,transcriber's note3 ,page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly braces1 e4g4 #ii4 ,they have been located where page breaks occurred in the original book4 ,for its ,index1 a page number has been placed only at the start of that section4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,ethics ,a ,handbook of ,christian ,ethics by ,,archibald ,b4 ,d4 ,,alexander1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,author of ',a ,short ,history of ,philosophy1' ',the ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul1' etc4 ,london3 ,duckworth ,co4 #c ,henrietta ,st41 ,covent ,garden #aiad ,all rights reserved v ,,preface ,the object of this volume is to present a brief but comprehensive view of the ,christian conception of the moral life4 ,in order to conform with the requirements of the series to which the volume belongs1 the writer has found the task of compression one of almost insurmountable difficulty2 and some topics1 only less important than those dealt with1 have been necessarily omitted4 ,the book claims to be1 as its title indicates1 simply a handbook or introduction to ,christian ,ethics4 ,it deals with principles rather than details1 and suggests lines of thought instead of attempting an exhaustive treatment of the subject4 ,at the same time1 in the author's opinion1 no really vital question has been overlooked4 ,the treatise is intended primarily for students1 but it is hoped that it may prove serviceable to those who desire a succinct account of the moral and social problems of the present day4 ,a fairly full bibliography has been added1 which1 along with the references to authorities in the body of the work1 may be helpful to those who wish to prosecute the study4 ,for the convenience of readers the book has been divided into four sections1 entitled1 ,postulates1 ,personality1 ,character1 and ,conduct2 and a detailed synopsis of contents has been supplied4 ,to the ,rev4 ,w4 ,r4 ,thomson1 ,b4,d4 of ,bellshill1 ,scotland1 who read the chapters in type1 and generally put at his disposal much valuable suggestion1 the author would record his most sincere thanks4 vii ,,contents ,,introduction ,,page ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a ,,section ,a--,,postulates ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,scope ,,of ,,ethics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #i ,i4 ,general ,definition4 ,,ii4 ,distinctive ,features--#a4 ,ideal2 #b4 ,norm2 #c4 ,will4 ,,iii4 ,is ,ethics a ,science8 ,,iv4 ,relation to--#a4 ,logic2 #b4 ,aesthetics2 #c4 ,politics4 ,v4 ,dependence upon--#a4 ,metaphysics2 #b4 ,psychology4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,postulates ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bb ,i4 ,philosophical ,ethics4 ,,ii4 ,dogmatics4 ,,iii4 ,theological ,presuppositions-- #a4 ,christian ,idea of ,god4 #b4 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin4 #c4 ,human ,responsibility4 ,,iv4 ,authority and ,method4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ethical ,,thought ,,before ,,christ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cf ,i4 ,in ,greece and ,rome--,socrates1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,stoics4 ,stoicism and ,st4 ,paul4 ,,ii4 ,in ,israel--#a4 ,law2 #b4 ,prophecy2 #c4 ,poetry4 ,preparatory ,character of pre-,christian ,morality4 ,,section ,b--,,personality ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,estimate ,,of ,,man 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ee ,i4 ,conflicting ,views of ,human ,nature-- #a4 ,man by nature ,morally ,good4 #b4 ,man by nature ,totally ,depraved4 #c4 ,the ,christian ,view4 ,,ii4 ,examination of ,man's ,psychical ,nature-- #a4 ,the ,unity of the ,soul4 #b4 ,the ,divine in ,man4 #c4 ,the ,physical and ,mental ,life4 ,,iii4 ,appeal of ,christianity to the ,mind4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,witness ,,of ,,conscience 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fh ,i4 ,treatment of ,conscience-- #a4 ,in ,greek ,poetry and ,philosophy4 #b4 ,in ,old ,testament4 #c4 ,in ,new ,testament4 ,,ii4 ,nature and ,origin of ,conscience-- #a4 ,intuitionalism4 #b4 ,evolutionalism4 ,,iii4 ,validity of ,conscience-- #a4 ,the ,christian ,view4 #b4 ,the ,moral ,imperatives4 #c4 ,the ,permanence of ,conscience ,,chapter ,,vi ',,the ,,miracle ,,of ,,the ,,will' 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hb ,is ,man free to choose the ,good8 ,creative ,power of ,volition4 ,aspects of ,problem raised4 ,i4 ,scientific-- ,man and ,physical ,necessity4 ,,ii4 ,psychological-- ,determinism and ,indeterminism4 ,criticism of ,james and ,bergson4 ,spontaneity and ,necessity4 ,,iii4 ,theological-- ,divine ,sovereignty and ,human ,freedom4 ,jesus and ,paul--,challenge to the ,will4 ,freedom--a ,gift and a ,task4 ,,section ,c--,,character ,,chapter ,,vii ,,modern ,,theories ,,of ,,life 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ii ,i4 ,naturalistic ,tendency-- #a4 ,materialistic-- 7#a7 ,idyllic or ,poetic--,rousseau4 7#b7 ,philosophic--,feuerbach4 7#c7 ,scientific--,haeckel4 #b4 ,utilitarian--,hobbes1 ,bentham1 ,mill4 #c4 ,evolutionary--,spencer4 #d4 ,socialistic--,marx1 ,engels4 #e4 ,individualistic-- 7#a7 ,aestheticism--,goethe1 ,schiller4 7#b7 ,subjectivism-- 7a7 ,pessimism--,schopenhauer4 7b7 ,optimism--,nietzsche4 ,,ii4 ,idealistic ,tendency-- #a4 ,kant--,categorical ,imperative4 #b4 ,fichte and ,hegel--,idea of ,personality4 #c4 ,james--,pragmatism4 #d4 ,bergson--,vitalism4 #e4 ,eucken--,activism4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,christian ,,ideal 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abg ,life1 as the highest ,good4 ,i4 ,life1 in its ,individual ,aspect-- #a4 ,its ,intensity4 #b4 ,its ,expansion4 #c4 ',eternal ,life4' ,,ii4 ,life1 in its ,social ,aspect-- #a4 ',the ,kingdom of ,god'-- ,eschatological ,interpretation4 ,untenableness of ,interimsethik4 #b4 ,christ's ,view of ,kingdom-- 7#a7 ,a ,present ,reality--a ,gift4 7#b7 ,a ,gradual ,development--a ,task4 7#c7 ,a ,future ,consummation--a ,hope4 ,,iii4 ,life1 in its ,godward ,aspect-- #a4 ,holiness4 #b4 ,righteousness4 #c4 ,love4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,standard ,,and ,,motive 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adf ,i4 ,christ as ,example-- #a4 ,portrayal by ,synoptists-- 7#a7 ,artlessness of ,disciples4 7#b7 ,naturalness of ,jesus1 #b4 ,impression of ,power-- 7#a7 ,power of ,loyalty to ,calling4 7#b7 ,power of ,holiness4 7#c7 ,power of ,sympathy4 #c4 ,value of ,jesus' ,example for ,present ,life-- ,misconception of ,phrase ',imitation of ,christ4' ,,ii4 ,the ,christian ,motive-- #a4 ,analysis of ,springs of ,conduct-- 7#a7 ,divine ,forgiveness4 7#b7 ,fatherhood of ,god4 7#c7 ,sense of ,vocation4 7#d7 ,brevity of ,life4 7#e7 ,idea of ,immortality4 #b4 ,question as to ,purity of ,motive-- 7#a7 ,charge of ,asceticism4 7#b7 ,charge of ,hedonism4 #c4 ,doctrine of ,rewards-- 7#a7 ,in ,philosophy4 7#b7 ,in ,christianity--7a7 ,jesus2 7b7 ,paul4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,dynamic ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,life 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #afd ,i4 ,divine ,power-- ,operative through ,christ's #a4 ,incarnation and ,life4 #b4 ,death and ,sacrifice4 #c4 ,resurrection and ,indwelling ,presence4 ,,ii4 ,human ,response-- #a4 ,repentance-- 7#a7 ,contrition--,confession--,resolution4 7#b7 ,question of ',sudden ,conversion4' 7#c7 ',twice ,born' or ',once ,born4' #b4 ,faith-- 7#a7 ,in ,ordinary ,life4 7#b7 ,in ,teaching of ,jesus4 7#c7 ,the ,pauline ,doctrine4 #c4 ,obedience-- 7#a7 ,active ,appropriation of ,grace4 7#b7 ,determination of ,whole ,personality4 7#c7 ,gradual ,assimilation4 ,,section ,d--,,conduct ,,chapter ,,xi ,,virtues ,,and ,,virtue 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ahc ,definition of ,virtue4 ,i4 ,the ,natural ,basis of the ,virtues-- ',the ,cardinal ,virtues4' ,,ii4 ,the ,christian ,transformation of the ,virtues-- #a4 ,the ,new ,testament ,account4 #b4 ,cardinal ,virtues1 ,elements of ,christian ,character4 #c4 ,place of ,passive ,virtues in ,life4 ,,iii4 ,the ,unification of the ,virtues-- #a4 ,unity in ,relation to ,god4 #b4 ,love1 ,spring of all ,virtues1 #c4 ',theological ,virtues1' ,aspects of ,love4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,realm ,,of ,,duty 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aii ,i4 ,aspects of ,duty-- #a4 ,duty and ,vocation4 #b4 ,conflict of ,duties-- 7#a7 ,competing ,obligations4 7#b7 ',counsels of ,perfection4' 7#c7 ,indifferent ,acts4 #c4 ,rights and ,duties-- 7#a7 ,claim of ',natural ,rights4' 7#b7 ,based on ,worth of ,individual4 7#c7 ,christian ,idea of ,liberty4 ,,ii4 ,spheres of ,duty-- #a4 ,duties in ,relation to ,self-- 7#a7 ,self-,respect4 7#b7 ,self-,preservation4 7#c7 ,self-,development-- ,self-regarding ,duties not prominent in ,scripture4 ,self-,realisation through ,self-,sacrifice4 #b4 ,duties in ,relation to ,others-- 7#a7 ,regard for ,man3 ,brotherly ,love-- 7a7 ,justice4 7b7 ,veracity4 7c7 ,judgment4 7#b7 ,service-- 7a7 ,sympathy4 7b7 ,beneficence4 7c7 ,forgiveness4 7#c7 ,example and ,influence4 #c4 ,duties in ,relation to ,god-- 7#a7 ,recognition4 7#b7 ,obedience--,passive and ,active4 7#c7 ,worship--,reverence1 ,prayer1 ,thanksgiving4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,social ,,institutions 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bcj ,i4 ,the ,family-- #a4 ,origin and ,evolution of ,family4 #b4 ,christian view-- 7#a7 ,christ's ,teaching on ,marriage4 7#b7 ,state ,regulation and ,eugenics4 7#c7 ,tendencies to ,disparagement4 #c4 ,family ,relationships-- 7#a7 ,parents and ,children4 7#b7 ,woman's ,place and ,rights4 7#c7 ,child ,life and ,education4 ,,ii4 ,the ,state-- #a4 ,basis of ,authority-- ,tolstoy and ,anarchism4 ',social ,contract4' #b4 ,state1 in ,new ,testament4 #c4 ,modern ,conceptions-- ,views of ,augustine and ,hegel4 7#a7 ,duty of ,state to ,citizens4 7#b7 ,duty of ,citizens to ,state4 7#c7 ,the ,democratic ,movement-- ,reciprocity of ,service and ,sense of ,brotherhood4 ,,iii4 ,the ,church-- #a4 ,relation of ,church and ,state4 #b4 ,purpose and ,ideal of ,church-- 7#a7 ,worship and ,edification4 7#b7 ,witness to ,christ4 7#c7 ,evangelisation of ,mankind4 #c4 ,the ,church and the ,social ,problem-- 7#a7 ,christ's ,teaching as to ,industry and ,wealth4 7#b7 ,attitude of ,early ,church to ,society4 7#c7 ,of ,roman and ,reformed ,churches4 #d4 ,duty of ,christianity to the ,world-- ,the ,missionary ,imperative and ,opportunity4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,conclusion--,,the ,,permanence ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bde ,,bibliography 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bdh ,,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bfc #a ,,christianity ,,and ,,ethics ,,introduction ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics ,if1 as ,matthew ,arnold says1 conduct is three-fourths of life1 then a careful inquiry into the laws of conduct is indispensable to the proper interpretation of the meaning and purpose of life4 ,conduct of itself1 however1 is merely the outward expression of character2 and character again has its roots in personality2 so that if we are to form a just conception of life we have to examine the forces which shape human personality and raise it to its highest power and efficiency4 ,in estimating the value of man all the facts of consciousness and experience must be considered4 ,hence no adequate account of the end of life can be given without regard to that which1 if it is true1 must be the most stupendous fact of history--the fact of ,christ4 ,if the ,christian is a man to whom no incident of experience is secular and no duty insignificant1 because all things belong to ,god and all life is dominated by the spirit of ,christ1 then ,christian ,ethics must be the application of ,christianity to conduct2 and its theme must be the systematic study of the ideals and forces which are alone adequate to shape character and fit man for the highest conceivable destiny--fellowship with1 and likeness to1 the ,divine ,being in whose image he has been made4 ,this1 of course1 may be said to be the aim of all theology4 ,the theologian must not be content to discuss merely speculative problems about ,god and man4 ,he must seek above #b all things to bring the truths of revelation to bear upon human practice4 ,all knowledge has its practical implicate4 ,the dogma which cannot be translated into duty is apt to be a vague abstraction4 ,in all ages there has been a tendency to separate truth and duty4 ,but knowledge has two sides2 it is at once a revelation and a challenge4 ,there is no truth which has not its corresponding obligation1 and no obligation which has not its corresponding truth4 ,and not until every truth is rounded into its duty1 and every duty is referred back into its truth shall we attain to that clearness of vision and consistency of moral life1 to promote which is the primary task of ,christian ,ethics4 ,it is this practical element which gives to the study of morals its justification and makes it specially important for the ,christian teacher4 ,in this sense ,ethics is really the crown of theology and ought to be the end of all previous study4 ,as a separate branch of study ,christian ,ethics dates only from the ,reformation4 ,it was natural1 and perhaps inevitable that the first efforts of the ,church should be occupied with the formation and elaboration of dogma4 ,with a few notable exceptions1 among whom may be mentioned ,basil1 ,clement1 ,alquin and ,thomas ,aquinas1 the ,church fathers and schoolmen paid but scanty attention to the ethical side of religion4 ,it was only after the ,reformation that theology1 ,roman and ,protestant alike1 was divided into different branches4 ,the ,roman ,catholic name for what we style ,ethics is 'moral philosophy1' which1 however1 consists mainly of directions for father confessors in their dealing with perplexed souls4 ,christian ,ethics appears for the first time as the name of a treatise by a ,french theologian of the ,calvinistic persuasion--,danaeus1 whose work1 however1 is confined to an exposition of the ,decalogue4 ,the first recorded work of the ,lutheran church is the ,theologia ,moralis1 written in #afcd1 by ,george ,calixtus4 ,but the modern study of the subject really dates from #c ,schleiermacher 7#agfh-ahcd71 who divides theology into two sections1 ,dogmatics and ,ethics1 giving to the latter an independent treatment4 ,since his time ,ethics has been regarded as a separate discipline1 and within the last few decades increasing attention has been devoted to it4 ,this strong ethical tendency is one of the most noticeable features of the present age4 ,everywhere to-day the personal human interest is in evidence4 ,we see it in the literature of the age and especially in the best poetry1 beginning already with ,coleridge and ,wordsworth1 and continued in ,tennyson and ,browning4 ,it is the inner life of man as depicted to us by these master singers1 the story of the soul1 even more than the delineation of nature which appeals to man's deepest experience and evokes his finest response4 ,we see it in the art of our times1 which1 not content to be a mere expression of sensuous beauty or lifeless nature1 seeks to be instinct with human sympathy and to become the vehicle of the ideas and aims of man4 ,we see it in modern fiction1 which is no longer the narration of a simple tale1 but the subtle analysis of character1 and the intricate study of the passions and ambitions of common life4 ,history to-day is not concerned so much with recording the intrigues of kings and the movements of armies as with scrutinising the motives and estimating the personal forces which have shaped the ages4 ,even in the domain of theology itself this tendency is visible4 ,our theologians are not content with discussing abstract doctrines or recounting the decisions of church councils1 but are turning to the gospels and seeking to depict the life of ,jesus--to probe the secret of ,his divine humanity and to interpret the meaning for the world of ,his unique personality4 ,nor is this tendency confined to professional thinkers and theologians1 it is affecting the common mind of the laity4 ',never was there a time1' says a modern writer1 'when plain people were less concerned with the metaphysics or the ecclesiasticism of ,christianity4 ,the construction of systems and the contention of creeds which once appeared the central themes of human interest are now #d regarded by millions of busy men and women as mere echoes of ancient controversies1 if not mere mockeries of the problems of the present day4' ,the ,church under the inspiration of this new feeling for humanity is turning with fresh interest to the contemplation of the character of ,jesus ,christ1 and is rising to a more lofty idea of its responsibilities towards the world4 ,more than ever in the past1 it is now felt that ,christianity must vindicate itself as a practical religion2 and that in view of the great problems--scientific1 social and industrial1 which the new conditions of an advancing civilisation have created1 the ,church1 if it is to fulfil its function as the interpreter and guide of thought1 must come down from its heights of calm seclusion and grapple with the actual difficulties of men1 not indeed by assuming a political rle or acting as a divider and judge amid conflicting secular aims1 but by revealing the mind of ,christ and bringing the principles of the gospel to bear upon the complex life of society4 ,no one who reflects upon the spirit of the times will doubt that there are reasons of urgent importance why this aspect of ,christian life and duty1 which we have been considering1 should be specially insisted upon to-day4 ,of these the first and foremost is the prevalence of a materialistic philosophy4 ,taking its rise in the evolutionary theories of last century1 this view is now being applied with relentless logic as an interpretation of the problems of society by a school of socialistic writers4 ,man1 it is said1 is the creature of heredity and environment alone4 ,condition creates character1 and relief from the woes of humanity is to be sought1 not in the transformation of the individual but in the revolutionising of the circumstances of life4 ,as a consequence of this philosophy of externalism there is a filtering down of these materialistic views to the multitude1 who care1 indeed1 little for theories1 but are quick to be affected by a prevailing tone4 ,underlying the feeling of unrest and dissatisfaction1 so marked a feature of our present day life1 there is distinctly discernible among the masses a loosening of religious faith and a slackening #e of moral obligation4 ,the idea of personality and the sense of duty are not so vivid and strong as they used to be4 ,a vague sentimentalising about sin has taken the place of the more robust view of earlier times1 and evil is traced to untoward environment rather than to feebleness of individual will4 ,and finally1 to name no other cause1 there is a tendency in our day among all classes to divorce religion from life--to separate the sacred from the secular1 and to regard worship and work as belonging to two entirely distinct realms of existence4 ,for these reasons1 among others1 there is a special need1 as it seems to us1 for a systematic study of ,christian ,ethics on the part of those who are to be the leaders of thought and the teachers of the people4 ,the materialistic view of life must be met by a more adequate ,christian philosophy4 ,the unfaith and pessimism of the age must be overcome by the advocacy of an idealistic conception which insists not only upon the personality and worth of man1 involving duties as well as rights1 but also upon the supremacy of conscience in obedience to the law of ,christ4 ,above all1 we need an ethic which will show that religion must be co-extensive with life1 transfiguring and spiritualising all its activities and relationships4 ,life is a unity and all duty is one1 whether it be duty to ,god or duty to man4 ,it must be all of a piece1 like the robe of ,christ1 woven from the top to the bottom without seam4 ,it takes its spring from one source and is dominated by one spirit4 ,in the ,christianity of ,christ there stand conspicuous two great ideas bound together1 indeed1 in a higher--love to ,god the ,father4 ,these are personal perfection and the service of mankind--the culture of self and the care of others4 ',be ye perfect' and 'love your neighbour as yourself4' ,it is the glory of ,christianity to have harmonised these seemingly competing aims4 ,the disciple of ,christ finds that he cannot realise his own life except as he seeks the good of others2 and that he cannot effectively help his fellows except by giving to them that which he himself is4 ,this1 as we take it1 is the ,christian conception of the moral life2 and it is #f the business of ,christian ,ethics to show that it is at once reasonable and practical4 ,the present volume will be divided into four main parts1 entitled1 ,postulates1 ,personality1 ,character and ,conduct4 ,the first will deal with the meaning of ,ethics generally and its relation to cognate subjects2 and specially with the ,philosophical1 ,psychological and ,theological presuppositions of ,christian ,ethics4 ,the second part will be devoted to man as moral subject1 and will analyse the capacities of the soul which respond to the calls and claims of the new ,life4 ,the third ,section will involve a consideration of the formative ,principles of ,character1 the moulding of the soul1 the ,ideals1 ,motives and ,forces by means of which the ',new ,man' is 'recreated' and fashioned4 ,finally1 under ,conduct1 the ,virtues1 ,duties and ,rights of man will be discussed2 and the various spheres of service and institutions of society examined in relation to which the moral life in its individual and social aspects is manifested and developed4 #g ,,section ,a ,,postulates #i ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,scope ,,of ,,ethics ,philosophy has been defined as 'thinking things together4' ,every man1 says ,hegel1 is a philosopher1 and in so far as it is the natural tendency of the human mind to connect and unify the manifold phenomena of life1 the paradox of the ,german thinker is not without a measure of truth4 ,but while this is only the occasional pastime of the ordinary individual1 it is the conscious and habitual aim of the philosopher4 ,in daily life people are wont to make assumptions which they do not verify1 and employ figures of speech which of necessity are partial and inadequate4 ,it is the business of philosophy to investigate the pre-suppositions of common life and to translate into realities the pictures of ordinary language4 ,it was the method of ,socrates to challenge the current modes of speaking and to ask his fellow-men what they meant when they used such words as 'goodness1' 'virtue1' 'justice4' ,every time you employ any of these terms1 he said1 you virtually imply a whole theory of life4 ,if you would have an intelligent understanding of yourself and the world of which you form a part1 you must cease to live by custom and speak by rote4 ,you must seek to bring the manifold phenomena of the universe and the various experiences of life into some kind of unity and see them as co-ordinated parts of a whole4 ,when men thus begin to reflect on the origin and connection of things1 three questions at once suggest themselves--what1 how1 and why8 ,what is the world8 ,how do ,i know it8 and why am ,i here8 ,we might briefly classify the three great departments of human thought as attempts #aj to answer these three inquiries4 ,what exists is the problem of ,metaphysics4 ,what am ,i and how do ,i know8 is the question of ,psychology4 ,what is my purpose1 what am ,i to do8 is the subject of ,ethics4 ,these questions are closely related1 and the answer given to one largely determines the solution of the others4 ,the truths gained by philosophical thought are not confined to the kingdom of abstract speculation but apply in the last resort to life4 ,the impulse to know is only a phase of the more general impulse to be and to act4 ,beneath all man's activities1 as their source and spring1 there is ever some dim perception of an end to be attained4 ',the ultimate end1' says ,paulsen1 'impelling men to meditate upon the nature of the universe1 will always be the desire to reach some conclusion concerning the meaning of the source and goal of their lives4' ,the origin and aim of all philosophy is consequently to be sought in ,ethics4 ,i4 ,if we ask more particularly what ,ethics is1 definition affords us some light4 ,it is to ,aristotle that we are indebted for the earliest use of this term1 and it was he who gave to the subject its title and systematic form4 ,the name ta ethika is derived from thos1 character1 which again is closely connected with ethos1 signifying custom4 ,ethics1 therefore1 according to ,aristotle is the science of character1 character being understood to mean according to its etymology1 customs or habits of conduct4 ,but while the modern usage of the term 'character' suggests greater inwardness than would seem to be implied in the ancient definition1 it must be remembered that under the title of ,ethics ,aristotle had in view1 not only a description of the outward habits of man1 but also that which gives to custom its value1 viz41 the sources of action1 the motives1 and especially the ends which guide a man in the conduct of life4 ,but since men live before they reflect1 ,ethics and ,morality are not synonymous4 ,so long as there is a congruity between the customs of a people and the practical requirements of life1 ethical questions do not occur4 ,it is only when difficulties arise as to matters of right1 for which the #aa existing usages of society offer no solution1 that reflection upon morality awakens4 ,no longer content with blindly accepting the formulae of the past1 men are prompted to ask1 whence do these customs come1 and what is their authority8 ,in the conflict of duties1 which a wider outlook inevitably creates1 the inquirer seeks to estimate their relative values1 and to bring his conception of life into harmony with the higher demands and larger ideals which have been disclosed to him4 ,this has been the invariable course of ethical inquiry4 ,at different stages of history--in the age of the ,sophists of ,ancient ,greece1 when men were no longer satisfied with the old forms of life and truth3 at the dawn of the ,christian era1 when a new ideal was revealed in ,christ3 during the period of the ,reformation1 when men threw off the bondage of the past and made a stand for the rights of the individual conscience3 and in more recent times1 when in the field of political life the antithesis between individual and social instincts had awakened larger and more enlightened views of civic and social responsibility--the study of ,ethics1 as a science of moral life1 has come to the front4 ,ethics may1 therefore1 be defined as the science of the end of life--the science which inquires into its meaning and purpose4 ,but inasmuch as the end or purpose of life involves the idea of some good which is in harmony with the highest conceivable well-being of man--some good which belongs to the true fulfilment of life--,ethics may also be defined as the science of the highest good or summum bonum4 ,finally1 ,ethics may be considered not only as the science of the highest good or ultimate end of life1 but also as the study of all that conditions that end1 the dispositions1 desires and motives of the individual1 all the facts and forces which bear upon the will and shape human life in its various social relationships4 ,,ii4 ,arising out of this general definition three features may be mentioned as descriptive of its distinctive character among the sciences4 #ab #a4 ,ethics is concerned with the ideal of life4 ,by an ideal we mean a better state of being than has been actually realised4 ,we are confessedly not as we should be1 and there floats before the minds of men a vision of some higher condition of life and society than that which exists4 ,life divorced from an ideal is ethically valueless4 ,some conception of the supreme good is the imperative demand and moral necessity of man's being4 ,hence the chief business of ,ethics is to answer the question3 ,what is the supreme good8 ,for what should a man live8 ,what1 in short1 is the ideal of life8 ,in this respect ,ethics as a science is distinguished from the physical sciences4 ,they explain facts and trace sequences1 but they do not form ideals or endeavour to move the will in the direction of them4 #b4 ,ethics again is concerned with a norm of life1 and in this sense it is frequently styled a normative science4 ,that is to say1 it is a science which prescribes rules or maxims according to which life is to be regulated4 ,this is sometimes expressed by saying that ,ethics treats of what ought to be4 ,the ideal must not be one which simply floats in the air4 ,it must be an ideal which is possible1 and1 therefore1 as such1 obligatory4 ,it is useless to feel the worth of a certain idea1 or even to speak of the desirability of it1 if we do not feel also that it ought to be realised4 ,moral judgments imply an 'ought1' and that 'ought' implies a norm or standard1 in the light of which1 as a criterion1 all obligation must be tested1 and according to which all conduct must be regulated4 #c4 ,ethics1 once more1 is concerned with the will4 ,it is based specifically on the fact that man is not only an intellectual being 7capable of knowing7 and a sensitive being 7possessed of feeling7 but also a volitional being2 that is1 a being endowed with self-determining activity4 ,it implies that man is responsible for his intentions1 dispositions and actions4 ,the idea of a supreme ideal at which he is to aim and a norm or standard of conduct according to which he ought to regulate his life1 would have no meaning if we did not presuppose the power of self-determination4 #ac ,whatever is not willed has no moral value4 ,where there is no freedom of choice1 we cannot speak of an action as either good or evil4#a ,when we praise or blame a man's conduct we do so under the assumption that his action is voluntary4 ,in all moral action purpose is implied4 ,this is the meaning of the well-known dictum of ,kant1 ',there is nothing in the world 4 4 4 that can be called good without qualification except a good will4 ,a good will is good1 not because of what it performs or effects1 not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end1 but simply by virtue of the volition4'#b ,it is the inner aim1 the good will which alone gives moral worth to any endeavour4 ,it is not what ,i do but the reason why ,i do it which is chiefly of ethical value4 ,the essence of virtue resides in the will1 not in the achievement2 in the intention or motive1 not in the result4 ,,iii4 ,the propriety of styling ,ethics a science has sometimes been questioned4 ,science1 it is said1 has to do with certain necessary and uniform facts of experience2 its object is simply to trace effects from causes and to formulate laws according to which sequences inevitably result from certain ascertained causes or observed facts4 ,but is not character1 with which ,ethics confessedly deals1 just that concerning which no definite conclusions can be predicted8 ,is not conduct1 dependent as it is on the human will1 just the element in man which cannot be explained as the resultant of calculable forces8 ,if the will is free1 and is the chief factor in the moulding of life1 then you cannot forecast what line conduct will take or predict what shape character will assume4 ,the whole conception of ,ethics as a science must1 it is contended1 fall to the ground1 if we admit a variable and incalculable element in conduct4 ,some writers1 on this account1 are disposed to regard ,ethics as an art rather than a science1 and indeed1 like every normative science1 it may be regarded as lying midway between them4 ,a science may be said to teach us to know #ad and an art to do3 but as has been well remarked1 'a normative science teaches to know how to do4'#c ,ethics may indeed be regarded both as a science and an art4 ,in so far as it examines and explains certain phenomena of character it is a science3 but in so far as it attempts to regulate human conduct by instruction and advice it is an art4#d ,yet when all is said1 in so far as ,ethics has to do with the volitional side of man1--with decisions and acts of will1--there must be something indeterminate and problematic in it which precludes it from being designated an exact science4 ,a certain variableness belongs to character1 and conduct cannot be pronounced good or bad without reference to the acting subject4 ,actions cannot be wholly explained by law1 and a large portion of human life 7and that the highest and noblest7 eludes analysis4 ,a human being is not simply a part of the world4 ,he is able to break in upon the sequence of events and set in motion new forces whose effects neither he himself nor his fellows can estimate4 ,it is the unique quality of rational beings that in great things and in small things they act from ideas4 ,the magic power of thought cannot be exaggerated4 ,great conceptions have great consequences1 and they rule the world4 ,a new spiritual idea shoots forth its rays and enlightens to larger issues generations of men4 ,there is a mystery in every forth-putting of will-power1 and every expression of personality4 ,character cannot be computed4 ,the art of goodness1 of living nobly1 if so unconscious a thing may be called an art1 is one certainly which defies complete scientific treatment4 ,it is with facts like these that ,ethics has to do2 and while we may lay down broad general principles which must underlie the teaching of every true prophet and the conduct of every good man1 there will always be an element with which science cannot cope4 ,,iv4 ,it will not be necessary1 after what has been said1 to trace at any length the relations between ,ethics and the #ae special mental sciences1 such as ,logic1 ,aesthetics1 and ,politics4 #a4 ,logic is the science of the formal laws of thought1 and is concerned not with the truth of phenomena1 but merely with the laws of correct reasoning about them4 ,ethics establishes the laws according to which we ought to act4 ,logic legislates for the reason1 and decerns the laws which the intellect must obey if it would think correctly4 ,both sciences determine what is valid2 but while ,logic is confined to the realm of what is valid in reasoning1 ,ethics is occupied with what is valid in action4 ,there is1 indeed1 a logic of life2 and in so far as all true conduct must have a rational element in it and be guided by certain intelligible forms1 ,ethics may be described as a kind of logic of character4 #b4 ,the connection between ,ethics and ,aesthetics is closer4 ,aesthetics is the science of the laws of beauty1 while ,ethics is the science of the laws of the good4 ,but in so far as ,aesthetics deals with the emotions rather than the reason it comes into contact with ,ethics in the psychological field4 ,in its narrower sense ,aesthetics deals with beauty merely in an impersonal way2 and its immediate object is not what is morally beautiful1 but rather that which is beautiful in itself irrespective of moral considerations4 ,ethics1 on the other hand1 is concerned with personal worth as expressed in perfection of will and action4 ,conduct may be beautiful and character may afford ,aesthetic satisfaction1 but ,ethics1 in so far as it is concerned with judgments of virtue1 is independent of all thought of the mere beauty or utility of conduct4 ,aesthetic consideration may indeed aid practical morality1 but it is not identical with it4 ,it is conceivable that what is right may not be immediately beautiful1 and may indeed in its pursuit or realisation involve action which contradicts our ideas of beauty4 ,but though both sciences have different aims they are occupied largely with the same emotions1 and are connected by a common idealising purpose4 ,in the deepest sense1 what is good is beautiful and what is beautiful is good2 and #af ultimately1 in the moral and spiritual life1 goodness and beauty coincide4 ,indeed1 so close is the connection between the two conceptions that the ,greeks used the same word1 to kalon1 to express beauty of form and nobility of character4 ,and even in modern times the expression 'a beautiful soul1' indicates the intimate relation between inner excellence of life and outward attractiveness4 ,both ,aesthetics and ,ethics have regard to that symmetry or proportion of life which fulfils our ideas at once of goodness and of beauty4 ,in this sense ,schiller sought to remove the sharpness of ,kant's moral theory by claiming a place in the moral life for beauty4 ,our actions are1 indeed1 good when we do our duty because we ought1 but they are beautiful when we do it because we cannot do otherwise1 because they have become our second nature4 ,the purpose of all culture1 says ,schiller1 is to harmonise reason and sense1 and thus to fulfil the idea of a perfect manhood4#e ',when ,i dared question3 ,it is beautiful1 ,but is it true8 ,thy answer was1 ,in truth lives beauty4'#f #c4 ,politics is still more closely related to ,ethics1 and indeed ,ethics may be said to comprehend ,politics4 ,both deal with human action and institution1 and cover largely the same field4 ,for man is not merely an individual1 but is a part of a social organism4 ,we cannot consider the virtues of the individual life without also considering the society to which he is related1 and the interaction of the whole and its part4 ,politics is usually defined as the science of government1 which of course1 involves all the institutions and laws affecting men's relations to each other4 ,but while ,politics is strictly concerned only with the outward condition of the state's well-being and the external order of #ag the community1 ,ethics seeks the internal good or virtue of mankind1 and is occupied with an ideal society in which each individual shall be able to realise the true aim and meaning of life4 ,but after all1 as ,aristotle said1 ,politics is really a branch of ,ethics1 and both are inseparable from1 and complementary of each other4 ,on the one hand1 ,ethics cannot ignore the material conditions of human welfare nor minimise the economic forces which shape society and make possible the moral aims of man4 ,on the other hand1 ,economics must recognise the service of ethical study1 and keep in view the moral purposes of life1 otherwise it is apt to limit its consideration to merely selfish and material ends4 ,v4 ,while ,ethics is thus closely connected with the sciences just named1 there are two departments of knowledge1 pre-supposed indeed in all mental studies1 which in a very intimate way affect the science of ,ethics4 ,these are ,metaphysics on the one hand and ,psychology on the other4 #a4 ,metaphysics is pre-supposed by all the sciences2 and indeed1 all our views of life1 even our simplest experiences1 involve metaphysical assumptions4 ,it has been well said that the attempt to construct an ethical theory without a metaphysical basis issues not in a moral science without assumptions1 but in an ,ethics which becomes confused in philosophical doubts4 ,leslie ,stephen proposes to ignore ,metaphysics1 and remarks that he is content 'to build upon the solid earth4' ,but1 as has been pertinently asked1 ',how does he know that the earth is solid on which he builds8' ,this is a question of ,metaphysics4#g ,the claim is frequently made by a certain class of writers1 that we withdraw ourselves from all metaphysical sophistries1 and betake ourselves to the guidance of commonsense4 ,but what is this commonsense of which the ordinary man vaunts himself8 ,it is in reality a number of vague assumptions borrowed unconsciously from old exploded theories--assertions1 opinions1 beliefs1 accumulated1 no one knows how1 #ah and accepted as settled judgments4#h ,we do not escape philosophy by refusing to think4 ,some kind of theory of life is implied in such words1 'soul1' 'duty1' 'freedom1' 'power1' ',god1' which the unreflecting mind is daily using4 ,it is useless to say we can dispense with philosophy1 for that is simply to content ourselves with bad philosophy4 ',to ignore the progress and development in the history of ,philosophy1' says ,t4 ,h4 ,green1#i 'is not to return to the simplicity of a pre-philosophic age1 but to condemn ourselves to grope in the maze of cultivated opinion1 itself the confused result of these past systems of thought which we will not trouble ourselves to think out4' ,the aim of all philosophy1 as ,plato said1 is just to correct the assumptions of the ordinary mind1 and to grasp in their unity and cohesion the ultimate principles which the mind feels must be at the root of all reality4 ,we have an ethical interest in determining whether there be any moral reality beneath the appearances of the world4 ,ethical questions1 therefore1 run back into ,metaphysics4 ,if we take ,metaphysics in its widest sense as involving the idea of some ultimate end1 to the realisation of which the whole process of the world as known to us is somehow a means1 we may easily see that metaphysical inquiry1 though distinct from ethical1 is its necessary pre-supposition4 ,the ,being or ,purpose of ,god1 the great first cause1 the world as fashioned1 ordered and interpenetrated by ,him1 and man as conditioned by and dependent upon the ,deity--are postulates of the moral life and must be accepted as a basis of all ethical study4 ,the distinction between ,ethics and ,philosophy did not arise at once4 ,in early ,greek speculation1 almost to the time of ,aristotle1 ,metaphysics and ,morals were not separated4 ,and even in later times1 ,spinoza and to some extent ,green1 though they professedly treat of ,ethics1 hardly dissociate metaphysical from ethical considerations4 ,nor is that to be wondered at when men are dealing with the first principles of all being and life4 ,our view of ,god and of the #ai world1 our fundamental ,welt-,anschauung cannot but determine our view of man and his moral life4 ,in every philosophical system from ,plato to ,hegel1 in which the universe is regarded as having a rational meaning and ultimate end1 the good of human beings is conceived as identical with1 or at least as included in the universal good4 #b4 ,but if a sound metaphysical basis be a necessary requisite for the adequate consideration of ,ethics1 ,psychology as the science of the human soul is so vitally connected with ,ethics1 that the two studies may almost be treated as branches of one subject4 ,an ,ethic which takes no account of psychological assumptions would be impossible4 ,consciously or unconsciously every treatment of moral subjects is permeated by the view of the soul or personality of man which the writer has adopted1 and his meaning of conduct will be largely determined by the theory of human freedom and responsibility with which he starts4 ,questions as to character and duty invariably lead to inquiries as to certain states of the agent's mind1 as to the functions and possibilities of his natural capacities and powers4 ,we cannot pronounce an action morally good or bad until we have determined the extent and limits of his faculties and have investigated the questions of disposition and purpose1 of intention and motive1 which lie at the root of all conduct1 and without which actions are neither moral nor immoral4 ,it is surely a mistake to say1 as some do1 that as logic deals with the correctness of reasoning1 so ,ethics deals only with the correctness of conduct1 and is not directly concerned with the processes by which we come to act correctly4#aj ,on the contrary1 merely correct action may be ethically worthless1 and conduct obtains its moral value from the motives or intentions which actuate and determine it4 ,ethics cannot1 therefore1 ignore the psychological processes of feeling1 desiring and willing of the acting subject4 ,it is indeed true that in ordinary life men are frequently judged to be good or bad1 according to the outward effect of their actions1 and material results are often regarded as the sole #bj measure of good4 ,but while it may be a point of difficulty in theoretic morality to determine the comparative worth and mutual relation of good affections and good actions1 all surely will allow that a certain quality of disposition or motive in the agent is required to constitute an action morally good1 and that it is not enough to measure virtue by its utility or its beneficial effect alone4 ,hence all moralists are agreed that the main object of their investigation must belong to the psychical side of human life--whether they hold that man's ultimate end is to be found in the sphere of pleasure or maintain that his well-being lies in the realisation of virtue for its own sake4 ,the problems as to the origin and adequacy of conscience1 as to the meaning and validity of voluntary action2 the questions concerning motives and desires1 as to the historical evolution of moral customs1 and man's relation at each stage of his history to the social1 political and religious institutions amid which he lives--are subjects which1 though falling within the scope of ,ethics1 have their roots in the science of the soul4 ,the very existence of a science of ,ethics depends upon the answers which ,psychology gives to such questions4 ,if1 for example1 it be decided that there is in man no such faculty or organ as conscience1 and that what men so designate is but a natural manifestation gradually evolved in and through the physical and social development of man3 or if we deny the self-determining power of human beings and assume that what we call the freedom of the will is a delusion 7or at least1 in the last resort1 a negligible element7 and that man is but one of the many phenomena or facts of a physical universe--then we may continue1 indeed1 as some evolutionary and naturalistic thinkers do1 to speak of a science of ,ethics1 but such a science will not be a study of the moral life as we understand it and have defined it4 ,ethics1 therefore1 while dependent upon the philosophical sciences1 has its own distinct content and scope4 ,the end of life1 that for which a man should live1 with all its implications1 forms the subject of moral inquiry4 ,it is #ba concerned not merely with what a man is or actually does1 but more specifically with what he should be and should do4 ,hence1 as we have seen1 the word 'ought' is the most distinctive term of ,ethics involving a consideration of values and a relation of the actual and the ideal4 ,the 'ought' of life constitutes at once the purpose1 law1 and reason of conduct4 ,it proposes the three great questions involved in all ethical inquiry--whither8 how8 and why8 and determines the three great words which are constantly recurring in every ethical system--end1 norm1 motive4 ,moral good is the moral end considered as realised4 ,the moral norm or rule impelling the will to the realisation of this end is called ,duty4 ,the moral motive considered as an acquired power of the acting will is called ,virtue4#aa #a ,cf4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 p4 #cb2 also ,wuttke1 ,christian ,ethics 7,eng4 ,trans471 vol4 i4 p4 #ad4 #b ,metaph4 of ,morals1 sect4 i4 #c ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 p4 #h4 ,see also ,muirhead1 ,elements of ,ethics4 #d ,hyslop1 ,elements of ,ethics1 p4 #a4 #e ,schiller1 ber ,anmuth und ,wrde4 ,cf4 also ,ruskin1 ,mod4 ,painters1 vol4 ii42 ,seeley1 ,natural ,religion1 and ,inge1 ,faith and its ,psychology1 p4 #bjc ff4 ,see also ,bosanquet ,hist4 of ,aesthetic4 ,we are indebted to ,romanticism1 and especially to ,novalis in ,germany and ,cousin in ,france for the thought that the good and the beautiful meet and amalgamate in ,god4 #f ,browning4 #g ,cf4 ,newman ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #h4 #h ,see ,author's ,history of ,philosophy1 p4 #ehe4 #i ,introduction to ,hume's ,works4 #aj ,mackenzie seems to imply this view4 ,ethics1 p4 #be4 #aa ,cf4 ,haering1 ,ethics of the ,christian ,life1 p4 #i4 #bb ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,postulates ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics ,we now proceed to define ,christian ,ethics and to investigate the particular postulates1 philosophical and theological1 upon which it rests4 ,christian ,ethics presupposes the ,christian view of life as revealed in ,christ1 and its definition must be in harmony with the ,christian ideal4 ,the prime question of ,christian ,ethics is1 ,how ought ,christians to order their lives8 ,it is therefore the science of morals as conditioned by ,christian faith2 and the problems it discusses are1 the nature1 meaning and laws of the moral life as dominated by the supreme good which has been revealed to the world in the ,person and ,teaching of ,christ4 ,it is based upon an historical event1 and presupposes a particular development and consummation of the world4 ,i ,the ,relation of ,christian to ,philosophical ,ethics4--,christian ,ethics is a branch of general ,ethics4 ,but it is something more2 it is ,ethics in its richest and fullest expression--the interpretation of life which corresponds to the supreme manifestation of the divine will4 ,for if the revelation of ,god in ,christ is true1 then that revelation is not merely a factor1 but the factor1 which must dominate and colour man's whole outlook and give an entirely new value to all his aims and actions4 ,in ,christianity we are confronted with the motive-power of a great ,personality who has entered into the current of human history and #bc given a new direction to the moral life of man4 ,man's life at its highest can only be interpreted in the light of this supreme revelation1 and can only be accounted for as the creation of the dynamic force of this unique ,personality4 ,but while this truth gives to ,christian ,ethics its distinctive character and pre-eminent worth it does not throw discredit upon philosophical ,ethics1 nor indeed separate the two departments by any hard and fast lines4 ,they have much in common4 ,a large domain of conduct is covered by both4 ,the so-called pagan virtues have their value for ,christian character and are in the line of ,christian virtue4 ,even in his natural state man is constituted for the moral life1 and1 as ,st4 ,paul states1 is not without some knowledge of right and wrong4 ,the moral attainments of the ancients are not to be regarded simply as 'splendid vices1' but as positive achievements of good4 ,duty may differ in content1 but it is of the same kind under any system4 ,purity is purity and benevolence benevolence1 whether manifested in a heathen or a ,christian4 ,while1 therefore1 ,christian ,ethics takes its point of departure from the special revelation of ,god and the unique disclosure of man's possibilities in ,christ1 it gladly accepts and freely uses the results of moral philosophy in so far as they throw light upon the fundamental facts of human nature4 ,as a system of morals ,christianity claims to be inclusive4 ,it takes cognisance of all the data of consciousness1 and assumes as its own1 from whatever quarter it may come1 all ascertained truth4 ,the facts of man's natural history1 the conclusions from philosophy1 the manifold lights afforded by previous speculation--all are gathered up1 sifted and tried by one all-authoritative measure of truth--the mind of ,christ4 ,it completes what is lacking in other systems in so far as their conclusions are based upon an incomplete survey of facts4 ,it deals1 in short1 with personality in its highest ranges of moral power and spiritual consciousness and seeks to interpret life by its greatest possibilities and loftiest attainments as they are revealed in ,christ4 ,but while ,christian ,ethics is at one with philosophic #bd ,ethics in postulating a natural capacity for spiritual life1 it is differentiated from all non-,christian systems by its distinctive belief in the possibility of the re-creation of character4 ,speculative ,ethics prescribes only what ought ideally to be done or avoided4 ,it takes no account of the foes of the spiritual life2 nor does it consider the remedy by which character1 once it is perverted or destroyed1 can be restored and transformed4 ,christian ,ethics1 on the other hand1 is concerned primarily with the question1 ,by what power can a man achieve the right and do the good8 ,it is not enough to postulate the inherent capacity of man4 ,experience of human nature shows that there are hostile elements which too often frustrate his natural development4 ,hence the practical problem which ,christian ,ethics has to face is1 ,how can the spiritual ideal be made a reality8 ,it regards man as standing in need of recovery1 and it is forced to assume1 that which philosophical ,ethics does not recognise1 a divine power by which character can be renewed4 ,christianity claims to be 'the power of ,god unto salvation to every one that believeth4' ,christian ,ethics therefore is based upon the twofold assumption that the ideal of humanity has actually been revealed in ,christ1 and that in ,him also is the power by which man may realise this ideal4 ,,ii ,the relation of ,christian ,ethics to ,dogmatics4--,within the sphere of theology proper the two main constituents of ,christian teaching are ,dogmatics and ,ethics1 or ,doctrines and ,morals4 ,though it is convenient to regard these separately they really form a whole1 and are but two aspects of one subject4 ,it is difficult to define their limits1 and to say where ,dogmatics ends and ,ethics begins4 ,the distinction is sometimes expressed by saying that ,dogmatics is a theoretic science1 whereas ,ethics is practical4 ,it is true that ,ethics stands nearer to everyday life and deals with matters of practical conduct1 while ,dogmatics is concerned with beliefs and treats of their origin and elucidation4 #be ,but1 on the other hand1 ,ethics also takes cognisance of beliefs as well as actions1 and is interested in judgments not less than achievements4 ,there is a practical side of doctrine and there is a theoretic side of morals4 ,even the most theoretic of sciences1 ,metaphysics1 though1 as ,novalis said1 it bakes no bread1 is not without its direct bearing upon life4 ,dogmatic theology when divorced from practical interest is in danger of becoming mere pedantry2 and ethical inquiry1 if it has no dogmatic basis1 loses scientific value and sinks into a mere enumeration of duties4 ,nor is the common statement1 that ,dogmatics shows what we should believe and ,ethics what we ought to do1 an adequate one4 ,moral precepts are also objects of faith1 and what we should believe involves moral requirements and pre-supposes a moral character4 ,schleiermacher has been charged with ignoring the difference between the two disciplines1 but with scant justice4 ,for1 while he regards the two subjects as but different branches of ,christian theology1 and insists upon their intimate connection1 he does not neglect their distinction4 ,there has been a growing tendency to accentuate the difference1 and recent writers such as ,jacoby1 ,haering and ,lemme1 not to mention ,martensen1 ,dorner and ,wuttke1 claim for ,ethics a separate and independent treatment4 ,the ultimate connection between ,dogmatics and ,ethics cannot be ignored without loss to both4 ,it tends only to confusion to speak as some do of 'a creedless morality4' ,on the one hand1 ,ethics saves ,dogmatics from evaporating into unsubstantial speculation1 and by affording the test of workableness1 keeps it upon the solid foundation of fact4 ,on the other hand1 ,dogmatics supplies to ,ethics its formative principles and normative standards1 and preserves the moral life from degenerating into the vagaries of fanaticism or the apathy of fatalism4 ,but while both sciences form complementary sides of theology and stand in relations of mutual service1 each deals with the human consciousness in a different way4 ,dogmatics regards the ,christian life from the standpoint of divine dependence3 ,ethics regards it from the #bf standpoint of human determination4 ,dogmatics deals with faith in relation to ,god1 as the receptive organ of grace3 ,ethics views faith rather in relation to man1 as a human activity or organ of conduct4 ,the one shows us how our adoption into the kingdom of ,god is the work of divine love3 the other shows how this knowledge of salvation manifests itself in love to ,god and man1 and must be worked out through all the relationships of life4 ,,iii ,we may define more particularly the relation of ,ethics to ,dogmatics by enumerating briefly the doctrinal postulates or assumptions with which ,ethics starts4 #a4 ,ethics assumes the ,christian idea of ,god4 ,god is for ,ethics not an impersonal force1 nor even simply the creator of the universe as philosophy might conceive ,him4#a ,creative power is not of course denied1 but it is qualified by what theology calls the 'moral attributes of ,god4' ,we do not ignore ,his omnipotence1 but we look beyond it1 to 'the love that tops the power1 the ,christ in ,god4'#b ,it is not necessary here to sketch the ,old ,testament teaching with regard to ,god4 ,it is sufficient to state that the ,new ,testament writers1 while not attempting to proclaim abstract doctrines1 took over generally the ,hebrew conception of the ,deity as a ,god who was at once almighty1 holy and righteous4 ,the distinctive note which the ,new ,testament emphasises is the ,personality of ,god1 and personality includes reason1 will and love4 ,the fact that we are ,his offspring1 as ,st4 ,paul argues1 is the basis of our true conception of ,god's nature4 ,through that which is highest in man we are enabled to discern something of ,his character4 ,but it is specially in and through ,jesus ,christ that the distinctive character of the ,divine ,personality is declared4 ,christ reveals ,him as our ,father1 and everywhere the ,new #bg ,testament writers assume that men stand in the closest filial relations to him4 ,in the fundamental conception of divine ,fatherhood there are implicitly contained certain elements of ethical significance4#c ,of these may be mentioned3 7#a7 ,the ,spiritual ,perfection of ,god4--,the ,christian doctrine of ,god includes not only ,his personality1 but ,his spiritual perfection4 ,all that is highest and best in life is attributed to ,god4 ,what we regard as having supreme moral worth is eternally realised in ,him4 ,it is this fact that prescribes man's ideal and makes it binding4 ',be ye perfect even as your ,father in heaven is perfect1' says ,christ4 ,because of what ,god is1 spiritual and moral excellence takes precedence of all other aims which can be perceived and pursued by man4 ,morality is the revelation of an ideal eternally existing in the divine mind4 ',the belief in ,god1' it has been said1 'is the logical pre-supposition of an objective or absolute morality4'#d ,the moral law1 as the norm and goal of our life1 obtains its validity and obligation for us not because it is an arbitrarily-given command1 but because it is of the very character of ,god4 7#b7 ,the ,sovereignty of ,god4--,not only the spiritual perfection but the moral sovereignty of ,god is pre-supposed4 ,he is the supreme excellence on whom all things depend1 and in whom they find their ultimate explanation4 ,the world is not merely ,his creation1 it is the expression of ,his mind4 ,he is not related to the universe as an artist is related to his work1 but rather as a personal being to his own mental and moral activities4#e ,he is immanent in all the phenomena of nature and movements of life and thought2 and in the order and purpose of the world ,his character and will are manifested4 ,the fact that the meaning and order of things are not imposed from without1 but constitute their inner nature1 reveals not only the completeness of ,his #bh sovereignty1 but the purpose of it4 ,the highest end of ,god1 as moral and spiritual1 is fulfilled by the constitution and education of spiritual beings like ,himself1 and in laying down the conditions which are necessary for their existence and perfecting4 ,no definition of divine sovereignty can exclude the idea of moral freedom and the consequences bound up with it4 ,hence ,god must not only confer the gift of individual liberty1 but respect it throughout the whole course of ,his dealings with man4 7#c7 ,the ,supremacy of ,love4--,this is the highest and most distinctive feature of the divine personality4 ,it is the sum of all the others2 as well as the special characteristic of the ,fatherhood of ,god as revealed by ,christ4 ',god is love' is the crowning statement of the ,gospel and the fullest expression of the divine nature4 ,the essential of all love is self-giving2 and the peculiarity of ,god's love is the communication and imparting of ,himself to ,his creatures4 ,the love of ,god finds its highest manifestation in the gift and sacrifice of ,his ,son4 ,he is the supreme personality in history1 revealing ,god in and to the world4 ,in the light of what ,christ is we know what ,god is1 and from ,his revelation there flows a new and ever-deepening experience of the divine ,being4 #b4 ,christian ,ethics presupposes the ,christian doctrine of ,sin4 ,it is not the province of ,ethics to discuss minutely the origin of evil or propound a theory of sin4 ,but it must see to it that the view it takes is consistent with the truths of revelation and in harmony with the facts of life4 ,a false or inadequate conception of sin is as detrimental to ,ethics as it is to ,dogmatics2 and upon our doctrine of evil depends very largely our interpretation of life in regard to its difficulties and purposes1 its trials and triumphs4 ,in the meantime it is enough to remark that considerable vagueness of idea and looseness of expression exist concerning this subject4 ,while some regard sin simply as a defect or shortcoming1 a missing of the mark1 as the ,greek word hamartia implies1 others treat it as a disease1 or infirmity of the flesh--a malady affecting the physical constitution which may be #bi incurred by heredity or induced by environment4 ,in both cases it is regarded as a misfortune1 rather than a fault1 or even as a fate from which the notion of guilt is absent4 ,while there is an element of truth in these representations1 they are defective in so far as they do not take sufficient account of the personal and determinative factor in all sinful acts4 ,the ,christian view1 though not denying that physical weakness and the influence of heredity and environment do1 in many cases1 affect conduct1 affirms that there is a personal element always present which these conditions do not explain4 ,sin is not merely negative4 ,it is something positive1 not so much an imperfection as a trespass4 ,it is to be accounted for not as an inherited or inherent malady1 but as a self-chosen perversity4 ,it belongs to the spirit rather than to the body1 and though it has its seat in the heart and in the emotions1 it has to do principally with the will4 ',every man is tempted when he is drawn away by his own lust and enticed4 ,then when lust has conceived it bringeth forth sin4'#f ,the essence of sin is selfishness4 ,it is the deliberate choice of self in preference to ,god--personal and wilful rebellion against the known law of righteousness and truth4 ,there are1 of course1 degrees of wrongdoing and undoubtedly extenuating circumstances which must be taken into account in estimating the significance and enormity of guilt1 but in the last resort ,christian ,ethics is compelled to postulate the fact of sin1 and to regard it as a personal rebellion against the holy will of ,god1 the deliberate choice of self and the wilful perversion of the powers of man into instruments of unrighteousness4 #c4 ,a third postulate1 which is a corollary of the ,christian view of ,god and of sin1 is the ,responsibility of ,man4 ,christian ,ethics treats every man as accountable for his thoughts and actions1 and therefore1 as capable of choosing the good as revealed in ,christ4 ,while not denying the sovereignty of ,god1 nor minimising the mystery of evil1 ,christianity firmly maintains the doctrine of human freedom4 ,an ,ethic would be impossible if1 on the one side1 grace were absolutely #cj irresistible2 or1 on the other1 sin were unalterably necessitated4 ,whatever be the doctrine we formulate on these subjects1 ,ethics demands that what we call freedom be safeguarded4 ,an interesting question emerges at this point as to the possibility1 apart from a knowledge of ,christ1 of choosing the good4 ,difficult as this question is1 and though it was answered by ,augustine and many of the early ,fathers in the negative1 the modern1 and probably the more just view1 is that we cannot hold mankind responsible unless we