,,the ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby ,,wood-,,carving3 ,,design ,,and ,,workmanship ,,artistic ,,crafts ,,series ,,of ,,technical ,,handbooks4 ,edited by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4 ,the series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic arts4 ,it will consist of authoritative statements by experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity1 taste1 imagination--the whole sphere of the so-called dependent arts4 ,,bookbinding ,,and ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,books4 ,a ,handbook for ,amateurs1 ,bookbinders1 and ,librarians4 ,by ,,douglas ,,cockerell4 ,with #abj ,illustrations and ,diagrams by ,noel ,rooke1 and #h collotype reproductions of binding4 #abmo4 #a4be net2 postage1 #ab cents additional4 ,,silverwork ,,and ,,jewelry4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students and ,workers in ,metal4 ,by ,h4 ,,wilson4 ,with #afj ,diagrams and #af full-page ,illustrations4 #abmo4 #a4dj net2 postage1 #ab cents additional4 ,,wood ,,carving3 ,,design ,,and ,,workmanship4 ,by ,,george ,,jack4 ,with ,drawings by the ,author and other ,illustrations4 ,in ,preparation3 ,,cabinet-,,making ,,and ,,designing4 ,by ,c4 ,,spooner4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,suggestion ,,from ,,nature ,,and ,,photography4 ,see page #aig4 ,,wood-,,carving ,,design ,,and ,,workmanship ,,by ,,george ,,jack ,,with ,,drawings ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,and ,,other ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aijc ,,copyright1 #aijc1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,all rights reserved ,published ,october1 #aijc ,,editor',s ,,preface ,in issuing these volumes of a series of ,handbooks on the ,artistic ,crafts1 it will be well to state what are our general aims4 ,in the first place1 we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practise1 from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops1 and putting aside vain survivals1 are prepared to say what is good workmanship1 and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design4 ,secondly1 in doing this1 we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship4 ,during the last century most of the arts1 save painting and sculpture of an academic kind1 were little considered1 and there was a tendency to look on design as a mere matter of appearance4 ,such ornamentation as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production4 ,with the critical attention given to the crafts by ,ruskin and ,morris1 it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way1 and that1 in the widest sense1 true design is an inseparable element of good quality1 involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material1 contrivance for special purpose1 expert workmanship1 proper finish1 and so on1 far more than mere ornament1 and indeed1 that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines4 ,workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is1 from design--inevitably decays1 and1 on the other hand1 ornamentation1 divorced from workmanship1 is necessarily unreal1 and quickly falls into affectation4 ,proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye2 it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool4 ,in the third place1 we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would gain a livelihood4 ,although within the bounds of academic art1 the competition1 of its kind1 is so acute that only a very few per cent can fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors2 yet1 as artistic craftsmen1 there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success4 ,in the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with1 happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labor as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art4 ,it is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts3 there are more than enough of us in the city1 and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to ,design and ,workmanship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this third volume of our series treats of one branch of the great art of sculpture1 one which in the past has been in close association with architecture4 ,it is1 well1 therefore1 that besides dealing thoroughly1 as it does1 with the craftsmanship of wood-carving1 it should also be concerned with the theory of design1 and with the subject-matter which the artist should select to carve4 ,such considerations should be helpful to all who are interested in the ornamental arts4 ,indeed1 the present book contains some of the best suggestions as to architectural ornamentation under modern circumstances known to me4 ,architects can not forever go on plastering buildings over with trade copies of ancient artistic thinking1 and they and the public must some day realize that it is not mere shapes1 but only thoughts1 which will make reasonable the enormous labor spent on the decoration of buildings4 ,mere structure will always justify itself1 and architects who can not obtain living ornamentation will do well to fall back on structure well fitted for its purpose1 and as finely finished as may be without carvings and other adornments4 ,it would be better still if architects would make the demand for a more intellectual code of ornament than we have been accustomed to for so long4 ,on the side of the carver1 either in wood or in stone1 we want men who will give us their own thought in their own work--as artists1 that is--and will not be content to be mere hacks supplying imitations of all styles to order4 ,on the teaching of wood-carving ,i should like to say a word1 as ,i have watched the course of instruction in many schools4 ,it is desirable that classes should be provided with casts and photographs of good examples1 such as ,mr4 ,jack speaks of1 varying from rough choppings up to minute and exquisite work1 but all having the breath of life about them4 ,there should also be a good supply of illustrations and photographs of birds and beasts and flowers1 and above all1 some branches and buds of real leafage4 ,then ,i would set the student of design in wood-carving to make variations of such examples according to his own skill and liking4 ,if he and the teacher could be got to clear their minds of ideas of style1 and to take some example simply because they liked it1 and to adapt it just because it amused them1 the mystery of design would be nearly solved4 ,most design will always be the making of one thing like another1 with a difference4 ,later1 motives from ,nature should be brought in1 but always with some guidance as to treatment1 from an example known to be fine4 ,i would say1 for instance1 ,do a panel like this1 only let it be oak foliage instead of vine1 and get a thrush or a parrot out of the bird book4 ,in regard to the application of carving1 ,i have been oppressed by the accumulation in carving classes of little carved squares and oblongs1 having no relation to anything that1 in an ordinary way1 is carved4 ,to carve the humblest real thing1 were it but a real toy for a child1 would be better than the production of these panels1 or of the artificial trivialities which our minds instinctively associate with bazaars4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4 ,september1 #aijc4 ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,reader1 ,be you 'prentice or student1 or what is still better1 both in one1 ,i introduce the following pages to you with this explanation3 that all theoretical opinions set forth therein are the outcome of many years of patient sifting and balancing of delicate questions1 and these have with myself long since passed out of the category of mere opinions into that of settled convictions4 ,with regard to the practical matter of technique1 it lies very much with yourself to determine the degree of perfection to which you may attain4 ,this depends greatly upon the amount of application which you may be willing or able to devote to its practise4 ,remember--the laws which govern all good art must be known before they can be obeyed2 they are subtle1 but unalterable4 ,the conditions most favorable to your craft must first be understood before these laws can be recognized4 ,there yet remains at your own disposal that devotion of energy which is the first essential step1 both in the direction of obtaining clearer views and in conquering technical difficulties4 ,i have to thank the following gentlemen for their assistance in providing photographs for some of the illustrations3 ,messrs4 ,bedford ,lemere ,co4--,h4 ,sandland--,charles ,c4 ,winmill--,w4 ,weir--,j4 ,r4 ,holliday and ,f4 ,k4 ,rives4 ,g4 ,j4 ,september1 #aijc4 ,,contents ,,page ,editor's ,preface #g ,author's ,preface #ae ,,chapter ,i ,,preamble ,student and ,apprentice1 their ,aims and ,conditions of ,work--,necessity for ,some ,equality between ,theory and ,practise--,the ,student's ,opportunity lies on the ,side of ,design #be ,,chapter ,,ii ,,tools ,average ,number of ,tools required by ,carvers--,selection for ,beginners--,description of ,tools--,position when in ,use--,acquisition by ,degrees #ca ,,chapter ,,iii ,,sharpening-,,stones--,,mallet ,,and ,,bench ,different ,stones in ,use--,case for ,stones--,slips--,round ,mallet ,best--,a ,home-,made ,bench--,a ,makeshift ,bench--,cramps and ,clips #db ,,chapter ,,iv ,,woods ,,used ,,for ,,carving ,hard ,wood and ,soft ,wood--,closeness of ,grain ,desirable--,advantages of ,pine and ,english ,oak #dh ,,chapter ,v ,,sharpening ,,the ,,tools ,the ,proper ,bevel--,position of ,tools on ,oilstone--,good and ,bad ,edge--,stropping--,paste and ,leather--,careless ,sharpening--,rubbing ,out the ,inside--,stropping ,fine ,tools--,importance of ,sharp ,tools #eb ,,chapter ,,vi ,,chip ,,carving ,its ,savage ,origin--,a ,clue to its only ,claim to ,artistic ,importance--,monotony better than ,variety--,an ,exercise in ,patience and ,precision--,technical ,methods #fc ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,grain ,,of ,,the ,,wood ,obstinacy of the ,woody ,fiber--,first ,exercise in ,grounding--,description of ,method--,cutting the ,miters--,handling of ,tools1 ,danger of ,carelessness--,importance of ,clean ,cutting #fi ,,chapter ,,viii ,,imitation ,,of ,,natural ,,forms ,difficulties of ,selection and ,arrangement--,limits of an ,imitative ,treatment--,light and ,distance ,factors in the ,arrangement of a ,design--,economy of ,detail ,necessary--,the ,word ,conventional #hb ,,chapter ,,ix ,,rounded ,,forms ,necessity for every ,carver ,making his own ,designs--,method of ,carving ,rounded ,forms on a ,sunk ,ground #hh ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,patterned ,,background ,importance of ,formal ,pattern as an ,aid to ,visibility--,pattern and ,free ,rendering ,compared--,first ,impressions ,lasting--,medieval ,choice of ,natural ,forms ,governed by a ,question of ,pattern #if ,,chapter ,,xi ,,contours ,,of ,,surface ,adaptation of ,old ,designs to ,modern ,purposes--,throwing ,about--,critical ,inspection of ,work from a ,distance as it ,proceeds #ajc ,,chapter ,,xii ,,originality ,dangers of ,imposing ,words--,novelty more ,common than ,originality--,an ,unwholesome ,kind of ,originality #ajh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,pierced ,,patterns ,exercise in ,background ,pattern--,care as to ,stability--,drilling and ,sawing out the ,spaces--,some ,uses for ,pierced ,patterns #aaj ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,hardwood ,,carving ,carvings can not be ,independent ,ornaments--,carving ,impossible on ,commercial ,productions--,the ,amateur ,joiner--,corner ,cupboards--,introduction of ,foliage ,definite in ,form1 and ,simple in ,character--,methods of ,carving ,grapes #aae ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,sketch-,,book ,old ,work ,best ,seen in its ,original ,place--,museums to be approached with ,caution4--,methodical ,memoranda--,some ,examples--,assimilation of ,ideas ,better than ,making ,exact ,copies #acg ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,museums ,false ,impressions ,fostered by ,fragmentary ,exhibits--,environment as ,important as ,handicraft--,works ,viewed as ,records of ,character--,carvers the ,historians of their ,time #adi ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,studies ,,from ,,nature--,,foliage ,medieval and ,modern ,choice of ,form ,compared--,a ,compromise ,adopted--,a ,list of ,plant ,forms of ,adaptable ,character #aec ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,carving ,,on ,,furniture ,furniture ,constructed with a ,view to ,carving--,reciprocal ,aims of ,joiner and ,carver--,smoothness ,desirable where ,carving is ,handled--,the ,introduction of ,animals or ,figures #afa ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,grotesque ,,in ,,carving ,misproportion ,not ,essential to the ,expression of ,humor--,the ,sham ,grotesque ,contemptible--,a ,true ,sense of ,humor ,helpful to the ,carver #ahj ,,chapter ,,xx ,,studies ,,from ,,nature--,,birds ,,and ,,beasts ,the ,introduction of ,animal ,forms--,rude ,vitality better than ,dull ,natural ,history--,action--,difficulties of the ,study for ,town-,bred ,students--,the ,aid of ,books and ,photographs--,outline ,drawing and ,suggestion of ,main ,masses--,sketch-,book ,studies1 ,sections1 and ,notes--,swiss ,animal ,carving--,the ,clay ,model3 its ,use and ,abuse #aia ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,foreshortening ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,work ,,in ,,relief ,intelligible ,background ,outline ,better than ,confused ,foreshortening--,superposition of ,masses #bje ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,undercutting ,,and ,,built-,,up ,,work ,undercutting as a ,means and as an ,end2 its ,use and ,abuse--,built-up ,work--,planted ,work--,pierced ,work #bad ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,picture ,,subjects ,,and ,,perspective ,the ,limitations of an ,art not ,safely ,transgressed--,aerial ,perspective ,impossible in ,relief--,linear ,perspective only ,possible in a ,limited ,way #bai ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,architectural ,,carving ,the ,necessity for ,variety in ,study--,a ,carver's ,view of the ,study of ,architecture2 ,inseparable from a ,study of his own ,craft--,importance of the ,carpenter's ,stimulating ,influence upon the ,carver--,carpenters' ,imitation of ,stone ,construction ,carried too ,far #bbc ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,surface ,,finish--,,texture ,tool ,marks1 the ,importance of their ,direction--,the ,woody ,texture ,dependent upon ,clearness of ,cutting and ,sympathetic ,handling #bcd ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,craft ,,schools1 ,,past ,,and ,,present ,the ,country ,craftsman of ,old ,times--,a ,colony of ,craftsmen in ,busy ,intercourse--,the ,modern ,craftsman's ,difficulties3 ,embarrassing ,variety of ,choice #bdj ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,on ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,cooperation ,,between ,,builder ,,and ,,carver ,the ,infinite ,multiplicity of ,styles--,the ,gothic ,influence3 ,sculpture an ,integral ,element in its ,designs--,the ,approach of the so-called ,renaissance ,period--,disturbed ,convictions--,the ,revival of the ,classical ,style--,the ,two ,styles in ,conflict for a ,time2 their ,respective ,characteristics ,reviewed--,carvers ,become ,dependent upon ,architects and ,painters--,the ,revival ,separates ,designer and ,executant #bdi ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates #bfe ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates #bga ,,index #cje ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,page ,a ,suggestion from ,nature and ,photography ,frontispiece ,,fig4 #a4 #cg ,,fig4 #b4 #cg ,,fig4 #c4 #ci ,,fig4 #d4 #dc ,,fig4 #e4 #df ,,fig4 #f4 #df ,,fig4 #g4 #dg ,,fig4 #h4 ,a4 ,,angle ,,for ,,softwood ,b4 ,,angle ,,for ,,hardwood #eb ,,fig4 #i4 ,c4 ,,good ,,cutting ,,edge ,d4 ,,badly ,,formed ,,edge4 #ed ,,fig4 #aj4 #eh ,,fig4 #aa4 #fa ,,fig4 #ab4 #fh ,,fig4 #ac4 #gd ,,fig4 #ad4 #gd ,,fig4 #ae4 #gh ,,fig4 #af4 #hh ,,fig4 #ag4 #ia ,,fig4 #ah4 #id ,,fig4 #ai4 #id ,,fig4 #bj4 #if ,,fig4 #ba4 #ajj ,,fig4 #bb4 #ajc ,,fig4 #bc4 #aje ,,fig4 #bd4 #aaa ,,fig4 #be4 #aac ,,fig4 #bf4 #aac ,,fig4 #bg4 #aaf ,,fig4 #bh4 #aai ,,fig4 #bi4 #abj ,,fig4 #cj4 #abj ,,fig4 #ca4 #abj ,,fig4 #cb4 #abc ,,fig4 #cc4 #abc ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,carving ,,in ,,panels ,,of ,,fig #cc #abf ,,fig4 #ce4 #abg ,,fig4 #cf4 #abg ,,fig4 #cg4 #aca ,,fig4 #ch4 #aca ,,fig4 #ci4 a4 #aca ,,fig4 #ci4 b4 #aca ,,fig4 #dj4 #acc ,,fig4 #da4 #acc ,,fig4 #db4 #ace ,,fig4 #dc4 #ace ,,fig4 #dd4 #acg ,,fig4 #de4 #acg ,,fig4 #df4 #aci ,,fig4 #dg4 #ade ,,fig4 #dh4 #ade ,,fig4 #di4 #ade ,,fig4 #ej4 #ade ,,fig4 #ea4 #ade ,,fig4 #eb4 #ade ,,fig4 #ec4 #aea ,,fig4 #ed4 #aff ,,fig4 #ee4 #aff ,,fig4 #ef4 #afh ,,fig4 #eg4 #agj ,,fig4 #eh4 #agd ,,fig4 #ei4 #agd ,,fig4 #fj4 #agf ,,fig4 #fa4 #agi ,,fig4 #fb4 #agi ,,fig4 #fc4 #ahc ,,fig4 #fd4 #ahg ,,fig4 #fe4 #ahg ,,fig4 #ff4 #aij ,,fig4 #fg4 #aij ,,fig4 #fh4 #aii ,,fig4 #fi4 #aii ,,fig4 #gj4 #bjb ,,fig4 #ga4 #bjh ,,fig4 #gb4 #bji ,,fig4 #gc4 #bji ,,fig4 #gd4 #bac ,,fig4 #ge4 #bbi ,,fig4 #gf4 #bbi ,,fig4 #gg4 #bbi ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates #bga ,i4 ,old ,carved ,chest in ,york ,cathedral4 ,,ii4--,figure from the ,tomb of ,henry ,,iv4 in ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,,iii4--,aisle ,roof--,mildenhall ,church1 ,suffolk4 ,,iv4--,nave ,roof--,sall ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,v4--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel--,the ,sheepfold4 ,,vi--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel--,the ,sheepfold4 ,,vii4--,preliminary ,drawing of a ,lion for ,carving4 ,by ,phillip ,webb4 ,,viii4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,tale of ,troy4 7only carved portion shown47 ,,ix4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,tale of ,troy4 7only carved portion shown47 ,x4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,reynard the ,fox4 7only carved portions shown47 ,,xi4--,carving from ,choir ,stalls in ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,,xii4--,carving from ,choir ,screen--,winchester ,cathedral4 ,,xiii4--,font ,canopy--,trunch ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,,xiv4--,two designs for ,carving1 by ,philip ,webb4 ,one executed1 one in drawing4 ,,xv4--,leg of a ,settle1 carved in ,english ,oak4 ,,xvi4--,pew ,ends in ,carved ,oak--,brent ,church1 ,somersetshire4 ,,preamble ,student and ,apprentice1 their ,aims and ,conditions of ,work--,necessity for some ,equality between ,theory and ,practise--,the ,student's ,opportunity lies on the ,side of ,design4 ,the study of some form of handicraft has of late years become an important element in the training of an art student4 ,it is with the object of assisting such with practical directions1 as well as suggesting to more practised carvers considerations of design and treatment1 that the present volume has been written4 ,the art of wood-carving1 however1 lends itself to literary demonstration only in a very limited way1 more especially in the condensed form of a text-book1 which must be looked upon merely as a temporary guide1 of use only until such time as practise and study shall have strengthened the judgment of the student1 and enabled him to assimilate the many and involved principles which underlie the development of his craft4 ,if the beginner has mastered to some extent the initial difficulties of the draftsman1 and has a fair general knowledge of the laws of design1 but no acquaintance with their application to the art of wood-carving1 then the two factors which will most immediately affect his progress 7apart from natural aptitude7 are his opportunities for practise1 and his knowledge of past and present conditions of work4 ,no one can become a good carver without considerable practise--constant1 if the best results are to be looked for4 ,just as truly1 without some knowledge of past and existing conditions of practise1 none may hope to escape the danger of becoming1 on the one hand1 dull imitators of the superficial qualities of old work2 or on the other1 followers of the first will-o'-the-wisp novelty which presents itself to their fancy4 ,if use of the tools and knowledge of materials were the only subjects of which a carver need become master1 there would be no way equal to the old-fashioned one of apprenticeship to some good craftsman4 ,daily practise with the tools insures a manual dexterity with which no amateur need hope to compete4 ,many traditional expedients are handed down in this way that can be acquired in no other4 ,there is1 however1 another side of the question to be considered1 of quite as much importance as the practical one of handicraft skill4 ,the art of wood-carving has also to fulfil its intellectual function1 as an interpreter of the dreams and fancies of imagination4 ,in this respect there is little encouragement to be looked for in the dull routine of a modern workshop4 ,there are1 therefore1 two widely separated standpoints from which the art may be viewed4 ,it may be looked at from the position of a regular craftsman1 who regards it primarily as his means of livelihood2 or it may be dealt with as a subject of intellectual interest1 based upon its relation to the laws of art in general4 ,as1 in the first instance1 the use of the tools can not be learned without some accompanying knowledge of the laws of art1 however slight that acquaintance may be1 the method of apprenticeship has the advantage of being the more practical of the two2 but it must be accepted with all the conditions imposed upon it by the pressure of commercial interest and its usages3 conditions1 which1 it may easily be imagined1 are far more favorable to the performance of dull task-work1 than to the adventurous spirit of curiosity which should prompt the enterprise of an energetic student4 ,on the other hand1 although an independent study of the art offers a wider range of interest1 the student is1 for that very reason1 exposed to the risk of involving himself in a labyrinth of confusing and ineffectual theories4 ,the fact is1 that neither method can at the present time be exclusively depended upon as a means of development2 neither can be pronounced complete in itself nor independent of the other4 ,the only sure safeguard against the vagueness of theory is constant practise with the tools2 while1 to the craftsman in the full enjoyment of every means for exercising and increasing his technical skill1 a general study and intelligent conception of the wide possibilities of his art is just as essential1 if it were only as an antidote to the influence of an otherwise mechanical employment4 ,the more closely these contradictory views are made to approximate1 the more certain will become the carver's aims1 and the clearer will be his understanding of the difficulties which surround his path1 enabling him to choose that which is practicable and intrinsically valuable1 both as regards the theory and practise of his art4 ,if the student1 through lack of opportunities for practise1 is debarred from all chance of acquiring that expertness which accompanies great technical skill1 he may at least find encouragement in the fact that he can never exhaust the interest afforded by his art in its infinite suggestion to the imagination and fancy2 and also that by the exercise of diligence1 and a determination to succeed1 he may reasonably hope to gain such a degree of proficiency with the tools as will enable him to execute with his hands every idea which has a definite existence in his mind4 ,generally speaking1 it will be found that his manual powers are always a little in advance of his perceptions4 ,thus the student may gradually work out for himself a natural and reliable manner of expressing his thoughts1 and in a way1 too1 that is likely to compensate for his technical shortcomings1 by exciting a more lively interest in the resources of the art itself4 ,the measure of his success will be determined partly by his innate capacity for the work1 and partly by the amount of time which he is enabled to give to its practise4 ,the resources of his art offer an infinite scope for the exercise of his powers of design1 and as this is the side which lies nearest to his opportunities it should be the one which receives his most earnest attention1 not merely as experiments on paper1 but as exercises carried out to the best of his ability with the tools4 ,such technical difficulties as he may encounter in the process will gradually disappear with practise4 ,there is also encouragement in the thought that wood-carving is an art which makes no immediate calls upon that mysterious combination of extraordinary gifts labeled genius1 but is rather one which demands tribute from the bright and happy inspirations of a normally healthy mind4 ,there is1 in this direction1 quite a life's work for any enthusiast who aims at finding the bearings of his own small but precious gift1 and in making it intelligible to others2 while1 at the same time1 keeping himself free from the many confusions and affectations which surround him in the endeavor4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,tools ,average ,number of ,tools required by ,carvers--,selection for ,beginners--,description of ,tools--,position when in ,use--,acquisition by ,degrees4 ,we will suppose that the student is anxious to make a practical commencement to his studies4 ,the first consideration will be to procure a set of tools1 and we propose in this place to describe those which will answer the purposes of a beginner1 as well as to look generally at others in common use among craftsmen4 ,the tools used by carvers consist for the most part of chisels and gouges of different shapes and sizes4 ,the number of tools required by professional carvers for one piece of work varies in proportion to the elaborateness of the carving to be done4 ,they may use from half a dozen on simple work up to twenty or thirty for the more intricate carvings1 this number being a selection out of a larger stock reaching perhaps as many as a hundred or more4 ,many of these tools vary only in size and sweep of cutting edge4 ,thus1 chisels and gouges are to be had ranging from #a_/afth of an inch to #a inch wide1 with curves or sweeps in each size graduated between a semicircle to a curve almost flat4 ,few carvers1 however1 possess such a complete stock of tools as would be represented by one of each size and shape manufactured2 such a thing is not required3 an average number of1 say seventy tools1 will always give a sufficient variety of size and sweep for general purposes2 few pieces of work will require the use of more than half of these in its execution4 ,the beginner1 however1 need not possess more than from twelve to twenty-four1 and may even make a start with fewer4 ,it is a good plan to learn the uses of a few tools before acquiring a complete set1 as by this means1 when difficulties are felt in the execution of work1 a tool of known description is sought for and purchased with a foreknowledge of its advantages4 ,this is the surest way to gain a distinct knowledge of the varieties of each kind of tool1 and their application to the different purposes of design4 ,the following list of tools 7see ,figs4 #a and #b7 will be found sufficient for all the occasions of study3 beginning by the purchase of the first section1 ,nos4 #a to #ag1 and adding others one by one until a set is made up of twenty-four tools4 ,the tools should be selected as near the sizes and shapes shown in the illustration as possible4 ,the curved and straight strokes represent the shape of the actual cuts made by pressing the tools down perpendicularly into a piece of wood4 ,this1 in the case of gouges1 is generally called the sweep4 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c are gouges1 of sweeps varying from one almost flat 7,no4 #a7 to a distinct hollow in ,no4 #c4 ,these tools are made in two forms1 straight-sided and spade-shaped2 an illustration of the spade form is given on the second page of tools4 ,in purchasing his set of tools the student should order ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #aj1 #aa in this form4 ,they will be found to have many advantages1 as they conceal less of the wood behind them and get well into corners inaccessible to straight-sided tools4 ,they are lighter and more easily sharpened1 and are very necessary in finishing the surface of work1 and in shaping out foliage1 more especially such as is undercut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,nos4 #e1 #f1 #g are straight gouges graduated in size and sweep4 ,no4 #h is called a ,veiner1 because it is often used for making the grooves which represent veins in leaves4 ,it is a narrow but deep gouge1 and is used for any narrow grooves which may be required1 and for outlining the drawing at starting4 ,no4 #i is called a ,v tool or parting tool1 on account of its shape4 ,it is used for making grooves with straight sides and sharp inner angles at the bottom4 ,it can be used for various purposes1 such as undercutting1 clearing out sharply defined angles1 outlining the drawing1 etc41 etc4 ,it should be got with a square cutting edge1 not beveled off as some are made4 ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab are flat chisels1 or1 as they are sometimes called1 firmers4 7,nos4 #aj and #aa should be in spade shape47 ,no4 #ac is also a flat chisel1 but it is beveled off to a point1 and is called a corner-chisel2 it is used for getting into difficult corners1 and is a most useful tool when used as a knife for delicate edges or curves4 ,nos4 #ad and #af are what are known as bent chisels2 they are used principally for leveling the ground 7or background71 and are therefore also called grounders4 ,these tools are made with various curves or bends in their length1 but for our present uses one with a bend like that shown to tool ,no4 #bc1 ,fig4 #b1 and at a in ,fig4 #c1 will be best2 more bend1 as at b1 would only make the tool unfit for leveling purposes on a flat ground4 ,no4 #ae is a similar tool1 but called a corner grounder1 as it is beveled off like a corner-chisel4 ,no4 #ag is an additional gouge of very slow sweep and small size4 ,this is a very handy little tool1 and serves a variety of purposes when you come to finishing the surface4 ,these seventeen tools will make up a very useful set for the beginner1 and should serve him for a long time1 or at least until he really begins to feel the want of others2 then he may get the remainder shown on ,fig4 #b4 ,nos4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj are deep gouges1 having somewhat straight sides2 they are used where grooves are set deeply1 and when they are required to change in section from deep and narrow to wide and shallow4 ,this is done by turning the tool on its side1 which brings the flatter sweep into action1 