,a ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,religious ,,instruction ,,of ,,jewish ,,youth4 ,proposed to ,teachers by ,,isaac ,,reggio1 ,rabbi and ,professor1 ,member of the ,oriental and ,leipsic1 ,halle1 etc41 etc41 etc4 ,translated from the ,italian by ,m4 ,h4 ,picciotto4 ,london3 ,simpkin1 ,marshall1 and ,co41 ,stationers'--,hall ,court4 ,,mdccclv4 ,london3 ,printed by ,j4 ,wertheimer and ,co4 ,,synopsis4 ,notice by the ,translator4 ,author's ,preface4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,god4 #a4 ,his existence4 ,cosmological argument4 #b4 ,first ,cause1 necessary1 eternal4 #c4 ,omnipotent1 free1 provident1 omniscient1 infallible4 #d4 ,all-wise1 good1 pure1 immutable4 #e4 ,god4 #f4 ,psychological argument4 #g4 ,moral argument4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,man4 #h4 ,his faculties4 #i4 ,his destination4 #aj4 ,intellect4 #aa4 ,reason4 #ab4 ,free will4 #ac4 ,immortal soul4 #ad4 ,double tendency4 #ae4 ,contrast4 #af4 ,choice4 #ag4 ,conscience4 #ah4 ,feeling4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,natural ,,religion4 #ai4 ,idea of religion4 #bj4 ,necessity for man4 #ba4 ,faith4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,natural ,,religion4 #bb4 ,obstacles4 #bc4 ,tardy development of reason4 #bd4 ,ascendancy of sensuality4 #be4 ,want of opportunity4 #bf4 ,social life4 #bg4 ,internal anarchy4 #bh4 ,limitation of human understanding4 #bi4 ,uncertainty of human knowledge4 #cj4 ,experience4 #ca4 ,necessity of a revelation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,revealed ,,religion4 #cb4 ,its actuality4 #cc4 ,its truth4 #cd4 ,its fundamental principle4 #ce4 ,relation between ,god and man4 #cf4 ,divine plan4 #cg4 ,essence of revelation4 #ch4 ,lofty aspiration of man4 #ci4 ,prophecy4 #dj4 ,prediction of the future4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,objection ,,and ,,answer4 #da4 ,rationalism antagonistic to faith4 #db4 ,self-love in the physical world4 #dc4 ,self-love in man4 #dd4 ,heroism of man4 #de4 ,proceeding from love4 #df4 ,is the cause of faith4 #dg4 ,is not the offspring of imagination #dh4 ,depends on the subjection of the sensual appetites4 #di4 ,furnishes evidence to faith4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,preliminary ,,dispositions ,,of ,,revelation4 #ej4 ,contingency in revelation4 #ea4 ,its removal4 #eb4 ,choice of a portion of mankind4 #ec4 ,beginning from an individual4 #ed4 ,election of that individual4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,patriarchal ,,epoch4 #ee4 ,abraham4 #ef4 ,his virtues4 #eg4 ,aim of his vocation4 #eh4 ,covenant established with him4 #ei4 ,circumcision4 #fj4 ,abraham's progeny4 #fa4 ,providential measures4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sinaitic ,,revelation4 #fb4 ,egyptian bondage4 ,moses4 #fc4 ,preamble of the revelation4 #fd4 ,modality of the revelation #fe4 ,decalogue4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,ten ,,commandments4 #ff4 ,first ,commandment1 #fg4 ,second1 #fh4 ,third1 #fi4 ,fourth1 #gj4 ,fifth1 #ga4 ,sixth1 ,seventh1 and ,eighth1 #gb4 ,ninth4 #gc4 ,tenth4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,successive ,,revelations4 #gd4 ,their character4 #gf4 ,their twofold direction4 #ge4 ,their sanction4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,revealed ,,notions ,,respecting ,,god4 #gg4 ,knowledge of ,god4 #gh4 ,opportunity of such a knowledge4 #gi4 ,immediate relation between ,god and man4 #hj4 ,love of ,god4 #ha4 ,fear of ,god4 #hb4 ,other duties towards ,god4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,duties ,,towards ,,fellow-,,men4 #hc4 ,justice4 #hd4 ,negative duties4 #he4 ,positive duties4 #hf4 ,other duties4 #hg4 ,charity and benevolence4 #hh4 ,duties toward the animate and inanimate nature4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,duties ,,towards ,,one',s-,,self4 #hi4 ,fundamental rule4 #ia4 ,sanctification4 #ij4 ,duties towards the body4 #ib4 ,other special obligations4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,judaism4 #ic4 ,religious idea4 #id4 ,its vicissitudes among the ,jews4 #ie4 ,mosaism4 #if4 ,prophetism4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,conclusion4 #ig4 ,action1 creed1 hopes4 ,,notice4 ,,the name of ,isaac ,reggio of ,goritz1 is now a celebrity in the ,hebrew literary world4 ,a man of vast mind1 a profound scholar1 a philosopher1 and an elegant writer1 his numerous works on ,theology1 ,hermeneutics1 ,philology1 ,history1 and ,literature1 written in ,hebrew1 in ,italian1 and in ,german1 have tended much to revive the taste for ,hebrew literature1 and to reconcile modern education to the study of ,jewish antiquities4 ,the present little book is one of his latest productions in the ,italian language4 ,in a style at once concise and perspicuous1 and with a form of reasoning suited to the scientific requirements of the times1 he introduces the student to an enlarged view of ,religion1 ascends with him to the heavenly source from which it emanated1 and leads him1 through the paths of virtue and love1 to the comprehension and admiration of the objects contemplated by it4 ,in short1 he teaches--if ,i am permitted the expression--the philosophy of religion4 ,i humbly1 but firmly believe that1 in the hands of able ,jewish teachers1 this work will considerably assist them to infuse into religious instruction a little more spirituality1 and to impart a more comprehensive view of religion1 than the routine of former days deemed necessary1 and that1 by so doing1 they will be better able to enlarge and satisfy the minds1 improve the hearts1 and generally advance the moral education of youth4 ,notwithstanding the well-intentioned and beneficial efforts of many friends of education among the ,british ,jews1 and the praiseworthy exertions of some excellent teachers1 the education of the mass is1 we must confess1 still in a condition1 in which the attainment of those objects has not ceased to be a desideratum4 ,we may or may not be on a level with our neighbours1 but we have very urgent and special calls of our own for self-improvement1 we have a particular mission to fulfil1 with its concomitant duties4 ,such self-improvement and such duties are demanded by the spirit--not of the age1 as is too commonly said and believed--but of an age which began thirty-two centuries ago1 at the revelation on ,mount ,sinai--the spirit of ,judaism1 of well-understood ,judaism4 ,our age1 with all its boasted and undeniable progress1 is still1 morally1 far below the type designed by ,providence for humanity in the ,sinaitic dispensation1 far behind the spirit which dictated and pervades the pages of the sacred volume1 and which1 when thoroughly understood and generally acted upon1 must bring about the supreme reign of justice1 charity1 and universal love1 and--as far as attainable--the ultimate perfection of mankind4 ,it has appeared to me that these truths find a plain and logical exposition in this little work1 and that its contents may not prove uninteresting even to the general reader4 ,i also believe that a more correct apprehension of the true spirit and principles of ,judaism by our ,christian brethren1 than is commonly arrived at1 will have the twofold effect1 of gradually leading to a larger measure of justice being dealt to the ,jew1 and inducing the latter to a higher degree of self-respect4 ,for these several reasons1 ,i have volunteered to translate it for the use of the ,english public1 while other versions are being prepared in ,germany and ,france4 ,i trust that those to whose lot has fallen the honourable but arduous task of educating and informing young minds1 and to whom it is more particularly addressed1 will give it their earnest consideration1 for the sake of whatever good they may cull from it1 as a material in aid1 while they are laying the foundations of virtue in the hearts of the rising generation4 ,that the results may correspond to the intentions is the sincere wish of ,,the ,,translator4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,,to ,,instructors4 ,,in the exercise of the sacred mission entrusted to you by ,providence--that of educating our youth to piety and religion--it must have frequently occurred to you1 to wish that such an instruction could be imparted1 not in the shape of dogmas demanding to be admitted without investigation1 but as doctrines addressed to the intellect by proper demonstrations1 and finding their way to the heart by stimulating its noblest feelings4 ,the little book that ,i present to you is intended to satisfy1 at least in part1 that wish4 ,you will not find in it a complete treatise on ,jewish ,theology1 or a systematic catechism1 but only the essential elements1 which may serve to the future elaboration of both4 ,you will find deposited in it the rough materials1 which some abler hands will perhaps one day employ in constructing an edifice1 in which our youth may find a safe refuge from the storms of doubt1 unbelief1 and irreligion4 ,i have purposed to avoid all exuberant ornaments of style1 all pompous parade of erudition1 and contented myself with a plain diction1 and a strict laconism4 ,i have not quoted authors who preceded me in the same field2 ,i have not called up for investigation what of valuable or defective could be found in them2 in short1 ,i have not instituted comparisons1 scientific disquisitions1 or critical examinations of the opinions of others4 ,a series of aphorisms1 simple1 plain1 unadorned1 of easy understanding1 drawn from no other source than the ,divine ,word1 presented with the greatest possible perspicuity and precision1 progressing in a regular chain of consequential propositions1 and containing in few words the most important points of the ,israelitish creed--that is the form in which ,i have thought more proper to present to those1 who are already versed in the ,bible and in ,hebrew literature1 a skeleton of the vast religious science1 in which they may perceive at a glance the principal characteristic of ,judaism1 its various ramifications1 subsidiary parts1 and special tendencies2 they may then easily discover and account for the multifarious phases1 in which it manifested itself in the various epochs of the universal history of mankind4 ,to supply the deficiencies1 to adorn those naked propositions1 to provide them with evidence deduced from the sacred text1 to enlarge them with appropriate applications1 to illustrate them with examples1 in fine1 to reduce the whole into such a catechistic form as will suit a sound system of instruction--such is the task which remains entrusted to your intelligence1 and to your zeal4 ,by employing the proffered materials with that discretion which is peculiar to your ministry1 with that method which the tender minds of your pupils require1 and with the love inspired by the sublimity and importance of the subject1 yours will be the merit of having propagated the seeds of truth that will bring forth charity and universal edification2 to me suffices the happiness of having1 in some degree1 contributed to so noble a work4 ,a ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,religious ,,instruction ,,of ,,jewish ,,youth4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,i4 ,,whoever directs his mind to the contemplation of the objects that surround him1 the aggregate of which is called the universe1 will soon perceive1 that the parts of which it is composed undergo continually various modifications and successive changes1 every one of them exercising some influence on the others1 and receiving from them some alteration4 ,this state of mutual dependence1 in which the parts of the universe stand in relation to each other1 leads us necessarily to conclude1 that none of them has within itself the reason or cause of its existence1 but that all of them together depend upon a cause which is out of themselves1 and through which they began to exist2 the universe1 then1 has had a cause1 an ,author4 ,,ii4 ,this ,author of the universe1 if he had not in himself the reason of his existence1 must also have it in others1 and these again in others4 ,consequently1 we must either suppose an endless progression of causes and effects1 which is repugnant to reason1 or arrive at last at a ,being existing by and of himself1--that is to say1 one who owes not his existence to others1 and has caused all other things to exist2--and in that case1 the reason of his existence must be part of his own essence and nature1 and1 consequently1 inseparable from him and indestructible4 ,the ,author of the universe is then a ,being necessary and eternal2 and as to ,him all things owe their existence1 it follows that through ,him they began to exist1 and ,he created them from nought4 ,,iii4 ,he1 who could create all from nought1 has a power without limits1 and nothing is to ,him impossible2 ,he1 who has given existence to all things1 has also ordained the laws to which they are subject2 ,he1 who has ordained at ,his will the laws of nature1 has also the power of changing or suspending them at ,his will2 and lastly1 ,he1 who caused all things to exist1 can alone keep them in existence1 governing and directing them with ceaseless providence2 and such continual action implies1 of necessity1 that ,he should know everything1 that nothing should be hidden from ,him1 and that in ,him error should be impossible4 ,the ,author of the universe is then omnipotent1 free1 all-provident1 omniscient1 and infallible4 ,,iv4 ,again1 whoever attentively contemplates the universe cannot help discovering1 with admiration1 in every part of it a stupendous art1 a constant order1 a systematic correspondence of means to ends1 which demonstrate that all has been arranged on a predetermined plan and for a fixed purpose1 to which all the particular dispositions developed in the course of the natural phenomena are exquisitely adapted4 ,this order and this harmony--which manifest themselves1 also1 in all the progressive courses of nature--indicate a self-developing excellence1 and a tendency to an ever-increasing perfectibility1 such as can only emanate from a cause infinitely intelligent and good2 and as such qualities cannot be attributed to a being corporeal1 because limited and subject to changes1 it follows that the ,author of the universe is all-wise and good1 pure and immutable4 ,v4 ,now1 this ,being1 necessary and eternal1 whom the contemplation of the universe alone reveals to us as the ,author of everything1 as omnipotent1 free1 all-provident1 omniscient1 infallible1 pure1 immutable1 all-wise1 and good1 is ,he whom we call ,,god4 ,,vi4 ,but our conviction of the existence of ,god need not be derived exclusively from the wonders of the universe2 for every man can find in himself the evident proof of the existence of that supreme cause4 ,in fact1 man feels within himself that he thinks2 and if he were even to doubt it1 he could not deny that at least he doubts2 and the doubt itself is already a thought4 ,admitting that he possesses the faculty of thinking1 he must admit that there is within himself a substance1 a being1 a something which thinks4 ,but this being1 who is conscious of his own thoughts1 is also conscious that he exists not by himself1 that he has not existed from all eternity1 that he is subject to changes1 that even the simple ideas1 which compose his thoughts1 are not produced by himself1 but acquired through his senses from external objects2 and1 in short1 that he depends upon various causes placed without himself1 and undergoes vicissitudes1 which it is not in his power to remove4 ,therefore man has not within himself the reason of his own existence1 but he must trace it to another1 who is the ,author of it4 ,now1 this ,author cannot have received ,his own existence from another1 if ,he is to be considered the primary cause2 otherwise we should fall into a succession of causes and effects to infinity4 ,then1 the true ,author of our existence is one who exists by ,himself1 and as such ,he is eternal1 omnipotent1 all-wise1 etc41 etc42 ,he is ,god4 ,,vii4 ,another source1 affording the proof of the existence of ,god1 man finds in himself when his intellectual faculties have attained a certain degree of culture and maturity4 ,he then knows himself to be a moral being2 that is to say1 a being who1 placed between good and evil1 can1 of his own free will1 adhere to the former and reject the latter1 if he follows the dictates of his reason4 ,then the moral sense awakens in his mind the idea of a supreme blessing1 of a progressive and infallible moral perfection1 of a future final accord between virtue and felicity1 and their necessary co-existence4 ,now1 he cannot expect this supreme blessing from anything that surrounds him in nature1 because he does not find in the latter the desired union of happiness with virtue1 enjoyment with merit4 ,he must1 therefore1 seek it in a ,supreme ,cause existing out of nature--in a ,cause which should contain in itself the type of the moral law1 embrace the whole extent of that law with infinite intelligence1 and act up to its dictates with a powerful will4 ,this ,supreme ,cause is ,god4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,viii4 ,,man has many advantages and privileges over all other creatures4 ,not only can he1 like other animals1 perceive through his senses all the surrounding objects1 but he can compare with one another the perceptions received1 associate them together1 separate them1 and form new ideas4 ,he can know for what purposes things exist1 investigate their causes and effects1 discern between good and evil1 between just and unjust2 he alone can communicate his thoughts to others2 he alone can speak4 ,,ix4 ,everything produced by an intelligent ,author must be intended for some purpose--must have a destination4 ,man1 the noblest creature on earth1 must also have a destination4 ,we shall arrive at a clear knowledge of that destination1 when we shall have considered the powers and capabilities possessed by him2 for the means with which nature has endowed him1 for the development of his activity1 evidently point out the goal which that activity is designed to attain4 ,x4 ,now1 the capabilities that we discover in man are the following3--,besides a body constructed with wonderful skill1 but weak1 corruptible1 mortal1 man has within himself a vivifying principle1 which substantiates in him the knowledge of things with the aid of the senses1 renews in him perceptions once received1 unites them1 separates them1 and forms out of them new ideas4 ,this thinking principle is certainly different from the body1 of which no part is apt to think1 and is what we call the soul2 the act itself of thinking proceeds from a faculty of the soul which we call intellect4 ,,xi4 ,but the soul can also judge1 conclude from causes to effects1 distinguish between good and evil1 between just and unjust1 conceive an idea of things never perceived through the senses2 it can recognise the supreme ,author