,,the ,,ocean ,,and ,,its ,,wonders1    
,,by ,r4,m4 ,,ballantyne4    ,,chapter  
,,one4  ,,what ,,the ,,ocean ,,has ,,to 
,,say--,,its ,,whispers--,,its          
,,thunders--,,its ,,secrets4  ,there is 
a voice in the waters of the great sea4 
,it calls to man continually4           
,sometimes it thunders in the tempest1  
when the waves leap high and strong and 
the wild winds shriek and roar1 as if to
 force our attention4  ,sometimes it    
whispers in the calm1 and comes rippling
 on the shingly beach in a still1 small 
voice1 as if to solicit our regard4     
,but whether that voice of ocean comes  
in crashing billows or in gentle        
murmurs1 it has but one tale to         
tell1--it speaks of the love1 and power1
 and majesty of ,him who rides upon the 
storm1 and rules the wave4  ,yes1 the   
voice of ocean tells but one tale2 yet  
there are many chapters in that         
wonderful story4  ,the sea has much to  
say2 far more than could possibly be    
comprehended in one volume1 however     

large4  ,it tells us of the doings of   
man on its broad bosom1 from the day in 
which he first ventured to paddle along 
shore in the hollow trunk of a tree1 to 
the day when he launched his great iron 
ship of #bj1jjj tons1 and rushed out to 
sea1 against wind and tide1 under an    
impulse equal to the united strength of 
#aa1ejj horses4  ,no small portion of   
the ocean's tale this1 comprising many  
chapters of deeds of daring1 blood1     
villainy1 heroism1 and enterprise4  ,but
 with this portion of its story we have 
nothing to do just now4  ,it tells us1  
also1 of ,god's myriad and multiform    
creatures1 that dwell in its depths1    
from the vast whale1 whose speed is so  
great1 that it might1 if it chose1      
circle round the world in a few days1 to
 the languid zoophyte1 which clings to  
the rock1 and bears more resemblance to 
a plant than to a living animal4  ,the  
sea has secrets1 too1 some of which it  
will not divulge until that day when its
 ,creator shall command it to give up   

its dead2 while others it is willing to 
part with to those who question it      
closely1 patiently1 and with            
intelligence4  ,among the former kind of
 secrets are those foul deeds that have 
been perpetrated1 in all ages1 by       
abandoned men2 when no human ears       
listened to the stifled shriek1 or the  
gurgling plunge2 when no human eyes     
beheld the murderous acts1 the bloody   
decks1 the blazing vessels1 or the final
 hiss of the sinking wrecks4  ,among the
 latter kind of secrets are the lives   
and habits of the creatures of the deep1
 and the causes and effects of those    
singular currents of air and water1     
which1 to the eye of ignorance1 seem to 
be nothing better than irregularity and 
confusion2 but which1 to the minds of   
those who search them out1 and have     
pleasure therein1 are recognised as a   
part of that wonderful1 orderly1 and    
systematic arrangement of things that we
 call ,nature3 much of which we now     
know1 more of which we shall certainly  

know1 as each day and year adds its     
quota to the sum of human knowledge2 but
 a great deal of which will1 doubtless1 
remain for ever hidden in the mind of   
nature's ,god1 whose ways are wonderful1
 and past finding out4  ,it is the      
latter class of secrets to which we     
purpose directing the readers attention 
in the following pages4  ,on approaching
 so vast a subject1 we feel like the    
traveller who1 finding himself suddenly 
transported into the midst of a new and 
magnificent region1 stands undecided    
whither to direct his steps in the      
endlessly varied scene4  ,or1 still     
more1 like the visitor to our great     
,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1    
who1--entering abruptly that gigantic   
palace1 where were represented the      
talent1 the ingenuity1 time wealth1 and 
industry of every people and            
clime1--attempts1 in vain1 to           
systematise his explorations1 or to fix 
his attention4  ,it is probable that1 in
 each of these supposed cases1 the      

traveller and visitor1 resigning the    
desire to achieve what is impossible1   
would give themselves up to the         
agreeable guidance of a wandering and   
wayward fancy4  ,let us1 reader1 act in 
a somewhat similar manner4  ,let us     
touch here1 and there1 and everywhere1  
on the wonders of the sea1 and listen to
 such notes of the ,ocean's ,voice as   
strike upon our ears most pleasantly4   
,,chapter ,,two4  ,,composition ,,of    
,,the ,,sea--,,its ,,salts--,,power     
,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,water--,,advantage  
,,and ,,disadvantage ,,of               
,,salts--,,anecdote--,,deep-,,sea       
,,soundings--,,brookes                  
,,apparatus--,,importance ,,of ,,the    
,,search ,,after                        
,,truth--,,illustrations-- ,,discoveries
 ,,resulting ,,from ,,deep-,,sea        
,,soundings4  ,before proceeding to the 
consideration of the wonders connected  
with and contained in the sea1 we shall 
treat of the composition of the sea     
itself and of its extent1 depth1 and    

bottom4  ,what is the sea made of8      
,salt water1 is the ready reply that    
rises naturally to every lip4  ,but to  
this we add the question1--,what is salt
 water8 or1 as there are many kinds of  
salt water1 of what sort of salt water  
does the sea consist8  ,to these queries
 we give the following reply1 which1 we 
doubt not1 will rather surprise some of 
our readers4  ,fresh water1 as most     
people are aware1 is composed of two    
gases--oxygen and hydrogen4  ,sea water 
is composed of the same gases1 with the 
addition of muriate of soda1 magnesia1  
iron1 lime1 sulphur1 copper1 silex1     
potash1 chlorine1 iodine1 bromine1      
ammonia1 and silver4  ,what a dose6     
,let bathers think of it next time they 
swallow a gulp of sea water4  ,most of  
these substances1 however1 exist in     
comparatively small quantity in the sea1
 with the exception of muriate of soda1 
or common table salt2 of which1 as all  
bathers know from bitter experience1    
there is a very considerable quantity4  

,the quantity of silver contained in sea
 water is very small indeed4            
,nevertheless1 small though it be1 the  
ocean is so immense1 that1 it has been  
calculated1 if all the silver in it were
 collected1 it would form a mass that   
would weigh about two hundred million   
tons6  ,the salt of the ocean varies    
considerably in different parts4  ,near 
the equator1 the great heat carries up a
 larger proportion of water by          
evaporation than in the more temperate  
regions2 and thus1 as salt is not       
removed by evaporation1 the ocean in the
 torrid zone is salter than in the      
temperate or frigid zones4  ,the salts  
of the sea1 and other substances        
contained in it1 are conveyed thither by
 the fresh-water streams that pour into 
it from all the continent of the world4 
,maury1 in his delightful work1 ,the    
,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 tells 
us that water is ,nature's great        
carrier4 ,with its currents it conveys  
heat away from the torrid zone1 and ice 

from the frigid2 or1 bottling the       
caloric away in the vesicle of its      
vapour1 it first makes it impalpable1   
and then conveys it by unknown paths to 
the most distant parts of the ,earth4   
,the materials of which the coral builds
 the island1 and the sea-conch its      
shell1 are gathered by this restless    
leveller from mountains1 rocks1 and     
valleys1 in all latitudes4  ,some it    
washes down from the ,mountains of the  
,moon in ,africa1 or out of the         
gold-fields of ,australia1 or from the  
mines of ,potosi2 others from the       
battle-fields of ,europe1 or from the   
marble quarries of ancient ,greece and  
,rome4  ,the materials thus collected1  
and carried over falls and down rapids1 
are transported to the sea4  ,here1 as  
these substances cannot be evaporated1  
they would accumulate to such a degree  
as to render the ocean uninhabitable by 
living creatures1 had not ,god provided 
against this by the most beautiful      
compensation4 ,he has filled the ocean  

with innumerable animals and marine     
plants1 whose special duty it is to     
seize and make use of the substances    
thus swept from the land1 and reconvert 
them into solids4  ,we cannot form an   
adequate conception of the extent of the
 great work carried on continually in   
this way2 but we see part of it in the  
chalk cliffs1 the marl beds of the sea  
shore1 and the coral islands of the     
,south ,seas1--of which last more       
particular notice shall be taken in a   
succeeding chapter4  ,the operations of 
the ocean are manifold4  ,besides       
forming a great reservoir1 into which   
what may be termed the impurities of the
 land are conveyed1 it is1 as has been  
shown1 the great laboratory of ,nature1 
where these are reconverted1 and the    
general balance restored4  ,but we      
cannot speak of these things without    
making passing reference to the         
operations of water1 as that            
wonder-working agent of which the ocean 
constitutes but a part4  ,nothing in    

this world is ever lost or annihilated4 
,as the ocean receives all the water    
that flows from the land1 so it returns 
that water1 fresh and pure1 in the shape
 of vapour1 to the skies2 where1 in the 
form of clouds1 it is conveyed to those 
parts of the earth where its presence is
 most needed1 and precipitated in the   
form of rain and dew1 fertilising the   
soil1 replenishing rivers and lakes1    
penetrating the earth's deep caverns2   
whence it bubbles up in the shape of    
springs1 and1 after having gladdened the
 heart of man by driving his mills and  
causing his food to grow1 it finds its  
way again into the sea3 and thus the    
good work goes on with ceaseless        
regularity4  ,water beats upon the rocks
 of the sea-shore until it pounds them  
into sand1 or rolls them into pebbles   
and boulders4  ,it also sweeps the rich 
soil from the mountains into the        
valleys4  ,in the form of snow it       
clothes the surface of the temperate and
 frigid zones with a warm mantle1 which 

preserves vegetable life from the       
killing frosts of winter4  ,in the form 
of ice it splits asunder the granite    
hills2 and in the northern regions it   
forms great glaciers1 or masses of      
solidified snow1 many miles in extent1  
and many hundred feet thick4  ,these    
glaciers descend by slow1 imperceptible 
degrees1 to the sea2 their edges break  
off and fall into it1 and1 floating     
southward1 sometimes in great           
mountainous masses1 are seen by man in  
the shape of icebergs4 ,frequently huge 
rocks1 that have fallen upon these      
glaciers from cliffs in the arctic      
regions1 are carried by them to other   
regions1 and are deposited on flat      
beaches1 far from their native cliffs4  
,the saltness of the sea rendering it   
more dense1 necessarily renders it more 
buoyant1 than fresh water4  ,this is    
obviously a great advantage to man in   
the matter of commerce4  ,a ship does   
not sink so deep in the sea as it does  
in a fresh-water lake2 hence it can     

carry more cargo with greater facility4 
,it is easier to swim in salt than in   
fresh water4  ,the only disadvantage to 
commerce in the saltness of the sea is  
the consequent unfitness of its water   
for drinking4  ,many and harrowing are  
the accounts of instances in which      
sailors have been reduced to the most   
terrible extremities for want of fresh  
water2 and many a time1 since navigation
 began1 have men been brought to feel   
the dread reality of that condition     
which is so forcibly expressed in the   
poem of the ,ancient ,mariner3--        
,water1 water everywhere1   ,and not a  
drop to drink4  ,science1 however1 at   
length enabled us to overcome this      
disadvantage of saltness4  ,by the      
process of distillation1 men soon       
managed to procure enough water at least
 to save their lives4  ,one captain of a
 ship1 by accident1 lost all his fresh  
water2 and1 before he could put into    
port to replenish1 a gale of wind1 which
 lasted three weeks1 drove him far out  

to sea4  ,he had no distilling apparatus
 on board1 and it seemed as if all hope 
of the crew escaping the most horrible  
of deaths were utterly taken away4  ,in 
this extremity the captain's inventive  
genius came to his aid4  ,he happened to
 have on board an old iron pitch-pot1   
with a wooden cover4  ,using this as a  
boiler1 a pipe made of a pewter plate1  
and a wooden cask as a receiver1 he set 
to work1 filled the pot with sea water1 
put an ounce of soap therein to assist  
in purifying it1 and placed it on the   
fire4  ,when the pot began to boil1 the 
steam passed through the pipe into the  
cask1 where it was condensed into water1
 minus the saline particles1 which1 not 
being evaporable1 were left behind in   
the pitch-pot4  ,in less than an hour a 
quart of fresh water was thus obtained2 
which1 though not very palatable1 was   
sufficiently good to relieve the thirst 
of the ship's crew4  ,many ships are now
 regularly supplied with apparatus for  
distilling sea water2 and on the        

,african coasts and other unhealthy     
stations1 where water is bad1 the men of
 our navy drink no other water than that
 which is distilled from the sea4  ,the 
salts of the ocean have something to do 
with the creating of oceanic currents2  
which1 in their turn1 have a powerful   
influence on climates4 ,they also retard
 evaporation to some extent1 and have   
some effect in giving to the sea its    
beautiful blue colour4  ,the ocean      
covers about two-thirds of the entire   
surface of the ,earth4 ,its depth has   
never been certainly ascertained2 but   
from the numberless experiments and     
attempts that have been made1 we are    
warranted in coming to the conclusion   
that it nowhere exceeds five miles in   
depth1 probably does not quite equal    
that4  ,professor ,wyville ,thompson    
estimates the average depth of the sea  
at about two miles4  ,of the three great
 oceans into which the sea is naturally 
divided--the ,atlantic1 the ,pacific1   
and the ,arctic--the ,atlantic is       

supposed to be the deepest4  ,there are 
profundities in its bosom which have    
never yet been sounded1 and probably    
never will be4  ,the difficulty of      
sounding great depths arises from the   
fact that1 after a large quantity of    
line has been run out1 the shock of the 
lead striking the bottom cannot be felt4
  ,moreover1 there is sufficient force  
in the deep-sea currents to sweep out   
the line after the lead has reached the 
bottom so that1 with the ordinary       
sounding-lines in use among navigators1 
it is impossible to sound great depths4 
,scientific men have1 therefore1 taxed  
their brains to invent instruments for  
sounding the deep sea--for touching the 
bottom in what sailors call blue water4 
,some have tried it with a silk thread  
as a plumb-line1 some with spun-yarn    
threads1 and various other materials and
 contrivances4  ,it has even been tried 
by exploding petards and ringing bells  
in the deep sea1 when it was supposed   
that an echo or reverberation might be  

heard1 and1 from the known rate at which
 sound travels through water1 the depth 
might thus be ascertained4  ,deep-sea   
leads have been constructed having a    
column of air in them1 which1 by        
compression1 would show the aqueous     
pressure to which they had been         
subjected2 but the trial proved to be   
more than the instrument could stand4   
,captain ,maury1 of the ,american       
,navy--whose interesting book has been  
already referred to--invented an        
instrument for sounding the deep sea4   
,here is his own description of it3--,to
 the lead was attached1 upon the        
principle of the screw-propeller1 a     
small piece of clock-work for           
registering the number of revolutions   
made by the little screw during the     
descent2 and it having been ascertained 
by experiment in shoal water that the   
apparatus1 in descending1 would cause   
the propeller to make one revolution for
 every fathom of perpendicular descent1 
hands provided with the power of        

self-registering were attached to a     
dial1 and the instrument was complete4  
,it worked beautifully in moderate      
depths1 but failed in blue water1 from  
the difficulty of hauling it up if the  
line used were small1 and from the      
difficulty of getting it down if the    
line used were large enough to give the 
requisite strength for hauling it up4   
,one eccentric old sea captain proposed 
to sound the sea with a torpedo1 or     
shell1 which should explode the instant 
it touched the bottom4  ,another        
gentleman proposed to try it by the     
magnetic telegraph1 and designed an     
instrument which should telegraph to the
 expectant measurers above how it was   
getting on in the depths below4  ,but   
all these ingenious devices failed1 and 
it is probable that the deepest parts of
 the ocean-bed still remained untouched 
by man4  ,at last an extremely simple   
and remarkably successful deep-sea      
sounding apparatus was invented by ,mr  
,brooke1 an ,american officer4  ,it     

consisted of nothing more than thin     
twine for a sounding-line1 and a cannon 
ball for a sinker4  ,the twine was made 
for the purpose1 fine but very strong1  
and was wound on a reel to the extent of
 ten thousand fathoms4  ,the cannon     
ball1 which was from thirty-two to      
sixty-eight pounds' weight1 had a hole  
quite through it1 into which was fixed a
 sliding rod1 the end of which1 covered 
with grease1 projected several inches   
beyond the ball4 ,by an ingenious and   
simple contrivance1 the cannon ball was 
detached when it reached the bottom of  
the sea1 and the light rod was drawn up 
with specimens of the bottom adhering to
 the grease4  ,with this instrument the 
,americans went to work with            
characteristic energy1 and1 by always   
using a line of the same size and make1 
and a sinker of the same shape and      
weight1 they at last ascertained the law
 of descent4  ,this was an important    
achievement1 because1 having become     
familiar with the precise rate of       

descent at all depths1 they were enabled
 to tell very nearly when the ball      
ceased to carry out the line1 and when  
it began to go out in obedience to the  
influence of deep-sea currents4  ,the   
greatest depth reached by ,brooke's     
sounding-line is said to have been a    
little under five miles in the ,north   
,atlantic4  ,the value of investigations
 of this kind does not appear at first  
sight1 to unscientific men4  ,but those 
who have paid even a little attention to
 the methods and processes by which     
grand discoveries have been made1 and   
useful inventions have been perfected1  
can scarcely have failed to come to the 
conclusion that the search after        
,,truth1 pure and simple1 of any kind1  
and of every kind1 either with or       
without reference to a particular end1  
is one of the most useful as well as    
elevating pursuits in which man can     
engage4  ,all truth is worth knowing and
 labouring after4  ,no one can tell to  
what useful results the discovery of    

even the smallest portion of truth may  
lead4  ,some of the most serviceable and
 remarkable inventions of modern times  
have been the result of discoveries of  
truths which at first seemed to have no 
bearing whatever on those inventions4   
,when ,james ,watt sat with busy        
reflective mind staring at a boiling    
kettle1 and discovered the expansive    
power of steam1 no one could have for a 
moment imagined that in the course of   
years the inventions founded on the     
truth then discovered would result in   
the systematic driving of a fleet of    
floating palaces all round the world at 
the rate of from twelve to fifteen or   
twenty miles an hour6  ,instances of a  
similar kind might be multiplied without
 end4  ,in like manner1 deep-sea        
sounding may lead to great1 as yet      
unimagined1 results4  ,although yet in  
its infancy1 it has already resulted in 
the discovery of a comparatively shallow
 plateau or ridge in the ,north         
,atlantic ,ocean1 rising between        

,ireland and ,newfoundland2 a discovery 
which has been turned to practical      
account1 inasmuch as the plateau has    
been chosen to be the bed of our        
electric telegraph between ,europe and  
,america4  ,the first ,atlantic cable   
was laid on it2 and although that cable 
suffered many vicissitudes at first1 as 
most contrivances do in their           
beginnings1 communication between the   
two continents was successfully         
established4  ,soundings taken elsewhere
 showed that somewhat similar plateaus  
existed in other parts of the ,atlantic1
 and now the whole of ,western ,europe  
is being bound more firmly1 by          
additional cables1 to the eastern       
seaboard of ,america4  ,this great and  
glorious achievement has been the result
 of the discovery of two truths1--of a  
truth in science on the one hand1 and a 
truth in regard to the structure of the 
bed of the sea on the other4  ,the study
 of electricity and of deep-sea         
soundings was begun and carried on for  

the sake of the discovery of truth      
alone1 and without the most distant     
reference to the ,atlantic              
,telegraph1--yet that telegraph has been
 one of the results of that study4  ,who
 can tell how many more shall follow8   
,and even were no other result ever to  
follow1 this one may prove to be of the 
most stupendous importance to the human 
race4  ,another discovery that has been 
made by deep-sea sounding is1 that the  
lowest depths of the ocean are always in
 a state of profound calm4 ,oceanic     
storms do not extend to the bottom4     
,when the tempest is lashing the surface
 of the sea into a state of the most    
violent and tremendous agitation1 the   
caverns of the deep are wrapped in      
perfect repose4  ,this has been         
ascertained from the fact that in many  
places the bottom of the sea1 as shown  
by the specimens brought up by ,brooke's
 apparatus1 and more recently by        
,professor ,thompson's deep-sea dredge1 
is composed of exceedingly minute shells

 of marine insects4  ,these shells1 when
 examined by the microscope1 are found  
to be unbroken and perfect1 though so   
fragile that they must certainly have   
been broken to pieces had they ever been
 subjected to the influence of currents1
 or to the pulverising violence of      
waves4  ,hence the conclusion that the  
bottom of the sea is in a state of      
perpetual rest and placidity4  ,indeed1 
when we think of it1 we are led to      
conclude that this must necessarily be  
the case4  ,there are1 as we shall      
presently show1 currents of vast size   
and enormous power constantly flowing   
through the ocean2 and when we think of 
the tremendous power of running water to
 cut through the solid rock1 as         
exemplified in the case of ,niagara1 and
 many other rivers1 what would be the   
result of the action of currents in the 
sea1 compared with which ,niagara is but
 a tiny rivulet8  ,ocean currents1 then1
 flow on a bed of still water1 that     
protects the bottom of the sea from     

forces which1 by calculation1 we know   
would long ago have torn up the         
foundations of the deep1 and would      
probably have destroyed the whole       
economy of nature1 had not this         
beautiful arrangement been provided by  
the all-wise ,creator4    ,,chapter     
,,three4  ,,waves--,,system ,,in ,,all  
,,things--,,value ,,of ,,scientific     
,,knowledge--,,illustrative             
,,anecdote--,,height ,,of ,,waves--,,dr4
 ,,scoresby--,,size1 ,,velocity1 ,,and  
,,awful ,,power ,,of                    
,,waves--,,anecdotes ,,regarding        
,,them--,,tides4  ,when a man stands on 
the deck of some tight-built ship1      
holding on to the weather bulwarks1 and 
gazing with unphilosophic eye through   
the blinding spray at the fury of the   
tempest--by which the billows are made  
to roll around him like liquid          
mountains1 and the ship is tossed       
beneath him like a mere chip1 the sport 
and plaything of the raging waters--he  
is apt to think1 should his thoughts    

turn in that direction at all1 that all 
is unmitigated confusion2 that the      
winds1 which blew west yesterday and    
blow east to-day1--shifting1 it may be1 
with gusty squalls1 now here1 now there1
 in chaotic fury1--are actuated by no   
laws1 governed by no directing power4   
,yet no thought could be more           
unphilosophical than this4  ,apart      
altogether from divine revelation1 by   
which we are informed that all deeps1   
fire1 and hail1 snow1 and vapour1 and   
stormy wind1 are fulfilling ,god's word 
7which information we are bound to      
receive as a matter of faith if we be   
,christians1 and as a matter of         
necessity if we be men of common sense1 
because it is mere absurdity to suppose 
that the stormy winds1 etcetera1 are not
 fulfilling ,god's word--or will71 we   
now know1 to a great extent from        
practical experience and scientific     
investigation1 that the winds blow and  
the waters of the ocean flow in grand1  
regular1 uninterrupted currents4        

,amongst these there are numberless     
eddies1 which1 perhaps1 have tended to  
fill our minds with the idea of         
irregularity and confusion2 but which1  
nevertheless1 as well as the grand      
currents themselves1 are subject to law1
 and are utterly devoid of caprice4  ,in
 regard to these matters there is much  
about which we are still in ignorance4  
,but the investigations of late         
years--especially those conducted under 
the superintendence of ,captain ,maury  
of the ,american ,navy1 and ,doctors    
,carpenter and ,thompson of             
,england--have shown that our atmosphere
 and our ocean act in accordance with a 
systematic arrangement1 many facts      
regarding which have been discovered1   
and turned1 in some cases1 to practical 
account4  ,see ,note #a4  ,a very       
interesting instance of the practical   
use to which scientific inquiry can be  
turned1 even in its beginnings1 is given
 by ,maury4  ,after telling us of the   
existence and nature of a current in the

 ocean called the ,gulf ,stream1 he     
gives the following account of the      
manner in which upon one occasion be    
made use of his theoretical knowledge4  
,in the month of ,december #ahec1 the   
fine steam-ship ,san ,francisco sailed  
from ,new ,york with a regiment of      
,united ,states troops on board1 bound  
for ,california by way of ,cape ,horn4  
,she was overtaken1 while crossing the  
,gulf ,stream1 by a gale of wind1 in    
which she was dreadfully crippled4  ,her
 decks were swept1 and1 by one single   
blow of those terrible seas that the    
storms raise in the ,gulf ,stream1 more 
than in any other part of the ,atlantic1
 one hundred and seventy-nine souls1    
officers and soldiers1 were washed      
overboard and drowned4  ,the day after  
this disaster she was seen by one       
vessel1 and again1 the next day1        
,december #bfth1 by another2 but neither
 of them could render her any           
assistance4  ,when these two vessels    
arrived in the ,united ,states and      

reported what they had seen1 the most   
painful apprehensions were entertained  
by friends for the safety of those on   
board the steamer4  ,vessels were sent  
out to search for and relieve her4  ,but
 where should these vessels go8 ,where  
should they look8  ,an appeal was made  
to know what light the system of        
researches carried on at the ,national  
,observatory concerning winds and       
currents could throw upon the subject4  
,the materials they had been discussing 
were examined1 and a chart was prepared 
to show the course of the ,gulf ,stream 
at that season of the year4  ,two       
revenue cutters were then appointed to  
proceed to sea in search of the steamer1
 and ,maury was requested to furnish    
them with instructions4  ,it will be    
observed here that the gentleman thus   
appealed to was at the time engaged in  
his study at ,washington1 utterly       
ignorant of all that had occurred within
 the previous few weeks on the stormy   
,atlantic1 except through the reports   

brought thence by ships4  ,these reports
 furnished him with meagre data to      
proceed upon--simply that a crippled    
steamer had been seen in a certain      
latitude and longitude on a particular  
day4  ,but this information was         
sufficient for the practical man of     
science4 ,proceeding upon the           
supposition that the steamer had been   
completely disabled1 he drew two lines  
on the chart to define the limits of her
 drift4  ,this his previous knowledge of
 the flow of the ,gulf ,stream at all   
seasons of the year enabled him to do4  
,between these two lines1 he said1 the  
steamer1 if she could neither steam nor 
sail after the gale1 had drifted4  ,and 
that she could neither steam nor sail he
 had good reason to suppose from the    
account of her brought in by the vessels
 above mentioned4  ,a certain point was 
marked on the chart as being the spot   
where the searching vessels might expect
 to fall in with the wreck4  ,while     
these preparations were being made1 two 

ships fell in with the wreck and        
relieved the crew4  ,this1 however1 was 
not known at the time by the anxious    
friends on shore4  ,the cutters sailed  
on their mission1 and reached the       
indicated spot in the sea1 where1 of    
course1 their assistance was now        
unnecessary4  ,but when the vessels that
 had relieved the crew of the wreck     
arrived in harbour and reported where   
the wreck had been last seen1 it was    
found to be within a few miles of the   
spot indicated by ,maury6  ,thus1 upon  
very slight data1 a man of science and  
observation was enabled1 while seated in
 his study1 to follow the drift of a    
wrecked vessel over the pathless deep1  
and to indicate to a rescue party1 not  
only the exact course they ought to     
steer1 but the precise spot where the   
wreck should be found4  ,the waves of   
the ocean are by no means so high as    
people imagine4  ,their appearance in   
the ,atlantic or ,pacific1 when raised  
by a violent storm1 is indeed very      

awful1 and men have come to speak of    
them as being mountains of water4  ,but 
their sublime aspect and their          
tumultuous state of agitation have      
contributed much to deceive superficial 
observers as to their real height4      
,scientific men have measured the height
 of the waves4  ,not many years ago a   
vessel1 while crossing the ,atlantic1   
was overtaken by a violent storm4  ,the 
sea rose in its might2 the good ship    
reeled under the combined influence of  
wind and waves4  ,while the majority of 
the passengers sought refuge from the   
driving spray in the cabin1 one         
eccentric old gentleman was seen        
skipping about the deck with unwonted   
activity--now on the bulwarks1 now on   
the quarter-deck1 and anon in the       
rigging2 utterly regardless of the      
drenching sea and the howling wind1 and 
seeming as though he were a species of  
human stormy petrel4  ,this was the     
celebrated ,dr ,scoresby2 a man who had 
spent his youth and manhood in the      

whale-fishing2 who1 late in life1       
entered the ,church1 and1 until the day 
of his death1 took a special delight in 
directing the attention of sailors to   
,him whose word stilled the tempest and 
bade the angry waves be calm4  ,being an
 enthusiast in scientific research1 ,dr 
,scoresby was availing himself of the   
opportunity afforded by this storm to   
measure the waves6  ,others have made   
similar measurements1 and the result    
goes to prove that waves seldom or never
 rise much more than ten feet above the 
sea-level4  ,the corresponding          
depression sinks to the same depth1 thus
 giving the entire height of the largest
 waves an elevation of somewhere between
 twenty and thirty feet4  ,when it is   
considered that sometimes the waves of  
the sea 7especially those off the ,cape 
of ,good ,hope7 are so broad that only a
 few of them occupy the space of a mile1
 and that they travel at the rate of    
about forty miles an hour1 we may have  
some slight idea of the grandeur as well

 as the power of the ocean billows4     
,the forms represented in our           
illustration are only wavelets on the   
backs of these monster waves4  ,waves   
travel at a rate which increases in     
proportion to their size and the depth  
of water in which they are formed4      
,every one knows that on most lakes they
 are comparatively small and harmless4  
,in some lakes1 however1 such as ,lake  
,superior in ,north ,america1 which is  
upwards of three hundred miles long1 the
 waves are so formidable as to resemble 
those of the ocean1 and they are capable
 of producing tremendous effects4  ,but 
the waves of the sea1 when roused to    
their greatest height1 and travelling at
 their greatest speed1 are terrible to  
behold4 ,their force is absolutely      
irresistible4  ,sometimes waves of more 
than usually gigantic proportions arise1
 and1 after careering over the broad sea
 in unimpeded majesty1 fall with        
crushing violence on some doomed shore4 
,they rush onward1 pass the usual       

barriers of the sea-beach1 and do not   
retire until horrible devastation has   
been carried far into the land4  ,maury 
gives the following anecdote from the   
notes of a ,russian officer1 which shows
 the awful power of such waves4  ,on the
 #bcrd of ,december #ahed1 at #i3de     
a4m41 the shocks of an earthquake were  
felt on board the ,russian frigate      
,diana1 as she lay at anchor in the     
harbour of ,simoda1 not far from ,jeddo 
in ,japan4  ,in fifteen minutes         
afterwards 7#aj o'clock7 a large wave   
was observed rolling into the harbour1  
and the water on the beach to be rapidly
 rising4  ,the town1 as seen from the   
frigate1 appeared to be sinking4  ,this 
wave was followed by another2 and when  
the two receded1 which was at fifteen   
minutes past ten1 there was not a house1
 save an unfinished temple1 left        
standing4 ,these waves continued to come
 and go until half-past two p4m41 during
 which time the frigate was thrown on   
her beam-ends five times2 a piece of her

 keel1 eighty-one feet long1 was torn   
off2 holes were knocked in her by       
striking on the bottom1 and she was     
reduced to a wreck4  ,in the course of  
five minutes the water in the harbour   
fell1 it is said1 from twenty-three to  
three feet1 and the anchors of the ship 
were laid bare4 ,there was a great loss 
of life2 many houses were washed into   
the sea1 and many junks carried up--one 
two miles inland--and dashed to pieces  
on the shore4  ,the day was beautifully 
fine1 and no warning was given of the   
approaching convulsion3 the sea was     
perfectly smooth when its surface was   
broken by the first wave4  ,monster     
waves of this kind occur at regular     
intervals1 among the islands of the     
,pacific1 once and sometimes twice in   
the year2 and this without any          
additional influence of an earthquake1  
at least in the immediate neighbourhood 
of the islands1 though it is quite      
possible that earthquakes in some remote
 part of the world may have something to

 do with these waves4  ,one such wave is
 described as breaking on one of these  
islands with tremendous violence4  ,it  
appeared at first like a dark line1 or  
low cloud1 or fog-bank1 on the sea-ward 
horizon4  ,the day was fine though      
cloudy1 and a gentle breeze was blowing2
 but the sea was not rougher1 or the    
breaker on the coral reef that encircled
 the island higher1 than usual4  ,it was
 supposed to be an approaching          
thunder-storm2 but the line gradually   
drew nearer without spreading upon the  
sky1 as would have been the case had it 
been a thunder-cloud4  ,still nearer it 
came1 and soon those on shore observed  
that it was moving swiftly towards the  
island2 but there was no sound until it 
reached the smaller islands out at sea4 
,as it passed these1 a cloud of white   
foam encircled each and burst high into 
the air4  ,this appearance was soon     
followed by a loud roar1 and it became  
evident that the object was an enormous 
wave4  ,when it approached the outer    

reef1 its awful magnitude became more   
evident4  ,it burst completely over the 
reef at all points1 with a deep1        
continuous roar2 yet1 although part of  
its force was thus broken1 on it came1  
as if with renewed might1 and finally   
fell upon the beach with a crash that   
seemed to shake the solid earth2 then1  
rushing impetuously up into the woods1  
it levelled the smaller trees and bushes
 in its headlong course2 and1 on        
retiring1 left a scene of wreck and     
desolation that is quite indescribable4 
,storm-waves1 as those unusually        
gigantic billows are called1 are said to
 be the result of the removal of        
atmospheric pressure in certain parts of
 the ocean over which a storm is raging4
  ,this removal of pressure allows the  
portion thus relieved to be forced up   
high above the ordinary sea-level by    
those other parts that are not so       
relieved4  ,the devastating effects of  
these storm-waves is still further      
illustrated by the total destruction of 