allow to all men the larger freedom and judge them according to their light and opportunity4 ,if non-,christians are fated to do evil1 then no guilt can be imputed4 ,history shows that a love of goodness has sometimes existed1 and that many isolated acts of purity and kindness have been done1 among people who have known nothing of the historical ,christ4 ,the ,new ,testament recognises degrees of depravity in nations and individuals1 and a measure of noble aspiration and honest endeavour in ordinary human nature4 ,st4 ,paul plainly assumes some knowledge and performance on the part of the heathen1 and though he denounces their immorality in unsparing terms1 he does not affirm that pagan society was so corrupt that it had lost all knowledge of moral good4 ,,iv ,before concluding this chapter some remarks regarding the authority and method of ,christian ,ethics may be not inappropriate4 #a4 ,christian ,ethics is not directly concerned with critical questions as to the genuineness and authenticity of the ,new ,testament writings4 ,it is sufficient for its purpose that these have been generally received by the ,church1 and that they present in the ,person of ,christ the highest embodiment of the law and spirit of the moral life4 ,the writings of the ,new ,testament thus become ethically normative in virtue of their direct reflection of the mind of ,christ and their special receptivity of ,his spirit4 ,their #ca authority1 therefore1 is ,christ's own authority1 and has a value for us as ,his word is reproduced by them4 ,it does not detract from the validity of the ,new ,testament as the reflection of the spirit of ,christ that there are discernible in it distinct signs of development of doctrine1 a manifest growth in clearness and depth of insight and knowledge of the mind of ,jesus4 ,such evidences of advancement are specially noticeable in the application of ,christian principles to the practical problems of life1 such as the questions of slavery1 marriage1 work and property4 ,st4 ,paul does not disclaim the possibility of development1 and he associates himself with those who know in part and wait for fuller light4 ,in common with all ,christians1 ,paul was doubtless conscious of a growing enrichment in spiritual knowledge2 and his later epistles show that he had reached to clearer prospects of ,christ and ,his redemption1 and had obtained a fuller grasp of the world-wide significance of the ,gospel than when he first began to preach4 ,one cannot forget that the battle of criticism is raging to-day around the inner citadel--the very person and words of ,jesus4 ,if it can be shown that the ,gospels contain only very imperfect records of the historical ,jesus1 and that very few sayings of our ,lord can be definitely pronounced genuine1 then1 indeed1 we might have to give up some of the particular passages upon which we have based our conception of truth and duty1 but nothing less than a wholesale denial of the historical existence of ,jesus#g would demand of us a repudiation of the ,christian view of life4 ,the ideals1 motives1 and sentiments--the entire outlook and spirit of life which we associate with ,christ--are now a positive possession of the ,christian consciousness4 ,there is a ,christian view of the world1 a ,christian ,welt-,anschauung1 so living and real in the heart of ,christendom that even though we had no more reliable basis than the ',nine ,foundation ,pillars' which ,schmiedel condescends to leave us1 we should not be wholly deprived of the fundamental principles upon which the ,christian life might be reared4 #cb ,if to these we add the list of 'doubly attested sayings' collected by ,burkitt1#h which even some of the most negative critics have been constrained to allow1 we should at least have a starting-point for the study of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,the most reputable scholars1 however1 of ,germany1 ,america and ,britain acknowledge that no reasonable doubt can be cast upon the general substance and tone of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 compiled1 as they were1 from the ancient ,gospel of ,mark and the source commonly called ',q' 7i4e4 the lost common origin of the non-,markian portions of ,matthew and ,luke74 ,to these we should be disposed to add the ,fourth ,gospel1 which1 though a less primary source1 undoubtedly records acts and sayings of our ,lord attested by one1 who 7whosoever he was7 was in close touch with his ,master's life1 and had drunk deeply of ,his spirit4 ,in the general tone and trend of these writings we find abundant materials for what may be called the ,ethics of ,jesus4 ,it is true1 no sharp line can be drawn between ,his religious and moral teaching4 ,but1 taking ,ethics in its general sense1 as the discussion of the ideals1 virtues1 duties of man1 the relation of man to ,god and to his fellow-men1 it will at once be seen that a very large portion of ,christ's teaching is distinctly ethical4 ,the facts of ,his own earthly existence1 all ,his great miracles1 ,his parables1 and above all1 the ,sermon on the ,mount1 have an immediate bearing upon human conduct4 ,they all deal with character1 and are chiefly illustrations and enforcements of the divine ideal of life and of the value of man as a child of ,god which ,he came to reveal4 ,in the example of ,jesus ,himself we have the best possible illustration of the translation of principles into life4 ,and in so far as we find our highest good embodied in ,him1 ,he becomes for us1 as ,j4 ,s4 ,mill acknowledged1 a kind of personified conscience4 ,no abstract statement of ethical principles can possibly influence life so powerfully as the personal incarnation of these principles2 and if the greatest means to the true life is personal association with the high and noble1 then it need not seem strange #cc that love and admiration for the person of ,christ have as a matter of fact proved the mightiest of historical motives to noble living4 ,however imperfectly we may know the person of ,jesus1 and however fragmentary may be the record of ,his teaching1 one great truth looms out of the darkness--the peerlessness of ,his character and the incomparableness of ,his ideal of life4 ,he comes to us with a message of ,good1 new to man1 based on the great conviction of the ,fatherhood of ,god4 ,the all-dominating faith that a genuine seeking love is at the heart of the universe makes ,jesus certain that the laws of the world are the laws of a loving ,god--laws of life which must be studied1 welcomed1 and heartily obeyed4 #b4 ,the ,christian ideal1 though given in ,christ1 has to be examined1 analysed1 and applied by the very same faculties as are employed in dealing with speculative problems4 ,all science must be furnished with facts1 and its task generally is to shape its materials to definite ends4 ,the scientist does not invent4 ,he does not create4 ,he simply discovers what is already there3 he only moulds into form what is given4 ,in like manner1 the ,christian moralist deals with the revelation of life which has been granted to him partly in the human consciousness1 and partly through the sacred scriptures4 ,the scriptures1 however1 do not offer a systematic presentation of the life of ,christ1 or a formal directory of moral conduct4 ,the data are supplied1 but these data require to be interpreted and unified so as to form a system of ,ethics4 ,the authority to which ,christian ,ethics appeals is not an external oracle which imposes its dictates in a mechanical way4 ,it is an authority embodied in intelligible forms1 and appealing to the rational faculties of man4 ,christian ,ethics1 though deduced from scripture1 is not a cut and dry code of rules prescribed by ,god which man must blindly obey4 ,it has to be thought out1 and intelligently applied to all the circumstances of life4 ,according to the ,protestant view1 at least1 ,ethics is not a stereotyped compendium of precepts which #cd the ,church supplies to its members to save them from thinking4 ,slavish imitation is wholly foreign to the genius of the ,gospel4 ,christ ,himself appeals everywhere to the rational nature of man1 and ,his words are life and spirit only as they are intelligibly apprehended and become by inner conviction the principles of action4 ,authoritative1 then1 as the scriptures are1 and containing as they do the revelation of an unique historical fact1 they do not present a closed or final system of truth4 ,christ has yet many things to say unto us1 and the ,holy ,spirit is continually adding new facts to human experience1 and disclosing richer and fuller manifestations of ,god through history and providence and the personal consciousness of man4 ,no progress in thought or life can indeed be made which is inconsistent with1 or foreign to1 the fundamental facts which centre in ,christ3 and we may be justly suspicious of all advancement in doctrine or morals which does not flow from the initial truths of the ,master's life and teaching4 ,but1 just as progress has been made1 both in the increase of materials of knowledge and in regard to the clearer insight and appreciation of the meaning of ,christian truth1 since the apostles' age1 so we may hope that1 as the ages go on1 we shall acquire a still fuller conception of the kingdom of ,god and a richer apprehension of the divine will4 ,the task and method of ,christian ,ethics will be1 consequently1 the intelligent interpretation and the gradual application to human life and society1 in all their relationships1 of the mind of ,christ under the constant illumination and guidance of the ,divine ,spirit4 #a ,cf4 ,dorner1 ,system der ,christl4 ,ethik1 p4 #dh4 ,see also ,newman ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #dd4 #b ,cf4 ,mackintosh1 ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #aa4 #c ,cf4 ,lidgett1 ,the ,christian ,religion1 pp4 #ajf1 #dhe ff41 where the idea of ,god's nature is admirably developed4 #d ,rashdall1 ,the ,theory of ,good and ,evil1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bab4 #e ,lidgett1 idem4 ,but see ,bosanquet1 ,principle of ,indiv4 and ,value1 p4 #chj ff4 #f ,james i4 #ac1 #ad4 #g ,as1 for example1 that of ,drew's ,christus ,myth4 #h ,cf4 ,gospel ,history and its ,transmission4 #ce ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ethical ,,thought ,,before ,,christ ,apart from the writings of the ,new ,testament1 which are the primary source of ,christian ,ethics1 a comprehensive view of our subject would include some account of the ethical conceptions of ,greece1 ,rome and ,israel1 which were at least contributory to the ,christian idea of the moral life4 ,whatever view we take of its origin1 ,christianity did not come into the world like the goddess ,athene1 without preparation1 but was the product of many factors4 ,the moral problems of to-day cannot be rightly appreciated except in the light of certain concepts which come to us from ancient thought2 and ,greco-,roman philosophy as well as ,hebrew religion have contributed not a little to the form and trend of modern ethical inquiry4 ,all we can attempt is the briefest outline1 first1 of the successive epochs of ,greek and ,roman ,ethics2 and second1 of the leading moral ideas of the ,hebrews as indicating the preparatory stages in the evolution of thought which finds its completion in the ,ethics of ,christianity4 ,i ,before the golden age of ,greek philosophy there was no ,ethics in the strictest sense4 ,philosophy proper occupied itself primarily with ontological questions--questions as to the origin and constitution of the material world4 ,it was only when mythology and religion had lost their hold upon the cultured1 and the traditions of the poets had come to be doubted1 that inquiries as to the meaning of life and conduct arose4 #cf ,the ,sophists may be regarded as the pioneers of ethical science4 ,this body of professional teachers1 who appeared about the fifth century in ,greece1 drew attention to the vagueness of common opinion and began to teach the art of conduct4 ,of these ,protagoras is the most famous1 and to him is attributed the saying1 ',man is the measure of all things4' ,as applied to conduct1 this dictum is commonly interpreted as meaning that good is entirely subjective1 relative to the individual4 ,viewed in this light the saying is one-sided and sceptical1 subversive of all objective morality4 ,but the dictum may be regarded as expressing an important truth1 that the good is personal and must ultimately be the good for man as man1 therefore for all men4 #a4 ,it was ,socrates1 however1 who1 as it was said1 first called philosophy from heaven to the sphere of this earth1 and diverted men's minds from the consideration of natural things to the affairs of human life4 ,he was indeed the first moral philosopher1 inasmuch as that1 while the ,sophists merely talked at large about justice and virtue1 he asked what these terms really meant4 ,living in an age when the old guides of life--law and custom--were losing their hold upon men1 he was compelled to find a substitute for them by reflection upon the meaning and object of existence4 ,for him the source of evil is want of thought1 and his aim is to awaken men to the realisation of what they are1 and what they must seek if they would make the best of their lives4 ,he is the prophet of clear self-consciousness4 ',know thyself' is his motto1 and he maintains that all virtue must be founded on such knowledge4 ,a life without reflection upon the meaning of existence is unworthy of a man4#a ,hence the famous ,socratic dictum1 ',virtue is knowledge4' ,both negatively and positively ,socrates held this principle to be true4 ,for1 on the one hand1 he who is not conscious of the good and does not know in what it consists1 cannot possibly pursue it4 ,and1 on the other hand1 if a man is once alive to his real good1 how can he do otherwise than pursue it8 ,no one therefore does #cg wrong willingly4 ,let a man know what is right1 and he will do it4 ,knowledge of virtue is not1 however1 distinct from self-interest4 ,every one naturally seeks the good simply because he sees that the good is identical with his ultimate happiness4 ,the wise man is the happy man4 ,hence to know oneself is the secret of well-being4 ,let each be master of himself1 knowing what he seeks1 and seeking what he knows--that1 for ,socrates1 is the first principle of ,ethics1 the condition of all moral life4 ,this view is obviously one-sided and essentially individualistic1 excluding all those forms of morality which are pursued unconsciously1 and are due more to the influence of intuitive perception and social habit than to clear and definite knowledge4 ,the merit of ,socrates1 however1 lies in his demand for ethical reflection1 and his insistence upon man not only acting rightly1 but acting from the right motive4 #b4 ,while ,socrates was the first to direct attention to the nature of virtue1 it received from ,plato a more systematic treatment4 ,platonic philosophy may be described as an extension to the universe of the principles which ,socrates applied to the life of the individual4 ,plato attempts to define the end of man by his place in the cosmos2 and by bringing ,ethics into connection with ,metaphysics he asks ,what is the idea of man as a part of universal reality8 ,two main influences combined to produce his conception of virtue4 ,first1 in opposition to the ,heraclitean doctrine of perpetual change1 he contended for something real and permanent4 ,second1 in antagonism to the ,sophistic theory of the conventional origin of the moral law1 he maintained that man's chief end was the good which was fixed in the eternal nature of things1 and did not consist in the pursuit of transient pleasures4 ,hence1 in two respects1 ,plato goes beyond ,socrates4 ,he puts opinion1 which is his name for ordinary consciousness1 between ignorance and knowledge1 ascribing to it a certain measure of truth1 and making it the starting-point for reflection4 ,and further1 he transforms the ,socratic idea of morality1 rejecting the notion that its principle is to be found in a mere calculation of pleasures1 #ch and maintaining that particular goods must be estimated by the good of life as a whole4 ,plato's philosophy rests upon his doctrine of ideas1 which1 as the types of permanent reality1 represent the eternal nature of things2 and the problem of life is to rise from opinion to truth1 from appearance to reality1 and attain to the ideal principle of unity4 ,the highest good ,plato identifies with ,god1 and man's end is ultimately to be found in the knowledge of1 and communion with1 the eternal4 ,the human soul he conceived to be a mixture of two elements4 ,in virtue of its higher spiritual nature it participates in the world of ideas1 the life of ,god3 and in virtue of its lower or animal impulses1 in the corporeal world of decay4 ,these two dissimilar parts are connected by an intermediate element called by ,plato thymos or courage1 implying the emotions or affections of the heart4 ,hence a threefold constitution of the soul is conceived--the rational powers1 the emotional desires1 and the animal passions4 ,if we ask who is the good man8 ,plato answers1 it is the man in whom these three elements are harmonised4 ,on the basis of this psychology ,plato classifies and determines the virtues--adopting the four cardinal virtues of ,greek tradition as the fundamental types of morality4 ,wisdom is the quality1 or condition of all virtue and the crown of the moral life3 courage is the virtue of the emotional part of man2 temperance or moderation1 the virtue of the lower appetites3 while justice is the unity and the principle of the others4 ,virtue is thus no longer identified with knowledge simply4 ,another source of vice besides ignorance is assumed1 viz41 the disorder and conflict of the soul2 and the well-being of man lies in the attainment of a well-ordered and harmonious life4 ,as health is the harmony of the body1 so virtue is the harmony of the soul--a condition of perfection in which every desire is kept in control and every function performs its part with a view to the good of the whole4 ,morality1 however1 does not belong merely to the individual1 but has its perfect realisation in the state in which the three elements of the soul have their #ci counterpart in the threefold rank of society4 ,man is indeed but a type of a larger cosmos1 and it is not as an individual but as a citizen that he finds his station and duties1 and is capable of realising his true life4 ,thus we see how ,plato is led to correct the shortcomings of ,socrates--his abrupt distinction between ignorance and knowledge1 his vagueness as to the meaning of the good1 and his tendency to emphasise the subjective side of virtue and withdraw the individual from the community of which he is essentially a part4 ,but in developing his theory of ideas ,plato has represented the true life of man as consisting in the knowledge of1 and indeed in absorption in1 ,god1 a state to which man can only attain by the suppression of his natural impulses and withdrawal from earthly life3 and though there is not wanting in ,plato's later teaching the higher conception of the transformation of the animal passions1 he is not wholly successful in overcoming the dualism between impulse and reason which besets some of the earlier dialogues4 ,it is a striking proof of the vitality of ,plato that his teaching has affected every form of idealism and has helped to shape the history of religious thought in all ages4 ,not only many of the early ,fathers1 such as ,clement and ,origen1 but the ,neo-,platonists of ,alexandria1 the ,cambridge ,platonists of the seventeenth century1 and also the ,german theologians1 ,baur and ,schleiermacher1 have recognised numerous coincidences between ,christianity and ,platonism3 as ,bishop ,westcott has said1 ',plato points to ,st4 ,john4'#b ,his influence may be detected in some of the greatest ,christian poetry of our own country1 especially in that of ,wordsworth and ,tennyson4 ,for ,plato believes1 in common with the greatest of every age1 in 'that inborn passion for perfection1' that innate though often unconscious yearning after the true1 the beautiful1 the good1 ',those obstinate questionings ,of sense and outward things1' which are the heritage of human nature4 #dj #c4 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle does not essentially differ from that of ,plato4 ,he is the first to treat of morals formally as a science1 which1 however1 in his hands becomes a division of politics4 ,man1 says ,aristotle1 is really a social animal4 ,even more decisively than ,plato1 therefore1 he treats man as a part of society4 ,while in ,plato there is the foreshadowing of the truth that the goal of moral endeavour lies in godlikeness1 with ,aristotle the goal is confined to this life and is conceived simply as the earthly well-being of the moral subject4 ',death1' he declares1 'is the greatest of all evils1 for it is the end4' ,aristotle begins his great work on ,ethics with the discussion of the chief good1 which he declares to be happiness or well-being4 ,but happiness does not consist in sensual pleasure1 nor even in the pursuit of honour1 but in an 'activity of the soul in accordance with reason4'#c ,there are required for this life of right thinking and right doing not only suitable environment but proper instruction4 ,virtue is not virtuous until it is a habit1 and the only way to be virtuous is to practise virtue4 ,to be virtuous a man's conduct must be a law for him1 the regular expression of his will4 ,hence the virtues are habits of deliberate choice1 and not natural endowments4 ,following ,plato1 ,aristotle sees that there is in man a number of impulses struggling for the mastery of the soul1 hence he is led to assume that the natural instincts need guidance and control4 ,moderation is therefore the one chief virtue2 and moral excellence consists in an activity which at every point seeks to strike a 'mean' between two opposite excesses4 ,virtue in general1 then1 may be defined as the observation of the due mean in action4 ,aristotle also follows ,plato in assigning the ideal good to contemplation1 and in exalting the life of reason and speculation above all others4 ,in thus idealising the contemplative life he was but reflecting the spirit of his race4 ,this apotheosis of knowledge infected all ,greek thought1 and found exaggerated expression in the religious absorption of ,neo-,platonism4 #da ,without dwelling further upon the ethical philosophy of ,aristotle1 a defect which at once strikes a modern in regard to his scheme of virtues is that benevolence is not recognised1 except obscurely as a form of magnanimity2 and that1 in general1 the gentler virtues1 so prominent in ,christianity1 have little place in the list4 ,the virtues are chiefly aristocratic4 ,favourable conditions are needed for their cultivation4 ,they are not possible for a slave1 and hardly for those engaged in 'mercenary occupations4'#d ,further1 it may be remarked that habit of itself does not make a man virtuous4 ,morality cannot consist in a mere succession of customary acts4 ',one good custom would corrupt the world1' and habit is frequently a hindrance rather than a help to the moral life4 ,but the main defect of ,aristotle's treatment of virtue is that he tends to regard the passions as irrational1 and he does not see that passions if wholly evil could have no 'mean4' ,reason pervades all the lower appetites of man3 and the instincts and desires1 instead of being treated as elements which must be suppressed1 ought to be regarded rather as powers to be transformed and employed as vehicles of the moral life4 ,at the same time there are not wanting passages in ,aristotle as well as in ,plato which1 instead of emphasising the avoidance of excess1 regard virtue as consisting in complementary elements--the addition of one virtuous characteristic to another--'that balance of contrasted qualities which meets us at every turn in the distinguished personalities of the ,hellenic race1 and which is too often thought of in a merely negative way1 as the avoidance of excess rather than as the highest outcome of an intense and many-sided vitality4'#e #d4 ,after ,aristotle philosophy rapidly declined1 and ,ethics degenerated into popular moralising which manifested itself chiefly in a growing depreciation of good as the end #db of life4 ,the conflicting elements of reason and impulse1 which neither ,plato nor ,aristotle succeeded in harmonising1 gave rise ultimately to two opposite interpretations of the moral life4 ,the ,stoics selected the rational nature as the true guide to an ethical system1 but they gave to it a supremacy so rigid as to threaten the extinction of the affections4 ,the ,epicureans1 on the other hand1 fastening upon the emotions as the measure of truth1 emphasised the happiness of the individual as the chief good--a doctrine which led some of the followers of ,epicurus to justify even sensual enjoyment4 ,it is not necessary to dwell upon the details of ,epicureanism1 for though its description of the 'wise man1' as that of a person who prudently steered a middle course between passion and asceticism1 was one which exercised considerable influence upon the morals of the age1 it is the doctrines of ,stoicism which more especially have come into contact with ,christianity4 ,without discussing the ,stoic conception of the world as interpenetrated and controlled by an inherent spirit1 and the consequent view of life as proceeding from ,god and being in all its parts equally divine1 we may note that the ,stoics1 under the influence of ,platonism1 regarded self-realisation as the true end of man4 ,this idea they expressed in the formula1 ',life according to nature4' ,the wise man is he who seeks to live in all the circumstances of life in agreement with his rational nature4 ,the law of nature is to avoid what is hurtful and strive for what is appropriate4 ,pleasure1 though not the immediate object of man1 arises as an accompaniment of a well-ordered life4 ,pleasure and pain are1 however1 really accidents1 to be met by the wise man with indifference4 ,he alone is free who acknowledges the absolute supremacy of reason and makes himself independent of earthly desires4 ,this life of freedom is open to all3 since all men are members of one body4 ,the slave may be as free as the consul1 and in every station of life each may make the world serve him by living in harmony with it4 ,there is a certain sublimity in the ethics of ,stoicism which has always appealed to noble minds4 ',it inspired1' #dc says ,mr4 ,lecky1 'nearly all the great characters of the early ,roman ,empire1 and nerved every attempt to maintain the dignity and freedom of the human soul4'#f ,but we cannot close our eyes to its defects4 ,divine providence1 though frequently dwelt upon1 signified little more for the ,stoic than destiny or fate4 ,harmony with nature was simply a sense of proud self-sufficiency4 ,stoicism is the glorification of reason1 even to the extent of suppressing all emotion4 ,sin is unreason1 and salvation lies in an external control of the passions--in indifference and apathy begotten of the subordination of desire to reason4 ,the chief merit of ,stoicism is that in an age of moral degeneracy it insisted upon the necessity of integrity in all the conditions of life4 ,in its preference for the joys of the inner life and its scorn of the delights of sense2 in its emphasis upon individual responsibility and duty2 above all1 in its advocacy of a common humanity and its belief in the relation of each human soul to ,god1 ,roman ,stoicism1 as revealed in the writings of a ,seneca1 an ,epictetus1 and a ,marcus ,aurelius1 not only showed how high ,paganism at its best could reach1 but proved in a measure a preparation for ,christianity1 with whose practical truths it had much in common4 ,the affinities between ,stoicism and ,paulinism have been frequently pointed out1 and the similarity in language and thought can scarcely be accounted for by coincidence4 ,there are1 however1 elements in ,stoicism which ,st4 ,paul would never have dreamt of assimilating4 ,the material conception of the world1 the self-conscious pride1 the absence of all sense of sin1 the temper of apathy1 and unnatural suppression of feelings were ideas which could not but rouse the apostle's strongest antagonism4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there were characteristics of a nobler order in ,stoic morality which1 we may well believe1 ,paul found ready to his hand and did not hesitate to incorporate in his teaching4 ,of these we may mention1 the ,immanence of ,god1 the idea of ,wisdom1 the conception of freedom as #dd the prerogative of the individual1 and the notion of brotherhood as the goal of humanity4#g ,the ,roman ,stoics1 notwithstanding their theoretic interest in moral questions1 lived in an ideal world1 and hardly attempted to bring their views into connection with the facts of life4 ,their philosophy was a refuge from the evil around them rather than an effort to remove it4 ,they seek to overcome the world by being indifferent to it4 ,in ,neo-,platonism--the last of the ,greek schools of philosophy--this tendency to withdraw from life and its problems becomes still more marked4 ,absorption in ,god is the goal of existence and the essence of religion4 ',man is left alone with ,god without any world to mediate between them1 and in the ecstatic vision of the ,absolute the light of reason is extinguished4'#h ,meagre as our sketch of ancient thought has necessarily been1 it is perhaps enough to show that the debt of religion to ,greek and ,roman ,ethics is incalculable4 ,it lifted man above vague wonder1 and gave him courage to define his relation to existence4 ,it caused him to ask questions of experience1 and awakened him to the value of life and the meaning of freedom1 duty1 and good4 ,finally1 it brought into view those contrasted aims of life and society which find their solution in the ,christian ideal4#i ,,ii ,christianity stands in the closest relation with ,hebrew religion4 ,much as the philosophy of ,greece and ,rome have contributed to ,christendom1 there is no such intimate relation between them as that which connects ,christian ,ethics with the morality of ,israel4 ,christ ,himself1 and still more the ,apostle ,paul1 assumed as a substratum of #de their teaching the revelation which had been granted to the ,jews4 ,the moral and religious doctrines comprehended under the designation of the 'law' served1 as the apostle said1 as a paidagogos or usher whose function it was to lead them to the school of ,christ4 ,at the outset we are impressed by the fact that the ,ethics of ,judaeism was inseparable from its religion4 ,moral obligations were conceived as divine commands1 and the moral law as a revelation of the divine will4 ,at first ,jehovah was simply a tribal deity1 but gradually this restricted view gave place to the wider conception of ,god as the sovereign of all men4 ,the divine commandment is the criterion and measure of man's obedience4 ,evil1 while it has its source and head in a hostile but subsidiary power1 consists in violation of ,jehovah's will4 ,there are three main channels of ,hebrew revelation1 commonly known as the ,law1 the ,prophecy1 and ,poetry of ,old ,testament4 #a4 ,,law 7#a7 ,the ,mosaic ,legislation centering in the ,decalogue#aj is the first stage of ,old ,testament ,ethic4 ,the ten commandments1 whether derived from ,mosaic enactment or representing a later summary of duty1 hold a supreme and formative place in the teaching of the ,old ,testament4 ,all1 not even excepting the fourth1 are purely moral requirements4 ,they are1 however1 largely negative2 the fifth commandment only rising to positive duty4 ,they are also merely external1 regulative of outward conduct4 ,the sixth and seventh protect the rights of persons1 while the eighth guards outward property4 ,though these laws may be shown to have their roots in the moral consciousness of mankind1 they were at first restricted by ,israel in their scope and practice to its own tribes4 7#b7 ,the ,civil laws present a second factor in the ethical education of ,israel4 ,the ',book of the ,covenant'#aa reveals a certain advancement in political legislation4 ,still the #df hard and legal enactments of retaliation--',an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth'--disclose a barbarous conception of right4 ,alongside of these primitive laws must be set those of a more humane nature--laws with regard to release1 the permission of gleaning1 the privileges of the year of jubilee4 7#c7 ,the ,ceremonial laws embody a third element in the moral life of ,israel4 ,these had to do chiefly with commands and prohibitions relative to personal conduct--',meats and drinks and diverse washings'2 and with sacrifices and forms of ritual worship4#ab ,with regard to the moral value of the commandments two opposite errors are to be avoided4 ,we must not refuse to recognise in the ,old ,testament the record of a true1 if elementary and imperfect1 revelation of ,god4 ,but also we must beware of exalting the commandments of the ,old ,dispensation to the level of those of the ,new2 and thus misunderstanding the nature and relation of both4 ,the ,christian faith is in a sense the development of ,judaeism1 though it is infinitely more4 ,the commandments of ,moses1 in so far as they have their roots in the constitution of man1 have not been superseded1 but taken up and spiritualised by the ,ethic of the ,gospel4 #b4 ,,prophecy ,the dominant factor of ,old ,testament ,ethics lay in the influence exerted by the prophets4 ,they1 and not the priests1 are the great moralists of ,israel4 ,the prophets were speakers for ,god1 the interpreters of ,his will4 ,they were the moral guides of the people1 the champions of integrity in political life1 not less than witnesses for individual purity4#ac ,we may sum up the ethical significance of the ,hebrew prophets in three features4 7#a7 ,they were preachers of personal righteousness4 ,in #dg times of falsehood and hypocrisy they were witnesses for integrity and truth1 upholding the personal virtues of justice1 sincerity1 and mercy against the idolatry and formalism of the priesthood4 ',what doth the ,lord require of thee1' said ,micah1 'but to do justly1 to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god4'#ad ,in the same strain ,isaiah exclaimed1 ',bring no more vain oblations1 but wash you and make you clean4'#ae ,and so also ,habakkuk has affirmed in words which became the keynote of ,paul's theology and the watchword of the ,reformation--',the just shall live by faith4'#af 7#b7 ,they were the advocates of the rights of man1 of equity and justice between man and man4 ,they denounce the tyranny of kings1 and the luxury of the nobles4 ,they protest against the oppression of the poor and befriend the toilers of the cities4 ,they proclaim the worth of man as man4 ,they reveal ,jehovah as the ,god of the common people1 and seek to mitigate the burdens which lie upon the enslaved and down-trodden4 7#c7 ,they were the apostles of ,hope4 ,not only did they seek to lift their fellow-men above their present calamities1 but they proclaimed a message of peace and triumph which was to be evolved out of trouble4 ,a great promise gradually loomed on the horizon1 and hope began to centre in an anointed ,deliverer4 ,the ,hebrew prophets were not probably conscious of the full significance of their own predictions4 ,like all true poets1 they uttered greater things than they knew4 ,the prophet who most clearly outlines this truth is the second ,isaiah4 ,as he looks down the ages he sees that healing is to be brought about through suffering1 the suffering of a ,sinless one4 ,upon this mysterious figure who is to rise up in the latter days is to be laid the burden of humanity4 ,no other1 not even ,st4 ,paul himself1 has grasped so clearly the great secret of atonement or given so touching a picture of the power of vicarious suffering as this unknown prophet of ,israel4 #dh #c4 ,,the ,,poetical ,,books ,passing from the prophets to the poets of ,israel--and especially to the book of ,psalms--the devotional manual of the people1 reflecting the moral and religious life of the nation at the various stages of its development--we find the same exalted character of ,god as a ,god of ,righteousness1 hating evil and jealous for devotion1 the same profound sense of sin and the same high vocation of man4 ,the ,hebrew nation was essentially a poetic people1#ag and their literature is full of poetry4 ,but poetry is not systematic4 ,it is not safe1 therefore1 to deduce particular tenets of faith or moral principles from passages which glow with intensity of feeling4 ,but if a nation's character is revealed in its songs1 the deep spirituality and high moral tone of ,israel are clearly reflected in that body of religious poetry which extends over a period of a thousand years1 from ,david to the ,maccabean age4 ,it is at once national and personal1 and is a wonderful record of the human heart in its various moods and yearnings4 ,underlying all true poetry there is a philosophy of life4 ,god1 for the ,hebrew psalmist1 is the one pervading presence4 ,he is not a mere impersonation of the powers of nature1 but a personal ,being1 righteous and merciful1 with whom man stands in the closest relations4 ,holy and awful1 indeed1 hating iniquity and exacting punishment upon the wicked1 ,he is also tender and pitiful--a ,father of the oppressed1 who bears their burdens1 forgives their iniquities1 and crowns them with tender mercy4#ah ,all nature speaks to the ,hebrew of ,god4 ,he is no far-off creator1 but immanent in all ,his works4#ai ,he presides over mankind1 and provides for the manifold wants of his creatures4 ,it is this thought which gives unity to the nation1 and binds the tribes into a common brotherhood4 ,god is their personal friend4 ,in war and peace1 in worship and labour1 at home and in exile1 it is to ,jehovah they look #di for strength and light and joy4 ,he is their ,shepherd and ,redeemer1 under whose wings they trust4 ,corresponding to this sublime faith1 the virtues of obedience and fidelity are dwelt upon1 while the ideal of personal righteousness and purity is constantly held forth4 ,it is no doubt largely temporal blessings which the psalmists emphasise1 and the rewards of integrity are chiefly those of material and earthly prosperity4 ,the hope of the future life is nowhere clearly expressed in the ,old ,testament1 and while in the ,psalter here and there a dim yearning for a future with ,god breaks forth1 hardly any of these poems illumine the destiny of man beyond the grave4 ,the hope of ,israel was limited mostly to this earth4 ,the land beyond the shadows does not come within their purview4 ,like a child1 the psalmist is content to know that his divine ,father is near him here and now4 ,when exactly the larger hope emerged we cannot say4 ,but gradually1 with the breaking up of the national life and under the pressure of suffering1 a clearer vision dawned4 ,with the limitations named1 it is a sublime outlook upon life and a high-toned morality which the ,psalter discloses4 ,poetry1 indeed1 idealises1 and no doubt the ,israelites did not always live up to their aspirations2 but men who could give utterance to a faith so clear1 to a penitence so deep1 and to longings so lofty and spiritual as these ,psalms contain are not the least among the heralds of the kingdom of ,christ4 ,we cannot enlarge upon the ethical ideas of the other writings of the ,old ,testament1 the books of ,wisdom1 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and ,job4 ,their teaching1 while not particularly lofty1 is generally healthy and practical1 consisting of homely commonplaces and shrewd observations upon life and conduct4 ,the motives appealed to are not always the highest1 and frequently have regard only to earthly prosperity and worldly policy4 ,it must not1 however1 be overlooked that moral practice is usually allied with the fear of ,god1 and the right choice of wisdom is represented as the dictate of piety not less than the sanction of prudence4 ,the writers of the ,wisdom literature are the #ej humanists of their age4 ,as distinguished from the idealism of the prophets1 they are realists who look at life in a somewhat utilitarian way4 ,with the prophets1 however1 they are at one in regarding the inferiority of ceremonial to obedience and sincerity4 ,god is the ruler of the world1 and man's task is to live in obedience to ,him4 ,what ,god requires is correct outward behaviour1 self-restraint1 and consideration of others4 ,in estimating the ,ethics of ,israel the fact that it was a preparatory stage in the revelation of ,god's will must not be overlooked4 ,we are not surprised1 therefore1 that1 judged by the absolute standard of the ,new ,testament1 the morality of the ,old ,testament must be pronounced imperfect4 ,in two respects at least1 in intent and extent1 it is deficient4 7#a7 ,it is lacking in ,depth4 ,there is a tendency to dwell upon the sufficiency of external acts rather than the necessity of inward disposition4 ,at the same time1 in the ,psalter and prophecy inward purity is recognised4#bj ,further1 the character of ,jehovah is sometimes presented in a repellent aspect2 as in the threatenings of the second commandment2 the treatment of the children of ,achan and the ,sons of ,korah2 the seeming injustice of ,god1 implied in the complaint of ,moses1 and the protests of ,abraham and ,david4 ,but again there are not wanting more kindly features of the ,divine ,being2 and the ,fatherhood of ,god finds frequent expression4 ,though the penal code is severe1 a gentler spirit shines through many of its provisions1 and protection is afforded to the wage-earner1 the dependent1 and the poor2 while the care of slaves1 foreigners1 and even lower animals is not overlooked4#ba ,again1 it has been noticed that the motives to which the ,old ,testament appeals are often mercenary4 ,material prosperity plays an important part as an inducement to well-doing4 ,the good which the pious patriarch or royal potentate contemplates is something which is calculated to enrich himself or advance his people4 ,but here we must not forget that #ea ,god's revelation is progressive1 and ,his dealing with man educative4 ,there is naturally a certain accommodation of the divine law to the various stages of the moral apprehension of the ,jewish people4 ,gradually the nation is being carried forward by the promise of material benefits to the deeper and more inward appreciation of spiritual blessings4 7#b7 ,it is lacking in ,scope4 ,in regard to universality the ,hebrew ideal1 it must be acknowledged1 is deficient4 ,god is usually represented as the ,god of ,israel alone1 and not as the ,god of all men1 and the obligations of veracity1 honesty1 and mercy are confined within the limits of the nation4 ,it is true that a prominent commandment given to ,israel and endorsed by our ,lord runs thus3 ',thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4'#bb ,but the extent of the obligation seems to be restricted by the context3 ',thou shalt not avenge nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people4' ,it is contended that the word translated 'neighbour' bears a wider import than the ,english term1 and is really applicable to any person4 ,the larger idea is expressed in vv4 #cc1 #cd1 where the word 'stranger' or 'foreigner' is substituted for neighbour4 ,and there are passages in which the stranger is regarded as the special client of ,god1 and is enjoined to look to ,him for protection4 ,the ,jews were not in practice1 however1 faithful to the humanitarianism of their law1 and1 in keeping with other nations1 showed a tendency to restrict divine favours within the limits of their own land1 and to maintain throughout their history an attitude of aloofness and repellent isolation which even amounted to intolerance towards other races4 ,in early days1 however1 the obligation of hospitality was regarded as sacred4#bc ,nor must we forget that1 whatever may have been the ,jewish practice1 the promise enshrined in their revelation involves the unity of mankind2 while several of the prophecies and ,psalms look forward to a world-wide blessing4#bd ,in ,isaiah we even read1 ',god of the whole earth shall ,he be called4'#be #eb ,the stream of preparation for ,christianity thus flowed steadily through three channels1 the ,greek1 the ,roman1 and the ,jew4 ,each contributed something to the fullness of the time4 ,the problem of ,greek civilisation was the problem of freedom1 the realisation of self-dependence and self-determination4 ,in the pursuit of these ends ,greece garnered conclusions which are the undying possessions of the world4 ,if to the graces of self-abasement1 meekness and charity it remained a stranger1 it gave a new worth to the individual1 and showed that without the virtues of wisdom1 courage1 steadfastness and justice man could not attain to moral character4 ,the ,roman's gift was unbending devotion to duty4 ,with a genius for rule he forced men into one polity2 and by levelling material barriers he enabled the nations to commune1 and made a highway for the message of freedom and brotherhood4 ,but1 intoxicated with material glory1 he became blind to spiritual good1 and in his universal toleration he emptied all faiths of their content1 driving the masses to superstition1 and the few who yearned for a higher life to withdrawal from the world4 ,the ,jewish contribution was righteousness4 ,not specially distinguished by intellectual powers1 nor gifted in political enterprise1 his endowment was spiritual insight1 and by his dispersion throughout the world he made others the sharers of his inheritance4 ,but his tendency was to keep his privilege to himself1 or so to load it with legal restrictions as to bar its acceptance for strangers2 and in his pride of isolation he failed to recognise his ,deliverer when ,he came4 ,thus1 negatively and positively1 by failure and by partial attainment1 the world was prepared for ,him who was the desire of all nations4 ,in ,christ were gathered up the wisdom of the ,greek1 the courage of the ,roman1 the righteousness of the ,jew2 and ,he who came not to destroy but to fulfil at once interpreted and satisfied the longings of the ages4 #a ,apologia1 pp4 #ch-i4 #b ,cf4 ,adam1 ,vitality of ,platonism1 p4 #c4 #c ,nic4 ,ethics1 bk4 i4 chap4 #e4 #d histharnikai ergasiai1 ,arist41 ,politics1 iii4 ',there is nothing common between a master and his slave1' ,nic4 ,ethics1 viii4 #e ,butcher1 ,harvard ,lectures on ,greek ,subjects1 quoted by ,barbour1 ,philos4 ,study of ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #aa4 ,cf4 also ,burnet1 ,ethics of ,aristotle1 p4 #gc4 ',the mean is really the true nature of the soul when fully developed4' #f ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,morals1 vol4 i4 chap4 ii4 #g ,see ,author's ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul for further discussion of relation of ,paul to ,stoics4 #h ,cf4 ,e4 ,caird1 ,evolution of ,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers1 vol4 i4 p4 #dh4 #i ,cf4 ,caird1 idem4 ,pfleiderer1 ,vorbereitung des ,christentums in der ,griech4 ,philos42 ,wenley1 ,preparation for ,christianity4 #aj ,exod4 xx42 ,deut4 v4 #aa ,ex4 xx4-xxiii4 #ab ,amos v4 #be2 ,hos4 vi4 #f2 ,isa4 i4 #aa-ac4 #ac ,cf4 ,wallace1 ,lectures and ,essays on ,natural ,theol4 and ,ethics1 p4 #ahc4 #ad ,micah vi4 #h4 #ae ,isa4 i4 #ac-ag2 ,micah vi4 #g4 #af ,hab4 ii4 #d2 cf4 ,rom4 i4 #ag2 ,gal4 iii4 #b4 #ag ,though ,houston ,chamberlain1 in his recent work1 ,the ,foundations of the ,nineteenth ,century1 maintains that they were 'a most prosaic1 materialistic people1 without any real sense of poetry4' #ah ,ps4 #ea4 #ai ,ps4 #ai4 #bj ,ps4 #ea2 ,isa4 #a4 #ba ,deut4 xxiv4 #ad1 #ae2 ,jer4 xxii4 #ac-ag2 ,matt4 iii #e2 ,deut4 xxv4 #d4 #bb ,lev4 xix4 #ah4 #bc ,gen4 xviii4 xix4 #bd ,isa4 lxi42 ,ps4 xxii4 #bg2 xlviii4 #b-aj2 lxxxvii4 #be ,isa4 liv4 #e4 #ec ,,section ,b ,,personality #ee ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,estimate ,,of ,,man ,having thus far laid the foundations of our study by a discussion of its presuppositions and sources1 we are now prepared to consider man as the personal subject of the new life4 ,the spirit of ,god which takes hold of man and renews his life must not be conceived as a foreign power breaking the continuity of consciousness4 ,the natural is the basis of the supernatural4 ,it is not a new personality which is created2 it is the old that is transformed and completed4 ,if there was not already implicit in man that which predisposed him for the higher life1 a consciousness to which the spirit could appeal1 then ,christianity would be simply a mechanical or magical influence without ethical significance and having no relation to the past history of the individual4 ,but that is not the teaching of our ,lord or of ,his apostles4 ,we are bound1 therefore1 to assume a certain substratum of powers1 physical1 mental and moral1 as constituting the raw material of which the new personality is formed4 ,the spirit of ,god does not quench the natural faculties of man1 but works through and upon them1 raising them to a higher value4#a ,i4 ,but before proceeding to a consideration of these elements of human consciousness to which ,christianity appeals1 we must glance at two opposite theories of human nature1 either of which1 if the complete view of man1 would be inimical to ,christianity4#b #ef #a4 ,the first view is that man by nature is morally good4 ,his natural impulses are from birth wholly virtuous1 and require only to be left to their own operation to issue in a life of perfection4 ,those who favour this contention claim the support of ,scripture4 ,not only does the whole tone of the ,bible imply the inherent goodness of primitive man1 but many texts both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments suggest that ,god made man upright4#c ,among the ,greeks1 and especially the ,stoics1 this view prevailed4 ,all nature was regarded as the creation of perfect reason1 and the primitive state as one of uncorrupted innocence4 ,pelagius espoused this doctrine1 and it continued to influence dogmatic theology not only in the form of ,semi-,pelagianism1 but even as modifying the severer tenets of ,augustine4 ,the theory received fresh importance during the revolutionary movement of the eighteenth century1 and found a strong exponent in ,rousseau4 ',let us sweep away all conventions and institutions of man's making and get back to the simplicity of a primitive age4' ,the man of nature is guileless1 and his natural instincts would preserve him in uncorrupted purity if they were not perverted by the artificial usages of society4 ,so profoundly did this theory dominate the thoughts of men that its influence may be detected not only in the political fanaticism which found expression in the ,french ,revolution1 but also in the practical views of the ,protestant ,church acting as a deterrent to missionary effort4#d ,this view of human nature1 though not perhaps formally stated1 finds expression in much of the literature of the present day4 ,professor ,james cites ,theodore ,parker and other leaders of the liberal movement in ,new ,england of last century as representatives of the tendency4#e ,these writers do not wholly ignore moral effect1 but they make light of sin1 and regard it not as something positive1 but merely as a stage in the development of man4 #eg #b4 ,the other theory of human nature goes to the opposite extreme4 ,man by nature is utterly depraved1 and his natural instincts are wholly bad4 ,those who take this view also appeal to ,scripture3 ',man is shapen in iniquity and conceived in sin4' ,many passages in the ,new ,testament1 and especially in the writings of ,st4 ,paul1 seem to emphasise the utter degradation of man4 ,it was not1 however1 until the time of ,augustine that this idea of innate depravity was formulated into a doctrine4 ,the ,augustinean dogma has coloured all later theology4 ,in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 even in such a writer as ,pascal1 and in ,protestantism1 under the influence of ,calvin1 the complete corruption of man's nature has been depicted in the blackest hues4 ,these theories of human nature represent aspects of truth1 and are false only in their isolation4 ,the doctrine that man is innocent by nature is not in agreement with history4 ,nowhere is the noble savage to be found4 ,the primitive man exhibits the same tendencies as his more civilised neighbour1 and his animal passions are indulged without control of reason or consideration for others4 ,indeed1 ,hobbes's view of early society as a state of war and rapacity is much truer to fact than ,rousseau's4 ,the noble savage is simply a fiction of the imagination1 an abstraction obtained by withdrawing him from all social environment4 ,but even could we conceive of a human being kept from infancy in isolation1 he would not fulfil the true idea of virtue1 but would simply develop into a negative creature1 a mutilated being bereft of all that constitutes our notion of humanity4 ,such experiences as are possible only in society--all forms of goodness as suggested by such words as 'love1' 'sympathy1' 'service'--would never emerge at all4 ,the native instincts of man are simply potencies or capacities for morality2 they must have a life of opportunity for their evolution and exercise4 ,the abstract self prior to and apart from all objective experience is an illusion4 ,it is only in relation to a world of moral beings that the moral life becomes possible for man4 ,the innocence which the advocates of this theory contend for is #eh something not unlike the non-rational existence of the animal4 ,it is true that the brute is not immoral1 but neither is it moral4 ,the whole significance of the passions as they exist in man lies in the fact that they are not purely animal1 but1 since they belong to man1 are always impregnated with reason4 ,it is reason that gives to them their moral worth1 and it is because man must always put his self into every desire or impulse that it becomes the instrument either of virtue or of vice4#f ,but if the theory of primitive purity is untenable1 not less so is that of innate depravity4 ,here1 also1 its advocates are not consistent with themselves4 ,even the systems of theology derived from ,augustine do not contend that man was created with an evil propensity4 ,his sin was the result of an historical catastrophe4 ,in his paradisiacal condition man is conceived as possessing a nobility and innocence of nature far beyond that even which ,rousseau depicted4 ,milton1 in spite of his ,calvinistic puritanism1 has painted a picture of man's ideal innocence which for idyllic charm is unequalled in literature4#g ,nor does historical inquiry bear out the theory of the utter depravity of man4 ,the latest anthropological research into the condition of primitive man suggests rather that even the lowest forms of savage life are not without some dim consciousness of a higher power and some latent capacity for good4#h ,finally1 these writers are not more successful when they claim the support of the ,bible4 ,not only are there many examples of virtue in patriarchal times1 but1 as we have seen1 there are not a few texts which imply the natural goodness of man4 ,our ,lord repeatedly assumes the affinity with goodness of those who had not hitherto come into contact with the ,gospel1 as in the case of ,jairus1 the rich young ruler1 and the ,syrophenician woman4 ,it has been affirmed by ,wernle#i that the ,apostle ,paul in the interests of salvation grossly #ei exaggerates the condition of the natural man4 ',he violently extinguished every other light in the world so that ,jesus might shine in it alone4' ,but this surely is a misstatement4 ,it is true that no more scathing denunciation of sinful human nature has ever been presented than the account of heathen immorality to be found in the first chapter of ,romans4 ,yet the apostle does not actually affirm1 nor even imply1 that pagan society was so utterly corrupt that it had lost all knowledge of moral good4 ,though so bad as to be beyond hope of recovery by natural effort1 it was not so bad as to have quenched in utter darkness the light which lighteth every man4 #c4 ,christianity1 while acknowledging the partial truth of both of these theories1 reconciles them4 ,if1 on the one hand1 man were innately good and could of himself attain to righteousness1 there would be no need of a gospel of renewal4 ,but history and experience alike show that that is not the case4 ,if1 on the other hand1 man were wholly bad1 had no susceptibility for virtue and truth1 then there would be nothing in him1 as we have seen1 which could respond to the ,christian appeal4#aj ,christianity alone offers an answer to the question in which ,pascal presents the great antithesis of human nature3 ',if man was not made for ,god1 how is it that he can be happy only in ,god8 ,and if he is made for ,god1 how is he so opposite to ,god8'#aa ,however1 then1 we may account for the presence of evil in human nature1 a true view of ,christianity involves the conception of a latent spiritual element in man1 a capacity for goodness to which his whole being points4 ,matter itself may be said not merely to exist for spirit1 but to have within it already the potency of the higher forms of life2 and just as nature is making towards humanity1 and in humanity at last finds itself2 as ',striving to be man1 the worm ,mounts through all the spires of form1'#ac #fj so man1 even in his most primitive state1 has within him the promise of higher things4 ,no theory of his origin can interfere with the assumption that he belongs to a moral ,sphere1 and is capable of a life which is shaping itself to spiritual ends4 ,whatever be man's past history and evolution1 he has from the beginning been made in ,god's image1 and bears the divine impress in all the lineaments of body and soul4 ,his degradation cannot wholly obliterate his inherent nobility1 and indeed his actual corruption bears witness to his possible holiness4 ,granting the hypothesis of evolution1 matter even in its crudest beginnings contains potentially all the rich variety of the natural and spiritual life4 ,the reality of a growing thing lies in its highest form of being4 ,in the light of the last we explain the first4 ,if the universe is1 as science pronounces1 an organic totality which is ever converting its promise into actuality1 then 'the ultimate interpretation even of the lowest existence of the world1 cannot be given except on principles which are adequate to explain the highest4'#ac ,christian morality is therefore nothing else than the morality prepared from all eternity1 and is but the highest realisation of that which man even at his lowest has ever been1 though unconsciously1 striving after4 ,all that is best and highest in man1 all that he is capable of yet becoming1 has really existed within him from the very first1 just as the flower and leaf and fruit are contained implicitly in the seedling4 ,this is the ,pauline view of human nature4 ,jesus ,christ1 according to the apostle1 is the ,end and ,consummation of the whole creation4 ,everywhere in all men there is a capacity for ,christ4 ,whatever be his origin1 man comes upon the stage of being bearing within him a great and far-reaching destiny4 ,there is in him1 as ,browning says1 'a tendency to ,god4' ,he is not simply what he is now1 but all that he is yet to be4 ,,ii4 ,assuming1 then1 the inherent spirituality of man1 we may now proceed to examine his moral consciousness with a view to seeing how its various constituents form what we have called the substratum of the ,christian life4 #fa #a4 ,we must guard against seeming to adopt the old and discredited psychology which divides man into a number of separate and independent faculties4 ,man is not made like a machine1 of a number of adjusted parts4 ,he is a unity1 a living organism1 in which every part has something of all the others2 and all together1 animated by one spirit1 constitute a ,living whole which we call personality4 ,while the ,bible is rich in terms denoting the different constituents of man1 neither the ,old ,testament nor the ,new regards human nature as a plurality of powers4 ,a bind of unity or hierarchy of the natural faculties is assumed1 and amid all the difference of function and variety of operation it is undeniable that the ,new ,testament writers generally1 and particularly ,st4 ,paul1 presuppose a unity of consciousness--a single ego1 or ,soul4 ,it is unnecessary to discuss the question1 much debated by ,biblical psychologists1 as to whether the apostle recognises a threefold or a twofold division of man4#ad ,our view is that he recognised only a twofold division1 body and soul1 which1 however1 he always regarded as constituting a unity1 the body itself being psychical or interpenetrated with spirit1 and the spirit always acting upon and working through the physical powers4 ,man is a unique phenomenon in the world4 ,even on his physical side he is not a piece of dead matter1 but is instinct through and through with spirit4 ,and on his psychical side he is not an unsubstantial wraith1 but a being inconceivable apart from outward embodiment4 ,perhaps the most general term which we may adopt is psyche or ,soul--the living self or vital and animating principle which is at once the seat of all bodily sensation and the source of the higher cognitive faculties4 #b4 ,the fact of ethical interest from which we must proceed is that man1 in virtue of his spiritual nature1 is akin to ,god1 and participates in the three great elements of the divine ,personality--thought1 love and will4#ae ,personality has been called 'the culminating fact of the #fb universe4' ,and it is the task of man to realise his true personality--to fulfil the law of his highest self4 ,in this work he has to harmonise and bring to the unity of his personal life1 by means of one dominating force1 the various elements of his nature--his sensuous1 emotional1 and rational powers4 ,by the constitution of his being he belongs to a larger world1 and when he is true to himself he is ever reaching out towards it4 ,from the very beginning of life1 and even in the lowest phases of his nature he has within him the potency of the divine4 ,he carries the infinite in his soul1 and by reason of his very existence shares the life of ,god4 ,the value of his soul in this sense is repeatedly emphasised in scripture4 ,in our ,lord's teaching it is perhaps the most distinctive note4 ,the soul1 or self-conscious spiritual ego1 is spoken of as capable of being 'acquired' or 'lost4'#af ,it is acquired or possessed when a man seeks to regain the image in which he was created4 ,it is lost when he refuses to respond to those spiritual influences by which ,christ besets him1 and by means of which the soul is moulded into the likeness of ,god4 #c4 ,a full presentation of this subject would involve a reference even to the physical powers which form an integral part of man and witness to his eternal destiny4 7#a7 ,the very body is to be redeemed and sanctified1 and made an instrument of the new life in ,christ4 ,the extremes of asceticism and self-indulgence1 both of which found advocates in ,greek philosophy and even in the early ,church1 have no countenance in scripture4 ,evil does not reside in the flesh1 as the ,greeks held1 but in the will which uses the flesh for its base ends4 ,not mutilation but transformation1 not suppression but consecration is the ,christian ideal4 ,the natural is the basis of the spiritual4 ,man is the ,temple of ,god1 every part of which is sacred4 ,christ claims to be ,king of the body as of every other domain of life4 ,the secret of spiritual progress does not consist in the unflinching destruction of the flesh1 but in its firm but kindly discipline for loyal service4 ,it is not1 therefore1 by #fc leaving the body behind but by taking it up into our higher self that we become spiritual4 ,as ,browning says1 ',let us cry all good things ,are ours1 nor soul helps flesh more now ,than flesh helps soul4' ,without dwelling further upon the physical elements of man1 there are three constituents or functions of personality prominent in the ,new ,testament which claim our consideration1 reason1 conscience and will4 ,it is just because man possesses1 or is mind1 conscience and will1 that he is capable of responding to the life which ,christ offers1 and of sharing in the divine character which he reveals4 7#b7 ,the term nous1 or reason1 is of frequent occurrence in the ,new ,testament4 ,christianity highly honours the intellectual powers of man and accords to the mind an important rle in apprehending and entering into the thoughts and purposes of ,god4 ',thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with all thy mind1' says ,jesus4 ,many are disposed to think that