of the universe1 it can adore ,god4 ,this faculty of the soul is called reason2 intellect and reason are the principal or superior faculties of the human soul4 ,,xii4 ,reason points out good as a thing desirable1 and evil as a thing to be avoided2 yet man feels within himself a desire or impulse towards all that is pleasurable to the senses1 although reason may represent it to him as an evil4 ,and1 on the other hand1 he is conscious of his perfect freedom of choosing good1 however disagreeable to the senses1 and of abhorring evil1 however tempting it may appear2 he has1 then1 the faculty of directing his action to one or other of these two courses2 his soul is endowed with free-will4 ,,xiii4 ,a being endowed with intellect1 reason1 and free-will cannot be composed of parts1 because the operations proceeding from such faculties presuppose a comparison of various relations with each other1 and a deduction of consequences from their principles2 and these operations require such a unity and simplicity in their subject as are absolutely incompatible with the nature of matter1 composed1 as it is1 of parts4 ,the human soul is therefore a simple being1 a spirit1 and1 as such1 indestructible1 immortal4 ,,xiv4 ,man1 then1 unites in himself two natures1 belongs to two classes of beings very different from one another1 is a citizen of two worlds4 ,in his body he is linked to the material world1 undergoes all the vicissitudes of matter1 is subject to the incentives of the senses1 and is impelled to gratify the wants and cravings of physical enjoyment4 ,as regards his soul1 he enters into the sphere of intelligences1 he feels himself attracted by the ideas of the beautiful1 of the true1 of the just2 he participates in the condition of the spiritual beings1 aspires to the immense1 to the infinite2 and is susceptible of an ever-increasing perfectibility1 finding within himself the power of abhorring moral evil1 viz41 vice1 and of cleaving to moral good1 viz41 virtue4 ,,xv4 ,man has1 therefore1 within himself a germ of discord between the two principles of which he is constituted1 a contrast between the exigencies of the body and those of the soul--between the appetites of the senses and the dictates of reason2 and as this latter alone is competent to form a judgment on what he ought or ought not to do1 it follows that reason alone should be consulted and obeyed in determining upon every action4 ,,xvi4 ,now1 by freely and spontaneously resolving to conform all the actions of his life to the dictates of reason1 which commands him to be wise in his self-government1 upright with others1 and pious towards the supreme ,author1 man will have worthily corresponded to the end for which he was created--he will have fulfilled his destination2 for it is clearly the destination of man to make the best possible use of the sublime faculties with which his soul is endowed2 and the best possible use he does make when he subordinates his inferior to his superior tendencies1 the cravings of the body to those of the soul2 in a word1 when he obeys the dictates of reason4 ,,xvii4 ,when man obeys the dictates of reason1 an internal voice in his heart tells him that he has done right2 he feels satisfied with himself1 and is penetrated with a sense of true joy4 ,when1 on the contrary1 he consciously infringes the laws of reason1 he is not only deprived of that internal approbation1 but an inextinguishable voice rises reproachful within his heart2 he is no longer satisfied with himself1 but feels uneasiness and perturbation4 ,that internal voice1 which judges man's actions1 and generates happiness or sorrow1 is what is called ,conscience4 ,,xviii4 ,but the human soul1 when it concentrates itself within1 has also the faculty of feeling the sense of its own individuality1 and perceiving that the state in which it is is its own4 ,by virtue of this sense1 which we may call feeling1 the soul is led always to desire its own welfare1 its own happiness2 thence springs love or hatred1 inclination or aversion towards an object1 as this object seems apt to occasion pleasure or pain4 ,but man1 sooner or later1 discovers that a true and permanent pleasure cannot be obtained through any of the physical enjoyments on earth1 which he may not always be able to procure1 or1 when procured1 leave after them weariness and disgust4 ,he1 consequently1 cannot place in them his true happiness2 and his internal sense tells him that there are other enjoyments of a purely spiritual nature1 which alone can satisfy the highest aspirations of his soul4 ,the exercise of his moral duties--which1 through his freedom of action1 lies always within his power1 and by which alone he can tranquillise his conscience and fully delight in self-contentment--is that which offers to his soul true and permanent enjoyment2 that alone is worth desiring4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,xix4 ,,on man governing himself morally well in life1 it becomes manifest to him1 on the one hand1 that his conduct1 being conformable to the end for which he was created1 must also be agreeable to the will of the ,creator4 ,on the other hand1 that same internal sense1 which prompts him to satisfy the demands of his own conscience1 leads him1 also1 to elevate his mind towards ,god2 and he feels at the bottom of his heart that he would be wanting in the principal element of his happiness if he referred not his every thought to the ,author of his existence4 ,this twofold direction of the mind towards ,god is called ,religion1 a word derived from the ,latin religare1 for1 as a moral being endowed with intelligence and freedom1 man feels always a certain tendency to disengage himself from the physical order of terrestrial things1 and to link himself again to the ,supreme ,cause from whom he emanated4 ,,xx4 ,all the peoples of antiquity exhibited1 in their successive developments1 the aptitude of the human soul to entertain religion within itself1 nay1 the necessity in which it finds itself to connect the exercise of moral duties or virtue with the ,supreme ,source of all morality4 ,in fact1 ,god1 in ,his infinite wisdom and goodness1 wills nothing but what is good2 and in no better mode could man ever manifest his gratitude to the ,author of his existence1 than by doing that which is agreeable to ,his will4 ,hence it is1 that whoever is true to his destination1 is said to be true to ,god2 and he who is virtuous is religious4 ,there is1 then1 in the human soul a natural disposition to religiousness or piety2 and the history of all ages testifies that no people ever existed1 who1 however rude and uncultivated1 has not had some presentiment of the relations which bind the rational creature to its ,creator4 ,man is born to religion4#a ,note #a3 ,these truths are now readily admitted by all well-thinking men4 ,it was very easy1 and very amusing1 for the philosophy of the eighteenth century1 to ridicule the ignorance and superstition of the ancients1 and to denounce the modern peoples which followed in the same direction1 though by different tracks4 ,but the true philosophy of the present age1 which has penetrated deeper into the recesses of the human heart1 has arrived at the double conclusion1 that a superior power has implanted therein certain elements which it is not in human power to remove2 and that what is inherent in human nature cannot he combated1 but must be wisely directed4 ,hence1 modern civilisation deals lees than preceding ages in abstractions2 and in its ,intellectual development1 accepts religion as a starting point in the laborious but open walk1 which leads to human happiness1--,the ,,translator4 ,,xxi4 ,this need for man to be religious constitutes the basis of faith4 ,as man is said to know that which is proved to him by experience1 or by the testimony of the senses1 so he is said to believe that which is to him a real want1 although it cannot be demonstrated to him either by experience or by the evidence of the senses4 ,knowledge is based upon objective1 and belief upon subjective proofs4 ,the existence of ,god1 the providence with which ,he governs the world1 the immortality of the soul1 the excellence of virtue1 the just expectation of a final triumph of good1 and of an improvement and future perfection of the human condition1 are truths which have their foundations in man himself1 that is1 in the nature of his soul2 they originate in him1 even without the concurrence of reflection1 almost from an innate feeling of the heart1 which impels him to admit them2 they are founded on subjective proofs1 and man believes them as necessities of his own nature4 ,these religious truths are therefore called natural1 and their disciples are said to profess a natural religion4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,xxii4 ,,yet1 notwithstanding the possibility for man to attain happiness by only following the voice of reason1 experience has shown1 in the most unmistakable manner1 that natural religion is insufficient alone to guide mankind in the right path1 to preserve him from error1 and to regulate his life with constant conformity to his destination1 under all circumstances and in all conjunctures4 ,such insufficiency is caused by various obstacles1 presented by the self-same nature of man1 and the objects that surround him1 and which prevent reason from exercising an absolute dominion over the heart1 and naturally weaken its influence on human actions4 ,,xxiii4 ,first among these obstacles1 is the circumstance1 that the intellectual faculties do not exhibit so much vigour in early youth as the animal or appetitive faculties4 ,long before the force of reason has developed itself in the mind1 the sensual tendencies have already grown giants in the heart1 impelling man to desire ardently all that has the semblance of pleasure1 however fugitive and deceitful4 ,the will1 which is in its full vigour even in a child1 has already carried into effect most of these desires1 and has thus produced such a habit of grasping impulsively1 and without reflection1 at everything that presents itself in the aspect of an enjoyment1 that reason often arrives too late to destroy the ascendancy gained by the lust of the heart1 and to claim its dominion over all man's actions4 ,,xxiv4 ,besides1 reason is sometimes in danger of losing its supremacy1 even after having asserted it4 ,instinct1 which1 in brutes1 holds the place of free-will1 confines their physical cravings within certain limits1 and we never see an animal wallow in intemperance2 but man1 just because enjoying absolute freedom of will1 may extend his desires beyond every limit1 and so much strain and invigorate them as to succumb under their influence4 ,therefore reason1 whether from its tardy development1 or from the unlimited ascendancy of sensuality1 holds the reins of its power always with uncertainty1 and is not ever certain of being obeyed4 ,,xxv4 ,another obstacle is to be traced in the want of opportunity and time1 or1 in other words1 in the little time that man can spare to devote to reflection1 in the presence of the multifarious cravings of his body4 ,these cravings1 increased1 no doubt1 by luxury and an inclination1 to superfluities1 demand daily and hourly to be satisfied4 ,he is1 then1 obliged to work unceasingly to earn or procure the means of satisfying his own physical wants1 as well as1 not unfrequently1 those of a whole family4 ,aliment1 clothing1 habitation1 comfort1 recreation1 and other innumerable cares1 real or artificial1 require so much labour and exertion1 that little or no time remains for the great majority of mankind to devote to the assiduous reflections and researches necessary to determine what duties reason imposes upon them to fulfil1 and what actions to perform4 ,,xxvi4 ,a third obstacle to the development of the moral force in man is the very social life which1 by his own nature1 he is called to enter4 ,the safety of the social fabric demands that the property of each individual be distinct and acknowledged1 and establishes a diversity of ranks1 offices1 honours1 and positions1 which ill agree with human cupidity4 ,hence a conflict of desires1 a collision of ambitions1 a contest of interests1 which at all times generate among men discords1 machinations1 frauds1 usurpations1 treachery1 violence1 and rapine4 ,add the consequences of the pride and ambition1 which each more or less entertains1 to reach or surpass some others in power1 wealth1 or fame1 whence many causes of disappointments and heartburnings1 of hatreds and jealousies1 of persecutions and calumnies1 of acts of vengeance and injustice of every form1 and it will be easily conceived how little1 under the influence of so many evil passions occasioned by social life1 could populations1 in the course of time1 be disposed to submit willingly to the severe and exclusive regimen of reason4 ,,xxvii4 ,independently of these external impediments1 there exists a kind of internal anarchy in man1 arising from the want of a force exercising the functions of an arbitrator between the mind and the heart1 and inclining the latter to shape its decisions on the motives of the former4 ,the truths1 which he is frequently able to discover1 satisfy his intellect without affecting his will1 minister food to the mind1 but operate not on the heart2 in short1 they establish a theory1 but command not practice4 ,hence it often happens that man sees right1 approves it1 and yet adheres to wrong4 ,even after having gathered an abundant harvest from long studies and profound meditations1 he still feels the need of a guide to direct his steps--of a means1 available at all times1 and competent to enable him to subordinate the appetitive to the intellectual faculties1 and to cause the will to follow the judgments of the mind rather than those of the heart4 ,,xxviii4 ,the inadequacy of natural religion alone becomes still more manifest1 when we consider the weakness and limited extent of the human understanding4 ,to meditate assiduously on an abstract object1 which does not fall under the perception of the senses1 is given only to a few individuals endowed with uncommon penetration4 ,but by far the greater part of men1 disinclined to submit to long and arduous researches1 concerning what they ought or ought not to believe and to do1 prefer living thoughtlessly2 and when they even try to enter upon spiritual meditations1 they soon feel discouraged1 and1 often distrusting their own powers1 throw up the difficult task half way1 to resume the course of a reckless mode of life4 ,,xxix4 ,but even the few privileged beings1 who believe themselves equal to the task1 and plunge earnestly into spiritual researches1 must confess to the insufficiency of the intellectual powers1 and admit1 that beside some few principles which they have succeeded in establishing1 many doubts remain to be cleared1 many questions to be solved1 many objections to be overcome2 and they must ultimately conclude1 that reason by itself is unable to answer on all that interests man to admit or to deny1 to seek or to avoid1 to believe and to do1 to hope and to fear4 ,there is not1 in this wide range of spiritual subjects1 a proposition held by one as true1 which has not been discarded by another as an error2 and there is not a paradox or an absurdity that has not found some supporters1 who maintained it as a truth4 ,doubt and error1 in abstract and metaphysical questions1 are natural and inherent in mankind1 so long as reason is their only luminary in the research4 ,,xxx4 ,the experience of all ages teaches us that the obstacles above stated have always exercised their influence upon the development of the moral sense among men1 by retarding1 and sometimes even rendering impossible to them1 a clear and sound conception of their destination1 and a firm resolve to conform to it4 ,all the nations of antiquity1 which1 left to themselves1 never received from without any spiritual and religious instruction1 could never rise from the slough of sensuality and superstition2 they sank deep in idolatry1 and ultimately adopted creeds and practices abominable and repugnant alike to the excellence of reason and the dignity of man4 ,on the other hand1 all the nations that totally or partly succeeded in extricating themselves from a state of brutality and barbarism1 must acknowledge that not to the development of their intelligence alone they owe their regeneration1 but to certain sublime doctrines--originated in causes quite extrinsical from human nature--which1 having found their way to them through a concourse of favourable and apparently fortuitous circumstances1 were more or less readily admitted1 as notions gained from without1 and by degrees ingrafted1 under various modifications1 on their own primitive ideas4 ,,xxxi4 ,it being1 then1 almost impossible1 or1 at least1 extremely difficult1 for man to arrive1 through the sole action of the faculties inherent in his nature1 at his intended goal1 to shape his course accordingly1 and thus to lay the foundations of his future happiness1 it was necessary that an intelligence far superior to his own should come to his assistance1 communicate to him some fundamental truths concerning his present and future life1 enlighten his intellect1 guide his reason1 invigorate his will in the paths of truth1 justice1 and righteousness1 and thus facilitate to him the attainment of his sublime destination4 ,it was necessary that ,god himself should instruct him in what was most important to know1 manifest ,his will to him1 and explicitly point out to him the way he was to follow1 the obstructions he was to avoid1 and the goal he had to reach4 ,man1 then1 was in need of a revelation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,xxxii4 ,,this revelation was actually vouchsafed4 ,it pleased the supreme ,being1 through ,his infinite mercy1 to manifest ,his will1 and make known some great and precious truths1 which men would have vainly attempted to discover with the unaided operation of their reason2 ,he chose to undertake1 to a certain extent1 the education of mankind4 ,from the beginning of the world ,god revealed ,himself to the first man2 and ,he continued afterwards for many ages1 as ,his eternal wisdom deemed proper1 to communicate to such individuals as were the worthiest among mortals the instructions which were afterwards to work the salvation of all mankind4 ,those instructions1 which contain truths by far more comforting and sublime than any results which man could have arrived at through his own faculties alone1 constitute the substance of ,revelation2 and he who acknowledges their divine origin1 and conforms to them the actions of his life1 is called a professor of the revealed religion4 ,,xxxiii4 ,that ,god has really revealed ,himself to some individuals of the human species is an historical fact1 the truth of which is proved1 like all truths of a similar order1 by testimony and documents4 ,but independently of the existing evidence1 the possibility of such an act