thus changing the shape of the hollow4 ,nos4 #ba1 #bb are gouges1 but are called bent gouges--front bent in this case1 back bent when the cutting sweep is turned upside down4 ,it is advisable when selecting these tools to get them as shown in the illustration1 with a very easy curve in their bend2 they are more generally useful so1 as quick bends are only good for very deep hollows4 ,these tools are used for making grooves in hollow places where an ordinary gouge will not work1 owing to its meeting the opposing fiber of the wood4 ,no4 #bc is a similar tool1 but very easy both in its sweep and bend--the sweep should be little more than recognizable as a curve4 ,this tool may be used as a grounder when the wood is slightly hollow1 or liable to tear up under the flat grounder4 ,no4 #bd is called a ,maccaroni tool4 ,this is used for clearing out the ground close against leaves or other projections2 as it has two square sides it can be used right and left4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig #c1 a shows the best form of grounding tool2 b is little or no use for this purpose1 as it curves up too suddenly for work on a flat ground4 ,it is a good thing to have the handles of tools made of different colored woods1 as it assists the carver in picking them out quickly from those lying ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,when in use1 the tools should be laid out in front of the carver if possible1 and with their points toward him1 in order that he may see the shape and choose quickly the one he wants4 ,the tempering of tools is a very important factor in their efficiency4 ,it is only of too common occurrence to find many of the tools manufactured of late years unfit for use on account of their softness of metal4 ,there is nothing more vexatious to a carver than working with a tool which turns over its cutting edge1 even in soft wood2 such tools should be returned to the agent who sold them4 ,with a selection from the above tools1 acquired by degrees in the manner described1 almost any kind of work may be done4 ,there is no need whatever to have a tool for every curve of the design4 ,these can readily be made by using straight chisels in combination with such gouges as we possess1 or by sweeping the curves along their sides with a chisel used knife fashion4 ,no really beautiful curves can be made by merely following the curves of gouges1 however various their sweeps1 as they are all segments of circles4 ,tools generally come from the manufacturer ground1 but not sharpened4 ,as the student must in any case learn how to sharpen his tools1 it will be just as well to get them in that way rather than ready for use4 ,as this process of sharpening tools is a very important one1 it must be reserved for another place4 ,should tools be seriously blunted or broken they must be reground4 ,this can be done by the carver1 either on a grindstone or a piece of gritty ,york stone1 care being taken to repeat the original bevel2 or they may be sent to a tool shop where they are in the habit of grinding carving tools4 ,catalogues of tools may be had from good makers2 they will be found to consist mainly in a large variety of the tools already mentioned4 ,those which are very much bent or curved are intended for special application to elaborate and difficult passages in carving1 and need not concern the student until he comes to find the actual want of such shapes2 such1 for instance1 as bent parting tools and back bent gouges4 ,in addition to the above tools1 carvers occasionally use one called a ,router4 ,this is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicular blade4 ,it is used for digging or routing out the wood in places where it is to be sunk to form a ground4 ,it is not a tool to be recommended for the use of beginners1 who should learn to make sufficiently even backgrounds without the aid of mechanical contrivances4 ,carvers also use the ,rifler1 which is a bent file4 ,this is useful for very fine work in hard wood1 and also for roughly approximating to rounded forms before finishing with the tools4 ,a few joiner's tools are very useful to the carver1 and should form part of his equipment4 ,a wide chisel1 say about #a-a_/d in4 wide1 a small iron bull-nose plane1 and a keyhole saw1 will all be helpful1 and save a lot of unnecessary labor with the carving tools4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,sharpening-,,stones--,,mallet ,,and ,,bench ,different ,stones in use--,case for ,stones--,slips--,round ,mallet ,best--,a ,home-,made ,bench--,a ,makeshift ,bench--,cramps and ,clips4 ,the stones which are most generally used for the purpose of sharpening carving tools are ,turkey and ,washita4 ,there are many others1 some equally good1 but ,washita is easily procured and very serviceable4 ,it is to be had in various grades1 and it may be just as well to have one coarse and one fine1 but in any case we must have a fine-grained stone to put a keen edge on the tools4 ,a ,turkey stone is a fine-grained and slow-cutting one1 and may take the place of the finer ,washita4 ,the ,india oilstone is a composition of emery with some kind of stone dust1 and is a useful stone for quickly rubbing down superfluous steel before putting an edge to the tool4 ,it is better to get these stones without cases1 as they can then be used on both sides1 one for flat tools and one for gouges1 which wear the face of a stone into grooves4 ,a case may be made by hollowing out a block of wood so as to take the stone loosely2 and if at one end a small notch is made in this block1 a screwdriver may be inserted under the stone when it is necessary to turn it4 ,two brads or pins should be inserted in holes1 having their points just appearing below the bottom of the block4 ,these prevent it slipping about when in use4 ,these stones should be lubricated with a mixture of olive oil and paraffin in equal parts4 ,bicycle lubricating oil is very good for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,for sharpening the insides of tools1 slips are made with rounded edges of different sizes4 ,one slip of ,washita stone and one of ,arkansas will be enough for the present1 as they will fit moderately well most of the gouges in the beginner's set of tools2 the ,arkansas being used for the smaller tools4 ,the ,arkansas slip should be what is called knife-edged4 ,this is required for sharpening such tools as the veiner and ,v tool2 it is a very fine marble-like stone1 and exceedingly brittle2 care must be taken in handling it1 as a fall would in all probability be fatal4 ,,the ,,bench ,,and ,,mallet ,the ,mallet4--,the carver's mallet is used for driving his tools where force is required4 ,the most suitable form is the round one1 made of beech2 one #d ins4 diameter will be heavy enough4 ,the ,bench4--,every carver should provide himself with a bench4 ,he may make one for himself according to the size and construction shown in the illustration1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the top should be made of two #aa x #b in4 boards1 and1 as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed at1 the joints should have some care4 ,those in illustration are shown to be formed by checking one piece of wood over the other1 with shoulders to resist lateral strain4 ,proper tenons would be better1 but more difficult to make4 ,it must have a projecting edge at the front and ends1 to receive the clamps4 ,the bench should have a joiner's bench-screw attached to the back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its edges or ends4 ,the feet should be secured to the floor by means of iron brackets1 as considerable force is applied in carving hard wood1 which may move the bench bodily1 unless it is secured1 or is very heavy4 ,professional carvers use a bench which is composed of beech planks1 three or four inches in thickness1 and of length according to shop-room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,should it not be possible to make or procure a bench1 then a substitute must be used4 ,fig4 #f gives a suggestion for making such a temporary bench4 ,the top is composed of one piece of board1 #aa ins4 wide and #a-a_/b in4 thick4 ,it should be about #b ft4 #f ins4 long and rest on two blocks fixed about #a-a_/b in4 from the ends1 which must project1 as in ,fig4 #f4 ,this may be used on any ordinary table1 to which it should be secured by means of two #c-a_/b-;in4 clamps4 ,the height from the floor should be #c ft4 #b ins4 to top of board4 ,this gives a good height for working1 as carvers invariably stand to their work4 ,the height can be regulated by making the blocks1 a1 higher or lower to suit the table which is to be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,cramps4--,cramps for holding the work in position on the bench are of several kinds4 ,for ordinary thicknesses of wood1 two #d-a_/b-;in4 screw clamps1 like the one in ,fig4 #g1 will be sufficient4 ,wooden blocks may be also used to hold one end of the work down while the other is held by a clamp4 ,these blocks are notched out to fit over the thickness of the board being carved1 as in ,fig4 #g4 ,carvers use for their heavier work a bench-screw1 as it is called2 that is1 a screw which passes through the bench into the back of the work1 which may thus be turned about at will2 also1 if the work is very thick1 they hold it in position by means of a bench holdfast1 a kind of combined lever and screw2 but neither of these contrivances is likely to be required by the beginner1 whose work should be kept within manageable dimensions4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,woods ,,used ,,for ,,carving ,hard ,wood and ,soft ,wood--,closeness of ,grain ,desirable--,advantages of ,pine and ,english ,oak4 ,the woods suitable for carving are very various2 but we shall confine our attention to those in common use4 ,of the softer woods1 those which are most easily procured and most adaptable to modern uses are yellow pine1 ,bass wood1 ,kauri pine1 and ,lime4 ,these are all good woods for the carver2 but we need not at present look for any better qualities than we shall find in a good piece of yellow pine1 free from knots or shakes4 ,the following woods may be considered as having an intermediate place between soft and hard3 ,sycamore1 ,beech1 and ,holly4 ,they are light-colored woods1 and ,very useful for broad shallow work4 ,english ,oak4--,of the hard woods in common use1 the principal kinds are ,oak1 ,walnut1 and occasionally ,mahogany4 ,of oak1 the ,english variety is by far the best for the carver1 being close in the grain and very hard4 ,it is beyond all others the carvers' wood1 and was invariably used by them in this country during the robust period of medieval craftsmanship4 ,it offers to the carver an invigorating resistance to his tools1 and its character determines to a great extent that of the work put upon it4 ,it takes in finishing a very beautiful surface1 when skilfully handled--and this tempts the carver to make the most of his opportunities by adapting his execution to its virtues4 ,other oaks1 such as ,austrian and ,american1 are often used1 but they do not offer quite the same tempting opportunity to the carver4 ,they are1 by nature1 quicker-growing trees1 and are1 consequently1 more open in the grain4 ,they have tough1 sinewy fibers1 alternating with softer material4 ,they rarely take the same degree of finish as the ,english oak1 but remain somewhat dull in texture4 ,good pieces for carving may be got1 but they must be picked out from a quantity of stuff4 ,chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for oak1 but it is better fitted for large-scaled work where fineness of detail is not of so much importance4 ,italian ,walnut4--,this is a very fine-grained wood1 of even texture4 ,the ,italian variety is the best for carving3 it cuts with something of the firmness of ,english oak1 and is capable of receiving even more finish of surface in small details4 ,it is admirably suited for fine work in low relief4 ,in choosing this wood for carving1 the hardest and closest in grain should be picked1 as it is by no means all of equal quality4 ,it should be free from sap1 which may be known by a light streak on the edges of the dark brown wood4 ,english walnut has too much figure in the grain to be suitable for carving4 ,american walnut is best fitted for sharply cut shallow carving1 as its fiber is caney4 ,if it is used1 the design should be one in which no fine modeling or detail is required1 as this wood allows of little finish to the surface4 ,mahogany1 more especially the kind known as ,honduras1 is very similar to ,american walnut in quality of grain3 it cuts in a sharp caney manner4 ,the ,spanish variety was closer in grain1 but is now almost unprocurable4 ,work carved in mahogany should1 like that in ,american walnut1 be broad and simple in style1 without much rounded detail4 ,it is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of woods beyond the few kinds mentioned4 ,woods such as ebony1 sandalwood1 cherry1 brier1 box1 pear-tree1 lancewood1 and many others1 are all good for the carver1 but are better fitted for special purposes and small work4 ,as this book is concerned more with the art of carving than its application1 it will save confusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft wood1 and good close-grained oak as representing hard wood4 ,it may be noted in passing that the woods of all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very liable to the attack of worms and rot4 ,no carving1 in whatever wood1 should be polished4 ,i shall refer to this when we come to texture and finish4 ,,chapter ,v ,,sharpening ,,the ,,tools ,the ,proper ,bevel--,position of ,tools on ,oilstone--,good and ,bad ,edge--,stropping--,paste and ,leather--,careless ,sharpening--,rubbing ,out the ,inside--,stropping ,fine ,tools--,importance of ,sharp ,tools4 ,having given this brief description of the tools and materials used by carvers1 we shall suppose a piece of work is about to be started4 ,the first thing the carver will require to do is to sharpen his tools4 ,that is1 if we may assume that they have just come from the manufacturer1 ground but not yet brought to an edge4 ,it will be seen that each has a long bevel ending in a blunt ridge where the cutting edge should be4 ,we shall take the chisel ,no4 #aj and sharpen that first1 as it is the easiest to do1 and so get a little practise before we try the gouges4 ,the oilstone and oil have already been described4 ,the first thing is to well oil the stone and lay it on the bench in a position with its end toward the operator4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,angle ,,for ,,softwood ,b4 ,,angle ,,for ,,hardwood ,,fig4 #h4 ,tools which are going to be used in soft wood require rather a longer bevel and more acute edge than when they are wanted for hard wood4 ,both angles are shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an angle of about #ae1 with the handle in the hollow of the right hand1 and two fingers of the left pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as possible4 ,then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone1 taking care not to rock the right hand up and down1 but to keep it as level as possible throughout the stroke1 bearing heavily on the blade with the left hand1 to keep it well in contact with the stone4 ,rocking produces a rounded edge which is fatal to keenness4 ,c 7,fig4 #i7 gives approximately1 to an enlarged scale1 the sections of a good edge1 and ,d that of an imperfect one4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,,good ,,cutting ,,edge ,d4 ,,badly ,,formed ,,edge4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,practise alone will familiarize the muscles of the wrist with the proper motion1 but it is important to acquire this in order to form the correct habit early4 ,it should be practised very slowly at first1 until the hands get accustomed to the movements4 ,when one side of the tool has been rubbed bright as far as the cutting edge1 turn it over and treat the other in the same way4 ,carvers' tools1 unlike joiners'1 are rubbed on both sides1 in the proportion of about two-thirds outside to one-third inside4 ,when a keen edge has been formed1 which can easily be tested by gently applying the finger1 it should be stropped on a piece of stout leather4 ,it will be found1 if the finger is passed down the tool and over its edge1 that the stoning has turned up a burr4 ,this must be removed by stropping on both sides alternately4 ,a paste composed of emery and crocus powders mixed with grease is used to smear the leather before stropping2 this can either be procured at the tool shop1 or made by the carver4 ,when the tool has been sufficiently stropped1 and all burr removed1 it is ready for use1 but it is as well to try it on a piece of wood first1 and test it for burr1 and if necessary strop it again4 ,before we leave this tool1 however1 we shall anticipate a little1 and look at it after it has been used for some time and become blunt4 ,its cutting edge and the bevel above it are now polished to a high degree1 owing to friction with the wood4 ,we lay it on the stone1 taking care to preserve the original angle 7#ae74 ,we find on looking at the tool after a little rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along the edge in contrast with the gray steel which has been in contact with the stone4 ,this bright rim is part of the polished surface the whole bevel had before we began this second sharpening1 which proves that the actual edge has not yet touched the stone4 ,we are tempted to lift the right hand ever so little1 and so get rid of this bright rim 7sometimes called the candle72 we shall thus get an edge quicker than if we have to rub away all the steel behind it4 ,we do this1 and soon get our edge2 the bright rim has disappeared1 but we have done an unwise thing1 and have not saved much time1 because we have begun to make a rounded edge1 which1 if carried a little farther1 will make the tool useless until it is reground4 ,there is no help for it3 time must be spent and trouble taken in sharpening tools2 with method and care there need be very little grinding1 unless tools are actually broken4 ,to resume our lesson in tool-sharpening3 we can not do much carving with one chisel1 so we shall now take up gouge ,no4 #b as being the least difficult4 ,this being a rounded tool1 we must turn the stone over and use the side we have determined to keep for gouges1 etc4 ,we commence rubbing it up and down the stone in the same manner as described for the chisel1 but1 in addition1 we have now another motion4 ,to bring all the parts of the edge into contact with the stone the gouge must be rolled from side to side as it goes up and down4 ,to accomplish this the wrist should be slowly practised until it gets into step with the up and down motions2 it matters very little whether one turn of the tool is given to one passage along the stone1 or only one turn to many up and down rubbings4 ,the main thing is evenness of rubbing all along the circular edge1 as if one part gets more than its share the edge becomes wavy1 which is a thing to be avoided as much as possible4 ,when the outside has been cleanly rubbed up to the edge1 the inside is to be rubbed out with the ,washita slip and oil to the extent of about half as much as the outside4 ,the handle of the tool should be grasped in the left hand1 while its blade rests on a block of wood1 or on the oilstone4 ,hold the slip between the fingers and thumb1 slanting a little over the inner edge2 and work it in a series of short downward strokes1 beginning the stroke at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at the other 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,strop the outside of the tool1 and test for burr1 then lay the leather over the handle of another tool and strop the inside1 repeating the operation until all burr has been removed1 when probably the tool will be ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the ,veiner requires the same kind of treatment1 only as this tool is not part of a circle in its section 7having straight sides71 only one-half must be done at a time2 and it is as well to give the straight sides one stroke or so in every half-dozen all to itself to keep it in shape4 ,care must be taken with this tool as it is easily rubbed out of shape4 ,the inside must be finished off with the ,arkansas knife-edged slip1 one side at a time1 as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section of these deep tools at one stroke4 ,stropping must follow as before1 but as this tool is so small that the leather will not enter its hollow1 the leather must be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn along its edge until it makes a little ridge for itself which fills the hollow and clears off burr 7see ,fig4 #aa72 if any such adheres outside1 a slight rub on the ,arkansas stone will probably remove it4 ,when the edges of the tools begin to get dull1 it often happens that they only require to be stropped1 which should be frequently done4 ,as the treatment of all gouges is more or less like what has been described1 practise will enable the student to adapt it to the shape of the tool which requires his attention4 ,there remains only the ,v tool1 the ,spoon tools1 and the ,maccaroni1 which all require special attention4 ,the point of the ,v tool is so acute that it becomes difficult to clear the inside4 ,a knife-edged slip is used for this purpose1 and it is well also to cut a slip of wood to a thin edge1 and after rubbing it with paste and oil1 pass it down frequently over the point between the sides4 ,unless a very sharp point is obtained1 this tool is practically useless2 the least speck of burr or dullness will stop its progress or tear up the wood4 ,in sharpening it1 the sides should be pressed firmly on the stone1 watching it every now and then to see what effect is being produced4 ,if a gap begins to appear on one side1 as it often does1 then rub the other side until it disappears1 taking care to bear more heavily on the point of the tool than elsewhere4 ,if the sides get out of shape1 pass the tool along the stone1 holding it at right angles to the side of the stone1 but at the proper angle of elevation2 in this case the tool is held near its end1 between fingers and thumb4 ,spoon tools must be held to the stone at a much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the right relation to the surface1 or they may be drawn sidewise along it1 taking care that every part of the edge comes in contact and receives an equal amount of rubbing4 ,these may be treated half at a time1 or all round1 according to the size and depth of the tool4 ,however it is produced1 the one thing essential is a long straight-sectioned cutting bevel1 not a rounded or obtuse one4 ,strop the inside by folding up the leather into a little roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,for the small set of tools described in ,chapter ,,ii one flat oilstone and two slips will be found sufficient for a beginning1 but as a matter of fact1 it will be advisable1 as the number of tools is enlarged1 to obtain slips of curves corresponding to the hollows of all gouges as nearly as possible4 ,many professional carvers have sets of these slips for the insides of tools1 varying in curves which exactly fit every hollow tool they possess1 including a triangular one for the inside of the ,v tool4 ,the same rule sometimes applies to the sweeps of the outsides of gouges1 for these1 corresponding channels are ground out in flat stones1 a process which is both difficult and laborious4 ,if the insides are dealt with on fitting slips1 which may be easily adapted to the purpose by application to a grindstone1 the outsides are not so difficult to manage1 so that grooved stones may be dispensed with4 ,before we leave the subject of sharpening tools it will be well to impress upon the beginner the extreme importance of keeping his tools in good order4 ,when a tool is really sharp it whistles as it works2 a dull tool makes dull work1 and the carver loses both time and temper4 ,there can be no doubt that the great technical skill shown in the works of ,grinling ,gibbons and his followers could not have been arrived at without the help of extraordinarily sharp tools4 ,tools not merely sharpened and then used until they became dull1 but tools that were always sharp1 and never allowed to approach dullness4 ,sharpening tools is indeed an art in itself1 and like other arts has its votaries1 who successfully conquer its difficulties with apparent ease1 while others are baffled at every point4 ,impatience is the stumbling-block in such operations4 ,those most painstaking people1 the ,chinese1 according to all accounts1 put magic into their sharpening stones2 the keenness of their blades being only equaled by that of their wits in all such matters of delicate application4 ,to make a good beginning is a great point gained4 ,to carefully examine every tool1 and at the expense of time correct the faults of management1 is the only way to become expert in sharpening tools4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,chip ,,carving ,its ,savage ,origin--,a ,clue to its only ,claim to ,artistic ,importance--,monotony better than ,variety--,an ,exercise in ,impatience and ,precision--,technical ,methods4 ,one of the simplest forms of wood-carving is that known as chip carving4 ,this kind of work is by no means of modern origin1 as its development may be traced to a source in the barbaric instinct for decoration common to the ancient inhabitants of ,new ,zealand and other ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,technically1 and with modern tools1 it is a form of the art which demands but little skill1 save in the matter of precision and patient repetition4 ,as practised by its savage masters1 the perfection of these two qualities elevates their work to the dignity of a real art4 ,it is difficult to conceive the contradictory fact1 that this apparently simple form of art was once the exponent of a struggling desire for refinement on the part of fierce and warlike men1 and that it should1 under the influence of polite society1 become the all-too-easy task of esthetically minded schoolgirls4 ,in the hands of those warrior artists1 and with the tools at their command1 mostly fashioned from sharpened fish-bones and such like rude materials1 it was an art which required the equivalent of many fine artistic qualities1 as such are understood by more cultivated nations4 ,the marvelous dexterity and determined purpose evinced in the laborious decoration of canoe paddles1 ax-handles1 and other weapons1 is1 under such technical disabilities as to tools1 really very impressive4 ,this being so1 there is no inherent reason why such a rudimentary form of the art as chip carving should not be practised in a way consistent with its true nature and limitations4 ,as its elemental distinctions are so few1 and its methods so simple1 it follows that in recognizing such limitations1 we shall make the most of our design4 ,instead1 then1 of trusting to a forced variety1 let us seek for its strong point in an opposite direction1 and by the monotonous repetition of basket-like patterns1 win the not-to-be-despised praise which is due to patience and perseverance4 ,in this way only can such a restricted form of artistic expression become in the least degree interesting4 ,the designs usually associated with the civilized practise of this work are1 generally speaking1 of the kind known as geometric1 that is to say1 composed of circles and straight lines intersecting each other in complicated pattern4 ,now the variety obtained in this manner1 as contrasted with the dignified monotony of the savage's method1 is the note which marks a weak desire to attain great results with little effort4 ,the variety1 as such1 is wholly mechanical1 the technical difficulties1 with modern tools at command1 are felt at a glance to be very trifling2 therefore such designs are quite unsuitable to the kind of work1 if human sympathies are to be excited in a reasonable way4 ,an important fact in connection with this kind of design is that most of these geometric patterns are1 apart from their uncomfortable variety1 based on too large a scale as to detail4 ,all the laborious carving on paddles and clubs1 such as may be seen in our museums1 is founded upon a scale of detail in which the holes vary in size from #a_/af to something under #a_/d in4 their longest way1 only in special places1 such as borders1 etc41 attaining a larger size4 ,such variety as the artist has permitted himself being confined to the occasional introduction of a circular form1 but mostly obtained by a subtle change in the proportion of the holes1 or by an alternate emphasis upon perpendicular or horizontal lines4 ,as a test of endurance1 and as an experimental effort with carving tools1 ,i set you this exercise4 ,in ,fig4 #ab you will find a pattern taken from one of those ,south ,sea carvings which we have been considering4 ,now1 take one of the articles so often disfigured with childish and hasty efforts to cover a surface with so-called art work1 such as the side of a bellows or the surface of a bread-plate1 and on it carve this pattern1 repeating the same-shaped holes until you fill the entire space4 ,by the time you have completed it you will begin to understand and appreciate one of the fundamental qualities which must go toward the making of a carver1 namely1 patience2 and you will have produced a thing which may give you pleasant surprises1 in the unexpected but very natural admiration it elicits from your friends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,having drawn the pattern on your wood1 ruling the lines to measurement1 and being careful to keep your lines thin and clear as drawn with a somewhat hard pencil1 proceed to cut out the holes with the chisel1 ,no4 #aa on our list1 #a_/d in4 wide4 ,it will serve the purpose much better than the knife usually sold for this kind of work1 and will be giving you useful practise with a very necessary carving tool4 ,the corner of the chisel will do most of the work1 sloping it to suit the different angles at the bottom of the holes4 ,each chip should come out with a clean cut1 but to insure this the downward cuts should be done first1 forming the raised diagonal lines4 ,when you have successfully performed this piece of discipline1 you may1 if you care to do more of the same kind of work1 carry out a design based upon the principles we have been discussing1 but introducing a very moderate amount of variety by using one or more of the patterns shown in ,fig4 #ab1 all of which are from the same dusky artist's designs and can not be improved upon4 ,if you wish for more variety than these narrow limits afford1 then try some other kind of carving1 with perhaps leafage as its motive4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,grain ,,of ,,the ,,wood ,obstinacy of the ,woody ,fiber--,first ,exercise in ,grounding--,description of ,method--,cutting the ,miters--,handling of ,tools1 ,danger of ,carelessness--,importance of ,clean ,cutting4 ,it is curious to imagine what the inside of a young enthusiast's head must be like when he makes his first conscious step toward artistic expression4 ,the chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas1 whirling about in its recesses1 produce kaleidoscopic effects1 which to him look like the most lovely pictures4 ,if he could only learn to put them down6 let him but acquire the technical department of his art1 and what easier than to realize those most marvelous dreams4 ,later in his progress it begins to dawn upon him that this same technical department may not be so very obedient to his wishes2 it may have laws of its own1 which shall change his fairy fancies into sober images1 not at all unlike something which has often been done before by others4 ,but let the young soul continue to see visions1 the more the better1 provided they be of the right sort4 ,we shall in the meantime ask him to curb his imagination1 and yield his faculties for the moment to the apparently simple task of realizing a leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted valley4 ,with the student's kind permission we shall1 while these lessons continue1 make believe that teacher and pupil are together in a class-room1 or1 better still1 in a country workshop1 with chips flying in all directions under busy hands4 ,i must tell you then1 that the first surprise which awaits the beginner1 and one which opens his eyes to a whole series of restraints upon the freedom of his operations1 lies in the discovery that wood has a decided grain or fiber4 ,he will find that it sometimes behaves in a very obstinate manner1 refusing to cut straight here1 chipping off there1 and altogether seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort4 ,by and by he gets to know his piece of wood2 where the grain dips and where it comes up or wriggles1 and with practise he becomes its master4 ,he finds in this1 his first technical difficulty1 a kind of blessing in disguise1 because it sets bounds to what would otherwise be an infinitely vague choice of methods4 ,we shall now take a piece of yellow pine1 free from knots1 and planed clean all round4 ,the size may be about #ab ins4 long by #g ins4 wide4 ,we shall fix this to the bench by means of two clamps or one clamp and a screwed block at opposite corners4 ,now we are ready to begin work1 but up to the present we have not thought of the design we intend executing1 being so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack upon the silky wood with their sharp edges4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #ac1 gives a clue to the sort of design to begin with2 it measures about #aa ins4 long by #g ins4 wide1 allowing a margin all round4 ,the wood should be a little longer than the design1 as the ends get spoiled by the clamps4 ,this little design need not1 and indeed should not1 be copied4 ,make one for yourself entirely different1 only bearing in mind the points which are to be observed in arranging it1 and which have for their object the avoidance of difficulties likely to be too much for a first effort4 ,these points are somewhat to this effect3 the design should be of leaves1 laid out flat on a background1 with no complication of perspective4 ,they should have no undulations of surface4 ,that is to say1 the margins of all the features should be as nearly as possible the original surface of the wood1 which may have just the least possible bit of finish in the manner ,i shall describe later on4 ,the articulation of the leaves and flower is represented by simple gouge cuts4 ,there should be nothing in the design requiring rounded surfaces4 ,the passage for tools in clearing out the ground between the features must not be less than #a_/d in42 this will allow the #c_/af in4 corner grounder to pass freely backward and forward4 ,the ground is supposed to be sunk about three-sixteenths of an inch4 ,as you have not got your design made1 ,i shall1 for convenience' sake1 explain how ,fig4 #ac should be begun and finished4 ,first having traced the full-size design it should be transferred to the wood by means of a piece of blue carbon paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,then with either the ,veiner or ,v tool outline the whole of the leaves1 etc41 about #a_/h in4 deep1 keeping well on the outside of the drawing4 ,ignore all minor detail for the present1 blocking out the design in masses4 ,no outline need be grooved for the margin of the panel at present1 as it should be done with a larger tool4 ,for this purpose take gouge ,no4 #f 7#a_/d in4 wide71 and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of the panel1 cut a groove about #a_/af in4 within the blue line1 taking care not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process2 begin a little above the corner at the bottom1 and leave off a little below that at the top4 ,the miters will be formed later on4 ,in this operation1 as in all subsequent ones1 the grain of the wood will be more or less in evidence4 ,you will by degrees get to know the piece of wood you are working upon1 and cut in such a way that your tool runs with the grain and not against it2 that is to say1 you will cut as much as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber4 ,this can not always be done in deep hollows1 but then you will have had some practise before you attempt these4 ,now take chisel ,no4 #aa1 and with it stab into the grooved outline1 pressing the tool down perpendicularly to what you think feels like the depth of the ground4 ,the mallet need not be used for this1 as the wood is soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the hand alone1 but remember that the force must be proportioned to the depth desired1 and to the direction of the grain2 much less pressure is wanted to drive a tool into the wood when its edge is parallel with the grain than when it lies in a cross direction2 small tools penetrate more easily than large ones1 as a matter of course1 but one must think of these things or accidents happen4 ,when you have been all round the design in this way with such gouges as may be needed for the slow and quick curves1 get the wood out nearly down to the ground1 leaving a little for finishing4 ,do this with any tool that fits the spaces best2 the larger the better4 ,cut across the grain as much as possible1 not along it4 ,the flat gouge1 ,no4 #a1 will be found useful for this purpose in the larger spaces1 and the grounders for the narrow passages4 ,this leaves the ground in a rough state1 which must be finished later on4 ,now take gouges ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 and chisels ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 and with them cut down the outline as accurately as possible to the depth of the ground1 and1 if you are lucky1 just a hair's breadth deeper4 ,in doing this make the sides slope a little outward toward the bottom4 ,if the gouges do not entirely adapt themselves to the contours of your lines1 do not trouble1 but leave that bit to be done afterward with a sweep of the tool1 either a flat gouge1 or the corner-chisel used like a knife4 ,now we have all the outline cut down to the depth of the background1 and may proceed to clear out the wood hanging about between the design and the ground all round it4 ,we shall do this with the grounders1 using the largest one when possible1 and only taking to the smallest when absolutely necessary on account of space4 ,this done1 we shall now proceed to finish the hollow sides of the panel and make the miters4 ,again1 take ,no4 #f gouge and drive a clear hollow touching the blue line at end of panel1 and reaching the bottom of the sinking1 i4e41 the actual ground as finished1 see a1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,to form the miter at top of left-hand side of panel1 carry the hollow on until the tool reaches the bottom of the hollow running along the top2 as soon as this point is gained1 turn the tool out and pitch it a little up in the way shown at c1 ,fig4 #ae1 in which the tool is shown at an angle which brings the edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the miter to be formed4 ,beginning as it does at b1 this quick turn of the handle to the left takes out the little bit of wood shown by dotted lines at b1 and forms one-half of the miter4 ,the cross-grain cut should be done first1 as in this way there is less risk of splintering4 ,now repeat the process on the long-grain side of the panel1 and one miter is in a good way for being finished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a word now about these sides of sunk panels4 ,they always look better if they are hollowed with a gouge instead of being cut square down4 ,in the first case they carry out the impression that the whole thing is cut out of a solid piece of wood1 whereas when they are cut sharply down they always suggest cabinet-making1 as if a piece had been glued on to form a margin4 ,we have now got the work blocked out and the ground fairly level1 and we are ready to do the little carving we have allowed ourselves4 ,before we begin this ,i shall take the opportunity of reminding you that you must be very careful in handling your tools2 it is a matter of the greatest importance1 if the contingency of cut fingers or damaged work is to be avoided4 ,the left hand in carving has nearly as much to do as the right1 only in a different way4 ,grasp the chisel or gouge in the left hand with the fingers somewhat extended1 that is1 the little finger will come well on to the blade1 and the thumb run up toward the top of the handle2 the wrist meanwhile resting on the work4 ,the right hand is used for pushing the tool forward1 and for turning it this way and that1 in fact does most of the guiding4 ,both hands may be described as opposing each other in force1 for the pressure on the tool from the right hand should be resisted by the left1 until almost a balance is struck1 and just enough force left to cut the wood gently1 without danger of slipping forward and damaging it or the fingers4 ,the tool is thus in complete command1 and the slightest change of pressure on either hand may alter its direction or stop it altogether4 ,never drive a tool forward with one hand without this counter-resistance1 as there is no knowing what may happen if it slips4 ,never wave tools about in the hand1 and generally remember that they are dangerous implements1 both to the user and the work4 ,never put too much force on a tool when in the neighborhood of a delicate passage1 but take time and eat the bit of wood out mouse-like1 in small fragments4 ,now we are ready to finish our panel4 ,take the grounders1 according to the size required1 always using the biggest possible4 ,keep the tool well pressed down1 and shave away the roughness of the ground1 giving the tool a slight sideway motion as well as a forward one4 ,work right up to the leaves1 etc41 which1 if cut deep enough1 should allow the chips to come away freely1 leaving a clear line of intersection2 if it does not1 then the upright sides must be cut down until the ground is quite clear of chips4 ,grounder tools are very prone to dig into the surface and make work for themselves3 sharp tools1 practise1 and a slight sideway motion will prevent this4 ,tool ,no4 #bc is useful in this respect1 its corners being slightly lifted above the level of the ground as it passes along4 ,corners that can not be reached with the bent chisels may be finished off with the corner-chisel4 ,now we come to the surface decorations1 for the carving in this design consists of little more4 ,this is all done with the gouges4 ,generally speaking1 enter the groove at its widest end and leave it at the narrowest1 lowering the handle of the tool gradually as you go along to lift the gouge out of the wood1 producing the drawing of the forms at the same time4 ,a gouge cut never looks so well as when done at one stroke2 patching it afterward with amendments always produces a labored look4 ,if this has to be done1 the tool should be passed finally over the whole groove to remove the superfluous tool marks--a sideway gliding motion of the edge1 combined with its forward motion1 often succeeds in this operation4 ,to form the circular center of the flower1 press down gouge ,nos4 #e or #f1 gently at first and perpendicular to the wood4 ,when a cut has been made all round the circle1 work the edge of the tool in it1 circus-like1 by turning the handle in the fingers round and round until the edge cuts its way down to the proper depth4 7,see ,a1 ,fig4 #ae47 ,carve the sides of the leaves where necessary with flat gouges on the inside curves1 and with chisels and corner-chisels on the outside ones4 ,these should be used in a sliding or knife-like fashion1 and not merely pushed forward4 ,finish the surface in the same manner all over between the gouge grooves and the edges of the leaves1 producing a very slight bevel as in section a1 ,fig4 #ac1 and this panel may be called finished4 ,fig4 #ad is another suggestion for a design1 upon which ,i hope you will base one of your own as an exercise at this stage of your progress4 ,before we begin another1 though1 ,i shall take this opportunity of reading you a short lecture on a most important matter which has a great deal to do with the preparation of your mind in making a suitable choice of subject for your future work4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,imitation ,,of ,,natural ,,forms ,difficulties of ,selection and ,arrangement--,limits of an ,imitative ,treatment--,light and ,distance ,factors in the ,arrangement of a ,design--,economy of ,detail ,necessary--,the ,word ,conventional4 ,broadly stated1 the three most formidable difficulties which confront the beginner when he sets out to make what he is pleased to call his design for carving in relief1 are3 ,firstly1 the choice of a subject2 secondly1 how far he may go in the imitation of its details2 thirdly1 its arrangement as a whole when he has decided the first two points4 ,just now we shall deal only with the second difficulty1 that is1 how far may likeness to nature be carried4 ,we shall do this1 because until we come to some understanding on that point1 a right choice of subject becomes practically impossible1 consequently the consideration of its arrangement would be premature4 ,there is1 strictly speaking1 only one aim worthy of the artist's attention1 be he carver or painter2 and that is the representation of some form of life1 or its associations4 ,luckily1 there is a mighty consensus of opinion in support of this dictum1 both by example and precept1 so there is no need to discuss it1 or question its authority4 ,we shall proceed1 therefore1 to act upon it1 and choose for our work only such material as in some way indicates life1 either directly1 as in trees1 animals1 or figures1 or by association1 and as explanation thereof1 as in drapery and other accessories--never choosing a subject like those known to painters as still life1 such as bowls1 fiddles1 weapons1 etc41 unless1 as ,i have said1 they are associated with the more important element4 ,you have already discovered by practise that wood has a grain which sets bounds to the possibilities of technique4 ,you have yet to learn that it has also an inordinate capacity for swallowing light4 ,now1 as it is by the aid of light that we see the results of our labor1 it follows that we should do everything in our power to take full advantage of that helpful agency4 ,it is obvious that work which can not be seen is only so much labor thrown away4 ,there is approximately a right relative distance from which to view all manner of carvings1 and if from this position the work is not both distinct and coherent1 its result is valueless4 ,then what is the quality which makes all the difference between a telling piece of carving1 and one which looks1 at a moderate distance1 like crumpled paper or the cork bark which decorates a suburban summer-house8 ,the answer is1 attention to strict economy in detail4 ,without economy there can be no arrangement1 and without the latter no general effect4 ,we are practically dealing1 not with so much mere wood1 but unconsciously we are directing our efforts to a manipulation of the light of day--playing with the lamps of the sky--and if we do not understand this1 the result must be undoubtedly failure1 with a piece of wood left on our hands1 cut into unintelligible ruts4 ,but what1 you will say1 has all this to do with copying the infinite variety of nature's detail2 surely it can not be wrong to imitate what is really beautiful in itself8 ,you will find the best answer to this in the technical difficulties of your task4 ,you have the grain of the wood to think of1 and now you have this other difficulty in managing the light which is to display your design4 ,the obstinacy of the wood may be to some extent conquered1 and indeed has been almost entirely so1 by the technical resources of ,grinling ,gibbons1 but the treatment demanded by the laws of light and vision is quite another question1 and if our work is to have its due effect1 there is no other solution of the problem than by finding a way of complying with those laws4 ,if ,i want to represent a rose and make it intelligible at a glance from such and such a point of view1 and ,i find after taking infinite pains to reproduce as many as ,i can of its numerous petals1 and as much as possible of its complicated foliage1 that ,i had not reckoned with the light which was to illuminate it1 and that instead of displaying my work to advantage1 it has blurred all its delicate forms into dusky and chaotic masses1 would ,i not be foolish if ,i repeated such an experiment8 ,rather1 ,i take the opposite extreme1 and produce a rose this time which has but five petals1 and one or two sprays of rudimentary foliage4 ,somehow the result is better1 and it has only taken me a tenth part of the time to produce4 ,i now find that ,i can afford1 without offending the genius of light1 or straining my eyesight1 to add a few more petals and one or two extra leaves between those ,i have so sparingly designed1 and a kind of balance is struck4 ,the same thing happens when ,i try to represent a whole tree--,i can not even count the leaves upon it1 why then attempt to carve them8 ,let me make one leaf that will stand for fifty1 and let that leaf be simplified until it is little more than an abstract of the form ,i see in such thousandfold variety4 ,the proof that ,i am right this time is that when ,i stand at the proper distance to view my work1 it is all as distinct as ,i could wish it to be4 ,not a leaf-point is quite lost to sight1 except where1 in vanishing into a shadow1 it adds mystery without creating confusion4 ,we have in this discovery a clue to the meaning of the word ,conventional3 it means that a particular method has been agreed upon as the best fitted for its purpose1 i4e41 as showing the work to most advantage with a minimum of labor4 ,not that experience had really anything to do with the invention of the method4 ,strange to say1 the earliest efforts in carving were based upon an unquestioning sense that no other was possible1 certainly no attempts were made to change it until in latter days temptations arose in various directions1 the effects of which have entailed upon ourselves a conscious effort of choice in comparing the results of the many subsequent experiments4 ,before ,i continue this subject further1 ,i shall give you another exercise1 with the object of making a closer resemblance to natural forms1 bearing in mind the while all that has been said about a sparing use of minute detail with reference to its visible effect4 ,we shall in this design attempt some shaping on the surface of the leaves and a little rounding too1 which may add interest to the work4 ,in my next lecture to you1 ,i shall have something to say about another important element in all designs for wood-carving4 ,i mean the shapes taken by the background between the leaves1 like the patches of sky seen behind a tree4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,rounded ,,forms ,necessity for ,every ,carver ,making his own ,designs--,method of ,carving ,rounded ,forms on a ,sunk ,ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,fig4 #af1 our second exercise1 like the first one1 is only to be taken as a suggestion for a design to be made by yourself4 ,it is a fundamental principle that both design and execution should be the work of one and the same person1 and ,i want you to begin by strictly practising this rule4 ,it was indeed one of the main conditions of production in the best times of the past1 and there is not a shadow of doubt that it must again come to be the universal rule if any real progress is to be made in the art of wood-carving1 or in any other art for that matter4 ,just think for a moment how false must be the position of both parties1 when one makes a design and another carries it out4 ,the designer sets his head to work 7we must not count his hands at present1 as they only note down the results in a kind of writing71 a design is produced and handed over to the carver to execute4 ,he1 the carver1 sets his hands and eyes to work1 to carry out the other man's idea1 or at least interpret his notes for the same1 his head meanwhile having very little to do1 further than transfer the said notes to his hands4 ,for very good reasons such an arrangement as this is bound to come to grief4 ,one is1 that no piece of carving can properly be said to be designed until it is finished to the last stroke4 ,a drawing is only a map of its general outline1 with perhaps contours approximately indicated by shading4 ,in any case1 even if a full-size model were supplied by the designer1 the principle involved would suffer just the same degree of violence1 for it is in the actual carving of the wood that the designer should find both his inspiration and the discipline which keeps it within reasonable bounds4 ,he must be at full liberty to alter his original intention as the work develops under his hand4 ,apparently ,i have been led into giving you another lecture2 we must now get to work on our exercise4 ,draw and trace your outline in the same manner as before1 and transfer it to the wood4 ,you may make it any convenient size1 say on a board #ah ins4 long by #i ins4 wide1 or what other shape you like1 provided you observe one or two conditions which ,i am going to point out4 ,it shall have a fair amount of background between the features1 and the design1 whatever it is1 shall form a traceable likeness to a pattern of some description2 it shall have a rudimentary resemblance to nature1 without going into much detail2 and last1 it shall have a few rounded forms in it1 rounded both in outline and on the surface1 as1 for instance1 plums4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,in setting to work to carve this exercise1 follow the same procedure as in the first one1 up to the point when the surface decorations began4 ,in the illustration1 there is a suggestion for a variety in the background which does not occur in the other4 ,in this case the little branches are supposed to lie along the tops of gentle elevations1 and the plums to lie in the hollows4 ,it produces a section something like this1 ,fig4 #ag4 ,there is a sufficient excuse for this kind of treatment in the fact that the branches do not require much depth1 and the plums will look all the better for a little more4 ,the depth of the background will thus vary1 say between #c_/af in4 at the branches and #c_/h in4 at the plums4 ,the branches are supposed to be perfectly level from end to end1 that is1 they lie parallel to the surface of the wood1 but of course curve about in the other direction4 ,the leaves1 on the other hand1 are supposed to be somewhat rounded and falling away toward their sides and points in places4 ,the vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a parting tool1 as well as the serrations at the edge1 or the latter may perhaps be more surely nicked out with a chisel1 after the leaves have received their shapes1 the leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher than the other1 and as though their points1 in some cases1 touched the background1 while in others the base may be the lowest part4 ,the twigs coming out from the branches to support the plums should be somewhat like this in section1 and should lie along the curve of the background1 and be in themselves rounded1 as in ,fig4 #ah1 see section a a4 ,the bottom of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border3 this will serve to distinguish it as a starting-point for the little branches which appear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground4 ,the plums should be carved by first cutting them down in outline to the background1 as ,a1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,then the wood should be removed from the edge all round1 to form the rounded surface4 ,to do this1 first take the large gouge1 ,no4 #b1 and with its hollow side to the wood1 cut off the top1 from about its middle to one end1 and reversing the process do the same with the other side4 ,then it will appear something like ,b 7,fig4 #ai74 ,the remainder must be shaped with any tool which will do it best4 ,there is no royal road to the production of these rounded forms1 but probably gouge ,no4 #a will do the most of it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,here it may be observed that the fewer tools used the better1 as if many are used there is always a risk of unpleasant facets at the places where the various marks join each other4 ,before you try the plums1 or apples1 or other rounded fruit which you may have in your design1 it would be as well to experiment with one on a piece of spare wood in order to decide upon the most suitable tools4 ,the stems or branches may be done with flat gouge ,no4 #a1 or the flat or corner chisel4 ,a very delicate twist or spiral tendency in their upward growth will greatly improve their appearance1 a mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or chisel will do this2 anything is better than a mere round and bare surface1 which has a tendency to look doughy4 ,the little circular mark on the end of the plum 7call it a plum1 although that fruit has no such thing7 is done by pressing gouge ,no4 #g into the wood first1 with the handle rather near the surface of the wood1 and afterward at a higher inclination1 this taking out a tiny chip of a circular shape and leaving a ,v-shaped groove4 ,now ,i am going to continue the subject of my last lecture1 in order to impress upon you the importance of suiting your subject to the conditions demanded by the laws of technique and light4 ,practise with the tools must go hand in hand with the education of the head if good results are to be expected2 nor must it be left wholly to hand and eye if you are to avoid the pitfalls which lie in wait for the unwary mechanic4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,patterned ,,background ,importance of ,formal ,pattern as an ,aid to ,visibility--,pattern and ,free ,rendering ,compared--,first ,impressions ,lasting--,medieval ,choice of ,natural ,forms ,governed by a ,question of ,pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,by a comparison of the piece of ,byzantine sculpture1 ,fig4 #bj1 with the more elaborate treatment of foliage shown in ,fig4 #ba1 from late ,gothic capitals1 in ,southwell ,minster1 it will be seen how an increasing desire for imitative resemblance has taken the place of a patterned foundation1 and how1 in consequence1 the background is no longer discernible as a contrasting form4 ,the ,byzantine design is1 of course1 little more than a pattern with sunk holes for a background1 and it is in marble2 but those holes are arranged in a distinct and orderly fashion4 ,the other is a highly realistic treatment of foliage1 the likeness to nature being so fully developed that some of these groups have veins on the backs of the leaves4 ,the question for the moment is this1 which of the two extremes gives the clearest account of itself at a distance8 ,i think there can be little doubt that the more formal arrangement bears this test better than the other1 and this1 too1 in face of the fact that it has cost much less labor to produce4 ,remember we are only now considering the question of visibility in the design4 ,you may like the undefined and suggestive masses into which the leaves and shadows of the ,southwell one group themselves better than the unbending severity of the lines in the other1 but that is not the point at present4 ,you can not see the actual work which produces that mystery1 and ,i may point out to you1 that what is here romantic and pleasing on account of its changeful and informal shadows1 is on the verge of becoming mere bewildering confusion2 a tendency which always accompanies attempts to imitate the accidental or informal grouping of leaves1 so common to their natural state4 ,the further this is carried1 the less is it possible to govern the forms of the background pattern2 they become less discernible as contrasting forms1 although they may be very interesting as elements of mystery and suggestive of things not actually seen4 ,the consequence is a loss of power in producing that instantaneous impression of harmony which is one of the secrets of effectiveness in carving4 ,this is greatly owing to the constant change of plane demanded by an imitative treatment1 as well as the want of formality in its background4 ,the lack of restful monotony in this respect creates confusion in the lights1 making a closer inspection necessary in order to discern the beauty of the work4 ,now the human imagination loves surprises1 and never wholly forgives the artist who1 failing to administer a pleasant shock1 invites it to come forward and examine the details of his work in order to see how well they are executed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,these examples1 you will say1 are from architectural details which have nothing to do with wood-carving4 ,on the contrary1 the same laws govern all manner of sculpturesque composition--scale or material making no difference whatever4 ,a sculptured marble frieze or a carved ivory snuff-box may be equally censurable as being either so bare that they verge on baldness and want of interest1 or so elaborate that they look like layers of fungus4 ,do not imagine that ,i am urging any preference for a ,byzantine treatment in your work2 to do so would be as foolish as to ask you to don medieval costume while at work1 or assume the speech and manners of the tenth century4 ,it would be just as ridiculous on your part to affect a bias which was not natural to you4 ,i am1 however1 strongly convinced that in the choice of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly masses 7more particularly with regard to their appearance in silhouette against the ground71 and also in the matter of an economical use of detail1 we have much to learn from the carvers who preceded