the exercise of faith1 the immediate organ of spiritual apprehension1 is checked by the interference of reason4 ,but so far from faith and reason being opposed1 not only are they necessary to each other1 but in all real faith there is an element of reason4 ,in all religious feeling1 as in morality1 art1 and other spheres of human activity1 there is the underlying element of reason which is the characteristic of all the activities of a self-conscious intelligence4 ,to endeavour to elicit that element1 to infuse into the spontaneous and unsifted conceptions of religious experience the objective clearness1 necessity and organic unity of thought--is the legitimate aim of science1 in religion as in other spheres4 ,it would be strange if in the highest of all provinces of human experience intelligence must renounce her claim4#ag ,the ,ritschlian value-judgment theory in its disparagement of philosophy is practically a dethronement of reason4 ,and the protest of ,pragmatism and the voluntarists #fd generally against what they term ',intellectualism'#ah and their distrust of the logical faculty1 are virtually an avowal of despair and a resort to agnosticism1 if not to scepticism4 ,if we are to renounce the quest for objective truth1 and accept 'those ideas only which we can assimilate1 validate1 corroborate1'#ai those ideas in short which are 'practically useful in guiding us to desirable issues1' then it would seem we are committed to a world of subjective caprice and confusion and must give up the belief in a rational view of the universe4 7#c7 ,in spite of the wonderful suggestiveness of ,m4 ,bergson's philosophy1 we are unable to accept the distinction which that writer draws between intuition and intelligence1 in which he seems to imply that intuition is the higher of the two activities4 ,intelligence1 according to this writer1 is at home exclusively in spatial considerations1 in solids1 in geometry1 but it is to be repelled as a foreign element when it comes to deal with life4 ,bergson would exclude rational thought and intelligence from life1 creation1 and initiative4 ,the clearest evidence of intuition is in the works of great artists4 ',what is implied is that in artistic creation1 in the work of genius and imagination1 we have pure novelty issuing from no premeditated or rational idea1 but simply pure irrationality and unaccountableness4'#bj ,the work of art cannot be predicated2 it is beyond reason1 as life is beyond logic and law4#ba ,but so far from finding life unintelligible1 it would be nearer the truth to say that man's reason can1 strictly speaking1 understand nothing else4#bb ',instinct finds1' says ,bergson1 'but does not search4 ,reason searches but cannot find4'#bc ',but1' adds ,professor ,dewey1 'what we find is meaningless save as measured by searching1 and so instincts and passions must be elevated into reason4'#bd ,in the lower creatures instinct does the #fe work of reason--sufficiently for the simple conditions in which the animal lives4 ,and in the earlier stages of human life instinct plays an important part4 ,but when man1 both as an individual and as humanity1 advances to a more complex life1 instinct is unequal to the new task confronting him4 ,we cannot be content to be guided by instinct4 ,reason asserts itself and seeks to permeate all our experiences1 and give unity and purpose to all our thoughts and acts4 ,the recent disparagement of intellectualism is probably a reaction against the extreme absolutism of ,german idealism which1 beginning with ,kant1 found fullest expression in ,fichte1 ,schelling and ,hegel4 ,but the true way to meet exclusive rationalism is not to discredit the function of mind1 but to give to it a larger domain of experience4 ,we do not exalt faith by emptying it of all intellectual content and reducing it to mere subjective feeling2 nor do we explain genius by ascribing its acts to blind1 unthinking impulse4 ',the real is the rational1' says ,hegel4 ,truth1 in other words1 presupposes a rational universe which we1 as rational beings1 must assume in all our thought and effort4 ,to set up faith against reason1 or intuition against intelligence is to set the mind against itself4 ,we cannot set up an order of facts1 as ,professor ,james would have us do1 outside the intellectual realm2 for what does not fall within our experience can have for us no meaning1 and what for us has no meaning cannot be an object of faith4 ,an ineradicable belief in the rationality of the world is the ultimate basis of all art1 morality and religion4 ,to rest in mere intuition or emotion and not to seek objective truth would be for man to renounce his true prerogative and to open the door for all kinds of superstition and caprice4 ,,iii4 ,in the truest sense it may be claimed that this is the teaching of ,christianity4 ,when ,christ says that we are to love ,god with our minds ,he seems to imply that there is such a thing as intelligent affection4 ,the distinctive feature of our ,lord's claim is that ,god is not satisfied when ,his creatures render a merely implicit obedience2 ,he #ff desires also the enthusiastic use of their intellect1 intent on knowing everything that it is possible for men to know about ,his character and ways4 ,and is there not something sublime in this demand of ,god that the noblest part of man should be consecrated to ,him8 ,god reveals ,himself in ,christ to our highest2 and ,he would have us respond to ,his manifestations with our highest4 ,nor is this the attitude of ,christ only4 ,the ,apostle ,paul also honours the mind1 and gives to it the supreme place as the organ of apprehending and appropriating divine truth4 ,mr4 ,lecky brings the serious charge against ,christianity that it habitually disregards the virtues of the intellect4 ,if there is any truth in this statement it refers1 not to the genius of the ,gospel itself1 nor to the earlier exponents of it1 but rather to the ,church in those centuries which followed the conversion of ,constantine4 ,no impartial reader of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles can aver that the apostle made a virtue of ignorance and credulity4 ,these documents1 which are the earliest exposition of the mind of ,christ1 impress us rather with the intellectual boldness of their attempt to grapple with the greatest problems of life4 ,paul was essentially a thinker2 and1 as ,sabatier says1 is to be ranked with ,plato and ,aristotle1 ,augustine and ,kant1 as one of the mightiest intellectual forces of the world4 ,but not content with being a thinker himself1 he sought to make his converts thinkers too1 and he does not hesitate to make the utmost demand upon their reasoning faculties4 ,he assumes a natural capacity in man for apprehending the truth1 and appeals to the mind rather than to the emotions4 ,the ,gospel is styled by him 'the word of truth1' and he bids men 'prove all things4' ,worship is not a meaningless ebullition of feeling or a superstitious ritual1 but a form of self-expression which is to be enlightened and guided by thought4 ',i will pray with the understanding and sing with the understanding4' ,it is indeed a strong and virile ,christianity which ,paul and the other apostles proclaim4 ,it is no magic spell they seek to exert4 ,they are convinced that there is that in #fg the mind of man which is ready to respond to a thoughtful ,gospel4 ,if men will only give their unprejudiced minds to ,god's ,word1 it is able to make them 'wise unto salvation4' ,it would lead us beyond the scope of this chapter to consider the peculiar ,pauline significance of faith4 ,it is enough to say that while he does not identify it with intellectual assent1 as little does he confine it to mere subjective assurance4 ,it is the primary act of the human spirit when brought into contact with divine truth1 and it lies at the root of a new ethical power1 and of a deeper knowledge of ,god4 ,if the apostle appears to speak disparagingly of wisdom it is the wisdom of pride1 of 'knowledge that puffeth up4' ,he warns ,timothy against 'science falsely so called4' ,on the whole ,st4 ,paul exalts the intellect and bids men attain to the full exercise of their mental powers4 ',be not children in understanding3 but in understanding be men4'#be ,if1 as we have seen1 the body be an integral part of man1 and has its place and function in the ,christian life1 not less1 but even more1 has the mind a special ethical importance4 ,it is to the intelligence that ,christianity appeals1 and it is with the rational faculties that moral truth is apprehended and applied to life4 ,reason in its broadest sense is the most distinctive feature of man1 and by means of it he exerts his mightiest influence upon the world4 ,mental and moral growth are closely connected1 and personal character is largely moulded by thought4 ',as a man thinketh in his heart so is he4' ,not only at the beginning of the new life1 but in all its after stages the mind is an important factor1 and its consecration and cultivation are laid upon us as an obligation by ,him in whose image we have been made1 and whom to know and serve is our highest end4 #a ,see ,author's ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul4 #b ,cf4 ,murray1 ,sandbank of ,christian ,ethics4 ,see also ,hegel1 ,phil4 der ,religion1 vol4 ii4 p4 #baj ff41 where the antithesis is finely worked out4 #c ,gen4 i4 #bf2 ,eccles4 vii4 #bi2 ,col4 iii4 #aj2 ,james iii4 #i4 #d ,see ,hugh ,miller's ,essays1 quoted by ,murray1 op4 cit41 p4 #acg4 #e ,cf4 ,w4 ,james1 ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 pp4 #ha-hf4 #f ,cf4 ,goethe's ,faust4 ,see also ,nietzsche1 ,gtzendmmerung for trenchant criticism of ,rousseau4 #g ,murray1 idem4 #h ,max ,mller1 ,fraser1 ,golden ,bough1 and others4 #i ,anfnge des ,christentums4 #aj ,cf4 ,ottley1 ,christian ,ideas and ,ideals1 p4 #eb4 ',christianity does justice both to man's inherent instinct that he has been made for ,god1 and to his sense of unworthiness and incapacity4' #aa ,penses1 part ii4 art4 #a4 #ab ,emerson4 #ac ,ed4 ,caird1 ,critical ,philosophy of ,kant1 p4 #ce4 #ad ,see ,author's ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul4 #ae ,ottley1 idem1 p4 #ee4 #af ,luke xxi4 #ai4 #ag ,cf4 ,john ,caird1 ,introd4 to the ,philosophy of ,religion4 #ah ,cf4 ,wm4 ,james's ,pragmatism and ,a ,pluralistic ,world4 #ai ,idem1 p4 #bja4 #bj ,cf4 ,bosanquet1 ,the ,principles of ,individuality and ,value4 #ba ,bergson1 ,evol4 ,creat41 p4 #agd f4 #bb ,cf4 ,e4 ,caird1 ,kant1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ecj and #ece4 #bc ,evol4 ,creat41 p4 #aei4 #bd ,hib4 ,jour41 ,july #aiaa4 #be ,some sentences in the above are borrowed from the writer's ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul4 #fh ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,witness ,,of ,,conscience ,passing from the physical and mental constituents of man1 we turn to the more distinctly moral elements2 and in this chapter we shall consider that aspect of the human consciousness to which mankind has given the name of 'conscience4' ,no subject has presented greater difficulties to the moralist1 and there are few which require more careful elucidation4 ,from the earliest period of reflection the question how we came to have moral ideas has been a disputed one4 ,at first it was thought that there existed in man a distinct innate faculty or moral sense which was capable of deciding categorically man's duty without reference to history or condition4 ,but in modern times the theory of evolution has discredited the inviolable character of conscience1 and sought rather to determine its nature and significance in the light of its origin and development4 ,only the barest outline of the subject can be attempted here1 since our object is simply to show that however we may account for its presence1 there is in man1 as we know him1 some power or function which bears witness to divine truth and fits him to respond to the revelation of ,christ4 ,it will be most convenient to consider the subject under three heads3 ,i4 the history of the ,conception2 ,,ii4 the nature and origin of ,conscience2 and ,,iii4 its present validity4 ,i4 ,history of the ,conception4--',the name conscience1' says a writer on the subject1 'appears somewhat late in #fi the history of the world3 that for which it stands is as old as mankind4'#a #a4 ,without pushing our inquiries back into the legendary lore of savage life1 in which we find evidence of the idea in the social institutions and religious enactments of primitive races1 it is among the ,greeks that the word1 if not the idea of conscience1 first meets us4 ,perhaps the earliest trace of the notion is to be found in the mythological conception of the ,furies1 whose business it was to avenge crime--a conception which might be regarded as the reaction of man's own nature against the violation of better instincts1 if not as the reflection or embodiment of what is popularly called conscience4 ,it can scarcely be doubted that the ,erinnyes of ,aeschylus were deities of remorse1 and possess psychological significance as symbols of the primitive action of conscience4#b ,though ,sophocles is less of a theologian than ,aeschylus1 and problems of ,ethics count less than the human interest of his story1 the law of ,nemesis does find in him dramatic expression1 and the noble declaration put into the mouth of ,antigone concerning the unwritten laws of ,god that 'know no change and are not of to-day nor yesterday1 but must be obeyed in preference to the temporary commandments of men1'#c is a protest on behalf of conscience against human oppression4 ,and even in ,euripides1 regarded as an impious scoffer by some scholars1#d there are not wanting1 especially in the example of ,alcestis1 evidence of belief in that divine justice and moral order of which the virtues of self-devotion and sacrifice in the soul of man are the witness4 ,socrates was among the first teachers of antiquity who led the way to that self-knowledge which is of the essence of conscience1 and in the ',daemon1' or inner voice1 which he claimed to possess1 some writers have detected the trace #gj of the intuitive monitor of man4 ,plato's discussion of the question1 ',what is the highest good8' involves the capacity of moral judgment1 and his conception of reason regulating desire suggests a power in the mind whose function it is to point to the highest good and to subordinate to it all the other impulses of man4 ,in the ethics of ,aristotle there is a reference to a faculty in man or 'rule within1' which1 he says1 the beasts lack4 ,but it is among the ,stoics that the word first appears2 and it is to the ,roman moralist1 ,seneca1 that we are indebted for the earlier definite perception of an abiding consciousness bearing witness concerning a man's own conduct4 ,the writings of ,epictetus1 ,aurelius1 and ,seneca approach in moral sublimity and searching self-analysis the ,new ,testament ,scriptures4 ,it was probably to the ,stoics that ,st4 ,paul was indebted for the word syneidsis to which he has given so distinctive a meaning that it has coloured and determined the whole later history of the moral consciousness4 #b4 ,but if the word as used in the ,new ,testament comes from ,greek sources the idea itself was long prevalent in the ,jewish conception of life1 which1 even more than the ,greek1 was constitutive of1 and preparatory to1 the ,christian view4 ,the word does not1 indeed1 occur in the ,old ,testament1 but the question of ,god to ,adam1 ',where art thou8' the story of ,cain and the curse he was to suffer for the murder of his brother2 the history of ,joseph's dealing with his brethren2 the account of ,david's sin and conviction1 are by implication appeals to conscience4 ,indeed1 the whole history of ,israel1 from the time when the promise was given to ,abraham and the law through ,moses until the denunciations of wrong-doing and the predictions of doom of the later prophets1 is one long education of the moral sense4 ,it is the problem of conscience that imparts its chief interest to the book of ,job2 and one reason why the ,psalms in all ages have been so highly prized is because they are the cries of a wounded conscience1 and the confessions of a convicted and contrite heart4 #ga #c4 ,if we turn to the ,new ,testament we find1 as we might expect1 a much clearer testimony to the reality of the conscience4 ,the word came into the hands of the ,new ,testament writers ready-made1 but they gave to it a richer meaning1 so that it is to them we must go if we would understand the nature and the supremacy of the conscience4 ,the term occurs thirty-one times in the ,new ,testament1 but it does not appear once in the ,gospels4 ,it is1 indeed1 principally a ,pauline expression1 and to the apostle of the ,gentiles more than to any other writer is due the clear conception and elucidation of the term4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to assume that the doctrine itself depends entirely upon the use of the word4 ,our ,lord never1 indeed1 employs the term1 but surely no teacher ever sounded the depths of the human heart as ,he did4 ,it was ,his mission to reveal men to themselves1 to convict them of sin1 and show the need of that life of righteousness and purity which ,he came to give4 ',why even of yourselves1' ,he said1 'judge ye not what is right8' ,christ1 indeed1 might be called the conscience of man4 ,to awaken1 renew and enlighten the moral sense of individuals1 to make them know what they were and what they were capable of becoming was the work of the ,son of ,man1 and in contact with ,him every one was morally unveiled4 ,the word occurs twice in ,acts1 five times in ,hebrews1 three times in the ,epistles of ,peter1 and more than twenty times in the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of the conscience is contained in ,romans ii4 #ad1 #ae1 where he speaks of the ,gentiles being 'a law unto themselves1' inasmuch as they possess a 'law written in their hearts1' 'their conscience bearing witness1 therewith accusing or excusing them4' ,the idea underlying the passage is the responsibility of all men for their actions1 their condemnation in sin1 and their acceptance in righteousness4 ,this applies to ,gentiles as well as ,jews1 and it applies to them because1 though they have not the explicit revelation of the law1 they have a revelation of the good in their hearts4 ,the passage therefore teaches two things3 7#a7 ,that man has received a #gb revelation of good sufficient at all stages of his history to make him morally responsible2 and 7#b7 ,that man possesses a moral faculty which indeed is not a separate power1 but the whole moral consciousness or personality in virtue of which he recognises and approves of the good which1 either as the law written in his heart or as the law communicated in the ,decalogue1 has been revealed to him1 and by whose authority he judges himself4 ,,ii4 ,nature1 and ,origin of ,conscience4--,while experience seems to point to the existence of something in man witnessing to the right1 there is great diversity of view as to the nature of this moral element4 ,the word ',conscience' stands for a concept whose meaning is far from well defined1 and the lack of definiteness has left its trace upon ethical theories4 ,while some moralists assign conscience to the rational or intellectual side of man1 and make it wholly a faculty of judgment2 others attribute it to feeling or impulse1 and make it a sense of pleasure or pain2 others again associate it more closely with the will1 and regard its function to be legislative or imperative4 ,these differences of opinion reveal the complexity of the nature of conscience4 ,the fact is1 that it belongs to all these departments--the intellectual1 emotional1 and volitional--and ought to be regarded not as a single faculty distinct from the particular decisions1 motives1 and acts of man1 not as an activity foreign to the ego1 but as the expression of the whole personality4 ,the question of the origin of conscience1 though closely connected with its nature1 is for ethics only of secondary importance4 ,it is desirable1 however1 to indicate the two main theories which have been held regarding its genesis4 ,while there are several varieties1 they may be divided broadly into two--,intuitionalism and ,evolutionalism4 #a4 ,nativism1 of which ,intuitionalism is the most common form1 regards the conscience as a separate natural endowment1 coeval with the creation of man4 ,every individual1 it is maintained1 has been endowed by nature with a distinct faculty or organ by which he can immediately and clearly #gc pronounce upon the rightness or wrongness of his own actions4 ,in its most pronounced form this theory maintains that man has not merely a general consciousness of moral distinctions1 but possesses from the very first1 apart from all experience and education1 a definite and clear knowledge of the particular vices which ought to be avoided and the particular virtues which ought to be practised4 ,this theory is usually connected with a form of theism which maintains that the conscience is particularly a divine gift1 and is1 indeed1 ,god's special witness or oracle in the heart of man4 ,though there would seem to be an element of truth in intuitionalism1 since man1 to be man at all1 must be conceived as made for ,god and having that in him which points to the end or ideal of his being1 still in its most extreme form it would not be difficult to show that this theory is untenable4 ,it is objectionable1 because it involves two assumptions1 of which the one conflicts with experience1 and the other with the psychological nature of man4 7#a7 ,experience gives us no warrant for supposing that duty is always the same1 and that conscience is therefore exempt from change4 ,history shows rather that moral convictions only gradually emerge1 and that the laws and customs of one age are often repudiated by the next4 ,what may seem right to one man is no longer so to his descendant4 ,history records deeds committed in one generation in the name of conscience which in the same name a later generation has condemned with horror4 ,moreover1 the possibility of a conflict between duties proves that unconditional truth exists at no stage of moral development4 ,there is no law so sacred that it may not in special cases have to yield to the sacredness of a higher law4 ,when duties conflict1 our choice cannot be determined by any a priori principle residing in ourselves4 ,it must be governed by that wider conception of the moral life which is to be gained through one's previous development1 and on the basis of a ripe moral experience4#e 7#b7 ,nor is this theory consistent with #gd the known nature of man4 ,we know of no separate and independent organ called conscience4 ,man must not be divided against himself4 ,reason and feeling enter into all acts of will1 since these are not processes different in kind1 but elements of voluntary activity itself and inseparable from it4 ,it is impossible for a man to be determined in his actions or judgments by a mere external formula of duty1 a 'categorical imperative1' as ,kant calls it1 apart from motives4 ,moreover1 all endowments may be regarded as divine gifts1 and it is a precarious position to claim for one faculty a spiritually divine or supernatural origin which is denied to others4 ,man is related to ,god in his whole nature4 ,the view which regards the law of duty as something foreign to man1 stern and unchangeable in its decrees1 and in nowise dependent upon the gradual development and growing content of the moral life is not consistent either with history or psychology4 #b4 ,evolutionalism1 which since the time of ,darwin has been applied by ,spencer and others to account for the growth of our moral ideas1 holds that conscience is the result of a process of development1 but does not limit the process to the life of the individual4 ,it extends to the experience of the race4 ,while admitting the existence of conscience as a moral faculty in the rational man of to-day1 it holds that it did not exist in his primitive ancestors4 ,earlier individuals accumulated a certain amount of experience and moral knowledge1 the result of which1 as a habit or acquired capacity1 was handed down to their successors4 ,from the first man has been a member of society1 and is what he is in virtue of his relation to it4 ,all that makes him man1 all his powers of body and mind1 are inherited4 ,his instincts and desires1 which are the springs of action1 are themselves the creation of heredity1 association and environment4 ,the individual takes its shape at every point from its relation to the social organism of which it is a part4 ,what man really seeks from the earliest is satisfaction4 ',no school1' says ,mr4 ,spencer1 'can avoid taking for the ultimate moral aim a desirable #ge state of feeling4'#f ,prolonged experience of pleasure in connection with actions which serve social ends has resulted in certain physiological changes in the brain and nervous system rendering these actions constant4 ,thus1 according to ,spencer1 is begotten conscience4 ,while acknowledging the service which the evolutionary theory has done in calling attention to the place and function of experience and social environment in the development of the moral life1 and in showing that moral judgment1 like every other capacity1 must participate in the gradual unfolding of personality1 as a conclusive explanation of conscience it must be pronounced insufficient4 ,press the analysis of sensation as far back as we please1 and make an analysis of instincts and feelings as detailed as possible1 we never get in man a mere sensation1 as we find it in the lower animal2 it is always sensation related to1 and modified by1 a self4 ,in the simplest human instincts there is always a spiritual element which is the basis of the possibility at once of knowledge and morality4 ',that countless generations1' says ,green1 'should have passed during which a transmitted organism was progressively modified by reaction on its surroundings1 by struggle for existence or otherwise1 till its functions became such that an eternal consciousness could realise or produce itself through them--might add to the wonder with which the consideration of what we do and are must always fill us1 but it could not alter the results of that consideration4'#g ,no process of evolution1 even though it draws upon illimitable ages1 can evolve what was not already present in the form of a spiritual potency4 ,the empiric treatment of conscience as the result of social environment and culture leads inevitably back to the assumption of some rudimentary moral consciousness without which the development of a moral sense would be an impossibility4 ,the history of mankind1 moreover1 shows that conscience1 so far from being merely the reflex of the prevailing customs and institutions of a particular age1 has frequently #gf closed its special character by reacting upon and protesting against the recognised traditions of society4 ,the individual conscience has often been in advance of its times2 and the progress of man has been secured as much by the champions of liberty as by those who conform to accepted customs4 ,in all moral advance there comes a stage when1 in the conflict of habit and principle1 conscience asserts itself1 not only in revealing a higher ideal1 but in urging men to seek it4 ,,iii4 ,the ,validity and ,witness of ,conscience4--,it is not1 however1 with the origin of conscience1 but with its capacities and functions in its developed state that ,ethics is primarily concerned4 ,the beginning must be interpreted by the end1 and the process by the result to which it tends4 #a4 ,the ,christian doctrine is committed neither to the intuitional nor the evolutionist theory1 but rather may be said to reconcile both by retaining that which is true in each4 ,while it holds to the inherent ability on the part of a being made in ,god's image to recognise at the different stages of his growth and development ,god's will as it has been progressively revealed1 it avoids the necessity of conceiving man as possessing from the very beginning a full-fledged organ of infallible authority4 ,the conscience participates in man's general progress and enlightenment4 ,nor can the moral development of the individual be held separate from the moral development of the race4 ,as there is a moral solidarity of mankind1 so the individual conscience is conditional by the social conscience4 ,the individual does not start in life with a full-grown moral apparatus any more than he starts with a matured physical frame4 ,the most distinctively spiritual attainments of man have their antecedents in less human and more animal capacities4 ,as there is a continuity of human life1 so individuals and peoples inherit the moral assets of previous generations1 and incorporate in their experience all past attainments4 ,conscience is involved in man's moral history4 ,it suffers in his sin and alienation from ,god1 becoming clouded in its insight and feeble in its testimony1 but it shares also in his #gg spiritual advancement1 growing more sensitive and decisive in its judgments4 7#a7 ,conscience1 as the ,new ,testament teaches1 can be perverted and debased4 ,it is always open to a free agent to disobey his conscience and reject its authority4 ,on the intuitional theory1 which regards the conscience as a separable and independent faculty1 it would be difficult to vindicate the terrible consequences of such conduct4 ,it is because the conscience is the man himself as related to the consciousness of the divine will that the effects are so injurious4 ,conscience may be 7a7 ,stained1 defiled1 and polluted in its very texture 7#a ,cor4 viii4 #g72 7b7 ,branded or seared 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #b71 rendered insensible to all feeling for good2 7c7 ,perverted1 in which the very light within becomes darkness4 ,in this last stage the man calls evil good and good evil--the very springs of his nature are poisoned and the avenues of his soul are closed4 ',this is death1 and the sole death1 ,when man's loss comes to him from his gain4'#h 7#b7 ,but if conscience can be perverted it may also be improved4 ,the education is twofold1 social and individual4 ,through society1 says ,green1 personality is actualised4 ',no individual can make a conscience for himself4 ,he always needs a society to make it for him4'#i ,there is no such thing as a purely individual conscience4 ,man can only realise himself1 come to his best1 in relation to others4 ,the conditions amid which a man is born and reared--the home1 the school1 the church1 the state--are the means by which the conscience is exercised and educated4 ,but the individual is not passive4 ,he has also a part to play2 and the whole task of man may be regarded as an endeavour to make his conscience effective in life4 ,the ,new ,testament writers refrain from speaking of the conscience as an unerring and perfect organ4 ,their language implies rather the possibility of its gradual enlightenment2 and ,st4 ,paul specially dwells upon the necessity of 'growing in spiritual #gh knowledge and perception4' ,as life advances moral judgment may be modified and corrected by fuller knowledge1 and the perception of a particular form of conduct as good may yield to the experience of something better4 #b4 ',it is one of the most wonderful things1' says ,professor ,wundt1 'about moral development1 that it unites so many conditions of subordinate value in the accomplishment of higher results1'#aj and the worth of morality is not endangered because the grounds of its realisation in special cases do not always correspond in elevation to the moral ideas4 ,the conscience is not an independent faculty which issues its mandates irrespective of experience4 ,its judgments are always conditioned by motives4 ,the moral imperatives of conscience may be grouped under four heads3#aa 7#a7 ,external constraints1 including all forms of punishment for immoral actions and the social disadvantages which such actions involve4 ,these can only produce the lowest grade of morality1 outward propriety1 the mere appearance of virtue which has only a negative value in so far as it avoids what is morally offensive4 7#b7 ,internal constraints1 consisting of influences excited by the example of others1 by public opinion and habits formed through education and training4 7#c7 ,self-satisfaction1 originating in the agent's own consciousness4 ,it may be a sense of pleasure or feeling of self-approbation3 or higher still1 the idea of duty for its own sake1 commonly called 'conscientiousness4' 7#d7 ,the ideal of life1 the highest imperative of conscience4 ,here the nobility of life1 as a whole1 the supreme life-purpose1 gives meaning and incentive to each and every action4 ,the ideal of life is not1 however1 something static and completed1 given once and for all4 ,it grows with the enlightenment of the individual and the development of humanity4 ,the consciousness of every age comprehends it in certain laws and ends of life4 ,the highest form of the ideal finds its embodiment in what are called noble characters4 ,these ethical heroes rise1 in rare and exceptional circumstances1 above the ordinary level of #gi common morality1 gathering up into themselves the entire moral development of the past1 and radiating their influence into the remotest distances of the future4 ,they are the embodiments of the conscience of the race1 at once the standard and challenge of the moral life of mankind1 whose influence awakens the slumbering aspirations of men1 and whose creative genius affects the whole history of the world1 lifting it to higher levels of thought and endeavour4 ,the supreme example--unique1 however1 both in kind and degree1 and differing by its uniqueness from every other life which has in some measure approximated to the ideal--is disclosed in ,jesus ,christ4 ,thus it is that the moral consciousness of the world generally and of the individual in particular1 of which the conscience is the organ and expression1 develops from less to more1 under the influence of the successive imperatives of conduct1 till finally it attains to the vision of the greatness of life as it is revealed in its supreme and all-commanding ideal4#ab #c4 ,finally1 in this connection the question of the permanence of conscience may be referred to4 ,is the ultimate of life a state in which conscience will pervade every department of a man's being1 dominating all his thoughts and activities8 or is the ideal condition one in which conscience shall be outgrown and its operation rendered superfluous8 ,a recent writer on ,christian ethics#ac makes the remarkable statement that where there is no sense of sin conscience has no function1 and he draws the inference that where there is complete normality and perfect moral health conscience will be in abeyance4 ,satan1 inasmuch as he lacks all moral instinct1 can know nothing of conscience2 and1 because of ,his sinlessness1 ,jesus must also be pronounced conscienceless4 ,hence the paradox attributed to ,machiavelli3 ',he who is without conscience is either a ,christ or a devil4' ,but though it is true that the ,son of ,man had no actual experience of sin1 and could not1 indeed1 feel remorse or contrition1 yet in so far as ,he was man there was in ,him #hj the possibility of sin1 and in the intimate relation which ,he bore to the human race ,he had a most accurate and clear knowledge both of the meaning and consequences of evil4 ,so far from saying that ,christ had no conscience1 it would be nearer the truth to say that ,he had a perfect conscience1 a personality and fullness of consciousness which was a complete reflection of1 and harmony with1 the highest conceivable good4 ,the confusion of thought into which ,professor ,lemme seems to fall is due1 we cannot help thinking1 to the too restricted and negative signification he gives to conscience4 ,conscience is not merely the faculty of reproving and approving one's own conduct when brought into relation with actual sin4 ,it is involved in every moral judgment4 ,a good conscience is not only the absence of an evil one4 ,it has also a positive sanctioning value4 ,the 'ought' of life is constantly present4 ,it is the whole man ever conscious of1 and confronted by1 his ideal self4 ,the conscience participates in man's gradual progress and enlightenment2 so far from the individual growing towards a condition in which self-judgment ceases1 he is progressing rather in moral discernment1 and becoming more and more responsive to the will of ,him whose impress and image he bears upon his soul4 ,the tendency of modern physiological accounts of conscience has been to undermine its authority and empty life of its responsibility1 but no theory of the origin of conscience must be permitted to invalidate its judgments4 ,if conscience has any moral worth it is that it contains the promise and witness of ,god4 ,the prime question is1 ,what is the nature of its testimony8 ,according to the teaching of ,scripture it bears witness to the existence of a higher than man--to a divine ,person with whom he is spiritually akin and to whom he is accountable4 ',god's most intimate presence in the soul4' ,as the revelation of ,god's will grows clearer man's ideal becomes loftier4 ,hence a man's conscience is the measure of his moral life4 ,it reveals ,god1 and in the light of ,god reveals man to himself4 ,we carry a 'forever' within our bosom1 #ha 'ein ,gott in unserer ,brust1'#ad as ,goethe says1 which reminds us that even while denizens of this earth we are citizens of heaven and the sharers of an eternal life4 ,like another ,john the ,baptist1 conscience points to one greater than itself4 ,it emphasises the discord that exists between the various parts of man's nature1 a discord which it condemns but cannot remove4 ,it can judge1 but it cannot compel4 ,hence it places man before ,christ1 and bids him yield to the sway of a new transforming power4 ,as one has finely said1 ',he who has implanted in every breast such irrefragible testimony to the right1 and such unappeasable yearnings for its complete triumph1 now comes in ,his own perfect way to reveal ,himself as the ,lord of conscience1 the ,guide of its perplexities1 the ,strength of its weakness and the ,perfecter of its highest hopes4'#ae #a ,davidson1 ,the ,christian ,conscience4 #b ,cf4 ,symonds1 ,studies of ,greek ,poets1 first series1 p4 #aia4 #c ,antigone1 ,plumptre's ,trans41 #dee-i4 #d ,cf4 ,bunsen1 ,god in ,history1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbd2 also ,campbell1 ,religion in ,greek ,literature4 #e ,cf4 ,wundt1 ,ethik1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ff4 #f ,data of ,ethics1 p4 #ah4 #g ,proleg41 section #hc4 #h ,browning4 #i ,proleg41 section #cba4 #aj ,ethik1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ff4 #aa ,idem4 #ab ,cf4 ,wundt1 ,ethik1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fg-gd4 #ac ,lemme1 ,christliche ,ethik1 vol4 i4 #ad ,tasso1 act iii4 scene #b4 #ae ,davidson1 ,the ,christian ,conscience1 p4 #aac4 #hb ,,chapter ,,vi ',,the ,,miracle ,,of ,,the ,,will' ,closely connected with the conscience as a moral capacity is the power of self-determination1 or as it is popularly called--free-will4 ,if conscience is the manifestation of man as knowing1 will is more especially his manifestation as a being who acts4 ,the subject which we now approach presents at once a problem and a task4 ,the nature of freedom has been keenly debated from the earliest times1 and the history of the problem of the will is almost the history of philosophy4 ,the practical question which arises is whether the individual has any power by which the gulf between the natural and the spiritual can be transcended4 ,can man choose and decide for a spiritual world above that in which he is by nature involved8 ,the revelation of the good must1 indeed1 precede the activity of man4 ,but at the same time the change cannot merely happen to him4 ,he cannot simply be a passive recipient4 ,the new life must be taken up by his own activity1 and be made his by his own decision and acceptance4 ,this responsive activity on the part of man is the task which life presents to the will4 ,much obviously depends upon the answer we are able to give to this question4 ,if man has no power of choice1 no capacity of self-determination1 and is nothing more than a part of the natural world1 then the ethical life is at once ruled out of court4 ,the difficulties connected with the problem of moral freedom resolve themselves mainly into three3 a scientific1 a psychological1 and a theological4 #hc ,i4 ,on the part of natural science it is claimed that man is subject1 like everything else1 to physical necessity4 ,,ii4 ,from the psychological standpoint it is urged that man's actions are always determined by the strongest motive4 ,,iii4 ,on the theological side it is alleged that human freedom is incompatible with divine ,sovereignty4 ,a complete doctrine of freedom would require to be examined in the light of these three objections4 ,for our purpose it will be sufficient to indicate briefly the value of these difficulties1 and the manner in which they may be met4 ,i ,the wonderful progress of the natural sciences in the second half of the nineteenth century has tended to banish the old idea of freedom from the realm of experience4 ,science1 it is maintained1 clearly shows that man belongs to a great world-movement1 in relation to which his whole life and work are completely determined4 ,though even in earlier ages1 and especially in ,stoic philosophy1 this conception of life was not ignored1 it is more particularly in recent times1 under the influence of the evolutionary theory1 that the idea of determination has been applied with relentless insistence to the structure of the soul4 ,there is1 it is alleged1 no room for change or spontaneity4 ,everything1 down to the minutest impulse1 depends upon something else1 and proceeds from a definite cause4 ,the idea of choice is simply the remnant of an unscientific mode of thinking4 ,it might be sufficient to reply that in thus reducing life and experience to a necessary part of a world-whole1 more is surrendered than even science is willing to yield4 ,the freedom which some writers reject in the interests of science they attempt to introduce in an altered form4 ,why are these philosophers so anxious to conserve the ethical consequences of life8 ,is it not because they feel that there is something in man which will not fit into a rigid world-mechanism1 and that conduct would cease #hd to have moral worth if life were reduced to a causal series of happenings8 ,but it may be further argued that1 if the mechanical conception of life1 which reduces the spiritual to the natural1 were consistently carried out it would lead not merely to the destruction of the moral life1 but to the destruction of science itself4 ,if man is merely a part of nature1 subject entirely to nature's law1 then the realities of the higher life--love1 self-sacrifice1 devotion to ends beyond ourselves--must be radically re-interpreted or regarded simply as illusions4 ,but it is also true that from this standpoint science itself is an illusion4 ,for if reality lies only in the passing impressions of our sensible nature1 the claim of science to find valid truth must end in the denial of the very possibility of knowledge4 ,does not the very existence of physical science imply the priority of thought8 ,while in one sense it may be conceded that man is a part of nature1 does not the truth1 which cannot be gainsaid1 that he is aware of the fact1 prove a certain priority and power which differentiates him from all other phenomena of the universe8 ,if he is a link in the chain of being1 he is at least a link which is conscious of what he is4 ,he is a being who knows himself1 indeed1 through the objective world1 but also realises himself only as he makes himself its master and the agent of a divine purpose to which all things are contributing1 and for which all things exist4 ,in all our reasoning and endeavour we must start from the unity of the self-conscious soul4 ,whatever we can either know or achieve1 is our truth1 our act presented in and through our self-consciousness4 ,it is impossible for us to conceive any standard of truth or object of desire outside of our experience4 ,as a thinking and acting being man pursues ends1 and has the consciousness that they are his own ends1 subject to his own choice and control4 ,it is always the self that the soul seeks2 and the will is nothing else than the man making and finding for himself another world4 ,the attempt has recently been made to measure mental states by their physical stimuli and explain mental #he processes by cerebral reaction4 ,it is true that certain physical phenomena seem to be invariably antecedent to thought1 but so far science has been unable to exhibit the form of nexus between these physical antecedents and ideas4 ,even if the knowledge of the topography of the brain were immeasurably more advanced than it now is1 even though we could observe the vast network of nerve-fibres and filaments of which the brain is composed1 and could discern the actual changes in brain-cells under nerve stimulations1 we should still be a long way off from understanding the nature and genesis of ideas which can only be known to us as immediate in their own quality4 ,all that we can ever affirm is that a certain physical excitation is the antecedent of thought4 ,it is illegitimate to say that it is the 'cause' of thought2 unless1 indeed1 the word 'cause' be invested with no other meaning than that which is involved in such a conception4 ,it is1 however1 in a very general way only1 and within an exceedingly narrow range1 that such measurement is possible4 ,we do not even know at present what nerves correspond to the sensations of heat and cold1 pain and joy2 and all attempts to localise will-centres have proved unavailing4 ,the finer and more delicate feelings cannot be gauged4 ,but even though the alleged parallelism were entirely demonstrated1 the immediate and pertinent question would still remain1 ,who or what is the investigator8 ,is it an ego1 a thinking self8 or is it only a complex of vibrations or mechanical impressions bound together in a particular body which1 for convenience1 is called an ego8 ,are the so-called entities--personality1 consciousness1 self--but symbols1 as ,professor ,mach says1 useful in so far as they help us to express our physical sensations1 but which with further research must be pronounced illusions8#a ,monistic naturalism1 which would explain all psychical experiences in terms of cerebral action1 must not be allowed to arrogate to itself powers which it does not possess1 and quietly brush #hf aside facts which do not fit into its system4 ,the moral sanctions so universally and deeply rooted in the consciousness of mankind1 the feelings of responsibility1 of guilt and regret2 the soul's fidelities and heroisms1 its hopes and fears1 its aims and ideals--the poetry1 art1 and religion that have made man what he is1 all that has contributed to the uplifting of the world--are1 to say the least1 unaccounted for1 if it must be held that 'man is born in chains4' ,primary facts must not be surrendered nor ultimate experiences sacrificed in the interests of theoretic simplicity4 ,in the recent anti-metaphysical movement of ,germany1 of which ,haeckel1 ,avenarius1 ,oswald and ,mach are representatives1 there is presented the final conflict4 ,it is not freedom of will only that is at stake1 it is the very existence of a spiritual world4 ',es ist der ,kampf um die ,seele4'#b ,if the world forms a closed and 'given' system in which every particular is determined completely by its position in the whole1 then there can be no place for spontaneity1 initiative1 creation1 which all investigation shows to be the distinctive feature in human progress and upward movement4 ,so far from its being true that the world makes man1 it would be nearer the truth to say that man makes the world4 ,a 'given' world can never be primary4#c ,there must be a mind behind it4 ,we fall back1 therefore1 upon the principle which must be postulated in the whole discussion--the unity and self-determining activity of the self-conscious mind4 ,,ii ,we may now proceed to the second problem of the will1 the objection that human action is determined by motives1 and that what we call freedom is nothing else than the necessary result of the pressure of motives upon the will4 ,in other words1 the conduct of the individual is always determined by the strongest motive4 ,it will be seen on examination that this objection is just another form of that which we have already considered4 ,indeed1 the #hg analogy of mechanical power is frequently applied to the motives of the will4 ,diverse motives have been compared to different forces which meet in one centre1 and it is supposed that the result in action is determined by the united pressure of these various motives4 ,now it may be freely admitted at the outset that the individual never acts except under certain influences4 ,an uninfluenced man1 an unbiassed character cannot exist4 ,not for one moment do we escape the environment1 material and moral1 which stimulates our inner life to reaction and response4 ,it is not contended that a man is independent of all motives4 ,what we do affirm is that the self-realising potentiality of personality is present throughout4 ,much of the confusion of thought in connection with this subject arises from a false and inadequate notion of personality4 ,personality is the whole man1 all that his past history1 present circumstances and future aims have made him1 the result of all that the world of which he is a part has contributed to his experience4 ,his bodily sensations1 his mental acts1 his desires and motives are not detached and extraneous forces acting on him from without1 but elements which constitute his whole being4 ,the person1 in other words1 is the visible or tangible phenomenon of something inward--the phase or function by which an individual agent takes his place in the common world of human intercourse and interaction1 and plays his peculiar and definite part in life4#d ,but this totality of consciousness1 so far from reducing man to a 'mere manufactured article1' gives to personality its unique distinction4 ,by personality all things are dominated4 ',other things exist1 so to speak1 for the sake of their kind and for the sake of other things3 a person is never a mere means to something beyond1 but always at the same time an end in himself4 ,he has the royal and divine right of creating law1 of starting by his exception a new law which shall henceforth be a canon and a standard4'#e #hh ,the objection to the freedom of the will which we are now considering may be best appreciated if we examine briefly the two extreme theories which have been maintained on the subject4 ,on the one hand1 determinism or1 as it is sometimes called1 necessitarianism1 holds that all our actions are conditioned by law--the so-called motive that influences a man's conduct is simply a link in a chain of occurrences of which his act is the last4 ,the future has no possibilities hidden in its womb4 ,i am simply what the past has made me4 ,my circumstances are given1 and my character is simply the necessary resultant of the natural forces that act upon me4 ,on the other hand1 indeterminism1 or libertarianism1 insists upon absolute liberty of choice of the individual1 and denies that necessity or continuity determines conduct4 ,of two alternatives both may now be really possible4 ,you can never predict what will be1 nor lay down absolutely what a man will do4 ,the world is not a finished and fixed whole4 ,it admits of infinite possibilities1 and instead of the volition ,i have actually made1 ,i could just as easily have made a different one4 ,without entering upon a detailed criticism of these two positions1 it may be said that both contain an element of truth and are not so contradictory as they seem4 ,on the one hand1 all the various factors of the complex will may seem to be determined by something that lies beyond our control1 and thus our will itself be really determined4 ,but1 on the other hand1 moral continuity in its last analysis is only a half truth1 and must find its complement in the recognition of the possibilities of new beginnings4 ,the very nature of moral action implies1 as ,lotze has said1 that new factors may enter into the stream of causal sequence1 and that even though a man's life may be1 and must be1 largely conditioned by his circumstances1 his activity may be really originative and free4 ,what the determinists seem to forget is1 as ,green says1 that 'character is only formed through a man's conscious presentation to himself of objects as his good1 as that in which his self-satisfaction is found4'#f #hi ,desires are always for objects which have a value for the individual4 ,a man's real character is reflected in his desires1 and it is not that he is moved by some outside abstract force1 which1 being the strongest1 he cannot resist1 but it is because he puts himself into the desire or motive that it becomes the strongest1 the one which he chooses to follow4 ,my motives are really part of myself1 of which all my actions are the outcome4 ,human desires1 in short1 are not merely external tendencies forcing a man this way or that way4 ,they are a part of the man himself1 and are always directed towards objects related to a self2 and it is the satisfaction of self that makes them desirable4 ,on the other hand1 the fallacy lurking in the libertarian view arises from the fact that it also makes a hard and fast distinction between the self and the will4 ,the indeterminists speak as if the self had amongst its several faculties a will which is free in the sense of being able to act independently of all desires and motives4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the will1 as we have said1 is simply the man1 and it cannot be separated from his history1 his character1 and the objects which his character desires4 ,to speak1 as people sometimes do in popular language1 of being free to do as they like--that is1 to be influenced by no motive whatever1 is not only an idea absurd in itself1 but one which1 if pushed to its consequences1 would be subversive of all freedom1 and consequently of all moral value4 ',the liberty of indifference1' if the phrase means anything at all1 implies not merely that the agent is free from all external compulsion1 but that he is free from himself1 not determined even by his own character4 ,and if we ask what it really is that causes him to act1 it must be answered1 some caprice of the moment1 some accidental impulse or arbitrary freak of fancy4 ,the late ,professor ,james makes a valiant attempt to solve the 'dilemma of determinism' by resorting to the idea of 'chance' which he defines as a 'purely relative term1 giving us no information about that which is predicated1 except that it happens to be disconnected with something else--not controlled1 secured or #ij necessitated by other things in advance of its own actual presence4'#g ',on my way home1' he says1 ',i can choose either of two ways'2 and suppose 'the choice is made twice over and each time falls on a different street4' ',imagine that ,i first walk through ,divinity ,avenue1 and then am set again at the door of this hall just as ,i was before the choice was made4 ,imagine then that1 everything else being the same1#h ,i now make a different choice and traverse ,oxford ,street4 ,looking outwardly at these universes of which my two acts are a part1 can you say which is the impossible and accidental one and which the rational and necessary one8' ,perhaps an outsider could not say1 but ,professor ,james1 if he examined his reasons1 could say4 ,he assumes that 'everything else is the same4' ,but that is just what cannot be4 ,a new factor has been introduced1 it may be a whim1 a sudden impulse1 perhaps even a desire to upset calculation--a something in his character in virtue of which his second choice is different from his first4 ,it is an utter misnomer to call it 'chance4' ,even though he had tossed a coin and acted on the throw1 his action would still be determined by the kind of man he was4 ,let us not seek to defend freedom on inadequate grounds1 or contend for a spurious liberty4 ,no view of the subject should indeed debar us from acknowledging 'changes in heart and life1' but a misunderstanding of the doctrine of freedom may tend to paralyse moral initiative4 ,the attempt to sunder the will and the understanding and discover the source of freedom in the realm of the emotions1 as the voluntarists seek to do1 cannot be regarded as satisfactory or sound philosophy4 ,in separating faith and knowledge the ,ritschlian school tends to make subjective feeling the measure of truth and life2 while recent psychological experiments in ,america with the phenomena of faith-healing1 hypnotism and suggestion1 claim to have discovered hitherto unsuspected potencies of the will4 ,this line of thought has been welcomed by many as a relief from the mechanical theory of life and as a witness to moral #ia freedom and ,christian hope4 ,but so far from proving the sovereignty and autonomy of the will1 it discloses rather the possibilities of its abject bondage and thraldom4 ,no one can doubt the facts which ,professor ,james and others1 working from the side of religious psychology1 have recently established1 or discredit the instances of conversion to which the annals of the ,christian life so abundantly testify4 ,but even conversion must not be regarded as a change without motives4 ,there must be some connection between motive1 character and act1 otherwise the new spiritual experience would be simply a magical happening lacking all moral significance4 ,if there were no continuity of consciousness1 if ,i could be something to-day irrespective of what ,i was yesterday1 then all we signify by contrition1 penitence1 and shame would have no real meaning4 ,even the grace of ,god works through natural channels and human influences4 ,the past is not so much obliterated1 as taken up into the new life and transfigured with a new value4 ,the truth of spontaneity and initiative in life has lately found in ,m4 ,bergson a fresh and vigorous advocacy1 and we cannot be too grateful to that profound thinker for his reassertion of some neglected aspects of freedom and his philosophical vindication of the doctrine which puts it in a new position of prominence and security4 ',life is ,creation4' ',reality is a perpetual growth1 a ,creation pursued without end4' ',our will performs this miracle4' ',every human work in which there is invention1 every movement that manifests spontaneity brings something new into the world4 ,in the composition of the work of genius1 as in a simple free decision1 we create what no mere assemblage of materials could have given4'#i ,but yet he says that 'life cannot create absolutely because it is confronted with matter4 4 4 4 ,but it seizes upon this matter which is necessity itself1 and strives to introduce into it the greatest possible amount of indetermination and liberty4'#aj ,even ,bergson1 though he emphasises so strongly immediacy and incalculableness in #ib all human action1 cannot deny that the bodily arrangements and mechanisms are at least the basis of the working of the soul4 ,man cannot produce any change in the world except in strict co-ordination with the forces and qualities of material things4 ,the idea in his consciousness is powerless save in so far as it is a guide to combinations and modifications which are latent in reality4 ,the man who works with his hands does not create out of nothing a new totality4 ,even genius is conditioned by the elements he works with and upon4 ,he can do nothing with his materials beyond what it is in themselves to yield4 ,this sense of co-operation is strongly marked in the higher grades of activity4 ,the world may be in the making1 as ,bergson says1 but it is being made of possibilities already inherent in it4 ,life may be incalculable1 and you can never know beforehand what a great man1 indeed1 what any man may achieve1 but even the originality of a ,leonardo or a ,beethoven cannot effect the impossible or contradict the order of nature4 ,the sculptor feels that the statue is already lying in the marble awaiting only his creative touch to bring it forth4 ,the metal is alive in the worker's hands1 coaxing him to make of it something beautiful4#aa ,purpose does not come out of an empty mind4 ,freedom and initiative never begin entirely de novo4 ,life is a 'creation1' but it is also1 as ,m4 ,bergson labours to prove1 an 'evolution4' ,our ideals are made out of realities4 ,our heaven must be shaped out of the materials of our earth4 ,a moral personality is a self-conscious1 self-determining being4 ,but that is only half the reality4 ,the other half is that it is a self-determining consciousness in a world4 ,as ,bergson is careful to tell us1 the shape and extent of self-consciousness are determined by our relation to a world which acts upon us and upon which we act4 ,without a world in which we had personal business we should have no self-consciousness4 ,the co-operation of spontaneity and necessity is implied #ic in every true idea of freedom4 ,if a man were the subject of necessity alone he would be merely the creature of mechanical causation4 ,if he had the power of spontaneity only his so-called freedom would be a thing of caprice4 ,necessity means simply that man is conditioned by the world in which he lives4 ,spontaneity means1 not that he can conjure up at a wish a dream-world of no conditions1 but that he is not determined by anything outside of himself1 since the very conditions amid which he is placed may be transmuted by him into elements of his own character4 ,moral decisions are never isolated from ideals and tasks presented by our surroundings4 ,the self cannot act on any impulse however external till the impulse has transplanted itself within and become our motive4 ',our life1' says ,eucken1 'is a conflict between fate and freedom1 between being given and spontaneity4 ,spiritual individuality does not come to any one1 but has first to be won by the work of life1 elevating that which destiny brings4 4 4 4 ,the idea of freedom calls man to independent co-operation in the conflict of the worlds4 ,it gives to the simply human and apparently commonplace an incomparable greatness4 ,however powerful destiny may be1 it does not determine man entirely3 for even in opposition to it there is liberation from it4'#ab ,,iii ,it will not be necessary to dwell at any length on the third difficulty--the incompatibility of divine sovereignty and grace with moral personality4 ,how to reconcile divine power and human freedom is the great problem which meets us on the very threshold of the study of man's relation to ,god4 ,the solution1 in so far as it is possible for the mind1 must be sought in the divine immanence4 ,god works through man1 and man acts through ,god4 ,reason1 conscience1 and will are equally the testimony to ,god's indwelling in man and man's #id indwelling in ,god4 ,it is1 as ,st4 ,paul says1 ,god who worketh in us both to will and to do4 ,but just because of that inherent power1 it is we who work out our own character and destiny4 ,the divine is not introduced into human life at particular points or in exceptional crises only4 ,every man has something of the divine in him1 and when he is truest to himself he is most at one with ,god4 ,the whole meaning of human personality is a growing realisation of the divine personality4 ,god's sovereignty has no meaning except in relation to a world of which ,he is sovereign1 and ,his purposes can only be fulfilled through human agency4 ,while ,his thoughts far transcend in wisdom and sublimity those of ,his creatures they must be in a sense of the same kind--thoughts1 in other words1 which beings made in ,his image can receive1 love and1 in a measure1 share4 ,and though ,god cannot be conceived as the author of evil1 ,he may permit it and work through it1 bringing order out of chaos1 and evolving through suffering and conflict ,his sovereign purposes4 ,the problem becomes acutest when we endeavour to harmonise the antinomy of man's moral freedom and the doctrine of grace4 ,however insoluble the mystery1 it is not lessened by denying one side in the interest of unity4 ,scripture boldly affirms both truths4 ,no writer insists more strenuously than the ,apostle ,paul on the sovereign election of ,god1 yet none presents with greater fervour the free offer of salvation4 ,in his ethical teaching1 at least1 ,paul is no determinist4 ,freedom is the distinctive note of his conception of life4 ,life is a great and solemn trust committed to each by ,god1 for the use or abuse of which every man will be called to account4 ,his missionary zeal would have no meaning if