can be easily conceived by the human understanding1 when we consider that everything is feasible to the omnipotence of the ,creator2 and nothing is more consentaneous to ,his infinite goodness and wisdom1 than the blessed purpose of granting to human frailty an assistance calculated to lead the noblest of creatures to the attainment of the exalted end for which he was created4 ,to conceive1 also1 the precise modes and forms in which such a revelation is effected or conveyed1 it was given only to those elect who were themselves the recipients1 and who are called ,prophets4 ,but we can arrive at the knowledge of the principal characteristics which constitute prophecy1 after we shall have placed in a clear light the essence and the final object of revelation4 ,,xxxiv4 ,all the revealed doctrines may be reduced to one fundamental principle1 from which they originate1 and on which rests the whole edifice of revelation4 ,this principle may be expressed as follows3--,besides the general relation of dependence existing indistinctly between all creatures and their ,creator1 there is a relation more intimate and special between ,god and man--a relation of a spiritual and sentimental nature1 arising from the circumstance of the latter being created in the image of ,god1 by virtue of which man is not subject exclusively to the blind government of the physical laws of nature1 but1 almost independent of them1 he walks under the immediate influence of his celestial ,father2 this independence1 however1 cannot be accomplished before he has succeeded in subduing his sensual appetites1 and has bent them to follow the divine direction4 ,thus acting1 he will not remain a passive spectator of the vicissitudes which accelerate or retard the fulfilment of that which the ,divine wisdom purposed as the final aim of the creation1 but1 through the immortal spirit transfused in him1 he will feel impelled to take some active part in the great work of the ultimate universal perfection1 and to associate his own will to the will of the ,creator4 ,,xxxv4 ,the relation between ,god and man is a tie of love4 ,god being goodness itself1 this finds a more extensive field for its manifestation in the rational creature than in any other4 ,on the other hand1 man1 possessed of a spiritual soul1 is superior to matter1 and is capable1 more than the other terrestrial beings1 of receiving within himself an abundance of the ,divine benevolence1 which diffuses itself throughout the universe in exact proportion to the various aptitudes of the recipients4 ,it is precisely in consequence of the understanding with which man is endowed1 and of his aptitude to nourish love for the supreme ,being1 that he has been elected1 from among all terrestrial creatures1 to enter into a more intimate relation with ,god1 and to co-operate1 in as much as lies in his power1 to the accomplishment of the divine plan4 ,,xxxvi4 ,the plan of the ,creator is immeasurably profound1 and therefore inscrutable4 ,nevertheless1 in so far as it is permitted to the human mind to penetrate it1 and as it has pleased the ,divine mercy to reveal it1 we know with certainty that it is all directed to diffuse happiness and beatitude over all creatures1 in proportion to their respective capabilities of participating in them1 and to guide all beings towards that end1 which1 in the scheme of the universe1 was pre-ordained by the ,infinite ,wisdom as the best4 ,now1 the inanimate portion of the creation progresses unconsciously in the way ordained by ,providence1 obeys physical immutable laws1 and is1 therefore1 only a means to a more exalted end4 ,but the moral being1 who has self-consciousness1 resolves on action after deliberating upon what he thinks best1 and carries out his resolve with free will2 he is1 then1 himself the aim of his life4 ,therefore1 to lead this being towards his own destination1 it was proper not to subject him to restraint under laws of necessity1 otherwise the freedom of his will would have been destroyed2 it was only necessary to enlighten him1 to place before him some fundamental truths1 capable of dispelling all doubts from his mind1 and detaching him from errors and superstitions1 and thus to offer him means and inducements sufficient to direct his attention and will towards the end designed by the ,divine wisdom4 ,,xxxvii4 ,it is these truths1 offered as means and inducements1 that constitute the essence of revelation4 ,through revelation1 man was made acquainted that ,god created the universe out of nought1 that ,he governs it with ,his wisdom1 and can work every change which ,he deems suitable2 that ,he created man in the ,divine image1 that is1 with an immortal soul1 capable of receiving within itself the ,divine idea1 of conceiving its sublimity1 and carrying it into effect4 ,through revelation1 man learnt that ,god is ,one1 omnipotent1 holy1 of infinite forbearance and mercy1 and an inexhaustible source of pure love2 that ,he created as a stock of all the human family a single individual 7to proclaim thereby the principle of universal brotherhood and mutual love between all the members of that family72 that ,he desires to be loved1 worshipped1 and served by it1 with purity of heart1 with elevation of spirit1 and with unflinching constancy4 ,through revelation1 we are taught to use wisely the earthly gifts1 and to turn their material enjoyment into a subject for edification and the glorification of ,god2 to exercise right1 justice1 rectitude1 charity1 piety1 and humility2 we are also taught that ,god judges the human actions1 punishes those who contravene ,his will1 and is disposed to pardon the sins of those who feel a true repentance4 ,and1 lastly1 through revelation1 an invitation is tendered to man to elevate his mind to the ,creator1 to imitate ,him1 to approach ,him through self-sanctification2 and a perspective is opened before his mind's eye of an interminable future of beatitude beyond the grave1 as the ultimate goal of his longings1 and a just reward to his virtuous conduct4 ,,xxxviii4 ,when an individual1 after long and serious meditations1 and through a concourse of favourable circumstances1 acquires a comprehension of this divine plan1 and conceives it in its fullest extent and excellence1 he will feel an irresistible attraction towards such a contemplation1 and an ineffable admiration will seize all his mind2 an internal intense desire will spring up in his heart to see it carried out1 nay1 to contribute himself to its accomplishment1 since the first tendency is already engrafted on his very nature4 ,in proportion as this desire extends its roots in the heart of that individual1 so will he make it his exclusive pre-occupation1 voluntarily sacrifice to it every worldly consideration1 and so will he feel impelled to devote himself to promote1 promulgate1 and bring to universal knowledge those truths which1 as stated1 form the essence of revelation2 his soul will become the receptacle of the ,divine idea1 his tongue and all his body the organs of its fulfilment2 his whole life will be an expression of the idea which pervades him2 he will feel within himself an irresistible call to constitute himself1 of his own authority1 and without any regard to worldly powers1 a preceptor to mankind1 an adviser and censor of all1 a supporter of right and virtue1 a herald of truth1 and a defender of the cause of ,god2 he will defy every obstacle with unbending spirit1 will employ all his powers1 physical and moral1 to the attainment of his aim2 and sometimes he will end by becoming a martyr to his holy project4 ,in short1 his will becomes identical with the will of ,god4 ,,xxxix4 ,such a man is a prophet4 ,his mind elevated to the highest degree of intelligence1 his heart bent constantly to love what is good1 he has almost assumed a second nature1 and he lives upon earth a purely spiritual life4 ,of all that surrounds him1 nothing is of any value in his eyes but that which may contribute to the accomplishment of the ,divine design2 in all passing events he sees but as many dispositions of ,providence calculated to direct men to the path in which they are called to walk2 the very thoughts which cross his mind1 and the wishes which form themselves in his heart1 he regards them not as the productions of his own soul1 but as emanations from the ,spirit of ,god which dwells in him1 and pervades all his being4 ,such a mode of viewing things is1 after all1 not a mere effect of his imagination1 but a true reflex of the influence that actuates this man1 an influence springing from the fact already stated1 that his will has identified itself with the will of ,god4 ,hence the prophet is called a man inspired by ,god1 for it is the ,divine ,spirit that pervades1 agitates1 and directs him2 it is the ,divine ,spirit that found in him an instrument for its operation1 an organ for its manifestation1 a medium to carry out its high designs1 a representative of ,god on earth1 who shall recall men to their ,divine origin1 and lead them on to their ultimate destination4 ,,xl4 ,from the foregoing exposition of the characters of prophecy it will appear obvious1 that those are greatly mistaken1 who think that the exclusive or even the principal ministry of the prophet consists in foreseeing and foretelling future events4 ,the prophet may occasionally find it necessary to his ends to predict some events1 which he does by virtue of the ,divine spirit infused in him2 but this is for him only an accessory means to the chief object1 which is to propagate and promote among men divine knowledge and religious life4 ,with an all-wise provision1 ,god disposed that1 as a rule1 the future shall remain hidden from mortals1 that they may exert themselves to render it propitious by their good actions2 and if ,he sometimes permitted1 as an exception1 that it should be revealed to them through the dispensers of ,his word1 it was not to gratify an idle curiosity1 but to excite men to worthily conform their works to coming events4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,xli4 ,,the preliminary notions hitherto set forth are to be regarded as placed in the vestibule leading to the temple of ,revelation4 ,now1 before we cross the threshold1 it may be well to meet at once an objection which will possibly be offered by modern incredulity4 ,it is fashionably said1 that rational man can admit nothing as true except that which is proved to him by logical demonstrations2 and as for the acceptance of a revealed religion faith is a necessary element1 and this must exclude 7as commonly pretended7 every kind of proof1 therefore all reasoning is out of the question1 and the very basis of that which is sought to be inculcated as a truth1 renders it inadmissible4 ,such an objection1 however erroneous in reality1 has too grave an appearance1 and its consequences would be too lamentable1 to permit us to disregard it4 ,it becomes1 therefore1 indispensable1 before entering the sanctuary of ,revelation1 to remove the obstruction of such an error1 even at the cost of a digression from our path1 in order to consider the matter in its origin4 ,,xlii4 ,one of the primary laws of existence in the physical world is self-love2 that is1 an instinct in every creature to procure its own good1 even at the expense of others1 so that the preservation of one is attended with the destruction of some others4 ,all nature is in a perpetual struggle within itself1 and every component part receives the elements of its own life and increment from the destruction of others4 ,this we see repeatedly happen under our own eyes1 as well in plants as in animals1 and so evidently1 that we need not here record instances to confirm it4 ,it is through this contrast of individual interests1 through this perpetual alternation of production and growth with decrease and destruction1 that ,providence ordained the preservation of the world in its totality1 while the individuals perish and the species remain4 ,,xliii4 ,man also1 considered only in his physical nature1 is subject to the universal law of self-love2 and until he has arrived at a correct appreciation of his moral nature and duties1 he will allow himself to be impelled by that law to possess himself of all that he thinks suitable to his own advantage1 regardless of the detriment of others1 and even of their very existence2 and so will1 on the other hand1 every one else1 being in the same condition1 act towards him4 ,but the effects of unrestrained self-love are by far more mischievous in man than in the irrational animals1 for the intelligence with which he is endowed affords him more means and artifices to accomplish his selfish views1 so long as he is governed by these and not by nobler impulses4 ,hence it happens also1 that so long as a man lies under the fascination of self-love1 society1 of which he is called to become a member1 places him in a condition1 from which he looks upon his fellow-men as the natural enemies of his individual happiness2 and he feels a propensity to throw obstacles1 either by malice or violence1 in the way of others1 to prevent their attaining that which is denied to him4 ,,xliv4 ,but we find1 also1 in man another principle diametrically opposed to self-love1 which1 proceeding from the noblest prerogatives of his soul1 distinguishes him from the irrational creatures1 and invites him to a career totally opposite to theirs4 ,this principle1 commonly called virtue1 we shall express by the more comprehensive name of heroism4 ,as by self-love man is inclined to sacrifice the welfare of others to his own1 so by heroism he is led to sacrifice himself to the welfare of others4 ,when we see a mother struggling to death1 and with admirable self-devotion1 against overpowering waves1 or ferocious beasts1 or devouring flames1 to save her child from certain destruction1 it would be stolidity and folly for us to bring into comparison with this act1 the cares bestowed by a brute in feeding her young1 since as soon as the latter has carried into effect the order of nature1 she forsakes them1 and1 when grown1 does not even recognise them2 whereas the love of a mother endures beyond the grave4 ,when a husband1 bound with the indissoluble tie of affection to the woman of his heart1 voluntarily sacrifices to her everything dearest in the world1 and finds in her affection ample recompense for his direst privations1 who would dare to attribute this to the physical sexual tendency common even to the brutes8 a tendency1 which1 besides manifesting itself only at detached periods of time1 disappears altogether in old age1 whereas conjugal love runs beyond the confines of time4 ,the same may be said of a friend1 who would give his own life to save that of his beloved1 of a generous warrior who risks everything for his country's sake1 and of a host of others1 who magnanimously devote themselves to the relief of suffering humanity2 in short1 of every one who feels himself moved by a superior force to cross over the boundaries of selfishness and sensuality1 and to become a hero4 ,,xlv4 ,in all these phenomena1 a principle directly adverse to that of physical nature manifests itself4 ,while in the latter1 self-love is a necessary supreme law1 in the spiritual life of man we see prevailing1 as a foundation to morality1 a voluntary sacrifice of self1 offered on the altar of love4 ,no pain or regret ever accompanies such an offering2 on the contrary1 a sensible man undertakes it with cheerfulness1 as a manifestation of his exalted nature1 and derives from its performance a purer joy than all other earthly enjoyments could afford him4 ,but this love1 which limits and conquers self-love1 this love which so well testifies to the excellence of man1 whence does it proceed8 ,assuredly not from physical nature2 this is1 on the contrary1 based upon a law which would destroy love4 ,it must emanate1 then1 from a source1 itself a prototype of moral perfection1 a perpetual spring of the purest love2 and this source is ,god4 ,through the effects and impressions of this celestial love1 man feels the need of approaching his ,creator1 of finding in ,him the provident ,ruler of the human destinies1 and of expecting from ,his kindness the future triumph of good1 and an ultimate perfection of all things4 ,god1 providence1 and the immortality of the soul1 become then for him incontestable truths3 and at such a knowledge he does not arrive by way of laborious instruction and logical demonstrations2 but it springs up1 as it were1 in his inward feeling1 which prompts him to regulate his life according to that sublime model of moral perfection2 therefore1 although reason furnishes not to him logical proofs of these truths1 yet he finds the presentiment of them within his heart1 he feels them1 he accepts them with a force more sentimental than intellectual1 he embraces them with enthusiasm1 and can no longer detach himself from them2 in short he believes them4 ,,xlvi4 ,thus1 with the same confidence with which man admits as true1 what is demonstrated to his reason by solid arguments1--and he is then said to be convinced1--does he likewise give his assent to the noble inspirations of his heart1 not yet depraved by abject inclinations1--and he is then said to be persuaded4 ,thus there are two kinds of truths1 equally ascertained1 and therefore equally admissible2 the one proceeding from intellect and called rational truth1 the other formed in the heart1 and called moral truth4 ,the source of the latter might also properly be called good sense1 which in fact acts1 in many circumstances of life1 in lieu of pure reason4 ,a man endowed with good sense1 and who has not yet become a slave to sensual appetites1 will not doubt for a moment1 even without having ever been acquainted with the proofs1 that lying1 calumniating1 blaspheming1 false swearing1 robbing1 murdering1 betraying friendship1 country or honour1 are culpable and abominable actions4 ,other truths based on good sense are also the following3 the faith we have in friendship1 in the rectitude of those who administer justice1 in the fidelity of a beloved object1 in the tenderness of parents1 in the excellence of virtue1 and above all1 in the wisdom1 goodness1 and providence of ,god2 all these things we admit within our souls1 not in consequence of a cold calculation of the intellect1 but through an irresistible impulse of the heart1 and in consequence of a sort of presentiment springing from the consciousness of our own noble spirituality1 which develops itself and gains force1 in proportion as we elevate ourselves above the material propensities to which we are subject as citizens of this earth4 ,,xlvii4 ,those who1 throwing themselves on a severe rationalism1 will recognise nothing as true but what is demonstrated to them like mathematical theorems1 will look upon the sentiments above referred to as delusions of the fancy1 because they see them founded but upon feeling2 but they who think so are manifestly in error4 ,if faith in ,god1 in ,his providence1 