,coringa1 on the ,coromandel ,coast1 in 
#aghi4  ,during a hurricane1 in         
,december of that year1 at the moment   
when a high tide was at its highest     
point1 and the north-west wind was      
blowing with fury1 accumulating the     
waters at the head of the bay1 three    
monstrous waves came rolling in from the
 sea upon the devoted town1 following   
each other at a short distance4  ,the   
horror-stricken inhabitants had scarcely
 time to note the fact of their         
approach1 when the first wave1 sweeping 
everything in its passage1 carried      
several feet of water into the town4    
,the second swept still further in its  
destructive course1 inundating all the  
low country4  ,the third1 rushing onward
 in irresistible fury1 overwhelmed      
everything1 submerging the town and     
twenty thousand of its inhabitants4     
,vessels at anchor at the mouth of the  
river were carried inland2 and the sea  
on retiring left heaps of sand and mud1 
which rendered it a hopeless task either

 to search for the dead or for buried   
property4  ,we have spoken of waves     
travelling at such and such a rate1 but 
they do not in reality travel at all4   
,it is the undulation1 or1 so to speak1 
the motion of a wave1 that travels2 in  
the same manner that a wave passes from 
one end of a carpet to the other end    
when it is shaken4  ,the water remains  
stationary1 excepting the spray and foam
 on the surface1 and is only possessed  
of a rising and sinking motion4  ,this  
undulatory motion1 or impulse1 is       
transmitted from each particle of water 
to its neighbouring particle1 until it  
reaches the last drop of water on the   
shore4  ,but when a wave reaches shallow
 water it has no longer room to sink to 
its proper depth2 hence the water       
composing it acquires actual motion1 and
 rushes to the land with more or less of
 the tremendous violence that has been  
already described4  ,waves are caused by
 wind1 which first ruffles the surface  
of the sea into ripples1 and then1      

acting with ever-increasing power on the
 little surfaces thus raised1 blows them
 up into waves1 and finally into great  
billows4  ,sometimes1 however1 winds    
burst upon the calm ocean with such     
sudden violence that for a time the     
waves cannot lift their heads4  ,the    
instant they do so1 they are cast down  
and scattered in foam1 and the ocean in 
a few minutes presents the appearance of
 a cauldron of boiling milk6  ,such     
squalls are extremely dangerous to      
mariners1 and vessels exposed to them   
are often thrown on their beam-ends1    
even though all sail has been previously
 taken in4  ,generally speaking1        
however1 the immediate effect of wind   
passing either lightly or furiously over
 the sea is to raise its surface into   
waves4  ,but these waves1 however large 
they may be1 do not affect the waters of
 the ocean more than a few yards below  
its surface4  ,the water below their    
influence is comparatively calm1 being  
affected only by ocean currents4  ,the  

tides of the sea--as the two great      
flowings and ebbings of the water every 
twenty-four hours are called--are caused
 principally by the attractive influence
 of the moon1 which1 to a small extent1 
lifts the waters of the ocean towards   
it1 as it passes over them1 and thus    
causes a high wave4  ,this wave1 or     
current1 when it swells up on the land1 
forms high tide4  ,when the moon's      
influence has completely passed away1 it
 is low tide4  ,the moon raises this    
wave wherever it passes2 not only in the
 ocean directly under it1 but1 strange  
to say1 it causes a similar wave on the 
opposite side of the globe4  ,thus there
 are two waves always following the     
moon1 and hence the two high tides in   
the twenty-four hours4  ,this second    
wave has been accounted for in the      
following way3 ,the cohesion of         
particles of water is easily overcome4  
,the moon1 in passing over the sea1     
separates the particles by her          
attractive power1 and draws the surface 

of the sea away from the solid globe4   
,but the moon also attracts the earth   
itself1 and draws it away from the water
 on its opposite side thus causing the  
high wave there1 as represented in the  
diagram1 figure #a4  ,the sun has also a
 slight influence on the tides1 but not 
to such an extent as the moon4  ,when   
the two luminaries exert their combined 
influence in the same direction1 they   
produce the phenomenon of a very high or
 spring-tide1 as in figure #b1 where the
 tide at a and b has risen extremely    
high1 while at c and d it has fallen    
correspondingly low4  ,when they act in 
opposition to each other1 as at the     
moon's quarter1 there occurs a very low 
or neap-tide4  ,in figure #c the moon   
has raised high tide at a and b1 but the
 sun has counteracted its influence to  
some extent at c and d1 thus producing  
neap-tides1 which neither rise so high  
nor fall so low as do other tides4      
,tides attain various elevations in     
different parts of the world1 partly    

owing to local influences4  ,in the     
,bristol ,channel the tide rises to     
nearly sixty feet1 while in the         
,mediterranean it is extremely small1   
owing to the landlocked nature of that  
sea preventing the tidal wave from      
having its full effect4  ,up some gulfs 
and estuaries the tides sweep with the  
violence of a torrent1 and any one      
caught by them on the shore would be    
overtaken and drowned before he could   
gain the dry land4  ,in the open sea    
they rise and fall to an elevation of   
little more than three or four feet4    
,the value of the tides is unspeakable4 
,they sweep from our shores pollution of
 every kind1 purify our rivers and      
estuaries1 and are productive of        
freshness and health all round the      
world4                                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------  ,the  
gentlemen here referred to are agreed as
 to the fact of systematic arrangement  
of currents1 though they differ in      

regard to some of the causes thereof and
 other matters4    ,,chapter ,,four4    
,,the ,,gulf ,,stream--,,its            
,,nature--,,cause--,,illustration--,,eff
ect ,,of ,,small ,,powers               
,,united--,,adventures ,,of ,a          
,,particle ,,of ,,water--,,effect ,,of  
,,gulf ,,stream ,,on ,,climate--,,its   
,,course--,,influence ,,on              
,,navigation--,,sargasso                
,,sea--,,scientific ,,efforts ,,of      
,,present ,,day--,,wind ,,and ,,current 
,,charts--,,effects ,,on ,,commerce--   
,,cause ,,of ,,storms--,,influence ,,of 
,,gulf ,,stream ,,on ,,marine ,,animals4
  ,of the varied motions of the sea1 the
 most important1 perhaps1 as well as the
 most wonderful1 is the ,gulf ,stream4  
,this mighty current has been likened by
 ,maury to a river in the ocean4  ,in   
the severest droughts it never fails1   
and in the mightiest floods it never    
overflows4  ,its banks and its bottom   
are of cold water1 while its current is 
of warm4  ,it takes its rise in the     

,gulf of ,mexico 7hence its name71 and  
empties into the arctic seas4  ,its     
current is more rapid than the          
,mississippi or the ,amazon1 and its    
volume more than a thousand times       
greater4  ,this great current is of the 
most beautiful indigo-blue colour as far
 out as the ,carolina coasts2 and its   
waters are so distinctly separated from 
those of the sea1 that the line of      
demarcation may be traced by the eye4   
,its influences on the currents of the  
sea1 and on the climates and the        
navigation of the world1 are so great   
and important1 that we think a somewhat 
particular account of it cannot fail to 
interest the reader4  ,the waters of the
 ,gulf ,stream are salter than those of 
the sea2 which fact accounts for its    
deeper blue colour1 it being well known 
that salt has the effect of intensifying
 the blue of deep water4  ,the cause of 
the ,gulf ,stream has long been a       
subject of conjecture and dispute among 
philosophers4  ,some have maintained    

that the ,mississippi river caused it2  
but this theory is upset by the fact    
that the stream is salt--salter even    
than the sea--while the river is fresh4 
,besides1 the volume of water emptied   
into the ,gulf of ,mexico by that river 
is not equal to the three thousandth    
part of that which issues from it in the
 form of the ,gulf ,stream4  ,scientific
 men are still disagreed on this point4 
,they all1 indeed1 seem to hold the     
opinion that difference of temperature  
has to do with the origination of the   
stream2 but while some1 such as ,captain
 ,maury1 hold that this is the chief    
cause1 others1 such as ,professor       
,thompson1 believe the trade-winds to be
 the most important agent in the matter4
 ,we venture to incline to the opinion  
that not only the ,gulf ,stream1 but all
 the constant currents of the sea are   
due chiefly to difference of temperature
 and saltness4  ,these conditions alter 
the specific gravity of the waters of   
the ocean in some places more than in   

others2 hence the equilibrium is        
destroyed1 and currents commence to flow
 as a natural result1 seeking to restore
 that equilibrium4  ,but as the         
disturbing agents are always at work1 so
 the currents are of necessity constant4
 ,other currents there are in the sea1  
but they are the result of winds and    
various local causes2 they are therefore
 temporary and partial1 while the great 
currents of the ocean are permanent1 and
 are1 comparatively1 little affected by 
the winds4  ,every one knows that when a
 pot is put on the fire to boil1 the    
water contained in it1 as soon as it    
begins to get heated1 commences to      
circulate4  ,the heated water rises to  
the top1 the cold descends4  ,when      
heated more than that which has         
ascended1 it in turn rises to the       
surface2 and so there is a regular      
current established in the pot1 which   
continues to flow as long as the heating
 process goes on4  ,this same principle 
of temperature1 then1 is one of the     

causes of the ,gulf ,stream4  ,the      
torrid zone is the furnace where the    
waters of the ocean are heated4  ,but in
 this process of heating1 evaporation   
goes on to a large extent2 hence the    
waters become salter than those         
elsewhere4  ,here is another agent      
called into action4 ,the hot salt waters
 of the torrid zone at once rush off to 
distribute their superabundant caloric  
and salt to the seas of the frigid      
zones2 where the ice around the poles   
has kept the waters cold1 and the       
absence of great heat1 and1 to a large  
extent1 of evaporation1 has kept them   
comparatively fresh4  ,in fact1 the     
waters of the sea require to be stirred1
 because numerous agents are at work day
 and night1 from pole to pole1 altering 
their specific gravity and deranging1 so
 to speak1 the mixture4  ,this stirring 
is secured by the unalterable laws which
 the ,creator has fixed for the carrying
 on of the processes of nature4  ,the   
currents of the sea may be said to be   

the result of this process of stirring  
its waters4  ,it is curious and         
interesting to note the apparently      
insignificant instruments which ,god has
 seen fit to use in the carrying out of 
his plans4  ,the smallest coral insect  
that builds its little cell in the      
southern seas exercises an influence in 
the production of the ,gulf ,stream4    
,it has been said1 with some degree of  
truth1 that one such insect is capable  
of setting in motion the entire ocean6  
,the coral insect has1 in common with   
many other marine creatures1 been gifted
 with the power of extracting from sea  
water the lime which it contains1 in    
order to build its cell4  ,the lime thus
 extracted leaves a minute particle of  
water necessarily destitute of that     
substance4  ,before that particle can be
 restored to its original condition of  
equality1 every other particle of water 
in the ocean must part with a share of  
its superabundant lime6  ,the thing must
 be done4  ,that bereaved particle      

cannot rest without its lime4  ,it      
forthwith commences to travel for the   
purpose of laying its brother-particles 
under contribution2 and it travels far  
and wide--round and round the world4    
,myriads upon myriads of coral insects  
are perpetually engaged in thus robbing 
the sea water of its lime2 shells are   
formed in a similar manner3 so that our 
particle soon finds itself in company   
with innumerable other particles of     
water in a like destitute condition4    
,it rises to the surface4  ,here the    
sun1 as if to compensate it for the loss
 of its lime1 bestows upon it an unusual
 amount of heat2 and the surrounding    
particles1 not to be outdone1 make it   
almost unlimited presents of salt4      
,full to overflow with the gifts of its 
new companions1 it hastens to bestow of 
its superabundance on less favoured     
particles2 joins the great army of the  
ocean's currents2 enters1 perchance1 the
 ,gulf of ,mexico1 where it is turned   
back1 and hastens along with the ,gulf  

,stream1 with all its natural warmth of 
character1 to ameliorate the climate of 
,great ,britain and the western shores  
of ,europe4  ,having accomplished this  
benevolent work1 it passes on1 with some
 of its heat and vigour still remaining1
 to the arctic seas--where it is finally
 robbed of all its heat and nearly all  
its salt1 and frozen into an            
icicle--there for many a long day to    
exert a chilling influence on the waters
 and the atmosphere around it4 ,being   
melted at last by the hot sun of the    
short arctic summer1 it hurries back    
with the cold currents of the north to  
the genial regions of the equator1 in   
search of its lost caloric and salt1    
taking in a full cargo of lime1         
etcetera1 as it passes the mouths of    
rivers4  ,arrived at its old            
starting-point1 our wanderer receives   
once more heat and salt to the full1    
parts with its lime1 and at once hastens
 off on a new voyage of usefulness--to  
give out of its superabundance in       

exchange for the superabundance of      
others3 thus quietly teaching man the   
lesson that the true principles of      
commerce were carried out in the depths 
of the sea ages before he discovered    
them and carried them into practice on  
its surface4  ,perchance another fate   
awaits this adventurous particle of     
water4 ,mayhap1 before it reaches the   
cold regions of the north1 it is        
evaporated into the clouds1 and descends
 upon the earth in fresh and refreshing 
rain or dew4  ,having fertilised the    
fields1 it flows back to its parent     
ocean1 laden with a superabundant cargo 
of earthy substances1 which it soon     
parts with in exchange for salt4  ,and  
thus on it goes1 round and round the    
world2 down in the ocean's depths1 up in
 the cloudy sky1 deep in the springs of 
earth2 ever moving1 ever active1 never  
lost1 and always fulfilling the end for 
which it was created4  ,all ocean       
currents are composed of water in one or
 other of the conditions just           

described2--the hot and salt waters of  
the equator1 flowing north to be cooled 
and freshened2 the cold and fresh waters
 of the north1 flowing south to be      
heated and salted4  ,the ,gulf ,stream  
is simply the stream of equatorial hot  
water that flows towards the pole       
through the ,atlantic4  ,its            
fountain-head is the region of the      
equator1 not the ,gulf of ,mexico2 but  
it is carried1 by the conformation of   
the land1 into that gulf and deflected  
by it1 and from it out into the ocean in
 the direction of ,europe4  ,this stream
 in the ,atlantic is well defined1 owing
 to the comparative narrowness of that  
sea4  ,the ,gulf ,stream1 then1 is like 
a river of oil in the ocean1--it        
preserves its distinctive character for 
more than three thousand miles4 ,it     
flows towards the polar regions1 and the
 waters of those regions flow in        
counter-currents towards the equator1   
because of the fixed law that water must
 seek its equilibrium as well as its    

level1 thus keeping up a continuous     
circulation of the hot waters towards   
the north and the cold towards the      
south4  ,there are similar currents in  
the ,pacific1 but they are neither so   
large nor so regular as those of the    
,atlantic1 owing to the wide formation  
of the basin of the former sea4  ,the   
effect of the ,gulf ,stream on climate  
is very great4  ,the dreary fur-trading 
establishment of ,york ,factory1 on the 
shores of ,hudson's ,bay1 is surrounded 
by a climate of the most rigorous       
character--the thermometer seldom rising
 up so high as zero during many months1 
and often ranging down so low as #ej    
degrees below zero1 sometimes even      
lower1 while the winter is seven or     
eight months long3 the lakes and rivers 
are covered with ice upwards of six feet
 thick1 and the salt sea itself is      
frozen4  ,yet this region lies in the   
same latitude with ,scotland1 ,york     
,factory being on the parallel of #eg   
degrees north1 which passes close to    

,aberdeen6  ,the difference in          
temperature between the two places is   
owing very much1 if not entirely1 to the
 influence of the ,gulf ,stream4        
,starting from its caldron in the ,gulf 
of ,mexico1 it carries a freight of     
caloric towards the ,north ,atlantic4   
,owing partly to the diurnal motion of  
the ,earth on its axis1 its flow trends 
towards the east2 hence its warm waters 
embrace our favoured coasts1 and        
ameliorate our climate1 while the       
eastern sea-board of ,north ,america is 
left1 in winter1 to the rigour of       
unmitigated frost4  ,but besides the    
powerful influence of this current on   
climate1 it exerts a very considerable  
influence on navigation4  ,in former    
times1 when men regarded the ocean as a 
great watery waste--utterly ignorant of 
the exquisite order and harmonious      
action of all the varied substances and 
conditions which prevail in the sea1    
just as much as on the land--they       
committed themselves to the deep as to a

 blind chance1 and took the storms and  
calms they encountered as their         
inevitable fate1 which they had no means
 of evading4  ,ascertaining1 as well as 
they could from the imperfect charts of 
those days1 the position of their       
desired haven1 they steered straight for
 it through fair weather and foul1      
regarding interruptions and delays as   
mere unavoidable matters of course4     
,but when men began to study the causes 
and effects of the operation of those   
elements in the midst of which they     
dwelt1 they soon perceived that order   
reigned where before they had imagined  
that confusion revelled2 and that1 by   
adapting their operations to the        
ascertained laws of ,providence1 they   
could1 even upon the seemingly unstable 
sea1 avoid dangers and delays of many   
kinds1 and oftentimes place themselves  
in highly favourable circumstances4     
,navigators no longer dash recklessly   
into the ,gulf ,stream1 and try to stem 
its tide1 as they did of yore2 but1 as  

circumstances require1 they either take 
advantage of the counter-currents which 
skirt along it1 or avail themselves of  
the warm climate which it creates even  
in the midst of winter4  ,there is a    
certain spot in the ,atlantic known by  
the name of the ,sargasso ,sea1 which is
 neither more nor less than a huge      
ocean-eddy1 in which immense quantities 
of sea-weed collect4  ,the weed floats  
so thickly on the surface as to give to 
the sea the appearance of solid land2   
and ships find extreme difficulty in    
getting through this region1 which is   
rendered still further unnavigable by   
the prevalence of long-continued calms4 
,this ,sargasso ,sea is of considerable 
extent1 and lies off the west coast of  
,africa1 a little to the north of the   
,cape ,verd ,islands4  ,in former years1
 ships used to get entangled in this    
weedy region for weeks together1 unable 
to proceed on their voyage4  ,the great 
,columbus fell in with it on his voyage 
to ,america1 and his followers1 thinking

 they had reached the end of the world1 
were filled with consternation4 ,this   
,sargasso ,sea lies in the same spot at 
the present day1 but men now know its   
extent and position4  ,instead of       
steering straight for port1 they proceed
 a considerable distance out of their   
way1 and1 by avoiding this calm region1 
accomplish their voyages with much      
greater speed4  ,the ocean currents have
 been1 by repeated and long-continued   
investigation1 ascertained and mapped   
out2 so also have the currents of the   
atmosphere1 so that1 now-a-days1 by     
taking advantage of some of these       
currents and avoiding others1 voyages   
are performed1 not only in much shorter 
time1 but with much greater precision   
and certainty4  ,as it was with ocean   
currents long ago1 so was it with       
atmospheric4 ,navigators merely put to  
sea1 steered as near as possible on     
their direct course1 and took advantage 
of such winds as chanced to blow4  ,now 
they know whither to steer in order to  

meet with such winds and currents as    
will convey them in the shortest space  
of time to the end of their voyage4     
,the knowledge necessary to this has not
 been gained by the gigantic effort of  
one mind1 nor by the accidental         
collocation of the results of the       
investigations of many ordinary minds4  
,but a few master-minds have succeeded  
in gathering within their own grasp the 
myriad facts collected by thousands of  
naval men1 of all countries1 in their   
various voyages2 and1 by a careful      
comparison and philosophical            
investigation of these facts1 they have 
ascertained and systematised truths     
which were before unknown1 and have     
constructed wind and current charts1 by 
the use of which voyages are wonderfully
 shortened1 commercial enterprises      
greatly facilitated1 and the general    
good and comfort of nations materially  
advanced4  ,the truth of this has of    
late been proved by incontestable facts4
  ,for instance1 one year particular    

note was taken of the arrival of all the
 vessels at the port of ,san ,francisco1
 in ,california2 and it was found that  
of #abd vessels from the ,atlantic coast
 of the ,united ,states1 #gj were       
possessed of ,maury's wind and current  
charts4  ,the average passage of these  
#gj vessels1 on that long voyage round  
,cape ,horn1 was #ace days2 while the   
average of those that sailed without the
 charts 7that is1 trusted to their own  
unaided wisdom and experience7 was #adf 
days4 ,between ,england and ,australia  
the average length of the voyage out    
used1 very recently1 to be #abd days4   
,with the aid of these charts it has now
 been reduced to #ig days on the        
average4  ,the saving to commerce thus  
achieved is much greater than one would 
suppose4  ,at the risk of becoming      
tedious to uninquiring readers1 we will 
make a brief extract from ,hunt's       
,merchants' ,magazine of #ahed1 as given
 in a foot-note in ,maury's ,physical   
,geography of the ,sea4  ,now1 let us   

make a calculation of the annual saving 
to the commerce of the ,united ,states  
effected by these charts and sailing    
directions4 ,according to ,mr ,maury1   
the average freight from the ,united    
,states to ,rio ,janeiro is #ag4g cents 
per ton per day2 to ,australia1 #bj     
cents2 to ,california1 also about #bj   
cents4  ,the mean of this is a little   
over #ai cents per ton per day2 but1 to 
be within the mark1 we will take it at  
#ae1 and include all the ports of ,south
 ,america1 ,china1 and the ,east        
,indies4  ,the sailing directions have  
shortened the passage to ,california #cj
 days2 to ,australia1 #bj2 to ,rio      
,janeiro1 #aj4  ,the mean of this is    
#bj2 but we will take it at #ae1 and    
also include the above-named ports of   
,south ,america1 ,china1 and the ,east  
,indies4  ,we estimate the tonnage of   
the ,united ,states engaged in trade    
with these places at #a1jjj1jjj tons per
 annum4  ,with these data1 we see that  
there has been effected a saving for    

each one of these tons1 of #ae cents per
 day for a period of #ae days1 which    
will give an aggregate of #b1bej1jjj    
dollars 7#dfh1gej pounds7 saved per     
annum4  ,this is on the outward voyage  
alone1 and the tonnage trading with all 
other parts of the world is also left   
out of the calculation4 ,take these into
 consideration1 and also the fact that  
there is a vast amount of foreign       
tonnage trading between these places and
 the ,united ,states1 and it will be    
seen that the annual sum saved will     
swell to an enormous amount4  ,before   
the existence of the ,gulf ,stream was  
ascertained1 vessels were frequently    
drifted far out of their course in      
cloudy or foggy weather1 without the    
fact being known1 until the clearing    
away of the mists enabled the navigators
 to ascertain their position by solar   
observation4 ,now1 not only the         
existence1 but the exact limits and     
action of this stream are known and     
mapped2 so that the current1 which was  

formerly a hindrance to navigation1 is  
now made to be a help to it4  ,the line 
of demarcation between the warm waters  
of the ,gulf ,stream and the cold waters
 of the sea is so sharp and distinct1   
that by the use of the thermometer the  
precise minute of a ship's leaving or   
entering it can be ascertained4  ,and by
 the simple application of the          
thermometer to the ,gulf ,stream the    
average passage from ,england to        
,america has been reduced from upwards  
of eight weeks to little more than four6
  ,but this wonderful current is useful 
to navigators in more ways than one4    
,its waters1 being warm1 carry a mild   
climate along with them through the     
ocean even in the depth of winter1 and  
thus afford a region of shelter to      
vessels when attempting to make the     
,atlantic coast of ,north ,america1     
which1 at that season is swept by       
furious storms and chilled by bitter    
frosts4  ,the ,atlantic coasts of the   
,united ,states are considered to be the

 most stormy in the world during winter1
 and the difficulty of making them used 
to be much greater in former days than  
now4  ,the number of wrecks that take   
place off the shores of ,new ,england in
 mid-,winter is frightful4  ,all down   
that coast flows one of the great cold  
currents from the north4  ,the combined 
influence of the cold atmosphere above  
it1 and the warm atmosphere over the    
,gulf ,stream1 far out at sea1 produces 
terrific gales4  ,the month's average of
 wrecks off that coast has been as high 
as three a day4  ,in making the coast1  
vessels are met frequently by           
snow-storms1 which clothe the rigging   
with ice1 rendering it unmanageable1 and
 chill the seaman's frame1 so that he   
cannot manage his ship or face the      
howling blast4  ,formerly1 when unable  
to make the coast1 owing to the fury of 
these bitter westerly gales1 he knew of 
no place of refuge short of the ,west   
,indies1 whither he was often compelled 
to run1 and there await the coming of   

genial spring ere he again attempted to 
complete his voyage4  ,now1 however1 the
 region of the ,gulf ,stream is sought  
as a refuge4  ,when the stiffened ropes 
refuse to work1 and the ship can no     
longer make head against the storm1 she 
is put about and steered for the ,gulf  
,stream4  ,in a few hours she reaches   
its edge1 and almost in a moment        
afterwards she passes from the midst of 
winter into a sea of sunnier heat6      
,now1 as ,maury beautifully expresses   
it1 the ice disappears from her apparel2
 the sailor bathes his limbs in tepid   
waters4  ,feeling himself invigorated   
and refreshed with the genial warmth    
about him1 he realises out there at sea 
the fable of ,antaeus and his mother    
,earth4  ,he rises up and attempts to   
make his port again1 and is again1      
perhaps1 as rudely met and beat back    
from the north-west2 but each time that 
he is driven off from the contest1 he   
comes forth from this stream1 like the  
ancient son of ,neptune1 stronger and   

stronger1 until1 after many days1 his   
freshened strength prevails1 and he at  
last triumphs1 and enters his haven in  
safety--though in this contest he       
sometimes falls to rise no more1 for it 
is terrible4  ,the power of ocean       
currents in drifting vessels out of     
their course1 and in sweeping away great
 bodies of ice1 is very great2 although1
 from the fact that there is no land to 
enable the eye to mark the flow1 such   
drifts are not perceptible4  ,one of the
 most celebrated drifts of modern times1
 and the most astonishing on account of 
its extent1 was that of the ,fox in     
,baffin's ,bay in the year #aheg1 a     
somewhat detailed account of which will 
be found in a succeeding chapter4  ,the 
,gulf ,stream is the cause of many of   
the most furious storms4  ,the fiercest 
gales sweep along with it1 and it is    
supposed that the spring and summer fogs
 of ,newfoundland are caused by the     
immense volumes of warm water poured by 
it into the cold seas of that region4   

,we are told that ,sir ,philip ,brooke  
found the temperature of the sea on each
 side of this stream to be at the       
freezing-point1 while that of its waters
 was #hj degrees4  ,from this it may be 
easily seen how great are the disturbing
 influences around and above it2 for1 as
 the warm and moist atmosphere over it  
ascends in virtue of its lightness1 the 
cold air outside rushes in violently to 
supply its place1 thus creating storms4 
,the warm waters of this stream do not1 
it is believed1 anywhere extend to the  
bottom of the sea4  ,it has been        
ascertained1 by means of the deep-sea   
thermometer1 that they rest upon1 or    
rather flow over1 the cold waters which 
are hastening from the north in search  
of those elements which1 in their       
wanderings1 they have lost4  ,as cold   
water is one of the best non-conductors 
of heat1 the ,gulf ,stream is thus      
prevented from losing its caloric on its
 way across the ,atlantic to ameliorate 
the climates of the western coasts of   