he did not believe that men were free to accept or refuse his message4 ,paul's own example1 indeed1 is typical1 and while he knew that he was 'called1' he knew1 too1 that it lay with him to yield himself and present his life as a living sacrifice to ,god4 ,jesus1 too1 throughout ,his ministry1 assumed the ability of man freely to accept ,his call to righteousness1 and though ,he speaks #ie of the change as a 'new birth1' a creation from above1 beyond the strength of man to effect1 ,he invariably makes ,his appeal to the will--',follow ,me1' ',come unto ,me4' ,he assumes in all ,his dealings with individuals that they have the power of decision4 ,and so far from admitting that the past could not be undone1 and no chain of habit broken1 the whole purpose of ,his message and lifework was to proclaim the need and possibility of a radical change in life4 ,so full of hope was ,he for man that ,he despaired of none1 not even of those who had most grievously failed1 or most utterly turned their back on purity4 ,the parables in the ,third ,gospel of the lost coin1 the lost sheep1 and the lost son lay emphasis upon the possibility of recovery1 and1 in the case of the prodigal1 specially on the ability to return for those who have gone astray4 ,the teaching of ,scripture implies that while ,god is the source of all spiritual good1 and divine grace must be present with and precede all rightful action of the human will1 it rests with man to respond to the divine love4 ,no human soul is left destitute of the visiting of ,god's spirit1 and however rudimentary the moral life may be1 no bounds can be set to the growth which may1 and which ,god intends should1 result wherever the human will is consentient4 ,while1 therefore1 no man can claim merit in the sight of ,god1 but must acknowledge his absolute dependency upon divine grace1 no one can escape loss or blame if he wilfully frustrates ,god's design of mercy4 ,whatever mystery may attend the subject of ,god's sovereign grace1 the ,bible never presents it as negating the entire freedom of man to give or withhold response to the gift and leading of the divine spirit4 ,in the deepest ,new ,testament sense to be free is to have the power of acting according to one's true nature4 ,a man's ideal is his true self1 and all short of that is for him a limitation of freedom4 ,inasmuch as no ideal is ever completely realised1 true freedom is not so much a possession as a progressive appropriation4 ,it is at once a gift and a task4 ,it contains the twofold idea of emancipation #if and submission4 ,mere deliverance from the lower self is not liberty4 ,freedom must be completed by the appropriation of the higher self and the acceptance of the obligations which that self involves4 ,it is to be acquired through submission to the truth4 ',ye shall know the truth1 and the truth shall make you free4' ,a man is never so free as when he is the bondsman of ,christ4 ,the saying of ,st4 ,paul sums up the secret and essence of all true freedom3 ',the law of the spirit of life in ,christ ,jesus hath made me free from the law of sin and death4' #a ,mach1 ,erkenntniss und ,irrtum4 ,vorwort4 ,see also ,die ,analyse der ,empfindungen1 p4 #bj4 ',das ,sich ist unrettbar1' he says4 #b ,cf4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,der ,kampf um die ,seele1 p4 #ac4 #c ,cf4 ,eucken4 #d ,cf4 ,wallace1 ,logic of ,hegel1 ,proleg41 p4 #bcc4 #e ,wallace1 ,idem1 p4 #bce4 ,cf4 ,aristotle's wise man whose conduct is not kata logon but meta logon4 #f ,proleg41 section #ajh4 #g ,the ,will to ,believe1 p4 #aed4 #h ,the italics are ours4 #i ,creative ,evolution 7,eng4 trans471 p4 #beb4 #aj ,idem1 p4 #bfe4 #aa ,cf4 ,morris1 ,lects4 on ,art1 p4 #aie2 ,bosanquet1 ,hist4 of ,aesthetic1 p4 #dde2 also ,individuality and ,value1 p4 #aff4 #ab ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideals1 p4 #aha f4 #ig ,,section ,c ,,character #ii ,,chapter ,,vii ,,modern ,,theories ,,of ,,life ,bearing in mind the three fundamental ideas lying at the root of all ethical inquiry--,end1 ,norm1 and ,motive--we have now to deal with the shaping forces of the ,christian life1 the making of character4 ,in this section1 therefore1 we shall be engaged in a discussion of the ideals1 laws1 and springs of moral action4 ,and first1 ,what is the supreme good8 ,what is the highest for which a man should live8 ,this question determines the main problem of life4 ,it forces itself irresistibly upon us to-day1 and the answer to it is the test of every system of morals4 ,but before endeavouring to determine the distinctively ,christian ideal1 as presented in the teaching of ,jesus and interpreted by the growing ,christian consciousness of mankind1 it may be well to review briefly some of the main theories of life which are pressing their claims upon our attention to-day4 ,many of these modern views have arisen as a reaction against traditional religion4 ,from the seventeenth century onwards1 and especially during the nineteenth1 there has been a growing disposition to call in question the ,christian conception of life4 ,the antagonism reveals itself not only in a distrust of all forms of religion1 but also in a craving for wider culture4 ,the old certitudes fail to satisfy men who have acquired new habits of reflection1 and there is a disinclination to accept a scheme of life which seems to narrow human interests and exclude such departments as science1 art1 and politics4 ,one reason of this change is to be found in the wonderful advance of science during the last century4 ,men's minds1 withdrawn #ajj from primary1 and fixed upon secondary causes1 have refused to believe that the order of nature can be disturbed by supernatural intervention4 ,whether the modern antipathy to ,christianity is justified is not the question at present before us4 ,we may see in the movements of our day not so much a proof that the old faith is false1 as an indication that if ,christianity is to regain its power a radical re-statement of its truths1 and a more comprehensive application of its principles to life as a whole must be undertaken4 ,in the endeavour to find an all-embracing ideal of life two possibilities present themselves1 arising from two different ways of viewing man4 ,human life is in one aspect receptive2 in another1 active4 ,it may be regarded as dependent upon nature for its maintenance1 or as a creative power whose function is not merely to receive what nature supplies1 but to re-shape nature's materials and create a new spiritual world4 ,receptivity and activity are inseparable1 and form together the harmonious rhythm of life4 ,but there has ever been a tendency to emphasise one or other of these aspects4 ,the question has constantly arisen1 ,which is the more important for life--what we receive or what we create8 ,accordingly two contrasted conceptions of life have appeared--a naturalistic and an idealistic4 ,under the first we understand those theories which place man in the realm of sense and explain life by material conditions2 under the second we group such systems as give to life an independent creative power4 ,i ,,naturalistic ,,tendency #a4 ,naturalism has usually taken three forms1 an idyllic or poetic1 a philosophic1 and a scientific1 of which ,rousseau1 ,feuerbach1 and ,haeckel may be chosen as representatives4 7#a7 ,according to ,rousseau1 man is really a part of nature1 #aja and only as he conforms to her laws and finds his satisfaction in what she gives can he be truly happy4 ,nature is the mother of us all1 and only as we allow her spirit to pervade and nourish our being do we really live4 ,the watchword1 'back to nature' may be said to have given the first impulse to the later call of the 'simple life1' which has arisen as a protest against the luxury1 ostentation1 and artificiality of modern times4 7#b7 ,the philosophical form of naturalism1 as expounded by ,feuerbach1 inveighs against an idealistic interpretation of life4 ,the author of ,the ,essence of ,christianity started as a disciple of ,hegel1 but soon reversed the ,hegelian principle1 and pronounced the spiritual world to be a fiction of the mind4 ,man belongs essentially to the earth1 and is governed by his senses4 ,self-interest is his only motive1 and egoism his sole law of life4 ,it was only what might be expected1 that the ultimate consequences of this philosophy of the senses should be drawn by a disciple of ,feuerbach1 ,max ,stirner1#a in whose work1 ,the ,individual and ,his ,property1 the virtues of egoism are extolled1 and contempt is poured upon all disinterestedness and altruism4 7#c7 ,the latest form of naturalism is the scientific or monistic1 as represented by ,haeckel4 ,it may be described as scientific in so far as its author professes to deduce the moral life from biological principles4 ,in the chapter#b devoted to ,ethics in his work1 ,the ,riddle of the ,universe1 his pronouncements upon morality are not scientifically derived1 but simply dogmatically assumed4 ,the underlying principle of monism is that the universe is a unity in which no distinction exists between the material and the spiritual4 ,in this world as we know it there reigns only one kind of law1 the invariable law of nature4 ,the so-called spiritual life of man is not an independent realm having its own rights and aims2 it belongs wholly to nature4 ,the moral world is a province of the physical1 and the key to all the departments of reality is to be found in science #ajb alone4 ,the doctrine of evolution is brought into the service of monism1 and the attempt is made to prove that in the very process of biological development human thought1 moral sentiment1 and social instincts have been evolved4 ,with a curious sacrifice of consistency1 ,haeckel does not agree with ,feuerbach in exalting egoism to the place of supremacy in the moral life4 ,he recognises two kinds of duty--duty to self and duty to society4 ,the social sense once created is permanent1 and rises to ever-fresh developments4 ,but benevolence1 like every other obligation1 is1 according to evolutionary monism1 a product evolved from the battle of existence4 ,traced to its source1 it has its spring in the physical organism1 and is but an enlargement of the ego4#c ,the monistic naturalism of ,haeckel offers no high ideal to life4 ,its ,ethics is but a glorified egoism4 ,its dictates never rise above the impulses derived from nature4 ,but not religion only with its kingdom of ,god1 nor morality only with its imperatives1 nor art with its power of idealising the world of nature1 but even science itself1 with its claim to unify and organise facts1 proves that man stands apart from1 and is higher than1 the material world4 ,the very existence of such activities in the invisible realm renders vain every attempt to reduce the spiritual to the natural1 and to make truth1 goodness and beauty mere outgrowths of nature4 #b4 ,on its ethical side naturalism is closely associated with the theory of life which bears the name of utilitarianism--the theory which regards pleasure or profit as the aim of man4 ,in its most independent form ,hedonism can hardly be said to exist now as a reasoned theory4 ,carried out to its extreme consequences it reduces man to a mere animal4 ,hence a type of reflective egoism has taken the place of animal gratification1 and the idea of ulterior benefit has succeeded to that of immediate pleasure4 ,the names associated with this theory of morals are those of ,hobbes1 ,bentham1 and the two ,mills4 ,hobbes1 #ajc who preaches undiluted egoism1#d may be regarded as the father of utilitarianism4 ,but the title was first applied to the school of ,bentham4#e ,bentham's watchword was 'utility' expressed in his famous formula--',the greatest happiness of the greatest number4' ,while renouncing the abstract ideal of equality1 he yet asserted the equal claim of every individual to happiness4 ,in its distribution 'each is to count for one1 and no one for more than one4' ,hence ,bentham insisted upon an exact quantitative calculation of the consequences of our actions as the only sufficient guide to conduct4 ,the end is the production of the maximum of pleasure and the minimum of pain4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill modified considerably the principle of utility by introducing the doctrine of the qualitative difference in pleasures4#f ,while ,bentham assumed self-interest as the only motive of conduct1 ,mill affirmed the possibility of altruism in the motive as well as in the end or criterion of right actions4#g ,thus the idea of utility was extended to embrace higher moral ends4 ,but the antithesis between the 'self' and the 'other' was not overcome4 ,to introduce the notion of sympathy1 as ,adam ,smith and others did1 is to beg the question4 ,try as you will1 you cannot deduce benevolence from selfishness4 ,the question for the utilitarian must always arise1 ',how far ought ,i to follow my natural desires1 and how far my altruistic8' ,there must be a constant conflict1 and he can only be at peace with himself by striking a balance4 ,the utilitarian must be a legalist4 ,the principle of self-sacrifice does not spring from his inner being4 ,truth1 love1 sacrifice--all that gives to man his true worth as a being standing in vital relation to ,god--are only artificial adaptations based on convenience and general advantage4 #c4 ,evolutionary ethics1 as expounded by ,spencer and others1 though employing utilitarian principles1 affords an ampler and more plausible account of life than early #ajd ,hedonism4#h ,the evolutionists have enriched the idea of happiness by quietly slipping in many ends which really belong to the idea of the 'good4' ,as the term 'gravitation' was the magic word of the eighteenth century1 so the word 'evolution' is the talisman of the present age4 ,it must be admitted that it is a sublime and fruitful idea4 ,it explains much in nature and history which the old static notion failed to account for4 ,it has a great deal to teach us even in the spiritual sphere4 ,but when applied to life as a whole1 and when it is assumed to be the sole explanation of moral action1 it is apt to rob the will of its initiative and reduce all moral achievements to merely natural factors in an unfolding drama of life4 ,the soul itself1 with all its manifestations and experiences1 is treated simply as the resultant and harmonious effect of adaptation to environment4 ,man is regarded as the highest animal1 the most richly specialised organism--the last of a long series in the development of life1 the outstanding feature of which is the acquired power of complete adjustment to the world1 of which it is a part4 ,strictly speaking1 there is no room for a personal ,god in this mechanical theory of the universe4 ,the world becomes inevitably 'the ,be all and the ,end all4' ,hence1 as might be expected1 while evolutionary ,ethics claims to cover the whole range of this present life1 it does not pretend to extend into the regions of the hereafter4 ,it is concerned only with what it conceives to be the highest earthly good--the material and social well-being of mankind4 ,but no theory of life can be pronounced satisfactory which explains man in terms of this earth alone4 ,the ',great ,unknown' which ,mr4 ,spencer posits#i as the ultimate source of all power1 is a force to be reckoned with2 and1 known or unknown1 is the mightiest factor in all life's experiences4 ,man's spiritual nature in its whole range cannot be treated as of no account4 ',the powers of the world to come' have an essential bearing upon human #aje conduct in this world4 ,they shape our thoughts and determine our ideals4 ,hence any view of life which excludes from consideration the spiritual side of man1 and limits his horizon by the things of this earth must of necessity be inadequate and unsatisfactory4 #d4 ,closely connected with1 and1 indeed1 arising out of1 the evolutionary theory1 another type of thought1 prevalent to-day1 falls to be noted--the socialistic tendency4 ,it is now universally recognised that the individual cannot be treated as an isolated being1 but only in relation to society of which he is a part4 ,the emphasis is laid upon the solidarity of mankind1 and man is explained by such social facts as heredity and environment4 ,marx and ,engels1 the pioneers of the socialistic movement1 accepted in the fullest sense the scientific doctrine of evolution4 ,so far from being a mere ,utopian dream1 ,marx contends that ,socialism is the inevitable outcome of the movement of modern society4 ,the aim of the agitation is to bring men to a clear consciousness of a process which is going forward in all countries where the modern industrial methods prevail4 ,democracy must come to itself and assume its rights4 ,the keynote of the past has been the exploitation of man by man in the three forms of slavery1 serfdom1 and wage-labour4 ,the keynote of the future must be the exploitation of the earth by man associated to man4 ,the practical aim of ,socialism is that industry is to be carried on by associated labourers jointly owning the means of production4 ,here1 again1 the all-pervading ideal is--the general good of society--the happiness of the greatest number4 ,the reduction of all aims to a common level1 the equalising of social conditions1 the direction and control of all private interests and personal endeavours1 are to be means to one end--the material good of the community4 ,socialism is not1 however1 confined to an agitation for material welfare4 ,the industrial aspect of it is only a phase of a larger movement4 ,on its ethical side it is the outcome of a strong aspiration after a higher life4#aj ,the world is awakening to #ajf the fact that the majority of the human family has been virtually excluded from all participation in man's inheritance of knowledge and culture4 ,the labouring classes have been from time immemorial sunk in drudgery and ignorance1 bearing the burden of society without sharing in its happiness4 ,it is contended that every man ought to have an opportunity of making the most of his life and obtaining full freedom for the development of body and mind4 ,the aim to secure justice for the many1 to protect the weak against the strong1 to mitigate the fierceness of competition1 to bring about a better understanding between capital and labour1 and to gain for all a more elevated and expansive existence1 is not merely consistent with1 but indispensable to1 a true ,christian conception of life4 ,but the question which naturally arises is1 how this reformation is to be brought about4 ,never before have so many revolutionary schemes been proposed1 and so many social panaceas for a better world set forth4 ,it is1 indeed1 a hopeful sign of the times that the age of unconcern is gone and the temper of cautious inaction has yielded to scientific diagnosis and courageous treatment4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that the exclusively utilitarian position tends to lower the moral ideal1 and that the exaggerated emphasis upon the social aspect of life fails to do justice to the independence of the individual4 ,the tendency of modern political thought is to increase the control of government1 and to regard all departments of activity as branches of the state1 to be held and worked for the general good of the community4 ,thus there is a danger that the individual may gradually lose all initiative1 and life be impoverished under a coercive mechanical system4 ,socialism in its extreme form might easily become a new kind of tyranny4 ,by the establishment of collectivism1 by making the state the sole owner of all wealth1 the sole employer of labour1 and the controller of science and art1 as well as of education and religion1 there is a danger of crushing the spiritual side of man1 and giving to all life and endeavour a merely naturalistic character and content4 #ajg #e4 ,it was inevitable that an exaggerated insistence upon the importance of society should provoke an equally one-sided emphasis upon the worth of the individual1 and that as a protest against the demands of ,socialism there should arise a form of subjectivism which aims at complete self-affirmation4 7#a7 ,this tendency has received the name of aesthetic-individualism4 ,as a conception of life it may be regarded as intermediate between naturalism and idealism4 ,while rooted in a materialistic view of life1 it is moulded in the hands of its best advocates by spiritual aspirations4 ,its standpoint may be characterised as a theory of existence which seeks the highest value of life in the realm of the beautiful1 and which therefore endeavours to promote the supreme good of the individual through devotion to art4 ,not only does the cultivation of art tend in itself to elevate life by concentrating the soul upon all that is fairest and noblest in the world1 but the best means of enriching and ennobling life is to regard life itself as a work of art4 ,this view of existence1 it is claimed1 widens the scope of experience1 and leads us into ampler worlds of interest and enjoyment4 ,it aims at giving to personality a rounded completeness1 and bringing the manifold powers and passions of man into harmonious unity4 ,as a theory of life it is not new4 ,already ,plato1 and still more ,aristotle1 maintained that a true man must seek his highest satisfaction not in the possession of external things1 but in the most complete manifestation of his faculties4 ,individual aestheticism largely animated the ,romantic movement of ,germany at the beginning of last century4 ,but probably the best illustration of it is to be found in ,goethe and ,schiller2 while in our country ,matthew ,arnold has given it a powerful and persuasive exposition4 ,it was the aim of ,goethe to mould his life into a work of art1 and all his activities and poetic aspirations were subordinated to this end4 ,the beautiful harmonious life is the true life1 the well-rounded whole from which must be banished everything narrow1 vulgar1 and distasteful1 and in which #ajh everything fair and noble must find expression4 ',each individual1' says ,schiller1 'is at once fitted and destined for a pure ideal manhood4' ,and the attainment of this ideal requires from us the most zealous self-culture and a concentration of effort upon our own peculiar gifts4#aa ,a new form of aestheticism has lately appeared which pretends to combine morality and culture4 ',the ,new ,ethic1'#ab as it is called1 protests against the sombreness of religious traditions and the rigidity of moral restrictions1 and assigns to art the function of emancipating man and idealising life4 ,but what this movement really offers under its new catchword is simply a subtler form of epicureanism1 a finer self-indulgence4 ,it is the expression of a desire to be free from all restraint1 to close one's eyes to the 'majesty of human suffering1' allowing one's thoughts to dwell only upon the agreeable and gay in life4 ,it regards man as simply the sum-total of his natural inclinations1 and conceives duty to be nothing else than the endeavour to bring these into equilibrium4 ,that the aesthetic culture of life is a legitimate element in ,christian morality can hardly be denied by any one who has pondered the meaning in all its breadth of the natural simplicity and spiritual beauty of the manifestation of the ,son of ,man4 ,the beautiful1 the good1 and the true are intimately connected1 and constitute together all that is conceivably highest in life4 ,christian ,ethics ought to include everything that is gracious and fair2 and any theory of life that has no room for joy and beauty1 for laughter and song1 for appreciation of artistic or poetic expression1 is surely deficient4 ,but it is one thing to acknowledge these things2 it is another to make them the whole of existence4 ,we live in a world in which much else besides beauty and joy exists1 and it is not by shirking contact with the unlovely phases of experience1 but by resolutely accepting the ministry of sorrow they impose1 #aji that we attain to our highest selves4 ,the narrow ,puritanism of a past age may need the corrective of the broader ,humanism of to-day1 but not less must the ,ethic of self-culture be reinforced by the ,ethic of self-sacrifice4 ,we may not cultivate the beauty of life at the cost of duty1 nor forget that it is often only through the immolation of self that the self can be realised4 7#b7 ,while the ,romantic movement1 of which ,goethe was the most illustrious representative1 did much to enlarge life and ennoble the whole expanse of being1 its extreme subjectivism and aristocratic exclusiveness found ultimate expression 7a7 in the pessimism of ,schopenhauer1 and the arrogance of ,nietzsche4 ,the alliance between art and morality was dissolved4 ,the imagination scorned all fetters and1 in its craving for novelty and contempt of convention1 became the organ of individual caprice and licence4 ,in ,nietzsche--that strange erratic genius--at once artist1 philosopher1 and rhapsodist--this philosophy of life found brilliant if bizarre utterance4 ,if ,schopenhauer reduces existence to nothing1 and finds in oblivion and extinction its solution1 7b7 ,nietzsche seeks rather to magnify life by striking the note of a proud and defiant optimism4 ,he claims for the individual limitless rights2 and1 repudiating all moral ties1 asserts the complete sovereignty of the self-sufficing ego4 ,with a deep-rooted hatred of the prevailing tendencies of civilisation1 he combines a vehement desire for a richer and unrestrained development of human power4 ,he would not only revalue all moral values1 but reverse all ideas of right and wrong4 ,he would soar 'beyond good and evil1' declaring that the prevailing judgments of mankind are pernicious prejudices which have too long tyrannised over the world4 ,he acknowledges himself to be not a moralist1 but an 'immoralist1' and he bids us break in pieces the ancient tables of the ,decalogue4 ,christianity is the most debasing form of slave-morality4 ,it has made a merit of weakness and servility1 and given the name of virtue to such imbecilities as meekness and self-sacrifice4 ,he calls upon the individual to exalt himself4 ,the man of #aaj the future is to be the man of self-mastery and virile force1 'the ,superman1' who is to crush under his heel the cringing herd of weaklings who have hitherto possessed the world4 ,the earth is for the strong1 the capable1 the few4 ,a mighty race1 self-assertive1 full of vitality and will1 is the goal of humanity4 ,the vital significance of ,nietzsche's radicalism lies less in its positive achievement than in its stimulating effect4 ,though his account of ,christianity is a caricature1 his strong invective has done much to correct the sentimental rose-water view of the ,christian faith which has been current in some pietistic circles4 ,the ,superman1 with all its vagueness1 is a noble1 inspiring ideal4 ,the problem of the race is to produce a higher manhood1 to realise which there is need for sacrifice and courage4 ,nietzsche is the spiritual father and forerunner of the ,eugenics4 ,the ,superman is not born1 he is bred4 ,our passions must be our servants4 ,obedience and fidelity1 self-discipline and courage are the virtues upon which he insists4 ',be master of life4 4 4 4' ',i call you to a new nobility4 ,ye shall become the procreators and sowers of the future4' ,while there is much that is suggestive in ,nietzsche's scathing criticisms1 and many passages of striking beauty in his books1 he is stronger in his denials than his affirmations1 and it is the negative side that his followers have fastened upon and developed4 ,sudermann1 the novelist1 has carried his philosophy of egoism to its extreme4 ,this writer1 in a work entitled ,sodom's ,end1 affirms that there is nothing holy and nothing evil4 ,there is no such thing as duty or love4 ,only nerves exist4 ,the ',superman' becomes a monster4 ,such teaching can scarcely be taken seriously4 ,it conveys no helpful message4 ,it is the perversion of life's ideal4 ,as a passing phase of thought it is interesting1 but it solves no problems2 it advances no truths4 ,it resembles a whirlwind which helps to clear the air and drive away superfluous leaves1 but it does little to quicken or expand new seeds of life4 #aaa ,,ii ,,idealistic ,,tendency #a4 ,modern ,idealism was inaugurated by ,kant4 ,kant's significance for thought lies in his twofold demand for a new basis of knowledge and morality4 ,he conceived that both are possible1 and that both are interdependent1 and have but one solution4 ,the solution1 however1 could only be achieved by a radical change of method1 and by the introduction of new standards of value4 ,kant's theory of morals was an attempt to reconcile the two opposing ethical principles which were current in the eighteenth century4 ,on the one side1 the ,realists treated man simply as a natural being1 and accordingly demanded a pursuance of his natural impulses4 ,on the other side1 the ,dogmatists conceived that conduct must be governed by divine sanctions4 ,both theories agreed in regarding happiness as the end of life2 the one the happiness of sensuous enjoyment2 the other1 that of divine favour4 ,both set an end outside of man himself as the basis of their ethical doctrine4 ,kant was dissatisfied with this explanation of the moral life4 ,the question1 therefore1 which arises is1 ,whence comes the idea of duty which is an undeniable fact of our experience8 ,if it came merely from without1 it could never speak to us with absolute authority1 nor claim unquestioning obedience4 ,that which comes from without depends for its justification upon some consequence external to our action1 and must be based1 indeed1 upon some excitement of reward or pain4 ,but that would destroy it as a moral good2 since nothing can be morally good that is not pursued for its own sake4 ,kant1 therefore1 seeks to show that the law of the moral life must originate within us1 must spring from an inherent principle of our own rational nature4 ,hence the distinctive feature of ,kant's moral theory is the enunciation of the ',categorical ,imperative'--the supreme inner demand of reason4 ,from this principle of autonomy there arise at once the notions of man's freedom and the law's #aab universality4 ,self-determination is the presupposition of all morality4 ,but what is true for one is true for all4 ,each man is a member of a rational order1 and possesses the inalienable independence and the moral dignity of being an end in himself4 ,hence the formula of all duty is1 ',act from a maxim at all times fit to be a universal law4' ,it is the merit of ,kant that he has given clear expression to the majesty of the moral law4 ,no thinker has more strongly asserted man's spiritual nature or done more to free the ideal of duty from all individual narrowness and selfish interest4 ,but ,kant's principle of duty labours under the defect1 that while it determines the form1 it tells us nothing of the content of duty4 ,we learn from him the grandeur of the moral law1 but not its essence or motive-power4 ,he does not clearly explain what it is in the inner nature of man that gives to obligation its universal validity or even its dominating force4 ,as a recent writer truly says1 ',in order that morality may be possible at all1 its law must be realised in me1 but while the way in which it is realised is mine1 the content is not mine2 otherwise the whole conception of obligation is destroyed4'#ac ,if the soul's function is purely formal how can we attain to a self-contained life8 ,moreover1 if the freedom which ,kant assigns to man is really to achieve a higher ideal and bring forth a new world1 must there not be some spiritual power or energy1 some dynamic force1 which1 while it is within man1 is also without1 and independent of1 him8 ',duty for duty's sake' lacks lifting power1 and is the essence of legalism4 ,love1 after all1 is the fulfilling of the law4 #b4 ,to overcome the ,kantian abstraction1 and give content to the formal law of reason was the aim of the idealistic writers who succeeded him4 ,fichte conceived of morality as action--self-consciousness realising itself in a world of deeds4 ,hegel started with the ,idea as the source of all reality1 and developed the conception of ,personality attaining self-realisation through the growing consciousness of the world and of ,god4 ,personality involves capacity4 ,the #aac law of life1 therefore1 is1 ',be a person and respect others as persons4'#ad ,man only comes to himself as he becomes conscious that his life is rooted in a larger self4 ,morality is just the gradual unfolding of an eternal purpose whose whole is the perfection of humanity4 ,it has been objected that the idea of life as an evolutionary process1 which finds its most imposing embodiment in the system of ,hegel1 if consistently carried out1 destroys all personal motive and self-determining activity1 and reduces the history of the world to a soulless mechanism4 ,hegel himself was aware of this objection1 and the whole aim of his philosophy was to show that personality has no meaning if it be not the growing consciousness of the infinite4 ,the more recent exponents of his teaching have endeavoured to prove that the individual1 so far from being suppressed1 is really expressed in the process1 that1 indeed1 while the universal life underlies1 unifies1 and directs the particular phases of existence1 the individual in realising himself is at the same time determining and evolving the larger spiritual world--a world already implicitly present in his earliest consciousness and first strivings4 ,the absolute is indeed within us from the very beginning1 but we have to work it out4 ,hence life is achieved through conflict4 ,the universe is not a place for pleasure or apathy4 ,it is a place for soul-making4 ,no rest is to be found by an indolent withdrawal from the world of reality4 ',in one way or another1 in labour1 in learning1 and in religion1 every man has his pilgrimage to make1 his self to remould and to acquire1 his world and surroundings to transform4 4 4 4 ,it is in this adventure1 and not apart from it1 that we find and maintain the personality which we suppose ourselves to possess ab initio4'#ae ,the soul is a world in itself2 but it is not1 and must not be treated as1 an isolated personality impervious to the mind of others4 ,at each stage of its evolution it is the focus and expression of a larger world4 ,a man does not value himself as a detached subject1 but as the #aad inheritor of gifts which are focused in him4 ,man1 in short1 is a trustee for the world2 and suffering and privation are among his opportunities4 ,the question for each is1 ,how much can he make of them8 ,something above us there must be to make us do and dare and hope1 and the important thing is not one's separate destiny1 but the completeness of experience and one's contribution to it4#af #c4 ,it was inevitable that there should arise a reaction against the extreme ,intellectualism of ,hegel and his school1 and that a conception of existence which lays the emphasis upon the claims of practical life should grow in favour4 ,the pursuit of knowledge tended to become merely a means of promoting human well-being4 ,the first definite attempt to formulate a specific theory of knowledge with this practical aim in view takes the form of what is known as ',pragmatism4' ,the modern use of this term is chiefly connected with the name of the late ,professor ,james1 to whose brilliant writings we are largely indebted for the elucidation of its meaning4 ',pragmatism1' says ,james1 'represents the empiricist attitude both in a more radical and less objectionable form than it has ever yet assumed4'#ag ,it agrees with utilitarianism in explaining practical aspects1 and with positivism in disdaining useless abstractions4 ,it claims to be a method rather than a system of philosophy4 ,and its method consists in bringing the pursuit of knowledge into close relationship with life4 ,nothing is to be regarded as true which cannot be justified by its value for man4 ,the hypothesis which on the whole works best1 which most aptly fits the circumstances of a particular case1 is true4 ,the emphasis is laid not on absolute principles1 but on consequences4 ,we must not consider things as they are in themselves1 but in their reference to the good of mankind4 ,it is useless1 for example1 to speculate about the existence of ,god4 ,if the hypothesis of a deity works satisfactorily1 if the best results follow for the moral well-being of humanity by believing in a ,god1 #aae then the hypothesis may be taken as true4 ,it is true at least for us4 ,truth1 according to ,pragmatism1 has no independent existence4 ,it is wholly subjective1 relative1 instrumental4 ,its only test is its utility1 its workableness4 ,this view of truth1 though supported by much ingenuity and brilliance1 would seem to contradict the very idea of truth1 and to be subversive of all moral values4 ,if truth has no independent validity1 if it is not something to be sought for itself1 irrespective of the inclinations and interests of man1 then its pursuit can bring no real enrichment to our spiritual being4 ,it remains something alien and external1 a mere arbitrary appendix of the self4 ,it is not the essence and standard of human life4 ,if its sole test is what is advantageous or pleasant it sinks into a merely utilitarian opinion or selfish bias4 ',truth1' says ,eucken1 'can only exist as an end in itself4 ,instrumental truth is no truth at all4'#ah ,according to this theory1 moreover1 truth is apt to be broken up into a number of separate fragments without correlation or integrating unity4 ,there will be as many hypotheses as there are individual interests4 ,the truth that seems to work best for one man or one age may not be the truth that serves another4 ,in the collision of opinions who is to arbitrate8 ,if it be the institutions and customs of to-day1 the present state of morals1 that is to be the measure of what is good1 then we seem to be committed to a condition of stagnancy1 and involved in the quest of a doubtful gain4 ,as might be expected1 ,professor ,james's view of truth determines his view of the world4 ,it is pluralistic1 not monistic2 melioristic1 not optimistic4 ,it is characteristic of him that when he discusses the question1 ,is life worth living8 his answer practically is1 ',yes1 if you believe it is4' ,pragmatism is put forward as the mediator between two opposite tendencies1 those of 'tender-mindedness' and 'tough-mindedness4' ',the tendency to rest in the ,absolute is the characteristic mark of the tender-minded2 the #aaf radically tough-minded1 on the other hand1 needs no religion at all4'#ai ,there is something to be said for both of these views1 ,james thinks1 and a compromise will probably best meet the case4 ,hence1 against these two ways of accepting the universe1 he maintains the pragmatic faith which is at once theistic1 pluralistic1 and melioristic4 ,he accepts a personal power as a workable theory of the universe4 ,but ,god need not be infinite or all-inclusive1 for 'all that the facts require is that the power should be both other and larger than our common selves4'#bj ,such a conception of ,god1 even on ,james's own admission1 is akin to polytheism4 ,and such polytheism implies a pluralistic view of the universe4 ,the invisible order1 in which we hope to realise our larger life1 is a world which does not grow integrally in accordance with the preconceived plan of a single architect1 'but piecemeal by the contributions of its several parts4'#ba ,we make the world to our will1 and 'add our fiat to the fiat of the creator4' ,with regard to the supreme question of human destiny ,professor ,james's view is what he calls 'melioristic4' ,there is a striving for better things1 but what the ultimate outcome will be1 no one can say4 ,for the world is still in the making4 ,life is a risk4 ,it has many possibilities4 ,good and evil are intermingled1 and will continue so to be4 ,it is a pluralistic world just because the will of man is free1 and predetermination is excluded4 ,if good was assured as the final goal of ill1 and there was no sense of venture1 no possibility of loss or failure1 then life would lack interest1 and moral effort would be shorn of reality and incentive4 ,in ,professor ,james's philosophy of life there is much that is original and stimulating1 and it draws attention to facts of experience and modes of thought which we were in danger of overlooking4 ,it has compelled us to consider the psychological bases of personality1 and to lay more stress upon the power of the will and individual choice in the determining of character and destiny4 ,it is pre-eminently #aag a philosophy of action1 and it emphasises an aspect of life which intellectualism was prone to neglect--the function of personal endeavour and initiative in the making of the world4 ,it postulates the reality of a living ,god who invites our co-operation1 and it encourages our belief in a higher spiritual order which it is within our power to achieve4 ,pragmatism has hitherto made headway chiefly in ,america and ,britain1 but on its activistic side it is akin to a new philosophical movement which has appeared in ,france and ,germany4 ,the name generally given to this tendency is ',activism' or ',vitalism'--a title chosen probably in order to emphasise the self-activity of the personal consciousness directed towards a world which it at once conquers and creates4 ,the authors of this latest movement are the ,frenchman1 ,henri ,bergson1 and the ,german1 ,rudolf ,eucken4 ,differing widely in their methods and even in their conclusions1 they agree in making a direct attack both upon the realism and the intellectualism of the past1 and in their conviction that the world is not a 'strung along universe1' as the late ,professor ,james puts it1 but a world that is being made by the creative power and personal freedom of man4 ,while ,eucken has for many years occupied a position of commanding influence in the realm of thought1 ,bergson has only recently come into notice4 ,the publication of his striking work1 ,creative ,evolution1 marks an epoch in speculation1 and is awakening the interest of the philosophical world4#bb #d4 ,with his passion for symmetry and completeness ,bergson has evolved a whole theory of the universe1 #aah resorting1 strange to say1 to a form of reasoning that implies the validity of logic1 the instrument of the intellect which he never wearies of impugning4 ,without entering upon his merely metaphysical speculations1 we fix upon his theory of consciousness--the relation of life to the material world--as involving certain ethical consequences bearing upon our subject4 ,the idea of freedom is the corner-stone of ,bergson's system1 and his whole philosophy is a powerful vindication of the independence and self-determination of the human will4 ,life is free1 spontaneous1 creative and incalculable2 determined neither by natural law nor logical sequence4 ,it can break through all causation and assert its own right4 ,it is not1 indeed1 unrelated to matter1 since it has to find its exercise in a material world4 ,matter plays at once1 as he himself says1 the rle of obstacle and stimulus4#bc ,but it is not the world of things which legislates for man2 it is man who legislates for it4 ,bergson's object is to vindicate the autonomy of consciousness1 and his entire philosophy is a protest against every claim of determinism to dominate life4 ,by introducing the creative will before all development1 he displaces mechanical force1 and makes the whole evolution of life dependent upon the 'vital impulse' which pushes forward against all obstacles to ever higher and higher efficiency4 ,similarly1 by drawing a distinction between intellect and intuition1 he shows that the latter is the truly creative power in man which penetrates to the heart of reality and shapes its own world4 ,intellect and instinct have been developed along divergent lines4 ,the intellect has merely a practical function4 ,it is related to the needs of action4#bd ,it is the faculty of manufacturing artificial objects1 especially tools to make tools4#be ,it deals with solids and geometrical figures1 and its instrument is logic4 ,but according to ,bergson it has an inherent incapacity to deal with life4#bf ,when we contrast the rigidity and superficiality of intellect with the fluidity1 sympathy and intimacy of intuition1 we see at once wherein #aai lies the true creative power of man4 ,development1 when carried too exclusively along the lines of intellect1 means loss of will-power2 and we have seen how1 not individuals alone1 but entire nations1 may be crushed and destroyed by a too rigid devotion to mechanical and stereotyped methods of thought4 ,only life is adequate to deal with life4 ,let us give free expression to the intuitive and sympathetic force within us1 'feel the wild pulsation of life1' if we would conquer the world and come to our own4 ',the spectacle1' says ,bergson1 'of life from the very beginning down to man suggests to us the image of a current of consciousness which flows down into matter as into a tunnel1 most of whose endeavours to advance 4 4 4 are stopped by a rock that is too hard1 but which1 in one direction at least1 prove successful1 and break out into the light once more4'#bg ,but there life does not stop4 ',all tended to mankind1 ,but in completed man begins anew ,a tendency to ,god4'#bh ,this creative consciousness still pushes on1 giving to matter its own life1 and drawing from matter its nutriment and strength4 ,the effort is painful1 but in making it we feel that it is precious1 more precious perhaps than the particular work it results in1 because through it we have been making ourselves1 'raising ourselves above ourselves4' ,and in this there is the true joy of life--the joy which every creator feels--the joy of achievement and triumph4 ,thus not only is the self being created1 but the world is being made--original and incalculable--not according to a preconceived plan or logical sequence1 but by the free spontaneous will of man4 ,the soul is the creative force--the real productive agent of novelty in the world4 ,the strange thing is that the soul creates not the world only1 but itself4 ,whence comes this mystic power8 ,what is the origin of the soul8 ,bergson does not say4 ,but in one passage he suggests that #abj possibly the world of matter and consciousness have the same origin--the principle of life which is the great prius of all that is and is to be4 ,but ,bergson's 'lan vital1' though more satisfactory than the first cause of the naturalist1 or the 'great unknown' of the evolutionist1 or even than some forms of the absolute1 is itself admittedly outside the pale of reason--inexplicable1 indefinable1 and incalculable4 ,the new 'vitalism' unfolds a living self-evolving universe1 a restless1 unfinished and never-to-be-finished development--the scope and goal of which cannot be foreseen or explained4 ,an infinite number of possibilities open out2 which the soul will follow no one can tell2 why it follows this direction rather than that1 no one can see4 ,there seems to be no room here for teleology or purposiveness2 and though ,bergson has not yet worked out the theological and ethical implications of his theory1 as far as we can at present say the personality and imminence of a ,divine ,being are excluded4 ,though ,bergson never refers to ,hegel by name1 he seems to be specially concerned in refuting the philosophy of the ,absolute1 according to which the world is conceived as the evolution of the infinite mind4 ,if 'tout est donn1' says ,bergson1 if all is given beforehand1 'why do over again what has already been completed1 thus reducing life and endeavour to a mere sham4' ,but even allowing the force of that objection1 the idea of a 'world in the making1' though it appeals to the popular mind1 is not quite free from ambiguity4 ,in one sense it states a platitude--a truth1 indeed1 which is not excluded from an absolute or teleological conception of life4 ,but if it is implied that the world1 because it is in process of production1 may violate reason and take some capricious form1 the idea is absurdly false1 so long as we are what we are1 and the human mind is what it is4 ,the real must always be the rational4 ,all enterprise and effort are based on the faith that we belong to a rational world4 ,though we cannot predict what form the world will ultimately take1 we can at least be sure that it can assume no character which will #aba contradict the nature of intelligence4 ,even in the making of a world1 if life has any moral worth and meaning at all1 there must be rational purpose4 ,there are creation and initiative in man assuredly1 but they must not be interpreted as activities which deviate into paths of grotesque and arbitrary fancy4 ,our actions and ideas must issue from our world4 ,even a poem or work of art must make its appeal to the universal mind2 any other kind of originality would wholly lack human interest and sever all creation and life from their root in human nature4 ,but at least we must acknowledge that ,bergson has done to the world of thought the great service of liberating us from the bonds of matter and the thraldom of a fatalistic necessity4 ,it is his merit that he has lifted from man the burden of a hard determinism1 and vindicated the freedom1 choice1 and initiative of the human spirit4 ,if he has no distinctly ,christian message1 he has at least disclosed for the soul the possibility of new beginnings1 and has shown that there is room in the spiritual life1 as the basis of all upward striving1 for change of heart and conversion of life4 #e4 ,in the philosophy of ,eucken there is much that is in harmony with that of ,bergson2 but there are also important differences4 ,common to both is a reaction against formalism and intellectualism4 ,neither claims that we can gain more than 'the knowledge of a direction' in which the solution of the problem may be sought4 ,it is not a 'given' or finished world with which we have to do4 ',the triumph of life is expressed by creation1' says ,eucken1 ',i mean the creation of self by self4' ',we live in the conviction1' he says again1 'that the possibilities of the universe have not yet been played out1#bi but that our spiritual life still finds itself battling in mid-flood with much of the world's work still before us4' ,while ,bergson confines himself rigidly to the metaphysical side of thought1 ,eucken is chiefly interested in the ethical and religious aspects of life's problem4 ,moreover1 while there is an absence of a distinctly teleological aim in ,bergson1 the purpose and ideal #abb of life are prominent elements in ,eucken4 ,notwithstanding his antagonism to intellectualism1 the influence of ,hegel is evident in the absolutist tendency of his teaching4 ,life for ,eucken is fundamentally spiritual4 ,self-consciousness is the unifying principle4 ,personality is the keynote of his philosophy4 ,but we are not personalities to begin with3 we have the potentiality to become such by our own effort4 ,he bids us therefore forget ourselves1 and strive for our highest ideal--the realisation of spiritual personality4 ,the more man 'loses his life' in the pursuit of the ideals of truth1 goodness1 and beauty the more surely will he 'save it4' ,he realises himself as a personality1 who becomes conscious of his unity with the universal spiritual life4 ,hence there are two fundamental principles underlying ,eucken's philosophy which give to it its distinguishing character4 ,the first is the metaphysical conception of a realm of ,spirit--an independent spiritual ,reality1 not the product of the natural man1 but communicating itself to him as he strives for1 and responds to1 it4 ,this spiritual reality underlies and transcends the outward world4 ,it may be regarded as an absolute or universal life--the deeper reality of which all visible things are the expression4 ,the second cardinal principle is the doctrine of ,activism4 ,life is action4 ,human duty lies in a world of strife4 ,we have to contend for a spiritual life-content4 ,here ,eucken has much in common with ,fichte4#cj ,but while ,fichte starts with self-analysis1 and loses sight of error1 care1 and sin1 ,eucken starts with actual conflict1 and ever retains a keen sense of these hampering elements4 ,the evil of the world is not to be solved simply by looking down upon the world from some superior optimistic standpoint1 and pronouncing it very good4 ,the only way to solve it is the practical one1 to leave the negative standing1 and press on to the deeper affirmative--the positive truth1 that beneath the world of nature there exists a deeper reality of spirit1 of which we become participators by the freedom and activity of our lives4 ,we are here to acquire a new spiritual world1 but #abc it is a world in which the past is taken up and transfigured4 ,against naturalism1 which acquiesces in the present order of the universe1 and against mere intellectualism1 which simply investigates it1 ,eucken never wearies of protesting4 ,he demands1 first1 a fundamental cleavage in the inmost being of man1 and a deliverance from the natural view of things2 and he contends1 secondly1 for a spiritual awakening and an energetic endeavour to realise our spiritual resources4 ,not by thought but by action is the problem of life to be solved4 ,hence his philosophy is not a mere theory about life1 but is itself a factor in the great work of spiritual redemption which gives to life its meaning and aim4 ,that which makes ,eucken's positive idealism specially valuable is his application of it to religion4 ,religion has been in all ages the mighty uplifting power in human life4 ,it stands for a negation of the finite and fleeting1 and an affirmation of the spiritual and the eternal4 ,this is specially true of the ,christian religion4 ,christianity is the supreme type of religion because it best answers the question1 ',what can religion do for life8' ,but the old forms of its manifestation do not satisfy us to-day4 ,christianity of the present fails to win conviction principally for three reasons3 7#a7 because it does not distinguish the eternal substance of religion from its temporary forms2 7#b7 because it professes to be the final expression of all truth1 thus closing the door against progress of thought and life2 and 7#c7 while emphasising man's redemption from evil1 it forgets the elevation of his nature towards good4 ,there is a tendency to depreciate human nature1 and to overlook the joyousness of life4 ,what is needed1 therefore1 is the expression of ,christianity in a new form--a reconstruction which shall emphasise the positiveness1 activity1 and joy of ,christian morality4#ca ,while every one must feel the sublimity and inspiration in this conception of a spiritual world1 which it is the task of life to realise1 most people will be also conscious of a #abd certain vagueness and elusiveness in its presentation4 ,we are constrained to ask what is this independent spiritual life8 ,is it a personal ,god1 or is it only an impersonal spirit1 which pervades and interpenetrates the universe8 ,the elusive obscurity of the position and function which ,eucken assigns to his central conception of the ,geistes-,leben must strike every reader4 ,even more than ,hegel1 ,eucken seems to deal with an abstraction4 ,the spiritual life1 we are told1 'grows1' 'divides1' 'advances'--but it appears to be as much a 'bloodless category' as the ,hegelian 'idea1' having no connection with any living subject4 ,god1 the ,spirit1 may exist1 indeed ,eucken says ,he does1 but there is nowhere any indication of how the spiritual life follows from1 or is the creation of1 the ,divine ,spirit4 ,our author speaks with so great appreciation of ,christianity that it seems an ungracious thing to find fault with his interpretation of it4 ,yet with so much that is positive and suggestive1 there are also some grave omissions4 ,in a work that professes to deal with the ,christian faith--,the ,truth of ,religion--and which indeed presents a powerful vindication of historical ,christianity1 we miss any philosophical interpretation of the nature and power of prayer1 adoration1 or worship1 or any account1 indeed1 of the intimacies of the soul which belong to the very essence of the ,christian faith4 ,while he insists upon the possibility1 nay1 the necessity1 of a new beginning1 he fails to reveal the power by which the great decision is made4 ,while he affirms with much enthusiasm and frankness the need of personal decision and surrender1 he has nothing to say of the divine authority and power which creates our choice and wins our obedience4 ,nowhere does he show that the creative redemptive force comes not from man's side1 but ultimately from the side of ,god4 ,and finally1 his teaching with regard to the person and work of ,jesus ,christ1 notwithstanding its tender sympathy and fine discrimination1 does less than justice to the uniqueness and historical significance of the ,son of ,man4 ,with profound appreciation and rare beauty of language he depicts the life of ,jesus4 ',seldom1' #abe says a recent writer1 'has the perfect ,man been limned with so persuasive a combination of strenuous thought and gracious word4'#cb ',he who makes merely a normal man of ,jesus1' he says1 'can never do justice to ,his greatness4'#cc ,yet while he protests rightly against emptying our ,lord's life of all real growth and temptation1 and the claim of practical omniscience for ,his humanity 7conceptions of ,christ's ,person surely nowhere entertained by first-class theologians71 he leaves us in no manner of doubt that he does not attach a divine worth to ,jesus1 nor regard ,him in the scriptural sense as the ,supreme revelation and incarnation of ,god4 ,and hence1 while the peerless position of ,jesus as teacher and religious genius is frankly acknowledged1 and ,his purity1 power1 and permanence are extolled--the mediatorial and redemptive implicates of ,his personality are overlooked4 ,but when all is said1 no one can study the spiritual philosophy of ,eucken without realising that he is in contact with a mind which has a sublime and inspiring message for our age4 ,probably more than any modern thinker1 ,eucken reveals in his works deep affinities with the central spirit of ,christianity4 ,and perhaps his influence may be all the greater because he maintains an attitude of independence towards dogmatic and organised ,christianity4 ,professor ,eucken does not attempt to satisfy us with a facile optimism4 ,life is a conflict1 a task1 an adventure4 ,and he who would engage in it must make the break between the higher and the lower nature4 ,for ,eucken1 as for ,dante1 there must be 'the penitence1 the tears1 and the plunge into the river of ,lethe before the new transcendent love begins4' ,there is no evasion of the complexities of life4 ,he has a profound perception of the contradictions of experience and the seeming paradoxes of religion4 ,for him true liberty is only possible through the 'given1' through ,god's provenience and grace3 genuine self-realisation is only achievable through a continuous self-dedication to1 and #abf incorporation within1 the great realm of spirits2 and the ,immanence within our lives of the ,transcendent4#cd ,in styling the tendencies which we have thus briefly reviewed non-,christian1 we have had no intention of disparagement4 ,no earnest effort to discover truth1 though it may be inadequate and partial1 is ever wholly false4 ,in the light of these theories we are able to see more clearly the relation between the good and the useful1 and to acknowledge that1 just as in nature the laws of economy and beauty have many intimate correspondences1 so in the spiritual realm the good1 the beautiful1 and the true may be harmonised in a higher category of the spirit4 ,we shall see that the ,christian ideal is not so much antagonistic to1 as inclusive of1 all that is best in the teaching of science and philosophy4 ,the task therefore now before us is to interpret these general conceptions of the highest good in the light of ,christian ,revelation--to define the chief end of life according to ,christianity4 #a ,kasper ,schmidt1 ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum4 #b ,haeckel1 op4 cit41 chap4 xix4 #c ,haeckel1 op4 cit41 chap4 xix4 p4 #adj4 #d ,hobbes' ,leviathan1 chap4 vi4 #e ,cf4 ,pringle-,pattison1 ,philos4 ,radicals1 and ,j4 ,seth's ,eng4 ,philosophers1 p4 #bdj4 #f ,utilitarianism1 chap4 ii4 #g ,idem1 chap4 iii4 #h ,cf4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 p4 #bge2 also ,social ,statics4 ,in the former work an attempt is made to exhibit the biological significance of pleasure and the relation between egoism and altruism4 #i ,see ,first ,principles1 p4 #aff ff4 #aj ,see ,kirkup1 ,an ,inquiry into ,socialism1 p4 #ai4 #aa ,see ,ltgert1 ,natur und ,geist ,gottes1 for striking chapter on ,goethe's ,ethik1 p4 #aba f4 #ab ,cf4 ,eucken1 ,main ,currents of ,modern ,thought1 p4 #dja f4 #ac ,macmillan1 ,the ,crowning ,phase of the ,critical ,philosophy1 p4 #bh4 #ad ,hegel1 ,phil4 of ,right1 p4 #de4 #ae ,bosanquet1 ,the ,principles of ,individuality and ,value4 #af ,bosanquet1 ,the ,principles of ,individuality and ,value4 #ag ,pragmatism1 p4 #ea4 #ah ,main ,currents of ,thought1 p4 #gh4 #ai ,pragmatism1 p4 #bgh f42 also ,varieties of ,relig4 ,experience1 p4 #ebe f4 #bj ,idem1 p4 #bii4 #ba ,idem1 p4 #bij4 #bb ,the writer regrets that the work of the ,italian1 ,benedetto ,croce1 ,philosophy of the ,practical1 ,economic and ,ethic 7,part ,,ii4 of ,philosophy of the ,spirit71 came to his knowledge too late to permit a consideration of its ethical teaching in this volume4 ,croce is a thinker of great originality1 of whom we are likely to hear much in the future1 and whose philosophy will have to be reckoned with4 ,though independent of others1 his view of life has affinities with that of ,hegel4 ,he maintains the doctrine of development of opposites1 but avoids ,hegel's insistence upon the concept of nature as a mode of reality opposed to the spirit4 ,spirit is reality1 the whole reality1 and therefore the universal4 ,it has two activities1 theoretic and practical4 ,with the theoretic man understands the universe2 with the practical he changes it4 ,the ,will is the man1 and freedom is finding himself in the ,whole4 #bc ,hibbert ,journal1 ,april #aiab4 #bd ,evol4 ,creat41 p4 #afa4 #be ,idem1 p4 #adf4 #bf ,idem1 p4 #afe4 #bg ,hibbert ,journal4 #bh ,browning4 #bi ,die ,geistigen ,strmunyen der ,gegenwart1 p4 #aj4 #cj ,cf4 ,problem of ,life4 #ca ,cf4 ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal4 #cb ,hermann1 ,bergson und ,eucken1 p4 #ajc4 #cc ,the ,problem of ,life1 p4 #aeb4 #cd ,cf4 von ,hgel1 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,april #aiab4 #abg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,christian ,,ideal ,the highest good is not uniformly described in the ,new ,testament1 and modern ethical teachers have not always been in agreement as to the chief end of life4 ,while some have found in the teaching of ,jesus the idea of social redemption alone1 and have seen in ,christ nothing more than a political reformer1 others have contended that the ,gospel is solely a message of personal salvation4 ,an impartial study shows that both views are one-sided4 ,on the one hand1 no conception of the life of ,jesus can be more misleading than that which represents ,him as a political revolutionist4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it would be a distinct narrowing of ,his teaching to assume that it was confined to the aspirations of the individual soul4 ,his care was indeed primarily for the person4 ,his emphasis was put upon the worth of the individual4 ,and it is not too much to say that the uniqueness of ,jesus' teaching lay in the discovery of the value of the soul4 ,there was in ,his ministry a new appreciation of the possibilities of neglected lives1 and a hitherto unknown yearning to share their confidence4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to represent ,christ's regard for the individual as excluding all consideration of social relations4 ,the kingdom of ,god1 as we shall see1 had a social and corporate meaning for our ,lord4 ,and if the qualifications for its entrance were personal1 its duties were social4 ,the universalism of ,jesus' teaching implied that the soul had a value not for itself alone1 but also for others4 ,the assertion1 therefore1 that the individual has a value cannot mean that he has a value in isolation4 #abh ,rather his value can only be realised in the life of the community to which he truly belongs4 ,the effort to help others is the truest way to reveal the hidden worth of one's own life2 and he who withholds his sympathy from the needy has proved himself unworthy of the kingdom4 ,while the writers of the ,new ,testament vary in their mode of presenting the ultimate goal of man1 they are at one in regarding it as an exalted form of life4 ,what they all