,book ,project47 ,,! ,,h&book ,,( ,,soap ,,manufacture ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,simmons1 ,b4,sc4 7,,lond471 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,& ,h4 ,a4 ,,appleton ,,) ,,tw5ty-,,sev5 ,,illu/rations ,,london ,,scott1 ,,gre5wood ,,son ,,! ,,oil ,,& ,,col\r ,,trades ,,j\rnal ,,(fices #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,e4,c4 #aijh ,all rights res]v$ ,transcrib]'s note3 ,= text3 ,a ^w surr\nd$ by a c$illa su* z ?is signifies t ! ^w is bold$ 9 ! text4 ,a ^w surr\nd$ by und]scores l ?is signifies ! ^w is italics 9 ! text4 ,greek lett]s are translat$ into ,engli% & are 9 brackets1 e4g4 alpha4 ,= numb]s & equations3 ,p>5!ses h be5 add$ to cl>ify fractions4 ,und]scores be=e bracket$ numb]s_/lett]s 9 equations d5ote a subscript4 ,footnotes h be5 mov$ to ! end ( ! *apt] & m9or typos h be5 correct$4 ,,preface ,9 ! g5]al advance ( te*nical k & rese>* dur+ ! la/ decade1 ! ,soap ,indu/ry has n rema9$ /ation>y4 ,:ile !re has n p]haps be5 any?+ ( a v revolution>y "*1 /eady progress has /ill be5 made 9 practically all bran*es1 & ! aim ( ! pres5t "w is to describe ! manufacture ( ,h\sehold & ,toilet ,soaps z c>ri$ out to-day 9 an up-to-date & well-equipp$ factory4 ,9 ! m sci5tific portions ( ! book1 an acqua9tance ) ! pr9ciples ( elem5t>y *emi/ry is assum$1 & 9 ?is we feel ju/ifi$1 z 9 ^! days ( /r5u\s competition1 no soap-mak] c hope to compete successfully ) 8 rivals unless he has a s\nd !oretical z well z practical k ( ! nature ( ! raw mat]ials he uses1 & ! reactions tak+ place 9 ! pan1 or at o!r /ages ( ! manufacture4 ,we also v5ture to hope t ! "w may prove useful to ,works' ,*emi/s & o!r ,analy/s consult$ 9 connection ) ?is ,indu/ry4 ,at ! same "t1 9 ! great] "p ( ! book no *emical k is necess>y1 ! subject be+ treat$ 9 su* a way t x is hop$ ^? :o are n directly engag$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap1 b :o desire a g5]al idea ( ! subject1 w f9d x ( value4 ,9 ! sections deal+ ) ! composition & analysis ( mat]ials1 temp]atures are express$ 9 degrees ,c5tigrade1 ^! be+ n[ almo/ inv>iably us$ 9 sci5tific "w4 ,9 ! re/ ( ! book1 h[ev]1 !y are giv5 9 degrees ,fahr5heit 7! degrees ,c5tigrade be+ also add$ 9 brackets71 z 9 ! majority ( factories ^! are /ill us$4 ,z reg>ds /r5g?s ( solution1 9 "s factories ! use ( ,baum degrees is pref]r$1 :il/ 9 o!rs ,twaddell degrees are ! cu/om1 & we h !re=e giv5 ! two figures 9 all cases4 ,9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ,oils & ,fats1 _! ,saponification ,equival5ts are giv5 9 pref]5ce to ,saponification ,values1 z x has be5 our practice = "s ye>s to express our results 9 ?is way1 z sugge/$ by ,all5 9 ,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1 & all our records1 f :i* mo/ ( ! figures = ! *ief oils & fats are tak51 are s /at$4 ,= ! illu/rations1 ! au?ors are indebt$ to ,messrs4 ,e4 ,=%aw ,son1 ,ltd41 ,h4 ,d4 ,morgan1 & ,w4 ,j4 ,fras] ,co41 ,ltd4 ,w4 ,h4 ,s4 ,h4 ,a4 ,a4 ,,london1 ,septemb]1 #aijh4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a ,def9ition ( ,soap--,prop]ties--,hydrolysis--,det]g5t ,action4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats1 ,,& ,,_! ,,saponification #f ,rese>*es ( ,*evreul & ,b]!lot--,mix$ ,glyc]ides--,mod]n ,!ories ( ,saponification--,hydrolysis accel]at$ by 7#a7 ,,heat ,,or ,,electricity1 7#b7 ,,f]m5ts1 ,ca/or-se$ ,f]m5t1 ,/eaps91 ,emuls91 & 7#c7 ,,*emical ,,reag5ts1 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,twit*ell's ,reag5t1 ,hydro*loric ,acid1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,z9c ,oxide1 ,soda & ,pota%4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap-,,mak+ #bd ,fats & ,oils--,wa/e ,fats--,fatty ,acids--,less-kn[n ,oils & ,fats ( ,limit$ ,use--,v>i\s ,new ,fats & ,oils ,sugge/$ = ,soap-mak+--,ros9--,alkali 7,cau/ic & ,c>bonat$7--,wat]--,salt--,soap-/ock4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,blea*+ ,,& ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,int5d$ ,,= ,,soap-,,mak+ #da ,palm ,oil--,cotton-se$ ,oil--,cotton-se$ ,foots--,vegetable ,oils--,animal ,fats--,bone ,fat--,ros94 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,soap-,,mak+ #de ,classification ( ,soaps--,direct comb9ation ( ,fatty ,acids ) ,alkali--,cold ,process ,soaps--,saponification "u ,increas$ or ,dim9i%$ ,pressure--,s(t ,soap--,m>9e ,soap--,hydrat$ ,soaps1 ,smoo? & ,m>bl$--,pa/+ or ,saponification--,gra9+ ,out--,boil+ on ,/r5g?--,fitt+--,curd ,soaps--,curd ,mottl$--,blue & ,grey ,mottl$ ,soaps--,mill+ ,base--,yell[ ,h\sehold ,soaps--,re/+ ( ,pans & ,settl+ ( ,soap--,utilisation ( ,nigres--,transp>5t soaps--,saponify+ ,m9]al ,oil--,electrical ,production ( ,soap4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,settl$ ,,soap #fj ,cleans+--,crut*+--,liquor+ ( ,soaps--,fill+--,neutralis+1 ,col\r+ & ,p]fum+--,dis9fectant ,soaps--,fram+--,slabb+--,b>r+--,op5 & ,close ,pil+--,dry+--,/amp+--,cool+4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,toilet1 ,,textile ,,& ,,miscellane\s ,,soaps #gg ,toilet ,soaps--,cold ,process soaps--,settl$ ,boil$ ,soaps--,remelt$ ,soaps--,mill$ ,soaps--,dry+--,mill+ & ,incorporat+ ,col\r1 ,p]fume1 or ,m$icam5t--,p]fume--,col\r+ matt]--,neutralis+ & ,sup]fatt+ ,mat]ial--,compress+--,cutt+--,/amp+--,m $icat$ ,soaps--,e!r ,soap--,float+ ,soaps--,%av+ ,soaps--,textile ,soaps--,soaps = ,wooll51 ,cotton & ,silk ,indu/ries--,pat5t ,textile ,soaps--,miscellane\s ,soaps4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,soap ,,p]fumes #ie ,ess5tial ,oils--,s\rce & ,prep>ation--,prop]ties--,artificial & ,syn!tic ,p]fumes4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,glyc]9e ,,manufacture ,,& ,,purification #aaa ,treatm5t ( ,lyes--,evaporation to ,crude ,glyc]9e--,di/illation--,di/ill$ & ,dynamite ,glyc]9e--,*emically ,pure ,glyc]9e--,animal ,*>coal = ,decolorisation--,glyc]9e obta9$ by o!r me?ods ( ,saponification--,yield ( ,glyc]9e f ,fats & ,oils4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,raw ,,mat]ials1 ,,soap1 ,,& ,,glyc]9e #aag ,fats & ,oils--,alkalies & ,alkali ,salts--,ess5tial ,oils--,soap--,lyes--,crude ,glyc]9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,/ati/ics ,,( ,,! ,,soap ,,indu/ry #adj ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,degrees1 ,,twaddell ,,& ,,baum1 ,,) ,,actual ,,d5sities #adg ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,!rmometric ,,scales #adh ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,specific ,,gravities ,,( ,,solutions ,,( ,,cau/ic ,,soda #adi ,,app5dix ,d4 ,,table ,,( ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,cau/ic ,,pota% ,,solutions ,,at #fj ,f4 #aea ,,index #aec ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,def9ition ( ,soap--,prop]ties--,hydrolysis--,det]g5t ,action4 ,x has be5 said t ! use ( soap is a gauge ( ! civilisation ( a nation1 b ?\gh ?is may p]haps be 9 a great measure correct at ! pres5t day1 ! use ( soap has n always be5 co-exi/5t ) civilisation1 = accord+ to ,pl9y 7,nat4 ,hi/41 xxviii41 #ab1 #ea7 soap 0 fir/ introduc$ into ,rome f ,g]many1 hav+ be5 discov]$ by ! ,gauls1 :o us$ ! product obta9$ by mix+ goats' tall[ & bee* a% = giv+ a bright hue to ! hair4 ,9 ,we/ ,c5tral ,africa1 moreov]1 ! natives1 especially ! ,fanti race1 h be5 accu/om$ to wa% !mselves ) soap prep>$ by mix+ crude palm oil & wat] ) ! a%es ( banana & planta9 sk9s4 ,! manufacture ( soap seems to h fl\ri%$ dur+ ! eigh? c5tury 9 ,italy & ,spa91 & 0 introduc$ into ,france "s five hundr$ ye>s lat]1 :5 factories 7 e/abli%$ at ,m>seilles = ! manufacture ( olive-oil soap4 ,soap does n appe> to h be5 made 9 ,engl& until ! f\rte5? c5tury1 & ! fir/ record ( soap manufacture 9 ,london is 9 #aebd4 ,f ?is "t till ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! manufacture ( soap develop$ v sl[ly1 be+ ess5tially c>ri$ on by rule-(-?umb me?ods1 b ! classic rese>*es ( ,*evreul on ! con/itution ( fats at once plac$ ! indu/ry ^u a sci5tific basis1 & /imulat$ by ,leblanc's discov]y ( a process = ! comm]cial manufacture ( cau/ic soda f common salt1 ! production ( soap has advanc$ by leaps & b\nds until x is n[ "o ( ! mo/ important ( ,briti% indu/ries4 ,def9ition ( ,soap4--,! ^w soap 7,lat9 sapo1 :i* is cognate ) ,lat9 sebum1 tall[7 appe>s to h be5 orig9ally appli$ to ! product obta9$ by treat+ tall[ ) a%es4 ,9 its /rictly *emical s5se x ref]s to comb9ations ( fatty acids ) metallic bases1 a def9ition :i* includes n only sodium /e>ate1 oleate & palmitate1 :i* =m ! bulk ( ! soaps ( comm]ce1 b also ! l9oleates ( lead1 manganese1 etc41 us$ z dri]s1 & v>i\s ph>maceutical prep>ations1 e4g41 m]cury oleate 7,hydr>gyri oleatum71 z9c oleate & lead pla/]1 toge!r ) a numb] ( o!r metallic salts ( fatty acids4 ,te*nically speak+1 h[ev]1 ! mean+ ( ! t]m soap is consid]ably re/rict$1 be+ g5]ally limit$ to ! comb9ations ( fatty acids & alkalies1 obta9$ by treat+ v>i\s animal or vegetable fatty matt]s1 or ! fatty acids d]iv$ !refrom1 ) soda or pota%1 ! =m] giv+ h>d soaps1 ! latt] s(t soaps4 ,! use ( ammonia z an alkali = soap-mak+ purposes has (t5 be5 attempt$1 b ow+ to ! ease ) :i* ! resultant soap is decompos$1 x c sc>cely be look$ ^u z a product ( mu* comm]cial value4 ,h4 ,jackson has1 h[ev]1 rec5tly pat5t$ 7,eng4 ,pat4 #f1gab1 #aijf7 ! use ( ammonium oleate = laundry "w4 ,?is det]g5t is prep>$ 9 ! wa%-tub at ! "t ( use1 & x is claim$ t goods are cleans$ by m]ely imm]s+ !m 9 ?is solution = a %ort "t & r9s+ 9 fre% wat]4 ,nei!r ( ! def9itions giv5 above includes ! sodium & potassium salts ( ros91 commonly call$ ros9 soap1 = ! acid con/itu5ts ( ros9 h be5 %[n to be aromatic1 b 9 view ( ! analog\s prop]ties ( ^! res9ates to true soap1 !y are g5]ally reg>d$ z legitimate con/itu5ts ( soap1 hav+ be5 us$ 9 ,great ,brita9 s9ce #ahbg1 & receiv+ legislative sanction 9 ,holl& 9 #ahge4 ,o!r def9itions ( soap h be5 giv51 bas$ n ^u its composition1 b ^u its prop]ties1 among :i* may be m5tion$ t ( ,k+zett1 :o says t ,soap1 consid]$ comm]cially1 is a body :i* on treatm5t ) wat] lib]ates alkali1 & t ( ,nuttall1 :o def9es soap z an alkal9e or unctu\s sub/ance us$ 9 wa%+ & cleans+4 ,prop]ties ( ,soap4--,bo? soda & pota% soaps are readily soluble 9 ei!r alcohol or hot wat]4 ,9 cold wat] !y dissolve m sl[ly1 & ow+ to slight decomposition1 due to hydrolysis 7vide infra71 ! solution becomes di/9ctly turbid4 ,sodium oleate is peculi> 9 n und]go+ hydrolysis except 9 v dilute solution & at a l[ temp]ature4 ,on cool+ a hot soap solution1 a jelly ( m or less firm consi/5ce results1 a prop]ty possess$ by colloidal bodies1 su* z />* & gelat9e1 9 contradi/9ction to sub/ances :i* "u ! same conditions deposit cry/als1 due to dim9i%$ solubility ( ! salt at a l[] temp]ature4 ,krafft 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahif1 #bjf1 #fja2 #ahii1 #fia2 & #aijb1 #acja7 & 8 collaborators1 ,wigl[1 ,/rutz & ,funcke1 h inve/igat$ ?is prop]ty ( soap solutions v fully1 ! rese>*es ext5d+ ov] sev]al ye>s4 ,9 ! light ( _! m rec5t "w1 ! molecules1 or def9ite aggregates ( molecules1 ( solutions :i* become gelat9\s on cool+ move mu* m sl[ly ?an ! molecules 9 ! =mation ( a cry/al1 b !re is a def9ite /ructure1 al?\gh arrang$ diff]5tly to t ( a cry/al4 ,9 ! case ( soda soaps ! colloidal "* increases ) ! molecul> weight ( ! fatty acids4 ,soda soaps are insoluble 9 conc5trat$ cau/ic lyes1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 /rong solutions ( sodium *loride1 h5ce ! addition ( cau/ic soda or br9e to a solution ( soda soap causes ! soap to sep>ate out & rise to ! surface4 ,addition ( br9e to a solution ( pota% soap1 on ! o!r h&1 m]ely results 9 d\ble decomposition1 soda soap & potassium *loride be+ =m$1 ?us3-- ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cook ,na,cl ,c#ag;,h#ce;,c,o,o,na ,k,cl potassium sodium sodium potassium /e>ate *loride /e>ate *loride ,! solubility ( ! diff]5t soaps 9 salt solution v>ies v consid]ably4 ,:il/ sodium /e>ate is insoluble 9 a #e p] c5t4 solution ( sodium *loride1 sodium laurate requires a #ag p] c5t4 solution to precipitate x1 & sodium caproate is n ?r[n out ( solution ev5 by a saturat$ solution4 ,hydrolysis ( ,soap4--,! t]m hydrolysis is appli$ to any resolution ( a body into its con/itu5ts :]e ! decomposition is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( wat]1 h5ce :5 soap is treat$ ) cold wat]1 x is said to und]go hydrolysis1 ! reaction tak+ place be+ repres5t$ 9 its simple/ =m by ! equation3-- #b,na,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,h#b,o ,na,o,h ,h,na7,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b sodium wat] cau/ic acid sodium /e>ate soda /e>ate ,! actual reaction :i* occurs has be5 ! subject ( inve/igation by _m *emi/s1 & v div]se conclusions h be5 arriv$ at4 ,*evreul1 ! pione] 9 ! mod]n *emi/ry ( oils & fats1 f\nd t a small am\nt ( alkali 0 lib]at$1 z appe>s 9 ! above equation1 toge!r ) ! =mation ( an acid salt1 a v m9ute quantity ( free fatty acid rema9+ 9 solution4 ,rotondi 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhe1 #fja71 on ! o!r h&1 consid]$ t a neutral soap1 on be+ dissolv$ 9 wat]1 0 resolv$ into a basic & an acid salt1 ! =m] readily soluble 9 bo? hot & cold wat]1 ! latt] insoluble 9 cold wat]1 & only slightly soluble 9 hot wat]4 ,he appe>s1 h[ev]1 to h be5 misl$ by ! fact t sodium oleate is readily soluble 9 cold wat]1 & 8 views h be5 %[n to be incorrect by ,krafft & ,/]n 7,b]4 d4 ,*em4 ,ges41 #ahid1 #agdg & #agee71 :o f exp]im5ts ) pure sodium palmitate & /e>ate entirely confirm ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,*evreul4 ,! ext5t ( dissociation occurr+ :5 a soap is dissolv$ 9 wat] dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! fatty acids f :i* ! soap is made1 & also on ! conc5tration ( ! solution4 ,! sodium salts ( cocoa-nut fatty acids 7capric1 caproic & caprylic acids7 are by f> ! mo/ easily hydrolys$1 ^? ( oleic acid & ! fatty acids f cotton-se$ oil be+ dissociat$ m readily ?an ^? ( /e>ic acid & tall[ fatty acids4 ,! decomposition increases ) ! am\nt ( wat] employ$4 ,! hydrolytic action ( wat] on soap is affect$ v consid]ably by ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 sub/ances dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 p>ticul>ly salts ( calcium & magnesium4 ,cau/ic soda ex]ts a m>k$ ret>d+ effect on ! hydrolysis1 z d also e?yl & amyl alcohols & glyc]ol4 ,det]g5t ,action ( ,soap4--,! prop]ty possess$ by soap ( remov+ dirt is "o :i* x is difficult to satisfactorily expla94 ,_m !ories1 m or less complicat$1 h be5 sugge/$1 b ev5 n[ ! "q _c be reg>d$ z solv$4 ,! explanation commonly accept$ is t ! alkali lib]at$ by hydrolysis attacks any greasy matt] on ! surface to be cleans$1 &1 z ! fat is dissolv$1 ! p>ticles ( dirt are loos5$ & easily wa%$ (f4 ,b]zelius held ?is view1 & consid]$ t ! value ( a soap dep5d$ ^u ! ease ) :i* x yield$ free alkali on solution 9 wat]4 ,?is !ory is consid]$ by ,hilly] 7,j\rn4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #ebd71 h[ev]1 to be q illogical1 =1 z he po9ts out1 ! lib]at$ alkali w\ld be f> m likely to recomb9e ) ! acid or acid salt f :i* x has be5 sep>at$1 ?an to saponify a neutral glyc]ide1 :ile1 fur!r1 unsaponifiable greasy matt] is remov$ by soap z easily z saponifiable fat1 & !re c be no "q ( any *emical action ( ! free alkali 9 its case4 ,yet ano!r argum5t aga9/ ! !ory is t hydrolysis is great] 9 cold & dilute solutions1 :]eas hot conc5trat$ soap solutions are g5]ally reg>d$ z hav+ ! be/ det]g5t action4 ,rotondi 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhe1 #fja7 0 ( ! op9ion t ! basic soap1 :i* he believ$ to be =m$ by hydrolysis1 0 alone responsible = ! det]g5t action ( soap1 ?is basic soap dissolv+ fatty matt] by saponification1 b1 z already po9t$ out1 8 !ory ( ! =mation ( a basic soap is n[ kn[n to be incorrect1 & 8 conclusions are !re=e invalid4 ,sev]al explanations h be5 sugge/$1 bas$ on ! purely physical prop]ties ( soap solutions4 ,mo/ ( ^! are probably1 at any rate 9 "p1 correct1 & !re c be little d\bt t ! ultimate solution ( ! problem lies 9 ?is direction1 & t ! det]g5t action ( soap w be f\nd to dep5d on _m ( ^! prop]ties1 toge!r ) o!r factors n yet kn[n4 ,jevons 9 #ahgh 9 "s rese>*es on ! ,br[nian movem5t or p$esis ( small p>ticles1 a movem5t ( ! p>ticles :i* is obs]v$ to take place :5 clay1 iron oxide1 or o!r f9ely divid$ insoluble matt] is susp5d$ 9 wat]1 f\nd t ! p$etic action 0 consid]ably increas$ by soap & sodium silicate1 & sugge/$ t to ?is action ( soap might be attribut$ mu* ( its cleans+ p[]4 ,ald] ,wright consid]$ t ! alkali lib]at$ by hydrolysis 9 "s way promot$ contact ( ! wat] ) ! sub/ance to be cleans$1 & ,knapp reg>d$ ! prop]ty ( soap solutions !mselves to facilitate contact ( ! wat] ) ! dirt1 z "o ( ! *ief causes ( ! efficacy ( soap z a det]g5t4 ,ano!r way 9 :i* x has be5 sugge/$ t soap acts z a cleans] is t ! soap itself or ! alkali set free by hydrolysis s]ves z a lubricant1 mak+ ! dirt less adh]5t1 & ?us promot+ its removal4 ,! mo/ likely !ory yet advanc$ is t bas$ on ! emulsify+ p[] ( soap solutions4 ,! fact t ^! w readily =m emulsions ) oils has long be5 kn[n1 & ! det]g5t action ( soap has frequ5tly be5 attribut$ to x1 ! explanation giv5 be+ t ! alkali set free by ! wat] emulsifies ! fatty matt] always adh]+ to dirt1 & c>ries x away 9 susp5sion ) ! o!r impurities4 ,exp]im5ts by ,hilly] 7loc4 cit47 %[1 h[ev]1 t :ile ,n_/#aj solution ( alkali w readily emulsify a cotton-se$ oil conta9+ free acidity1 no emulsion is produc$ ) an oil f :i* all ! acidity has be5 remov$1 or ) k]os5e1 :]eas a ,n_/#aj solution ( sodium oleate w readily give an emulsion ) ei!r1 ?us prov+ t ! emulsification is due to ! soap itself1 & n to ! alkali4 ,plateau 7,pogg4 ,ann41 #ada1 #dd7 & ,qu9cke 7,wi$mann's4 ,ann41 #ce1 #eib7 h made v complete rese>*es on ! emulsification & foam+ ( liquids & on ! =mation ( bubbles4 ,! =m] consid]s t !re are two prop]ties ( a liquid :i* play an important "p 9 ! ph5om5on1 7#a7 x mu/ h consid]able viscosity1 & 7#b7 its surface t5sion mu/ be l[4 ,qu9cke holds simil> views1 b consid]s t no pure liquid w foam4 ,soap solution admirably fulfils ,plateau's second condition1 its surface t5sion be+ only ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( t ( wat]1 :ile its cohesion is also v small2 & x is d\btless to ?is prop]ty t its emulsify+ p[] is *iefly due4 ,s f> z viscosity is conc]n$1 ?is c h b little influ5ce1 = a #a p] c5t4 solution ( sodium oleate1 :i* has a viscosity v little diff]5t f t ( pure wat]1 is an excell5t emulsify+ ag5t4 ,hilly]1 to ^: "w ref]5ce has already be5 made1 inve/igat$ ! :ole "q ( det]g5t action v exhau/ively1 &1 z ! result ( a v l>ge numb] ( exp]im5ts1 concludes t ! cleans+ p[] ( soap is l>gely or entirely to be expla9$ by ! p[] :i* x has ( emulsify+ oily sub/ances1 ( wett+ & p5etrat+ into oily textures1 & ( lubricat+ texture & impurities s t ^! may be remov$ easily4 ,x is ?\ght t all ^! prop]ties may be expla9$ by tak+ into acc\nt ! l[ cohesion ( ! soap solutions1 & _! /rong attraction or aff9ity to oily matt]1 :i* toge!r cause ! l[ surface t5sion betwe5 soap solution & oil4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats1 ,,& ,,_! ,,saponification4 ,rese>*es ( ,*evreul & ,b]!lot--,mix$ ,glyc]ides--,mod]n ,!ories ( ,saponification--,hydrolysis accel]at$ by 7#a7 ,heat or ,electricity1 7#b7 ,f]m5ts2 ,ca/or-se$ ,f]m5t1 ,/eaps91 ,emuls91 & 7#c7 ,*emical ,reag5ts2 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,twit*ell's ,reag5t1 ,hydro*loric ,acid1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,z9c ,oxide1 ,soda & ,pota%4 ,! t]m oil is ( v wide significance1 be+ appli$ to sub/ances ( va/ly diff]5t natures1 bo? organic & inorganic1 b s f> z soap-mak+ mat]ials are conc]n$1 x may be re/rict$ almo/ entirely to ! products d]iv$ f animal & vegetable s\rces1 ?\gh _m attempts h be5 made dur+ ! la/ few ye>s to also utilise m9]al oils = ! prep>ation ( soap4 ,fats readily become oils on heat+ beyond _! melt+ po9ts1 & may be reg>d$ z froz5 oils4 ,al?\gh ,s*eele 9 #aggi discov]$ t 9 ! prep>ation ( lead pla/] glyc]ol is lib]at$1 soap at t "t 0 reg>d$ z a m]e me*anical mixture1 & ! con/itution ( oils & fats 0 n prop]ly und]/ood4 ,x 0 ,*evreul :o %[$ t ! manufacture ( soap involv$ a def9ite *emical decomposition ( ! oil or fat into fatty acid & glyc]ol1 ! fatty acid comb9+ ) soda1 pota%1 or o!r base1 to =m ! soap1 & ! glyc]ol rema9+ free4 ,! reactions ) /e>9 & palmit9 7( :i* tall[ *iefly consi/s7 & ) ole9 7f\nd l>gely 9 olive & cotton-se$ oils7 are z foll[s3-- ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,*#b,,oh ,,*ooc#ah;,h#ce #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#ah;,h#ce ,,*oh ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,*#b,,oh /e>9 sodium sodium glyc]ol hydroxide /e>ate ,,*#b,,ooc#af;,h#ca ,,*#b,,oh ,,*ooc#af;,h#ca #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#af;,h#ca ,,*oh ,,*#b,,ooc#af;,h#ca ,,*#b,,oh palmit9 sodium sodium glyc]ol hydroxide palmitate ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#cc ,,*#b,,oh ,,*ooc#ah;,h#cc #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#ah;,h#cc ,,*oh ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#cc ,,*#b,,oh ole9 sodium sodium glyc]ol hydroxide oleate ,b]!lot subsequ5tly confirm$ ,*evreul's inve/igations by directly syn!sis+ ! fats f fatty acids & glyc]ol1 ! me?od he adopt$ consi/+ 9 heat+ ! fatty acids ) glyc]ol 9 seal$ tubes4 ,?us1 = example3-- #c;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7c /e>ic acid glyc]ol tri/e>9 ,s9ce glyc]ol is a trihydric alcohol1 i4e41 conta9s ?ree hydroxyl 7,,oh7 gr\ps1 ! hydrog5 atoms ( :i* are displaceable by acid radicles1 ! above reaction may be suppos$ to take place 9 ?ree /ages4 ,?us1 we may h3-- 7#a7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#b;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,h#b,o mono/e>9 7#b7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#b;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh77,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b ,h#b,o di/e>9 7#c7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh77,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7c ,h#b,o tri/e>9 ,!re are two possible =ms ( monoglyc]ide & diglyc]ide1 accord+ to ! relative position ( ! acid radicle1 ^! be+ t]m$ alpha & beta respectively1 & repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mul1 :]e ,r d5otes ! acid radicle3-- ,monoglyc]ide3-- ,,*#b,,or ,,*#b,,oh 7alpha7 ,,*oh & 7beta7 ,,*or ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,diglyc]ide3-- ,,*#b,,or ,,*#b,,or 7alpha7 ,,*oh & 7beta7 ,,*or ,,*#b,,or ,,*#b,,oh ,accord+ to ! relative proportions ( fatty acid & glyc]ol us$1 & ! temp]ature to :i* !y 7 heat$1 ,b]!lot succe$$ 9 prep>+ mono-1 di- & triglyc]ides ( v>i\s fatty acids4 ,practically all ! oils & fats us$ 9 soap-mak+ consi/ ( mixtures ( ^! comp\nds ( glyc]ol ) fatty acids1 :i* inv>iably occur 9 nature 9 ! =m ( triglyc]ides4 ,x 0 =m]ly consid]$ t ! ?ree acid radicles 9 any naturally occurr+ glyc]ide 7 id5tical1 correspond+ to ! =mula-- ,,*#b,,or ,,*or ,,*#b,,or :]e ,r d5otes ! acid radicle4 ,rec5t "w1 h[ev]1 has %[n ! exi/5ce ( sev]al s-call$ mix$ glyc]ides1 9 :i* ! hydroxyls ( ! same molecule ( glyc]ol are displac$ by two or sometimes ?ree diff]5t acid radicles4 ,! fir/ mix$ glyc]ide to be discov]$ 0 oleodi/e>91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce ,o7#b1 obta9$ by ,heise 9 #ahif ,mkani fat4 ,hans5 has s9ce f\nd t tall[ conta9s oleodipalmit91 f ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o71 /e>odipalmit91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o71 oleopalmito/e>91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#cc,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o7 & palmitodi/e>91 ,,*7,,oc#af;,h#ca,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o7#b1 ! latt] ( :i* has also be5 obta9$ by ,kreis & ,hafn] f l>d1 :ile ,holde & ,/ange h %[n t olive oil conta9s f #a to #b p] c5t4 ( oleodidatur91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#cc,o77,,oc#ag;,h#cc ,o7#b1 & ,hehn] & ,mit*ell h obta9$ indications ( mix$ glyc]ides 9 l9se$ oil 7:i* !y consid] conta9s a comp\nd ( glyc]ol ) two radicles ( l9ol5ic acid & "o radicle ( oleic acid71 also 9 cod-liv]1 cod1 :ale & %>k oils4 ,9 "s cases ! fatty acids are comb9$ ) o!r bases ?an glyc]ol4 ,z examples may be cit$ beeswax1 conta9+ myric9 or myricyl palmitate1 & sp]maceti1 consi/+ *iefly ( cet9 or cetyl palmitate1 & h]e9 lies ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 fats & waxes1 b z ^! sub/ances are n soap-mak+ mat]ials1 ?\gh sometimes admix$ ) soap to accompli% "s special object1 !y d n require fur!r consid]ation4 ,! pr9cipal pure triglyc]ides1 ) _! =mul & *ief con/ants1 are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,transcrib]'s note3 ,table split to fit on page bett]4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,glyc]ide4 ,=mula4 ,*ief ,occurr5ce4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,butyr9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#d;,h#g,o7#c ,butt] fat ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,isoval]9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#e;,h#i,o7#c ,porpoise1 dolph9 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capro9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#f;,h#aa,o7#c ,cocoa-nut & palm-nut oils ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capryl9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#h;,h#ae,o7#c ,d4 d4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capr9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#aj;,h#ai,o7#c ,d4 d4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,laur9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ab;,h#bc,o7#c ,d4 d4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,myri/9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ad;,h#bg,o7#c ,nutmeg butt] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,palmit9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#af;,h#ca,o7#c ,palm oil1 l>d ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,/e>9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#ce,o7#c ,tall[1 l>d1 cacao butt] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ole9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#cc,o7#c ,olive & almond oils ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ric9ole9 ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#cc,o#b7c ,ca/or oil ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,glyc]ide4 ,melt+ ,refractive ,saponification ,po9t1 ,c4 ,index at #fj ,c4 ,equival5t4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,butyr9 ,liquid at -#fj #a4dbjae #ajj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,isoval]9 444 444 #aad4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capro9 -#be #a4dbgae #abh4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capryl9 -#h4c #a4dccaf #aef4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,capr9 #ca4a #a4dcfig #ahd4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,laur9 #de #a4ddjci #bab4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,myri/9 #ef4e #a4ddbhe #bdj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,palmit9 #fc-fd 444 #bfh4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,/e>9 #ga4f 444 #bif4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ole9 ,solidifies at -#f 444 #bid4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ric9ole9 444 444 #caj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,( ! above ! mo/ important f a soap-mak]'s po9t ( view are /e>91 palmit91 ole9 & laur91 z ^! pr$om9ate 9 ! fats & oils g5]ally us$ 9 t indu/ry4 ,! pres5ce ( /e>9 & palmit91 :i* are solid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 gives firmness to a fat2 ! great] ! p]c5tage pres5t1 ! h>d] ! fat & ! high] w be ! melt+ po9t1 h5ce tall[s & palm oils are solid1 firm fats4 ,:]e ole91 :i* is liquid1 is ! *ief con/itu5t1 we h s(t] fats1 su* z l>d1 & liquid oils1 z almond1 olive & cotton-se$4 ,/e>9 7,tri/e>97 c be prep>$ f tall[ by cry/allisation f a solution 9 e!r1 =m+ small cry/als :i* h a bright pe>ly lu/re4 ,! melt+ po9t ( /e>9 appe>s to und]go *anges & sugge/s ! exi/5ce ( di/9ct modifications4 ,:5 heat$ to #ee ,c4 /e>9 liquefies2 ) increase ( temp]ature x becomes solid1 & aga9 becomes liquid at #ga4f ,c4 ,if ?is liquid be fur!r heat$ to #gf ,c41 & all[$ to cool1 x w n solidify until #ee ,c4 is rea*$1 b if ! liquid at #ga4f ,c4 be all[$ to cool1 solidification w occur at #gj ,c4 ,palmit9 7,tripalmit97 may be obta9$ by heat+ toge!r palmitic acid & glyc]ol1 repeat$ly boil+ ! result+ product ) /rong alcohol1 & all[+ x to cry/allise4 ,palmit9 exi/s 9 scales1 :i* h a peculi> pe>ly appe>ance1 & are greasy to ! t\*4 ,aft] melt+ & solidify+1 palmit9 %[s no cry/all9e fracture2 :5 heat$ to #df ,c4 x melts to a liquid :i* becomes solid on fur!r heat+1 aga9 liquefy+ :5 #fa4g ,c4 is rea*$1 & becom+ cl\dy1 ) sep>ation ( cry/all9e p>ticles4 ,at #fc ,c4 x is q cle>1 & ?is temp]ature is tak5 z ! true melt+ po9t4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! diff]5t *anges at ! temp]atures m5tion$ are due to v>y+ manipulation1 su* z rate at :i* ! temp]ature is rais$1 & ! initial temp]ature ( ! mass :5 previ\sly cool4 ,ole9 7,triole97 is an od\rless1 col\rless1 ta/eless oil1 :i* rapidly absorbs oxyg5 & becomes rancid4 ,x has be5 prep>$ syn!tically by heat+ glyc]ol & oleic acid toge!r1 & may be obta9$ by submitt+ olive oil to a l[ temp]ature = sev]al days1 :5 ! liquid portion may be fur!r depriv$ ( any traces ( /e>9 & palmit9 by dissolv+ 9 alcohol4 ,ole9 may be di/ill$ 9 vacuo )\t decomposition tak+ place4 ,laur9 7,trilaur97 may be prep>$ syn!tically f glyc]ol & lauric acid4 ,x cry/allises 9 ne$les1 melt+ at #de-df ,c41 :i* are readily soluble 9 e!r1 b only slightly s 9 cold absolute alcohol4 ,s*eij gives its specific gravity1 d#fj_/d #j4hidd4 ,laur9 is ! *ief con/itu5t ( palm-k]nel oil1 & also "o ( ! pr9cipal compon5ts ( cocoa-nut oil4 ,fatty ,acids4--,:5 a fat or oil is saponifi$ ) soda or pota%1 ! result+ soap dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & suffici5t dilute sulphuric acid add$ to decompose ! soap1 an oily lay] gradually rises to ! surface ( ! liquid1 :i*1 aft] cl>ify+ by w>m+ & wa%+ free f m9]al acid1 is soluble 9 alcohol & r$d5s blue litmus pap]4 ,?is oily lay] consi/s ( ! fatty acids or r ^? insoluble 9 wat]1 acids l acetic1 propionic1 butyric1 caproic1 caprylic & capric1 :i* are all m or less readily soluble 9 wat]1 rema9+ = ! mo/ "p dissolv$ 9 ! aque\s portion4 ,all ! acids naturally pres5t 9 oils & fats1 :e!r free or comb9$1 are monobasic 9 "*1 t is to say1 conta9 only "o c>boxyl--,,co4,,oh gr\p4 ,! m important fatty acids may be classifi$ accord+ to _! *emical con/itution into five homolog\s s]ies1 hav+ ! g5]al =mul3-- ,i4 ,/e>ic s]ies ,cn,h#bn#a;,,cooh ,,ii4 ,oleic s]ies ,cn,h#bn-#a;,,cooh ,,iii4 ,l9olic s]ies ,cn,h#bn-#c;,,cooh ,,iv4 ,l9ol5ic s]ies ,cn,h#bn-#e;,,cooh ,v4 ,ric9oleic s]ies ,cn,h#bn-#g;,,cooh ,i4 ,/e>ic ,s]ies4--,! pr9cipal acids ( ?is s]ies1 toge!r ) _! melt+ po9ts & *ief s\rces1 are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,acid4 ,=mula4 ,melt+ ,f\nd 9 ,po9t1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,acetic ,,*#c;,,cooh #ag ,macass> oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,butyric ,c#c;,h#g;,,cooh 444 ,butt]1 ,macass> oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,isoval]ic ,c#d;,h#i;,,cooh 444 ,porpoise & dolph9 oils4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,caproic ,c#e;,h#aa;,,cooh 444 ,butt]1 cocoa-nut oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,caprylic ,c#g;,h#ae;,,cooh #ae ,butt]1 cocoa-nut oil1 ,limburg *eese4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,capric ,c#i;,h#ai;,,cooh #cj ,butt]1 cocoa-nut oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,lauric ,c#aa;,h#bc;,,cooh #dd ,cocoa-nut oil1 palm-k]nel oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,ficoc]ylic ,c#ab;,h#be;,,cooh 444 ,pisang wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,myri/ic ,c#ac;,h#bg;,,cooh #ed ,nutmeg butt]1 liv] fat1 cocoa-nut oil1 dika fat1 croton oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,palmitic ,c#ae;,h#ca;,,cooh #fb4e ,palm oil1 mo/ animal fats4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,daturic ,c#af;,h#cc;,,cooh ,oil ( ,datura ,/ramonium4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,/e>ic ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cooh #fi ,tall[1 l>d1 mo/ solid animal fats4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,ara*idic ,c#ai;,h#ci;,,cooh #ge ,ara*is or e>?-nut oil1 rape & mu/>d-se$ oils4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,beh5ic ,c#ba;,h#dc;,,cooh 444 ,b5 oil1 black mu/>d-se$ oil1 rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,lignoc]ic ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh #hj4e ,ara*is oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,c>naubic ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh 444 ,c>nauba wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,pisangc]ylic ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh 444 ,pisang wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,hynic ,c#bd;,h#di;,,cooh 444 ,hyna fat4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,c]otic ,c#be;,h#ea;,,cooh #gh ,beeswax1 ,*9a wax1 sp]maceti4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,melissic ,c#bi;,h#ei;,,cooh #hi ,beeswax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,psyllo/e>ylic ,c#cb;,h#fe;,,cooh 444 ,psylla wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,!obromic ,c#fc;,h#abg;,,cooh 444 ,cacao butt] ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,m$ullic & m>g>ic acids1 :i* 7 =m]ly includ$ 9 ?is s]ies1 h n[ be5 %[n to consi/ ( mixtures ( /e>ic & palmitic1 & /e>ic palmitic & oleic acids respectively4 ,! acids ( ?is gr\p are saturat$ comp\nds1 & w n comb9e directly ) iod9e or brom9e4 ,! two fir/ are liquid at ord9>y temp]atures1 di/il )\t decomposition1 & are miscible ) wat] 9 all proportions2 ! next f\r are m or less soluble 9 wat] & di/il un*ang$ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 z does also lauric acid1 :i* is almo/ insoluble 9 cold wat]1 & only slightly dissolv$ by boil+ wat]4 ,! high] acids ( ! s]ies are solid1 & are completely insoluble 9 wat]4 ,all ^! acids are soluble 9 w>m alcohol1 & on be+ heat$ ) solid cau/ic alkali und]go no *ange4 ,,ii4 ,oleic ,s]ies3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,acid4 ,=mula4 ,melt+ ,f\nd 9 ,po9t1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,tiglic ,c#d;,h#g;,,cooh #fd4e ,croton oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,mor+ic ,c#ad;,h#bg;,,cooh #j ,b5 oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,physetoleic ,c#ae;,h#bi;,,cooh #cj ,sp]m oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,hypogic ,c#ae;,h#bi;,,cooh #cc ,ara*is & maize oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,oleic ,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh #ad ,mo/ oils & fats4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,rapic ,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh 444 ,rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,doeglic ,c#ah;,h#ce;,,cooh 444 ,bottle-nose oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,erucic ,c#ba;,h#da;,,cooh #cd ,mu/>d oils1 m>9e animal oils1 rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,! unsaturat$ nature ( ^! acids r5d]s _! behavi\r ) v>i\s reag5ts entirely diff]5t f t ( ! prec$+ s]ies4 ,?us1 !y readily comb9e ) brom9e or iod9e to =m addition comp\nds1 & ! l[] memb]s ( ! s]ies are at once r$uc$1 on treatm5t ) sodium amalgam 9 alkal9e solution1 to ! correspond+ saturat$ acids ( ,s]ies ,i4 ,un=tunately1 ?is reaction does n apply to ! high] acids su* z oleic acid1 b z ! conv]sion ( ! latt] into solid acids is a matt] ( "s te*nical importance f ! po9t ( view ( ! c&le-mak]1 a numb] ( attempts h be5 made to effect ?is by o!r me?ods4 ,de ,wilde & ,rey*l] h %[n t by heat+ oleic acid ) #a p] c5t4 ( iod9e 9 autoclaves up to #bgj-bhj ,c41 ab\t #gj p] c5t4 is conv]t$ into /e>ic acid1 & ,zr] has devis$ 7,g]man ,pat5t #fb1djg7 a process :]eby ! oleic acid is fir/ conv]t$ by ! action ( *lor9e into ! di*loride1 :i* is !n r$uc$ ) nasc5t hydrog54 ,m rec5tly ,norman has secur$ a pat5t 7,engli% ,pat5t #a1eae1 #aijc7 = ! conv]sion ( unsaturat$ fatty acids ( ,s]ies ,,ii4 into ! saturat$ comp\nds ( ,s]ies ,i41 by r$uction ) hydrog5 or wat]-gas 9 ! pres5ce ( f9ely divid$ nickel1 cobalt or iron4 ,x is claim$ t by ?is me?od oleic acid is completely trans=m$ into /e>ic acid1 & t ! melt+ po9t ( tall[ fatty acids is rais$ !reby ab\t #ab ,c4 ,ano!r me?od :i* has be5 propos$ is to run ! liquid ole9 ov] a s]ies ( electrically *>g$ plates1 :i* effects its r$uction to /e>94 ,/e>ic acid is also =m$ by treat+ oleic acid ) fum+ hydriodic acid 9 ! pres5ce ( phosphorus1 :ile o!r solid acids are obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid or z9c *loride on oleic acid4 ,acids ( ,s]ies ,,ii4 may also be conv]t$ into saturat$ acids by heat+ to #cjj;,c4 ) solid cau/ic pota%1 :i* decomposes !m into acids ( ! /e>ic s]ies ) lib]ation ( hydrog54 ,?is reaction1 ) oleic acid1 = example1 is g5]ally repres5t$ by ! equation-- ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #b,,koh ,,kc#b;,h#c,o#b ,,kc#af;,h#ca,o#b ,h#b1 ?\gh x mu/ be really m complex ?an ?is indicates1 =1 z ,edm$ has po9t$ out1 oxalic acid is also =m$ 9 consid]able quantity4 ,! process on a comm]cial scale has n[ be5 ab&on$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important prop]ties ( ?is gr\p ( acids is ! =mation ( isom]ic acids ( high] melt+ po9t on treatm5t ) nitr\s acid1 g5]ally t]m$ ! elaid9 reaction4 ,oleic acid1 = example1 act$ ^u by nitr\s acid1 yields elaidic acid1 melt+ at #de1 & erucic acid gives brassic acid1 melt+ at #fj;,c4 ,?is reaction also occurs ) ! neutral glyc]ides ( ^! acids1 ole9 be+ conv]t$ into elaid91 :i* melts at #cb;,c4 ,! lead salts ( ! acids ( ?is s]ies are mu* m soluble 9 e!r1 & ! li?ium salts m soluble 9 alcohol ?an ^? ( ! /e>ic s]ies1 ^u bo? ( :i* prop]ties processes h be5 bas$ = ! sep>ation ( ! solid f ! liquid fatty acids4 ,,iii4 ,l9olic ,s]ies3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,acid4 ,=mula4 ,melt+ ,f\nd 9 ,po9t1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,elom>g>ic ,c#af;,h#bi;,,cooh 444 ,*9ese-wood oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,elo/e>ic ,c#af;,h#bi;,,cooh #ga ,*9ese-wood oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,l9olic ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh ,fluid ,l9se$1 cotton-se$ & maize oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,t>iric ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh #ej4e ,t>iri-se$ oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,telfairic ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh ,fluid ,telfairia oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,^! acids readily comb9e ) brom9e1 iod9e1 or oxyg54 ,!y are unaffect$ by nitr\s acid1 & _! lead salts are soluble 9 e!r4 ,,iv4 ,l9ol5ic ,s]ies3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,acid4 ,=mula4 ,f\nd 9 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,l9ol5ic ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,l9se$ oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,isol9ol5ic ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,l9se$ oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,jecoric ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,cod-liv] & m>9e animal oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,^! acids are simil> 9 prop]ties to ^? ( ,class ,,iii41 b comb9e ) six atoms ( brom9e or iod9e1 :]eas ! latt] comb9e ) only f\r atoms4 ,v4 ,ric9oleic ,s]ies3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,acid4 ,=mula4 ,melt+ ,f\nd 9 ,po9t1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ric9oleic ,c#ag;,h#bb7,,oh7,,cooh #d-e ,ca/or oil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,?is acid comb9es ) two atoms ( brom9e or iod9e1 & is conv]t$ by nitr\s acid into ! isom]ic ric9elaidic acid1 :i* melts at #eb-ec ,c4 ,pure ric9oleic acid1 obta9$ f ca/or oil1 is optically active1 its rotation be+ alphad #f #be'4 ,hydrolysis or ,saponification ( ,oils & ,fats4--,! decomposition ( a triglyc]ide1 br\ght ab\t by cau/ic alkalies 9 ! =mation ( soap1 ?\gh g5]ally repres5t$ by ! equation already giv5 7pp4 #f & #g7-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,or7 #c,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c,r,o,na1 is n by any means su* a simple reaction4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh 9 ?is equation no wat] appe>s1 ! pres5ce ( ! latt] is f\nd to be indisp5sable = saponification to take place2 9 fact1 ! wat] mu/ be reg>d$ z actually decompos+ ! oil or fat1 cau/ic soda or pota% m]ely act+ z a catalytic ag5t4 ,fur!r1 s9ce 9 ! glyc]ides !re are ?ree acid radicles to be sep>at$ f glyc]ol1 _! saponification c be suppos$ to take place 9 ?ree successive /ages1 :i* are ! conv]se ( ! =mation ( mono- & diglyc]ides 9 ! syn!sis ( triglyc]ides f fatty acids & glyc]9e4 ,?us1 ! above equation may be reg>d$ z a summ>y ( ! foll[+ ?ree3-- ,,or ,,oh 7i47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,r,o,na ,,or ,,or ,,oh ,,oh 7ii47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,r,o,na ,,or ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh 7iii47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,oh ,r,o,na ,,oh ,,oh ,geitel & ,lewk[its*1 :o h /udi$ ?is "q f ! physical & *emical po9t ( view respectively1 are ( op9ion t :5 an oil or fat is saponifi$1 ^! ?ree reactions d actually occur side by side1 ! soap-pan conta9+ at ! same "t unsaponifi$ triglyc]ide1 diglyc]ide1 monoglyc]ide1 glyc]ol & soap4 ,?is !ory is n accept$1 h[ev]1 by all inve/igators4 ,balbiano & ,m>cusson d\bt ! validity ( ,lewk[its*'s conclusions1 & ,fanto1 exp]im5t+ on ! saponification ( olive oil ) cau/ic pota%1 is unable to detect ! int]m$iate =mation ( any mono- or diglyc]ide1 & concludes t 9 homog5e\s solution ! saponification is practically quadrimolecul>4 ,kreeman1 on ! o!r h&1 f physico-*emical data1 supports ! view ( ,geitel & ,lewk[its* t saponification is bimolecul>1 & ?\gh ! evid5ce seems to fav\r ?is !ory1 ! matt] _c be reg>d$ z yet def9itely settl$4 ,hydrolysis c be br\ght ab\t by wat] alone1 if suffici5t "t is all[$1 b z ! process is extremely sl[1 x is cu/om>y 9 practice to accel]ate ! reaction by ! use ( v>i\s me?ods1 :i* include 7i47 ! application ( heat or electricity1 7ii47 action ( enzymes1 & 7iii47 treatm5t ) *emicals2 ! accel]at+ effect ( ! two latt] me?ods is due to _! emulsify+ p[]4 ,! mo/ usual me?od adopt$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap is to hydrolyse ! fat or oil by cau/ic soda or pota%1 ! fatty acids lib]at$ at ! same "t comb9+ ) ! cataly/1 i4e41 soda or pota%1 to =m soap4 ,hi!rto ! o!r processes ( hydrolysis h be5 employ$ *iefly = ! prep>ation ( mat]ial = c&les1 = :i* purpose complete sep>ation ( ! glyc]ol 9 ! fir/ hydrolysis is n ess5tial1 s9ce ! fatty matt] is usually subject$ to a second treatm5t ) sulphuric acid to increase ! proportion ( solid fatty acids4 ,! col\r ( ! result+ fatty acids is also ( no importance1 z !y are always subject$ to di/illation4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 a gr[+ attempt to fir/ sep>ate ! glyc]ol f ! fatty acids1 & !n conv]t ! latt] into soap by treatm5t ) ! c>bonates ( soda or pota%1 :i* are ( c\rse consid]ably *eap] ?an ! cau/ic alkalies1 b _c be us$ 9 ! actual saponification ( a neutral fat4 ,! two processes *iefly us$ = ?is purpose are ^? 