,europe1 and moderate the bitterness of 
the northern seas4  ,were it otherwise1 
and this great stream flowed over the   
crust of the ,earth1 so much of its heat
 would be extracted1 that the climates  
of ,france and our own islands would    
probably resemble that of ,canada4  ,our
 fields would be covered1 for two1      
three1 or four months1 with deep snow2  
our rivers would be frozen nearly to the
 bottom2 our land traffic would perhaps 
be carried on by means of sledges and   
carioles2 our houses would require to be
 fitted with double window-frames and   
heated with iron stoves and our garments
 would have to be made of the thickest  
woollens and the warmest furs4  ,the    
presence and the unchanging regularity  
of these great hot and cold currents in 
the ocean is indicated very clearly by  
the living inhabitants of the deep4     
,these1 as certainly as the creatures of
 the land1 are under the influence of   
climate2 so much so1 that many of them  
never quit their native region in the   

sea4  ,all the beautiful and delicate   
marine creatures and productions which  
dwell in the warm waters of the south   
are utterly absent from those shores    
which are laved by the cold currents    
that descend from the north2 while1     
owing to the influence of the ,gulf     
,stream1 we find many of those lovely   
and singular creatures upon our         
comparatively northern shores4  ,of late
 years1 as every one knows1 we have all 
over the land been gathering these      
marine gems1 and studying their peculiar
 habits with deep interest in that      
miniature ocean the aquarium4  ,in the  
same parallel on the other side of the  
,atlantic none of these little lovers of
 heat are to be found4  ,on the other   
hand1 the whale1 delighting as it does  
to lave its huge warm-blooded body in   
iced water1 is never found to enter the 
,gulf ,stream4  ,thus these fish1 to    
some extent1 define its position4       
,other fish there are which seem to     
resemble man in their ability to change 

their climate at will but1 like him     
also1 they are apt in so doing to lose  
their health1 or1 at least1 to get      
somewhat out of condition4  ,some kinds 
of fish1 when caught in the waters off  
,virginia and the ,carolinas1 are       
excellent for the table2 but the same   
species1 when taken off the warm coral  
banks of the ,bahamas1 are scarcely     
worth eating4  ,in fact1 we see no      
reason for doubting that when these fish
 find their health giving way in the    
warm regions of the south1 they seek to 
reinvigorate themselves by change of    
water2 and1 quitting for a time the     
beauteous coral groves1 spend a few of  
the sunnier months of each year in      
gambolling in the cool regions of the   
north1 or1 what is much the same thing1 
in those cool currents that flow from   
the north in clearly defined channels4  
,besides its other useful and manifold  
purposes1 the ,gulf ,stream would seem  
to be one of the great purveyors of food
 to the whales4 ,sea-nettles1 or        

medusae1 are well known to constitute   
the principal food of that species of   
whale which is termed the right whale4  
,navigators have frequently observed    
large quantities of these medusae       
floating along with the ,gulf ,stream2  
and one sea captain in particular fell  
in with an extraordinarily large        
quantity of them1 of a very peculiar    
species1 off the coast of ,florida4  ,as
 we have said1 no whales ever enter the 
warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream2       
therefore1 at that time at least1 the   
leviathan could not avail himself of    
this rich provision4 ,the captain       
referred to was bound for ,england4  ,on
 his return voyage he fell in with the  
same mass of medusae off the ,western   
,islands1 and was three or four days in 
sailing through them4  ,now1 the        
,western ,islands is a great place of   
resort for the whale1 and thither had   
the ,gulf ,stream been commissioned to  
convey immense quantities of its        
peculiar food4  ,we might enlarge       

endlessly on this great ocean current1  
but enough1 we think1 has been said to  
show that the sea1 instead of being an  
ocean of unchanging drops1 driven about 
at random by the power of stormy winds1 
is a mighty flood flowing in an         
appointed course--steady1 regular1 and  
systematic in its motions1 varied and   
wonderful in its actions1 benign and    
sweet in its influences1 as it sweeps   
mound and round the world1 fulfilling   
the will of its great ,creator4         
,,chapter ,,five4  ,,the ,,atmospheric  
,,ocean--,,order ,,in ,,its             
,,flow--,,offices ,,of ,,the            
,,atmosphere-- ,,dangers ,,lessened ,,by
 ,,science--,,currents ,,of             
,,atmosphere--,,cause ,,of ,,wind--,,two
 ,,great ,,currents--,,disturbing       
,,influences--,,calms--,,variable       
,,winds--,,causes ,,thereof--,,local    
,,causes ,,of ,,disturbance--,,gulf     
,,stream--,,influence--,,the ,,winds    
,,mapped ,,out--,a ,,supposed ,,case4   
,fish are not the only creatures that   

live in this ocean4  ,the human         
inhabitants of ,earth1 dwell at the     
bottom of an ocean of air1 which        
encircles the globe4  ,fish1 however1   
have the advantage of us1 inasmuch as   
they can float and dart about in their  
ocean1 while we1 like the crabs1 can    
only crawl about at the bottom of ours4 
,this atmospheric ocean is so closely   
connected with the sea1 and exercises   
upon it so constant1 universal1 and     
important an influence1 that to omit1 in
 a work of this kind1 very special      
reference to the winds1 would be almost 
as egregious an oversight as to ignore  
the waves4  ,wind1 or atmospheric air in
 motion1 is the cause of storms1 of     
waves1 of water-transport through the   
sky1 and of an incalculable amount of   
varied phenomena on land and sea4       
,without this great agent no visible    
motion would ever take place in the sea4
  ,its great currents1 indeed1 might    
flow on 7though even that is            
questionable71 but its surface would    

never present any other aspect than that
 of an unruffled sheet of clear glass4  
,the air1 then1 becomes in this place an
 appropriate subject of consideration4  
,the ,voice of ,ocean has something very
 emphatic to say about the atmosphere4  
,in regard to its nature1 it is         
sufficient to say that atmospheric air  
is composed of two gases--oxygen and    
nitrogen4  ,like the sea1 the atmosphere
 is an ocean which flows1 not in chaotic
 confusion1 but in regular1 appointed   
courses2 acting in obedience to the     
fixed1 unvarying laws of the ,almighty1 
and having currents1 counter-currents1  
and eddies also1 just like the watery   
ocean1 which exercise a specific and    
salutary influence where they exist4    
,the offices of the atmosphere are thus 
quaintly enumerated by ,maury3--  ,the  
atmosphere is an envelope or covering   
for the distribution of light and heat  
over the ,earth2 it is a sewer into     
which1 with every breath we draw1 we    
cast vast quantities of dead animal     

matter2 it is a laboratory for          
purification1 in which that matter is   
recompounded1 and wrought again into    
wholesome and healthful shapes2 it is a 
machine for pumping up all the rivers   
from the sea1 and for conveying the     
water from the ocean to their sources in
 the mountains4  ,it is an inexhaustible
 magazine1 marvellously stored2 and upon
 the proper working of this machine     
depends the well-being of every plant   
and animal that inhabits the ,earth4    
,an element whose operations are so     
manifold and so important could not fail
 to engage the study of philosophic men 
in all ages2 but so difficult has been  
that study that little progress was made
 until very recently1 when men1 acting  
in unison in all parts of the world1    
have1 by collating their observations1  
become acquainted with some of those    
laws which govern the atmosphere1 and   
direct its courses and velocities4  ,in 
early ages very little indeed was known 
about the wind beyond the palpable facts

 of its existence1 its varied condition1
 and its tremendous power2 and men's    
observations in regard to it did not    
extend much beyond the noting of those  
peculiar and obvious aspects of the sky 
which experience taught them to regard  
as evidences of approaching storm4      
,but1 although such aspects of the      
heavens were1 and always will be1 pretty
 safe and correct indicators of the     
,weather1 they are by no means          
infallible2 and in some regions and     
under certain conditions they are       
wanting altogether4  ,when the sea      
captain observes a lowering aspect of   
the sky1 with1 it may be1 a dark line   
above the distant edge of the sea1 he   
knows--however calm and unruffled may be
 the ocean around him--that wind may be 
expected2 and1 calling the crew1 he     
orders sail to be taken in1 and         
preparation made for the approaching    
breeze4  ,but there are times when no   
such warning is given1 when the         
atmospheric is perfectly still1 the sea 

calm as glass1 and the vessel floats    
motionless with her sails hanging idly  
from the yards1 as if she were3    ,a   
painted ship upon a painted ,ocean4     
,suddenly1 and before preparation can be
 made to withstand it1 the hurricane    
bursts in appalling fury over the sea3  
the sails are blown to ribbons2 the     
masts1 perhaps1 broken down2 and        
frequently the vessel itself overwhelmed
 and sent to the bottom4  ,many a       
gallant ship1 which has left the harbour
 ably commanded and well manned1 and    
never more been heard of1 has doubtless 
gone down in sudden storms such as those
 we have referred to4  ,but the         
inventions of science have now very much
 lessened the danger of these storms4   
,the barometer1 by the sudden fall of   
its column of mercury1 tells1 as plainly
 and certainly as if it spoke with an   
audible voice1 that a storm is          
approaching1 even though all nature     
should appear to contradict the fact by 
its calm and serene aspect2 so that the 

crew thus warned have time to furl the  
sails1 fasten down the hatches1 and     
otherwise prepare to face the impending 
danger4  ,the atmosphere flows in a     
grand harmonious system of currents and 
counter-currents1 with their            
corresponding eddies1 just like the     
ocean2 and the grand final results of   
its varied action are to equalise in    
some degree the temperatures of the     
world1 to carry off and distribute      
moisture where it is required1 to sweep 
away noxious vapours1 and generally to  
ventilate the ,earth and gladden the    
heart of man4  ,the primary cause of all
 wind is the combined action of heat and
 cold4 ,if the world were heated with   
perfect equality all round1 there would 
be1 as far at least as heat is          
concerned1 a perfect and permanent      
stagnation of the atmosphere2 and this  
would speedily result in the destruction
 of every living thing4  ,but by the    
varied and beautiful arrangements which 
the ,almighty has made in nature ,he has

 secured a regular flow of atmospheric  
currents1 which will continue           
unalterably to move as long as the      
present economy of things exists4  ,the 
intense and constant action of the sun's
 rays in the torrid zone produces great 
heat1 while the less powerful and       
frequently interrupted influence of his 
rays in the frigid zones induces extreme
 cold4  ,hence we have in one region    
heated air1 in another cool air4  ,now1 
the effect of heat upon air is to expand
 it1 make it light1 and cause it to     
rise4  ,the moment it does so1 the cold 
air rushes in to supply its place2 and  
this rushing in of the cold air is what 
we call wind4  ,it may surprise many    
people to be told that there are only   
two great and never-ceasing courses of  
the winds of this world--namely1 north  
and south4  ,they flow perpetually from 
the equator to the poles1 and from the  
poles to the equator4  ,all the         
irregularities and interruptions that we
 observe are mere temporary and partial 

deflections from this grand course4     
,the heated air at the equator rises    
continually and flows in an upper       
current towards the pole1 getting       
gradually cooled on its way north4      
,that from the pole flows in an under   
current towards the equator1 getting    
gradually heated on its way south4  ,we 
speak only of the ,northern ,hemisphere1
 for the sake of simplifying            
explanation1--the action of the great   
wind-current in the ,southern           
,hemisphere is precisely similar4  ,but 
our broad simple statement about the    
upper current from the equator1 and the 
under current from the pole1 requires a 
slight modification1 which we thought it
 best not to mingle with the statement  
itself4  ,the heated air from the       
equator does indeed commence to flow in 
an upper current1 and the cooled air    
from the pole in an under current2 but1 
as the upper currents of air are        
speedily cooled by exposure to space1   
and the under currents are heated by    

contact with the earth's surface1 they  
constantly change places--the lower     
current becoming the upper1 and vice    
versa4  ,but they do not change         
direction4  ,the ,equatorial ,current   
ascends1 rushes north to a point about  
latitude #cj degrees1 where1 being      
sufficiently cooled1 it swoops down1 and
 continues its ,northward rush along the
 earth4  ,at another point the ,polar   
,current quits the earth1 and soaring   
up1 in consequence of its recently      
acquired heat1 becomes the upper        
current4  ,this change in the two       
currents takes place twice in their     
course4  ,of course1 the effect of these
 changes is to produce north winds in   
one latitude and south winds in another1
 according to the particular wind       
7equatorial or polar7 that happens to be
 in contact with the earth4  ,at the    
points where these two currents cross1  
in changing places1 we necessarily have 
calms1 or conflicting and variable      
winds4  ,here1 then1 we have the first  

of the constant disturbing causes1 and  
of apparent irregularities1 in the      
winds4  ,the ,earth1 as every one knows1
 whirls rapidly on its axis from west to
 east4  ,at the equator the whirl is so 
rapid that the atmosphere does not at   
once follow the ,earth's motion4  ,it   
lags behind1 and thus induces an        
easterly tendency to the winds1 so that 
a north wind becomes a north-east1 and a
 south wind a south-east4  ,here we have
 another constant cause of variation    
from the northerly and southerly flow4  
,we thus account for an easterly        
tendency to the winds1 but whence their 
westerly flow8  ,it is simply explained 
thus3  ,the motion of the ,earth is     
greatest at the equator4  ,it diminishes
 gradually towards the poles1 where     
there is no motion at all4  ,the        
atmosphere partakes of the ,earth's     
motion when in contact with it2 and when
 thrown upwards by heat1 as at the      
equator1 it keeps up the motion for some
 time1 as it meets with no resistance   

there4  ,bearing this in mind1 let us   
now follow a gush of warm atmosphere    
from the equator4  ,it rushes up1 and1  
turning north and south1 seeks the      
poles4  ,we follow the northern         
division4  ,when it left the ,earth it  
had acquired a very strong motion       
towards the east1--not so great as that 
of the ,earth itself1 but great enough  
to be equivalent to a furious gale from 
west to east4 ,if we suppose this air to
 redescend whence it rose1 it would1 on 
reaching the equator1 find the ,earth   
going too fast for it4  ,it would lag a 
little1 and become a gentle easterly    
breeze4  ,but now1 throw aside this     
supposition2--our breeze rushes north2  
at latitude #cj degrees it has got      
cooled1 and swoops down upon the ,earth2
 but the ,earth at this latitude is     
moving much slower than at the equator2 
the wind1 however1 has lost little or   
none of its easterly velocity4  ,on     
reaching the ,earth it rushes east much 
faster than the ,earth itself1 and thus 

becomes a westerly gale4  ,there are1   
however1 many other agents at work1     
which modify and disturb what we may    
call the legitimate flow of the wind2   
and these agents are diverse in         
different places1 so that the atmosphere
 is turned out of a straight course1 and
 is caused to deflect1 to halt1 and to  
turn round3 sometimes sweeping low as if
 in haste2 at other times pausing1 as if
 in uncertainty2 and often whirling     
round1 as if in mad confusion4  ,to the 
observer1 who sees only the partial     
effects around his own person1 all this 
commotion seems but the disorderly      
action of blind chance2 but to the eye  
of ,him who sees the end from the       
beginning1 we may certainly conclude    
that naught is seen but order and       
perfect harmony4  ,and to the eye of    
,science there now begins to appear1 in 
what was formerly an atmospheric chaos1 
an evidence of design and system1 which 
is not1 indeed1 absolutely clear1 but   
which is nevertheless abundantly        

perceptible to minds that cannot hope in
 this life to see otherwise than through
 a glass1 darkly4  ,the causes which    
modify the action of the winds are1 as  
we have said1 various4  ,local causes   
produce local currents4  ,a clear sky in
 one region allows the sun's rays to    
pour upon1 let us say1 the ocean1       
producing great heat2 the result of     
which is evaporation4  ,aqueous vapour  
is very light1 therefore it rises2 and  
in doing so the aqueous particles carry 
the air up with them1 and the wind      
necessarily rushes in below to supply   
its place4  ,the falling of heavy rain1 
in certain conditions of the atmosphere1
 has the effect of raising wind4        
,electricity has also1 in all           
probability1 something to do with the   
creation of motion in the atmosphere4   
,now1 as these are all local causes1    
they produce local--or what1 in regard  
to the whole atmosphere1 may be termed  
irregular--effects4  ,and as these      
causes or agents are in ceaseless       

operation at all times1 so their        
disturbing influence is endless2 and    
hence the apparent irregularity in the  
winds4  ,but these causes are           
themselves1 not less than their results1
 dependent on other causes or laws1 the 
workings of which are steady and        
unvarying2 and the little irregularities
 that appear to us in the form of       
fluctuating and changing winds and calms
 may be compared to the varying ripples 
and shifting eddies of a river1 whose   
surface is affected by the comparatively
 trifling influences of wind1 rain1 and 
drought1 but whose grand onward course  
is never for a single moment            
interrupted4  ,among these disturbing   
influences1 the ,gulf ,stream is a very 
important one4  ,it is constantly       
sending up large volumes of steam1      
which1 rising into the air1 induce a    
flow of wind from both sides towards its
 centre4 ,and many of the storms that   
arise in other parts of the ,atlantic   
make for this stream1 and follow its    

course4  ,so much has been ascertained  
by scientific investigation of the      
winds1 that we can now distinctly map   
out the great belts or currents which   
pass right round the world4  ,we can    
tell in which parallels winds with      
easting1 and in which those with        
westing1 in them1 will be most          
frequently found2 and by directing our  
course to such places1 we can to a      
certain extent count upon profiting by  
the winds that will be most suitable4   
,before the facts of atmospheric        
circulation were known1 mariners sailed 
by chance4  ,if they happened to get    
into the belt of wind that suited them1 
their voyages were favourable2 if they  
got into the wrong region1 their voyages
 were unfavourable1--that was all4  ,but
 they had no idea that there was any    
possibility of turning the tables1 and1 
by a careful investigation of the works 
of the ,creator1 coming at last to such 
knowledge as would enable them to reduce
 winds and waves1 in a great degree1 to 

a state of slavery1 instead of          
themselves being at their mercy4  ,the  
world may be said to be encircled by a  
succession of belts of wind1 which blow 
not always in the same direction1 but   
almost invariably with the same routine 
of variations4  ,a vessel sailing from  
north to south encounters these belts in
 succession4  ,to mariners of old1 these
 varying winds seemed to blow in utter  
confusion4  ,to men of the present time1
 their varied action is counted on with 
some degree of certainty4  ,the reason  
why men were so long in discovering the 
nature of atmospheric circulation was1  
that they were not sufficiently alive to
 the immense value of united effort4    
,they learned wisdom chiefly from       
personal experience--each man for       
himself2 and in the great majority of   
cases1 stores of knowledge1 that would  
have been of the utmost importance to   
mankind1 were buried with the           
individuals who had laid them up4       
,moreover1 the life of an individual was

 too short1 and his experience too      
limited1 to enable him to discover any  
of the grand laws of ,nature2 and as    
there was no gathering together of      
information from all quarters1 and all  
sorts of men1 and all seasons 7as there 
is now71 the knowledge acquired by      
individuals was almost always lost to   
the world4  ,thus men were ever         
learning1 but never arriving at a       
knowledge of the truth4  ,may we not    
here remark1 that this evil was owing to
 another evil-- namely1 man's ignorance 
of1 or indifference to1 the duty of what
 we may term human communication8  ,as  
surely as gravitation is an appointed   
law of ,god1 so surely is it an         
appointed duty that men shall           
communicate their individual knowledge  
to each other1 in order that the general
 knowledge of the species may advance   
and just in proportion to the fidelity  
with which men obey this duty--the care 
and ability with which they collate and 
systematise and investigate their       

knowledge--will be the result of their  
efforts4  ,in order to make the above   
remarks more clear as regards           
atmospheric phenomena1 let us suppose   
the case of a sailor who makes the same 
voyage every year1 but not precisely at 
the same time each year 7and it must be 
remembered that the rigid punctuality at
 starting which now holds good did not  
exist in former times74  ,in his first  
voyage he had to cross1 say1 four of the
 wind-belts4  ,while crossing belt      
number one1 he experiences south-west   
winds chiefly1 and1 being an observant  
man1 notes the fact4  ,in belt number   
two he encounters westerly winds4  ,in  
number three he is in a region of       
variable winds and calms4  ,in this     
region the winds blow all round the     
compass1 averaging about three months   
from each quarter4  ,but our sailor does
 not know that2 he does not stay there  
all the year to make notes2 he passes   
on1 having recorded his experience4 ,in 
crossing belt number four1 he finds the 

prevailing winds to be easterly4  ,next 
year he sets forth again but merchants  
are not always punctual4 ,the lading    
cannot be completed in time1 or adverse 
winds render the setting sail           
unadvisable4  ,at length1 after a month 
or six weeks' delay1 he proceeds on his 
voyage1 and finds belt number one       
perhaps much the same as last year4  ,he
 congratulates himself on his good      
fortune1 and notes his observations2 but
 in belt number two1 the wind is        
somewhat modified1 owing to its being   
later in the season1--it is rather      
against him4  ,in number three it is    
right in his teeth1 whereas last year it
 was quite in his favour4  ,in number   
four1 which we will suppose is the      
trade-wind belt 7of which more          
hereafter71 he finds the wind still     
easterly4  ,here1 then1 is the          
groundwork of confusion in our sailor's 
mind4  ,he has not the remotest idea    
that in belt number one the wind blows  
chiefly1 but not always1 in one         

particular direction2 that in number    
four it blows invariably in one way2 and
 that in number three it is regularly   
irregular4  ,in fact1 he does not know  
that such belts exist at all1 and his   
opportunities of observing are not      
sufficiently frequent or prolonged to   
enable him to ascertain anything with   
certainty4  ,now1 when we remember that 
in this imperfect experience of his he  
is still further misled by his          
frequently encountering local           
vicissitudes--such as storms and calms  
resulting from local and temporary      
causes--we see how confusion becomes    
worse confounded4  ,no doubt he does    
gather some few crumbs of knowledge2 but
 he is called on1 perhaps1 to change his
 scene of action4  ,another ship is     
given to him1 another route entered on1 
and he ceases altogether to prosecute   
his inquiries in the old region4  ,or   
old age comes on2 and even although he  
may have been beginning to have a few   
faint glimmerings as to laws and systems

 in his mind1 he has not the power to   
make much of these4  ,he dies2 his      
knowledge is1 to a very large extent1   
lost1 and his log-books disappear1 as   
all such books do1 nobody knows or cares
 where4  ,now this state of things has  
been changing during the last few years4
 ,log-books are collected in thousands4 
,the experiences of many men1 in        
reference to the same spots in the same 
years1 months1 and even hours1 are      
gathered1 collated1 and compared2 and   
the result is1 that although there are  
conflicting elements and contradictory  
appearances1 order has been discovered  
in the midst of apparent confusion1 and 
scientific men have been enabled to     
pierce through the chaos of littlenesses
 by which the world's vision has been   
hitherto obscured1 and to lay bare many 
of those grand progressions of nature   
which move unvaryingly with stately step
 through space and time1 as the river1  
with all its minor eddies and           
counter-currents1 flows with unvarying  

regularity to the ocean4    ,,chapter   
,,six4                                  
,,trade-,,winds--,,storms--,,their      
,,effects--,,monsoons--,,their          
,,value--,,land ,,and ,,sea             
,,breezes--,,experiments--,,hurricanes--
,,those ,,of #ahja--,,rotatory          
,,storms--,,their ,,terrible            
,,effects--,,china ,,seas--,,hurricane  
,,in #ahcg--,,whirlwinds--,,weight ,,of 
,,atmosphere--,,value ,,of ,,atmospheric
 ,,circulation--,,height ,,of           
,,atmosphere4  ,before proceeding to    
speak of the power and the dreadful     
effects of wind1 it is necessary to say 
a word or two about the trade-winds4    
,it is supposed that the trades derived 
their name from the fact of their being 
favourable to navigation1 and1          
therefore1 to trade4  ,they consist of  
two belts of wind1 one on each side of  
the equator1 which blow always in the   
same direction4  ,in the last chapter it
 was explained that the heated          
atmosphere at the equator rises1 and    

that the cooler atmosphere from the     
poles rushes in to supply its place4    
,that which rushes from the south pole  
is1 of course1 a south wind1 that from  
the north pole a north wind2 but1 owing 
to the ,earth's motion on its axis from 
west to east1 the one becomes a         
north-east1 the other a south-east wind4
  ,these are the north-east and the     
,south-east trades4  ,they blow         
regularly--sometimes gently1 sometimes  
fiercely--all the year round4  ,between 
the two is a belt of calms and          
changeable breezes1 varying from #aej to
 #ejj miles broad-- according to the    
time of the year--where there are       
frequent and violent squalls1 of very   
short duration1 accompanied with heavy  
rains4  ,this region is called by seamen
 the doldrums1 and considerable trouble 
and difficulty do ships experience in   
crossing it4  ,it has already been      
explained that about latitude #cj       
degrees1 the upper current of wind from 
the south descends4  ,at the same point 

the upper current from the north also   
descends4  ,they cut through each other1
 and the point where these two cut each 
other is the northern limit of the      
north-east trade-winds4  ,the same      
explanation holds in regard to the      
southern limit of the south-east trades4
  ,in the accompanying diagram the      
arrows within the circle point out the  
direction of the north-east and the     
south-east trades between the tropics of
 cancer and capricorn1 and also the     
counter currents to the north and south 
of these1 while the arrows around the   
circle show how counter currents meet   
and rise1 or descend1 and produce the   
calm belts4  ,we have hitherto enlarged 
chiefly on the grand currents of the    
atmosphere1 and on those modifying      
causes and effects which are perpetual4 
,let us now turn to the consideration of
 those winds which are produced by local
 causes1 and the effects of which are   
partial4  ,and here we are induced to   
revert to the ,gulf ,stream1 which has  

been already referred to as a local     
disturber of the regular flow of the    
atmosphere4  ,this immense body of      
heated water1 passing through cold      
regions of the sea1 has the effect of   
causing the most violent storms4 ,the   
hurricanes of the ,west ,indies are     
among the most violent in the world4    
,we have read of one so violent that it 
forced the ,gulf ,stream back to its    
sources1 and piled up the water in the  
,gulf to the height of thirty feet4  ,a 
vessel named the ,ledbnry ,snow         
attempted to ride it out4  ,when it     
abated1 she found herself high up on the
 dry land1 having let go her anchor     
among the tree-tops of ,elliott's quay6 
,the ,florida quays were inundated many 
feet2 and it is said the scene presented
 in the ,gulf ,stream was never         
surpassed in awful sublimity on the     
ocean4 ,the water thus dammed up rushed 
out with frightful velocity against the 
fury of the gale1 producing a sea that  
beggared description4  ,the monsoons of 

the ,indian ,ocean are among the most   
striking and regular of the             
locally-caused winds4  ,before touching 
on their causes1 let us glance at their 
effects4  ,they blow for nearly six     
months in one direction1 and for the    
other six in the opposite direction4    
,at the period of their changing1       
terrific gales are frequent--gales such 
as we1 in our temperate regions1 never  
dream of4  ,what is termed the rainy    
season in ,india is the result of the   
south-west monsoon1 which for four      
months in the year deluges the regions  
within its influence with rain4  ,the   
commencement of the south-west monsoon  
is described as being sublime and awful 
beyond description4  ,before it comes1  
the whole country is pining under the   
influence of long-continued drought and 
heat2 the ground is parched and rent2   
scarcely a blade of verdure is to be    
seen except in the beds of rivers1 where
 the last pools of water seem about to  
evaporate1 and leave the land under the 

dominion of perpetual sterility4  ,man  
and beast pant for fresh air and cool   
water2 but no cool breeze comes4  ,a    
blast1 as if from the mouth of a        
furnace1 greets the burning cheek2 no   
blessed drops descend2 the sky is clear 
as a mirror1 without a single cloud to  
mitigate the intensity of the sun's     
withering rays4  ,at last1 on some happy
 morning1 small clouds are seen on the  
horizon4  ,they may be no bigger than a 
man's hand1 but they are blessed        
harbingers of rain4  ,to those who know 
not what is coming1 there seems at first
 no improvement on the previous sultry  
calms4  ,there is a sense of suffocating
 heat in the atmosphere2 a thin haze    
creeps over the sky1 but it scarcely    
affects the broad glare of the sun4  ,at
 length the sky begins to change4  ,the 
horizon becomes black4  ,great masses of
 dark clouds rise out of the sea4       
,fitful gusts of wind begin to blow1 and
 as suddenly to cease2 and these signs  
of coming tempest keep dallying with    

each other1 as if to tantalise the      
expectant creation4  ,the lower part of 
the sky becomes deep red1 the gathering 
clouds spread over the heavens1 and a   
deep gloom is cast upon the earth and   
sea4  ,and now the storm breaks forth4  
,the violent gusts swell into a         
continuous1 furious gale4  ,rain falls1 
not in drops1 but in broad sheets4  ,the
 black sea is crested with white foam1  
which is quickly swept up and mingled   
with the waters above2 while those below
 heave up their billows1 and rage and   
roar in unison with the tempest4  ,on   
the land everything seems about to be   
uprooted and hurled to destruction4 ,the
 tall straight cocoa-nut trees are bent 
over till they almost lie along the     
ground2 the sand and dry earth are      
whirled up in eddying clouds1 and       
everything movable is torn up and swept 
away4  ,to add to the dire uproar1      
thunder now peals from the skies in     
loud1 continuous roars1 and in sharp    
angry crashes1 while lightning plays    

about in broad sheets all over the sky1 
the one following so close on the other 
as to give the impression of perpetual  
flashes and an unintermitting roar2 the 
whole scene presenting an aspect so     
awful1 that sinful man might well       
suppose the season of the ,earth's      
probation had passed away1 and that the 
,almighty were about to hurl complete   
destruction upon his offending          
creatures4  ,but far other intentions   
are in the breast of ,him who rides upon
 the storm4  ,his object is to restore1 
not to destroy--to gladden1 not to      
terrify4  ,this tempestuous weather     
lasts for some days1 but at the end of  
that time the change that comes over the
 face of nature seems little short of   
miraculous4  ,in the words of ,mr       
,elphinstone1 who describes from        
personal observation--,the whole earth  
is covered with a sudden but luxuriant  
verdure1 the rivers are full and        
tranquil1 the air is pure and delicious1
 and the sky is varied and embellished  

with clouds4  ,the effect of this change
 is visible on all the animal creation1 
and can only be imagined in ,europe by  
supposing the depth of a dreary winter  
to start at once into all the freshness 
and brilliancy of spring4  ,from that   
time the rain falls at intervals for    
about a month1 when it comes on again   
with great violence2 and in ,july the   
rains are at their height4 ,during the  
third month they rather diminish1 but   
are still heavy4  ,in ,september they   
gradually abate1 and are often suspended
 till near the end of the month1 when   
they depart amid thunders and tempests1 
as they came4  ,such are the effects of 
the monsoons upon land and sea4  ,of    
course the terrific gales that usher    
them in and out could not be expected to
 pass without doing a good deal of      
damage1 especially to shipping4  ,but   
this is more than compensated by the    
facilities which they afford to         
navigation4  ,in many parts of the      
world1 especially in the ,indian ,ocean1

 merchants calculate with certainty on  
these periodical winds4  ,they despatch 
their ships with1 say1 the north-east   
monsoon1 transact business in distant   
lands1 and receive them back1 laden with
 foreign produce1 by the south-west     
monsoon4  ,if there were no monsoons1   
the voyage from ,canton to ,england     
could not be accomplished in nearly so  
short a time as it is at present4  ,and 
now as to the cause of monsoons4  ,they 
are1 for the most part1 deflected       
trade-winds4  ,and they owe their       
deflection to the presence of large     
continents4  ,if there were no land near
 the equator1 the trade-winds would     
always blow in the same manner right    
round the world2 but the great          
continents1 with their intensely-heated 
surfaces1 cause local disturbance of the
 trade-winds4  ,when a trade-wind is    
turned out of its course1 it is regarded
 as a monsoon4  ,for instance1 the      
summer sun1 beating on the interior     
plains of ,asia1 creates such intense   

heat in the atmosphere that it is more  
than sufficient to neutralise the forces
 which cause the trade-winds to blow4   
,they are1 accordingly1 arrested and    
turned back4  ,the great general law of 
the trades is in this region temporarily
 suspended1 and the monsoons are        
created4  ,it is thus that the heated   
plains of ,africa and ,central ,america 
produce the monsoons of the ,atlantic1  
the ,pacific1 and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 
,we think it unnecessary to explain     
minutely the causes that produce        
variation in the monsoons4  ,every      
intelligent reader will readily conceive
 how the change of seasons and varied   
configuration as well as unequal        
arrangement of land and water1 will     
reverse1 alter1 and modify the direction
 and strength of the monsoons4  ,land   
and sea breezes are the next species of 
wind to which we would direct attention4
  ,they occur in tropical countries1 and
 owe their existence to the fact that   
the land is much more easily affected by

 sudden changes of temperature than the 
sea4  ,thus1 the land in warm regions is
 much heated by the sun's rays during   
the day2 the atmosphere over it becomes 
also heated1 in virtue of which it      
rises3 the cool atmosphere over the sea 
rushes in to supply its place1 and forms
 the sea breeze3 which occurs only      
during the day4  ,at night the converse 
of this takes place4  ,land heats and   
cools rapidly2 water heats and cools    
slowly4  ,after the sun sets1 the       
cooling of the land goes on faster than 
that of the sea4  ,in a short time the  
atmosphere over the land becomes cooler 
than that over the sea2 it descends and 
flows off out to sea2 thus forming the  
land breeze4  ,it occurs only at night1 
and when the change from one to the     
other is taking place there is always a 
short period of calm4  ,land and sea    
breezes are of the greatest use in      
refreshing those regions which1 without 
them1 would be almost1 if not           
altogether1 uninhabitable4  ,in ,the    