seek to commend is a condition of being involving a gradual assimilation to1 and communion with1 ,god4 ,the distinctive gift of the ,gospel is the gift of life4 ',i am the ,life1' says ,christ4 ,and the apostle's confession is in harmony with his ,master's claim--',for me to live is ,christ4' ,salvation is nothing else than the restoration1 preservation1 and exaltation of life4 ,corresponding1 therefore1 to the three great conceptions of ,life in the ,new ,testament1 and especially in the teaching of ,jesus--',eternal ,life1' 'the kingdom of ,god1' and the perfection of the divine ,fatherhood1 ',perfect as your ,father in heaven is perfect'--there are three aspects1 individual1 social1 and divine1 in which we may view the ,christian ideal4 ,i ,self-realisation is not1 indeed1 a scriptural word4 ,but rightly understood it is a true element in the conception of life1 and may1 we think1 be legitimately drawn from the ethical teaching of the ,new ,testament4#a ,though the free full development of the individual personality as we conceive it in modern times does not receive explicit statement1#b still one cannot doubt1 that before every man our ,lord does present the vision of a possible and perfect self4 ,christianity does not destroy 'the will to live1' but only the will to live at all costs4 ,even mediaeval piety only inculcated self-mortification as a stage towards a higher #abi self-affirmation4 ,christ nowhere condemns the inherent desire for a complete life4 ,the end1 indeed1 which each man should place before himself is self-mastery and freedom from the world2#c but it is a mastery and freedom which are to be gained not by asceticism but by conquest4 ,christ would awaken in every man the consciousness of the priceless worth of his soul1 and would have him realise in his own person ,god's idea of manhood4 ,the ideal of self-realisation includes three distinct elements3 #a4 ,life as intensity of being4--',i am come that they might have life1 and that they might have it more abundantly4'#d ',more life and fuller' is the passion of every soul that has caught the vision and heard the call of ,jesus4 ,the supreme good consists not in suppressed vitality1 but in power and freedom4 ,life in ,christ is a full1 rich existence4 ,the doctrine of quietism and indifference to joy has no place in the ethic of ,jesus4 ,life is manifested in inwardness of character1 and not in pomp of circumstance4 ,it consists not in what a man has1 but in what he is4#e ,the beatitudes1 as the primary qualifications for the kingdom of ,god1 emphasise the fundamental principle of the subordination of the material to the spiritual1 and the contrast between inward and outward good4#f ,self-mastery is to extend to the inner life of man--to dominate the thoughts and words1 and the very heart from which they issue4 ,a divided life is impossible4 ,the severest discipline1 even renunciation1 may be needful to secure that singleness of heart and strenuousness of aim which are for ,jesus the very essence of life4 ',ye cannot serve ,god and mammon4'#g ,in harmony with this saying is the opposition in the ,johannine teaching between 'the world' and 'eternal life4'#h ,the quality of life indeed depends not upon anything contingent or accidental1 but upon an intense inward realisation of blessedness in ,christ in comparison with which even #acj the privations and sufferings of this world are but as a shadow4#i ,at the same time life is not a mere negation1 not simply an escape from evil4 ,it is a positive good1 the enrichment and intensifying of the whole being by the indwelling of a new spiritual power4 ',for me to live is ,christ1' says ,st4 ,paul4 ',this is life eternal1' says ,st4 ,john1 'that they may know ,thee the only true ,god1 and ,him whom ,thou didst send1 even ,jesus ,christ4'#aj #b4 ,life as ,expansion of ,personality4--,by its inherent power it grows outwards as well as inwards4 ,the ,new ,testament conception of life is existence in its fullest expression and fruitfulness4 ,the ideal as presented by ,christ is no anaemic state of reverie or ascetic withdrawal from human interest4 ,it is by the elevation and consecration of the natural life1 and not by its suppression1 that the 'good' is to be realised4 ,the natural life is to be transformed1 and the very body presented unto ,god as a living sacrifice4#aa ,so far from ,christianity being opposed to the aim of the individual to find himself in a world of larger interests1 it is only in the active and progressive realisation of such a life that blessedness consists4 ,herein is disclosed1 however1 the defect of the modern ideal of culture which has been associated with the name of ,goethe4 ,in ,christ's ideal self-sufficiency has no place4 ,while rightly interpreted the 'good' of life includes everything that enriches existence and contributes to the efficiency and completeness of manhood1 mere self-culture and artistic expression are apt to become perverted forms of egoism1 if not subordinated to the spirit of service which alone can give to the human faculties their true function and exercise4 ,hence life finds its real utterance not in the isolated development of the self1 but in the fullness of personal relationships4 ,only in response to the needs of others can a man realise his own life4 ,in answer to the young ruler who asked a question 'concerning that which is good1' ,christ replied1 ',if thou wilt enter into life keep the #aca commandments'2 and the particular duties ,he mentioned were those of the second table of the ,decalogue4#aa ,the abundance of life which ,christ offers consists in the mutual offices of love and the interchange of service4 ,thus self-realisation is attained only through self-surrender4#ac ,the self-centred life is a barren life4 ,not by withholding our seed but by flinging it forth freely upon the broad waters of humanity do we attain to that rich fruition which is 'life indeed4' #c4 ,life as ,eternal ,good4--,whatever may be the accurate signification of the word 'eternal1' the words 'eternal life1' regarded as the ideal of man1 can mean nothing else than life at its highest1 the fulfilment of all that personality has within it the potency of becoming4 ,in one sense there is no finality in life4 ',it seethes with the morrow for us more and more4' ,but in another sense1 to say that the moral life is never attained is only a half truth4 ,it is always being attained because it is always present as an active reality evolving its own content4 ,in ,christ we have 'eternal life' now4 ,it is not a thing of quantity but of quality1 and is therefore timeless4 ',we live in deeds not years1 in thoughts not breaths1 ,in feelings1 not in figures on a dial4'#ad ,he who has entered into fellowship with ,god has within him now the essence of 'life eternal4' ,but the conception of life derived from1 and sustained by1 ,god involves the idea of immortality4 ',no work begun shall ever pause for death4'#ae ,to live in ,god is to live as long as ,god4 ,the spiritual man pursues his way through conflict and achievement towards a higher and yet a higher goal1 ever manifesting1 yet ever seeking1 the infinite that dwells in him4 ,all knowledge and quest and endeavour1 nay existence itself1 would be a mockery if man had 'no forever4' ,scripture corroborates the yearnings of the heart and represents life as a growing good which is to attain to ever higher reaches and fuller realisations in the world to #acb come4 ,it is the unextinguishable faith of man that the future must crown the present4 ,no human effort goes to waste1 no gift is delusive2 but every gift and every effort has its proper place as a stage in the endless process4#af ',there shall never be lost one good6 ,what was shall live as before4'#ag ,,ii ,the foregoing discussion leads naturally to the second aspect of the highest ,good1 the ,ideal in its social or corporate form--the kingdom of ,god4 ,properly speaking1 there is no such thing as an individual4 ,as biologically man is only a member of a larger organism1 so ethically he can only realise himself in a life of brotherhood and service4 ,it is only within the kingdom of ,god and by recognition of its social relations that the individual can attain to his own blessedness4 ,viewed in the light of the mutual relation of its members the kingdom is a brotherhood in which none is ignored and all have common privileges and responsibilities2 viewed in the light of its highest good it is the entire perfection of the whole--a hierarchy of interests subordinated to1 and unified by1 the sovereignty of the good in the person of ,god4#ah #a4 ,by reason of its comprehensiveness the doctrine of the kingdom has been regarded by many as the most general conception of the ideal of ,jesus4 ',in its unique and unapproachable grandeur it dwarfs all the lesser heights to which the prophetic hopes had risen1 and remains to this day the transcendent and commanding ideal of the possible exaltation of our humanity4'#ai ,the principles implicitly contained in the teaching of ,jesus concerning the kingdom have become the common possessions of mankind1 and are moulding the thoughts and institutions of the civilised world4 ,kant's theory of a kingdom of ends1 ,comte's idea of ,humanity1 and the modern conceptions of scientific and #acc historical evolution are corroborative of the teaching of the ,new ,testament4 ,within its conception men have found room for the modern ideas of social and economic order1 and under its inspiration are striving for a fuller realisation of the aspirations and hopes of humanity4#bj ,though frequently upon ,his lips the phrase did not originate with ,jesus4 ,already the ,baptist had employed it as the note of his preaching1 and even before the ,baptist it had a long history in the annals of the ,jewish people4 ,indeed the entire story of the ,hebrews is coloured by this conception1 and in the days of their decline it is the idea of the restoration of their nation as the true kingdom of ,god that dominates their hopes4 ,when earthly institutions did not fulfil their promise1 and nothing could be expected by natural means1 hope became concentrated upon supernatural power4 ,thus before ,jesus appeared there had grown up a mass of apocalyptic literature1 the object of which was to encourage the national expectation of a sudden and supernatural coming of the kingdom of heaven4 ,men of themselves could do nothing to hasten its advent4 ,they could only wait patiently till the set time was accomplished1 and ,god stretched forth ,his mighty hand4#ba ,a new school of ,german interpretation has recently arisen1 the aim of which is to prove that ,jesus was largely1 if not wholly1 influenced by the current apocalyptic notions of ,his time4 ,jesus believed1 it is said1 in common with the popular sentiment of the day1 that the end of the world was at hand1 and that at the close of the present dispensation there would come suddenly and miraculously a new order into which would be gathered the elect of ,god4 ,johannes ,weiss1 the most pronounced advocate of this view1 maintains that ,jesus' teaching is entirely eschatological4 ,the kingdom is supramundane and still to come4 ,jesus did not inaugurate it2 ,he only predicted its advent4 ,consequently there is no ,ethics1 strictly so called1 in ,his #acd preaching2 there is only an ,ethic of renunciation and watchfulness#bb--;an ,interimsethik4 ,the whole problem resolves itself into two crucial questions3 7#a7 ,did ,jesus expect a gradual coming of the kingdom1 or did ,he conceive of it as breaking in suddenly by the immediate act of ,god8 and 7#b7 ,did ,jesus regard the kingdom as purely future1 or as already begun8 ,in answer to the first question1 while there are undoubtedly numerous and explicit sayings1 too much neglected in the past and not to be wholly explained by mere orientalism1 suggesting a sudden and miraculous coming1 these must be taken in connection with the many other passages implying a gradual process--passages of deep ethical import which seem to colour our ,lord's entire view of life and its purposes4 ,and in answer to the second question1 while there are not a few utterances which certainly point to a future consummation1 these are not inconsistent with the immediate inauguration and gradual development of the kingdom4 ,a full discussion of this subject is beyond the scope of this volume4#bc ,there are1 however1 two objections which may be taken to the apocalyptic interpretation of ,christ's teaching as a whole4 7#a7 ,as presented by its most pronounced champions1 this view seems to empty the person and teaching of ,jesus of their originality and universality4 ,it tends to reduce the ,son of ,man to the level of a ,jewish rhapsodist1 whose whole function was to encourage ,his countrymen to look away from the present scene of duty to some future state of felicity1 which had no connection with the world of reality1 and no bearing upon their present character4 ,it would be surely a caricature to interpret the religion of the ,new ,testament from this standpoint alone to the exclusion of those directly ethical and spiritual #ace principles in which its originality chiefly appeared1 and on which its permanence depends4#bd ,as ,bousset#be points out1 not renunciation but joy in life is the characteristic thing in ,jesus' outlook4 ,he does not preach a gloomy asceticism1 but proclaims a new righteousness and a new type of duty4 ,he recognises the worth of the present life1 and teaches that the world's goods are not in themselves bad4 ,he came as a living man into a dead world1 and by inculcating a living idea of ,god and proclaiming the divine ,fatherhood gave a new direction and inner elevation to the expectations of ,his age1 showing the true design of ,god's revelation and the real meaning of the prophetic utterances of the past4 ,to interpret the kingdom wholly from an eschatological point of view would involve a failure to apprehend the spiritual greatness of the personality with which we are dealing4#bf 7#b7 ,this view virtually makes ,christ a false prophet4 ,for1 as a matter of fact1 the sudden and catastrophic coming of the kingdom as predicted by the ,hebrew apocalyptics did not take place4 ,on the contrary the kingdom of ,god came not as the ,jews expected in a sudden descent from the clouds1 but in the slow and progressive domination of ,god over the souls and social relationships of mankind4 ,in view of the whole spirit of ,jesus1 ,his conception of ,god1 and ,his relation to human life1 as well as the attitude of ,st4 ,paul to the ,parousia1 it is critically unsound to deny that ,jesus believed in the presence of the kingdom in a real sense during ,his lifetime4#bg #b4 ,if this conception of the kingdom of ,god be correct we may now proceed to regard it under three aspects1 ,present1 ,progressive1 and ,future--as a ,gift immediately bestowed by ,jesus1 as a ,task to be worked out by man in the history of the world1 and as a ,hope to be consummated by ,god in the future4 #acf 7#a7 ,the ,kingdom as a ,present ,reality4--,after what has been already said it will not be necessary to dwell upon this aspect4 ,it might be supported by direct sayings of our ,lord4#bh ,but the whole tenor and atmosphere of the ,gospels1 the uniqueness of ,christ's personality1 ,his claim to heal disease and forgive sin1 as well as the conditions of entrance1 imply clearly that in ,jesus' own view the kingdom was an actual fact inaugurated by ,him and obtaining its meaning and power from ,his own person and influence4 ,obviously ,he regarded ,himself as the bearer of a new message of life1 and the originator of a new reign of righteousness and love which was to have immediate application4 ,christ came to make ,god real to men upon the earth1 and to win their allegiance to ,him at once4 ,no one can fail to recognise the lofty idealism of the ,son of ,man4 ,he carries with ,him everywhere a vision of the perfect life as it exists in the mind of ,god1 and as it will be realised when these earthly scenes have passed away2 yet it would be truer to say that ,his interests were in 'first things' rather than in 'last things1' and would be more justly designated ,protology than ,eschatology4#bi ,his mission1 so far from having an iconoclastic aim1 was really to 'make all things new4' ,he was concerned with the initiation of a new religion1 therefore with a movement towards a regeneration of society which would be virtually a reign of ,god in the hearts of men4 ',the kingdom of ,god is within you4' ,not in some spot remote from the world1 some beautiful land beyond the skies1 but in the hearts and homes1 in the daily pursuits and common relationships of life must ,god rule4 ,the beatitudes1 while they undoubtedly refer to a future when a fuller realisation of them will be enjoyed1 have a present reference as well4 ,they make the promise of the kingdom a present reality dependent upon the inner state of the recipients4 ,not in change of environment but in change #acg of heart does the kingdom consist4 ,the lowly and the pure in heart1 the merciful and the meek1 the seekers after righteousness and the lovers of peace are1 in virtue of their disposition and aspiration1 already members4 7#b7 ,the kingdom as a gradual development4--,the inward gift prescribes the outward task4 ,it is a power commanding the hearts of men and requiring for its realisation their response4 ,it might be argued that this call to moral effort presented to the first ,christians was not a summons to transform the present world1 but to prepare themselves for the destiny that awaited them in the coming age4#cj ,it is true that watchfulness1 patience1 and readiness are among the great commands of the ,new ,testament4#ca ,but admitting the importance of these requirements1 they do not militate against the view that ,christians were to work for the betterment of the world4 ,christ did not look upon the world as hopeless and beyond all power of reclaiming2 nor did ,he regard ,his own or ,his disciples' ministry within it as without real and positive effects4 ,while ,his contemporaries were expecting some mighty intervention that would suddenly bring the kingdom ready-made from heaven1 ,he saw it growing up silently and secretly among men4 ,he took his illustrations from organic life4 ,its progress was to be like the seed hidden in the earth1 and growing day and night by its own inherent germinating force4 ,the object of the parables of the sower1 the tares1 the mustard seed1 the leaven1 was to show that the crude catastrophic conception of the coming of the kingdom must give place to the deeper and worthier idea of growth--an idea in harmony with the entire economy of ,god's working in the world of nature4 ,in the parable of the fruit-bearing earth ,jesus shows ,his faith in the growth of the good1 and hence in the adaptation of the truth to the human soul4 ,in the parables of the leaven1 the light1 and salt ,jesus illustrates the gradual power of truth to pervade1 illumine1 and purify the life of humanity4 ,his method of bringing about this #ach good is the contagion of the good life4 ,his motive is the sense of the need of men4 ,and ,his goal is the establishment of the kingdom of love--a kingdom in which all the problems of ambition1 wealth1 and the relationships of the family1 of the industrial sphere1 and of the state1 are to be transfigured and spiritualised4#cb ,it is surely no illegitimate application of the mind of ,christ if we see in ,his teaching concerning the kingdom a great social ideal to be realised by the personal activities and mutual services of its citizens4 ,it finds its field and opportunity in the realm of human society1 and is a good to be secured in the larger life of humanity4 ,this ideal1 though only dimly perceived by the early ,church1 has become gradually operative in the world1 and has been creative of all the great liberating movements in history4 ,it lay behind ,dante's vision of a spiritual monarchy1 and has been the inspiring motive of those who1 in obedience to ,christ1 have wrought for the uplifting of the hapless and the down-trodden4 ,it has been the soul of all mighty reformations1 and is the source of that conception of a new social order which has begun to mean so much for our generation4 ,loyalty to the highest and love for the lowest--love to ,god and man--these are the marks of the men of all ages who have sought to interpret the mind of ,christ4 ,mutual service is the law of the kingdom4 ,every man has a worth for ,christ1 therefore reverence for the personality of man1 and the endeavour to procure for each full opportunity of making the most of his life1 are at once the aim and goal of the new spiritual society of which ,christ laid the foundations in ,his own life and ministry4 ,everything that a man is and has1 talents and possessions of every kind1 are to be used as instruments for the promotion of the kingdom of ,god4 ',for life1 with all it yields of joy and woe1 ,and hope and fear 4 4 4 ,is just our chance o' the prize of learning love4' #aci 7#c7 ,but though the reign of ,god has begun1 it has yet to be consummated4--,there is not wanting in the ,new ,testament an element of futurity and expectancy not inconsistent with1 but rather complementary to1 the notion of gradual development4 ,the eschatological teaching of ,jesus has its place along with the ethical1 and may be regarded not as annulling1 but rather reinforcing the moral ideals which ,he proclaimed4#cc ,there is nothing pessimistic in ,christ's outlook4 ,his teaching concerning the last things1 while inculcating solemnity and earnestness of life as become those to whom has been entrusted a high destiny1 and who know not at what hour they may be called to give an account of their stewardship1#cd bids men look forward with certainty and hope to a glorious consummation of the kingdom4 ,though many of our ,lord's sayings with regard to ,his second coming are couched in figurative language1 we cannot believe that ,he intended to teach that the kingdom itself was to be brought about in a spectacular or material way4 ,he bids ,his disciples take heed lest they be deceived by a visible ,christ1 or led away by merely outward signs4#ce ,his coming is to be as 'the lightning which cometh out of the east and shineth even unto the west'#cf--;an emblem not so much of suddenness as of illuminating and convincing1 and especially1 of progressive force4 ,not in a visible reign or personal return of the ,son of ,man does the consummation of the kingdom consist1 but in the complete spiritual sovereignty of ,christ over the hearts and minds of men4 ,when the same love which ,he ,himself manifested in ,his life becomes the feature of ,his disciples2 when ,his spirit of service and sacrifice pervades the world1 and the brotherhood of man and the federation of nations everywhere prevail2 then1 indeed1 shall the sign of the ,son of ,man appear in the heavens1 and then shall the tribes of #adj the earth see ,him coming in the clouds with power and glory4#cg ,jesus does not hesitate to say that there will be a final judgment and an ingathering of the elect from all quarters of the earth4#ch ,there will be1 as the parable of the ,ten ,virgins suggests1 a division and a shut door4#ci ,but punishment will be automatic4 ,sin will bring its own consequences4 ,those only will be excluded at the last who even now are excluding themselves4 ,for ,christ is already here1 and is judging the world every day4 ,by the common actions of their present life men are being tried2 and that which will determine their final relation to ,christ will not be their mere perception of ,his bodily presence1 but their moral and spiritual likeness to ,him4 ,amidst the imperfections of the present men have ever looked forward to some glorious consummation1 and have lived and worked in the faith of it4 ',to the prophets of ,israel it was the new age of righteousness2 to the ,greek thinkers the world of pure intelligible forms2 to ,augustine and ,dante the holy theocratic state2 to the practical thought of our own time the renovated social order4 ,each successive age will frame its own vision of the great fulfilment2 but all the different ideals can find their place in the message of the kingdom which was proclaimed by ,jesus4'#dj ,there is thus opened to our vision a splendid conception of the future of humanity4 ,it stands for all that is highest in our expectations because it is already expressive of all that is best in our present achievements and endeavours4 ,the final hope of mankind requires for its fulfilment a progressive moral discipline4 ,only as ,christ's twofold command--love to ,god and love to man--is made the all-pervasive rule of men's lives will the goal of a universally perfected humanity be attained4 #ada ,,iii ,the chief good may be regarded finally in its divine aspect--as the endeavour after ,god-likeness4 ,in this third form of the ideal the two others--the personal and the social--are harmonised and completed4 ,to realise the perfect life as it is revealed in the character and will of ,god is the supreme aim of man1 and it embraces all that is conceivably highest for the individual and for humanity as a whole4 ,this aspiration finds its most explicit expression in the sublime word of ,christ--',be ye perfect even as your ,father in heaven is perfect4'#da ,this commandment1 unlike so many generalisations of duty1 is no cold abstraction4 ,it is pervaded with the warmth of personality and the inspiration of love4 ,in the idea of ,fatherhood both a standard and motive are implied4 ,because ,god is our ,father it is at once natural and possible for us to be like ,him4 ,he who would imitate another must have already within him something of that other4 ,as there is a community of nature which makes it possible for the child to grow into the likeness of its parent1 so there is a kinship in man with ,god to which our ,lord here appeals4 #a4 ,among the ethical qualities of divine perfection set forth in scripture for man's imitation ,holiness stands preeminent4 ,god1 the perfect being1 is the type of holiness1 and men are holy in proportion as their lives are ,godlike4 ,this conception of holiness is fundamental in the ,old ,testament4 ,it is summed up in a command almost identical with that of our ,lord3 ',be ye holy1 for ,i am holy4'#db ,holiness1 as ,christianity understands it1 is the name for the undimmed lustre of ,god's ethical perfection4 ,god is 'the ,holy one'--the alone 'good' in the absolute sense4#dc ,if ,god's character consists in ',holiness1' then that quality determines the moral end of man4 ,but holiness1 as the most comprehensive name for the divine moral perfection--the pure white light of ,god's ,being--breaks up into the #adb separate rays which we designate the special moral attributes4 ,these have been grouped under ',righteousness' 7truth1 faithfulness1 justice1 zeal1 etc471 and ',love' 7goodness1 pity1 mercy1 etc471 though they are really but expressions of one individual life4#dd #b4 ,in the ,new ,testament ,righteousness is almost equivalent to holiness4 ,it is the attribute of ,god which determines the nature of ,his kingdom and the condition of man's entrance into it4 ,as comprising obedience to the will of ,god and the fulfilment of the moral law1 it is the basal and central conception of the ,christian ideal4#de ,it is the keynote of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,life has a supreme sacredness for ,paul because the righteousness of ,god is its end4 ,while righteousness is the distinctive note of the ,pauline conception1 it is also fundamental in the ,ethics of ,jesus4 ,it is the ruling thought in the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,to be righteous for ,jesus simply means to be right and true--to be as one ought to be4 ,but human standards are insufficient4 ,a man must order his life by the divine standard4 ,jesus is as emphatic as any ,old ,testament prophet in insisting upon the need of absolute righteousness4 ,that1 for all who would share in the kingdom of the good1 is to be their ideal--the object of their hunger and thirst4 ,it is a 'good' which is essential to the very satisfaction and blessedness of the soul4#df ,it is the supreme desire of the man who would be at peace with ,god4 ,it involves poverty of spirit1 for only those who are emptied of self are conscious of their need4 ,they who1 in humility and meekness1 acknowledge their sins1 are in the way of holiness and are already partakers of the divine nature4 ,christ's teaching in regard to righteousness has both a negative and a positive aspect4 ,it was inevitable that ,he should begin with a criticism of the morality inculcated by the leaders of ,his day4 ,the characteristic feature of ,pharisaism was1 as ,christ shows1 its externalism4 ,if a man fulfilled the outward requirements of the law he was #adc regarded as holy1 by himself and others1 whatever might be the state of his heart towards ,god4 ,this outwardness tended to create certain vices of character4 ,foremost amongst these were 7#a7 ,vanity or ,ostentation4 ,to appear well in the opinion of others was the aim of pharisaic conduct4 ,along with ostentation appears 7#b7 ,self-complacency4 ,flattery leads to self-esteem4 ,he who loves the praise of man naturally begins to praise himself4 ,as a result of self-esteem arises 7#c7 ,censoriousness1 since he who thinks well of himself is apt to think ill of others4 ,as a system ,pharisaism was wanton hypocrisy--a character of seeming righteousness1 but too often of real viciousness4 ,but ,christ came not to destroy but to fulfil the law4#dg ,his aim was to proclaim the true principles of righteousness in contrast to the current notions of it4 ,this ,he proceeds to do by issuing the law in its ideal and perfected form4#dh ,hence ,jesus unfolds its positive content by bringing into prominence the virtues of the godly character as opposed to the pharisaic vices4 ,modesty and humility are set over against ostentation and self-righteousness4#di ,single-minded sincerity is commended in opposition to hypocrisy4#ej ,the vice of censoriousness is met by the duty of self-judgment rather than the judgment of others4#ea ,the two positive features of the new law of righteousness as expounded by ,jesus are--inwardness and spontaneity4 ,the righteousness of the ,gospel1 so far from being laxer or easier of fulfilment1 was actually to exceed that of the ,pharisees3#eb 7a7 in depth and inwardness4 ,it is not enough not to kill or steal or commit adultery4 ,these commandments may be outwardly kept yet inwardly broken4 ,something more radical is expected of the man who has set before him the doing of ,god's will1 a righteousness not of appearance but of reality4 7b7 ,in freedom and spontaneity4 ,it is to have its spring in the heart4 ,it is to be a righteousness not of servile obedience1 but of willing devotion4 ,the aim of life is no longer the painful effort of the bondsman who #add strives to perform a distasteful task1 but the gladsome endeavour of the son who knows and does1 because he loves1 his father's will4 ,in the ,ethics of the ,christian life there is no such thing as mere duty2 for a man never fulfils his duty till he has done more than is legally required of him4 ',whosoever shall compel you to go with him one mile1 go with him twain4'#ec ,the 'nicely calculated less or more' is alien to the spirit of him who would do ,god's will4 ,love is the fulfilling of the law1 and love knows nothing of limits4 #c4 ,thus the holiness of ,god is manifested not in righteousness only1 but in the attribute of ,love4 ,the human mind can attain to no higher conception of the divine character than that which the word 'love' suggests4 ,the thought is the creation of ,christianity4 ,it was the special contribution of one of the innermost circle of ,jesus' disciples to give utterance to the new vision of the divine nature which ,christ had disclosed--',god is love4'#ed ,in our ,lord's teaching the centre of gravity is entirely changed4 ,the ,jewish idea of ,god is enriched with a fuller content4 ,he is still the ,holy ,one1 but the sublimity of ,his righteousness1 though fully recognised1 is softened by the gentler radiance of love4#ee ,jehovah the ,sovereign is revealed as ,god the ,father4 ,divine righteousness is not simply justice1 but goodness manifested in far-reaching activities of mercy and pity and benevolence4 ,a new note is struck in the ,ethics of ,jesus4 ,a new relationship is established between ,god and man--a personal filial relationship which entirely alters man's conception of life4 ,to be perfect as our ,father in heaven is perfect1 to be1 and embody in life all that love means1 that is the sublime aim which ,jesus in ,his own person and teaching sets before the world4 ,as ,god's love is universal1 and ,his care and compassion world-wide1 so1 says ,christ1 not by retaliation or even by the performance of strict justice1 but in loving your enemies1 in returning good for evil and extending your acts of helpfulness and charity to those 'who know not1 care not1 think #ade not1 what they do1' shall ye become the children of your ,father1 and realise something of that divine pattern of every man which has been shown him on the holy mount4 ,if the view presented in this chapter of the ethical ideal of ,christianity be correct1 then the doctrine of an ,interims-ethik advocated by modern eschatologists must be pronounced unsatisfactory as a complete account of the teaching of ,jesus4#ef ,the three features which stand out most clearly in the ,ethics of ,christ are1 ,absoluteness1 ,inwardness1 and ,universality4 ,it is an ideal for man as man1 for all time1 and for all men4 ,the personality of ,god represents the highest form of existence we know2 and the love of ,god is the sublimest attribute we can conceive4 ,but because ,god is our ,father there is a kinship between the divine and the human2 and no higher or grander vision of life is thinkable than to be like ,god--to share that which is most distinctive of the divine ,fatherhood--,his love of all mankind4 ,hence ,godlikeness involves ,brotherhood4#eg ,in the ideal of love--high as ,god1 broad as the world--the other aspects of the chief good1 the individual and the social1 are harmonised4 ,in ,christian ,ethics1 the problem of philosophy how to unite the one and the many1 egoism and altruism1 has been practically solved4 ,the individual realises his life only as he finds himself in others2 and this he can only do as he finds himself in ,god4 ,the first and last word of all morality and religion is summed up in ,christ's twofold law of love3 ',thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy mind2 and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4'#eh #a ,cf4 ,troeltsch1 ,die ,sociallehren d4 ,christl4 ,kirchen1 vol4 i4 p4 #cg1 where the idea of self-worth and self-consecration is worked out4 #b ,wernle1 ,beginnings of ,christianity1 vol4 i4 p4 #gf4 #c ,wernle1 ,beginnings of ,christianity1 pp4 #gf f4 #d ,john x4 #aj4 #e ,luke xii4 #ae1 #af4 #f ,matt4 v4 #g ,matt4 vi4 #bd4 #h #a ,john ii4 #ae4 #i ,luke x4 #ba2 ,matt4 xi4 #bh-cj2 ,mark viii4 #ce2 ,john iii4 #ae1 x4 #bh1 xvii4 #b4 #aj ,john xvii4 #c4 #aa ,rom4 xii4 #a4 #ab ,matt4 xix4 #ag4 #ac ,luke xvii4 #cc2 ,john xii4 #be4 #ad ,bailey1 ,festus4 #ae ,browning4 #af ,jones1 ,browning as a ,philosophical and ,religious ,teacher1 p4 #ced4 #ag ,abt ,vogler4 #ah ,cf4 ,balch1 ,introd4 to the ,study of ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #aej4 #ai ,newman ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #ig4 #bj ,balch1 ,introd4 to the ,study of ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #aej4 #ba ,see ,apocalypses of ,baruch1 ,esdras1 ,enoch1 and ,pss4 of ,solomon1 and also ,daniel and ,ezekiel4 ,cf4 ,e4 ,f4 ,scott1 ,the ,kingdom and the ,messiah1 for ,apoc4 literature4 #bb ,j4 ,weiss1 ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes4 ,cf4 also ,wernle1 ,die ,anfnge unsurer ,religion1 who is not so pronounced4 ,bousset rejects this view1 and ,titius1 in his ,n4 ,t4 ,doctrine of ,blessedness1 regards the kingdom of ,god as a present good4 ,see also ,moffatt1 ,the ,theology of the ,gospels4 #bc ,cf4 ,dobschtz1 ,the ,eschatology of the ,gospels1 also ,schweitzer1 op4 cit41 and ,sanday1 ,the ,life of ,christ in ,recent ,research1 ,e4 ,scott1 ,the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,messiah1 and ,moffatt1 op4 cit4 #bd ,cf4 ,barbour1 ,a ,philos4 ,study of ,chr4 ,ethics1 p4 #ahd4 #be ',jesu predigt in ihrem ,gegensatz zum ,judenthum4' #bf ,cairns1 ,christianity in the ,mod4 ,world1 p4 #agc4 ,see ,schweitzer1 ,the ,quest of the ,historical ,jesus1 for advocates and opponents of this view1 pp4 #bbb ff4 ,cf4 also ,troeltsch1 op4 cit41 vol4 i4 p4 #ce4 #bg ,cf4 ,moffatt1 op4 cit4 #bh ,luke iv4 #ba1 xvii4 #ba2 ,matt4 xii4 #bh1 xi4 #b-h1 xi4 #bj2 ,luke xvi4 #af4 ,cf4 also ,matt4 xiii4 #af-ag4 #bi ,our ,lord never uses the word 'final' or 'last' of anything concerning the kingdom4 ,only in the fourth ,gospel do we find the phrase 'the last day4' ,see art41 ,contemporary ,review1 ,sept4 #aiab4 #cj ,the view of ,weiss4 #ca ,luke xii4 #ai2 ,matt xxiv4 #ac2 ,mark xiii4 #ac2 #b ,tim4 ii4 #ab4 #cb ,king1 ,the ,ethics of ,jesus1 p4 #adc4 #cc ,mark xiii4 #g-ca has been called the 'little ,apocalypse' and the hypothesis has been thrown out that a number of verses 7fifteen in all7 form a document by themselves1 'a fly leaf put into circulation before the fall of ,jerusalem1 and really incorporated by the ,evangelist himself4 ,see ,sanday1 art41 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,oct4 #aiaa1 and ,life of ,christ in ,recent ,research4 #cd ,matt4 xxiv4 #db4 #ce ,matt4 xxiv4 #bc4 #cf ,matt4 xxiv4 #bg4 #cg ,matt4 xxiv4 #cj4 #ch ,matt4 xxiv4 #ca4 #ci ,matt4 xxv4 #dj ,e4 ,f4 ,scott1 ,the ,kingdom and the ,messiah1 p4 #bef4 #da ,matt4 v4 #dh4 #db ,lev4 iv4 #aa1 xix4 #b4 #dc ,mark x4 #ah4 #dd ,cf4 ,orr1 ,sin as a ,problem of ,to-day1 chap4 iii4 #de ,cf4 ,jacoby1 ,neu-testamentliche ,ethik1 p4 #a4 #df ,matt4 v4 #c f4 #dg ,matt4 v4 #ag4 #dh ,matt4 v4 #ah4 #di ,matt4 vi4 #a-f4 #ej ,matt4 vi4 #af-ah4 #ea ,matt4 vii4 #a-e4 #eb ,matt4 v4 #bj4 #ec ,matt4 v4 #da4 #ed #a ,john iv4 #h1 #af4 #ee ,john xvii4 #aa2 ,heb4 x4 #ca2 ,rev4 xv4 #d4 #ef ,cf4 ,e4 ,digges ,la ,touche1 ,the ,person of ,christ in ,modern ,thought1 pp4 #aej ff4 #eg #a ,john iv4 #ba4 #eh ,matt4 xxii4 #cg4 #adf ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,standard ,,and ,,motive ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,life ,in every system of ,ethics the three ideas of ,end1 ,norm1 and ,motive are inseparable4 ,christian ,ethics is unique in this respect that it presents not merely a code of morals1 but an ideal of good embodied in a person who is at once the pattern and inspiration of the new life4 ,in this chapter we propose to consider these two elements of the good4 ,christ as ,example4--,the value of 'concrete examples' has been frequently recognised in non-,christian systems4 ,in the 'philosopher king' of ,plato1 the 'expert' of ,aristotle1 and the 'wise man' of the ,stoics we have the imaginary embodiment of the ideal4 ,a similar tendency is apparent in modern theories4 ,comte invests the abstract idea of ',humanity' with certain personal perfections for which he claims homage4 ,but what other systems have conceived in an imaginative form only1 ,christianity has realised in an actual person4 ,the example of ,christ is not a separate source of authority independent of ,his teaching1 but rather its witness and illustration4 ,word and deed in ,jesus are in full agreement4 ,he was what ,he taught1 and every truth ,he uttered flowed directly from ,his inner nature4 ,he is the prototype and expression of the 'good' as it exists in the mind of ,god1 as well as the perfect representative and standard of it in human life4 ,in ,him is manifested for all time what is meant by the good4 #adg #a4 ,if ,christ is the normative standard of life it is extremely important to obtain a true perception of ,him as ,he dwelt among men4 ,but too often have theology and art presented a ,christ embellished with fantastic colours or obscured by abstract speculations4 ,recently1 however1 there has been a revival of interest in the actual life of ,jesus4 ,men are turning wistfully to the life of the ,master for guidance in practical matters1 and it is beginning to dawn upon the world that the highest ideals of manhood were present in the ,carpenter of ,nazareth4 ,we must therefore go back to the ,gospels if we would know what manner of man ,jesus was4 ,the difficulty of presenting the ,man ,christ ,jesus as the eternal example to the world must have been almost insurmountable2 and we are at once struck with two remarkable features of the synoptics' portrayal of ,him4 7#a7 ,the writers make no attempt to produce a work of art4 ,they never dream that they are drawing a model for all men to copy4 ,there is no effort to touch up or tone down the portrait4 ,they simply reflect what they see without admixture of colours of their own4 ,hence the paradox of ,his personality--the intense humanness and yet the mystery of godliness ever and anon shining through the commonest incidents of ,his life4 7#b7 ,even more remarkable than the absence of subjectivity on the part of the evangelists is the unconsciousness of ,jesus that ,he is being portrayed as an example4 ,we do not receive the impression that the ,son of ,man was consciously living for the edification of the world4 ,his mental attitude is not that of an actor playing a part1 but of a true and genuine man living his own life and fulfilling his own purpose4 ,there is no seeming or display4 ,goodness to be effectual as an example must be unconscious goodness4 ,we are impressed everywhere with the perfect naturalness and spontaneity of all that ,christ did and uttered4#a ,the character of ,jesus has been variously interpreted1 and it is one of the evidences of ,his moral greatness that each age has emphasised some new aspect of ,his #adh personality4 ,in a nature so rich and complex it is difficult to fix upon a single category from which may be deduced the manifold attributes of ,his character4 ,two conceptions of ,jesus have generally prevailed down the centuries4 ,one view interprets ,his character in terms of asceticism2 the other in terms of aestheticism4#b ,some regard ,him as the representative of ,hebrew sorrow and sacrifice2 others see in ,him the type of ,hellenic joy and geniality4 ,there are passages in ,scripture confirmatory of both impressions4 ,on the one hand1 there is a whole series of virtues of the passive order which are utterly alien to the ,greek ideal2 and1 on the other hand1 there is equally prominent a tone of tranquil gladness1 of broad sympathy with1 and keen appreciation of1 the beautiful in nature and life which contrasts with the spirit of ,hebrew abnegation4 ,but1 after all1 neither of these traits reveals the secret of ,jesus4 ,joy and sorrow are but incidents in life4 ,they have only moral value as the vehicles of a profounder spiritual purpose4 ,to help every man to realise the fullness and perfection of his being as a child of ,god is the aim of ,his life and ministry1 and everything that furthers this end is gratefully recognised by ,him as a good4 ,he neither courts nor shuns pain4 ,neither joy nor sorrow is for ,him an end in itself4 ,both are but incidents upon the way of holiness and love which ,he had chosen to travel4 #b4 ,everywhere there was manifest in the life and teaching of ,jesus a note of self-mastery and authority which impressed ,his contemporaries and goes far to explain and unify the various features of ,his personality and influence4 ,it is remarkable to notice how often the word 'power' is applied to ,jesus in the ,new ,testament4#c ,whether we regard ,his attitude to ,god1 or ,his relation to others1 it is this note of quiet strength1 of vital moral force which arrests our attention4 ,it will be sufficient to mention in passing three directions in which this quality of power is manifest4 #adi 7#a7 ,it is revealed in the consciousness of a divine mission4 ,he goes steadily forward with the calmness of one who knows himself and his work4 ,he has no fear or hesitancy4 ,courage1 earnestness1 and singleness of purpose mark ,his career4 ,he is conscious that ,his task has been given ,him by ,god1 and that ,he is the chosen instrument of ,his ,father's will4 ,life has a greatness and worth for ,him because it may be made the manifestation and vehicle of the divine purpose4 7#b7 ,his power is revealed again in the realisation of ,holiness4 ,holiness is to be differentiated1 on the one hand1 from innocence2 and1 on the other1 from sinlessness4 ,innocence is untried goodness2 sinlessness is negative goodness2 holiness is achieved and victorious goodness4 ,it was not mere absence of sin that distinguished ,jesus4 ,his was a purity won by temptation1 an obedience perfected through suffering1 a peace and harmony of soul attained not by self-suppression1 but by the consecration of ,his unfolding life to the will of ,god4 7#c7 ,his power is manifested once more in ,his ,sympathy with man4 ,his purity was pervasive4 ,it flowed forth in acts of love4 ,he went about doing good1 invading the world of darkness and sorrow with light and joy4 ,it is the wealth of ,his interests and the variety of ,his sympathy which give to the ministry of the ,son of ,man its impressiveness and charm4 ,with gladness as with grief1 with the playfulness of childhood and the earnestness of maturity1 with the innocent festivities and the graver pursuits of ,his fellow-men1 with the cares of the rich and the trials of the poor1 ,he disclosed the most intimate and tender feeling4 ,his parables show that ,he had an open and observant eye for all the life around ,him4 ,to every appeal ,he responded with an insight and delicacy of consideration which betokened that ,he ,himself had sounded the depths of human experience and knew what was in man4 ,humour1 irony1 and pathos in turn are revealed in ,his human intercourse4 ,but while ,jesus delighted to give of ,himself freely ,he knew also how to withhold ,himself4 ,there can be no true #aej sympathy without restraint4 ,the passive virtues--meekness1 patience1 forbearance--which appear in the life of ,christ are 'not the signs of mere self-mortification1 they are the signs of power in reserve4 ,they are the marks of one who can afford to wait1 who expects to suffer2 and that not because he is simply meek and lowly1 but because he is also strong and calm4'#d ,the ,new ,testament depicts ,jesus as made in the likeness of men1 whose life1 though unique in some of its aspects1 was in its general conditions normal1 passing through the ordinary stages of growth1 and participating in the common experiences of mankind4 ,he had to submit to the same laws and limitations of the universe as we have4 ,there was the same call1 in ,his case as in ours1 to obedience and endurance4 ,there was the same demand for moral decision4 ,temptation1 suffering1 and toil1 which mean so much for man in the discipline of character1 were factors also in the spiritual development of ,christ4 ,trust1 prayer1 thanksgiving were exercised by the ,son of ,man as by others2 confession alone had no place in ,his life4 #c4 ,the question has been seriously asked1 ,can the example and teaching of ,jesus be really adopted in modern life as the pattern and rule of conduct8 ,is there not something strangely impracticable in ,his ,ethics2 and1 however admirably suited to meet the needs of ,his own time1 utterly inapplicable to the complex conditions of society to-day8 ,on the one hand1 ,tolstoy would have us follow the example of ,jesus to the letter1 and rigidly practise the precepts of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 even to the extent of refusing to resist wrong and possess property1 and of holding aloof from all culture and enterprise1 and the interests of life generally4 ,on the other hand1 philosophers like ,paulsen and ,bradley1 perceiving the utter impracticableness of ,tolstoy's contentions1 yet at the same time recognising his attitude as the only consistent one if the imitation of ,christ is to have vogue at all1 are convinced that the earthly life of ,jesus is not the model of our #afa age1 and that to attempt to carry out ,his precepts consistently would be not only impossible but injurious to all the higher interests of humanity4#e ,but this conclusion is based1 it seems to us1 upon a two-fold misapprehension4 ,it is founded upon an inadequate interpretation of the life and teaching of ,christ2 and also upon a wholly mechanical understanding of the meaning and value of example4 7#a7 ,what was ,christ's ideal of the ,christian life8 ,was it that of the monk or the citizen8--the recluse who meditates apart on his own salvation1 or the worker who enters the world and contributes to the betterment of mankind8 ,is the kingdom of ,god a realm apart and separate from all the other domains of activity8 ,or has ,christianity1 according to its essence1 room within it for an application of its truth to the complex relations and manifold interests of modern life8 ,both views have found expression in the history of the ,church4 ,but there can be little doubt as to which is the true interpretation of the mind of ,jesus4#f 7#b7 ,but1 again1 what is meant by the 'imitation of ,christ' has been also misconceived4 ,imitation is not a literal mechanical copying4 ,to make the character of another your model does not mean that you are to become his mimic or echo4 ,in asking us to follow ,him1 ,christ does not desire to suppress our individuality1 but to enrich and ennoble it4 ,when ,he says1 on the occasion of the feet-washing of ,his disciples1 ',i have given you an example1 that ye should do as ,i have done to you1'#g obviously it was not the outward literal performance1 but the spirit of humility and service embodied in the act which ,he desired ,his disciples to emulate4 ,from another soul we receive incentives rather than rules4 ,no teacher or master1 says ,emerson1 can #aeb realise for us what is good4#h ,within our own souls alone can the decision be made4 ,we cannot hope to interpret the character of another until there be within our own breasts the same moral spirit from which we believe his conduct to proceed4 ,the very nature of goodness forbids slavish reproduction4 ,hence there is a certain sense in which the paradox of ,kant is true1 that 'imitation finds no place at all in morality4'#i ,the question1 ',what would ,jesus do8' as a test of conduct covers a quite inadequate conception of the intimate and vital relations ,christ bears to our humanity4 ',it is not to copy after ,christ1' says a modern writer1 'but to receive ,his spirit and make it effective--which is the moral task of the ,christian4'#aj ,christ is indeed our example1 but ,he is more4 ,and unless ,he were more ,he could not be so much4 ,we could not strive to be like ,him if ,he were not already within us1 the ,principle and ,spirit of our life1 the higher and diviner self of every man4 ,what is meant1 then1 by saying that ,christ is the ideal character or norm of life is that ,he represents to us human nature in its typical or ideal form4 ,as we behold ,his perfection we feel that this is what we were made for1 this is the true end of our being4 ,every one may1 in short1 see in ,him the fulfilment of the divine idea and purpose of man--the conception and end of himself4#aa ,,ii ,the ,christian ,motive4--,rightly regarded ,christ is not only the model of the new life1 but its motive as well4 ,all the great appeals of the ,gospel--every persuasion and plea by which ,god seeks to awaken a responsive love in the hearts of men--are centred in1 and find expression through1 the ,person and ,passion of ,christ4 #a4 ,the question of motive is a primary one in ,ethics4 #aec ,if1 therefore1 we ask1 ,what is the deepest spring of action1 what is the incentive and motive power for the ,christian8 ,the answer is3 7#a7 the love of ,god1 a love which finds its highest expression in ,forgiveness4 ,of all motives the most powerful is the sense of being pardoned4 ,even when it is only one human being who forgives another1 nothing strikes so deep into the human heart or evokes penitence so tender and unreserved1 or brings a joy so pure and lasting4 ,it not only restores the old relation which wrong had dissolved2 it gives the offender a sense of loyalty unknown before4 ,he is now bound not by law but by honour1 and it would be a disloyalty worse than the original offence if he wounded such love again4 ,thus it is that ,god becomes the object of reverence and affection1 not because ,he imposes laws upon us but because ,he pardons and redeems4 ,the consciousness of forgiveness is far more potent in producing goodness than the consciousness of law4 ,this psychological fact lay at the root of ,christ's ministry1 and was the secret of ,his hope for man4 ,this1 too1 is the key to all that is paradoxical1 and1 at the same time1 to all that is most characteristic in ,st ,paul's ,gospel4 ,what the ,law could not do1 forgiveness achieves4 ,it creates the new heart1 and with it the new holiness4 ',it is not anything statutory which makes saints out of sinful men2 it is the forgiveness which comes through the passion of ,jesus4'#ab 7#b7 ,next to the motive of forgiveness1 and indeed arising from it1 is the new consciousness of the ,fatherhood of ,god1 and the corresponding idea of sonship4 ,this was a motive to which ,jesus habitually appealed4 ,he invariably sought not only to create in men confidence in ,god by revealing ,his fatherly providence1 but also to lift them out of their apathy and thraldom by kindling in their souls a sense of their worth and liberty as sons of ,god4 ,the same thought is prominent also in the epistles both of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,john4 ,as children of ,god we are no longer menials and hirelings who do their work merely for pay1 and without #aed intelligent interest1 but sons who share our ,father's possessions and co-operate with ,him in ,his purposes4#ac 7#c7 ,closely connected with the idea of ,sonship is that of life as a ,divine ,vocation4 ,life is a trust1 and as the children of ,god we are called to serve ,him with all we have and are4 ,the sense of the vocation and stewardship of life acts as a motive3 7a7 in giving dignity and stability to character1 saving us1 on the one hand1 from fatalism1 and on the other from fanaticism1 and affording definiteness of purpose to all our endeavours2 and 7b7 in promoting sincerity and fidelity in our life-work4 ,thoroughness will permeate every department of our conduct1 since whatsoever we do in word or deed we do as unto ,god4 ,all duty is felt to be one1 and as love to ,god becomes its motive the smallest as well as the greatest act is invested with infinite worth4 ',all service ranks the same with ,god4' 7#d7 ,another motive1 prominent in the ,pauline ,epistles1 but present also in the eschatological passages of the ,synoptics1 ought to be mentioned1 though it does not now act upon ,christians in the same form--the ,shortness and ,uncertainty of life4 ,our ,lord enjoins men to work while it is day for the night cometh2 and in view of the suddenness and unexpectedness of the coming of the ,son of ,man ,he exhorts to watchfulness and preparedness4 ,a similar thought forms the background of the apostle's conception of life4 ,his entire view of duty as well as his estimate of earthly things are tinged with the idea that 'the time is short1' and that 'the ,lord is at hand4' ,christians are exhorted1 therefore1 to sit lightly to all worldly considerations4 ,our true citizenship is in heaven4 ,but neither the apostle nor his ,master ever urges this fact as a reason for apathy or indifference4 ,life may be brief1 but it is not worthless4 ,the thought of life's brevity must not act as an opiate1 but rather as a stimulant4 ,if our existence here is short1 then there is all the greater necessity that its days should be nobly filled1 and its transient opportunities seized and turned into occasions of strenuous service4 #aee 7#e7 ,to the considerations just mentioned must be added a cognate truth which has coloured the whole ,christian view of life1 and has been a most powerful factor in shaping ,christian conduct--the idea of ,immortality4 ,it is not quite correct to say that we owe this doctrine to ,christianity alone4 ,long before the ,christian era it was recognised in ,egypt1 ,greece1 and the ,orient generally4 ,but it was entertained more as a surmise than a conviction4 ,and among the ,greeks it was little more than the shadowy speculation of philosophers4 ,plato1 in his ,phaedo1 puts into the mouth of ,socrates utterances of great beauty and far-reaching import2 yet1 notwithstanding their sublimity1 they scarcely attain to more than a 'perhaps4' ,even in ,hebrew literature1 as we have seen1 while isolated instances of a larger hope are not wanting1 there is no confident or general belief in an after-life4 ,but what was only guessed at by the ancients was declared as a fact by ,christ1 and preached as a sublime and comforting truth by the apostles2 and it is not too much to say that survival after death is at once the most distinctive doctrine of ,christianity and the most precious hope of ,christendom4 ,the whole moral temperature of the world1 says ,jean ,paul ,richter1 has been raised immeasurably by the fact that ,christ by ,his ,gospel has brought life and immortality to light4 ,this idea1 which has found expression1 not only in all the creeds of ,christendom1 but also in the higher literature and poetry of modern times1 has given a new motive to action1 has founded a new type of heroism1 and nerved common men and women to the discharge of tasks from which nature recoils4 ,the assurance that death does not end existence1 but that 'man has forever1' has not only exalted and transfigured the common virtues of humanity2 but1 held in conjunction with the belief in the divine ,fatherhood and human brotherhood1 given to life itself a new solemnity and pathos4#ad #b4 ,but if these are the things which actuate men in their service of ,god and man1 can it be legitimately said that the ,christian motive is pure and disinterested8 ,it is #aff somewhat remarkable that two opposite charges have been brought against ,christian ,ethics4#ae ,in one quarter the reproach has been made that ,christianity suppresses every natural desire for happiness1 and inculcates a life of severe renunciation4 ,and with equally strong insistence there are others who find fault with it because of its hedonism1 because it rests morality upon an appeal to selfish interests alone4 7#a7 ,the first charge is sufficiently met1 we think1 by our view of the ,christian ideal4 ,we have seen that it is a full rich life which ,christ reveals and commends4 ,the kingdom of ,god finds its realisation1 not in a withdrawal from human interests1 but in a larger and fuller participation in all that makes for the highest good of humanity4 ,it is a caricature of ,christ's whole outlook upon existence to represent ,him as teaching that this life is an outlying waste1 forsaken of ,god and unblessed1 and that the world is so hopelessly bad that it must be wholly renounced4 ,on the contrary1 it is for ,him one of the provinces of the divine kingdom1 and the most trivial of our occupations and the most transient of our joys and sorrows find their place in the divine order4 ,it is not necessary to endorse ,renan's idyllic picture of the ,galilean ministry to believe that for ,jesus all life1 its ordinary engagements and activities1 had a worth for the discipline and perfecting of character1 and were capable of being consecrated to the highest ends4 ,there are1 indeed1 not a few passages in which the call to self-denial is emphasised4 ,but neither ,christ nor ,his apostles represent pain and want as in themselves efficacious or meritorious4 ,renunciation is inculcated not for its own sake1 but always as a means to fuller realisation4 ,jesus1 indeed1 transcends the common antithesis of life4 ,for ,him it is not a question as to whether asceticism or non-asceticism is best4 ,life is for use4 ,it is at once a trust and a privilege4 ,it may seem to some that ,he chose 'the primrose path1' but if he did so it was not due to an easy-going good-nature4 ,we dare not forget the terrible issues #aeg ,he faced without flinching4 ,as ,professor ,sanday has finely said1 ',if we are to draw a lesson in this respect from our ,lord's life1 it certainly would not be that ,he who lets his feelings run ,in soft luxurious flow1 ,shrinks when hard service must be done1 ,and faints at every woe4 ,it would be rather that the brightest and tenderest human life must have a stern background1 must carry with it the possibility of infinite sacrifice1 of bearing the cross and the crown of thorns4'#af 7#b7 ,the second charge1 the charge of hedonism1 though seemingly opposed to the first1 comes into line with it in so far as it is alleged that ,christianity1 while inculcating renunciation in this world1 does so for the sake of happiness in the next4 ,it is contended that in regard to purity of motive the ,ethics of ,christianity falls below the ,ethics of philosophy4#ag ,this statement1 so often repeated1 requires some examination4 #c4 ,while it may be acknowledged that unselfishness and disinterestedness are the criterion of moral sublimity1 it must be noted at the outset that considerable confusion of thought exists as to the meaning of motive4 ,even in those moral systems in which virtue is represented as wholly disinterested1 the motive may be said to reside in the object itself4 ,the maxim1 ',virtue for virtue's sake1' really implies what may be called the 'interest of achievement4' ,if virtue has any meaning it must be regarded as a 'good' which is desirable4 ,perseverance in the pursuit of any good implies the hope of success2 in other words1 of the reward which lies in the attainment of the object desired4 ,the reward sought may not be foreign to the nature of virtue itself1 but none the less1 the idea of reward is present1 and1 in a sense1 is the incentive to all virtuous endeavour4 ,this is1 indeed1 implied by a no less rigorous #afh moralist than ,kant4 ,for as he himself teaches1 the question1 ',what should ,i do8' leads inevitably to the further question1 ',what may ,i hope8'#ah ,the end striven after cannot be a matter of indifference1 if virtue is to have moral value at all4 ,it must be a real and desirable end--an end which fulfils the purpose of a man as a moral being4 7#a7 ,but though ,kant insists with rigorous logic that reverence for the majesty of the moral law must be the only motive of duty1 and that all motives springing from personal desire or hope of happiness must be severely excluded1 it is curious to find that in the second part of his ,critique of ,practical ,reason he proceeds1 with a strange inconsistency1 to make room for the other idea1 viz41 that virtue is not without its reward1 and is indeed united in the end with happiness4 ,felicity and holiness shall be ultimately one1 he says2 and1 at the last1 virtue shall be seen 'to be worthy of happiness1' and happiness shall be the crown of goodness4#ai ,thus those philosophers1 of whom ,kant is typical1 who contend for the purity of the moral motive and the disinterested loyalty to the good1 bring in1 at the end1 the notion of happiness1 which1 as a concomitant or consequence of virtue1 cannot fail to be also an active incentive4 7#b7 ,when we turn to ,christian ,ethics we find that here1 not less than in philosophical ,ethics1 the motive lies in the object itself4 ,the end and the motive are really one1 and the highest good is to be sought for itself and not for the sake of some ulterior gain4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that ,christianity has not always been presented in its purest form2 too often have prudence1 fear1 other-worldliness been set forth as inducements to goodness1 as if the ,gospel cared nothing for the disposition of a man1 and was concerned only with his ultimate happiness4 ,even a moralist so acute as ,paley bases morality upon no higher ground than enlightened self-interest4 ,but the most superficial reader of the ,gospels must see at a glance the wide variance between such a view and that of ,christ4 ,nothing could be further from the spirit of ,jesus than to estimate the #afi excellence of an action by the magnitude or the utility of its effects rather than the intrinsic good of its motive4 ,otherwise ,he would not have ranked the widow's mite above the gifts of vanity1 nor esteemed the tribute of the penitent1 not so much for the costliness of her offering1 as for the sincerity of affection it revealed4 ,christ looked upon the heart alone1 and the worth of an action lay essentially for ,him in its inner quality4 ,sin resided not merely in the overt act1 but even more in the secret desire4 ,a man may be outwardly