and in the immortality of the human soul1 were a mere product of the imagination1 it would last only so long as the semblance1 which had given it aliment1 exists2 and when man is awakened to the sense of realities and facts calculated to destroy the delusion1 he would be seen to withdraw from the meshes of his error1 and his reason triumphant would confess the former aberration of the mind2 yet it happens not so4 ,in the moment we are struck by some grave calamity1 when we see fond hopes1 long cherished1 vanish in an instant1 or when we are on the point of losing what is dearest to us1 why is faith in ,god and in ,his providence not then weakened in the religious man8 ,why1 on the contrary1 does he cling to it more and more8 ,the reason is1 because such a faith is not a cold theorem1 against which some doubt may eventually arise1 but a truth rooted in the love inherent in our nature2 and consequently it acquires vigour with the growth of love1 and its power cannot be extinguished but when we cease to love4 ,so1 also1 the other impulses to heroism and to exalted moral action1 by which we are induced to great sacrifices1 or led to believe ourselves capable of accomplishing them1 are produced in us by faith in an eternal ,source of pure love1 by that faith which carries with itself the surety of a future life and a future kingdom founded upon love4 ,therefore1 in proportion as man succeeds in subduing his own passions1 or as these grow faint by age or other causes1 so his love grows more vigorous2 and as earthly objects gradually disappear1 so faith rises and shews itself all-pervading and invincible4 ,,xlviii4 ,as a condition indispensable to the entertainment of faith1 we have already insisted on the necessity of previously freeing the heart from the sway of the sensual appetites2 and it is not without a grave reason1 for therein precisely consists the secret of the solution of the great question agitated in all ages between the so-called rationalists and the supernaturalists4 ,intellect and reason are rays from the ,divine wisdom1 bestowed upon man to assist him to discern between true and false1 between good and evil2 but such a function is not exercised by those faculties with an absolute power over the human will2 they1 on the contrary1 are subservient to such desires and passions as have acquired a preponderance in the heart2 they are similar to those ministers of a prince who1 in offering him advice1 only aim at facilitating the attainment of their master's wishes2 or to the known effects of a glass applied to a jaundiced eye4 ,so long as man remains faithful to his moral duties1 and desires nothing but what is good and honest1 his intellect and reason always offer him valid arguments to confirm him in his purpose1 and to augment his love of virtue2 and then1 also1 the noblest dogmas of faith1 ,god1 providence1 and immortality find easy access to his mind1 and are ,harboured with joy4 ,but if depraved propensities have corrupted his heart1 so that his aspirations are in a wrong and base direction1 then these same faculties become ministers to the predominant passion1 and suggest to man sophisms1 fallacies1 and specious subtleties1 whereby to disown that which he heretofore respected1 to upset the edifice of his faith1 to lull his conscience and quiet remorse1 to excuse his weaknesses and break through every restraint1 and thus to warrant every kind of fault and vice4 ,hence it is that the knowledge and discernment of what is true or untrue1 in the moral world1 depends1 in a considerable degree1 upon the practice of good or evil2 hence it is1 that the judgments of the mind are modified by the inclinations of the heart1 and that virtue opens the way to faith1 and vice is the author of infidelity4 ,,xlix4 ,from what we have hitherto briefly stated1 it will appear sufficiently obvious that the dogmas of revealed religion1 though based rather on the ground of faith than on that of philosophy and strict criticism1 are yet1 for an upright man1 susceptible of a degree of evidence equal to that of any other demonstrable truth1 inasmuch as they have their foundation in human nature itself1 and can be rejected but by him who rebels against the noblest impulses of the heart1 to give himself up to the sway of passions or inordinate appetites4 ,one of the features1 which most enhances the value of religion1 is precisely this1 that it is the product1 not of transcendental devices of the mind1 but of faith in ,god1 itself springing from love1 and that consequently1 it is not originated by the intellect1 but infused by a ,divine grace4 ,thus we see every day1 in our own experience1 that the loftiest thoughts of virtue and heroism are not suggested to us by a long and laborious chain of syllogisms1 but break upon us unexpectedly as inspirations of the heart2 truly--considering the divine spirit dwelling within us1 and which we have but to harbour carefully--they break upon us like inspirations of heaven4 ,having1 as we hope1 satisfactorily disposed of the objection usually put forward by the so-called rationalists1 we shall now proceed to relate the modes by which ,divine revelation historically came into actuality4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,l4 ,,the benefits which the ,eternal ,wisdom had determined to confer upon mankind through revelation1 depended1 however1 on a condition without which1 they could never have been realized4 ,it was necessary that men1 on their part1 should be inclined to receive the bidding addressed to them1 that they should direct their attention to the truths to be gradually promulgated to them for their own advantage2 in short1 that they should feel disposed to correspond to the ,divine intentions4 ,it was no part of the plan of the ,divine wisdom that men should be in any way constrained1 for that would have been depriving them of the precious gift of free will1 and destroying their essence4 ,but this very liberty1 of action granted to man1 rendered the realization of the ,divine thought doubtful2 and it might have happened that a generation1 sinking itself into complete corruption1 would have lost every trace of the truths already revealed2 and thence a necessity would have arisen for one or more repetitions of the communication1 with equal uncertainty of permanent success4 ,,li4 ,to avoid such a danger1 it pleased the ,divine ,mercy to found upon earth a permanent institution of an exceptional1 wonderful1 almost preternatural character1 through which the preservation of the principal doctrines1 that form the substance of revealed religion1 could be insured to mankind4 ,as seeds of rare and precious plants are preserved with care1 that the species may not perish1 so the ,ruler of ,providence designed to establish among us a repository wherein to keep the germs of all that which concerns man's spiritual life2 and ,he so ordained that they should be there jealously guarded1 and with particular diligence cultivated1 in order to bring about their slow and gradual1 but sure propagation among all the individuals of the human family4 ,this provision is a most luminous proof of the unbounded love and mercy of the ,divine ,artificer towards the rational creature1 to whom a powerful assistance is thus offered to attain his noble destination1 without in the least impairing his liberty of action4 ,,lii4 ,such a provision consists in ,god having chosen a small portion of mankind to be a medium for1 and co-operator in1 the grand work1 and having entrusted to it the special important mission of perpetually preserving within its pale1 the principal dogmas of revealed religion2 of keeping always alive on earth the remembrance of that relation which was established from the beginning of creation between the ,creator and the human family2 and1 in short1 of contributing with all its might to the practical realization of the ,divine idea4 ,the chosen few had consequently to propose to themselves1 as the goal of their career1 the defence of the sacred deposit entrusted to them from all attacks that might be directed by malice1 ignorance or superstition2 they had to promote the propagation of the notions of monotheism2 of the divine origin of man1 and of the duties incumbent upon him to practice justice1 charity1 rectitude1 and piety2 they had to protest incessantly against polytheism1 and against all and every idolatrous and superstitious creed1 as adverse and injurious to the development of the principles of revealed religion2 they had to confirm these theories by making themselves the exemplars of a religious life1 and by bearing witness to them1 when necessary1 by their own martyrdom2 they had thus to become the effectual instruments to the gradual diffusion throughout the world of those elements of truth1 of virtue and happiness1 calculated to bring forth the ultimate and universal perfection of mankind4 ,,liii4 ,in order that the individuals charged with such a grand mission should be competent effectually to fulfil it1 it was necessary that they should themselves have been always free from the pernicious influence of the errors and corruption1 which had already spread almost throughout the world2 it was necessary that their minds should have remained unpolluted by the notions of the extravagant and degrading idolatries1 which were in practice among almost all the ancient nations2 and that their hearts should have remained untouched by the contagion of universal depravity4 ,the soil to which any seed1 however good1 is to be committed1 would never respond to the expectations of the husbandman1 if it were not cleared from weeds and thistles4 ,those individuals had1 therefore1 to be drawn aside from the general society of men2 and from their infancy educated and prepared1 so as to receive within their virgin souls the seeds that were afterwards to produce in them1 and through them1 the spiritual regeneration of all mankind4 ,but here another difficulty presented itself2 who would have undertaken the charge of watching over those individuals from their infancy1 and keeping them in such an isolation1 as to make them inaccessible to the general depravity8 ,it was1 then1 necessary to begin by a single individual1 whose descendants should receive from that stock the education capable of fitting them for their future mission4 ,,liv4 ,the providential measure once decreed1 of selecting an individual as guardian of the revealed truths1 and making him the father of a posterity1 whose duty was to preserve them and to make them fructify1 it remained only to determine the selection of the person4 ,and here it is obvious that not a capricious hazard1 not an indulgent predilection1 but only a strict justice and wise impartiality could determine the important choice4 ,whoever would have aspired to such a glory--and everybody could have aspired to it--by no other means could he have attained it than his own merits4 ,such a man must have1 of his own accord and spontaneously1 withdrawn himself from the general current of depravity2 opposed1 by his own impulse1 the absurd ravings of his contemporaries2 displayed a lively attachment to virtue1 and a steady abhorrence of evil2 cultivated1 above all1 justice1 charity1 and righteousness1 in his every action2 that man must have thrown off the subjection of the senses1 and all cupidity of earthly things1 and1 almost assuming a second nature1 have soared towards the eternal ,source of truth1 the ,creator of the universe1 offering as a sacrifice to ,him his own dearest personal interests1 and1 if required1 his life itself4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,lv4 ,,such a man did appear on the stage of the world4 ,it was the patriarch ,abraham4 ,the rarest qualities of mind and heart concurred admirably to render him fit for the high mission4 ,by the superiority of his intelligence1 he arrived at the rejection of the captivating1 but absurd1 idolatrous opinions of his contemporaries1 and at the recognition of a unique supreme ,cause of all things1 omnipotent1 all-wise and holy1 that governs all with impartial justice and infinite mercy4 ,the nobility of his sentiments led him to labour and exert himself in the diffusion of these holy notions wherever he found himself2 and he was most sedulous in drawing the attention of men to that which most concerned their spiritual life4 ,an unparalleled cordiality towards not only his own friends1 but all who approached him2 a self-abnegation1 carried to the point of refusing the best deserved remuneration2 a humility ready to waive any right of his own in order to support that of others2 a hospitality full1 generous1 unasked2 a continual exercise of charity and justice1 which had become in him a second nature2 in fine1 a submission of all himself and his dearest to the will of ,god1--such was the character of that celebrated luminary of antiquity1 of that man truly divine1 of that exemplar of sublime virtue4 ,,lvi4 ,although so many pre-eminent merits indisputably assigned to him the distinction we have pointed out1 yet the ,divine wisdom decided to subject his constancy to various trials1 with the view of making manifest to the world the excellence of that virtuous character1 and the justice which dictated the choice4 ,in the continual antagonism between the material and spiritual interests involved in the events of his agitated life1 he had opportunities to display the noblest firmness in causing the latter to prevail4 ,involuntary peregrinations1 conflicts with foreign potentates1 domestic discords1 dangers1 hazards1 hopes deferred1 and promises well nigh forgotten1 became to him so many occasions for the exercise of the highest virtues3 and last1 the holy resignation with which he prepared to immolate his beloved son1 thinking thereby to respond to a ,divine bidding1 raised his glory to an unapproachable summit4 ,if the other deeds of his edifying piety caused him to be appointed a herald of the true religion1 this last heroic act brought down upon him the greatest blessing1 in the shape of a promise1 that even to his remotest posterity would be extended the mission of jealously preserving the revealed truths1 and effectually cooperating in their propagation1 so that through that posterity would be blessed all the families of the earth4 ,,lvii4 ,abraham's vocation marks a luminous and highly interesting epoch in the history of humanity4 ,it was the commencement of the execution of that plan of education of mankind1 which1 conceived since the beginning in the ,increate ,mind1 came by means extraordinary1 yet consistent with the natural course of earthly events1 to diffuse itself gradually and to acquire a progressive force among the various ramifications of the human family4 ,in that vocation we perceive the first threads of a wonderful tissue of events1 as well in the physical as in the moral world1 which went on preparing a slow but always progressive development of the human intelligence1 and will go on to produce ultimately the full final accomplishment of the same primitive plan1 so grandly conceived4 ,in fact1 in the very act of electing this patriarch1 ,god revealed the ultimate object of the election by saying1 that ,he chose him1 in order that he might transmit to his latest posterity the obligation--which was to become characteristic of it--of exercising and promoting ,,charity and ,,justice1 the two chief columns on which rests the edifice of human perfectibility1 two conditions indispensable to the fulfilment of the ,divine idea1 and therefore called ways of the ,eternal4 ,,lviii4 ,abraham and his race having been called upon to perpetuate the idea of the relation existing between ,god and man1 it was obviously necessary that such a relation should be fixed and established in a more precise mode in the individuals of that race than it was in any others2 in other words1 it was necessary to show clearly that the idea1 which was to be promoted among others1 was firmly seated1 under permanent and concrete forms1 in those who were called upon to propagate it4 ,this permanency of the relation exhibited itself1 then1 to ,abraham and his posterity under the form of a covenant between ,god and that family1 whereby the contracting parties1 as it were1 promised and undertook to maintain certain conditions1 upon which depended the subsistence of that relation4 ,the mutual conditions established were1 in substance1 nothing else than the universal relations subsisting between ,god and every rational being1 but expressed1 with respect to ,abraham's1 family1 in more special and characteristic terms1 viz41 under a form in which ,god promised ,abraham that ,he would be particularly his ,god1 his ,protector1 ,guardian1 and ,benefactor2 and the ,abrahamites1 on their part1 bound themselves to recognise ,him alone as the ,deity1 to whom adoration and loyal obedience were due4 ,thus the covenant1 which had been formerly established in general terms with ,noah1 as the representative of all mankind1 was afterwards confirmed in more specific terms to the ,abrahamites1 as those who were appointed to keep and to promote among mankind the fulfilment of the conditions of the said relation4 ,considering the ,abrahamitic covenant in this point of view1 all objections of unreasonable exclusiveness and unjust predilection1 which have been sometimes urged1 must disappear4 ,the ,god of ,abraham is the ,god of the universe2 and the descendants of ,abraham propose to themselves nothing more than the attainment of that same happiness to which every mortal can aspire4 ,,lix4 ,in order that the idea of the contracted covenant might remain firmly impressed on all ,abraham's progeny1 it was necessary to institute some external mark1 which should continually recall it to the mind2 for an idea being but an abstraction1 it could not be very long retained in men's minds1 without some symbol or visible sign capable of keeping its remembrance alive4 ,it was also necessary that the adhesion of that progeny to the covenant should not begin to take effect in individuals in the adult age only1 and as a result of one's own spontaneous reflexions1 as had been the case with the first stock of that family1 but that it should present itself as an accomplished fact1 and1 therefore1 irrevocable and obligatory2 so that every future offspring should bear from his birth an external indelible mark1 characterising him as a follower of that principle1 and qualifying him to enter into the pale of that association4 ,by such means the preservation of the covenant was insured1 and a beginning was made in the system of those external1 symbolical1 and commemorative acts1 which were to be thereafter prescribed to all that race1 when sufficiently increased to form an entire people distinct from others4 ,this external mark1 instituted before the birth of the elect progeny of the patriarch1 is the circumcision4 ,,lx4 ,before ,abraham's descendants attained that degree of maturity which would fit them to receive a revealed legislation1 they had to