,tempest1 an interesting work on the    
origin and phenomena of wind1 published 
by the ,society for ,promoting          
,christian ,knowledge1 a curious and    
simple experiment is described1 whereby 
the existence of upper and under        
currents of air and the action of land  
and sea breezes may be clearly seen and 
understood4  ,we quote the passage3--   
,the existence of the upper and under   
currents of air which mark the phenomena
 of the trade-winds1 and of land and sea
 breezes1 may be beautifully illustrated
 in two adjoining rooms1 in one of which
 a good fire is burning1 while in the   
other there is none4  ,if the door      
between the two rooms be thrown open1   
the cold air will enter the heated room 
in a strong current1 or1 in other words1
 as a violent wind4  ,at the same time  
the heated air of the warm room ascends 
and passes the contrary way into the    
cold room1 at the upper part of the same
 doorway2 while in the middle of this   
opening1 exactly between the two        

currents1 the air appears to have little
 or no motion4  ,the best way to show   
this experiment is to introduce the     
flame of a candle into the doorway      
between a hot and a cold room4  ,if the 
flame be held near the bottom of the    
doorway1 where the air is most dense1 it
 will be strongly drawn towards the     
heated room2 and if held near the top of
 the door it will be drawn towards the  
cold room with somewhat less force2     
while midway between the top and bottom 
the flame will be scarcely disturbed4   
,there is also another pretty experiment
 which illustrates well the theory of   
land and sea breezes4  ,take a large    
dish1 fill it with cold water1 and in   
the middle of this put a water-plate or 
a saucer filled with warm water4  ,the  
first will represent the ocean1 and the 
latter an island made hot by the rays of
 the sun1 and rarefying the air above   
it4 ,take a lighted wax candle and blow 
it out2 and1 if the air of the room be  
still1 on applying it successively to   

every side of the saucer1 the smoke will
 be seen moving towards the saucer and  
rising over it1 thus indicating the     
course of the air from sea to land4  ,on
 reversing the experiment1 by filling   
the saucer with cold water 7to represent
 the island at night7 and the dish with 
warm water1 the land breeze will be     
shown by holding the smoking wick over  
the edge of the saucer2 the smoke will  
then be wafted to the warmer air over   
the dish4  ,we have just tried the first
 of these experiments1 with complete    
success4  ,we would1 however1 recommend 
a piece of twisted brown paper1 lighted 
and blown out1 instead of a wax candle1 
because it gives out more smoke and is  
probably more obtainable on short       
notice4  ,the experiment of the doorway1
 moreover1 does not require that there  
should lie two rooms with a door        
between4  ,we have found that the door  
of our study1 which opens into a cold   
passage1 serves the purpose admirably4  
,were we treating chiefly of the        

atmosphere in this work1 it would be    
necessary that we should enlarge on all 
the varieties of winds1 with their      
causes1 effects1 and numerous           
modifications4  ,but our main subject is
 the ,ocean4  ,the atmosphere1 although 
it could not with justice have been     
altogether passed over1 must hold a     
secondary place here2 therefore we will 
conclude our remarks on it with a brief 
reference to hurricanes4  ,it has been  
ascertained that most of the great      
storms that sweep with devastating fury 
over the land and sea are not1 as was   
supposed1 rectilinear in their motion1  
but circular4  ,they are1 in fact1      
enormous whirlwinds1 sometimes upwards  
of one hundred and fifty miles in       
diameter2 and they not only whirl round 
their own centres1 but advance steadily 
forward through space4  ,in the year    
#ahca1 a memorable and dreadful series  
of storms passed over some of the ,india
 ,islands1 and caused terrible havoc1   
especially in the island of ,barbadoes4 

,the peculiarity of these hurricanes was
 that they ravaged the different islands
 at different dates1 and were therefore 
supposed to be different storms4  ,such1
 however1 was not the case4  ,it was one
 mighty cyclone1 or circular storm1--a  
gigantic whirlwind1--which traversed    
that region at the rate of about sixteen
 miles an hour4  ,it was not its        
progressive1 but its rotatory motion1   
that constituted its terrible power4    
,on the #ajth of ,august it reached     
,barbadoes2 on the #aath1 the islands of
 ,saint ,vincent and ,saint ,lucia2 on  
the #abth it touched the southern coast 
of ,porto ,rico2 on the #acth it swept  
over part of ,cuba2 on the #adth it     
encountered ,havanna2 on the #agth it   
reached the northern shores of the ,gulf
 of ,mexico and travelled on to ,new    
,orleans1 where it raged till the #ahth4
  ,it thus1 in six days1 passed1 as a   
whirlwind of destruction1 over two      
thousand three hundred miles of land and
 sea4  ,it was finally dissipated amid  

heavy rains4  ,the effect of a hurricane
 is well described by ,washington       
,irving4 ,about mid-day1 he says1 a     
furious gale sprang up from the east1   
driving before it dense volumes of cloud
 and vapour4  ,encountering another     
tempest from the west1 it appeared as if
 a violent conflict ensued4  ,the clouds
 were rent by incessant flashes1 or     
rather streams1 of lightning4  ,at one  
time they were piled up high in the sky1
 at another they descended to the earth1
 filling the air with a baleful         
darkness1 more impenetrable than the    
obscurity of midnight4  ,wherever the   
hurricane passed1 whole tracts of forest
 were shivered and stripped of their    
leaves and branches2 and trees of       
gigantic size1 which resisted the blast1
 were torn up by the roots and hurled to
 a great distance4 ,groves were torn    
from the mountain-precipices1 and vast  
masses of earth and rock precipitated   
into the valleys with terrific noise1   
choking the course of the rivers4  ,the 

fearful sounds in the air and on the    
earth1 the pealing thunder1 the vivid   
lightning1 the howling of the wind1 the 
crash of falling trees and rocks1 filled
 every one with affright1 and many      
thought that the end of the world was at
 hand4  ,some fled to caverns for       
safety1 for their frail houses were     
blown down1 and the air was filled with 
the trunks and branches of trees1 and   
even with fragments of rocks1 carried   
along by the fury of the tempest4  ,when
 the hurricane reached the harbour1 it  
whirled the ships round as they lay at  
anchor1 snapped their cables1 and sunk  
three of them to the bottom with all who
 were on board4  ,others were driven    
about1 dashed against each other1 and   
tossed mere wrecks upon the shore by the
 swelling surges of the sea1 which in   
some places rolled for three or four    
miles upon the land4  ,this tempest     
lasted for three hours4  ,the ,china    
seas are the most frequently visited by 
severe tempests1 or typhoons2 yet of all

 vessels1 the ,chinese junks1 as they   
are called1 seem to be least adapted by 
their build for encountering such       
storms4  ,a terrible hurricane burst    
upon the ,china seas in the month of    
,january #ahcg1 as we learn from the    
,united ,service ,journal of that year4 
,an ,english vessel was exposed to it4  
,the sea1 rising in mountains around and
 over the ship's sides1 hurled her      
rapidly on her passage homeward1 when   
suddenly a wreck was discovered to the  
westward4  ,the order to shorten sail   
was given1 and promptly obeyed2 and when
 they neared the wreck they found her to
 be a ,chinese junk without mast or     
rudder--a helpless log on the breast of 
that boiling sea4  ,there were many     
,chinamen on deck vehemently imploring  
assistance4  ,the exhibition of their   
joy on beholding the approach of the    
stranger was of the wildest and most    
extravagant nature2 but it was doomed to
 be suddenly turned to despair1 as the  
violence of the storm drove the ship    

past the wreck4  ,it became necessary to
 put her on the other tack1 a manoeuvre 
which the poor creatures construed into 
abandonment1 and the air rang with the  
most agonising shrieks of misery4  ,but 
hope was again raised1 when a boat was  
lowered and a rope thrown on board for  
the purpose of towing the junk to the   
ship4  ,this intention was frustrated by
 the windlass breaking4  ,at sight of   
this one man1 in a paroxysm of despair1 
jumped overboard after the rope2 but he 
missed it4  ,being a good swimmer1 he   
tried to reach the boat2 but his feeble 
power could avail him nothing in the    
midst of such raging elements3 he       
speedily sank to rise no more4  ,another
 rope1 however1 was secured to the junk1
 and by means of it the rest of the crew
 7eighteen in number7 were saved4       
,their gratitude was boundless4  ,they  
almost worshipped the officers1 the     
crew1 and the vessel1 prostrating       
themselves and kissing the feet of the  
former1 and the very planks of the      

latter4  ,well-built ships1 however1 are
 not always able to withstand the       
violence of rotatory storms4  ,instances
 occur in which the tightest built and  
best manned ships are destroyed as      
suddenly as the clumsiest of ill-managed
 junks4  ,not many years ago1 a vessel  
was proceeding prosperously on her      
voyage1 when signs of a coming tempest  
induced the wary captain to reduce1 and1
 finally1 to take in all sail4  ,but his
 precautions were in vain4  ,the storm  
burst on the devoted ship1 and in a few 
minutes the masts went over the side1   
and the hull lay a total wreck upon the 
sea4  ,these hurricanes or cyclones1    
although in reality whirlwinds1 are so  
large that man's eye cannot measure     
them1 and it is only by scientific      
investigation that we have arrived at   
the knowledge of the fact4  ,the        
whirlwind1 properly so called1 is a much
 smaller body of atmosphere4 ,sometimes 
we see miniature whirlwinds1 even in our
 own temperate land1 passing along a    

road in autumn1 lifting the leaves and  
dust into the air and carrying them     
along in the form of a rotatory pillar4 
,in other regions they exert a power    
quite equal to the tempest1 though in a 
more limited space1 overturning houses1 
uprooting trees1 cutting a track twenty 
or thirty yards wide through the dense  
forest as thoroughly as if a thousand   
woodmen had been at work there for many 
years4  ,when whirlwinds pass from the  
land to the sea they create waterspouts2
 of which we shall have something to say
 in another chapter4  ,meanwhile1 we    
think it may be interesting to give the 
following miscellaneous information     
regarding the atmosphere1 gathered from 
the work of ,dr ,buist1 who devoted much
 earnest study to the subject of        
atmospheric phenomena4  ,the weight of  
the atmosphere is equal to that of a    
solid globe of lead sixty miles in      
diameter4  ,its principal elements are  
oxygen and nitrogen gases1 with a vast  
quantity of water suspended in them in  

the shape of vapour2 and1 commingled    
with these1 a quantity of carbon in the 
shape of fixed air1 sufficient to       
restore from its mass many-fold the coal
 that now exists in the world4  ,water  
is not compressible or elastic2 it may  
be solidified into ice or vaporised into
 steam3 but the air is elastic and      
compressible4  ,it may be condensed to  
any extent by pressure1 or expanded to  
an infinite degree of tenuity by        
pressure being removed from it4  ,it is 
not liable to undergo any changes in    
constitution beyond these1 by any of the
 ordinary influences by which it is     
affected4  ,if the heating and cooling  
process--which we have described as     
being carried on between the equator and
 the poles--were to cease1 we should    
have a furious hurricane rushing        
perpetually round the globe at the rate 
of one thousand miles an hour1--ten     
times the speed of the most violent     
tornado that has ever carried           
devastation over the surface of the     

earth4  ,the air1 heated and dried as it
 sweeps over the arid surface of the    
soil1 drinks up by day myriads of tons  
of moisture from the sea1--so much1     
indeed1 that1 were none restored to it1 
the surface of the ocean would be       
depressed eight or ten feet annually4   
,we do not certainly know the height of 
the atmosphere4  ,it is said that its   
upper surface cannot lie nearer to us   
than fifty1 and can scarcely be further 
off than five hundred1 miles4  ,it      
surrounds us on all sides1 yet we cannot
 see it2 it presses on us with a weight 
of fifteen pounds on every square inch  
of the surface of our bodies--in other  
words1 we are at all times sustaining a 
load of between seventy and one hundred 
tons of it on our persons--yet we do not
 feel it6  ,softer than the finest down1
 more impalpable than the lightest      
gossamer1 it leaves the cobweb          
undisturbed1 and1 at times1 scarcely    
stirs the most delicate flower that     
feeds on the dew it supplies2 yet it    

bears the fleets of nations on its wings
 round the world1 and crushes the most  
refractory substances with its weight4  
,it bends the rays of the sun from their
 path to give us the aurora of the      
morning and the twilight of evening4 ,it
 disperses and refracts their various   
tints to beautify the approach and the  
retreat of the orb of day4  ,but for the
 atmosphere1 sunshine would burst on us 
in a moment and fail us in the twinkling
 of an eye1 removing us in an instant   
from midnight darkness to the blaze of  
noon4  ,we have written a good deal on  
this subject1 yet the thousandth part   
has not been told of even the grand and 
more obvious operations of the          
atmosphere1 much less the actions and   
results of its minor and invisible      
processes4  ,were we to descend with    
philosophers into the minuter           
laboratories of the world1 and consider 
the permeating1 ramifying1 subtle part  
the atmosphere plays in the innumerable 
transformations that are perpetually    

going on around and within us1 we should
 be constrained to feel more deeply than
 we have ever yet felt1 that the works  
of the ,creator are indeed wonderful    
beyond all expression or conception4    
,,chapter ,,seven4                      
,,waterspouts--,,causes                 
,,of--,,appearance--,,electricity--,,exp
eriments--,,artificial                  
,,waterspouts--,,showers ,,of           
,,fish--,,mr4 ,,ellis ,,on ,,waterspouts
 ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,seas4  ,we turn   
back now from the atmospheric to the    
aqueous ocean4  ,yet so intimate is the 
connection between the two1 that we     
shall find it impossible to avoid       
occasional reference to the former4     
,our present subject1 waterspouts1      
obliges us to recur for a little to the 
atmosphere1 which we dismissed1 or      
attempted to dismiss1 in the last       
chapter4  ,there is no doubt that       
waterspouts are to a great extent1 if   
not altogether1 due to the presence of  
electricity in the air4  ,when the      

clouds have been raging for some time in
 the skies of tropical regions1         
rendering the darkness bright1 and the  
air tremulous with their dread          
artillery1 they seem to grow unusually  
thirsty2 the ordinary means of          
water-supply through the atmosphere do  
not appear to be sufficient for the     
demand1 or war-tax in the shape of      
water-spouts1 that is levied on nature4 
,the clouds therefore descend to the    
sea1 and1 putting down their dark       
tongues1 lick up the water thirstily in 
the form of waterspouts4  ,these        
whirling pillars of water frequently    
appear in groups of several at a time4  
,they are of various heights1 sometimes 
ranging up to seven hundred yards1 with 
a thickness of fifty yards1 and are very
 dangerous to ships that happen to come 
within their influence4  ,that they are 
caused by electricity has been proved by
 experiment-- miniature waterspouts have
 been produced by artificial means2 and 
as ,dr ,bonzano of ,new ,york gives     

particular directions how the thing     
ought to be done1 we quote his words for
 the benefit of those who happen to     
possess electrical machines4  ,from the 
conductor of an electrical machine      
suspend1 by a wire or chain1 a small    
metallic ball 7one of wood covered with 
tinfoil72 and under the ball place a    
rather wide metallic basin1 containing  
some oil of turpentine1 at the distance 
of about three-quarters of an inch4  ,if
 the handle of the machine be now turned
 slowly1 the liquid in the basin will   
begin to move in different directions   
and form whirlpools4  ,as the           
electricity on the conductor            
accumulates1 the troubled liquid will   
elevate itself in the centre1 and at    
last become attached to the ball4 ,draw 
off the electricity from the conductor1 
to let the liquid resume its position2 a
 portion of the turpentine remains      
attached to the ball4 ,turn the handle  
again very slowly1 and observe now the  
few drops adhering to the ball assume a 

conical shape1 with the apex downward2  
while the liquid under it assumes also a
 conical shape1 the apex upward1 until  
both meet4  ,as the liquid does not     
accumulate on the ball1 there must      
necessarily be as great a current       
downward as upward1 giving the column of
 liquid a rapid circular motion1 which  
continues until the electricity from the
 conductor is nearly all discharged     
silently1 or until it is discharged by a
 spark descending into the liquid4  ,the
 same phenomena take place with oil or  
water4  ,using the latter liquid1 the   
ball must be brought much nearer1 or a  
much greater quantity of electricity is 
necessary to raise it4  ,if1 in this    
experiment1 we let the ball swing to and
 fro1 the little waterspout will travel 
over its immature sea1 carrying its     
whirlpools along with it4  ,when it     
breaks up1 a portion of the liquid--and 
with it anything it may contain--remains
 attached to the ball4  ,the fish1      
seeds1 leaves1 etcetera1 that have      

fallen to the earth in rain-squalls1 may
 have owed their elevation to the clouds
 to the same cause that attaches a few  
drops of the liquid1 with its particles 
of impurities1 to the ball4  ,there can 
be no doubt whatever that fish are      
carried up in waterspouts1 because the  
descent of those creatures from the     
skies in rain is a well-established     
fact2 and if they did not get there in  
waterspouts-- which1 when we consider   
it1 seems most natural--then we are     
driven to the conclusion that their     
native region is the sky1 which is by no
 means so natural or so probable4  ,many
 travellers have recorded the fact that 
small fish have descended in rain4  ,in 
a letter written not long ago by a      
gentleman in ,singapore we have the     
following account of a shower of fish3--
  ,we experienced a shock of earthquake 
here on the #afth ,february last4 ,its  
duration was about two minutes4         
,although it caused no damage1 its      
undulatory motion was sufficiently      

strong to affect certain persons with a 
sensation akin to sea-sickness4  ,it was
 followed by rain in torrents1 on the   
#bjth1 #bast1 and #bbnd4  ,on the latter
 day especially1 we were1 for half an   
hour1 surrounded with water to a        
considerable depth4  ,we could not see  
three yards before us4  ,when the sun   
came out again1 ,i saw a number of      
,malays and ,chinese filling their      
baskets with fish contained in the pools
 formed by the rain4  ,they told me the 
fish had fallen from heaven1' and three 
days later1 when the pools were all     
dried up1 there were still many dead    
fish lying about4  ,as they lay in my   
court-yard1 which is surrounded by a    
wall1 they could not have been brought  
in by the overflowing of a torrent2     
indeed1 there is none of any            
considerable size in the neighbourhood4 
,the space covered by these fish might  
be about fifty acres1 comprising the    
eastern part of the town4  ,they were   
very lively1 and seemed to be in good   

health4  ,the writer of the above       
suggests1 with some degree of           
hesitation1 that these fish were sucked 
up by waterspouts4  ,we think that there
 need be no hesitation in the matter6   
,the appearance usually presented by a  
waterspout is that of a column of       
aqueous vapour reaching from the sea to 
the clouds1 sometimes straight1 more    
frequently a little bent1 and thicker   
above and below than in the centre of   
the column4  ,mr ,ellis1 the missionary1
 in his ,polynesian ,researches1        
mentions having1 with a companion1 met  
and narrowly escaped being overwhelmed  
by several waterspouts1 when passing on 
one occasion in an open boat between two
 islands about thirty miles apart4  ,on 
the passage they were overtaken by a    
sudden and violent squall1 which lasted 
several hours2 and1 in order to avoid   
being sunk1 they tied their masts1 oars1
 and sails in a bundle1 and attaching a 
rope to them1 and to the boat1 cast them
 into the sea4  ,thus they lay1 as it   

were1 at anchor in the lee of this      
extemporised breakwater4  ,it was but a 
feeble barrier1 however1 against so wild
 a storm1 and the native boatmen were so
 overcome by fear1 that they sat down in
 the bottom of the boat1 and covered    
their eyes with their hands4  ,after a  
time the rain diminished1 the sky began 
to clear1 and the boat's crew to revive1
 when suddenly one of the men uttered a 
cry of consternation1 and pointed to an 
object towards which all eyes were      
instantly turned4  ,they beheld a large 
cylindrical waterspout1 extending1 like 
a massive column1 from the ocean to the 
dark and impending clouds4  ,it was not 
far distant1 and seemed to move slowly  
towards the boat4  ,had ,mr ,ellis had  
any doubt as to the danger of a         
waterspout1 the extreme terror exhibited
 by the natives on this occasion must   
have removed it2 for it was not probable
 that1 just after escaping from the most
 imminent peril1 they would fail back   
into a much more violent state of       

terror1 unless former experience had    
given them too good reason to dread the 
presence of the object they now saw     
before them4  ,the roughness of the sea 
forbade their attempting to hoist a sail
 in order to avoid the waterspout4      
,they were compelled1 therefore1 to     
summon all the resolution they          
possessed1 to enable them calmly to     
await its approach1 and put their trust 
in the arm of ,jehovah4  ,the helm was  
in the hands of a seaman whose          
steadiness could be depended on4  ,the  
natives were down in the bottom of the  
boat2 they had given way to despair4    
,two other waterspouts now came into    
view1 and subsequently a third1 if not  
more1 so that they felt as if completely
 surrounded by them4  ,some were well   
defined1 extending in an unbroken line  
from the sea to the sky1 like pillars   
resting on the ocean as their basis1 and
 supporting the clouds2 others1 assuming
 the shape of a funnel or inverted cone 
attached to the clouds1 extended their  

sharp points to the ocean below4 ,from  
the distinctness with which they were   
seen1 it was judged that the furthest   
could not have been many miles distant4 
,in some they imagined they could trace 
the spiral motion of the water as it was
 drawn up to the clouds1 which were     
every moment being augmented in their   
portentous darkness4  ,the sense of     
personal danger1 ,mr ,ellis confesses1  
and the certainty of instant destruction
 if brought within their vortex1        
prevented a very careful observation of 
their appearance and accompanying       
phenomena4  ,the storm continued all    
day1 and at intervals the party in the  
boat beheld1 through the driving clouds 
and rain1 one or other of those towering
 waterspouts2 which1 however1 did not   
come nearer to them4  ,it is interesting
 to read the record left by a ,christian
 missionary of his conflicting feelings 
on that terrible occasion4  ,mr ,ellis  
believed that all hope of escape was    
over1 and his mind went through that    

ordeal which must be the experience of  
every one who sees the steady approach  
of speedy death4  ,he says that during  
those hours when he sat awaiting his    
doom1 the thought of death itself did   
not make a deep impression4 ,the        
struggle1 the gasp1 as the wearied arm  
should attempt to resist the impetuous  
waves2 the straining vision1 that should
 linger on the last ray of retiring     
light1 as the deepening veil of water   
would gradually conceal it for ever2 and
 the rolling billows heaving over the   
sinking and dying body1 which1 perhaps  
ere life should be extinct1 might become
 the prey of voracious inhabitants of   
the deep2--these things caused scarcely 
a thought1 compared with the immediate  
prospect of the disembodied spirit being
 ushered into the presence of its       
,maker2 the account to be rendered1 and 
the awful and unalterable destiny that  
would await it there4  ,these momentous 
objects1 he says1 absorbed all the      
powers of the mind1 and produced an     

intensity of feeling1 which1 for a long 
time1 rendered me almost insensible to  
the storm1 or the liquid columns which  
threatened our destruction4  ,it was now
 that the missionary could look back    
with deepest gratitude upon that mercy  
which had first brought him to a        
knowledge of the ,saviour4  ,him and    
,him alone1 he adds1 ,i found to be a   
refuge1 a rock in the storm of          
contending feelings1 on which my soul   
could cast the anchor of its hope for   
pardon and acceptance before ,god444  ,i
 could not but think how awful would    
have been my state1 had ,i in that hour 
been ignorant of ,christ1 or had ,i     
neglected or despised the offers of his 
mercy4  ,our prayers were offered to    
,him who is a present help in every time
 of danger1 for ourselves and those who 
sailed with us2 and under these and     
similar exercises several hours passed  
away4  ,those prayers were answered1 for
 the waterspouts gradually disappeared1 
and the boat got safe to land4  ,in     

speaking of another waterspout1 seen on 
a subsequent voyage1 ,mr ,ellis tells us
 that it was well defined1--an unbroken 
column from the sea to the clouds1 which
 on this occasion were neither dense nor
 lowering4  ,around the outside of the  
liquid cylinder was a kind of thick     
mist2 and within1 a substance resembling
 steam1 ascending apparently with a     
spiral motion4  ,the water at its base  
was considerably agitated with a        
whirling motion2 while the spray which  
was thrown off from the circle formed by
 the lower part of the column1 rose     
several feet above the level of the sea4
  ,it passed about a mile astern of the 
ship4  ,occasionally1 when passing      
nearer to a ship than was deemed safe1 a
 waterspout has been dissipated by a    
cannon-shot1 as represented in our      
engraving4  ,such are the usual         
appearances and actions of waterspouts4 
,they are not1 however1 properly named1 
being simply whirlwinds at sea1 instead 
of whirlwinds on land4  ,professor      