blameless1 and yet not really good4 ,he who remains sober or honest simply because of the worldly advantages attaching to such conduct may obtain a certificate of respectability from society2 but1 judged by the standard of ,christ1 he is not truly a moral man4 ,in an age which is too prone to make outward propriety the gauge of goodness1 it cannot be sufficiently insisted upon that the ,ethic of ,christianity is an ,ethic of the inner motive and intention1 and that1 in this respect1 it does not fall a whit behind the demand of the most rigid system of disinterested morality4 7a7 ,it must1 however1 be freely admitted that our ,lord frequently employs the sanctions both of rewards and penalties4 ,in the time of ,christ the idea of reward1 so prominent in the ,old ,testament1 still held an important place in ,jewish religion1 being specially connected with the ,messianic ,hope and the coming of the kingdom4 ,it was not unnatural1 therefore1 that ,jesus1 trained in ,hebrew religious modes of thought and expression1 should frequently employ the existing conceptions as vehicles of ,his own teaching2 but1 at the same time1 purifying them of their more materialistic associations and giving to them a richer spiritual content4 ,while the kingdom of ,god is spoken of as a gift1 and promised1 indeed1 as a reward1 the word 'reward' in this connection is not used in the ordinary sense1 but 'is rather conceived as belonging to the same order of spiritual experience as the state of heart and mind which ensures its bestowal4'#bj ,though ,jesus does not #afj hesitate to point ,his disciples to the blessings of heaven which they will receive in the future1 these are represented for the most part not as material benefits1 but as the intensification and enrichment of life itself4#ba ,it was usually the difficulties rather than the advantages of discipleship upon which ,jesus first laid stress4 ,he would not that any one should come to ,him on false pretences1 or without fully counting the cost4#bb ,even when ,he ,himself called ,his original disciples1 it was of service and not of recompense ,he spoke4 ',follow ,me1 and ,i will make you fishers of men4'#bc ,the privilege consisted not in outward clat1 but in the participation of the ,master's own purpose and work4 ,still1 all service carries with it its own reward1 and no one can share the mission of ,christ without also partaking of that satisfaction and joy which are inseparable from the highest forms of spiritual ministry4#bd ,there is1 however1 one passage recorded by all the ,synoptists which seems at first sight to point more definitely to a reward of a distinctly material character1 and to one that was to be enjoyed not merely in the future1 but even in this present life4 ,when ,peter somewhat boastfully spoke of the sacrifice which he and his brethren had made for the ,gospel's sake1 and asked1 ',what shall we have therefor8' ,jesus replied1 ',verily1 ,i say unto you1 that no man that hath left home1 or brethren1 or sisters1 or mother1 or father1 or children1 or lands1 for ,my sake and the ,gospel's sake1 but shall receive an hundredfold now in this time1 houses and brethren1 sisters and mothers1 and children and lands1 with persecutions2 and in the world to come eternal life4'#be ,now1 while this is a promise of wide sweep and large generosity1 it is neither so arbitrary nor material as it seems4 ,first1 the words1 'with persecutions1' indicate that suffering is not only the very condition of the promise1 but indeed an essential part of the reward--an element which would of itself be a true test of the sincerity of the sacrifice4 #afa ,but1 second1 even the promise1 ',an hundredfold now in this time1' is obviously not intended to be taken in a literal sense1 but rather as suggesting that the gain1 while apparently of the same nature as the sacrifice1 will have a larger spiritual import4 ,for1 just as ,jesus ,himself looked upon all who shared ,his own devotion as ,his mother and brethren2 so1 in the deepest sense1 when a man leaves father and mother1 renouncing home and family ties for the sake of bringing his fellow-men to ,god1 he seems to be emptying his life of all affectionate relationships1 but in reality he is entering into a wider brotherhood2 and1 in virtue of his ministry of love1 is being knit in bonds stronger than those of earthly kinship1 with a great and increasing community of souls which owe to him their lives4#bf ,the promise is no arbitrary gift or bribe capriciously bestowed2 it is the natural fruition of moral endeavour4 ,for there is nothing so productive as sacrifice4 ,what the man who yields himself to the service of ,christ actually gives is life2 and what he gets back1 increased an hundredfold1 is just life again1 his own life1 repeated and reflected in the men and women whom he has won to ,christ4 ,in some of ,his parables ,christ employs the analogy of the work-engagement1 in which labour and payment seem to correspond4 ,but the legal element has a very subordinate place in the simile4 ,jesus lifts the whole relationship into a higher region of thought1 and transforms the idea of wages into that of a gift of love far transcending the legal claim which can be made by the worker4 ,he who has the bondsman's mind1 and works only for the hireling's pay1 will only get what he works for4 ,but he who serves from love finds in the service itself that which must always be its truest recompense--the increased power of service1 the capacity of larger devotion#bg--',the wages of going on4'#bh ,in his latest volume ,deissmann has pointed out that we can only do justice to the utterances of the ,new ,testament regarding work and wages by examining them in situ1 #afb amidst their natural surroundings4 ,jesus and ,st4 ,paul spoke with distinct reference to the life and habits of the common people of their day4 ',if you elevate such utterances to the level of the ,kantian moral philosophy1 and reproach primitive ,christianity with teaching for the sake of reward1 you not only misunderstand the words1 but tear them up by the roots4' 4 4 4 ',the sordid ignoble suggestions so liable to arise in the lower classes are altogether absent from the sayings of ,jesus and ,his apostles1 as shown by the parable of the ,labourers in the ,vineyard1 and the analogous reliance of ,st4 ,paul solely upon grace4'#bi ,the same inner relation subsists between ,sin and ,penalty4 ,but here1 again1 the award of punishment is not arbitrary1 but the natural consequence of disobedience to the law of the spiritual life4 ,he who seeks to save his life shall lose it4 ,he who makes this world his all shall receive as his reward only what this world can give4 ,he who buries his talent shall1 by the natural law of disuse1 forfeit it4 ,not to believe in ,christ is to miss eternal life4 ,to refuse ,him who is the ,light of the world is to remain in darkness4 7#f7 ,an examination of the ,pauline epistles yields a similar conclusion4 ,st4 ,paul does not disdain to employ the sanctions of hope and fear4 ',knowing the terrors of the ,lord' he persuades men1 and 'because of the promises' he urges the ,corinthians 'to cleanse themselves and perfect holiness4' ,but in ,paul's case1 as in that of our ,lord1 the charge of hedonism is meaningless4 ,for not only does the conception hold a most subordinate place in his teaching1 but the idea loses the sense of merit1 and is transmuted into that of a free gift4 ,and in general1 in all the passages where the hope of the future is introduced1 the idea of reward is merged in the yearning for a fuller life1 which the ,christian1 who has once tasted of its joy here1 may well expect in richer measure hereafter4#cj ,enough has been said to clear ,christianity of the charge of hedonism4 ,so far from ,christian ,ethics falling #afc below ,philosophical ,ethics in regard to purity of motive1 it really surpasses it in the sublimity of its sanctions4 ,the ,kantian idea of virtue tends to empty the obligation of all moral content4 ,goodness1 as the philosopher himself came to see1 cannot be represented as a mere impersonal abstraction4 ,virtue has no meaning except in relation to its ultimate end4 ,and life in union with a personal ,god1 in whose image we have been made1 is the end and purpose of man's being4 ,noble as it may be to live morally without the thought of ,god1 the man who so strives to live does not attain to such a high conception of life as he who lives with ,god for his object4 ,motives advance with aims1 and the higher the ideal the nobler the incentive4 ,fear of future punishment and the desire for future happiness may prove effective aids to the will at certain stages of moral development1 but ultimately the love of ,god and the beauty of holiness make every other motive superfluous4 ,indeed1 the reward of the ,christian life is such as can only appeal to one who has come to identify himself with the divine will4 ,the ,christian man is always entering upon his reward4 ,his joy is his ,master's joy4 ,he has no other interest4 ,his reward1 both here and hereafter1 is not some external payment1 something separable from himself2 it is wholly conditioned by what he is1 and is simply his own growth of character1 his increasing power of being good and doing good4 ,and if it be still asked1 ,what is the great inducement8 ,what is it that makes the life of the ,christian worth living8 ,the answer can only be--,the hope of becoming what ,christ has set before man as desirable1 of growing up to the stature of perfect manhood1 of attaining to the likeness of ,jesus ,christ ,himself4 ,but so far from this being a selfish aim1 not to seek one's life in ,god--to be indifferent to all the inherent blessings and joys involved--would be not the mark of pure disinterestedness1 but the evidence1 rather1 of a lack of appreciation of what life really means4 ,the soul that has caught the vision of ,god and been thrilled with the grace of the ,son of ,man cannot but yield itself to the best it knows4 #a ,cf4 ,fairbairn1 ,the ,phil4 of the ,ch4 ,religion1 pp4 #ceh ff4 #b ,peabody1 ,christ and the ,christian ,character1 p4 #dd4 #c ,peabody1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ec f4 #d ,peabody1 op4 cit41 p4 #fh4 #e ,see ,paulsen1 ,system der ,ethik1 pp4 #ef ff42 also ,troeltsch1 op4 cit41 vol4 ii4 p4 #hdg4 #f ,cf4 ,ehrhardt1 ,der ,grundcharacter d4 ,ethik4 ,jesu1 p4 #aaj4 ',the ascetic element in the ethics of ,jesus is its transient1 the service of ,god its permanent element4' ,cf4 also ,strauss1 ,leben ,jesu1 who speaks of 'the ,hellenic quality' in ,jesus2 also ,keim1 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and ,troeltsch1 op4 cit41 vol4 i4 pp4 #cd ff4 #g ,john xiii4 #ae4 #h ,conduct of ,life4 #i ,metaphysics of ,ethics1 sect4 ii4 #aj ,schultz1 ,grundriss d4 evang4 ,ethik1 p4 #e4 #aa ,cf4 ,ecce ,homo1 chap4 x4 #ab ,this thought has been beautifully worked out by ,prof4 ,denney in ,british ,weekly1 ,jan4 #ac1 #aiab4 #ac ,luke xv4 #ad ,cf4 ,knight1 ,the ,christian ,ethic1 p4 #cf4 #ae ,see ,haering1 ,ethics of the ,christian ,life1 p4 #aij4 #af ',apocalyptic ,element in the ,gospels1' ,hibbert ,journal1 ,oct4 #aiaa4 #ag ,the question of rewards has been fully discussed by ,jacoby1 ,neutestamentliche ,ethik1 pp4 #da ff42 also ,barbour1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bbf ff4 #ah ,cf4 ,kritik d4 prakt4 ,vernunft1 p4 #adc4 #ai ,kant1 ,idem4 #bj ,barbour1 op4 cit41 p4 #bca4 #ba ,matt4 v4 #ab1 xix4 #ba1 xxv4 #cd2 ,luke vi4 #bc1 xviii4 #bb2 ,mark x4 #ba4 #bb ,mark viii4 #ai2 ,luke ix4 #eg4 #bc ,mark i4 #ag1 ii4 #ad4 #bd ,luke xxii4 #bi f4 #be ,mark x4 #bh-ca2 cf4 ,matt4 xix4 #bg-cj4 #bf ,this thought is finely elaborated by ,barbour4 #bg ,matt4 xxv4 #ba2 ,luke xix4 #ag4 #bh ,tennyson1 ,wages4 #bi ,deissmann1 ,light from the ,ancient ,east1 pp4 #caf ff4 #cj ,see also ,eph4 vi4 #e-h2 #a ,cor4 iii4 #ad2 ,rom4 v4 #b-e1 vi4 #bc1 viii4 #af4 #afd ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,dynamic ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,life ,in the dynamic power of the new life we reach the central and distinguishing feature of ,christian ,ethics4 ,the uniqueness of ,christianity consists in its mode of dealing with a problem which all non-,christian systems have tended to ignore--the problem of translating the ideal into life4 ,the ,gospel not only sets before men the highest good1 but it imparts the secret of realising it4 ,the ideals of the ancients were but visions of perfection4 ,they had no objective reality4 ,beautiful as these old-time visions of ',good' were1 they lacked impelling force1 the power to change dreams into realities4 ,they were helpless in the face of the great fact of sin4 ,they could suggest no remedy for moral disease4 ,christianity is not a philosophical dream nor the imagination of a few visionaries4 ,it claims to be a new creative force1 a power communicated and received1 to be worked out and realised in the actual life and character of common men and women4 ,in this chapter we have to consider the means whereby man is brought into a new spiritual relation with ,god1 and enabled to live the new life as it has been revealed in ,christ4 ,this reconciliation implies a twofold movement--a redemptive action on ,god's part1 and an appropriating and determinative response on the part of man4 ,i ,,the ,,divine ,,power ,the urgent problem of the ,new ,testament writers was1 ,how can man achieve that good which has been embodied #afe in the life and example of ,jesus ,christ8 ,a full answer to this question would lead us into the realm of dogmatic theology4 ,and therefore1 without entering upon details1 it may be said at once that the originality of the ,gospel lies in this1 that it not only reveals the good in a concrete and living form1 but discloses the power which makes the good possible in the hitherto unattempted derivation of the new life from a new birth under the influence of the spirit of ,god4 ,the power to achieve the moral life does not lie in the natural man4 ,no readjustment of circumstances1 nor spread of knowledge1 is of itself equal to the task of creating that entirely new phenomenon--the ,christian character4 ,there must be a cause proportionate to the effect4 ',nothing availeth1' says ,paul1 'but a new creature4' ,this new condition owes its origin to ,god4 ,it is a life communicated by an act of divine creative activity4 ,but while this regenerative energy is represented generally as the work of ,god's spirit1 it is more particularly set forth as operating through ,christ who is the power of ,god unto salvation4 ,there are three great facts in ,christ's life with which the ,new ,testament connects the redemptive work of ,god4 #a4 ,the ,incarnation4--,in ,christ ,god shares man's nature1 and thus makes possible a union of the divine and human4 ,on its divine side the incarnation is the complete revelation of ,god in human life1 and on the human side it is the supreme expression of the spiritual meaning of human nature itself4 ,christ saves not by a special act of atonement alone1 but emphatically by manifesting in ,himself the union of ,god and man4 ,in view of the fact of the world's sin1 the ,incarnation1 as the revelation of the divine life1 includes a gracious purpose4 ,it involves the sacrifice of ,god1 which theologians designate by the theory of ,kenosis4 ,the ,advent was not only the consummation of the religious history of the race2 it was also the inauguration of a new era4 ,the ,son of ,man initiated a new type of humanity1 to be realised in increasing fullness as men entered into the meaning of the great revelation4 ',he #aff recapitulated in ,himself the long unfolding of mankind4'#a ,hence in the very fact of the word becoming flesh atonement is involved4 ,in ,christ ,god is revealed in the reality of ,his love and the persistence of ,his search for man1 while man is disclosed in the greatness of his vision and vocation4 #b4 ,the ,death of ,christ4--,although already implied in the life1 the atonement culminates in the death of ,christ4 ,even by being made in the likeness of men ,jesus did not escape from1 but willingly took up1 the burdens of humanity and bore them as the ,son of ,man4 ,but ,his passion upon the cross1 as the supreme instance of suffering borne for others1 at once illuminated and completed all that ,he suffered and achieved as man's representative4 ,it is this aspect of ,christ's redemptive work upon which ,st4 ,paul delights to dwell4 ,and though naturally not so prominent in our ,lord's own teaching1 yet even there the significance of the ,redeemer's death is foreshadowed1 and in more than one passage explicitly stated4#b ,here we are in the region of dogmatics1 and we are not called upon to formulate a doctrine of the atonement4 ,all that we have to do with is the ethical fact that between man and the new life there lies the actuality of sin1 the real source of man's failure to achieve righteousness1 and the stumbling-block which must be removed before reconciliation with ,god the ,father can be effected4 ,the act1 at once divine and human1 which alone meets the case is represented in ,scripture as the ,sacrifice of ,christ4 ,in reference to the efficacy of the sacrifice upon the cross ,bishop ,butler says3 ',how and in what particular way it had this efficacy1 there are not wanting persons who have endeavoured to explain2 but ,i do not find that the ,scripture has explained it4'#c ,though1 indeed1 the fact is independent of any theory1 the truth for which the cross stands must be brought by us into some kind of intelligible relation with our view of the world1 otherwise it is a piece of magic lying outside of our experience1 and #afg having no ethical value for life4 ,at the same time no doctrine has suffered more from shallow theorisings1 and particularly by the employment of mechanical1 legal1 and commercial analogies1 than the doctrine of the atonement4 ,the very essence of the religious life is incompatible with the idea of an external transference of goodness from one being to another4 ,man can be reconciled to ,god only by an absolute surrender of himself to ,god4 ,to assimilate this spiritual act to a commercial or legal transaction is to destroy the very idea of the moral life4 ,no explanation1 however1 can be considered satisfactory which does not safeguard two ideas of a deeply ethical nature--the voluntariness and the vicariousness of ,christ's sacrifice4 ,we must be careful to do justice1 on the one hand1 to the eternal relations in which ,christ stands to ,god2 and on the other1 to the intimate association with man into which ,jesus has entered4 ,it is the task of theology to bring together the various passages of ,scripture1 and exhibit their systematic connection and relative value for a doctrine of soteriology4 ,for ,ethics the one significant fact to be recognised is that in a human life was fulfilled perfect obedience1 even as far as death1 a perfect obedience that completely met and fully satisfied the demand of the very highest1 the divine ideal4 #c4 ,the ,resurrection of ,christ4--,if the ,incarnation naturally issues in the sacrifice unto death1 that again is crowned and sealed by ,christ's risen life4 ,the ,resurrection is the vindication and completion of the ,redeemer's work4 ,he who was born of the seed of ,david according to the flesh was declared to be the ,son of ,god by the ,resurrection4 ,it was the certainty that ,he had risen that gave to ,his death1 in the apostles' eyes1 its sacrificial value4 ,this was the ground of ,st4 ,paul's conviction that the old order had passed away1 and that a new order had been established4 ',if ,christ be not risen ye are yet in your sins4' ,in virtue of ,his ascended life ,christ becomes the indwelling presence and living power within the regenerate man4 ,it is in no external way that the ,redeemer exerts ,his influence4 ,he is the principle of life working within the soul4 ,the key #afh to the new state is to be found in the mystical union of the ,christian with the risen ,lord4 ,the twofold act of death and resurrection has its analogy in the experience of every redeemed man4 ,within the secret sanctuary of the human soul that has passed from death to life1 the history of the ,redeemer is re-enacted4 ,in the several passages which refer to this subject the idea is that the changed life is based upon an ethical dying and rising again with ,christ4#d ,the ,christ within the heart is the vital principle and dynamic energy by which the believer lives and triumphs over every obstacle--the world1 sin1 sorrow1 and death itself4 ',i live1 yet not ,i1 but ,christ liveth in me4'#e ,all that makes life1 'life indeed'--an exalted1 harmonious1 and joyous existence--is derived from union with the living ,lord1 who has come to be what ,he is for man by the earthly experiences through which ,he has passed4 ,thus by ,his ,incarnation1 ,death1 and ,resurrection ,he is at once the source and goal1 the spring and ideal of the new life4 ',yea1 thro' life1 death1 sorrow1 and through sinning1 ,he shall suffice me for ,he hath sufficed2 ,christ is the end1 for ,christ was the beginning2 ,christ the beginning1 for the end is ,christ4'#f ,theology may seek to analyse the personality of ,christ into its elements--the incarnation1 death1 and resurrection of ,jesus4 ,but after all it is one and indivisible4 ,it is the whole fact of ,christ1 and not any particular experience taken in its isolation1 which is the power of ,god unto salvation4 ,the question still remains after all our analysis1 ,what was it that gave to these events in the history of ,jesus their creative and transforming power8 ,and the answer can only be--,because ,christ was what ,he was4 ,it was the unique character of the ,being of whom these were but the manifestations which wrought the spell4 ,what bound the ,new ,testament ,christians to the cross was that their ,master hung there4 ,they saw in that life lived among #afi men1 and in that sacrifice upon ,calvary1 the perfect consummation of the ideal manhood that lived within their own hearts1 and of the love1 new upon the earth1 which made it possible4 ,the cross stood for the symbol of a truth that pierced to the inner core of their souls4 ',he bore our sins4' ,and thus down the centuries1 in their hour of shame1 and grief1 and death1 men have lifted their eyes to the ,man of ,sorrows1 and have found in ,his life and sacrifice1 apart from all theories of atonement1 their peace and triumph4 ,it is this note of absolute surrender towards ,god and of perfect love for man which1 because it answers to a deep yearning of the human heart1 has given to the mystery of the ,incarnation and the ,cross its lifting and renewing power1 ,,ii ,,the ,,human ,,response ,possession of power involves the obligation to use it4 ,the force is given2 it has to be appropriated4 ,the spirit of ,christ is not offered in order to free a man from the duties of the moral life4 ,man is not simply the recipient of divine energy4 ,he has to make it his own and to work it out by his self-determinative activity4 ,nevertheless the relation of the divine spirit to the human personality is a subject of great perplexity1 involving the psychological problem of the connection of the divine and the human in life generally4 ,if in the last resort ,god is the ultimate source of all life1 the absolute ,being1 who ',can rejoice in naught ,save only in ,himself and what ,himself hath wrought'2 that truth must be held in harmony with the facts of divine immanence and human experience4 ,the divine spirit holds within ,his grasp all reality1 and by ,his self-communicating activity makes the world of nature and of life possible4 ,but that being granted1 how are we to conceive the relation of that ,spirit to man with his distinct individuality1 with #agj his sense of working out a future and a fate in which the ,absolute may indeed be fulfilling its purpose1 but which are none the less man's own achievement8 ,that is the crux of the problem4 ,the outstanding fact which bears upon this problem is the general character of our experience1 the growth of which is not the mere laying of additional material upon a passive subject by an external power1 but is a true development1 a process in which the subject is himself operative in the unfolding of his own potentialities4 ,without dwelling further upon this question it may be well to bear in mind two points3 7#a7 ,the growth of experience is a gradual entrance into conscious possession of what we implicitly are and potentially have from the beginning4 ,duty1 for example1 is not something alien from a man1 something superimposed by a power not himself4 ,it lies implicit in his nature as his ideal and vocation4 ,the moral life is the life in which a man comes to 'know himself1' to apprehend himself as he truly is4 7#b7 ,in this development of experience we ourselves are active and self-organising4 ,we are really making ourselves1 and are conscious1 that even while we are the instruments of a higher power1 we are working out our own individuality1 exercising our own freedom and determination4#g ,the teaching of the ,new ,testament is in full accord with this position4 ,if1 on the one hand1 ,st4 ,paul states that every moral impulse is due to the inspiration of ,god1 no less emphatic is he in ascribing to man himself full freedom of action4 ',the ethical sense of responsibility1' says ,johannes ,weiss1#h 'the energy for struggle1 and the discipline of the will were not paralysed nor absorbed in ,paul's case by his consciousness of redemption and his profound spiritual experiences4' ,scripture lends no support to the idea which some forms of ,augustinian theology assume1 that the divine spirit is an irresistible force acting from without upon man and superseding his exertions4 ,it acts as an immanent moral power1 not compelling or crushing the will1 but quickening and inspiring its efforts4 #aga ,if we inquire what constitutes the subjective or human element in the making of the new life1 we find that the ,new ,testament emphasises three main factors--,repentance1 ,faith1 and ,obedience4 ,these are complementary1 and together constitute what is commonly called 'conversion4' #a4 ,repentance is a turning away in sorrow and contrition from a life of sin1 a breaking off from evil because a better standard has been accepted4 ,our ,lord began ,his ministry with a call to repentance4 ,the first four beatitudes set forth its elements2 while the parable of the prodigal illustrates its nature4 ,ethical writers distinguish between a negative and a positive aspect of repentance4 ,on its negative side it is regarded as the emotion of sorrow excited by reflection upon sin4 ,but sorrow1 though accompanying repentance1 must not be identified with it4 ,mere regret1 either in the form of bitterness over one's folly1 or chagrin on account of discovery1 may be but a weak sentiment which exerts little or no influence upon a man's subsequent conduct4 ,even remorse following the commission of wickedness may only deepen into a paralysing despair which works death rather than repentance unto life4 7#a7 ,on its positive side repentance implies action as well as feeling1 and involves a determination of will to quit the past and start on a new life4 ,a man repents not merely when he grieves over his misdeed1 but when he confesses it and seeks to make what amendment he can4 ,this positive outlook upon the future1 rather than the passive brooding over the past1 is happily expressed in the ,new ,testament term metanoia1 change of mind1 and is enforced in the ,baptist's counsel1 ',bring forth fruits meet for repentance4'#i ,the change of mind here indicated is practically equivalent to what is variously called in the ,new ,testament ',conversion1'#aj ',renewal1'#aa ',regeneration1'#ab--words suggestive of the completeness of the change4 7#b7 ,the variety of terms employed to describe conversion #agb would seem to imply that the ,scriptures recognise a diversity of mode4 ,all do not enter the kingdom of ,god by the same way2 and the ,new ,testament offers examples varying from the sudden conversion of a ,saul to the almost imperceptible transformation of a ,nathaniel and a ,timothy4 ,in modern life something of the same variety of ,christian experience is manifest4 ,while what is called 'sudden conversion' cannot reasonably be denied1#ac as little can those cases be ignored in which the truth seems to pervade the mind gradually and almost unconsciously--cases of steady spiritual growth from childhood upwards1 in which the believer is unaware of any break in the continuity of his inner history1 his days appearing to be 'bound each to each by natural piety4' 7#c7 ,the question arises1 ,which is the normal experience8 ,the matter has been put somewhat bluntly by the late ,professor ,james1#ad as to whether the 'twice-born' or the 'once-born' present the natural type of ,christian experience4 ,is it true1 he asks1 that the experience of ,st4 ,paul1 which has so long dominated ,christian teaching1 is really the higher or even the healthier mode of approaching religion8 ,does not the example of ,jesus offer a simpler and more natural ideal8 ,the moral experience of the ,son of ,man was not a revolution but an evolution4 ,his own religion was not that of the twice-born1 and all that ,he asked of ,his disciples was the childlike mind4#ae ,paul1 the man of cities1 feels a kindred turbulence within himself4 ,jesus1 the interpreter of nature1 feels the steady persuasiveness of the sunshine of ,god1 and grows from childhood in stature1 wisdom1 and favour with ,god and man4 ,it is contended by some that the whole ,pauline conception of sin is a nightmare1 and rests upon ideas of ,god and man which are unworthy and untrue4 ',as a matter of fact1' says ,sir ,oliver ,lodge1 'the higher man of to-day is not worrying about his sins at all1 still less about their punishment2 his mission1 if he is good for anything1 is to be up and doing4'#af #agc ,this amounts to a claim for the superiority of the first of the two types of religious consciousness1 the type which ,james describes as 'sky-blue souls whose affinities are with flowers and birds and all enchanting innocencies than with dark human passions2 4 4 4 in whom religious gladness1 being in possession from the outset1 needs no deliverance from any antecedent burden4'#ag ,the second type is marked by a consciousness1 similar to ,st4 ,paul's1 of the divided self4 ,it starts from radical pessimism4 ,it only attains to religious peace through great tribulation4 ,it is the religion of the 'sick soul' as contrasted with that of 'healthy-mindedness4' ,but1 morbid as it may appear1 to be disturbed by past sin1 it is really the 'twice-born' who have sounded the depths of the human heart1 and have been the greatest religious leaders4 ,and so far from the sense of the need of repentance being the sign of a diseased mind1 the decreasing consciousness of sin in our day may only prove the shallowness of the modern mind4 ,what men need of religion is power4 ,and there is a danger of people to-day losing a sense of the dynamic force of the older ,gospel4#ah ,but whether ,paul's case is abnormal or the reverse1 it is surely a false inference that1 because ,christ grew up without the need of conversion1 ,his life affords in this respect a pattern to sinful men4 ,it is just ,his perfect union with ,god which differentiates ,him entirely from ordinary men2 and that which may be necessary for sinful creatures is unthinkable in ,his case4 ,what ,he was we are to become4 ,but before we can follow ,him1 there is for us1 because of sin1 a preliminary step--a breaking with our evil past4 ,and1 in all ,his teaching our ,lord clearly recognises this4 ,his first call is a call to repentance4 ,it is indeed the childlike mind ,he requires2 but ,he significantly says that 'except ye turn and become as little children1 ye shall in no wise enter the kingdom of heaven4'#ai ,the decision of will demanded of ,jesus1 while it may not #agd necessarily involve a catastrophe of life or convulsion of nature1 must be none the less a deliberate and decisive turning from evil to good4 ,by what road a man must travel before he enters the kingdom1 through what convulsion of spirit be must pass1 so frequently dwelt upon by ,st4 ,paul and illustrated by his own life1 ,christ does not say4 ,in the ,fourth ,gospel there is one reported saying describing a process of spiritual agony1 like that of physical child-birth1 indicative that the change must be radical1 and that at some point of experience the great decision must be made1 a decision which is likely to involve deep travail of soul4 ,there are many ways in which a man may become a ,christian4 ,some men have to undergo1 like ,paul1 fierce inward conflict4 ,others glide quietly1 almost imperceptibly1 into richer and ampler regions of life4 ,but when or how the transition is made1 whether the renewal be sudden or gradual1 it is the same victory in all cases that must be won1 the victory of the spirit over the flesh1 the 'putting off of the old man' and the 'putting on of the new4' ,life cannot be always a compromise4 ,sooner or later it must become an alternative4 ,he who has seen the higher self can be no longer content with the lower4 ,the acts of contrition1 confession1 and decision--essential and successive steps in repentance--are the immediate effects of the vision of ,christ4 ,though repentance is indeed a human activity1 here1 as always1 the earlier impulse comes from the divine side4 ,he who truly repents is already in the grip of ,christ4 ',we love ,him because ,he first loved us4' #b4 ,faith4--,if repentance looks back and forsakes the old1 faith looks forward and accepts the new4 ,even in repentance there is already an element of faith1 for a man cannot turn away from his evil past without having some sense of contrast between the actual and the possible1 some vision of the better life which he feels to be desirable4 7#a7 ,while there is no more characteristic word in the ,new ,testament than faith1 there is none which is used in a greater variety of senses1 or whose import it is more difficult to determine4 ,it must not be forgotten at the outset #age that though it is usually regarded as a theological term1 it is a purely human act1 and represents an element in ordinary life without which the world could not hold together for a single day4 ,we constantly live by faith1 and in our common intercourse with our fellows we daily exercise this function4 ,we have an irresistible conviction that we live in a rational world in which effect answers to cause4 ,faith1 it has been said1 is the capital of all reasoning4 ,break down this principle1 and logic itself would be bankrupt4 ,those who have denied the intelligibility of the universe have not been able to dispense with the very organ by which their argument is conducted4 ,hence faith in its religious sense is of the same kind as faith in common life4 ,it is distinguishable only by its special object and its moral intensity4 7#b7 ,the habitual relationship between ,christ and ,his disciples was one of mutual confidence4 ,while ,jesus evidently trusts them1 they regard ,him as their ,master on whose word they wholly rely4 ,ever invested with a deep mystery and awe1 ,he is always for ,his disciples the embodiment of all that is highest and holiest1 the supreme object of reverence1 the ultimate source of authority4 ,peter but expresses the mind of the company when he says1 ',to whom can we go but unto ,thee1 ,thou hast the words of eternal life4' ,nor was it only the disciples who manifested this personal trust4 ,many others1 the ,syrophenician woman1 the ,roman ,centurion1 ,zacchaeus1 ,bartimaeus1 also evinced it4 ,it was1 indeed1 to this element in the human heart that ,jesus invariably appealed2 and while ,he was quick to detect its presence1 ,he was equally sensitive to its absence4 ,even among the twelve1 when1 in the face of some new emergency1 there was evidence of mistrust1 ,he exclaimed1 ',o ye of little faith4' ,and when1 beyond ,his own immediate circle1 ,he met with suspicion and unbelief1 it caused ,him surprise and pain4#bj ,from these and other incidents it is obvious that faith for ,jesus had a variety of meanings and degrees4 #agf 7a7 ,sometimes it meant simply trust in divine providence2 as when ,he bids ,his disciples take no thought for their lives1 because ,he who feeds the ravens and clothes the lilies cares for them4 7b7 ,it meant again belief in ,his own divine power2 as when ,he assures the recipients of ,his healing virtue that their faith hath made them whole4 7c7 ,it is regarded by ,jesus as a condition of forgiveness and salvation4 ,thus to the woman who had sinned ,he said1 ',thy faith hath saved thee1' and to the man who was sick of the palsy1 ',son1 thy sins be forgiven thee4'#ba ,the essential and vital mark in all ,christ's references is the personal appropriation of the good which ,he ,himself had brought to man4 ,in ,his various modes of activity--in ,his discourses1 ,his works of healing and forgiveness--it is not too much to say that ,jesus regarded ,himself as the embodiment of ,god's message to the world2 and to welcome ,his word with confidence and joy1 and unhesitatingly act upon it1 was faith4 ,hence it did not mean merely the mental acceptance of some abstract truth1 but1 before all else1 personal and intimate devotion to ,himself4 ,it seems the more necessary to emphasise this point since ,harnack has affirmed 'that1 while ,christ was the special object of faith for ,paul and the other apostles1 ,he did not enter as an element into ,his own preaching1 and did not solicit faith towards ,himself4'#bb ,it is indeed true that ,jesus frequently associated ,himself with ,his ,father1 whose immediate representative ,he claims to be4 ,but no one can doubt that ,he also asserts authority and power on ,his own account1 and solicits faith on ,his own behalf4 ,nor does ,he take pains1 even when challenged1 to explain that ,he was but the agent of another4 ,on the contrary1 as we have seen1 ,he acts in ,his own right1 and pronounces the blessings of healing and forgiveness in ,his own name4 ,even when the word ',faith' is not mentioned the whole attitude and spirit of ,jesus impels us to the same conclusion4 ,there was an air of independence and authority #agg about ,him which filled ,his disciples and others1 not merely with confidence1 but with wonder and awe4 ,his repeated word is1 ',i say unto you4' ,and there is a class of sayings which clearly indicate the supreme significance which ,he attached to ,his own personality as an object of faith4 ,foremost among these is the great invitation1 ',come unto ,me1 all ye that labour and are heavy-laden1 and ,i will give you rest4' 7#c7 ,if we turn to the epistles1 and especially to the ,pauline1 we are struck by the apparently changed meaning of faith4 ,it has become more complex and technical4 ,it is no longer simply the receptive relation of the soul towards ,christ2 it is also a justifying principle4 ,faith not only unites the believer to ,christ1 it also translates him into a new sphere and creates for him a new environment4 ,the past is cancelled4 ,all things have become new4 ,the man of faith has passed out of the dominion of law into the kingdom of ,grace4 ,the ,pauline doctrine of ,justification by ,faith has received in the history of the ,church a twofold interpretation4 ,on the one hand1 it has been maintained that the sole significance of faith is that it gives to the believer power1 by ,god's supernatural aid1 to realise a goodness of which he is naturally incapable4 ,on the other hand1 it is held that the peculiarity of faith is that1 though he himself is a sinner deserving condemnation1 it affords to the believer an assurance of the favour with which a loving ,father regards him1 not on account of his own attainments1 but in virtue of the perfect obedience of the ,son of ,god with whom each is united by faith4 ,the former is the more distinctively ,roman view2 the latter that of the ,reformed ,church4 ,while the ,catholic form of the doctrine gives to 'works' a place not less important than faith in justification1 the ,protestant exalts 'faith' to the position of priority as more in harmony with the mystery of the atoning sacrifice of ,christ as expounded by ,st4 ,paul4 ,faith justifies1 because it is for the ,christian the vision of an ideal4 ,what we admire in another is already implicitly within us4 ,we #agh already possess the righteousness we believe in4 ,the moral beauty of ,christ is ours inasmuch as we are linked to ,him by faith1 and have accepted as our true self all that ,he is and has achieved4 ,hence faith is not merely the sight of the ideal in ,christ4 ,it is the energy of the soul as well1 by which the believer strives to realise that which he admires4 ,according to the teaching of ,scripture faith has thus a threefold value4 ,it is a receptive attitude1 a justifying principle1 and an energising power4 ,it is that by which the believer accepts and appropriates the gift of ,life offered by ,god in ,christ4 #c4 ,obedience4--,faith contains the power of a new obedience4 ,but faith worketh by love4 ,the soul's surrender to ,christ is the crowning phase of man's response4 ,the obedience of love is the natural sequel of repentance and faith1 the completing act of consecration4 ,as ,god gives ,himself in ,christ to man1 so man yields in ,christ to ,god all he is and all he has4 ,without enlarging upon the nature of this final act of self-surrender1 three points of ethical value ought not to be overlooked4 7#a7 ,obedience is an activity of the soul by which the believer appropriates the life of ,god4 ,life is not merely a gift1 it is a task1 an achievement4 ,we are not simply passive recipients of the ,good1 but free and determinative agents who react upon what is given1 taking it up into our life and working it into the texture of our character4 ,the obedience of love is the practical side of faith4 ,while ,god imparts the energy of the ,spirit1 we apply it and by strenuous endeavour and unceasing effort mould our souls and make our world4 7#b7 ,it is a consecration of the whole personality4 ,all the powers of man are engaged in soul-making4 ,religion is not a detached region of experience1 a province separate from the incidents and occupations of ordinary existence4 ,obedience must cover the whole of life1 and demands the exercise and devotion of every gift4 ,not only is every thought to be brought into subjection to the mind of #agi ,christ1 but every passion and desire1 every activity and power of body and mind are to be consecrated to ,god and transformed into instruments of service4 ',our wills are ours to make them thine4' ,but the will is not a separate faculty2 it is the whole man4 ,and the obedience of the will is nothing less than the response of our entire manhood to the will of ,god4 7#c7 ,finally1 obedience is a growing power of assimilation to ,christ4 ,we grow in the ,christian life according to the measure of our faith and the exercise of our love4 ,the spiritual world is potentially ours at the beginning of the ,christian life1 but it has to be worked out in daily experience4 ,like every other form of existence spiritual life is a growth which only attains to strength and fruition through continual conflict and achievement4 ,the soul is not a finished product4 ,in patience it is to be acquired4#bc ,by trial and temptation1 by toil and expenditure1 through all the hardships and hazards of daily life its value is determined and its destiny shaped4 ,and according to the measure in which we use these experiences1 and transmute them by obedience to the will of ,god into means of good1 do we grow in ,christian character and approximate to the full stature of the perfect ,man4 ,to this self-determining activity ,eucken has given the name of ',activism4' ',the basis of a true life1' says this writer1 'must be continually won anew4'#bd ,activism acquires ethical character inasmuch as it involves the taking up of the spiritual world into our own volition and being4 ,only by this ceaseless endeavour do we advance to fresh attainments of the moral life1 and are enabled to assimilate the divine as revealed to us in ,christ4 ,nor is it merely the individual self that is thus enriched and developed by obedience to the will of ,god4 ,by personal fidelity to the highest we are aiding the moral development of mankind1 and are furthering the advancement of all that is good and true in the world4 ,not only are we making #ahj our own character1 but we are helping to build up the kingdom of ,god upon the earth4 ,repentance1 ,faith1 and ,obedience are thus the human factors of the new life4 ,they are the moral counterparts of ,grace4 ,god gives and man appropriates4 ,by repentance we turn from sin and self to the true home of our soul in the ,fatherhood of ,god4 ,by faith we behold in ,christ the vision of the ideal self4 ,by obedience and the daily surrender of ourselves to the divine will we transform the vision into the reality4 ,they are all manifestations of love1 the responsive notes of the human heart to the appeal of divine love4 #a ,irenaeus1 ,contra ,haereses1 ,,iii4 xviii4 #a4 #b ,matt4 xx4 #bh2 ,john xi4 #ea2 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bh2 ,mark xiv4 #h1 #i4 #c ,the ,analogy1 part ,,ii4 chap4 v4 #d #b ,cor4 v4 #ad f42 ,rom4 vi42 ,ephes4 iii4 #af1 #ag1 v4 #h4 #e ,gal4 ii4 #bj4 #f ,meyers1 ,saint ,paul4 #g ,see ,blewett1 ,the ,christian ,view of the ,world1 pp4 #hh ff41 where this subject is suggestively treated4 #h ,christ and ,paul4 #i ,matt4 iii4 #h2 ,luke iii4 #h4 #aj ,acts xxvi4 #bj4 #aa ,rom4 xii4 #ab2 ,titus iii4 #e4 #ab #b ,cor4 v4 #ag2 ,gal4 vi4 #ae4 #ac ,see ,begbie1 ,broken ,earthenware4 #ad ,varieties of ,relig4 ,experience4 #ae ,mark x4 #ae4 #af ,man and the ,universe1 p4 #bbj4 #ag ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 p4 #hj4 #ah ,cf4 ,foundations3 a ,statement of ,religious ,belief by seven ,oxford men1 ,essay ,,vi41 pp4 #bgd f4 #ai ,matt4 xviii4 #c4 #bj ,matt4 xiii4 #eh2 ,mark vi4 #e4 #ba ,cf4 ,stalker1 ,the ,ethic of ,jesus1 p4 #agi4 #bb ,das ,wesen des ,christenthums1 p4 #ia1 quoted by ,stalker1 idem1 p4 #agf4 #bc ,luke xxi4 #ai4 #bd ,life's ,basis and life's ,ideal1 p4 #bee4 #aha ,,section ,d ,,conduct #ahc ,,chapter ,,xi ,,virtues ,,and ,,virtue ,so far we have gained some conception of the ,christian ideal as the highest moral good1 and have learned also how the ,christian character is brought into being4 ,we now enter upon a new section--the last stage of our inquiry--and have to consider the 'new man'--his virtues1 duties1 and relationships4 ,the business lying immediately before us in this chapter is to consider the accepted standards in which the ,christian good is exhibited--the virtues recognised by the ,christian consciousness4 ,what1 then1 are the particular forms or manifestations of character which result from the ,christian interpretation of life8 ,when we think of man as living in relation to his fellows1 and engaging in the common activities of the world1 what are the special traits of character which distinguish the ,christian8 ,these questions suggest one of the most important1 and at the same time one of the most difficult1 tasks of ,christian ,ethics--the classification of the virtues4 ,the difficulty arises in the first instance from the ambiguity attaching to the term 'virtue4' ,it is often loosely used to signify a meritorious act--as in the phrase1 'making a virtue of a necessity4' ,it is frequently employed generally for a moral quality or excellency of character1 and in this respect is contrasted with vice4 ,finally1 virtues are sometimes identified with duties4 ,thus we speak of the virtue of veracity4 ,but obviously we may also refer to the duty of veracity4 ,the word aret2 signifies 'force1' and was originally used as a property of bodies1 plants1 or animals4 #ahd ,at first it had no ethical import4 ,in ,attic usage it came to signify aptness or fitness of manhood for public life4 ,and this signification has shaped the future meaning of its ,latin equivalent--virtus 7from vis1 strength1 and not from vir1 a man74 ,plato gave to the term a certain ethical value in connection with his moral view of the social life1 so that ,ethics came to be designated the doctrine of virtues4 ,in general1 however1 both by the ,greek and ,roman moralists1 and particularly the ,stoics1 the word virtus retained something of the sense of force or capacity--a quality prized in the citizen4 ,the ,english word is a direct transcript of the ,latin4 ,the ,german noun1 ,tugend 7from taugen1 to fit7 means capability1 and is related to worth1 honour1 manliness4 ,the word aret does not frequently occur in the ,new ,testament4#a ,in the few passages in which it appears it is associated with praiseworthiness4 ,in one passage#b it has a more distinctly ethical signification--'add to your faith virtue'--where the idea is that of practical worth or manhood4 ,virtue may be defined as the acquired power or capacity for moral action4 ,from the ,christian point of view virtue is the complement1 or rather the outcome1 of grace4 ,hence virtues are graces4 ,in the ,christian sense a man is not virtuous when he has first appropriated by faith the new principle of life4 ,he has within him1 indeed1 the promise and potency of all forms of goodness1 but not until he has consciously brought his personal impulses and faculties into the service of ,christ can he be called truly virtuous4 ,hence the ,christian character is only progressively realised4 ,on the divine side virtue is a gift4 ,on the human side it is an activity4 ,our ,lord's figure of the vine and the branches represents the relation in which ,christian character stands to ,christ4 ,in like manner ,st4 ,paul regards the manifestations of the ,christian life as the fruit of the ,spirit--the inevitable and natural outgrowth of the divine seed of life implanted in the heart4 ,hence arises the importance of #ahe cultivating the inner life of the spirit which is the root of all moral excellency4 ,on the other hand it must be remembered that ,christian morality is not of a different sort from natural morality1 and the ,christian virtues are not merely supernatural qualities added on1 but simply human virtues coloured and transfigured by grace and raised to a higher value4 ,the power to act morally1 the capacity to bring all our faculties into the service of the spiritual life1 is the ground of ,christian virtue just as it is of every natural excellence4 ,from this it follows that the distinction sometimes made between natural goodness and ,christian goodness is unsound4 ,a virtue is not a superlative act of merit1 implying an excess of excellence beyond the requirements of duty4 ,from the ,christian standpoint there are no works of supererogation1 and there is no room in the ,christian life for excess or margin4 ,as every duty is a bounden duty1 so every possible excellence is demanded of the ,christian4 ,virtues prescribe duties2 ideals become laws2 and the measure is1 ',be ye perfect as your ,father in heaven is perfect4' ,the ,stoic maxim1 ',nothing in excess1' is inadequate in reference to moral excellence1 and ,aristotle's doctrine of the ',mean' can hardly be applied without considerable distortion of facts4 ,the only virtue which with truth can be described as a form of moderation is ,temperance4 ,it has been objected that by his doctrine of the ',mean' ,aristotle 'obliterates the awful and absolute difference between right and wrong4' ,if we substitute1 as ,kant suggested1 'law' for 'mean1' some of the ambiguity is obviated4 ,still1 after all extenuation is made it may be questioned whether any term implying quantity is a fit expression for a moral attribute4#c ,at the same time the virtues must not be regarded as mere abstractions4 ,moral qualities cannot be isolated from the circumstances in which they are exercised4 ,virtue is character in touch with life1 and it is only in contact with actual events that its quality can be determined4 ,actions are not simply good or bad in themselves4 ,they must #ahf always be valued both by their inner motives and intended ends4 ,courage or veracity1 for example1 may be exercised from different causes and for the most various ends1 and occasionally even for those of an immoral nature4#d ,for these and similar reasons some modern ethical writers have regarded the classification of the virtues as unsatisfactory1 involving arbitrary and illogical distinctions in value2 and some have even discarded the use of the word 'virtue' altogether1 and substituted the word 'character' as the subject of ethical study4 ,but inasmuch as character must manifest itself in certain forms1 and approximate at least to certain norms or ideals of conduct1 it may not be altogether superfluous to consider in their relation and unity those moral qualities 7whether we call them virtues1 graces1 or norms of excellence7 which the ,christian aims at reproducing in his life4 ,we shall consider therefore1 first1 the natural elements of virtue as they have been disclosed to us by classical teachers4 ,next1 we shall compare these with the ,christian conception of life1 showing how ,christianity has given to them a new meaning and value4 ,and finally1 we shall endeavour to reveal the unifying principle of the virtues by showing that when transformed by the ,christian spirit they are the expressions or implicates of a single spiritual disposition or totality of character4 ,i ,the ,natural ,basis of the ,virtues4--,at a certain stage of reflection there arises an effort not merely to designate1 but to co-ordinate the virtues4 ,for it is soon discovered that all the various aspects of the good have a unity1 and that the idea of virtue as one and conscious is equivalent to the idea of the good-will or of purity of heart4 ,thus it was seen by the followers of ,socrates that the virtues are but different expressions of one principle1 and that the ultimate good of character can only be realised by the actual pursuit #ahg of it in the recognised virtues4 ,we do not sufficiently reflect1 says ,green1 how great was the service which ,greek philosophy rendered to mankind4 ,from ,plato and ,aristotle comes the connected scheme of virtues and duties within which the educated conscience of ,christendom still moves when it is impartially reflecting on what ought to be done4#e ,religious teachers may have extended the scope of our obligations1 and strengthened the motives which actuate men in the performance of duty1 but 'the articulated scheme of what the virtues and duties are1 in their difference and their unity1 remains for us now in its main outlines what the ,greek philosophers left it4'#f ,among ancient moralists four virtues1 ,wisdom1 ,courage1 ,temperance1 ,justice were constantly grouped4 ,they were already traditional in ,plato's time1 but he adopts them as fundamental4 ,aristotle retained ,plato's list1 but developed from it some minor excellences4 ,virtue1 according to ,plato1 was the health or harmony of the soul2 hence the principle of classification was determined by the fitness of the soul for its proper task1 which was conceived as the attainment of the good or the morally beautiful4 ,as man has three functions or aspects1 a cognitive1 active1 and appetitive1 so there are three corresponding virtues4 ,his function of knowing determines the primal virtue of ,wisdom2 his active power constitutes the virtue of ,courage2 while his appetitive nature calls for the virtue of ,temperance or ,self-control4 ,these three virtues have reference to the individual's personal life4 ,but inasmuch as a man is a part of a social organism1 and has relations to others beyond himself1 justice was conceived by ,plato as the social virtue1 the virtue which regulated and harmonised all the others4 ,for the ,stoics these four virtues embraced the whole life according to nature4 ,it may be noticed that ,plato and ,aristotle did not profess to have created the virtues4 ,wisdom1 fortitude1 temperance1 and justice were1 as they believed1 radical principles of the moral nature2 and all they professed to do was to #ahh awaken men to the consciousness of their natural capacities4 ,if a man was to attain to fitness of life1 then these were the fundamental and essential lines on which his rational life must develop4 ,in every conceivable world these are the basal elements of goodness4 ,related as they are to fundamental functions of personality1 they cannot be less or more4 ,they stand for the irreducible principles of conduct1 to omit any one of which is to present a maimed or only partial character4 ,in every rational conception of life they must remain the essential and desirable objects of pursuit4 ,it was not wonderful1 therefore1 when we remember the influence of ,greek thought upon early ,christianity1 that the four classical virtues should pass over into ,christian ,ethics4 ,but the ,church1 recognising that these virtues had reference to man's life in relation to himself and his fellow-men in this world alone1 added to these the three ,pauline ,graces1 ,faith1 ,hope1 and ,charity1 as expressive of the divine element in man1 his relation to ,god and the spiritual world4 ,the first four were called natural1 the last three supernatural3 or the ',cardinal' 7cardo1 a hinge7 and the ',theological' virtues4 ,they make in all seven1 the mystic perfect number1 and over against these1 to complete the symmetry of life1 were placed the seven deadly sins4 ,,ii ,their ,christian ,transformation4--,but now if we compare the cardinal virtues with the conception of goodness revealed in ,scripture1 we are at once conscious of a contrast4 ,we seem to move in a new atmosphere1 and to be confronted with a view of life in which entirely different values hold4 #a4 ,while in the ,new ,testament many virtues are commended1 no complete description occurs in any single passage4 ,the beatitudes may be regarded as our ,lord's catalogue of the typical qualities of life1 and a development of virtuous life might be worked out from the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,beginning with poverty of spirit1 #ahi humility1 and meekness1 and rising up out of the individual struggle of the inner man1 we attain to mercifulness and peaceableness--the spirit which bears the poverty of others1 and seeks to make others meek and gentle4 ,next the desire for righteousness finds expression in a readiness to endure persecution1 to support the burden of duty in the midst of worldly conflict2 and finally in the highest stage the light of virtue shines through the clouds of struggle and breaks forth spontaneously1 irradiating all who come into contact with it1 and constituting man the servant of humanity1 the light of the world4#g ,or we might turn to the apostle ,paul1 who regards the virtues as the fruit of the ,spirit1 describing them in general as 'love1 joy1 peace1 long-suffering1 goodness1 faith1 gentleness1 humility4'#h ,a rich cluster is also mentioned as 'the fruit of light'--goodness1 righteousness1 truth4 ,a further enumeration is given in ,colossians where the apostle commends compassion1 kindness1 humility1 meekness1 long-suffering1 forbearance1 and forgiveness4#i ,and once more there is the often-quoted series in the ,epistle to the ,philippians1 ',whatsoever things are true1 reverent1 just1 chaste1 lovely1 and kindly spoken of4'#aj ,nor must we forget the characteristics of love presented in the apostle's ',hymn of ,charity4'#aa ,to these descriptions of ,st4 ,paul there ought to be added the remarkable passage in which ,st4 ,peter unfolds the process of the moral life from its seed to the perfect flower4#ab ,though the authorship of this passage has been disputed1 that fact does not make the representation less trustworthy and typical as an exhibition of early ,christian morality4 ,according to this picture1 just as in ,st4 ,paul's view1 the whole moral life has its root in faith1 and character is nothing else than the working out of the initial energy of the soul into virtue1 knowledge1 temperance1 patience1 godliness1 brotherly kindness1 and charity--all that makes life worthy and excellent4 ,character is not built like a house1 by the addition of stone to stone4 ,it is evolved as #aij a plant from a seed4 ,given faith1 there will ultimately emerge all the successive qualities of true goodness--knowledge1 temperance1 patience--the personal virtues1 rising upwards to godliness or the love of ,god1 and widening out to brotherhood1 and thence to charity or a love of mankind--a charity which embraces the whole world1 even those who are not ,christian3 the enemy1 the outcast1 and the alien4 ,these descriptions are not formal or systematic1 but are characterised by a remarkable similarity in spirit and tone4 ,they all reflect the mind of ,christ1 and put the emphasis where ,jesus ,himself invariably laid it--on love4 ,but the point to which we desire to draw attention is the contrast between the classical and the ,christian type of virtue4 ,the difference is commonly expressed by saying that the pagan virtues were of a bold masculine order1 whereas the ,christian excellences are of an amiable and passive nature4 ,yet if we carefully examine the lists as given in ,scripture1 we shall see that this is hardly a just distinction4 ,certainly ,christianity brings to the front some virtues of a gentle type which are apparently wanting in the ,platonic catalogue4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the pagan virtues are not excluded from the ,new ,testament4 ,they have an acknowledged place in ,christian morality4 ,fortitude and temperance1 not to speak of wisdom and justice1 are recognised as essential qualities of the ,christian character4 ,christianity did not come into the world as the negative of all that was previously noble in human nature2 on the contrary1 it took over everything that was good and true1 and gave to it a legitimate place4 ,whatsoever things1 says the apostle1 are true and just and fair1 if there be any virtue or praise in them1 think of these things4 ,courage is not disparaged by ,christianity4 ,in writing to ,timothy ,paul gives to this virtue its original significance4 ,he only raises it to a higher level1 and gives to it a nobler end--the determination not to be ashamed of bearing testimony1 and the readiness to suffer hardship for the ,gospel's sake4 ,and though the apostle does not expressly #aia commend courage in its active form in any other passage1 we may gather from the whole tenor of his life that bravery1 fortitude1 endurance1 occupied a high place in his esteem4 ,while he made no parade of his sufferings his life was a continual warfare for the ,gospel4 ,the courage of a man is none the less real because it is evinced not on the battlefield1 but in the conflict of righteousness4 ,he who devotes himself unnoticed and unrewarded1 at the risk of his life and at the sacrifice of every pleasure1 to the service of the sick and the debased1 possesses courage the same in principle as that of the 'brave man' described by ,aristotle4 ,life is a battle1 and there are other objects for which a man must contend than those peculiar to a military calling4 ,in all circumstances of his existence the ,christian must quit himself as a man1 and without courage no one can fulfil in any tolerable degree the duties of his station4 ,in like manner temperance or self-control is a truly ,christian virtue1 and it finds repeated mention in ,scripture4 ,when1 however1 we compare the conception of temperance as formulated by ,aristotle with the demand of self-denial which the enlightened ,christian conscience makes upon itself we are struck with a difference both in the motive and the scope of the principle4 ,temperance as ,aristotle conceived it was a virtue exhibited only in dealing with the animal passions4 ,and the reason why this indulgence ought to be checked was that the lusts of the flesh unfitted a man for his discharge of the civic duties4 ,but1 in view of the ,greek idea that evil resides in the physical constitution of man1 the logical deduction would be the total suppression of the animal passions altogether4 ,but from the ,christian standpoint the physical instincts are not an evil to be crushed1 but rather a legitimate element in man which is to be disciplined and brought into the service of the spiritual life4 ,temperance covers the whole range of moral activity4 ,it means the practical mastery of self1 and includes the proper control and employment of hand and eye1 tongue and temper1 tastes and affections1 so that they may become effective instruments of righteousness4 ,the practice of #aib asceticism for its own sake1 or abstinence dictated merely by fear of some painful result of indulgence1 we do not now regard as a virtue4 ,the true form of self-denial we deem to be only rendered when we forbid ourselves the enjoyment of certain legitimate inclinations for the sake of some higher interest4 ,thus the scope of the virtue of temperance