 7#c7 sup]-m5 7#a7 sup]m5 7#a7 sup]-wom5 7#a7 sup]wom5 7#a7 text-book 7#e7 textbook 7#b7 text-books 7#b7 textbooks 7#c7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------