the fourteenth century4 ,they thoroughly understood and appreciated the value of the light which fell upon their work1 and in designing it arranged every detail with the object of reflecting as much of it as possible4 ,to this end1 their work was always calculated for its best effects to be seen at a fairly distant point of view2 and to make sure that it would be both visible and coherent1 seen from that point1 they insisted upon some easily understood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a glance4 ,to make a pattern of this kind is not such an easy matter as it looks4 ,the forms of the background spaces are the complementary parts of the design1 and are just as important as those of the solid portions2 it takes them both to make a good design4 ,now ,i believe you must have had enough of this subject for the present1 more especially as you have not yet begun to feel the extraordinary difficulty of making up your mind as to what is and what is not fit for the carver's uses among the boundless examples of beauty spread out for our choice by ,dame ,nature4 ,meantime1 ,i do not want you to run away with the impression that when you have mastered the principles of economy in detail and an orderly disposition of background1 that you have therefore learned all that is necessary in order to go on turning out design after design with the ease of a cook making pancakes according to a recipe4 ,you will find by experience1 ,i think1 that all such principles are good for is to enforce clearness of utterance1 so to speak1 and to remind you that it is light you are dealing with1 and upon which you must depend for all effects2 also that the power of vision is limited4 ,acting upon them is quite another matter1 and one1 ,i am afraid1 in which no one can help you much4 ,you may be counseled as to the best and most practical mode of expressing your ideas1 but those thoughts and inventions must come from yourself if they are to be worth having4 ,in my next lecture ,i shall have something to say with regard to originality of design1 but now we must take up our tools again and begin work upon another exercise4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,contours ,,of ,,surface ,adaptation of ,old ,designs to ,modern ,purposes--,throwing ,about--,critical ,inspection of ,work from a ,distance as it ,proceeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,here are two fragments of a kind of running ornament4 ,fig4 #bb is a part of the jamb molding of a church in ,vicenza4 ,if you observe carefully1 you will find that it has a decidedly classical appearance4 ,the truth is that it was carved by a ,gothic artist late in the fourteenth century1 just after the ,renaissance influence began to make itself felt4 ,it is an adaptation by him of what he remembered having seen in his travels of the new style1 grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand4 ,it suits our purpose all the better on that account1 for the reason that we are going to re-adapt his design into an exercise1 and shall attempt to make it suitable to our limited ability in handling the tools1 to the change in material from stone to wood1 and lastly1 to our different aims and motives in the treatment of architectural ornament4 ,please do all this for yourself in another design1 and look upon this suggestion merely in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,in this exercise 7,fig4 #bc7 you will repeat all you have already done with the others1 until you come to the shaping of the leaves1 in which an undulating or up and down motion has been attempted4 ,this involves a kind of double drawing in the curves1 one for the flat and one for the projections2 so that they may appear to glide evenly from one point to the other1 sweeping up and down1 right and left1 without losing their true contours4 ,carvers call this process throwing about1 i4e41 making the leaves1 etc41 appear to rise from the background and again fall toward it in all directions4 ,the phrase is a very meager one1 and but poorly expresses the necessity for intimate sympathy between each surface so thrown about4 ,it is precisely in the observance of this last quality that effects of richness are produced4 ,you can hardly have too much monotony of surface1 but may easily err by having too much variety4 ,therefore1 whatever system of light and shade you may adopt1 be careful to repeat its motive in some sort of rhythmic order all over your work2 by no other means can you make it rich and effective at a distance4 ,it is well every now and then to put your work up on a shelf or ledge at a distance and view it as a whole2 you will thus see which parts tell and which do not1 and so gain experience on this point4 ,work should also be turned about frequently1 sidewise and upside down1 in order to find how the light affects it in different directions4 ,of course1 you must not think that because your work may happen to look well when seen from a little way off that it does not matter about the details1 whether they be well or poorly carved4 ,on the contrary1 unless you satisfy the eye at both points of view1 your work is a partial failure4 ,the one thing is as important as the other1 only1 as the first glance at carved work is generally taken at some little distance1 it is the more immediately necessary to think of that1 before we begin to work for a closer inspection4 ,first impressions are generally lasting with regard to carved work1 and1 as ,i have said before1 beauty of detail seldom quite atones for failure in the arrangement of masses4 ,the rounded forms in this design may give you a little trouble1 but practise1 and that alone1 will enable you to overcome this4 ,absolute smoothness is not desirable4 ,glass-papered surfaces are extremely ugly1 because they obtrude themselves on account of their extreme smoothness1 having lost all signs of handiwork in the tool marks4 ,we shall have something to say presently about these tool marks in finishing1 as it is a very important subject which may make all the difference between success or failure in finishing a piece of work4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,originality ,dangers of ,imposing ,words--,novelty more ,common than ,originality--,an ,unwholesome ,kind of ,originality4 ,i told you that ,i should have something to say about originality4 ,almost every beginner has some vague impression that his first duty should be to aim at originality4 ,he hears eulogiums passed upon the individuality of some one or other1 and tries hard to invent new forms of expression or peculiarities of style1 only resulting1 in most cases1 in new forms of ugliness1 which it seems is the only possibility under such conscious efforts after novelty4 ,the fact is that it takes many generations of ardent minds to accomplish what at first each thinks himself capable of doing alone4 ,true originality has somewhat the quality of good wine1 which becomes more delightful as time mellows its flavor and imparts to it the aroma which comes of long repose2 like the new wine1 too1 originality should shyly hide itself in dark places until maturity warrants its appearance in the light of day4 ,that kind of originality which is strikingly new does not always stand the test of time1 and should be regarded with cautious skepticism until it has proved itself to be more than the passing fashion or novelty of a season4 ,there is a kind of sham art very conspicuous at the present time1 which was at quite a recent date popularly believed to be very original4 ,it seems to have arisen out of some such impatient craving for novelty1 and it has been encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban refinement1 which neither knows nor cares very much what really goes to the making of a work of art4 ,this new art has filled our shops and exhibitions with an invertebrate kind of ornament1 which certainly has the doubtful merit of never having been seen before4 ,it has evidently taken its inspiration from the trailing and supine forms of floating seaweed1 and revels in the expression of such boneless structure4 ,by way of variety it presents us with a kind of symbolic tree1 remarkable for more than archaic flatness and rigidity4 ,now1 this kind of originality is not only absolutely valueless1 but exceedingly harmful2 its only merit is that1 like its ideal seaweed1 it has no backbone of its own1 and we may hope that it will soon betake itself to its natural home1 the slimy bottom of the ocean of oblivion4 ,meantime1 the only thing we are absolutely sure of in connection with that much-abused word originality is this1 that no gift1 original or otherwise1 can be developed without steady and continuous practise with the tools of your craft4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,pierced ,,patterns ,exercise in ,background ,pattern--,care as to ,stability--,drilling and ,sawing out the ,spaces--,some ,uses for ,pierced ,patterns4 ,the present exercises may be described as a kind of carved open fretwork--that is to say1 the ground is entirely cut away1 leaving the pattern standing free4 ,this will form an excellent piece of discipline with regard to the design of background forms1 because in such work as this1 those forms assert themselves in a very marked manner2 if they are in any way found to be conspicuously unequal in size or are awkwardly designed as to shape1 the whole effect of the work is spoiled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,for your first effort make a design based upon ,no4 #bd1 and please to observe these rules in its construction4 ,the main or leading lines of the pattern are to run as much as possible without crossing each other4 ,the holes are to be fairly equal in size1 or rather in area1 as they need not be at all like each other in shape4 ,the amount of wood left standing to be of a width averaging never less than half the length of the average-sized hole4 ,this is necessary for securing sufficient strength of material in the cross-grained pieces1 which would be liable to split if made too long and narrow4 ,the pattern should be formal in character1 not necessarily symmetrical1 but it should be well balanced4 ,you may have one part of your design composed of large holes and another of small ones1 provided the change is part of a definite design1 as in ,fig4 #be4 ,you may even leave the wood in some parts forming a solid background1 or you may treat it as a separate piece of simple carving on the solid1 as in ,fig4 #bf1 being careful to execute it in a consistently simple manner1 as in this kind of work much change of manner in execution is inadvisable1 although1 at the same time1 it is open to any amount of variety in design of outline and combination of contrasts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,take a piece of pine about #c or #d ft4 long and #g or #i ins4 wide by #c_/d in4 thick4 ,trace on your pattern and drill circular holes in the middle of each space to be cut through4 ,then take a keyhole saw1 and remove the wood by sawing round the space close to the blue line1 taking care not to cut through it in any place4 ,the saw must be held very truly upright in order to cut the sides of the spaces at right angles to the face of the wood4 ,now carve the pattern on the surface in whatever manner you have designed--in grooves suggesting the articulation of the leaves1 in short grooves which may pass for additional leaves1 or in a dozen ways which practise may help you to invent4 ,the wood should be held tightly down to the bench in all its parts1 or1 at least1 in those being operated upon1 as it may1 if unsupported1 crack across some of the narrow parts4 ,the sides of all the holes must be carved out clean to remove the rough saw marks4 ,this can be done partly by gouges1 or still better1 the wood may be held up on its edge and the holes cut round with a sharp penknife where the grain allows it4 ,now turn the work over on its face and carve bevels round each of the holes4 ,this reduces the apparent thickness of wood1 and adds to the effect of delicacy in the pattern4 ,this work may be used for the cresting of some large piece of furniture1 or may be adapted to fill screens or partitions1 stair newels1 and balusters1 or it may be used as a cornice decoration in the manner suggested by ,no4 #bf1 where the pierced work can be backed by a hollow cornice which it fills and enriches4 ,in our next exercise we shall try our hands upon a piece of hardwood for a change--meantime do one or two of these fret patterns by way of disciplinary exercise in outline forms4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,hardwood ,,carving ,carvings can not be ,independent ,ornaments--,carving ,impossible on ,commercial ,productions--,the ,amateur ,joiner--,corner ,cupboards--,introduction of ,foliage ,definite in ,form1 and ,simple in ,character--,methods of ,carving ,grapes4 ,we now come to the question1 what are we going to do with all the pieces of carving which we propose to undertake4 ,there is no more inexorable law relating to the use of wood-carving than the one which insists upon some kind of passport for its introduction1 wherever it appears4 ,it must come in good company1 and be properly introduced4 ,the slightest and most distant connection with a recognized sponsor is often sufficient1 but it will not be received alone4 ,we do not make carvings to hang on a wall and be admired altogether on their own account4 ,they must decorate some object4 ,a church screen1 a font1 a piece of furniture1 or even the handle of a knife4 ,it is not always an easy matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise our wood-carving talents4 ,our furniture is all made now in a wholesale manner which permits of no interference with its construction1 while at the same time1 if we wish to put any carving upon it1 it is absolutely essential that both construction and decoration should be considered together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,a very modest beginning may be made in adapting ornament to a useful article1 by carving the surface of a bread plate4 ,these are usually made of some hard wood1 such as sycamore4 ,they may be made of oak1 but sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color1 which is more likely to be kept clean4 ,two suggestions are given in ,figs4 #bg and #bh for carving appropriate to this purpose4 ,the essentials are1 that there should be a well-defined pattern simple in construction1 and as effective as possible with little labor2 that there should be little or no rounding of surface1 the design consisting of gouge cuts and incisions arranged to express the pattern4 ,the incisions may form a regular sunk ground1 but it should not be deep1 or it will not be easily kept clean4 ,then1 as in cutting bread the knife comes in contact with the surface1 no delicate work is advisable2 a large treatment with broad surfaces1 and some plain spaces left to protect the carved work1 is likely to prove satisfactory in every way4 ,a piece of sycamore should be procured1 ready for carving2 this may be got from a wood-turner1 but it will be as well to give him a drawing1 on which is shown the section of edge and the position of all turned lines required for confining the carving4 ,if the plate is to be of any shape other than circular1 then it must be neatly made by a joiner1 unless you can shape it yourself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,many of you are1 ,i have no doubt1 handy joiners1 and may with a little help put together some slight pieces of furniture to serve at least as an excuse for the introduction of your carving4 ,here are some suggestions for corner cupboards1 chosen as giving the largest area for carved surface with the minimum of expense in construction4 ,the material should be oak--,english if possible1 or it may be ,italian walnut4 ,the doors of ,figs4 #dj and #da are in three narrow boards with shallow beads at the joints1 those of the others are each made of a single board1 and should be #a_/b in4 to #e_/h in4 thick1 the doors may be about #b ft4 #f ins4 high1 each having two ledges about #c ins4 wide1 screwed on behind top and bottom to keep them from twisting4 ,all moldings1 beads1 etc41 are to be carved by hand1 no planes being used4 ,having traced the lines of your design upon the board1 you may begin1 if there are moldings as in ,fig4 #cb1 by using a joiner's marking gage to groove out the deepest parts of the parallel lines in the moldings along the edges1 doing the same to the curved ones with a ,v tool or ,veiner4 ,then form the moldings with your chisels or gouges4 ,keep them very flat in section as in ,fig4 #bi4 ,the fret patterns on ,figs4 #cb1 #ce1 and #cf1 where not pierced1 should also be done in low relief1 not more than #a_/h in4 deep1 and the sides of the bands beveled as in section a1 ,fig #cj4 ,the widths of these bands ought not to be less than #a_/b in41 and look better if they are wider4 ,very narrow bands have a better appearance1 if1 instead of being cut straight down1 they are hollowed at sides like b in ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #ca is a detail of a kind of gouge work which you must all know very well4 ,one perpendicular cut of a gouge driven in with the mallet1 and one side cut1 should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped holes4 ,they should not be too deep in proportion to their size4 ,their combinations may be varied to a great extent4 ,two or three common ones are shown in the illustration4 ,this form of ornament was in all likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with a turn for art and a limited stock of carving tools4 ,his humble contribution to the resources of the carver's art has received its due share of the flattery which is implied by imitation4 ,in all these patterns it is well to remember that the flat surface of the board left between the cuts is really the important thing to consider1 as all variety is obtained by disposing the holes in such a way as to produce the pattern required by means of their outlines on the plain surface4 ,thus waved lines are produced as in ,fig4 #ca1 and little niches like mimic architecture as in ,fig4 #cd1 by the addition of the triangular-shaped holes at the top1 and the splayed sills at the bottom4 7,it is obvious that an arrangement like the latter should never be turned upside down47 ,if this attention to the surface pattern is neglected the holes are apt to become mere confused and meaningless spots4 ,in small pieces of furniture like these1 which are made of comparatively thin wood1 the carving need not have much depth1 say the ground is sunk #a_/d in4 at the deepest4 ,as oak is more tenacious than pine1 you will find greater freedom in working it1 although it is so much harder to cut4 ,you may find it necessary to use the mallet for the greater part of the blocking out1 but it need not be much used in finishing4 ,a series of short strokes driven by gentle taps of the mallet will often make a better curve than if the same is attempted without its aid4 ,it will be well now to procure the remainder of the set of twenty-four tools if you have not already got them1 as they will be required for the foliage we are about to attempt4 ,the deep gouges are especially useful3 having two different sweeps on each tool1 they adapt themselves to hollows which change in section as they advance4 ,fig4 #cb contains very little foliage1 such as there is being disposed in small diamond-shaped spaces1 sunk in the face of the doors1 and a small piece on the bracket below4 ,all this work should be of a very simple character1 definite in form and broad in treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,half ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,half ,fig4 #cc is more elaborate1 but on much the same lines of design varied by having a larger space filled with groups of leaves4 ,fig4 #cd gives the carving to a larger scale2 in it the oak-leaves are shown with raised veins in the center1 the others being merely indicated by the gouge hollows4 ,there is some attempt in this at a more natural mode of treating the foliage4 ,while such work is being carved1 it is well to look now and then at the natural forms themselves 7oak and laurel in this case7 in order to note their characteristic features1 and as a wholesome check on the dangers of mannerism4 ,it is a general axiom founded upon the evidence of past work1 and a respect for the laws of construction in the carpenter's department1 that when foliage appears in panels divided by plain spaces1 it should never be made to look as if it grew from one panel into the other1 with the suggestion of boughs passing behind the solid parts4 ,this is a characteristic of ,japanese work1 and may1 perhaps1 be admirable when used in delicate painted decorations on a screen or other light furniture1 but in carvings it disturbs the effect of solidity in the material1 and serves no purpose which can not be attained in a much better way4 ,illustration3 ,,carving ,,in ,,panels ,,of ,,fig #cc ,,fig4 #cd4 ,expedients have been invented to overcome the difficulty of making a fresh start in each panel1 one of which is shown in ,fig4 #cd1 where the beginning of the bough is hidden under a leaf4 ,it is presumable that the bough may go on behind the uncarved portions of the board to reappear in another place1 but we need not insist upon the fancy1 which loses all its power when attention is called to it1 like riddles when the answer is known4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,in ,fig4 #ce1 like the last1 the treatment is somewhat realistic4 ,this is shown to a larger scale in ,fig4 #ch4 ,nevertheless1 it has all been arranged to fit its allotted space1 and all accidental elements eliminated2 such1 for instance1 as leaves disappearing in violent perspective1 or even turned sidewise1 and all minute details which would not be likely to show conspicuously if carved in wood4 ,in ,fig4 #ci1 7a7 is an outline of a group of vine-leaves taken from nature1 as it appeared1 and in which state it is quite unfitted for carving1 on account of its complicated perspective and want of definite outline2 ,fig4 #ci 7b7 is a detail also copied from nature1 but which might stand without alteration provided it formed part of a work delicate enough to note such close elaboration in so small a space4 ,this1 of course1 would entirely depend upon the purpose for which the carving was intended1 and whether it was meant for distant view or close inspection4 ,as there is arrangement necessary in forming the outline1 so there is just as much required in designing the articulation of the surfaces of the leaves1 which should be so treated that their hollows fall into a semblance of some kind of pattern4 ,fig4 #cf is a more formal design1 or1 to use a very much abused word1 more conventional1 in which such leafage as there is only serves the purpose of ornamental points1 marking the divisions of the general design4 ,the gouge work upon the leaves should be of the simplest description1 but strict attention is necessary in drawing the grooves1 so that their forms may be clear and emphatic1 leaving no doubt as to the pattern intended4 ,designs of this kind have no interest whatever except as pieces of patterned work1 to which end every other consideration should be sacrificed4 ,it must not be cut too deep--say #a_/d in4 at the deepest--and the sides of the panels should be very gently hollowed out with a flattish sweep 7see section on ,fig4 #cg7 in order to avoid any appearance of actual construction in what more or less imitates the stiles and rails of a door4 ,fig4 #cg shows a portion of the leafage to a larger scale1 and also a plan explaining the construction of all these cupboards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci 7a74 ,fig4 #dj is designed upon the barest suggestion of natural foliage1 the wavy stem being quite flat1 and running out flush into the flat margins at the sides1 connecting them together4 ,the leaves in this case should be carved1 leaving the veins standing solid2 grooved veins would have a meager look upon such rudimentary leaves4 ,of course a more natural treatment may be given to this kind of design1 but in that case it would require to be carried all over the door1 and replace the formally ornamental center panel4 ,the pierced pattern in cresting should be done as already described for ,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci 7b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da ,fig4 #da is a variant on the last design4 ,in this case a little more play of surface is attempted1 making a point of carving the side lobes of the leaves into little rounded masses which will reflect points of light4 ,this is shown better on ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,in carving foliage like that of the vine1 where small dark holes or eyes occur1 enough wood should be left round them to form deep dark little pits4 ,they are very valuable as points of shadow4 ,in doing this1 cut the rim all round with a very slight bevel as in section1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,whenever leaves run out to a fine edge they also should have a small bevel like this in order to avoid an appearance of weakness which acute edges always present4 ,as a general rule leave as much wood as possible about the edges of leaves as you want shadow from them--dipping them only where you are sure the variety will be effective4 ,in the execution of bunches of rounded forms like grapes there is no special mechanical expedient for doing them quickly and easily2 each must be cut out separately1 and carved with whatever tools come handiest to their shape and size4 ,it is a good way to begin by cutting triangular holes between the grapes with the point of a small chisel 7see ,fig4 #dd71 after which the rough shapes left may gradually be formed into ovals4 ,when the work is very simple in character1 and does not require a realistic treatment1 the grapes may be done in a more methodical way1 as in ,fig4 #de4 ,first cut grooves across both ways with a ,v tool1 dividing the grapes as at a a1 then with a gouge turned hollow down round each line of grapes into rolls as at b b4 ,do this both ways1 and afterward finish the form as best you can4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,sketch-,,book ,old ,work ,best ,seen in its ,original ,place--,museums to be ,approached with ,caution--,methodical ,memoranda--,some ,examples--,assimilation of ,ideas ,better than ,making ,exact ,copies4 ,in holiday time1 and as other opportunity arises1 be sure to visit some old building1 be it church or mansion4 ,in this way you will make acquaintance with many a fine specimen of old work which will set your fancy moving4 ,in the one there may be a carved choir-screen or bench ends1 in the other a fireplace or table4 ,the first sight of such things in the places and among the surroundings for which they were designed1 is always an eventful moment in the training of a carver1 because the element of surprise acts like a tonic to the mind by arousing its emulative instincts4 ,it is by seeing such things in their proper home and associations that the best lessons are learned4 ,one sees in that way1 for instance1 why the tool marks left by the old carvers on their work look more effective than smoothly perfect surfaces1 when associated with the rough timbers of the roof1 or the uneven surface of the plastered wall4 ,one sees1 too1 the effect of time and friction in the polished surfaces of bench ends1 rubbed and dusted by countless hands until they have become smooth to the eye and touch1 and a mental note is made to avoid sharp or spiky work in anything that is likely to be within reach of the fingers4 ,in this way a certain balance is given to the judgment in proportioning to each piece of work its due share of labor1 and we come away with a fixed determination to pay more attention in future to breadth of design and economy of actual carving1 a problem which no carver finds easy1 but which must be faced if wasted work is not to be his only reward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,in museums1 too1 we shall find many useful lessons1 although there we see things huddled together in a distracting fashion which demands great wariness of selection4 ,the great point to be observed in making our notes for future reference is1 that each sketch should contain some memorandum of a special quality1 the one which attracted us at the time of making it4 ,one may be made for sake of a general arrangement1 another to remind us of some striking piece of detail or peculiarity of execution4 ,the drawings need not be elaborate or labored1 provided they make clear the points they were intended to record4 ,thus ,fig4 #df is a sketch which is meant as a memorandum of a lively representation of birds1 taken from an old ,miserere seat4 ,fig4 #dg was done for sake of the rich effect of an inscription on the plain side of a beam1 and also for the peculiar and interesting section to which the beam had been cut4 ,fig4 #dh1 again1 for sake of the arrangement of the little panels on a plain surface1 and the sense of fitness and proportion which prompted the carver to dispose his work in that fashion1 by which he has enriched the whole surface at little cost of labor1 and by contrast enhanced the value of the little strips and diamonds of carved work1 otherwise of no particular interest4 ,figs4 #di and #ej are two sketches of ,icelandic carved boxes4 ,fig4 #di was drawn as an example of the rich effect which that kind of engraved work may have1 and of the use which it makes of closely packed letters in the inscription4 ,the pattern is1 of course1 a traditional ,norse one1 although the carving is comparatively modern4 ,the points to be noted in the other box were its quaint and simple construction1 the use of the letters as decoration1 more especially the unpremeditated manner in which they have been grouped1 the four letters below making a short line which is eked out by a rude bit of ornament4 ,the letters are cut right through the wood1 and are surrounded with an engraved line4 ,fig4 #ea was noted on account of the way in which a very simple pierced ornament is made much of by repetition4 ,the ornament is on a ,portuguese bed1 and this is only a detail of a small portion4 ,the effect greatly depends upon the quantity1 but in this case that is a point which is easily remembered without drawing more of it than is shown4 ,the fact that this work is associated with richly turned balusters is1 however1 noticed in the sketch1 as that might easily be forgotten4 ,figs4 #dg to #ea are from ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,then we come to the sketch of a chair 7,fig4 #eb71 or combined table and chair4 ,the richly carved back is pivoted1 and forms the table top when lowered over the arms1 upon which it rests4 ,the points to be noted in this are1 the general richness of effect1 the contrast of wavy and rigid lines1 and the happy way in which the architectural suggestion of arch and pillars