9 :i* ! reaction is br\ght ab\t by enzymes or by ,twit*ell's reag5t4 ,i4 ,application ( ,heat or ,electricity4--,up to temp]atures ( #aej ,c4 ! effect ( wat] on oils & fats is v slight1 b by pass+ sup]heat$ /eam ?r\gh fatty matt] heat$ to #bjj-cjj ,c4 ! neutral glyc]ides are completely decompos$ into glyc]ol & fatty acids accord+ to ! equation-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,or7#c #c;,h4,,oh ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c,,roh4 ,! fatty acids & glyc]ol =m$ di/il ov] ) ! excess ( /eam1 & by arrang+ a s]ies ( cond5s]s1 ! =m]1 :i* cond5se fir/1 are obta9$ almo/ alone 9 ! e>li] ones1 & an aque\s solution ( glyc]9e 9 ! lat] ones4 ,?is me?od ( prep>ation ( fatty acids is ext5sively us$ 9 ,france = ! production ( /e>9e = c&le-manufacture1 b ! result+ product is liable to be d>k col\r$1 & to yield a d>k soap4 ,to expose ! acids to heat = a m9imum ( "t1 & s prev5t discoloration1 ,mannig has pat5t$ 7,g]m4 ,pat4 #afj1aaa7 a process :]eby /eam "u a pressure ( #h to #aj atmosph]es is project$ aga9/ a baffle plate m\nt$ 9 a clos$ vessel1 :]e x mixes ) ! fat or oil 9 ! =m ( a spray1 ! rate ( hydrolysis be+ !reby1 x is claim$1 mu* increas$4 ,simpson 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cfd1ehg7 has attempt$ to accel]ate fur!r ! decomposition by subject+ oils or fats to ! simultane\s action ( heat & electricity4 ,sup]heat$ /eam is pass$ into ! oil1 9 :i* are imm]s$ ! two electrodes connect$ ) a dynamo or batt]y1 ! temp]ature n be+ all[$ to exce$ #bgj ,c4 ,,ii4 ,action ( ,enzymes4--,x 0 discov]$ by ,muntz 9 #ahga 7,annales de ,*emie1 xxii47 t dur+ g]m9ation ( ca/or se$s a quantity ( fatty acid 0 develop$ 9 ! se$s1 :i* he sugge/$ might be due to ! decomposition ( ! oil by ! embryo act+ z a f]m5t4 ,s*utz5b]g] 9 #ahgf %[$ t :5 ca/or se$s are /eep$ 9 wat]1 fatty acids & glyc]ol are lib]at$1 & attribut$ ?is to ! hydrolytic action ( an enzyme pres5t 9 ! se$s4 ,no evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( su* a f]m5t 0 adduc$1 h[ev]1 till #ahij1 :5 ,gre5 7,roy4 ,soc4 ,proc41 #dh1 #cgj7 def9itely prov$ ! pres5ce 9 ! se$s ( a f]m5t capable ( splitt+ up ! oil into fatty acid & glyc]ol4 ,! fir/ exp]im5t]s to sugge/ any indu/rial application ( ?is enzymic hydrolysis 7 ,conn/e91 ,hoy] & ,w>t5burg1 :o 7,b]i*te1 #aijb1 #ce1 pp4 #cihh-djjf7 publi%$ ! results ( a l5g?y inve/igation ( ! :ole subject4 ,!y f\nd t tall[1 cotton-se$1 palm1 olive1 almond1 & _m o!r oils1 7 readily hydrolys$ by ! ca/or-se$ f]m5t 9 ! pres5ce ( dilute acid1 b t cocoa-nut & palm-k]nel oils only decompos$ ) difficulty4 ,! pres5ce ( acidity is ess5tial = ! hydrolysis to take place1 ! mo/ suitable /r5g? be+ "o-t5? normal1 & ! degree ( hydrolysis is proportional to ! quantity ( f]m5t pres5t4 ,sulphuric1 phosphoric1 acetic or butyric acids1 or sodium bisulphate1 may be us$ )\t mu* influ5ce on ! result4 ,butyric acid is /at$ to be ! be/1 b 9 practice is too exp5sive1 & acetic acid is usually adopt$4 ,! emulsifi$ mixture %\ld be all[$ to /& = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! temp]ature %\ld n exce$ #dj ,c42 at #ej ,c4 ! action is weak5$1 & at #ajj ,c4 ceases altoge!r4 ,sev]al inve/igators h s9ce exam9$ ! hydrolys+ p[] ( v>i\s o!r se$s1 notably ,braun & ,behr5dt 7,b]i*te1 #aijc1 #cf1 #aadb-aade1 #aijj-aija1 & #cjjc-cjje71 :o1 9 addition to confirm+ ,conn/e91 ,hoy] & ,w>t5burg's "w ) ca/or se$s1 h made simil> exp]im5ts ) jequirity se$s 7,abrus peccatorius7 conta9+ ! enzyme abr91 emuls9 f cru%$ almonds1 ! leaves ( ,arcto/aphylos ,uva ,ursi1 conta9+ ! glucoside arbut91 myros9 f black mu/>d-se$1 gold lac 7,*eirantus *eiri7 & crot9 f croton se$s4 ,jequirity se$s 7 f\nd to h a /rong] decompos+ action on lanol9e & c>nauba wax ?an ! ca/or se$1 b only caus$ decomposition ( ca/or oil aft] ! initial acidity 0 fir/ neutralis$ ) alkali4 ,nei!r emuls91 arbut9 nor crot9 h any m>k$ hydrolytic action on ca/or oil1 b myros9 is ab\t half z active z ca/or se$s1 except 9 ! pres5ce ( potassium myronate1 :5 no decomposition occurs4 ,s4 ,fok9 7,j4 russ4 phys4 *em4 ,ges41 #ce1 #hca-hce1 & ,*em4 ,rev4 ,fett4 u4 ,h>z4 ,ind41 #aijd1 #cj et seq47 has exam9$ ! hydrolytic action ( a l>ge numb] ( ,russian se$s1 belong+ to "s ?irty diff]5t families1 b al?\gh m ?an half ( ^! br\ght ab\t ! hydrolysis ( ov] #aj p] c5t4 ( fat1 he consid]s t 9 only two cases1 viz41 ! se$s ( ,*elidonium majus & ,l9>ia vulg>is1 is ! action due to enzymes1 ^! be+ ! only two se$s = :i* ! yield ( fatty acids is proportional to ! am\nt ( se$ employ$1 :ile 9 _m in/ances hydrolysis 0 n produc$ :5 ! se$s 7 old4 ,! se$s ( ,*elidonium majus 7 f\nd to h z great1 & possibly great]1 enzymic activity ?an ca/or se$s1 b ^? ( ,l9>ia are mu* weak]1 tw5ty to ?irty p>ts hav+ only ! same lipolytic activity z f\r to five p>ts ( ca/or se$s4 ,! high p]c5tage ( free acids f\nd 9 rice oil has l$ ,c4 ,a4 ,br[n1 jun4 7,j\rn4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #be1 #idh-ied71 to exam9e ! rice bran1 :i* proves to h consid]able enzymic activity1 & rapidly effects ! hydrolysis ( glyc]ides4 ,! process = ! utilisation ( enzymic hydrolysis 9 ! sep>ation ( fatty acids f glyc]9e on ! indu/rial scale1 z orig9ally devis$ by ,conn/e9 & 8 collaborators1 consi/$ 9 rubb+ a quantity ( ! co>sely cru%$ ca/or se$s ) "p ( ! oil or fat1 !n add+ ! re/ ( ! oil1 toge!r ) acidifi$ wat] 7,n_/#aj acetic acid74 ,! quantities employ$ 7 #f-a_/b p>ts ( decorticat$ ca/or beans = e #ajj p>ts ( oil or fat1 & #ej to #fj p>ts ( acetic acid4 ,aft] /irr+ until an emulsion is =m$1 ! mixture is all[$ to /& = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 dur+ :i* hydrolysis takes place4 ,! temp]ature is !n rais$ to #gj-hj ,c41 :i* de/roys ! enzyme1 & a #be p] c5t4 solution ( sulphuric acid1 equal 9 am\nt to "o-fiftie? ( ! total quantity ( fat orig9ally tak51 add$ to promote sep>ation ( ! fatty acids4 ,9 ?is way ?ree lay]s are =m$1 ! "o at ! top consi/+ ( ! cle> fatty acids1 ! middle "o an emulsion conta9+ portions ( ! se$s1 fatty acids & glyc]9e1 & ! bottom "o consi/+ ( ! aque\s glyc]9e4 ,! int]m$iate lay] is difficult to treat satisfactorily2 x is g5]ally wa%$ twice ) wat]1 ! wa%+s be+ add$ to glyc]9e wat]1 & ! fatty mixture saponifi$ & ! resultant soap utilis$4 ,! process has be5 ! subject ( a consid]able am\nt ( inve/igation1 num]\s attempts hav+ be5 made to actually sep>ate ! active fat-splitt+ con/itu5t ( ! se$s1 or to obta9 x 9 a pur] & m conc5trat$ =m ?an is furni%$ by ! se$s !mselves4 ,nicl\x 7,comptes ,r5dus1 #aijd1 #aaab1 & ,roy4 ,soc4 ,proc41 #aijf1 #gg ,b1 #ded7 has %[n t ! hydrolytic activity ( ca/or se$s is due entirely to ! cytoplasm1 :i* x is possible to sep>ate by me*anical means f ! aleurone gra9s & all o!r cellul> matt]4 ,?is active sub/ance1 :i* he t]ms lipaseid9e1 is consid]$ to be n an enzyme1 ?\gh x acts z su*1 foll[+ ! ord9>y laws ( enzyme action2 its activity is de/roy$ by contact ) wat] 9 ! abs5ce ( oil4 ,?is obs]v] has pat5t$ 7,eng4 ,pat4 #h1cjd1 #aijd7 ! prep>ation ( an extract by triturat+ cru%$ ca/or or o!r se$s ) ca/or oil1 filt]+ ! oily extract1 & subject+ x to c5trifugal =ce4 ,! deposit consi/s ( aleurone & ! active enzymic sub/ance1 toge!r ) ab\t #hj p] c5t4 ( oil1 & "o "p ( x w effect ne>ly complete hydrolysis ( #ajj p>ts ( oil 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,9 a subsequ5t addition to ?is pat5t1 ! active ag5t is sep>at$ f ! aleurone by extraction ) b5z5e & c5trifugal =ce4 ,by ! use ( su* an extract1 ! quantity ( album9oids br\ght into contact ) ! fat is r$uc$ to ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( t 9 ! orig9al se$s1 & ! middle lay] betwe5 ! glyc]9e solution & fatty acids is small] & c be saponifi$ directly = ! production ( curd soap1 :ile ! glyc]9e solution also is pur]4 ,9 a fur!r pat5t ,nicl\x 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cdi1bac1 #aijd7 /ates t ! use ( an acid m$ium is unnecess>y1 & claims t ev5 bett] results are obta9$ by employ+ a neutral solution ( calcium sulphate conta9+ a small am\nt ( magnesium sulphate1 ! proportion ( salts n exce$+ #j4e p] c5t4 ( ! fat1 :ile 9 yet ano!r pat5t1 jo9tly ) ,urba9 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cdi1idb1 #aijd71 x is claim$ t ! process is accel]at$ by ! removal ( acids f ! oil or fat to be treat$1 :i* may be accompli%$ by ei!r wa%+ fir/ ) acidulat$ wat]1 !n ) pure wat]1 or pref]ably by neutralis+ ) c>bonate ( soda & remov+ ! result+ soap4 ,lomb>d 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cej1agi1 #aijd7 claims t acids act z /imulat+ ag5ts 9 ! enzymic hydrolysis ( oils1 & fur!r t a simple me?od ( obta9+ ! active product is to triturate oil cake ) its own weight ( wat]1 all[ ! mixture to und]go spontane\s proteolytic hydrolysis at #dj ,c4 = eight days1 & !n filt]1 ! filtrate obta9$ be+ us$ 9 place ( wat] 9 ! enzymic process4 ,hoy]1 :o has made a l>ge numb] ( exp]im5ts 9 ! attempt to isolate ! lipolytic sub/ance f ca/or se$s1 has obta9$ a product ( great activity1 :i* he t]ms f]m5t-oil1 by extract+ ! cru%$ se$s ) a solv5t = oils4 ,! ,v]e9 ,*em4 ,w]ke h ext5d$ _! orig9al pat5t 7addition dat$ #aa? ,decemb]1 #aije1 to ,fr4 ,pat4 #cbh1aja1 ,oct41 #aijb71 :i* n[ cov]s ! use ( vegetable f]m5ts 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & manganese sulphate or o!r metallic salt4 ,x is fur!r /at$ t acetic acid may be add$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation1 or use may be made ( t =m$ dur+ ! process1 ?\gh 9 ! latt] case hydrolysis is some:at sl[]4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 c>ri$ out by ,lewk[its* & ,macleod 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fh1 & ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #ca7 ) f]m5ts d]iv$ f animal s\rces1 viz41 lipase f pig's liv]1 & /eaps9 f ! pig or ox pancreas4 ,! =m]1 al?\gh x has be5 %[n by ,ka/le & ,loev5h>t 7,am]4 ,*em4 ,j\rn41 #aijj1 #di7 to readily hydrolyse e?yl butyrate1 is f\nd to h v little fat-splitt+ p[]1 b ) /eaps9 m fav\rable results h be5 obta9$1 ?\gh ! yield ( fatty acids 9 ?is case is consid]ably inf]ior to t giv5 by ca/or se$s4 ,) cotton-se$ oil1 #hc-hf p] c5t4 ( fatty acids 7 lib]at$ z a maximum aft] fifty-six days1 b ) l>d only #df p] c5t4 7 produc$ 9 ! same "t4 ,addition ( dilute acid or alkali appe>$ to ex]t no influ5ce on ! decomposition ( ! cotton-se$ oil1 b 9 ! case ( ! l>d1 dilute alkali seem$ at fir/ to promote hydrolysis1 ?\gh aft]w>ds to ret>d x4 ,fok9 7,*em4 ,rev4 ,fett4 u4 ,h>z4 ,ind41 #aijd1 #aah-abj et seq47 has attempt$ to utilise ! pancreatic juice on a te*nical scale1 b ! process prov$ too sl[ & too co/ly to h any practical use4 ,rancidity4--,! hydrolys+ p[] ( enzymes ?r[s a good deal ( light on ! developm5t ( rancidity 9 oils & fats1 :i* is n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z due to ! oxidation by air 9 ! pres5ce ( light & moi/ure ( ! free fatty acids conta9$ by ! oil or fat4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t :il/ rec5tly r5d]$ animal fats are comp>atively free f acidity1 fre%ly prep>$ vegetable oils inv>iably conta9 small quantities ( free fatty acid1 & !re c be no d\bt t ?is mu/ be attribut$ to ! action ( enzymes conta9$ 9 ! se$s or fruit f :i* ! oils are express$1 h5ce ! necessity = sep>at+ oils & fats f adh]+ album9\s matt]s z quickly z possible4 ,decomposition ( ,fats by ,bact]ia4--,?\gh ?is subject is n ( any practical int]e/ 9 ! prep>ation ( fatty acids = soap-mak+1 x may be m5tion$1 9 pass+1 t "s bact]ia readily hydrolyse fats4 ,s*rib] 7,ar*4 f4 ,hyg41 #da1 #cbh-cdg7 has %[n t 9 ! pres5ce ( air _m bact]ia promote hydrolysis1 "u fav\rable conditions z to temp]ature & access ( oxyg51 ! process go+ beyond ! simple splitt+ up into fatty acid & glyc]ol1 c>bon dioxide & wat] be+ =m$4 ,"u anrobic conditions1 h[ev]1 only a slight prim>y hydrolysis 0 f\nd to take place1 ?\gh accord+ to ,rideal 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fi7 !re is a di/9ct increase 9 ! am\nt ( free fatty acids 9 a sewage aft] passage ?r\gh a septic tank4 ,exp]im5ts h also be5 made on ?is subject by ,rahn 7,c5tralb4 ,bakt]iol1 #aije1 #dbb71 :o f9ds t ,p5icillium glaucum & o!r p5icillia h consid]able action on fats1 attack+ ! glyc]ol & l[] fatty acids1 ?\gh n oleic acid4 ,a motile bacillus1 produc+ a gre5 fluoresc5t col\r+ matt]1 b n id5tifi$1 _h a m>k$ hydrolytic action & decompos$ oleic acid4 ,! "n lipobact] has be5 propos$ by ,de ,kruyff = bact]ia :i* hydrolyse fats4 ,,iii4 ,use ( ,*emical ,reag5ts4--,among ! *ief accel]ators employ$ 9 ! hydrolysis ( oils are sulphuric acid & ,twit*ell's reag5t 7b5z5e- or naph?al5e-/e>osulphonic acid71 :ile exp]im5ts h also be5 made ) hydro*loric acid 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fg7 ) fairly satisfactory results1 & ! use ( sulphur\s acid1 or an alkal9e bisulphite z cataly/1 has be5 pat5t$ 9 ,g]many4 ,to ?is class belong also ! bases1 lime1 magnesia1 z9c oxide1 ammonia1 soda & pota%1 ?\gh ^! latt] sub/ances diff] f ! =m] 9 t !y subsequ5tly comb9e ) ! fatty acids lib]at$ to =m soaps4 ,sulphuric ,acid4--,! hydrolys+ action ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid ^u oils & fats has be5 kn[n s9ce ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 b 0 n appli$ on a practical scale till #ahdj :5 ,gwynne pat5t$ a process 9 :i* sulphuric acid 0 us$ to lib]ate ! fatty acids1 ! latt] be+ subsequ5tly purifi$ by /eam di/illation4 ,by ?is me?od1 sulpho-comp\nds ( ! glyc]ide are fir/ =m$1 :i* readily emulsify ) wat]1 &1 on treatm5t ) /eam1 lib]ate fatty acids1 ! glyc]ol rema9+ p>tly 9 ! =m ( glyc]o-sulphuric acid4 ,! process has be5 inve/igat$ by ,fremy1 ,geitel1 & m rec5tly by ,lewk[its* 7,j4 ,soc4 ( ,arts1 ,cantor ,lectures1 #aijd1 #gie et seq471 :o has conduct$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ! hydrolysis ( tall[ ) #d p] c5t4 ( sulphuric acid ( v>y+ /r5g?s1 conta9+ f #eh to #ij p] c5t4 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,acid ( #fj p] c5t4 or less appe>s to be practically useless z a hydrolys+ ag5t1 :ile ) #gj p] c5t4 acid only #dg4g p] c5t4 fatty acids 7 develop$ aft] tw5ty-two h\rs' /eam+1 & ) #hj & #he p] c5t4 acid1 ! maximum ( #hi4i p] c5t4 ( fatty acids 0 only rea*$ aft] f\rte5 & fifte5 h\rs' /eam+ respectively4 ,us+ #ih p] c5t4 acid1 #ic p] c5t4 ( fatty acids 7 obta9$ aft] n9e h\rs' /eam+1 & aft] ano!r sev5 h\rs1 only #j4f p] c5t4 m fatty acids 7 produc$4 ,fur!r exp]im5ts h %[n t dilute sulphuric acid has also sc>cely any action on cotton-se$1 :ale1 & rape oils4 ,accord+ to ,lant ,c>p5t]1 "s #ge p] c5t4 ( solid fatty acids may be obta9$ f tall[ by ! sulphuric acid process1 ow+ to ! conv]sion ( a consid]able quantity ( oleic acid into isoleic acid 7vide p4 #ab71 b 9 ! process a consid]able proportion ( black pit* is obta9$4 ,c4 ,dreymann has rec5tly pat5t$ 7,eng4 ,pat4 #aj1dff1 #aijd7 two processes :]eby ! production ( any l>ge am\nt ( hydroc>bons is obviat$4 ,9 ! "o case1 aft] saponification ) sulphuric acid1 ! lib]at$ fatty acids are wa%$ ) wat] & treat$ ) an oxide1 c>bonate1 or o!r acid-fix+ body1 e4g41 sodium c>bonate1 prior to di/illation4 ,9 ?is way ! di/illate is mu* cle>] ?an by ! ord9>y process1 & is almo/ od\rless1 :ile ! am\nt ( unsaponifiable matt] is only ab\t #a4b p] c5t4 ,! second me?od claim$ consi/s 9 ! conv]sion ( ! fatty acids into _! me?yl e/]s by treatm5t ) me?yl alcohol & hydro*loric acid gas1 & purification ( ! e/]s by /eam di/illation1 ! pure e/]s be+ subsequ5tly decompos$ ) sup]heat$ /eam1 9 an autoclave1 ) or )\t ! addition ( an oxide1 e4g41 #j4a p] c5t4 z9c oxide1 to facilitate _! decomposition4 ,twit*ell's ,reag5t4--,9 ,twit*ell's process use is made ( ! important discov]y t aque\s solutions ( fatty aromatic sulphuric acids1 su* z b5z5e- or naph?al5e-/e>osulphonic acid1 readily dissolve fatty bodies1 !reby facilitat+ _! dissociation into fatty acids & glyc]ol4 ,^! comp\nds are /able at #ajj ,c41 & are prep>$ by treat+ a mixture ( b5z5e or naph?al5e & oleic acid ) an excess ( sulphuric acid1 ! foll[+ reaction tak+ place3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,c#f;,h#d7,,s#c;,h7,c#ah;,h#ce,o ,h#b,o4 ,on boil+ ! resultant product ) wat] two lay]s sep>ate1 ! l[] "o consi/+ ( a cle> aque\s solution ( sulphuric acid & :atev] b5z5e-sulphonic acid has be5 =m$1 :ile ! upp] lay]1 :i* is a visc\s oil1 conta9s ! b5z5e-/e>osulphonic acid4 ,?is1 aft] wa%+ fir/ ) hydro*loric acid & !n rapidly ) petroleum e!r1 & dry+ at #ajj ,c4 is !n ready = use2 ! addition ( a small quantity ( ?is reag5t to a mixture ( fat 7previ\sly purifi$7 & wat]1 agitat$ by boil+ ) op5 /eam1 effects almo/ complete sep>ation ( ! fatty acid f glyc]ol4 ,! process is g5]ally c>ri$ out 9 two wood5 vats1 cov]$ ) closely fitt+ lids1 furni%$ ) ! necess>y draw-(f cocks1 ! fir/ vat conta9+ a lead coil & ! o!r a brass /eam coil4 ,9 ! fir/ vat1 ! fat or oil is prep>$ by boil+ ) #a or #b p] c5t4 ( sulphuric acid 7#ada ,tw4 or #fj ,b47 = "o or two h\rs & all[$ to re/1 pref]ably ov]night2 by ?is treatm5t ! fat is depriv$ ( any dirt1 lime or o!r impurity pres5t4 ,aft] )draw+ ! acid liquor1 ! fat or oil is transf]r$ to ! o!r vat1 :]e x is mix$ ) "o-fif? ( its bulk ( wat] 7cond5s$ or di/ill$71 & op5 /eam appli$4 ,z soon z boil+ takes place1 ! requisite am\nt ( reag5t is wa%$ into ! vat by ! aid ( a little hot wat] ?r\gh a glass funnel1 & ! :ole is boil$ cont9u\sly = twelve or ev5 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 until ! free fatty acids am\nt to #he-ij p] c5t4 ,! am\nt ( reag5t us$ v>ies ) ! grade ( mat]ial1 ! small] ! am\nt consi/5t ) effici5t results1 ! bett] ! col\r ( ! f9i%$ product2 ) good mat]ial1 f #a_/b to #c_/d p] c5t4 is suffici5t1 b = mat]ials ( l[] grade proportionately m up to #b p] c5t4 is requir$4 ,! reaction appe>s to proce$ bett] ) mat]ials conta9+ a fair quantity ( free acidity4 ,:5 ! process has proce$$ suffici5tly f>1 ! boil+ is /opp$ & free /eam all[$ to fill ! vat to obviate any discoloration ( ! fatty acids by contact ) ! air1 :il/ ! cont5ts ( ! vat settle4 ,! settl$ glyc]9e wat]1 :i* %\ld am\nt 9 bulk to #ej or #fj p] c5t4 ( ! fatty matt] tak51 & h a d5sity ( #g-a_/b ,tw4 7#e ,b471 is remov$ to a receptacle = subsequ5t neutralisation ) milk ( lime1 &1 aft] ! sep>ation ( sludge1 is ready = conc5tration4 ,! fatty acids rema9+ 9 ! vat are boil$ ) a small quantity 7#j4je p] c5t41 or #a_/aj ( ! ,twit*ell reag5t requisite7 ( comm]cial b>ium c>bonate1 previ\sly mix$ ) a little wat]2 ! boil+ may be prolong$ tw5ty or ?irty m9utes1 & at ! end ( t p]iod ! cont5ts ( ! vat are all[$ to re/2 ! wat] sep>at$ %\ld be neutral to me?yl-orange indicator4 ,x is claim$ t fatty acids s treat$ are n affect$ by ! air1 & may be /or$ 9 wood5 packages4 ,hydro*loric ,acid4--,lewk[its* 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fg7 has c>ri$ out a numb] ( exp]im5ts on ! accel]at+ influ5ce ( hydro*loric acid ^u ! hydrolysis ( oils & fats1 :i* %[ t acid ( a specific gravity ( #a4af has a v m>k$ effect on mo/ oils1 cocoa-nut1 cotton-se$1 :ale & rape oils1 tall[ & l>d be+ brok5 up into fatty acid & glyc]ol to ! ext5t ( "s #hb-if p] c5t4 aft] boil+ #ajj grams ( ! oil or fat ) #ajj c4c4 ( acid = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! maximum am\nt ( hydrolysis 0 atta9$ ) cocoa-nut oil1 probably ow+ to its l>ge proportion ( ! glyc]ides ( volatile fatty acids4 ,ca/or oil is abnormal 9 only und]go+ ab\t #bj p] c5t4 hydrolysis1 b ?is is attribut$ to ! diff]5t con/itution ( its fatty acids1 & ! ready =mation ( polym]isation products4 ,exp]im5ts 7 also made z to :e!r ! addition ( o!r catalytic ag5ts aid$ ! action ( ! hydro*loric acid2 m]cury1 copp] sulphate1 m]cury oxide1 z9c1 z9c du/1 alum9ium *loride1 nitrob5z5e & anil9e be+ tri$1 9 ! proportion ( #a p] c5t4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 made on neutral l>d & l>d conta9+ #e p] c5t4 ( free fatty acids1 b 9 no case 0 any appreciable effect produc$4 ,s f> ?is process has n be5 adopt$ on ! practical scale1 its *ief drawback be+ ! l5g? ( "t requir$ = saponification4 ,und\bt$ly ! hydrolysis w\ld be greatly facilitat$ if ! oil & acid c\ld be made to =m a satisfactory emulsion1 b al?\gh sapon9 has be5 tri$ = ! purpose1 no means ( atta9+ ?is object has yet be5 devis$4 ,sulphur\s ,acid or ,bisulphite4--,! use ( ^! sub/ances has be5 pat5t$ by ,/e91 ,b]ge & ,de ,r\baix 7,g]m4 ,pat4 #fa1cbi71 ! fat be+ heat$ 9 contact ) ! reag5t = ab\t n9e h\rs at #age-ahj ,c4 "u a pressure ( "s #ah atmosph]es1 b ! process does n appe> to be ( any consid]able importance4 ,lime4--,! use ( lime = ! saponification ( oils & fats 0 fir/ adopt$ on ! te*nical scale = ! production ( c&le-mak+ mat]ial1 by ,de ,milly 9 #ahca4 ,! insoluble lime soap =m$ is decompos$ by sulphuric acid1 & ! fatty acids /eam di/ill$4 ,! am\nt ( lime !oretically necess>y to hydrolyse a giv5 quantity ( a triglyc]ide1 ignor+ = ! mom5t any catalytic influ5ce1 c be readily calculat$2 ?us ) /e>9 ! reaction may be repres5t$ by ! equation3-- ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,*#b,,oh #b;,,*ooc#ah;,h#ce #c;,ca7,,oh7#b #c;,ca7,,ooc#ah;,h#ce7b #b;,,*oh ,,*#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,*#b,,oh /e>9 milk ( lime calcium /e>ate glyc]ol ,9 ?is in/ance1 s9ce ! molecul> weight ( /e>9 is #hij & t ( milk ( lime is #gd1 x is at once app>5t t = e #a1ghj p>ts ( /e>91 #bbb p>ts ( milk ( lime or #afh p>ts ( quick-lime1 ,ca,o1 w\ld be requir$4 ,x is f\nd 9 practice1 h[ev]1 t an excess ( #c-e p] c5t4 above ! !oretical quantity ( lime is necess>y to complete ! hydrolysis ( a fat :5 c>ri$ on 9 an op5 vessel at #ajj-aje ,c41 b t if ! saponification be conduct$ "u pressure 9 autoclaves ! am\nt ( lime necess>y to secure almo/ p]fect hydrolysis is r$uc$ to #b-c p] c5t4 on ! fat1 ! treatm5t ( fats ) #c p] c5t4 ( lime "u a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es produc+ a yield ( #ie p] c5t4 ( fatty acids 9 sev5 h\rs4 ,! l[] ! pressure 9 ! autoclave1 ! light] w be ! col\r ( ! resultant fatty acids4 ,magnesia4--,x has be5 propos$ to sub/itute magnesia = lime 9 ! process ( saponification "u pressure1 b comp>ative exp]im5ts ) lime & magnesia1 us+ #c p] c5t4 ( lime & #b4g p] c5t4 ( magnesia 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 xii41 #afc71 %[ t saponification by means ( magnesia is less complete ?an ) lime1 &1 moreov]1 ! reaction requires a high] temp]ature & !re=e t5ds to d>k5 ! product4 ,z9c ,oxide4--,! use ( z9c oxide z accel]at+ ag5t has be5 sugge/$ by two or ?ree obs]v]s4 ,p\lla9 & ,mi*aud1 9 #ahhb1 7 grant$ a pat5t = ?is process1 ! quantity ( z9c oxide recomm5d$ to be add$ to ! oil or fat be+ #j4b to #j4e p] c5t4 ,ro/1 9 #aijc1 obta9$ a ,fr5* pat5t = ! saponification ( oils & fats by /eam "u pressure 9 ! pres5ce ( f9ely divid$ metals or metallic oxides1 & specially m5tions z9c oxide = ! purpose4 ,x has also be5 propos$ to use z9c oxide 9 conjunction ) lime 9 ! autoclave to obviate to "s ext5t ! discoloration ( ! fatty acids4 ,o!r catalytic ag5ts h be5 recomm5d$ f "t to "t1 includ+ /rontianite1 lead oxide1 cau/ic b>yta1 alum9ium hydrate1 b none ( ^! is ( any practical importance4 ,soda & ,pota%4--,unlike ! prec$+ bases1 ! soaps =m$ by soda & pota% are soluble 9 wat]1 & con/itute ! soap ( comm]ce4 ,^! reag5ts are always us$ 9 suffici5t quantity to comb9e ) ! :ole ( ! fatty acids conta9$ 9 an oil or fat1 ?\gh d\btless1 by ! use ( consid]ably small] quantities1 "u pressure1 complete resolution ( ! fatty matt] into fatty acids & glyc]ol c\ld be accompli%$4 ,!y are1 by f>1 ! mo/ important saponify+ ag5ts f ! po9t ( view ( ! pres5t "w1 & _! practical use is fully describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap-,,mak+4 ,fats & ,oils--,wa/e ,fats--,fatty ,acids--,less-kn[n ,oils & ,fats ( ,limit$ ,use--,v>i\s ,new ,fats & ,oils ,sugge/$ = ,soap-mak+--,ros9--,alkali 7,cau/ic & ,c>bonat$7--,wat]--,salt--,soap-/ock4 ,fats & ,oils4--,all animal & vegetable oils & fats int5d$ = soap-mak+ %\ld be z free z possible f unsaponifiable matt]1 ( a good col\r & appe>ance1 & 9 a sweet1 fre% condition4 ,! unsaponifiable matt] naturally pres5t z *ole/]ol1 or phyto/]ol1 ranges 9 ! v>i\s oils & fats f #j4b to #b4j p] c5t4 ,all oils & fats conta9 m or less free acidity2 b excess ( acidity1 ?\gh x may be due to ! decomposition ( ! glyc]ide1 & does n always d5ote rancidity1 is undesirable 9 soap-mak+ mat]ial4 ,rancidity ( fats & oils is entirely due to oxidation1 9 addition to free acid1 aldehydes & ketones be+ =m$1 & x has be5 propos$ to e/imate rancidity by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( ^! latt] produc$4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to obs]ve h[ v important x is t ! sampl+ ( fats & oils %\ld be effici5tly p]=m$1 s t ! sample submitt$ to ! *emi/ may be a fairly repres5tative av]age ( ! p>cel4 ,9 ! foll[+ %ort description ( ! mat]ials us$1 we give1 "u ea* head+1 figures = typical samples ( ! qualities mo/ suitable = soap-mak+4 ,tall[s4--,mo/ ( ! import$ tall[ comes f ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&4 ,s\? ,am]ican mutton tall[ is usually ( good quality2 ,s\? ,am]ican beef tall[ is possess$ ( a deep yell[ col\r & r /rong od\r1 b makes a bright soap ( a good body & texture4 ,nor? ,am]ican tall[s are1 z a g5]al rule1 mu* pal] 9 col\r ?an ^? ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 b d n comp>e ) !m 9 consi/5ce4 ,mo/ ( ! ,au/ralasian tall[s are ( v uni=m quality & mu* 9 dem&4 ,great ,brita9 produces l>ge quantities ( tall[ :i* comes into ! m>ket z t[n & c\ntry tall[1 or home melt4 ,ow+ to ! increas+ dem& = edible fat1 mu* ( ! r\gh fat is c>efully select$1 r5d]$ sep>ately1 & ! product sold = m>g>9e-mak+4 ,consequ5tly ! melt$ tall[ = soap-mak+ is ( second>y importance to ! tall[ melt]4 ,! foll[+ are typical samples ( tall[3-- ,acidity ,saponification 7z ,oleic ,titre1 ,equival5t4 ,acid7 ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 ,au/ralian mutton #bhe #j4he #de ,au/ralian mutton #bhd4d #j4dh #dh4c ,au/ralian beef #bhd4b #a4fh #dc4i ,au/ralian beef #bhc4f #j4he #db4f ,au/ralian mix$ #bhe4a #c4eb #dd ,au/ralian mix$ #bhd4f #a4hi #dc4e ,s\? ,am]ican mutton #bhd4e #a4aa #dg ,s\? ,am]ican mutton #bhe #j4ij #dg4d ,s\? ,am]ican beef #bhd4g #j4ha #de ,s\? ,am]ican beef #bhd #j4id #dd ,nor? ,am]ican mutton #bhd4c #a4cb #dd ,nor? ,am]ican mutton #he #b4ah #dc4b ,nor? ,am]ican beef1 f9e #bhd4e #a4ig #da4e ,nor? ,am]ican beef1 good #bhc4h #d4cj #db ,nor? ,am]ican ord9>y #bhe4b #e4jg #da4ge ,nor? ,am]ican prime city #bhf #a4ja #da4b ,select$ ,engli% mutton #bhc4i #a4de #dg ,select$ ,engli% beef #bhd4b #b4dj #dd ,home-r5d]$ or c\ntry tall[ #bhd4f #e4a #dc ,t[n tall[ #bhe4c #g4d #db4e ,tall[ %\ld absorb f #ci to #dd p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,l>d4--,l>d is l>gely import$ into ?is c\ntry f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,! foll[+ is a typical sample ( ,am]ican hog's fat (f]$ = soap-mak+3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #fj ,c4 #bhf #j4e #cg4e #a4dedb ,l>d %\ld absorb #ei to #fc p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,cocoa-nut ,oil4--,! be/ kn[n qualities are ,co*9 & ,ceylon oils1 :i* are prep>$ 9 ,co*9 7,malab>7 or ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s & ,ceylon respectively4 ,! dri$ k]nels ( ! cocoa-nut are export$ to v>i\s ports 9 ,europe1 & ! oil obta9$ comes on ! m>ket z ,cont95tal ,coprah ,oil1 ) ! prefix ( ! p>ticul> c\ntry or port :]e x has be5 cru%$1 e4g41 ,belgian1 ,fr5* & ,m>seilles ,coprah ,oil4 ,coprah is also import$ into ,engl&1 & ! oil express$ f x is t]m$ ,engli% ,press$ ,coprah4 ,! foll[+ are typical examples f bulk3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #be ,c4 ,co*9 oil #bae4e #a4e #bc4e #a4dedj ,co*9 oil #bad4c #b4f #bb4a #a4deda ,ceylon oil #bad4f #e4dg #bc #a4dece ,ceylon oil #baf #c4ie #bb4ge #a4dece ,belgian coprah #bad4b #a4fe #bc #a4deda ,belgian coprah #bae #b4fj #bb4a #a4dedj ,fr5* coprah #bad4b #f4ee #bc #a4dece ,fr5* coprah #bad4h #g4db #bb #a4dedj ,press$ coprah #bae4h #g4de #bb4b #a4dedb ,press$ coprah #baf #i4da #bb #a4deee ,cocoa-nut oil %\ld absorb #h4i to #i4c p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,palm-nut ,oil4--,! k]nels ( ! palm-tree fruit are export$ f ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa to ,europe1 & ?is oil obta9$ f !m4 ,typical samples ( ,engli% & ,hamburg oils te/$3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #be ,c4 #bbe #d4d #bd #a4deec #bbg #g4g #bc4h #a4deec ,palm-nut oil %\ld absorb #aj to #ac p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,olive ,oil4--,! olive is ext5sively gr[n 9 ,s\!rn ,europe & 9 portions ( ,asia & ,africa bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,! fruit ( ?is tree yields ! oil4 ,! free fatty acid cont5t ( olive oil v>ies v consid]ably4 ,v f9e oils conta9 less ?an #a p] c5t4 acidity2 comm]cial oils may be grad$ accord+ to _! free acidity1 e4g41 "u #e p] c5t41 "u #aj p] c5t41 etc41 & x entirely dep5ds ^u ! desir$ price ( ! resultant soap z to :at grade w\ld be us$4 ,! foll[+ is a typical sample = use 9 ! production ( high-class toilet soap3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #ae ,c4 #bhh #a4h #ba #a4dgjd ,olive oil %\ld absorb #hj to #hc p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,olive-k]nel oil1 m correctly t]m$ ,sulphur olive oil4 ,! am\nt ( free fatty acids is always high & ranges f #dj-gj p] c5t41 &1 ( c\rse1 its glyc]ol cont5t is proportionately v>iable4 ,! free acidity increases v rapidly1 & is1 d\btless1 due to ! decomposition ( ! neutral oil by ! action ( hydrolytic f]m5t4 ,a repres5tative sample ( a p>cel te/$3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #bj ,c4 #bih #dj4if #a4dfff ,palm oil is produc$ f ! fruit ( palm trees1 :i* ab\nd along ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa4 ,lagos is ! be/ quality1 :il/ ,cam>oons1 ,bonny1 ,old ,calab> & ,new ,calab> oils are 9 good reque/ = blea*+ purposes4 ,analysis ( typical samples ( crude palm oil has giv53-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,wat] & ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,impurities1 ,p] ,c5t4 ,p] ,c5t4 #bgh #aj4g #de #a4f #bhj #ca4b #dd4e #b4h ,palm oil %\ld absorb #ea to #ef p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,9 ! l[] qualities we h examples ( ! result ( hydrolytic decomposition by enzymes1 ! free acidity (t5 am\nt+ to #gj p] c5t4 ,cotton-se$ ,oil4--,?is oil is express$ f ! se$s sep>at$ f ! wool ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( cotton tree l>gely cultivat$ 9 ,am]ica & ,egypt4 ,9 its crude /ate cotton-se$ oil is a d>k fluid conta9+ mucilag9\s & col\r+ matt]1 & is n applicable = soap-mak+4 ,! foll[+ figures are repres5tative ( well-ref9$ cotton-se$ oils3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 at #bj ,c4 #j4ibbi #bij #j4bd #cc4f #a4dgba #j4ibd #bii #j4ci #ce #a4dgai ,cotton-se$ oil %\ld absorb #ajd to #aaj p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,cotton-se$ ,/e>9e4--,! product obta9$ by press+ ! deposit :i* sep>ates on *ill+ ref9$ cotton-se$ oil4 ,a typical sample te/$3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 #bhe4a #j4je #ch ,ara*is ,oil4--,! e>?-nut or gr\nd-nut1 f :i* ara*is oil is obta9$1 is ext5sively cultivat$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,india & ,we/]n ,africa4 ,l>ge quantities are export$ to ,m>seilles :]e ! oil is express$4 ,ara*is oil ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( ,m>seilles ,:ite ,soaps4 ,repres5tative samples ( comm]cial & ref9$ oils te/$3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,refractive ,gravity fication 7z ,oleic ,titre1 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 at #bj ,c4 val5t ,p] ,c5t4 ,comm]cial #j4iahd #bih #b4f #bh4f ,ref9$ #j4ibje #bhe #j4bb #bd4j #a4dgab ,ara*is oil %\ld absorb #ij to #ih p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,maize ,oil4--,am]ica 7,u4,s47 produces v l>ge quantities ( maize oil4 ,typical samples ( crude & ref9$ oil gave ^! figures3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,refractive ,gravity fication 7z ,oleic ,titre1 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 at #bj ,c4 val5t ,p] ,c5t4 ,crude #j4ibdf #bid #a4da #ae ,ref9$ #j4ibdh #bid4a #j4dj #ag4b #a4dgff ,maize oil %\ld absorb #abj to #abh p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,sesame ,oil4--,sesame oil is v l>gely press$ 9 ,s\!rn ,france f ! se$s ( ! sesame plant :i* is cultivat$ 9 ! ,levant1 ,india1 ,japan & ,we/]n ,africa4 ,a fairly repres5tative sample ( ,fr5* express$ oil te/$3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 at #bj ,c4 #j4ibbg #bie4b #a4hd #bb4h #a4dgca ,sesame oil %\ld absorb #ajh to #aaj p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,l9se$ ,oil4--,russia1 ,india1 & ,arg5t9e ,republic are ! pr9cipal c\ntries :i* ext5sively gr[ ! flax plant1 f ! se$s ( :i* l9se$ oil is press$4 ,x is us$ to a limit$ ext5t 9 s(t-soap mak+4 ,a good sample gave on analysis3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 at #ae ,c4 #j4ice #bib #a4b #bj #a4dhdj ,l9se$ oil %\ld absorb #agj to #ahj p] c5t4 iod9e4 ,hemp-se$ oil is produc$ f ! se$s ( ! hemp plant :i* gr[s 9 ,russia4 ,?is oil is us$ 9 s(t soap-mak+1 m p>ticul>ly on ! ,cont95t4 ,a typical sample gave ! foll[+ figures3-- ,specific ,saponification ,titre1 ,gravity ,equival5t4 ,c4 ,iod9e ,no4 at #ae ,c4 #j4ibf #bib4f #ae4h #adc ,sunfl[] oil is produc$ l>gely 9 ,russia4 ,a specim5 te/$3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,gravity ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,iod9e ,no4 at #ae ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 #j4ibei #bij4g #j4ha #ag #abf4b ,ca/or ,oil4--,! ca/or oil plant is really a native ( ,india1 b x is also cultivat$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,ill9ois7 & ,egypt4 ,a typical comm]cial sample te/$3-- ,saponi- ,acidity ,optical ,refractive fication 7z ,oleic ,titre1 ,iod9e ,no4 ,rotation ,index ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 alpha,d at #be ,c4 val5t ,p] ,c5t4 #caj #a4e #b4h #hd4a #d #ej' #a4dghg ,fi% & ,m>9e ,animal ,oils4--,v>i\s oils ( ?is class h1 until rec5tly1 ent]$ l>gely into ! composition ( s(t soaps1 b a dem& has n[ aris5 = s(t soaps made f vegetable oils4 ,we quote a few typical analyses ( ^! oils3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,unsaponi- ,gravity fication 7z ,oleic ,titre1 fiable at #ae;,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 ,matt] val5t ,p] ,c5t4 ,p] ,c5t4 ,pale seal oil #j4ibeb #bhi #j4idg #ae4e #j4h ,/raw seal oil #j4ibca #bhh #d4gg #ae4h #a4b ,br[n seal oil #j4ibec #bia #af4ch #af4b #a4i ,:ale oil #j4iafc #big #a4di #af4a #a4h ,d>k :ale oil #j4ibhd #cjc #ab4fj #ba4h #b4d ,japan fi% oil #j4iccf #bif #d4gi #bf #j4fg ,japan fi% oil #j4icbe #cjb #aj4dc #bh #a4ee ,br[n cod oil #j4ibfj #cac #ad4ia #ba4h #a4i ,pure h]r+ oil #j4icec #bhh #aa4ci #ba4f #a4e ,kipp] oil #j4ibga #big #e4ad #bb4g #c4be ,wa/e ,fats4--,"u ?is classification may be includ$ m>r[ fat1 sk9 greases1 bone fats1 animal grease1 melt$ /uff f hotel & re/aurant refuse1 & simil> fatty products4 ,! foll[+ is a fair typical selection3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 ,m>r[ fat #bhc4c #c4f #ch4g ,:ite sk9 grease #bhg4b #d4c #cf4d ,pale sk9 grease #bhf4c #i4hg #ce4g ,pale bone fat #bhi4g #h4h #dj4g ,br[n bone fat #bhi4a #aa4j #da ,br[n bone fat #bib #bj4e #dj4b ,animal grease #bhi4d #ch4a #dj4d ,melt$ /uff #bhf4c #ab4h #cg4g ,! mat]ials 9 ! above class require to be c>efully exam9$ = ! pres5ce ( unsaponifiable matt]1 lime salts & o!r impurities4 ,fatty ,acids4--,we h already describ$ ! v>i\s me?ods ( lib]at+ fatty acids by hydrolysis or saponification4 ,"u ?is head+ %\ld also be includ$ /e>9es produc$ by submitt+ di/ill$ fat to hydraulic pressure1 ! di/illates f e f unsaponifiable matt]1 cocoa-nut ole9e1 a bye-product f ! manufacture ( edible cocoa-nut butt] & consi/+ l>gely ( free acids1 & palm-nut ole9e obta9$ 9 a simil> mann] f palm-nut oil4 ,^! are all available = soap-mak+4 ,,less-,,kn[n ,,oils ,,& ,,fats ,,( ,,limit$ ,,use4 ,%ea ,butt]4--,%ea butt] is extract$ f ! k]nels ( ! ,bassia ,p>kii & export$ f ,africa & ,ea/]n ,india4 ,?is fat is some:at t\gh & /icky1 & ! am\nt ( unsaponifiable matt] pres5t is sometimes consid]able4 ,samples exam9$ by u gave ! foll[+ data3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #fj ,c4 #cac #h4b #ec4b #a4deff #cjc #g4cc #ec #a4deeh #a4ddga 7,f4 ,acids7 ,m[rah-se$ ,oil4--,! m[rah-se$ oil n[ (f]$ = soap-mak+ is d]iv$ f ! se$s ( ,bassia longifolia & ,bassia latifolia4 ,x is l>gely export$ f ,india to ,belgium1 ,france & ,engl&4 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( "s analyses made by u3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,p] ,c5t4 at #fj ,c4 #bia #aj #dc4d #a4deah #bia4e #g4a #db4g #bia4b #i4i #dc4h #bib #aa4bf #dj4e ,*9ese vegetable tall[ is ! "n giv5 to ! fat :i* is f\nd coat+ ! se$s ( ! tall[ tree 7,/ill+ia sebif]a7 :i* is indig5\s to ,*9a & has be5 introduc$ to ,india :]e x fl\ri%es4 ,! foll[+ is a typical sample3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equival5t ,p] ,c5t4 ,c4 #bhj4b #e4bd #eb4e ,! se$s ( ! tall[ tree yield an oil 7/ill+ia oil7 hav+ dry+ prop]ties4 ,borneo ,tall[4--,! k]nels ( sev]al species ( ,hopea 7or ,dipt]oc>pus71 :i* fl\ri% 9 ! ,malayan ,ar*ipelago1 yield a fat kn[n locally z ,tangawang fat4 ,?is fat is m\ld$ 7by means ( bamboo canes7 into ! =m ( rolls ab\t #c in*es ?ick1 & export$ to ,europe z ,borneo ,tall[4 ,a sample te/$ by "o ( u gave ! foll[+ data3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equival5t4 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 #bib #cf #ej4h ,kapok oil is produc$ f a tree :i* is ext5sively gr[n 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies4 ,! ,dut* h plac$ x on ! m>ket & ! figures giv5 by ,h5riques 7,*em4 ,zeit41 #ag1 #abhc7 & ,philippe 7,monit4 ,sci5t41 #aijb1 #gcj71 al?\gh v>y+ some:at1 %[ ! oil to be simil> to cotton-se$ oil4 ,,v>i\s ,,new ,,fats ,,& ,,oils ,,sugge/$ ,,= ,,soap-,,mak+4 ,c>apa or ,&iroba oil1 d]iv$ f ! se$s ( a tree 7,c>apa ,guian5sis7 gr[n 9 ,we/ ,indies & tropical ,am]ica1 has be5 sugge/$ z suitable = soap-mak+4 ,de]+ 7,imp]ial ,in/itute ,j\rn41 #ahih1 #cac7 gives ! foll[+ figures3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,melt+ ,po9t ,equival5t ,p] ,c5t4 ( ,fatty ,acids1 ,c4 #bhg #ab #hi ,ano!r obs]v] 7,rev4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ac1 #aaf7 gives ! sett+ po9t ( ! fatty acids z #ef4d ,c4 ,c&le-nut oil obta9$ f ! se$s ( a tree fl\ri%+ 9 ,india & also ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&s4 ,! foll[+ figures h be5 publi%$3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iod9e ,no4 ,obs]v]s4 ,ref]5ces4 ,equiv- al5t4#a ,c4 #bii-cjd4i #ac #acf4c-aci4c ,de ,negri ,*em4 ,c5tr41 #ahih1 p4 #dic4 #bia #afc4g ,lewk[its*,*em4 ,revue1 #aija1 p4 #aef4 #bif #ab4e #aeb4h ,kassl] ,f>b5-,zeitung1 #aijc1 p4 #cei4 ,curcas oil is produc$ 9 ,portugal f ! se$s ( ! purg+ nut tree1 :i* is simil> to ! ca/or oil plant1 & is cultivat$ 9 ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s & o!r ,portuguese ,colonies4 ,! foll[+ data h be5 obs]v$3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iod9e ,no4 ,obs]v]s4 ,ref]5ces4 ,equiv- al5t4#b ,c4 #bia4d #j4cf #ii4e ,ar*but ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #ahih1 p4 #ajaj4 #bij4c #d4df #ih4c ,lewk[its*,*em4 ,revue1 #ahih1 p4 #baa4 #bhc4a #j4fh #ajg4i ,kle9 ,zeits4 angew4 ,*em41 #ahih1 p4 #ajab4 ,! titre is quot$ by ,lewk[its* z #bh4f ,c4 ,goa butt] or ,kokum butt] is a solid fat obta9$ f ! se$s ( ,g>c9ia indica1 :i* fl\ri%es 9 ,india & ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,crossley & ,le ,sueur 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,indu/ry1 #ahih1 p4 #iic7 dur+ an inve/igation ( ,indian oils obta9$ ^! results3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,iod9e ,no4 ,equival5t4#c ,p] ,c5t4 #cjj #g4a #cd4b ,saffl[] oil is extract$ f ! se$s ( ! ,c>?amus t9ctorius1 :i*1 al?\gh indig5\s to ,india & ! ,ea/ ,indies1 is ext5sively cultivat$ 9 ,s\!rn ,russia 7,s>at[a7 & ,g]man ,ea/ ,africa4 ,its use has be5 sugge/$ = s(t-soap mak+4 ,! foll[+ figures h be5 publi%$3-- ,saponi fication ,iod9e ,obs]v]s4 ,ref]5ces4 ,equiv- ,no4 al5t4#d ,av]age #bie4e #ada4bi ,crossley & ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #ahih1 p4 #iib2 ( ,le ,sueur ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijj1 p4 #ajd4 ,twelve #bhg4a #ada4f ,%uk(f ,*em4 ,revue1 #aija1 p4 #bej4 ,samples #bhi4b #acj ,tylaik[ ,*em4 ,revue1 #aijb1 p4 #ajf4 #bic4g #adb4b ,f5dl] ,*em4 ,zeitung1 #aijd1 p4 #hfg4 ,m>ipa fat is obta9$ f ! k]nels ( a palm tree fl\ri%+ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 b1 d\btless1 ! comm]cial fat is obta9$ f o!r trees ( ! same family4 ,x resembles cocoa-nut oil & gives ! foll[+ figures3-- ,saponi- ,melt+ fication ,po9t ,equiv- ,iod9e ( ,fatty al5t4#e ,no4 ,acids1 ,c4 ,obs]v]4 ,ref]5ce4 #bag #i4di #be ,bassire ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijc1 p4 #aacg4 ,niam fat1 obta9$ f ! se$s ( ,lophira alata1 :i* are f\nd ext5sively 9 ! ,s\dan4 ,! fat1 z prep>$ by natives1 has be5 exam9$ by ,lewk[its*1 & m rec5tly ,edie has publi%$ ! results ( an analysis4 ,! figures are z foll[s3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iod9e ,obs]v]s4 ,ref]5ces4 ,equiv- ,no4 al5t4#f ,c4 #bie4a #gh4ab #db4e ,lewk[its*,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijg1 p4 #abff4 #bhg4g #ge4c ,ede4 ,qu>t4 ,j4 ,in/4 ,comm4 ,rese>* 9 ,tropics4 ,cohune-nut oil is produc$ f ! nuts ( ! cohune palm1 :i* fl\ri%es 9 ,briti% ,honduras4 ,?is oil closely resembles cocoa-nut & palm-nut oils & is /at$ to saponify readily & yield a soap free f od\r4 ,! foll[+ figures1 obta9$ 9 ! ,laboratory ( ! ,imp]ial ,in/itute1 are record$ 9 ! (ficial ,bullet91 #aijc1 p4 #be3-- ,saponification ,iod9e ,no4 ,melt+ ,po9t ( ,equival5t4 ,fatty ,acids1 ,c4 #bec4i-bee4c #ab4i-ac4f #bg-cj ,maf\reira or ,mafura tall[ f ! nuts ( ! maf\reira tree1 :i* gr[s wild 9 ,portuguese ,ea/ ,africa4 ,! foll[+ figures are publi%$3-- ,saponi- fication ,iod9e ,ref]5ces4 ,equi- ,no4 val5t4 ,titre1 ,c4 #bec4h #dd-dh #df4ad ,de ,negri & ,fabris1 ,annal4 del ,lab4 ,*im4 ,delle ,gabelle1 #ahia-b1 p4 #bga4 ,acidity 7z ,oleic ,acid7 ,p] ,c5t4 ,bullet9 ,imp4 ,in/41 #bcb4h-bcc4g #ba4bf #dg4h-ee4h #aijc1 p4 #bg4 ,pongam oil1 obta9$ f ! beans ( ! pongam tree1 :i* fl\ri%es 9 ,ea/ ,india1 has be5 sugge/$ z available = ! soap indu/ry1 b ! unsaponifiable matt] pres5t w\ld militate aga9/ its use4 ,lewk[its* 7,analy/1 #aijc1 pp4 #cdb-dd7 quotes ^! results3-- ,saponi- fication ,iod9e ,acidity1 ,unsaponifiable1 ,equi- ,no4 ,p] ,c5t4 ,p] ,c5t4 val5t4#g ,oil extract$ #cae #id #c4je #i4bb 9 laboratory ,indian specim5 #cjf #hi4d #j4e #f4if ,m>gosa oil is obta9$ f ! se$s ( ,melia az$>a*1 a tree :i* is f\nd 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,india & ,burma4 ,lewk[its* 7,analy/1 #aijc1 pp4 #cdb-cdd7 gives ^! figures3-- ,saponification ,iod9e ,titre1 ,equival5t4#h ,no4 ,c4 #bhd4i #fi4f #db ,dika fat or ,wild ,mango oil is obta9$ f ! se$ k]nels ( v>i\s k9ds ( ,irv+ia by boil+ ) wat]4 ,lem>i 7,bullet9 ,imp4 ,in/41 #aijc1 p4 #bjf7 /ates t ?is fat is us$ 9 ! place ( cocoa-nut oil 9 ! manufacture ( soap4 ,lewk[its* 7,analy/1 #aije1 p4 #cie7 exam9$ a l>ge sample ( dika fat obta9$ f se$s ( ,irv+ia bat]i 7,s\? ,nig]ia7 & gives ! foll[+ data3-- ,saponification ,iod9e ,titre1 ,unsaponifiable1 ,equival5t4#i ,no4 ,c4 ,p] ,c5t4 #bbi4d #e4b #cd4h #j4gc ,baobab-se$ ,oil4--,ball& 7,j\rn4 ,ph>m4 ,*em41 #aijd1 p4 #ebi1 ab/ract$ 9 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #cd7 /ates t ! natives ( ,madagasc> extract1 by means ( boil+ wat]1 f ! se$s ( ! baobab tree1 a :iti% solid oil1 free f rancidity1 & possess$ ( an od\r simil> to ,tunisian olive oil4 ,he sugge/s t x may1 ) advantage1 replace cocoa-nut oil 9 soap manufacture4 ,p]simmon-se$ ,oil4--,lane 7,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #cij7 gives con/ants = ?is oil :i* he describes z semi-dry+1 ( br[ni% yell[ col\r1 & hav+ ta/e & od\r l pea-nut 7ara*is7 oil4 ,! foll[+ are tak5 f ,lane's figures3-- ,saponification ,iod9e ,titre1 ,equival5t4#aj ,no4 ,c4 #bih4d #aae4f #bj4b ,:eat oil1 extract$ f ! :eat g]m by means ( solv5ts1 has be5 sugge/$ z applicable = soap-mak+ 7,h4 ,snyd]1 ab/r4 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #ajgd74 ,! foll[+ figures h be5 publi%$3-- ,saponi- fication ,acidity1 ,iod9e ,titre1 ,obs]v]s4 ,ref]5ces4 ,equiv- ,p] ,no4 al5t4#aa ,c5t4 ,c4 #cjf #e4fe #aae4ag #bi4g ,de ,negri4 ,*em4 ,zeit41 #ahih 7ab/r4 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i41 #ahih1 p4 #aaee74 #big #bj #aae4fd ,frank=t] ,j4 ,am]4 ,c4 ,soc41 ,h>d+ #ahii1 #geh-gfi 7ab/r4 9 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i41 #ahii1 p4 #ajcj74 ,tangkallah fat1 f ! se$s ( a tree gr[+ 9 ,java & ! neighb\r+ isl&s1 is suitable = soap-mak+4 ,s*ro$] 7,ar*4 ,ph>m41 #aije1 #fce-fdj1 ab/ract$ 9 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijf1 p4 #abh7 gives ^! values3-- ,saponification ,acidity1 ,iod9e ,unsaponifiable1 ,equival5t4#ab ,p] ,c5t4 ,no4 ,p] ,c5t4 #bji #a4fg #b4bh #a4dd ,x is a h>d fat1 ne>ly :ite1 possess+ nei!r ta/e nor *>act]i/ic od\r & solidify+ at ab\t #bg ,c4 ,oil ( ,inoy-k]nel4--7,bullet9 ,imp4 ,in/41 #aijf1 p4 #bja74 ,! se$s ( ,poga oleosa f ,we/ ,africa yield on extraction an oil :i* gives ! figures quot$ bel[1 & is sugge/$ z a soap-mak]'s mat]ial3-- ,saponification ,iod9e ,titre1 ,equival5t4 ,no4 ,c4 #cjd #hi4ge #bb ,,ros94 ,ros9 is ! residuum rema9+ aft] di/illation ( spirits ( turp5t9e f ! crude oleo-res9 exud$ by sev]al species ( ! p9e1 :i* ab\nd 9 ,am]ica1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & also fl\ri% 9 ,france & ,spa94 ,! gigantic =e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates consi/ pr9cipally ( ! long-leav$ p9e1 ,p9us palu/ris 7,au/ralis71 :il/ ! ,fr5* & ,spani% oleo-res9 is *iefly obta9$ f ,p9us p9a/]1 :i* is l>gely cultivat$4 ,ros9 is a brittle1 ta/eless1 transp>5t sub/ance hav+ a smoo? %9+ fracture & melt+ at ab\t #ace ,c4 7#bge ,f474 ,! ,am]ican v>iety possesses a *>act]i/ic aromatic od\r1 :i* is lack+ 9 ^? f ,france & ,spa94 ,x is grad$ by samples tak5 out ( ! top ( e b>rel1 & cut into #g_/h ( an in* cubes1 :i* mu/ be uni=m 9 size--! %ade ( col\r ( ! cube det]m9es its grade & value4 ,! grades are z foll[s3-- ,w4 ,w4 7,wat] :ite47 ,w4 ,g4 7,w9d[ glass47 ,n4 7,extra pale47 ,m4 7,pale47 ,k4 7,l[ pale47 ,i4 7,good ,no4 #a47 ,h4 7,no4 #a47 ,g4 7,l[ ,no4 #a47 ,f4 7,good ,no4 #b47 ,e4 7,no4 #b47 ,d4 7,good /ra947 ,c4 7,/ra947 ,b4 7,common /ra947 ,a4 7,common47 ,unsaponifiable matt] is pres5t 9 ros9 9 v>y+ am\nts4 ,bel[ are a few typical figures tak5 f a l>ge numb] ( collat$ det]m9ations3-- ,saponification ,total ,free ,iod9e ,equival5t4 ,acid ,no4 ,acid ,no4 ,no4 ,am]ican ,w4 ,w4 #ccj4e #afi4g #aai4a #abf4i ,am]ican ,n4 #cab4c #agi4f #afa4d #acg4h ,fr5* #cbj4e #age #afh #abj4g ,spani% #cac4d #agi #afj #abi4h ,,alkali 7,,cau/ic ,,& ,,c>bonat$74 ,! manufacture ( alkali 0 at "o "t c>ri$ on 9 conjunction ) soap-mak+1 b ( late ye>s x has become m g5]al = ! soap manufactur] to buy 8 cau/ic soda or c>bonat$ alkali f ! alkali-mak]4 ,al?