has been greatly enlarged1 and we present to ourselves objects of moral loyalty1 for the sake of which we are ready to abandon our desires in a far greater variety of forms than ever occurred to the ,greek4 ,an indulgence1 for example1 which a man might legitimately allow himself1 he forgoes in consideration of the claims of his family1 or fellow-workmen1 or for the good of mankind at large1 in a way that the ancient world could not understand4 ,christian temperance1 while the same in principle with the ancient virtue1 penetrates life more deeply1 and is fraught with a richer and more positive content than was contemplated by the ,greek demand4 ,and the same may be said of the virtues of ,wisdom and ,justice4 ,wisdom is a ,new ,testament grace1 but mere calculating prudence or worldly self-regard finds no place in the ,christian scheme of life4 ,we are enjoined1 indeed1 to be wise as serpents and harmless as doves in our relations with men2 but what we are urged to cultivate is a mind for the right interpretation of the things of ,god1 that spiritual insight which discerns the things of the ,spirit2 and1 while recognising life as a divinely given trust1 seeks to obtain a wise understanding of our duties toward ,god and man4 ,while the other virtues are to a certain extent self-regarding1 ,justice is eminently social4 ,at the very lowest it means 'equal consideration' for all1 treating1 as ,kant would say1 every man as an 'end1' and not as a means4 ,morally no man may disregard the claims of others4 ,it is said1 indeed1 that we must be 'just before we are generous4' ,but a full and perfect conception of ,justice involves generosity4 ,there is no such thing as bare justice4 ,righteousness1 which is the ,new ,testament equivalent1 demands more than negative goodness1 and in ,christian ,ethics #aic passes over into ,charity1 which finds and fulfils itself in others4 ,love here and always is the fulfilling of the law1 and mercy1 benevolence1 kindness are the implicates of true justice4 #b4 ,it is thus evident that the cardinal virtues are essential elements of ,christian character4 ,christianity1 in taking over the moral conceptions of the ancient world1 gave to them a new value and range by directing them to new objects and enthusing them with new motives4 ,it has been truly said that the religion of ,jesus so profoundly modified the character of the moral ideals of the past that they became largely new creations4 ,the old moral currency was still kept in circulation1 but it was gradually minted anew4#ac ,fortitude is still the cool and steady behaviour of a man in the presence of danger2 but its range is widened by the inclusion of perils of the soul as well as the body4 ,temperance is still the control of the physical passions2 but it is also the right placing of new affections1 and the consecration of our impulses to nobler ends4 ,justice is still the suppression of conflict with the rights of others2 but the source of it lies in giving to ,god the love which is ,his due1 and finding in the objects of ,his thought the subjects also of our care4 ,wisdom is still the practical sense which chooses the proper course of action2 but it is no longer a selfish calculation of advantage1 but the wisdom of men who are seeking for themselves and others not merely temporal good1 but a kingdom which is not of this world4 ,the real reason1 then1 why ,christianity seems by contrast to accentuate the gentler graces is not simply as a protest against the spirit of militarism and the worship of physical power1 so prevalent in the ancient world--not merely that they were neglected--but because they and they alone1 rightly considered1 are of the very essence of that perfection of character which ,god has revealed to man in ,christ4 ,what ,christianity has done is not to give pre-eminence to one class over another1 but to make human character complete4 ,ancient civilisation was one-sided in its moral #aid development4 ,the pagan conceptions of virtue were merely materialistic1 temporal1 and self-regarding4 ,christ showed that without the spirit of love even such excellences as courage1 temperance1 and justice did not attain to their true meaning or yield their full implication4 ,paul1 as we have seen1 did not disparage heroism1 but he thought that it was exhibited as much1 if not more1 in patience and forgiveness as in self-assertion and retaliation4 ,what ,christianity really revealed was a new type of manliness1 a fresh application of temperance1 a fuller development of justice4 ,it showed the might of meekness1 the power of gentleness1 the heroism of sacrifice4 #c4 ,it is thus misleading to say that ,christian ,ethics differs from ancient morality in the prominence it gives to what have been called 'the passive virtues4' ,poverty of spirit1 humility1 meekness1 mercifulness1 and peaceableness are indeed the marks of ,christ's teaching4 ,but as ,christ conceived them they were not passive qualities1 but intensely active energies of the soul4 ,it has been well remarked that#ad there was a poverty of spirit in the creed of the cynic centuries before ,christianity4 ,there was a meekness in the doctrine of the ,stoic long before the advent of ,jesus4 ,but these tenets were very far from being anticipations of ,christ's morality4 ,cynic poverty of spirit was but the poor-spiritedness of apathy4 ,stoic meekness was merely the indifference of oblivion4 ,but the humility and lowliness of heart1 the mercifulness and peace-seeking which ,christ inculcated were essentially powers of self-restraint1 not negative but positive attitudes to life4 ,the motive was not apathy but love4 ,these qualities were based not on the idea that life was so poor and undesirable that it was not worthy of consideration1 but upon the conviction that it was so grand and noble1 something so far beyond either pleasure or pain1 as to demand the devotion of the entire self--the mastery and consecration of all a man's powers in the fulfilment and service of its divine end4 ,hence what ,christianity did was not so much to institute #aie one type of character for another as to exhibit for the first time the complete conception of what human life should be--a new creature1 in whom1 as in its great ,exemplar1 strength and tenderness1 courage and meekness1 justice and mercy were alike combined4 ,for1 as ,st4 ,paul said1 in ,christ ,jesus there is neither male nor female1 but all are as one4 ,and in this character1 as the same apostle finely shows1 faith1 hope1 and charity have the primary place1 not as special virtues which have been added on1 but as the spiritual disposition which penetrates the entire personality and qualifies its every thought and act4 ,,iii ,the ,unification of the ,virtues4--,while it is desirable1 then1 to exhibit the virtues in detail1 it is even more important to trace back the virtues to virtue itself4 ,a man's duties are diverse1 as diverse as the various occasions and circumstances of life1 and they can only come into being with the various institutions of his time1 ,church and ,state1 home and country1 commerce and culture4 ,but the performance of these may be slowly building up in him a consistent personality4 ,it is in character that the unity of the moral life is most clearly expressed4 ,there must be therefore a unity of character underlying the multiplicity of characteristics1 one single and commanding principle at work in the formation of life of which every possible virtue is the expression4 #a4 ,a unity of this kind is supplied by man's relation to ,god4 ,religion cannot be separated from conduct4 ,if it were true1 as ,epicurus said1 that the gods take no concern in human affairs1 then not religion only1 but morality itself would be in danger4 ,as men's conceptions of ,god are purified and deepened1 they tend to exhibit the varied contents of morality in their connection with a diviner order4 ,it is1 then1 the thought of man's relation to ,god which gives coherence to the moral life1 and brings all its diverse manifestations into unity4 #aif ,if we examine the ,christian consciousness as presented in the ,new ,testament1 we find three words of frequent occurrence repeatedly grouped together1 which may be regarded as the essential marks of ,christian character in relation to ,god--,faith1 ,hope1 and ,love4 ,so characteristic are these of the new life that they have been called the theological virtues1 because1 as ,thomas ,aquinas says1 ',they have ,god for their object3 they bring us into true relation to ,god1 and they are imparted to us by ,god alone4'#ae #b4 ,these graces1 however1 cannot be separated4 ,a man does not exercise at one time faith1 and at another time hope or love4 ,they are all of a piece4 ,they are but different manifestations of one virtue4 ,of these love is the greatest1 because it is that without which faith and hope could not exist4 ,love is of the very essence of the ,christian life4 ,it is its secret and sign4 ,no other term is so expressive of the spirit of ,christ4 ,it is the first and last word of apostolic ,christianity4 ,love may be called the discovery of the ,gospel4 ,it was practically unknown in the ancient world4 ,eros1 the sensuous instinct and philia1 the bond of friendship1 did exist1 but agap in its spiritual sense is the creation of ,christ4 ,in ,christian ,ethics love is primal and central4 ,here we have got down to the bedrock of virtue4 ,it is not simply one virtue among many4 ,it is the quality in which all the virtues have their setting and unity4 ,from a ,christian point of view every excellence of character springs directly from love and is the manifestation of it4 ,it is1 as ,st4 ,paul says1 'the bond of perfectness4' ,the several virtues of the ,christian life are but facets of this one gem4#af ,love1 according to the apostle1 is indispensable to character4 ,without it ,faith is an empty profession2 #aig ,knowledge1 a mere parade of learning2 ,courage1 a boastful confidence2 ,self-denial1 a useless asceticism4 ,love is the fruitful source of all else that is beautiful and noble in life4 ,it not only embraces but produces all the other graces4 ,it creates fortitude2 it begets wisdom2 it prompts self-restraint and temperance2 it tempers justice4 ,it manifests itself in humility1 meekness1 and forgiveness3 ',as every hue is light1 ,so every grace is love4' ,love is1 however1 closely associated with faith and hope4 ,faith1 as we have seen1 is theologically the formative and appropriating power by which man makes his own the spirit of ,christ4 ,but ethically it is a form of love4 ,the ,christian character is formed by faith1 but it lives and works by love4 ,a believing act is essentially a loving act4 ,it is a giving of personal confidence4 ,it implies an outgoing of the self towards another--which is the very nature of love4 ,hope1 again1 is but a particular form of faith which looks forward to the consummation of the good4 ,the man of hope knows in whom he believes1 and he anticipates the fulfilment of his longings4 ,hope is essentially an element of love4 ,like faith it is a form of idealism4 ,it believes in1 and looks forward to1 a better world because it knows that love is at the heart of the universe4 ,as faith is the special counteragent against materialism in the present1 so hope is the special corrective of pessimism in regard to the future4 ,love supplies both with vision4 ,christian hope1 because based on faith and prompted by love1 is no easy-going complacence which simply accepts the actual as the best of all possible worlds4 ,the ,christian is a man of hope because in spite of life's sufferings he never loses faith in the ideal which love has revealed to him4 ',tribulation1' says ,st4 ,paul1 'worketh patience1 and patience probation1 and probation hope4' ,hope has its social aspect as well as its personal2 like faith it is one of the mighty levers of society4 ,men of hope are the saviours of the world4 ,in days of persecution and doubt it is their courage which rallies the wavering hosts and gives others #aih heart for the struggle4 ,every ,christian is an optimist not with the reckless assurance that calls evil good1 but with the rational faith1 begotten of experience1 that good is yet to be the final goal of ill4 ',thy kingdom come' is the prayer of faith and hope1 and the missionary enterprise is rooted in the confidence begotten of love1 that ,he who has given to man ,his world-wide commission will give also the continual presence and power of ,his ,spirit for its fulfilment4 #c4 ,faith1 hope1 and charity are at once the root and fruit of all the virtues4 ,they are the attributes of the man whom ,christ has redeemed4 ,the ,christian has a threefold outlook4 ,he looks upwards1 outwards1 and inwards4 ,his horizon is bounded by neither space nor time4 ,he embraces all men in his regard1 because he believes that every man has infinite worth in ,god's eyes4 ,the old barriers of country and caste1 which separated men in the ancient world1 are broken down by faith in ,god and hope for man which the love of ,christ inspires4 ,faith1 hope1 and love have been called the theological virtues4 ,but if they are to be called virtues at all1 it must be in a sense very different from what the ancients understood by virtue4 ,these apostolic graces are not elements of the natural man1 but states which come into being through a changed moral character4 ,they connect man with ,god1 and with a new spiritual order in which his life has come to find its place and purpose4 ,they were impossible for a ,greek1 and had no place in ancient ,ethics4 ,they are related to the new ideal which the ,gospel has revealed1 and obtain their value as elements of character from the fact that they have their object in the distinctive truth of ,christianity--fellowship with ,god through ,christ4 ,these graces are not outward adornments or optional accomplishments4 ,they are the essential conditions of the ,christian man4 ,they constitute his inmost and necessary character4 ,they do not1 however1 supersede or render superfluous the other virtues4 ,on the contrary they transmute and transfigure them1 giving to them at once their coherence and value4 #a ,phil4 iv4 #h2 #a ,peter ii4 #i4 #b #b ,peter i4 #e4 #c ,cf4 ,sir ,alex4 ,grant1 ,aristotle's ,ethics4 #d ,cf4 ,wundt1 ,ethik1 p4 #adg4 #e ,green1 ,proleg4 to ,ethics1 section #bdi4 #f ,idem4 #g ,matt4 v4 #a-af4 #h ,gal4 v4 #bb-c4 #i ,col4 iii4 #ab1 #ac4 #aj ,phil4 iv4 #h4 #aa #a ,cor4 xiii4 #ab #b ,peter i4 #e4 #ac ,strong1 ,christian ,ethics4 #ad ,mathieson1 ,landmarks of ,christian ,morality4 #ae ,summa1 ,i4 ii4 #af ,an interesting parallel might be drawn between the ,pauline conception of ,love as the supreme passion of the soul and lord of the emotions1 and the ,platonic view of ,justice as the intimate spirit of order alike in the individual and the state1 expressing itself in1 and harmoniously binding together1 the virtues of ,temperance1 ,courage1 and ,wisdom4 #aii ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,realm ,,of ,,duty ,we have now to see how the virtues issue in their corresponding duties and cover the whole field of life4 ,virtues and duties cannot be strictly distinguished4 ,as ,paulsen remarks1 ',they are but different modes of presenting the same subject-matter4'#a ,virtues are permanent traits of character2 duties are particular acts which seek to realise virtues4 ,the word 'duty1' borrowed from ,stoic philosophy1 inadequately describes1 both on the side of its obligation and its joy1 the service which the ,christian is pledged to offer to ,christ4 ,for the ,christian the two moments of pleasure and duty are united in the higher synthesis of love4 ,in this chapter we shall consider1 first1 some aspects of ,christian obligation2 and1 second1 the particular duties which arise therefrom in relation to the self1 others1 and ,god4 ,i ,,aspects ,,of ,,duty #a4 ,duty and ,vocation4--',while duty stands for a universal element there is a personal element in moral requirement which may be called vocation4'#b ,as soon as the youth enters upon the larger world he has to make choice of a profession or life-work4 ,different principles may guide him in his selection4 ,first of all1 the circumstances #bjj of life will help to decide the individual's career4 ,our calling and duties arise immediately out of our station4 ,already by parental influence and the action of home-environment character is being shaped1 and tastes and purposes are created which will largely determine the future4 ,next to condition and station1 individual capacity and disposition ought to be taken into account4 ,no good work can be accomplished in uncongenial employment4 ,a man must have not only fitness for his task1 but also a love for it4 ,proper ambition may also be a determining factor4 ,we have a right to make the most of ourselves1 and to strive for that position in which our gifts shall have fullest scope4 ,but the ultimate decision must be made in the light of conscience4 ,self-interest should not be our sole motive in the choice of a vocation4 ,it is not enough to ask what is most attractive1 what line of life will ensure the greatest material gain or worldly honour8 ,rather should we ask1 ,where shall ,i be safest from moral danger1 and1 above all1 in what position of life1 open to me1 can ,i do the most good8 ,it is not enough to know that a certain mode of livelihood is permitted by law2 ,i must decide whether it is permitted to me as a ,christian4 ,for1 after all1 underlying1 and giving purpose and direction to1 our earthly vocation is the deeper calling of ,god into ,his kingdom4 ,these cannot1 indeed1 be separated4 ,we cannot divide our life into two sections1 a sacred and a secular4 ,nor must we restrict the idea of vocation to definite spheres of work4 ,even those who are precluded by affliction from the activities of the world are still ,god's servants1 and may find in suffering itself their divinely appointed mission4 ,there is a divinity which shapes our ends1 and in every life-calling there is something sacred4 ',saints1' says ,george ,eliot1 'choose not their tasks1 they choose but to do them well4' ,but the decisions of life do not cease with the choice of a calling4 ,at every moment of our career fresh difficulties arise1 and new opportunities open up which demand careful thought4 ,our first obligation is to meet faithfully the claims of our station4 ,but in the complexity of life we are #bja being constantly brought into wider relations with our fellow-men1 which either modify the old1 or create entirely new situations4 ,while the rule is to do the duty that lies nearest us1 to obey the call of ,god at each moment1 it needs no little wisdom to discern one's immediate duty1 and to know what the will of ,god actually is4 #b4 ,conflict of ,duties4--,in the sphere of duty itself a three-fold distinction1 having the imprimatur of the ,romish ,church1 has been made by some moralists3 7#a7 the problem of colliding interests2 7#b7 'counsels of perfection'2 and 7#c7 indifferent acts or ',adiaphora1' actions which1 being neither commanded nor forbidden1 fall outwith the domain of ,christian obligation4 ,it will not be necessary to discuss at length these questions4 ,the ,gospel lends no support to such distinctions1 and as ,schleiermacher points out they ought to have no place in ,protestant ,ethics4#c 7#a7 ,with regard to the 'conflict of duties1' when the collision is really1 as it often is1 a struggle between inclination and duty1 the question answers itself4 ,there are1 of course1 cases in which perplexity must occur to an honest man4 ,but the difficulty cannot be decided by drawing up a list of axiomatic precepts to fit all conceivable cases4 ,in the dilemma1 for example1 between self-preservation and self-sacrifice which may present itself in some tragic experience of life1 a host of considerations relative to the individual's history and relationships enter in to modify the situation1 and the course to be taken can be finally determined by a man's own conscience alone4 ,ultimately there can be no collision of duties as such4 ,once a man recognises a certain mode of conduct to be right for him there is really no choice4 ,in judgment he may err2 passion or desire may obscure the issue2 but once he has determined what he ought to do there is no alternative1 'er kann nicht anders4' 7#b7 ,again1 it is a complete misapprehension of the nature of duty to distinguish between the irreducible minimum and acts of supererogatory goodness which outrun duty4 #bjb ,goodness is one1 and admits of no degrees4 ,all duty is absolute4 ,an overplus is unthinkable1 since no man can do more than his duty4 ,a ,christian can only do what he recognises as his obligation1 and this he ought to fulfil at every moment and with all his might4 ,love1 which is the ,christian's only law1 knows no limit4 ,even when we have done our utmost we are still unprofitable servants4 7#c7 ,finally1 the question as to whether there are any acts which are indifferent1 permissible1 but neither enjoined nor forbidden1 must also be answered in the negative4 ,if the ,christian can do no more than his duty1 because in every single action he seeks to fulfil the whole will of ,god1 it is clear that there can be no moment of life that can be thought of not determined by the divine will4 ,there is no part of life that is colourless4 ,there must be no dropped stitches in the texture of the ,christian character4 ,it is most frequently in the domain of amusement that the notion of the ',permissible' is applied4 ,it has been contended that as recreation really lies outwith the ,christian sphere1 it may be allowed to ,christian people as a concession to human weakness4#d ,but can this position be vindicated8 ,relaxation is as much a need of man as work1 and must1 equally with it1 be brought within the scope of ,christian conduct4 ,we have no business to engage in any activity1 whether involving pleasure or pain1 that we cannot justify to our conscience4 ,are not the joys of life1 and even its amusements1 among ,god's gifts designed for the enriching of character8 ,and may not they1 too1 be consecrated to the glory of ,god8 ,we are to use the world while not abusing it1 for all things are ours if we are ,christ's4 ,over every department of life the law of ,christ is sovereign1 and the ultimate principle applicable to all problems of duty is1 ',whatsoever ye do in word or deed do all to the glory of ,god4' #c4 ,rights and ,duties4--,the foregoing question as to the scope of duty leads naturally to the consideration of the relation of duties and rights4 ,it is usual to distinguish #bjc between legal and moral rights2 but at bottom they are one4 ,the rights which ,i legally claim for myself ,i am morally bound to grant to others4 ,a right is expressed in the form of a permission2 a duty1 of an imperative4 ,i may or may not demand my legal rights2 morally1 ,i must perform my duties4 ,but1 on the other hand1 a right may be secured by legal compulsion2 a duty1 as a moral obligation1 can never be enforced by external power3 it needs our own assent4#e ,strictly speaking rights and duties are correlative4 ,every right carries with it an obligation2 not merely in the objective sense that when one man has a right other men are under the obligation to respect it1 but also in the subjective sense that when a man has a right he is bound to use it for the general good4 ,it is sometimes said1 ',a man may do what he likes with his own4' ,legally that may be true1 but morally he is under obligation to employ it for the general good just as strictly as if it were another's4 ,a man's rights are not merely decorations or ends in themselves4 ,they are opportunities1 instruments1 trusts4 ,and when any man has them1 it means that he is placed on a vantage-ground from which1 secure of oppression or interference1 he may begin to do his duty4#f ,but this moral aspect of right is often lost sight of4 ,people are so enamoured of what they call their rights that they forget that the real value of every right depends upon the use to which they put it4 ,a man's freedom does not consist in having rights1 but in fulfilling them4 ',after all1' says ,mazzini1 'the greatest right a man can possess or recognise--the greatest gift of all--is simply the privilege and obligation to do his duty4'#g ,this is the only ,christian doctrine of rights4 ,it underlies our ,lord's teaching in the parable of the ,talents4 ,we only have what we use4 7#a7 ,much has been written of the ',natural rights of ,man4'#h ,this was the claim of a school of political philosophy of #bjd which ,paine was the most rigorous exponent4 ,the contentions of ,paine were met as vigorously by the negations of ,bentham and ,burke4 ,and if it be supposed that the individual is born into the world with certain ready-made possessions1 fixed and unalterable1 the claim is untenable4 ,such an artificial account of man ignores entirely the evolution of moral nature1 and denies the possibility of development in man's conception of law and duty4 ',it is1' as ,wundt says1 'to derive all the moral postulates that have been produced in our minds by previous moral development from moral life as it actually exists4'#i 7#b7 ,but while the 'natural rights of man' cannot be theoretically vindicated1 they may still be regarded as ends or ideals to be striven after4 ',justifiable or unjustifiable in theory1 they may still remain a convenient form in which to couch the ultimatum of determined men4'#aj ,they give expression1 at least1 to a conviction which has grown more clear and articulate with the advance of thought--the conviction of the dignity and worth of the individual4 ,this thought was the keynote of the ,reformation4 ,the ,enlightenment1 with its appeal to reason1 as alike in all men1 gave support to the idea of equality4 ,descartes claimed it as the philosophical basis of man's nature4 ,rousseau and ,montesquieu were among its most valiant champions4 ,kant made it the point of departure for the enforcement of human right and duty4 ,fichte but elaborated ,kant's view when he contended for 'the equality of everything which bears the human visage4'#aa ,and ,hegel has summed up the conception in what he calls 'the mandate of right'--',be a person1 and respect others as persons4'#ab ,poets sometimes see what others miss4 ,and in our country1 at least1 it is to ,wordsworth1 ,tennyson1 and ,browning1 and still more1 perhaps1 to ,burns1 that we are indebted for the insistence upon the native worth of man4 ,but if this claim has only gradually attained to articulate #bje expression1 and is only now being made the basis of social reconstruction1 it must not be forgotten that it is essentially a ,christian truth4 ,in ,harnack's language1 ',jesus ,christ was the first to bring the value of every human soul to light1 and what ,he did no one can any more undo4'#ac ,when1 however1 the attempt is made to analyse this ultimate principle of manhood1 opinions differ as to its constituents1 and a long list of 'rights' claimed by different political thinkers might be made4 ,the famous ',declaration of ,rights'#ad included ,life1 ,liberty1 ,property1 ,security1 and ',resistance of ,oppression4' ,to these some have added ',manhood ,suffrage1' ',free ,access to the ,soil1' and a common distribution of the benefits of life and means of production4 ,this is a large programme1 and certainly no community as yet has recognised all its items without qualification4 ,obviously they are not all of the same quality1 nor are they of independent validity2 and at best they but roughly describe certain factors1 considered by various agitators as desirable1 of an ideal social order4 7#c7 ,we are on safer ground1 and for ,christian ,ethics1 at least1 more in consonance with ultimate ,christian values1 when we describe the primary realities of human nature in terms of the revelation of life as given by the ,person and teaching of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the three great verities upon which ,he constantly insisted were1 man's value for himself1 his value for his fellow-men1 and his value for ,god4 ,these correspond generally to the three great ethical ideas of life--,personality1 ,freedom1 and ,divine ,kinship4 ,but although the sense of independence1 liberty and divine fellowship is the first aspect of a being who has come to the consciousness of himself1 it is incomplete in itself4 ,man plants himself upon his individuality in order that he may set out from thence to take possession1 by means of knowledge1 action1 and service1 of his larger world4 ,man's rights are but #bjf possibilities which must be transmuted by him into achievements4 ',this is the honour1--that no thing ,i know1 ,feel1 or conceive1 but ,i can make my own ,somehow1 by use of hand or head or heart4'#ae ,rights involve obligations4 ,the right of personality carries with it the duty of treating life1 one's own and that of others1 as sacred4 ,the right of freedom implies the use of one's liberty for the good of the society of which each is a member4 ,and finally1 the sense of divine kinship involves the obligation of making the most of one's life1 of realising through and for ,god all that ,god intends in the gift of life4 ,in these three values lies the ,christian doctrine of man4#af ,because of their fullness of implication they open out to our vision the goal of humanity--the principle and purpose of the whole process of human evolution--the perfection of man4 ,given these three ,christian truths--the ,sacredness of ,personality1 the ,brotherhood of ,man1 and the ,fatherhood of ,god--and all that is essential in the claim of the ',natural ,rights of ,man' is implicitly contained4 ,the one thing needful is that men become alive to their privileges and go forward to 'possess their possessions4' ,,ii ,,spheres ,,of ,,duty ,we are thus led to a division1 natural if not wholly logical1 of duties which spring from these rights--duties towards self1 others1 and ,god4 ,though1 indeed1 self-love implies love of others1 and all duty is duty to ,god1 still it may be permissible to frame a scheme of duties according as one or other element is prominent in each case4 #a4 ,duties in ,relation to ,self4--,it is obvious that without 7#a7 respect for self there can be no respect for others4 ,i am #bjg a part of the moral whole1 and an element in the kingdom of ,god4 ,i cannot make myself of no account4 ,our ,lord's commandment1 ',thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself1' makes a rightly conceived self-love the measure of love to one's neighbour4 ,self-respect involves 7#b7 self-preservation1 the care of health1 the culture of body and mind4 ,not only is it our duty to see that the efficiency and fitness of the bodily organism is fully maintained1 but we must also guard it against everything that would defile and disfigure it1 or render it an instrument of sin4 ,christianity requires the strictest personal purity1 purity of thought and feeling as well as of deed4 ,it demands1 therefore1 constant vigilance1 self-control1 temperance1 and even self-denial1 so that the body may be1 not1 as the ancients thought1 the prison-house of the soul1 but the temple of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,christianity is1 however1 opposed to asceticism4 ,though ,jesus denied ,himself to the uttermost in obedience to the voice of ,god1 there is in ,his presentation of life a complete absence of those austerities which in the history of the ,church have been so often regarded as marks of superior sanctity4#ag ,it is unnecessary here to dwell upon athletics and sport which now so largely occupy the attention of the youth of our land4 ,physical exercise is necessary to the maintenance of bodily fitness1 yet it may easily become an all-absorbing pursuit1 and instead of being merely a means to an end1 may usurp the place in life which belongs to higher things4 7#c7 ,self-maintenance involves also the duty of self-development1 and that not merely of our physical1 but also of our mental life4 ,if the body has its place and function in the growth of ,christian character1 still more has the mind its ethical importance4 ,our ,maker can have no delight in ignorance4 ,he desires that we should present not a fragmentary but complete manhood4 ,specialisation1 though a necessity of the age1 is fraught with peril to the individual4 ,the exigencies of labour require men to concentrate their energies on their own immediate tasks2 but each must seek to be not merely a craftsman1 but a man4 ,other sides #bjh of our nature require to be cultivated besides those which bring us into contact with the ways and means of existence4 ,indeed1 it is only by the possession of a well-trained mind that the fullest capacity1 even for special pursuits1 can be obtained4 ,it has become a commonplace to say that every man should have equality of opportunity to earn a livelihood4 ,but equality of opportunity for education1 as something which ought to be within the reach of every youth in the land1 is not so frequently insisted upon4 ,beyond the claims of daily occupation every one should have a chance1 and1 indeed1 an inducement1 to cultivate his mental and spiritual nature4 ,hence what is called 'culture1' the all-round development of the human faculties1 is an essential condition of moral excellence4 ,for1 as ,goethe has said1 the object of education ought to be rather the formation of tastes than simply the communication of knowledge4 ,but most important of all the self-regarding aims of life is the obligation of ,self-discipline1 and the use of every means of moral culture which the world supplies4 ,it is through the complex conditions of earthly existence that the character of the individual is developed4 ,it will only be possible to indicate briefly some of the aids to the culture of the moral life4 ,among these may be mentioned3 7a7 ,the ,providential ,experiences of life4 ,the world itself1 as a sphere of ,work1 ,temptation1 and ,suffering1 is a school of character4 ,the affections and cares of the home1 the duties and tasks incident to one's calling1 the claims of one's fellow-men1 the trials and temptations of one's lot--these are the universal and common elements in man's moral education4 ,not to escape from the world's activities and conflicts1 but to turn them into conditions of self-mastery1 is the duty of each4 ,men do work1 but work makes men4 ,the shopkeeper is not merely selling wares2 the artisan or mechanic is not simply engaged in his handicraft2 the mason and builder are not only erecting a house2 each is1 in and through his toil1 making his own soul4 ,and so1 too1 suffering and temptation are the tools which ,god commits to ,his creatures for the shaping of their own lives4 ,saints #bji and sinners are made out of the same material4 ,by what ,bosanquet has finely called 'the miracle of will' the raw stuff of life is taken up and woven into the texture of the soul4 7b7 ,the so-called secular opportunities of culture4 ,innumerable sources of self-enrichment are available4 ,everything may be made a vehicle of moral education4 ,knowledge generally1 and especially the ministry of nature1 the influence of art1 and the study of literature1 are potent factors in the discipline and development of ,christian character4 ,to these must be added 7c7 ,the special religious aids and means of grace4 ,from an ethical point of view the ,church is a school of character4 ,it 'guards and keeps alive the characteristic ,christian ideas1 and thereby exhibits and promotes the ,christian ideal of life4'#ah ,its fellowship1 worship1 and ordinances2 its opportunities of brotherly service and missionary activity1 as well as the more private spiritual exercises of prayer and meditation--all are means of discipline and gifts committed to the stewardship of individuals in order that they may realise the greatness of life's possibilities1 and attain through union with ,god to the fullness of their stature in ,christ4 ,but while the truth that the soul has an inalienable worth is repeatedly affirmed1 the ,new ,testament touches but lightly upon the duties of self-regard4 ,to be occupied constantly with the thought of one's self is a symptom of morbid egoism rather than of healthy personality4 ,the avidity of self-improvement and even zeal for religion may become a refined form of selfishness4 ,we must be willing at times to renounce our personal comfort1 to restrain our zest for intellectual and aesthetic enjoyment1 to be content to be less cultured and scholarly1 less complete as men1 and ready to part with something of our own immediate good that others may be ministered to4 ,hence the chief reason probably why the ,scriptures do not enlarge upon the duties of self-culture is1 that according to the spirit of the ,gospel the true realisation of self is achieved through self-sacrifice4 ,only as a man loses his life does he find it4 ,to horde ,transcriber's note3 hoard8 one's #baj possessions is to waste them4 ,growth is the condition of life4 ,but in all growth there is reciprocity of expenditure and assimilation1 of giving and receiving4 ,self-realisation is only gained through self-surrender4 ,not1 therefore1 by anxiously standing guard over one's soul1 but by dedicating it freely to the good of others does one achieve one's true self4 #b4 ,duties in ,relation to ,others4--,we belong to others1 and others belong to us4 ,they and we are alike parts of a larger whole4 7#a7 ,while this is recognised in ,scripture1 and all men are declared to be brothers in virtue of their common humanity1 ,christianity traces the brotherhood of man to a deeper source4 ,the relation of the individual to ,christ is the true ground of love to others4 ,in ,christ all distinctions which in other respects separate men are dissolved4 ,beneath the meanest garb and coarsest features1 in spite even of the defacement of sin1 we may detect the vast possibilities of the soul for whom ,christ has died4 ,the law of love is presented by ,jesus as the highest of all the commandments1 and the duty to others is summed up generally in what is known as the golden rule4 ,of the chief manifestations of brotherly love mention must be made 7a7 of the comprehensive duty of ,justice4 ,the ground upon which justice rests is the principle that each individual is an end in himself4 ,hence it is the duty of each to respect the rights of his neighbours1 negatively refraining from injury and positively rendering that which our fellow-men have a right to claim4 ,religion makes a man more sensitive to the claims of humanity4 ,mutual respect requires a constant effort on the part of all to secure for each the fullest freedom to be himself4 ,christianity interprets justice to mean emancipation from every condition which crushes or degrades a man4 ,it seeks to create a social conscience1 and to arouse in each a sense of responsibility for the good of all4 ,at the same time social justice must not be identified with charity4 ,charity has done much to relieve distress1 and it will always form an indispensable element in #baa the ,christian's duty towards his less fortunate brethren2 but something more radical than almsgiving is required if the conditions of life are to be appreciably bettered4 ,justice is a demand not for bread alone2 it is a claim of humanity to life1 and all that life ought to mean4 ,christianity affirms the spirit of human brotherhood--a brotherhood in which every child will have a chance to grow to a noble manhood1 and every man and woman will have opportunity and encouragement to live a free1 wholesome1 and useful life4 ,that is the ,christian ideal1 and to help towards its realisation is the duty laid upon every citizen of the commonwealth4 ,the problems of poverty1 housing1 unemployment1 intemperance1 and all questions of fair wages1 legitimate profits1 and just prices1 fall under the regulative principle of social justice4 ,the law is1 ',render to all their dues4' ,the love which worketh no ill to his neighbour will also withhold no good4#ai 7b7 ,truthfulness4--,justice is not confined to acts1 but extends to speech and even to thought4 ,we owe to others veracity4 ,even when the motive is good1 there can be no greater social disservice than to fail in truthfulness4 ,falsehood1 either in the form of hypocrisy or equivocation1 and even of unsound workmanship1 is not only unjust to others2 it is unjust to ourselves1 and a wrong to the deeper self--the new man in ,christ4#bj ,is deception under all circumstances morally wrong8 ,moralists have been divided on this question4 ,the instance of war is frequently referred to1 in which it is contended that ruse and subterfuge are permissible forms of strategy4#ba ,there are1 however1 many distressing cases of conscience1 in which the duties of affection and veracity seemingly conflict4 ,it must be remembered that no command can be carried out to its extreme1 or obeyed literally4 ,truth is not always conveyed by verbal accuracy4 ,there may be higher interests at stake which might be prejudiced1 and indeed unfairly represented by a merely literal statement4 #bab ,the individual conscience must decide in each case4 ,we are to speak the truth in love4 ,courage and kindliness are to commingle4 ,but when all is said it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that in the last analysis lack of truth argues a deficient trust in the ultimate veracities of the universe1 and rests upon a practical unbelief in the divine providence which can make 'all things work together for good to them that love ,god4' 7c7 ,connected with truthfulness1 and also a form of justice1 is the duty enjoined by ,st4 ,paul of forming just judgments of our fellow-men4 ,if we would avoid petty fault-finding and high-minded contempt1 we must dismiss all prejudice and passion4 ,the two qualities requisite for proper judgment are knowledge and sympathy4 ,goethe has a fine couplet to the effect that 'it is safe in every case to appeal to the man who knows4'#bb ,but to understanding must be added appreciative consideration4 ,we must endeavour to put ourselves in the position of our brother4 ,without a finely blended knowledge and sympathy we grow intolerant and impatient4 ,fairness is the rarest of moral qualities4 ,he who would estimate another truly must have what ,st4 ,paul calls 'spiritual discernment'--the 'even-balanced soul' of one 'who saw life steadily and who saw it whole4' 7#b7 ,brotherly ,love evinces itself further in ,service1 which takes the three forms of ,compassion1 ,beneficence or practical kindness1 and ,example4 7a7 ,compassion or sympathy is a readiness to enter into the experiences of others4 ,as ,christians nothing that concerns our brother can be a matter of indifference to us4 ,as members of the same spiritual community we are participators in each other's joys and sorrows1 'weeping with those that weep1 and rejoicing with those that rejoice4' ,it is no mere natural instinct1 but one which grows out of the ,christian consciousness of organic union with ,christ4 ',when one member suffers1 all the members suffer with it4'#bc #bac ,we fulfil the law of ,christ by bearing one another's burdens4 7#f7 ,practical ,beneficence is the natural outcome of sympathy4 ,feelings pass into deeds4 ,those redeemed by the love of ,christ become the agents of ,his love1 gladly dispensing to others what they themselves have received4 ,the ministry of love1 whatever shape it may take1 must1 in the last resort1 be a giving of self4 ,no one can do a kindness who does not put something of himself into it4 ,no true service can be done that does not cost us more than money4 ,in modern society it is inevitable that personality should largely find its expression and exercise in material possessions4 ,without entering here upon the question of the institution of private property1 it is enough to say that the possession of material goods may be morally defended on the twofold ground1 that it ensures the security of existence1 and is an essential condition of the development of individual and national resources4 ,the process of acquisition is a moralising influence1 since it incites the individual to work1 and tends to create and foster among men interchange of service4 ,property1 says ,hegel1 is the embodiment and instrument of the will4#bd ,but in a civilised community there must be obviously restrictions to the acquisition and use of wealth4 ,unbridled appropriation and irresponsible abuse are alike a peril to society4 ,the ,state has therefore the right of interference and control in regard to all possessions4 ,even on the lowest ground of expediency the very idea of property involves on the part of all the principle of co-operation and reciprocity--the obligation of contributing to the general weal4 ,it would1 however1 be most undesirable that the government should undertake everything for the general good of man that is now left to spontaneous effort and liberality4 ,but from the standpoint of ,christian ,ethics possessions of all kinds are subject to the law of stewardship4#be ,every gift is #bad bestowed by ,god for the purpose of social service4 ,no man can call the things which he possesses--endowments1 wealth1 power--his own4 ,he is simply a trustee of life itself4 ,no one may be an idler or parasite1 and society has a just claim upon the activity of every man4 ,the forms of such service are various2 but the ,christian spirit will inspire a sense of 'the ultimate unity of all pursuits that contribute to the good of man4'#bf ,the ministry of love extends over the whole realm of existence1 and varies with every phase of need4 ,physical necessities are to be met in the spirit of charity4 ,st4 ,paul pleads repeatedly the cause of the poor1 and commends the grace of liberality4 ,giving is to be cheerful and without stint4 ,but there are needs which material aid cannot meet--desolation1 anxiety1 grief--to which the loving heart alone can find ways of ministering4 ,and beyond all physical and moral need is the need of the soul2 and it lies as a debt upon those who themselves have experienced the grace of ,christ to seek the renewal and spiritual enrichment of their brethren4 7c7 ,there is one special form of practical kindness towards others which a follower of ,christ will often be called upon to exercise--the spirit of forbearance and forgiveness4 ,the ,christian is to speak evil of no man1 but to be gentle1 showing all meekness unto all men2 living peaceably with all men1 avoiding everything provocative of strife2 even 'forbearing one another and forgiving one another1 if any have a quarrel against any2 even as ,christ forgave you so also do ye4' 7#c7 ,finally1 we may serve others by ,example1 by letting the light of life so shine before men that they seeing our good works shall glorify ,god our ,father4 ,this duty1 however1 as ,fichte points out1 'has often been viewed very incorrectly1 as if we could be obliged to do this or that1 which otherwise we would not have needed to do1 for the sake of a good example4'#bg ,that which ,i am commanded #bae to do ,i must do for its own sake without regard to its effect upon others4 ,esteem can be neither outwardly compelled nor artistically produced2 it manifests itself voluntarily and spontaneously4 ,a modern novelist#bh ironically exposes this form of altruism by putting into the mouth of one of her characters the remark1 ',i always make a point of going to church in order to show a good example to the domestics4' ,at the same time no one can withhold one's influence2 and while the supreme motive must be1 not to make a display1 but to please ,god1 he who is faithful to his station and its duties cannot fail to affect his fellow-men for good4 ,the most effective example is given unconsciously1 as the rose exhales its sweetest perfume without effort1 or the light sheds its radiance simply by being what it is4 #c4 ,duties in ,relation to ,god4--,here morality runs up into religion1 and indeed since all duties are in their last analysis duties toward ,god1 ,kant and other moralists have objected to the admission into ,ethics of a special class of religious obligations4 ,it has been well remarked that the genuine ,christian cannot be known by particular professions or practices1 but only by the heavenly spirit of his life4#bi ,hence religious duty cannot be formulated in a number of precise rules4 ,love to ,god finds expression not in mechanical obedience1 but in the spontaneous outflow of the heart4 ,the special duties to the ,divine ,being may be briefly described under the main heads of ,recognition1 ,obedience1 and ,worship4 7#a7 ,recognition4--,the acknowledgment of ,god rests upon knowledge4 ,without some comprehension of what ,god is there can be no intelligent allegiance to ,him4 ,we cannot1 indeed1 by logical reasoning demonstrate the existence of the ,deity any more than we can demonstrate our own being4 ,but ,he has not left ,himself without a witness1 and ,he speaks to man with many voices4 ,the material creation is the primary word of ,god4 ,the beauty1 and still more the sublimity1 of nature are a revelation through #baf matter of something beyond itself1 a message of the spiritual1 bearing 'authentic tidings of invisible things4' ,but nature is symbolic4 ,it is a prophecy rather than an immediate revelation4 ,still it warrants the expectation of a yet fuller manifestation4 ,that fuller utterance we have in man himself4 ,there1 spirit reveals itself to spirit2 and in the two primary intuitions of man--self-consciousness and the sense of moral obligation--the presence of ,god is disclosed4 ,but1 higher still1 the long historic evolution has culminated in a yet clearer manifestation of the ,deity4 ,in ,christ1 the ,god-,man1 the mystery underlying and brooding over the world is unveiled1 and to the eye of faith is revealed the ,fatherhood of ,god4 ,the first duty1 therefore1 we owe to ,god is that of recognition1 the acknowledgment of ,his presence in the world4 ,to feel that ,he is everywhere1 sustaining and vitalising all things2 to recognise ,his will in all the affairs of our daily life1 is at once the duty and blessedness of man4 7#b7 ,obedience follows acknowledgment4 ,it is partly passive and partly active4 7a7 ,as passive1 it takes the form of habitual trust or acquiescence1 the submissive acceptance of trials which are ultimately1 we believe1 not really evils1 because ordained by ,god and overruled for good4#cj ,this spirit of obedience can be maintained by constant vigilance alone4#ca ,while connected with the anticipated coming of the ,son of ,man1 the obligation had a more general application1 and may be regarded as the duty of all in the face of the unknown and unexpected in life4 ,we are therefore to watch for any intimation of the divine will1 and commit ourselves trustfully to the absolute disposal of ,him in whose hands are the issues of our lives4 7b7 ,but obedience has also an active side4 ,faithfulness is the complement of faith4 ,the believer must exercise fidelity1 and go forward with energy and purpose to the tasks committed to him4 ,as stewards of ,christ we are #bag to occupy till ,he come1 employing every talent entrusted to us in ,his service4 ,work may be worship1 and we can glorify ,god in our daily tasks4 ,no finer tribute can a man give than simply himself4 7#c7 ,worship4--,the special duties of worship belong to the religious rather than the ethical side of life1 and do not demand here more than a passing reference4 ,the essence of religion lies in the subordination of the finite self to the infinite2 and worship is the conscious outgoing of the man in his weakness and imperfection to his ,maker1 and it attains its fullest exercise in 7a7 reverence1 humility1 and devotion4 ,the feeling of dependence and sense of need1 together with the consciousness of utter demerit and inability which man realises as he gazes upon the majesty and grace of ,god1 awaken the 7b7 instinct of prayer4 ',it is the sublime significance of prayer1' says ,wuttke1 'that it brings into prominence man's great and high destiny1 that it heightens his consciousness of his true moral nature in relation to ,god2 and as morality depends on our relation to ,god1 prayer is the very life-blood of morality4'#cb ,the steadfast aspiration of the soul to ,god1 whose will is our law and whose blessing is granted to whatsoever is done in ,his name1 is the habitual temper of the ,christian life4 ,but prayer must also be particular1 definite1 and expectant4 ,by a law of our nature1 and apart from all supernatural intervention1 prayer exercises a reflex influence of a very beneficial character upon the mind of the worshippers4 ,but he who offers his petitions expecting nothing more will not even attain this4 ',if prayers1' says ,mr4 ,lecky1 'were offered up solely with a view to this benefit1 they would be absolutely sterile and would speedily cease4'#cc ,the purely subjective view of prayer as consisting solely in 'beneficent self-suggestion' empties the term of significance4 ,even ,frederick ,meyers1 who lays so much stress upon the importance of self-suggestion in other aspects of experience1 admits that prayer is something more than a subjective #bah phenomenon4 ',it is not only a calling up of one's own private resources2 it must derive its ultimate efficacy from the increased flow from the infinite life into the life of the suppliant4'#cd 7c7 ,prayer attains its highest expression in ,thanksgiving and ,joy4 ,gratitude is the responsive feeling which wells up in the heart of those who have experienced the goodness of ,god1 and recognise ,him as the great ,benefactor4 ,christians are to abound in thankfulness4 ,we live in a world where everything speaks to us of divine love4 ,praise is the complement of prayer4 ,the grateful heart sees life transfigured4 ,it discovers everywhere tokens of grace and hope1 ',making the springs of time and sense ,sweet with eternal good4' ,peace1 trust1 joy1 hope are the ultimate notes of the ,christian life4 ',rejoice always1 pray without ceasing1 in everything give thanks4' ,thanksgiving1 says ,st4 ,bernard1 'is the return of the heart to ,god in perpetual benediction4' ,in the kingdom of love duty is swallowed up in joy4 ,life is nothing but the growing realisation of ,god4 ,with ,god man's life begins1 and to ,him turns back at last in the wrapt contemplation of ,his perfect being4 ,in fellowship with ,god man finds in the end both himself and his brother4 ',what is left for us1 save1 in growth ,of soul1 to rise up1 far past both1 ,from the gift looking to the ,giver1 ,from the cistern to the river1 ,and from the finite to the ,infinity ,and from man's dust to ,god's divinity8'#ce ',god1' says ,green1 'is a ,being with whom we are in principle one1 in the sense that ,he is all which the human spirit is capable of becoming4'#cf ,in the worship of ,god1 #bai man dies to the temporal interests and narrow ends of the exclusive self1 and lives in an ever-expanding life in the life of others1 manifesting more and more that spiritual principle which is the life of ,god1 who lives and loves in all things4#cg #a ,paulsen1 ,ethics1 bk4 ,,iii4 chap4 i4 ,cf4 also ,wundt1 ,ethik1 p4 #adh4 ,but see also ,w4 ,wallace1 ,lectures and ,essays1 p4 #cbe1 on their confusion4 #b ,mackintosh1 ,chr4 ethics1 p4 #aad4 #c ,cf4 ,haering1 ,ethics of ,chr4 ,life1 p4 #bcj4 #d ,this seems to be the position of ,herrmann2 see ,ethik4 #e ,cf4 ,eucken1 ,life's ,basis1 p4 #ahe4 #f ,maccunn1 ,ethics of ,citizenship1 p4 #dj4 #g ,duties of ,man1 chap4 i4 #h ,see discussion by late ,w4 ,wallace in ,lectures and ,essays1 pp4 #bac ff4 #i ,ethik1 p4 #aij4 #aj ,maccunn1 op4 cit42 p4 #db4 #aa ,cf4 ,eucken1 ,main ,currents of ,modern ,thought1 p4 #cdh4 #ab ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,right1 p4 #de4 #ac ,das ,wesen des ,christenthums2 cf4 also ,ecce ,homo1 p4 #cde4 #ad ,adopted in ,massachusetts in #aggc4--';,all men have equal rights to life1 liberty1 and property4' #ae ,browning1 ,prince ,hohenstiel-,schwangau4 #af ,cf4 ,wheeler ,robinson1 ,the ,christian ,doctrine of ,man1 pp4 #bha f4 #ag ,matt4 xi4 #ah2 ,luke vii4 #cc4 #ah ,ottley1 ,ideas and ,ideals4 #ai ,rom4 xiii4 #g-aj4 #bj ,col4 iii4 #i1 #aj4 #ba ,see ,lecky1 ,map of ,life4 #bb ,vor dem ,wissenden sich stellen1 sicher ist's in allen ,fllen4 #bc #a ,cor4 xii4 #bf4 #bd ,phil4 of ,right1 pp4 #dh ff42 see also ,wundt1 ,ethik1 pp4 #age f4 #be ,cf4 ,ottley1 ,idem1 p4 #bga4 #bf ,green1 ,proleg41 p4 #agc1 quoted by ,ottley4 #bg ,science of ,ethics 7trans471 p4 #ccg4 #bh ,miss ,fowler1 ,concerning ,isabel ,carnaby4 #bi ,drummond1 ,via1 ,veritas1 ,vita1 p4 #bbg4 #cj ,matt4 viii4 #be f41 x4 #bf2 ,luke viii4 #bc f4 #ca ,matt4 xxv4 #a f42 ,mark xxiv4 #db2 ,luke xii4 #cf f4 #cb ,chr4 ,ethics 7trans471 vol4 ii4 p4 #bba4 #cc ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,morals1 vol4 i4 p4 #cf4 #cd ,human ,personality1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cac4 #ce ,browning1 ,christmas ,eve4 #cf ,proleg41 p4 #aih4 #cg ,cf4 ,jones1 ,browning as ,philosophical and ,religious ,teacher1 p4 #cfg4 #bbj ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,social ,,institutions ,in last chapter we dealt with the rights and duties of the individual as they are conditioned by his relation to himself1 others1 and to ,god4 ,in this chapter it remains to speak more particularly of the organised institutions of society in which the moral life is manifested1 and by means of which character is moulded4 ,these are the ,family1 the ,state1 and the ,church4 ,these three types of society1 though distinguishable1 are closely allied4 ,at first1 indeed1 they were identical4 ,human society had its origin1 most probably1 in a primitive condition in which domestic1 political1 and religious ends were one4 ,even in modern life ,family1 ,state1 and ,church do not stand for separate interests4 ,so far from their aims colliding they are mutually helpful4 ,an individual may be a member of all three at one time4 ,from a ,christian point of view each is a divine institution invested with a sacred worth and a holy function1 and ordained of ,god for the advancement of ,his kingdom4 ,i ,the ,family is the fountain-head of all the other social groups1 'the cell of the social organism4' ,man enters the world not as an isolated being1 but by descent and generation4 ,in the family each is cradled and nurtured1 and by the domestic environment character is developed4 ,the family has a profound value for the nation4 ,citizenship rests on the sanctity of the home4 ,when the fire on the hearth is quenched1 the vigour of a people dies4 #bba #a4 ,investigations of great interest and value have been pursued in recent years regarding the origin and evolution of the family4 ,however far back the natural history of the race is carried1 it seems scarcely possible to resist the conclusion that some form of family relationship is coeval with human life4 ,widely as social arrangements differ in detail among savage peoples1 arbitrary promiscuity can nowhere be detected4 ,certain laws of domestication have been invariably found to exist1 based upon definite social and moral restrictions universally acknowledged and rigidly enforced4 ,two primitive conditions are present wherever man is found--the tribe and the family4 ,if the family is never present without the tribe1 the tribe is never discovered without 'those intra-tribal distinctions and sexual regulations which lie at the bottom of the institution of the family4'#a ,westermarck indeed says that 'the evidence we possess tends to show that among our earliest human ancestors the family and not the tribe formed the nucleus of every social group1 and in many cases was itself perhaps the only social group4 ,the tie that kept together husband and wife1 parents and children1 was1 if not the only1 at least the principal factor in the earliest forms of man's social life4'#b ,if the family had been an artificial convention called into being by human will and ingenuity1 it might conceivably be destroyed by the same factors4 ,but whatever arguments may be adduced for the abolition of marriage and family life to-day1 the appeal to primitive history is not one of them4 ,on the contrary the earliest forms of society show that the family is no invention1 that it has existed as long as man himself1 and that all social evolution has been a struggle for the preservation of its most valuable features4#c #b4 ,if1 even in early times1 and especially among the ,hebrews1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 the family was an important factor in national development1 it has been infinitely more so #bbb since the advent of ,christianity4 ,christ did not create this relationship4 ,he found it in existence when ,he came to the earth4 ,but ,he invested it with a new ethical value4 ,he laid upon it ,his consecrating touch1 and made it the vehicle of all that is most tender and true in human affection1 so that among ,christian people to-day no word is fraught with such hallowed associations as the word 'home4' ,this ,he did both by example and teaching4 ,as a member of a human family ,himself1 ,he participated in its experiences and duties4 ,he spent ,his early years in the home of ,nazareth1 and was subject unto ,his parents4 ,he manifested ,his glory at a marriage feast4 ,by the grave of ,lazarus ,he mingled ,his tears with those of the sorrowing sisters of ,bethany4 ,he had a tender regard for little children1 and when mothers brought their infants to ,him ,he welcomed them with gracious encouragement1 and1 taking the little ones in ,his arms1 blessed them1 thus consecrating for all time both childhood and motherhood4 ,throughout ,his life there are indications of ,his deep reverence and affection for her who was ,his mother1 and with ,his latest breath he confided her to the care of ,his beloved disciple4 ,there are passages indeed which seem to indicate a depreciation of family relationships4#d ,the most important of these are the sayings which deal with the home connections of those whom ,he called to special discipleship4#e ,not only are father and mother to be loved less than ,he1 but even in comparison with ,himself are to be hated4#f ,among the sacrifices ,his servants must be ready to make is the surrender of the home4#g ,but these references ought to be taken in conjunction with1 and read in the light of1 ,his more general attitude to the claims of kindred4 ,it was not ,his indifference to1 but ,his profound regard for1 home ties that drew from ,him these words4 ,he knew that affection may narrow as well as widen the heart1 and that our #bbc tenderest intimacies may bring our most dangerous temptations4 ,there are moments in the history of the heart when the lesser claim must yield to the greater4 ,for the ,son of ,man ,himself1 there were interests higher even than those of the family4 ,some men1 perhaps even most1 are able to fulfil their vocation without a surrender of the joys of kinship4 ,but others are called to a wider sphere and a harder task4 ,for the sake of the larger brotherhood of man1 ,jesus found it necessary to renounce the intimacies of home4 ,what it cost ,him to do so we1 who cannot fathom the depth of ,his love1 know not4 ,even such an abandonment did ,he demand of ,his first disciples4 ,and for the follower of ,christ still there must be the same willingness to make the complete sacrifice of everything1 even of home and kindred1 if they stand in the way of devotion to the kingdom of ,god4#h 7#a7 ,our ,lord's direct statements regarding the nature of the family leave us in no doubt as to the high place it holds in ,his conception of life4 ,marriage1 upon which the family rests1 is1 according to ,jesus1 the divinely ordained life-union of a man and woman4 ,in ,his quotation from ,genesis ,he makes reference to that mysterious attraction1 deeply founded in the very nature of man1 by which members of the opposite sex are drawn to each other4 ,but while acknowledging the sensuous element in marriage1 ,he lifts it up into the spiritual realm and transmutes it into a symbol of soul-communion4 ,our ,lord does not derive the sanction of wedded life from ,mosaic legislation4 ,still less does ,he permit it as a concession to human frailty4 ,it has its ground in creation itself1 and while therefore it is the most natural of earthly relationships it is of ,god's making4 ,to the true ideal of marriage there are several features which our ,lord regards as indispensable4 7a7 ,it must be monogamous1 the fusion of two distinct personalities4 ',they two shall be one flesh4' ,mutual self-impartation demands that the union should be an exclusive one4 7b7 ,it is a union of equality4 ,neither #bbd personality is to be suppressed4 ,the wedded are partners who share one another's inmost thoughts and most cherished purposes4 ,but this claim of equality does not exclude but rather include the different functions which1 by reason of sex and constitution1 each is enabled to exercise4 ',woman is not undeveloped man but diverse4' ,and it is in diversity that true unity consists4 ,both will best realise