has been translated into ornament4 ,as this sketch was not made so much for the chair itself as for its enriched back1 no measurements have been taken2 otherwise chairs1 as such1 depend very much upon exact dimensions for their proportions4 ,this chair is at ,exning in ,suffolk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,now we shall suppose that you are going to make many such sketches both in museums and in country churches or houses4 ,you will find some too elaborate for drawings in the time at your disposal1 in which case you should obtain a photograph1 if possible1 making notes of any detail which you wish particularly to remember--such1 for instance1 as the carved chest shown in ,plate ,i4 ,the subject1 ,st4 ,george and the ,dragon1 is given with various incidents all in the one picture4 ,this is a valuable and suggestive piece of work to have before you1 as the manner in which the pictorial element has been managed is strikingly characteristic of the carver's methods1 and well adapted to the conditions of a technique which has no other legitimate means of dealing with distant objects4 ,the king and queen1 looking out of the palace windows1 are almost on the same scale as the figures in the foreground2 the walls of the houses1 roofs1 etc41 have apparently quite as much projection as the foreground rocks--distance is inferred rather than expressed4 ,the very simple construction1 too1 is worth noting4 ,it is practically composed of three boards1 a wide one for the picture1 and two narrower ones for ends and feet4 ,the object in making these sketches should be mainly to collect a variety of ideas which may brighten the mind when there is occasion to use its inventive faculties4 ,suggestive hints are wanted2 rarely will it be possible1 or wise1 to repeat anything exactly as you see it4 ,these sketches1 if made with care1 and from what ,constable used to call breeding subjects1 will give your fancy a very necessary point of vantage1 from which it may hazard flights of its own4 ,as much of our knowledge must necessarily be gained from museums1 and as they now form such an important feature of educational machinery1 ,i think it will be well to devote a word or two of special notice to the drawbacks which accompany their many advantages4 ,this ,i propose to do in the following chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,museums ,false ,impressions ,fostered by ,fragmentary ,exhibits--,environment as ,important as ,handicraft--,works ,viewed as ,records of ,character--,carvers the ,historians of their ,time4 ,a new world of commerce and machinery1 having slain and forgotten a past race of artist craftsmen1 makes clumsy atonement by sweeping together the fragments of their work and calling the collection a museum4 ,from the four corners of the earth these relics have been gathered4 ,our hungry minds are bidden to make choice according to fancy1 for here is variety of food6 ,here are opportunities1 never before enjoyed by mortal1 for an intellectual feast6--and of a kind which might be considered god-like1 were it not for the suspicion of some gigantic joke4 ,that out of all this huge mass of chaotic material we have not as yet been able to make for ourselves some living form of art1 must indeed be to the gods a continual subject of merriment4 ,museums of art are in no respect the unmixed blessings which they appear to be4 ,they have1 to be sure1 all the advantages of handy reference2 but at the same time1 on account of the great diversity in the character of their exhibits1 they tend to encourage the spread of a patchy kind of knowledge1 far from being helpful to the arts in the interests of which they are established4 ,it must be remembered that1 in these collections1 all specimens of architecture and architectural carving are invariably seen in false positions4 ,all have been wrenched from their proper settings1 and placed1 more or less at random1 in lights and relationships never contemplated by their designers4 ,to the environment of a piece of architecture1 and the position and surroundings of carved decorations1 are due quite half of their interest as works of art4 ,deprive them of these associations1 and little is left but fragmentary specimens of handicraft1 more or less unintelligible in their lonely detachment1 misleading to the eye1 and dangerous as objects of imitation1 in proportion to the dependence they once had upon those absent and unknown associations4 ,the educational purpose which these collections are intended to serve is liable to be construed into an unreasoning assumption that every specimen exhibited is equally worthy of admiration4 ,how often the plodding student is to be seen carefully drawing and measuring work of the dullest imaginable quality1 with no other apparent reason for his pathetically wasted industry6 ,it would be strange1 indeed1 if all in this vast record of past activity was of equal value2 if merely to belong to the past was a sure warrant that such work was the best of its kind4 ,far from this being the case1 it requires the constant use of a more or less trained and critical judgment to separate what is good from the indifferent or really bad in these collections1 for all are usually present4 ,there is inequality in artistic powers1 in technical skill1 and a distinction of yet greater importance1 which lies in the significance the works bear as records of the inner life of their creators4 ,artists1 carvers in particular1 are the true scribes and historians of their times4 ,their works are1 as it were1 books--written in words of unconscious but fateful meaning4 ,some are filled with the noblest ideals1 expressed in beautiful and serious language1 while others contain nothing but sorry jests and stupidities4 ,as all the works of the past1 whether good or bad1 are the achievements of men differing but little from ourselves1 save in the direction of their energies and in their outward surroundings1 there is surely some clue to the secret of their success or failure1 some light to be thrown by their experience upon our own dubious and questioning spirit4 ,what better could we look for in this respect than a little knowledge of the lives led by the carvers themselves1 a mental picture of their environment1 an acquired sense of the influence which this1 that1 or the other set of conditions must have imposed upon their work4 ,with a little aid from history in forming our judgments1 their works themselves will assist us--so faithful is the transcript of their witness--for1 with more certainty than applies to handwriting1 a fair guess may be made by inference from the work itself as to the general status and ideals of the workman4 ,the striking analogy between its salient characteristics and the prevailing mood of that ever-changing spirit which seeks expression in the arts1 is nowhere more marked than in the work of the carver4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,studies ,,from ,,nature--,,foliage ,medieval and ,modern ,choice of ,form ,compared--,a ,compromise ,adopted--,a ,list of ,plant ,forms of ,adaptable ,character4 ,it is high time now that we had some talk about the studies from nature which are to furnish you with subjects for your work4 ,i shall at present deal only with studies of foliage1 as that is what you have been practising1 and ,i wish you to carry on your work and studies as much as possible on the same lines4 ,between the few abstract forms1 representing a general type of foliage1 so dear to the heart of the medieval carver1 and the unstinted variety of choice displayed in the works of ,grinling ,gibbons and his time1 there is such a wide difference that surely it points to a corresponding disparity of aim4 ,although there is no doubt whatever that such a striking change of views must have had its origin in some deeper cause than that which is to be explained by artistic and technical development1 yet ,i think that for our immediate purpose we shall find a sufficiently good lesson in comparing the visible results of the two methods4 ,broadly speaking1 then1 the medieval carver cared more for general effect than for possibilities of technique4 ,he therefore chose only such natural forms as were amenable to his preconceived determination to make his work telling at a distance4 ,he had no botanical leanings1 and rejected as unfit every form which would not bend to his one purpose--that of decoration on a large scale--and which he aimed at making comprehensive at a glance1 rather than calling for attention to its details4 ,he invented patterns which he knew would assist in producing this result1 and here he further handicapped his choice by limiting it to such forms as would repeat or vanish at regulated intervals1 reflecting light or producing shadow just where it was wanted to emphasize his pattern4 ,the more modern carver1 on the contrary1 offered an all-embracing welcome to every form which presented itself to his notice4 ,he rejected nothing which could by any possibility be carved4 ,nothing was too small1 too thin1 or too difficult for his wonderful dexterity with the carving tools4 ,his chief end was elaboration of detail1 and it was often carried to a point which ignored the fact that nearly all of it would become invisible when in position1 or1 if seen at all1 would only appear in confused lumps and unintelligible masses4 ,now1 for many reasons1 ,i think we had better take the medieval method as our model up to a point1 and make a certain selection of material for our studies1 based upon some relation to general effect1 but not necessarily imitating a medieval austerity of rejection1 which would be the merest affectation on our part4 ,upon these principles1 and taking somewhat of a middle course1 ,i shall here note a few types of foliage which ,i think may be useful to you in the work upon which you are engaged4 ,leaf forms1 with their appropriate flowers or fruit1 afford the carver a very large proportion of his subject material4 ,they serve him as principal subject1 as bordering or background to figures of men or animals2 they occur as mere detached spots1 to break the monotony of spaces or lines2 and in a thousand other ways give exercise to his invention4 ,as a general rule1 those leaves with serrated1 or deeply cleft and indented edges1 lend themselves most readily to decorative treatment4 ,large1 broad leaves1 with unbroken surfaces1 and triangular or rounded outlines1 are less manageable4 ,those most commonly taken as models are3 ,the ,vine1 with its ,grapes4--,this was freely used by medieval carvers1 at first for its symbolic significance1 but afterward even more on account of its rare beauty of form4 ,the play of light and shade on its vigorous foliage1 the variety of its drawing in leaf1 vine1 and tendril1 and the contrast afforded by its bunches of oval fruit1 caused it to be accepted as a favorite subject for imitation in all kinds of carving4 ,it lends itself kindly to all sorts of relief1 either high or low1 in almost any material4 ,it is so recognizable1 even in the rudest attempts at imitation1 that its popularity is well deserved4 ,the hop-vine shares some of these qualities1 though much less strongly marked in character4 ,the ,acanthus4--,this leaf was first adapted for the purpose of ornament by the workmen of classical ,greece4 ,the inspiration was one of the few which they took directly from nature's models4 ,it was also freely used by medieval carvers1 but with an insistence upon the flowing and rounded character of its surface forms2 and again by the ,renaissance artists1 with a return to its classical character of fluted and formal strength of line4 ,the graceful drawing of its elaborately articulated surface1 and the extraordinary accentuation of its outline1 provide an endless source of suggestion4 ,it has been adapted in all manners1 according to the fancy of the carver--sometimes long and drawn out1 at others wide and spreading4 ,altogether it has been more thoroughly generalized than any other natural form4 ,the ,oak1 with its ,acorns1 appears in early medieval work1 but without much attempt to represent its form with anything like individual character4 ,in later work it has more justice done to its undoubted merits as a decorative feature by a clearer recognition of its beauty in clumps and masses4 ,fruit1 other than the grape and a nondescript kind of berry1 was seldom represented by medieval craftsmen2 it formed1 however1 a marked feature in ,renaissance ornament1 where pomegranate1 apple1 fig1 and melon were in constant requisition4 ,flowers in general were very little used in early times1 and then only in a highly abstract form corresponding to that of the foliage4 ,the rose and lily were the two most frequently seen1 but they seldom had more individuality about them than was sufficient to make them recognizable4 ,during the ,renaissance flowers were treated with much more regard to their inherent beauties1 and were represented with great skill and power of imitation1 although often carried beyond legitimate limits in this direction4 ,when dealt with as ornaments1 rather than botanical details1 they form a rich source of suggestion to the carver1 and offer a ready means of contrast with masses of foliage4 ,the rose and lily are such conspicuous flowers that they should1 in modern times1 be used in a way consistent with our demands for individual character and likeness4 ,they should be fairly well defined and easily recognizable4 ,it is quite possible to treat these flowers in a very realistic way1 without endangering their effect as decorative details3 they have both such distinguished forms in flower and foliage4 ,flowers should be chosen for their forms2 color should not be allowed to deceive the eye in this respect1 unless the color itself is suggestive of lines and contours4 ,foliage should always be studied at its prime1 never when it is dried and contorted in its forms4 ,here is a short list of subjects1 including those ,i have mentioned1 all having a sufficiently pronounced character to make them valuable as stock in trade4 ,many more might be named1 but these are chosen as being commonly familiar1 and as being representative types of various forms4 ,for their ,leaves and ,fruit4--,the grapevine1 hop-vine1 globe artichoke1 tomato1 apple1 plum1 pear1 bramble1 and strawberry4 ,for ,fruit and ,vine-like ,growths 7leafage too massive and smooth to be of much value without adaptation74--,the melon1 vegetable-marrow1 pumpkins1 and cucumber4 ,for ,leafage1 ,flowers1 or ,seed ,vessels4--,the acanthus1 oak1 thistles1 teazle1 giant hemlock1 cow-parsley1 buttercup4 ,of ,garden ,flowers4--,the rose1 lily1 larkspur1 peony1 poppies1 columbine1 chrysanthemum1 tulip1 ,christmas rose1 ,japanese anemone4 ,for ,close and ,intricate ,designs4--,periwinkle1 winter aconite1 trefoils of various kinds4 ,many valuable hints on this subject may be gleaned by a study of ,gerrard's ,herbal1 which is full of well-drawn illustrations1 done in a way which is very suggestive to the designer4 ,a careful study of the outline forms of leaves is a schooling in itself1 so much may be learned from it4 ,it teaches the relation between form and growth in a way which makes it possible to use the greatest freedom of generalization without violating structural laws4 ,the same causes which govern the shaping of a tree are present in the leaf1 settling its final outline1 so that1 however wandering and fantastic it may appear1 there is not the smallest curve or serration which does not bear witness to a methodical development1 and to every accidental circumstance which helped or hindered its fulfilment4 ,you could not do better than make a collection of suitable leaves1 press them flat and trace them very carefully1 keeping the tracings together in a book for reference4 ,accompanying this you should have in each case a drawing of the leaf as it appears in its natural state1 always being careful to do this from a point of view which will accommodate itself to carving the leaf if you should have occasion to use it4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,carving ,,on ,,furniture ,furniture ,constructed with a ,view to ,carving--,reciprocal ,aims of ,joiner and ,carver--,smoothness ,desirable where ,carving is ,handled--,the ,introduction of ,animals or ,figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,you will find in the illustrations1 ,figs4 #ec to #fb1 certain suggestions for various pieces of furniture4 ,they are given with the intention of impressing upon you the fact that very little carving can be done at all without some practical motive as a backbone to your fancies4 ,to be always carving inapplicable panels is very dull work1 and only good for a few preliminary exercises4 ,it is much better to consider the matter well1 and resolve upon some opus1 which will spread your efforts over a considerable period4 ,when you have decided upon the piece of furniture which is most likely to be useful to you1 and which lies within your powers of design and execution1 then make a drawing for it1 and have it made by a joiner 7unless you can make it entirely yourself71 to be put together in loose pieces for convenience of carving1 and glued up when that is finished4 ,you should certainly design the piece yourself1 as you should make all your own designs for the carving4 ,the two departments must be carried on in the closest relation to each other while the work is in progress1 otherwise their association will not be complete when it is finished4 ,take1 for instance1 the head of the bed in the illustration4 ,why should it stand up so high1 like the gable of a house8 ,it is for no other reason than to give an opportunity for carving4 ,a plain board of half the height would have been just as effective as a protection to the sleeper4 ,useless as carving may be from this practical point of view1 it must nevertheless be amenable to utilitarian laws4 ,it must be smooth where it is likely to be handled1 as in the case of the knobs on top of the posts2 and even where it is not likely to be handled1 but may be merely touched occasionally1 it should still have an inviting smoothness of surface4 ,as a matter of fact1 all carving on a bed should be of this kind1 with no deep nooks or corners to hold dust4 ,here1 then1 are a number of conditions1 which1 instead of being a hindrance1 are really useful incentives to fresh invention4 ,just as the construction of joiner's work entails concessions on the part of the carver1 so the carver may ask the joiner to go a little out of his way in order to give opportunities for his carving4 ,a little knowledge of this subject will make a reasonable compromise possible4 ,you will find a further advantage in undertaking a fairly large piece of work4 ,as it is almost certain to be in several parts1 each may thus receive a different treatment1 by which means you not only obtain contrast1 but get some idea of the extraordinary power with which one piece of carving affects another when placed in juxtaposition4 ,whatever designs you may decide upon1 should you undertake to carve the panels for a bed1 let them be in decidedly low relief4 ,the surface must be smoothly wrought1 doing away with as much of the tool marking as you can1 but this smoothing to be done entirely with the tools1 not by any means with glass paper4 ,great attention must be paid to the drawing of the forms1 as it is by this that the impression of modeling and projection will be expressed4 ,a very pleasant treatment of such low relief when a smooth and even appearance is wanted1 is to carve the ground to the full depth1 say #a_/h in41 only along the outlines of the design1 and form the remainder into a kind of raised cushion1 almost level in the middle with the original surface of the wood4 ,the whole design need thus be little more than a kind of deepish engraving1 depending for its effect upon broad lights defined by the engraved shadows4 ,see ,fig4 #ed for an example of this treatment applied to letters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,now ,i expect you to make a fresh design4 ,the illustrations in all such cases are purposely drawn in a somewhat indefinite way1 in order that they may suggest1 without making it possible to copy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,now we come to the mirror frame1 ,fig4 #ee4 ,i should suggest that this be done in some light-colored wood like pear-tree1 which has an agreeably warm tone1 or if a hard piece of cedar can be found1 it would look well1 but in no case should polish be added except that which comes from the tool4 ,the construction need not be complicated4 ,take two #c_/d-;in4 boards1 glue them together to form the width1 shape out the frame in the rough4 ,put behind this another frame of #c_/d-;in4 thick stuff1 and make the cornice out of wood about #a-a_/b in4 thick4 ,the parts to be kept separate until the carving is finished1 and afterward glued or screwed together4 ,the carving on the body of the frame1 that is1 in the gable above and the front of bracket below1 should be in very low relief1 the lower part being like the last1 a kind of engraving4 ,the fret above may be sunk about #a_/af in4 and the ground slightly cushioned4 ,the carving on sides and cornice is of a stronger character1 and may be cut as deeply as the wood will allow1 while the cornice is actually pierced through in places1 showing the flat board behind4 ,the design for this cornice should have some repeating object1 such as the kind of pineapple-looking thing in the illustration1 and its foliage should be formed with plenty of well-rounded surfaces1 that may suggest some rather fat and juicy plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,in ,fig4 #ef you have a suggestion for carving a bench or settle1 the proportions of which have been taken from one found at a ,yorkshire village inn4 ,the actual measurements are given in order that these proportions may be followed4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that chairs1 or seats of any kind1 can not be successfully designed on paper with any hope of meeting the essential requirements of comfort1 lightness1 and stability4 ,making seats is a practical art1 and the development of the design is a matter of many years of successive improvements4 ,a good model should therefore be selected and copied1 with such slight changes as are necessary where carving is to be introduced4 ,the main lines should not be interfered with on any account1 nor should the thickness of the wood be altered if possible4 ,the carving on this settle is intended to be in separate panels1 about two inches apart4 ,these panels will look all the better if no two are quite alike2 a good way to give them more variety will be to make every alternate one of some kind of open pattern1 like a fret4 ,these piercings need not extend all over the design in the panel in every case3 some may have only a few shapely holes mixed up with the lines1 others again may be formed into complete frets with as much open as solid4 7,see ,fig4 #eg47 ,the carving should be shallow1 and not too fine in detail1 as it will get a great deal of rubbing4 ,the material should be1 if possible1 oak2 but beech may be used with very good effect--in neither case should it be stained or polished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,fig4 #eh is a clock case4 ,something of this kind would make an excellent opus such as ,i have alluded to1 and give plenty of scope for invention4 ,as clocks of this kind are generally hung on a wall1 the brackets1 from a practical point of view1 are of course unnecessary1 but as it is important that they should look as if they were supported and to satisfy the eye1 something in the way of a bracket or brackets is generally added4 ,a bracket like the one in the illustration1 not being a real support constructively speaking1 but only put there to give assurance that such has not been overlooked or neglected1 becomes a kind of toy1 and may be treated as such by adding some little fancy to make it amusing1 and give an excuse for making a feature of it4 ,this will be a good place to try your hand at some modest attempt at figure work4 ,in designing your bracket1 should you wish to introduce a little figure of man or beast1 ,i think you will find it more satisfactory if the figure is separated from the structural part by a slight suggestion of solid surroundings of its own4 ,thus the little roof over1 and the solid bit of wood under1 the figure in the illustration serve this purpose1 lending an appearance of steadiness which would be wanting in a bracket formed of a detached figure4 ,at any rate1 never make your figures1 whether of man or beast1 seem to carry the clock2 you may hunch them up into any shape you like1 but no weight should be supposed to rest upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,for sake of the carving1 oak will be the best wood to employ in making this clock1 or one like it1 but ,italian walnut will do equally well4 ,the size should be fairly large1 say about three feet over all in height4 ,this will give a face of about ten inches in diameter1 which face will look best if made of copper gilt1 and not much of it1 perhaps a mere ring1 with the figures either raised or cut out1 leaving nothing but themselves and two rings surrounding4 ,this should project from the wood1 leaving a space of about one inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,if you are inclined to try a heavier piece of work1 the bench or settle-end in ,fig4 #ei may give you a suggestion4 ,in this there is a bird introduced in the shape of a cock roosting on the branch of a tree4 ,it would require to be done in a thick piece of wood1 say #c ins4 thick1 and would be best in ,english oak4 ,the idea will be1 to cut away the wood from the outer lower portion1 leaving only about #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b in4 thickness1 but at the top retaining the full thickness2 in which the bird must be carved1 the outer edges being kept full thickness in order to give the structural form and enclose the carving4 ,the inside of this upper part1 toward the seat1 should also be carved1 but with a smooth and shallow pattern of some kind1 as both may be seen together1 and in contrast to each other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,the introduction of figures leads me to a subject which it will be better to discuss in the next chapter1 i4e41 the question as to how far it is possible or consistent with present conditions to attempt anything that may bear the character of humor4 ,but in the meantime here are three more subjects upon which fancy and ingenuity may be expended with profit4 ,in ,fig4 #fj you have a heraldic subject4 ,in all such cases the heraldry should be true1 and not of the bogus kind4 ,this shield represents a real coat of arms1 and was done from a design by ,philip ,webb1 being finally covered with gesso1 silvered and painted in transparent colors4 ,figs4 #fa and #fb are suggestions for wooden crosses1 oak being the best material to use for such a purpose4 ,the carving should be so arranged as to form some kind of pattern on the cross4 ,in ,fig4 #fb the black trefoils are supposed to be cut right through the thin pieces of wood forming the center portion1 and the carving on that part is very shallow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,grotesque ,,in ,,carving ,misproportion not ,essential to the ,expression of ,humor--,the ,sham ,grotesque ,contemptible--,a ,true ,sense of ,humor ,helpful to the ,carver4 ,the dullness which comes of all work and no play may be said to affect the carver at times4 ,he tires of carving leaves and ornaments3 what more natural than to seek change and amusement in the invention of droll figures of men or animals8 ,the enjoyment which we all feel in contemplating the outcome of this spirit in ancient work1 leads us to the imitation of both subject and manner1 hoping thereby that the same results may be obtained2 but somehow the repetition is seldom attended with much success1 while of original fancies of the same sort we are obliged to confess ourselves almost destitute4 ,who can behold the fantastic humors of ,gothic carvings without being both amused and interested8 ,those grotesque heads with gaping mouths recall the stories of childhood1 peopled with goblins and gnomes4 ,it is all so natural1 and so much in keeping with the architecture which surrounds it1 the carving is so rude and simple1 that it seems absurd when some authority on such matters makes a statement to the effect that all such expression of humor has become forever impossible to ourselves4 ,this important part of the question must be left to your own meditation1 to settle according to your lights2 experience will probably lead you ultimately to the same opinion4 ,meantime1 the point ,i wish to impress upon you is this1 that until you feel yourself secure1 and something of a master of various branches of your craft1 you should not attempt any subject which aims at being decidedly grotesque4 ,there are very good and practical reasons for this2 one is1 that while you are studying your art1 you must do nothing that may tend to obscure what faculties you have for judging proportion4 ,now1 as all grotesque work is based more or less on exaggeration1 it forms a very dangerous kind of exercise to the beginner1 therefore ,i should never allow a pupil of mine to so much as attempt it4 ,do not think that ,i wish to discourage every effort which has not an ultra-serious aim4 ,on the contrary1 ,i am but taking a rather roundabout way to an admission that the humorous element has1 and must have at all times1 a powerful attraction for the wood-carver2 and to the statement of an opinion that it should not be allowed to take a prominent place in the work of a student2 moreover1 that it is quite possible to find in nature a varied and unfailing source of suggestion in this respect 7more1 in fact1 than we are ever likely to account for71 and which requires no artificial exaggeration to aid its expression4 ,some tincture of the faculty is absolutely necessary to the carver who takes his subjects from birds or beasts1 in order that he may perceive and seize the salient lines and characteristic forms1 of which the key-note is often to be found in a faint touch of humor1 and which1 like the scent of a flower1 adds charm by appealing to another sense4 ,the same argument applies to the treatment of the human figure4 ,let no student 7and ,i may include1 also1 master-carver7 think that a grotesque treatment will raise the smile or excite the interest which is anticipated4 ,the grotesque is a vehicle for grim and often terrible ideas1 lightly veiled by a cloak of humorous exaggeration2 a sort of ,viking horse-play--it is1 in fact1 a language which expresses the mixed feelings of sportive contempt and real fear in about equal proportions4 ,when these feelings are not behind the expression1 it becomes a language which is in itself only contemptible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,if1 carried away by fancy1 you must