pass through various stages of progressive material increment and intellectual development1 and also to undergo several sad vicissitudes produced by the inevitable relations of contact with other nations4 ,throughout all this period1 which we may call preparatory1 the ,divine ,wisdom was pleased to take that race by the hand1 guiding its first steps1 and watching in an extraordinary manner over its destinies1 so as gradually to prepare it for the high mission for which it was designed4 ,we1 therefore1 perceive1 during that epoch1 a continual intervention of the ,divinity in regulating the particular concerns of the patriarchs and their successors1 and an incessant care to draw their attention to the future destiny of their grandchildren1 and to their duty of preparing worthily for it4 ,such a care manifested itself1 particularly1 in various providential measures1 the objects of which evidently were to remove from them everything that might exercise over them a sinister influence2 to enlighten them on the importance of their election1 and to make them acquainted beforehand with the severe trials in store for them for several centuries1 before they could deservedly reap the intended benefits4 ,,lxi4 ,to this category of providential measures belongs the state of isolation and of precarious subsistence1 in which1 by the ,divine will1 the first fathers had to live1 in respect to their neighbours1 in that same land which was yet promised to them as a perpetual inheritance2 whereby they were brought to learn from the beginning that the great work1 which their children were called upon to accomplish1 was not absolutely dependent on the possession of a land under their own sovereignty1 but rather on the religious doctrines to which they were to remain faithfully attached4 ,to it belongs1 also1 the severance or removal of the elder branch of the first two families1 which was too much inclined to material interests1 to teach thereby that physical superiority is not at all requisite to the preservation of a covenant based entirely on spirituality4 ,and1 lastly1 to the same category of measures belongs the decreed long servitude of the ,abrahamites in a strange land1 in which1 not only the door to social enjoyments would be shut against them1 but a barbarous tyranny would also deprive them of the free exercise of acts which are an imprescriptible right of all mortals4 ,through the instrumentality of such an oppression1 the profound counsels of the ,eternal ,wisdom designed so to regulate the first education of that growing people1 that1 refined in the crucible of adversity1 it should early learn to renounce the subjection of the senses1 and turn its heart and soul to ,god1 from whom alone it could hope salvation4 ,it was only by depriving that people of all human support1 and of all extraneous influences on its culture1 that it could acquire a character1 firm1 independent1 tenacious in the principles adopted1 adverse to foreign notions1 faithful to its vocation1 and that its mind could be deeply impressed with the sentiment of a constant adoration of the ,supreme ,being1 as its only ,deliverer1 ,legislator1 ,father1 and ,sovereign4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,lxii4 ,,the descendants of the patriarchs1 grown into a numerous people1 were1 then1 obliged to undergo the severe trial of a long servitude in ,egypt1 from which they could expect no rescue otherwise than by a recourse to the ,god of their fathers4 ,if the privations of earthly enjoyments tended to strengthen their spirits and courage against adversity1 and to direct their desires towards gratifications of a more elevated nature2 if the repulsive conduct of their oppressors 7by character hostile to all strangers1 and by system constituted in different castes1 each of which jealous of its own privileges7 favoured in a great measure their isolation1 and kept them from a pernicious contact and association1 it was the prayer which they offered up from the bottom of their hearts to the ,supreme ,ruler of their destinies1 whose covenant with their progenitors they remembered2 it was that prayer that hastened the termination of so severe a discipline1 and drew near the epoch of their glorification4 ,a fit instrument only was wanted1 through which the deliverance should be effected1 an organ to communicate to the people the ,divine laws1 a medium for the new solemn covenant which was to be proclaimed between ,god and ,israel4 ,this elect from among all mortals--whose noble character1 resplendent with all human virtues1 was heightened by the true grandeur of an unexampled humility--was the holy legislator ,moses1 the divine man1 the faithful expounder of the will of ,god1 the first link of the glorious chain connecting the human family with its ,maker4 ,he was appointed to deliver miraculously the ,israelitish mass from the yoke of ,egypt1 and to lead it to the skirts of a mountain1 where the grand act of the revelation was to be accomplished4 ,,lxiii4 ,before imparting that revelation1 the ,divine wisdom vouchsafed to declare to the people at large1 in brief but clear words1 the ultimate object intended to be attained by such an institution1 and the principal condition conducive to its realisation4 ,therefore it was1 that ,god began his communications by saying to ,israel1 through ,moses1 ,i have brought you unto me a concise and sublime sentence1 which comprehends in itself the whole system of revealed religion1 for the recognition of the intimate relation which brings the rational creature near to its ,creator1 is the true goal of man's destination4 ,he added that1 to facilitate the attainment of that object1 ,he had adopted the means of electing a small portion of mankind to be ,his missionaries 7although said ,he1 all the earth is mine72 that ,he wished1 therefore1 to form of them a sacerdotal kingdom1 that is1 a class of persons1 who1 as priests of ,god1 should watch over1 conserve1 and promote spiritual interests upon the earth2 and that in consequence of the gravity of such a task1 ,he required of them that they should become a holy people1 that is1 a people peculiarly devoted to self-sanctification--which substantially consists in imitating1 in as far as human nature permits1 the ,divine perfections1 or virtues4 ,,lxiv4 ,the awfully solemn act which succeeded this preliminary manifestation is the most portentous event to be found in the annals of the world4 ,two millions of persons1 ranged around the skirts of a mountain1 witness a majestic supernatural vision2 and amid thunder and lightning1 dense vapour and blazing fire1 the whole ground trembling and the mountain echoing1 a sonorous voice from heaven descends on the terrified ears of the people1 and carries distinctly and unmistakeably to humanity the high message of ,god4 ,by the pomp and circumstance which attended the glorious scene of the first revelation1 ,god was pleased to afford an incontestable evidence of the truth and divinity1 not only of the doctrines which were then and there being revealed1 but of those1 also1 that were to follow2 the unimpeachable testimony of the senses of a vast multitude1 brought to bear upon the first and fundamental communication1 was capable of producing so full and lasting a conviction in the minds of the numerous hearers1 as to remove for the future all doubt as to the divine origin of revelation4 ,through an immediate sensible perception--which by its nature carries the most irrefragable certainty--,israel1 then1 received from ,god ,himself the first dictates of a religion1 of which that people was to become the professor1 conservator1 and propagator1 in perpetuity2 and equally convinced of the true mission of its leader1 ,moses1 it naturally accepted from the latter all subsequent instructions1 as laws emanating from the same divine source4 ,,lxv4 ,the word of ,god pronounced in that memorable instant1 and known since under the name of ,decalogue1 or ,ten ,commandments1 could not1 however1 embrace the whole sum of religious truths that were intended to be revealed1 because it would have been humanly impossible to the people to persist in that extraordinary state of intimate spiritual or prophetic relation with the ,deity1 till the end of all the revelation4 ,therefore1 the ,decalogue exhibits only some fundamental points1 which1 from their importance1 deserved to be more prominently impressed2 it marks the outlines of the foundation upon which the edifice of revealed religion was afterwards to be raised4 ,yet1 although the promulgation of the entire divine code was a work reserved for the blessed legislator ,moses1 the ,ten ,commandments present1 nevertheless1 a compendious but complete system of institutions1 referring to all those social and religious subjects1 which most interest mankind4 ,in fact1 the three relations of man towards his ,creator1 his fellow-man1 and himself1 are traced in the ,decalogue in a masterly manner1 classified according to their order1 and elucidated by placing prominently forward one culminating point1 which serves to determine their true character4 ,such is the wise economy of all revealed laws1 that generally avoiding abstractions1 they select as a standard one special case of the most interesting1 and leave it to thy care of the human understanding to generalize1 and deduce from it universal theories4#b ,consequently1 on analysing the ten emanations of the ,divine ,will1 we must transfer mentally each of them to the class of duties to which it belongs1 and consider it as intended to represent all that class4 ,note #b3 ,the author has already informed us1 that he confines himself1 in this book1 to the enunciation of principles1 and leaves to teachers the task of demonstrating1 developing1 and applying them1 in course of instruction4 ,nevertheless1 as this proposition recurs more than once in these pages1 and contains a very important principle1 it is perhaps desirable1 for the general reader1 to offer here an elucidation1 by the following examples of its application4 ,we are taught1 ,if thou meet thine enemy's ox or his ass going astray1 thou shalt surely bring it back to him again 7,exod4 xxiii4 #d74 ,we are to understand1 that the lesson thereby conveyed1 is not confined to the particular case named1 but that we are commanded to cast off selfishness1 and to extend our kindness and charity even to enemies1 actively exerting ourselves for the assistance and benefit of others1 whenever opportunities offer themselves in our every-day life4 ,again1 we are enjoined1 ,thou shalt not curse the deaf1 nor put a stumbling-block before the blind 7,lev1 xix4 #ad74 ,we are clearly to conclude therefrom1 that any net of treachery1 in itself already detestable in the eyes of ,god1 becomes doubly so when directed against the unconscious and the helpless2 and a very wide range of treacherous actions would1 therefore1 come within the meaning of this prohibition4 ,the paramount importance of this hermeneutical rule will be any apology for having dilated on a point1 which must be already well known to biblical students4--,the ,,translator4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,lxvi4 ,,the first commandment1 which regards the relations of man with ,god1 lays down that the acknowledgment of the ,supreme ,being is the basis of all the revelation1 and gives us to understand that such a conviction then began historically to manifest itself on earth1 taking root first in the people of ,israel1 whom therefore the ,deity addresses1 saying1 ,i am the ,eternal1 thy ,god1 signifying1 by thee alone acknowledged hitherto4 ,it also establishes the immutable eternity of the absolute ,being1 conveyed in the etymology of the ineffable ,name2 next1 his indivisible unity1 indicated in the word ,el1 which denotes the sum of all the powers1 and the aggregation of all the attributes1 in one and the same essence4 ,the same text proceeds then to arouse the feelings of gratitude1 which must bind especially this people to the powerful hand that had delivered it from ignominious servitude3 and this involves the obligation in the same people of devoting itself entirely to ,god1 and subordinating all its tendencies to religious feeling4 ,the last two words of this text allude to one of the great principles on which revealed religion rests1 the ,eternal having thereby proclaimed1 not only the individual equality of all the ,israelites before the law1 but also the personal liberty of all men1 which principle1 being regulated according to the true idea of right1 becomes the fundamental basis of civil society4 ,,lxvii4 ,the worship of the only ,god1 coupled with the absolute rejection of every form of idolatrous and superstitious creed1 forms the subject of the second commandment1 which completes the portion of the ,decalogue regarding the relations of man towards the ,creator4 ,it severely prohibits every kind of idolatry1 both that which substitutes for the true ,god false and imaginary beings1 or even beings real but contingent and created1 and that which would associate in ,his worship a veneration for others1 under the title of mediators or protectors2 it then interdicts the making of any image whatsoever1 when intended to represent the infinite and incorporeal ,being1 and bids us neither to pay to any such simulacra a religious respect or veneration1 which is due to the true ,god alone1 nor to practise such conventional acts1 as1 however insignificant in themselves1 are yet held by idolaters as modes of worship4 ,lastly1 this commandment conveys the obligation to dissent from1 and reject1 every superstition and every error1 requiring us to preserve pure and intemerate the adoration due to the ,supreme ,being1 who1 in this sense1 is represented in this text as jealously watching over human actions1 and a not indifferent spectator of good or evil2 therefore a sure punisher of the guilty1 and an eternal remunerator of him who faithfully adheres to ,his law4 ,,lxviii4 ,as a transition from the duties towards ,god to those towards our fellow-men1 the two succeeding precepts are opportunely placed1 one of which concerns the act of invoking the ,divinity between men1 and the other the mode of elevating men towards the ,divinity4 ,in the multifarious contentions arising in social life1 it sometimes occurs to have recourse to ,god1 to convalidate an assertion1 or to test a truth4 ,now1 in the act of attestation called oath1 the third commandment prohibits with the greatest rigour anything that might offend the sanctity of the ineffable name of ,god1 which is invoked by the deponent in attestation of the truth of his words4 ,consequently the text declares1 that if such a solemn invocation were made to confirm a thing1 which is not wholly conformable to the intimate conviction and most scrupulous conscience of the swearer1 the consequences would be a profanation of the name of ,god1 and a scandalous immorality1 to the detriment of society at large2 for this could not subsist without an upright administration of justice2 and the latter would be upset and trampled upon by perjury4 ,in order to shew more prominently the gravity of this matter1 and to protect society1 an avenging ,god protests that ,he would never leave unpunished whomsoever should render himself guilty of the monstrous crime of perjury4 ,,lxix4 ,from the moment when the work of creation was completed1 the ,divine wisdom ordained that an intimate relation should subsist between man and his ,creator1 and called that day holy and blessed on which so merciful an institution was inaugurated and began to come into operation4 ,this relation1 which1 as we have already stated1 forms the basis of revealed religion1 tended to emancipate man from the sphere of materiality1 and to render him conscious of his higher destination1 and capable of accomplishing it4 ,it was1 therefore1 natural that the people called upon to give the religious principle a durable consistency on earth1 should keep a perpetual commemoration of that day which represented the bond subsisting between the ,divinity and humanity2 it was proper that the day should not only and simply be remembered1 but that it should1 also1 have some feature exercising a predominating influence over material life1 by making this subordinate to the spiritual requirements4 ,the fourth word of the ,decalogue prescribes1 then1 that the ,israelite should for ever remember the holy day of sabbath1 as a representative of religion1 and should1 during that day1 abstain1 and cause all his dependants to abstain1 from all manual labour and earthly occupation1 that might distract him from the contemplation of heavenly subjects1 which should exclusively occupy his mind on that day4 ,,lxx4 ,among all man's duties towards his fellow-men1 those of children towards their parents are assuredly the highest in degree1 because without them the bonds which hold society together would be destroyed4 ,these duties form the subject of the fifth commandment4 ,to define their character in a single trait1 a profound wisdom has selected the word honour1 thereby pointing to a respect which arises1 not from fear and terror1 but from gratitude1 love and submission4 ,additional importance is given to this precept by the consideration1 that the revealed religion could not have been preserved and made known to the latest posterity but by the instrumentality of an uninterrupted tradition from generation to generation2 and the faith to be placed in such a tradition depended1 to a great extent1 on the respect in which parents would be held4 ,the reward promised to him who observes this commandment1 is in perfect and natural harmony with the observance itself2 man's life will be prolonged and blessed by honouring the authors of it4 ,,lxxi4 ,the three conditions most prominent in human society1 viz41 life1 matrimony1 and property1 are referred to in the subsequent words1 which form the sixth1 seventh and eighth precepts of the ,decalogue4 ,to concentrate in one word all that is to be observed regarding these essential elements of a social state1 the sacred text confines itself to proclaiming1 in an absolute mode1 their inviolability1 therefore adopting the negative or prohibitive form4 ,it is desired to prevent and forbid every arbitrary act1 and every unjust attempt1 directed to deprive the legitimate possessor of1 or to restrict and in any other way to disturb him in1 the full1 free1 and exclusive enjoyment of his own4 ,to respect the life1 the conjugal bed1 and the property of others1 is to consolidate the bonds of society1 to pay homage to the eternal principles of justice1 upon the practice of which ,god willed that the preservation and prosperity of mankind should depend4 ,,lxxii4 ,in order that our conduct towards our neighbours be strictly in accordance with justice1 it is necessary1 generally1 that it should be based upon an honest and straightforward character of veracity1 and that our outward demonstrations1 in deeds and in words1 should not be at variance with