,oersted suggests the name storm-pillar1
 as being a more appropriate term4  ,it 
does not follow that a large ship would 
inevitably be destroyed if brought      
within the vortex of a waterspout2 but  
it is certain that she would run the    
risk of being dismasted1 and perhaps    
thrown on her beam-ends4  ,navigators   
have not had sufficient experience of   
the power of waterspouts to pronounce   
authoritatively on that point1--and it  
is to be hoped they never will4         
,captain ,beechy1 in his narrative of a 
voyage to the ,pacific1 describes one   
into which his ship actually entered1   
and from which he received extremely    
rough handling before he was set free4  
,but this might not have been a very    
large waterspout2 and it is not         
absolutely certain whether he was quite 
within its vortex1 or was merely brushed
 by the skirts of its outer garment4    
,certain it is that waterspouts vary in 
size and in power2 for we read of them  
passing from the sea to the land1 and   

there rooting up trees1 unroofing and   
overturning houses1 dismounting cannon1 
emptying fish ponds1 half emptying      
harbours1 and otherwise exhibiting a    
degree of force that would undoubtedly  
sink the largest vessel that ever was   
built1 if brought thoroughly to bear    
upon it4  ,the rate of motion in        
waterspouts varies4  ,sometimes they    
revolve slowly1 sometimes with the      
utmost rapidity4  ,they often produce   
violent noise1 as1 indeed1 might be     
expected2 and they are generally        
accompanied by thunder and lightning1   
though not invariably so1 for they are  
sometimes observed when the heavens are 
clear and the sea calm4    ,,chapter    
,,eight4  ,,the ,,arctic ,,seas--,,their
 ,,character1 ,,scenery1 ,,and          
,,atmospherical ,,illusions4  ,there is 
a tendency on the part of most writers  
on the subject of ,polar                
,regions--especially compilers--to dwell
 disproportionately on the gloomy side  
of the picture2 insomuch that readers   

are led1 not to over-estimate the grand 
and the terrible aspects of the polar   
oceans1 but to under-estimate the sweet 
and the beautiful influences that at    
certain periods reign there4  ,we       
quarrel not with authors for dwelling on
 the tremendous and the awful4  ,too    
much cannot be said on these points2 but
 while they do not by any means paint   
the dark side of their picture too      
black1 they fail to touch in the lights 
with sufficient brilliancy4  ,we have   
had some personal experience of the     
arctic regions1 and have found it       
extremely difficult to get many         
persons--even educated men and women--to
 understand that there is a summer      
there1 though a short one2 that in many 
places it is an uncommonly hot and      
excessively brilliant summer2 and that  
the sun1 as if to make amends for its   
prolonged absence in winter1 shines all 
night as well as all day1 blazing on the
 crystal icebergs and pure snow 7which  
never disappear from those seas7 with a 

degree of splendour that renders the far
 north transcendently beautiful and     
pre-eminently attractive4  ,we admit    
freely that the prevailing character of 
arctic seas1 during the greater part of 
the year1 is dark1 gloomy1 forbidding4  
,but this is the very reason why their  
brief but cheering smiles should be     
brought prominently into the foreground1
 and1 if they cannot in justice be dwelt
 on long1 at least be touched upon with 
emphasis4  ,why1 in some of our         
cyclopaedia accounts of the realms of   
thick-ribbed ice1 so much prominence is 
given to the horrors and wide desolation
 of the scene1 and so much graphic power
 is expended in working up the reader's 
imagination to a conception of the      
dreadful dangers and the appalling      
terrors that await the madman who should
 dare to venture within the arctic      
circle1 that persons who have not been  
there might well be tempted to shrink in
 affright from the very contemplation of
 a region in which there does not appear

 to be one redeeming quality4  ,we      
repeat1 that we do not think the one    
side of the picture has been too darkly 
painted1--but the other side has been   
painted too slightly4  ,at the same     
time1 we would caution our readers      
against jumping to the opposite extreme4
  ,the dark side of the picture is in   
reality out of all proportion to the    
light4  ,and we do not hesitate to state
 our confirmed opinion1 that the arctic 
regions are more interesting to read    
about than pleasant to dwell in4        
,having1 then1 defended the lights1 let 
us commence our investigations with the 
shadows4  ,those oceans lying within the
 arctic circle exhibit phenomena so     
grand1 so wonderful1 and so varied1 that
 they claim distinct and separate       
treatment from the ocean as a whole4    
,here the extreme cold acts with such   
power1 and produces such extraordinary  
results1 that it is difficult to find   
words or similes by which to convey a   
just conception of nature's aspects to  

the general reader4  ,during nearly     
two-thirds of the year the arctic       
regions are under the absolute dominion 
of winter2 and for many weeks of that   
bitter season they are shrouded with the
 mantle of a dark1 sunless night4  ,the 
entire ocean is locked in the embrace of
 a covering of ice many feet thick1 so  
that its liquid aspect is thoroughly    
removed2 and1 owing to ice-masses       
scattered over its surface1 together    
with mounds of drifted snow1 it bears a 
much stronger resemblance to the land   
than to the sea4  ,gales of wind        
sometimes sweep over those frozen plains
 in bitter fury1 hurling the snow into  
the air in vast eddying masses1 and     
threatening destruction to any living   
creature that may chance to be exposed  
to them--not so much from their         
violence1 however1 as from the intense  
cold of the atmosphere which is put in  
motion4  ,but in regard to gales1       
although there are no lack of them1 they
 are neither so fierce nor so frequent  

as are those of the torrid zone4  ,it   
might be supposed that in such a climate
 animal life could scarcely exist2 but  
such is not the case4  ,the inhabitants 
of part of the arctic regions1 named    
,esquimaux 7more correctly ,eskimos1    
with the accent on the last syllable71  
are a stout1 hardy1 healthy race and the
 polar bears1 foxes1 wolves1 seals1     
musk-oxen1 walruses1 etcetera1 that     
dwell there1 seem to enjoy their        
existence just as much as do the animals
 of more favoured and warmer climes4    
,during the short but hot summer of the 
arctic regions1 the immense masses of   
ice formed in winter are by no means    
cleared away4  ,a great part of the heat
 of early summer 7there is no season    
there that merits the name of spring7 is
 spent in breaking up the solid crust of
 ice on the sea1 a large proportion of  
which is carried south by the currents  
that flow to the equator1 and melted    
long before they reach the temperate    
zones4  ,but a considerable quantity of 

broken ice-masses get locked in narrow  
places or stranded on shallows2 and     
although they undergo the process of    
melting the whole summer1 they are not  
much diminished ere the returning frost 
stops the process and locks them in the 
new ice of a succeeding winter4  ,thus  
there is no period of the year in which 
large quantities of ice may not be seen 
floating about in the arctic seas4      
,this fact it is that enables us to     
speak appropriately of the scenery of   
the ,arctic ,ocean4  ,and assuredly this
 scenery of the ice is exceedingly and  
strikingly beautiful4  ,the imagination 
cannot conceive the dazzling effect of a
 bright summer day in those regions1    
when the ocean is clear as glass1 and   
ice-humps and ice-mountains of every    
shape and size are glittering in the    
sun's rays with intense brilliancy1     
while the delicate whiteness of these   
floating islands1 and the magical       
atmospheric illusions by which they are 
frequently surrounded1 render the scene 

pre-eminently fairy-like4  ,all the     
navigators who have penetrated into the 
arctic seas speak with enthusiasm of the
 splendour of floating ice-masses4      
,they take the most curious and         
fantastic shapes2 sometimes appearing   
like great cities of white marble1 with 
domes and towers and spires in          
profusion2 sometimes looming huge and   
grand like fortresses1 and many of them 
with their summits overhanging so much  
as to suggest the idea that they are    
about to fall4  ,this indeed1 they often
 do1 adding to the grandeur of the      
scene1 and not a little to the danger1  
should ships chance to be in the        
neighbourhood4  ,the atmospheric        
illusions1 before mentioned1 are the    
result of different temperatures        
existing within a few miles of each     
other1 and which are caused by the      
presence of large bodies of ice4  ,the  
effect of this is to cause the          
ice-masses on the horizon to appear as  
if floating in the air1 and to distort  

them into all sorts of shapes1 even     
turning them upside down1 and thus      
affording to an innovative mind a most  
ample and attractive field wherein to   
expatiate4  ,to ascertain the causes of 
facts and effects so curious must be    
interesting to all who have inquiring   
minds4  ,we will1 therefore1 attempt to 
describe and account for arctic         
phenomena in the following chapters as  
simply as may be4    ,,chapter ,,nine4  
,,formation ,,of ,,ice--,,dangers ,,of  
,,disrupting                            
,,ice--,,anecdote--,,drifting ,,ice--   
,,drift ,,of ,,the ,,fox--,,nipping     
,,anecdote--,,loss ,,of ,,the           
,,breadalbane4  ,it is well known that  
when fresh water becomes so cold that   
its temperature is #cb degrees of       
,fahrenheit's scale1 it loses its liquid
 form and becomes ice4  ,a somewhat     
lower temperature than this is necessary
 to freeze salt water2 the reason being1
 that greater force is required to expel
 the salt which the sea holds in        

solution1--which salt is always more or 
less expelled in the process of         
freezing4  ,ice commences to form in the
 shape of needles1 which shoot out at   
angles from each other4  ,in smooth     
water1 under the influence of intense   
cold1 the process is rapid1 and a thin  
cake soon covers the water1 and         
increases in thickness hour by hour4    
,but when the sea is agitated the       
process is retarded1 and the fine       
needles are broken up into what arctic  
navigators call sludge4  ,this1 however1
 soon begins to cake1 and is broken by  
the swell into small cakes2 which1 as   
they thicken1 again unite1 and are again
 broken up into larger masses4  ,these  
masses1 by rubbing against each other1  
have their edges slightly rounded up1   
and in this form receive the name of    
pancake ice4  ,when a quantity of ice   
covers the ocean in a wide level sheet  
of considerable extent1 it is called an 
ice-field4  ,fields of this kind are    
often seen by navigators hundreds of    

miles in extent1 and nearly thirty feet 
thick4  ,ice of such thickness1 however1
 only shows five or six feet above      
water4  ,when fields are broken by heavy
 ocean-swells1 the edges are violently  
forced up1 and fall in debris on the    
surface2 thus hummocks or mounds are    
formed4  ,when field-ice breaks up under
 the influence of an ocean-swell1 caused
 by a storm1 the results are terrific4  
,an exceedingly graphic account of an   
incident of this kind is given by ,dr   
,brown1 in his ,history of the          
,propagation of ,christianity4  ,he     
writes3--  ,the missionaries met a      
sledge with ,esquimaux1 turning in from 
the sea1 who threw out some hints that  
it might be as well for them to return4 
,after some time1 their own ,esquimaux  
hinted that there was a ground-swell    
under the ice4  ,it was then scarcely   
perceptible1 except on lying down and   
applying the ear close to the ice1 when 
a hollow1 disagreeable1 grating sound   
was heard ascending from the abyss4  ,as

 the motion of the sea under the ice had
 grown more perceptible1 they became    
alarmed1 and began to think it prudent  
to keep close to the shore4  ,the ice   
also had fissures in many places1 some  
of which formed chasms of one or two    
feet2 but as these are not uncommon in  
ice even in its best state1 and the dogs
 easily leap over them1 they are        
frightful only to strangers4  ,as the   
wind rose to a storm1 the swell had now 
increased so much that its effects on   
the ice were extraordinary1 and really  
alarming4  ,the sledges1 instead of     
gliding smoothly along as on an even    
surface1 sometimes ran with violence    
after the dogs1 and sometimes seemed    
with difficulty to ascend a rising hill4
  ,noises1 too1 like the report of      
cannon1 were now distinctly heard in    
many directions1 from the bursting of   
the ice at a distance4  ,alarmed at     
these frightful phenomena1 our          
travellers drove with all haste towards 
the shore2 and1 as they approached it1  

the prospect before them was tremendous4
  ,the ice having burst loose from the  
rocks1 was tossed to and fro1 and broken
 in a thousand pieces against the       
precipices with a dreadful noise2 which1
 added to the raging of the sea1 the    
roaring of the wind1 and the driving of 
the snow1 so overpowered them as almost 
completely to deprive them of the use of
 their eyes and ears4  ,to make the land
 was now the only resource that         
remained1 but it was with the utmost    
difficulty that the frightened dogs     
could be driven forward2 and as the     
whole body of the ice frequently sank   
below the summits of the rocks1 and then
 rose above them1 the only time for     
landing was the moment it gained the    
level of the coast--a circumstance which
 rendered the attempt extremely nice and
 hazardous4  ,both sledges1 however1    
succeeded in gaining the shore1 and were
 drawn up off the beach1 though not     
without great difficulty4  ,scarcely had
 they reached it1 when that part of the 

ice from which they had just escaped    
burst asunder1 and the water1 rushing up
 from beneath1 instantly precipitated it
 into the ocean4  ,in a moment1 as if by
 a signal1 the whole mass of ice for    
several miles along the coast1 and      
extending as far as the eye could reach1
 began to break up1 and to be           
overwhelmed by the waves4  ,the         
spectacle was awfully grand4  ,the      
immense fields of ice rising out of the 
ocean clashing against each other1 and  
then plunging into the deep with a      
violence which no language can describe1
 and with a noise like the discharge of 
a thousand cannon1 was a sight which    
must have filled the most unreflecting  
mind with feelings of solemnity4  ,the  
,brethren were overwhelmed with         
amazement at their miraculous escape1   
and even the ,esquimaux expressed       
gratitude to ,god for their deliverance4
  ,such is the terrible aspect in which 
field-ice is seen when broken up and    
converted into smaller masses or floes4 

,when these lie closely together the    
mass is called pack-ice2 in which shape 
it usually drifts away with the southern
 currents1 and1 separating as it travels
 south1 is met with in loose floating   
masses1 of every fantastic form4  ,there
 is always1 as we have said1 a large    
quantity of floe and pack-ice in the    
polar seas1 which becomes incorporated  
with the new ice of the succeeding      
winter2 and not infrequently whale and  
discovery ships get frozen into the     
pack1 and remain there as firmly        
embedded as if they lay high and dry on 
land4  ,when the pack is thus re-frozen1
 it usually remains stationary2 but     
there are occasions and circumstances in
 which the entire body of a pack drifts 
slowly southward even during the whole  
year2 showing clearly that oceanic      
circulation is by no means arrested by  
the icy hand of the hyperborean winter4 
,a very remarkable drift of this kind is
 recorded by ,captain ,mc,clintock of   
the ,fox1 which is worthy of being      

noticed here1 as illustrative of the    
subject we are now considering and also 
as showing in a remarkable manner the   
awful dangers to which navigators may be
 exposed by the disruption of the pack  
in spring1 and the wonderful1 almost    
miraculous1 manner in which they are    
delivered from imminent destruction4    
,in attempting to cross ,baffin's ,bay1 
by penetrating what is called the middle
 ice1 the ,fox was beset1 and finally   
frozen in for the winter2 and here1     
although their voyage may be said to    
have just commenced1 they were destined 
to spend many months in helpless        
inactivity and comparative peril and    
privation4  ,their little vessel lay in 
the centre of a field of ice of immense 
extent2 so large1 indeed1 that they     
could not venture to undertake a journey
 to ascertain its limits4  ,yet this    
field slowly and steadily descended     
,baffin's ,bay during the whole winter1 
and passed over no fewer than #ache     
statute miles in the space of #bdb days1

 during which period the ,fox was firmly
 embedded in it6  ,it is with difficulty
 the mind can form any adequate         
conception of the position of those     
voyagers2--unable to move from their icy
 bed1 yet constantly drifting over miles
 and miles of ocean2 uncertain as to the
 where or the when of their deliverance 
from the pack2 exposed to the terrible  
dangers of disrupting ice1 and          
surrounded by the depressing gloom of   
the long arctic night4  ,at length      
deliverance came2 but it came surrounded
 by terrors4  ,in ,february1            
,mc,clintock writes thus3 ,daylight     
reveals to us evidences of vast         
ice-movements having taken place during 
the dark months1 when we fancied all was
 still and quiet2 and we now see how    
greatly we have been favoured1 what     
innumerable chances of destruction we   
have unconsciously escaped4  ,a few days
 ago1 the ice suddenly cracked within   
ten yards of the ship1 and gave her such
 a smart shock that every one rushed on 

deck with astonishing alacrity4  ,one of
 these sudden disruptions occurred      
between me and the ship1 when ,i was    
returning from the iceberg4  ,the sun   
was just setting as ,i found myself cut 
off444  ,at length ,i reached a place   
where the jagged edges of the floes met2
 so crossed1 and got safely on board4   
,again1 in ,march1 he says1 ,last night 
the ice closed1 shutting up our lane2   
but its opposite sides continued for    
several hours to move vast each other1  
rubbing off all projections1 crushing   
and forcing out of the water masses four
 feet thick4  ,although one hundred and 
twenty yards distant1 this pressure     
shook the ship and cracked the          
intervening ice4  ,soon after that1 a   
heavy gale burst upon them from the     
south-east1 encircling them with        
snow-drift so dense that they could     
neither hear nor see what was going on  
twenty yards off4  ,at night the ship   
became suddenly detached from her wintry
 bed1 and heeled over to the storm1     

inducing them to believe that the whole 
pack had been broken in1 and was        
pressing against them4  ,this was not   
the case4  ,a large mass of ice had     
protected them2 but at a distance of    
about fifty yards1 ice of four and a    
half feet thick had been crushed to     
atoms4  ,soon after1 the protecting mass
 yielded1 and the ,fox received a nip   
which lifted her stern about a foot1    
while occasional groaning from her      
sturdy little hull replied to the wild  
surgings of the ice without4  ,but all  
this was as nothing compared with the   
scene of desperate turmoil and confusion
 which took place when the ice finally  
broke up1 and a gale raised a fearful   
swell2 so that the ,fox found herself   
surrounded by huge masses1 which tossed 
and ground against each other furiously1
 and any two of which pieces could have 
crushed in her sides as if she had been 
made of walnut shell4  ,gradually the   
pack opened out1 and the vessel1 by aid 
of wind and steam1 was mercifully       

delivered from her dangerous position4  
,before passing from the subject of risk
 to navigators to the consideration of  
other forms and aspects of polar ice1   
let us take a glance at an effectual    
case of nipping4  ,there have been many 
partial and severe nips1 the            
descriptions of which are all more or   
less graphic2 but few ships have come so
 suddenly to the end of their career as 
did the ,breadalbane1 a small vessel    
that was used as a transport ship to the
 expedition in search of ,sir ,john     
,franklin in #aheb4  ,one who was on    
board when it occurred thus describes   
it3--  ,sunday1 ,august #bast4--,about  
ten minutes past four1 the ice passing  
the ship awoke me1 and the door of my   
cabin1 from the pressure1 opened4  ,i   
hurriedly put on my clothes1 and on     
getting on deck found some hands on the 
ice endeavouring to save the boats2 but 
the latter were instantly crushed to    
pieces4  ,they little thought1 when     
using their efforts to save the boats1  

that the ship was in so perilous a      
situation4  ,i went forward to hail the 
,phoenix 7another ship that was         
fortunately near7 for men to save the   
boats2 and whilst doing so1 the ropes by
 which we were secured parted1 and a    
heavy nip took us1 making every timber  
creak1 and the ship tremble all over4   
,i looked in the main hold1 and saw the 
beams giving way4  ,i hailed those on   
the ice1 and told them of our critical  
situation1 they not for one moment      
suspecting it4  ,i then rushed to my    
cabin1 hauled out my portmanteau on     
deck1 and roared like a bull to those in
 their beds to jump out and save their  
lives4  ,the startling effect on them   
might be more easily imagined than      
described4 ,on reaching the deck1 those 
on the ice called out to me to jump over
 the side1 that the ship was going over4
  ,i left my portmanteau1 and jumped    
over the side on the loose ice1 and with
 difficulty1 and with the assistance of 
those on the ice1 succeeded in getting  

on the unbroken part1 with the loss of  
the slippers ,i had on when quitting the
 vessel1 with wet feet1 etcetera4  ,the 
cold was little thought of at the       
exciting moment--life1 not property1    
being the object to be saved4  ,after   
being on the ice about five minutes1 the
 timbers1 etcetera1 in the ship cracking
 up as matches would in the hand1 it    
eased for a short time2 and ,i1 with    
some others1 returned to the ship1 with 
the view of saving some of our effects4 
,captain ,inglefield now came running   
towards the ship1 and ordered me to see 
if the ice was through it4  ,on looking 
down into the hold1 ,i saw all the      
beams1 etcetera1 falling about in a     
manner that would have been certain     
death to me had ,i ventured down there4 
,but there was no occasion for that 7,i 
mean to ascertain the fact of the ice   
being through71 it being too evident    
that the ship could not last many       
minutes4  ,i then sounded the well1 and 
found five feet in the hold2 and1 whilst

 in the act of sounding1 a heavier nip  
than before pressed out the starboard   
bow1 and the ice was forced right into  
the forecastle4  ,every one then        
abandoned the ship1 with what few       
clothes they saved--some with only what 
they had on4  ,the ship now began to    
sink fast1 and from the time her        
bowsprit touched the ice until her      
mast-heads were out of sight1 did not   
occupy above one minute and a half6  ,it
 was a very sad and unceremonious way of
 being turned out of our ship4  ,from   
the time the first nip took her1 until  
her disappearance1 did not occupy more  
than fifteen minutes4  ,such is the     
account of the fate of the ,breadalbane4
  ,while we read it1 we cannot help     
feeling that many arctic ships must have
 perished in a similar manner4  ,it is  
wonderful1 nevertheless1 how many of    
those that dare the dangers of the ice  
survive the conflict4  ,undoubtedly this
 is owing1 to a large extent1 to the    
fact that ships' bottoms are rounded2 so

 that when a severe nip takes place1    
there is a tendency in the ice to slip  
under their rounded bottoms1 and squeeze
 the vessels up out of the water4  ,were
 it not for this1 few ships that have   
gone to those seas would ever have      
returned4  ,a catastrophe such as that  
which befell the ,breadalbane shows the 
immense power of field-ice4  ,hundreds  
of somewhat similar incidents might be  
cited to illustrate this power2 but we  
content ourselves with the selection of 
one instance1 which exhibits it in a    
remarkable manner1 and at the same time 
shows the way in which heavy vessels are
 sometimes forced out of the water4  ,in
 the year #ahcf1 ,captain ,back         
commanded the ,terror1 which was sent   
out to make geographical discoveries in 
the polar regions1 and spent the winter 
of that year in the ice4  ,few ships    
have undergone severer tests than did   
the ,terror on that voyage4  ,the       
severest treatment she experienced was  
in the spring1 when the disruption of   

the winter ice began to take place4     
,the evening of the #gth of ,march was  
specially fraught with danger4  ,we     
quote the gallant commander's graphic   
account3--  ,ominous rushing sounds were
 heard far off to the north-east and    
north-west4  ,these gradually drew      
nearer as the flood made its way1 either
 under the compact bodies that withstood
 the shock1 or along the cracks and     
openings--gaining in these latter a     
furious velocity1 to which everything   
seemed to yield4  ,it happened that     
there were several of these around the  
ship2 and when they opened on us like so
 many conduits pouring their contents to
 a common centre1 the concussion was    
absolutely appalling1 rending the lining
 and bulkheads in every part1 loosening 
some shores and stanchions1 so that the 
slightest effort would have thrown them 
down1 and compressing others with such  
force as to make the turpentine ooze out
 of their extremities4  ,one fir plank1 
placed horizontally between the beams   

and the shores actually glittered with  
globules4  ,at the same time the        
pressure was going on from the larboard 
side1 where the three heaviest parts of 
the ruin of the floe remained1 cracked  
here and there1 but yet adhering in firm
 and solid bodies4  ,these1 of course1  
were irresistible2 and after much       
groaning1 splitting1 and cracking1      
accompanied by sounds like the explosion
 of cannon1 the ship rose fore and aft1 
and heeled over about ten degrees to    
starboard4  ,again1 on the #aath1 ,back 
says3 ,at this time she showed symptoms 
of suffering in the hull1 which was     
evidently undergoing a severe ordeal4   
,inexplicable noises1 in which the sharp
 sounds of splitting and the harsher    
ones of grinding were most distinct1    
came in quick succession1 and then again
 stopped suddenly1 leaving all so still 
that not even a breath was heard4  ,in  
an instant the ship was felt to rise    
under our feet1 and the roaring and     
rushing commenced with a deafening din  

alongside1 abeam and astern1 at one and 
the same instant4  ,alongside1 the      
grinding masses held the ship tight as  
in a vice2 while the overwhelming       
pressure of the entire body1 advancing  
from the west1 so wedged the stern and  
starboard quarter1 that the greatest    
apprehensions were entertained for the  
stern-post and framework abaft4  ,some  
idea of the power exerted on this       
occasion may be gathered from this3--,at
 the moment which ,i am now describing1 
the fore-part of the ship was literally 
buried as high as the flukes of the     
anchors in a dock of perpendicular walls
 of ice2 so that1 in that part1 she     
might well have been thought immovable4 
,still1 such was the force applied to   
her abaft1 that after much cracking and 
perceptible yielding of the beams1 which
 seemed to curve upwards1 she actually  
rose by sheer pressure above the dock   
forward2 and then1 with sudden jerks1   
did the same abaft4 ,during these       
convulsions1 many of the carpenters and 

others stationed below were violently   
thrown down on the deck1 as people are  
in an earthquake4  ,it was a moment of  
intense suspense4  ,on the #afth1       
another rush drove irresistibly on the  
larboard quarter and stern1 and forcing 
the ship ahead1 raised her on the ice4  
,a chaotic ruin followed444  ,the ship  
was careened fully four streaks1 and    
sprang a leak as before4  ,scarcely were
 ten minutes left us for the expression 
of our astonishment that anything of    
human build could outlive such assaults1
 when another equally violent rush      
succeeded2 and in its way toward the    
starboard quarter threw up a rolling    
wave thirty feet high1 crowned by a blue
 square mass of many tons1 resembling   
the entire side of a house1 which1 after
 hanging for some time in doubtful poise
 on the ridge1 at length fell with a    
crash into the hollow1 in which1 as in a
 cavern1 the after-part of the ship     
seemed embedded4  ,it was1 indeed1 an   
awful crisis1 rendered more frightful   

from the mistiness of the night and     
dimness of the moon4  ,the poor ship    
cracked and trembled violently1 and no  
one could say that the next minute would
 not be her last--and1 indeed1 his own  
too1 for with her our means of safety   
would probably perish4  ,it is          
unnecessary to give additional instances
 of this kind1 in order to show the     
terrible power of field-ice4  ,indeed1  
it requires little in the way of        
illumination to prove that masses of    
solid matter1 many thousands of tons in 
weight1 can1 when in motion1 utterly    
destroy the most powerful engines of    
human construction4  ,we shall now turn 
our attention to another1 and a very    
prominent form1 in which arctic ice     
presents itself--namely1 that of        
icebergs4    ,,chapter ,,ten4           
,,icebergs--,,their ,,appearance ,,and  
,,forms--,,their                        
,,cause--,,glaciers--,,their ,,nature   
,,and ,,origin--,,anecdote ,,of         
,,scoresby--,,risk ,,among              

,,icebergs--,,mcclure',s ,,experience4  
,there are not only ice-fields1         
ice-floes1 etcetera1 in the polar seas1 
but there are ice-mountains1 or bergs4  
,it was long a matter of uncertainty as 
to where and how those immense          
mountains1 that are met with            
occasionally at sea1 were formed4  ,we  
are now in a position to tell definitely
 where they originate1 and how they are 
produced4  ,they are not masses of      
frozen sea water4  ,their birth-place is
 in the valleys of the far north1 and   
they are formed by the accumulation of  
the snows and ice of ages4  ,this is a  
somewhat general way of stating the     
matter2 but our subsequent explanations 
will1 we trust1 make our meaning        
abundantly clear4  ,icebergs are found  
floating in great numbers in the arctic 
seas4  ,they drift southward each spring
 with the general body of polar ice1 and
 frequently travel pretty far south in  
the ,atlantic before the heat of the    
water and atmosphere united accomplishes

 their dissolution4  ,they sometimes    
travel as far south as ,florida with the
 southerly current that flows along that
 coast2 but the warm waters of the ,gulf
 ,stream1 together with its northerly   
flow1 form an impassable barrier between
 these ice-mountains and ,europe4       
,icebergs assume every variety of form1 
and almost every size4  ,they sometimes 
resemble castles1 sometimes churches    
with glittering spires1 and sometimes   
the peaked and jagged mountains of      
,norway4  ,they are also frequently seen
 in the form of immense misshapen and   
top-heavy masses4  ,in size they vary   
from one hundred to seven or eight      
hundred feet in height4  ,one iceberg1  
seen by ,ross in ,baffin's ,bay1 was    
above two miles in length1 nearly the   
same in width1 and fifty feet high4     
,but in stating this1 we have not given 
the reader any idea of its vast         
proportions2 for it is well known that  
all icebergs1 or masses of ice1 have a  
much greater proportion of their bulk   

under than above water--in other words1 
they sink very deep4  ,the relative     
proportion that sinks depends on the    
nature of the ice4  ,of some kinds1     
there is usually ten times as much below
 as there is above water2 of other      
kinds1 there may be eight or five parts 
below4  ,in all cases there is much more
 below than above so that a mountain of 
a hundred feet high--if afloat--may be  
safely calculated to be a mass of ice   
not far short of a thousand feet thick4 
,as these bergs float southward with the
 currents1 they melt very rapidly4  ,the
 heat of the sun and the action of the  
waves gradually round off the sharp     
angles and topple down the spires that  
characterised them in the land of their 
birth4  ,the process of dissolution1    
too1 is carried on internally2 for rain 
and melted water on the surface         
percolates through the mass1 rendering  
it porous4  ,as the waves cut away the  
base1 the centre of gravity is thrown   
out1 and the whole berg turns over with 

a terrible crash4  ,sometimes loud      
reports like cannon-shots are heard1 and
 the huge mountain splits asunder2      
while1 not unfrequently1 the whole berg 
falls into a heap of chaotic ruins1 and 
floats away in a mass of smaller pieces 
which disappear gradually in their      
parent sea4  ,the formation of icebergs 
has1 as we have said1 puzzled mankind   
for many years4  ,their existence has   
long been known3 for1 even before men   
dared to venture their lives in the     
polar regions1 navigators1 in crossing  
the ,atlantic ,ocean1 frequently met    
with these marble-like mountains2 and1  
what is worse1 sometimes ran at full    
speed against them1 and were sunk with  
all on board4  ,bergs are frequently    
enveloped in dense fogs1 caused by the  
cold atmosphere by which they are       
surrounded condensing the moisture of   
the warmer atmosphere which they        
encounter on their voyage southward2    
hence they are exceedingly dangerous to 
navigation4  ,but now to speak of their 

formation4  ,many of the great valleys  
of the far north are completely filled  
up with solid ice4  ,observe1 we do not 
say that they are merely covered over   
with ice2 they are absolutely filled up 
with it from top to bottom4 ,those      
ice-masses are known by the name of     
glaciers2 and they are found in most of 
the elevated regions of the ,earth1--on 
the ,alps and the mountains of ,norway1 
for instance1--but they exist in greater
 abundance about the poles than         
elsewhere4  ,glaciers never melt4  ,they
 have existed for unknown ages1 probably
 since the world began2 and they will1  
in all likelihood1 continue to exist    
until the world comes to an end1--at    
least until the present economy of the  
world terminates4  ,they began with the 
first fall of snow1 and as falls of snow
 during the long winters of the polar   
regions are frequent and heavy1 the     
accumulated masses are many feet deep1  
especially in places where drifts are   
gathered--sometimes fifteen1 twenty1    

thirty1 and even forty feet deep4  ,the 
summer sun could not melt such drifts   
entirely4  ,new snow was added each     
winter1 until the valleys of the far    
north were filled up2 and so they remain
 filled up to this day4  ,in order to   
understand the nature of glaciers       
clearly1 let us turn back to those      
remote ages that rolled over this ,earth
 long before man was created4  ,let us  
in spirit leap back to the time when no 
living creature existed1 even before the
 great mastodon began to leave his huge 
foot-prints on the sands of time4  ,we  
have reached one of the large valleys of
 the arctic regions4  ,it is solemn1    
grand1 and still4  ,no merry birds1 no  
prowling creatures1 are there to disturb
 the universal calm4  ,the ,creator has 
not yet formed the living creatures and 
pronounced them very good4  ,it is the  
world's first winter4  ,as we look      
upward to the sky1 we observe the first 
white snow-flakes falling gently to the 
ground4  ,they reach it1 and1 for the   

first time1 that valley is covered with 
a garment of virgin snow4  ,the valley  
is upwards of two miles broad4  ,it     
rises from the sea1 and goes far back   
into the mountains1 perhaps to the      
extent of ten or twelve miles4  ,the    
mountains that flank it are five or six 
thousand feet high4 ,we have seen such  
valleys in ,norway1 within the arctic   
circle4  ,before that first winter has  
passed1 many and many a fall of snow has
 thickened and pressed down that first  
coat2 and many a furious storm has      
caught up the snow from the             
mountain-tops and swept it into the     
valley1 adding to and piling up the     
mass1 and packing it firmly down4       
,spring arrives4  ,the short but warm   
arctic summer bursts upon that vale1    
melting the surface of the snow2 and the
 water thus produced sinks through the  
mass1 converting it into a sort of thick
 slush--half snow1 half water1--not     
liquid1 yet not solid2 just solid enough
 to lie there apparently without motion2