\gh !re are "s alkali-mak]s :o invoice cau/ic soda & soda a% 9 t]ms ( actual p]c5tage ( sodium oxide 7,na#b,o71 x is ! trade cu/om to buy & sell on :at is kn[n z ! ,engli% degree1 :i* is ab\t #a p] c5t4 high] ?an ?is4 ,! ,engli% degree is a survival ( ! "t :5 ! atomic weight ( sodium 0 believ$ to be tw5ty-f\r in/ead ( tw5ty-?ree1 &1 s9ce ! error on #gf p] c5t4 ,na#b,o due to ?is am\nts to ab\t #a p] c5t41 may be obta9$ by add+ ?is figure to ! sodium oxide really pres5t4 ,cau/ic soda 7sodium hydrate7 comes into comm]ce 9 a liquid =m z #ij ,tw4 7& ev5 z high z #ajf ,tw471 & o!r degrees ( dilution1 & also 9 a solid =m 9 v>i\s grades z #fj1 #gj1 #gf-gg1 #gg-gh4 ,^! degrees repres5t ! p]c5tage ( sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 pres5t plus ! #a p] c5t4 ,! highe/ grade1 conta9+ z x does m available cau/ic soda & less impurities1 is mu* m advantage\s 9 use4 ,c>bonate ( soda or soda a%1 #eh1 also t]m$ light a%1 & ref9$ alkali4 ,?is is a comm]cially pure sodium c>bonate conta9+ ab\t #j4e p] c5t4 salt 7,na,cl74 ,! #eh repres5ts ! ,engli% degrees & corresponds to #ii p] c5t4 sodium c>bonate 7,na#b;,,co#c74 ,soda a%1 #dh1 sometimes call$ cau/ic soda a%1 (t5 conta9s besides c>bonate ( soda1 #d p] c5t4 cau/ic soda 7sodium hydrate71 & #aj p] c5t4 salt 7sodium *loride71 toge!r ) wat] & impurities4 ,! #dh degrees ref]s to ! am\nt ( alkali pres5t 9 t]ms ( sodium oxide 7,na#b,o71 b express$ z ,engli% degrees4 ,cau/ic pota% 7potassium hydrate7 is (f]$ z a liquid ( #ej-eb ,b4 7#ih-ajc ,tw47 /r5g?1 & also 9 solid =m z #ge-hj & #hh-ib4 ,! degrees 9 ! latt] case ref] to ! p]c5tage ( potassium hydrate 7,,kho7 actually pres5t4 ,c>bonate ( ,pota%4--,! /&>d = ref9$ c>bonate ( pota% is #ij-ib p] c5t4 ( actual potassium c>bonate 7,k#b;,,co#c7 pres5t1 al?\gh x c be obta9$ te/+ #ie-ih p] c5t4 ,,o!r ,,mat]ials4 ,wat]4--,wat] int5d$ = use 9 soap-mak+ %\ld be z s(t z possible4 ,if ! wat] supply is h>d1 x %\ld be treat$ *emically2 ! s(t5+ ag5ts may be lime & soda a% toge!r1 soda a% alone1 or cau/ic soda4 ,!re are _m excell5t plants 9 vogue = wat] s(t5+1 :i* are bas$ on simil> pr9ciples & m]ely v>y 9 me*anical arrangem5t4 ,! advantages accru+ f ! s(t5+ ( h>d wat] int5d$ = /eam-rais+ are suffici5tly e/abli%$ & ne$ n be detail$ "h4 ,salt 7sodium *loride or common salt1 ,na,cl7 is a v important mat]ial to ! soap-mak]1 & is obta9able 9 a v pure /ate4 ,br9e1 or a saturat$ solution ( salt1 is v conv5i5t 9 soap-mak+1 &1 if ! salt us$ is pure1 w conta9 #bf4d p] c5t4 sodium *loride & h a d5sity ( #da4f ,tw4 7#bd4h ,b474 ,! pres5ce ( sulphates alt]s ! d5sity1 & ( c\rse ! sodium *loride cont5t4 ,salt produc$ dur+ ! recov]y ( glyc]9e f ! sp5t lyes (t5 conta9s sulphates1 & ! d5sity ( ! br9e made f ?is salt ranges high] ?an #db ,tw4 7#be ,b474 ,soap/ock4--,?is sub/ance is l>gely import$ f ,am]ica1 :]e x is produc$ f ! d>k-col\r$ residue1 t]m$ mucilage1 obta9$ f ! ref9+ ( crude cotton-se$ oil4 ,mucilage consi/s ( cotton-se$ oil soap1 toge!r ) ! col\r+ & res9\s pr9ciples sep>at$ dur+ ! treatm5t ( ! crude oil4 ,! col\r+ matt] is remov$ by boil+ ! mucilage ) wat] & gra9+ well ) salt2 ?is treatm5t is repeat$ sev]al times until ! product is free f excess ( col\r1 :5 x is conv]t$ into soap & a nigre settl$ out f x4 ,soap/ock is sold on a fatty acid basis2 ! col\r is v>iable4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #b ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #c ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #d ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #e ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #f ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #g ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #h ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #i ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #aj ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #aa ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 #ab ,calculat$ by u f saponification value4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,blea*+ ,,& ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,int5d$ ,,= ,,soap-,,mak+4 ,palm ,oil--,cotton-se$ ,oil--,cotton-se$ ,foots--,vegetable ,oils--,animal ,fats--,bone ,fat--,ros94 ,hav+ describ$ ! mo/ important & int]e/+ oils & fats us$ or sugge/$ = use 9 ! manufacture ( soap1 let u n[ consid] briefly ! me?ods ( blea*+ & treat+ ! raw mat]ials1 prior to _! transf]5ce to ! soap-pan4 ,crude ,palm ,oil4--,( ! v>i\s me?ods sugge/$ = blea*+ palm oil1 ! bi*romate process orig9at$ by ,watts is und\bt$ly ! be/4 ,! reaction may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation1 ?\gh 9 practice x is necess>y to use twice ! am\nt ( acid requir$ by !ory3-- ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #ad;,h,cl #b,k,cl ,cr#b;,cl#f #g;,h#b,o #f;,cl4 #f;,cl #c;,h#b,o #f;,h,cl #c,o4 ,! palm oil1 fre$ f solid impurities by melt+ & subsid5ce1 is plac$ 9 ! blea*+ tank1 & wa%$ ) wat] conta9+ a little hydro*loric acid4 ,hav+ all[$ x to re/1 & drawn (f ! liquor & s$im5t 7*iefly s&71 ! palm oil is ready = treatm5t ) ! blea*+ reag5t1 :i* consi/s ( potassium bi*romate & comm]cial muriatic acid4 ,= e ton ( oil1 #bb to #bh lb4 potassium bi*romate & #de to #fj lb4 acid w be f\nd suffici5t to produce a good blea*$ oil4 ,! be/ proc$ure is to act ^u ! col\r+ matt] ( ! oil ?ree successive times1 us+ 9 ! fir/ two treatm5ts "o-?ird ( ! av]age ( ! figures j giv51 & 9 ! f9al treatm5t an appropriate quantity :i* c be easily gaug$ by ! appe>ance ( a cool$ sample ( ! oil4 ,! potassium bi*romate is dissolv$ 9 hot wat] & add$ to ! crude palm oil1 previ\sly heat$ to #abe ,f4 7#eb ,c471 ! requisite am\nt ( muriatic acid be+ !n run 9 & ! :ole well agitat$ by means ( air4 ,! bright r$ col\r ( ! oil gradually *anges to d>k br[n1 & soon becomes gre54 ,! action hav+ proce$$ = a few m9utes1 agitation is /opp$1 &1 aft] all[+ to settle1 ! gre5 liquor is )drawn4 ,:5 suffici5tly blea*$ ! oil is f9ally wa%$ 7)\t fur!r heat+7 ) hot wat] 7:i* may conta9 salt71 to remove ! la/ traces ( *rome liquor4 ,if ! above op]ation is c>ri$ out c>efully1 ! col\r+ matt] w be completely oxidis$4 ,x is important1 h[ev]1 t ! temp]ature %\ld n be all[$ to rise above #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c47 dur+ ! blea*+ ( palm oil1 o!rwise ! resultant oil on saponification is apt to yield a soap ( a foxy col\r4 ,! blea*$ oil reta9s ! *>act]i/ic violet od\r ( ! orig9al oil4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ to use dilute sulphuric acid1 or a mixture ( ?is & common salt1 9 ! place ( muriatic acid 9 ! above process4 ,crude ,cotton-se$ ,oil4--,! deep col\r+ matt] ( crude cotton-se$ oil1 toge!r ) ! mucilag9\s & res9\s pr9ciples1 are remov$ by ref9+ ) cau/ic soda lye4 ,! *ief aim ( ! ref9] is to remove ^! impurities )\t saponify+ any ( ! neutral oil4 ,! p]c5tage ( free fatty acids 9 ! oil w det]m9e ! quantity ( cau/ic lye requir$1 :i* mu/ only be suffici5t to remove ?is acidity4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ! am\nt ( free acidity1 ! quantity ( cau/ic soda lye necess>y to neutralise x is dilut$ ) wat] to #ab or #ae ,tw4 7#h or #aj ,b471 & ! ref9+ process c>ri$ out 9 ?ree /ages4 ,! oil is plac$ 9 a suitable tank & heat$ by means ( a clos$ /eam coil to #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 a ?ird ( ! necess>y weak cau/ic soda lye add$ 9 a f9e /ream or by means ( a spr9kl]1 & ! :ole well agitat$ ) a me*anical agitator or by bl[+ a curr5t ( air ?r\gh a pipe laid on ! bottom ( ! tank4 ,prolong$ agitation ) air has a t5d5cy to oxidise ! oil1 :i* increases its specific gravity & refractive index1 & w be f\nd 9 ! soap-pan to produce a r$di% soap4 ,z ! treatm5t proce$s1 ! temp]ature may be c>efully rais$1 by means ( ! /eam coil1 to #abj ,f4 7#di ,c474 ,! fir/ treatm5t hav+ proce$$ fifte5 m9utes1 ! cont5ts ( ! tank are all[$ to re/2 ! settl+ %\ld be prolong$ z mu* z possible1 say ov]night1 to all[ ! impurities to precipitate well1 & c>ry d[n ! lea/ am\nt ( entangl$ oil4 ,hav+ )drawn ^! col\r$ foots1 ! second portion ( ! weak cau/ic soda solution is agitat$ ) ! p>tially ref9$ oil1 &1 :5 ! latt] is suffici5tly treat$1 x is all[$ to re/ & ! settl$ col\r$ liquor drawn (f z be=e4 ,! oil is n[ ready = ! f9al treatm5t1 :i* is p]=m$ 9 ! same mann] z ! two previ\s ones4 ,on settl+1 a cle> yell[ oil sep>ates4 ,if desir$1 ! oil may be bright5$ & filt]$1 aft] ref9+ to produce a m>ketable article1 b if x is be+ ref9$ = own use 9 ! soap-h\se1 ?is may be omitt$4 ,! residue or foots produc$ dur+ ! ref9+ ( crude cotton-se$ oil1 kn[n 9 ! trade z mucilage1 may be conv]t$ into soap/ock z m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 or decompos$ by a m9]al acid & made into black grease ready = di/illation by sup]heat$ /eam4 ,vegetable ,oils4--,! o!r vegetable oils come to ! soap-mak]'s h& 9 a ref9$ condition2 occasionally1 h[ev]1 x is desirable to remove a portion ( ! free fatty acids1 :i* treatm5t also causes ! col\r+ matt] to be preciptat$4 ,?is is effect$ by br++ ! oil & a weak solution ( cau/ic lye into intimate contact4 ,cocoa-nut oil is (t5 treat$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,sometimes x is only necess>y to well agitate ! oil ) #a-a_/b p] c5t4 ( its weight ( a #ab ,tw4 7#h ,b47 solution ( cau/ic soda & all[ to settle4 ,! foots are utilis$ 9 ! soap-pan4 ,animal ,fats4--,tall[s are (t5 greatly improv$ by ! above alkal9e treatm5t at #afe ,f4 7#gc ,c474 ,x is "o ( ! be/ me?ods & possesses advantages ov] acid processes--! cau/ic soda removes ! free acid & bodies ( aldehyde nature1 :i* are mo/ probably ! result ( oxidation or polym]isation1 :]eas ! neutral fat is n attack$1 & fur!r1 ! alkal9e foots c be us$ 9 ! production ( soap4 ,bone fat (t5 conta9s calcium 7lime7 salts1 :i* are v objectionable sub/ances 9 a soap-pan4 ,^! impurities mu/ be remov$ by a treatm5t ) hydro*loric or sulphuric acid4 ,! =m] acid is pref]able1 z ! lime salt =m$ is readily soluble & easily remov$4 ,! fat is agitat$ ) a weak solution ( acid 9 a lead-l9$ tank by bl[+ 9 /eam1 & :5 ! treatm5t is complete & ! wa/e liquor )drawn1 ! la/ traces ( acid are well wa%$ out ( ! liquid fat ) hot wat]4 ,ros94--,sev]al me?ods h be5 sugge/$ = blea*+ ros92 9 "s in/ances ! con/itution ( ! ros9 is alt]$1 & 9 o!rs ! co/ is too great or ! process impracticable4 ,! aim ( ^! processes mu/ necess>ily be ! elim9ation ( ! col\r+ matt] )\t alt]+ ! orig9al prop]ties ( ! sub/ance4 ,?is is be/ c>ri$ out by conv]t+ ! ros9 into a res9ate ( soda by boil+ x ) a solution ( ei!r cau/ic soda or c>bonat$ alkali4 ,! process is comm5c$ by heat+ #cg cwt4 ( #ag ,tw4 7#aa ,b47 cau/ic soda lye1 & add+ #bj cwt4 ( ros91 brok5 into pieces1 & cont9u+ ! boil+ until all ! res9ate is homog5e\s1 :5 an addition ( #a-a_/b cwt4 ( salt is made & ! boil+ prolong$ a little4 ,on re/+1 ! col\r$ liquor rises to ! surface ( ! res9ate1 & may be siphon$ (f 7or pump$ away ?r\gh a skimm] pipe7 & ! res9ate fur!r wa%$ ) wat] conta9+ a little salt4 ,! treatm5t ) c>bonat$ alkali is p]=m$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,a solution1 consi/+ ( #b-c_/d cwt4 ( soda a% 7#eh71 9 ab\t f\r times its weight ( wat]1 is heat$ & #bj cwt4 ( ros91 brok5 into small pieces1 add$4 ,! :ole is heat$ by means ( ! op5 /eam coil1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid boil+ ov]4 ,ow+ to ! lib]ation ( ,,co#b gas1 fro?+ takes place4 ,a l>ge numb] ( pat5ts h be5 grant$ = ! prep>ation ( res9ate ( soda1 & _m me?ods devis$ to obviate ! boil+ ov]4 ,"s sugge/ mix+ ! ros9 & soda a% 7or only a portion ( ! soda a%7 prior to dissolv+ 9 wat]2 o!rs saponify 9 a boil] connect$ ) a trap :i* returns ! res9ate to ! pan & all[s ! c>bonic-acid gas to escape or to be collect$4 ,) due precaution ! me?od c be easily work$ 9 op5 vessels1 &1 us+ ! above proportions1 !re w be suffici5t uncomb9$ ros9 rema9+ to all[ ! resultant product to be pump$ into ! soap ) :i* x is int5d$ to int]mix x1 :]e x w be f9ally saponifi$ ?or\ghly4 ,! salt requir$1 :i*1 9 ! example giv51 w\ld be #a-a_/b cwt41 may be add$ to ! solution prior to ! addition ( ros9 or spr9kl$ 9 t[>ds ! f9i% ( ! boil+4 ,:5 ! :ole has be5 suffici5tly boil$ & all[$ to re/1 ! liquor conta9+ ! col\r+ matt] w float ov] ! res9ate1 &1 aft] removal1 may be replac$ by ano!r wa%+4 ,_m o!r me?ods h be5 sugge/$ = ! blea*+1 ref9+ & treatm5t ( mat]ials int5d$ = saponification1 b ! above practical processes are successfully employ$4 ,all fats & oils aft] be+ melt$ by ! aid ( /eam mu/ be all[$ to ?or\ghly settle1 & ! cond5s$ wat] & impurities )drawn ?r\gh a trap arrangem5t = collect+ ! fatty matt]4 ,! molt5 settl$ fatty mat]ials en r\te to ! soap-pan %\ld be pass$ ?r\gh sieves suffici5tly f9e to free !m f susp5d$ matt]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,soap-,,mak+4 ,classification ( ,soaps--,direct ,comb9ation ( ,fatty ,acids ) ,alkali--,cold ,process ,soaps--,saponification "u ,increas$ or ,dim9i%$ ,pressure--,s(t ,soap--,m>9e ,soap--,hydrat$ ,soaps1 ,smoo? & ,m>bl$--,pa/+ or ,saponification--,gra9+ ,out--,boil+ on ,/r5g?--,fitt+--,curd ,soaps--,curd ,mottl$--,blue & ,grey ,mottl$ ,soaps--,mill+ ,base--,yell[ ,h\sehold ,soaps--,re/+ ( ,pans & ,settl+ ( ,soap--,utilisation ( ,nigres--,transp>5t ,soaps--,saponify+ ,m9]al ,oil--,electrical ,production ( ,soap4 ,soaps are g5]ally divid$ into two classes & designat$ h>d1 & s(t1 ! =m] be+ ! soda salts1 & ! latt] pota% salts1 ( ! fatty acids conta9$ 9 ! mat]ial us$4 ,accord+ to _! me?ods ( manufacture1 soaps may1 h[ev]1 be m conv5i5tly classifi$1 ?us3-- 7,a7 ,direct comb9ation ( fatty acids ) alkali4 7,b7 ,treatm5t ( fat ) def9ite am\nt ( alkali & no sep>ation ( wa/e lye4 7,c7 ,treatm5t ( fat ) indef9ite am\nt ( alkali & no sep>ation ( wa/e lye4 7,d7 ,treatm5t ( fat ) indef9ite am\nt ( alkali & sep>ation ( wa/e lye4 7,a7 ,direct ,comb9ation ( ,fatty ,acids ) ,alkali4--,?is me?od consi/s 9 ! complete saturation ( fatty acids ) alkali1 & p]mits ( ! use ( ! deglyc]is$ products m5tion$ 9 *apt] ii41 section #b1 & ( c>bonat$ alkalies or cau/ic soda or pota%4 ,fatty acids are readily saponifi$ ) cau/ic soda or cau/ic pota% ( all /r5g?s4 ,! saponification by means ( c>bonat$ alkali may be p]=m$ 9 an op5 vat conta9+ a /eam coil1 or 9 a pan provid$ ) a removable agitator4 ,x is usual to take soda a% 7#eh71 am\nt+ to #ai p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( fatty acids to be saponifi$1 & dissolve x 9 wat] by ! aid ( /eam until ! d5sity ( ! solution is #ec ,tw4 7#cj ,b472 !n br+ to ! boil1 &1 :il/ boil+1 add ! molt5 fatty acids sl[ly1 b n cont9u\sly4 ,comb9ation takes place imm$iately ) evolution ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* causes ! cont5ts ( ! vat or pan to swell1 & frequ5tly to boil ov]4 ,! use ( ! agitator1 or ! cessation ( ! fl[ ( fatty acids1 w sometimes t5d to prev5t ! boil+ ov]4 ,x is imp]ative t ! /eam %\ld n be *eck$ b boil+ cont9u$ z vigor\sly z possible until all ! alkali has be5 absorb$ & ! gas driv5 (f4 ,! use ( air to replace /eam 9 expell+ ! c>bonic acid gas has be5 pat5t$ 7,fr4 ,pat4 #ccc1igd1 #aijc74 ,a bett] me?od ( proc$ure1 h[ev]1 is to comm5ce ) a solution ( #fd ,tw4 7#ce ,b47 d5sity1 made f half ! requisite soda a% 7#i-a_/b p] c5t471 & :5 ?is am\nt ( alkali has all be5 tak5 up by ! fatty acids 7:i* h be5 add$ gradually & ) cont9u\s boil+71 ! rema9+ quantity ( soda a% is add$ 9 a dry /ate1 be+ spr9kl$ ov] ea* fur!r addition ( fatty acid4 ,?is all[s ! process to be m easily controll$ & boil+ ov] is avoid$4 ,x is ess5tial t ! boil+ by /eam %\ld be well ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! process until all c>bonic acid gas has be5 ?or\ghly expell$2 :5 t po9t is rea*$1 ! /eam may be less5$ & ! cont5ts ( ! vat or pan g5tly boil$ on /r5g? ) a little cau/ic lye until x ceases to absorb cau/ic alkali1 ! soap be+ f9i%$ 9 ! mann] describ$ "u 7,d74 ,x is extremely difficult to prev5t discoloration ( fatty acids1 h5ce ! products ( saponification 9 ?is way d n comp>e fav\rably 9 appe>ance ) ^? produc$ f ! orig9al neutral oil or fat4 7,b7 ,treatm5t ( ,fat ) ,def9ite ,am\nt ( ,alkali & no ,sep>ation ( ,wa/e ,lye4--,cold-process soap is a type ( ?is class1 & its me?od ( production is bas$ ^u ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty :i* ! glyc]ides ( ! l[] fatty acids 7memb]s ( ! cocoa-nut-oil class7 possess ( readily comb9+ ) a /rong cau/ic soda solution at a l[ temp]ature1 & evolv+ suffici5t heat to complete ! saponification4 ,sometimes tall[1 l>d1 cotton-se$ oil1 palm oil & ev5 ca/or oil are us$ 9 admixture ) cocoa-nut oil4 ,! process = su* soap is ! same z :5 cocoa-nut oil is employ$ alone1 ) ! slight alt]ation 9 temp]ature necess>y to r5d] ! fats liquid1 & ! am\nt ( cau/ic lye requir$ w be less4 ,soaps made ( ^! bl5ds closely resemble1 9 appe>ance1 mill$ toilet soaps4 ,9 su* mixtures ! glyc]ides ( ! l[] fatty acids comm5ce ! saponification1 & by means ( ! heat g5]at$ induce ! o!r mat]ials1 :i* alone w\ld saponify ) difficulty or only ) ! application ( heat1 to foll[ suit4 ,x is necess>y to use high grade mat]ials2 ! oils & fats %\ld be free f excess ( acidity1 to :i* _m ( ! defects ( cold-process soaps may be trac$4 ,ow+ to ! rapidity ) :i* free acidity is neutralis$ by cau/ic soda1 granules ( soap are =m$1 :i* 9 ! pres5ce ( /rong cau/ic lye are gra9$ out & difficult to remove )\t increas+ ! heat2 ! soap w ?us t5d to become ?ick & gritty & sometimes discol\r$4 ,! cau/ic lye %\ld be made f ! pure/ cau/ic soda1 conta9+ z little c>bonate z possible2 ! wat] us$ = dissolv+ or dilut+ ! cau/ic soda %\ld be s(t 7i4e41 free f calcium & magnesium salts71 & all ! mat]ials c>efully fre$ f p>ticles ( dirt & fibre by /ra9+4 ,! temp]ature1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 mu/ v>y ) ! season1 %\ld be z l[ z is consi/5t ) fluidity1 & = cocoa-nut oil alone may be #ge ,f4 7#bd ,c471 b 9 mixtures conta9+ tall[ #ajj to #abj ,f4 7#ch to #di ,c474 ,! process is g5]ally c>ri$ out z foll[s3-- ,! fluid cocoa-nut oil is /irr$ 9 a suitable vessel ) half its weight ( #ga4d ,tw4 7#ch ,b47 cau/ic soda lye at ! same temp]ature1 &1 :5 ?or\ghly mix$1 ! pan is cov]$ & all[$ to re/4 ,x is imp]ative t ! oils & fats & cau/ic lye %\ld be intimately incorporat$ or emulsifi$4 ,! agitat+ may be done me*anically1 !re be+ sev]al ma*9es specially con/ruct$ = ! purpose4 ,9 "o ( ! late/ designs ! cau/ic lye is deliv]$ ?r\gh a pipe :i* rotates ) ! /irr+ ge>1 & ! :ole is driv5 by means ( a motor4 ,! agitation be+ complete1 *emical action takes place ) ! g5]ation ( heat1 & f9ally results 9 ! saponification ( ! fats4 ,at fir/ ! cont5ts ( ! pan are ?91 b 9 a few h\rs !y become a solid mass4 ,z ! process advances ! edges ( ! soap become m transp>5t1 & :5 ! transp>5cy has ext5d$ to ! :ole mass1 ! soap is ready1 aft] p]fum+1 to be fram$ & crut*$4 ,! admixture ( a little cau/ic pota% ) ! cau/ic soda greatly improves ! appe>ance ( ! resultant product1 :i* is smoo!r & mild]4 ,! glyc]9e lib]at$ dur+ ! saponification is reta9$ 9 ! soap4 ,al?\gh x is possible1 ) c>e1 to produce neutral soaps ( good appe>ance & firm t\* by ?is me?od1 cold-process soaps are v liable to conta9 bo? free alkali & unsaponifi$ fat1 & h n[ fall5 consid]ably into disrepute4 ,saponification "u ,increas$ or ,dim9i%$ ,pressure4--,soaps made by boil+ fats & oils1 "u pressure & 9 vacuo1 ) ! exact quantity ( cau/ic soda necess>y = complete comb9ation1 belong also to ?is class4 ,among/ ! _m attempts :i* h at v>i\s times be5 made to %ort5 ! process ( soap-mak+ may be m5tion$ ,haywood's ,pat5t ,no4 #gei1 #aija1 & ,j\rdan's ,fr5* ,pat5t ,no4 #cci1aed1 #aijc4 ,9 ! =m]1 saponification is c>ri$ out 9 a /eam-jacket$ vacuum *amb] provid$ ) an elaborate arrangem5t ( /irr]s2 9 ! o!r process fat is all[$ to fall 9 a ?9 /ream into ! am\nt ( lye requir$ = saponification1 previ\sly plac$ 9 ! saponification vessel1 :i* is provid$ ) /irr+ ge>4 ,:5 ! quantities h be5 add$1 /eam is admitt$ & saponification proce$s4 7,c7 ,treatm5t ( ,fat ) ,indef9ite ,am\nt ( ,alkali & no ,sep>ation ( ,wa/e ,lye4--,s(t soap is repres5tative ( ?is class4 ,! vegetable fluid oils 7l9se$1 olive1 cotton-se$1 maize7 are = ! mo/ "p us$ 9 mak+ ?is soap1 ?\gh occasionally bone fats & tall[ are employ$4 ,ros9 is sometimes add$1 ! proportion rang+1 accord+ to ! grade ( soap requir$1 f #e to #ae p] c5t4 ( ! fatty matt]4 ,! ,s(t ,soap ,manufactur]s' ,conv5tion ( ,holl& /ipulate t ! mat]ials us$ 9 s(t-soap mak+ mu/ n conta9 m ?an #e p] c5t4 ros92 x is also int]e/+ to note t a pat5t has be5 grant$ 7,eng4 ,pat4 #ag1bgh1 #aijj7 = ! manufacture ( s(t soap f mat]ial conta9+ #ej p] c5t4 ros94 ,fi% or m>9e animal oils--:ale1 seal1 etc41 once l>gely us$ z raw mat]ial = s(t soap1 h be5 sup]s$$ by vegetable oils4 ,! mat]ials mu/ be v>i$ accord+ to ! season2 dur+ hot wea!r1 m body ) a less t5d5cy to sep>ate is giv5 by ! introduction ( oils & fats ri*] 9 /e>9e2 ^! mat]ials also induce figg+4 ,! mo/ important mat]ial1 h[ev]1 is ! cau/ic pota% lye :i* %\ld av]age #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b471 i4e41 if a weak solution is us$ to comm5ce saponification1 a /rong] lye mu/ be aft]w>ds employ$ to avoid excess ( wat] 9 ! soap1 & ^! av]age #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b474 ,! pota% lye mu/ conta9 c>bonates1 :i* help to give transp>5cy to ! resultant soap4 ,if ! lye is some:at defici5t 9 c>bonates1 !y may be add$ 9 ! =m ( a solution ( ref9$ pe>l a% 7potassium c>bonate74 ,cau/ic soda lye is sometimes admix$1 to ! ext5t ( "o-f\r?1 ) pota% lye to keep ! soap firm] dur+ hot wea!r1 b x requires great c>e1 z a slight excess ( soda gives s(t soap a bad appe>ance & a t5d5cy to sep>ate4 ,! process is comm5c$ by runn+ fatty matt] & weak pota% lyes into ! pan or copp]1 & boil+ toge!r1 :il/ ! introduction ( oil & pota% lye is cont9u$4 ,! saponification comm5ces :5 an emulsion =ms1 & ! lye is !n run 9 m quickly to prev5t ! mass ?ick5+4 ,hav+ add$ suffici5t /r5g? = complete saponification1 ! boil+ is cont9u$ until ! soap becomes cle>4 ,! condition ( ! soap is judg$ by obs]v+ ! behavi\r ( a small sample tak5 f ! pan & dropp$ on glass or iron4 ,if ! soap is satisfactory x w set firm1 h a %ort texture & slightly opaque edge1 & be q cle> :5 held t[>ds ! light4 ,if ! cool$ sample draws out 9 ?reads1 !re is an excess ( wat] pres5t4 ,if an opaque edge appe>s & vani%es1 ! soap requires m lye4 ,if ! sample is turbid & some:at :ite1 ! soap is too alkal9e & ne$s m oil4 ,! glyc]9e lib]at$ dur+ saponification is conta9$ 9 ! soap & no d\bt plays a "p 9 ! production ( transp>5cy4 ,hydrat$ soaps1 bo? smoo? & m>bl$1 are includ$ 9 ?is classification1 b are soda soaps4 ,soap made f cocoa-nut oil & palm-k]nel oil w admit ( ! incorporation ( l>ge quantities ( a solution ( ei!r salt1 c>bonate ( soda1 or silicate ( soda1 )\t sep>ation1 & w reta9 its firmness4 ,^! mat]ials are1 !re=e1 p>ticul>ly adapt$ = ! manufacture ( m>9e soaps1 :i* (t5 conta9 z mu* z #hj p] c5t4 ( wat]1 &1 be+ soluble 9 br9e1 are capable ( use 9 sea-wat]4 ,= ! same reason1 cocoa-nut oil ent]s l>gely into ! con/itution ( hydrat$ soaps1 b ! desir$ yield or grade ( soap all[s ( a v>iation 9 ! *oice ( mat]ials4 ,:il/ m>9e soap1 = example1 is usually made f cocoa-nut oil or palm-k]nel oil only1 a *>ge ( #b_/c cocoa-nut oil & #a_/c tall[1 or ev5 #b_/c tall[ & #a_/c cocoa-nut oil1 w produce a pa/e :i* c c>ry ! solutions ( silicate1 c>bonate1 & salt )\t sep>ation1 & yield a smoo?1 firm soap4 ,! fatty mat]ials1 c>efully /ra9$ & fre$ f p>ticles ( dirt & fibre1 are boil$ ) weak cau/ic soda lye until comb9ation has tak5 place4 ,saponification be+ complete1 ! solution ( salt is add$1 !n ! c>bonate ( soda solution1 & f9ally ! silicate ( soda solution1 aft] :i* ! soap is boil$4 ,:5 ?or\ghly mix$1 /eam is %ut (f1 & ! soap is ready = fram+4 ,! m>bl$ hydrat$ soap is made f cocoa-nut oil or a mixture ( palm-k]nel oil & cocoa-nut oil ) ! aid ( cau/ic soda lye #cb-a_/b ,tw4 7#bj ,b474 ,z soon z saponification is complete1 ! br9e & c>bonate ( soda solution are add$1 & ! pan all[$ to re/4 ,! soap is !n c>efully ta/$ z to its suitability = m>bl+ by tak+ samples & mix+ ) ! col\r+ solution 7ultram>9e mix$ ) wat] or silicate ( soda solution74 ,if ! sample becomes blue ?r\gh\t1 ! soap is too alkal9e2 if ! col\r is precipitat$1 ! soap is defici5t 9 alkali4 ,! "r po9t has be5 rea*$ :5 ! m>bl+ is di/ribut$ ev5ly4 ,hav+ ?us asc]ta9$ ! condition ( ! pan1 & correct$ x if necess>y1 ! col\r1 mix$ 9 wat] or 9 silicate ( soda solution1 is add$ & ! soap fram$4 7,d7 ,treatm5t ( ,fat ) ,indef9ite ,am\nt ( ,alkali & ,sep>ation ( ,wa/e ,lye4--,?is is ! mo/ g5]al me?od ( soap-mak+4 ,! v>i\s op]ations are3-- 7a7 ,pa/+ or saponification4 7b7 ,gra9+ out or sep>ation4 7c7 ,boil+ on /r5g?4 ,& 9 ! case ( mill+ soap base & h\sehold soaps1 7d7 ,fitt+4 7a7 ,pa/+ or ,saponification4--,! melt$ fats & oils are introduc$ into ! soap-pan & boil$ by means ( op5 /eam ) a cau/ic soda lye #ad to #bc4e ,tw4 7#aj to #ae ,b474 ,:e!r ! fatty matt]s & alkali are run into ! pan simultane\sly or sep>ately is immat]ial1 provid$ ! alkali is n add$ 9 suffici5t excess to ret>d ! union4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ! saponification is d5ot$ by ! =mation ( an emulsion4 ,sometimes x is difficult to />t ! saponification2 ! pres5ce ( soap w (t5 assi/ ?is by emulsify+ ! fat & ?us br++ x into intimate contact ) ! cau/ic soda solution4 ,:5 ! action has />t$1 cau/ic soda lye ( a great] d5sity1 #bi to #cc ,tw4 7#ah to #bj ,b471 is frequ5tly add$1 ) cont9u$ boil+1 9 small quantities z long z x is be+ absorb$1 :i* is asc]ta9$ by tak+ out samples f "t to "t & exam9+ !m4 ,!re %\ld be no greas9ess 9 ! sample1 b :5 press$ betwe5 f+] & ?umb x mu/ be firm & dry4 ,boil+ is cont9u$ until ! fa9t cau/ic ta/e on apply+ ! cool$ sample to ! tongue is p]man5t1 :5 x is ready = gra9+ out4 ,! pa/y mass n[ consi/s ( ! soda salts ( ! fat 7z imp]fect soap1 probably conta9+ emulsifi$ diglyc]ides & monoglyc]ides71 toge!r ) wat]1 9 :i* is dissolv$ ! glyc]9e =m$ by ! union ( ! lib]at$ glyc]yl radicle f ! fat ) ! hydroxyl radicle ( ! cau/ic soda1 & any slight excess ( cau/ic soda & c>bonates4 ,! object ( ! next op]ation is to sep>ate ?is wat] 7sp5t lye7 f ! soap4 7b7 ,gra9+ ,out or ,sep>ation4--,?is is br\ght ab\t by ! use ( common salt1 9 a dry =m or 9 solution z br9e1 or by cau/ic soda lye4 ,:il/ ! soap is boil+1 ! salt is spread uni=mly ov] its surface1 or br9e #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b47 is run 91 & ! :ole well boil$ toge!r4 ,! soap mu/ be ?or\ghly boil$ aft] ea* addition ( salt1 & c>e tak5 t too l>ge a quantity is n add$ at once4 ,z ! soap is gradually ?r[n out ( solution1 x loses its smoo? transp>5t appe>ance1 & becomes opaque & granul>4 ,:5 a sample1 tak5 out on a wood5 tr[el1 consi/s ( di/9ct gra9s ( soap & a liquid portion1 :i* w easily sep>ate1 suffici5t salt or br9e has be5 add$2 ! boil+ is /opp$ & ! sp5t lye all[$ to settle out1 :il/ ! soap rema9s on ! surface z a m or less ?ick mass4 ,! sep>at$ sp5t lye consi/s ( a solution ( common salt1 glyc]9e1 & alkal9e salts2 ! prep>ation ( crude glyc]9e !refrom is consid]$ 9 *apt] ix4 ,! degree ( sep>ation ( wat] 7sp5t lye7 dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( precipitant us$4 ,! aim is to obta9 a maximum am\nt ( sp5t lye sep>at$ by ! use ( a m9imum quantity ( salt4 ,! am\nt ( salt requir$ = gra9+ out v>ies ) ! raw mat]ial us$4 ,a tall[ soap is ! mo/ easily gra9$1 m salt is requir$ = cotton-se$ oil soap1 :]eas soaps made f cocoa-nut & palm-k]nel oils require v l>ge am\nts ( salt to gra9 out ?or\ghly4 ,ow+ to ! solubility 9 weak br9e ( ^! latt] soaps1 x is pref]able to gra9 !m ) cau/ic soda lye4 ,?is is effect$ by add+1 dur+ boil+1 suffici5t cau/ic lye 7#cb-a_/b ,tw41 #bj ,b47 to produce ! sep>ation ( ! granules ( soap4 ,! :ole is all[$ to re/2 ! sep>at$ half-sp5t lye is )drawn & may be us$ = ! pa/+ ( fre% mat]ials4 ,aft] ! removal ( ! settl$ lye1 ! gra9$ mass is boil$ ) suffici5t wat] to dissolve ! gra9 & make x smoo? 7close x71 & is n[ ready = ! next op]ation ( boil+ on /r5g?4 7c7 ,boil+ on ,/r5g? or ,cle> ,boil+4--,?is is ! mo/ important op]ation & is (t5 t]m$ mak+ ! soap4 ,! object is to h>d5 ! soap & to ensure complete saponification4 ,cau/ic soda lye 7#cb-a_/b ,tw41 #bj ,b47 is gradually add$ until ! soap is aga9 op5$ or gra9$1 & boil+ cont9u$ by ! use ( ! dry /eam coil4 ,z soon z ! cau/ic soda lye is absorb$1 ano!r portion is sl[ly add$1 & ?is is cont9u$ until ! cau/ic soda or /r5g? rema9s p]man5t & ! soapy mass1 refus+ to absorb m1 is ?r[n out ( solution & gra9$4 ,! granul> mass w boil /eadily1 & ! boil+ %\ld be prolong$1 z ! la/ traces ( neutral oil are difficult to completely saturate ) alkali4 ,?or\gh saponification takes place gradually1 & ! op]ation _c be hurri$2 special c>e has to be be/[$ ^u ?is op]ation to effect ! complete comb9ation ( fat & alkali4 ,aft] re/+ = sev]al h\rs1 half-sp5t lye settles to ! bottom ( ! pan4 ,9 ! case ( yell[ soaps or mill+ bases ! settl$ lye is remov$ to a suitable receptacle & res]v$ = use 9 ! saponification ( o!r mat]ial1 & ! soap is !n ready = ! f9al op]ation ( fitt+4 7d7 ,fitt+4--,if ! op]ations j describ$ h be5 prop]ly p]=m$1 ! fitt+ %\ld pres5t no difficulty4 ,! soap is boil$ ) op5 /eam1 & wat] add$ until ! desir$ degree ( clos+ is atta9$4 ,z ! wat] is ?or\ghly int]mix$ ?r\gh\t ! mass ! ?ick pa/e gradually becomes r$uc$ to a smoo?1 ?9 consi/5ce4 ,samples are te/$ f "t to "t z to _! behavi\r 9 dropp+ (f a hot tr[el held sideways2 ! ?9 lay] %\ld drop (f 9 two or ?ree flakes & leave ! surface ( ! tr[el clean & dry4 ,! soap is !n 9 a condition to all[ ! impurities to gravitate4 ,accord+ to ! requir$ soap1 ! fit may be co>se 7op57 :5 ! flakes drop (f ! tr[el readily1 or f9e 7close7 :5 ! flakes only leave ! tr[el ) difficulty4 ,if ! dilution ) wat] has be5 all[$ to proce$ too f>1 & too f9e a fit is produc$1 :i* w\ld be d5ot$ by ! lay] ( soap n leav+ ! tr[el1 a little cau/ic lye or br9e may be v c>efully add$ & ! :ole well boil$ until ! desir$ condition is obta9$4 ,a good pressure ( /eam is n[ appli$ to ! pan1 caus+ ! cont5ts to swell z high z possible1 ?is greatly facilitat+ ! settl+ ( impurities2 /eam is !n turn$ (f1 ! pan cov]$1 & ! boil all[$ to re/ = sev]al days4 ,! art ( fitt+ consi/s 9 leav+ ! cont5ts ( ! pan 9 su* a condition t1 on /&+1 all ! impurities precipitate1 & ! settl$ soap1 conta9+ ! correct am\nt ( wat]1 is cle> & bright4 ,! above is a g5]al practical outl9e ( ! ord9>y soap-boil+ process4 ,x may be modifi$ or slightly alt]$ accord+ to ! fancy ( ! individual soap-mak] or ! p>ticul> mat]ial x is desir$ to use4 ,fats & oils n only v>y 9 ! am\nt ( alkali !y absorb dur+ saponification1 b also diff] 9 ! /r5g? ( ! alkali !y require4 ,tall[ & palm oil require lye ( a d5sity ( #ae to #ah ,tw4 7#aj to #ab ,b471 b cocoa-nut oil alone w\ld n saponify unless ! lye 0 m conc5trat$1 #cc to #db ,tw4 7#bj to #be ,b474 ,cotton-se$ oil requires weak lyes = saponification1 &1 be+ difficult to saponify alone ev5 ) prolong$ boil+1 is g5]ally mix$ ) animal fat4 ,:5 fats are mix$ toge!r1 h[ev]1 _! v>y+ alkali requirem5ts become modifi$1 & once ! saponification is begun ) weak lye1 o!r mat]ials are induc$ to take up alkali ( a /r5g? ) :i* alone !y w\ld n comb9e4 ,x is consid]$ ! be/ proc$ure to comm5ce ! pa/+ or saponification ) weak lye4 ,9 ord] to economise tank space1 x is ! g5]al practice to /ore /rong cau/ic lye 7#fj to #gj ,tw41 #cc to #cg ,b47 & to dilute x z x is be+ add$ to ! soap-pan by ! simultane\s addition ( wat]4 ,_m manufactur]s give all _! soap a br9e wa% to remove ! la/ traces ( glyc]9e & free ! soap f c>bonates4 ,?is op]ation takes place prior to fitt+2 suffici5t wat] is add$ to ! boil+ soap to close x & !n br9e is run 9 to gra9 x4 ,aft] re/+1 ! liquor is )drawn4 ,hav+ describ$ ! necess>y op]ations 9 g5]al1 we w n[ consid] _! application to ! prep>ation ( v>i\s k9ds ( h>d soap4 ,curd ,soaps4--,tall[ is l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( :ite curd soaps1 b cocoa-nut oil sometimes ent]s into _! composition4 ,! fir/ ?ree op]ations above describ$1 viz41 pa/+1 gra9+ out1 & boil+ on /r5g?1 are proce$$ )2 ! cle> boil+ by means ( a clos$ /eam coil is cont9u$ until ! head is boil$ out & ! soap is free f fro?4 ,a sample tak5 & cool$ %\ld be h>d4 ,boil+ is !n /opp$1 &1 aft] cov]+1 ! pan is all[$ to re/ = eight to t5 h\rs1 :5 ! soap is ready = fill+ into frames1 :]e x is crut*$ until p]fectly smoo?4 ,curd mottl$ is usually made f melt$ kit*5 /uff & bone grease4 ,its prep>ation is sub/antially ! same z = curd soap1 b ! cle> boil+ is n c>ri$ s f>4 ,! art ( curd mottl$ soap-mak+ lies 9 ! boil+4 ,if boil$ too long ! mottl+ w n =m prop]ly1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 insuffici5t boil+ w cause ! soap to conta9 an excess ( entangl$ lye4 ,hav+ boil$ x to its correct conc5tration ! pan is all[$ to re/ ab\t two h\rs1 aft] :i* ! soap is ready = fram+1 :i* %\ld be done exp$iti\sly & ! frames cov]$ up4 ,"s lye1 conta9+ ! impurities f ! fats us$1 rema9s 9 ! int]/ices ( ! curd1 unable to s9k1 & z ! soap cools x is enclos$ & =ms ! mottl+4 ,! mottl+ may1 !re=e1 be consid]$ z a cry/allisation ( ! soap1 9 :i* ! impurity =ms ! col\r4 ,blue & ,grey ,mottl$ ,soaps4--,^! are silicat$ or liquor$ soaps 9 :i* ! natural mottl+1 due to ! impure mat]ials us$ 9 ! e>ly days ( soap-mak+1 is imitat$ by artificial mottl+1 & are1 consequ5tly1 entirely diff]5t to curd mottl$ soaps4 ,! mat]ials employ$ 9 mak+ mottl$ soap comprise blea*$ palm oil1 tall[1 bone fat1 cocoa-nut oil1 palm-k]nel oil1 cotton-se$ oil1 &1 9 "s in/ances1 ros94 ,! *oice ( a *>ge w naturally dep5d ^u ! co/2 ! prop]ty ( absorb+ a l>ge am\nt ( liquor1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( soaps made f cocoa-nut oil & palm-k]nel oil1 is tak5 advantage (1 z are also ! physical prop]ties ( ! v>i\s fats & oils1 ) a view to ! cry/allisation ( ! resultant soap & ! developm5t ( ! mottle4 ,! fat is saponifi$1 gra9$ & boil$ on /r5g?1 z previ\sly describ$4 ,aft] )draw+ ! half-sp5t lye1 ! soap is j clos$ by boil+ ) wat]1 & is !n ready = ! silicate or o!r sal9e additions4 ,soap int5d$ to be liquor$ ) silicate ( soda %\ld be di/9ctly /rong 9 free alkali2 ! cry/all9e nature ( ! soap is increas$ !reby1 & ! mottl$ effect int5sifi$4 ,"s mak]s1 h[ev]1 fit ! soap co>sely & all[ a nigre to deposit2 !n1 aft] remov+ ! nigre1 or transf]r+ ! settl$ soap to ano!r copp]1 conta9+ scraps ( mottl$ soap1 get ! soap into a condition = mottl+1 & add ! silicate ( soda solution4 ,to e #a cwt4 ( soap1 #bh lb4 ( silicate ( soda solution1 #cb-a_/b ,tw4 7#bj ,b47 is add$1 :il/ boil+2 ! /r5g? ( ! silicate solution1 h[ev]1 w dep5d ^u ! proportion ( cocoa-nut oil & palm-k]nel oil pres5t 9 ! *>ge4 ,_m soap-mak]s use #bj ,tw4 7#ac ,b47 7cold7 silicate solution1 :il/ o!rs pref] #adj ,tw4 7#ei4e ,b471 ) ! gradual addition ( wat] to ! soap1 kept boil+1 until ! product is 9 ! correct mottl+ condition1 & o!rs1 aga91 use blea* liquor1 soda cry/als1 pe>l a%1 & salt1 toge!r ) silicate solution4 ,consid]able skill & exp]i5ce is necess>y to disc]n :5 ! soap acquires ! correct mottl+ /ate4 ,x %\ld drop (f ! spatula 9 l>ge ?ick flakes1 take consid]able "t to set1 & ! surface %\ld n be glossy4 ,:5 ?is mottl+ condition has be5 obta9$1 ! col\r+ matt]1 :i* w\ld be ultram>9e = ! blue mottl$ & manganese dioxide = ! grey mottl$ soap 7#c-d lb4 ultram>9e or #a-c lb4 manganese dioxide be+ suffici5t = #a ton ( soap71 is mix$ ) a little wat] & add$ to ! boil+ soap--! boil+ is cont9u$ until all is ?or\ghly amalgamat$1 & :5 ! /eam is %ut (f ! cont5ts ( ! pan are ready = cleans+4 ,mottl$ soap is run into wood5 frames1 :i*1 :5 full1 are cov]$ ov] & all[$ to cool v gradually4 ,on cool+ sl[ly1 l>ge cry/als are produc$ :i* result 9 a di/9ct bold mottle2 if ! cool+ is too rapid1 a small cry/al is obta9$ & ! mottle is n di/ribut$1 result+ 9 ei!r a small mottle1 or no mottle at all1 & m]ely a g5]al coloration4 ,9 fact1 ! entire art ( mottl+ soap consi/s 9 prop]ly balanc+ ! sal9e solutions & col\r+ matt]1 s t ! latt] is prop]ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! soap1 & does n ei!r sep>ate 9 col\r$ masses at ! bottom ( ! frame1 or uni=mly col\r ! :ole mass4 ,a sample ( ! soap %\ld te/ #de p] c5t4 fatty acids1 & ! am\nt ( salt w\ld range f #a_/b to #a p] c5t4 ,"s ( ! ,engli% mottl$ soaps1 especially ^? made f mat]ials :i* give a yell[-col\r$ gr\nd1 are blea*$ by soak+ 9 br9e1 or pickl+ 9 br9e conta9+ #b p] c5t4 ( blea* liquor4 ,! resultant soap has a :ite gr\nd & is firm4 ,! blea* liquor may be made by mix+ #a cwt4 blea*+ p[d] ) #aj cwts4 ( soda a% solution 7#ae ,tw41 #aj ,b471 all[+ to settle1 & us+ ! cle> liquid1 or by mix+ #b p>ts soda a% solution ) #a "p ( blea*+ p[d] solution1 bo? solutions be+ #cj ,tw4 7#ah4h ,b474 ,mill+-base4--,! mat]ials g5]ally us$ are tall[s & cocoa-nut oils ( ! f9e/ quality4 ,! tall[ is ?or\ghly saponifi$ fir/1 & ! gra9+ is p]=m$ by ! aid ( cau/ic soda lye 9 pref]5ce to salt4 ,! half-sp5t lyes are )drawn1 & ! cocoa-nut oil add$ to ! pan4 ,?is is saponifi$1 & :5 ! saponification is complete1 boil+-on-/r5g? is proce$$ )4 ,special c>e %\ld be devot$ to ! boil+-on-/r5g? op]ation--its value 9 good soap-mak+ _c be ov]-rat$--& p]fect saponification mu/ be ensur$4 ,! half-sp5t lyes are all[$ to deposit dur+ ! night1 & ! soap mu/ be c>efully exam9$ next morn+ to asc]ta9 if any alkali has be5 absorb$4 ,if ! cau/ic ta/e is p]man5t ! /r5g!n+ op]ation is complete1 b %\ld any cau/ic h be5 absorb$1 fur!r addition ( alkali mu/ be made & ! boil+ cont9u$4 ,^! rem>ks apply equally to all soaps4 ,! soap1 :5 ready1 is fitt$4 ,blea*$ palm oil1 olive oil1 ca/or oil & l>d are also employ$ 9 ! production ( special mill+ soap bases1 a palm oil soap be+ specially suitable = ! production ( a violet-sc5t$ toilet soap4 ,yell[ ,h\sehold ,soaps4 7a7 ,b> ,soaps4--,^! are made f tall[ ) an admixture ( f #ae-be p] c5t4 ros94 ,! be/ quality is kn[n 9 ! ,s\? & ,we/ ( ,engl& z ,primrose ,soap1 b is designat$ 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl& by su* names z ,gold5 ,pale1 ,imp]ial ,pale1 ,gold ,m$al ,pale1 etc4 ,tall[ alone produces a v h>d soap ( inf]ior la!r+ qualities2 b ros9 comb9es ) alkali to =m a s(t body1 :i*1 al?