our inward convictions1 respecting the merits or demerits of our fellow-men4 ,falsehood1 detraction1 calumny1 and other similar vices1 injurious to the peace and reputation of others1 as well as simulated friendship1 and hypocrisy1 may all be comprehended within the denomination of perfidy2 and as an extreme and most distinct manifestation of perfidiousness is to be found in false testimony1 hence the ninth commandment is addressed to this vice1 and forbids the witnessing against our fellow-men anything that is not entirely and strictly conformable to the truth4 ,it is easy and natural for us to step from this special prohibition to the spirit which dictated it1 and to conclude that the precept is generally directed to remove from society all perfidy and wrong1 as contrary to truth and justice4 ,,lxxiii4 ,a certain involuntary or instinctive desire of that which is pleasing1 is in human nature itself2 but this vague and voluble feeling may1 by deliberate reflection1 convert itself into an act of free-will1 and1 eventually increasing in strength1 become a vehement affection1 an uncontrollable passion4 ,now1 so long as that feeling does not pass into an act of appropriating the thing desired1 human law cannot deal with it2 but ,divine law1 which has for its object the internal perfection of man1 steps in to regulate the movements of the heart1 when they are accompanied by a deliberate will of possessing4 ,therefore1 the tenth and last commandment of the ,decalogue1 which refers to man's duties towards himself1 aims at the human will1 and prescribes limits1 within which the desires1 tending to procure possession1 should be confined1 forbidding specially to covet that which belongs to others4 ,it is not thereby intended to absolutely prevent the formation of a natural wish1 but it is directed to confine it within just limits1 that it may not expand and be transformed into a usurpation4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,lxxiv4 ,,the succeeding revelations1 which were made to the blessed legislator ,moses1 and by him collected into a body of statutes and rules1 known under the title of ,pentateuch1 bear the same relation to the ,decalogue as that of a finished edifice to the first outline which traced its limits and compartments--they are the elaboration of it1 they branch into the same triple classification of duties which we have remarked in it1 and present its development and completion4 ,what in the ,decalogue appeared1 as in nucleus1 under the form of duties of man towards ,god1 towards his fellow-man1 and towards himself1 is developed by those laws into detailed instructions1 through which the people of ,israel was to learn the knowledge of ,god1 to practise justice and charity1 and to effect its own sanctification2 three cardinal points1 corresponding to the three classes of duties above mentioned1 which embrace the whole sum and substance of revealed religion4 ,we shall not1 therefore1 proceed to enumerate here1 one by one1 those multifarious laws1--a great part of which1 being contingent on the existence of the temple and the possession of ,palestine1 have now no practical application1--but we shall only treat of the three principles which form the bases of them all1 viz41 ,god1 ,justice1 and ,sanctification1 leaving to the intelligence of those who sedulously investigate the single precepts1 the easy task of tracing them to one or other of the said three categories4 ,,lxxv4 ,to the elucidation of these three principles we must1 however1 premise two observations4 ,in the first place1 it is to be remarked1 on the one hand1 that although the human intellect can by itself 7provided it be not overruled by the sway of sensual appetites7 recognise summarily the excellence of such principles1 and give them unreservedly its sanction1 yet its perceptions with respect to their specialities remain very imperfect1 for several reasons3 first1 because it finds itself unable to rebut and conquer one by one all the objections which the infidel may bring forward2 secondly1 in consequence of the doubts which its own limited powers sometimes suggest1 impairing its own sense of the truth2 and lastly1 because wanting the knowledge of many details and circumstances1 about which it can form no judgment1 the intellect cannot construct a complete rationalistic system of moral theology4 ,whereas1 on the other hand1 emanating as they do from the infinite wisdom and mercy of ,god1 formulated in the shape of positive precepts1 and corroborated by the portentous manner of their promulgation1 those principles acquire an undisputed authority1 remove every doubt1 illumine the mind with unexpected sublime truths1 satisfy the heart which finds them consentaneous with its own feelings1 and are thus more apt to accomplish the objects towards which they are directed4 ,and if there be among them some precept1 of which we do not in our present time clearly perceive the true tendency1 we accept it1 nevertheless1 with that filial confidence inspired by its divine origin2 and1 by analogy1 we consider it as calculated to contribute to the promotion of our own weal4 ,,lxxvi4 ,in the second place1 it is necessary to distinguish1 in the aggregate of this revelation1 the universal theories applicable to1 and concerning all mankind1 from the special prescriptions obligatory only on those to whom they were addressed4 ,generally1 all the children of ,adam are bound to know ,god1 to practise justice1 and to procure their own sanctification2 such duties are inherent in human nature itself1 they correspond exactly to the destination of man1 and none can exempt himself from them1 without rebelling against nature and the sovereign ,author of it4 ,consequently1 the doctrines contained in the revealed law1 in regard to these three points1 apply to all rational beings1 and everybody is called upon to participate in1 and profit by1 them2 they are the inheritance of all mankind4 ,but it was obvious that those1 who were in the first instance selected to receive those dogmas1 and to become their jealous conservators and perpetual propagators1 should have some distinctive and peculiar devices1 and be charged with observances1 qualifying them for adepts to the ministry of such a sublime mission4 ,hence it is1 that among the precepts of universal appurtenance there are several which ,israel alone is bound to observe1 and these consist partly of external acts to be performed1 either at certain stated times1 or at all times1 partly of particular forms and rules to be followed1 either in reference to one's self or to others1 and to some external objects of animate or inanimate nature1 and partly1 in fine1 they prescribe abstinence from certain things which to all others are left permissive4 ,it will be easy to every attentive student to discern and point out the prescriptions of this class1 as their very nature is sufficient to characterise them2 we shall have1 however1 occasion to mention them1 after we shall have endeavoured to place in a clear light the three principal articles of the revelation4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,lxxvii4 ,,immense efforts have been made by human reason to elevate itself to the conception of the ,deity1 to demonstrate ,his existence1 and to deduce with solid arguments ,his principal attributes4 ,yet1 even that quantum which human reason believes to have succeeded in establishing on this exalted subject1 has always had to encounter in the fields of proud philosophy tenacious1 or rather pertinacious1 adversaries4 ,whereas revelation1 extricating man from the labyrinth of transcendental abstrusities1 presents him at once with a well constructed system of theological science1 which he has only to receive within his bosom1 to lead a happy life on earth1 and attain his true goal beyond the grave4 ,the ,divine word informs us of ,god1 as a pure spirit1 eternal and immutable1 incorporeal1 absolute 7that is1 not dependent upon causes without ,himself71 omniscient1 omnipresent1 omnipotent1 all-perfect and therefore all-holy 7that is1 possessing all the attributes in the highest degree of perfection72 one1 because admitting not in ,himself distinctions of multiplicity1 and sole1 because beside him there is no ,god2 ,creator of the universe from nought1 therefore distinct from all things created 7which we would call1 if allowed the expression1 extramundane72 ,creator of man in ,his image1 having endowed him with intelligence1 liberty1 and an immortal soul2 provident and immediate#c to man1 watching over his actions1 punishing faults and rewarding merits1 and pardoning him who truly repents of evil committed2 ,he is a perpetual source of the purest love1 hence a merciful father to all ,his creatures1 unto whom ,he continually pours forth treasures of ,his kindness2 ,he strengthens the weak1 comforts the afflicted1 enlightens the ignorant1 protects the oppressed1 and grants the prayer of those who trust in ,him2 ,he governs human events according to ,his will1 now causing human enterprises to succeed1 anon to fail2 always directing them to the ends contemplated by ,his infinite wisdom1 for ,he is the all-wise1 just1 and faithful1 whose promises are infallibly accomplished1 and whose word subsists to eternity4 ,he sometimes suspends the order of nature1 and works miracles1 whenever ,he deems it suitable to ,his high designs4 ,he established a covenant with the ,abrahamitic race1 and revealed to it ,his holy law1 by this means to illuminate and bless all mankind4 ,note #c3 ,this expression is here used to indicate the direct and special relation of ,god with man1 and the direct government of mankind by ,god1 without intermediate agencies1 in contradistinction to the other terrestrial creatures1 whose relation with the ,creator is only general1 and which are governed through the medium of pre-established physical laws4--,,the ,,translator4 ,,lxxviii4 ,although these notions do not complete the idea of the ,divinity1 much less can they claim to define ,his essence--for to the very limited faculties of the human mind this will always remain inconceivable--yet they are sufficient to afford such an instruction on divine subjects as to satisfy the wants of humanity4 ,with the guidance of the elements offered1 and by a conscientious meditation on those ,divine attributes1 man will be able to dispel the superstitious notions and the errors into which they have fallen1 who have not consulted the ,divine word on such a subject2 he will be able to sketch in his own mind an idea1 however incomplete1 of the sublime object of his adoration1 and thus preserve himself from much that is evil4 ,having been destined to live in society1 and compelled to work in order to supply the multifarious wants of his body2 always more or less struggling with the interests of his fellow men to secure a possession often disputed to him by malice1 or violence2 and evil example and ignorance and the sensual appetites being concurrently at work--man became naturally1 in the course of time1 too easy a prey to passions1 vice and error2 he was overpowered by materialism1 and fell into sin4 ,therefore1 the idea revealed to him of a holy ,god1 who watches over his destinies1 who punishes the guilty1 rewards the virtuous1 and pardons the penitent1 is the best balsam that could be administered1 the best truth that could be taught to him2 it saves him from error1 removes him from sin1 invites him to direct his view to heaven1 restores him within the ,divine grace1 and opens to him the prospect of an interminable beatitude4 ,,lxxix4 ,among those attributes1 however1 one becomes prominent1 from its importance2 it is that which establishes an immediate relation1 or communion1 as subsisting between the ,creator and the rational creature2 a fundamental point on which the whole religion hinges4 ,the intimacy of such a relation manifested itself at the very beginning of the world by ,god having created man in ,his image1 by which expression it is meant1 that the ,divine ,maker bestowed some part of ,his perfections on the noblest creature on earth1 endowing it with intelligence1 free-will1 and immortality2 these high prerogatives conferred upon man1 to a certain degree1 a similitude with his ,maker1 and from this similitude was naturally to follow a closer relation of mutual love1 than exists between ,god and the other created things4 ,such a relation assumed a more definite form when ,god took man under ,his special guardianship1 whilst ,he left the government of inanimate nature to physical laws1 unalterable and compulsory1 which ,he had established in the first instant of creation4 ,the stupendous connection was lastly completed1 by ,god having communicated ,his will to men1 and traced out to them the course they had to follow1 in order to render themselves worthy of the great boon1 and to attain the end destined for them4 ,from all these circumstances it became evident that ,god is immediate to man4 ,,lxxx4 ,as1 in general1 all the revelation1 has for its object to benefit humanity1 so1 in particular1 when the divine word is directed to impart to us the knowledge of ,god1 it intends to teach us the duties we are called upon to fulfil towards the ,author of our existence2 duties which we could not well discharge if we were wanting in that knowledge4 ,now1 the first of these duties is to love ,god4 ,such a noble feeling1 which1 as we have already stated1 derives its origin from a relation of similitude between him who loves and the object beloved1 cannot be kindled in us by effect of a mere command1 as the motions of the heart are not produced by authority4 ,therefore1 while holy writ inculcates the love of ,god1 it at the same time indicates to us the means whereby this sublime love will be promoted2 and the means is to walk in the ways of the ,eternal4 ,to understand the connection between the means and the end1 we must consider the different degrees of which love is susceptible1 and motives by which it is actuated4 ,he who loves ,god because of great favours received1 is apt to feel a diminution of attachment1 or even indifference1 on being overtaken by misfortune4 ,he who loves ,him with a view to benefits in a future life1 is also in danger of ceasing to love1 if some doubts were to arise in his mind and to weaken his hopes4 ,but when man loves ,god because he understands1 and admires1 and adores in ,him the aggregate of all perfections1 and feels within himself the flame of a desire to approach the ,divine ,majesty1 then his love is an inextinguishable love1 for he abnegates his own self1 and centres his motives exclusively in the object beloved4 ,this kind of love1 however1 presupposes a uniformity of tendencies1 which causes the one who loves to esteem and to endeavour to appropriate the qualities admired by him2 and in this precisely consists the resemblance1 which produces the true love4 ,justice1 faithfulness1 righteousness1 mercy1 and many other ,divine attributes1 which in the biblical language are called the ways of the ,eternal1 cannot be fully and worthily appreciated1 except by him who uses all his endeavours to adorn himself with such virtues1 as far as his limited nature allows4 ,and now we can understand1 why he cannot truly love who walks not in ,his ways4 ,,lxxxi4 ,another principal duty1 issuing from the same revelation1 is that which is commonly called fear of ,god1 an expression very frequent in the sacred text1 but which requires to be explained4 ,the ,hebrew word used is susceptible of two different interpretations4 ,it might apply to the fear of retribution1 suggested by the reflection that an all-powerful ,god will not leave unpunished the transgressors of his commands2 or the same word might signify the sense of reverence and unbounded veneration1 with which the frail creature must feel almost overwhelmed when thinking of its exalted ,creator1 who knows all1 sees all1 and governs all4 ,the former originates in the intellect1 the latter in the heart4 ,it is obvious that the fear of punishment is not a sufficient restraint to deter man1 at all times1 from sin2 for in the ebullition of impetuous passions1 the intellect becomes offuscated and impeded in the exercise of its functions1 or frequently is itself pressed into the service of the predominating passion4 ,not so the awe and reverence inspired by the majesty of the ,supreme ,king of the universe4 ,it pervades all the heart1 disposes it to feelings of submission and obedience1 convinces it that man is at all times in the presence of his ,maker1 and thus prevents inordinate material appetites from bursting forth and rising forcibly to uncontrollable preponderance4 ,hence it is that the fear of ,god1 taken in the latter sense1 is a powerful prop which supports the religious edifice1 is the most effectual and valuable lesson we derive from the revelation of the ,divine attributes4 ,,lxxxii4 ,from these two principal duties1 spring1 as corollaries1 others of no less importance1 which come1 also1 within the sphere of the first cardinal point of biblical revelation1 the knowledge of ,god4 ,he1 who truly loves and fears ,god1 will surely feel the necessity of placing in ,him exclusively all his trust1 for he is convinced that there is no being in nature1 besides ,god1 that can offer an infallible support to human hopes4 ,he will find in his heart an almost irrepressible impulse to praise the ,divine perfections1 to extol ,his glory1 to offer sincere homage to the ,sovereign of the universe1 to worship and serve ,him with purity of heart1 to thank ,him for favours received1 to supplicate ,him for help1 to confess to ,him sins committed1 and to ask ,his pardon with contrite spirit4 ,all these and other like acts of filial dependence and piety1 find their expression in that elevated form of external worship called prayer1 which1 whether exercised publicly in appropriate and consecrated temples1 or recited in the solitude of the domestic closet1#d whether strictly following an established formulary1 or pouring out the impulsive feelings of the heart1 is always an urgent want and an indispensable duty of every religious man4 ,lastly1 the true love and fear of ,god imply the obligation of avoiding1 in all that pertains to ,divine worship1 everything that might have the appearance of idolatry1 of intrusion of intermediate powers1 or of any superstition whatever2 above all clearly emerges the duty of not abusing the holy name of ,god1 either by uttering it on trivial occasions--which would tend to diminish the reverence due to ,him--or by profaning it with an invocation to a false testimony1 whereby the detestable crime of perjury would be consummated4 ,note #d3 ,public1 as compared with private worship1 has the undoubted advantage of being in itself a public homage to the omnipotence of ,god1 and a solemn testimony of the dependence of man on ,him4 ,true1 solitary worship is often more likely to be attended with the requisite mental abstraction from all worldly objects1 and