 yet just liquid enough to creep by     
slow1 absolutely imperceptible degrees1 
down the valley4  ,the snow in all the  
mountain gorges is similarly affected3  
it creeps 7it cannot be said to flow7   
out and joins that in the vale4  ,but we
 cannot perceive any of the motion of   
which we are writing4  ,the mass of snow
 seems to be as still and motionless as 
the rocks on which we stand2 nay1 if we 
choose we may walk on its hard surface  
almost without leaving the slightest    
print of our foot4  ,but if we throw a  
large stone on the surface of the snow  
and mark the spot1 and return again     
after many days1 we shall find that the 
stone has descended the valley a short  
distance4  ,we shall also observe that  
the snow has now a variety of markings  
on its surface2 which might lead us to  
fancy1 had we not known better1 that it 
had once been a river1 which1 while     
raging down to the sea with all its     
curling rapids and whirling eddies1 had 
been arrested in all instant by the     

ice-king and frozen solid1--in fact1 it 
has all the graceful lines and forms of 
fluidity1 with all the steady1          
motionless aspect of solidity4  ,it     
really moves1 this vast body of snow2   
but1 like the hour hand of a watch1 its 
motion cannot be recognised1 though we  
should observe it with prolonged1       
unflagging attention4  ,we have called  
it a vast body of snow1 but this is only
 comparatively speaking4  ,it will be   
vaster yet before we have done with it4 
,at present it is but a thick semi-fluid
 covering1 lying at the bottom of this  
ancient arctic vale4  ,the brief summer 
ends4  ,much of the winter snow has been
 melted and returned to the sea2 but    
much1 very much more1 is still lying    
deep upon the ground4  ,the world's     
second winter comes4  ,the first frost  
effectually puts a stop to all the      
melting and moving that we have been    
describing4  ,the snow-river no longer  
moves--it is arrested4  ,the water no   
longer percolates through the snow--it  

is frozen4  ,the mass is no longer      
semi-fluid--it is solid ice2 and the    
first step in the process of a glacier's
 formation is begun4  ,thereafter this  
process is continued from year to year1 
each winter adding largely to its bulk1 
each summer deducting slightly          
therefrom4  ,the growing mass of ice    
ascends the mountain-sides1 swallows the
 rocks and shrubs and trees in its      
progress1 until its body becomes a      
thousand feet thick3 the extreme summits
 of the mountain-peaks alone tower above
 the snowy waste1 and the mass at the   
bottom is now1 by the pressure of       
superincumbent masses1 pure ice1 hard   
and clear as crystal4  ,when the great  
glacier grows old it still maintains its
 stealthy downward motion during every  
summer4  ,it has reached the shore1 and 
has been pushed1 like a huge white      
tongue1 out into the sea4  ,but what has
 all this to do with icebergs8 it may be
 inquired4  ,much1 very much4  ,it is   
common enough1 in commenting on a child1

 to speak of the parent4  ,the glacier  
is the mother of the iceberg4  ,when1 in
 the world's early morning1 the embryo  
glacier reached the sea1 its thin edges 
were easily broken off by the waves2 but
 as it increased and still further      
encroached1 these edges became thicker  
and thicker1 until at last a wall of    
pure ice1 several hundred feet high1    
presented its glittering front to the   
ocean4  ,it was hard and massive2 the   
sun of summer had little effect on its  
frigid face1 and it seemed to bid       
defiance to the sea itself4  ,but things
 often are not what they seem4 ,each    
billow sapped its foundation2 it soon   
began to overhang its base4 ,at length  
the cohesion of the mass was not        
sufficient to sustain its weight4  ,a   
rending1 accompanied by sounds like     
heaven's artillery1 took place2 the     
crystal mountain bowed its brow and fell
 with thunderous crash upon the water2  
then1 rocking slowly under the impulse  
of its dread plunge1 the first iceberg  

floated off to sea6  ,it is right to    
remark here that this explanation is1 to
 some extent1 disputed--at least there  
is a difference of opinion as to the    
manner in which the iceberg leaves its  
parent glacier4  ,there is no dispute as
 to its origin4  ,this difference will  
be explained shortly in a quotation from
 ,dr ,kane's work2 meanwhile1 in support
 of the present theory1 let us listen to
 the words of one who saw with his own  
eyes something similar to what has been 
described4  ,dr ,scoresby1 than whom a  
better man never explored the arctic    
seas1 says3--  ,in ,july #ahah1 ,i was  
particularly fortunate in witnessing one
 of the grandest effects which these    
polar glaciers ever present4  ,a strong 
north-westerly swell1 having for some   
hours been beating on the shore1 had    
loosened a number of fragments attached 
to the iceberg1 and various heaps of    
broken ice denoted recent shoots of the 
seaward edge4  ,as we advanced towards  
it1 with a view of proceeding close to  

its base1 ,i observed a few little      
pieces fall from the top2 and while my  
eye was fixed upon the place1 an immense
 column1 probably fifty feet square1 and
 one hundred and fifty feet high1 began 
to leave the parent ice at the top1 and1
 leaning majestically forward1 with an  
accelerated velocity fell1 with an awful
 crash1 into the sea4  ,the water into  
which it plunged was converted into an  
appearance of vapour or smoke1 like that
 from a furious cannonading4  ,the noise
 was equal to that of thunder1 which it 
nearly resembled4  ,the column which    
fell was nearly square1 and in magnitude
 resembled a church4  ,it broke into    
thousands of pieces4  ,this circumstance
 was a happy caution1 for we might      
inadvertently have gone to the very base
 of the icy cliff from whence masses of 
considerable magnitude were continually 
breaking6  ,now1 this incident suggests 
the probability1 that1 had the face of  
the glacier projected into deep water1  
the mass which broke off might have     

fallen into the sea without being broken
 to pieces1 and might have floated away 
as a berg4  ,we confess1 however1 to be 
partial to the view expressed by some   
writers1 that the great glaciers        
continue year by year to thrust their   
thick tongues out to sea1 until the     
projecting masses reach water           
sufficiently deep to float them1 when   
they are quietly cracked off from their 
parent and carried away without any fall
 or plunge4  ,the following remarks by  
,dr ,kane will make this more clear4    
,writing of the iceberg1 he says3  ,so  
far from falling into the sea1 broken by
 its weight from the parent glacier1 it 
rises from the sea4  ,the process is at 
once gradual and comparatively quiet4   
,the idea of icebergs being discharged1 
so universal among systematic writers1  
and so recently admitted by myself1     
seems to me at variance with the        
regulated and progressive action of     
nature4  ,developed by such a process1  
the thousands of bergs which throng     

these seas should keep the air and water
 in perpetual commotion-- one fearful   
succession of explosive detonations and 
propagated waves4 ,but it is only the   
lesser masses falling into deep waters  
which could justify the popular opinion4
  ,the enormous masses of the ,great    
,glacier of ,greenland are propelled    
step by step1 and year by year1 until1  
reaching water capable of supporting    
them1 they are floated off1 to be lost  
in the temperatures of other regions444 
,the height of the ice-wall at the      
nearest point was about three hundred   
feet1 measured from the water's edge2   
and the unbroken right line of its      
diminishing perspective showed that this
 might be regarded as its constant      
measurement4  ,it seemed1 in fact1 a    
great icy table-land1 abutting with a   
clean precipice against the sea4  ,this 
is1 indeed1 characteristic of all those 
arctic glaciers which issue from central
 reservoirs1 or mers de glace1 upon the 
fords or bays1 and is strikingly in     

contrast with the dependent or hanging  
glacier of the ravines4  ,elsewhere the 
same writer speaks of this glacier as a 
line of cliff1 rising in a solid glassy 
wall to a height of three hundred feet  
above the water-level1 and with an      
unfathomable depth below it2 and its    
curved face1 sixty miles in length1 from
 ,cape ,agassiz to ,cape ,forbes1       
vanished into unknown space at not more 
than a single day's rail-road travel    
from the pole4  ,the interior with which
 it communicated1 and from which it     
issued1 was an unsurveyed mer de glace1 
or sea of ice1 of apparently boundless  
dimensions2 and from one part of this   
great cliff he saw long lines of huge   
bergs floating slowly away4  ,here1 we  
think1 is ice enough and of sufficient  
dimensions to account for the largest   
bergs that were ever beheld4  ,it will  
be at once seen1 then1 that icebergs1   
though found floating in the sea1 are   
not necessarily of the sea4  ,they are  
composed entirely of fresh water1 and   

arctic ships can at any time procure a  
plentiful supply of good soft drinkable 
water from the pools that are formed in 
the hollows of the bergs4  ,the risk of 
approaching icebergs in the arctic      
regions is not so great as when they are
 found floating further south2 because  
when in their native regions they are   
comparatively tough1 whereas on their   
southern journeys they become more or   
less disintegrated--in fact1 the blow of
 an axe is sometimes sufficient to cause
 a rent1 which in its turn will induce  
other rents and failings asunder1 so    
that the whole mass runs the risk of    
being entirely broken up4  ,hence the   
danger of ships1 in certain             
circumstances1 venturing to anchor to   
them4  ,nevertheless this is a common   
practice--sometimes a necessity--among  
discovery ships and whalers4  ,it is a  
convenient practice too2 for many a     
vessel has been saved from absolute     
destruction by getting under the lee of 
a good sound iceberg1 where she has lain

 as safely1 for the time being1 as if in
 a harbour4  ,when ,captain ,mc,clure   
was endeavouring to make the north-west 
passage in #ahea1 he was saved1 from    
what appeared to be at least very       
probable destruction1 by a small        
iceberg4  ,on the #agth of ,september he
 writes3  ,there were several heavy     
floes in the vicinity4  ,one1 full six  
miles in length1 passed at the rate of  
two knots1 crushing everything that     
impeded its progress1 and grazed our    
starboard-bow4  ,fortunately there was  
but young ice upon the opposite side1   
which yielded to the pressure2 had it   
otherwise occurred1 the vessel must     
inevitably have been cut asunder4  ,in  
the afternoon we secured to a           
moderately-sized iceberg1 drawing eight 
fathoms1 which appeared to offer a fair 
refuge1 and from which we never         
afterwards parted4  ,to this lump of ice
 the ship clung with the tenacity of a  
bosom friend1 and followed it1          
literally1 through thick and thin6      

,there is something almost ludicrous1 as
 well as striking1 in ,mc,clure's       
account of their connection with this   
bit of ice4  ,it conveyed them to their 
furthest north-east position1 and back  
round the ,princess ,royal              
,islands--passed the largest within five
 hundred yards--returned along the coast
 of ,prince ,albert's ,land--and finally
 froze in at latitude #gj degrees #ej   
minutes north1 longitude #aag degrees   
#ee minutes west1 on the #cjth          
,september2 during which                
circumnavigation they received many     
severe nips1 and were frequently driven 
close to the shore1 from which their    
dear friend the iceberg1 small though he
 was1 kept them off4  ,icebergs assume  
almost every conceivable form1 and are  
seen of every size--sometimes1 also1 in 
great numbers4  ,scoresby mentions one  
occasion on which he was surrounded by  
bergs to the number of several hundreds4
  ,now1 all this ice that we have been  
speaking of1 besides being1 in a        

secondary way1 a passive agent in the   
affairs of man 7chiefly in barring his  
progress northward71 is one of the most 
potent agents in the economy of nature4 
,it is the means by which the world is  
kept cool enough for man and beast to   
dwell in4  ,the polar regions--north and
 south--are1 as it were1 the world's    
refrigerators2 tempering the heated air 
of the south1 and1 in connection with   
the torrid zone1 spreading throughout   
the ,earth those beneficial influences  
which gladden the sphere of man's       
temporal existence4    ,,chapter        
,,eleven4  ,,ice ,,an ,,agent ,,in      
,,transporting ,,boulders--,,how ,,this 
,,comes ,,about--,,dr4 ,,kane',s        
,,observations--,,long ,,night ,,in     
,,winter ,,and ,,long ,,day ,,in        
,,summer--,,extreme                     
,,darkness--,,influence ,,on            
,,dogs--,,intense ,,cold--,,effect ,,on 
,,the ,,sea4  ,there are many things in 
this world which1 up to within a few    
years back1 have been to men a source of

 surprise and mystery4  ,some of these  
problems have been solved by recent     
travellers1 and not a few of them are   
referable to polar oceans and ice4  ,in 
many parts of our coasts we find very   
striking and enormously large           
boulder-stones lying on the beach1      
perfectly isolated1 and their edges     
rounded away like pebbles1 as if they   
had been rolled on some antediluvian    
beach strewn with ,titanic stones4      
,these boulders are frequently found    
upon the loose sands of the sea-shore1  
far removed from any rocks or mountains 
from which they might be supposed to    
have been broken2 and1 more than that1  
totally different in their nature from  
the geological formations of the        
districts in which they are found4      
,whence came these8 has been the        
question of the inquisitive of all ages1
 and how came they there8  ,there may1  
for aught we know to the contrary1 be   
more than one answer to these questions2
 but there is at least one which is     

quite satisfactory as to how and whence 
at least some of them have come4  ,ice  
was the means of conveying these        
boulders to their present positions4    
,it has been said that once upon a time 
a large part of this country was under  
the dominion of ice1 even as the polar  
regions and some of the mountains and   
valleys of ,norway are at the present   
day2 that the boulders we see in        
elevated places were conveyed thither by
 glacier action2 and that when the      
glacial period passed away1 they were   
left there on the hill-sides--sometimes 
almost on the mountain-tops4  ,but this 
is not the question we are considering  
just now4  ,we are now inquiring into   
the origin of those huge boulders that  
are found upon our coasts and on the    
coasts of other lands--boulders which   
could not have rolled down from the     
hills1 for there are no hills at all    
near many of them2 and those hills that 
are near some of them are of different  
geological formation4  ,this question   

will be answered at once1 and one of the
 phenomena of arctic ice and oceanic    
agency will be exhibited1 by reference  
to the recent discoveries of the        
celebrated arctic voyager1 ,dr ,kane of 
the ,american ,navy4  ,while wintering  
far beyond the head of ,baffin's ,bay1  
and beyond the most northerly point1 in 
that direction1 that had at that time   
been reached by any previous traveller1 
,dr ,kane made many interesting         
observations and discoveries4  ,he seems
 to have penetrated deep into the heart 
of ,nature's northern secrets4  ,among  
other things1 he ascertained the manner 
in which boulders are transported from  
their northern home4  ,the slow1        
creeping movement of glaciers1 to which 
we have already referred1 is one means  
whereby large boulders are formed4  ,at 
the lower edge of one of the glaciers of
 ,norway we saw boulders1 thirty or     
forty feet in diameter1 which had been  
rolled and forced1 probably for ages1   
down the valley by the glacier1 and     

thrust out on the sea-beach1 where they 
lay with their angles and corners rubbed
 off and their surfaces rounded and     
smoothed as completely as those of the  
pebbles by which they were surrounded4  
,had these boulders been formed in the  
arctic regions1 they might have been    
thrust out upon the thick solid crust of
 the frozen sea1 which in time would    
have been broken off and floated away2  
thus rafting the boulders to other      
shores4  ,the formation of boulders1 and
 their positions1 are facts that we have
 seen4  ,their being carried out to sea 
by ice-rafts is a fact that ,dr ,kane   
has seen and recorded4  ,on the wild    
rocky shores where his ship was set     
fast1 there was a belt of ice lining the
 margin of the sea1 which he termed the 
ice-belt1 or the ice-foot4  ,this belt  
never melted completely1 and was usually
 fast to the shore4  ,in fact it was    
that portion of the sea-ice which was   
left behind each spring when the general
 body of ice was broken up and swept    

away4  ,referring to this1 he writes3   
,the spot at which we landed ,i have    
called ,cape ,james ,kent4  ,it was a   
lofty headland1 and the land-ice which  
hugged its base was covered with rocks  
from the cliffs above4  ,as ,i looked   
over this ice-belt1 losing itself in the
 far distance1 and covered with its     
millions of tons of rubbish1            
greenstones1 limestones1 chlorite1      
slates1 rounded and angular1 massive and
 ground to powder1 its importance as a  
geological agent1 in the transportation 
of drift1 struck me with great force4   
,its whole substance was studded with   
these varied contributions from the     
shore2 and further to the south1 upon   
the now frozen waters of ,marshall ,bay1
 ,i could recognise raft after raft from
 the last year's ice-belt which had been
 caught by the winter1 each one laden   
with its heavy freight of foreign       
material4  ,the water torrents and thaws
 of summer unite with the tides in      
disengaging the ice-belt from the coast2

 but it is not uncommon for large bergs 
to drive against it and carry away the  
growths of many years4  ,i have found   
masses that had been detached in this   
way1 floating many miles out at         
sea--long1 symmetrical tables1 two      
hundred feet long by eighty broad1      
covered with large angular rocks and    
boulders1 and seemingly impregnated     
throughout with detrited matter4  ,these
 rafts in ,marshall ,bay were so        
numerous1 that could they have melted as
 ,i saw them1 the bottom of the sea     
would have presented a more curious     
study for the geologist than the        
boulder-covered lines of our middle     
latitudes4  ,one boulder in particular  
had had its origin in a valley where    
rounded fragments of water-washed       
greenstone had been poured out by the   
torrents and frozen into the coast-ice  
of the belt4  ,the attrition of         
subsequent matter had truncated the     
great egg-shaped rock1 and worn its     
sides into a striated face1 whose       

scratches still indicated the line of   
water-flow4  ,so1 then1 when we next    
meet with a huge isolated boulder on any
 of our flat beaches1 we may gaze at it 
with additional interest1 when we       
reflect that1 perchance1 it was carried 
thither by the ocean1 countless ages    
ago1 from the arctic regions1 on a      
gigantic raft of ice2 after having been1
 at a still more remote period1 torn    
from its cliffs by some mighty glacier  
and slowly rolled and rounded1 for      
hundreds of years perhaps down the      
scarred slopes of its native valley4    
,the primary cause of the intense and   
prolonged cold of the arctic regions is 
the shortness of the time during which  
they are under the influence of the     
sun's rays4  ,for a few months in summer
 the sun shines brightly1 but1 owing to 
the position of the globe1 obliquely on 
the poles4  ,during part of that period 
it shines at mid-night as well as at    
mid-day4  ,put during the greater part  
of the year its beams throw but a feeble

 light there1 and for several months in 
winter there is absolutely no day at    
all--nothing but one long dismal night  
of darkness1 that seems as if the bright
 orb of day had vanished from the       
heavens for ever4  ,the length of this  
prolonged day in summer1 and this dreary
 night in winter1 depends1 of course1   
upon latitude4  ,the length of both     
increases as we approach the poles4     
,the long daylight in summer is         
exceedingly delightful4  ,we once saw   
the sun describe an almost unbroken     
circle in the sky for many days and     
nights1 and had we been a few degrees   
further north we should have seen it    
describe an entire circle4  ,as it was1 
it only disappeared for twenty minutes4 
,it set about midnight1 and in twenty   
minutes it rose again so that there was 
no night1 not even twilight1 but a      
bright1 beautiful blazing day1 for      
several weeks together4  ,dr ,kane      
describes the midnight sun thus3 ,on our
 road we were favoured with a gorgeous  

spectacle1 which hardly any excitement  
of peril could have made us overlook4   
,the midnight sun came out over the     
northern crest of the great berg1 our   
late fast friend1' kindling             
variously-coloured fires on every part  
of its surface1 and making the ice      
around us one great resplendency of     
gem-work--blazing carbuncles and rubies1
 and molten gold4  ,very different      
indeed is the aspect of the winter      
night4  ,let the same authority speak1  
for he had great experience thereof4    
,on ,december #aeth he writes3 ,we have 
lost the last vestige of our mid-day    
twilight4  ,we cannot see print1 and    
hardly paper4  ,the fingers cannot be   
counted a foot front the eyes4  ,noonday
 and midnight are alike2 and1 except a  
vague glimmer on the sky1 that seems to 
define the hill-outlines to the south1  
we have nothing to tell us that this    
arctic world of ours has a sun4  ,in one
 week more we shall reach the midnight  
of the year444  ,the influence of this  

long intense darkness was most          
depressing4  ,even our dogs1 although   
the greater number of them were natives 
of the arctic circle1 were unable to    
withstand it4  ,most of them died from  
an anomalous form of disease1 to which  
,i am satisfied1 the absence of light   
contributed as much as extreme cold4    
,quoting from his journal he says3 ,i am
 so afflicted with the insomnia of this 
eternal night1 that ,i rise at any time 
between midnight and noon4  ,i went on  
deck this morning at five o'clock4  ,it 
was absolutely dark2 the cold not       
permitting a swinging lamp1 there was   
not a glimmer came to me through the    
ice-crusted window-panes of the cabin4  
,while ,i was feeling my way1 half      
puzzled as to the best method of        
steering clear of whatever might be     
before me1 two of my ,newfoundland dogs 
put their cold noses against my hand1   
and instantly commenced the most        
exuberant antics of satisfaction4 ,it   
then occurred to me how very dreary and 

forlorn must these poor animals be1 at  
atmospheres #aj degrees above zero      
in-doors and #ej degrees below zero     
without--living in darkness1 howling at 
an accidental light1 as if it reminded  
them of the moon--and with nothing1     
either of instinct or sensation1 to tell
 them of the passing hours1 or to       
explain the long lost daylight4  ,they  
shall see the lantern more frequently4  
,yet this state of midnight darkness is 
not altogether unmitigated4 ,there are a
 few ameliorating influences at work1   
the nature of some of which we will     
treat of in the next chapter4  ,among   
others1 the moon frequently shines there
 with great brilliancy in winter4  ,dr  
,kane says that in ,october the moon had
 reached her greatest northern          
declination3 ,she is a glorious object4 
,sweeping around the heavens1 at the    
lowest part of her curve she is still   
#ad degrees above the horizon4  ,for    
eight days she has been making her      
circuit with nearly unvarying           

brightness4 ,it is one of those         
sparkling nights that bring back the    
memory of sleigh-bells and songs and    
glad communings of hearts in lands that 
are far away4  ,but despite all the     
varied and transient beauties of the    
northern skies in winter1 the long      
arctic night is undoubtedly depressing  
in the extreme4  ,in these regions men  
speak of being able to read the         
thermometer on the #gth of ,november at 
noonday without a light1 as being matter
 for gratulation4  ,the darkness still  
before them at that time would be of    
about three months' duration1 and even  
then they would only get back to a      
species of twilight4  ,the cold         
experienced by these navigators of the  
northern seas is terribly intense4      
,their thermometers have frequently     
indicated a temperature as low as #ge   
degrees below zero1 or #ajg degrees of  
frost1 on ,fahrenheit's scale4  ,the    
thermometers of arctic explorers are    
always filled with spirits of wine1 as  

quicksilver freezes at about #dj degrees
 below zero1 and is therefore           
unsuitable4  ,it would be frozen1       
indeed1 the greater part of the winter4 
,dr ,kane says3 ,at such temperatures   
chloric ether became solid1 and         
carefully prepared chloroform exhibited 
a granular pellicle on its surface4     
,spirits of naphtha froze at #ed degrees
 below zero1 and oil of sassafras at #di
 degrees4  ,the oil of winter-green was 
in a flocculent state at #ef degrees1   
and solid at #fc degrees4  ,the         
exhalations from the surface of the body
 invested the exposed or partially clad 
parts with a wreath of vapour4  ,the air
 had a perceptible pungency upon        
inspiration1 but ,i could not perceive  
the painful sensation which has been    
spoken of by some ,siberian travellers4 
,when breathed for any length of time1  
it imparted a sensation of dryness to   
the air-passages4  ,i noticed that1 as  
it were involuntarily1 we all breathed  
guardedly1 with compressed lips4  ,now1 

strange to say1 this extremely low      
temperature does not affect the ocean to
 any great depth4  ,just below the ice1 
in cold such as the above1 the sea was  
found to be #bi degrees above zero4  ,no
 doubt1 deeper down1 the temperature was
 still warmer4  ,we have heard it said1 
that when men chance to fall into the   
water in cold regions1 in the depth of  
winter1 it feels at first rather warm   
and agreeable6  ,on scrambling out      
again1 however1 their condition is not  
enviable2 for in a few minutes the keen 
frost causes their garments to become as
 hard as boards4  ,much light has been  
thrown on the fact of the existence of  
under and upper currents in the sea1 by 
the phenomena of the arctic regions1 and
 some of the questions to which these   
currents give rise are so interesting   
that we shall treat of them in a new    
chapter4    ,,chapter ,,twelve4         
,,question ,,of ,,an ,,open ,,sea       
,,round ,,the ,,poles--,,upper ,,and    
,,under ,,currents ,,of ,,the           

,,ocean--,,cause ,,thereof--,,habits    
,,of ,,the ,,whale ,,as ,,bearing ,,on  
,,the ,,question-- ,,dr4 ,,kane',s      
,,discovery ,,of ,,an ,,open ,,sea ,,in 
,,the ,,far ,,north--,,notes ,,on ,,the 
,,expedition--,a ,,bear-,,hunt4  ,it was
 long and very naturally supposed that  
the impenetrable ice of the arctic      
regions extended to1 and1 as it were1   
sealed up the pole4  ,but from time to  
time philosophic observers of ,nature's 
laws began to hint their opinion that   
there is an open ocean around the pole2 
and of late years this opinion has all  
but been converted into a firm belief4  
,maury remarks1 that like air--like the 
body--the ocean must have a system of   
circulation for its waters4  ,and an    
attentive study of the currents of the  
sea1 and a close examination of the laws
 which govern the movements of the      
waters in their channels of circulation 
through the ocean1 will lead us         
irresistibly to the conclusion that     
always1 in summer and winter1 there must

 be1 somewhere within the arctic circle1
 a large body of open water4  ,there is 
an under-current setting from the       
,atlantic1 northward through ,davis'    
,straits1 into the ,arctic ,ocean1 and a
 surface-current setting out4  ,the fact
 is proved beyond a doubt by the        
observations of arctic explorers1 who   
have seen immense icebergs drifting     
rapidly northward against a strong      
current4  ,this apparent anomaly could  
only be accounted for by the fact that a
 powerful undercurrent carried them     
northward2 and as at least seven times  
more of these bergs must have been under
 than above water1 we can easily        
understand how the under-current1 acting
 on the larger mass of each berg1 had   
power to carry it against the           
surface-current4  ,this under-current is
 warm1 while the upper-current is cold4 
,now we know that according to ,nature's
 laws1 heated water1 like heated air1   
rises to the surface1 and cold water    
sinks to the bottom4  ,how1 then1 comes 

this warm current to be underneath the  
cold1 as soundings have proved it to be8
  ,it is owing to the fact that the     
under-current is much salter1 and       
therefore heavier 7despite its warmth71 
than the surface-current2 which latter1 
being mingled with the drainage and     
ice-masses of the arctic regions1 is    
comparatively fresh1 and therefore light
 as well as cold4  ,the hot and salt    
waters of the tropics are carried north 
by the ,gulf ,stream4  ,there are here  
two counteracting agents at work4  ,heat
 inclines the ,gulf ,stream to rise2    
saltness inclines it to sink4  ,during  
the first part of its journey1 as we    
know1 its great heat prevails over the  
other influence1 and it flows as a      
surface-current4  ,but1 at a certain    
point in its northward route1 it meets  
with the cold1 brackish1 ice-bearing    
currents that flow out of the arctic    
basin4  ,having lost much of its heat   
7though still possessing a great deal   
more than the arctic currents71 the     

saltness of the ,gulf ,stream prevails2 
it dips below the polar waters1 and     
thenceforth continues its course as an  
under-current1 salt1 and comparatively  
warm4  ,to state the matter briefly3    
,the hot water1 which ought to keep on  
the surface because of its heat1 is sunk
 by its superabundant salt2 and the cold
 water1 which ought to sink because of  
its cold1 is buoyed on the surface      
because of its want of salt4  ,now      
arises the question--what becomes of the
 great quantity of salt that is thus    
being carried perpetually into the polar
 basin8  ,manifestly it must be carried 
out again by the surface-current1       
otherwise the polar basin would of      
necessity become a basin of salt4  ,the 
under-current must1 therefore1 rise to  
the surface somewhere near the pole1    
with its temperature necessarily only a 
little1 if at all1 below the            
freezing-point--which1 be it observed1  
is a warm temperature for such regions4 
,here1 then1 where the warm waters from 

the south rise to the surface1 it is    
supposed this open ,arctic ,ocean must  
exist4  ,so much for theory4  ,now for  
facts that have been observed1 and that 
tend1 more or less1 to corroborate this 
proposition of an open polar sea4  ,the 
habits of the whale have gone far to    
prove it4  ,the log-books of whalers    
have for many years been carefully      
examined and compared by scientific men4
  ,these investigations have led to the 
discovery that the tropical regions of  
the ocean are to the right' whale as a  
sea of fire1 through which he cannot    
pass1 and into which he never enters4   
,it has also been ascertained that the  
same kind of whale which is found off   
the shores of ,greenland1 in ,baffin's  
,bay1 etcetera1 is found in the ,north  
,pacific1 and about ,behring's ,straits2
 and that the right' whale of the       
southern hemisphere is a different      
animal from that of the northern4  ,how1
 then1 came the ,greenland whales to    
pass from the ,greenland seas to the    