\gh n a soap 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1 is readily soluble 9 wat]1 & 9 admixture ) ! durable tall[ soap r5d]s x m soluble 9 wat] & !reby increases its la!r+ prop]ties4 ,! ros9 may be add$ to ! soap-pan aft] a previ\s p>tial saponification ) soda a%1 & removal ( col\r+ matt]1 & f9ally saponifi$ ) cau/ic soda lye1 or1 z is m g5]ally adopt$1 z a ros9 *ange4 ,! pan is op5$ ) cau/ic soda lye & saturation ( ! ros9 takes place rapidly2 :5 completely saponifi$ x is gra9$ ) salt1 & ! col\r$ lye all[$ to deposit & f9ally )drawn4 ,! f\r op]ations already detail$ apply to ?is soap4 ,*eap] pale soaps may be made f l[] grades ( tall[ & ros9 & are g5]ally silicat$4 7b7 ,tablet or ,wa%] ,type4--,a dem& has aris5 = soap ( free la!r+ qualities1 :i* has become v popul> = g5]al h\sehold use4 ,?is soap is usually made f a mixture ( cotton-se$ oil1 tall[1 & cocoa-nut oil1 ) a v>y+ am\nt ( ros94 ,! tall[ yields firmness & durability :il/ ! o!r con/itu5ts all assi/ 9 ! m ready production ( a copi\s la!r4 ,z to :at am\nt ( ros9 c be us$ to yield a f9i%$ soap ( suffici5t body & satisfactory col\r1 ?is naturally dep5ds ^u ! grade ( raw mat]ial at ! soap-mak]s' disposal4 ,^? fats & oils :i* yield firm soaps1 w1 ( c\rse1 all[ a great] proportion ( ros9 to be incorporat$ ) !m ?an mat]ials produc+ soaps ( less body4 ,ros9 imp>ts s(tness to a soap1 & also col\r4 ,?is is a fitt$ soap & full details ( manufacture h already be5 giv54 ,*eap] soaps are produc$ f l[] grade mat]ials h>d5$ ) alkal9e solutions4 ,re/+ ( ,pans & ,settl+ ( ,soap4--,! fitt$ soap is all[$ to settle f f\r to six days4 ,! p]iod all[$ = re/+ is influ5c$1 h[ev]1 n only by ! size ( ! boil1 & ! season1 b also by ! composition ( ! soap1 = if ! base has be5 made f firm /ock x is liable to cool quick] ?an a soap produc$ f s(t-bodi$ mat]ials4 ,on subsid5ce1 ! cont5ts ( ! pan w h divid$ into ! foll[+3-- ,fir/4 ,on top1 a ?9 cru/ ( soap1 ) p]haps a little light col\r$ fob1 :i* is return$ to ! pan aft] ! removal ( ! good soap4 ,second4 ,! good settl$ soap1 te/+ #fb-fc p] c5t4 fatty acids4 ,! subject ( remov+ & treatm5t ( ?is lay] is fully dealt ) 9 ! next *apt]4 ,?ird4 ,a lay] ( d>k] weak soap1 t]m$ nigre1 :i* on an av]age te/s #cc p] c5t4 fatty acids1 &1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> fit employ$1 w am\nt to f #ae-bj p] c5t4 ( ! total quantity ( soap 9 ! pan4 ,! quantity ( nigre may v>y n only ) ! am\nt ( wat] add$ dur+ f9i%+1 b is also influ5c$ by ! am\nt ( cau/ic alkali rema9+ 9 ! soap pa/e prior to fitt+4 ,if ! free cau/ic alkali-cont5t is high1 ! soap w require a l>ge am\nt ( wat] to atta9 ! desir$ fit4 ,?is wat] r5d]s ! cau/ic into a lye suffici5tly weak to dissolve a quantity ( soap1 consequ5tly1 z ! nigre is a weak solution ( soap toge!r ) any excess ( alkali 7cau/ic or c>bonate7 & salt :i* gravitates dur+ ! settl+1 ! quantity is increas$4 ,f\r?4 ,a solution conta9+ alkal9e salts1 mo/ly c>bonates & *lorides1 ) a little cau/ic4 ,! am\nt ( ! lay] is v v>iable1 & d\btless1 "u c]ta9 physical conditions1 ?is liquor has sep>at$ f ! nigre4 ,utilisation ( ,nigres4--,! nigres are boil$ & ! liquor sep>at$ by gra9+ ) salt4 ,nigre may be utilis$ 9 v>i\s ways4 7#a7 ,x may be us$ sev]al times ) new mat]ials4 ,?is p>ticul>ly ref]s to soaps ( ! ,wa%] type4 ,! col\r ( ! nigre w det]m9e ! numb] ( times x c be employ$4 7#b7 ,x may be incorporat$ ) a soap ( a l[] grade ?an ! "o f :i* x 0 obta9$4 ,9 ?is case a sy/em is g5]ally adopt$2 = example1 soap ( ! be/ quality is made 9 a clean pan1 ! nigre rema9+ is work$ up ) fre% mat]ial = soap ( ! next quality1 ! nigre f t boil1 9 its turn1 is admix$ ) a *>ge to produce a bat* ( ?ird quality1 & ! deposit$ nigre f ?is is aga9 us$ = a f\r? quality soap--! nigre obta9$ f ?is latt] boil w\ld probably be transf]r$ into ! *eap5$ wa%] or p]haps if x 0 d>k 9 col\r into ! br[n soap-pan4 7#c7 ,! nigre may be fitt$ & produce a soap simil> to ! orig9al soap f :i* x 0 deposit$4 ,x is advisable to saponify a little fat ) x4 7#d7 ,nigres f sev]al boils ( ! same k9d ( soap c be collect$1 boil$1 & fitt$4 ,! settl$ portion may be incorporat$ ) a new *>g+ to keep ! resultant soap uni=m 9 col\r--unless ?is is done1 ! diff]5ce 9 col\r betwe5 boils f new mat]ials alone1 & ^? conta9+ nigre1 is v noticeable4 ,! nigre settl$ f ?is fitt$ nigre boil w\ld be utilis$ 9 br[n soap4 7#e7 ,accord+ to its col\r1 & consi/5ce1 a nigre may be suitable = ! production ( dis9fectant1 or cold-wat] soaps4 7#f7 ,nigre may be blea*$ by treatm5t ) a #bj p] c5t4 solution ( /ann\s *loride--#a cwt4 ( ?is solution 7previ\sly heat$7 is suffici5t to blea* #bj tons ( nigre4 ,transp>5t ,soaps4--,! production ( transp>5t soaps has rec5tly be5 fully /udi$1 f a !oretical po9t ( view1 by ,ri*>dson 7,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #aijh1 pp4 #dad-bj71 :o concludes t ! function ( sub/ances induc+ transp>5cy1 is to produce a jelly & ret>d cry/allisation4 ,! old-fa%ion$ transp>5t soap is prep>$ by dissolv+1 previ\sly dri$1 g5u9e yell[ soap 9 alcohol1 & all[+ ! insoluble sal9e impurities to be deposit$ & remov$4 ,! alcoholic soap solution is !n plac$ 9 a di/illation app>atus1 or ! pan conta9+ ! solution is atta*$ by means ( a /ill head to a cond5s]1 & ! alcohol di/ill$1 cond5s$ & rega9$4 ,! rema9+ liquid soap1 :i* may be col\r$ & p]fum$1 is run into frames & all[$ to solidify4 ,! resultant mass is some:at turbid1 b aft] /orage 9 a room at #ie ,f4 7#ce ,c47 = sev]al mon?s1 becomes transp>5t4 ,! =mation ( ! transp>5cy is sometimes assi/$ & ha/5$ by ! addition ( glyc]9e or a solution ( cane-sug>4 ,a pat5t has be5 grant$ to ,a4 ,ru* 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cbg1bic1 #aijb7 = ! manufacture ( transp>5t glyc]9e soap by heat+ 9 a clos$ vessel fatty acids toge!r ) ! requisite quantity ( alcoholic cau/ic soda solution necess>y = saponification1 & cool+ ! resultant soap4 ,x is also propos$ to add sug> solution4 ,*eap] qualities ( transp>5t soaps are made by ! cold process ) or )\t ! aid ( alcohol & ca/or oil1 & ) ! assi/ance ( glyc]9e or cane-sug>4 ,) ! cont9ual dem& = *eap] production1 sug> solution has gradually1 9 conjunction ) ca/or oil1 :i* produces transp>5cy1 sup]s$$ ! use ( alcohol & glyc]9e4 ,= a small bat*1 #ef lb4 ,co*9 cocoa-nut oil & #ef lb4 sweet edible tall[ may be tak51 melt$ at #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 & c>efully /ra9$ into a small /eam-jacket$ pan4 ,x is imp]ative t ! mat]ials %\ld be ( ! highe/ quality & p]fectly clean4 ,tw5ty-?ree lb4 ( pure glyc]9e & #ef lb4 ( bright cau/ic soda solution made f high grade cau/ic & hav+ a d5sity ( #gb ,tw4 7#ch ,b47 are crut*$ into ! fat2 ! alcohol1 :i* w\ld be #de lb4 9 ?is example1 is !n add$4 ,! :ole mu/ be mo/ intimately incorporat$1 & ! pan cov]$ & all[$ to re/ = "o h\r or "o & a half h\rs4 ,saponification %\ld ensue4 ,to produce a transp>5t glyc]9e soap ) ! aid ( ca/or oil1 & ) or )\t ! use ( alcohol1 ! foll[+ is ! proc$ure3-- ,co*9 cocoa-nut oil1 sweet edible tall[1 & ca/or oil1 ( ea* #ef lb4 are tak51 w>m$ to #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 & c>efully /ra9$ into ! jacket$ pan4 ,if x is desir$ to use glyc]9e & cane sug> solution1 & no alcohol1 ! glyc]9e 7#be lb47 is n[ /irr$ into ! fats toge!r ) ! requisite 7#hc lb47 cau/ic soda solution #gb ,tw4 7#ch ,b474 ,if x is int5d$ to use alcohol & sug>1 & no glyc]9e1 ! latt] is replac$ by #dg lb4 ( alcohol1 & add$ aft] ! incorporation ( ! cau/ic soda lye4 ,! :ole be+ ?or\ghly crut*$1 ! pan is cov]$ & saponification all[$ to proce$ = "o h\r or "o & a half h\rs4 ,%\ld ! saponification = "s reason be ret>d$1 a little /eam may be v cauti\sly admitt$ to ! jacket ( ! pan1 ! mass well crut*$ until ! reaction comm5ces1 & ! :ole all[$ to re/ ! specifi$ "t4 ,:il/ saponification is proce$+1 ! sug> solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ #ej lb4 cane sug> 9 #ej lb4 wat]1 at #afh ,f4 7#gf ,c471 to :i* may be add$ #e lb4 soda cry/als1 & any necess>y col\r+ matt]4 ,! wat] us$ = ?is solution %\ld be z s(t z possible1 z h>d wat] is liable to produce opaque /reaks ( lime soap4 ,x is absolutely necess>y be=e proce$+ fur!r to ensure t saponification is complete4 ,a greasy1 s(t feel & ! pres5ce ( /r5g? 7cau/ic7 w\ld d5ote incomplete saponification--?is c only be rem$i$ by fur!r heat+ & crut*+4 ,defici5cy ( cau/ic alkali %\ld also be avoid$1 &1 if m lye is requir$1 great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 its addition4 ,saponification be+ complet$1 ! sug> solution is c>efully & gradually crut*$ into ! soap2 :5 ! cont5ts ( ! pan h become a homog5e\s & syrupy mass1 ! crut*+ is discont9u$1 & ! pan is cov]$ = "o h\r4 ,! heat ( ! soap 9 ! pan %\ld n exce$ #agj ,f4 7#gg ,c474 ,hav+ re/$ ! necess>y p]iod1 ! soap w h a slight fro? on ! surface1 b w be cle> und]nea? & appe> d>k4 ,samples may n[ be )drawn1 cool$1 & exam9$ prior to fram+4 ,if ! process has be5 successfully p]=m$ ! soap w be firm & transp>5t1 ( uni=m col\r1 & possess only a fa9tly alkal9e ta/e4 ,if ! sample be firm b opaque1 m sug> solution is requir$2 ?is %\ld be add$ v c>efully :il/ crut*+1 an excess be+ specially gu>d$ aga9/4 ,if ! sample be s(t1 al?\gh transp>5t1 & ! alkal9e ta/e n too pron\nc$1 ! soap evid5tly conta9s an excess ( wat]1 :i* may be rem$i$ by ! addition ( a small quantity ( soda a%2 too mu* soda a% 7c>bonates7 mu/ be avoid$1 le/ x %\ld produce effloresc5ce4 ,hav+ exam9$ ! soap & f\nd x to be correct1 or hav+ rem$i$ its defects1 ! soap 9 ! pan is all[$ to cool to #ade ,f4 7#fc ,c47 & p]fume add$4 ,! soap is n[ quickly fill$ into n>r[ frames & all[$ to cool rapidly4 ,! blocks ( soap %\ld n be /ripp$ until q cold ?r\gh\t1 & !y %\ld be all[$ to /& op5 = a :ile be=e slabb+4 ,:5 fre%ly cut into tablets1 ! soap may appe> some:at turbid1 b ! brightness comes ) ! exposure x w receive prior to /amp+ & wrapp+4 ,saponify+ ,m9]al ,oil4--,?is s\nds some:at incongru\s1 z m9]al oil is entirely unsaponifiable4 ,mo/ ( ! sugge/ions = ?is purpose consi/ ( ! incorporation ( m9]al oil1 or m9]al oil emulsifi$ by aid ( ,quillaia b>k1 ) a cocoa-nut oil soap1 & 9 all ^! in/ances ! hydroc>bon m]ely exi/s 9 susp5sion4 ,g4 ,reale 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cba1eaj1 #aijb71 h[ev]1 proposes to heat m9]al oil toge!r ) sp]maceti & /rong alkali1 & /ates t he trans=ms ! hydroc>bons into alcohols1 & ^!1 absorb+ oxyg51 become fatty acids1 :i* are conv]t$ into soap by means ( ! alkali4 ,9 ?is connection may be quot$ ! int]e/+ "w ( ,zel9sky 7,russ4 ,phys4 ,*em4 ,ges4 ,zeits4 ,angew4 ,*em41 #aijc1 #cg74 ,he obta9$ sub/ances1 by act+ ) c>bon dioxide ^u magnesia comp\nds ( *lor9at$ fractions ( petroleum1 :i* :5 decompos$ by dilute sulphuric acid1 yield$ v>i\s organic acids4 ,"o ( ^! acids on heat+ ) glyc]9e =m$ tri-oct91 :i* _h ! prop]ties ( a fat4 ,dr4 ,engl]1 9 confirmation ( ! !ory ( ! animal orig9 ( "s petroleums1 obta9$ :at might be describ$ z petroleum 7= x conta9$ almo/ all ! hydroc>bons pres5t 9 ! natural m9]al oil7 by di/ill+ animal fats & oils "u pressure4 ,electrical ,production ( ,soap4--,attempts h be5 made to produce soap electrically by ,messrs4 ,nodon1 ,brettonneau & ,%ee 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bb1abi1 #ahig71 & also by ,messrs4 ,m]ry & ,noble 7,eng4 ,pat4 #b1cgb1 #aijj74 ,9 ! =m] pat5t1 a mixture ( soda-lye & fat is agitat$ by electricity at a temp]ature ( #aid-bab ,f4 7#ij-ajj ,c471 :ile 9 ! latt] cau/ic alkali is electrolytically produc$ f br9e1 & deposit$ on wire-nett+ 9 ! pres5ce ( fat1 :i* is !reby saponifi$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,settl$ ,,soap4 ,cleans+--,crut*+--,liquor+ ( ,soaps--,fill+--,neutralis+1 ,col\r+ & ,p]fum+--,dis9fectant ,soaps--,fram+--,slabb+--,b>r+--,op5 & ,close ,pil+--,dry+--,/amp+--,cool+4 ,cleans+4--,aft] completion ( saponification1 & all[+ ! cont5ts ( ! pan to settle into ! v>i\s lay]s1 z describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! actual soap1 =m+ ! second lay]1 is n[ transf]r$ to ! frames1 ?is be+ g5]ally t]m$ cleans+ ! soap4 ,! ?9 cru/ or lay] at ! top ( ! pan is g5tly remov$1 & ! soap may be ei!r ladl$ out & convey$ to ! frames1 or )drawn by ! aid ( a pump f above ! nigre ?r\gh a skimm] 7,fig4 #a71 & pipe1 atta*$ by means ( a swivel jo9t 7,fig4 #b7 7:i* all[s ! skimm] pipe to be rais$ or l[]$ at w by means ( a w9*1 ,fig4 #c71 to a pipe fitt$ 9 ! side ( ! pan z fully %[n 9 ,fig4 #d1 or ! removal may be p]=m$ by gravitation ?r\gh "s me*anical device f ! side ( ! copp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,skimm]1 ) flange = atta*m5t to skimm]-pipe4 ,e precaution is tak5 to avoid ! pres5ce ( nigre 9 ! soap be+ cleans$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,swivel-jo9t4 ,! temp]ature at :i* soap may be cleans$ dep5ds on ! p>ticul> grade--soaps requir+ to be liquor$ %\ld n be cleans$ too hot or a sep>ation w take place1 #aej ,f4 7#ff ,c47 may be tak5 z a suitable temp]ature = ?is class ( soap2 9 ! case ( firm soaps1 su* z mill+ base1 :]e cool+ is liable to take place 9 ! pan 7& ?us affect ! yield71 ! temp]ature may be #afe-agj ,f4 7#gd-gg ,c474 ,?is latt] class ( soap is g5]ally run direct to ! frames & crut*$ by h&1 or1 to save manual lab\r1 x may be run into a p[]-driv5 crut*+ pan 7neutralis+ mat]ial be+ add$ if necess>y7 & /irr$ a few times be=e fram+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,w9*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,soap-boil+ pan1 %[+ skimm] pipe1 swivel & w9*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,h& crut*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,me*anical crut*]4 ,crut*+4--,?is consi/s ( /irr+ ! hot soap 9 ! frames by h& crut*es 7,fig4 #e7 until ! temp]ature is suffici5tly l[]$ & ! soap beg9s to assume a rop9ess4 ,crut*+ may also be p]=m$ me*anically4 ,!re are v>i\s types ( me*anical crut*]s1 /ation>y & travell+4 ,!y may be cyl9drical pans1 jacket$ or o!rwise1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is rotat$ an agitator1 consi/+ ( a v]tical or horizontal %aft c>ry+ sev]al blades 7,fig4 #f7 or ! agitator may take ! =m ( an ,ar*im$ean screw work+ 9 a cyl9d] 7,fig4 #g74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,me*anical crut*]4 ,! k9d ( soap to be crut*$1 :e!r ?9 or /iff1 w det]m9e ! mo/ suitable type = ! purpose4 ,! =m] class includes wa%] soap :i* is g5]ally neutralis$1 & col\r$ & p]fum$1 if necess>y1 9 ^! crut*+ pans1 & 9 t case !y are m]ely us$ = mix+ ! liquids ) ! hot soap prior to its passage along wood5 sp\ts 7,fig4 #h7 provid$ ) outlets ov] ! frames1 9 :i* ! crut*+ is cont9u$ by h&4 ,9 ! case ( /iff soaps requir+ complete incorporation ( liquor1 ! screw type is pref]able1 ! soap be+ =c$ upw>ds by ! screw1 & desc5d+ betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! sides ( ! pan1 :ile ! rev]se action c also be br\ght into play4 ,! completion ( crut*+ is indicat$ by ! smoo?ness & /iffness ( ! soap :5 mov$ ) a tr[el1 & a portion tak5 out at ?is po9t & cool$ %\ld pres5t a r\nd$ appe>ance4 ,:5 well mix$ ! resultant product is empti$ directly into :eel-frames plac$ und]nea? ! outlet ( ! pan4 ,x is important t ! blades or worm ( ! agitat+ ge> be cov]$ ) soap to avoid ! occlusion ( air & to prev5t ! soap becom+ s(t & spongy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,wood5 soap sp\t4 ,liquor+ ( ,soaps4--,?is consi/s ( ! addition ( v>i\s alkal9e solutions to soap to produce diff]5t qualities1 & is be/ p]=m$ 9 ! crut*+ ma*9es1 al?\gh x is 9 "s in/ances c>ri$ out 9 ! frames4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( soap-mak+ a l>ge numb] & v>iety ( sub/ances h be5 sugge/$ = ! purpose ( accompli%+ "s real or suppos$ desirable effect :5 add$ to soap4 ,_m ( ^! h _h only a v %ort exi/5ce1 & o!rs h gradually fall5 out ( use4 ,among/ ! m practical additions mo/ frequ5tly adopt$ may be m5tion$ c>bonate ( soda1 silicate ( soda1 & pe>l a% 7impure c>bonate ( pota%74 ,! c>bonate ( soda may be us$ 9 ! =m ( soda cry/als1 :i*1 conta9+ #fb4i p] c5t4 ( wat]1 dissolves 9 its own wat] ( cry/allisation on heat+1 & is 9 t mann] add$ to ! hot soap4 ,9 ! case ( weak-bodi$ soap1 ?is addition gives firmness & t5ds to increase ! det]g5t qualities4 ,! soda c>bonate may also be add$ to soap z a solution ( soda a% 7#eh alkali7 ei!r conc5trat$1 #fb ,tw4 7#cd ,b471 or ( v>i\s /r5g?s f #be ,tw4 7#af ,b47 upw>ds4 ,?is solution /iff5s & h>d5s soap1 & ! addition1 :i* mu/ n be excessive1 or effloresc5ce w occur1 is g5]ally made at a temp]ature ( #adj ,f4 7#fj ,c474 ,c>e %\ld always be tak5 9 ! *oice ( solutions = liquor+4 ,/rong soda a% solution ) a firm soap w result 9 a brittle product1 :]eas ! texture ( a weak soap w\ld be greatly improv$ by su* addition4 ,a slight addition ( a weak solution ( pe>l a%1 #d-h ,tw4 7#b4g-e4d ,b471 improves ! appe>ance ( _m soaps int5d$ = h\sehold purposes4 ,= yell[ soaps1 conta9+ a l[ p]c5tage ( fatty acids1 solutions ( silicate ( soda ( v>y+ /r5g?s are g5]ally us$4 ,x is always advisable to h a te/ sample made ) ! soap to asc]ta9 :at proportion & :at /r5g? ( sodium silicate solution is be/ suit$ = ! grade ( soap x is desir$ to produce4 ,x is important t ! soap to be silicat$ %\ld be di/9ctly alkal9e 7i4e41 h a di/9ct cau/ic ta/e71 or ! resultant soap is liable to become l /one ) age4 ,! alkal9e silicate ( soda 7#adj ,tw41 #ei4e ,b47 is ! quality mo/ conv5i5t = yell[ soaps2 ?is may be dilut$ to ! desir$ gravity by boil+ ) wat]4 ,= a r$uction ( #c-d p] c5t4 fatty acids cont5t1 a solution ( #f ,tw4 7#d ,b47 7boil+7 is mo/ suitable1 & if ! r$uction desir$ is great]1 ! d5sity ( ! silicate solution %\ld be increas$2 = example1 to effect a r$uction ( #bj p] c5t4 fatty acids cont5t1 a solution ( #ah ,tw4 7#ab ,b47 7boil+7 w\ld probably be f\nd to answ]4 ,9 "s in/ances #adj ,tw4 7#ei4e ,b47 silicate may be add$2 exp]im5t alone w demon/rate ! am\nt :i* c be satisfactorily incorporat$ )\t ! soap becom+ op51 b #a_/aj ( ! quantity ( soap tak5 is practically a limit1 & x w be f\nd t ! temp]ature %\ld be l[2 ! same quantity ( silicate at diff]5t temp]atures does n produce ! same result4 ,v>i\s o!r /r5g?s ( sodium silicate are employ$1 dep5d+ ^u ! composition & body ( ! soap base--neutral silicate #ge ,tw4 7#ci4d ,b47 also f9ds fav\r ) "s soap-mak]s4 ,mixtures ( soda cry/als or soda a% solution ) silicate ( soda solution are us$ = a c]ta9 grade ( soap1 :i* is crut*$ until smoo? & /iff4 ,glaub]'s salt 7sodium sulphate7 produces a good smoo? surface :5 add$ to soap1 b1 ow+ to its t5d5cy to effloresce m quickly ?an soda c>bonate1 x is n s mu* us$ z =m]ly4 ,common salt sometimes =ms an +r$i5t 9 liquor+ mixtures4 ,potassium *loride & potassium silicate f9d a limit$ use = int]mix+ ) s(t soaps4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t h>d & fa/ rules _c be laid d[n = liquor+ soap1 & ! correct solution to be employ$ c only be asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t & exp]i5ce1 b ! above sugge/ions w prove useful z a guide t[>ds good results4 ,a smoo?1 firm soap ( cle>1 bright1 glossy appe>ance is :at %\ld be aim$ at4 ,fill+4--,"s l[-grade soaps conta9 fill+1 :i* s]ves no useful purpose beyond ! addition ( weight4 ,talc is ! mo/ frequ5tly us$ article ( ?is description4 ,x consi/s ( hydrat$ silicate ( magnesium &1 :5 f9ely gr\nd1 is :ite & greasy to ! t\*4 ,! addition ( ?is sub/ance to ! hot soap is made by susp5d+ x 9 silicate ( soda solution4 ,:atev] fill+ mat]ial is us$1 x is important t ! appe>ance ( ! soap %\ld n be mat]ially alt]$4 ,neutralis+1 ,col\r+ & ,p]fum+4--,! free cau/ic alkali 9 soap1 int5d$ = toilet or laundry purposes1 is usually neutralis$ dur+ ! cleans+1 al?\gh "s soap manufactur]s pref] to accompli% ?is dur+ ! mill+ op]ation4 ,v>i\s mat]ials h be5 recomm5d$ = ! purpose1 ^? 9 mo/ g5]al use be+ sodium bic>bonate1 boric acid1 cocoa-nut oil1 /e>ic acid1 & oleic acid4 ,! be/ me?od is ! addition ( an exact quantity ( sodium bic>bonate 7acid sodium c>bonate71 :i* conv]ts ! cau/ic alkali into c>bonate4 ,! reaction may be express$ by ! equation3-- ,na,o,h ,na,h,c,o#c ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,cau/ic soda ,bic>bonate ( soda ,c>bonate ( soda ,wat] ,boric acid 9 aque\s or glyc]9e solutions1 & borax 7biborate ( soda7 are sometimes us$1 b c>e is necess>y 9 employ+ ^! sub/ances1 z any excess is liable to decompose ! soap4 ,! addition ( cocoa-nut oil is unsatisfactory1 ! great objection be+ t complete saponification is difficult to ensure1 &1 fur!r1 !re is always ! liability ( rancidity develop+4 ,/e>ic & oleic acids are m suitable = ! purpose1 b oleic acid has ! disadvantage t oleates are v liable to g rancid4 ,a l>ge numb] ( o!r sub/ances h be5 propos$1 & 9 _m in/ances pat5t$1 = neutralis+ ! free cau/ic alkali4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$--,ald] ,wright's me?od ( us+ an ammoniacal salt1 ! acid radicle ( :i* neutralises ! cau/ic alkali1 ammonia be+ lib]at$2 ! use ( sodium & potassium bibasic phosphate 7,eng4 ,pat4 #be1ceg1 #ahii72 a sub/ance =m$ by treat+ album5 ) =mal9 7,eng4 ,pat41 #h1ehb1 #aijj72 :eat glut59 album9oses 7album5 aft] acid or alkal9e treatm5t72 malt extract2 & egg1 milk1 or vegetable album54 ,! col\r+ matt] us$ may be ( ei!r vegetable or coal-t> orig91 & is dissolv$ 9 ! mo/ suitable m$ium 7lye1 wat]1 or fat74 ,! old] types ( col\r+ matt]--su* z cadmium yell[1 o*res1 v]milion1 umb]s--h be5 sup]s$$4 ,9 ! production ( wa%] h\sehold soaps1 a small quantity ( p]fume is sometimes add$4 ,dis9fectant ,soaps4--,to ! soap base1 :i* mu/ be /rong to ta/e1 is add$ f #c to #d p] c5t4 ( coal-t> d]ivatives1 su* z c>bolic acid1 cresylic acid1 creosote1 naph?al5e1 or comp\nds conta9+ c>bolic acid & its homologues4 ,! incorporation is made 9 ! crut*+ pan1 & fur!r crut*+ may be giv5 by h& 9 ! frames4 ,fram+4--,! object ( fram+ is to all[ ! soap to solidify into blocks4 ,! frames int5d$ = mottl$ soaps1 :i* require sl[ cool+1 are con/ruct$ ( wood1 (t5 ) a well 9 ! base to all[ excess ( lye to accumulate--= o!r soaps1 iron frames are 9 g5]al use4 ,! frame manufactur$ by ,h4 ,d4 ,morgan ( ,liv]pool is %[n 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,z soon z ! frame is fill$1 or z soon z ! crut*+ 9 ! frame is f9i%$1 ! soap is smoo!d by means ( a tr[el1 leav+ 9 ! c5tre a heap :i* slopes t[>ds ! sides4 ,next day ! top ( ! soap is /raight5$ or flatt5$ ) a wood5 mallet1 ?is treatm5t assi/+ 9 ! consolidation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,soap frame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,slabb+ ma*9e4 ,! l5g? ( "t ! soap %\ld rema9 9 frames is dep5d5t on ! quality1 quantity1 & season or temp]ature1 & v>ies usually f ?ree to sev5 days4 ,:5 ! requisite p]iod has elaps$1 ! sides & ends ( ! frames are remov$1 & !re rema9s a solid block ( soap weigh+ f #aj to #ae cwt4 accord+ to ! size ( frame us$4 ,! blocks1 aft] scrap+ & trimm+1 are ready = cutt+ into slabs4 ,slabb+4--,?is may be done me*anically by pu%+ ! block ( soap ?r\gh a framework conta9+ pian(orte wires fix$ at equi-di/ances 7,fig4 #aj1 :i* %[s a ma*9e design$ by ,e4 ,=%aw ,son1 ,ltd471 or ! soap may be out by h& by pull+ a loop$ wire ?r\gh ! mass horizontally along l9es previ\sly scrib$1 or1 = a /&>d siz$ slab1 ! wire may be a fixture 9 a box-l arrangem5t1 :i* is pass$ along ! top ( ! soap1 & ! di/ance ( ! wire f ! top ( ! box w be ! ?ickness ( ! slab 7,fig4 #aa74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,banjo slabb]4 ,all tall[ soaps %\ld be slabb$ :il/ /ill w>m1 cut into b>s1 & op5-pil$ imm$iately2 if ?is type ( soap is cold :5 slabb$ its appe>ance w be v mu* alt]$4 ,b>r+4--,! slabs are out transv]sely into b>s by means ( ! loop$ wire1 or m usually by a ma*9e 7,fig4 #ab71 ! l[] framework ( :i*1 conta9+ wires1 is drawn ?r\gh ! soap plac$ on ! base-bo>d2 ! framework is rais$1 & ! b>s fall ^u ! %elf1 ready = transf]5ce into piles4 ,x has long be5 ! cu/om 9 ,engl& to cut b>s ( soap #ae in*es long1 & weigh+ #c lb4 ea*1 or #cg-a_/b b>s ( soap to ! cwt41 b 9 rec5t ye>s a dem& has aris5 = b>s ( s _m v>i\s weights t x mu/ be sometimes a difficult matt] to "k :at sizes to /ock4 ,9 ano!r type ( b>r+ ma*9e1 portions ( ! slab1 previ\sly cut to size1 are pu%$ aga9/ a framework c>ry+ wires1 & ! b>s slide along a table ready = h&l+ 7,fig4 #ac74 ,9 cutt+ ma*9es1 ?r\gh :i* wa%] h\sehold soap is be+ pass$1 ! b> is pu%$ at "r angles ?r\gh ano!r frame conta9+ wires1 :i* divides x into tablets2 ^! may be receiv$ ^u racks & are ready = dry+ & /amp+4 ,x is ne$less to say t ! slabs & tablets are cut ) a view to r$uc+ ! am\nt ( wa/e to ! l[e/ possible limit4 ,su* a ma*9e1 made by ,e4 ,=%aw ,son1 ,ltd41 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,b>r+ ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,b>-cutt+ ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,tablet-cutt+ ma*9e4 ,op5- & ,close-pil+4--,z rem>k$ previ\sly1 tall[ soaps %\ld be cut :il/ w>m1 & ! b>s op5-pil$1 or /ack$ across ea* o!r 9 su* a way t air has free access to ea* b> = a day4 ,! b> ( soap w sk9 or case-h>d51 & next day may be close-pil$1 or plac$ 9 ! /orage b9s1 :]e !y %\ld rema9 = two or ?ree weeks1 :5 !y w be 9 p]fect condition = pack+ into boxes ready = di/ribution4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,soap /amp4 ,dry+4--,oil soaps1 z soaps ( ! wa%] type are t]m$1 d n sk9 suffici5tly by ! op5-pil+ treatm5t1 & are g5]ally expos$ on racks to a curr5t ( hot air 9 a dry+ *amb] 9 ord] to produce ! sk91 :i* prev5ts evaporation ( wat]1 & all[s ( an impression be+ giv5 by ! /amp )\t ! soap adh]+ to ! dies4 ,x is ( c\rse und]/ood t heavily liquor$ soaps are1 z a rule1 unsuitable = ! dry+ treatm5t1 z ! b>s become un%apely1 & lose wat] rapidly4 ,/amp+4--,b> soaps are usually /amp$ by means ( a h&-/amp conta9+ removable or fix$ brass lett]s 7,fig4 #ae71 ) a c]ta9 br& or designation ( quality & ! "n ( ! manufactur] or v5dor1 & are n[ ready = pack+ into boxes4 ,a v l>ge bulk ( ! soap trade consi/s ( ! h\sehold quality 9 tablet =m1 readily divid$ into two cakes4 ,^! are /amp$ 9 ! ord9>y box m\lds ) two dies--top & bottom impressions--! die-plates1 be+ removable1 all[ ! impressions to be *ang$4 ,?is type ( m\ld 7,fig4 #af7 c be adju/$ = ! compression ( tablets ( v>y+ ?ickness1 ! box prev5t+ ! escape ( soap4 ,we are indebt$ to ,e4 ,=%aw ,son1 ,ltd41 = ?is illu/ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,box m\ld4 ,! /amp+ ma*9e may be work$ by h& 7,fig4 #ag7 or p[] driv54 ,:]e l>ge quantities ( a p>ticul> tablet h to be /amp$1 "o ( ! _m automatic me*anical /amp]s 9 exi/5ce may be employ$1 ! tablets be+ convey$ to & f ! dies by means ( endless belts4 ,su* a ma*9e is %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7,fig4 #ah74 ,if necess>y1 ! soap is transf]r$ to racks & expos$ to ! air1 aft] :i* x is ready = wrapp+1 :i* is g5]ally p]=m$ by manual lab\r1 al?\gh 9 "s in/ances automatic wrapp+ ma*9es are 9 use4 ,c>dbo>d c>tons are also us$ = encas+ ! wrapp$ tablets1 ! object be+ t ^! are m conv5i5tly h&l$ by tradesm5 & may be advantage\sly us$ to =m an attractive w9d[ display4 ,cool+4--,_m attempts h be5 made to %ort5 ! "t requir$ = ! fram+ & f9i%+ ( soap1 by cool+ ! liquid soap z x leaves ! pan4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,soap-/amp+ ma*9e1 %[+ box m\ld4 ,) mill+ base1 ?is is successfully accompli%$ 9 ! ,cressonnires' plant1 by all[+ ! hot soap to fall ^u ! p]iph]y ( a revolv+ drum :i* c be cool$ int]nally by means ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,automatic /amp]4 ,9 ! case ( h\sehold soaps1 :]e ! resultant product mu/ be ( good appe>ance & h a firm texture1 ! difficulty is to produce a b> fit = sale aft] ! cool+ has be5 p]=m$1 z soap :i* has be5 sudd5ly *ill$ lacks ! appe>ance ( t treat$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,sev]al pat5ts h be5 grant$ = v>i\s me?ods ( m\ld+ into b>s 9 tubes1 :]e ! hot soap is cool$ by be+ ei!r surr\nd$ by runn+ wat] 9 a ma*9e ( simil> con/ruction to a c&le ma*9e1 or rotat$ ?r\gh a cool+ m$ium2 & num]\s claims h be5 made bo? = me*anical appliances & = me?ods ( remov+ or dis*>g+ ! b>s aft] cool+4 ,9 _m in/ances ^! h prov$ unsatisfactory1 ow+ to fracture ( ! cry/all9e /ructure4 ,moreov]1 9 pass+ ?r\gh "s ( ! devices = solidification aft] *ill+1 ! soap is *urn$ by means ( a worm or screw1 & ?is int]f]es ) ! firmness ( ! f9i%$ b>1 =1 z is well kn[n1 soap :i* has be5 h&l$ too mu*1 does n rega9 its =m] firmness1 & its appe>ance is r5d]$ unsatisfactory4 ,a =m ( app>atus :i* is n[ giv+ satisfactory results is ! ,leimdo]f] cont9u\s cool] 7,fig4 #ai74 ,?is consi/s ( a fix$ *>g+ hopp]1 ,a1 a portable tank1 ,b1 conta9+ tubes1 & a deta*able box1 ,c1 :i* c be rais$ or l[]$ by means ( a screw1 ,d4 ,! bottom ( ! hopp] is fitt$ ) holes correspond+ ) ! cool+ tubes1 e1 & clos$ by plugs c1 atta*$ to a frame b1 :i* t]m9ates above 9 a screw sp9dle a1 by means ( :i* ! frame & plugs c be rais$ & l[]$ s z to p]mit or /op ! outfl[ ( soap into ! cool+ tubes4 ,! tubes are clos$ at ! bottom by slides d1 & ! box ,b1 9 :i* !y are m\nt$1 is c>ri$ on a truck runn+ on rails4 ,! *>g+ hopp] c be connect$ ) ! soap-pan by a pipe1 & :5 ! hopp] is fill$ ) liquid soap ! plugs c are rais$ & ! air 9 ! box ,c exhau/$1 ?us caus+ ! soap to desc5d into ! cool+ tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,leimdo]f] cool]4 ,! slides d are clos$1 ! screw ,d releas$1 & ! box ,b mov$ away to make room = ano!r4 ,at ! end ( ! rail track is an eject+ device :i* pu%es ! cool$ soap out ( ! tubes1 & ! truck is run back on a side track to ! ma*9e = use ov] aga94 ,9 ?is way ! app>atus c be work$ cont9u\sly1 ! soap be+ receiv$ f ! cool+ pipes on a suitable arrangem5t = transport to ! press or /ore room4 ,a simil> idea has be5 made ! subject ( a pat5t by ,hol\bek 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bd1ddj1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #bj74 ,! soap is run into frames or m\lds hav+ op5 sides1 :i* are clos$ by be+ clamp$ ) screws & pressure plates betwe5 cool+ tubes ?r\gh :i* wat] circulates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,hol\bek's cool]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,toilet1 ,,textile ,,& ,,miscellane\s ,,soaps4 ,toilet ,soaps--,cold ,process ,soaps--,settl$ ,boil$ ,soaps--,remelt$ ,soaps--,mill$ ,soaps--,dry+--,mill+ & ,incorporat+ ,col\r1 ,p]fume1 or ,m$icam5t--,p]fume--,col\r+ ,matt]--,neutralis+ & ,sup]fatt+ ,mat]ial--,compress+--,cutt+--,/amp+--,m $icat$ ,soaps--,e!r ,soap--,float+ ,soaps--,%av+ ,soaps--,textile ,soaps--,soaps = ,wooll51 ,cotton & ,silk ,indu/ries--,pat5t ,textile ,soaps--,miscellane\s ,soaps4 ,toilet ,soaps4--,by ! t]m toilet soap is inf]r$ a soap specially adapt$ = toilet use by reason n only ( its good det]g5t & la!r+ qualities1 b also on acc\nt ( its fre$om f cau/ic alkali & any o!r +r$i5t likely to cause irritation or injury to ! sk94 ,toilet soaps may be simply classifi$ accord+ to _! me?od ( prep>ation into ! foll[+ f\r classes3-- 7#a7 ,cold process soaps4 7#b7 ,settl$ boil$ soaps4 7#c7 ,remelt$ soaps4 7#d7 ,mill$ soaps4 ,soaps ( ! fir/ class are ( comp>atively trifl+ importance1 hav+ be5 sup]s$$ by ! o!r qualities4 ,details ( ! cold process h already be5 giv5 on page #df2 x is only necess>y to add ! desir$ p]fume & col\r+ matt] to ! soap4 ,! second class consi/s ( good quality settl$ soaps1 direct f ! copp]1 to :i* h be5 add$1 prior to fram+1 suitable p]fume & col\r+ matt]1 also1 if necess>y1 dealkalis+ mat]ials4 ,! ?ird class is repres5t$ by soaps made by ! old ,engli% me?od ( remelt+1 :i* are (t5 t]m$ p]fum]s'1 or little pan soaps4 ,! soap-base or mixture ( v>i\s k9ds ( soap is remelt$ 9 a /eam-jacket$ pan1 or pan provid$ ) /eam coils1 & agitat$4 ,! agitation mu/ n be too vigor\s or l5g?y1 or ! soap w become a]at$4 ,:5 all ! soap is molt51 additions ( pe>l a% solution are made to give x a f9] & smoo!r texture1 r5d] x m transp>5t1 & increase its la!r+ prop]ties4 ,! necess>y col\r1 9 a soluble =m1 is well incorporat$1 & la/ly ! p]fume4 ,ow+ to volatilisation1 mu* ( ! p]fume is lo/ :5 add$ to hot soap1 & x is necess>y to add a l>ge quantity to get ! desir$ od\r2 h5ce ! *eap] ess5tial oils h to be us$1 s t ! p]fume ( ?is class ( soap is n s delicate z t ( mill$ soaps1 al?\gh x is q possible to produce remelt$ soaps z free f uncomb9$ alkali z a mill$ toilet soap4 ,palm-oil soap (t5 =ms ! basis = yell[ & br[n toilet soaps ( ?is class4 ,! old-fa%ion$ ,br[n ,w9dsor soap 0 orig9ally a curd soap t ) age & frequ5t remelt+ _h acquir$ a br[n t9t by oxidation ( ! fatty acids--! (t5] remelt$ ! bett] ! resultant soap4 ,m$icam5ts are sometimes add$ to ^! soaps1 e4g41 camphor1 borax1 coal-t>1 or c>bolic4 ,oatmeal & bran h be5 recomm5d$ 9 comb9ation ) soap = toilet purposes1 & a pat5t 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bf1cif1 #ahif7 has be5 grant$ = ! use ( ^! sub/ances toge!r ) wood-fibre impregnat$ ) boric acid4 ,aft] cool+ 9 small frames1 ! soap is slabb$1 & cut into blocks1 & f9ally into portions suitable = /amp+ 9 a press 7h& or /eam driv57 ) a design or lett]+ on ea* side4 ,mill$ ,toilet ,soaps4--,practically all high-class soaps n[ on ! m>ket pass ?r\gh ! ,fr5* or mill+ process4 ,?is treatm5t1 z its "n implies1 0 fir/ practis$ by ! ,fr5* :o introduc$ x to ?is c\ntry1 & consi/s briefly ( 7i47 dry+1 7ii47 mill+ & incorporat+ col\r1 p]fume or m$icam5t1 7iii47 compress+1 & 7iv47 cutt+ & /amp+4 ,! advantages ( mill$ soap ov] toilet soap produc$ by o!r me?ods are t ! =m]1 conta9+ less wat] & m actual soap1 is m economical 9 use1 possesses a bett] appe>ance1 & m elegant f9i%1 does n %r9k or lose its %ape1 is m uni=m 9 composition1 & ess5tial oils & delicate p]fumes may be incorporat$ )\t fe> ( loss or det]ioration4 ,only soap made f be/ quality fats is usually mill$1 a suitable base be+ t obta9$ by saponify+ a bl5d ( ! f9e/ :ite tall[ ) a proportion1 n exce$+ #be p] c5t41 ( cocoa-nut oil1 & prep>$ z describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,! fir/ ess5tial ( a mill+ base is t ! saponification %\ld be ?or\gh & complete2 if ?is is n ensur$1 rancidity is liable to occur & a satisfactory toilet soap _c be produc$4 ,! soap mu/ n be %ort 9 texture or brittle & liable to split1 b ( a firm & some:at pla/ic consi/5cy4 7i47 ,dry+4--,! mill+-base1 aft] solidification 9 ! frames1 conta9s almo/ inv>iably f #bh to #cj p] c5t4 ( wat]1 & ?is quantity mu/ be r$uc$ to r less ?an half be=e ! soap c be satisfactorily mill$4 ,cutt+ ! soap into b>s or /rips & op5 pil+ greatly facilitates ! dry+1 :i* is usually effect$ by *ipp+ ! soap & expos+ x on trays to a curr5t ( hot air at #ie-aje ,f4 7#ce-dj ,c474 ,!re are sev]al =ms ( dry+ *amb]s 9 :i* ! trays ( *ips are plac$ ^u a s]ies ( racks "o above ano!r1 & w>m air circulat$ ?r\gh1 & ,fig4 #ba %[s a soap dry+ app>atus ) fan made by ,w4 ,j4 ,fras] ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 ,! old] me?od ( heat+ ! air by all[+ x to pass ov] a pipe or flue ?r\gh :i* ! products ( combu/ion f a coke or coal fire are proce$+ "u ! floor ( ! dry+ *amb] to a small %aft1 has be5 sup]s$$ by /eam heat4 ,! air is ei!r drawn or =c$ by means ( quickly revolv+ fans ?r\gh a cyl9d] plac$ 9 a horizontal position & conta9+ /eam coils1 or pass$ ov] /eam-pipes laid "u ! iron grat+ =m+ ! floor ( ! *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,soap-dry+ app>atus4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t 9 ! case ( a bad conductor ( heat1 l soap-*ipp+s1 x is difficult to evaporate moi/ure )\t con/antly mov+ !m & expos+ fre% surfaces to ! action ( heat4 ,9 ! ,cressonnires' sy/em1 :]e ! %av+s ( *ill$ soap are dri$ by be+ c>ri$ ?r\gh a heat$ *amb] ^u a s]ies ( endless b&s 7! fir/ dis*>g+ ! cont5ts on to a l[] belt :i* projects at ! end1 & is mov+ 9 ! opposite direction1 & s on71 ?is is p]=m$ by int]cept+ mill+ roll]s 9 ! sy/em ( belts 7,eng4 ,pat4 #d1iaf1 #ahih7 :]eby ! surfaces expos$ to ! dry+ are alt]$1 & x is claim$ t ! =mation ( h>d5$ cru/ is prev5t$4 ,9 ! ord9>y me?ods ( dry+1 ! *ips are frequ5tly mov$ by h& to assi/ uni=m evaporation4 ,! degree ( saturation ( ! air ) moi/ure mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 regulat+ ! temp]ature & fl[ ( air ?r\gh ! dry+ *amb]1 & = ?is purpose ! use ( a hygromet] is advantage\s4 ,x is v important t ! correct am\nt ( moi/ure %\ld be left 9 ! soap1 n too mu*1 nor too little2 ! exact po9t c only be det]m9$ by judgm5t & exp]i5ce1 & dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t ^u ! nature ( ! soap1 & also on ! am\nt ( p]fume or m$icam5t to be add$1 b speak+ g5]ally1 a range ( #aa to #ad p] c5t4 gives good results4 ,if ! soap conta9s less ?an ?is am\nt x is liable to crumble dur+ ! mill+1 w n compress satisfactorily1 & ! f9i%$ tablet may h a t5d5cy to crack & conta9 gritty p>ticles s objectionable 9 use4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! soap is left too moi/1 x is apt to /ick to ! roll]s & mill ) difficulty1 & dur+ compression ! surface assumes a bli/]$ & /icky appe>ance4 7ii47 ,mill+ & ,incorporation ( ,col\r1 ,p]fume or ,m$icam5t4--,! object ( mill+ is to r5d] ! soap p]fectly homog5e\s1 & to r$uce x to a /ate 9 :i* col\r1 p]fume1 or any necess>y neutralis+ mat]ial or o!r sub/ance may be ?or\ghly incorporat$4 ,! mill+ ma*9e consi/s ( smoo? granite roll]s1 fitt$ ) suitable ge>+ & work+ 9 an iron framework 7,fig4 #bb74 ,! roll]s are connect$ 9 su* a mann] t !y rotate at diff]5t spe$s1 & ?is increases ! effici5cy ( ! mill+1 & ensures t ! action ( ! roll]s is "o ( rubb+ r ?an cru%+4 ,by means ( suitably arrang$ screws ! pressure ( ! roll]s on "o ano!r c be adju/$ to give ! issu+ soap any desir$ ?ickness2 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! %eets ( soap are n unnecess>ily ?ick or ! col\r & od\r w n be uni=m4 ,! soap1 9 ! =m ( *ips1 is introduc$ on to ! roll]s ?r\gh a hopp]1 & aft] "o passage ?r\gh ! mill1 f bottom to top1 "o ( ! s]rat$ knife edges is appli$ & ! ribbons ( ! soap are deliv]$ into ! top ( ! hopp] :]e ! col\r1 p]fume1 & any o!r desir$ admixture is add$1 & ! mill+ op]ation repeat$ ?ree or f\r times4 ,:5 ! incorporation is complete ! o!r scrap] is fix$ aga9/ ! top roll] & ! soap ribbon pass$ into ! receptacle f :i* x is convey$ to ! compressor4 ,a bett] plan1 h[ev]1 especially 9 ! case ( ! be/ grade soaps1 :]e ! p]fumes add$ are necess>ily m delicate & co/ly1 is to make ! addition ( ! p]fume :5 ! col\r has be5 ?or\ghly mix$ ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,ano!r me?od is to mill once & transf] ! mass to a rot>y mix+ ma*9e1 fitt$ ) int]nal blades1 ( a peculi> =m1 :i* revolve 9 opposite directions "o )9 ! o!r z ! mix] is rotat$4 ,! p]fume1 col\r+ matt]1 etc41 are add$ & ! mix] clos$ & set 9 motion1 :51 aft] a %ort "t1 ! soap is r$uc$ to a f9e granul> condition1 ) ! col\r & p]fume ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole4 ,by ! use ( su* ma*9es1 ! loss ( p]fume by evaporation1 :i* dur+ mill+ is q appreciable1 is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 & ! delicacy ( ! aroma is pres]v$ unimpair$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,mill+ ma*9e4 ,prolong$ mill+1 especially ) a suitable soap base1 t5ds to produce a semi-transp>5t appe>ance1 :i* is admir$ by "s1 b ! increas$ co/ ( production by ! repeat$ mill+ is n accompani$ by any real improvem5t 9 ! soap4 ,p]fume4--,! mat]ials us$ 9 p]fum+ soap w be dealt ) fully 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! quantity necess>y to be add$ v>ies consid]ably ) ! nature ( ! ess5tial oils1 & also ! price at :i* ! soap is int5d$ to be sold4 ,9 ! *eap] grades ( mill$ soaps ! quantity w range f #aj-cj fluid ozs4 p] cwt41 & b r>ely exce$s #ah-bj ozs41 :]eas 9 m co/ly soaps z mu* z #dj-ej fluid ozs4 are sometimes add$ to ! cwt4 ,col\r+ ,matt]4--,dur+ rec5t ye>s an outcry has be5 made aga9/ highly col\r$ soaps1 & ! highe/ class soaps h be5 manufactur$ ei!r col\rless or at ! mo/ ) only a v delicate t9t4 ,x is obvi\s t a :ite soap gu>antees ! use ( only ! highe/ grade oils & fats1 & excludes ! introduction ( any ros91 &1 s f>1 ! desire = a :ite soap is d\btless ju/ifi$4 ,_m p]fumes1 h[ev]1 t5d to quickly discol\r a soap1 h5ce ! advantage ( giv+ x a slight t9t4 ,= ?is purpose a vegetable col\r+ matt] is pref]able1 & *lorophyll is v suitable4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,compressor4 ,a dem& /ill exi/s = brightly col\r$ soaps1 & ?is is usually met by ! use ( coal-t> dyes4 ,! quantity requir$ is ( c\rse extremely small1 s t no h>m or disagreeable result c\ld possibly arise f _! use4 ,neutralis+ & ,sup]fatt+ ,mat]ial4--,if desir$1 ! f9al neutralisation ( free alkali c be c>ri$ out dur+ ! mill+ process1 any sup]fatt+ mat]ial be+ add$ at ! same "t4 ,! *ief neutralis+ reag5ts h already be5 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,) reg>d to sup]fatt+ mat]ial1 ! quantity ( ?is %\ld be v small1 n exce$+ #f-h ozs4 p] cwt3 ,! mo/ suitable mat]ials are vasel9e1 lanol9e1 or sp]maceti4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd--;,h& soap-/amp+ press4 7iii47 ,compress+4--,! next /age is ! compression & b9d+ ( ! soap ribbons into a solid b> suitable = /amp+1 & ! plant us$ 7,fig4 #bc7 = ?is purpose is sub/antially ! same 9 all factories4 ,! soap is f$ ?r\gh a hopp] into a /rong metal conical-%ap$ tube l a cannon1 :i* tap]s t[>ds ! nozzle1 & 9 :i* a s+le or tw9 screw is mov+1 & ! soap is !reby =c$ ?r\gh a p]=at$ metallic disc1 subject$ to great pressure1 & compress$4 ,! screws mu/ be kept uni=mly cov]$ ) %av+s dur+ compression to obviate air bubbles 9 ! soap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,screw press4 ,! soap f9ally em]ges ?r\gh ! nozzle 7to :i* is atta*$ a cutt] ( suitable %ape & size accord+ to ! =m x is int5d$ ! f9al tablet to take7 z a long1 poli%$1 solid b>1 :i* is cut ) a knife or wire into l5g?s ( #b or #c feet1 & if ( satisfactory appe>ance1 is ready = cutt+ & /amp+4 ,! nozzle ( ! plodd] is heat$ by means ( a ,buns5 burn] to ab\t #abj or #acj ,f4 7#di-ee ,c47 to all[ ! soap to be easily =c$ out1 & ?is also imp>ts a good gloss & f9i% to ! eject$ b>--if ! nozzle is too hot1 h[ev]1 ! soap w be bli/]$1 :]eas insuffici5t heat w result 9 /reaky soap ( a poor & dull appe>ance4 7iv47 ,cutt+ & ,/amp+4--,9 cutt+ ! soap into sections = /amp+1 ! cutt] %\ld %ape x some:at simil> to ! requir$ f9i%$ tablet4 ,_m manufactur]s cut ! soap into sections hav+ concave ends1 & 9 /amp+1 ! corn]s are =c$ into ! concavity1 ) ! result t unsightly m>k+s are produc$ at ea* end ( ! tablet4 ,x is pref]able to h a cutt] ) convex ends1 & if ! /amp+ is to be done 9 a p9 m\ld ! %ape %\ld be a trifle l>g] ?an ! exact size ( ! desir$ tablet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf--,p9 m\ld4 ,! /amp+ may be p]=m$ by a h& /amp] 7,fig4 #bd71 a screw press 7,fig4 #be71 or by a /eam /amp]4 ,! screw press works v satisfactorily = toilet soaps4 ,!re are two k9ds ( m\lds 9 use = mill$ soaps3-- 7a7 ,p9 ,m\lds 9 :i* tablets ( "o size & %ape only c be produc$ 7,fig4 #be74 ,! edges ( ! m\ld meet v exactly1 ! upp] "p ( ! die c>ries two p9s atta*$ to ! %\ld]1 & ^! are receiv$ into two holes 9 ! %\ld] ( ! bottom plate4 ,! sup]flu\s soap is =c$ out z ! dies meet4 7b7 ,b& or ,coll> ,m\lds4--,9 ?is =m 7,fig1 #bg7 ! m\ld may be adju/$ to /amp v>i\s siz$ tablets1 say f #b ozs4 to #e-a_/c ozs4 & diff]5t impressions giv5 by means ( removable die plates4 ,! b& or coll> prev5ts ! soap squeez+ out sideways4 ,we are indebt$ to ,r4 ,=ehaw ,son1 ,ltd41 = ! loan ( ?is illu/ration4 ,x is usual to moi/5 ! soap or m\ld ) a dilute solution ( glyc]9e if x %\ld h a t5d5cy to /ick to ! die plates4 ,! soap is !n ready = f9al trimm+1 wrapp+1 & box+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg--;,b& ,m\ld4 ,,m$icat$ ,,soaps4 ,! inh]5t cleans+ p[] ( soap r5d]s x invaluable 9 combat+ disease1 :ile x also has di/9ct g]micidal prop]ties1 a #b p] c5t4 solution prov+ fatal to ,b4 coli communis 9 less ?an six h\rs1 & ev5 a #a p] c5t4 solution hav+ a m>k$ action on g]ms 9 fifte5 m9utes4 ,_m mak]s1 h[ev]1 seek m or less successfully to /ill fur!r increase ! value ( soap 9 ?is direction by ! incorporation ( v>i\s drugs & *emicals2 & ! numb] ( m$icat$ soaps on ! m>ket is n[ v l>ge4 ,su* soaps may consi/ ( ei!r h>d or s(t soaps to :i* c]ta9 m$icam5ts h be5 add$1 & c be r\ghly divid$ into two classes1 7a7 ^? :i* conta9 a specific = v>i\s def9ite diseases1 ! int5tion be+ t ! rem$y %\ld be absorb$ by ! pores ( ! sk9 & ?us p5etrate ! sy/em1 & 7b7 ^? impregnat$ ) *emicals int5d$ to act z antiseptics or g]micides1 or1 g5]ally1 z dis9fectants4 ,! prep>ation ( m$ic9al soaps appe>s to h be5 fir/ tak5 up 9 a sci5tific mann] by ,unna ( ,hamburg 9 #ahhf1 :o advocat$ ! use ( soap 9 pref]5ce to pla/]s z a vehicle = ! application ( c]ta9 rem$ies4 ,!oretically1 he consid]$ a soap-/ock made entirely f beef tall[ ! mo/ suitable = ! purpose1 b 9 practice f\nd t ! be/ results 7 obta9$ by us+ a sup]fatt$ soap made f a bl5d ( "o "p ( olive oil ) eight p>ts ( beef tall[1 saponifi$ ) a mixture ( two p>ts ( soda to "o "p ( pota%1 suffici5t fat be+ employ$ to leave an excess ( #c or #d p] c5t4 unsaponifi$4 ,rec5t rese>*es h %[n1 h[ev]1 t ev5 if a sup]fatt$ soap-base is b5eficial = ! prep>ation ( toilet soaps 7a po9t :i* is op5 to d\bt71 x is q inadmissible = ! manufacture ( g]micidal & dis9fectant soaps1 ! bact]icidal effici5cy ( :i* is mu* re/rict$ by ! pres5ce ( free fat4 ,_m ( ! m$icam5ts add$ to soaps require special me?ods ( incorporation !re91 z !y o!rwise react ) ! soap & decompose x1 =m+ comp>atively in]t comp\nds4 ,?is applies p>ticul>ly to salts ( m]cury1 su* z corrosive sublimate or m]curic *loride1 & b9iodide ( m]cury1 bo? ( :i* h v consid]able g]micidal p[]1 & are consequ5tly frequ5tly add$ to soaps4 ,if simply mix$ ) ! soap 9 ! mill1 reaction v quickly takes place betwe5 ! m]cury salt & ! soap1 ) =mation ( ! insoluble m]cury comp\nds ( ! fatty acids1 a *ange :i* c be readily se5 to occur 9 su* a soap by ! rapid developm5t on keep+1 ( a dull slaty-gre5 appe>ance4 ,num]\s processes h be5 sugge/$1 & 9 "s cases pat5t$1 to ov]come ?is difficulty4 ,9 ! case ( corrosive sublimate1 ,geissl] sugge/$ t ! soap to :i* ?is reag5t is to be add$ %\ld conta9 an excess ( fatty acids1 & w\ld !reby be r5d]$ /able4 ,?is salt has also be5 incorporat$ ) mill$ soap 9 a dry /ate 9 conjunction ) ammonio-m]curic *loride1 beta-naph?ol1 me?yl salicylate1 & eucalyptol4 ,x is claim$ t ^! bodies are pres5t 9 an un*ang$ condition1 & become active :5 ! soap is add$ to wat] z 9 wa%+4 ,ehrh>dt 7,eng4 ,pat4 #b1djg1 #ahih7 pat5t$ a me?od ( mak+ antiseptic m]cury soap by us+ m]cury album9ate--a comb9ation ( m]curic *loride & case91 :i* is soluble 9 alkali1 & add$ to ! soap 9 an alkal9e solution4 ,) b9iodide ( m]cury ! int]action c be readily obviat$ by add+ to ! b9iodide ( m]cury an equal weight ( potassium iodide4 ,?is process1 devis$ & pat5t$ by ,j4 ,?omson 9 #ahhf1 has be5 work$ s9ce t "t ) extremely satisfactory results4 ,/r5g?s ( #a_/b1 #a1 & #c p] c5t4 b9iodide are sold1 b ow+ to ! read9ess ) :i* x is absorb$ by ! sk9 a soap conta9+ m ?an #a_/b p] c5t4 %\ld only be us$ "u m$ical advice4 ,a simil> comb9ation ( bromide ( m]cury ) potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium bromide has rec5tly be5 pat5t$ by ,cooke = admixture ) liquid1 h>d1 or s(t soaps4 ,z9c & o!r ,metallic ,salts4--,at v>i\s times salts ( metals o!r ?an m]cury h be5 add$ to soap1 b1 ow+ to _! insolubility 9 wat]1 _! effici5cy z m$icam5ts is v trifl+ or nil4 ,comp\nds h be5 =m$ ( metallic oxides & o!r salts ) oleic said1 & mixtures made ) vasel9e & lanol9e1 & incorporat$ ) soap1 b !y h n met ) mu* success4 ,ano!r *emical commonly add$ to soap is ,borax4 ,9 view ( its alkal9e reaction to litmus1 turn+ r$ litmus blue1 ?is salt is no d\bt g5]ally reg>d$ z alkal9e1 &1 z su*1 )\t action on soap4 ,on ! contr>y1 h[ev]1 x is an acid salt conta9+ an excess ( boric acid ov] ! soda pres5t1 h5ce :5 x is add$ to soap1 fatty acids are necess>ily lib]at$1 caus+ ! soap to quickly become rancid4 ,z a rem$y = ?is x has be5 propos$ to add suffici5t alkali to conv]t ! borax into neutral mono-borate ( soda :i* is !n add$ to ! soap4 ,?is process is pat5t$ & ! "n ,ka/ilis has be5 giv5 to ! neutral salt4 ,! incorporation ( borax ) ! addition ( gum tragasol =ms ! subject ( two pat5ts 7,eng4 ,pats4 #d1dae1 #aijd2 & #be1dbe1 #aije72 increas$ det]g5t & la/+ prop]ties are claim$ = ! soap4 ,ano!r pat5t$ process 7,eng4 ,pat4 #ag1bah1 #aijd7 consi/s ( coat+ ! borax ) a protective lay] ( fat or wax be=e add+ to ! soap ) ! idea t reaction w n take place until requir$4 ,boric acid possesses ! defects ( borax 9 a great] degree1 & w\ld1 ( c\rse1 simply =m sodium borate ) lib]ation ( fatty acids1 s %\ld nev] be add$ to a neutral soap4 ,salicylic ,acid is (t5 recomm5d$ = c]ta9 sk9 diseases1 & "h aga9 ! addition ( ! acid to soap "u ord9>y conditions results 9 ! =mation ( sodium salicylate & free fatty acids4 ,to ov]come ?is a process has rec5tly be5 pat5t$ = rubb+ ! acid up ) vasel9e be=e addition to soap1 b ! simple/ way appe>s to be to add ! soda salt ( ! acid to soap4 ,among/ ! m common mill$ m$icat$ toilet soaps may be m5tion$1 9 addition to ! above3-- ,bir* ,t> ,soap1 conta9+ #e or #aj p] c5t4 bir* t>1 :i* has a *>act]i/ic pung5t od\r & is recomm5d$ z a rem$y = eczema & psoriasis4 ,c>bolic ,soap4--,a toilet soap %\ld n conta9 m ?an #c p] c5t4 ( pure ph5ol1 = ) l>g] quantities irritation is likely to be exp]i5c$ by susceptible sk9s4 ,coal ,t>4--,^! soaps conta91 9 addition to c>bolic acid & its homologues1 naph?al5e & o!r hydroc>bons d]iv$ f coal1 naph?ol1 bases1 etc4 ,v>i\s bl5ds ( diff]5t fractions ( coal t> are us$1 b ! mo/ valuable con/itu5ts f a dis9fectant po9t ( view are und\bt$ly ! ph5ols1 or t> acids1 ?