intellectual elevation of the soul towards its ,divine ,source--a condition of mind indispensable to establish a true spiritual communion in ,prayer1 and without which all our orisons and ritual ceremonies would be but mechanical and meaningless performances1 a body without soul4 ,it is this condition of the mind that1 in ,talmudical style1 is called ,hebrew3 het-nun-vav-kaf1 as is well known1 and that later ascetic writers termed ,hebrew3 tav-vav-dalet-dalet-vav-bet-het-he1 from the circumstance that it is superinduced by solitary meditation4 ,but whenever this condition is attained in a public service1 then indeed is that service divine1 and humanity is exalted in its approach to the ,throne of ,mercy4--,,the ,,translator4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,lxxxiii4 ,,on determining the duties of the individual towards his fellow-men1 and towards all that surrounds him in nature1 revelation did not think it proper to refer the motives to human intelligence1 and to allow the bases of justice and benevolence to rest on human reason alone2 but it said1 ,do what is right and just and good in the eyes of the ,eternal thy ,god2 and refrain from all that is not such1 because it pleases not thy ,god1 whereby it wished to proclaim that the notions of just and unjust1 of good and evil1 of rights and duties1 should be considered as emanating from1 and prescribed by1 the ,divine wisdom1 and therefore obligatory only because agreeable to the ,divine will4 ,in this also the revealed word purposed to come to the assistance of human frailty1 and to render superfluous the abstrusities--as arbitrary as uncertain and controvertible--about which eminent philosophers tortured their brains1 for many centuries1 to fix1 as they thought1 the principles of the so-called ,jure in its innumerable ramifications of natural and positive1 public and private1 civil and criminal1 commercial1 maritime1 canonical1 feudal1 of police1 of finance1 of war1 and what not1 without ever yet arriving at a complete accord in their specialities2 whereas all right obtains a solid and effective sanction when its origin is referred to ,god1 who comprehending in ,himself the sum total of right1 justice and moral good1 and having communed with man to enjoin to him their exercise1 willed that the carrying out of their dictates should be considered as an act of religion1 of service rendered to ,him1 and that violating the one or failing in the other1 should be alike regarded as an offence committed towards ,him1 which ,he will punish severely4 ,god1 then1 is the source of right2 ,he made man acquainted with it through ,his law1 and committed to him its performance on earth after rules prescribed by ,his will4 ,,lxxxiv4 ,in promulgating the duties of man towards his fellow-men1 the holy scripture assumed sometimes the negative form1 to forbid all that which may cause injury to others2 and sometimes the positive form1 enjoining the practice to be followed towards all4 ,to the first class belong the following prohibitions1 viz41 of nourishing hatred1 rancour1 revenge2 of calumniating1 or in any way whatever damaging the reputations of others2 of assailing their honour or good fame2 of restraining or obstructing others in the exercise of their rights1 or in the use and enjoyment of their properties2 of practising deceptions1 impositions1 frauds1 and all forms of insincerity1 usury1 extortions1 and violence2 of laying obstructions in the way of the weak or helpless2 of giving false testimony2 of speaking untruth2 of reporting even truth1 when it may lead to discord and strife2 of occasioning danger2 of offending decency and good manners2 of causing scandal2 of withholding wages or remuneration due2 of keeping in pledge the clothing or implements of the poor2 of using two weights and measures2 of associating with the wicked2 of breaking a pledge-word2 of violating or assailing the conjugal happiness of others2 of coveting anything that belongs to others2 and other similar prohibitions recorded in the sacred code1 which can be easily collected as pertaining to this class4 ,moreover1 it will not be unreasonable to complete this list by the addition of a few more particular actions1 which1 though not specifically mentioned1 must yet be understood to be forbidden2 for1 as it is a constant rule in biblical exegesis to deduce general theories from single laws which appear to refer to particular cases1 so must1 by analogy1 be comprised in an enunciated forbidden action all others of a similar nature1 character1 and tendency1 as being understood in the former4 ,,lxxxv4 ,the positive precepts concerning a man's conduct towards his fellow-men1 are naturally enunciated in directions of a tendency precisely opposite to those expressed negatively2 that is to say1 it is enjoined to practise the reverse of what has been forbidden4 ,now1 to begin with the more general prescriptions2 it is enjoined1 in the first place1 to love one's fellow-men as one's own-self1 all mankind1 without any exception1 being comprised in this expression1 as we meet again the same injunction with regard to the stranger1 whom we are commanded to love as ourselves2 and ,scripture explained already what is to be understood by the word stranger1 when it said3 ,thou also hast been a stranger in the land of ,egypt2 from which it is evident that the love inculcated extends even to adversaries and enemies4 ,it is next commanded to respect in every individual the dignity of man1 created in the image of ,god1 which establishes the inviolability of person1 and the equality of all before the law1 so that there should be no privileged caste1 no hereditary preeminence2 desiring1 on the contrary1 that under the protection of the same law and same right should dwell the native and the foreigner4 ,the personal liberty of every member of the human family is also proclaimed1 as it is with that intention that the ,decalogue has put prominently forward the circumstance of ,israel having been delivered from servitude2 and if1 on the one hand1 the condition of the times1 which had rendered the use of slavery natural and universal1 did not then admit of its sudden and immediate extirpation2 on the other1 ,scripture designed to mitigate its acerbity by provident and humane laws1 so as to make obvious the tendency to its future total1 though gradual1 extinction4 ,to prevent pauperism1 as well as to cure its evils1 the rich were enjoined to lend money to those who needed it2 and the law1 starting from the presumption that the poor man would not1 or at least should not1 desire to borrow and incur a debt1 unless being deprived of the necessaries of life1 ordered that such a loan to the destitute brother be gratuitous1 whilst in commercial transactions with foreign people it permitted the charge of some reasonable interest on loans of money1 as an equivalent for the service rendered4 ,,lxxxvi4 ,the administration of justice being1 according to the revealed principles1 a divine office1 was naturally to be confided to persons carefully selected for their intelligence1 probity1 incorruptibility1 and superiority to every human regard2 these are therefore invested with a judicial representation of the ,divinity on earth1 and are enjoined to proceed according to the rules of the strictest justice1 without ever deferring either to the pitiable condition of the poor1 or to the influence of the powerful4 ,as a corollary to this system1 every person is bound to appeal to these authorities in any emergency1 and to refrain from taking the law into his own hands2 even for the correction of the disorders of one's own child1 the law requires a recourse to the constituted authority1 not permitting the infliction of punishments of any kind1 without the intervention of those appointed to administer justice4 ,passing to the other observances1 which grow out of the grand duty to be just to all1 we are strictly commanded to respect the property1 the rights and the honour of others1 to be solicitous of their welfare1 as much as of our own1 to act honestly1 sincerely and faithfully on every occasion1 to fulfil our promises1 to facilitate to others the success to which they are justly entitled1 and to pardon our enemies4 ,from the multifarious and varied ties which bind the individual to family and society1 issue the special duties of husband and wife1 of fathers1 of children1 of relations1 as well as the regard due to misfortune1 respect to the aged1 the virtuous1 the learned1 the magistrates1 and the authorities of the state1 attachment to the country1 and obedience and loyalty to the sovereign1 who1 in the language of the ,bible1 is constituted by ,god to govern the destinies of the people committed to his or her care4 ,all these duties1 which branch off into many specialities1 are either explicitly declared1 or incontestably result1 by analogies and sound hermeneutical deductions1 from the various texts referring to such subjects4 ,,lxxxvii4 ,but not to strict justice alone our conduct towards our fellow-men must conform itself2 we are bound to act on the principles of the most generous benevolence and charity4 ,those acts of a noble mind and a magnanimous heart1 commonly called virtue1 which are by moralists only recommended1 as meritorious works1 are by the ,divine law enjoined1 as obligatory1 in the most absolute sense4 ,alms1 for instance1 are1 in the ,mosaic law1 a duty of the rich1 and a right of the needy4 ,god is the owner of the land2 ,he gave it to the diligent to cultivate1 and through ,his blessing their labours prosper2 ,he assigned to the poor ,his dues on the cultivated soil1 and ordered that to them should be left the total produce of every seventh year1 the tithes of some other years1 and the gleanings of the fields and vineyards4 ,it was not thereby intended to render charity legal and compulsory1 depriving it of its noblest attribute1 which is spontaneity1 but to show more conspicuously the importance attached to it1 having otherwise left free all acts of kindness and mercy1 to which the law does not fix any measure4 ,to this class also belong the precepts1 which make it a duty to give timely assistance to him who is about to succumb to fatigue and labour1 to supply with provisions the discharged servant1 to restore before sunset the clothing taken in pawn1 to obviate danger in building a house1 to put no obstructions before the blind1 to grant every kind of relief to whomsoever stands in need1 without exacting1 or even expecting1 any remuneration1 to rescue those who are in danger1 to defend the weak1 to protect the widow and the orphan1 to attend the sick1 and to give sepulture to the dead4 ,these and other similar prescriptions1 which make of charity a duty1 carry with them the great lesson1 that justice must go always hand-in-hand with mercy1 since the all-just ,god is also all-merciful1 and he who satisfies not both alike1 does not fully discharge his duties to society4 ,,lxxxviii4 ,the ,mosaic dispensation1 which considers the whole world as a grand unit1 and tends to carry out the idea of moral good to its fullest extent1 could not leave unnoticed the relations of man with beings of different species2 therefore it also mentioned duties that we owe to the irrational creatures and inanimate beings4 ,true1 ,god granted to man a superiority1 a dominion over all things created on earth1 permitting him the use1 and even the destruction1 of them1 whenever this is necessary to his own welfare1 or conducive to his own advantage2 but ,he wisely restricted such power within certain limits4 ,mosaism regards the entire universe as a temple manifesting the glory of ,god1 and directs us to admire in the single component parts the profound counsels and infinite wisdom of ,him who created and harmonized so many wonders4 ,thus we are commanded1 in the first place1 to respect the laws of nature1 as established by its ,supreme ,author from the creation1 and not to do capriciously things that are in direct opposition to such laws4 ,from this principle spring the various prohibitions to couple sexually different species of animals1 to practise on them castration1 to constrain simultaneously to joint labour beasts of unequal strength1 to muzzle them while thrashing1 and to use towards them any kind of cruelty4 ,nay1 it is enjoined that they1 also1 should participate in the general rest ordained for men on festivals4 ,it is well for us to reflect how incomplete are as yet the modern institutions for the prevention of cruelty to animals1 when compared with those of the ancient ,mosaic code4 ,even the simultaneous sowing of heterogeneous species1 and the ingrafting of plants1 are considered as violations of the law of nature1 which had established the distinctions4 ,in the second place1 in order that man1 while using all things for his benefit1 might not imagine that he is their absolute master1 and should not forget the true ,owner1 who conferred them upon him under various reservations1 he was enjoined not to appropriate at the same time two things1 one of which had been born or produced from the other2 but in the act of converting to his own use some object or being1 he should spare that which gave it birth1 and not lay his hands upon both simultaneously4 ,he is thus to learn to respect the causes while enjoying the effects2 and from the secondary causes he will mentally ascend to the primitive one1 which produced them all from nought4 ,this is the sense and intention of the prohibitions of taking in a covey the mother with the young1 of slaughtering a quadruped together with that which gave it birth1 of cutting down a tree1 were it even for the necessity of a siege1 while we are enjoying its fruit4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,lxxxix4 ,,the third class of duties comprises those which man has towards himself2 and here the fundamental rule1 from which they all emerge1 sounds thus--,sanctify thyself1 for ,i1 the ,eternal1 am holy1 which1 in other words1 may be rendered as follows--,imitate ,god1 for thou wast created in ,his image4 ,as1 however1 this sanctification of self cannot possibly be effected without knowing and loving ,god1 and without walking in his ways by practising justice and charity1 it follows that this third article is the cardinal point1 which virtually comprehends in itself the other two--it is the ultimate object of all the revelation1 which purposed nothing more or less than the perfection of man2 to this grand end the whole scheme of revelation was designed4 ,it is clear that1 in regulating the precepts of sanctification1 the revealed word had not alone to deal with the human soul1 but to take into account the body also1 without whose concurrence man cannot attain perfection4 ,designed for a receptacle of an immortal spirit1 and for an instrument to carry out the actions of life1 the body must be preserved entire1 pure1 and inaccessible to all contamination that would be an obstacle to the high spiritual functions to be accomplished by its means4 ,to ensure this inaccessibility1 as far as possible1 the ,divine law prescribed for all mankind a rule1 which1 though to the short understanding of many its character may not appear very clear1 was deemed by the eternal wisdom as calculated to promote morality4 ,previously to ,abraham's vocation1 ,god forbade ,noah and his children to feed upon blood2 and the scriptural declaration1 that the soul of animals resides in their blood1 seems to indicate that the motive of that prohibition is to prevent the human body being brutalised by absorbing within itself1 and assimilating1 a large amount of an inferior vitality1 and thus causing the material propensities to preponderate in man4 ,but even if the true reason of that prohibition remained unknown to us1 this would not be the only instance of man being obliged to acknowledge his own ignorance1 and to bow reverently before an explicit and rigorous commandment of ,god4 ,,xc4 ,the principles inculcated by the ,mosaic code1 for the preservation of the body1 involve1 primarily1 the prohibition of attempting its existence1 and1 secondarily1 that of cutting off or injuring any part of it4 ,suicide is1 therefore1 explicitly declared a crime2 and several precepts are directed against mutilations1 marks1 and all sorts of deformations4 ,the law does not permit voluntary macerations of the body1 capricious abstinences from lawful things1 multiplied or prolonged fasts1 or subtractions from what is necessary to life4 ,it1 on the contrary1 intends that bodily health should be cared for1 that cleanliness and decency1 in every respect1 be regarded1 a proper development of the physical faculties promoted1 and an employment procured for them consonant with the superior requirements of man4 ,it is likewise due to the physiology of the human body1 not to use any of its limbs in a manner contradictory to its organisation1 to provide for the restoration of equilibrium or health eventually lost1 to avoid risks of injuries or disorders1 and to take advice of skilled men in cases of disease4 ,but food1 drink1 recreation1 physical enjoyment1 and every other indulgence usually allowed to the advantage of the body1 are required by the law to be moderated by certain rules of a moral standard1 having in view more elevated ends than the mere gratification of earthly wants2 so that even the most vulgar acts may1 from the intentions which accompany them1 acquire a certain religious importance4 ,in short1 the government of the body must be such as to favour1 and not to hinder1 the exercise of what concerns spiritual life4 ,,xci4 ,passing to other moral requirements which come within the sphere of man's duties towards himself1 it is unnecessary to demonstrate here how it is incumbent upon every man to choose a state in society adapted to his individual faculties and aptitude1 to be industrious1 sober and decorous1 to fix on a well-regulated distribution of his time and work1 to be economical without parsimony and liberal without prodigality1 and generally to follow such rules of wisdom as tend to render life prosperous1 and human conduct acceptable to society4 ,all such rules are self-evident1 and grow necessarily out of the general principle which demands of the functions of the body to subserve the attainment of self-sanctification4 ,but we must now speak precisely of this sanctification1 to point out briefly in what it consists4 ,from the ,divine prescript1 ,sanctify yourselves because ,i am holy1 we clearly conclude that the type of sanctification is to be sought1 not in ourselves1 but in ,god2 therefore1 to sanctify ourselves is to shape our own acts and will upon the known will of ,god2 to be fully penetrated with the idea of ,him2 to hold steadfastly to ,him2 to take ,him for a guide in the walks of life2 to make ,him the goal of our actions and the centre of our hopes2 to devote our solicitude to the accomplishment of the high designs of ,his eternal wisdom2 to perform whatever is agreeable to ,him2 to imitate1 