find vent for its impulses1 and carve images of unearthly beings1 at least make them cheerful looking2 one can imagine such demons and goblins as being rather nice fellows than otherwise4 ,a grim jest that fails is generally a foolish one--at least its perpetrator neither deserves nor receives sympathy for his discomfiture4 ,now1 ,i shall show you one or two examples which may make this matter a little clearer to you1 if you are at all inclined to argue the position4 ,i think1 at any rate1 they will prove that the expression of humor does not always depend upon exaggeration1 and may exist in a work which is1 one may say1 almost copied from nature4 ,fig4 #fc is an example to this effect4 ,the little jester just emerging from a flower1 one of the side-pieces to a ,miserere seat carving1 is undoubtedly a true portrait1 carved without the slightest attempt at exaggeration4 ,the quiet humor which it evinces required only sympathy to perceive and skill to portray on the part of its carver4 ,he had nothing to invent in the common acceptation of the word4 ,the carving of the mendicant1 which comes on the other side1 is equally vivid in its truth to nature4 ,it is so lifelike that we do not notice the humorous enjoyment of the artist in depicting the whining lips and closed eyes of the professional beggar4 ,observe the good manners of it all--the natural refinement of the artist who leaves his characters to make all the fun1 without intrusion from himself other than to give the aid of his skill in representation4 ,now1 subjects of this class will1 in all probability1 present themselves until the end of the world2 but artists like this ,gothic one are not so likely to be common4 ,great technical skill1 a large fund of vitality1 and many other controlling qualities are necessary to the production of such an artist2 but he gives a clue to the right action1 which we may with safety accept1 even if we can not hope to equal his performance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,the center-piece1 ,fig4 #fd1 tells a little story of ,samson4 ,it is noticeable in these medieval picture subjects1 how1 when a story has to be told1 the details are treated in a broad and distinct fashion1 as if the story could take care of itself1 and only required to be stated clearly as to facts4 ,the detached ornamental parts1 on the contrary1 receive a degree of careful attention not given to the picture1 seemingly with the object of making their loneliness attractive4 ,the broad-humor characteristic of the companion picture of medieval life1 in the little domestic scene1 ,fig4 #fe1 is equally free from forced exaggeration or intentional misproportion4 ,scale and anatomy1 to be sure1 have had little consideration from the carver1 but we readily forgive the inaccuracies in this respect1 on account of his quick wit in devising means to an end4 ,before we leave this subject1 look at ,plate ,,ii1 in which you will see a curious use of misproportion--intentional1 too1 in this case--and used for quite other than humorous purposes4 ,this is a little ornamental figure from the tomb of ,henry ,,iv1 in ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,you will see that the body is out of all proportion2 too small for the head which surmounts it1 or too big for the feet upon which it stands4 ,now1 what could have induced the carver to treat a dainty little lady thus8 ,it certainly was not that he considered it an improvement upon nature1 nor was it a joke on his part4 ,it could only be done for some practical reason such as this3 that the little figure does part duty as a bracket1 hence1 more appearance of solidity is required at the top1 and less at the foot1 than true proportions would admit4 ,it is all done so unostentatiously that one might look for hours at the figure without noticing the license4 ,not that ,i should advise you to imitate this naive way out of a difficulty4 ,the childlike simplicity of its treatment succeeds where conscious effort would only end in affectation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,in ,fig4 #ff you will see another little figure doing duty in connection with a stall division in the ,lady ,chapel at ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,its smooth roundness of form is very appropriate to the position it occupies2 while its polished surface bears ample testimony that it has given no offense to the touch of the many hands which have rested upon it4 ,fig4 #fg shows another example of the same sort1 but perched on a lower part of the division4 ,this one is from the cathedral at ,berne1 each division of the stalls having a different figure1 of which this is a type4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,studies ,,from ,,nature--,,birds ,,and ,,beasts ,the ,introduction of ,animal ,forms--,rude ,vitality ,better than ,dull ,natural ,history--,action--,difficulties of the ,study for ,town-,bred ,students--,the ,aid of ,books and ,photographs--,outline ,drawing and ,suggestion of ,main ,masses--,sketch-,book ,studies1 ,sections1 and ,notes--,swiss ,animal ,carving--,the ,clay ,model3 its ,use and ,abuse4 ,nothing enlivens or gives more variety of interest to wood-carving than the introduction of animal forms4 ,they make agreeable halting-places on which the eye may rest with pleasure4 ,they are1 in general1 both beautiful in their shapes and associated with ideas which appeal strongly to the imagination1 thus affording in masses of abstract ornament the pleasantest kind of relief by adding to it points of definite lineament and meaning4 ,to carve animals as they ought to be carved1 one must have something more than a passing interest in their forms2 there must be included also an understanding of their natures1 and some acquaintance with their habits4 ,a cattle-drover is likely to know the salient points of a bullock1 a horse-breeder all those connected with a horse1 and so on4 ,we students1 however1 not having the advantage of such accurate and personal knowledge1 must make shift in the best way we can to discover and note the points so familiar to trained eyes4 ,to see animals in this way1 and1 with knowledge of their forms and habits1 treat their sculptured images according to the laws of our craft1 is no light task4 ,if choice were to be made between a rude manner of carving--but which familiarity with the subject invested with lively recognition of character--and a more cultured and elaborate1 but lifeless study in natural history1 there should be no hesitation in making choice of the former method1 because animal forms1 without some indication of vitality1 are the dullest of all dull ornaments4 ,it is quite impossible to describe in words the kind of action which is most appropriate to sculpture1 it being much more a question of treatment1 and the guiding spirit of the moment1 than a subject which can be formulated4 ,as a broad and general principle which may be taken for guidance1 you will always find yourself on surer ground in the attempt to indicate the capacity for energy and the suggestion of movement1 than you will if your aim is the extremity of action in any direction4 ,you may1 with some justice1 point to the illustration given in ,fig4 #fe1 and which appears to contradict this statement1 as being an example in which violent action is the key-note4 ,you must notice1 however1 that the two figures1 although struggling1 are for the moment still1 or may be supposed so4 ,there is enough suggestion of this pause to excuse the attitudes and save the composition from restlessness--even the raised hands may be supposed to remain in the same position for a second or two4 ,this imaginary pause1 however infinitesimal1 is essential to the dignity of the sculptor's art1 as nothing is more irritating to the mind than being forced to recognize the contradiction between a motionless image and its suggestion of restless action4 ,it is necessary to observe the same rule in the expression of actual repose1 as some clue must be given1 some completed action be suggested1 in order to distinguish dormant energy from downright inertia4 ,i should like to impress upon you the importance of making a special study of the characteristic movements of animals4 ,you will in time become so far familiar with them that certain standards of comparison and contrast will be established in your mind as aids to memory4 ,thus you will be all the better able to carve with significance the measured and stately action of a horse1 if you have in your mind's eye at the same time a picture of the more cumbrous and slower movements of a cow2 and you will be helped in the same way when you are carving a dog1 by remembering that the movements of a cat afford a striking contrast1 in being stealthy where the other is nervous and quick4 ,for the unfortunate town-bred student or artist1 who has had few opportunities to study birds and beasts familiar to the country schoolboy1 there is no other way but to make the best of stuffed birds1 photographs1 etc4 ,much may be done with these aids if a little personal acquaintance with their habits and associations is added like salt1 to keep the second-hand knowledge sweet and wholesome4 ,in the absence of opportunity for study from the life1 no pictures of animals can compare in their usefulness to the carver with those by ,bewick4 ,they are so completely developed in essential details1 so full of character and expressive of life1 that even when personal acquaintance has been made with their various qualities1 a glance at one of his engravings of birds or beasts conveys new meaning1 either of gesture or attitude1 to what we have previously learned4 ,every student who wishes to make a lively representation in carving of familiar beast or bird should study ,bewick's engravings of ,quadrupeds and ,birds4 ,drawings made for the purpose of study need not be elaborate3 indeed1 such drawings are only embarrassing to work from4 ,the most practical plan is to make a drawing in which the main masses are given correctly1 and in about the same relative position that they will occupy in the carving4 ,i give you in ,plate ,,vii an example of this in a drawing made by ,philip ,webb1 who1 by the study of a lifetime1 has amassed a valuable store of knowledge concerning animals1 and acquired that extraordinary skill in their delineation and the expression of character which is only to be attained by close observation and great sympathy with the subject4 ,the drawing in question was made for myself at the time ,i was carving a lion for the cover of a book 7given in ,plate ,,viii74 ,it was made1 in his good-natured way1 to help a lame dog over a stile1 as ,i had got into difficulties with the form4 ,this drawing is all that a carver's first diagram should be1 and gives what is always the first necessity in such preliminary outlines--that is1 the right relationship of the main masses1 and the merest hint of what is to come in the way of detail2 all of which must be studied separately1 but which would be entirely useless if a wrong start had been made4 ,in ,fig4 #fh ,i give you tracings from some notes ,i made myself while carving the sheep in ,plates ,v and ,,vi4 ,the object was to gain some definite knowledge of form by noting the relation of planes1 sections of parts1 projections1 etc41 etc4 ,the section lines and side-notes are the most valuable part of the memoranda4 ,in the same manner the illustration1 ,fig4 #fi1 shows diagrams made from a heron1 giving section lines of beak1 etc4 ,the side-notes about the colors are valuable1 as1 although not translatable into carving1 they do to some extent influence the manner of interpreting forms4 ,photographs must not be despised1 but they are only of use if read by the light of previous knowledge4 ,for this reason you can not make too many notes of sectional structure through heads1 necks1 and legs1 which will help to explain the mystery common to all photographs4 ,the bear shown in the frontispiece is traced from a photographic illustration which appeared in the ,westminster ,budget some time ago4 ,by the merest accident it is suggestive of a subject almost ready for the carver's hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,until tourists began to explore the beauties of ,switzerland1 there were no better carvers of animals than the serious but genial craftsmen of that noble country1 more especially of such animals as were familiar to their eyes4 ,this preeminence shows distinct signs of soon becoming a thing of the past in the endeavors to meet the demands created by thoughtless visitors4 ,still1 it is possible to obtain a little of the traditional work1 uninfluenced by that fatal impetus originating in modern commerce4 ,a piece of this kind is shown in ,fig4 #gj1 bought by a friend only a year or two ago in the ,grindelwald1 and which1 although forming part of the usual stock of such things made for tourist consumption1 was picked out with judicious discrimination from a number of stupid and trivial objects which displayed neither interest of design nor other than mechanical skill of carving4 ,this little bear1 a few inches in size1 is carved in a way which shows long experience of the subject1 and great familiarity with the animal's ways4 ,the tooling of the hair is done with the most extraordinary skill1 and without the waste of a single touch4 ,now1 a word or two more on studies from the life before we leave this subject4 ,i have given you examples of diagrams made for this purpose1 but much may be done without any drawings1 further than a preliminary map of the general masses4 ,in the case of such an animal as the horse1 which can be seen in every street1 ,i have myself found it useful to follow them in my walks1 taking mental note of such details as ,i happened to be engaged upon1 such as its legs and joints1 its head or neck2 another day ,i would confine my attention to eyes1 ears1 mane1 etc41 always with reference to the work immediately in hand1 as that is the time to get the best results from life study2 because the difficulties have presented themselves1 and one knows exactly what to look for4 ,five minutes spent thus after the work has been started 7provided the start has been right and involves no mistake in the general masses7 is more valuable than hours of labor in making preliminary drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,the use of experimental models in clay or wax has1 of course1 its advantages1 but it will be well to know just how far such an aid is valuable1 and at what point its use becomes hurtful to one's work4 ,it is a common practise in large carving shops for one man to design the figure or animal subjects in clay1 while another carves them in stone or wood4 ,now1 apart from the difference in material and the unnatural division of labor1 which we have discussed before1 it is beyond question that a model of this kind has even a more paralyzing effect on the actual carver than a drawing would have4 ,of course1 the work is more certain to reach a recognized standard1 and the risk of total failure is reduced to a minimum1 but there is literally nothing left for the carver to invent2 who1 if he is a man with a turn for that kind of thing1 and of a nervous temperament1 must suffer untold irritation in its execution4 ,the good and bad results of the use of a modeled pattern attend in a modified degree even where both are done by the same hand1 but for all that it is a useful and convenient way of making experiments in doubtful passages of the work4 ,the how far a model is to be carried must be regulated by the amount of confidence the carver has in his own foresight1 but in any case it is always well to remember the difference of treatment required in plaster1 clay1 and hard wood1 which lead to such different results that often fresh difficulty arises in having to translate the one manner into the other4 ,for the purpose of roughing out the general scheme1 the clay1 if it must be resorted to1 should be used in soft masses1 then a drawing in outline made from this2 but all doubtful detailed work should be carved1 not modeled1 and for this purpose the clay should be allowed to harden until it is nearly dry4 ,the opinions of the well-known wood-carver1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,aumonier1 on this subject1 will be of value to you2 he says with regard to the best method of going to work3 ,a fresh piece of wood-carving executed without a model is distinctly a created work1 and that much good work may come by chopping boldly at a block without any preconceived design1 but designing as you go on4 ,but he thinks it is best to work from drawings2 rough1 full-size charcoal cartoons1 which give the effect wanted by their light and shade4 ,he also says that he strongly protests against the too frequent use of clay or plaster models1 because they are often worse than useless1 and not infrequently absolutely immoral in their tendency1 because they absorb time and money1 which ought more legitimately to be spent on the carving itself4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,foreshortening ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,work ,,in ,,relief ,intelligible ,background ,outline ,better than ,confused ,foreshortening--,superposition of ,masses4 ,i have spoken of the necessity for careful balance between the outlines of subject and background3 that both should be agreeable in shape4 ,this becomes complicated and more difficult to arrange when we admit into our design anything resembling what painters call foreshortening1 and the awkwardness is felt even in the placing of such a small thing as an apple-leaf1 which may be treated in such a way that the intention of the drawing is entirely lost in the confusion which arises between the inferred and the actual projection4 ,in designing such subjects it will be good to bear in mind as a guiding principle that no matter what excuse there may be in the nature of the inferred position of the leaf or limb1 the outline against the background must be at once agreeable and explanatory4 ,every kind of work in relief develops a species of compromise in the expression of form1 lying somewhere between the representation of an object on a perfectly flat ground1 as in a painting1 and the complete realization of the same form1 copied from nature in some solid material1 without any background whatever4 ,in proportion to the amount of actual projection from the background1 of course the necessity diminishes for that kind of foreshortening which is obtained by delineation4 ,it might be inferred1 therefore1 that in very low relief--which is more nearly akin to the nature of a picture--more liberty may be taken in this direction4 ,it is not so1 however1 for where actual depth or projection exists1 as in carving1 be it only so much as the depth of a line1 it makes foreshortening well-nigh impossible1 except to a very limited extent4 ,there must be1 of course1 some appearance of this quality1 so a certain conventional standard has been set up1 beyond which one only ventures at one's own risk4 ,thus1 care is taken that every object composing the subject lies with its longest lines parallel to the background4 ,in this way the least possible violence is done to the imagination in completing the picture4 ,as an example1 no single leaf should be represented in relief as turning or coming forward more than it would do if plucked from the tree and laid loosely down upon a sheet of paper4 ,a1 ,fig4 #ga1 is an outline of an apple-leaf pressed out flat4 ,b is an attempt to present it in violent foreshortening1 showing its back to the spectator1 while its point is supposed to be buried in the background4 ,c is the same leaf turned the other way1 and supposed to be projecting forward2 both are exceedingly awkward and unintelligible as mere outlines1 and if expressed in relief would not be any more convincing as portraits of the thing intended--rather less so1 in fact1 than the diagram1 which has no projection to interfere with the drawing4 ,so we must turn our leaf until it presents its long side more or less to the spectator1 as in ,d2 but even here part of the edge is so thin at a that it will be better to turn it a little farther1 as in ,e1 showing more of its surface1 as at b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,again1 if we take as another example two apples1 one partly covering the other1 as in a1 ,fig4 #gb1 where one apple is supposed to be behind the other1 and so implies distance4 ,there is no means of expressing this distance in carving4 ,lowering the surface of the hindmost apple would merely throw out the balance of masses without giving a satisfactory explanation of its position1 while to cut a deep groove between the two would be an equally unsightly expedient4 ,the difficulty should1 whenever it is possible1 be avoided by partially separating the two forms1 as in b1 where the center of the hindmost apple clears the outline of the other2 thus making it possible to get a division without awkwardness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,a good expedient1 where leaf or scroll forms are to be carved1 and when very truthful drawing is necessary to explain their convolutions1 is that adopted by ,professor ,lethaby at the ,royal ,college of ,art4 ,it consists in cutting the leaf out of a piece of stiffish paper1 and with a knife or pen-handle curling it into the required form4 ,the main lines will thus be seen in true relation to one another1 and all the distortion avoided which arises from disconnection of parts2 not only that1 but it is a useful aid to the invention1 as much variety can be hinted at by a skilful manipulation in curling its lobes4 ,fig4 #gc was drawn from a paper model of this kind4 ,of course1 it is quite without the necessary veins or minor articulations1 but is useful as a suggestion of main lines4 ,with regard to subjects containing figures of men or animals1 the same principle governs the placing of the whole body in the first instance1 then of the different members1 so that heads1 arms1 and legs take up a position as nearly as may be with a piece of background all to themselves4 ,thus1 no two bodies should be super-imposed if it can be in any way avoided4 7,i am speaking now of moderate and low relief1 although even in high relief the best masters have always respected the principle47 ,the temptation to imitate effects of foreshortening for its own sake is not without some excuse1 as it is quite possible to make presentable pictures in this way4 ,a horse1 for instance1 may be carved in low relief1 presenting either its head or hindquarters to the spectator1 and yet not look absolutely absurd4 ,again1 a front face may be carved in the same way1 notwithstanding the difficulty presented by the projection of the nose4 ,neither of these experiments can ever be said to prove entirely successful4 ,it is not so much that they are either difficult or impossible1 as that a more suitable method1 one more natural to the technique of the carver1 is being neglected1 and its many good qualities sacrificed for sake of an effect which can never be fully realized in sculpture4 ,to so dispose the various masses1 great and small1 that they fall easily into groups1 each having some relation to1 and share of the background1 is a true carver's artifice4 ,a skilful use of this arrangement makes it quite unnecessary to encroach upon the domain of another art in the imitation of an effect which may be successfully rendered with the pencil1 but only so to a very limited extent with the carving tools4 ,you have all seen the actors1 when called before the curtain at the close of the play1 how they pass before it one by one1 and perhaps joining hands make their bows in line1 to all appearance1 on a very narrow platform4 ,the curtain is your background1 while the footlights may stand for the surface of your wood4 ,in illustration of this principle1 let me call your attention to the arrangement of the animals in ,plate ,,vi1 where economy of space1 and a desire to display each detail to advantage1 are the leading motives4 ,i give it as the readiest example to hand1 and because it fairly illustrates the principle in question4 ,you must excuse the apparent vanity in making choice of one of my own works to exemplify a canon of art4 ,the sheep at the top is supposed to be scampering over rocks2 the ram below may be any distance from the sheep that you choose to imagine--the only indication of relative position is separation1 by means of a ridge that may pass for a rock4 ,the head of the ram is somewhat foreshortened1 but there was enough thickness of wood contained in the big mass of the body to allow of this being done in the smaller mass of the head1 without leaving too much to be supposed4 ,the heads of the sheep in the fold have been as closely packed as was consistent with showing as much of each as possible1 as it was considered better to give the whole head and no body than to show only a part of both3 most of the bodies1 therefore1 are supposed to be hidden behind the wall1 only one showing in part4 ,it is a general axiom of the craft1 that every mass 7be it body or leaf7 must be made as complete in itself as the circumstances will allow2 but1 if partly hidden1 the concealment should be wilful1 and without ambiguity4 ,thus1 a dog's head may be rightly carved as being partly hidden in a bucket1 but ought not to be covered by another head if it is possible to avoid it4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,undercutting ,,and ,,built-,,up ,,work ,undercutting as a ,means and as an ,end2 its ,use and ,abuse--,built-up ,work--,planted ,work--,pierced ,work4 ,by undercutting is meant the cutting away of the solid portions of projections in such a manner as to make them invisible1 thus throwing the carved surface work into more complete relief by detaching it from the background4 ,this device has often been carried so far1 where the projection was sufficient1 that entire groups of figures and foliage have been practically detached from the background1 like pieces of separate sculpture carved all round4 ,this desire for completeness of relief was more or less a departure from the orthodox aims of the carvers' craft1 and led ultimately to what is known as built-up work--that is to say1 work in which the projecting parts were composed of many different pieces of wood1 each carved separately1 and afterward glued or pinned together to form the composition4 ,many of the most elaborate carvings by ,grinling ,gibbons are of this kind2 they have a charm of their own1 but it is one of quite separate interest1 and belongs to a category entirely removed from the art of carving objects in a solid piece of wood4 ,apart from this distinction1 the difficulty of the method requires the most accomplished mechanical skill and a highly trained eye to either carve or compose such work in a way to command respect4 ,i shall therefore dismiss this branch of the subject as being outside of our present limits4 ,undercutting1 on the other hand1 is an expedient distinctly characteristic of solid wood-carving1 and some experiments ought to be made by you in designing work in which it can be used4 ,it may be either partial or complete--complete1 of course1 only up to a point2 that is to say1 the connection with the background must in every case be not only maintained but visibly demonstrated4 ,partial undercutting applies to such portions as the sides of leaves1 the receding parts of heads1 wings1 etc41 where the wood between the object and its background is cut away on an inward bend1 either completing the projecting form1 as in the case of a head1 or merely to hide the superfluous wood in the case of a leaf4 ,all this presupposes a certain amount of elevation in the relief2 indeed1 it is only in such cases that the process is necessary or can be carried out4 ,the use of undercutting of this kind is like every other technical process1 liable to abuse through too much being made of its effects4 ,fortunately the time it consumes is a safeguard against any tendency to run riot in this direction4 ,the point at which it should in all cases stop1 and that relentlessly1 is where it begins to cause a separation between any entire mass of ornament and its background4 ,if portions are thus relieved almost to complete detachment1 but visibly reconnect themselves in another place1 a certain piquancy is gained which adds charm without destroying character4 ,a curious use is made of undercutting in the bunch of leaves given in ,plate ,,xi from a ,miserere seat in ,winchester ,cathedral2 it may be said to be completely undercut in so far that the whole bunch is hollowed out under the surface1 leaving from #a_/d to #a_/b in4 thickness of wood1 in which the leaves are carved1 so that you may put your finger in at one hole and see it at the bottom of another4 ,the only end all this extra labor seems to have attained is that of changefulness in the shadows of the holes between the leaves1 in which one sees dark rims with light at the bottom1 a condition which certainly adds a mysterious lightness to the whole mass4 ,it is a very refined and appropriate use of undercutting1 but would only be possible where time could be spent to secure a variant of such epicurean delicacy1 as all the superfluous wood must be taken out through the spaces between the leaves1 and in this case they are not overlarge for that purpose4 ,work which has its background entirely cut away1 and which is afterward glued or planted on a fresh background to save labor1 can not be called undercut2 this method has generally a cheap look1 as it is used with the object of saving time and expense4 ,carving which is treated in this way1 but instead of being planted close to the background1 is fixed at a little distance from it 7as is the case with the lace-like designs fitted into the hollow moldings of fifteenth-century choir-screens71 is of quite a different order1 although even in this case it can not be strictly described as undercut3 it is more nearly akin to pierced fretwork4 ,it has1 however1 all the general effect of undercut work1 and is the only possible way of obtaining this effect in wood where a large quantity of such ornament is required4 ,the face of such carving is generally a little convex1 while the back is hollowed out to give an equal thickness of section4 ,the ornaments in ,figs4 #ge1 #gf1 and #gg are of this description1 and are calculated to give great play of light and shade1 and be seen well at a considerable distance4 ,undercutting in the strict and more laborious sense must be reserved for occasions where the labor is repaid by the additional charm4 ,it must be considered in the light of a tour de force1 which1 on account of its cost in the matter of time1 should only be used under exceptional circumstances1 care being taken to make it clear that it is an exception to the general rule of solid carving on a solid background4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,picture ,,subjects ,,and ,,perspective ,the ,limitations of an ,art not ,safely ,transgressed--,aerial ,perspective ,impossible in ,relief--,linear ,perspective only ,possible in a ,limited ,way4 ,those vague and shadowy boundaries which separate the domains of the different arts are being perpetually called in question4 ,by what landmarks such indefinite frontiers may be distinguished1 and how far they may be extended or transgressed1 will always be a matter of dispute4 ,excursions of conquest are continually being made1 and conspicuous among these1 one which animates the hopes of many sculptors and modelers4 ,its aim is the appropriation of those charms which are the peculiar property of the graphic arts1 more especially their power of expressing the effects of distance by means of linear and aerial perspective4 ,the background of a piece of carving is so obviously solid and impenetrable that any attempt to imitate an appearance of distance is sure to defeat its own ends1 the loss being greater than the gain4 ,if there are limits to be observed in the foreshortening of a single leaf1 how much more must they apply to the representation of whole landscapes8 ,properly speaking1 there is no distance available in the carver's art2 its whole interest lies near the surface1 and in the direct rays of the light which illuminates it4 ,there is even a distinct pleasure to be derived from the sense that it is all carved out of a block of such and such thickness1 pointing to the reasonable conclusion that this thickness should never be lost sight of1 the carving ever and anon returning to the surface as a measure of music does to its key-note4 ,this is exemplified in all the great works of antiquity1 among which the ,parthenon frieze may be quoted as evidence4 ,on the other hand1 all pictorial sculpture1 such as carved landscapes with figures diminishing both in scale and projection1 necessarily fail to uphold this sense of solidity1 as there must occur large spaces which are hollowed out far below the surface to give another plane on which to carve the more distant objects in low relief1 in the vain hope of making them appear to recede4 ,work in which perspective of this kind is used must be viewed as nearly as possible from the point of vision produced by its vanishing-lines2 this point is intelligible enough in the case of a painting1 but when it comes to be carved into relief1 if it happens to be seen from any other point of view1 it necessarily looks all wrong1 because every part is thrown into false relationship4 ,all this1 of course1 forms no argument against the use of explanatory landscapes with trees1 buildings1 etc4 ,it only means that all such features must be treated in a way entirely different to that adopted by the painter--that is to say1 in detached groups1 each having some due relation to the original surface of the wood1 and only very little to their perspective positions4 ,in ,fig4 #gd are two diagrams of a landscape composition4 ,the one is appropriate to a painted picture and the other to carving2 both have pretty nearly the same number of features1 except that in the carving there is no effect of distance attempted1 whereas in the painting everything leads to this one particular distinction4 ,the road goes into the picture1 the bridge is seen end on1 the house and mill are diminished in size1 and the horizon is strongly enforced by a shadow echoed in the sky4 ,the carving looks ridiculous beside the painting1 but it is a severe test1 as it is not a subject which should be carved at all in that condensed way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,architectural ,,carving ,the ,necessity for ,variety in ,study--,a ,carver's ,view of the ,study of ,architecture2 ,inseparable from a ,study of his own ,craft--,importance of the ,carpenter's ,stimulating ,influence upon the ,carver--,carpenter's ,imitation of ,stone ,construction ,carried too ,far4 ,that the study of wood-carving should be confined to the narrow field of its own performances would be the surest way to bring contempt upon an art which already offers too many temptations for the easy embodiment of puerile motives4 ,such a limited range would exclude all the stimulating lessons to be derived from the many other kinds of carving and sculpture2 forgetful that they are1 after all1 but different forms of the same art1 differing only in technique and application4 ,it would take no note of the stately sculptures of ,greece--the fountain-head of all that is technically and artistically perfect in expression of form--or of the splendor of imagination displayed in the ivories of ,italy4 ,many another source of inspiring impetus would be neglected1 including the greatest of all1 the influence of architecture1 and through it1 the dignified association or the carver's art with all that is noble in the life of mankind4 ,the dry and uninviting aspect which a serious study of architecture presents to some minds is such that it is too often avoided as both useless and wearisome4 ,much of this diffidence is due to a misconception of the aims which should govern the student of decorative design in making an acquaintance with its principles4 ,the study should not be looked upon as pertaining exclusively to the functions of an architect1 nor as having only an accidental connection with particular crafts4 ,it must be remembered that in the old days mason and carpenter were both craftsmen and architects1 and the sculptor and wood-carver had an equal share in creating every feature which gives any distinction of style to the buildings that were the outcome of their united efforts4 ,so1 instead of looking upon the subject as only a study of dates for the antiquary1 and rules of construction for the architect1 the carver should take his own view1 and regard architecture for the time being as what in some sense it really is3 a very large kind of carving1 which includes and gives reason for his own particular branch4 ,the importance of the subject is proved by the experience of centuries2 history showing plainly how the two arts grew in strength and beauty only when closely associated1 and shared each other's fate in proportion to their estrangement4 ,in this place ,i can say but very little upon such a vast subject2 all ,i can do is to call your attention to one or two examples of carved work combined with structural carpentry1 in order that you may see for yourselves what a power of effect lies in that union1 and how by contrast it enhances the value and interest of both4 ,i do this in the hope that it may possibly lead you to a more complete study of architecture1 for which there is no lack of opportunity in books and museums1 but more especially in what remains of the old buildings themselves1 with which a familiar and personal acquaintance will be much better than a theoretical or second-hand one4 ,no carver with a healthy ambition can long continue to make designs and produce them in wood without feeling intensely the want of some architectural occasion for his efforts4 ,had he only a barge-board to carve1 or the canopy of a porch1 it would be such a relief to turn to its large and general treatment after a course of the panels and ornaments peculiar to domestic furniture4 ,look1 for instance1 at the carved beams of the aisle roof in ,mildenhall ,church given in ,plate ,,iii1 and think what a fund of powerful suggestion lay in the bare timbers before they were embellished by the carver with lion1 dragon1 and knight4 ,even the carpenter became inspired with a desire to make something ornamental of his own department1 and has shaped and carved 7literally carved7 his timbers into graceful moldings4 ,then1 again1 in the roof of ,sall ,church1 ,norfolk1 shown in ,plate ,,iv1 you have a noble piece of carpentry which is as much the work of an artist as the carved figures and tracery which adorn it--indeed it is all just as truly carved work as those figures1 being chopped out of the solid oak with larger tools1 ax and adze1 so that one knows not which to admire most1 carved angels or carved carpentry4 ,plates ,,xi and ,,xii are details of the carvings which fill the spandrels of arch and gable in the choir stalls and screen at ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,there are a great many of these panels similar in character but differing in design1 some having figures1 birds1 or dragons worked among the foliage4 ,they are comparatively shallow in relief1 and this appears less than it really is owing to the fact that many parts of the carving dip down almost to the background1 giving definite but not deep shadows4 ,the main intention seems to have been to allow only enough shadow to secure the pattern1 and then to emphasize this by means of a multitude of little illuminated masses4 ,the leading lines run through the pattern as continuously as possible1 but the surface of the leafage is divided up into numbers of little hills and hollows4 ,the sides of these prominences catch and reflect light more readily than they produce shadow1 so that it is possible to trace the pattern at a considerable distance by means of the lights alone4 ,unfortunately for all believers in the historical evidence of ancient handicrafts1 this work was overhauled some half century ago1 and in parts restored4 ,the old work has been imitated in the new with surprising cleverness1 but for that1 no one who has a clear sense of the true function of the carver's art1 or of the historical value of its witness to past modes of life1 will thank those who carried out the restoration1 so confusing is it to be unable to distinguish at a glance the old from the new1 so depressing to find such laborious efforts wasted in pleasing a childish desire for uniformity of treatment when it could only be achieved at the cost of deception1 and1 ,i may add1 so irritating to find oneself for a moment deceived into accepting one of the restored parts as genuine old work4 ,to add to the deception1 the whole of the old woodwork1 as well as the new1 was smeared over with a black stain in order the better to hide the difference of color in old and new wood1 thus forever destroying its soft and natural color1 as well as the texture of its surface1 so dear to the wood-carver4 ,the fifteenth century in ,england was a period of great activity among wood-carvers1 and many beautiful choir-screens were added about this time to the existing churches1 all in the traditional ,gothic manner1 as the ,renaissance influence was a full century at work in other countries before its power began seriously to affect the national style4 ,the ,west of ,england 7,somerset and ,devon in particular7 is rich in the remains of this late ,gothic carving1 some details of which are shown in the accompanying illustrations1 ,figs4 #ge1 #gf1 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,as a general rule the supporting carpentry of these screens bears a strong resemblance to stonework2 so imitative is it in treatment1 that it is only by the texture of the wood and its lightness of construction that the distinction is made evident4 ,now a certain degree of modified imitation1 where one craft models its forms of design upon those of another1 using a different material1 as in the case of woodwork imitations of arches1 tracery1 etc41 is not only legitimate1 but very pleasing in its results4 ,to attain this end1 the carpenter need only be true to his own ideals--there is no occasion to abandon the methods of his own craft in order to copy the construction which is peculiar to another4 ,the resources of carpentry offer an infinite field for the invention of new and characteristic forms1 and these may be made all the more attractive if they show1 to some extent1 the influence of an associated craft1 but never fail to become wearisome if essential character has been sacrificed for the sake of an ingenious imitation4 ,the structural parts of some of these screens are composed of elaborate imitations of stone vaulting and tracery1 so closely copied as to be almost deceiving1 therefore they can not be taken as good examples of suggestive opportunity for the wood-carver4 ,the carved work1 on the other hand1 is marked by a strong craft character1 essentially woody both in design and execution4 ,the illustrations referred to are typical examples of this kind of work1 and1 although the execution can not be indicated1 they at least give the disposition of parts1 and some idea of the contrast obtained by the use of alternate bands of ornament differing in scale1 or1 as in some cases1 the agreeable monotony produced by a repetition of almost similar designs1 varied slightly in execution4 ,another prominent feature of church woodwork1 which developed about this time into magnificent proportions1 was the font cover and canopy4 ,many of these were1 however1 more like glorifications of the carpenter's genius for construction than examples of the carver's art1 as they were composed of a multitude of tiny pinnacles and niches1 the carver's work being confined to a repetition of endless crockets1 tracery1 and separate figures or groups4 ,however1 in ,plate ,,xiii an example is given of what they could do when working together on a more equal footing2 although much mutilated1 enough remains to show how the one craft gains by being associated with the other in a wholesome spirit of rivalry4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,surface ,,finish--,,texture ,tool ,marks1 the ,importance of their ,direction--,the ,woody ,texture ,dependent upon ,clearness of ,cutting and ,sympathetic ,handling4 ,the term texture is sometimes applied to the quality of finish which is characteristic of good carving2 it has a somewhat misleading sound1 which seems to suggest that the final treatment of the surface is the work of a separate operation4 ,however1 it is a right enough word1 as the texture which wood-carvers aim at is that of the wood in which they are carving4 ,one might naturally think that this texture must necessarily appear when the work was finished1 but that is not the case1 as it is only rescued by the most skilful use of the tools1 and easily disappears under the mismanagement of clumsy or unsympathetic hands4 ,texture in carving is in some respects on a parallel with tone in painting--it depends upon a right relation of many qualities4 ,as in the painting good tone is the outcome of the combined effects of truth in color and a right balance of what are called the values1 together with decision in the handling of the brush1 so in carving1 texture depends upon1 first1 having a clear idea of what is being carved1 and making it clear to others2 that if it be round1 hollow1 or flat1 it must be so indeed2 that edges and sharpnesses be really where they were intended to be1 and not lost in woolly confusion4 ,then again1 as with the painter's brush1 the tool must be moved by a hand which adapts itself to every changing plane1 to all manner of curves and contours1 with touches sometimes delicate and deliberate1 at others broad and sweeping1 or even1 at times1 brought down with the weight and force of an ax-blow4 ,a good quality of finish may exist in the most divergent kinds of work1 each having its own characteristic texture4 ,thus a broad treatment on a large scale will make much of the natural texture of the wood1 enforcing it by crisp edges and subtle little ridges which catch the light and recall the momentary passage of the sharp tool1 while elaborate work in low relief may have a delicate texture which partly imitates that of the details of its subject1 and partly displays the nature of the wood4 ,in either case1 the texture must be consciously aimed at by the carver as the last but by no means least quality which is to give vitality to the work of his hands4 ,a sense of the capabilities of his wood in this respect is one of the best aids to the carver1 as it reacts on his sense of form and compels him to precision4 ,manual dexterity alone may succeed in making its work clearly intelligible1 but that is all1 and it generally leaves a surface in which there is little indication of any feeling for the material in which the work is carved1 nothing1 in fact1 that marks it specially as carving in wood1 or distinguishes it from a casting in metal4 ,the technical operation which is most immediately answerable for the making or marring of texture is the disposition and nature of the final tool marks4 ,these should be so managed that they help the eye to understand the forms4 ,they should explain rather than confuse the contours of the surface4 ,just as in a good chalk drawing the strokes and cross-hatchings are put in with method1 and if well done produce the effect of something solid1 so in carving1 the tool marks should emphasize the drawing without in any way calling attention to themselves4 ,it is quite impossible to explain in words that will not be open to misconstruction the subtle commingling of qualities which make all the difference between good and bad texture4 ,we may succeed better by describing those conditions which are unfavorable to it4 ,thus work which is very much cut up into minute detail1 and which lacks a proper contrast of surface1 or1 for the same reason1 work which is too generally bald and smooth1 rarely exhibit a good surface texture4 ,again1 work which is overlabored1 or where delicate details have been attempted on a coarse-grained wood1 or finally1 work which1 although done with success in the matter of mechanical dexterity1 is deficient in feeling for its woody possibilities1 are all likely to fail in the matter of texture4 ,punch-marked backgrounds have undoubtedly a legitimate place among the expedients of the carver for obtaining contrast1 but on the whole1 as such1 they are of a somewhat meretricious order1 and in almost every case their use is fatal to the charm of fine texture1 as this always depends on an appreciation of the homogeneous connection of carving and background4 ,if they are used at all they should be made to form patterns on the background1 and not put down promiscuously4 ,little gouge marks are still better1 as they are not so mechanical4 ,i shall conclude this part of my subject with a quotation from the words of ,mr4 ,w4 ,aumonier1 in a lecture delivered at the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects4 ,all carving to be treated according to the position it is to occupy4 ,not only the design1 but the actual carving itself1 should be considered with a view to the position it is to take and the light it will receive4 ,thus1 even if quite close to the eye1 where1 of course1 its position warrants or demands a certain amount of finish1 it must be remembered that real finish rather means perfection of form than smoothness of surface1 so that even there it should still show its cuts and its tool marks fearlessly1 and be deepened in parts to make it tell its proper tale in the combined scheme of decoration2 while if it is going a great height or distance from the eye it should be left as rough as ever you can leave it4 ,the only points that have to be regarded are the outlines1 varieties of planes1 and depths1 and if these be properly considered everything else will take care of itself1 and then the whole work can not be left too rough4 ,its very roughness and choppy cuts will give it a softness and quality when in its place that no amount of smoothing or high finish can possibly attain to4 ,beware of putting a wrong interpretation upon the word rough--refer to what he says of the points to be regarded1 i4e41 the varieties of planes1 and depths4 ,if they are right the roughness is not likely to be of the offensive kind4 ,nothing so effectually destroys the quality of texture as polish applied to carving4 ,if furniture must be polished it should not be carved4 ,the only polish that improves carving is that which comes of use4 ,on hard woods1 such as oak or ,italian walnut1 the pressure of the tools leaves a pleasant polish1 which is all that is necessary2 the most that should be allowed may be given by a little burnishing with the handle of the tool4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,craft ,,schools1 ,,past ,,and ,,present ,the ,country ,craftsman of ,old ,times--,a ,colony of ,craftsmen in ,busy ,intercourse--,the ,modern ,craftsman's ,difficulties3 ,embarrassing ,variety of ,choice4 ,the present revival of interest in the arts1 especially with regard to those of a decorative kind1 is based on the recently awakened esthetic desires of a small section of the general public1 who owe their activity in this direction to the influence of men like ,john ,ruskin and ,william ,morris4 ,the first of these1 by his magic insight1 discerned the true source of vitality which lay in the traditions of medieval workmanship1 i4e41 their intensely human character and origin4 ,his fiery words compelled attention1 and awakened a new enthusiasm for all that betokens the direct and inspiring influence of nature4 ,they raised the hope that this passion might in some way provide a clue to the recovery of a fitting form of expression4 ,william ,morris1 with no less power as a craftsman1 was the first to give practical embodiment to this newly awakened impulse by a modified return to the older methods of production4 ,his rare knowledge of medieval history1 and manly sympathy with all that is generous in modern life1 made it impossible for him to become a superficial imitator4 ,his work is an example of what may be achieved by a union of high artistic instincts with a clear understanding of the conditions of modern life4 ,cheering as is the present activity in its encouragement of endeavor1 the difficulties of establishing anything like an efficient system of education for the artist1 more especially the sculptor1 or carver artist1 is only being gradually realized4 ,the difficulties are not so much academic as practical4 ,it is less a question of where to study than one of knowing what direction those studies should take4 ,before any genuine development in the art can be looked for1 continuity of effort must be established1 and that in a single direction1 undisturbed as it is at present by differences of public taste4 ,opportunities for study are now afforded to an extent never before dreamed of3 in books and schools1 and in museums2 but division of opinion mars the authority of the two first1 while the last is confessedly but a kind of catalogue1 which may only be read with profit by the light of considerable experience4 ,a certain amount of success has undoubtedly attended the progress of the new system1 but it must always be more or less at a disadvantage2 firstly1 by reason of its divided aims2 secondly1 because the system is more theoretic than practical1 and is often based on the false assumption that design may be learned without attaining a mastery over technique1 and vice versa4 ,until students become disillusioned on this latter point1 and are at the same time permitted to follow their natural bent with as little interference as possible from the exigencies of public taste1 uniformity of aim will be impossible1 and consequently the system must remain artificial4 ,it can never1 under any circumstances1 entirely replace that more natural one adopted by our ancestors4 ,how can its methods compare for a moment with the spontaneous and hearty interest that guided the tools of those more happily placed craftsmen1 whose subjects lay around them1 of daily familiarity2 whose artistic language was ready to hand and without confusion1 affording an endless variety of expression to every new and individual fancy4 ,many of these craftsmen were1 owing to their invigorating surroundings1 gifted with a high poetic feeling for their art--a quality which gives to their work a transcendent value that no learning or manual cleverness could supply4 ,they acquired their technical knowledge in genial connection with equally gifted members of other crafts1 and in consequence expressed themselves with corresponding and justly proportioned skill in execution4 ,conditions that can not be altered must be endured while they last1 but the first step toward their improvement must be made in gaining a knowledge of the facts as they are4 ,this will be the surest foundation upon which to build all individual effort in the future4 ,who that has felt the embarrassing doubts and contradictory impulses1 peculiar to modern study1 can have failed to look disconsolately away from his own surroundings to those far-off times when craft knowledge was acquired under circumstances calculated to awaken the brightest instincts of the artist8 ,the imaginary picture calls up the ancient carver at his bench1 cheerfully blocking out images of leaves and animals in his busy workshop1 surrounded with the sights and sounds of country life4 ,his open door frames a picture of the village street1 alive with scenes of neighborly interest4 ,from the mill-wheel comes a monotonous music making pleasant cadence to his own woody notes1 or the blacksmith's hammer rings his cheery counterpart in their companionable duet4 ,short as is the distance between workshop and home1 it provides a world of beauty and incident2 suggesting to his inventive mind the subjects suitable for his work4 ,birds1 beasts1 and flowers are as familiar to him as the tools with which he works1 or the scent and touch of the solid oak he handles daily4 ,there1 among the aromatic chips1 he spends the long working hours of a summer day2 varied by the occasional visits of a rather exacting ,father from the neighboring monastery2 or perhaps some idle and gossiping acquaintance who looks in to hold a long parley with his hand upon the latch4 ,or it may be that the mind turns to another carver1 at work in one of the many large colonies of craftsmen which sprang up amid the forest of scaffolding surrounding the slow and mysterious growth of some noble cathedral4 ,here all is organized activity--the best men to be found in the country have been banded together and commissioned to do their best1 for what seems1 in modern eyes1 a ridiculously small rate of pay4 ,some are well known and recommended2 others1 as traveling artists1 are seeking change of experience and daily bread4 ,foreigners are here1 from ,france1 ,italy1 and the ,east4 ,all have been placed under the direction of competent masters of their craft2 men who have long since served their apprenticeship to its mysteries1 and earned an honorable position in its gilds4 ,here the carver works in an atmosphere of exhilarating emulation4 ,stone-carver and wood-carver vie with each other in producing work that will do credit to their respective brotherhoods4 ,painter and decorator are busy giving to the work of their hands what must have appeared to those concerned an aspect of heavenly beauty2 the most precious materials not being considered too costly for use in its adornment4 ,what an interchange of artistic experience6--interchange between those of similar craft from different countries1 and the stimulating or refining influence of one craft upon another--sculptors1 goldsmiths1 wood-carvers1 and painters1 all uniting in a sympathetic agreement to do their utmost for the high authorities who brought them together2 with a common feeling of reverence1 alike for the religious traditions which formed the motives of their work and the representatives of that religion in the persons of their employers4 ,what an endless variety of interruptions must have been common6 all of a kind eminently calculated to stimulate the imagination4 ,municipal functions1 religious festivals with their splendid gatherings and processions1 the exciting events of political contest1 often carried to the point of actual combat1 to say nothing of the frequent ,saint's day holidays1 enjoyed by the craftsman in jovial social intercourse4 ,all and every scene clothed in an outward dress of beauty1 ranging from the picturesque roughness of the village inn to the magnificent pageantry of a nobleman's display1 or the majestic surroundings of an archi-episcopal reception4 ,from dreams of the past with its many-sided life and background of serious beauty1 we turn with feelings almost bordering on despair to the possibilities of the present4 ,not only has the modern craftsman to master the technicalities of his business1 but he must become student as well4 ,no universally accepted form of his art offers him a ready-made language2 he is left fatally free to choose style1 period1 or nationality1 from examples of every conceivable kind of carving1 in museums1 photographs1 and buildings4 ,as proud but distracted heir to all1 he may cultivate any one of them1 from ,chinese to the latest style of exhibition art4 ,for his studies he must travel half a dozen miles before he can reach fields1 trees1 and animals in anything like inspiring conditions4 ,he must find in books and photographs the botanical lineaments of foliage and flowers1 of which he mainly seeks to know the wild life and free growth4 ,with but one short life allowed him in which to make his poor effort in a single direction1 he must yet study the history of his craft1 compare styles1 and endeavor with all the help he can get to shape some course for himself4 ,can he be assured of selecting the right one1 or out of the multitude of counselors and contradictory views1 is there not a danger of taking a false step8 ,no wonder1 if in the cloudy obscurity of his doubts1 he sometimes feels a tired desire to abandon the problem as too intricate to be resolved4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,on ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,cooperation ,,between ,,builder ,,and ,,carver ,the ,infinite ,multiplicity of ,styles--,the ,gothic ,influence3 ,sculpture an ,integral ,element in its ,designs--,the ,approach of the so-called ,renaissance ,period--,disturbed ,convictions--,the ,revival of the ,classical ,style--,the ,two ,styles in ,conflict for a ,time2 their ,respective ,characteristics ,reviewed--,carvers ,become ,dependent upon ,architects and ,painters--,the ,revival ,separates ,designer and ,executant4 ,the prevailing architectural fashion of a time or country1 known as its style1 has generally been determined by the influence of more advanced nations on those of a ruder constitution2 each modifying the imported style to suit its own climatic and social conditions1 and imbuing it with its own individual temperament4 ,the foreign idea was thus developed into a distinct and national style1 which in its turn bore fruit1 and was passed on as an initiative for other nations and new styles4 ,the current of this influence1 generally speaking1 trended from east to west as though following the course of the sun1 upon whose light it depended for the illumination of its beauties4 ,there are so many styles of architecture1 and consequently of carving1 both in wood and other materials1 that a history of such a subject would be a life study in itself1 and be quite barren of results except those of a professional kind4 ,it would include the characteristics of carvings from every country under the sun1 from the earliest times known4 ,engravings on boars' tusks found in prehistoric caves1 carvings on ,south ,sea ,island canoe paddles1 ,peruvian monstrosities of terror1 the refined barbarity of ,india and ,china1 the enduring and monumental efforts of ,egyptian art1 and a hundred others1 down to times and countries more within reach4 ,in fact1 it would only be another name for a history of mankind from the beginning of the world4 ,nothing could be better for the student's purpose than to begin his studies of history at that point where the first indication of the ,gothic or medieval period of architecture makes its appearance4 ,for it was from this great and revolutionary change in the manner of building that all the subsequent variety of style in carving as well as building in medieval ,europe took its origin4 ,the first rudiments of the great school of art1 which has been broadly classified as having a ,gothic origin1 began to make their appearance in ,byzantium some three or four centuries after the birth of ,christ4 ,this city1 said to have been founded by a colony of ,greek emigrants1 became the seat of ,roman government in their eastern empire1 and is now known as ,constantinople3 it contains a noted example of ancient art in the great church of ,st4 ,sophia4 ,from the date of the building of this church in the sixth century ,a4 ,d4 to the beginning of the fifteenth century in ,italy1 and about a hundred years later1 more or less1 according to distance from that center1 we have roughly the period during which the medieval spirit ruled the arts of ,europe4 ,the work of this long period is distinguished beyond all others by the varied beauty and interest of its carvings1 a preeminence it owes in part to the strong bias in this direction which was given by its early founders1 but still more to the unbroken alliance maintained between builders and carvers throughout the entire period4 ,an inherited talent for sculpture1 handed down1 no doubt1 from their classical forefathers1 distinctly marks the commencement of the era2 but from that time until the appearance of the ,renaissance influence1 builder and carver are no longer conceivable as being independent of each other4 ,sculpture of one kind or another not only played an important part in the decoration of its buildings1 but became a necessary and integral element in every architectural conception1 be its importance little or great4 ,the masons designed their structural features with a view to the embellishments to follow from the hand of the carver2 they were in full sympathy with the artistic intention of the decoration1 therefore their own ideas were in complete conformity with those of the sculptor1 while even in some cases they did this part of the work themselves4 ,the sculptors1 restrained by the severe laws of structural design1 never transgressed the due limits of their craft1 or became insistent upon the individuality of their own work4 ,hence1 throughout all the successive changes of style brought about by time and difference of country1 climate1 or material1 the art of carving steadily progressed hand in hand with the art of building4 ,the changes were so very gradual1 and grew so naturally from the conditions and requirements of social life1 that ample time was allowed for the education of public feeling1 which became in this way identified with the inventive progress of the craftsmen4 ,as a happy result1 one aim and desire governed alike builders1 carvers1 and people1 and one style at a time1 enjoyed and understood by all1 was the wholesome regimen by which the architectural appetite of the period was sustained4 ,cathedral and cottage differed only in their relative grades of importance2 each shared in due proportion the advantages of an architectural style common to all forms of building1 and adaptable in the highest degree to every varying purpose of design1 from the simplest piece of walling1 with the barest indication of style1 to the most elaborate arrangement of masonry and carving which could be devised to distinguish a stately and important structure4 ,time was1 however1 preparing a revolution which was destined to sweep away many old beliefs and established institutions1 and with them those familiar motives and habits of thought1 which had long formed the bountiful source of medieval inspiration and invention4 ,the period between the beginning of the fifteenth century and the ,reformation was like a fiery furnace1 in which the materials for a new world were being prepared2 it was no time for the leisurely enjoyment of the pleasures of art1 which presupposes settled convictions and imperceptible developments4 ,about this time many new forms of intellectual activity began to engage the minds of the more gifted4 ,speculative philosophy1 the opening fields of science1 the imaginative literature of the ancients2 these were among the subjects which1 while they enlarged the sphere of individual thought1 destroyed that social ideal which had its roots in a common belief1 and with it1 the secret source of all past development in architecture4 ,with the deep-lying causes and far-reaching effects of the unrest which disturbed this period1 we are not here concerned1 beyond the point where it touches our interest in architecture and sculpture4 ,that drastic changes were in progress affecting the popular regard for these arts is undeniable4 ,educated and illiterate minds became alike indifferent to the authority of established religion--either they succumbed to the tyranny of its powerful but corrupt ministers1 or stood out in open rebellion against its disputed dogmas4 ,in either case1 that architecture which had formerly been regarded as the chief symbol of united faith1 shared the neglect of one section or the abhorrence of the other4 ,that strong sense of beauty1 once the common possession of builders1 sculptors1 and people1 was now between the upper and nether millstones of fate1 being ground into the fine dust which has served for centuries as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of an endless succession of moral puddings and pies1 known in modern times as art criticism4 ,to earnest minds in all classes at that time1 any enthusiasm for architectural styles1 old or new1 must have appeared as futile as an anxiety about appearances while one's house was burning4 ,to the art of this period the title ,renaissance has been foolishly applied4 ,when used in association with the arts of architecture and sculpture1 it is essentially a misnomer4 ,for these arts it was merely a time of revival1 not in any sense one of rebirth1 as the word implies4 ,in no way can this period claim to have conferred vitality along with the resuscitation of outward form4 ,the revival of a classical style in architectural design1 which began in the early years of the fifteenth century1 was the sequel to a similar revival in the study of ,greek and ,roman literature1 then occupying the interests of cultivated scholars4 ,it was but a step further to desire also the realization of those architectural splendors which were associated with these studies4 ,such dilettante dreams can not be supposed to have deeply interested the general public1 with whose concerns they had but a remote connection2 so under these circumstances1 probably the classical style was as suitable as any other1 chosen on such narrow and exclusive grounds4 ,there was even a certain fitness in it1 a capability of much expansion on theatrical and grandiose lines4 ,its unbending demeanor toward craft talent of the humbler kind at once flattered the vanity of the cultured1 and cowed uneducated minds4 ,the ,duomo at ,florence was finished early in that century1 and was one of the first buildings in which the new style was adopted4 ,in this case it was used mainly in the completion of a building already well advanced on lines based upon the older traditions4 ,the character of its design1 although not of a strictly imitative kind1 was distinctly based on a classical ideal4 ,imitations followed1 mingling1 as in the case of the ,duomo1 ,gothic and classic elements1 often with fine effect4 ,it is quite possible to believe that1 had this intermarriage of the two schools continued to bear fruit1 some vertebrate style might have resulted from the union1 partaking of the nature of both parents2 but the hope was of short duration4 ,its architects1 becoming enamored by the quality of scientific precision1 which is the fundamental principle of classical design1 soon abandoned all pretense of attempting to amalgamate the native and imported styles4 ,they gave themselves up wholly to the congenial task of elaborating a scholarly system of imitation2 so that1 by the middle of the sixteenth century1 no trace whatever remained of native feeling in the architecture of its important buildings4 ,during the progress of this revolution in style1 the old medieval habits of cooperation between master mason and sculptor were slowly being exchanged for a complete dependence upon a special architect1 who was not necessarily a craftsman himself2 but whose designs must be carried out line for line with the most rigid adherence to measurements4 ,for a moment in history1 the rival spirits of the two great schools of architecture stand face to face like opposing ideals4 ,the classical one1 recalled from the region of things past and forgotten1 again to play a part on earth with at least the semblance of life2 the ,gothic spirit1 under notice to quit and betake itself to that oblivion from which its rival is reemerging4 ,in the heyday of their power1 the first had shown a distinctly autocratic bearing toward its workmen2 offering to its sculptors of genius opportunities for the exercise of highly trained powers1 and to the subordinate workmen only the more or less mechanical task of repeating a limited number of prescribed forms4 ,the other1 a more genial spirit1 had possessed the largest toleration for rude or untrained workmanship1 provided that in its expression the carver had a meaning which would be generally understood and appreciated4 ,if skill could be commanded1 either of design or technique1 it was welcomed2 but it gave no encouragement to work which was either so distinctive as to be independent of its surroundings1 or of a kind which could have no other than a mechanical interest in its execution4 ,the abrupt contrasts1 the variety and mystery1 characteristic of ,gothic architecture1 had been a direct and irresistible invitation to the carver1 and the freest playground for his fancy4 ,the formality of the classical design1 on the other hand1 necessarily confined such carving as it permitted to particular lines and spaces1 following a recognized rule2 and except in the case of bas-relief figure subjects and detached statues1 demanded no separate interest in the carvings themselves1 further than the esthetic one of relieving such lines and spaces as were otherwise uncomfortably bare4 ,some modification of this extreme arrogance toward the decorative carver was only to be expected in the revived style1 but the freedom allowed to the individual carver turned out to be more apparent than real4 ,a new race of carvers sprang up1 imbued with the principles of classical design2 but being no longer in touch with natural and popular interests1 nor stimulated by mutual cooperation with their brother craftsmen1 the mason builders1 they adopted the fashionable mode of expression invented by the new architects and the painters of the time4 ,elaborate arabesque and other formal designs gave employment to the carvers1 in making an infinite repetition of fiddles1 festoons1 and ribbons1 in the execution of which they became so proficient1 that their work is more often admired for its exquisite finish than for any intrinsic interest in the subject or design4 ,judged by its effects upon the art of carving1 without the aid of which a national style of architecture is impossible1 the revival of classical architecture never had a real and enduring life in it4 ,strictly speaking1 no organic style ever grew out of its ambitious promises2 the nearest approach to such a thing is to be found in those uncouth minglings of ,gothic tradition with fragments of classical detail which distinguish much of the domestic architecture during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,amusing in their quaint and often rich and effective combinations1 humanly interesting in proportion to the predominance of the ,gothic element1 association has grown up around these homely records of a mixed influence1 until they have come to be regarded with affection1 if not with the highest admiration4 ,the revival brought nothing but harm to the carver himself--that is1 to the carver who found it impossible to reach the elevation of a sculptor of genius4 ,he sacrificed his own small but precious talent as a creator of pleasant images for the attainment of a finesse in the execution of other people's ideas4 ,to the ,renaissance must be attributed that fatal separation of the craftsman's function into the hands of designer and executant which has so completely paralyzed the living spirit of individual invention4 ,it has taken close upon four centuries to open the eyes of our craftsmen to this inconsistency1 and revive the medieval truth that invention and execution are strictly but one and the same thing4 ,let us hope that the present awakening to the importance of this fact may yet lead to what will be truly worthy of being called a ,renaissance2 not merely of outward forms1 but of that creative energy which alone justifies the true meaning of the word4 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates ,,plate ,i4--,old ,carved ,chest in ,york ,cathedral4 ,the front of a chest of almost similar design1 only reversed1 is to be seen in ,south ,kensington ,museum1 which looks from its resemblance both in design and technique to be the work of the same carver1 or at least to have been done about the same time4 ,note the absence of any attempt at elaborate perspective1 and the decorative aspect of houses1 rocks1 trees1 etc41 also the distinctive treatment of the ,knight and ,princess who appear in the picture several times1 representing various incidents of the story4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,figure from the ,tomb of ,henry ,,iv in ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,this figure is one of the corner ornaments on the canopy4 ,the whole of the upper structure is of wood1 painted in colors with parts picked out in gold4 ,,plate ,,iii4--,aisle ,roof1 ,mildenhall ,church1 ,suffolk4 ,this is one of the many beautiful carved roofs which abound in ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,the nave roof is enriched with carvings of angels with wings outspread4 ,,plate ,,iv4--,nave ,roof1 ,sall ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,this is another very beautiful timber roof showing the union of practical carpentry with carving to perfection4 ,,plate ,v4--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel4 ,the ,sheepfold4 ,the other part is shown in ,plate ,,vi1 as1 owing to the proportion of this panel and the necessity for keeping the scale of the plates as large as possible1 it has been divided and shown in two portions4 ,it was begun without any premeditated intention as to use1 the sloping end being the shape of the board as it came into the author's hands1 the other end being sloped off to match it4 ,,plate ,,vi4--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel4 ,the ,sheepfold4 ,see description of ,plate ,v4 ,,plate ,,vii4--,preliminary ,drawing of a ,lion for ,carving4 ,this plate is1 as explained in the text1 from a drawing by ,philip ,webb1 the well-known architect4 ,it was done by him to explain certain facts about the pose of a lion when the author was engaged in carving the book covers which are shown in ,plates ,,viii and ,,ix4 ,,plates ,,viii and ,,ix4--,book-,covers carved in ,english ,oak4 ,these were done by the author for one of the ,kelmscott ,press books1 ,tale of ,troy1 at the instance of ,mr4 ,cobden-,sanderson4 ,the relief is very slight1 and is rather exaggerated by the light and shade of the photograph4 ,the carved portion only of these covers is shown1 the size of which is #aa-a_/b x #e-c_/d ins4 ,,plate ,x4--,book-,covers carved in ,english ,oak4 ,these were done by the author for ,mr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,ellis's translation of ,reynard the ,fox4 ,the size of the carved part is #h-c_/d x #e-a_/d ins4 ,,plate ,,xi4--,carvings from ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,this plate is from sketches made by the author at ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,the upper one is a spandrel piece from the traceried arcading of the stalls4 ,the lower one is a part of one of the carved ,miserere seats4 ,the spandrel carving is pierced2 that is1 has the ground cut right through4 ,the other piece is elaborately undercut4 ,,plate ,,xii4--,carving from ,choir-,screen1 ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,this plate is from a sketch done for the purpose of noting the general effect of a large mass of carved foliage with particular reference to the distribution of lighted surfaces in the design4 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,font ,canopy1 ,trunch ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,the plate gives the upper portion only of this beautiful canopy2 it is supported upon six posts richly carved on all sides1 of which there are five to each post4 ,the height of the whole canopy is about fifteen or sixteen feet--it presumably dates somewhere toward the end of the fourteenth century or beginning of the fifteenth4 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,designs for ,carving1 by ,philip ,webb4 ,this plate gives two examples of designs for carving by ,philip ,webb4 ,the upper one is part of a richly carved cornice which was done for a chimney-piece2 the carving was executed by ,mr4 ,laurence ,turner1 from whom the author got his first lesson in wood-carving4 ,the other example is a design on paper for carving to be done in oak4 ,this was carried out in the paneling of the dining-room at ,clouds ,house1 ,salisbury1 and looked exceedingly effective4 ,much of the articulation on the surface of the leaves1 it will be noticed1 is got by sharp facets produced by the intersection of gouge cuts4 ,,plate ,,xv4--,leg of a ,settle carved in ,english ,oak4 ,this was begun by the author as forming part of a large oak seat or settle1 but has never been completed4 ,the wood out of which it is carved came out of an old house at ,tewkesbury and was full of cracks which were filled up with slips of oak glued in and carved over4 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,pew ,ends in ,carved ,oak1 ,brent ,church1 ,somersetshire4 ,the three bench ends shown in this plate are from ,brent ,church1 ,somersetshire4 ,although rude in execution1 they are extremely effective in design4 ,the bounding form of the molded edges and gracefully shaped top are worth noticing2 the whole evidently the outcome of a nice and inherited sense of design1 without any particular technical knowledge or experience4 ,the termination of the finials was unfortunately omitted in the photograph1 hence the abrupt line at the top4 ,,the ,,collotype ,,plates ,illustration3 ,i4 ,old ,carved ,chest in ,york ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,ii4--,figure from the ,tomb of ,henry ,,iv4 in ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,iii4--,aisle ,roof--,mildenhall ,church1 ,suffolk4 ,illustration3 ,,iv4--,nave ,roof--,sall ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,illustration3 ,v4--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel--,the ,sheepfold4 ,illustration3 ,,vi--,portion of a ,carved ,oak ,panel--,the ,sheepfold4 ,illustration3 ,,vii4--,preliminary ,drawing of a ,lion for ,carving4 ,by ,phillip ,webb4 ,illustration3 ,,viii4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,tale of ,troy4 7only carved portion shown47 ,illustration3 ,,ix4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,tale of ,troy4 7only carved portion shown47 ,illustration3 ,x4--,book ,cover ,carved in ,english ,oak--,reynard the ,fox4 7only carved portions shown47 ,illustration3 ,,xi4--,carving from ,choir ,stalls in ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,xii4--,carving from ,choir ,screen--,winchester ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii4--,font ,canopy--,trunch ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,illustration3 ,,xiv4--,two designs for ,carving1 by ,philip ,webb4 ,one executed1 one in drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,xv4--,leg of a ,settle1 carved in ,english ,oak4 ,illustration3 ,,xvi4--,pew ,ends in ,carved ,oak--,brent ,church1 ,somersetshire4 ,,index ,acanthus1 the1 #aef ,aims and conditions of work1 #be ,american woods1 #dh ,animal carving1 #afa1 #aia ,animal carving1 ,swiss1 #aia ,animals1 or figures1 in carving1 #afa1 #aia ,apprentice and student1 their aims and conditions of work1 #be ,architectural carving1 #bbc ,arkansas slips1 #dd1 #eh ,arms1 coats of1 #agg ,aumonier1 ,w41 #bjd1 #bch ,background1 patterned1 #if ,bas wood1 #dh ,beads and moldings to be carved1 #aai ,beam1 carved1 in ,south ,kensington ,museum1 #adj1 #adb ,bear1 drawing of 7frontispiece71 #aig1 #bjj ,beast and bird studies1 #aia ,bed1 design and carving for a1 #afc ,beech wood1 #di ,bench or settle1 design and carving for1 #afh1 #agd1 #bfi1 #cjb ,benches1 #dd ,bench screw1 #dh ,berne ,cathedral1 carved figure from1 #aia ,bevels1 tool1 #eb ,bewick1 studies from1 #aie ,bird and beast studies1 #aia ,book-covers in oak1 #bfg1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bia ,books1 aid of1 #aia ,boxwood1 #ea ,brackets1 #agb ,bread plates1 #aaf ,brent ,church1 pew ends in1 #bfi1 #cjd ,brier-wood1 #ea ,builder and carver1 notes on the importance of cooperation between1 #bdi ,built-up work1 #bad ,byzantine design1 #if ,candle1 #ef ,canopy1 ,font1 #bcc1 #bfh1 #bih ,canterbury ,cathedral1 carved figure from1 #ahh1 #bge ,carpenter's imitation of stone construction1 #bbc ,carpenter's influence on carver1 #bbc ,cartoons1 charcoal1 #bjd ,carver and builder1 notes on the importance of cooperation between1 #bdi ,carver and joiner1 reciprocal aims of1 #afa ,carving and sculpture1 #bdi ,carving1 architectural1 #bbc ,carving1 chip1 #fc ,carving1 heraldic1 #agf ,carving1 ,icelandic1 #adc ,carving1 ,new ,zealand1 #fc ,carving1 ,norse1 #adc ,carving1 ,south ,sea1 #fc ,carving1 stone1 #if1 #bbc ,carving1 ,swiss1 #aia ,cedar wood1 #aff ,chair1 sketch of1 etc41 #ade ,character1 works viewed as records of1 #adi ,charcoal cartoons1 #bjd ,cherry wood1 #ea ,chest1 carved1 from ,york ,cathedral1 #adg1 #bfe1 #bgc ,chestnut wood1 #ej ,chip carving1 #fc ,chisels1 #ca1 #cd1 #ce ,choir-screens1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bfg1 #bie ,choir-stalls at ,winchester ,cathedral1 #bbg1 #bfg1 #bic ,classical style1 revival of1 #bdi ,clay models1 #aia ,clips1 #dg ,clock1 suggestion of design and carving for1 #agd ,clock case1 suggestion of design and carving for1 #agj ,coats of arms1 #agf ,cock1 suggestion for carving a1 #agd ,collotype plates1 #bgc-cjd ,collotype plates1 notes on the1 #bfe ,colors noted on diagrams1 #aig1 #aii ,colors of woods1 #dh ,contours of surface1 #ajc ,corner cupboards1 #aai ,cornice1 design for1 by ,philip ,webb1 #bfh1 #cjj ,craft schools1 past and present1 #bdj ,craftsmen1 old-time and modern1 #bdj ,cramps1 #db1 #dg ,cross1 design for1 #agg ,cupboards1 corner1 #aai ,cutting1 clearness of1 #eb1 #fi1 #bce ,design1 #ga1 #hh ,design1 application of1 #gb ,design1 ,byzantine1 #if ,design1 factors in the arrangement of1 #hb ,design1 outline1 and suggestion of main masses1 #aia ,designer and ,executant1 #hh1 #bdi ,designs1 adaptation of old1 to modern purposes1 #ajc ,designs1 humor in1 #ahj ,designs1 list of fruit1 flower1 and vegetable subjects1 #aei ,designs1 necessity for every carver making his own1 #hh ,designs1 transferring1 #gb ,detail1 economy in1 #hd ,diagrams1 colors noted on1 #aig1 #aii ,distance and light in design1 #hb ,drilling and sawing1 #aaj ,duomo1 the1 at ,florence1 #beg ,ebony wood1 #ea ,economy in detail1 #hd ,edges of tools1 #eb ,environment as important as handicraft1 #adi ,execution and design1 #hh1 #bdi ,exning1 chair at1 #ade ,figures1 or animals1 in carving1 #afa1 #aia ,finish1 surface--texture1 #bcd ,florence1 the ,duomo at1 #beg ,flowers as subjects1 #aeh ,foliage1 #aae1 #aec1 #aei ,font canopy1 #bcc1 #bfh1 #bih ,foreshortening as applied to work in relief1 #bje ,forms1 imitation of natural1 #hb ,forms1 plant1 list of1 #aec ,forms1 rounded1 #hh ,free rendering1 #if ,fruit subjects1 #id1 #aeg1 #aei ,furniture1 carving on1 #afa ,gerrard's ,herbal1 a source of design1 #afj ,gibbons1 ,grinling1 #fb1 #he1 #aec1 #bae ,glass paper1 #ajg1 #afd ,gothic capital in ,southwell ,minster1 #if ,gothic carvings1 #if1 #ahj1 #bbi1 #bdi ,gothic influence1 #bdi ,gouges1 #ca1 #cd1 #ce ,gouges1 sharpening1 #ef ,grain of the wood1 #dh1 #fi ,grapes1 #aae1 #aef1 #aei ,grindelwald1 carved bear from1 #bjj ,grotesque in carving1 #ahj ,grounders1 #cd1 #cg ,grounding1 #fi ,handling tools1 #bg1 #eb1 #gh ,hard wood1 #dh1 #ea ,hardwood carving1 #aae ,henry ,,iv1 figure from tomb of #ahh1 #bfe1 #bge ,heraldic carving1 #agf ,herbal1 ,gerrard's1 a source of design1 #afj ,heron1 drawing of a1 #aig ,holdfasts1 #dh ,hollywood1 #di ,hop-vine1 the1 #aef ,humor in designs1 #ahj ,icelandic carving1 #adc ,imitation of natural forms1 #hb ,india oilstone1 #db ,japanese work1 a characteristic of1 #abe ,joiner and carver1 reciprocal aims of1 #afa ,joiner1 the amateur1 #aae ,joiner's tools1 #da ,kauri pine wood1 #dh ,kelmscott ,press1 carved oak covers for1 #bfg1 #bhh1 #bhi ,lance-wood1 #ea ,landscape in carving1 #bba ,leather for stropping1 #ee ,leaves1 expedient for explaining convolutions1 #bji ,leaves1 list of1 #aei ,letters1 carved1 #afe ,light and distance in design1 #hb ,lime wood1 #dh ,lion1 preliminary drawing for carving a1 #aif1 #bfg1 #bhf ,maccaroni tool1 #ce1 #ch1 #ei ,mahogany wood1 #dh ,mallets1 #dd ,masses1 right relationship of1 #aif ,masses1 suggestion of main1 #aia ,masses1 superposition of1 #bje ,medieval and modern choice of form compared1 #aec ,memoranda1 methodical1 #acg ,memoranda1 sketch-book1 #acg ,method1 #acg ,mildenhall ,church1 aisle roof1 #bbf1 #bff1 #bgg ,mirror frame1 suggestion of design and carving for1 #aff ,miserere seats1 #aci1 #adb1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #baf1 #bic ,miters1 #gg ,models1 clay1 #bjb ,morris1 ,william1 #bdj ,moldings1 to be carved1 #aai ,museums1 #acg1 #adj1 #ade1 #adi ,natural forms1 imitation of1 #hb ,nature1 studies from1 #aec1 #aia ,new ,zealand carving1 #fc ,norse patterns1 #adc ,notes on cooperation1 #bdi ,oak1 #dh1 #aeg ,oilstones1 #db1 #eb ,old work1 #acg ,originality1 #ajh ,outline drawing1 #aia ,panel1 carved1 ,the ,sheepfold1 #aig1 #bab1 #bff1 #bhb1 #bhd ,paneling1 design for1 by ,philip ,webb1 #bfh1 #cjj ,panels1 #gb1 #abe1 #agj1 #aig ,parting tool1 #cd1 #cf ,paste for stropping1 #eb ,pattern and free rendering compared1 #if ,pattern1 background1 #aaj ,pattern1 importance of formal1 #if ,pattern1 medieval choice of natural forms governed by a question of1 #if ,pattern1 ,portuguese1 #ade ,patterned background1 #if ,patterns1 #aba ,patterns1 ,icelandic1 #adc ,patterns1 ,new ,zealand1 #fc ,patterns1 ,norse1 #adc ,patterns1 pierced1 #aaj1 #ade ,patterns1 ,south ,sea1 #fc ,pear-tree wood1 #ea ,period ,renaissance1 revival of the classical style1 #bdi ,perspective1 #abg1 #bje1 #bai ,pew ends1 #bfi1 #cjd ,photographs1 aid of1 #aia ,picture subjects and perspective1 #bai ,pierced patterns1 #aaj1 #ade ,pierced work1 #bad ,pine wood1 #dh1 #ga ,pine wood1 yellow1 #dh1 #ga ,plant forms1 list of1 #aec ,planted work1 #bad ,plums1 #ia ,polish1 #ach1 #afd ,portuguese pattern1 #ade ,position of tools1 #bg1 #eb ,practise and theory1 #be ,preamble1 #be ,relief1 work in1 #bje ,renaissance1 the1 #bdi ,reynard1 the ,fox1 carved oak book-cover1 #bfg1 #bia ,rifler1 #da ,rounded forms1 #hh ,router1 #da ,ruskin1 ,john1 #bdj ,s1 pattern1 #aba ,st4 ,sophia1 church of1 #bea ,sall ,church1 nave roof1 #bbf1 #bff1 #bgi ,sandalwood1 #ea ,sawing and drilling1 #aaj ,schools1 craft1 past and present1 #bdj ,screens1 choir1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bfh1 #bie ,sculpture and carving1 #bdi ,settle or bench1 design and carving for1 #afh1 #agd ,settle1 carved leg of1 #bfi1 #cjb ,sharpening stones1 #db ,sharpening tools1 #eb ,sheep1 drawing of1 #aig1 #bab1 #bff1 #bhb1 #bhd ,sheepfold1 the1 collotype plate1 #bff1 #bhb1 #bhd ,sketch-book1 use of the1 #acg1 #aia ,slips1 #dc1 #eh1 #fa ,soft wood1 #ea ,south ,kensington ,museum1 carvings from1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb ,south ,sea carving1 #fc ,southwell ,minster1 ,gothic capital in1 #if ,spoon tools1 #ei ,stalls1 choir1 #bbg1 #bfg1 #bic ,stone carving1 #if1 #bbc ,stones1 sharpening1 #db ,stones 7sharpening71 case for1 #db ,stropping1 #ed ,student and apprentice1 their aims and conditions of work1 #be ,students1 the1 opportunity lies on the side of design1 #be ,studies1 beast and bird1 #aia ,studies from nature1 #aec1 #aia ,study1 necessity for variety in1 #bdi ,style1 #bdi ,subjects1 animal1 #afa1 #aia ,subjects1 choice of1 #hb ,subjects1 flower1 #aeh ,subjects1 foliage1 #aei ,subjects1 fruit1 #aei ,subjects1 in perspective1 #bai ,subjects1 picture1 #bai ,subjects1 still life1 #hc ,subjects1 vegetable1 #aei ,surface contours1 #ajc ,surface finish1 #bcd ,swiss carving1 #aia ,sycamore wood1 #di ,tale of ,troy1 carved oak book-cover for1 #bfg1 #bhh1 #bhi ,tempering tools1 #ci ,texture and surface finish1 #bcd ,theory and practise1 #be ,thimble pattern1 #aba ,throwing about1 #ajf ,time1 carvers the historians of their1 #adi ,tool marks1 the importance of their direction1 #bcd ,tools1 #ca ,tools1 average number1 #ca ,tools1 blunted or broken1 #dj ,tools1 description of1 #bg ,tools1 handling1 #bg1 #eb1 #gh ,tools1 joiner's1 #da ,tools1 position on oilstone1 #eb ,tools1 position when in use1 #bg ,tools1 sharpening1 #eb ,tools1 spoon1 #ei ,tools1 stropping1 #ed ,tools1 tempering1 #ci ,tracing1 #gb ,trunch ,church1 font canopy at1 #bcc1 #bfh1 #bih ,turkey1 oilstone1 #db ,turner1 ,laurence1 #bfi ,undercutting and built-up work1 #bad ,v tool1 #ca1 #cd1 #cf1 #ei ,vegetable designs1 #aei ,veiner1 #ca1 #cd1 #cf1 #eh ,vines1 the1 #aae1 #aef1 #aei ,walnut wood1 #dh1 #ej ,washita oilstone1 #db ,wave pattern1 #aba ,webb1 ,philip1 drawings and designs by1 #agg1 #aif1 #bfh1 #bhf1 #cjj ,winchester ,cathedral1 carvings from1 #aij1 #baf1 #bbg1 #bfg1 #bic1 #bie ,wood1 hard1 #dh1 #ea ,wood1 soft1 #dh1 #ea ,woods1 #dh ,woods1 ,american1 #dh ,woods1 colors of1 #dh ,woods1 grain of1 #dh1 #fi ,woods1 list of1 #dh ,woods1 soft and hard1 #dh1 #ea ,work1 critical inspection of1 from a distance1 as it proceeds1 #ajc ,yellow pine wood1 #dh1 #ga ,york ,cathedral1 old chest in1 #bfe1 #bgc ,yorkshire settle1 #afh ,,the ,,end ,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor corrections were made to normalize spelling and punctuation4 ,small caps were replaced with all-caps4