their personality in seeking the perfection of one another4 7c7 ,it is a permanent union1 indissoluble till the parting of death4 ,the only exception which ,christ acknowledges is that form of infidelity which ipso facto has already ruptured the sacred bond4#i ,according to ,jesus marriage is clearly intended by ,god to involve sacred and permanent obligations1 a covenant with ,god1 as well as with one another1 which dare not be set aside at the dictate of a whim or passion4 ,the positive principle underlying this declaration against divorce is the spirit of universal love that forbids that the wife should be treated1 as was the case among the dissolute of our ,lord's time1 as a chattel or slave4 ,nothing could be more abhorrent to ,christian sentiment than the modern doctrine of 'leasehold marriage' advocated by some4#aj ,it has been ingeniously suggested that the record of marital unrest and divorce in ,america1 shameful as it is1 may not be in many cases altogether an evil4 ,the very demand to annul a union in which reverence and affection have been forfeited may spring from a growing desire to realise the true ideal of marriage4#aa 7d7 ,finally1 it is a spiritual union4 ,it is something more than a legal contract1 or even an ecclesiastical ordinance4 ,the ,state must indeed safeguard the civil rights of the parties to the compact1 and the ,church's ceremony ought to be sought as the expression of divine blessing and approval4 ,but of themselves these do not constitute the inner tie which makes the twain one1 and binds them together amid all the chances and changes of this earthly life4#ab ,in the teaching of both ,christ and #bbe the apostles marriage is presented as a high vocation1 ordained by ,god for the enrichment of character1 and invested with a holy symbolism4 ,according to ,st4 ,paul it is the emblem of the mystic union of ,christ and ,his ,church1 and is overshadowed by the presence of ,god1 who is the archetype of those sacred ideas which we associate with the name of fatherhood4 7#b7 ,though marriage is the most personal of all forms of social intercourse1 there are many varied and intricate interests involved which require legal recognition and adjustment4 ,questions as to the legitimacy of offspring1 the inheritance of property1 the status and rights of the contracting parties1 come within the domain of law4 ,the ,state punishes bigamy1 and forbids marriage within certain degrees of consanguinity4 ,many contend that the ,state should go further1 and prevent all unions which endanger the physical vigour and efficiency of the coming generation4 ,it is undoubtedly true that the government has a right to protect its people against actions which tend to the deterioration of the race4 ,to permit those to marry who are suffering from certain maladies of mind or body is to commit a grave crime against society4 ,but care must be taken lest we unduly interfere with the deeper spiritual sympathies and affections upon which a true union is founded4 ,in agitating for ,state control in the mating of the physically fit1 the champions of eugenics are apt to exaggerate the materialistic side of marriage1 and overlook those qualities of heart and mind which are not less important for the well-being of the race4 ,in the discipline of humanity weakness and suffering are assets which the world could ill afford to lose4#ac 7#c7 ,in modern times the institution of marriage is menaced by two opposite forces2 on the one hand1 by a revolutionary type of socialism1 and on the other1 by the reactionary influence of self-interested individualism4 7a7 ,it is contended by some advanced socialists that among #bbf the poor and the toiling home life is practically non-existent2 indeed1 under present industrial conditions1 impossible4 ,marriage and separate family life are insuperable barriers1 it is said1 to corporate unity and social progress4 ,it is but fair to add that this extreme view is now largely repudiated by the most enlightened advocates of a new social order1 who are contending1 they tell us1 not for the abolition1 but for the betterment1 of domestic conditions4#ad 7b7 ,the stability of social life is being threatened even more seriously by a self-centred individualism4 ,marriage is considered as a merely temporary arrangement which may be terminated at will4 ,it is contended that divorce should be granted on the easiest terms1 and the most trifling reasons are seriously put forward as legitimate grounds for the annulling of the holiest of vows4 ,without discussing these disintegrating influences1 it is enough to say that the trend of history is against any radical tampering with the institution of marriage1 and any attempt to disparage the sanctity of the home or belittle domestic obligations would be to poison at its springs the moral life of man4 #c4 ,the duties of the various members of the family are explicitly1 if briefly1 stated in the apostolic epistles4 ,they are valid for all times and conditions4 ,though they may be easily elaborated they cannot well be improved4 ,all home obligations are to be fulfilled in and unto the ,lord4 ,the fear of ,god is to inspire the nurture of children1 and to sanctify the lowliest services of the household4 ,authority is to be blended with affection4 7#a7 ,parents are not to provoke their children by harsh and despotic rule1 nor yet to spoil them by soft indulgence4 ,children are to render obedience1 and1 when able1 to contribute to the support of their parents4#ae ,masters are to treat their servants with equity and respect4 ,servants are exhorted to show fidelity4 ,in short all the relationships of the household are to be hallowed by the spirit of ,christian love4 ,many questions relative to the family arise1 over which #bbg we may not linger4 ,one might speak of the effect of industrial conditions upon domestic life1 the employment of women and children in factories1 the evil of sweating1 the problem of our city slums1 and1 generally1 of the need of improved environment in order that our labouring classes may have a chance of a healthier and purer home existence4 ,legislation can do much4 ,but even law is ineffective to achieve the highest ends if it is not backed by the public conscience4 ,the final solution of the problem of the family rests not in conditions but in character1 not in environment but in education1 in the kind of men we are rearing4 7#b7 ,this century has been called the woman's century4 ,and certainly there is an obvious trend to-day towards acknowledgment1 in all departments of life1 of women's equality with men4 ,there is1 however1 a difference of opinion as to what that equality should mean2 and there seems to be a danger in some quarters of overlooking the essential difference of the sexes4 ,no people can achieve what it ought while its wives and mothers are degraded or denied their rights4 ,for her own sake1 as well as for the weal of the race1 whatever is needful to enable woman to attain to her noblest womanhood must be unhesitatingly granted4#af 7#c7 ,but this is even more the children's era4 ,a new sense of reverence for the child is one of the most promising notes of our age1 and the problems arising out of the care and education of the young have created the new sciences of pedagogy and child-psychology4 ,regard for child-life owes its inspiration directly to the teaching of ,christ4 ,the child in the simplicity of its nature and innocence of its dependence is1 according to the ,master1 the perfect pattern of those who seek after ,god4 ,it is true that in the art of antiquity child-life was frequently represented4 ,but as ,burckhardt says it was the drollery and playfulness1 even the quarrelsomeness and stealth1 and above all the lusty health and animal vigour of young life that was depicted4 ,ancient art did not behold in the child the prophecy of a new and purer world4 ,moreover1 it was aesthetic #bbh feeling and not real sympathy with childhood which animated this movement4 ,as time went on the teaching of ,christ on this subject was strangely neglected1 and the history of the treatment of the young is a tragic tale of neglect and suffering4 ,only now are we recovering the lost message of ,jesus in regard to the child1 and we are beginning to realise that infancy and youth have their rights1 and demand of the world both care and affection4 ,ours sons and daughters are the nation's assets4 ,yet it is a parent's question even more than the ,state's4 ,in a deeper sense than we imagine children are the creation of their parents4 ,it is the effect of soul upon soul1 the mother's touch and look1 the father's words and ways1 that kindle into flame the dull material of humanity1 and begin that second birth which should be the anxiety and glory of parenthood4 ,but if the parent makes the child1 scarcely less true is it that the child makes the parent4 ,in the give and take of home life a new world is created4 ,when a father really looks into his child's eye he is not as he was before4#ag ,indispensable as is the ,state's education of the young1 there is an important part which the community cannot undertake1 and there is a danger in curbing individuality by a stereotyped method of instruction4 ',all social enactments1' says ,harnack1 'have a tendency to circumscribe the activities of the individual4 ,if we unduly fetter the free play of individual effort we break the mainspring of progress and enterprise1 and create a state of social immobility which is the antecedent of national decay4'#ah ,youth ought to be taught self-reliance and strenuousness of will2 and this is a work which can only be done in the home by the firm yet kindly influence of the parents4 ,but there is another aspect of the home problem not less pressing4 ,the want of training in working-class families is largely answerable for the waifs and strays with which our cities team4 ,even in middle-class households there are indications of a lack not only of discipline1 but of #bbi that kindly sympathy and affectionate counsel on the part of parents1 and of reverence and frankness in the children2 with the result that the young people1 missing the attachment and interest which the home should supply1 seek their satisfaction outside the domestic circle1 often with the most disastrous results4 ,the problem of the family is thus the problem of nurturing the very seeds of the moral life4 ,within the precincts of the nation's homes the future of the commonwealth is being determined4 ,,ii #a4 ,the ,state is the supreme controller of social relationships4 ,as distinguished from the family and the ,church1 it is the realm of organised force working for social ends4 ,its purpose is to secure the conditions of life essential to order and progress1 and it can fulfil its function only as it is endowed with power to enforce its authority4 ,the interference of the ,state with the liberty of the individual has created a reaction in two opposite quarters towards complete abrogation of all ,state compulsion4 ,on the one side ,tolstoy pleads for the removal of force1 because it violates the principle of love and subverts the teaching of ,jesus--',resist not evil4' ,militant anarchism as the other extreme demands the abrogation of authority1 because it believes that restraint hinders progress and happiness1 and that if governmental force were abolished individuals would be best able to take care of themselves4 ,the aim of anarchism is to destroy force by force2 the aim of ,tolstoy is to allow force to do its worst4 ,such a spirit of non-resistance would mean the overthrow of all security1 and the reversion to wild lawlessness4 ,it is an utter travesty of ,christ's teaching4 ,extremes meet4 ,violence and servility join hands4 ,anarchism and ,tolstoyism reveal the total bankruptcy of unrestricted individualism4 ,the social order for which the ,state stands is not so much an interference with the freedom of the subject as the condition under which alone individual liberty can be preserved4 #bcj ,the view1 however1 that the ,state is an artificial relationship into which men voluntarily enter in order to limit their selfish instincts and to secure their mutual advantages--the theory of the 'social contract'--has been discarded in modern times as a fiction of the imagination4 ,it is not of his own choice that the individual becomes a member of society4 ,he is born into it4 ,man is not a whole in himself4 ,he is only complete in his fellows4 ,as he serves others he serves himself4 ,but men are not the unconscious functions of a mechanical system4 ,they are free1 living personalities1 united by a sense of human obligation and kindredship4 ,the ,state is more than a physical organism4 ,it is a community of moral aims and ideals4 ,even law1 which is the soul of the ,state1 is itself the embodiment of a moral principle2 and the commonwealth stands for a great ethical idea1 to the fulfilment of which all its citizens are called upon to contribute4 #b4 ,the reciprocal duties of the ,state and its citizens receive comparatively little prominence in the ,new ,testament4 ,but they are never treated with disparagement or contempt4 ,during our ,lord's earthly life the supreme power belonged to the ,roman ,empire4 ,though ,jesus had to suffer much at the hands of those in authority1 ,his habitual attitude was one of respect4 ,he lived in obedience to the government of the country1 and acknowledged the right of ,caesar to legislate and levy taxes in his own province4 ,while giving all deference to the ,state officials before whom ,he was brought1 ,he did not hesitate to remind them of the ideal of truth and justice of which they were the chosen representatives4#ai ,st4 ,paul's teaching is in harmony with his ,master's1 and is indeed an expansion of it4#bj ',the powers that be are ordained of ,god4 ,render therefore to all their dues1 tribute to whom tribute4' ,beyond1 however1 enjoining the necessity of work as a means of independence1 and recommending that each should remain in the sphere in which he has been placed1 and perform conscientiously the duties of his calling1 we #bca find little direct reference in the ,epistles to the matter of citizenship4 ,but as has been truly said 'the citizen has but to stand in his station1 and perform its duties1 in order to fulfil the demands of citizenship4'#ba ,st4 ,paul's insistence therefore upon the personal fidelity of every man to the duties of his sphere goes far to recognise that spirit of reciprocal service which is the fundamental idea of the commonwealth4 #c4 ,of the two extreme views as to the meaning of the ,state between which the verdict of history has wavered--that of ,augustine1 who regarded the ,state as the result of man's sinful condition and as the direct antithesis of the kingdom of ,god2 and that of ,hegel1 who saw in it the highest ethical form of society1 the realisation of the moral ideal--the view of ,st4 ,paul may be said to have approximated more nearly to the latter4 ,writing to the ,christians at ,rome ,paul does not suggest that it was merely for prudence' sake that they should give to the ,imperial ,power unquestioning obedience4 ,he appeals to the loftiest motives4 ,all authority is of ,god in its origin and ultimate purpose4 ,what does it matter to him whether ,nero be a devil or a saint8 ,he is the prince upon the throne4 ,he is the symbol of divine authority1 'the minister of ,god to thee for good4' ,as a ,christian ,paul looks beyond the temporal world-power as actually existing4 ,whatever particular form it may assume1 he sees in the ,state and its rulers only the expression of ,god's will4 ,rome is ,his agent1 oppressive1 and1 it may be1 unjust1 but still the channel through which for the moment the ,almighty works for the furtherance of ,his purposes4#bb ,the conception of the ,state as thus formulated involves a twofold obligation--of the ,state towards its citizens1 and of its citizens towards the ,state4 7#a7 ,as the embodiment of public right the ,state owes protection to its subjects1 guarding individual privileges and prohibiting such actions as interfere with the general #bcb good4 ,its functions1 however1 are not confined to restrictive measures4 ,its duty is not only to protect the rights of the individual1 but to create and maintain such conditions of life as are essential to the development of personality4 ,in its own interests it is bound to foster the growth of character1 and to promote culture and social well-being4 ,in modern times we look to the ,state not only to protect life and property1 but to secure for each individual and for all classes of men that basis of material well-being on which alone life in its truest sense can be built up4 ,the government must therefore strike some kind of balance between the extremes of individualism and socialism4 ,while the old theory of laissez-faire1 which would permit every man to follow his own individual bent without regard to the interests of others1 has been generally repudiated1 there is still a class of politicians who ridicule the 'night watchman' idea of the ,state as ,lassalle calls it4 ',let there be as little ,state as possible1' exclaims ,nietzsche4 ,according to such thinkers the ,state has only negative functions4 ,the best government is that which governs least1 and allows the utmost scope to untrammelled individual enterprise4 ,but if there is a tendency on the part of some to return to the individualistic principle1 the 'paternal' idea as espoused by others is being carried to the verge of socialism4 ,the function of the ,state is stretched almost to breaking point when it is conceived as the 'guardian angel' who accompanies and guards with perpetual oversight the whole life of the individual from the cradle to the grave4 ,many of the more cautious writers#bc of the day are exposing the dangers which lurk in the bureaucratic system of government4 ,this tendency is apt to crush individual enterprise1 and cause men to place entire reliance upon external aid and centralised power4 ,it is indeed difficult to draw a fast line of demarcation between purely individual and social ends4 ,there are obviously primary interests belonging to society as a whole which the ,state1 if it is to be the instrument of the common good1 ought to control2 certain #bcc activities which1 if permitted as monopolies1 become a menace to the community1 and which can be satisfactorily conducted only as departments of the ,state4 ,national life is a unity1 and it can only maintain its integrity as it secures for all its constituents1 justice1 equity before the law1 and freedom of each to be himself4 ,the ,state ought to protect those who in the competitive struggle of the modern industrial system find themselves at a hopeless disadvantage4 ,it is the duty of the commonwealth to secure for each the opportunity to become what he is capable of being1 and to fulfil the functions for which he is best fitted4 ,the ,state cannot make men moral1 but it can interfere with existing conditions so as to make the moral life easier for its citizens4 ,criminal law cannot create saints1 but it can punish evil-doers and counteract the forces of lawlessness which threaten the social order4 ,it cannot legislate within the domain of motive1 but it can encourage self-restraint and thrift1 honesty and temperance4 ,it cannot actually intermeddle with the sanctity of the home1 or assume the rle of paternal authority1 but it can insist upon the fulfilment of the conditions of decency and propriety2 it can condemn insanitary dwellings1 suppress traffic in vice1 supervise unhealthy trades1 protect the life and health of workmen1 and1 generally1 devise means for the culture and the advancement1 intellectually and morally1 of the people4 ,the ,state in some degree embodies the public conscience1 and as such it has the prerogative of awakening and stimulating the consciences of individuals4 ,as a divine institution it is one of the channels through which ,god makes ,his will known to man4 ,law has an ethical import1 and the ,state which is founded upon just and beneficent laws moulds the customs and forms the characters of its citizens4 7#b7 ,but if the ,state is to fulfil its ideal function it must rely upon the general co-operation of its citizens4 ,the measure of its success or failure will depend upon the extent to which an enlightened sense of moral obligation prevails in the community4 ,men must rise above their #bcd own immediate interests and realise their corporate being4 ,government makes its will dominant through the voice of the people4 ,it cannot legislate beyond the sympathies of its constituents4 ,as the individuals are1 so the commonwealth will be4 ,civil duties vary according to the qualifications and opportunities of individuals4 ,but certain general obligations rest upon all4 7a7 ,it is the duty of all to take an interest in public affairs4 ,what concerns us collectively is the concern of each4 ,everything that touches the public good should be made a matter of intelligent and watchful interest by all4 7b7 ,it is the duty of all to conform to the laws of the country4 ,it is possible that a particular enactment may conflict with the dictates of conscience1 and it may be necessary to protest against what seems to be an injustice4 ,no rule can be laid down for exceptional cases4 ,generally it will be best to submit to the wrong1 while at the same time using all legitimate means to secure the repeal of the obnoxious law4 ,and if they will revolt1 martyrs must not complain nor be unready to submit to the penalties involved4 7c7 ,it is the further duty of all to take some personal part in the government--if not by active service1 at least by the conscientious recording of one's vote4 ,christians must not leave the direction of the nation's affairs to non-,christians4 ,the spirit of ,christ forbids moral indifference to anything human4 ,all are not fitted for1 or called upon to take1 public office2 but it is incumbent upon every man to maintain an intelligent public spirit1 and to exercise all the duties of good citizenship4 ,it has been truly said that they who give most to the ,state get most from the ,state4 ,it is the men who play their part as active citizens working for the nation's cause who enrich their own lives and reap the harvest of a full existence4 ,not by withdrawal from social service1 but in untiring labour for their country's weal1 shall men win for themselves and their brethren the fruits of liberty and peace4 ,for nations as for men emancipation may come with a stroke1 but freedom can be earned only by strenuous and united toil4 #bce 7#c7 ,already these ideals have begun to take shape4 ,the most significant feature of modern times is the growing spirit of democracy4 ,men of all classes are awakening to their rights1 and are accepting their share in the task of social reconstruction4 ',we know how the masses1' says ,eucken1 'are determined to form a mere dependent body of the so-called higher classes no longer1 but to take the problem of life independently into their own hands4'#bd ,but while the modern democratic movement is not without its hopeful aspects1 it is fraught also with grave perils4 ,it is well that the people should awake to their obligations1 and realise the meaning of life1 especially in its social implications4 ,but there is a danger that culture may not advance with emancipation1 and while the masses demand their rights they may not at the same time discern their duties4 ,for rights involve duties1 and emancipation1 as we have seen1 is not liberty4 ,the appeal of the socialistic party is to the equality of all who bear human features4 ,it sounds plausible4 ,but there never has been1 nor never can be1 such equality4 ,nature and experience alike reveal a pronounced and insuperable inequality among men4 ,the law of diversity strikes deep down into the very origin and constitution of mankind4 ,the equality proclaimed by the ,french ,revolutionists is now regarded as an idle dream4 ,not equality of nature but equity before the law1 justice for all1 the opportunity for every man to realise himself and make the most of the life and the gifts which ,god has given him--that is the only claim which can be truly made4 ',the only idea1' says ,eucken1 'which can give to equality any meaning is the conviction that humanity has spiritual relations1 that each individual has a value for himself and for the whole because he is a part of a larger spiritual world4' ,hence if democracy is truly to come to its own and fulfil its high vocation1 the ,pauline figure of the reciprocal influence of the body and its members must be proclaimed anew as the ideal of the body politic--a unity fulfilling itself in difference--an organic life in which the unit finds its #bcf place of security-and-service in the whole1 and the whole lives in and acts through the individual parts4 ,if we are to awaken to the high vocation of the ,christian state1 to realise the possibilities of our membership one with another1 a new feeling of manhood and of national brotherhood1 a new pride in the community of life1 must take possession of our hearts4 ,we need1 as one has said1 a baptism of religious feeling in our corporate consciousness1 a new sense that we are serving ,god in serving our fellows1 which will hallow and hearten the crusade for health and social happiness1 and give to every citizen a sense of spiritual service4 ,,iii ,unlike the family and ,state the ,church is the creation of ,jesus ,christ4 ,it is the witness of ,his ,presence in the world4 ,in its ideal form it is world-wide4 ,the ,redemption for which it stands is a good for all men4 ,though in practice many do not acknowledge its blessing1 the ,church regards no man beyond its pale of grace4 ,it is set in the midst of the world as the symbol and pledge of ,god's universal love4 #a4 ,the ,relation of ,church and ,state is a difficult question with a long history1 and involving much controversy4 ,whatever view may be held as to their legal connection1 their interests can never be regarded as inimical4 ,the ,church cannot be indifferent to the action of the ,state1 nor can the ,state ignore the work of the ,church4 ,but since their spheres are not identical nor their aims entirely similar1 the trend of modern opinion seems to indicate that1 while working in harmony1 it is more satisfactory that they should pursue independent paths4 ,there are spiritual ends committed to the ,church by its ,head over which the civil power has no jurisdiction4 ,on the other hand there are temporal concerns with which ecclesiastical courts have neither the vocation nor the qualifications to deal4 ,still1 the ,church1 as the organ of ,christian thought #bcg and activity1 has responsibilities with regard to civil matters4 ,while religion is the chief agent in the regeneration of man1 religion itself is dependent upon all social means1 and the ,church must regard with sympathy every effort made by the community for moral improvement4 ,the main function of the ,church in this connection is to keep before its members a high ideal of social life1 to create a spirit of fidelity in every sphere of activity1 and1 particularly1 to educate men for the tasks of citizenship4 ,the ,state1 on the other hand1 as the instrument of civic life1 has obligations towards the ,church4 ,its duty is hardly exhausted by observing an attitude of non-interference4 ,in its own interests it is bound1 not merely to protect1 but encourage the ,church in the fulfilment of its immediate aims4 ,parliament1 however1 must concede to ecclesiastical bodies complete liberty to govern themselves4 ,the ,church1 as the institution of ,christ1 claims full autonomy2 and the ,state goes beyond its province when it imposes hampering restrictions which interfere with the exercise of its authority and discipline within its own sphere4 #b4 ,as a religious institution the ,church exists for three main purposes3 7#a7 the ,worship of ,god and the ,edification of its members2 7#b7 the ,witness of ,christ to ,mankind2 7#c7 the ,evangelisation of the ,world4 7#a7 ,the first of these objects has already been dealt with when treating of the duties to ,god4 ,it is only needful to add here that the ,church is more than a centre of worship2 it is the home of kindred souls knit together by a common devotion to ,christ4 ,it is the school of character which seeks the mutual edification of its members 'by provoking one another to love and to good works4' ,hence among ,protestants the duty of ,church ,discipline is acknowledged1 which deals with such sins or lapses from rectitude as constitute 'offences' or 'scandals1' and tend to bring into disrepute the ,christian name and profession4 ,in the ,roman ,church1 the ,confessional1 through which moral error is avowed1 with its system of penances1 has in view the same object--viz41 to reprove1 correct1 and reclaim #bch those who have lapsed into sin--thus seeking to fulfil ,christ's ideal 'to despair of no man4' 7#b7 ,but the ,church is also a rallying place of service4 ,both in its corporate capacity1 and through the lives of its individual members1 the ,church seeks to bear constant witness to the mind of ,christ4 ,it proclaims ,his living example4 ,it reiterates ,his will and embodies ,his judgment1 approving of what is good1 condemning what is evil1 and ever more confronting the world with the high ideal of the divine ,life and ,word4 ,not all who bear the name of ,christ are consistent witnesses4 ,but still the aim of the ,church is to harmonise the profession and practice of its members1 and generally to spiritualise secular life by the education of public opinion4 ,before1 however1 ,christians can hope to make a profound impression upon the outside world1 it is not unnatural to expect that they should exhibit a spirit of concord1 among themselves1 seeking to heal the unhappy schisms by which the ,church is rent4 ,but while our separations are deplorable--and we ought not to cease our endeavour for the reunion of ,christendom--we must not forget that there may be harmony of spirit even amid diversity of operation1 and that where there is true brotherly sympathy between ,christians1 there already is essential unity4#be 7#c7 ,the special work of the ,church to which it is constrained by the express terms of its ,master's commission1 is to preach the ,gospel to every creature and to bring all men into obedience to ,christ4 ,a distinction is commonly made between ,home and ,foreign ,missions4 ,while the distinction is useful1 it is scarcely valid4 ,the work of the ,church at home and abroad is one4 ,the claims of the ignorant and hapless of our own land do not exempt us from responsibilities to the heathen world4 ,the ,lord's ,prayer for the coming of the ,kingdom requires of ,christian men that they shall consecrate their gifts along every line of effort to the fulfilment of the divine will upon the earth4 #c4 ,while all sections of the ,church are convinced that #bci an honest application of the principles of ,jesus to the practical affairs of life would speedily transform society1 there is considerable diversity of opinion as to the proper attitude of ,christianity to social problems4 ,the outward reconstruction of social order was not1 it must be admitted1 the primary aim of ,jesus3 it was rather the spiritual regeneration of the individual4 ,but such could only become a reality as it transformed the entire fabric of life4 7#a7 ,christ's teaching could not but affect the organisation of industry as well as every other section of the social structure4 ,though ,jesus has many warnings as to the perils of riches1 there is no depreciation of wealth 7in its truest sense74 ,it is true ,he refuses to interfere in a dispute between two brothers as to worldly property1 and repudiates generally the office of arbiter4 ,it is true also that ,he warns ,his disciples against covetousness1 and lays down the principle that 'a man's life consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth4' ,but these sayings1 so far from implying disapproval of earthly possessions1 imply rather that property and trading are the indispensable basis upon which the outward fabric of the social order is built4 ,christ does not counsel withdrawal from the activities of the world4 ,he honours work4 ,he recognises the legitimacy of trading4 ,many of ,his parables would have no meaning if ,his attitude to the industrial system of ,his day had been one of uncompromising hostility4 ,he has no grudge against riches in themselves4 ,in the parable of the talents it is the comparatively poor man who is censured while the rich is commended4 ,to sum up what ,jesus thought about wealth is not easy4 ,many have thought that ,he condemned the holding of property altogether4 ,but such a conclusion cannot be drawn from ,his teaching4 ,possessions1 both outward and inward1 are rather to be brought to the test of ,his judgment4 ,his influence would rather bring property and commerce under the control of righteousness and brotherhood4 ,his ideal of life is to be attained through learning the right use of wealth rather than through the abolition of it4 ,wealth #bdj can be used for the kingdom of ,god1 and it is a necessary instrument in the ,church's work4 ,it may be consecrated like every other gift to the service of ,christ4 ,but there are mighty forces enlisted against its best usefulness1 and only through the fullness of ,christian grace can its good work be done4 ,what ,jesus does condemn however is the predatory instinct1 that greed of gain which embodies itself everywhere in the spirit of plunder1 exploitation1 and the impulse to gambling4 ,he can have nothing but condemnation for that great wave of money-love which has swept over ,christendom in our time1 affecting all classes4 ,it has fostered self-indulgence1 stimulated depraved appetites1 corrupted business and politics1 oppressed the poor1 materialised our ideals1 and weakened religious influences4 ',from this craze of the love of money the voice of ,jesus calls the people back to the sane life in ,ethics and religion in which ,he is leader4'#bf ,what then ought to be the attitude of the ,church to the industrial questions of our day8 ,while some contend that the social question is really a religious question1 and that the ,church is untrue to its mission when it holds itself aloof from the economical problems which are agitating men's minds1 others view with suspicion1 if not with hostility1 the deflection of religion from its traditional path of worship1 and deem it a mistake for the ,church to interfere in industrial movements4 ,a recent writer#bg narrates that in his boyhood he actually heard an old minister of the ,church of ,scotland declare in the ,general ,assembly1 ',we are not here to make the world better3 we have only to pass through it on the way to glory4' ',no grosser travesty1' adds the author1 'was ever uttered4 ,we are here to make the world better4 ,we have a commission to stamp out evil and to prevent men from falling into it4 ,if this is not ,christian work1 what is8' ,at the same time a portion of the clergy have gone to the opposite extreme1 identifying the kingdom of ,god with social propaganda1 and thus losing sight of its spiritual #bda and eternal1 as well as its personal1 significance4 ,there has been moreover a tendency on the part of some to associate themselves with a political party1 and to claim for the ,church the office of judge and arbitrator in industrial strife4 ,but surely it is one thing to degrade the ,church to the level of a secular society1 and another1 by witness and by effort1 to make the law of ,christ dominant over all the relationships of life4 ,men are impatiently asking1 ',has the ,church no message to the new demands of the age8 ,are ,christians to stand apart from the coming battle1 and preach only the great salvation to individual souls8 ,that the ,christian minister must never cease to do2 but the ,gospel1 if it is to meet the needs of men1 must be read in the light of history and experience1 and interpreted by the signs of the times4 7#b7 ,the ground idea of ,jesus' teaching was1 as ,troeltsch has pointed out1#bh the declaration of the kingdom of ,god4 ,everything indeed is relative to union with ,god1 but in ,god man's earthly life is involved4 ,two notes were therefore struck by ,jesus1 a note of individualism and a note of universalism--love to ,god and love to man4 ,these notes do not really conflict1 but they became the two opposite voices of the ,church1 and gave rise to different ethical tendencies4 ,the first religious communities consisted of the poor and the enslaved4 ,it never occurred to them that they had civic rights3 all they desired was freedom to worship ,christ4 ,not how to transform the social world1 but how to maintain their own religious faith without molestation in the world of unbelief and evil was their problem4 7#c7 ,in the early ,catholic ,church the spirit of individualism ruled4 ,with the ,reformation a new type of life was developed1 and a new attitude to the social world was established4 ,but while ,lutheranism sought to exercise its influence upon social life through state regulation1 ,calvinism was more individualistic1 and sought rather to #bdb enforce its teaching by means of the personal life4 ,the attitude of the various sects--,baptists1 ,pietists1 ,puritans--has been largely individualistic1 and instead of endeavouring to rectify the abuses of industrial life they have been disposed rather to suffer the ills of this evil world1 finding in faith alone their compensation and solace4 ,in modern times the tendency of the ,church1 ,romanist and ,protestant alike1 has been toward social regeneration2 and a form of ,christian ,socialism has even appeared which however lacks unity of principle and uniformity of action4 ,the mediaeval idea of a ,holy ,roman ,empire1 in which all nations and classes were to be consolidated1 is now admitted to be a dream incapable of realisation1 partly because the idea itself is illusory1 but principally because the hold of the ,papacy upon the people has been weakened4 ,the agitation1 ',los von ,rom' on the one hand1 and the ',modernist' movement on the other1 have tended to dissipate the unity and energy of ,catholicism4 ,nevertheless the ,church1 which is really the society of ,christian people1 is coming to see that it cannot close its eyes to questions which concern the daily life of man1 nor hold aloof from efforts which are working for the social betterment of the world4 ,to bring in the kingdom of ,god is the ,church's work1 and it is becoming increasingly evident that the kingdom1 if it is to come in any real and living sense1 must come where ,jesus ,himself founded it--upon the plane of this present life4 ,there are two considerations which make this work on the part of the ,church at once imperative and hopeful4 ,the first is that the ,church is specially called upon by the command and example of its ,founder to range itself on the side of the weak and helpless4 ,it is commanded to bring the principles of brotherly love to bear upon the conditions of life which press most heavily upon the handicapped4 ,it is called on in the spirit of its ,master to rebuke the greed of gain and the callous selfishness which uses the toil1 and even the degradation of others1 for its own personal enjoyment4 ,the ,church only fulfils its function when #bdc it is not only the consoler of the suffering but also the champion of the oppressed4 ,and the other consideration is that in virtue of its nature and charter the ,church is enabled to appeal to motives which the ,state cannot supply4 ,it brings all social obligation under the comprehensive law of love4 ,it exalts the principle of brotherhood4 ,it lifts up the sacrifice of ,christ1 and seeks to make it potent over the hearts of men4 ,it preaches the doctrine of humanity1 and strives to win a response in all who are willing to acknowledge their common kinship and equality before ,god4 ,it appeals to masters and servants1 to employers and labourers1 to rich and poor1 and bids them remember that they are sharers alike of the ,divine ,mercy1 pensioners together upon their ,heavenly ,father's love4 #d4 ,whatever shape the obligation of the ,church may take in regard to the social problems of the homeland1 the duty of ,christianity to the larger world of ,humanity admits of no question4 ,the ethical significance of the missionary movement of last century has been pronounced by ,wundt1#bi the distinguished historian of morals1 as the mightiest factor in modern civilisation4 ,speaking of humanity in its highest sense as having been brought into the world by ,christianity1 he mentions as its first manifestation the care of the sick1 and then adds1 'the second great expression of ,christian humanity is the establishment of missions4' ,it is unnecessary to dwell upon this modern form of unselfish enthusiasm4 ,it has its roots in the simple necessity1 on the part of the morally awakened1 of sharing their best with other people4 ',man grows with the greatness of his purposes1' and no greater ideal task has ever presented itself to the imagination of man than this mighty attempt to conquer the world for ,christ1 and give to his brother men throughout the earth that which has raised and enriched himself4#cj ',the two great forming agencies in the world's history1' says a prominent political economist1 'have been the #bdd religious and the economic4'#ca ,on the one hand the economic is required as the basis of civilisation1 but on the other the supreme factor is religion4 ,the commercial impulse1 carried on independently of any higher motive than self-interest1 has however not infrequently reacted favourably on the moral life of the race4 ,mutual understanding1 the sense of a common humanity1 the virtues of honesty1 fairness1 and confidence upon which all legitimate commerce is founded1 have paved the way in no small degree for the message of brotherhood and mercy4 ,the present hour is the ,church's opportunity4 ,already the world has been opened up1 the nations of the earth are awakening to the greatness of life's possibilities4 ,the danger is that the ,oriental peoples should become satisfied with the mere externals of civilisation1 and miss that which will assure their complete emancipation4 ,christianity was born in the ,east1 though it has become the inheritance of the ,west4 ,it is adapted by its genius to all men4 ,and undoubtedly the ,west has no better boon to confer on the ,east than that on which its own life and hope are founded--the religion of ,jesus ,christ4 ,if we do not give that1 we are unfaithful to our ,master's call2 we falsify our own history1 and wholly miss the purpose for which we have been entrusted with divine enlightenment and power4 #a ,lofthouse1 ,ethics of the ,family1 p4 #gg4 #b ,hist4 of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #ech4 #c ,the literature on this subject is enormous4 ,see specially works of ,westermarck1 ,m',lennan1 ,frazer1 ,hobhouse1 ,andrew ,lang1 and ,ihering4 #d ,see chap4 vii4 in ,garvie's ,studies in ,inner ,life of ,jesus4 #e ,matt4 viii4 #ba1 #bb2 ,luke ix4 #ei-fb4 #f ,luke xiv4 #bf2 ,matt4 x4 #cg4 #g ,mark x4 #bi1 #cj4 #h ,matt4 xix4 #ab4 #i ,matt4 v4 #cb1 xix4 #c-aj2 ,mark x4 #aa1 #ab4 #aj ,see ,forsyth1 ,marriage3 its ,ethics and ,religion4 #aa ,king1 ,ethics of ,jesus1 p4 #fi4 #ab ,stalker1 ,ethics of ,jesus1 p4 #ccf4 #ac ,though ,nietzsche does not use the word he may be regarded as the father of modern eugenics4 #ad ,cf4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,socialism4 #ae ,mark vii4 #i-ac4 #af ,cf4 ,king1 ,the ,moral and ,religious ,challenge of our ,times1 pp4 #db f4 #ag ,cf4 ,w4 ,wallace1 ,lects4 and ,addresses1 p4 #aad4 #ah ,aus ,leben und ,wissenschaft4 #ai ,matt4 xii4 #ah-bb2 ,john xviii4 #bc1 xix4 #aj f4 #bj ,rom4 xiii4 #ba ,sir ,h4 ,jones1 ,idealism as a ,practical ,creed1 p4 #abc4 #bb ,some sentences are here borrowed from author's ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul4 #bc ,e4g4 ,eucken1 ,kindermann1 ,mallock1 and earlier ,h4 ,spencer4 #bd ,life's ,ideal and ,life's ,basis4 #be ,eph4 iv4 #c4 #bf ,clarke1 ,ideal of ,jesus1 p4 #beh4 #bg ,watson1 ,social ,advance4 #bh ,die ,soziallehren der ,christlichen ,kirchen und ,gruppen1 a recent work on social ethics of great erudition and importance4 #bi ,ethik1 vol4 ii4 #cj ,king1 ,the ,moral and ,religious ,challenge of our ,times1 pp4 #dd and #cdf4 #ca ,marshall1 ,principles of ,economics4 #bde ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,conclusion--,,the ,,permanence ,,of ,,christian ,,ethics ,in bringing to a close our study of ,christian ,ethics1 we repeat that the three dominant notes of the ,christian ,ideal are--,absoluteness1 ,inwardness1 and ,universality4 ,the ,gospel claims to be supreme in life and morals4 ,the uniqueness and originality of the ,ethics of ,christianity are to be sought1 however1 not so much in the range of its practical application as in the unfolding of an ideal which is at once the power and pattern of the new life4 ,that ideal is ,christ in whom the perfect life is disclosed1 and through whom the power for its realisation is communicated4 ,life is a force1 and character a growth arising in and expanding from a hidden seed4 ,hence in ,christian ,ethics apathy and passivity1 and even asceticism and quietism1 which occupy an important place in the moral systems of ,buddha and ,neo-,platonism1 in mediaeval ,catholicism and the teaching of ,tolstoy1 play only a subsidiary part1 and are but preparatory stages towards the realisation of a fuller life4 ,on the contrary all is life1 energy1 and unceasing endeavour4 ',i am come that ye may have life1 and that ye may have it more abundantly4' ,there is no finality in ,christian ,ethics4 ,it is not a mechanical and completed code4 ,the ,ethic of the ,new ,testament1 just because it has its spring in the living ,christ1 is an inexhaustible fountain of life4 ',true ,christianity1' says ,edward ,caird1 'is not something which was published in ,palestine1 and which has been handed down by a dead tradition ever since2 it is a living and growing #bdf spirit1 and learns the lessons of history1 and is ever manifesting new powers and leading on to new truths4' ,the teaching of ,jesus is not merely temporary or local4 ,it is an utter perversion of the ,gospels to make the eschatology present in them the master-key to their meaning1 or to derive the ethical ideal from the utterances which anticipate an abrupt and immediate end4 ,jesus spoke indeed the language of ,his time and race1 and often clothed ,his spiritual purpose in the form of national expectation4 ,but to base ,his moral maxims on an ',interim-,ethic' adapted to a transitory world is to 'distort the perspective of ,his teaching1 and to rob it of its unity and insight4' ,on the contrary1 the ,ethics of ,jesus are everywhere characterised by adaptability1 universality1 and permanence1 and in ,his attitude to the great problems of life there is a serenity and sympathy which has nothing in common with the nervous and excited expectation of sudden catastrophe4 ,in like manner it is a misinterpretation of the teaching of ,jesus to represent asceticism as the last word of ,christian ,ethics4 ,renunciation and unworldliness are undoubtedly frequently commended in the ,new ,testament1 but they are urged not as ends in themselves but as means to a fuller self-realisation4 ,such was not the habitual temper and tone of ,jesus in ,his relations to the world1 nor was the ultimate purpose of ,his mission to create a type of manhood whose perfection lay in withdrawal from the interests and obligations of life4 ',to single out a teaching of non-resistance as the core of the ,gospels1 to retreat from social obligations in the name of one who gladly shared them and was called a friend of wine-bibbers and publicans--all this1 however heroic it may be1 is not only an impracticable discipleship but a historical perversion4 ,it mistakes the occasionalism of the ,gospels for universalism4'#a ,finally1 there are many details of modern social well-being with which the ,new ,testament does not deal1 questions of present-day ethics and economics which cannot be decided by a direct reference to chapter and #bdg verse1 either of the ,gospels or ,epistles4 ,the problems of life shift with the shifting years1 but the nature of life remains unchanged1 and responds to the life and the spirit of ,him who was1 and remains down the ages1 the ,light of men4 ,the individual virtues of humility1 purity of heart1 and self-sacrifice are not evanescent1 but are now and always the pillars of ,christian ,ethics2 while the great principles of human solidarity1 of brotherhood and equality in ,christ1 of freedom1 of love1 and service2 the ,new ,testament teachings concerning the family1 the ,state1 and the kingdom of ,god2 our ,lord's precepts with regard to the sacredness of the body and the soul1 the duty of work1 the stewardship of wealth1 and the accountability to ,god for life with its variety of gifts and tasks--contain the germ and potency of all personal and social transformation and renewal4 #a ,prof4 ,peabody1 ,harvard ,theological ,review1 ,may #aiac4 #bdh ,,bibliography ,a4--,,general ,,works ,,on ,,ethics ,i4 ,,english ,,works #a4 ,early ,idealism and ,intuitionalism4 ,hobbes1 #afej2 ,mandeville1 #agad2 ,cudworth1 #afhh2 ,cumberland1 #afgb2 ,sam4 ,clarke1 #agjd2 ,shaftesbury1 #agac2 ,butler1 #agbi2 ,hutchison1 #agef2 ,adam ,smith1 #agei2 ,r4 ,price1 #ageg2 ,thom4 ,reid1 #agic2 ,dugald ,stewart1 #agic2 ,w4 ,whewell1 #ahdh2 ,h4 ,calderwood1 ,handbook of ,mor4 ,phil41 #ahgb2 ,martineau1 ,types of ,ethical ,theory1 #ahhf2 ,laurie1 ,ethics1 #ahhe2 ,n4 ,porter1 ,elements of ,moral ,science1 #ahhe4 #b4 ,utilitarianism4 ,locke1 ,concerning ,human ,understanding1 #afij2 ,hartley1 ,observations on ,man1 #agdh2 ,hume1 ,enquiry ,concerning ,principles of ,morals1 #agea2 ,essays1 #agdb2 ,paley1 ,principles of ,mor4 and ,political ,phil41 #aghe2 ,bentham1 ,introd4 to ,principles of ,morals and ,legislation1 #aghi2 ,jas4 ,mill1 ,analysis of the ,human ,mind1 #ahbi2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,utilitarianism1 #ahfc2 ,a4 ,bain1 ,mental and ,moral ,science1 #ahfh2 ,mind and ,body1 #ahgf2 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,methods of ,ethics 7#fth ed471 #aija2 ,shadworth ,hodgson1 ,theory of ,practice1 #ahgj2 ,t4 ,fowler1 ,progressive ,morality1 #ahhd2 ,grote1 ,examination of ,utilitarian ,ethics1 #ahgj4 #c4 ,evolutionary ,ethics4 ,chas4 ,darwin1 ,descent of ,man1 #ahga2 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics and ,data of ,ethics1 #ahgi2 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford1 ,lectures and ,essays1 #ahgi2 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 #ahhb2 ,s4 ,alexander1 ,moral ,order and ,progress1 #ahhi2 ,shurman1 ,ethical ,import of ,darwinism2 ,huxley1 ,evolution and ,ethics2 ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#b vols471 #aijf2 ,westermarck1 ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1 #aiji4 #d4 ,modern ,idealism4 ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,proleg4 to ,ethics1 #ahhc2 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 ,ethical ,studies1 #ahgf2 ,appearance and ,reality1 #ahic2 ,e4 ,caird1 ,crit4 ,phil4 of ,kant1 #ahij2 ,evolution of ,religion1 #aijc2 ,w4 ,r4 ,sorley1 ,ethics of ,naturalism1 #ahhe2 ,recent ,tendencies in ,ethics1 #aijd2 ,the ,moral ,life1 #aiab2 ,w4 ,l4 ,courtney1 ,constructive ,ethics1 #ahhf2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,introd4 to ,social ,philos41 #ahij2 ,manual of ,ethics 7#dth ed471 #aijj2 ,w4 ,wallace1 ,lectures and ,essays1 #ahih2 ,muirhead1 ,elements of ,ethics1 #ahib2 ,rashdall1 ,theory of ,good and ,evil2 ,boyce ,gibson1 ,a ,philos4 ,introd4 to ,ethics1 #aijd2 ,ward1 ,kingdom of ,ends 7,gifford ,lect471 #aiaj2 ,bosanquet1 ,principles of ,individuality and ,value1 #aiab2 ,value and ,destiny of the ,individual 7,gifford ,lects471 #aiac2 ,psychology of the ,moral ,self2 ,d',arcy1 ,short ,study of ,ethics2 ,w4 ,arthur1 ,physical and ,moral ,law2 ,jas4 ,seth1 ,study of ,ethical ,principles 7#aath ed471 #aiaj2 ,ryland1 ,manual of ,ethics2 ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,principia ,ethica1 #aijc2 ,ethics 7,home ,univ4 ,lib471 #aiab2 ,mac,cunn1 ,making of ,character1 #aije2 ,ethics of ,citizenship1 #aijg2 ,six ,radical ,thinkers1 #aijg2 ,bowne1 ,principles of ,ethics2 ,immanence of ,god1 #aijf2 ,dewey1 ,outlines of a ,crit4 ,theory of ,ethics1 #ahia2 ,harris1 ,moral ,evolution2 ,hyslop1 ,elements of ,ethics1 #ahie2 ,mezes1 ,ethics1 ,descriptive and ,explanatory1 #aija2 ,royce1 ,religious ,aspects of ,philosophy2 ,philosophy of ,loyalty1 #aijh2 ,taylor1 ,problem of ,conduct2 ,rand1 ,the ,classical ,moralists 7,selections71 #aiaj4 ,,ii4 ,,foreign ,,works ,kant's works1 specially ,metaphysics of ,ethics1 trans4 by ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott1 under title1 ,kant's ,theory of ,ethics 7#crd ed471 #ahhc2 ,fichte1 ,science of ,ethics 7trans471 #aijg2 ,science of ,rights 7trans472 ,popular ,works 7#b vols472 ,vocation of ,man1 etc42 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,right1 trans4 by ,s4 ,w4 ,dyde1 #ahif2 ,lotze1 ,practical ,philosophy1 #ahij2 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 trans4 by ,tufts2 ,wundt1 ,ethics1 ,an ,investigation of the ,facts and ,laws of the ,moral ,life 7#c vols471 trans4 from #bnd ,german ed41 #ahib2 ,dubois1 ,the ,culture of ,justice2 ,guyot1 ,la ,morale2 ,janet1 ,theory of ,morals 7trans472 ,nietzsche's ,works1 translated by ,oscar ,levy 7#ah vols472 ,eucken1 ,the ,problem of ,human ,life1 #aiab2 ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal1 #aiab2 ,meaning and ,value of ,life1 #aiab2 ,main ,current of ,modern ,thought1 #aiab2 ,the ,life of the ,spirit1 #aiji2 ,hensel1 ,hauptproblem der ,ethik1 #aijc2 ,lipps1 ,die ,ethischen ,grundfragen1 #ahii2 ,natorp1 ,social-paedagogik2 ,schuppe1 ,grundzge der ,ethik2 ,wentscher1 ,ethik2 ,schwarz1 ,das ,sittliche ,leben2 ,l4 ,levy-,bruhl1 ,ethics and ,moral ,science1 trans4 by ,eliz4 ,lee1 #aije2 ,windelband1 ,prludien4 ber ,willensfreiheit2 ,bauch1 ,glckseligkeit und ,persnlichkeit in der krit4 ,ethik2 #bej ,sittlichkeit und ,kuttur2 ,cohen1 ,ethik des ,reinen ,willens1 #aijd2 ,dilthey1 ,einleitung in die ,geisteswissenschaften2 ,ihering1 ,der ,zweck im ,recht 7#b ,bde471 #ahhf2 ,cathrein1 ,moral4 ,philosophie 7#b ,bde471 #aijd2 ,tonnies1 ,gemeinschaft und ,gesellschaft1 #ahhg4 ,b4--,,christian ,,ethics ,i4 ,,general ,harless1 ,christl4 ,ethik1 #ahdb 7trans471 #ahfh2 ,schleiermacher1 ,die ,christl4 ,sitte1 #ahdc2 ,marheineke1 ,system d4 ,christl4 ,moral1 #ahdg2 ,bothe1 ,theol4 ,ethik1 #ahde2 ,de ,wette1 ,lehrbuch d4 ,christl4 ,sittenlehre1 #ahec2 ,ch4 ,f4 ,schmid1 ,christl4 ,sittenlehre1 #ahfa2 ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,handbuch d4 ,christl4 ,sittenlehre1 #ahfa 7trans41 #b vols41 ,j4 ,p4 ,lacroix1 #ahgc72 ,f4 ,p4 ,cobbe1 ,religious ,duty1 #ahfd2 ,studies ,ethical and ,social1 #ahfe2 ,seeley1 ,ecce ,homo1 #ahhf2 ,maurice1 ,social ,morality1 #ahgb2 ,conscience1 #ahgb2 ,wade1 ,christianity and ,morality1 #ahgf2 ,hofmann1 ,theol4 ,ethik1 #ahgh2 ,lange1 ,grundriss d4 ,christl4 ,ethik1 #ahgh2 ,martensen1 ,christl4 ,ethik 7trans41 #c vols471 #ahgh2 ,gregory ,smith1 ,characteristics of ,christian ,morality1 #ahgf2 ,o4 ,pfleiderer1 ,grundriss d4 ,glaubens und ,sittenlehre1 #ahhj2 ,luthardt1 ,vortrge ber die ,moral d4 ,christenthums1 #ahhb2 ,s4 ,leathes1 ,foundations of ,morality1 #ahhb2 ,frank1 ,system d4 ,christl4 ,sittenlehre1 #ahhe2 ,westcott1 ,social ,aspects of ,christianity1 #ahhg2 ,w4 ,t4 ,davidson1 ,the ,christian ,conscience1 #ahhh2 ,balfour1 ,the ,religion of ,humanity1 #ahhh2 ,maccoll1 ,christianity in ,relation to ,science and ,morals1 #ahhi2 ,stanton1 ,province of ,christian ,ethics1 #ahij2 ,hughes1 ,principles of ,natural and ,supernatural ,morals1 #ahij2 ,w4 ,g4 ,lilly1 ,right and ,wrong1 #ahij2 ,bright1 ,morality in ,doctrine1 #ahib2 ,schultz1 ,grundriss d4 ,evangelischen ,ethik1 #ahia2 ,newman ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics1 #ahib2 ,dowden1 ,relation of ,christian ,ethics to ,philos4 ,ethics1 #ahib2 ,jas4 ,drummond1 ,via1 ,veritas1 ,vita 7,hib4 ,lect471 #ahid2 ,jacoby1 ,neukstamentliche ,ethik1 #ahhi2 ,salwitz1 ,das ,problem d4 ,ethik1 #ahia2 ,knight1 ,the ,christian ,ethic1 #ahic2 ,jas4 ,kidd1 ,morality and ,religion1 #ahie2 ,strong1 ,christian ,ethics1 #ahig2 ,troeltsch1 ,die ,christl4 ,ethik und die heutige ,gesellschaft1 #aijd2 ,die ,sociallehren d4 ,christl4 ,kirchen u4 ,gruppen 7#b vols471 #aiab2 ,protestantism and ,progress1 #aiab2 ,lemme1 ,christl4 ,ethik4 7#b vols471 #aijh2 ,kirn1 ,grundriss d4 ,theol4 ,ethik1 #aiji2 ,sitlliche ,lebenanschauungen d4 ,geigenwart1 #aiaa2 ,nash1 ,ethics and ,revelation2 ,dobschtz1 ,the ,christian ,life in the ,primitive ,church2 ,clark1 ,the ,church and the ,changing ,order2 ,ottley1 ,christian ,ideas and ,ideals1 #aiji2 ,clark ,murray1 ,handbook of ,christian ,ethics1 #aijh2 ,henry ,w4 ,clark1 ,the ,christian ,method of ,ethics1 #aijh2 ,rauschenbusch1 ,christianity and the ,social ,crisis1 #aijh2 ,geo4 ,matheson1 ,landmarks of ,new ,testament ,morality1 #ahhh2 ,j4 ,smith1 ,christian ,character and ,social ,power2 ,gladden1 ,applied ,christianity2 ,j4 ,r4 ,campbell1 ,christianity and the ,social ,order2 ,coe1 ,education in ,religion and ,morals2 ,peile1 ,the ,reproach of the ,gospel2 ,gottschick1 ,ethik1 #aijg2 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,der ,kampf um die ,sittliche ,welt1 #aijf2 ,herrmann1 ,ethik1 #aiji2 ,faith and ,morals1 ,communion of the ,christian with ,god2 ,a4 ,e4 ,balch1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,christian ,ethics2 ,kirkpatrick1 ,christian ,character and ,conduct2 ,church1 ,outlines of ,christian ,character2 ,paget1 ,christian ,character2 ,illingworth1 ,christian ,character2 ,personality1 ,human and ,divine2 ,r4 ,mackintosh1 ,christian ,ethics1 #aiji2 ,haering1 ,the ,ethics of the ,christian ,life 7trans471 #aiji2 ,barbour1 ,a ,philos4 ,study of ,christian ,ethics1 #aiaa2 ,stubbs1 ,christ and ,economics2 ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce1 ,social ,aspects of ,christian ,morality1 #aije2 ,formation of ,christian ,character2 ,harper1 ,christian ,ethics and ,social ,progress1 #aiab2 ,t4 ,c4 ,hall1 ,social ,solutions in the ,light of ,christian ,ethics1 #aiaa4 ,,ii4 ,,special ,,subjects #a4 ,ethics of ,jesus4 ,briggs1 ,ethical ,teaching of ,jesus2 ,p4 ,brooks1 ,influence of ,jesus2 ,dale1 ,laws of ,christ for ,common ,life2 ,feddersen1 ,jesus und die ,socialen ,dinge2 ,gardner1 ,exploratio ,evangelica2 ,ehrhardt1 ,der ,grundcharacter d4 ,ethik ,jesu1 #ahie2 ,grimm1 ,die ,ethik ,jesu1 #aijc2 ,peabody1 ,jesus ,christ and the ,christian ,character1 #aije2 ,jesus ,christ and the ,social ,question1 #aijb2 ,the ,approach to the ,social ,question1 #aiji2 ,king1 ,the ,ethics of ,jesus1 #aiaj2 ,moral and ,social ,challenge of our ,times1 #aiab2 ,rau1 ,die ,ethik ,jesu2 ,stalker1 ,imago ,christi1 #ahhh2 ,the ,ethic of ,jesus1 #aiji2 ,mathews1 ,the ,social ,teaching of ,jesus2 ,horton1 ,the ,commandments of ,jesus2 ,w4 ,n4 ,clarke1 ,the ,ideal of ,jesus1 #aiaa4 #b4 ,teaching of ,jesus and ,apostles4 ,works of ,a4 ,b4 ,bruce2 ,gilbert1 ,revelation of ,jesus2 ,harnack1 ,what is ,christianity8 7,das ,wesen72 ,sayings of ,jesus2 ,jlicher1 ,gleichnissreden ,jesu2 ,denney1 ,jesus and the ,gospel1 #aiji2 ,latham1 ,pastor ,pastorum2 ,moorhouse1 ,pullan1 ,ross1 ,von ,schrenck1 ,stevens1 ,swete2 ,tolstoy1 ,my ,religion2 ,wendt1 ,lehre ,jesu 7#b ed471 #aija2 ,weizscker1 ,the ,apostolic ,age2 ,hausrath1 ,history of ,n4 ,t4 ,times2 ,fairbairn1 ,christ in ,modern ,thought2 ,d4 ,la ,touche1 ,the ,person of ,christ in ,modern ,thought1 #aiaa2 ,pfanmller1 ,jesus im ,urtheil d4 ,jahrhunderte2 ,bacon1 ,jesus1 the ,son of ,god2 ,dalman1 ,words of ,jesus2 ,baur1 ,paulinismus2 ,bosworth1 ,teaching of ,jesus and ,apostles2 ,pfleiderer1 ,paulinismus2 ,primitive ,christianity2 ,johan-,weiss1 ,paul and ,jesus2 ,gardner1 ,relig4 ,experience of ,st4 ,paul2 ,alexander1 ,ethics of ,st4 ,paul4 #beb ,c4--,,history ,,of ,,ethics ,see ,histories of ,philosophy3 ,ueberweg1 ,erdmann1 ,windelband1 ,schwegler1 ,maurice1 ,rogers2 ,alexander1 ,a ,short ,history of ,philosophy 7#bnd ed471 #aijh2 ,lecky1 ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,morals2 ,luthardt1 ,history of ,ethics2 ,rogers1 ,a ,short ,history of ,ethics1 #aiab2 ,thoma1 ,geschichte d4 ,christl4 ,sittenlehre in der ,zeit d4 ,n4 ,t41 #ahgi2 ,wundt 7,vol4 ,,ii4 of ,ethics72 ,wuttke 7,vol4 ,i4 of ,ethics72 ,sidgwick1 ,history of ,ethics2 ,ziegler1 ,gesch4 d4 ,ethik2 ,jodl1 ,gesch4 d4 ,ethik in d4 ,neueren ,philosophie2 ,t4 ,c4 ,hall1 ,history of ,ethics within ,organized ,christianity1 #aiaj4 ,see also ,relevant ,articles in ,bible ,dictionaries1 especially ,hastings' ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics4 #bec ,,index ,activism1 #aag1 #abb1 #agi4 ,adiaphora1 #bja4 ,aestheticism1 #ae f41 #ajh4 ,alquin1 #b4 ,apocalyptic teaching of ,christ1 #acc4 ,aquinas1 ,thomas1 #b1 #aif4 ,aristotle1 #aj1 #ag f41 #dj f41 #ff1 #gj1 #hg1 #ajg1 #ahg4 ,arnold1 ,matthew1 #a1 #ajg4 ,asceticism1 #abi1 #aej1 #aib1 #bde4 ,assimilation to ,christ1 #agi4 ,atonement1 #aff4 ,augustine1 #cj1 #eg f41 #ff1 #adj1 #bca4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 #dc1 #gj4 ,avenarius1 #hf4 ,balch1 #acb1 #acc4 ,barbour1 #da1 #ace1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa4 ,baur1 #ci4 ,beatitudes1 #abi1 #acf1 #ahh4 ,beneficence1 #bac4 ,bentham1 #ajc1 #bjd4 ,bergson1 #fd1 #ia f41 #aag f4 ,bernard1 #bah4 ,blewett1 ,christian view of ,god1 #agj4 ,bosanquet1 #af1 #bg1 #fd1 #ib1 #aac1 #aad4 ,bousset1 #acd1 #ace4 ,brotherhood1 #ade1 #baj1 #bdc1 #bdg4 ,browning1 #c1 #af1 #fj1 #fc1 #gg1 #aai1 #aca1 #acb1 #ach1 #bjf1 #bah4 ,bunsen1 #fi4 ,burckhardt1 #bbg4 ,burke1 #bjd4 ,burkitt1 #cb4 ,burnet1 #da4 ,burns1 ,robert1 #bjd4 ,butcher1 #da4 ,butler1 ,bishop1 #aff4 ,caird1 ,e41 #dd1 #fj1 #fd1 #bde4 ---- ,j41 #fc4 ,cairns1 #ace4 ,calixtas1 ,g41 #b4 ,calvinism1 #b1 #eg1 #bda4 ,cambridge ,platonists1 #ci4 ,campbell1 #fi4 ,chamberlain1 ,houston1 #dh4 ,character1 #f1 #aj1 #ad1 #ae1 #bd1 #ahf2 making of1 #bjh4 ,childhood1 children1 #bbf f4 ,christ1 #a1 #d1 #e1 #aa f41 #abd2 as example1 #adf f42 character of1 #adh f41 #aej4 ,christianity1 #abc f4 ,church1 #d1 #bji1 #bcf ff4 ,citizenship1 #ci1 #aea1 #bcc f4 ,clarke1 #bdj4 ,clement1 #b1 #ci4 ,coleridge1 #c4 ,collectivism1 #ajf4 ,compassion1 #bab4 ,conduct1 #a1 #f1 #ac1 #ae1 #ahc f4 ,conscience1 #fh f4 ,conversion1 #aga4 ,courage1 #ch1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aij4 ,cousin1 #af4 ,creative ,evolution1 #aag4 ,croce1 ,benedetto1 #aag4 ,culture1 #af1 #ii1 #ajh1 #acj1 #adh1 #aef1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,daemon of ,socrates1 #fi4 ,danaeus1 #b4 ,dante1 #abe1 #ach4 ,darwin1 #gd4 ,david1 ,psalms1 #dh f41 #gj4 ,davidson1 #fi1 #ha4 ,death of ,christ1 #aff4 ,decalogue1 #b1 #de1 #gb4 ,deissmann1 #afb4 ,democracy1 #bce4 ,denney on ,forgiveness1 #afc4 ,descartes1 #bjd4 ,determinism1 #hh f4 ,dewey1 ,professor1 #fd4 ,disinterestedness of motive1 #aef f4 ,divorce1 #bbd4 ,dobschtz1 #acd4 ,dogmatics1 #c1 #bd f4 ,dorner1 #be f4 ,drew1 #ca4 ,duty1 ,duties1 #h1 #ba1 #eb1 #aif ff4 ,dynamic of new life1 #afd f4 ',ecce ,homo1' #aeb1 #bje4 ,ecclesiasticism1 #c1 #di4 ,economics1 #ag1 #bci4 ,ehrhardt1 #aea4 ,emerson on ,example1 #aea4 ,empire1 ,roman1 #dc2 ',holy1' #bdb4 ,engels1 #aje4 ,epictetus1 #dc1 #gj4 ,epicureans1 #db4 ,erinnyes of ,aeschylus1 #fi4 ,eschatology1 #acc f4 ,eternal life1 #aca4 ,ethics1 ,christian1 #a f41 #e1 #f1 #aj ff2 ,philos41 #bb1 #ce f41 #afh2 permanence of1 #bde4 ---- of ,israel1 #dd ff4 ,eucken1 #hf1 #ic1 #ajh1 #aae1 #aag1 #aba f41 #agi1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bce4 ,eugenics1 #aaj1 #bee4 ,euripides1 #fi4 ,evil1 #eg f41 #fb1 #aah4 ,evolutionalism1 #gd f41 #ajc f4 ,example1 human1 #aea1 #bad f42 of ,jesus1 #adj1 #bbb f4 ,externalism1 #adb f4 ,fairbairn1 ,a4 ,m41 #adg4 ,faith1 #fe1 #fg1 #agd f41 #aif1 #baf2 ,pauline doct41 #agg4 ,faithfulness1 #bjj1 #bjc1 #baf1 #bbd1 #bca4 ,faith healing1 #ij4 ,family1 #bbj f42 relationships1 #bbb1 #bbf4 ,fatherhood of ,god1 #ada1 #ade1 #aec1 #baf4 ,feuerbach1 #aja4 ,fichte1 #fe1 #aab1 #bjd4 ,forgiveness1 divine1 #aec2 human1 #bad4 ,forsyth1 #bbd4 ',foundations1' #agc4 ,frazer1 #bi1 #bba4 ,garvie1 #bbb4 ,god1 idea of1 #bf2 sovereignty of1 #bg2 fatherhood of1 #bg2 love of1 #bh2 recognition of1 #bae2 obedience to1 #baf2 worship of1 #bag4 ,godlikeness1 #ada1 #bah4 ,goethe1 #eh1 #ha1 #ajg1 #acj1 #bab4 ,grace1 means of1 #bji4 ,graces1 #ahh4 ,grant1 ,sir ,a41 on ',mean1' #ahe4 ,greece1 ,ancient1 #aa1 #ce4 ,greeks1 #af1 #bh1 #fi4 ,green1 ,t4 ,h41 #ah1 #ge1 #gg1 #hh1 #ahg1 #bah4 ,haeckel1 #hf1 #aja4 ,haering1 #ba1 #be1 #aef1 #bja4 ,harnack1 #agf1 #bje1 #bbh4 ,hebrew1 #ce1 #dd4 ,hedonism1 #ajd4 ,hegel1 #i1 #ai1 #ee1 #fe1 #aab f41 #abd1 #bjd1 #bac1 #bca4 ,heraclitus1 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