as far as possible1 ,his perfections2 in short1 so to act1 that what in ,him is absolute may become in us subjective2 and thus the sanctity of ,god will produce man's own sanctification4 ,having established this sovereign principle1 revelation has accomplished its intentions1 has attained its object1 for the whole sum of the ,divine law is concentrated in it2 and worship1 morals1 judicial laws1 and all single observances prescribed1 are but branches or constituent parts of this principle2 they all flow from1 and return to1 it1 with a systematic consequence4 ,,xcii4 ,besides the three cardinal articles above stated1 the observance of which1 in their general tendencies at least1 is incumbent on all mankind1 there are in the sacred code various special prescriptions obligatory only on ,israel1 as him who first received the revelation1 and who is bound to preserve it with particular means1 and to testify it for ever1 by his acts and by his very existence4 ,through such prescriptions1 the law designed either to keep alive among the people the idea of the high mission entrusted to it1 and the memory of signal favours which ,providence prodigally conferred upon it in the early times of the institution1 or to initiate it into a more scrupulous sanctitude1 by interdicting to it some things that are left permissive to others4 ,it is not necessary here to give a complete list of such precepts1 as the mere inspection of the sacred text suffices to point them out2 and we shall confine ourselves to indicating some of the more important4 ,pre-eminent among them stands the sabbath1 the elevated tendency of which has been already explained in the ,sinaitic revelation2 next come the three ,festivals of ,passover1 ,pentecost1 and ,tabernacles1 which1 besides being linked to1 and combined with1 rural events and circumstances1 are also designed to commemorate luminous epochs in the national history2 the great day of atonement1 as a highly important act of reconciliation with ,god2 the circumcision1 as an ineffaceable mark of the adoption of ,israel2 the assiduous study of the ,divine law1 as the purest source of truth1 and repository of the religious idea2 the fringes in the garments1 the phylacteries or frontlets1 the inscriptions on the door-posts1 and such like commemorative means2 the redemption of the firstborn children2 and the offering of the first fruits1 as a demonstration of filial dependance on1 and gratitude to1 the ,supreme ,cause2 the prohibition to feed on certain loathsome animals1 and reptiles and insects1 in order not to assimilate to the human body substances of a low1 imperfect1 and possibly deteriorated organization2 the interdiction of marriages between certain degrees of relationships1 because wanting in the antagonism required in connubial unions2#e the duty of offering up prayer1 one of the noblest offices of piety1 and the most effectual medium of communion with ,god2 that of confessing sins1 the inevitable consequence of human frailty2 the injunctions to reject idolatry1 divinations1 charms1 exorcisms1 sortileges1 and all manner of superstitions1 all of which are obstacles to the development of the religious idea2 and several other precepts1 which may be found dispersed throughout the sacred code1 all having similar tendencies1 and coming more or less directly within the scope we have assigned to them4 ,note #e3 ,another probable reason of this prohibition is1 that the practice of such unions would be fraught with great domestic disorders and unhappiness1 and consequent social evils4 ,but it is opportune here to remind the leader1 that many attempts have been made1 in the course of centuries1 by eminent expositors1 to assign to many of the ,mosaic ordinances motives of various characters1 rationalistic and metaphysical1 sanitary1 political1 and mystical1 but all more or less conjectural4 ,to the religious man the positive knowledge of the true motives is not at all essential for the performance of the divine precepts2 and in the words of our author himself1 as stated elsewhere1 we have to bow reverently before an explicit and rigorous commandment of ,god1 and we consider it as calculated to contribute to the promotion of our own weal4--,,the ,,translator4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,xciii4 ,,casting now a retrospective glance on what we have hitherto briefly stated1 it will be easy to deduce1 from the aggregate of these notions1 the principal characteristic of that wondrous institution1 which it pleased the ,divine mercy to found upon earth for the benefit of the human family1 selecting for its organ the people of ,israel2 an institution1 which1 in reference to the means adopted for its preservation and propagation1 is called ,judaism4 ,the scope of ,judaism is1 then1 the propagation among men of the religious idea1 and this comprises the doctrines revealed respecting the ,deity and respecting man1 in consequence of which the latter will be able to attain his true goal4 ,respecting ,god1 revelation teaches that ,he is a ,being absolute--that is to say1 that has in ,himself all the sources of existence1 of will1 of power1 and of action--hence ,he is eternal1 all-perfect1 all-powerful1 all-holy2 ,he is unique1 because there is no ,god beside ,him2 and ,he is one1 because in ,him there can be no multiplicity or division of parts2 ,he created out of nought the universe1 which ,he governs by pre-ordained physical laws1 and all that exists owes to ,him its existence and conservation4 ,respecting man1 revelation teaches that he has an immortal soul1 made in the image of ,god--that is1 endowed with various spiritual faculties similar1 in their nature1 to those of his ,maker--therefore susceptible of a progressive perfection1 which he will attain by sanctifying himself--that is1 by imitating ,god and carrying out his commands4 ,to that effect1 ,god entered into an immediate relation with man1 whereby ,he not only provides for the preservation of mankind1 as ,he does for that of all other things created1 but ,he1 moreover1 granted him a supernatural assistance to improve his moral condition2 and this assistance consists in having made him the recipient of a revelation1 by which ,he instructed him in the best rules of life1 and declared to him that ,he will be his support1 his protector1 his judge1 his loving father1 and his guide towards eternal felicity4 ,,xciv4 ,but the religious idea is not simply a theory that may be accepted or rejected without affecting the human actions1 it is not an abstraction confined within the sphere of contemplation2 it is a practical system1 which requires to be put into execution1 and to be manifested in every part of the human conduct4 ,as such1 it was to pass into the hands of men1 to direct their actions2 and they could conform to it only to the extent of their intellectual comprehension of its spirit4 ,now1 every institution1 however excellent in itself1 is liable to vicissitudes1 as soon as human ingenuity seeks to comprehend it1 and human weakness to carry it into effect4 ,even as the intellectual powers and the modes of viewing things vary among men1 so the religious idea1 in its practical application1 was subject1 in the lapse of time1 to some alteration among those who became its depositaries4 ,judaism did not remain always pure and consentaneous to its ends2 and1 although based on a foundation unchangeable in its nature1 and eternal1 its practice was sometimes at variance with its spirit1 and its essence was either neglected or misunderstood1 according to certain circumstances of the national development1 as we are informed1 even by the records of sacred history4 ,,xcv4 ,there can be no doubt but the inspired man1 who first was commissioned to proclaim the true religious idea1 had fully realized in his mind the vastness and immense consequences of that new institution in its ultimate universal compass4 ,in his eloquent addresses there are even some broad traits which allude to a fulfilment reserved to the latest posterity4 ,nevertheless1 it is obvious1 that1 having to instruct a people who were not yet prepared to realize such an idea1 and in an age when the opinions of all mankind ran into totally different directions1 he had to take into account the condition of the times and of men1 and to use a language suited to his hearers4 ,at the same time it was not designed1 or expected1 by the holy legislator to see at once realized the last and comprehensive results to which the revealed doctrine aspires2 it was sufficient to have given it existence and form1 and to have instituted a repository capably of preserving it1 leaving its final universal triumph to the development of humanity and progress of civilisation4 ,considered in these points of view1 ,mosaism has the appearance1 in its exterior garb1 of a special law1 adapted to peculiar circumstances1 and circumscribed to few persons1 but in reality1 and apart from that kind of integument1 it contains the universal doctrines1 destined to become the inheritance of all mankind4 ,the blessed ,prophet clearly foresaw that the new ideas preached by him would meet with many an obstacle1 before they were thoroughly adopted1 even by those who were called upon to preserve them2 hence the greater was the force with which he inculcated the monotheistic principle1 and the necessity of segregation from foreign and idolatrous influences2 thus his laws acquired an aspect of particularism and nationality1 whereas on being carefully studied1 and deeply penetrated1 they exhibit their more general and sublime tendency4 ,therefore1 in judging of ,mosaism1 and in interpreting the body of laws contained in the ,pentateuch1 we must never lose sight of the two following necessary cautions2 viz41 to deduce general theories from particular cases2 and to take into account the circumstances of time and place1 in order to seize that which is designed for all times and all places4#f ,note #f3 ,the attentive student of the ,pentateuch must see1 especially when assisted by the best commentators1 that several ordinances are the creatures of circumstance and time1 and consequently of an essentially transitory character4 ,among these stand foremost all such as refer to the treatment of1 and relations with1 the ,canaanitic families4 ,the strict separation of ,israel from those corrupt and idolatrous populations1 and their ultimate destruction1 were conditions necessary to the establishment and success of the new order of things4 ,as soon as the end of those ordinances was accomplished1 they naturally ceased to have any other than a historical value4 ,therefore1 he 7if any such there be7 who would transfer to the ,gentiles of our days the principles of the policy that was inculcated towards the ,canaanites of the time of ,moses1 would not only he committing a sad mistake1 but running counter to the spirit of ,judaism1 and violating the very letter of the law1 elsewhere clearly expressed4 ,thou shalt love the stranger as thyself1 is the motto which ,god inscribed for perpetuity on the banner of ,israel4--,,the ,,translator4 ,,xcvi4 ,what the inspired ,arch-prophet had foretold came too truly to pass1 as soon as the people of ,israel1 mixing too freely with their corrupt neighbours1 wished to imitate them1 and assumed the form of a monarchy4 ,ambition and lust of power could ill agree with a law1 which establishes individual liberty and equality of rights4 ,consequently1 it was not long before ,paganism ascended the throne1 attended by a hideous train of profligacies and crimes2 and1 what then remained of the ,mosaic institutions1 consisted only of the material service of the temple1 and some exterior acts mechanically performed1 but sadly lacking the idea1 which alone constitutes their merit4 ,to put an end to so great a disorder1 ,prophetism rose4 ,with admirable zeal1 energy1 eloquence1 and abnegation1 thundering in the courts1 the temple1 and the public markets2 now by word of mouth1 then by writings2 now threatening1 anon exhorting2 always struggling with infinite obstacles1 and setting at defiance the tyranny of the ruling powers with the sole prestige of the animated word1 ,prophetism undertook to revivify the religious idea1 almost extinguished1 or crushed under the weight of universal perversion4 ,but to repress with greater force the overflowing depravity1 and to combat the evil with an opposite extreme1 it was proper to divest the religious idea of its particularising and national forms1 and to present it in its more comprehensive and general character1 in its celestial beauty of a future reign of happiness1 based on love1 justice1 liberty1 and universal peace4 ,this was precisely what ,prophetism did4 ,therefore1 he would be greatly mistaken1 who would suppose1 in the expressions used by the ,prophets1 any intention of slight towards the ceremonial laws1 and those biblical prescriptions1 which are specially intended for the chosen people4 ,true1 these are to be regarded as means calculated to a superior end2 but they remain in full force and validity until that end 7which is in store in the ,eternal ,mind7 shall have been fully and finally attained4 ,the ,prophets eliminated nothing from1 and added nothing to1 the law2 they sought to revive the religious idea1 which is the foundation and aim of the law2 they brought it into prominence1 to impress it more forcibly on the minds of a people who had nearly lost it4 ,but they did more2 they bounded over the confines of the present1 transferred themselves through the imagination to a future final re-arrangement of the human conditions2 and1 giving to the religious idea its greatest possible latitude1 depicted a future state of ideal perfection1 which1 while it offered a vivid contrast with contemporary corruption1 left to posterity an imperishable monument of their inspired eloquence and exquisite foresight4#g ,note #g3 ,the original has here several succeeding paragraphs devoted to a historical review of various phases of ,judaism1 which it describes under the names of ,talmudism1 ,rabbinism1 ,caraism1 and ,cabalism4 ,believing this digression1 or appendix1 to be unnecessary to the general purposes of the present book1 ,i have omitted it in the translation1 with the sanction of the distinguished ,author himself4--,,the ,,translator4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,xcvii4 ,,judaism is now clearly delineated before us4 ,from the outline that we have endeavoured to sketch1 it is evident that the religion of the ,jew imposes upon him solemn duties towards ,god1 towards his fellow-men1 and towards himself4 ,a sincere1 pure1 undivided1 active1 loving worship of his heavenly ,father1 and a constant practice of justice1 benevolence1 and charity1 in their widest sense1 will lead to his self-sanctification1 which is the aim intended for him4 ,these are his fundamental duties1 as far as regards actions4 ,many of the observances prescribed by ,holy ,writ teach the modes and means of carrying out such duties4 ,all such prescriptions as are strictly connected with the existence of the temple1 and the sojourn in ,palestine are dispensed with1 since the destruction of the former1 and the dispersion of ,israel on the face of the earth4 ,but no doubts can exist as to the others1 which are all1 and for ever1 in full force1 having been ordained for all times and all places4 ,but the ,jew has also a creed to profess4 ,according to the ,scriptures1 he is bound to believe in the unity1 eternity1 omnipotence1 omniscience1 unerring justice1 and infinite mercy of ,god2 in ,his general providence over all the universe1 which ,he created and which ,he governs1 and ,his more special providence over man2 he is bound to believe in the divine origin of the ,mosaic revelation1 in its truth and immutability1 and in its efficacy to promote his own sanctification2 he is bound to believe in the spirituality and immortality of the human soul1 in its destination and aptitude to perform all that is good1 and in the future reward of the virtuous and punishment of the wicked2 and1 lastly1 he is bound to believe1 that1 in order to make known1 preserve1 and propagate these dogmas1 a covenant was established between ,god and ,israel1 in consequence of which the latter is called servant of ,god1 son of ,god1 holy people1 and has the particular mission to conform to the will of ,god1 which is called walking in the ways of the ,eternal4 ,these various points are1 however1 so intimately connected with each other1 and form so complete a system1 that one being admitted1 the others follow as legitimate consequences4 ,it now remains for us only to add a few words concerning the hopes of ,israel4 ,the future--as great in its consequences as extraordinary in its conditions--which the ,jew has a right to expect1 has its foundation in the ,divine promises1 and1 consequently1 its accomplishment1 though long in the womb of time1 is infallible4 ,by virtue of such promises1 ,israel expects a complete material restoration and spiritual perfection1 not of his own people only1 but of all the human family2 so that every individual of the human species may then correspond1 in all respects1 to the lofty requirements of his nature1 and attain the ends pre-established for man by the infinite wisdom of the ,creator2 and this not only during his earthly life1 but also beyond it1 in his immortal condition4 ,as to the modes by which these heavenly universal promises will come into actuality1 we must rest satisfied with very feeble and vague notions1 and not require an exact comprehension of specialities1 which1 in our present limited power of mind1 we might be unable even to conceive4 ,it is sufficient for us to be able to deduce with certainty from prophetic words1 that 7as regards the future condition of this life7 an increased intelligence1 and a more energetic will directed towards what is good--which in the biblical language is called circumcision of the heart--will be the means of diffusing throughout the world the knowledge of the ,one ,god1 and the exercise of virtue1 under the regimen of an incorruptible justice1 a generous benevolence1 a universal peace1 and an uninterrupted prosperity and happiness4 ,to ,israel1 in particular1 the gathering of his scattered members1 the restoration of his ancestral inheritance1 and the re-establishment of his nationality1 have been promised and repeatedly assured2 and the glory of that epoch forms the subject of the most glowing pictures of inspired poetry4 ,but the fulfilment of these promises the ,jew must expect from the wonder-working hand of ,god alone1 without any personal efforts of his own4 ,meanwhile1 he is to consider himself1 as he truly is1 a citizen of the country in which he dwells1 a brother to his fellow-citizens1 a dutiful observer of the law of the land1 and a loyal subject of the sovereign1 whose authority is constituted by ,god4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,,wertheimer ,,and ,,co41 ,,circus ,,place1 ,,finsbury ,,circus4