\gh 9 ?is case z ) c>bolic & cresylic soaps1 ! am\nt ( ph5ols %\ld n exce$ #c p] c5t4 9 a toilet soap4 ,an excess ( naph?al5e %\ld also be avoid$1 s9ce1 on acc\nt ( its /rong od\r1 soaps conta9+ mu* ( x are unpopul>4 ,! od\r ( coal t> is consid]ably modifi$ by & bl5ds well ) a p]fume conta9+ oils ( cassia1 lav5d]1 spike1 & r$ ?yme4 ,=maldehyde4--,?is sub/ance is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful dis9fectants kn[n1 & x may be readily introduc$ into soap )\t und]go+ any decomposition1 by mill+ 9 #b-c p] c5t4 ( =mal91 a #dj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( =maldehyde1 :i* is a gas4 ,:ite soaps conta9+ ?is *emical reta9 _! :it5ess almo/ indef9itely4 ,new comb9ations ( =maldehyde ) o!r bodies are con/antly be+ br\ght =w>d z dis9fectants4 ,among o!rs ! comp\nd result+ f heat+ lanol9e ) =maldehyde has be5 pat5t$ 7,eng4 ,pat4 #g1afi1 #ahih71 & is recomm5d$ z an antiseptic m$icam5t = incorporation ) soap4 ,glyc]9e4--,ne>ly all soaps conta9 a small quantity ( ?is body :i* is n sep>at$ 9 ! lyes4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 a mu* l>g] quantity is desir$1 up to "s #f or #h p] c5t4 ,to mill ?is 9 requires great c>e1 o!rwise ! soap t5ds to bli/] dur+ compression4 ,! be/ way is to dry ! soap some:at fur!r ?an usual1 till x conta9s say only #i or #aj p] c5t4 moi/ure & !n mill 9 ! glyc]9e4 ,i*?yol or ,ammonium-,i*?yol-,sulphonate is prep>$ by treat+ ) sulphuric acid1 & aft]w>ds ) ammonia1 ! hydroc>bon oil conta9+ sulphur obta9$ by ! dry di/illation ( ! fossil rema9s ( fi% & sea-animals1 :i* =m a bitum9\s m9]al deposit 9 ,g]many4 ,?is product has be5 admix$ ) soap = _m ye>s1 ! quantity g5]ally us$ be+ ab\t #e p] c5t42 ! resultant soap is possess$ ( a *>act]i/ic empyreumatic smell1 v d>k col\r1 & is recomm5d$ = rosacea & v>i\s sk9 diseases1 & also z an anti-rheumatic4 ,i*?yol has some:at *ang$ its "* dur+ rec5t ye>s1 be+ n[ almo/ completely soluble 9 wat]1 & /rong] 9 od\r ?an =m]ly4 ,iod9e4--,a soap conta9+ iod9e is sometimes us$ 9 scr(ul\s sk9 diseases4 ,x %\ld conta9 "s #c p] c5t4 iod9e1 :ile potassium iodide %\ld also be add$ to r5d] ! iod9e soluble4 ,lysol4--,?is "n is appli$ to a soap solution ( cresol1 ,lysol ,soap be+ simply ano!r =m ( coal-t> soap4 ,! usual /r5g? is #aj p] c5t4 lysol1 & con/itutes a pat5t$ article 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cei1jfa1 #aije74 ,naph?ol4--beta-,naph?ol1 also a coal-t> d]ivative1 is a good g]micide1 &1 incorporat$ 9 soap to ! ext5t ( #c p] c5t4 toge!r ) sulphur1 is recomm5d$ = scabies1 eczema & _m o!r cutane\s affections4 ,sulphur4--,s9ce sulphur is insoluble 9 wat]1 its action :5 us$ 9 conjunction ) soap c be b v sl[ & slight4 ,sulphur soaps are1 h[ev]1 v commonly sold1 & #aj p] c5t4 is ! /r5g? usually advocat$1 ?\gh _m s-call$ sulphur soaps actually conta9 v little sulphur4 ,!y are said to be efficaci\s = acne & rosacea4 ,sulphur soaps1 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 gradually g5]ate sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i*1 al?\gh *>act]i/ic1 makes _! use disagreeable & less5s _! popul> e/imation4 ,t]eb5e4--,! addition ( ?is sub/ance to soap1 ?\gh imp>t+ a v refre%+ & pleasant od\r1 does n mat]ially increase ! dis9fectant value ( ! soap4 ,a suitable /r5g? is #e p] c5t4 ,?ymol4--,?is furni%es a n unpleasant1 & v useful antiseptic soap1 recomm5d$ especially = ! cleans+ ( ulc]at$ w\nds & re/or+ ! sk9 to a heal?y /ate4 ,! normal /r5g? is #c p] c5t4 ,x is pref]able to replace "p ( ! ?ymol ) r$ ?yme oil1 ! ?ym5e ( :i* imp>ts a sweet] od\r to ! soap ?an if produc$ ) ?ymol alone4 ,a suitable bl5d is #b-a_/b p] c5t4 ( ?ymol cry/als & #a-a_/b p] c5t4 ( a good r$ ?yme oil4 ,( ! va/ numb] ( less kn[n propos$ additions to toilet soaps1 m5tion may be made 9 pass+ (3-- ,fluorides4--,^! h be5 some:at popul> dur+ rec5t ye>s = ! dis9fection ( brew]ies1 etc41 & also us$ to "s ext5t z food pres]vatives4 ,( c\rse only neutral fluorides are available = use 9 soap1 acid fluorides & soap be+ obvi\sly incompatible4 ,9 ! au?ors' exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 sodium fluoride appe>s to h little value z a g]micide :5 add$ to soap1 su* soaps be+ f\nd to rapidly become rancid & *ange col\r4 ,album54--,! use ( album5--egg1 milk1 & vegetable--9 soap has be5 p]si/5tly advocat$ 9 ?is c\ntry dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,! claims attribut$ to album5 are1 t x neutralises free alkali1 causes ! soap to yield a m copi\s la!r1 & helps to b9d x m closely1 & a fur!r inducem5t held out is t x all[s m wat] to be left 9 ! soap )\t affect+ its firmness4 ,exp]im5ts made by ! au?ors did n appe> to ju/ify any en?usiasm on ! subject1 & ! use ( album5 = soap-mak+ 9 ?is c\ntry appe>s to be v slight1 h[ev] popul> x may be on ! ,cont95t4 ,num]\s o!r sub/ances h be5 propos$ = addition to soaps1 includ+ yea/1 t> f peat 7sphagnol71 ,sw$i% wood t>1 p]manganate ( pota%1 p]borates & p]c>bonates ( soda & ammonia1 *lor9e comp\nds1 b none ( ^! has at pres5t come mu* into fav\r1 & "s _h only ephem]al exi/5ce4 ,( ! _m drugs t x has be5 sugge/$ to admix 9 soap = use 9 allay+ an irritable condition ( ! sk91 ! majority are obvi\sly bett] appli$ 9 ! =m ( o9tm5ts1 & we ne$ n consid] !m fur!r4 ,e!r ,soap4--,ano!r =m ( m$icat$ soap made by a few firms is a liquid e!r soap conta9+ m]curic iodide1 & int5d$ = surgeons' use4 ,?is1 z a rule1 consi/s ( a soap made f olive oil & pota%1 dissolv$ 9 alcohol & mix$ ) e!r1 ! m]curic iodide be+ dissolv$ 9 a few drops ( wat] conta9+ an equal weight ( potassium iodide1 & ?is solution add$ to ! alcohol-e!r soap4 ,float+ ,soaps4--,attempts h be5 made to produce tablets ( soap t w float ^u ! surface ( wat]1 by ins]t+ cork1 or floats1 or a metallic plate 9 su* a mann] t !re is an air space betwe5 ! metal & ! soap4 ,! m usual me?od is to incorporate into hot soap suffici5t air1 by means ( a specially design$ self-conta9$ jacket$ crut*]1 9 :i* two %afts c>ry+ small blades or paddles rotate 9 opposite directions1 to r$uce ! d5sity ( ! soap bel[ t ( wat] & s enable ! compress$ tablet to float4 ,! diff]5ce 9 weight ( a tablet ( ! same size be=e & aft] a]at+ am\nts to #aj p] c5t4 ,ord9>y mill+ soap is us$ z a basis = ?is soap2 ! settl$ soap direct f ! copp] at #agj ,f4 7#gg ,c47 is c>efully neutralis$ ) bic>bonate ( sodium1 oleic or /e>ic acids1 or boro-glyc]ide1 p]fum$ & a]at$4 ,float+ soap1 :i* is usually :ite 7"s are ( a cream t9t71 _c be recomm5d$ z economical1 :il/ its defici5cy 9 la!r+ prop]ties1 ow+ to occlud$ air1 is a s]i\s drawback to its popul>ity z a toilet det]g5t4 ,%av+ ,soaps4--,! fir/ ess5tial ( a %av+ soap1 ap>t f its fre$om f cau/ic alkali or any sub/ance ex]t+ an irritat+ effect ^u ! sk91 is ! quick production ( a pr(use creamy la!r :i* is la/+4 ,gum tragacan? is us$ 9 "s cases to give la/+ p[] or durability1 b is n necess>y1 z ?is prop]ty is readily atta9$ by ! use ( a suitable proportion ( pota% soap4 ,! be/ %av+ soaps are mixtures ( v>i\s proportions ( neutral soda & pota% soaps1 produc$ by ! comb9ation ( ord9>y mill+ base ) a :ite pota% soap1 ei!r melt$ or mill$ toge!r4 ,glyc]9e is sometimes add$1 & is m satisfactorily mill$ 94 ,e precaution %\ld be tak5 to ensure ?or\gh saponification ( ! soaps int5d$ = bl5d+ 9 %av+ soap1 o!rwise !re w be a t5d5cy to become discol\r$ & develop rancidity ) age4 ,%av+ soaps are delicately p]fum$1 & are plac$ on ! m>ket ei!r 9 ! =m ( /icks :i* are cut f ! b> ( soap z x leaves ! compressor1 or /amp$ 9 flat cakes4 ,%av+ creams & pa/es are ( ! same nature z %av+ soaps1 b usually conta9 a l>g] proportion ( sup]fatt+ mat]ial & consid]ably m wat]4 ,,textile ,,soaps4 ,9 ! wooll51 clo?1 & silk textile indu/ries1 ! use ( soap = det]g5t & emulsify+ purposes is necess>y 9 sev]al ( ! processes1 & ! foll[+ is a brief description ( ! k9ds ( soap successfully employ$ 9 ! v>i\s /ages4 #a4 ,wooll5 ,indu/ry4--,! sc\r+ ( wool is ! mo/ important op]ation--x is ! fir/ treatm5t raw wool is subject$ to1 & if x is n p]=m$ 9 an effici5t mann]1 gives rise to s]i\s subsequ5t tr\bles to manufactur]1 dy]1 & f9i%]4 ,! object ( sc\r+ wool is to remove ! wool-fat & wool p]spiration 7exud$ f ! sk9 ( %eep71 consi/+ ( *ole/]ol & iso*ole/]ol1 & potassium salts ( fatty acids1 toge!r ) o!r salts1 su* z sulphates1 *lorides1 & phosphates4 ,?is is effect$ by wa%+ 9 a w>m dilute soap solution1 conta9+ 9 ! case ( l[ quality wool1 a little c>bonate ( soda2 ! fatty matt] is !reby emulsifi$ & easily remov$4 ,soap1 to be suitable = ! purpose1 mu/ be free f uncomb9$ cau/ic alkali1 unsaponifi$ fat1 silicates1 & ros94 ,wool c be dissolv$ 9 a mod]ately dilute solution ( cau/ic soda1 & ! pres5ce ( ?is latt] 9 soap1 ev5 9 small quantities1 is !re=e liable to injure ! fibres & make ! resultant fabric possess a h>% feel1 & be devoid ( lu/re4 ,unsaponifi$ fat d5otes badly made soap--besides r$uc+ ! emulsify+ p[] ( ! lib]at$ alkali1 ?is fat may be absorb$ by ! fibres & n only induce rancidity b also cause tr\ble 9 dye+4 ,soaps conta9+ silicates may h a delet]i\s action ^u ! fibres1 caus+ !m to become damag$ & brok54 ,by g5]al cons5t soaps conta9+ ros9 are unsuitable = use by wooll5 manufactur]s1 z !y produce /icky insoluble lime & magnesia comp\nds :i* are deposit$ ^u ! fibres1 & give rise to unev5ness 9 ! dye+4 ,a neutral olive-oil s(t soap is und\bt$ly ! be/ = ! purpose ( wool sc\r+1 z1 ow+ to its ready solubility 9 wat]1 x quickly p5etrates ! fibres1 is easily wa%$ out1 & produces a good feel s ess5tial 9 ! be/ goods1 & t5ds to pres]ve ! lu/re & pliability ( ! fibre4 ,! high price ( olive-oil soap1 h[ev]1 r5d]s its use prohibitive = l[] class goods1 & 9 su* cases no bett] soap c be sugge/$ ?an ! old-fa%ion$ curd mottl$ or curd soaps 7boil$ v dry71 z free z possible f uncomb9$ cau/ic alkali4 ,! raw wool1 aft] ?is cleans+ op]ation1 is oil$ ) olive oil or ole9e1 prior to sp9n+2 aft] sp9n+ & weav+1 ! fabric1 9 ! =m ( y>n or clo?1 has to be sc\r$ to free x f oil4 ,! soap 9 mo/ g5]al use = sc\r+ wooll5 fabrics is neutral ole9e-soda soap4 ,"s manufactur]s pref] a *eap curd soap1 su* z is g5]ally t]m$ second curd1 & 9 cases :]e l[] grades ( wools are h&l$1 ! us] is (t5 will+ to h soap conta9+ ros9 7ow+ to its *eapness7 & consid]s a little alkal9ity desirable to assi/ 9 remov+ ! oil4 ,ano!r op]ation 9 :i* soap is us$1 is t ( mill+ or full+1 :]eby ! fabric is made to %r9k & ?us becomes m compact & clos] 9 texture4 ,! fabric is ?or\ghly cleans$1 = :i* purpose ! soap %\ld be neutral & free f ros9 & silicates1 o!rwise a h>% feel+ or /ick9ess w be produc$4 ,curd soaps or f9ely-fitt$ soaps made f tall[ or blea*$ palm oil1 ) or )\t ! addition ( cocoa-nut oil1 give ! be/ results4 ,all traces ( soap mu/ be c>efully remov$ if ! fabric is to be dy$4 ,! wooll5 dy] uses soap on ! dy$ pieces to assi/ ! mill+1 & f9ds t a good soap1 made f ei!r olive oil1 blea*$ palm oil1 or tall[1 is pref]able1 &1 al?\gh x is g5]ally specifi$ to be free f alkali1 a little alkal9ity is n ( consequ5ce1 = ! wooll5 goods are1 z a rule1 acid aft] dye+1 & ?is alkal9ity w\ld be in/antly neutralis$4 #b4 ,cotton ,indu/ry4--,cotton fibres are unact$ ^u by cau/ic alkali1 s t ! soap us$ 9 clean+ & prep>+ cotton goods = dye+ ne$ n be neutral1 9 fact alkal9ity is a di/9ct advantage 9 ord] to assi/ ! cleans+4 ,any curd soap made f tall[1 ) or )\t ! addition ( a small quantity ( cocoa-nut oil1 may be advantage\sly us$ = remov+ ! natural oil4 ,9 cotton dye+1 additions ( soap are (t5 made to ! ba?1 & 9 su* cases ! soap mu/ be ( good od\r & neutral1 le/ ! col\rs %\ld be act$ ^u & t9ts alt]$4 ,soaps made f olive oil & palm oil are recomm5d$4 ,! same k9d ( soap is sometimes us$ = soap+ ! dy$ cotton goods4 ,! calico-pr9t] uses consid]able quantities ( soap = cleans+ ! pr9t$-clo?s4 ,! soap n only cleanses by help+ to remove ! gummy & />*y con/itu5ts ( ! adh]+ pr9t+ pa/e1 b also plays an important "p 9 fix+ & bright5+ ! col\rs4 ,soaps int5d$ = ?is class ( "w mu/ be q neutral 7to obviate any possible alt]ation 9 col\r by ! action ( free alkali71 free f objectionable od\r & ros91 & readily soluble 9 wat]4 ,^! qualities are possess$ by olive-oil soaps1 ei!r s(t or h>d4 ,a neutral olive-oil s(t soap1 ow+ to its solubility 9 cold wat]1 may be us$ = fibres col\r$ ) mo/ delicate dyes1 :i* w\ld be fugitive 9 hot soap solutions1 & ?is soap is employ$ = ! mo/ exp5sive "w4 ,olive-oil curd 7soda7 soaps are 9 g5]al use2 ^? made f palm oil are also recomm5d$1 al?\gh !y are n s soluble z ! olive-oil soaps4 ,tall[ curd soaps are sometimes us$1 b ! difficulty ) :i* !y dissolve is a drawback1 & r5d]s !m some:at unsuitable4 #c4 ,silk ,indu/ry4--,silk is secur$ to remove ! s]ic9 or silk-glue & adh]+ matt] f ! raw silk1 produc+ !reby lu/re on ! s(t5$ fibre & ?us prep>+ x = ! dy]4 ,! v be/ soap = ! purpose is an olive-oil s(t soap2 olive-oil & ole9e h>d soaps may also be us$4 ,! soap is (t5 us$ 9 conjunction ) c>bonate ( soda to assi/ ! removal ( ! s]ic91 b1 :il/ c>bonates are p]missible1 x is necess>y to avoid an excess ( cau/ic soda4 ,tall[ soaps are s sl[ly soluble t !y are n applicable to ! sc\r+ ( silk4 ,! dy] ( silk requires soap1 :i* is neutral & ( a pleasant od\r4 ,! pref]5ce is giv5 to neutral olive-oil s(t soap1 b h>d soaps 7made f olive oil1 ole9e1 or palm oil7 are us$ *iefly on acc\nt ( *eapness4 ,x is ess5tial1 h[ev]1 t ! soap %\ld be free f ros9 on acc\nt ( its frequ5t use & consequ5t decomposition 9 ! acid dye ba?1 :5 any lib]at$ ros9 acids w\ld cl+ to ! silk fibres & produce disagreeable results4 ,pat5t ,textile ,soaps4--,/ockhaus5 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bd1hfh1 #ahig7 makes special claim = a soap1 t]m$ ,monopole ,soap1 to be us$ 9 place ( ,turkey-r$ oils 9 ! dye+ & pr9t+ ( cotton goods & f9i%+ ( textile fabrics4 ,! soap is prep>$ by heat+ ! sulphonat$ oil 7obta9$ on treatm5t ( ca/or oil ) sulphuric acid7 ) alkali1 & x is /at$ t ! product is n precipitat$ :5 us$ 9 ! dye-ba? z is ord9>y soap1 nor is x deposit$ ^u ! fibres4 ,ano!r pat5t 7,eng4 ,pat4 #af1chb1 #ahig71 has = its object ! obviat+ ( ! injuri\s effects ^u wool1 ( alkali lib]at$ f a solution ( soap4 ,x is propos$ to accompli% ?is by sulphonat+ "p ( ! fat us$ 9 mak+ ! soap4 ,miscellane\s ,soaps4--,"u ?is head+ may be class$ soaps int5d$ = special purposes & consi/+ ess5tially ( ord9>y boil$ soap to :i* additions ( v>i\s sub/ances h be5 made4 ,) additions ( naph?a1 fractions ( petroleum1 & turp5t9e1 ! det]g5t p[] ( ! soap is increas$ by ! action ( ^! sub/ances 9 remov+ grease4 ,among/ ! _m o!r additions may be m5tion$3 ox-gall or d]ivatives !refrom 7= c>pet-clean+ soap71 alkali sulphides 7= use ( lead-work]s71 anil9e col\rs 7= home-dye+ soaps71 pumice & tripoli 7motori/s' soaps71 p9e-ne$le oil1 9 "s in/ances toge!r ) lanol9e 7= massage soaps71 pe>l-a% 7= soap int5d$ to remove oil & t> /a9s71 magnesia1 r\ge1 ammonium c>bonate1 *alk 7silv]smi?s' soap71 p[d]$ orris1 precipitat$ *alk1 magnesium c>bonate 7too? soaps74 ,soap p[d]s or dry soaps are p[d]$ mixtures ( soap1 soda a%1 or soda cry/als1 & o!r *emicals1 :il/ poli%+ soaps (t5 conta9 f #he to #ij p] c5t4 silice\s matt]1 & c sc>cely be t]m$ soap4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,soap ,,p]fumes4 ,ess5tial ,oils--,s\rce & ,prep>ation--,prop]ties--,artificial & ,syn!tic ,p]fumes4 ,! numb] ( raw mat]ials1 bo? natural & artificial1 at ! disposal ( ! p]fum]1 has increas$ s enorm\sly dur+ rec5t ye>s t ! sc5t+ ( soaps has n[ become an art requir+ v consid]able skill1 & a ?or\gh k ( ! products to be h&l$4 ,n only does ! all-important "q ( od\r come into consid]ation1 b ! action ( ! p]fumes on ! soap1 & on ea* o!r1 has also to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,?us1 _m ess5tial oils & syn!tic p]fumes cause ! soap to d>k5 rapidly on keep+1 e4g41 clove oil1 cassia oil1 heliotrop91 vanill94 ,fur!r1 "s odorif]\s sub/ances1 f _! *emical nature1 are incompatible ) soap1 & soon decompose any soap to :i* !y are add$1 :ile 9 a few cases1 ! bl5d+ ( two unsuitable p]fumes results1 by mutual reaction1 9 ! effect ( ea* be+ lo/4 ,9 ! case ( oils l b]gamot oil1 ! od\r value ( :i* dep5ds *iefly on _! e/] cont5t1 x is v important t ^! %\ld n be add$ to soaps conta9+ mu* free alkali1 z ^! e/]s are readily decompos$ !reby4 ,"s p]fumes possess ! prop]ty ( help+ ! soap to reta9 o!r & m delicate od\rs consid]ably long] ?an w\ld o!rwise be possible4 ,su* p]fumes are kn[n z fix+ ag5ts or fixateurs1 & among ! mo/ important ( ^! may be m5tion$ musk1 bo? natural & artificial1 civet1 ! oils ( ,p]u balsam1 s&alwood1 & pat*\li1 & b5zyl b5zoate4 ,! natural p]fumes employ$ = addition to soaps are almo/ entirely ( vegetable orig91 & consi/ ( ess5tial oils1 balsams1 & res9s1 animal p]fumes su* z musk1 civet1 & amb]gris be+ res]v$ pr9cipally = ! prep>ation ( extraits4 ,z w\ld be expect$ ) products ( su* div]se "*1 ! me?ods employ$ = ! prep>ation ( ess5tial oils v>y consid]ably4 ,broadly speak+1 h[ev]1 ! processes may be divid$ into ?ree classes--7#a7 expression1 us$ = orange1 lemon1 & lime oils2 7#b7 di/illation1 employ$ = otto ( rose1 g]anium1 s&alwood1 & _m o!r oils2 & 7#c7 extraction1 includ+ enfleurage1 by :i* ! volatile oil f ! fl[]s is ei!r fir/ absorb$ by a neutral fat su* z l>d1 & !n extract$ !refrom by mac]ation 9 alcohol1 or directly extract$ f ! fl[]s by means ( a volatile solv5t su* z b5z5e1 petroleum e!r1 or *lor(orm4 ,! la/ process und\bt$ly furni%es products mo/ ne>ly resembl+ ! natural floral od\rs1 & is ! only "o :i* does n de/roy ! delicate fragrance ( ! violet & jasm9e4 ,! yield1 h[ev]1 is extremely small1 & concrete p]fumes prep>$ 9 ?is way are !re=e some:at co/ly4 ,! ess5tial oils us$ are d]iv$ f upw>ds ( tw5ty diff]5t botanical families1 & are obta9$ f all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,?us1 f ,africa we h g]anium & clove oils2 f ,am]ica1 bay1 bois de rose1 ,canadian snake root1 c$>wood1 l9aloe1 pepp]m9t1 petitgra91 & sassafras2 f ,asia1 camphor1 cassia1 c9namon1 pat*\li1 s&alwood1 /> anise1 ylang-ylang1 & ! grass oils1 viz41 citronella1 lemongrass1 palm>osa1 & vetiv]t2 f ,au/ralia1 eucalyptus2 :ile 9 ,europe !re are ! citrus oils1 b]gamot1 lemon1 & orange1 produc$ by ,sicily1 aspic1 lav5d]1 n]oli1 petitgra91 & rosem>y by ,france1 c>away & clove by ,holl&1 anise by ,russia1 & otto ( rose by ,bulg>ia4 ,attempts h be5 made to classify ess5tial oils ei!r on a botanical basis or accord+ to _! *emical composition1 b nei!r me?od is v satisfactory1 &1 9 describ+ ! *ief con/itu5ts & prop]ties ( ! m important oils1 we h pref]r$ !re=e to arrange !m alphabetically1 z be+ simpl] = ref]5ce4 ,x is a matt] ( "s difficulty to judge ! purity ( ess5tial oils1 n only because ( _! complex nature1 b ow+ to ! v great effect ^u _! prop]ties produc$ by gr[+ ! plants 9 diff]5t soils & "u v>y+ climatic conditions1 & /ill m to ! highly sci5tific me?ods ( adult]ation adopt$ by unscrupul\s v5dors4 ,! foll[+ figures w be f\nd1 h[ev]1 to include all normal oils4 ,anise ,/ell1 or ,/> ,anise1 f ! fruit ( ,illicium v]um1 obta9$ f ,*9a4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ihj-j4iij2 optical rotation1 fa9tly dextro- or lvo-rotatory1 #j #cj' to -#b2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eec-a4eee2 solidify+ po9t1 #ad-ag ,c42 solubility 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 #a 9 #c or #d4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! oil are ane?ol1 me?yl *avicol1 d-p95e1 l-phell&r5e1 & 9 old] oils1 ! oxidation products ( ane?ol1 viz4 anisic aldehyde & anisic acid4 ,s9ce ane?ol is ! mo/ valuable con/itu5t1 & ! solidify+ po9t ( ! oil is r\ghly proportional to its ane?ol cont5t1 oils ) a high] solidify+ po9t are ! be/4 ,aspic oil1 f ! fl[]s ( ,lav&ula spica1 obta9$ f ,france & ,spa91 & ext5sively employ$ 9 p]fum+ h\sehold & *eap toilet soaps2 also frequ5tly f\nd z an adult]ant 9 lav5d] oil4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijd-j4iac2 optical rotation1 ,fr5*1 dextro-rotatory up to #d1 r>ely up to #g1 ,spani%1 frequ5tly slightly lvo-rotatory to -#b1 or dextro-rotatory up to #g2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #b to #f p] c5t42 mo/ oils are soluble 9 #fe p] c5t4 alcohol #a 9 #d1 9 no case %\ld m ?an #b4e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol be requir$ = solution4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! oil are3 l9alol1 c9eol1 borneol1 t]p9eol1 g]aniol1 p95e1 camph5e & camphor4 ,bay oil1 di/ill$ f ! leaves ( ,pim5ta acris1 & obta9$ f ,/4 ,?omas & o!r ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s4 ,x is us$ to "s ext5t z a p]fume = %av+ soaps1 b *iefly 9 ! ,bay ,rhum toilet prep>ation4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4ihj2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#c2 ph5ols1 e/imat$ by absorption ) #e p] c5t4 cau/ic pota% solution1 f #de to #fj p] c5t42 ! oil is g5]ally insoluble 9 #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 ?\gh :5 fre%ly di/ill$ x dissolves 9 its own volume ( alcohol ( ?is /r5g?4 ,! oil conta9s eug5ol1 myrc5e1 *avicol1 me?yl eug5ol1 me?yl *avicol1 phell&r5e1 & citral4 ,b]gamot oil1 obta9$ by expression f ! fre% peel ( ! fruit ( ,citrus ,b]gamia1 & us$ v l>gely = ! p]fum+ ( toilet soaps4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhj-j4hhf2 optical rotation1 #aj to #bj2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #ce-dj p] c5t41 & occasionally z high z #db-dc p] c5t42 frequ5tly soluble 9 #a4e p>ts ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 or fail+ t1 %\ld dissolve 9 "o volume ( #hb4e or #he p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,:5 evaporat$ on ! wat]-ba? ! oil %\ld n leave m ?an #e-f p] c5t4 residue4 ,among ! con/itu5ts ( ?is oil are3 l9alyl acetate1 limon5e1 dip5t5e1 l9alol1 & b]gapt5e4 ,bitt] ,almond ,oil4--,! volatile oil obta9$ f ! fruit ( ,amygdalus communis4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jde-a4jf2 optically inactive2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4edd-a4ede2 boil+ po9t1 #agf-agg ,c42 soluble 9 #a or #a4e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil consi/s almo/ entirely ( b5zaldehyde :i* may be e/imat$ by absorption ) a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite4 ,! *ief impurity is prussic acid1 :i* is n always completely remov$4 ,?is may be readily detect$ by add+ to a small quantity ( ! oil two or ?ree drops ( cau/ic soda solution1 & a few drops ( f]r\s sulphate solution conta9+ f]ric salt4 ,aft] ?or\ghly %ak+1 acidulate ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 :5 a blue coloration w be produc$ if prussic acid is pres5t4 ,! natural oil may frequ5tly be diff]5tiat$ f artificial b5zaldehyde by ! pres5ce ( *lor9e 9 ! latt]4 ,z !re is n[ on ! m>ket1 h[ev]1 artificial oil free f *lor9e1 x is no long] possible1 by *emical means1 to di/+ui% ) c]ta9ty betwe5 ! natural & ! artificial product4 ,to te/ = *lor9e 9 a sample1 a small coil ( filt] pap]1 loosely roll$1 is saturat$ ) ! oil1 & burnt 9 a small porcela9 di%1 cov]$ ) an inv]t$ beak]1 ! inside ( :i* is moi/5$ ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,:5 ! pap] is burnt1 ! beak] is r9s$ ) wat]1 filt]$1 & ! filtrate te/$ = *loride ) silv] nitrate solution4 ,canada snake root oil1 f ! root ( ,as>um canad5se4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idj-j4ifb2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dij2 saponification numb]1 #ajj-aae2 soluble 9 #c or #d volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( ! oil are a t]p5e1 as>ol alcohol1 ano!r alcohol1 & me?yl eug5ol4 ,! oil is too exp5sive to be us$ 9 o!r ?an high-class toilet soaps4 ,cananga or ,kananga oil1 ! e>li] di/illate f ! fl[]s ( ,cananga odorata1 obta9$ *iefly f ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iaj-j4idj2 optical rotation1 -#ag to -#cj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4diid-a4ejbd2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl b5zoate1 #h-ae p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a4e to #b volumes ( #ie p] c5t4 alcohol1 b becom+ turbid on fur!r addition4 ,! oil is qualitatively simil> 9 composition to ,ylang-,ylang oil1 & conta9s l9alyl b5zoate & acetate1 e/]s ( g]aniol1 cad95e1 & me?yl e/] ( p-cresol4 ,c>away oil1 di/ill$ f ! se$s ( ,c>um c>ui4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijg-j4iae2 optical rotation1 #gg to #gi2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dhf2 soluble 9 #c to #h volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil %\ld conta9 #ej-fj p] c5t4 ( c>vone1 :i* is e/imat$ by absorption ) a saturat$ solution ( neutral sodium sulphite4 ,! rema9d] ( ! oil consi/s *iefly ( limon5e4 ,cassia oil1 di/ill$ f ! leaves ( ,c9namomum cassia1 & %ipp$ to ?is c\ntry f ,*9a 9 lead receptacles4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jfj-a4jfh2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #c #cj'2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4fjad-a4fjdh2 soluble 9 #c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol z a g5]al rule1 b occasionally requires #a to #b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! value ( ! oil dep5ds ^u its aldehyde cont5t1 ! *ief con/itu5t be+ c9namic aldehyde4 ,?is is det]m9$ by absorption ) a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite4 ,?ree grades are usually (f]$1 ! be/ conta9+ #hj-he p] c5t4 aldehydes1 ! second quality1 #ge-hj p] c5t41 & ! l[e/ grade1 #gj-ge p] c5t4 ,o!r con/itu5ts ( ! oil are c9namyl acetate & c9namic acid4 ,?is oil gives ! *>act]i/ic od\r to ,br[n ,w9dsor soap1 & is useful = sweet5+ coal-t> m$icat$ soaps4 ,c$>wood oil1 di/ill$ f ! wood ( ,junip]us virg9iana4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ich-j4ifj2 optical rotation1 -#ce to -#de2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejac-a4ejcj4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5ts are c$r5e & c$rol4 ,c9namon oil1 di/ill$ f ! b>k ( ,c9namomum zeylanicum4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jj-a4jce2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#b2 usually soluble 9 #b to #c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 b sometimes requires #a volume ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol = solution2 aldehydes1 by absorption ) sodium bisulphite solution1 #ee-ge p] c5t42 & ph5ols1 z measur$ by absorption ) #e p] c5t4 pota%1 n exce$+ #ab p] c5t4 ,! value ( ?is oil is n det]m9$ entirely by its aldehyde cont5t z is ! case ) cassia oil1 & any oil conta9+ m ?an #ge p] c5t4 aldehydes mu/ be reg>d$ ) suspicion1 be+ probably admix$ ) ei!r cassia oil or artificial c9namic aldehyde4 ,! addition ( c9namon leaf oil :i* has a specific gravity at #ae ,c4 ( #a4jdd-a4jfe is detect$ by caus+ a mat]ial rise 9 ! proportion ( ph5ols4 ,besides c9namic aldehyde ! oil conta9s eug5ol & phell&r5e4 ,citronella ,oil4--,?is oil is di/ill$ f two di/9ct ,&ropogon grasses1 ! ,lana ,batu & ! ,maha pangiri1 ! =m] be+ ! s\rce ( ! bulk ( ,ceylon oil1 & ! latt] be+ cultivat$ 9 ! ,/raits ,settlem5ts & ,java4 ,! oils f ^! ?ree localities %[ well-def9$ *emical diff]5ces4 ,ceylon ,citronella oil has ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4ibj2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#ab2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhj-a4dhd2 soluble 9 #a volume ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol2 total acetylisable con/itu5ts1 calculat$ z g]aniol1 #ed-gj p] c5t4 ,s+apore ,citronella ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hij-j4hii2 optical rotation1 usually slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfg-a4dga2 soluble 9 #a to #a4e volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol2 total acetylisable con/itu5ts1 calculat$ z g]aniol1 #hj-ij p] c5t4 ,java ,citronella ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hij-j4ija2 optical rotation1 -#a to -#f2 total acetylisable con/itu5ts1 calculat$ z g]aniol1 #ge-ij p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a-b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! oil are g]aniol1 citronellal1 l9alol1 borneol1 me?yl eug5ol1 camph5e1 limon5e1 & dip5t5e4 ,x is v l>gely us$ = p]fum+ *eap soaps1 & also s]ves z a s\rce = ! production ( g]aniol4 ,bois de ,rose ,femelle oil1 or ,cay5ne l9aloe oil1 di/ill$ f wood ( trees ( ! ,burs]ace species4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgd-j4hhj2 optical rotation1 -#aa #cj' to -#af2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjh-a4dfcj2 soluble 9 #a4e to #b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil consi/s almo/ entirely ( l9alol1 ) traces ( saponifiable bodies1 b appe>s to be free f me?yl hept5one1 f\nd by ,b>bi] & ,b\veault 9 ,mexican l9aloe oil4 ,?is oil is di/9ctly f9] 9 od\r ?an ! ,mexican product4 ,clove oil1 di/ill$ f ! unripe blossoms ( ,eug5ia c>yophyllata1 ! *ief s\rce ( :i* is ,ea/ ,africa 7,zanzib> & ,pemba74 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jde-a4jfa2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#a #cj'2 ph5ols1 e/imat$ by absorption ) #e p] c5t4 pota% solution1 #hf-ib p] c5t42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ecjj-a4ecfj2 soluble 9 #a to #b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( ! oil is eug5ol1 toge!r ) c>yophyll5e & acet-eug5ol4 ,:ile )9 c]ta9 limits ! value ( ?is oil is det]m9$ by its eug5ol cont5t1 oils conta9+ m ?an #ic p] c5t4 ph5ols are usually less satisfactory 9 od\r1 ! high proportion ( ph5ols be+ obta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! decomposition ( "s ( ! sesquit]p5e4 ,oils ) less ?an #hh p] c5t4 ph5ols w be f\nd some:at weak 9 od\r4 ,?is oil is ext5sively us$ 9 ! *eap] toilet soaps & is an important con/itu5t ( c>nation soaps4 ,z already m5tion$1 h[ev]1 x causes ! soap to d>k5 9 col\r some:at rapidly1 & mu/ n !re=e be us$ 9 any quantity1 except 9 col\r$ soaps4 ,concrete orris oil1 a waxy sub/ance obta9$ by /eam di/illation ( ,flor5t9e orris root4 ,melt+ po9t1 #ce-de ,c41 usually #dj-de ,c42 free acidity1 calculat$ z myri/ic acid1 #ej-hj p] c5t42 e/]1 calculat$ z comb9$ myri/ic acid1 #d-aj p] c5t4 ,! great] "p ( ! product consi/s ( ! inodor\s myri/ic acid1 ! *ief od\r-be>+ con/itu5t be+ irone4 ,! high price ( ! oil r5d]s its use only possible 9 ! v be/ quality soaps4 ,eucalyptus ,oil4--,?\gh !re are "s hundr$ or m diff]5t oils belong+ to ?is class1 only two are ( mu* importance to ! soap-mak]4 ,^! are3-- 7i47 ,eucalyptus citriodora4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4ije2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #b2 soluble 9 #d-e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil consi/s almo/ entirely ( citronellic aldehyde1 & on absorption ) saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite %\ld leave v little oil unabsorb$4 7ii47 ,eucalyptus globulus1 ! oil us$ 9 ph>macy1 & conta9+ #ej-fe p] c5t4 c9eol4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iaj-j4icj2 optical rotation1 #a to #aj2 soluble 9 #b to #c p>ts ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol2 c9eol 7e/imat$ by comb9ation ) phosphoric acid1 press+1 decompos+ ) hot wat]1 & measur+ ! lib]at$ c9eol71 n less ?an #ej p] c5t4 ,besides c9eol1 ! oil conta9s d-p95e1 & val]ic1 butyric1 & caproic aldehydes4 ,x is *iefly us$ 9 m$icat$ soaps4 ,f5nel 7sweet7 oil1 obta9$ f ! fruit ( ,fo5iculum vulg>e1 gr[n 9 ,g]many1 ,r\mania1 & o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4ihe2 optical rotation1 #f to #be2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eae-a4edh2 usually soluble 9 #b-f p>ts #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 b occasionally requires #a "p ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! oil are ane?ol1 f5*one1 d-p95e1 & dip5t5e4 ,g]anium oils1 di/ill$ f plants ( ! ,pel>gonium species4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal k9ds ( ?is oil on ! m>ket--! ,african1 obta9$ f ,alg]ia & ! neighb\rhood1 ! ,b\rbon1 di/ill$ pr9cipally 9 ! ,isl& ( ,runion1 & ! ,spani%4 ,! oil is also di/ill$ f plants gr[n 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 b ?is oil is n mu* us$ by soap-mak]s4 ,a specially f9e article is sold by a few ess5tial oil firms "u ! "n ( ,g]anium-sur-,rose1 :i* z its "n implies1 is suppos$ to be g]anium oil di/ill$ ov] roses4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly suitable = use 9 high-class soaps4 ,! foll[+ are ! g5]al prop]ties ( ^! oils4 ,x w be se5 t ! limits = ! figures ov]lap to a consid]able ext5t4 ,african4 ,b\rbon4 ,spani%4 ,fr5*4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c4 4#hij-4ijj 4#hhh-4hie 4#hie-4hih 4#hig-4ijj ,optical rotation4 -#f to -#aj-i to -#ah-h to -#aa-h to -#aa ,e/]s1 calculat$ z #bj-bg #bg-cb #bj-bg #ah-bc g]anyl tiglate p] c5t4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 ,total alcohols1 z #fh-ge #gj-hj #fe-ge #ff-ge g]aniol4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 ,solubility 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 #a 9 #a4e-b #a 9 #a4e-b #a 9 #b-c #a 9 #a4e-b ,! oil conta9s g]aniol & citronellol1 bo? free1 & comb9$ ) tiglic1 val]ic1 butyric1 & acetic acids2 also l-m5?one4 ,! ,african & ,b\rbon v>ieties are ! two mo/ commonly us$ = soap-p]furm]y1 ! ,spani% oil be+ too co/ly = ext5sive use4 ,g+]-grass oil1 =m]ly reg>d$ z an inf]ior k9d ( palma-rosa b n[ /at$ to be f an entirely diff]5t s\rce4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhi-j4hig2 optical rotation1 #ae4 ,! oil conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( g]aniol1 toge!r ) di-hydrocum9 alcohol1 d-phell&r5e1 d-limon5e1 dip5t5e1 & l-c>vone4 ,guaiac wood oil1 di/ill$ f ! wood ( ,bulnesia s>mi5ti4 ,specific gravity at #cj ,c41 #j4ifg-j4ige2 optical rotation1 -#d #cj' to -#g2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejf-a4ejg2 soluble 9 #c to #e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( ! oil is guaiac alcohol1 or gusiol4 ,?is oil1 :i* has :at is g5]ally t]m$ a tea-rose od\r1 is occasionally us$ z an adult]ant = otto ( rose4 ,lav5d] oil1 di/ill$ f ! fl[]s ( ,lav&ula v]a1 gr[n 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,italy & ,spa94 ,! ,engli% oil is consid]ably ! mo/ exp5sive1 & is seldom1 if ev]1 us$ 9 soap4 ,! ,fr5* & ,italian oils are ! mo/ common1 ! ,spani% oil be+ a comp>atively new article1 ( d\btful botanical orig91 & m closely resembl+ aspic oil4 ,engli% ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhc-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#d to -#aj2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #e-aj p] c5t42 soluble 9 #c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,fr5* & ,italian ,oils4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhe-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#b to -#i2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dei-a4dfd2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #bj-dj p] c5t41 occasionally high]2 soluble 9 #a4e-c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,!re 0 at "o "t a !ory t ! high] ! proportion ( e/] ! bett] ! oil1 b ?is !ory has n[ to a v l>ge ext5t become discr$it$1 & !re is no d\bt t "s ( ! f9e/ oils conta9 less ?an #cj p] c5t4 ( e/]s4 ,spani% ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iae2 optical rotation1 -#b to #g2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #b-f p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a-b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( lav5d] oil are l9alyl acetate1 l9alol1 g]aniol1 & l9alyl butyrate1 :ile ! ,engli% oil also conta9s a di/9ct am\nt ( c9eol4 ,lemon oil1 prep>$ by express+ ! peel ( ! ne>ly ripe fruit ( ,citrus limonum1 & obta9$ almo/ entirely f ,sicily & ,s\!rn ,italy4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hef-j4hfj2 optical rotation1 #eh to #fc2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgcj-a4dgej2 aldehydes 7citral71 #b4e to #d p] c5t4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( ! oil are limon5e & citral1 toge!r ) small quantities ( p95e1 phell&r5e1 octyl & nonyl aldehydes1 citronellal1 g]aniol1 g]anyl acetate1 & ! /e>opt51 citrapt5e4 ,lemon-grass 7s-call$ v]b5a7 oil1 di/ill$ f ! grass ,&ropogon citratus1 :i* is gr[n 9 ,india &1 m rec5tly1 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! oils f ^! two s\rces diff] some:at 9 _! prop]ties1 & also 9 value1 ! =m] be+ pref]r$ on acc\nt ( its great] solubility 9 alcohol4 ,ea/ ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hih-j4ijf2 optical rotation1 -#j #cj' to -#f2 aldehydes1 by absorption ) bisulphite ( soda solution1 #fe to #gh p] c5t42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dhg2 soluble 9 #b-c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,we/ ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhf-j4hic2 optical rotation1 fa9tly lvo-gyrate2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhee-a4dhgf2 soluble 9 #j4e volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,lime oil1 obta9$ by expression or di/illation ( ! peel ( ! fruit ( ,citrus m$ica1 & produc$ pr9cipally 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,express$ ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4hhe2 optical rotation1 #ch to #ej4 ,its mo/ important con/itu5t is citral4 ,di/ill$ ,oil4--,?is is entirely diff]5t 9 "* to ! express$ oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hed-j4hgj2 optical rotation1 #ch to #ed2 soluble 9 #e-h volumes ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,l9aloe oil1 di/ill$ f ! wood ( trees ( ! ,burs]ace family1 & obta9$ f ,mexico4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgf-j4hib2 optical rotation1 usually lvo-rotatory1 -#c to -#ac1 b occasionally dextro-rotatory up to #e #cj'2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #a-h p] c5t42 total alcohols z l9alol1 det]m9$ by acetylation1 #ed-ff p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a-b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,?is oil consi/s ma9ly ( l9alol1 toge!r ) small quantities ( me?yl hept5one1 g]aniol1 & d-t]p9eol4 ,m>joram oil1 di/ill$ f ,origanum majoranoides1 & obta9$ entirely f ,cyprus4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iff2 ph5ols1 *iefly c>vacrol1 e/imat$ by absorption ) #e p] c5t4 cau/ic pota% solution1 #hj-hb p] c5t42 soluble 9 #b-c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,?is oil is us$ 9 soap occasionally 9 place ( r$ ?yme oil4 ,n]oli ,big>ade oil1 di/ill$ f ! fre% blossoms ( ! bitt] orange1 ,citrus big>adia4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hge-j4hhb2 optical rotation1 #j #dj' to #aj1 & occasionally mu* high]2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfh-a4dgj2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #aj-ah p] c5t42 soluble 9 #j4ge-a4ge volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 becom+ turbid on fur!r addition ( alcohol4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts ( ! oil are limon5e1 l9alol1 l9alyl acetate1 g]aniol1 me?yl an?ranilate1 indol1 & n]oli camphor4 ,orange 7sweet7 oil1 express$ f ! peel ( ,citrus aurantium4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hdi-j4heb2 optical rotation1 #ie to #ii2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgbf-a4dgcb4 ,! oil conta9s "s #ij p] c5t4 limon5e1 toge!r ) nonyl alcohol1 d-l9alol1 d-t]p9eol1 citral1 citronellal1 decyl aldehyde1 & me?yl an?ranilate4 ,palm>osa1 or ,ea/ ,indian g]anium oil1 di/ill$ f ,&ropogon ,s*o5an?us1 a grass widely gr[n 9 ,india4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhh-j4hie2 optical rotation1 #a to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgb-a4dgf2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #g-ad p] c5t42 total alcohols1 z g]aniol1 #ge-ic p] c5t42 solubility 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 #a 9 #c4 ,! oil consi/s *iefly ( g]aniol1 free1 & comb9$ ) acetic & caproic acids1 & dip5t5e4 ,x is l>gely us$ 9 *eap toilet soaps1 p>ticul>ly 9 rose soaps4 ,x is also a fav\rite adult]ant = otto ( rose1 & is us$ z a s\rce ( g]aniol4 ,pat*\li oil1 di/ill$ f ! leaves ( ,pogo/emon pat*\li1 a h]b gr[n 9 ,india & ! ,/raits ,settlem5ts4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4iij2 optical rotation1 -#de to -#fc2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejd-a4eaa2 saponification numb]1 up to #ab2 sometimes soluble 9 #j4e to #a volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol1 becom+ turbid on fur!r addition4 ,! solubility ( ! oil 9 alcohol increases ) age4 ,! oil consi/s to ! ext5t ( #ig p] c5t4 ( pat*\liol & cad95e1 :i* h little influ5ce on its od\r1 & ! bodies responsible = its p]si/5t & *>act]i/ic od\r h n yet be5 isolat$4 ,pepp]m9t oil1 di/ill$ f h]bs ( ! ,m5?a family1 ! ,european & ,am]ican f ,m5?a pip]ita1 & ! ,japanese be+ g5]ally suppos$ to be obta9$ f ,m5?a arv5sis4 ,! locality 9 :i* ! h]b is gr[n has a consid]able influ5ce on ! result+ oil1 z ! foll[+ figures %[3-- ,engli%4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iaj2 optical rotation1 -#bb to -#cc2 total m5?ol1 #ee-ff p] c5t42 free m5?ol1 #ej-fj p] c5t42 soluble 9 #c-e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,am]ican4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijf-j4ibj2 optical rotation1 -#bj to -#cc2 total m5?ol1 #ej-fj p] c5t42 free m5?ol1 #dj-ej p] c5t4 ,! ,mi*igan oil is soluble 9 #c-e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 b ! bett] ,wayne ,c\nty oil usually requires #a-b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol1 & occasionally #j4e volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,fr5*4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iag-j4ibe2 optical rotation1 -#f to -#aj2 total m5?ol1 #de-ee p] c5t42 free m5?ol1 #ce-de p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a to #a4e volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 ,japanese4--,specific gravity at #be ,c41 #j4hie-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#dc2 solidifies at #ag to #bg ,c42 total m5?ol1 #gj-ij p] c5t41 ( :i* #fe-he p] c5t4 is free2 soluble 9 #c-e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! dem5?olis$ oil is fluid at ord9>y temp]atures1 has a specific gravity ( #j4ijj-j4ijf at #ae ,c41 & conta9s #ej-fj p] c5t4 total m5?ol4 ,"s tw5ty diff]5t con/itu5ts h be5 f\nd 9 ,am]ican pepp]m9t oil1 includ+ m5?ol1 m5?one1 m5?yl acetate1 c9eol1 amyl alcohol1 p95e1 l-limon5e1 phell&r5e1 dime?yl sulphide1 m5?yl isoval]ianate1 isoval]ianic aldehyde1 acetaldehyde1 acetic acid1 & isoval]ianic acid4 ,p]u balsam oil1 ! oily portion 7s-call$ c9name97 obta9$ f ,p]u balsam4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ajj-a4ajg2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #b2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4efi to #a4egf2 e/]1 calculat$ z b5zyl b5zoate1 #hj-hg p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil consi/s *iefly ( b5zyl b5zoate & c9namate1 toge!r ) /yrac91 or c9namyl c9namate1 & a small quantity ( free b5zoic & c9namic acids4 ,petitgra9 oil1 obta9$ by di/illation ( ! twigs & unripe fruit ( ,citrus big>adia4 ,!re are two v>ieties ( ! oil1 ! ,fr5* & ! ,s\? ,am]ican1 ! =m] be+ ! m valuable4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhf-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#c to #f2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjd-a4dfej2 e/]s1 calculat$ z l9alyl acetate1 #dj-ee p] c5t41 = ! be/ qualities usually above #ej p] c5t42 soluble z a rule 9 #b-c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 b occasionally requires #a-b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,among its con/itu5ts are limon5e1 l9alyl acetate1 g]aniol & g]anyl acetate4 ,pim5to oil 7allspice71 di/ill$ f ! fruit ( ,pim5ta (fic9alis1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! ,we/ ,indies & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jdj-a4jfj2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ebi-a4ecf2 ph5ols1 e/imat$ by absorption ) #e p] c5t4 pota% solution1 #fh-hf p] c5t42 soluble 9 #a-b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil conta9s eug5ol1 me?yl eug5ol1 c9eol1 phell&r5e1 & c>yophyll5e4 ,rose oil 7otto ( rose71 di/ill$ f ! fl[]s ( ,rosa damasc5a1 ?