,pacific8  ,not by the ,capes ,horn or  
,good ,hope2 the sea of fire precluded  
that4  ,clearly there was ground here   
for concluding that they did so through 
the 7supposed7 open sea lying beyond1 or
 rather within1 the frozen ocean4  ,it  
is true the objection might be made1    
that the same kind of whale which exists
 in the ,north ,pacific exists also in  
the ,north ,atlantic1 although they     
never cross over to see each other4     
,but another discovery has met this     
objection4  ,it is the custom among     
whalers to have their harpoons marked   
with date and name of ship1 and ,dr     
,scoresby1 in his work on arctic voyages
 mentions several instances of whales   
having been taken near ,behring's       
,straits1 with harpoons in them bearing 
the stamp of ships that were known to   
cruise in the ,greenland seas2 and the  
dates on the harpoons were so recent as 
to preclude the supposition that the    
said whales had1 after being struck1    
made a voyage round the capes above     

mentioned1--even were such a voyage     
possible to them4  ,all this does not1  
indeed1 absolutely prove the existence  
of an open arctic sea1 but it does1 we  
think1 prove the existence of at least  
an occasionally open sea there1 for it  
is well known that whales cannot travel 
such immense distances under ice4  ,but 
the most conclusive evidence that we    
have in regard to this subject is the   
fact1 that one of the members of ,dr    
,kane's expedition1 while in search of  
,sir ,john ,franklin1 did actually1 on  
foot1 reach what we have every reason to
 believe was this open sea2 but not     
being able to get their ship into it1   
the party had no means of exploring it1 
or extending their investigations4  ,the
 account of this discovery is so        
interesting1 and withal so romantic1    
that we extract a few paragraphs        
relating to it from ,kane's work4       
,after spending the dreary winter in the
 ice-locked and unexplored channels     
beyond the head of ,baffin's ,bay1 ,kane

 found his little ship still hopelessly 
beset in the month of ,june2 he         
therefore resolved to send out a        
sledge-party under ,morton1 one of his  
best men1 to explore the channel to the 
north of their position4  ,after twelve 
days' travelling they came to the base  
of the ,great ,glacier1 where ,morton   
left his party1 and1 in company with an 
,esquimaux named ,hans1 set out with a  
dog-sledge to prosecute the journey of  
exploration4  ,they walked on the       
sea-ice in a line parallel with the     
glacier1 and proceeded twenty-eight     
miles that day1 although the snow was   
knee-deep and soft4  ,at the place where
 they encamped a crack enabled them to  
measure the ice4  ,it was seven feet    
five inches thick6  ,and this in ,june4 
,we may mention here1 in passing1 that  
,dr ,kane never got his vessel out of   
that frozen strait1 which seems to be   
bound by perpetual ice4  ,he and his    
party escaped with their lives2 but the 
vessel that bore them thither is        

probably still embedded in that ice4    
,next day ,morton and ,hans came to a   
region of icebergs1 which had arrested a
 previous sledging-party of the same    
expedition4  ,these icebergs were       
generally very high1 evidently newly    
separated from the glacier4  ,their     
surfaces were fresh and glassy1 and not 
like those generally met with in        
,baffin's ,bay1--less worn1 and bluer1  
and looking in all respects like the    
face of the ,great ,glacier4  ,many were
 rectangular1 some of them regular      
squares1 a quarter of a mile each way2  
others more than a mile long4  ,to pass 
amidst these bergs was a matter of      
labour1 difficulty1 and danger4         
,sometimes the sides of them came so    
close together1 that the men could      
scarcely squeeze between them1 and they 
were obliged to search for other        
passages2 in doing which1 the variation 
of their compass confused them4  ,at    
other times1 a tolerably wide passage   
would appear between two bergs1 which   

they would gladly follow2 then a        
narrower one2 then no opening in front1 
but one to the side4  ,following that a 
little distance1 a blank ice-cliff would
 close the way altogether1 and they were
 forced to retrace their steps and begin
 again4  ,thus they puzzled their way   
through1 like a blind man in the streets
 of a strange city2 but more            
difficulties awaited them beyond4       
,after advancing many miles they were   
arrested by broad rents in the ice1 and 
were obliged to diverge frequently far  
out of their course1 or to bridge the   
chasms over by cutting down the ice     
hummocks and filling them up with loose 
ice1 until the dogs were able to haul   
the provision-sledge over4  ,advancing  
thus for several days1 and encamping on 
the snow at night1 they at last came to 
a spot where the ice was dangerous4  ,it
 was weak and rotten1 and the dogs began
 to tremble4  ,proceeding at a brisk    
rate1 they had got upon unsafe ice      
before they were aware of it4  ,their   

course was at the time nearly up the    
middle of the channel2 but as soon as   
possible they turned1 and by a backward 
circuit reached the shore4  ,the dogs1  
as their fashion is1 at first lay down  
and refused to proceed1 trembling       
violently4  ,the only way to induce the 
terrified1 obstinate brutes to get on1  
was for ,hans to go to a white-looking  
spot1 where the ice was thicker1 the    
soft stuff looking dark2 then calling   
the dogs coaxingly by name1 they would  
crawl to him on their bellies4  ,so they
 retreated from place to place1 until   
they reached the firm ice they had      
quitted4  ,a half mile brought them to  
comparatively safe ice1 a mile more to  
good ice again4  ,in the midst of this  
danger they had1 during the liftings of 
the fog1 sighted open water4  ,soon     
after they saw it plainly4  ,so many    
long and dreary months had these men    
passed since they were gladdened by the 
sight of open water1 that they could    
scarcely believe their eyes2 and ,morton

 declared1 that but for the birds which 
were seen flying about it in great      
numbers1 he would not have believed it4 
,they made for the land-ice as fast as  
possible1 and quickly gained it2 but the
 sea-ice had cracked off and sunk so    
much1 that the land-ice presented a wall
 along the whole coast of about eight or
 nine feet high4 ,it was quite          
perpendicular1 in some places           
overhanging1 so that it was a matter of 
the greatest difficulty they managed to 
throw up the provisions1 clamber up     
themselves1 and haul the dogs and sledge
 up afterwards4  ,this accomplished1    
however1 they were safe1 and could      
advance with confidence4  ,but this mass
 of land-ice became narrower as they    
proceeded1 till at last it dwindled to a
 mere narrow ledge1 clinging to the     
high1 perpendicular cliffs1 and looking 
as if at any moment it might crumble off
 and fall with them into the open water 
between it and the floating sea-ice4    
,the sea here was very deep and clear4  

,they could see the bottom quite        
plainly1 although a stone they cast in1 
the size of a man's head1 took          
twenty-eight seconds to reach it4       
,being now afraid of the ice-ledge1 they
 attempted to find a path along the face
 of the cliff2 but failing in this1     
,morton determined to leave part of the 
provisions in cache1 and proceed with a 
lighter load4 ,the cape round which they
 were travelling1 and on the other side 
of which lay the open water1 was        
extremely bold1 and the ice-ledge at the
 end of it was barely three feet wide2  
so they were obliged to unloose the     
dogs1 and drive them forward alone1 then
 tilted the sledge on one runner1 and   
thus pushed it past the worst place4    
,here the ice on the sea was partly     
broken up1 and a strong tide was running
 from the southward4  ,the night before 
it had been running from the north4  ,as
 they advanced1 the channel became still
 more open1 and after passing the cape  
they saw nothing but open water1 with   

innumerable wild sea-birds of every     
description flying overhead1 or         
disporting in the pools4  ,let it by    
observed here1 however1 that this was   
the open water of a strait or           
channel1--not the great ,arctic ,sea1   
about the probable existence of which we
 have been writing4  ,upon the          
ice-masses near them numerous seals were
 seen basking4  ,one thing that struck  
them much here was1 that although strong
 north winds1 amounting to a gale at    
times1 had been blowing for several     
days1 no ice had been brought down from 
the north into the channel1 along the   
shore of which they travelled4  ,thick1 
damp fogs prevailed1 preventing them    
from seeing far in advance at any time4 
,at last they came to a place where the 
broken ice of the shore rendered passage
 for the sledge impossible4  ,they      
therefore tied the dogs1 intending to   
push forward a short way alone4  ,but   
they had not been sufficiently careful  
to secure them2 for the poor animals1   

supposing themselves deserted1 no doubt1
 succeeded in breaking their lines1 and 
rejoined the two men in about an hour   
after4  ,this1 as it turned out1 was    
rather a fortunate circumstance4        
,preparatory to quitting their sledge1  
the men had loaded themselves with eight
 pounds of pemmican and two of biscuit1 
besides the artificial horizon1 sextant1
 and compass1 a rifle1 and a boathook4  
,they had not been an hour gone when1 as
 above stated1 four of the dogs overtook
 them4 ,an hour afterwards they came    
upon a polar bear with her cub4  ,the   
fight that followed1 although somewhat  
foreign to our subject1 is so           
graphically described by ,dr ,kane1 that
 we think it quite unnecessary to       
apologise for inserting it here4  ,the  
bear instantly took to flight2 but the  
little one being unable to keep pace    
with her1 she turned back1 and1 putting 
her head under its haunches1 threw it   
some distance4  ,the cub safe for the   
moment1 she would then wheel round and  

face the dogs1 so as to give it a chance
 to run away2 but it always stopped1    
just as it alighted1 till she came up   
and threw it ahead again2 it seemed to  
expect her aid1 and would not go on     
without it4  ,sometimes the mother would
 run a few yards ahead1 as if to coax   
the young one up to her1 and when the   
dogs came up she would turn and drive   
them back then1 as they dodged her      
blows1 she would rejoin the cub and push
 on1 sometimes putting her head under   
it1 sometimes catching it in her mouth  
by the nape of the neck4  ,for a time   
she managed her retreat with great      
celerity1 leaving the two men far in the
 rear4  ,they had engaged her on the    
land-ice2 but she led the dogs in-shore1
 up a small stony valley which opened   
into the interior4  ,after she had gone 
a mile and a half1 her pace slackened1  
and1 the little one being jaded1 she    
soon came to a halt4  ,the men were then
 only half a mile behind1 and running at
 full speed4 ,they soon came up to where

 the dogs were holding her at bay4  ,the
 fight was now a desperate one4  ,the   
mother never went more than two yards   
ahead1 constantly looking at the cub4   
,when the dogs came near her1 she would 
sit upon her haunches1 and take the     
little one between her hind-legs1       
fighting the dogs with her paws1 and    
roaring so that she could have been     
heard a mile off4  ,never was an animal 
more distressed4 ,she would stretch her 
neck and snap at the nearest dog with   
her shining teeth1 whirling her paws    
like the arms of a windmill4  ,if she   
missed her aim1 not daring to pursue one
 dog lest the others should harm the    
cub1 she would give a great roar of     
baffled rage1 and go on pawing and      
snapping1 and facing the ring1 grinning 
at them with her mouth stretched wide4  
,when the men came up the little one was
 perhaps rested1 for it was able to turn
 round with its dam1 no matter how quick
 she moved1 so as to keep always in     
front of her belly4  ,the five dogs were

 all the time frisking about her        
actively1 tormenting her like so many   
gad-flies4  ,indeed they made it        
difficult to take an aim at her without 
killing them4  ,but ,hans1 lying on his 
elbow1 took a quiet aim1 and shot her   
through the head4 ,she dropped and      
rolled over dead1 without moving a      
muscle4  ,the dogs sprang towards her at
 once2 but the cub jumped upon her body 
and reared up1 for the first time       
growling hoarsely4  ,they seemed quite  
afraid of the little creature1 she      
fought so actively1 and made so much    
noise2 and1 while tearing mouthfuls of  
hair from the dead mother1 they would   
spring aside the minute the cub turned  
towards them4  ,the men drove the dogs  
off for a time1 but were obliged to     
shoot the cub at last1 as she would not 
quit the body4  ,hans fired into her    
head4  ,it did not reach the brain1     
though it knocked her down2 but she was 
still able to climb on her mother's     
body1 and try to defend it1 her mouth   

bleeding like a gutter-spout4  ,they    
were obliged to despatch her with       
stones4  ,after skinning the old one    
they gashed its body1 and the dogs fed  
upon it ravenously4  ,the little one    
they cached for themselves against their
 return4  ,this little fight quite      
knocked up ,hans the ,esquimaux2 ,morton
 therefore advanced alone1 in the hope  
of being able to get beyond a huge cape 
that lay before him4  ,on reaching it1  
the grand sight of an apparently        
boundless ocean of open water met his   
eye4  ,only four or five small pieces of
 ice were seen on the glancing waves of 
this hitherto unknown sea4  ,viewed from
 the cliffs1 writes ,dr ,kane1 and      
taking thirty-six miles as the mean     
radius open to reliable survey1 this sea
 had a justly-estimated extent of more  
than #djjj square miles4  ,here1 then1  
in all probability1 is the great ,arctic
 ,ocean that has been supposed to exist 
in a perpetually fluid state round the  
pole1 encircled by a ring of ice that   

has hitherto presented an impenetrable  
barrier to all the adventurers of       
ancient and modern times4  ,there were  
several facts connected with this       
discovery that go far to prove that this
 ocean is perpetually open4  ,further   
south1 where ,dr ,kane's brig lay in ice
 that seemed never to melt1 there were  
few signs of animal life--only a seal or
 two now and then2 but here1 on the     
margin of this far northern sea1 were   
myriads of water-fowl of various kinds4 
,the ,brent goose1 writes the ,doctor1  
had not been seen before since entering 
,smith's ,strait4  ,it is well known to 
the polar traveller as a migratory bird 
of the ,american continent4  ,like the  
others of the same family1 it feeds upon
 vegetable matter1 generally on marine  
plants1 with their adherent molluscan   
life4  ,it is rarely or never seen in   
the interior2 and from its habits may be
 regarded as singularly indicative of   
open water4  ,the flocks of this bird1  
easily distinguished by their           

wedge-shaped line of flight1 now crossed
 the water obliquely1 and disappeared   
over the land to the north-east4  ,the  
rocks on shore were crowded with        
sea-swallows1 birds whose habits require
 open water2 and they were already      
breeding4  ,the gulls were represented  
by no less than four species4  ,the     
kittiwakes--reminding ,morton of old    
times in ,baffin's ,bay'--were again    
stealing fish from the water 7probably  
the small whiting71 and their grim      
cousins1 the burgomasters1 enjoying the 
dinner thus provided at so little cost  
to themselves4  ,it was a picture of    
life all round4  ,here1 for the first   
time1 ,morton noticed the arctic        
petrel1--a fact which shows the accuracy
 of his observation1 though he had not  
been aware of its importance4  ,this    
bird had not been met with since we left
 the north water of the ,english        
whalers1 more than two hundred miles    
south of the position on which he stood4
  ,its food is essentially marine2 and  

it is seldom seen in numbers1 except in 
the highways of open water frequented by
 the whale and the larger               
representatives of ocean life4  ,they   
were in numbers flitting and hovering   
over the crests of the waves1 like their
 relatives of kinder climates1--the     
,cape of ,good ,hope pigeons1 ,mother   
,carey's chickens1 and the petrels      
everywhere else4  ,it must have been an 
imposing sight1 as ,morton stood at this
 termination of his journey1 looking out
 upon the great waste of waters before  
him4  ,not a speck of ice could be seen4
  ,there1 from a height of #dhj feet1   
which commanded a horizon of almost     
forty miles1 his ears were gladdened    
with the novel music of dashing waves2  
and a surf1 breaking in among the rocks 
at his feet1 stayed his further         
progress4  ,strong presumptive evidence1
 all this1 that there is an ocean of    
open water round the pole1 and a milder 
climate there than exists nearer to the 
arctic circle4  ,had the short barrier  

of ice that intervened between the brig 
and that mysterious sea been removed1   
as1 perchance1 it is sometimes removed  
by a hot summer1 ,dr ,kane might have   
been the first to reach the ,north      
,pole4  ,this1 however1 is reserved for 
some other navigator4  ,the gallant     
,kane now lies in an early grave but    
some of his enterprising comrades have  
returned to those regions1 bent on      
solving this problem2 and it is possible
 that1 even while we now write1 their   
adventurous keel may be ploughing the   
waters of the hitherto untraversed and  
mysterious polar sea4    ,,chapter      
,,thirteen4  ,,miscellaneous ,,phenomena
 ,,of ,,the ,,polar ,,seas ,,and        
,,regions--,,the ,,aurora               
,,borealis--,,ice-,,blink--,,optical    
,,illusions--,,anecdote ,,of            
,,scoresby--,,haloes-- ,,coronae--,,mock
 ,,suns--,,refraction--,,frosts4  ,owing
 to the intensity of the cold in the    
arctic regions1 there are1 as we may    
readily believe1 many singular          

appearances connected with the ocean and
 the atmosphere1 which are worthy of    
special notice4  ,chief1 perhaps1 among 
the phenomena of those regions is the   
,aurora ,borealis4  ,ever mindful of the
 welfare of the creatures whom he has   
formed1 the ,almighty has appointed a   
light to mitigate the darkness of the   
polar regions when the sun1 in its      
appointed course1 withdraws for a       
season4  ,what the aurora borealis is no
 one knows1 although many have hazarded 
opinions regarding it4  ,what it is like
 is known even to ourselves1 though the 
faint indications of it which sometimes 
seen in our own heavens are not to be   
compared to the brilliancy of the       
spectacle that is occasionally presented
 in the northern skies4  ,the most      
ordinary aspect of the aurora is that of
 a band of pale-green light extending   
irregularly over part of the sky1 and   
marked by wavy motions1 as well as by   
varying brightness4  ,sometimes one part
 of this band becomes more bright than  

another part4  ,sometimes the whole     
seems to move gently1 like the          
undulations of a flag in a light breeze2
 at other times more vigorous action    
takes place1 and pointed tongues of     
light shoot vividly up into the zenith4 
,this sometimes takes place so          
frequently1 and the tongues are so long 
and numerous1 that the aurora has been  
popularly termed the northern streamers4
  ,although pale-green is the most      
frequent colour1 the aurora borealis has
 often been observed with blue and red  
hues2 and the sky has been seen suffused
 with an intense crimson colour by it4  
,captains ,parry and ,lyon saw these    
northern lights in full splendour during
 their residence in the arctic regions4 
,they tell us that the aurora had a     
tendency to form an irregular arch1     
which1 in calm weather1 was very often  
distinct1 though its upper boundary was 
seldom well defined2 but whenever the   
air was agitated1 showers of rays spread
 in every direction with the rapidity of

 lightning1 but always appearing to move
 to and from a fixed point1 somewhat    
like a ribbon held in the hand and      
shaken with an undulatory motion4  ,no  
rule1 however1 could be traced in the   
movement of those lighter parcels called
 the merry dancers1' which flew about   
perpetually towards every quarter2      
becoming in stormy weather more rapid in
 their motions1 and sharing all the     
wildness of the blast4  ,they gave an   
indescribable air of magic to the whole 
scene1 and made it not wonderful that1  
by the untaught ,indian1 they should be 
viewed as the spirits of his fathers    
roaming through the land of souls4'  ,we
 are told by some that the aurora       
borealis is accompanied by a loud       
hissing and crackling sound and ,captain
 ,lyon says that the sudden glare and   
rapid bursts of those wondrous showers  
of fire make it difficult to believe    
that their movements are wholly without 
sound4  ,yet such would seem to be the  
case1 for the same authority tells us   

that he stood on the ice for hours      
listening intently and could hear       
nothing4  ,he was thoroughly convinced  
that no sound proceeds from the aurora1 
and most intelligent voyagers support   
him in this opinion4  ,that the aurora  
dims the lustre of the stars seen       
through it1 is a fact which was         
ascertained clearly by the same         
gentleman2 and that it moves in a region
 beyond the clouds is also evident from 
the fact that when the latter covered   
the sky the aurora disappeared4  ,but   
some of the most singular appearances of
 the sea and sky in the polar regions   
are presented in summer4  ,during that  
season the perpetual presence of the sun
 and the large tracts of ice floating   
about on the sea exert their opposing   
influences so as to produce the most    
astonishing results4  ,one part of the  
sea being covered with ice1 produces a  
cold atmosphere2 another part being free
 from ice1 produces a warmer atmosphere4
 ,refraction is the result of viewing   

objects through those different media1  
and very curious appearances follow4    
,when ,scoresby was in ,greenland a     
singular atmospheric phenomenon         
occurred1 whereby he became aware of the
 approach of his father's ship some time
 before it rose above the horizon4  ,he 
had reached ,greenland before his       
father1 who followed him in the ,fame4  
,the following is his account of the    
circumstance3  ,on my return to the     
ship1 about eleven o'clock1 the night   
was beautifully fine and the air quite  
mild4  ,the atmosphere1 in consequence  
of the warmth1 being in a highly        
refractive state1 a great many curious  
appearances were presented by the land  
and icebergs4  ,the most extraordinary  
effect of this state of the atmosphere1 
however1 was the distinct inverted image
 of a ship in the clear sky1 over the   
middle of the large bay or inlet1 the   
ship itself being entirely beyond the   
horizon4  ,appearances of this kind ,i  
have before noticed1 but the            

peculiarities of this were the          
perfection of the image1 and the great  
distance of the vessel that it          
represented4  ,it was so extremely well 
defined1 that1 when examined with a     
telescope1 ,i could distinguish every   
sail1 the general rig of the ship1' and 
its peculiar character2 insomuch that ,i
 confidently pronounced it to be my     
father's ship the ,fame1 which it       
afterwards proved to be1 though1 on     
comparing notes with my father1 ,i found
 that our relative positions at the time
 gave our distance from one another very
 nearly thirty miles1 being about       
seventeen miles beyond the horizon1 and 
some leagues beyond the line of direct  
vision4  ,scoresby was1 perhaps1 one of 
the most persevering and intelligent    
observers of nature that ever went to   
the polar seas4  ,his various accounts  
of what he saw are most interesting4    
,we cannot do better than quote his     
remarks upon ice-blink1 that curious    
appearance of white light on the        

horizon1 whereby voyagers are led to    
infer the presence of ice3--  ,this     
appearance of the ice-blink1 says he1   
occurred on the #acth of ,june #ahbj1 in
 latitude #gf degrees north4  ,the sky  
aloft was covered with dense1 uniform1  
hazy cloud1 which indeed occupied the   
whole of the heavens1 excepting a       
portion near the horizon1 where it      
seemed to be repelled4  ,the upper white
 blink referred to ice about six miles  
distant1 being beyond the horizon2 the  
narrow yellowish portions referred to   
floes and compact ice2 the lowest yellow
 blink1 which in brightness and colour  
resembled the moon1 was the reflection  
of a field at the distance of thirty    
miles1 to which1 directed by the blink1 
we made way in the ,baffin1 through the 
channels of water represented in the sky
 by bluish-grey streaks4  ,the field we 
found to be a sheet of ice #aej miles in
 circumference6  ,another very singular 
appearance observed occasionally in     
foggy weather is a series of bright     

circles1 or coronae1 surrounding the    
heads or persons of individuals in      
certain positions4  ,we have1 while     
standing at the mast-head of a vessel in
 ,hudson's ,straits1 observed our own   
shadow thrown on the sea with a bright  
halo round it4  ,the day was bright and 
hazy at the time4  ,referring to a      
particular case of this kind1 ,scoresby 
says3  ,during the month of ,july #ahbj1
 the weather being often foggy1 with a  
bright sun sometimes shining at the     
height of the day1 some extraordinary   
coronae were observed from the          
mast-head4  ,these occurred opposite to 
the sun1 the centre of all the circles  
being in a line drawn from the sun      
through the eye of the observer4  ,on   
one occasion four coloured luminous     
circles were observed4  ,the exterior   
one might be twenty degrees in diameter4
  ,it exhibited all the colours of the  
spectrum4  ,the next1 a little within   
it1 was of a whitish-grey colour2 the   
third was only four or five degrees in  

diameter1 and though it exhibited the   
colours of the spectrum1 these colours  
were not very brilliant4  ,the fourth   
was extremely beautiful and brilliant4  
,the interior colour was yellow1 then   
orange1 red1 violet1 etcetera4  ,the    
colours of the whole three coronae were1
 ,i think1 in the same order1 but of    
this ,i am not very certain4  ,indeed1  
on reflection1 ,i suspect that the      
second circle must have been in the     
reverse order of the first2 the first   
and the fourth being the same4  ,the    
third was not coloured4  ,in the midst  
of these beautiful coronae ,i observed  
my own shadow1 the head surrounded by a 
glory4  ,all the coronae were evidently 
produced by the fog2 my shadow was      
impressed on the surface of the sea4    
,the cause of these phenomena is the    
reflection of the sun's rays1 decomposed
 by different refractions in minute     
globules of water1 of which the mist1   
wherein the coronae occur1 in a great   
measure appears to consist4  ,mock suns1

 or parhelia1 are common appearances in 
northern skies4 ,sometimes two of these 
mock suns are seen1 one on each side of 
their great original1 glowing so        
brightly that either of them1 if we     
could suppose it to have shone in the   
sky alone1 would have made a very       
respectable sun indeed6  ,even four of  
these sun-dogs--as they are some times  
called--have been seen surrounding the  
sun2 one on each side of it1 one        
directly above1 and one immediately     
below1 with a ring of light connecting  
them together1 a streak of light passing
 horizontally and another passing       
perpendicularly between them1 thus      
forming a luminous cross1 in the centre 
of which was the sun itself4  ,this     
magnificent spectacle is sometimes      
enhanced by a second circle of light    
enclosing the whole1 and the edges of   
several outer circles springing in faint
 light therefrom until gradually lost1  
leaving the imagination to call up the  
idea of an endless series of glories    

extending over the whole sky4           
,refraction frequently causes grotesque 
as well as wonderful and beautiful      
appearances4  ,ships are sometimes seen 
with their hulls flattened and their    
masts and sails drawn out to monstrous  
dimensions2 or the hulls are heightened 
so as to appear like heavy castle walls1
 while the masts and sails are rendered 
ludicrously squat and disproportioned2  
and not only so1 but ships are often    
seen with their images inverted over    
their own masts1 so that to the observer
 it appears as if one ship were         
balancing another upside down--mast-head
 to mast-head4  ,land and icebergs      
assume the same curious                 
appearances--peaks touching peaks1 one  
set pointing upwards1 the other set     
pointing down1 while the broad bases are
 elevated in the air4  ,at other times  
the whole mass of land and ice on the   
horizon is more or less broken up and   
scattered about as if in confusion1 yet 
with a certain amount of regularity in  

the midst of it all1 arising from the   
fact of every object being presented in 
duplicate1 sometimes triplicate1 and    
occasionally1 though seldom1 four-fold4 
,when sharp sudden frosts occur in those
 regions1 the splendour of the scenery  
is still further enhanced by the        
formation of innumerable minute crystals
 which sparkle literally with as much   
lustrous beauty as the diamond4  ,on one
 occasion ,scoresby's ship was decorated
 with uncommon magnificence1 and in a   
peculiarly interesting manner4  ,in the 
course of the night1 he writes1 the     
rigging of the ship was most splendidly 
decorated with a fringe of delicate     
crystals4  ,the general form of these   
was that of a feather having half of the
 vane removed4  ,near the surface of the
 ropes was first a small direct line of 
very white particles1 constituting the  
stem or shaft of the feather2 and from  
each of these fibres1 in another plane1 
proceeded a short delicate range of     
spiculae or rays1 discoverable only by  

the help of a microscope1 with which the
 elegant texture and systematic         
construction of the feather were        
completed4  ,many of these crystals1    
possessing a perfect arrangement of the 
different parts corresponding with the  
shaft1 vane1 and rachis of a feather1   
were upwards of an inch in length1 and  
three-fourths of an inch in breadth4    
,some consisted of a single flake or    
feather1 but many of them gave rise to  
other feathers1 which sprang from the   
surface of the vane at the usual angle4 
,there seemed to be no limit to the     
magnitude of these feathers1 so long as 
the producing cause continued to        
operate1 until their weight because so  
great1 or the action of the wind so     
forcible1 that they were broken off and 
fell in flakes to the deck of the ship4 
,it is impossible for the mind to       
conceive the effect of such a galaxy of 
curious1 and bright1 and eminently      
beautiful combinations as are sometimes 
displayed in the arctic regions4  ,none 

of the fabulous conceptions of man1 even
 though profoundly elaborated and       
brightly gilded with the coruscations of
 the most sparkling genius and fancy1   
ever produced so gorgeous a spectacle as
 may be witnessed there every summer    
day4  ,four or five suns in the blue    
sky1 with lines and circles of light    
shooting from or circling round them6   
,ice in all its quaint1 majestic1 and   
shining forms1 rendered still more      
quaint and grand by the influence of    
refraction2 and1 by the same power1     
ships sailing in the sky1 sometimes1 as 
if ,nature's laws were abrogated1 with  
their keels upwards1 and their masts    
pointing to the sea6  ,walls of pure ice
 hundreds of feet high1 many miles in   
extent1 clear as crystal1 and sending   
back the rays of heaven's luminaries in 
broad blazing beams2 while the icebergs'
 pinnacles reflect them in sparkling    
points6  ,white luminous fogs1 like     
curtains of gauze1 too thin to dim the  
general brightness1 yet dense enough to 

invest the whole scene with a silver    
robe of mystery1 and to refract the     
light and compel it to shine in great   
circles of prismatic colours6  ,and     
everything--from the nature of the      
materials of which the gay scenery is   
composed--either white or blue1 varying 
in all gradations from the fairest snow 
to the deepest azure1 save where the    
rainbow's delicate hues are allowed to  
intermingle enough of pink1 yellow1     
purple1 orange1 and green to relieve the
 eye and enable it more fully to        
appreciate the virgin drapery of the    
scene4  ,all this1 seen in detail--seen 
frequently in rapid                     
succession--sometimes seen almost all at
 one moment1--all this is absolutely    
beyond conception1 and utterly beyond   
adequate description4  ,yet all this is 
seen at times in those realms of ice and
 snow1 which are1 as we have already    
said1 too much represented as the       
gloomy1 forbidding1 inhospitable polar  
regions4  ,there are two sides to every 

picture4  ,we take leave of this        
particular branch of our sun with the   
remark1 that if the shady side of the   
far north is dreadfully dark and dreary1
 its bright side is intensely brilliant 
and beautiful4    ,,chapter ,,fourteen4 
,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the              
,,sea--,,medusae--,,food ,,of ,,the     
,,whale--,,phosphoric ,,light-- ,,cause 
,,thereof--,,luminosity ,,of ,,the      
,,ocean4  ,reference has elsewhere been 
made in this volume to the immense      
amount of animal life that exists in the
 ocean1 not only in the form of fish of 
all sizes1 but in that of animalcules1  
which1 although scarcely visible to the 
naked eye1 are1 in some cases1 so       
innumerable as to give a distinct       
colouring to the water4  ,the ,medusae1 
or1 more familiarly1 sea blubbers1 are  
seen in the waters that lave our own    
shores4  ,they are of various sizes1    
from that of a large plate to a         
pin-head4  ,they are almost colourless1 
like clear jelly1 and when carelessly   

observed1 seem to be dead objects       
drifting with the tide2 but a closer    
observation shows that they are         
possessed of life1 though not of a      
particularly active kind1 and that they 
swim by alternate contractions and      
expansions of their bodies4  ,these     
creatures constitute a large part of the
 whale's food4  ,some of them are flat1 
some semi-globular1 others are          
bell-shaped1 while some have got little 
heads and small fins4  ,of these last it
 is said that each little creature has  
no fewer than three hundred and sixty   
thousand minute suckers on its head with
 which it seizes its prey4  ,when we    
think of the exceeding smallness of the 
creatures thus preyed upon1 and consider
 the fact that each little thing must   
obtain food by making war upon some     
creatures still smaller than itself1 we 
are led almost in spite of ourselves    
into that mysteriously metaphysical     
question--infinitesimal divisibility2   
which may be translated thus--the       