\gh occasionally ! :ite roses 7,rosa alba7 are employ$4 ,! pr9cipal rose-gr[+ di/rict is 9 ,bulg>ia1 b a small quantity ( rose oil is prep>$ f roses gr[n 9 ,anatolia1 ,asia ,m9or4 ,an op9ion z to ! purity ( otto ( rose c only be arriv$ at aft] a v full *emical analysis1 supplem5t$ by critical exam9ation ( its od\r by an exp]t4 ,! foll[+ figures1 h[ev]1 w be f\nd to include mo/ oils :i* c be reg>d$ z g5u9e4 ,specific gravity at #cj ,c41 #j4hej-j4heh2 optical rotation at #cj ,c41 -#a #cj' to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjj-a4dfde2 saponification value1 #g-aa2 solidify+ po9t1 #ai-bb ,c42 iod9e numb]1 #ahg-aid2 /e>opt5 cont5t1 #ad-bj p] c5t42 melt+ po9t ( /e>opt51 ab\t #cb ,c4 ,a l>ge numb] ( con/itu5ts h be5 isolat$ f otto ( rose1 _m ( :i* are1 h[ev]1 only pres5t 9 v small quantities4 ,! mo/ important are g]aniol1 citronellol1 ph5yl e?yl alcohol1 toge!r ) n]ol1 l9alol1 citral1 nonylic aldehyde1 eug5ol1 a sesquit]p5e alcohol1 & ! p>aff9 /e>opt54 ,rosem>y oil1 di/ill$ f ! h]b ,rosem>9us (fic9alis1 & obta9$ f ,france1 ,dalmatia1 & ,spa94 ,! h]b is also gr[n 9 ,engl&1 b ! oil di/ill$ !refrom is r>ely met ) 9 comm]ce4 ,! prop]ties ( ! oils v>y ) _! s\rce1 & also ) ! p>ts ( ! plant di/ill$1 di/illation ( ! /alks z well z ! leaves t5d+ to r$uce ! specific gravity & borneol cont5t1 & increase ! proportion ( ! lvo-rotatory con/itu5t 7lvo-p95e74 ,! foll[+ figures may be tak5 z limits = pure oils3-- ,fr5* & ,dalmatian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iaf2 optical rotation1 usually dextro-rotatory1 up to #ae1 b may occasionally be lvo-rotatory1 especially if /alks h be5 di/ill$ ) ! leaves2 e/]1 calculat$ z bornyl acetate1 #a-f p] c5t42 total borneol1 #ab-ah p] c5t42 usually soluble 9 #a-b volumes ( #hb4e p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,spani%4--,! prop]ties ( ! ,spani% oil are simil> to ! o!rs1 except t x is m frequ5tly lvo-rotatory4 ,rosem>y oil conta9s p95e1 camph5e1 c9eol1 borneol1 & camphor4 ,s&alwood oil1 obta9$ by di/illation ( ! wood ( ,santalum album 7,ea/ ,indian71 ,santalum cygnorum 7,we/ ,au/ralian71 & ,amyris balsamif]a 7,we/ ,indian74 ,! oils obta9$ f ^! ?ree diff]5t s\rces diff] v consid]ably 9 value1 ! ,ea/ ,indian be+ by f> ! be/4 ,ea/ ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ige-j4ihj2 optical rotation1 -#ad to -#bj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejde-a4ejfj2 santalol1 #ib-ig p] c5t42 usually soluble 9 #d-f volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 ?\gh1 an old oil occasionally is insoluble 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,we/ ,au/ralian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iej-j4ifh2 optical rotation1 #e to #g2 alcohols1 calculat$ z santalol1 #gc-ge p] c5t42 insoluble 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol1 b readily dissolves 9 #a-b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,we/ ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idh-j4ifg2 optical rotation1 #ac #cj' to #cj2 insoluble 9 #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,9 addition to free santalol1 ! oil conta9s e/]s ( santalol & santalal4 ,sassafras oil1 di/ill$ f ! b>k ( ,sassafras (fic9alis1 & obta9$ *iefly f ,am]ica4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jf-a4jh2 optical rotation1 #a #ej' to #d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ebd-a4ecb2 soluble 91 #f-aj volumes ( #he p] c5t4 alcohol1 frequ5tly soluble 9 #aj-ae volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts are safrol1 p95e1 eug5ol1 camphor1 & phell&r5e4 ,! removal ( safrol1 ei!r int5tionally or by accid5t1 ow+ to cool+ ( ! oil & consequ5t deposition ( ! safrol1 is readily detect$ by ! r$uction ( ! specific gravity bel[ #a4jf4 ,?yme oil1 r$ & :ite1 di/ill$ f ! gre5 or dri$ h]b1 ,?ymus vulg>is1 bo? ,fr5* & ,spani% oils be+ met )4 ,^! oils are entirely diff]5t 9 "*4 ,fr5*4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ia-j4icc2 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d1 b usually too d>k to obs]ve2 ph5ols1 by absorption ) #aj p] c5t4 aque\s cau/ic pota%1 #be-ee p] c5t42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dij-a4ejj2 soluble 9 #a-a4e volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,spani%4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iee-j4iff2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-gyrate2 ph5ols1 #gj-hj p] c5t42 refractive index at #bj ,c42 #a4ejhh-a4eabb2 soluble 9 #b-c volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,9 addition to ! ph5ols1 ?ymol or c>vacrol1 ^! oils conta9 cym5e1 ?ym5e & p95e4 ,! :ite ?yme oil is produc$ by rectify+ ! r$ oil1 :i* is g5]ally effect$ at ! exp5se ( a consid]able r$uction 9 ph5ol cont5t1 & h5ce 9 real od\r value ( ! oil4 ,v]b5a ,oil4--,! oil usually sold "u ?is "n is really lemon-grass oil 7:i* see supra74 ,! true v]b5a oil or ,fr5* v]ve9e is1 h[ev]1 occasionally met )4 ,?is is di/ill$ 9 ,france f ! v]b5a (fic9alis1 & has ! foll[+ prop]ties3 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hia-j4hih2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro- or lvo-rotatory2 aldehydes1 #gj-ge p] c5t42 soluble 9 #b volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! oil conta9s citral4 ,vetiv]t oil1 di/ill$ f ! grass1 ,&ropogon muricatus1 or ,cus ,cus1 & gr[n 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ja-a4jc2 optical rotation1 #bj to #bf2 saponification numb]1 #ae-cj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eba-a4ebd2 soluble 9 #b volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! price ( ?is oil makes its use prohibitive except 9 ! highe/ class soaps4 ,w9t]gre5 ,oil4--,!re are two natural s\rces ( ?is oil1 ! ,gaul!ria procumb5s & ! ,betula l5ta4 ,bo? oils consi/ almo/ entirely ( me?yl salicylate & are practically id5tical 9 prop]ties1 ! *ief diff]5ce be+ t ! =m] has a slight lvo-rotation1 :ile ! latt] is inactive4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ahj-a4ahg2 optical rotation1 ,gaul!ria oil1 up to -#a1 ,betula oil1 inactive2 e/] z me?yl salicylate1 at lea/ #ih p] c5t42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eced-a4ecfd2 soluble 9 #b-f volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,besides me?yl salicylate1 ! oil conta9s triaconitane1 an aldehyde or ketone1 & an alcohol4 ,ylang-ylang oil1 di/ill$ f ! fl[]s ( ,cananga odorata1 ! *ief s\rces be+ ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s & ,java4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ibd-j4iej2 optical rotation1 -#cj to -#fj1 & occasionally high]2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dif-a4eab2 e/]1 calculat$ z l9alyl b5zoate1 #bg-de p] c5t41 occasionally up to #ej p] c5t42 usually soluble 9 #a_/b volume ( #ij p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,! composition ( ! oil is qualitatively ! same z t ( ,cananga oil1 b x is consid]ably m exp5sive & !re=e c only be us$ 9 ! highe/ grade soaps4 ,artificial & ,syn!tic ,p]fumes4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s ! con/itution ( ess5tial oils has be5 /udi$ by a consid]able numb] ( *emi/s1 & ! composition ( _m oils has be5 s fully det]m9$ t v good imitations c (t5 be made at *eap] prices ?an ^? ( ! g5u9e oils1 r5d]+ x possible to produce *eap soaps hav+ p]fumes :i* 7 =m]ly only possible 9 ! m exp5sive article4 ,!re is a consid]able di/9ction1 h[ev]1 (t5 lo/ sight (1 betwe5 an artificial & a syn!tic oil4 ,an artificial oil may be produc$ by sep>at+ v>i\s con/itu5ts f c]ta9 natural oils1 & s bl5d+ ^!1 ) or )\t ! addition ( o!r sub/ances1 z to produce a desir$ od\r1 ! p]fume be+1 at any rate 9 "p1 obta9$ f natural oils4 ,a syn!tic p]fume1 on ! o!r h&1 is entirely ! product ( ! *emical laboratory1 no natural oil or sub/ance d]iv$ !refrom ent]+ into its composition4 ,! foll[+ are among ! mo/ important bodies ( ?is class3-- ,amyl salicylate1 ! e/] prep>$ f amyl alcohol & salicylic acid1 sometimes kn[n z ,or*ide or ,trfle4 ,?is is mu* us$ = ! production ( a clov]-sc5t$ soap4 ,x has ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jeb-a4jed2 optical rotation1 #a #af' to #a #dj'2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejef2 & %\ld conta9 n less ?an #ig p] c5t4 e/]1 calculat$ z amyl salicylate4 ,anisic aldehyde1 or aubp9e1 prep>$ by oxidation ( ane?ol1 & possess+ a pleasant1 haw?orn od\r4 ,?is has ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4abf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4efic2 is optically inactive1 & dissolves readily 9 "o volume ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,b5zyl ,acetate1 ! e/] obta9$ f b5zyl alcohol & acetic acid4 ,?is has a v /rong & some:at co>se1 p5etrat+ od\r1 di/9ctly resembl+ jasm9e4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #a4jfb-a4jfe2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejbj2 & x %\ld conta9 at lea/ #ig-ih p] c5t4 e/]1 calculat$ z b5zyl acetate4 ,citral1 ! aldehyde occurr+ l>gely 9 lemon-grass & v]b5a oils1 also to a less ext5t 9 lemon & orange oils1 & possess+ an int5se lemon-l od\r4 ,x has a specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hif-j4hig1 is optically inactive1 & %\ld be entirely absorb$ by a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite4 ,citronellal1 an aldehyde possess+ ! *>act]i/ic od\r ( citronella oil1 9 :i* x occurs to ! ext5t ( ab\t #bj p] c5t41 & con/itut+ consid]ably ov] #ij p] c5t4 ( eucalyptus citriodora oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hfb2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ddg2 optical rotation1 #h to #ab2 & x %\ld be entirely absorb$ by a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite4 ,c\m>91 a :ite cry/all9e product f\nd 9 ,tonka beans1 & prep>$ syn!tically f salicylic acid4 ,x has an od\r resembl+ new-m[n hay1 & melts at #fg ,c4 ,g]aniol1 a cyclic alcohol1 occurr+ l>gely 9 g]anium1 palma-rosa1 & citronella oils4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hhc-j4hhe2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgfb-a4dggj2 x is optically inactive1 & boils at #bah-bbe ,c4 ,heliotrop91 :i* possesses ! *>act]i/ic od\r ( heliotrope1 is prep>$ artificially f safrol4 ,x cry/allises 9 small prisms melt+ at #hf ,c4 ,hyac9?4--,mo/ ( ! articles sold "u ?is "n are secret bl5ds ( ! diff]5t mak]s4 ,/yrol5e has an od\r v mu* resembl+ hyac9?1 & probably =ms ! basis ( mo/ ( ^! prep>ations1 toge!r ) t]p9eol1 & o!r artificial bodies4 ,! prop]ties ( ! oil v>y consid]ably = diff]5t makes4 ,ionone1 a ketone fir/ prep>$ by ,tiemann1 & hav+ :5 dilut$ a pron\nc$ violet od\r4 ,x is prep>$ by treat+ a mixture ( citral & acetone ) b>ium hydrate1 & di/ill+ 9 vacuo4 ,two isom]ic ketones1 alpha-ionone & beta-ionone1 are produc$1 ! article ( comm]ce be+ usually a mixture ( bo?4 ,! two ketones h ! foll[+ prop]ties3-- ,alpha-ionone4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4icch2 refractive index at #af4e ,c41 #a4ejjdh 7,*uit72 optically x is inactive4 ,beta-ionone4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idhh2 refractive index at #af4h ,c41 #a4ebjgj 7,*uit72 optically x is inactive also4 ,! product is usually sold 9 #aj or #bj p] c5t4 alcoholic solution ready = use4 ,jasm9e4--,?is is "o ( ! few cases 9 :i* ! artificial oil is probably sup]ior to t obta9$ f ! natural fl[]s1 possibly due to ! extreme delicacy ( ! od\r1 & its consequ5t slight decomposition dur+ prep>ation f ! fl[]s4 ,! *emical composition ( ! floral p]fume has be5 v exhau/ively /udi$1 & ! artificial article n[ on ! m>ket may be describ$ z a triumph ( syn!tical *emi/ry4 ,among its con/itu5ts are b5zyl acetate1 l9alyl acetate1 b5zyl alcohol1 indol1 me?yl an?ranilate1 & a ketone jasmone4 ,l9alol1 ! alcohol =m+ ! great] "p ( l9aloe & bois de rose oils1 & f\nd also 9 lav5d]1 n]oli1 petitgra91 b]gamot1 & _m o!r oils4 ,! article has ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4hgf2 optical rotation1 -#ab to -#ad2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfc-a4dfd2 & :5 e/imat$ by acetylation1 yields ab\t #gj p] c5t4 ( alcohols4 ,l9alyl acetate1 or artificial b]gamot oil1 is ! e/] =m$ :5 l9alol is treat$ ) acetic anhydride4 ,x possesses a b]gamot-l od\r1 b x is d\btful :e!r its value is comm5surate ) its greatly increas$ price ov] t ( ord9>y b]gamot oil4 ,x has ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iab4 ,musk 7,artificial74--,sev]al =ms ( ?is are to be obta9$1 practically all ( :i* are nitro-d]ivatives ( aromatic hydroc>bons4 ,! orig9al pat5t ( ,baur1 obta9$ 9 #ahhi1 cov]$ ! tri-nitro-d]ivative ( t]ti>y butyl xyl5e4 ,! melt+ po9t ( ! pure article usually lies betwe5 #ajh & #aab ,c41 & ! solubility 9 #ie p] c5t4 alcohol ranges f #a 9 #abj to #a 9 #bjj1 ?\gh m soluble =ms are also made4 ,an important adult]ant1 :i* %\ld always be te/$ =1 is acetanilide 7antifebr971 :i* may be detect$ by ! *>act]i/ic isocyanide od\r produc$ :5 musk conta9+ ?is sub/ance is boil$ ) alcoholic pota%1 & a few drops ( *lor(orm add$4 ,acetanilide also increases ! solubility 9 #ie p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,n]oli ,oil 7,artificial74--,l jasm9e oil1 ! *emi/ry ( n]oli oil is n[ v fully kn[n1 & x is !re=e possible to prep>e an artificial product :i* is a v good approximation to ! natural oil1 & _m su* are n[ on ! m>ket1 :i*1 on acc\nt ( _! comp>ative *eapness1 comm5d !mselves to ! soap-p]fum]4 ,^! consi/ *iefly ( l9alol1 g]aniol1 l9alyl acetate1 me?yl an?ranilate1 & citral4 ,mirbane ,oil or ,nitrob5z5e4--,?is is a *eap sub/itute = oil ( bitt] almonds1 or b5zaldehyde1 & is a v co>se1 irritat+ p]fume1 only suitable = use 9 ! v *eape/ soaps4 ,x is prep>$ by ! action ( a mixture ( nitric & sulphuric acids on b5z5e at a temp]ature n exce$+ #dj ,c4 ,its specific gravity is #a4bje-a4bjf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eej2 & boil+ po9t1 #bjf ,c4 ,niobe oil1 or e?yl b5zoate1 ! e/] obta9$ f e?yl alcohol & b5zoic acid1 & hav+ ! specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jid-a4jie2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eafg2 boil+ po9t1 #aif4e-aih ,c42 soluble 9 #a4e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,oeillet is a comb9ation possess$ ( a sweet c>nation-l od\r & hav+ z a basis1 eug5ol or isoeug5ol4 ,its prop]ties v>y ) ! s\rce ( supply4 ,rose ,oil 7,artificial74--,sev]al good & fairly *eap artificial rose oils are n[ obta9able1 consi/+ *iefly ( citronellol1 g]aniol1 l9alol1 ph5yl e?yl alcohol1 & citral4 ,9 "s cases /e>opt5 or o!r wax is add$1 to r5d] ! oil m simil> 9 appe>ance to ! natural article1 b z ^! are inodor\s1 no advantage is ga9$ 9 ?is way1 & !re is1 fur!r1 ! inconv5i5ce 9 cold wea!r ( hav+ to fir/ melt ! oil be=e use4 ,safrol1 an e!r :i* is ! *ief con/itu5t ( sassafras oil1 & also f\nd 9 consid]able quantity 9 camphor oil4 ,x is sold z an artificial sassafras oil1 & is v mu* us$ 9 p]fum+ *eap toilet or h\sehold soaps4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #a4ajc-a4ajf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ecgc2 & x dissolves 9 fifte5 volumes ( #hj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,santalol1 ! alcohol or mixture ( alcohols obta9$ f s&alwood oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4igie2 optical rotation1 -#ah2 & refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejg4 ,t]eb5e1 a mixture ( dip5t5e & o!r hydroc>bons prep>$ f turp5t9e oil by treatm5t ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 is us$ *iefly 9 m$icat$ soaps4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hfb-j4hfh2 ! oil is frequ5tly slightly dextro- or lvo-rotatory2 ! refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgj-a4dgh4 ,t]p9eol1 an alcohol also prep>$ f turp5t9e oil by ! action ( sulphuric acid1 t]p5e hydrate be+ =m$ z an int]m$iate sub/ance4 ,x has a di/9ctly *>act]i/ic lilac od\r1 & on acc\nt ( its *eapness is mu* us$ 9 soap p]fum]y1 especially = a lilac or lily soap4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4icf-j4idj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhab-a4dhce2 & boil+ po9t ab\t #baj-bab ,c4 ,x is optically inactive1 & readily soluble 9 #a4e volumes ( #gj p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,vanill91 a :ite cry/all9e solid1 melt+ at #hj-hb ,c4 & prep>$ by ! oxidation ( isoeug5ol4 ,x has a /rong *>act]i/ic od\r1 & occurs1 associat$ ) traces ( b5zoic acid & heliotrop91 9 ! vanilla bean4 ,x c only be us$ 9 small quantity 9 light-col\r$ soaps1 z x quickly t5ds to d>k5 ! col\r ( ! soap4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,glyc]9e ,,manufacture ,,& ,,purification4 ,treatm5t ( ,lyes--,evaporation to ,crude ,glyc]9e--,di/illation--,di/ill$ & ,dynamite ,glyc]9e--,*emically ,pure ,glyc]9e--,animal ,*>coal = ,decolorisation--,glyc]9e obta9$ by o!r ,me?ods ( ,saponification--,yield ( ,glyc]9e f ,fats & ,oils4 ,z po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ! fatty acids1 :i*1 comb9$ ) soda or pota%1 =m soap1 occur 9 nature almo/ inv>iably 9 ! =m ( glyc]ides1 i4e41 comp\nds ( fatty acids ) glyc]ol1 & z ! result ( saponification ( a fat or oil glyc]9e is set free4 ,9 ,*apt] ,v4 processes ( soap-mak+ are describ$ 9 :i* 7#a7 ! glyc]9e is reta9$ 9 ! f9i%$ soap1 & 7#b7 ! glyc]9e is conta9$ 9 ! lyes1 9 v dilute solution1 contam9at$ ) salt & o!r impurities4 ,^! lyes1 ?\gh n[ con/itut+ ! *ief s\rce ( pr(it 9 ! manufacture ( *eap soaps1 7 till e>ly 9 la/ c5tury simply run d[n ! dra9s z wa/e liquor4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 devot$ to ! purification & conc5tration ( glyc]9e lyes2 & elaborate plant ( v>i\s =ms has be5 devis$ = ! purpose4 ,treatm5t ( ,lyes4--,! sp5t lyes )drawn f ! soap-pans are cool$1 & ! soap1 :i* has sep>at$ dur+ ! cool+1 is c>efully remov$ & return$ to ! soap-h\se = utilisation 9 ! manufacture ( br[n soap4 ,sp5t lyes may v>y 9 _! cont5t ( glyc]ol f #c to #h p] c5t41 & ?is dep5ds n only ^u ! sy/em adopt$ 9 ! work+ ( ! soap-pans1 b also ^u ! mat]ials us$4 ,al?\gh1 9 ^! days ( pure cau/ic soda1 sp5t lyes are m free f impurities ?an =m]ly1 ! pres5ce ( sulphides & sulphites %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 if x is desir$ to produce good glyc]9e4 ,! lyes are transf]r$ to a lead-l9$ tank ( conv5i5t size1 & treat$ ) comm]cial hydro*loric acid & alum9ium sulphate1 suffici5t be+ add$ ( ! =m] to neutralise ! free alkali1 & r5d] ! liquor fa9tly acid1 & ( ! latt] to completely precipitate ! fatty acids4 ,! acid %\ld be run 9 sl[ly1 & ! po9t :5 en\gh has be5 add$1 is indicat$ by blue litmus pap] be+ slightly r$d5$ by ! lyes4 ,! :ole is !n agitat$ ) air1 :5 a sample tak5 f ! tank & filt]$ %\ld give a cle> filtrate4 ,hav+ obta9$ ?is cle> solution1 agitation is /opp$1 & ! cont5ts ( ! tank pass$ ?r\gh a filt] press4 ,! scum1 :i* accumulates on ! treatm5t tank1 may be transf]r$ to a p]=at$ box susp5d$ ov] ! tank1 & ! liquor all[$ to dra9 f x4 ,! filt]$ liquor is n[ r5d]$ slightly alkal9e by ! addition ( cau/ic soda or c>bonate1 &1 aft] filt]+1 is ready = evaporation4 ,! acid & alum salt us$ 9 ! above treatm5t mu/ be c>efully exam9$ = ! pres5ce ( ars5ic1 & any deliv]ies ( ei!r article1 :i* conta9 t impurity1 reject$4 ,lime1 bog ore1 & v>i\s metallic salts1 su* z f]ric *loride1 b>ium *loride1 & copp] sulphate h be5 sugge/$1 & 9 "s in/ances are us$ in/ead ( alum9ium sulphate1 b ! latt] is g5]ally employ$4 ,evaporation to ,crude ,glyc]9e4--,! cle> treat$ lyes1 be+ n[ free f fatty1 res9\s1 & album9\s matt]1 & consi/+ practically ( an aque\s solution ( common salt 7sodium *loride7 & glyc]9e1 is conv]t$ into crude glyc]9e by conc5tration1 :i* elim9ates ! wat] & causes mo/ ( ! salt to be deposit$4 ,?is conc5tration 0 orig9ally p]=m$ 9 op5 pans heat$ by fire or wa/e combu/ible gases4 ,9 ! bottom ( ea* pan 0 plac$ a di% 9 :i* ! salt deposit$1 & ?is di% 0 lift$ out p]iodically by ! aid ( an ov]head crane & ! cont5ts empti$ & wa%$4 ,conc5tration 0 cont9u$ until ! temp]ature ( ! liquor 0 #cjj ,f4 7#adi ,c471 :5 x 0 all[$ to re/ be=e /or+4 ,?is liquor on analysis gave #hj p] c5t4 glyc]ol & f #i to #aj-a_/b p] c5t4 salts 7a%72 h5ce ! pres5t /&>d = crude glyc]9e4 ,conc5tration 9 op5 pans has n[ be5 sup]s$$ by evaporation 9 vacuo4 ,! subject ( ! gradual developm5t ( ! mod]n effici5t evaporat+ plant f ! vacuum pan1 orig9at$ & successfully appli$ by ,h[>d 9 #ahac 9 ! sug> indu/ry1 is too l5g?y to detail "h1 suffice x to say t ! multiple effects n[ 9 vogue possess di/9ct advantages--! greate/ ( ^! be+ increas$ effici5cy comb9$ ) economy4 ,! pres5t type ( evaporator consi/s ( "o or m vessels1 ea* fitt$ ) a /eam *amb] ?r\gh :i* are fix$ v]tical holl[ tubes4 ,! /eam *amb] ( ! fir/ vessel is heat$ ) direct /eam1 or ) exhau/ /eam 7suppli$ f ! exhau/ /eam receiv] into :i* passes ! wa/e /eam ( ! factory72 ! treat$ lyes circulat+ ?r\gh ! heat$ tubes is made to boil at a l[] temp]ature1 ) ! r$uc$ pressure1 ?an is possible by heat+ 9 op5 pans4 ,! vap\r giv5 (f by ! boil+ liquor is convey$ ?r\gh l>ge pipes into ! /eam *amb] ( ! second vessel1 :]e its lat5t heat is utilis$ 9 produc+ evaporation1 ! pressure be+ fur!r r$uc$1 z ?is second vessel is "u a great] vacuum ?an ,no4 #a4 ,?us we get a d\ble effect1 z ! plant consi/+ ( two pans is t]m$4 ,! vap\rs dis*>g$ f ! second vessel dur+ boil+ are pass$ ?r\gh pipes to ! /eam *amb] ( ! ?ird vessel 79 a triple effect71 & !re be+ cond5s$1 create a p>tial vacuum 9 ! second vessel4 ,! ?ird vessel may also be heat$ by means ( live /eam4 ,! vap\rs aris+ f ! la/ vessel ( ! evaporat+ plant1 or 9 ! case ( a s+le effect f ! vessel1 are convey$ into a cond5s] & cond5s$ by injection wat]1 :i* is drawn (f by means ( ! pump employ$ = ma9ta9+ a vacuum ( #bh in*es 9 ! vessel4 ,9 ! mo/ rec5t designs ( l>ge evaporative in/allations1 ! vap\rs g5]at$ f ! la/ vessel are drawn ?r\gh a device consi/+ ( a numb] ( tubes enclos$ 9 a cas+1 & ! lat5t heat raises ! temp]ature ( ! treat$ lyes proce$+ ?r\gh ! tubes to supply ! evaporator4 ,x w ?us be obs]v$ t ! object ( multiple effects is to utilise all ! available heat 9 p]=m+ ! greate/ possible am\nt ( "w4 ,special devices are atta*$ to ! plant = automatically remov+ ! cond5s$ wat] f ! /eam *amb]s )\t ! loss ( useful heat1 & z a precaution aga9/ spla%+ ov] & subsequ5t loss ( glyc]9e ?r\gh conveyance to ! /eam *amb]1 da% plates & cat*-alls or save-alls ( v>i\s designs are fitt$ on ea* vessel4 ,9 work+ ! plant1 ! liquor 9 ea* vessel is kept at a fairly con/ant level by judici\s fe$+ f "o to ! o!r2 ! fir/ vessel is1 ( c\rse1 *>g$ ) treat$ lyes4 ,z ! liquor acquires a d5sity ( #db ,tw4 7#be ,b47 salt beg9s to deposit1 & may be )drawn into "o ( ! _m pat5t$ appliances1 9 :i* x is fre$ f glyc]9e1 wa%$ & dri$ ready = use at ! soap pans4 ,difficulty is sometimes exp]i5c$ ) ! tubes becom+ *ok$ ) salt1 !reby dim9i%+ & ret>d+ evaporation4 ,x may be necess>y to dissolve ! encru/$ salt ) lyes or wat]1 b ) c>eful work+ ! difficulty c be obviat$ by wa%+ out ) weak lyes aft] ea* bat* ( crude glyc]9e has be5 run away1 or by increas+ ! circulation4 ,x is claim$ t by ! use ( ! revolv+ heat] design$ by ,lewk[its*1 ! salt+ up ( tubes is prev5t$4 ,! salt hav+ be5 precipitat$ & remov$1 evaporation is cont9u$ until a sample tak5 f ! la/ vessel has a d5sity ( #fj ,tw4 7#cc4c ,b47 at #fj ,f4 7#ae4e ,c474 ,:5 ?is po9t is rea*$1 ! crude glyc]9e is ready to be )drawn into a tank1 &1 aft] all[+ ! excess ( salt to deposit1 may be transf]r$ to ! /orage tank4 ,! col\r ( crude glyc]9e v>ies f light br[n to d>k br[n1 almo/ black1 & dep5ds l>gely on ! mat]ials us$ = soap-mak+4 ,! organic matt] pres5t 9 good crude glyc]9e is small 9 am\nt1 (t5 less ?an #a p] c5t42 ars5ic1 sulphides & sulphites %\ld be abs5t4 ,crude glyc]9e is ref9$ 9 "s cases by ! produc]s !mselves2 o!rs sell x to firms engag$ m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ref9$ glyc]9e trade4 ,di/illation4--,crude glyc]9e is di/ill$ "u vacuum ) ! aid ( sup]heat$ /eam4 ,! /ill is heat$ directly ) a coal or coke fire1 & 9 ?is fire space is ! sup]heat]1 :i* consi/s ( a coil ( pipes ?r\gh :i* high pressure /eam f ! boil] is sup]heat$4 ,! di/illation is conduct$ at a temp]ature ( #cef;,f4 7#ahj ,c474 ,to prev5t ! deposition & burn+ ( salt on ! /ill-bottom dur+ ! di/illation1 a false bottom is support$ ab\t #a foot f ! base ( ! /ill4 ,) ! same object 9 view1 x has be5 sugge/$ to rotate ! cont5ts ) an agitator fix$ 9 ! /ill4 ,e c>e is tak5 t ! /ill does n become ov]heat$2 ?is precaution n only prev5ts loss ( glyc]9e ?r\gh c>bonisation1 b also obviates ! production ( t>ry & o!r bodies :i* might affect ! col\r1 ta/e1 & od\r ( ! di/ill$ glyc]9e4 ,! vacuum to be us$ w1 ( c\rse1 dep5d ^u ! heat ( ! fire & /ill1 b z a g5]al rule good results are obta9$ ) an #ah in* vacuum4 ,!re are q a l>ge numb] ( designs = /ill heads1 & cat*-alls1 hav+ = _! object ! prev5tion ( loss ( glyc]9e4 ,! di/illate passes into a r[ ( cond5s]s1 to ea* ( :i* is atta*$ a receptacle or receiv]4 ,x is ne$less to /ate t ! cond5s+ capacity %\ld be 9 excess ( !oretical requirem5ts4 ,! fractions are ( v>y+ /r5g?s & quality2 t portion1 ) a d5sity less ?an #ad ,tw4 7#ai4d ,b471 is return$ to ! treat$-lyes tank4 ,! o!r portion ( ! di/illate is conc5trat$ by means ( a dry /eam coil 9 a suitable vessel "u a #bh in* vacuum4 ,:5 suffici5tly conc5trat$ ! glyc]9e may be decoloris$1 if necess>y1 by treat+ ) #a p] c5t4 animal *>coal & pass+ ?r\gh a filt] press1 f :i* x issues z dynamite glyc]9e4 ,! residue 9 ! /ill1 consi/+ ( #ej-fj p] c5t4 glyc]9e & v>y+ proportions ( v>i\s sodium salts--e4g4 acetate1 *loride1 sulphate1 & comb9ations ) non-volatile organic acids--is g5]ally boil$ ) wat] & treat$ ) acid4 ,! t>1 :i* is sep>at$1 floats on ! surface z ! liquor is cool+1 & may be remov$ by ladles1 or ! :ole mix$ ) wa/e *>coal1 & filt]$4 ,! filtrate is !n evaporat$1 :5 ! volatile organic acids are driv5 (f2 ! conc5trat$ liquor is f9ally mix$ ) crude glyc]9e :i* is ready = di/illation1 or x may be di/ill$ sep>ately4 ,di/ill$ ,glyc]9e4--,?is class ( comm]cial glyc]9e1 al?\gh ( limit$ use 9 v>i\s o!r bran*es ( indu/ry1 f9ds its *ief outlet 9 ! manufacture ( explosives4 ,specifications are usually giv5 9 contracts drawn up betwe5 buy]s & sell]s1 to :i* ! product mu/ con=m4 ,! *ief /ipulation = dynamite glyc]9e is its behavi\r 9 ! nitration te/4 ,:5 glyc]9e is gradually add$ to a cold mixture ( /rong nitric & sulphuric acids1 x is conv]t$ into nitro-glyc]9e1 :i* sep>ates z an oily lay] on ! surface ( ! acid4 ,! m def9ite & rapid ! sep>ation1 ! m suitable is ! glyc]9e = dynamite-mak+4 ,dynamite glyc]9e %\ld be free f ars5ic1 lime1 *lorides1 & fatty acids1 ! inorganic matt] %\ld n am\nt to m ?an #j4a p] c5t41 & a portion dilut$ & treat$ ) nitrate ( silv] solution %\ld give no turbidity or discoloration 9 t5 m9utes4 ,! specific gravity %\ld be #a4bfb at #ae ,c4 7#ei ,f47 & ! col\r some:at yell[4 ,*emically pure glyc]9e or d\ble di/ill$ glyc]9e is produc$ by r$i/ill+ once di/ill$ glyc]9e4 ,e c>e is tak5 to avoid all fractions :i* d n )/& ! nitrate ( silv] te/4 ,! di/illation is v c>efully p]=m$ "u /rict sup]vision4 ,! di/illate is conc5trat$ & aft] treatm5t ) animal *>coal & filtration %\ld con=m to ! requirem5ts ( ! ,briti% ,ph>macopoeia4 ,^! are specifi$ z foll[s3 ,specific gravity at #ae4e ,c41 #a4bfj4 ,x %\ld yield no *>act]i/ic reaction ) ! te/s = lead1 copp]1 ars5ium1 iron1 calcium1 potassium1 sodium1 ammonium1 *lorides1 or sulphates4 ,x %\ld conta9 no sug>s & leave no residue on burn+4 ,animal ,*>coal = ,decolorisation4--,! application ( animal *>coal = decoloris+ purposes dates back a c5tury1 & v>i\s are ! views t h be5 prop\nd$ to expla9 its action4 ,"s obs]v]s base x ^u ! physical condition ( ! s-call$ c>bon pres5t1 & no d\bt ?is is an important factor1 c\pl$ ) ! porosity4 ,o!rs consid] t ! nitrog51 :i* is pres5t 9 all animal *>coal & extremely difficult to remove1 is ess5tial to ! action4 ,animal *>coal %\ld be fre$ f gypsum 7sulphate ( lime71 le/ 9 ! burn+1 sulphur comp\nds be =m$ :i* w\ld pass into ! glyc]9e & contam9ate x4 ,! *> %\ld be well boil$ ) wat]1 !n c>bonate ( soda or cau/ic soda add$ 9 suffici5t quantity to give an alkal9e reaction1 & aga9 well boil$4 ,! liquor is )drawn & ! *>coal wa%$ until ! wa%+s are no long] alkal9e4 ,! *>coal is !n sep>at$ f ! liquor & treat$ ) hydro*loric acid2 op9ions diff] z to ! am\nt ( acid to be us$4 ,"s cont5d t phosphate ( lime plays su* an important "p 9 decoloris+ t x %\ld n be remov$1 b x has1 h[ev]1 be5 demon/rat$ t ?is sub/ance aft] exposure to heat has v little decoloris+ p[]4 ,animal *>coal boil$ ) f\r times its weight ( a mixture consi/+ ( equal p>ts ( comm]cial hydro*loric acid 7free f ars5ic7 & wat] = twelve h\rs1 !n wa%$ free f acid1 dri$1 & burn$ 9 clos$ vessels gives a product possess$ ( great decoloris+ p[] = use ) glyc]9es4 ,a good animal *>coal w h a dull appe>ance1 & be ( a deep col\r2 x %\ld be us$ 9 f9e gra9s & n 9 ! =m ( a p[d]4 ,! *>coal f ! filt] presses is wa%$ free f glyc]9e 7:i* is return$ to ! treat$ lyes71 cleans$ f =eign sub/ances by ! above treatm5t & revivifi$ by c>efully heat+ 9 clos$ vessels = twelve h\rs4 ,glyc]9e obta9$ by o!r ,me?ods ( ,saponification4--,fr5* saponification or c&le crude glyc]9e is ! result ( conc5tration ( sweet wat] produc$ 9 ! manufacture ( /e>9e & by ! autoclave process4 ,x conta9s #he-ij p] c5t4 glyc]ol1 possesses a specific gravity ( #a4bdj-a4bdb1 & may be readily di/+ui%$ f ! soap-crude glyc]9e by ! abs5ce ( salt 7sodium *loride74 ,?is glyc]9e is easily ref9$ by treatm5t ) *>coal4 ,! glyc]9e wat] result+ f acid saponification me?ods requires to be r5d]$ alkal9e by ! addition ( lime--! sludge is sep>at$1 & ! liquor evaporat$ to crude4 ,! conc5tration may be p]=m$ 9 two /ages--fir/ to a d5sity ( #cb ,tw4 7#bj ,b471 :5 ! calcium sulphate is all[$ to deposit1 & ! sep>at$ liquor conc5trat$ to #dh ,tw4 7#bh ,b47 glyc]9e1 te/+ #he p] c5t4 glyc]ol & upw>ds4 ,yield ( ,glyc]9e f ,fats & ,oils4--,! foll[+ repres5t practicable results :i* %\ld be obta9$ f ! v>i\s mat]ials3-- ,tall[ #i p] c5t4 ( #hj p] c5t4 ,glyc]ol4 ,cotton-se$ oil #aj ,cocoa-nut oil #ab ,palm-k]nel oil #ah ,olive oil #aj ,palm oil #f ,greases 7,bone fats7 #f-h ,! mat]ials v>y 9 glyc]ol cont5t ) ! me?ods ( prep>ation2 especially is ?is ! case ) tall[s & greases4 ,e c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! raw mat]ials are fre% & !y %\ld be c>efully exam9$ to asc]ta9 if any decomposition has tak5 place 9 ! glyc]ides--?is w\ld be d5ot$ by ! pres5ce ( an excess ( free acidity1 & ! am\nt ( glyc]ol obta9able f su* a fat w\ld be correspond+ly r$uc$4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,raw ,,mat]ials1 ,,soap1 ,,& ,,glyc]9e4 ,fats & ,oils--,alkalies & ,alkali ,salts--,ess5tial ,oils--,soap--,lyes--,crude ,glyc]9e4 ,raw ,mat]ials4--,av]age figures h already be5 giv5 9 ,*apt]s ,,iii4 & ,,viii4 = ! m important physical & *emical *>act]i/ics ( fats & oils1 also ( ess5tial oils2 ! foll[+ is an outl9e ( ! processes usually adopt$ 9 _! det]m9ation4 ,= full] details1 text-books deal+ exhau/ively ) ! respective subjects %\ld be consult$4 ,,fats ,,& ,,oils4 ,x is v undesirable t any ( ^! mat]ials %\ld be all[$ to ent] ! soap pan )\t an analysis hav+ fir/ be5 made1 z ! oil may n only h become p>tially hydrolys$1 involv+ a loss ( glyc]9e1 or conta9 album9\s matt] r5d]+ ! soap liable to develop rancidity1 b actual sophi/ication may h tak5 place4 ,?us a sample ( tall[ rec5tly exam9$ by ! au?ors conta9$ z mu* z #dj p] c5t4 ( an unsaponifiable wax1 :i* w\ld h l$ to disa/] 9 ! soap pan1 _h ! bulk be5 us$ )\t exam9ation4 ,aft] obs]v+ ! appe>ance1 col\r1 & od\r ( ! sample1 not+ any *>act]i/ic feature1 ! foll[+ physical & *emical data %\ld be det]m9$4 ,specific ,gravity at #ae ,c4 ,?is may be tak5 by means ( a ,we/phal balance1 or by us+ a picnomet] ( ei!r ! ord9>y gravity bottle %ape1 ) p]=at$ /opp]1 or ! ,spr5gel ,u-tube4 ,! picnomet] %\ld be calibrat$ ) di/ill$ wat] at #ae ,c4 ,! specific gravity ( solid fats may be tak5 at an elevat$ temp]ature1 pref]ably t ( a boil+ wat] ba?4 ,free acidity is e/imat$ by weigh+ out f #b to #e grammes ( ! fat or oil1 dissolv+ 9 neutral alcohol 7purifi$ me?ylat$ _s7 ) g5tle heat1 & titrat+ ) a /&>d aque\s or alcoholic solution ( cau/ic soda or pota%1 us+ ph5ol-ph?ale9 z indicator4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask are well %ak5 aft] ea* addition ( alkali1 & ! reaction is complete :5 ! slight excess ( alkali causes a p]man5t p9k coloration ) ! indicator4 ,! /&>d alkali may be ,n_/#b1 ,n_/#e1 or ,n_/#aj4 ,x is usual to calculate ! result 9 t]ms ( oleic acid 7#a c4c4 ,n_/#aj alkali #j4jbhb gramme oleic acid71 & express 9 p]c5tage on ! fat or oil4 ,example4--#a4higf grammes 7 tak51 & requir$ #e4b c4c4 ( ,n_/#aj ,,koh solution = neutralisation4 #e4b #j4jbhb #ajj ------------------ #g4gb p] c5t4 free fatty acids1 #a4higf express$ z oleic acid4 ,! free acidity is sometimes express$ z acid value1 :i* is ! am\nt ( ,,koh 9 milligrammes necess>y to neutralise ! free acid 9 #a gramme ( fat or oil4 ,9 ! above example3-- #e4b #e4fa ---------- #ae4c acid value4 #a4higf ,! saponification equival5t is det]m9$ by weigh+ #b-d grammes ( fat or oil into a wide-neck$ flask 7ab\t #bej c4c4 capacity71 add+ #cj c4c4 neutral alcohol1 & w>m+ "u a reflux cond5s] on a /eam or wat]-ba?4 ,:5 boil+1 ! flask is disconnect$1 #ej c4c4 ( an approximately semi-normal alcoholic pota% solution c>efully add$ f a burette1 toge!r ) a few drops ( ph5ol-ph?ale9 solution1 & ! boil+ "u a reflux cond5s] cont9u$1 ) frequ5t agitation1 until saponification is complete 7usually f #cj-fj m9utes7 :i* is indicat$ by ! abs5ce ( fatty globules4 ,! excess ( alkali is titrat$ ) ,n_/#a hydro*loric or sulphuric acid4 ,! value ( ! approximately ,n_/#b alkali solution is asc]ta9$ by tak+ #ej c4c4 toge!r ) #cj c4c4 neutral alcohol 9 a simil> flask1 boil+ = ! same l5g? ( "t z ! fat1 & titrat+ ) ,n_/#a hydro*loric or sulphuric acid4 ,! saponification equival5t is ! am\nt ( fat or oil 9 grammes saponifi$ by #a equival5t or #ef4a grammes ( cau/ic pota%4 ,example4--#a4higf grammes fat requir$ #ah4ie c4c4 ,n_/#a acid to neutralise ! unabsorb$ alkali4 ,fifty c4c4 approximately ,n_/#b alcoholic pota% solution requir$ #be4f c4c4 ,n_/ acid44 #be4f - #ah4ie #f4fe c4c4 ,n_/#a ,,koh requir$ by fat4 #a4higf #ajjj _/ #f4fe #bhe4c ,saponification ,equival5t4 ,! result ( ?is te/ is (t5 express$ z ! ,saponification ,value1 :i* is ! numb] ( milligrammes ( ,,koh requir$ = ! saponification ( #a gramme ( fat4 ,?is may be f\nd by divid+ #ef1ajj by ! saponification equival5t or by multiply+ ! numb] ( c4c4 ( ,n_/#a alkali absorb$1 by #ef4a & divid+ by ! quantity ( fat tak54 ,?us1 9 ! above example3-- #f4fe #ef4a _/ #a4higf #aif4f ,saponification ,value4 ,! e/] or e!r value1 or numb] ( milligrammes ( ,,koh requir$ = ! saponification ( ! neutral e/]s or glyc]ides 9 #a gramme ( fat1 is repres5t$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! saponification & acid values4 ,9 ! example giv51 ! e/] value w\ld be #aif4f - #ae4c #aha4c4 ,unsaponifiable ,matt]4--,! usual me?od adopt$ is to saponify ab\t #e grammes ( ! fat or oil ) #ej c4c4 ( approximately ,n_/#b alcoholic pota% solution by boil+ "u a reflux cond5s] ) frequ5t agitation = ab\t #a h\r4 ,! solution is !n evaporat$ to dryness 9 a porcela9 bas9 ov] a /eam or wat]-ba?1 & ! resultant soap dissolv$ 9 ab\t #bjj c4c4 hot wat]4 ,:5 suffici5tly cool1 ! soap solution is transf]r$ to a sep>at+ funnel1 #ej c4c4 ( e!r add$1 ! :ole well %ak51 & all[$ to re/4 ,! e!real lay] is remov$ to ano!r sep>ator1 m e!r be+ add$ to ! aque\s soap solution1 & aga9 sep>at$4 ,! two e!real extracts are !n wa%$ ) wat] to deprive !m ( any soap1 sep>at$1 transf]r$ to a flask1 & ! e!r di/ill$ (f ^u a wat]-ba?4 ,! residue1 dri$ 9 ! ov5 at #ajj ,c4 until con/ant1 is ! unsaponifiable matt]1 :i* is calculat$ to p] c5t4 on ! oil4 ,9 ?is me?od1 x is v frequ5tly mo/ difficult to obta9 a di/9ct sep>ation ( e!r & aque\s soap solution--an int]m$iate lay] ( emulsion rema9+ ev5 aft] prolong$ /&+1 & v>i\s exp$i5ts h be5 recomm5d$ to ov]come ?is1 su* z addition ( alcohol 7:5 petroleum e!r is us$71 glyc]9e1 m e!r1 wat]1 or cau/ic pota% solution1 or by rotatory agitation4 ,a bett] plan is to proce$ z 9 ! me?od above describ$ z f> z dissolv+ ! result+ soap 9 #bjj c4c4 wat]1 & !n boil = tw5ty or ?irty m9utes4 ,slightly cool & acidify ) dilute sulphuric acid 7#a to #c71 boil until ! fatty acids are cle>1 wa% ) hot wat] free f m9]al acid1 & dry by filt]+ ?r\gh a hot wat] funnel4 ,two grammes ( ! fatty acids are n[ dissolv$ 9 neutral alcohol saturat$ ) "s solv5t1 pref]ably a light fraction ( b5zol9e1 a quantity ( ! solv5t add$ to take up ! unsaponifiable matt]1 & ! :ole boil$ "u a reflux cond5s]4 ,aft] cool+1 ! liquid is titrat$ ) ,n_/#b aque\s ,,koh solution1 us+ ph5ol-ph?ale9 z indicator1 ?is figure giv+ ! am\nt ( ! total fatty acids pres5t4 ,! :ole is !n p\r$ into a sep>at+ funnel1 :5 sep>ation imm$iately takes place4 ,! alcoholic lay] is )drawn1 ! b5zol9e wa%$ ) w>m wat] 7ab\t #cb ,c47 foll[$ by neutral alcohol 7previ\sly saturat$ ) ! solv5t71 & transf]r$ to a t>$ flask1 :i* is atta*$ to a cond5s]1 & ! b5zol9e di/ill$ (f4 ,! la/ traces ( solv5t rema9+ 9 ! flask are remov$ by g5tly w>m+ 9 ! wat]-ov51 & ! flask cool$ & weigh$1 ?us giv+ ! am\nt ( unsaponifiable matt]4 ,con/itution ( ! ,unsaponifiable ,matt]4--,unsaponifiable matt] may consi/ ( *ole/]ol1 phyto/]ol1 solid alcohols 7cetyl & c]yl alcohols71 or hydroc>bons 7m9]al oil74 ,*ole/]ol is frequ5tly f\nd 9 animal fats1 & phyto/]ol is a v simil> sub/ance pres5t 9 vegetable fats4 ,solid alcohols occur naturally 9 sp]m oil1 b hydroc>bons1 :i* may be g5]ally recognis$ by ! fluoresc5ce or bloom !y give to ! oil1 are n natural con/itu5ts ( animal or vegetable oils & fats4 ,! pres5ce ( *ole/]ol & phyto/]ol may be detect$ by dissolv+ a small portion ( ! unsaponifiable matt] 9 acetic anhydride1 & add+ a drop ( ! solution to "o drop ( #ej p] c5t4 sulphuric acid on a spot plate1 :5 a *>act]i/ic blood r$ to violet coloration is produc$4 ,x has be5 propos$ to diff]5tiate betwe5 *ole/]ol & phyto/]ol by _! melt+ po9ts1 b x is m reliable to comp>e ! cry/all9e =ms1 ! =m] cry/allis+ 9 lam91 :ile ! latt] =ms gr\ps ( ne$le-%ap$ tufts4 ,ano!r me?od is to conv]t ! sub/ance into acetate1 & take its melt+ po9t1 *ole/]ol acetate melt+ at #aad4c-aad4h ,c41 & phyto/]ol acetate at #abe4f-acg ,c4 ,additional te/s = *ole/]ol h be5 rec5tly propos$ by ,lifs*tz 7,b]4 ,deut4 ,*em4 ,ges41 #aijh1 #beb-bee71 & ,golodetz 7,*em4 ,zeit41 #aijh1 #afj74 ,9 t due to ! =m]1 :i* dep5ds on ! oxidation ( *ole/]ol to oxy*ole/]ol e/] & oxy*ole/]ol1 a few milligrammes ( ! sub/ance are dissolv$ 9 #b-c c4c4 glacial acetic acid1 a little b5zoyl p]oxide add$1 & ! solution boil$1 aft] :i* f\r drops ( /rong sulphuric acid are add$1 :5 a violet-blue or gre5 col\r is produc$1 if *ole/]ol is pres5t1 ! violet col\r be+ due to oxy*ole/]ol e/]1 ! gre5 to oxy*ole/]ol4 ,two te/s are sugge/$ by ,golodetz 7#a7 ! addition ( "o or two drops ( a reag5t consi/+ ( five p>ts ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid & ?ree p>ts ( =maldehyde solution1 :i* col\rs *ole/]ol a blacki%-br[n1 & 7#b7 ! addition ( "o drop ( #cj p] c5t4 =maldehyde solution to a solution ( ! sub/ance 9 tri*loracetic acid1 :5 ) *ole/]ol an int5se blue coloration is produc$4 ,wat]4--,f #e to #bj grammes ( ! fat or oil are weigh$ into a t>$ porcela9 or plat9um di%1 & /irr$ ) a !rmomet]1 :il/ be+ heat$ ov] a gas flame at #ajj ,c4 until bubbl+ or crack+ has ceas$1 & reweigh$1 ! loss 9 weight repres5t+ ! wat]4 ,9 cases ( spurt+ a little add$ alcohol w c>ry ! wat] (f quietly4 ,to prev5t loss by spurt+1 ,davis 7,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #bc1 #dhg7 has sugge/$ t ! fat or oil %\ld be add$ to a previ\sly dri$ & t>$ coil ( filt] pap] conta9$ 9 a /opp]$ weigh+ bottle1 :i* is !n plac$ 9 ! ov5 & dri$ at #ajj ,c4 until con/ant 9 weight4 ,( c\rse1 ?is me?od is n applicable to oils or fats liable to oxidation on heat+4 ,dregs1 ,dirt1 ,adipose ,tissue1 ,fibre1 etc4--,f #aj to #ae grammes ( ! fat are dissolv$ 9 petroleum e!r ) frequ5t /irr+1 & pass$ ?r\gh a t>$ filt] pap]4 ,! residue reta9$ by ! filt] pap] is wa%$ ) petroleum e!r until free f fat1 dri$ 9 ! wat]-ov5 at #ajj ,c4 & weigh$4 ,if ! am\nt ( residue is l>ge1 x may be ignit$1 & ! proportion & nature ( ! a% det]m9$4 ,! am\nt ( impurities may also be e/imat$ by ,tate's me?od1 :i* is p]=m$ by weigh+ #e grammes ( fat into a sep>at+ funnel1 dissolv+ 9 e!r1 & all[+ ! :ole to /& to enable ! wat] to deposit4 ,aft] six h\rs' re/ ! wat] is )drawn1 ! tube ( ! sep>ator c>efully dri$1 & ! e!real solution filt]$ ?r\gh a dri$ t>$ filt] pap] into a t>$ flask4 ,well wa% ! filt] ) e!r1 & c>efully dry at #ajj ,c4 ,! e!r 9 ! flask is recov]$1 & ! flask dri$ until all e!r is expell$1 & its weight is con/ant4 ,! am\nt ( fat 9 ! flask gives ! quantity ( actual fat 9 ! sample tak52 ! loss repres5ts ! wat] & o!r impurities1 & ^! latt] may be obta9$ f ! increase ( weight ( ! filt] pap]4 ,/>* may be detect$ by ! blue coloration x gives ) iod9e solution1 & confirm$ by microscopical exam9ation1 or x may be conv]t$ into glucose by inv]sion1 & ! glucose e/imat$ by means ( ,fehl+'s solution4 ,iod9e ,absorption4--,?is det]m9ation %[s ! am\nt ( iod9e absorb$ by a fat or oil1 & 0 devis$ by ,hbl1 ! reag5ts requir$ be+ z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,solution ( #be grammes iod9e 9 #ejj c4c4 absolute alcohol2 7#b7 solution ( #cj grammes m]curic *loride 9 #ejj c4c4 absolute alcohol1 ^! two solutions be+ mix$ toge!r & all[$ to /& at lea/ twelve h\rs be=e use2 7#c7 a fre%ly prep>$ #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( potassium iodide2 & 7#d7 a ,n_/#aj solution ( sodium ?iosulphate1 /&>dis$ j prior to use by titrat+ a weigh$ quantity ( resublim$ iod9e dissolv$ 9 potassium iodide solution4 ,9 ! actual det]m9ation1 #j4b to #j4e gramme ( fat or fatty acids is c>efully weigh$ into a well-fitt+ /opp]$ #bej c4c4 bottle1 dissolv$ 9 #aj c4c4 *lor(orm1 & #be c4c4 ( ! ,hbl reag5t add$1 ! /opp] be+ !n moi/5$ ) potassium iodide solution & plac$ firmly 9 ! bottle1 :i* is all[$ to /& at re/ 9 a d>k place = f\r h\rs4 ,a blank exp]im5t is also p]=m$1 us+ ! same quantities ( *lor(orm & ,hbl reag5t1 & all[+ to /& = ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,aft] ! expiration ( f\r h\rs #bj c4c4 ( #aj p] c5t4 solution ( potassium iodide & #aej c4c4 wat] are add$ to ! cont5ts ( ! bottle1 & ! excess ( iod9e titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj sodium ?iosulphate solution1 ! :ole be+ well agitat$ dur+ ! titration1 :i* is f9i%$ ) />* pa/e z indicator4 ,! blank exp]im5t is titrat$ 9 ! same mann]1 & f ! am\nt ( ?iosulphate requir$ 9 ! blank exp]im5t is d$uct$ ! numb] ( c4c4 requir$ by ! unabsorb$ iod9e 9 ! o!r bottle2 ?is figure multipli$ by ! iod9e equival5t ( #a c4c4 ( ! ?iosulphate solution & by #ajj1 divid+ ! product by ! weight ( fat tak51 gives ! ,iod9e ,numb]4 ,example4--#a c4c4 ( ! ,n_/#aj sodium ?iosulphate solution is f\nd equal to #j4jabf gramme iod9e4 #j4cahg gramme ( fat tak54 ,blank requires #dh4e c4c4 ?iosulphate4 ,bottle conta9+ oil requires #dj4j c4c4 ?iosulphate4 #dh4e - #dj4j #h4e1 & ! iod9e absorption ( ! fat is-- #h4e #j4jabf #ajj ------------------ #cc4f4 #j4cahg ,wijs %[$ t by ! employm5t ( a solution ( iod9e mono*loride 9 glacial acetic acid reliable iod9e figures are obta9$ 9 a mu* %ort] "t1 ?irty m9utes be+ suffici5t1 & ?is me?od is n[ 9 mu* m g5]al use ?an ! ,hbl4 ,wijs' iod9e reag5t is made by dissolv+ #ac grammes iod9e 9 #a litre ( glacial acetic acid & pass+ *lor9e into ! solution until ! iod9e is all conv]t$ into iod9e mono*loride4 ,! process is c>ri$ out 9 exactly ! same way z ) ! ,hbl solution except t ! fat is pref]ably dissolv$ 9 c>bon tetra*loride in/ead ( 9 *lor(orm4 ,brom9e absorption has n[ be5 almo/ entirely sup]s$$ by ! iod9e absorption1 al?\gh !re are sev]al good me?ods4 ,! gravimetric me?od ( ,hehn] 7,analy/1 #ahie1 #di7 0 employ$ by "o ( u = _m ye>s ) v good results1 :il/ ! brom9e-!rmal te/ ( ,hehn] & ,mit*ell 7,analy/1 #ahie1 #adf7 gives rapid & satisfactory results4 ,m rec5tly ,mac,ilhiney 7,j\r4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahii1 #ajhd-ajhi7 drew att5tion to brom9e absorption me?ods & tri$ to rewak5 int]e/ 9 !m4 ,! ,refractive index is sometimes useful = discrim9at+ betwe5 v>i\s oils & fats1 &1 9 conjunction ) o!r physical & *emical data1 af=ds ano!r means ( detect+ adult]ation4 ,:]e a great numb] ( samples h to be te/$ exp$iti\sly1 ! ,abb refractomet] or ! ,zeiss butyro-refractomet] may be recomm5d$ on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* !y are manipulat$4 ,! mo/ usual temp]ature ( obs]vations is #fj ,c4 ,! ,titre or sett+ po9t ( ! fatty acids 0 devis$ by ,dalican1 & is g5]ally accept$ 9 ! comm]cial valuation ( solid fats z a gauge ( firmness1 & 9 ! case ( tall[ has a consid]able be>+ on ! m>ket value4 ,"o ounce ( ! fat is melt$ 9 a %all[ porcela9 di%1 & #cj c4c4 ( a #be p] c5t4 cau/ic soda solution add$1 toge!r ) #ej c4c4 ( r$i/ill$ me?ylat$ _s4 ,! :ole is /irr$ d[n on ! wat] ba? until a pa/y soap is obta9$1 :5 ano!r #ej c4c4 ( me?ylat$ _s is add$1 :i* r$issolves ! soap1 & ! :ole aga9 /irr$ d[n to a solid soap4 ,?is is !n dissolv$ 9 di/ill$ wat]1 a slight excess ( dilute sulphuric acid add$ to lib]ate ! fatty acids1 & ! :ole w>m$ until ! fatty acids =m a cle> liquid on ! surface4 ,! wat] b5ea? ! fatty acids is !n syphon$ (f1 m di/ill$ wat] add$ to wa% out any trace ( m9]al acid rema9+1 & aga9 syphon$ (f1 ?is process be+ repeat$ until ! wa%+s are no long] acid to litmus pap]1 :5 ! fatty acids are p\r$ on to a dry filt] pap]1 :i* is ins]t$ 9 a funnel re/+ on a beak]1 & ! latt] plac$ on ! wat]-ba?1 :]e x is left until ! cle> fatty acids h filt]$ ?r\gh4 ,ab\t #aj-ae grammes ( ! pure fatty acids are n[ transf]r$ to a te/ tube1 #f #a1 w>m$ until molt51 & ! tube introduc$ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! cork into a flask or wide-m\!d bottle4 ,a v accurate !rmomet]1 graduat$ into fif?s ( a degree ,c5tigrade 7previ\sly /&>dis$71 is imm]s$ 9 ! fatty acids1 s t ! bulb is z ne> ! c5tre z possible1 & :5 ! fatty acids j beg9 to solidify at ! bottom ( ! tube1 ! !rmomet] is /irr$ r\nd sl[ly4 ,! m]cury w desc5d1 & /irr+ is cont9u$ until x ceases to fall fur!r1 at :i* po9t ! !rmomet] is v c>efully obs]v$4 ,x w be f\nd t ! temp]ature w rise rapidly & f9ally rema9 /ation>y = a %ort "t1 aft] :i* x w aga9 beg9 to drop until ! temp]ature ( ! room is rea*$4 ,! maximum po9t to :i* ! temp]ature rises is kn[n z ! titre ( ! sample4 ,,alkalies ,,& ,,alkali ,,salts4 ,c>e %\ld be be/[$ ^u ! sampl+ ( solid cau/ic soda or pota% z ! impurities dur+ ! solidification always accumulate 9 ! c5tre ( ! drum1 & an excess ( t portion mu/ be avoid$ or ! sample w n be suffici5tly repres5tative4 ,! sampl+ %\ld be p]=m$ exp$iti\sly to prev5t c>bonat+1 & portions plac$ 9 a /opp]$ bottle4 ,! :ole %\ld be slightly brok5 9 a mort>1 & bright cry/all9e portions tak5 = analysis1 us+ a /opp]$ weigh+ bottle4 ,cau/ic ,soda & ,cau/ic ,pota%4--,^! sub/ances are valu$ accord+ to ! alkali pres5t 9 ! =m ( cau/ic 7hydrate7 & c>bonate4 ,ab\t #b grammes ( ! sample are dissolv$ 9 #ej c4c4 di/ill$ wat]1 & titrat$ ) ,n_/#a sulphuric acid1 us+ ph5ol-ph?ale9 z indicator1 ! alkal9ity s obta9$ repres5t+ all ! cau/ic alkali & "o-half ! c>bonate1 :i* latt] is conv]t$ into bic>bonate4 ,"o c4c4 ,n_/#a acid #j4jca gramme ,na#b,o or #j4jdj gramme ,na,o,h & #j4jdg gramme ,k#b,o1 or #j4jef gramme ,,koh4 ,aft] ?is fir/ titration1 ! second half ( ! c>bonate may be det]m9$ 9 "o ( two ways1 ei!r3-- 7#a7 ,by add+ f #c-e c4c4 ( ,n_/#aj acid1 & well boil+ = five m9utes to expel c>bonic-acid gas1 aft] :i* ! excess ( acid is titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj soda solution2 or 7#b7 ,aft] add+ two drops ( me?yl orange solution1 ,n_/#aj acid is run 9 until ! solution acquires a fa9t p9k t9t4 ,9 ! calculation ( ! cau/ic alkali1 ! numb] ( c4c4 ( acid requir$ 9 ! second titration1 divid$ by #aj1 is subtract$ f t us$ 9 ! fir/1 & ?is diff]5ce multipli$ by #j4jca1 or #j4jdg gives ! am\nt ( ,na#b,o or ,k#b,o respectively 9 ! weight ( sample tak51 :5ce ! p]c5tage may be readily calculat$4 ,! proportion ( c>bonate is calculat$ by multiply+ ! am\nt ( ,n_/#aj acid requir$ 9 ! second titration by #b1 & !n by ei!r #j4jjca or #j4jjdg to give ! am\nt ( c>bonate pres5t1 express$ z ,na#b,o or ,k#b,o respectively4 ,an alt]native me?od is to det]m9e ! alkal9ity be=e & aft] ! elim9ation ( c>bonate by *loride ( b>ium4 ,ab\t #g-h grammes ( ! sample are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & made up to #ajj c4c41 & ! total alkal9ity det]m9$ by titrat+ #bj c4c4 ) ,n_/#a acid1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,to ano!r #bj c4c4 is add$ b>ium *loride solution 7#aj p] c5t47 until x ceases to give a precipitate1 ! precipitate all[$ to settle1 & ! cle> sup]natant liquid decant$ (f1 ! precipitate transf]r$ to a filt] pap] & well wa%$1 & ! filtrate titrat$ ) ,n_/#a acid1 us+ ph5ol-ph?ale9 z indicator4 ,! second titration gives ! am\nt ( cau/ic alkali pres5t1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two ! proportion ( c>bonate4 ,:5 me?yl orange solution is us$ z indicator1 titrations mu/ be c>ri$ out cold4 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made 7p4 #ci7 to ! mann] 9 :i* ! alkali p]c5tage is express$ 9 ,engli% degrees 9 ! case ( cau/ic soda4 ,*lorides are e/imat$ by titrat+ ! neutral solution ) ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution1 potassium *romate be+ us$ z indicator4 ,"o c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,ag,n,o#c solution #j4jjehe gramme sodium *loride4 ,! am\nt ( acid necess>y = exact neutralisation hav+ already be5 asc]ta9$1 x is recomm5d$ to use ! equival5t quantity ( ,n_/#aj nitric acid to produce ! neutral solution4 ,sulphides may be te/$ =1 qualitatively1 ) lead acetate solution4 ,alum9ates are det]m9$ gravimetrically 9 ! usual mann]2 #b grammes are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 r5d]$ acid ) ,h,cl1 excess ( ammonia add$1 & ! gelat9\s precipitate ( alum9ium hydrate collect$ on a filt] pap]1 wa%$1 burnt1 & weigh$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c>bonat$ ,alkali 7,soda ,a%74--,! total or available alkali is1 ( c\rse1 ! *ief factor to be asc]ta9$1 & = ?is purpose x is conv5i5t to weigh out #c4a grammes ( ! sample1 dissolve 9 #ej c4c4 wat]1 & titrate ) ,n_/#a sulphuric or hydro*loric acid1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,ea* c4c4 ( ,n_/#a acid requir$ repres5ts #a p] c5t4 ,na#b,o 9 ! sample "u exam9ation4 ,a m complete analysis ( soda a% w\ld comprise3-- ,insoluble matt]1 rema9+ aft] #aj grammes are dissolv$ 9 w>m wat]4 ,?is is wa%$ on to a filt]-pap]1 dri$1 ignit$1 & weigh$4 ,! filtrate is made up to #bjj c4c41 & 9 x may be det]m9$3-- ,cau/ic soda1 by titrat+ ) ,n_/#a acid ! filtrate result+ f ! treatm5t ( #bj c4c4 7equal to #a gramme7 ) b>ium *loride solution4 ,c>bonate4--,titrate #bj c4c4 ) ,n_/#a acid1 & d$uct ! am\nt ( acid requir$ = ! ,cau/ic4 ,*lorides4--,tw5ty c4c4 are exactly neutralis$ ) nitric acid1 titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj ,ag,n,o#c solution1 us+ potassium *romate z indicator4 ,sulphates4--,tw5ty c4c4 are acidulat$ ) ,h,cl1 & ! sulphates precipitat$ ) b>ium *loride2 ! precipitate is collect$ on a filt] pap]1 wa%$1 dri$1 ignit$1 & weigh$1 ! result be+ calculat$ to ,na#b,,s#d4 ,sulphides & ,sulphites4--,! pres5ce ( ^! comp\nds is d5ot$ by ! evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & sulphur\s acid respectively :5 ! sample is acidulat$4 ,sulphides may also be te/$ =1 qualitatively1 ) lead acetate solution1 or te/-pap] ( sodium nitro-prusside4 ,! total quantity ( ^! comp\nds may be asc]ta9$ by acidulat+ ) acetic acid1 & titrat+ ) ,n_/#aj iod9e solution1 us+ />* pa/e z indicator4 ,"o c4c4 ,n_/#aj iod9e solution #j4jjfc gramme ,na#b,,s#c4 ,! am\nt ( sulphides may be e/imat$ by titrat+ ! hot soda solution1 to :i* ammonia has be5 add$1 ) an ammoniacal silv] nitrate solution1 #a c4c4 ( :i* corresponds to #j4jje gramme ,na#b,s4 ,z ! titration proce$s1 ! precipitate is filt]$ (f1 & ! addition ( ammoniacal silv] solution to ! filtrate cont9u$ until a drop produces only a slight opacity4 ,! pres5ce ( *loride1 sulphate1 hydrate1 or c>bonate does n int]f]e ) ! accuracy ( ?is me?od4 ,! ammoniacal silv] nitrate solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ #ac4cde grammes ( pure silv] 9 pure nitric acid1 add+ #bej c4c4 liquor ammoni =tis1 & dilut+ to #a litre4 ,c>bonate ( ,pota% 7,pe>l ,a%74--,! total or available alkali may be e/imat$ by tak+ #f4i grammes ( ! sample1 & titrat+ ) ,n_/#a acid directly1 or add+ #ajj c4c4 ,n_/#a sulphuric acid1 boil+ = a few m9utes1 & titrat+ ! excess ( acid ) ,n_/#a cau/ic soda solution1 us+ litmus z indicator4 ,9 ?is case ea* c4c4 ,n_/#a acid requir$1 is equival5t1 9 ! abs5ce ( ,na#b;,,co#c1 to #a p] c5t4 ,k#b;,,co#c4 ,c>bonate ( pota% may be fur!r exam9$ = ! foll[+3-- ,moi/ure4--,f #b-c grammes are heat$ = ?irty m9utes 9 a crucible ov] a gas flame1 & weigh$ :5 cold1 ! loss 9 weight repres5t+ ! moi/ure4 ,insoluble residue1 rema9+ aft] solution 9 wat]1 filt]+ & well wa%+4 ,potassium may be det]m9$ by precipitation z potassium plat9o-*loride ?us3--,dissolve #j4e gramme 9 a small quantity 7say #aj c4c47 ( wat]1 & c>efully acidulate ) hydro*loric acid1 evaporate ! resultant liquor to dryness 9 a t>$ plat9um bas91 & heat ! residue gradually to dull r$ness4 ,cool 9 a desicator1 weigh1 & express ! result z mix$ *lorides1 i4e4 *lorides ( soda & pota%4 ,to ! mix$ *lorides add #aj c4c4 wat]1 & plat9ic *loride 9 excess 7! quantity may be ?ree times ! am\nt ( ! mix$ *lorides7 & evaporate ne>ly to dryness2 add #ae c4c4 alcohol & all[ to /& ?ree h\rs cov]$ ) a wat*-glass1 giv+ ! di% a g5tle rotatory movem5t occasionally4 ,! cle> liquid is decant$ ?r\gh a t>$ filt]1 & ! precipitate well wa%$ ) alcohol by decantation1 & f9ally transf]r$ to ! filt]1 dri$ & weigh$4 ,f ! weight ( potassium plat9o-*loride1 ,k#b,pt,cl#f1 is calculat$ ! am\nt ( potassium oxide ,k#b,o by ! use ( ! factor #id_/dhh4b or #j4aibed4 ,*lorides1 det]m9$ ) ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution1 & calculat$ to ,k,cl4 ,sulphates1 e/imat$ z b>ium sulphate1 & calculat$ to ,k#b,,s#d4 ,sodium ,c>bonate1 f\nd by d$uct+ ! ,k#b;,,co#c correspond+ to ! actual potassium z det]m9$ above1 f ! total alkali4 ,iron1 precipitat$ ) excess ( ammonia1 filt]$1 ignit$1 & weigh$ z ,fe#b,o#c4 ,,sodium ,,*loride 7,,common ,,salt74 ,?is %\ld be exam9$ = ! foll[+3-- ,actual ,*loride1 ei!r titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution1 us+ neutral potassium *romate solution z indicator1 or1 pref]ably1 e/imat$ gravimetrically z silv] *loride by precipitation ) silv] nitrate solution1 ! precipitate transf]r$ to a t>$ filt] pap]1 wa%$1 dri$ & weigh$4 ,insoluble matt]1 rema9+ on dissolv+ #e grammes 9 wat]1 & filt]+4 ,?is is wa%$1 dri$1 ignit$ & weigh$4 ,moi/ure4--#e grammes are weigh$ into a plat9um crucible1 & heat g5tly appli$4 ,! temp]ature is gradually increas$ to a dull r$ heat1 :i* is ma9ta9$ = a few m9utes1 ! di% cool$ 9 a desicator1 & weigh$4 ,sulphates are e/imat$ by precipitation z b>ium sulphate & calculat$ to ,na#b,,s#d4 ,sodium4--,?is may be det]m9$ by conv]t+ ! salt into sodium sulphate by ! action ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 ignit+ to drive (f hydro*loric & sulphuric acids1 & fus+ ! mass until con/ant 9 weight1 weigh+ f9ally z ,na#b,,s#d4 ,,potassium ,,*loride4 ,?is %\ld be exam9$1 9 ! same way z sodium *loride1 = *loride1 insoluble matt]1 moi/ure1 & sulphate4 ,! potassium may be det]m9$ z potassium plat9o-*loride1 z describ$ "u c>bonate ( pota%4 ,,silicates ,,( ,,soda ,,& ,,pota%4 ,! mo/ important det]m9ations = ^! are total alkali & silica4 ,total alkali is e/imat$ by dissolv+ #b grammes 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & titrat+ :5 cold1 ) ,n_/#a acid1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,silica may be det]m9$ by dissolv+ #a gramme 9 di/ill$ wat]1 r5d]+ ! solution acid ) ,h,cl1 & evaporat+ to complete dryness on ! wat]-ba?1 aft] :i* ! residue is moi/5$ ) ,h,cl & aga9 evaporat$1 ?is op]ation be+ repeat$ a ?ird "t4 ,! residue is !n heat$ to ab\t #aej ,c41 extract$ ) hot dilute ,h,cl1 filt]$1 ?or\ghly wa%$1 dri$1 ignit$ 9 a t>$ plat9um crucible1 & weigh$ z ,si,o#b4 ,,ess5tial ,,oils4 ,z already /at$1 ^! are v liable to adult]ation1 & an exam9ation ( all k9ds ( oil is desirable1 :ile 9 ! case ( ! m exp5sive v>ieties x %\ld nev] be omitt$4 ,specific ,gravity4--,z ) fats & oils1 ?is is usually tak5 at #ae ,c41 & comp>$ ) wat] at ! same temp]ature4 ,9 ! case ( otto ( rose & guaiac wood oil1 h[ev]1 :i* are solid at ?is temp]ature1 x is g5]ally obs]v$ at #cj ,c4 comp>$ ) wat] at #ae ,c4 ,! specific gravity is pref]ably tak5 9 a bottle or ,u-tube1 b if suffici5t ( ! oil is available & a high degree ( accuracy is n necess>y1 x may be tak5 ei!r ) a ,we/phal balance1 or by means ( a hydromet]4 ,optical ,rotation4--,= ?is purpose a special in/rum5t1 kn[n z a pol>imet]1 is requir$1 details ( ! con/ruction & use ( :i* w\ld be out ( place "h4 ,suffice x to m5tion t temp]ature plays an important "p 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! optical activity ( c]ta9 ess5tial oils1 notably 9 ! case ( lemon & orange oils4 ,= ^! ,gildemei/] & ,h(fmann give ! foll[+ corrections3-- ,lemon oil1 bel[ #bj ,c4 subtract #i' = ea* degree bel[1 above #bj ,c4 add #h' = ea* degree above4 ,orange oil1 bel[ #bj ,c4 subtract #ad' = ea* degree bel[1 above #bj ,c4 add #ac' = ea* degree above4 ,refractive ,index4--,?is figure is occasionally useful1 & is be/ det]m9$ ) an ,abb refractomet]1 at #bj ,c4 ,solubility 9 ,alcohol4--,?is is f\nd by runn+ alcohol ( ! requisite /r5g? f a burette into a measur$ volume ( ! oil ) con/ant agitation1 until ! oil =ms a cle> solution ) ! alcohol4 ,hav+ not$ ! quantity ( alcohol add$1 x is well to run 9 a small fur!r quantity ( alcohol1 & obs]ve :e!r any opalesc5ce or cl\d9ess appe>s4 ,acid1 e/]1 & saponification values are det]m9$ exactly z describ$ "u fats & oils4 ,in/ead ( express+ ! result z saponification value or numb]1 ! p]c5tage ( e/]1 calculat$ 9 ! =m ( ! mo/ important e/] pres5t1 may be obta9$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( c4c4 ( ,n_/#a alkali absorb$ 9 ! saponification by ! molecul> weight ( ! e/]4 ,?us1 to f9d ! p]c5tage z l9alyl acetate1 ! numb] ( c4c4 absorb$ w\ld be multipli$ by #j4aif & by #ajj1 & divid$ by ! weight ( oil tak54 ,alcohols4--,= ! e/imation ( ^!1 if ! oil conta9s mu* e/] x mu/ fir/ be saponifi$ ) alcoholic pota%1 to lib]ate ! comb9$ alcohols1 & aft] neutralis+ ! excess ( alkali ) acid1 ! oil is wa%$ into a sep>at+ funnel ) wat]1 sep>at$1 dri$ ) anhydr\s sodium sulphate1 & is !n ready = ! alcohol det]m9ation4 ,if !re is only a small quantity ( e/] pres5t1 ?is prelim9>y saponification is unnecess>y4 ,! alcohols are e/imat$ by conv]sion into _! acetic e/]s1 :i* are !n saponifi$ ) /&>d alcoholic pota%1 !reby furni%+ a measure ( ! am\nt ( alcohol e/]ifi$4 ,t5 c4c4 ( ! oil is plac$ 9 a flask ) an equal volume ( acetic anhydride1 & #b grammes ( anhydr\s sodium acetate1 & g5tly boil$ = an h\r to an h\r & a half4 ,aft] cool+1 wat] is add$1 & ! cont5ts ( ! flask heat$ on ! wat]-ba? = fifte5 to ?irty m9utes1 aft] :i* !y are cool$1 transf]r$ to a sep>at+ funnel1 & wa%$ ) a br9e solution until ! wa%+s cease to give an acid reaction ) litmus pap]4 ,! oil is n[ dri$ ) anhydr\s sodium sulphate1 filt]$1 & #a-b grammes weigh$ into a flask & saponifi$ ) alcoholic pota% z 9 ! det]m9ation ( e/] or saponification value4 ,! calculation is a little complicat$1 b an example may p]haps s]ve to make x cle>4 ,a g]anium oil conta9+ #bf4i p] c5t4 ( e/]1 calculat$ z g]anyl tiglate1 0 acetylat$1 aft] saponification1 to lib]ate ! comb9$ g]aniol1 & #b4chbe grammes ( ! acetylat$ oil requir$ #i4a c4c4 ( ,n_/#a alkali = its saponification4 ,n[ e #aif grammes ( g]anyl acetate pres5t 9 ! acetylat$ oil correspond to #aed grammes ( g]aniol1 s t = e #aif grammes ( e/] n[ pres5t 9 ! oil1 #db grammes h be5 add$ to its weight1 & x is !re=e necess>y to make a d$uction f ! weight ( oil tak5 = ! f9al saponification to all[ = ?is1 & s9ce ea* c4c4 ( ,n_/#a alkali absorb$ corresponds to #j4aif gramme ( g]anyl acetate1 ! am\nt to be d$uct$ is f\nd by multiply+ ! numb] ( c4c4 absorb$ by #j4jdb gramme1 ! =mula = ! e/imation ( total alcohols ?us becom+ 9 ! example giv53-- #i4a #j4aed #ajj ,p] c5t4 ( g]aniol ---------------------- #gj4b #b4chbe - 7#i4a #j4jdb7 ,! p]c5tage ( comb9$ alcohols c be calculat$ f ! am\nt ( e/] f\nd1 & by subtract+ ?is f ! p]c5tage ( total alcohols1 t ( ! free alcohols is obta9$4 ,9 ! example quot$1 ! e/] corresponds to #ag4f p] c5t4 g]aniol1 & ?is1 d$uct$ f ! total alcohols1 gives #eb4f p] c5t4 free alcohols1 calculat$ z g]aniol4 ,?is process gives accurate results ) g]aniol1 borneol1 & m5?ol1 b ) l9alol & t]p9eol ! figures obta9$ are only comp>ative1 a consid]able quantity ( ^! alcohols be+ decompos$ dur+ ! acetylation4 ,! aldehyde citronellal is conv]t$ by acetic anhydride into isopulegol acetate1 s t ?is is also includ$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( graniol 9 citronella oil4 ,ph5ols4--,^! bodies are soluble 9 alkalies1 & may be e/imat$ by measur+ #e c4c4 or #aj c4c4 ( ! oil into a ,hirs*sohn flask 7a flask ( ab\t #ajj c4c4 capacity ) a long n>r[ neck hold+ #aj c4c41 graduat$ 9 t5?s ( a c4c471 add+ #be c4c4 ( a #e p] c5t4 aque\s cau/ic pota% solution1 & w>m+ 9 ! wat]-ba?1 !n add+ ano!r #be c4c41 & aft] "o h\r 9 ! wat]-ba? fill+ ! flask ) ! pota% solution until ! unabsorb$ oil rises into ! neck ( ! flask1 ! volume ( ?is oil be+ read (f :5 x has cool$ d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! laboratory4 ,f ! volume ( oil dissolv$ ! p]c5tage ( ph5ols is readily calculat$4 ,aldehydes4--,9 ! e/imation ( ^! sub/ances1 use is made ( _! prop]ty ( comb9+ ) sodium bisulphite to =m comp\nds soluble 9 hot wat]4 ,f #e-aj c4c4 ( ! oil is measur$ into a ,hirs*sohn flask1 ab\t #cj c4c4 ( a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium bisulphite add$1 & ! flask imm]s$ 9 a boil+ wat] ba?1 & ?or\ghly %ak5 at frequ5t int]vals4 ,fur!r quantities ( ! bisulphite solution are gradually add$1 until1 aft] ab\t "o h\r1 ! unabsorb$ oil rises into ! neck ( ! flask1 :]e1 aft] cool+1 its volume is read (f1 & ! p]c5tage ( absorb$ oil1 or aldehydes1 calculat$4 ,9 ! case ( lemon oil1 :]e ! proportion ( aldehydes1 ?\gh ( great importance1 is relatively v small1 x is necess>y to fir/ conc5trate ! aldehydes be=e det]m9+ !m4 ,= ?is purpose1 #ajj c4c4 ( ! oil is plac$ 9 a ,lad5burg fractional di/illation flask1 & #ij c4c4 di/ill$ (f "u a pressure ( n m ?an #dj mm41 & ! residue /eam di/ill$4 ,! oil s obta9$ is sep>at$ f ! cond5s$ wat]1 measur$1 dri$1 & #e c4c4 assay$ = aldehydes ei!r by ! process already describ$1 or by ! foll[+ process devis$ by ,burgess 7,analy/1 #aijd1 #gh73-- ,five c4c4 ( ! oil are plac$ 9 ! ,hirs*sohn flask1 ab\t #bj c4c4 ( a saturat$ solution ( neutral sodium sulphite add$1 toge!r ) a few drops ( rosolic acid solution z indicator1 & ! flask plac$ 9 a boil+ wat]-ba? & cont9ually agitat$4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask soon become r$ ow+ to ! lib]ation ( free alkali by ! comb9ation ( ! aldehyde ) "p ( ! sodium sulphite1 & ?is coloration is j dis*>g$ by ! addition ( suffici5t #aj p] c5t4 acetic-acid solution4 ,! flask is aga9 plac$ 9 ! wat]-ba?1 ! %ak+ cont9u$1 & any fur!r alkali lib]at$ neutralis$ by m acetic acid1 ! process be+ cont9u$ 9 ?is way until no fur!r r$ col\r is produc$4 ,! flask is !n fill$ ) ! sodium sulphite solution1 ! volume ( ! cool$ unabsorb$ oil read (f1 & ! p]c5tage ( aldehydes calculat$ z be=e4 ,solidify+ ,po9t1 or ,congeal+ ,po9t4--,?is is ( "s importance 9 ! exam9ation ( anise & f5nel oils1 & is also useful 9 ! exam9ation ( otto ( rose4 ,a suitable app>atus may be made by obta9+ ?ree te/ tubes1 ( diff]5t sizes1 :i* w fit "o inside ! o!r1 & fix+ !m toge!r 9 ?is way ?r\gh corks4 ,! inn]mo/ tube is !n fill$ ) ! oil1 & a s5sitive !rmomet]1 simil> to t describ$ "u ! ,titre te/ = fats1 susp5d$ ) its bulb completely imm]s$ 9 ! oil4 ,) anise & f5nel1 ! oil is cool$ d[n ) con/ant /irr+ until x j />ts cry/allis+1 :5 ! /irr+ is int]rupt$1 & ! maximum temp]ature to :i* ! m]cury rises not$4 ,?is is ! solidify+ po9t4 ,9 ! case ( otto ( rose1 ! otto is cont9ually /irr$1 & ! po9t at :i* ! fir/ cry/al is obs]v$ is usually reg>d$ z ! congeal+ po9t4 ,melt+ ,po9t4--,?is is be/ det]m9$ by melt+ "s ( ! solid oil1 or cry/als1 & suck+ a small quantity up into a capill>y tube1 :i* is !n atta*$ by a rubb] b& to ! bulb ( ! !rmomet]1 imm]s$ 9 a suitable ba? 7wat]1 glyc]9e1 oil1 etc47 & ! temp]ature ( ! ba? gradually rais$ until ! sub/ance 9 ! tube is suffici5tly melt$ to rise to ! surface1 ! temp]ature at :i* ?is takes place be+ ! melt+ po9t4 ,! melt+ po9t ( otto ( rose is usually tak5 9 a simil> tube to ! sett+ po9t1 & is consid]$ to be ! po9t at :i* ! la/ cry/al disappe>s4 ,iod9e ,absorption4--,9 ! au?ors' op9ion1 ?is is ( "s value 9 conjunction ) o!r data 9 judg+ ( ! purity ( otto ( rose4 ,x is det]m9$ by ,hbl's process z describ$ "u ,fats & ,oils1 except t only #j4a to #j4b gramme is tak51 & in/ead ( #aj c4c4 ( *lor(orm1 #aj c4c4 ( pure alcohol are add$4 ,! re/ ( ! process is id5tical4 ,,soap4 ,9 ! analysis ( soap1 x is a matt] ( consid]able importance t all ! det]m9ations %\ld be made on a uni=m & av]age sample ( ! soap1 o!rwise v mislead+ & unreliable figures are obta9$4 ,soap v rapidly loses its moi/ure on ! surface1 :ile ! int]ior ( ! b> or cake may be comp>atively moi/1 & ! be/ way is to c>efully remove ! out] edges & take ! portions = analysis f ! c5tre4 ,9 ! case ( a h\sehold or unmill$ toilet soap1 x is imp]ative t ! quantities = analysis %\ld all be weigh$ out z quickly aft] ea* o!r z possible4 ,fatty ,acids4--,five grammes ( ! soap are rapidly weigh$ into a small beak]1 di/ill$ wat] add$1 & ! beak] heat$ on ! wat] ba? until ! soap is dissolv$4 ,a slight excess ( m9]al acid is n[ add$1 & ! :ole heat$ until ! sep>at$ fatty acids are p]fectly cle>1 :5 !y are collect$ on a t>$ filt] pap]1 well wa%$ ) hot wat] & dri$ until con/ant 9 weight4 ,! result multipli$ by #bj gives ! p]c5tage ( fatty acids 9 ! sample4 ,a quick] me?od1 & "o :i* gives accurate results :5 c>e is be/[$ ^u x1 is to proce$ 9 ! mann] describ$ above z f> z ! decomposition ) m9]al acid1 & to !n add #e or #aj grammes ( /e>ic acid or beeswax to ! cont5ts ( ! beak] & heat until a cle> lay] ( fatty matt] collects ^u ! acid liquor4 ,cool ! beak]1 & :5 ! cake is suffici5tly h>d1 remove x c>efully by means ( a spatula & dry on a filt]+ pap]1 add ! portions adh]+ to ! sides ( ! beak] to ! cake1 & weigh4 ,! weight1 less ! am\nt ( /e>ic acid or beeswax add$1 multipli$ by #bj gives ! p]c5tage ( fatty acids4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! cake does n conta9 enclos$ wat]4 ,! results ( ^! me?ods are return$ z fatty acids1 b are 9 reality insoluble fatty acids1 ! soluble fatty acids be+ g5]ally disreg>d$4 ,h[ev] 9 soaps made f cocoa-nut & palm-k]nel oils 7:i* conta9 an appreciable quantity ( soluble fatty acids7 ! acid liquor is %ak5 ) e!r1 &1 aft] evaporation ( ! e!real extract1 ! am\nt ( fatty matt] left is add$ to ! result already obta9$ z above1 or ! e!r me?od describ$ bel[ may be advantage\sly employ$4 ,:]e ! soap "u exam9ation conta9s m9]al matt]1 ! sep>at$ fatty acids may be dissolv$ 9 e!r4 ,?is is be/ p]=m$ 9 an elongat$1 graduat$1 /opp]$ tube1 ! total volume ( ! e!r1 aft] subsid5ce1 c>efully read1 & an aliquot "p tak5 & evaporat$ to dryness 9 a t>$ flask1 :i* is plac$ 9 ! ov5 at #ajj ,c4 until ! weight is con/ant4 ,9 a complete analysis1 ! figure = fatty acids %\ld be conv]t$ into t]ms ( fatty anhydrides by multiply+ by ! factor #j4ihge4 ,9 ?is te/ ! res9 acids conta9$ 9 ! soap are return$ z fatty acids1 b ! =m] c be e/imat$1 z describ$ lat]1 & d$uct$ f ! total4 ,total ,alkali4--,! be/ me?od is to inc9]ate #e grammes ( ! soap 9 a plat9um di%1 dissolve ! residue 9 wat]1 boil & filt]1 mak+ ! volume ( filtrate up to #bej c4c41 ! solution be+ res]v$ = ! subsequ5t det]m9ation ( salt1 silicates1 & sulphates1 z detail$ bel[4 ,fifty c4c4 ( ! solution are titrat$ ) ,n_/#a acid1 to me?yl orange1 & ! result express$ 9 t]ms ( ,na#b,o4 ,numb] ( c4c4 requir$ #j4jca #ajj p] c5t4 ,na#b,o4 ,! total alkali may also be e/imat$ 9 ! filtrate f ! det]m9ation ( fatty acids1 if ! acid us$ = decompos+ ! soap solution has be5 measur$ & its /r5g? kn[n1 by titrat+ back ! excess ( acid ) normal soda solution1 :5 ! diff]5ce w equal ! am\nt ( total alkali 9 ! quantity tak54 ,! total alkali is usually express$ 9 ! case ( h>d soaps z ,na#b,o1 & 9 s(t soaps z ,k#b,o4 ,free cau/ic alkali is e/imat$ by dissolv+ #b grammes ( ! soap1 9 neutral pure alcohol1 ) g5tle heat1 filt]+1 well wa%+ ! filt] ) hot neutral _s1 & titrat+ ! filtrate ) ,n_/#aj acid1 to ph5ol-ph?ale94 ,numb] ( c4c4 requir$ #j4jjca #ej p] c5t4 free alkali ,na#b,o1 z cau/ic4 ,free ,c>bonat$ ,alkali4--,! residue on ! filt] pap] f ! above det]m9ation is wa%$ ) hot wat]1 & ! aque\s filtrate titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj acid1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,! result is g5]ally express$ 9 t]ms ( ,na#b,o4 ,numb] ( c4c4 requir$ #j4jjca #ej p] c5t4 free alkali ,na#b,o1 z c>bonate4 ,free ,alkali4--,"s analy/s det]m9e ! alkal9ity to ph5ol-ph?ale9 ( ! alcoholic soap solution )\t filt]+1 & express x z free alkali 7cau/ic1 c>bonates1 or any salt hav+ an alkal9e reaction74 ,comb9$ ,alkali4--,! diff]5ce betwe5 total alkali & free alkali 7cau/ic & c>bonate toge!r7 repres5ts ! alkali comb9$ ) fatty acids4 ,?is figure may also be directly det]m9$ by titrat+1 ) ,n_/#b acid1 ! alcoholic solution ( soap aft] ! free cau/ic e/imation1 us+ lacmoid z indicator4 ,! pota% & soda 9 soaps may be sep>at$ by ! me?od describ$ = ! e/imation ( potassium 9 ,pe>l a% 7page #abf74 ,! potassium plat9o-*loride 7,k#b,pt,cl#f7 is calculat$ to potassium *loride 7,k,cl7 by us+ ! factor #j4cjeb1 & ?is figure d$uct$ f ! am\nt ( mix$ *lorides f\nd1 gives ! am\nt ( sodium *loride 7,na,cl71 f :i* ! sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 is obta9$ by multiply+ by #j4ebiia4 ,! potassium *loride 7,k,cl7 is conv]t$ into t]ms ( potassium oxide 7,k#b,o7 by ! use ( ! factor #j4fcjhg4 ,salt may be det]m9$ 9 #ej c4c4 ( ! filt]$ aque\s extract ( ! inc9]at$ soap1 by exactly neutralis+ ) normal acid & titrat+ ) ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution1 us+ a neutral solution ( potassium *romate z indicator4 ,! f9al reaction is m di/9ctly obs]v$ if a little bic>bonate ( soda is add$ to ! solution4 ,numb] ( c4c4 requir$ #j4jjehe #ajj p] c5t4 ( common salt1 ,na,cl4 ,*lorides may also be e/imat$ by ,volh>d's me?od1 ! aque\s extract be+ r5d]$ slightly acid ) nitric acid1 a measur$ volume ( ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution add$1 & ! excess titrat$ back ) ,n_/#aj ammonium ?iocyanate solution1 us+ iron alum z indicator4 ,silicates4--,^! are e/imat$ by evaporat+ #ej c4c4 ( ! filt]$ extract f ! inc9]at$ soap1 9 a plat9um di% ) hydro*loric acid twice to complete dryness1 heat+ to #aej ,c41 add+ hot wat]1 & filt]+ ?r\gh a t>$ filt] pap]4 ,! residue is well wa%$1 ignit$1 & weigh$ z ,si,o#b1 & f ?is silica is calculat$ ! sodium silicate4 ,sulphates may be det]m9$ 9 ! filtrate f ! silica e/imation by precipitation ) b>ium *loride solution1 & weigh+ ! b>ium sulphate1 aft] filt]+1 & burn+1 express+ ! result 9 t]ms ( ,na#b,,s#d by ! use ( ! factor #j4fjid4 ,moi/ure4--,?is is simply e/imat$ by tak+ a weigh$ portion 9 small %av+s 9 a t>$ di%1 & dry+ 9 ! ov5 at #aje ,c4 until x ceases to lose weight4 ,f ! loss ?us f\nd is calculat$ ! moi/ure p]c5tage4 ,free or ,uncomb9$ ,fat4--,?is is usually det]m9$ by repeat$ extraction ( an aque\s solution ( ! soap ) petroleum e!r2 ! e!real solution1 aft] wa%+ ) wat] to remove traces ( soap1 is evaporat$ to dryness & ! residue weigh$4 ,a good me?od1 :i* c be recomm5d$ = employm5t :]e _m det]m9ations h to be p]=m$1 is to dissolve #aj grammes ( soap 9 #ej c4c4 neutral alcohol & titrate to ph5ol-ph?ale9 ) ,n_/#a acid4 ,add #c-e drops ,h,cl & boil to expel c>bonic acid1 neutralise ) alcoholic ,,koh solution & add exactly #aj c4c4 9 excess1 boil = fifte5 m9utes "u a reflux cond5s] & titrate ) ,n_/#a acid4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is latt] figure & ! am\nt requir$ = a blank te/ ) #aj c4c4 alcoholic ,,koh1 d5otes ! am\nt ( alkali absorb$ by ! uncomb9$ fat4 ,exam9ation ( ! fatty acids z a guide to ! probable composition ( ! soap3-- ,f ! data obta9$ by e/imat+ ! titre1 iod9e numb]1 & saponification equival5t ( ! mix$ fatty & ros9 acids1 & ! ros9 cont5t1 a fairly good idea ( ! con/itution ( ! soap may be d$uc$4 ,! titre1 iod9e numb]1 & saponification equival5t are det]m9$ 9 exactly ! same mann] z describ$ "u ,fats & ,oils4 ,! pres5ce ( ros9 may be detect$ by ! ,lieb]mann-,/or* reaction1 :i* consi/s 9 dissolv+ a small quantity ( ! fatty acids 9 acetic anhydride1 & add+ to a few drops ( ?is solution #a drop ( #ej p] c5t4 sulphuric acid4 ,a violet coloration is produc$ ) ros9 acids4 ,! am\nt ( ros9 may be e/imat$ by ! me?od devis$ by ,twit*ell 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahia1 #hjd7 :i* is c>ri$ out ?us3-- ,two grammes ( ! mix$ fatty & ros9 acids are dissolv$ 9 #bj c4c4 absolute alcohol1 & dry hydro*loric acid gas pass$ ?r\gh until no m is absorb$1 ! flask be+ kept cool by means ( cold wat] to prev5t ! ros9 acids be+ act$ ^u4 ,! flask1 aft] disconnect+1 is all[$ to /& "o h\r to ensure complete comb9ation1 :5 its cont5ts are transf]r$ to a ,philips' beak]1 well wa%$ out ) wat] s t ! volume is increas$ ab\t five times1 & boil$ until ! acid solution is cle>1 a fragm5t ( granulat$ z9c be+ add$ to prev5t bump+4 ,! heat is remov$1 & ! liquid all[$ to cool1 :5 x is p\r$ into a sep>ator1 & ! beak] ?or\ghly r9s$ out ) e!r4 ,aft] %ak+1 ! acid liquor is )drawn1 & ! e!real lay] wa%$ ) wat] until free f acid4 ,fifty c4c4 neutral alcohol are add$1 & ! solution titrat$ ) ,n_/#a ,,koh or ,na,o,h solution1 ! p]c5tage ( ros9 be+ calculat$ f its comb9+ weight4 ,twit*ell sugge/s #cdf z ! comb9+ weight ( ros91 b #ccj is a clos] approximation4 ,! me?od may be also c>ri$ out gravimetrically1 9 :i* case petroleum e!r1 boil+ at #gd ,c4 is us$ = wa%+ out ! beak] into ! sep>ator4 ,! acid liquor is run (f1 & ! petroleum e!r lay] wa%$ fir/ ) wat] & !n ) a solution ( #a_/b gramme ,,koh & #e c4c4 alcohol 9 #ej c4c4 wat]1 & agitat$4 ,! ros9 is ?us saponifi$ & sep>at$4 ,! res9ate solution is )drawn1 acidifi$1 & ! res9 acids collect$1 dri$ & weigh$4 ,halph5's ,reaction4--,?is is a special te/ to det]m9e ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( cotton-se$ oil fatty acids 9 mixtures4 ,equal p>ts ( ! fatty acids1 amyl alcohol1 & a #a p] c5t4 solution ( sulphur 9 c>bon bisulphide1 are heat$ 9 a te/-tube plac$ 9 a wat]-ba? until eff]vesc5ce ceases1 !n 9 boil+ br9e = "o h\r or long] :5 only small quantities are pres5t4 ,! pres5ce ( cotton-se$ oil is d5ot$ by a p9k coloration4 ,! reaction is r5d]$ mu* m rapid1 accord+ to ,rupp 7,z4 ,unt]su*4 ,nahr4 ,g5ussm41 #aijg1 #ac1 #gd71 by heat+ 9 a /opp]$ flask4 ,o!r bodies :i* x is occasionally necess>y to te/ = or det]m9e 9 soap include3-- ,c>bolic acid4--,fifty grammes ( ! soap are dissolv$ 9 wat] & #bj c4c4 ( #aj p] c5t4 cau/ic pota% add$4 ,! solution is treat$ ) an excess ( br9e1 ! sup]natant liquor sep>at$1 & ! precipitate wa%$ ) br9e1 ! wa%+s be+ add$ to ! liquor )drawn4 ,?is is !n evaporat$ to a small bulk1 plac$ 9 a ,mut]'s graduat$ tube1 & acidifi$ ) m9]al acid4 ,! volume ( sep>at$ ph5ols is obs]v$ & /at$ 9 p]c5tage on ! soap tak54 ,or ! alkal9e lay] may be r5d]$ acid & /eam di/ill$2 ! di/illate is made up to a kn[n volume1 & a portion titrat$ by ! ,koppes*a> me?od ) /&>d brom9e wat]4 ,glyc]9e4--,five grammes ( soap are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 decompos$ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 & ! cle> fatty acids filt]$ & wa%$4 ,! filtrate is neutralis$ ) b>ium c>bonate1 evaporat$ to #ej c4c41 & ! glyc]ol e/imat$ by ! bi*romate me?od detail$ "u ,crude ,glyc]9e4 ,/>* or gum may be detect$ by dissolv+ ! soap 9 alcohol1 filt]+1 & exam9+ ! residue on ! filt] pap]4 ,/>* is readily recognis$ by ! blue coloration x gives ) a solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iodide4 ,sug>s are te/$ = by means ( ,fehl+s' solution1 9 ! liquor sep>at$ f ! fatty acids1 aft] fir/ boil+ ) dilute acid to inv]t any cane sug>4 ,m]cury w be reveal$ by a black precipitate produc$ :5 sulphurett$ hydrog5 is add$ to ! liquor sep>at$ f ! fatty acids1 & may be e/imat$ by filt]+ (f ?is precipitate on a t>$ ,goo*'s crucible1 :i* is !n dri$ & weigh$4 ,borax or borates are te/$ = 9 ! residue insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,?is is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 r5d]$ fa9tly acid ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 & a /rip ( turm]ic pap] imm]s$ = a few m9utes 9 ! liquid4 ,?is is !n dri$ 9 ! wat]-ov51 :5 if any boric acid comp\nd is pres5t1 a bright r$di%-p9k /a9 is produc$ on ! pap]1 :i* is turn$ blue on moi/5+ ) dilute alkali4 ,! am\nt ( ! boric acid radicle may be det]m9$ by inc9]at+ #e-aj grammes ( soap1 extract+ ) hot dilute acid1 filt]+1 neutralis+ ?is solution to me?yl orange1 & boil+ to expel c>bon dioxide4 ,aft] cool+1 suffici5t pure neutralis$ glyc]9e is add$ to =m "o-?ird ( ! total volume1 & ! liquid titrat$ ) ,n_/#b cau/ic soda solution1 us+ ph5ol-ph?ale9 z indicator4 ,ea* c4c4 ( ,n_/#b ,na,o,h solution corresponds to #j4jca gramme cry/allis$ boric acid1 ,h#c;,,bo#c or #j4jdgg gramme cry/allis$ borax1 ,na#b;,b#d,o#gaj;,h#b,o4 ,,lyes4 ,! am\nts ( cau/ic alkali 7if any71 c>bonat$ alkali1 & salt pres5t are det]m9$ 9 ! mann] already describ$ "u ,alkali & ,alkali ,salts4 ,! glyc]ol cont5t is asc]ta9$ by tak+ #b4e grammes1 add+ lead subacetate solution1 & filt]+ )\t increas+ ! bulk m ?an is absolutely necess>y2 ! solution is conc5trat$ to ab\t #be c4c41 & ! oxidation ) bi*romate & sulphuric acid conduct$ z describ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( ,crude ,glyc]9e4 ,! solution1 aft] oxidation1 is made up to #bej c4c41 & titrat$ aga9/ /&>d f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution1 ! =mula = ! calculation be+3-- #j4be - #b4e ,p] c5t4 ( glyc]ol --- #dj n :]e n equals ! numb] ( c4c4 ( oxidis$ lyes requir$ to oxidise ! f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution4 ,! e/imation ( actual glyc]ol 9 ?is is necess>ily a matt] ( consid]able importance1 & a v l>ge numb] ( processes1 :i* are con/antly be+ add$ to1 h be5 sugge/$ = ! purpose4 ,hi!rto1 h[ev]1 only two me?ods h be5 g5]ally adopt$1 viz4 ! acet9 & ! bi*romate processes4 ,un=tunately ! results obta9$ by ^! d n inv>iably agree1 ! latt]1 :i* includes all oxidisable matt] z glyc]ol1 giv+ sometimes consid]ably high] results1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t a det]m9ation %\ld be made by bo? me?ods1 & ! av]age ( ! two results consid]$ ! true value4 ,?is involves a consid]able am\nt ( "t & tr\ble1 & x w g5]ally be f\nd suffici5t 9 a works laboratory to det]m9e ! glyc]ol by "o me?od only 9 ! ord9>y c\rse1 res]v+ ! o!r process = use z a *eck 9 case ( dispute or d\bt4 ,acet9 ,me?od4--,?is consi/s 9 conv]t+ ! glyc]ol into its e/] ) acetic acid1 ! acetic triglyc]ide1 or triacet9 be+ =m$4 ,?is is !n saponifi$ ) a kn[n volume ( /&>d alkali1 ! excess ( :i* is titrat$ ) acid1 & ! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol calculat$ f ! am\nt ( alkali absorb$4 ,f #a to #a4e grammes ( ! glyc]9e is weigh$ into a conical flask ( ab\t #aej c4c4 capacity1 #g or #h c4c4 ( acetic anhydride add$1 toge!r ) ab\t #c grammes ( anhydr\s sodium acetate1 & ! :ole boil$ on a s&-ba? "u a reflux cond5s] = "o to "o & a half h\rs1 aft] :i* x is all[$ to cool1 #ej c4c4 wat] add$1 & ! e/] dissolv$ by %ak+1 & g5tly w>m+1 ! reflux cond5s] /ill be+ atta*$ z ! acet9 is v volatile4 ,! solution is !n filt]$ f a :ite floccul5t precipitate1 :i* conta9s mo/ ( ! impurities1 into a l>g] conical flask1 ( "s #ejj-fjj c4c4 capacity1 & aft] cool+1 r5d]$ j neutral to ph5ol-ph?ale9 by means ( ,n_/#b cau/ic soda solution1 ! exact po9t be+ rea*$ :5 ! solution acquires a r$di%-yell[ t9t2 #be c4c4 ( a /rong cau/ic soda solution is !n add$1 & ! liquid boil$ = ab\t fifte5 m9utes1 ! excess ( alkali be+ titrat$ aft] cool+1 ) ,n_/#a or ,n_/#b hydro*loric acid4 ,a blank exp]im5t is c>ri$ out simultane\sly1 ) ano!r #be c4c4 ( ! soda solution1 & ! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nts ( acid requir$ by ! two1 furni%es a measure ( ! alkali requir$ to saponify ! acet9 =m$1 & h5ce ! am\nt ( glyc]ol 9 ! crude glyc]9e may be calculat$4 ,example4--#a4dcfg grammes crude glyc]9e1 aft] treatm5t ) acetic anhydride1 & neutralis+1 0 saponifi$ ) #be c4c4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 cau/ic soda solution4 ,! blank exp]im5t requir$ #aaa4je c4c4 ,n_/#a hydro*loric acid4 ,flask conta9+ acet9 #ge4c c4c4 ----- #ce4ge c4c4 ,h5ce1 ! acet9 =m$ f ! glyc]ol pres5t 9 #a4dcfg grammes ( ! crude glyc]9e requir$ #ce4ge c4c4 ,n_/#a cau/ic alkali = its saponification1 s t ! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol may be calculat$ f ! foll[+ =mula3-- #ce4ge #j4jcjfg #ajj ,p] c5t4 glyc]ol --------------------- #gf4c4 #a4dcfg ,bi*romate ,me?od4--,?is process 0 orig9ally devis$ by ,hehn] 7,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhi1 #d-i71 b ! modification sugge/$ by ,ri*>dson & ,jaffe 7ibid41 #ahih1 #ccj7 is pref]r$ by ! au?ors1 & has be5 practis$ by !m = sev]al ye>s ) p]fectly satisfactory results4 ,tw5ty-five grammes ( ! crude glyc]9e are weigh$ out 9 a beak]1 wa%$ into a #bej c4c4 /opp]$ flask1 & made up to ! graduation m>k ) wat]4 ,tw5ty-five c4c4 ( ?is solution are !n measur$ f a burette into a small beak]1 a slight excess ( basic lead acetate solution add$ to precipitate organic matt]1 ! precipitate all[$ to settle1 & ! sup]natant liquid p\r$ ?r\gh a filt] pap] into ano!r #bej c4c4 flask4 ,! precipitate is wa%$ by decantation until ! flask is ne>ly full1 !n transf]r$ to ! filt]1 & all[$ to dra91 a few drops ( dilute sulphuric acid be+ add$ to precipitate ! slight excess ( basic lead acetate solution1 & ! cont5ts ( ! flask made up ) wat] to #bej c4c4 ,?is solution is filt]$1 #bj c4c4 measur$ f a burette into a conical flask ( ab\t #aej c4c4 capacity1 #be c4c4 ( a /&>d potassium bi*romate solution conta9+ #gd4hf grammes bi*romate p] litre add$1 toge!r ) #ej c4c4 ( #ej p] c5t4 sulphuric acid1 & ! :ole plac$ 9 a boil+ wat]-ba? = "o h\r1 aft] :i* x is all[$ to cool1 dilut$ ) wat] to #bej c4c41 & ?is solution run 9 to #bj c4c4 ( a #c p] c5t4 f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution until ! latt] is completely oxidis$1 z %[n by no blue coloration be+ produc$ :5 "o drop is br\ght into contact ) "o drop ( a fre%ly prep>$ solution ( potassium f]ricyanide on a spot-plate4 ,! f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution is previ\sly /&>dis$ by titration ) a potassium bi*romate solution ( "o-t5? ! above /r5g?1 made by dilut+ #aj c4c4 ( ! /rong solution to #ajj c4c4 ) wat]4 ,! reaction tak+ place 9 ! oxidation may be repres5t$ by ! equation3-- #c;,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #g,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #bh;,h#b,,s#d #i;,,co#b #dj;,h#b,o #g,k#b,,s#d #g;,cr#b7,,s#d7c4 ,n[ ! /rong potassium bi*romate solution above m5tion$ is ( su* a /r5g? t #a c4c4 w oxidise #j4ja gramme glyc]9e1 & #bj c4c4 ( ! f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution %\ld require ab\t #aj c4c4 ( ! "o-t5? /r5g? bi*romate 9 ! blank exp]im5t4 ,if x requires m or less ?an ?is1 !n ! am\nt ( f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution :i* w\ld require exactly #aj c4c4 7correspond+ to #j4ja gramme glyc]9e7 is calculat$1 & ! oxidis$ glyc]9e solution run into ?is until oxidation is complete4 ,! =mula = ! calculation ( ! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol !n becomes3-- #j4be -7#bej #j4ja7 ,p] c5t4 ( glyc]ol ---------- #ejj1 n :]e n equals ! numb] ( c4c4 ( oxidis$ glyc]9e solution requir$ to oxidise ! f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution4 ,example3-- ,9 ! blank exp]im5t #bj c4c4 f]r\s ammonium sulphate solution requir$ #i4h c4c4 "o-t5? /r5g? bi*romate solution1 s t #bj4d c4c4 f]r\s solution w\ld equal #aj c4c4 bi*romate4 #bj4d c4c4 f]r\s solution requir$ #bg4h c4c4 ( oxidis$ glyc]9e solution be=e x ceas$ to give a blue coloration ) potassium f]ricyanide4 #j4be - 7#bej #j4ja7 ,!re=e1 p] c5t4 ( glyc]ol ------------ #ejj #bg4h #hj4jd p] c5t4 ,o!r me?ods h be5 sugge/$ = ! prelim9>y purification1 e4g41 silv] oxide1 silv] c>bonate & lead subacetate1 & copp] sulphate & cau/ic pota%1 b ! lead subacetate alone ) c>e gives satisfactory results4 ,o!r det]m9ations include ^? ( specific gravity1 alkal9ity1 proportion ( salts & *loride1 & te/s = metals1 ars5ic1 sulphur comp\nds1 sug>1 & fatty acids4 ,specific gravity is det]m9$ at #ae ,c41 & may be tak5 9 specific gravity bottle1 or ) a ,we/phal balance or hydromet] ,x usually ranges f #a4c to #a4ca4 ,alkal9ity1 :i* is usually sodium c>bonate1 & may be some:at consid]able if ! soap has be5 gra9$ ) cau/ic alkali1 is det]m9$ aft] dilution ) wat] by titrat+ ) ,n_/#b acid1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,salts4--,^! may be det]m9$ by g5tly inc9]at+ #e-f grammes ( ! glyc]9e1 extract+ ! c>bonace\s mass ) di/ill$ wat]1 filt]+1 & evaporat+ ! filtrate on ! wat] ba?4 ,! dri$ residue repres5ts ! salts 9 ! weight tak54 ,*loride ( sodium 7common salt7 may be e/imat$ by dissolv+ ! total salts 9 wat]1 add+ potassium *romate1 & titrat+ ) ,n_/#aj silv] nitrate solution4 ,copp]1 lead1 iron1 magnesium1 & calcium may also be te/$ = 9 ! salts1 by ord9>y reactions4 ,ars5ic is be/ te/$ = by ! ,gutzeit me?od4 ,ab\t #e c4c4 is plac$ 9 a te/-tube1 a few fragm5ts ( granulat$ z9c free f ars5ic1 & #aj c4c4 dilute hydro*loric acid add$1 & ! m\? ( ! tube cov]$ ) a small filt] pap]1 moi/5$ ?ree successive times ) an alcoholic solution ( m]cury bi*loride & dri$4 ,aft] ?irty m9utes ! filt] pap] is exam9$1 :5 a yell[ /a9 w be obs]v$ if ars5ic is pres5t4 ,sulphates4--,^! may be precipitat$ ) b>ium *loride 9 acid solution1 9 ! usual way1 dri$1 ignit$1 & weigh$4 ,sulphites give ) b>ium *loride a precipitate soluble 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,if ! precipitate is well wa%$ ) hot wat]1 & a few drops ( iod9e solution toge!r ) />* pa/e add$1 ! pres5ce ( sulphites is prov$ by ! gradual disappe>ance ( ! blue />*-iod9e comp\nd fir/ =m$4 ,?iosulphates are detect$ by precipitat+ any sulphite & sulphate ) b>ium *loride1 filt]+1 acidify+1 & add+ a few drops ( potassium p]manganate solution1 :5 9 ! pres5ce ( a m]e trace ( ?iosulphate1 ! solution becomes cl\dy4 ,sulphides4--,lewk[its* recomm5ds te/+ = ^! by replac+ ! m]cury bi*loride ) lead acetate pap] 9 ! ,gutzeit ars5ic te/4 ,any sulphide causes a black5+ ( ! lead acetate pap]4 ,sug>s may be te/$ = bo? be=e & aft] inv]sion1 by boil+ ) ,fehl+s' solution1 :5 no r$uction %\ld take place1 if pure4 ,fatty acids are detect$ by ! turbidity !y produce :5 ! dilut$ glyc]9e is acidifi$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,/ati/ics ,,( ,,! ,,soap ,,indu/ry4 ,until ! ye> #ahec ! am\nt ( soap produc$ annually 9 ?is c\ntry 0 readily obta9able f ! (ficial returns collect$ = ! purpose ( levy+ ! duty1 & ! foll[+ figures1 tak5 at int]vals ( t5 ye>s = ! half c5tury prior to t date1 %[ ! /eady developm5t ( ! indu/ry dur+ t p]iod3-- ,ye>4 ,manufactur$4 ,consum$4 ,export$4 ,duty p] ,ton4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #ahja #eji1ihj #dhb1adj #bf1gij #ba #ahaa #fgh1egj #fea1ghj #bf1gij #ba #ahba #hge1jjj #hci1bij #ce1gaj #bh #ahca #a1jih1baj #iee1cfj #adb1hej #bh #ahda #a1ggf1gij #a1eag1hfj #beh1icj #ad #ahea #a1icg1ejj #a1gda1jgj #aif1dcj #ad ,s9ce ! repeal ( ! soap duty1 ! rev5ue f :i* _h rea*$ ab\t #a1jjj1jjj p] annum1 no accurate means ( gaug+ ! production exi/s1 b x is e/imat$ t x has ne>ly quadrupl$ dur+ ! la/ fifty-five ye>s1 be+ n[ "s #g1jjj1jjj or #h1jjj1jjj cwt4 p] annum4 ,! numb] ( soap manufactur]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom is ne>ly #cjj1 & ! am\nt ( capital inve/$ 9 ! indu/ry is r\ghly e/imat$ to approa* #bj1jjj1jjj /]l+4 ,(ficial figures are /ill available = ! am\nt & value ( soap annually import$ & export$ to & f ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ! returns = ! la/ eight ye>s be+3-- ,imports4 ,h\sehold4 ,toilet4 ,total4#ac ,ye>4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #aijj 444 444 444 444 #aia1bcc #bdd1cde #aija 444 444 444 444 #cjb1eee #cae1jbf #aijb 444 444 444 444 #cfa1hea #dbi1cjj #aijc #bgc1edb #bhd1cgf #be1gdi #ih1jcb #dfb1iei #dii1djg #aijd #bed1dbe #bfh1djh #ag1ifb #ha1afb #chc1abb #dch1iff #aije #bgd1bch #bgi1jdd #ai1fca #ih1ejg #dgc1jfg #ejj1dcj #aijf #cji1ige #caa1aad #ah1eed #aja1bdc #cii1jgj #dfh1jhf #aijg #bbh1jce #bfc1ife #ah1bdd #ii1dcb #ejd1gaj #ede1che ,h\sehold & toilet soaps 7 n giv5 sep>ately prior to #aijc4 ,! imports dur+ ! la/ ?ree ye>s = :i* complete figures are obta9able1 came f ! foll[+ s\rces3-- ,h\sehold ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,f ,ne!rl&s #d1cae #c1fbj #c1cfh ,france #ad1cci #ag1ghc #bd1gdg ,italy #bd1bji #ah1abi #cb1igb ,unit$ ,/ates #bah1gdj #bce1fab #bdb1bid ,o!r ,=eign ,c\ntries #f1ghe #c1hgc #g1ddh ,total f ,=eign ,c\ntries #bfh1chh #bgi1jag #caj1hbi ,total f ,briti% ,possessions #bj #bg #bhe ,total #bfh1djh #bgi1jdd #caa1aad ,toilet ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,f ,g]many #c1eji #c1eaf #c1jja ,ne!rl&s #e1icg #e1ggc #e1iai ,belgium #a1efh #a1hfa #c1ade ,france #g1abj #g1fcc #e1gid ,italy #a1agf #bee #a1bcc ,unit$ ,/ates #ei1hfc #gd1eaf #gh1chb ,o!r ,=eign ,c\ntries #aff #adg #aif ,total f ,=eign ,c\ntries #gi1cci #ic1gja #ig1fgj ,total f ,briti% ,possessions #a1hbc #d1daa #c1bbe ,total #ha1afb #ih1aab #ajj1hie ,exports4 ,! exports f ! ,unit$ ,k+dom dur+ ! pa/ eight ye>s h be5 z foll[s3-- ,h\sehold4 ,toilet4 ,total4#ad ,ye>4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #aijj 444 444 444 444 #hgd1bad #ici1eaj #aija 444 444 444 444 #idg1dhe #iii1ebd #aijb 444 444 444 444 #a1jea1fbd #a1abf1feg #aijc #iih1iie #ijj1had #ch1cgb #bag1ibh #a1jeg1afd #a1adc1ffa #aijd #a1jdi1jbb #iee1ggd #dj1djf #bbh1egd #a1ajh1agd #a1bjh1gab #aije #a1afg1igf #a1jac1hcg #dc1hcg #bdh1dbe #a1bcj1caj #a1bhd1gbg #aijf #a1aca1bid #a1jji1fec #df1cfd #bfa1ahf #a1baj1eih #a1cji1eef #aijg #a1aad1fbd #a1jie1agj #ej1fee #bhj1ahf #a1bdj1hje #a1dei1aac ,h\sehold & toilet soaps 7 n giv5 sep>ately prior to #aijc4 ,! exports = ! la/ ?ree ye>s = :i* complete figures are available1 consi/$ ( ! foll[+3-- ,h\sehold ,soap4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,to ,sw$5 #c1jbg #b1iaa #c1fgg ,norway #d1agc #c1iba #f1jje ,ne!rl&s #ci1dbj #da1aig #dh1fja ,dut* ,possessions 9 ! ,indian ,seas #h1ehf #aj1bic #g1gdf ,belgium #gc1iif #ea1ehc #g1gbi ,france #aa1gda #ab1bbb #bb1ijg ,portuguese ,ea/ ,africa #bh1ihg #db1iha #dj1dgh ,can>y ,isl&s #bd1gfc #bg1hfd #bg1egi ,italy #b1hdb #c1ahg #c1ifb ,turkey #f1igd #g1heh #e1hig ,egypt #ab1aaj #i1dfg #ab1jce ,*9a 7exclusive ( ,hong-,kong & ,macao7 #di1bce #aad1aef #hi1afi ,unit$ ,/ates #c1hhe #a1ige #c1ibd ,columbia #c1fja #eja #a1cfd ,ecuador #c1jge #c1jif #f1hfa ,*ili #e1igb #d1hfe #i1bjc ,brazil #ce1aig #bh1aih #ca1gbf ,arg5t9e ,republic #g1hjb #h1ied #ac1jhd ,o!r ,=eign ,c\ntries #dj1jeh #ec1iad #gg1fhg ------------------------------- ,total to ,=eign ,c\ntries #cfe1ddd #dbi1adc #dai1fcd --------------------------------- ,to ,*annel ,isl&s #e1cja #h1cbh #g1ifh ,gibralt> #ac1bgb #ac1hfh #ab1ffa ,briti% ,we/ ,africa-- ,gold ,coa/ #bb1eih #ah1eac #bc1dbc ,lagos #g1gea #h1jcb #i1eah ,nig]ian ,protectorate #ad1idb #ae1bii #bj1iea ,cape ( ,good ,hope #aeh1eag #adc1gej #acf1chh ,natal #gd1hdh #ga1hgd #df1gga ,briti% ,india ,bombay 7includ+ ,kura*i7 #ei1djf #fh1ide #gg1hfg ,madras #f1cfd #f1fig #aj1cee ,b5gal1 ,ea/]n ,b5gal & ,assam4 #bf1ecd #bc1jhg #bb1fdh ,burmah #bf1chi #ce1gbg #cg1ajc ,/raits ,settlem5ts & ,dep5d5cies #bf1eaf #cb1bad #ci1gdi ,hong-,kong #ad1aai #ae1aec #ae1fhe ,briti% ,we/ ,india ,isl&s #gd1jfi #eh1hha #fg1cca ,briti% ,guiana #ab1ffa #ab1jbc #aa1eeg ,o!r ,briti% ,possessions #dg1jdc #eb1cjc #ej1jdd ------------------------------- ,total to ,briti% ,possessions #eij1ccj #ehd1fid #eij1jai ------------------------------- ,total #iee1ggd #a1jac1hcg #a1jji1fec ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,toilet ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,to ,g]many #e1jea #f1cbb #f1fbj ,belgium #c1gcj #c1bfe #c1cee ,france #g1ijc #h1ihh #i1cbd ,portuguese ,ea/ ,africa #b1bae #c1igc #d1feh ,egypt #b1cjb #c1cej #c1ebe ,*9a 7exclusive ( ,hong-,kong & ,macao7 #c1jif #c1aae #c1fde ,japan 7includ+ ,=mosa7 #c1cjj #d1fdi #c1chb ,unit$ ,/ates #ej1jdc #ej1ffh #eb1abd ,brazil #a1hgi #b1bda #b1bib ,o!r ,=eign ,c\ntries #bb1jjb #bf1jha #bi1bad ,total to ,=eign ,c\ntries #aja1eba #aab1feb #aah1aci ,to ,cape ( ,good ,hope #ad1jid #ad1hae #ad1ihh ,natal #h1hig #aa1iac #g1bhj ,briti% ,india-- ,bombay 7includ+ ,kura*i7 #bd1ffe #bd1fgb #bh1caf ,madras #d1ccc #e1hea #f1fbd ,b5gal1 ,ea/]n ,b5gal & ,assam #ad1abi #af1jba #ae1ifi ,burmah #c1bii #c1djj #d1ffg ,/raits ,settlem5ts & ,dep5d5cies #c1eij #e1jib #d1gih ,ceylon & ,dep5d5cies #ab1baj #aa1aah #ab1hed ,au/ralia-- ,we/]n ,au/ralia #a1edi #a1cid #a1acg ,s\? ,au/ralia1 7includ+ ,nor!rn ,t]ritory7 #hie #fdd #fcg ,victoria #aa1ihi #ac1fad #ab1ggd ,new ,s\? ,wales #c1ibj #d1bgh #d1aci ,que5sl& #ieg #a1jig #a1ajh ,tasmania #dhb #cae #edg ,new ,zeal& #e1jic #d1dih #e1ejc ,canada #f1chb #f1aif #h1ahe ,o!r ,briti% ,possessions #aa1jfi #aj1hee #ac1eba ,total to ,briti% ,possessions #abg1jec #ace1ggc #adc1jdg ,total #bbh1egd #bdh1dbe #bfa1ahf ,! foll[+ /ati/ics extract$ f (ficial consul> reports1 etc41 %[ ! ext5t ( ! soap indu/ry 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,unit$ ,/ates4--,accord+ to ! ,oil1 ,pa9t & ,drug ,report ! total production ( soap 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ #aije1 exclusive ( soap products to ! value ( #a1dcg1aah made 9 e/abli%m5ts engag$ prim>ily 9 ! manufacture ( o!r products1 rea*$ a value ( #fh1bgd1gjj1 made up 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,quantity4 ,value4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,lbs4 ,h>d soaps 444 #ef1hgh1dhf ,tall[ soap #hdf1gec1gih #cb1faj1hej ,ole9 soap #bi1cfc1cgf #a1cfc1fcf ,foots soap #he1jjj1acc #c1jij1cab ,toilet soaps1 includ+ m$icat$1 %av+1 & o!r special soaps #acj1bbe1dag #i1fjg1bgf ,p[d]$ soaps1 sold z su* #abj1fbd1ifh #d1ceh1fhb ,all o!r soaps #adc1cij1ieg #f1jig1fgj ,s(t soap #cc1fac1daf #ffg1jfd ,special soap articles 444 #eed1hha ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,france4--,?is c\ntry export$ common soap dur+ #aijf to ! value ( #eef1jjj1 or #h1jjj m ?an 9 #aije4 ,! *ief c5tre ( ! soap indu/ry is ,m>seilles1 :i*1 ) ab\t fifty soap factories1 produces annually "s #c1jjj1jjj cwts4 ,g]many import$ 9 #aije soap & p]fum]y to ! value ( #c1jcb1 t export$ am\nt+ to #ae1cfd4 ,9 ,saxony !re are eighty soap factories4 ,russia4--,!re are fifty l>ge soap factories 9 ,russia1 ! annual output f :i* is ab\t #b1bej1jjj cwt4 ,r\mania4--,?is c\ntry possesses ab\t #bcj small & eighte5 l>ge soap & c&le factories1 mo/ ( :i* produce only common soap1 !re be+ only "o firm--9 ,bu*>e/--:i* makes mill$ soaps4 ,d5m>k4--,9 ?is c\ntry !re are "s #bjj small soap factories4 ,au/ralia4--,accord+ to a ,bo>d ( ,trade report1 !re 7 n9ety-eight soap & c&le factories 9 ,au/ralia 9 #aije1 employ+ #a1efh h&s1 & produc+ #die1jcf cwt4 ( soap4 ,que5sl&4--,9 #aije ?is c\ntry conta9$ tw5ty-"o soap & c&le works1 9 :i* #adb h&s 7 employ$1 & hav+ an output valu$ at #hf1cbd4 ,hong-,kong4--,!re are ab\t tw5ty-f\r soap factories on ?is isl&4 ,japan4--,a ,swiss consul> report /ates t 9 ,japan !re are n[ "s fifty soap works1 produc+ ab\t #ae1jjj1jjj tablets mon?ly4 ,fiji ,isl&s4--,^! possess only "o soap factory1 ! output f :i* is #i cwt4 daily4 ,! foll[+ table1 compil$ f v>i\s consul> & o!r (ficial returns1 %[s ! quantity & value ( soap import$ into diff]5t c\ntries & places dur+ ! ye>s #aije-g3-- ,h\sehold4 ,toilet4 ,total4 ,place & ,date4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,europe-- ,cyprus1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #i1ihc ,icel&1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #f1dbc ,switz]l&1 444 444 444 444 #a1gjb1hjj 444 #aijf kilos4 444 ,turkey 444 444 444 444 ,ab\t 444 #a1hjj1jjj 444 lb4 p] annum ,africa-- ,alg]ia1 #aijf #ac1fji #bbh1fdj 444 444 444 444 tons ,cape ,colony1 #ae1hig1hjjade1jjj #dbg1fjj 444 444 444 #aijf lb4 lb4 ,gold ,coa/1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #bc1ihg ,l\r5o1 #ceg1fch #d1bic #cf1jjj #b1aie 444 444 ,m>ques1 #aijf lb4 lb4 ,natal1 #aijf #d1bfc1jjj 444 #i1hgj 444 444 444 lb4 lb4 ,orange ,riv] #b1chb1jjj #bc1jjja1gdh lb4 444 444 444 ,colony1 #aijf lb4 ,pemba1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #a1jib ,rhodesia1 #aijf #beg1fjj 444 #b1iji lb4 444 444 444 lb4 ,s\!rn ,nig]ia1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #aa1iij ,tangi] 444 444 444 444 444 #d1eed ,transvaal1 #aijf #d1djg1jjj #ha1jjj #bjb1bjj 444 444 444 lb4 lb4 ,tripoli1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #f1jhj ,tunis1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1eci #bc1gbg tons ,zanzib>1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #f1ajb ,am]ica-- ,bahia1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1jca #fjf1jdf tons milreis ,brazil1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1ghb 444 tons f ,u4,k4 ,briti% ,guiana1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #ac1gcc ,canada1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #fjj1iii ,columbia1 #aijf-- ,c>tag5a 444 444 444 444 #fe1iia 444 tons ,b>ranquilla 444 444 444 444 #had1fga #ad1gab lb4 ,co/a ,rica1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #a1bfi f ,u4,k4 ,ecuador1 #aijd 444 444 444 444 #gei1jcd 444 kilos4 ,granada1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #c1hfg ,guatemala1 #aijf 444 #ijj 444 444 444 444 ,m>t9ique1 #aijf #fic1bfi #f1iee 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,mexico1 #aije-f 444 #e1ihb 444 444 444 444 ,san ,dom+o1 444 444 444 444 #ged1ehg #aijf lb4 444 ,/4 ,v9c5t1 #aije-f 444 444 444 444 444 #a1cge ,sur9am1 #aijf 444 #c1ije #a1adb 444 444 444 tons ,tr9idad1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #bi1ifg ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aije 444 #cii1gig 444 #a1jga1ddf 444 #a1dga1bdc ,h\sehold4 ,toilet4 ,total ,place & ,date4 ,quan- ,quan- ,quantity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value4 tity ,value4 ,asia-- ,ceylon1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #dbc1gjj rupees ,*9a1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #baf1jdb ,hang*[1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #e1hhh ,india1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 #ahc1iih #bae1baj cwts4 ,kiung*[1 #aije 444 #ege 444 444 444 444 ,%anghai1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #ic1bef ,smyrna1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #bfa tons 444 ,au/ralasia-- ,au/ralia1 #aijf 444 444 #hia1aag #fe1hdj 444 444 lb4 ,fiji1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #a1gfj ,new ,zeal&1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #cf1hdc ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #i1acg ,exports4 ,h\sehold4 ,toilet4 ,total ,place & ,date4 ,quan- ,quan- ,quantity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value ,europe-- ,c&ia1 ,crete1 444 444 444 444 #b1bjj #cd1jjj #aijf tons4 ,greece 444 444 444 444 444 ,ab\t #ejj1jjj ,fr4 p] annum4 ,italy1 #aijg #c1iib1hjj #ie1hdj 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,leghorn1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1eba #cg1jfe tons4 ,spa91 #aije #d1gej1iif #ih1hdj 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,switz]l&1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #gg1cjj 444 kilos4 ,africa-- ,cape ,colony1 #aijf #bjj lb4 444 444 444 444 444 ,natal1 #aijf #ge1bbe lb4 444 444 444 444 444 ,sey*elles1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #dai1cbi #abi1eij kilos4 ,rs4 ,am]ica-- ,new ,orleans1 444 444 444 444 444 #ee1ecd #aijf ,p]ambuco1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #c1ehb #a1jhg1gig1aej tons4 rei ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dd1aaj1idi 444 444 #a1jdb1ahe 444 444 #aije lb4 ,asia-- ,japan1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #hc1hgg ,smyrna1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #cbb 444 tons4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,includ+ soap p[d] & soap /ock4 #ad ,includ+ soap p[d] & soap /ock4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,degrees1 ,,twaddell ,,& ,,baum1 ,,) ,,actual ,,d5sities4 ,tw4 ,b4 ,d5sity4 ,tw4 ,b4 ,d5sity4 #j #j #a4jjj #dd #bf4j #a4bbj #a #j4g #a4jje #de #bf4d #a4bbe #b #a4d #a4jaj #df #bf4i #a4bcj #c #b4a #a4jae #dg #bg4d #a4bce #d #b4g #a4jbj #dh #bg4i #a4bdj #e #c4d #a4jbe #di #bh4d #a4bde #f #d4a #a4jcj #ej #bh4h #a4bej #g #d4g #a4jce #ea #bi4c #a4bee #h #e4d #a4jdj #eb #bi4g #a4bfj #i #f4j #a4jde #ec #cj4b #a4bfe #aj #f4g #a4jej #ed #cj4f #a4bgj #aa #g4d #a4jee #ee #ca4a #a4bge #ab #h4j #a4jfj #ef #ca4e #a4bhj #ac #h4g #a4jfe #eg #cb4j #a4bhe #ad #i4d #a4jgj #eh #cb4d #a4bij #ae #aj4j #a4jge #ei #cb4h #a4bie #af #aj4f #a4jhj #fj #cc4c #a4cjj #ag #aa4b #a4jhe #fa #cc4g #a4cje #ah #aa4i #a4jij #fb #cd4b #a4caj #ai #ab4d #a4jie #fc #cd4f #a4cae #bj #ac4j #a4ajj #fd #ce4j #a4cbj #ba #ac4f #a4aje #fe #ce4d #a4cbe #bb #ad4b #a4aaj #ff #ce4h #a4ccj #bc #ad4i #a4aae #fg #cf4b #a4cce #bd #ae4d #a4abj #fh #cf4f #a4cdj #be #af4j #a4abe #fi #cg4j #a4cde #bf #af4e #a4acj #gj #cg4d #a4cej #bg #ag4a #a4ace #ga #cg4h #a4cee #bh #ag4g #a4adj #gb #ch4b #a4cfj #bi #ah4c #a4ade #gc #ch4f #a4cfe #cj #ah4h #a4aej #gd #ci4j #a4cgj #ca #ai4c #a4aee #ge #ci4d #a4cge #cb #ai4h #a4afj #gf #ci4h #a4chj #cc #bj4c #a4afe #gg #dj4a #a4che #cd #bj4i #a4agj #gh #dj4e #a4cij #ce #ba4d #a4age #gi #dj4h #a4cie #cf #bb4j #a4ahj #hj #da4b #a4djj #cg #bb4e #a4ahe #ha #da4f #a4dje #ch #bc4j #a4aij #hb #db4j #a4daj #ci #bc4e #a4aie #hc #db4c #a4dae #dj #bd4j #a4bjj #hd #db4g #a4dbj #da #bd4e #a4bje #he 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,twaddell4 ,,koh4 p] gal4 #a4jfj #ab #e4ei #j4ei #a4aaj #bb #aa4ca #a4be #a4aej #cj #ae4dh #a4gg #a4aij #ch #ai4bi #b4ba #a4bcj #df #bc4bb #b4hd #a4bhj #ef #bg4hg #c4ef #a4ccj #ff #ca4cb #d4af #a4cfj #gb #ce4ja #d4gf #a4cij #gh #ch4ei #e4cf #a4dbj #hd #dj4ig #e4ha #a4ddj #hh #dc4hc #f4ca #a4dgj #id #dg4af #f4ic #a4ebj #ajd #ea4ji #g4gf #a4fjj #aab #ee4fb #h4hi #a4fhj #acf #fj4ih #aj4bd #a4ghj #aef #fg4fe #ab4jd #a4hhj #agf #ge4gd #ad4bc #b4jjj #bjj #hf4bb #ag4bd 7,f ,soaps1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,hur/1 publi%$ by ,scott1 ,gre5wood ,son47 ,,! ,,end4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acetic ,acid1 #aj ,acid1 ,acetic1 #aj ---- ,ara*idic1 #aj ---- ,beh5ic1 #aj ---- ,butyric1 #aj ---- ,capric1 #aj ---- ,caproic1 #aj ---- ,caprylic1 #aj ---- ,c>naubic1 #aj ---- ,c]otic1 #aj ---- ,daturic1 #aj ---- ,doeglic1 #aa ---- ,elom>g>ic1 #ab ---- ,elo/e>ic1 #ab ---- ,erucic1 #aa ---- ,ficoc]ylic1 #aj ---- ,hynic1 #aj ---- ,hypogic1 #aa ---- ,isol9ol5ic1 #ab ---- ,isoval]ic1 #aj ---- ,jecoric1 #ab ---- ,lauric1 #aj ---- ,lignoc]ic1 #aj ---- ,l9ol5ic1 #ab ---- ,l9olic1 #ab ---- ,m>g>ic1 #aj ---- ,m$ullic1 #aj ---- ,melissic1 #aj ---- ,mor+ic1 #aa ---- ,myri/ic1 #aj ---- ,oleic1 #aa ---- ,palmitic1 #aj ---- ,physetoleic1 #aa ---- ,pisangc]ylic1 #aj ---- ,psyllo/e>ylic1 #aj ---- ,rapic1 #aa ---- ,ric9oleic1 #ac ---- ,saponification1 #ai-ba ---- ,/e>ic1 #aj ---- ,t>iric1 #ab ---- ,telfairic1 #ab ---- ,!obromic1 #aj ---- ,tiglic1 #aa ---- value1 #aah1 #abh ,acids1 ,classification ( fatty1 #aj ---- ,fatty1 #i-ac ---- ---- ,comb9ation ) ,alkali1 #de1 #df ,acids1 ,fatty1 ,prep>ation by acid process1 #ai-ba ---- ---- ---- by f]m5t process1 #af ---- ---- ---- by ,twit*ell's process1 #bj ---- ,saturat$ fatty1 #aa ---- ,unsaturat$ fatty1 #aa ,album5 9 soap1 #ij ,alcohols1 ,e/imation (1 #abh ,aldehydes1 ,e/imation (1 #abi ,alkali1 ,cau/ic & c>bonat$1 #ch1 #ci1 #abc-abf ,alkali 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aca1 #acb ,amyl salicylate1 #ajg ,&iroba oil1 #cb ,animal *>coal1 #aae ---- fats1 ,treatm5t (1 #dc ,anise 7/>7 oil1 #if ,anisic aldehyde1 #ajh ,ara*idic acid1 #aj ,ara*is oil1 #bh ,artificial p]fumes1 #ajg-aaj ,a%1 ,soda1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ,aspic oil1 #if ,aque\s saponification1 #ad ,aubp9e1 #ajh ,b4 ,bact]ia1 ,decomposition ( fats by1 #ah ,baobab-se$ oil1 #cf ,b> soap1 #ed1 #ee ,b>r+ soap1 #fh ,bay oil1 #ig ,beh5ic acid1 #aj ,b5zyl acetate1 #ajh ,b]gamot oil1 #ig ---- ---- 7artificial71 #aji ,b9iodide soaps1 #hg ,bir*-t> soap1 #hh ,bitt] almond oil1 #ig ,blea*+ palm oil1 #da ---- ros91 #dc ,boil+-on-/r5g?1 #ea ,bois de ,rose ,femelle oil1 #ii ,bone-fat1 #cj ---- ---- treatm5t (1 #dc ,borax 9 soap1 #hh ,boric acid 9 soap1 #hh ,boric acid 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #ace ,borneo tall[1 #cb ,br9e1 #ci ,brom9e absorption ( oils & fats1 #abb ,br[n ,w9dsor soap1 #gh1 #ih ,butt] goa1 #cc ---- kokum1 #cc ---- %ea1 #ca ,butyric acid1 #aj ,butyr91 #h ,c4 ,calico-pr9t]'s soap1 #ic ,cananga oil1 #ih ,c&le-nut oil1 #cc ,capric acid1 #aj ,capr91 #h ,caproic acid1 #aj ,capro91 #h ,caprylic acid1 #aj ,capryl91 #h ,c>apa oil1 #cb ,c>away oil1 #ih ,c>bolic acid 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #acd ,c>bolic soap1 #hh ,c>bonate pota%1 #ci1 #abe1 #abf ---- soda1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ,c>naubic acid1 #aj ,cassia oil1 #ih ,ca/or oil1 #cj ,cau/ic pota%1 #ci1 #abc ---- soda1 #ci1 #abc ,cay5ne l9aloe oil1 #ii ,c$>wood oil1 #ih ,c]otic acid1 #aj ,*>coal1 ,animal1 #aae ,*9ese vegetable tall[1 #ca ,*ole/]ol 9 unsaponifi$ matt]1 #abj ,c9namon oil1 #ih ,citral1 #ajh ,citronella oil1 #ii ,citronellal1 #ajh ,cleans+ soap1 #fj1 #fa ,close-pil+ soap1 #ga ,clove oil1 #ii ,coal t> soaps1 #hh ,cocoa-nut oil1 #be1 #bf ,cohune-nut oil1 #cd ,cold process soap-mak+1 #df1 #dg ,col\r+ soap1 #ff1 #hj1 #hb ,compress+ soap1 #hc1 #he ,concrete orris oil1 #ajj ,con/itution ( oils & fats1 #f1 #g ,conv]sion ( oleic acid into solid acids1 #aa1 #ab ,cool+ soap1 #gd1 #gf ,coprah oil1 #be1 #bf ,cotton-se$ oil1 #bg1 #db ---- ---- ,ref9+1 #db ---- soap/ock1 #dj ---- /e>9e1 #bh ,c\m>91 #ajh ,crude glyc]9e1 #aac1 #acf-aci ,crut*+ soap1 #fc ,curcas oil1 #cc ,curd mottl$ soap1 #eb1 #ec ,curd soaps1 #eb ,cutt+ & /amp+ toilet soap1 #he ,d4 ,daturic acid1 #aj ,decolorisation1 ,glyc]9e1 #aae ,decomposition ( fats by bact]ia1 #ah ,det]g5t action ( soap1 #d1 #e ,diglyc]ides1 #g ,dika fat1 #cf ,dis9fectant soaps1 #ff ,di/e>9e1 #g ,di/illation1 glyc]9e1 #aad ,di/ill$ glyc]9e1 #aad ,doeglic acid1 #aa ,d\ble di/ill$ glyc]9e1 #aae ,dregs 9 fats & oils1 ,det]m9ation (1 #abj1 #aba ,dry+ soap1 #ga1 #gh-hj ,dynamite glyc]9e1 #aae ,e4 ,elaid9 reaction1 #ab ,electrical production ( soap1 #ei ,elom>g>ic acid1 #ab ,elo/e>ic acid1 #ab ,enzymes1 ,action (1 #ae-ah ,erucic acid1 #aa ,ess5tial oils1 #if-ajg ---- ---- ,exam9ation (1 #abg-acj ,e/] value1 #aai1 #abh ,e!r soap1 #ij ,eucalyptus oil1 #ajj ,evaporation to crude glyc]9e1 #aab1 #aac ,f4 ,fat1 ,bone1 #cj ---- ,dika1 #cf ---- ,m>ipa1 #cd ---- ,m>r[1 #cj ---- ,niam1 #cd ---- ,tangkallah1 #cg ---- ,treatm5t ( bone1 #dc ,fats1 ,decomposition by bact]ia (1 #ah ---- ,treatm5t ( animal1 #dc ---- ,wa/e1 #cj ,fats & oils1 ,det]m9ation ( acid value (1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ( brom9e absorption (1 #abb ---- ---- ---- ( dregs1 etc41 91 #abj1 #aba ---- ---- ---- ( free acidity (1 #aag ---- ---- ---- ( iod9e absorption (1 #aba1 #abb ---- ---- ---- ( saponification ---- ---- ---- equival5ts (1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ( saponification value1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ( specific gravity (1 #aag ( titre (1 #abb1 #abc ---- ---- ---- ( unsaponifiable matt] 91 #aai ---- ---- ---- ( wat] 91 #abj ---- ---- ---- ,yield ( glyc]9e f1 #aaf ,fatty acids1 #i-ac1 #ca ---- ---- ,classification (1 #aj ---- ---- ,direct comb9ation ) alkali (1 #de1 #df ---- ---- 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aca ---- ---- ---- ,exam9ation (1 #acc1 #acd ---- ---- ,prep>ation by acid process1 #ai-ba ---- ---- ---- by f]m5t process1 #af ---- ---- ---- by ,twit*ell's process1 #bj ---- ---- ,saturat$1 #aa ---- ---- ,unsaturat$1 #aa ,f5nel oil1 #ajj ,f]m5t process = prep>ation ( fatty acids1 #af ,f]m5ts1 action (1 #ae-ah ,ficoc]ylic acid1 #aj ,fill+ soap1 #fe ,fi% oils1 #cj ,fitt+1 #ea ,float+ soap1 #ij1 #ia ,fluorides 9 soap1 #hh ,=maldehyde soap1 #hh ,fram+ soap1 #ff ,free alkali 9 soap1 ,e/imation (1 #acb ---- cau/ic 9 soap1 ,neutralis+1 #ff ---- fat 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #acc ---- fatty acids1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aag ,g4 ,g]aniol1 #ajh ,g]anium oils1 #aja ,g]anium-sur-rose oil1 #aja ,g+]-grass oil1 #aja ,glyc]ides1 #g1 #h ,glyc]9e1 ,*emically pure1 #aae ---- ,crude1 #aac1 #acf-aci ---- decolorisation1 #aae ---- di/illation1 #aad ---- ,di/ill$1 #aad ---- dynamite1 #aae ---- 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #acd1 #ace ---- manufacture1 #aaa-aad ---- saponification1 #aaf ---- soaps1 #hi ---- ,yield (1 f fats & oils1 #aaf ,glyc]ol det]m9ation1 acet9 me?od1 #acf ---- ---- bi*romate me?od1 #acg1 #ach ---- 9 lyes1 ,e/imation (1 #ace ,goa-butt]1 #cc ,gra9+-out1 #ej ,grease1 ,animal1 #cj ---- ,bone1 #cj ---- ,kit*51 #cj ---- ,sk91 #cj ,guaiac wood oil1 #aja ,h4 ,halph5's reaction1 #acd ,heliotrop91 #ajh ,hemp-se$ oil1 #bi ,hyac9?1 #ajh ,hynic acid1 #aj ,hydrat$ soaps1 #dh1 #di ,hydrolysis accel]at$ by heat & electricity1 #ad1 #ae ---- accel]at$ by use ( *emical reag5ts1 #ai-bc ---- accel]at$ ) acid1 #ai1 #ba ---- ,enzymic1 #ae-ah ---- ( oils & fats1 #ac-bc ---- ( soap1 #c ,hypogic acid1 #aa ,i4 ,i*?yol soap1 #hi ,inoy-k]nel oil1 #cg ,iod9e absorption ( rose oil1 #acj ---- absorption ( oils & fats1 #aba1abb3 ---- soap1 #hi ,ionone1 #ajh ,isol9ol5ic acid1 #ab ,isoval]ic acid1 #aj ,isoval]91 #h ,j4 ,jasm9e1 #aji ,jecoric acid1 #ab ,k4 ,kananga oil1 #ih ,kapok oil1 #cb ,ka/ilis1 #hh ,kokum butt]1 #cc ,l4 ,l>d1 #be ,lauric acid1 #aj ,laur91 #h ,lav5d] oils1 #aja ,lemon-grass oil1 #ajb ,lemon oil1 #ajb ,lignoc]ic acid1 #aj ,lime oil1 #ajb ---- saponification1 #bb ,l9aloe oil1 #ajb ,l9alol1 #aji ,l9alyl acetate1 #aji ,l9ol5ic acid1 #ab ,l9olic acid1 #ab ,l9se$ oil1 #bi ,lipase1 #ah ,liquor+ ( soaps1 #fd ,lyes1 analysis (1 #ace ---- ,det]m9ation ( glyc]ol 91 #ace ---- ,evaporation (1 #aab ---- ,treatm5t (1 #aaa1 #aab ,lysol soap1 #hi ,m4 ,mafura tall[1 #ce ,magnesia1 ,hydrolysis by1 #bb ,maize oil1 #bh ,m>g>ic acid1 #aj ,m>gosa oil1 #ce ,m>9e animal oils1 #cj ---- soap1 #di ,m>ipa fat1 #cd ,m>joram oil1 #ajc ,m$icat$ soaps1 #hf-ij ,m$ullic acid1 #aj ,melissic acid1 #aj ,melt+ po9t1 #acj ,m]cury soaps1 #hg ,mill$ toilet soaps1 #gh ,mill+ soap1 #hj1 #ha ---- soap-base1 #ed1 #gh ,m9]al oil1 saponify+1 #eh1 #ei ,mirbane oil or nitrob5z5e1 #aji ,mix$ glyc]ides1 #h ,monoglyc]ides1 #g ,mono/e>91 #g ,mor+ic acid1 #aa ,mottl$ soaps1 #eb1 #ec ---- ---- ,pickl+1 #ed ,m\lds1 ,soap1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ,m[rah-se$ oil1 #ca ,musk 7artificial71 #aji ,myri/ic acid1 #h ,myri/91 #h ,n4 ,naph?ol soap1 #hi ,n]oli ,big>ade oil1 #ajc ---- oil 7artificial71 #aji ,neutralis+ free cau/ic 9 soap1 #ff1 #hj ,niam fat1 #cd ,nigre1 #ef ,nigres1 ,utilisation (1 #ef ,niobe oil or e?yl b5zoate1 #aaj ,nitrob5z5e1 #aji ,o4 ,oeillet1 #aj ,oil1 ,&iroba1 #cb ---- ,ara*is1 #bh ---- ,aspic 7lav5d] spike71 #if ---- ,baobab-se$1 #cf ---- ,bay1 #ig ---- ,b]gamot1 #ig ---- ,bitt] almond1 #ig ---- ,blea*+ palm1 #da ---- ,bois de ,rose ,femelle1 #ii ---- ,cananga1 #ih ---- ,c&le-nut1 #cc ---- ,c>apa1 #cb ---- ,c>away1 #ih ---- ,cassia1 #ih ---- ,ca/or1 #cj ---- ,cay5ne l9aloe1 #ii ---- ,c$>wood1 #ih ---- ,c9namon1 #ih ---- ,citronella1 #ii ---- ,clove1 #ii ---- ,cocoa-nut1 #be1 #bf ---- ,cohune-nut1 #cd1 #ce ---- ,concrete orris1 #ajj ---- ,coprah1 #be1 #bf ---- ,cotton-se$1 #bg1 #db ---- ,curcas1 #cc ---- ,eucalyptus1 #ajj ---- ,f5nel1 #ajj ---- ,g]anium1 #aja ---- ,g+]-grass1 #aja ---- ,guaiac-wood1 #aja ---- ,hemp-se$1 #bi ---- ,inoy-k]nel1 #cg ---- ,kananga1 #ih ---- ,kapok1 #cb ---- ,lemon1 #ajb ---- ,lemon-grass1 #ajb ---- ,lime1 #ajb ---- ,l9aloe1 #ajb ---- ,l9se$1 #bi ---- ,maize1 #bh ---- ,m>gosa1 #ce ---- ,m>joram1 #ajc ---- ,m[rah-se$1 #ca ---- ,n]oli ,big>ade1 #ajc ---- ,olive1 #bf ---- ,olive-k]nel1 #bg ---- ,orange1 #afc ---- ,palm1 #bg1 #da ---- ,palm-nut1 #bf ---- ,palm>osa1 #ajc ---- ,pat*\li1 #ajc ---- ,pepp]m9t1 #ajc1 #ajd ---- ,p]simmon-se$1 #cf ---- ,p]u-balsam1 #ajd ---- ,petit-gra91 #ajd ---- ,pongam1 #ce ---- ,ref9+ cotton-se$1 #db ---- ,rose1 #aje ---- ,rosem>y1 #aje ---- ,saffl[]1 #cc1 #cd ---- ,s&alwood1 #aje1 #ajf ---- ,saponify+ m9]al1 #eh1 #ei ---- ,sassafras1 #ajf ---- ,sesame1 #bh1 #bi ---- ,/>-anise1 #if ---- ,sunfl[]1 #bi ---- ,?yme1 #ajf ---- ,v]b5a1 #ajf ---- ,vetiv]t1 #ajf-ajg ---- ,:eat1 #cf ---- ,wild mango1 #cf ---- ,w9t]gre51 #ajg ---- ,ylang-ylang1 #ajg ,oils & fats1 ,con/itution (1 #f1 #g ---- ---- ,exam9ation (1 #aag-abc ---- ---- ,hydrolysis (1 #ac-bb ---- ,fi% & m>9e animal1 #cj ---- ,lav5d]1 #aja ---- ,refractive ,index (1 #abb ---- treatm5t ( vegetable1 #dc ,oleic acid1 #aa ---- ---- into solid acids1 ,conv]sion (1 #aa1 #ab ,ole91 #h1 #i1 #ca ---- ,cocoa-nut1 #ca ---- ,palm-nut1 #ca ,oleodidatur91 #h ,oleodipalmit91 #h ,oleodi/e>91 #h ,oleopaimito/e>91 #h ,olive-k]nel oil1 #bg ,olive oil1 #bf ,op5-pil+ soap1 #ga ,optical rotation1 #abg ,orange oil1 #ajc ,or*ide1 #ajg ,orris oil1 concrete1 #ajj ,p4 ,palm oil1 #bg1 #da ---- ---- ,blea*+1 #da ,palm>osa oil1 #ajc ,palmitic acid1 #aj ,palmit91 #h ,palmitodi/e>91 #h ,palm-nut oil1 #bf ,pa/+ or saponification1 #di ,pat*\li oil1 #ajc ,pat5t textile soaps1 #id ,pe>l-a%1 ,analysis (1 #abe1 #abf ,pepp]m9t oil1 #ajc1 #ajd ,p]fum]'s soaps1 #gg1 #gh ,p]fumes1 ,artificial & syn!tic1 #ajg-aaj ---- ,soap1 #ie-aaj ,p]fum+ soaps1 #id ,p]simmon se$ oil1 #cf ,p]u-balsam oil1 #ajd ,petit-gra9 oil1 #ajd ,ph5ols1 ,det]m9ation (1 #abi ,physetoleic acid1 #aa ,phyto/]ol 9 unsaponifiable matt]1 #abj ,pickl+ mottl$ soap1 #ed ,pisangc]ylic acid1 #aj ,poli%+ soaps1 #id ,pongam oil1 #ce ,pota%1 ,c>bonate1 #ci1 #abe1 #abf ---- ,cau/ic1 #hi1 #abc ,potassium *loride1 #abf ---- ,det]m9ation (1 #abf1 #acb ,p[d]s1 ,soap1 #id ,psyllo/e>ylic acid1 #aj ,r4 ,rancidity1 #ah1 #bd ,rapic acid1 #aa ,ref9+ cotton-se$ oil1 #db ,refractive index ( oils & fats1 #abb ,remelt$ soaps1 #gg1 #gh ,res9ate ( soda1 #dc1 #dd ,ric9oleic acid1 #ac ,ric9ole91 #h ,rose oil1 #aje ---- ---- 7artificial71 #aaj ,rosem>y oil1 #aje ,ros91 #cg1 #ch1 #dc1 #dd1 #ee ---- ,blea*+1 #dc ---- ,det]m9ation (1 #acc1 #acd ---- treatm5t1 #dc1 #dd ,s4 ,saffl[] oil1 #cc1 #cd ,safrol1 #aaj ,salt1 #ci1 #abf ---- ,det]m9ation (1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #acb ,s&alwood oil1 #aje1 #ajf ,santalol1 #aaj ,saponification1 #ac-bb1 #di ---- accel]at$ by heat & electricity1 #ad1 #ae ---- accel]at$ by use ( *emical reag5ts1 #ai1 #bc ---- accel]at$ ) ,twit*ell's reag5t1 #bj ---- ,acid1 #ai1 #ba ---- ,aque\s1 #ad ---- by f]m5t process1 #bj ---- equival5t1 #aah ---- ,glyc]9e1 #aaf ---- ,lime1 #bb ---- "u pressure1 #dg ---- value1 #aah1 #abh ,saponify+ m9]al oil1 #eh1 #ei ,sassafras oil1 #ajf ,saturat$ acids1 #aa ,sc\r+ soaps1 #ib1 #ic ,sesame oil1 #bh1 #bi ,settl$ soap1 ,treatm5t (1 #fj-gf ,%av+ soaps1 #ia ,%ea butt]1 #ca ,silicate ( soda 9 soap1 #fe ,silicates ( soda & pota%1 #abg1 #ach ,silk sc\r+ soaps1 #ic ---- dy]'s soap1 #ic1 #id ,slabb+ soap1 #fh ,soap1 ,album5 91 #ij ---- ,analysis (1 #acj-ce ---- ,b>1 #ed1 #ee ---- ,b>r+1 #fh ---- -base1 ,mill+1 #ed1 #gh ---- ,b9iodide1 #hg ---- ,bir*-t>1 #hh ---- ,borax1 #hh ---- ,boric acid 91 #hh ---- ---- ---- ---- ,det]m9ation1 #ace ---- ,c>bolic1 #hh ---- ,classification (1 #de ---- ,cleans+1 #fj1 #fa ---- ,coal-t>1 #hh ---- ,cold process1 #df1 #dg ---- ,compress+1 #hc1 #he ---- ,cool+1 #gd-gf ---- ,crut*+1 #fc ---- ,curd1 #eb ---- ,curd mottl$1 #ec ---- ,def9ition (1 #a1 #b ---- ,det]g5t action (1 #d1 #e ---- ,det]m9ation ( c>bolic acid 91 #acd ---- ---- ( fatty acids 91 #aca ---- ---- ( free alkali 91 #acb ---- ---- ( free fat 91 #acc ---- ---- ( glyc]9e 91 #acd1 #ace ---- ---- ( total alkali 91 #aca ---- ---- ( wat] 91 #acc ---- ,dry+1 #ga1 #gh-hj ---- ,electrical production (1 #ei ---- ,e!r1 #ij ---- ,exam9ation ( fatty acids #acc1 #acd ---- ,fill+1 #fe ---- ,fluorides 91 #ij ---- =maldehyde1 #hh ---- frame1 #ff ---- fram+1 #ff ---- f fatty acids1 #de1 #df ---- ,glyc]9e1 #hi ---- ,hydrat$1 #dh1 #di ---- ,hydrolysis (1 #c ---- ,i*?yol1 #hi ---- ,iod9e1 #hi ---- ,lysol1 #hi ---- ,m>9e1 #di ---- ,mill+1 #hj1 #ha ---- ,monopole1 #id ---- ,mottl$1 #eb1 #ec ---- m\lds1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ---- ,naph?ol1 #hi ---- ,neutralis+1 col\r+ & p]fum+1 #ff1 #hj1 #hb ---- ,op5 & close pil+1 #ga ---- p]fumes1 #ie-aaj ---- ,pickl+ mottl$1 #ed ---- p[d]s1 #id ---- ,prop]ties (1 #b ---- ,salicylic acid1 #hh ---- ,settl+ (1 #ee ---- ,slabb+1 #fh ---- ,s(t1 #da ---- ,/amp+1 #ga1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ---- ,sulphur1 #hi ---- ,t]eb5e1 #ij ---- ,?ymol1 #ij ---- ,transp>5t1 #eg1 #eh ---- ,treatm5t ( settl$1 #fj-gf ---- ,yell[ h\sehold1 #ed1 #ee ,soap-mak+1 #de-ei ---- ---- ,blue & grey mottl$1 #ec ---- ---- ,boil+-on-/r5g?1 #ea ---- ---- ,cold process1 #df1 #dg ---- ---- ,comb9ation ( fatty acids ) alkali1 #de1 #df ---- ---- ,curd1 #eb ---- ---- ,curd1 ,mottl$1 #ec ---- ---- ,fitt+1 #ea ---- ---- ,gra9+-out or sep>ation1 #ej ---- ---- ,hydrat$1 #di ---- ---- ,pa/+ or saponification1 #di ---- ---- ,s(t1 #dh ---- ---- ,transp>5t1 #eg1 #eh ---- ---- "u pressure1 #dg ,soaps1 ,calico-pr9t]'s1 #ic ---- ,dis9fectant1 #ff ---- ,float+1 #ij1 #ia ---- ,liquor+ (1 #fd1 #fe ---- ,m$icat$1 #hf-ij ---- ,mill$ toilet1 #gh ---- ,miscellane\s1 #id ---- ,p]fum]'s1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,poli%+1 #id ---- ,remelt$1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,sc\r+1 #ib ---- ,%av+1 #ia ---- ,silicat+1 #fe ---- ,silk dy]'s1 #ic1 #id ---- ,textile1 #ia-id ---- ,toilet1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,wooll5 dy]'s1 #ib ,soap-/ock1 #dj ,soda a%1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ---- ---- ,cau/ic1 #ci1 #abe ---- ,c>bonate1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ---- ,cau/ic1 #ci1 #abc ---- ,res9ate1 #dc1 #dd ,s(t soap-mak+1 #dh ,solidify+-po9t1 #acj ,specific gravity1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aag1 #abg ,/amp+ soap1 #ga1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ,/>*1 ,detection (1 #aba1 #ace ,/eaps91 #ah ,/e>ic acid1 #aj ,/e>91 #h1 #i ,/e>9e1 ,cotton-se$1 #bh ,/e>odipalmit91 #h ,sulphides & sulphites1 ,det]m9ation (1 #abe ,sulphur soap1 #hi ,sunfl[] oil1 #bi ,sup]fatt+ mat]ial1 #hc ,syn!tic p]fumes1 #ajg-aaj ,t4 ,table ( cau/ic pota% solutions1 #aea ---- ( cau/ic soda solutions1 #adi1 #aej ---- ( comp>ative d5sities1 #adg ---- ( !rmometric equival5ts1 #adh ,tablet soap1 #ee ,talc1 #fe ,tall[1 #bd ---- ,borneo1 #cb ---- ,*9ese vegetable1 #ca ---- ,mafura1 #ce ,tangkallah fat1 #cg ,t>iric acid1 #ab ,telfairic acid1 #ab ,t]eb5e1 #aaj ---- soap1 #ij ,t]p9eol1 #aaj ,textile soaps1 #ia-id ---- ---- ,pat5t1 #id ,!obromic acid1 #aj ,?yme oil1 #ajf ,?ymol soap1 #ij ,tiglic acid1 #aa ,titre te/1 #abb1 #abc ,toilet soaps1 #gg1 #gh ---- ---- ,compress+1 #hc1 #he ---- ---- ,mill$1 #gh ---- ---- ,mill+1 #hj1 #ha ---- ---- ,/amp+1 #he1 #hf ,transp>5t soaps1 #eg1 #eh ,treatm5t ( animal fats1 #dc ---- ---- bone fat1 #dc ---- ---- lyes1 #aaa1 #aab ---- ---- ros91 #dc ---- ---- settl$ soap1 #fj-gf ---- ---- ,vegetable oils1 #dc ,trfle1 #ajg ,triglyc]ides1 #g1 #h ,trilaur91 #i ,triole91 #i ,tripalmit91 #i ,tri/e>91 #g1 #i ,twit*ell's process1 #bb ,u4 ,unsaponifiable matt]1 ,con/itution (1 #aai1 #abj ---- ---- ,det]m9ation (1 #aai ,unsaturat$ acids1 #aa ,utilisation ( nigres1 #ef ,v4 ,vanill91 #aaj ,vegetable oils1 ,treatm5t (1 #dc ---- tall[1 ,*9ese1 #ca ,v]b5a oil1 #ajf ,vetiv]t oil1 #ajf ,violet soap1 #ed ,volh>d's me?od = *loride det]m9ation1 #acb ,w4 ,wa/e fats1 #cj ,wat]1 #ci ---- ---- 9 fats1 ,det]m9ation (1 #abj ---- ---- 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #acc ,:eat oil1 #cf ,wild mango oil1 #cf ,w9t]gre5 oil1 #ajg ,wool sc\r+ soaps1 #ib ,wooll5 dy]'s soap1 #ib ,y4 ,ylang-ylang oil1 #ajg ,z4 ,z9c oxide1 ,hydrolysis by1 #bb ---- soap1 #hg ,,! ,,ab]de5 ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,limit$ ,,/ev5son ,,h[ell',s ,,specialities ,,= ,soapmak]s ,:olesale ,p]fum]s4 ,,ess5tial ,,oils ,,( ,,gu>ante$ ,,purity4 ,almonds1 ,bay ,leaves1 ,b]gamot1 ,c>away1 ,cananga1 ,camomile1 ,casc>illa1 ,cassia1 ,c$> ,wood1 ,c9namon1 ,citronella1 ,cloves1 ,cori&]1 ,eucalyptus ,globulus1 ,f5nel1 ,sweet1 ,g]anium -- ,alg]ian1 ,b\rbon1 ,ea/ ,indian1 ,fr5*1 ,spani% ,turki%1 ,kuromoji1 ,lav5d]1 ,lemon1 ,lemon-,grass1 ,limes1 ,n]oli1 ,myrbane1 ,orange ,sweet ,bitt]1 ,otto ( ,rose1 ,pat*\li1 ,palm>osa1 ,pim5to1 ,petit-,gra91 ,rosem>y1 ,s&al ,wood1 ,sage1 ,sassafras1 ,spe>m9t1 ,?yme1 ,w9t]gre5 ,ylang-,ylang41 c4 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,p]fumes ,,f9e/ ,,quality ,almond1 ,bay ,rum1 ,br[n ,w9dsor1 ,cologne1 ,florida1 ,frangipanni1 ,heliotrope1 ,hyac9?1 ,lilac1 ,lily ( ,valley1 ,ori5tal1 ,p>isian1 ,walnut ,leaf1 ,wood ,violet1 c4 ,,artificial ,,p]fumes4 ,aubep9e1 ,cuir de ,russi1 ,c\m>91 ,crateg9e1 ,heliotrop9e1 ,lilac1 ,musk1 ,n]ol91 ,t]p9eol1 ,vanill91 ,y>a-,y>a1 c4 ,,soap ,,col\rs1 ,d>k ,blue1 ,rose ,p9k1 ,indian ,br[n1 ,c>bolic ,p9k ,r$1 ,man*e/] ,yell[4 c4 c4 ,,speciality3--,,reliable ,,*lorphyl4 ,,/&>d ,,works ,,s\?w>k ,,/4 ,,london4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,glasg[ ,,(fice #abh1 ,,hope ,,/4 ,,fa/e/ ,,& ,,/ronge/ ,,col\rs ,,= ,,soap ,9 all %ades1 alkali-pro(4 ,,oil ,,soluble ,,col\rs ,,= ,,oil ,,& ,,b5z9e ,,soaps4 ,,blacks ,& all col\rs soluble 9 ,oil1 ,wax & ,turps = ,,boot ,,poli%4 ,,williams ,,bros4 ,,co41 ,,h\nsl[4 ,,textile ,,soaps ,,& ,,oils4 ,h&book on ! ,prep>ation1 ,prop]ties & ,analysis ( ! ,soaps & ,oils us$ 9 ,textile ,manufactur+1 ,dye+ & ,pr9t+4 ,,by ,,george ,h4 ,,hur/1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,au?or ( ,soaps1 ,lubricat+ ,oils1 ,fats & ,greases1 etc4 ,,cont5ts4 ,me?ods ( ,mak+ ,soaps--,special ,textile ,soaps--,relation ( ,soap to ,wat] = ,indu/rial ,purposes--,soap ,analysis--,fat 9 ,soap--,animal & ,vegetable ,oils & ,fats--,vegetable ,soap1 ,oils & ,fats--,glyc]9e--,textile ,oils4 ,price #es4 net 7,po/ ,free1 #es4 #d;d4 ,home2 #es4 #f;d4 ,abroad74 ,publi%$ by ,,scott1 ,,gre5wood ,,son1 #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,william ,,tullo* ,,co41 #cj ,george ,squ>e1 ,glasg[1 ,& at #i ,great ,t[] ,/reet1 ,london1 ,e4,c41 #ad ,no4 ,corridor1 ,royal ,ex*ange1 ,man*e/]4 ,,glyc]9e1 ,,crude1 ,,dynamite1 ,,indu/rial1 ,,*emically ,,pure4 ,all ,k9ds ( ,*emicals = ,soap & ,explosives ,mak]s4 ,,nitrate ,,( ,,lead1 ,,f>9as1 ,,/>*es1 ,,gums4 ,,twit*ell ,,process ,,( ,,glyc]9e ,,extraction4 ,,highe/ ,degree ( ,decomposition4 ,,l[e/ ,co/ = ,in/allation & ,work+4 ,,be/ ,qualities ( ,fatty ,acids1 ,glyc]9e1 ,/e>9e & ,soap4 ,= ,samples & in=mation1 apply to ,,wm4 ,,tullo* ,,co41 #cj ,,george ,,squ>e1 ,,glasg[4 ,g5]al ,repres5tatives = ,unit$ ,k+dom & ,colonies4 ,,sudfeldt ,,co41 ,,melle 7,,hanov]1 ,,g]many74 ,,josl9 ,,s*midt ,,co41 ,,c9c9nati1 ,,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,ess5tial ,oils ,,& ,artificial ,p]fumes4 ,,by ,,erne/ ,j4 ,,p>ry1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 #eeb ,pages4 ,second ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,demy #hvo4 #aijh4 ,,cont5ts4 ,*apt]s ,i4 ,! ,g5]al ,prop]ties ( ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,physical ,prop]ties1 ,optical ,prop]ties1 ,table ( ,specific ,gravities1 ,refractive ,indices & ,rotation4--,,ii4 ,comp\nds occurr+ 9 ,ess5tial ,oils4 7,i47 #a4 ,,t]p5es--,p95e1 ,camph5e1 ,limon5e1 ,dip5t5e1 ,f5*5e1 ,sylve/r5e1 ,c>ve/r5e1 ,phell&r5e1 ,t]p9ol5e1 ,t]p95e & ,?uj5e4 #b4 ,,sesquit]p5es--,cad95e1 ,c>yophell5e1 ,c$r5e1 ,clov5e1 ,humul5e1 ,l$5e1 ,pat*\l5e1 & ,sesquit]p5e f ,oils ( ,cannabis ,indica1 ,table1 b4p41 sp4-gr41 opt4 ,rot41 etc41 ( same4 7,,ii47 ,,! ,,camphor ,,s]ies--,borneol1 ,isoborneol1 ,camphor1 ,f5*yl ,alcohol1 ,f5*one1 ,?ujyl ,alcohol1 ,?ujone1 ,t]p9eol1 ,c9eol1 etc41 etc4 7,,iii47 ,,! ,,g]aniol ,,& ,,citronellol ,,gr\p--,cori&rol1 ,n]olol1 ,rhod9ol1 ,g]aniol1 ,l9alol1 ,citr5ellol1 etc41 ,table1 b4p41 sp4-gr41 ,ref4 ,index1 etc4 7,,iv47 ,,b5z5e ,,comp\nds--,cym5e1 ,ph5ols & _! ,d]ivatives1 ,ph5ols ) ,n9e ,c>bon ,atoms1 ,ph5ols ) ,t5 ,c>bon ,atoms1 ,alcohols1 ,aldehydes1 ,ketones1 ,acids1 etc4 7,v47 ,,aliphatic ,,comp\nds--,alcohols1 ,acids1 ,aldehydes1 ,sulphur ,comp\nds1 etc4--,,iii4 ,! ,prep>ation ( ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,expression1 ,di/illation1 ,extraction1 ,table ( ,p]c5tages4--,,iv4 ,! ,analysis ( ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,specific ,gravity1 ,spr5gel ,tube ,me?od1 ,optical ,me?ods1 ,melt+ & ,solidify+ ,po9ts1 ,boil+ ,po9t & ,di/illation1 ,quantitative ,e/imations ( ,con/itu5ts1 ! ,det]m9ation ( ,free ,alcohols1 ,absorption ,processes4--,v4 ,sy/ematic ,/udy ( ! ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,oils ( ! ,gymnosp]ms1 ,tabulat$ ,angiosp]ms4 7,i47 ,,wood ,,oils4--,c$> ,oils1 ,oils ( ,turp5t9e1 ,am]ican ,turp5t9e1 ,fr5* ,oil ( ,turp5t9e1 ,g]man1 ,russian1 & ,sw$i% ditto1 ,table ( ,activities ( same1 ,junip] ,wood ,oil4 7,,ii47 ,,fruit ,,oils4--,junip] ,b]ry ,oil1 ,fir ,cone ,oils4 7,,iii47 ,,leaf ,,oils4--,?uja ,oil1 ,oil ( ,sav91 ,c$> ,leaf ,oil1 ,p9e ,ne$le ,oil1 ,cypress ,leaf ,oil1 ,table ( ,p9e ,oils 7aft] ,s*immel74 ,,oils ,,( ,,! ,,angiosp]ms--7,i47 ,,monocotyl$ons4 7,,ii47 ,,dicotyl$ons3 7a7 ,,mono*lamyde--7b7 ,,gamopetal--7c7 ,,polypetal--,,vi4 ,t]p5eless ,oils4 ,t]p5eless ,oil ( ,lemon1 ,tables ( sp4-gr4 & ,rotn4 ( sev]al ,t]p5eless ,oils1 ,t]p5eless ,oil ( ,orange1 ,ditto ( ,c>away1 ( ,lav5d]1 ,table ( sp4-gr4 & ,rotn4 ( ,comm]cial ,samples ( ,oils4--,,vii4 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ,artificial ,p]fumes4 ,vanill91 ,c\m>91 ,heliotrop91 ,aubep9e or ,haw?orn1 ,ionone1 ,specification ( ,pat5ts = ,prep>ation ( ,ionone1 = ,artificial ,violet ,oil1 ,artificial ,musk1 ,specification ( ,pat5t ( ,musk ,sub/itute1 ,artificial ,n]oli1 ,artificial ,lilac1 ,artificial ,hyac9?1 ,artificial ,lemon ,oil1 ,artificial ,rose ,oil1 ,niobe ,oil1 ,b]gamiol1 ,artificial ,jasm9 ,oil1 ,artificial ,cognac ,oil4--,app5dix4 ,table on ,con/ants ( ! m ,important ,ess5tial ,oils4--,index4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 net 7,po/ ,free1 #acs4 ,home2 #acs4 #f;d4 ,abroad74 ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,scott1 ,,gre5wood ,,son1 #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london ,e4,c4