endless division and subdivision of     
atoms4  ,this subject has puzzled the   
heads of the profoundest philosophers of
 all ages2 we will not1 therefore1      
puzzle our readers with it any further4 
,scoresby tells us that the colour of   
the ,greenland ,sea varies from         
ultramarine blue to olive-green1 from   
the purest transparency to striking     
opacity2 and that these colours are     
permanent1 and do not depend on the     
state of the weather1 but on the quality
 of the water4  ,he observed that whales
 were found in much greater numbers in  
the green than in the blue water2 and he
 found1 on examining the former with the
 microscope1 that its opacity and its   
colour were due to countless multitudes 
of those animalcules on which the whale 
feeds4  ,we need scarcely remark that it
 is utterly beyond the power of man to  
form anything approaching to a correct  
conception of the amount of life that is
 thus shown to exist in the ocean4      
,although it has pleased the ,creator to

 limit our powers1 yet it has also      
pleased him to leave the limit of those 
powers undefined4  ,we may not1 indeed1 
ever hope in this life to attain to     
perfect knowledge1 nevertheless1 by     
searching we may find out wisdom2 and   
certain it is1 that1 although there     
undoubtedly must be a point of knowledge
 on any given subject which man cannot  
reach1 there is in man a power          
incessantly to extend his knowledge and 
increase his powers of conception1 by   
each successive effort that he makes in 
his course from the cradle to the grave4
  ,even although we were told the exact 
number of the little creatures that     
inhabit the sea1 we could not1 by any   
simple effort of the mind1 however      
powerful1 form a conception of what that
 number implied4  ,we might shut        
ourselves up like the hermits of old1   
abstract our thoughts from all other    
things1 and ponder the subject for weeks
 or months together1 and at the         
termination of our effort we should be  

as wise as we were at its commencement1 
but no wiser4  ,but by searching round  
the subject1 and comparing lesser things
 with greater1 although we should still 
fail to arrive at a full comprehension  
of the truth1 we may advance our powers 
of conception very considerably beyond  
the point attained by our first effort2 
and which point1 as we have said1 could 
not be surmounted by a hair's breadth by
 the mere exertion of simple or abstract
 thought4  ,dr ,scoresby's remarks on   
the subject of animal life in the ocean1
 are so graphic and curious that we     
extract the passages verbatim from the  
admirable memoir of that gentleman1     
written by his nephew4  ,he says3  ,i   
procured a quantity of snow from a piece
 of ice that had been washed by the sea1
 and was greatly discoloured by the     
decomposition of some peculiar substance
 upon it4  ,a little of this snow       
dissolved in a wine-glass appeared      
perfectly nebulous--the water being     
found to contain a great number of      

semi-transparent spherical substances1  
with others resembling small portions of
 fine hair4  ,on examining these        
substances with a compound microscope1  
,i was enabled to make the following    
observations3--  ,the semi-transparent  
globules appeared to consist of an      
animal of the medusa kind4  ,it was from
 one-twentieth to one-thirtieth of an   
inch in diameter4  ,its surface was     
marked with twelve distinct patches1 or 
nebulae1 of dots of a brownish colour4  
,these dots were disposed in pairs1 four
 pairs or sixteen pairs alternately1    
composing one of the nebula4  ,the body 
of the medusa was transparent4  ,when   
the water containing these animals was  
heated1 it emitted a very strong odour1 
in some respects resembling the smell of
 oysters when thrown on hot coals1 but  
much more offensive4  ,the fibrous or   
hair-like substances were more easily   
examined1 being of a darker colour4     
,they varied in length from a point to  
one-tenth of an inch2 and when highly   

magnified1 were found beautifully       
moniliform4 ,whether they were living   
animals1 and possessed of locomotion1 ,i
 could not ascertain4  ,they possessed  
the property of decomposing light1 and  
in some cases showed all the colours of 
the spectrum very distinctly4  ,i       
afterwards examined the different       
qualities of sea water1 and found these 
substances very abundant in that of an  
olive-green colour2 and also occurring1 
but in lesser quantity1 in the          
bluish-green water4  ,the number of     
medusae in the olive-green water was    
found to be immense4 ,they were about   
one-fourth of an inch asunder4  ,in this
 proportion1 a cubic inch of water must 
contain #fd2 a cubic foot #aaj1eib2 a   
cubic fathom #bc1hhg1hgb2 and a cubic   
mile about #bc1hhh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj4  ,of
 course we have1 in the last two        
numbers1 reached the utterly            
incomprehensible2 but ,dr ,scoresby goes
 into comparisons which help us a       
little1 at least to ascertain how       

hopelessly beyond our conceptions such  
numbers are4  ,from soundings made in   
the situation where these animals were  
found1 it is probable the sea is upwards
 of a mile in depth2 but whether these  
substances occupy the whole depth is    
uncertain4  ,provided1 however1 the     
depth to which they extend be but two   
hundred and fifty fathoms1 the above    
immense number of one species may occur 
in the space of two miles square4  ,it  
may give a better conception of the     
amount of medusae in this extent1 if we 
calculate the length of time that would 
be requisite1 with a certain number of  
persons1 for counting this number4      
,allowing that one person could count a 
million in seven days1 which is barely  
possible1 it would have required that   
eighty thousand persons should have     
started at the creation of the world to 
complete the enumeration at the present 
time6  ,what a stupendous idea this     
gives of the immensity of creation1 and 
of the bounty of ,divine ,providence in 

furnishing such a profusion of life in a
 region so remote from the habitations  
of men6  ,the larger portion of these   
medusae1 consisting of transparent      
substances of a lemon-yellow colour1 and
 globular form1 appeared to possess very
 little power of motion4  ,some of them 
were seen advancing by a slight waving  
motion1 at the rate of a hundred and    
eightieth of an inch in a second2 and   
others1 spinning round with considerable
 celerity1 gave great interest and      
liveliness to the examination4  ,but the
 progressive motion of the most active1 
however distinct and rapid it might     
appear under a high magnifying power1   
was1 in reality1 extremely slow2 for it 
did not exceed an inch in three minutes4
  ,at this rate they would require one  
hundred and fifty-one days to travel a  
nautical mile4  ,the vastness of their  
numbers1 and their exceeding minuteness1
 are circumstances1 discovered in the   
examination of these animalcules1 of    
uncommon interest4  ,in a drop of water 

examined by a power of #bh4bbd          
7magnified superficies7 there were fifty
 in number1 on an average1 in each      
square of the micrometer glass1 of an   
eight hundred and fortieth of an inch2  
and as the drop occupied a circle on a  
plate of glass containing #ebi of these 
squares1 there must have been1 in this  
single drop of water1 taken out of the  
yellowish-green sea1 in a place by no   
means the most discoloured1 about       
#bf1dej animalcules4  ,hence1 reckoning 
sixty drops to a dram1 there would be a 
number in a gallon of water exceeding1  
by one half the amount of the population
 of the whole globe6 ,it gives a        
powerful conception of the minuteness   
and wonders of creation1 when we think  
of more than twenty-six thousand animals
 living1 obtaining subsistence1 and     
moving perfectly at their ease1 without 
annoyance to one another1 in a single   
drop of water444  ,a whale requires a   
sea1 an ocean1 to sport in4  ,about one 
hundred and fifty millions of these     

animalcules would have abundant room in 
a tumbler of water6  ,but besides       
furnishing food to the whale1 and1 no   
doubt1 to many other of the inhabitants 
of the deep1 those medusae are the cause
 of the phosphorescent light that       
sometimes glows on the ocean with       
resplendent brilliancy4  ,we see this   
light oftentimes on our own coasts4  ,it
 is usually of a pale bluish-white      
colour1 more or less intense1           
apparently1 according to the condition  
of the creatures by which it is emitted4
  ,it can only be seen at night4  ,we   
have seen it on the west coast of       
,scotland1 so bright that the steamer in
 which we sailed left behind her what   
appeared to be a broad highway of liquid
 fire4  ,at times it requires vigorous  
motion1 such as takes place when an oar 
is dipped1 a stone thrown1 or           
paddle-wheels dashed into the water2 but
 at other times1 the mere motion of the 
ocean swell1 even in calm weather1 is   
sufficient to stir up the lambent light 

and cause the crest of every undulation 
to glitter as if tipped with burnished  
silver4  ,in such circumstances we have 
seen the ends of the oars of a boat     
silvered with it when lifted out of the 
wave1 and the drops which fell from them
 before being redipped resembled the    
most beautiful diamonds4  ,mr ,p4,h4    
,gosse1 in his interesting work1 ,the   
,ocean1 gives the following account of  
this luminosity of the sea1 as witnessed
 by himself on one occasion3  ,in a     
voyage to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 ,i saw  
the water in those seas more splendidly 
luminous than ,i had ever observed      
before4  ,it was indeed a magnificent   
sight1 to stand on the fore-part of the 
vessel and watch her breasting the      
waves4  ,the mass of water rolled from  
her bows as white as milk1 studded with 
those innumerable sparkles of blue      
light4  ,the nebulosity instantly       
separated into small masses1 curdled    
like clouds of marbles1 leaving the     
water between of its own clear          

blackness2 the clouds soon subsided1 but
 the sparks remained4  ,sometimes one of
 these points1 of greater size and      
brilliancy than the rest1 suddenly burst
 into a small cloud of superior         
whiteness to the mass1 and be then lost 
in it4  ,the curdling of the milky      
appearance into clouds and masses1 and  
its quick subsidence1 were what ,i had  
never before observed elsewhere4  ,many 
scientific travellers have carefully    
examined this subject1 and we believe   
that all agree in referring this        
beautiful appearance to the medusae4    
,one gentleman drew a bucketful of water
 from the sea when it was in this       
condition1 and found1 on examining it in
 a dark place1 that the little creatures
 could be distinctly seen emitting a    
bright speck of light4  ,sometimes this 
was like a sudden flash1 at others      
appearing like an oblong or round       
luminous point1 which continued bright  
for a short time1 like a lamp lit       
beneath the water and moving through it1

 still possessing its definite shape1   
and then suddenly disappearing4 ,when   
the bucket was sharply struck on the    
outside1 there would appear at once a   
great number of these luminous bodies1  
which retained their brilliant          
appearance for a few seconds1 and then  
all was dark again4 ,they evidently     
appeared to have it under their own     
will1 giving out their light frequently1
 at various depths in the water1 without
 any agitation being given to the       
bucket4  ,at times might be seen minute 
but pretty bright specks of light1      
darting across a piece of water and then
 vanishing2 the motion of the light     
being exactly that of the cyclops       
through the water4  ,upon removing a    
tumblerful from the bucket1 and taking  
it to the light1 a number of cyclops    
were accordingly found swimming and     
darting about in it4  ,we have given the
 above quotation at full length1 because
 it proves1 in an interesting manner1   
the fact that phosphorescence1 or       

luminosity1 of the sea is actually      
produced by multitudes of living        
creatures4  ,we cannot pass from it1    
however1 without expressing our         
difference of opinion in regard to the  
power of the medusae to emit their light
 at will4  ,it seems much more probable 
that the light is the result of passion 
and action4  ,when a man's feelings are 
strongly roused1 whether pleasurably or 
otherwise1 he usually starts into action
 under a sudden impulse1 which sends the
 blood violently through his veins1     
causing his face to become flushed and  
red4  ,this reddening is not the result 
of will4  ,it is the unavoidable result 
of passionate impulse1 and could not    
possibly be produced by an effort of the
 will4  ,it is well known that electric 
fluid permeates the bodies of all       
animals1 more or less2 and it is quite  
conceivable that under the influence of 
nervous impulse one creature should     
become luminous1 while another only     
becomes red4  ,man leaps and sings for  

joy2 and the result is1 that the actions
 cause his countenance to glow with     
colour4  ,the marine animalcule1        
experiencing a sudden influx of delight1
 darts hither and thither under the     
strong impulse of its exuberant glee2   
and the result is1 that its little body 
gleams with light4  ,vigorous action is 
the direct cause of the emission of     
light in the one case1 just as vigorous 
action is the direct cause of the       
suffusion of the countenance in the     
other4  ,but in both cases the primary  
cause is passion--at least so it seems  
to us4  ,no doubt fear as well as joy   
may create vigorous action1 and produce 
the same result2 but as we know that1 as
 a general rule1 there is much more of  
joy than of fear dwelling at all times  
in the hearts of ,god's creatures1 we   
can well believe that the amount of     
luminosity produced in the sea by the   
latter passion is immeasurably smaller  
than that produced by the former4  ,we  
are thus1 therefore1 set free to indulge

 in the pleasing reflection that when we
 behold that magnificent gleaming of the
 sea1 which almost resembles liquid     
silver reflecting the stars of heaven1  
we are witnessing the frolicsome and    
joyous gambols of those myriads of      
little beings to whom the beneficent    
,creator has assigned the ocean as their
 dwelling-place4  ,the theory which we  
have ventured to propound in regard to  
vigorous impulse 7whether of joy or     
fear7 being the cause of eliciting      
luminosity1 is supported in some degree 
by the remark in our last quotation1    
that when the bucket was sharply struck1
 there appeared at once a number of     
luminous bodies1 which shone for a few  
seconds1 and then disappeared4          
,undoubtedly the poor little things got 
a fright when their residence was       
sharply assailed in such an unusual     
manner2 their energies were roused1 and 
their light emitted4  ,then1 as they    
gradually calmed down1 their light      
disappeared4  ,we are further told that 

when a drop of sulphuric acid was put   
into a tumbler of water1 several bright 
flashes were seen4  ,this1 we venture to
 think1 was somewhat similar to the     
putting of a few drops of brandy and    
water into the human stomach2 the usual 
result of which is1 as we all know1 to  
produce several bright flashes of wit1  
if not of light1 or of something at     
least meant to be remarkably luminous6  
,but this luminosity is not entirely    
confined to the minute creatures of the 
sea4  ,some fish have the power of      
emitting light4  ,some species of the   
shark emit a greenish light2 and the    
sun-fish is said1 when seen down in the 
sea on a dark night1 to glow like a     
white-hot cannon-ball4 ,fish when dead  
and putrid frequently glow in the dark  
with a truly magnificent light1 as can  
be proved by every one who will take the
 trouble to procure several kinds of    
fish1 and keep them1 for the purpose of 
proving the fact1 in a dark closet4  ,of
 all the minute inhabitants of the deep1

 that which is to our mind the most     
curious1 both as to its nature and its  
stupendous works1 is the coral insect4  
,this creature is much too important to 
be dragged in at the tail of a chapter4 
,we will1 therefore1 commence its       
history in a new one4    ,,chapter      
,,fifteen4  ,,coral ,,insects ,,and     
,,coral                                 
,,islands--,,polynesia--,,operations    
,,of ,,the ,,coral ,,insect--,,growth   
,,of ,,coral ,,reefs4  ,many of the     
large and beautiful islands that stud   
the ,pacific ,ocean1 like emeralds in a 
field of blue1 are artificial2 that is  
to say1 they were made by artists--they 
were actually built by artisans6  ,these
 artisans are the coral insects2 and as 
they not only affect the face of the sea
 by raising large islands above it1 but 
also1 in consequence of their labours1  
assist in causing the circulation of the
 ocean1 we think they are justly        
entitled to very special attention4     
,the great archipelago called ,polynesia

 covers an area of the ,pacific nearly  
#ejjj miles in length1 and not far short
 of #bjjj in breadth4  ,some of the     
islands of this group are of volcanic   
origin1 and some are crystal2 but by far
 the greater number are of coral        
formation--the work of those curious    
little insects1 which are so small that 
they inhabit a dwelling sometimes little
 larger than a pin-point4  ,the manner  
in which these islands are made is1 to  
some extent1 a matter of uncertainty4   
,the most generally received opinion is1
 that the insects fasten round the      
summit of a submarine mountain1 and     
build upwards until they reach the      
surface of the sea1 where they die1 and 
their labours cease4  ,as1 however1 the 
sea is sometimes unfathomable close to  
those islands1 it has been supposed that
 the submarine islands on which the     
corallines began to build have gradually
 subsided1 and that1 as they did so1 the
 insects always built a little more1 so 
as to keep the top of their structures  

on a level with the sea4  ,above the sea
 they cannot build4  ,to be washed by   
the waves is essential to their         
existence4  ,we do not think this a very
 satisfactory theory1 because it        
supposes a prolonged subsiding of these 
islands1 and then an unaccountably      
sudden stoppage4  ,for although the     
corallines might continue to build      
during the whole time of subsidence1 it 
were utterly impossible that the coral  
island1 with its luxuriant herbage1     
could be formed until that subsidence   
should have ceased4  ,the manner in     
which the islands are formed makes this 
obvious4  ,when the coral reef1 as it is
 called1 reaches the surface1 it        
advances no further4  ,soon the action  
of the waves breaks off the branches of 
the upper portions of coral1 which are  
tossed upon the reef1 and pulverised    
into fine sand4  ,this goes on          
increasing until the island rises a     
little above the waves4  ,when this     
happens1 birds alight there2 sea-drift  

is carried thither2 seeds are blown to  
it by the wind2 and gradually a few     
green blades arise4  ,from this little  
beginning it is easy to conceive the    
process by which at last a flourishing  
island springs up4  ,at the same time1  
it is not easy to see how such islands  
could ever be formed on the supposition 
that the submarine rocks on which they  
were founded were perpetually subsiding4
  ,but be that as it may1 we have no    
difficulty in understanding the fact    
that the coral insect does build those  
islands4  ,it possesses the power of    
secreting the lime held in solution by  
sea water1 and depositing the same on   
the rocks below the waves4  ,the coral  
rock is the edifice of the coralline4   
,the insect itself is a soft and very   
minute worm1 which1 when washed by the  
waves1 thrusts its head out of its tiny 
little door1 and spreading abroad its   
numerous feelers1 so that it resembles a
 beautiful little star1 moves these     
about as if enjoying itself--though1    

doubtless1 it is actually engaged in the
 process of manufacturing its little    
atom of coral rock4  ,it is extremely   
interesting to think of the immense     
power of union thus exhibited4  ,singly1
 those little creatures could not       
produce a sufficient result to attract  
the attention of any creature save such 
as chanced to come in direct and close  
contact with its little cell4 ,united1  
they have formed vast islands1 which    
have become the abode of man1 and which1
 in the aggregate1 form no              
inconsiderable portion of the globe4    
,the consideration of this leads us to  
perceive that ,god has ordained that    
units cannot1 separately1 accomplish    
much2 and that united effort1 in order  
to be successful1 requires the          
harmonious action of units4  ,a house   
divided against itself cannot stand4    
,the innumerable and eminently beautiful
 isles of the ,pacific had never stood  
where they now stand if the curious1 and
 separately insignificant1 little       

architects that reared them had not     
wrought unitedly upon a fixed and       
systematic plan--each insect working its
 utmost from the hour of its birth until
 that of its death4  ,there are various 
kinds of coral insects1 which form      
varied species of coral rock4  ,some    
kinds of coral assume the form of       
rounded masses2 some are like a         
branching shrub2 others are in layers1  
or thin plates2 and some are shaped like
 the human brain1 from which they derive
 their name--brainstones4  ,these       
different kinds differ also in colour1  
and thus present a beautiful appearance 
when seen at the bottom of clear and    
shallow water4  ,in regard to the rate  
at which the corallines build their     
cells there is some diversity of        
opinion--some asserting that the process
 is imperceptible1 while others state as
 positively that it is rapid4  ,there   
can be no doubt that some localities and
 positions are more favourable to the   
growth of coral than others4  ,dr       

,allan1 while at ,madagascar1 made      
several experiments to test this4  ,he  
selected several masses of coral1 each  
weighing about ten pounds1 and of       
different species4  ,these he placed    
three feet below the surface of the sea1
 and staked them in to prevent removal4 
,in a little more than six months they  
were found to have risen nearly to the  
surface1 and to have attached themselves
 to the solid rock4  ,there is also a   
case mentioned of a ship in the ,persian
 ,gulf which1 in the course of twenty   
months1 had her copper encased with     
living coral to the thickness of two    
feet4  ,on the other hand1 it is        
asserted1 and we doubt not with equal   
truth1 that many reefs do not seem to   
increase in size in the course of many  
years4  ,when a coral reef has reached  
the surface1 the formation of an island 
instantly begins2 but it necessarily    
takes a long time ere this island       
becomes habitable by man4  ,among the   
first plants that raise their heads to  

the sea-breeze is the graceful cocoa-nut
 palm4  ,this tree is exceedingly hardy1
 and is found growing on reefs which are
 so low that at a distance the trees    
seem to be standing on the surface of   
the water4 ,indeed many of them spring  
out of the pure white sand1 and their   
roots are washed perpetually by the salt
 spray4  ,nevertheless1 the fruit of    
such trees is sweet and good4  ,coral   
islands of the kind we have just        
described seldom rise more than a few   
feet above the level of the sea2 but    
most of them are clothed with luxuriant 
vegetation4  ,we might easily fill a    
volume on the subject of the ocean's    
inhabitants1 small and great2 but we    
think the few to which we have made     
reference is sufficient for the purpose 
of showing that one set of creatures    
accounts for that strange luminosity of 
the ocean which is seen at times in all 
marine parts of the globe1 while another
 set accounts not only for the sudden   
appearance of coral islands in the sea  

where no such islands existed in days of
 old1 but also1 partly1 for that        
circulation of the waters of the ocean  
which is absolutely necessary to the    
wellbeing of all the creatures on this  
earth4  ,there are other animals in the 
sea1 besides medusae1 which assist in   
giving luminosity to its waters2 and    
there are other insects1 besides        
corallines1 which extract its lime1     
destroy its equilibrium1 and assist in  
causing its perpetual motion2 but the   
two species which we have described are 
the best types of the respective classes
 to which they belong4    ,,chapter     
,,sixteen4  ,,volcanic                  
,,islands--,,opinions ,,of ,,the        
,,ancients--,,atlantis--,,instance ,,of 
,,the ,,formation ,,of ,a ,,volcanic    
,,island--,,conclusion4  ,in the last   
chapter we described the manner in which
 a certain class of islands in the      
,south ,seas are formed2 in the present 
we will make a few observations on      
another class1 which have sprung up from

 the bottom of the sea1 as if by magic1 
under the irresistible influence of     
fire4  ,there are volcanoes in the sea1 
as well as on the land2 and these       
volcanoes have in former times up-heaved
 huge masses of land so as to form large
 islands1 while in other cases they have
 caused islands formerly in existence to
 subside and disappear4  ,in the        
writings of the ancients we find        
reference made to an island which1 if it
 ever did exist1 now exists no longer4  
,it was situated opposite the ,straits  
of ,gibraltar1 was nearly two hundred   
miles in length1 and was called         
,atlantis--hence the name of the        
,atlantic ,ocean4 ,many believe1 and    
with some reason1 we think1 that this   
island was not altogether a myth1       
although much that is said of it is     
undoubtedly fabulous4  ,plato tells us  
that it was a large island in the       
,western ,ocean1 situated before or     
opposite to the ,straits of ,gades2 and 
that out of this island there was an    

easy passage into some others which lay 
near a large continent1 exceeding in    
bigness all ,europe and ,asia4  ,so far 
,plato may have told the truth1 and from
 this passage it is conjectured that the
 existence of the continent of ,america 
was known to the ancients4  ,but he goes
 on1 immediately after1 to draw upon his
 imagination1 and to tell us that       
,neptune settled on this island1 and    
that his posterity dwelt there for a    
period of nine thousand years in the    
midst of fertility and abundance4  ,but1
 not content with their ample           
possessions and prolific soil1 they went
 over to ,africa and ,europe1 and even  
penetrated into ,asia1 bent on conquest4
  ,passing from this mixture of probable
 truth and undoubted fable1 ,plato then 
asserts that the island of ,atlantis    
finally sank and disappeared4 ,this may 
or may not be true1 but there is more   
reason for our crediting the statement  
than many people would suppose4         
,certain it is that no such island      

exists at the present time1 but it is   
believed by some that the ,azores1 which
 are volcanic in their formation1 are   
the summits of the mountain ranges of   
the ,atlantis of the ancients4  ,but the
 best evidence we have of the possible  
existence of such an island is the fact 
that in modern times an island has been 
seen to rise out of the sea1 and1 after 
a time1 to disappear1 under the         
influence of volcanic action4  ,this    
remarkable event is related by ,captain 
,tillard1 an officer of the ,british    
,navy1 who saw it on the #abth of ,june 
#ahaa1 when approaching the island of   
,st4 ,michael4  ,on this occasion smoke 
was seen to rise from the surface of the
 sea1 and1 soon after1 showers of       
cinders to burst forth4 ,we cannot do   
better than give the captain's own      
words1 as follows3  ,imagine an immense 
body of smoke rising from the sea1 the  
surface of which was marked by the      
silvery rippling of the waves4  ,in a   
quiescent state it had the appearance of

 a circular cloud revolving on the      
water1 like a horizontal wheel1 in      
various and irregular involutions1      
expanding itself gradually on the lee   
side2 when1 suddenly1 a column of the   
blackest cinders1 ashes1 and stones1    
would shoot up in the form of a spire1  
at an angle of from ten to twenty       
degrees from a perpendicular line1 the  
angle of inclination being universally  
to windward4  ,this was rapidly         
succeeded by a second1 third1 and fourth
 shower1 each acquiring greater         
velocity1 and overtopping the other1    
till they had attained an altitude as   
much above the level of our eye as the  
sea was below it4  ,as the impetus with 
which the several columns were severally
 propelled diminished1 and their        
ascending motion had nearly ceased1 they
 broke into various branches resembling 
a group of pines4  ,these again formed  
themselves into festoons of white       
feathery smoke1 in the most fanciful    
manner imaginable1 intermixed with the  

finest particles of falling ashes2 which
 at one time assumed the appearance of  
innumerable plumes of black and white   
ostrich feathers surmounting each other2
 at another1 that of the light wavy     
branches of a weeping willow4  ,during  
these bursts the most vivid flashes of  
lightning continually issued from the   
densest part of the volcano2 and the    
cloud of smoke now ascending to an      
altitude much above the highest point to
 which the ashes were projected1 rolled 
off in large masses of fleecy clouds1   
gradually expanding themselves before   
the wind1 in a direction nearly         
horizontal1 and drawing up to them a    
quantity of water-spouts1 which formed a
 most beautiful and striking addition to
 the general appearance of the scene4   
,such is the description given of this  
submarine volcano in action2 and the    
crater which was thrown up at the time  
was about twenty feet above the level of
 the sea4  ,as ,captain ,tillard could  
not1 however1 delay his voyage to make  

further observations at that time1 the  
action that subsequently took place is  
not known2 but its results were seen    
shortly afterwards4  ,in about three    
weeks after the date of his passing the 
spot1 ,captain ,tillard returned to it  
and found an island of about a mile in  
circumference1 with a height of between 
two and three hundred feet at its       
highest point4  ,there was no violent   
eruption going on1 although the craters 
still emitted smoke4  ,he therefore     
landed1 and1 on reaching the largest    
crater1 found it to be full of boiling  
water1 which overflowed and found its   
way to the ocean in a river of about six
 yards in width4 ,this island1 however1 
was not a permanent addition to the     
world's archipelago4  ,it sank into the 
ocean again1 and disappeared in ,october
 of the same year in which it rose4  ,in
 commencing this little book we set out 
with the intention of rambling hither   
and thither1 among things that relate to
 the sea1 without regard to order4  ,we 

have carried out our intention2 and now1
 at the close of our task1 find that the
 more we listen to the ,ocean's ,voice1 
the more we find its tale to be         
interminable1 though the reverse of     
uninteresting4  ,in these rambles we    
have sought to treat chiefly of those   
scientific facts relating to the sea and
 the atmospheric ocean1 which are not so
 frequently made the subject of books   
for the young1 as are the wild and      
daring deeds of man upon the surface of 
the mighty deep4  ,it is not sufficient 
that man should become acquainted with  
the doings of his fellows on the sea4   
,this is but one branch of general      
knowledge1 and a very secondary one     
compared with that infinitely higher    
branch which treats of the workings of  
the ,almighty in the ocean2 workings    
which render it what it is--not merely a
 means of commercial enterprise for man 
and a home for fish1 but also a great   
purifier and revivifier of the earth and
 sweetener of the atmosphere4  ,god is  

the great first cause of all that is and
 that operates in the universe4  ,it    
were an act of presumption to inquire   
into what we may term the first acts of 
the ,almighty's power4  ,but there is no
 presumption--on the contrary there is  
propriety1 as well as the highest       
gratification of which the human mind is
 capable--in penetrating through the    
paths of knowledge up to that first     
series of second causes which circle    
like a glory round the fountain-head4   
,we may not put the question1 ,how did  
,god create all things out of nothing8  
but1 all things having been created1 it 
is quite legitimate to inquire how the  
circles of their manifold operations are
 carried on1 and in what respect the    
things that be do affect each other4    
,no book that has of late years issued  
from the press treats more eloquently   
and interestingly of such subjects of   
inquiry than that admirable work of     
,captain ,maury of the ,united ,states  
,navy1 entitled ,the ,physical          

,geography of the ,sea4  ,much of the   
substance of what we have written has   
been culled from the pages of that      
fascinating volume4  ,but we have merely
 plucked one or two leaves1 as it were1 
and presented them to our readers in the
 hope that they may be tempted by their 
fragrance to pluck the flower4  ,the    
mysteries of the atmospheric and aqueous
 oceans are here treated of fully1 yet  
so agreeably1 that one is frequently apt
 to fancy one is perusing the pages of  
romance4  ,in our own little book we    
have been compelled to skim lightly1    
and1 in many places1 to pass over       
subjects of great interest4  ,as for    
other subjects connected with the sea1  
of which we may not treat1 they are     
innumerable4  ,of the sea-weeds that    
clothe the bottom of the deep with the  
rich profusion and glowing colours of   
the gardens of earth--of the myriads of 
animalcules 7besides those we have      
mentioned7 that disport in its waters   
and fill the abyss with life and lambent

 fire--of the great whales and other    
huge creatures that revel in its depths 
and lash its waters in their terrible   
might--of these and a host of kindred   
subjects1 our space forbids our saying  
more than that the ,voice of ,ocean has 
much to tell us in regard to them1 and  
in regard to the provident care of their
 beneficent ,creator4