,book ,project47 ,,the ,,handbook ,,of ,,soap ,,manufacture ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,simmons1 ,b4,sc4 7,,lond471 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,and ,h4 ,a4 ,,appleton ,,with ,,twenty-,,seven ,,illustrations ,,london ,,scott1 ,,greenwood ,,son ,,the ,,oil ,,and ,,colour ,,trades ,,journal ,,offices #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,e4,c4 #aijh ,all rights reserved ,transcriber's note3 ,for text3 ,a word surrounded by a cedilla such as this signifies that the word is bolded in the text4 ,a word surrounded by underscores like this signifies the word is italics in the text4 ,greek letters are translated into ,english and are in brackets1 e4g4 alpha4 ,for numbers and equations3 ,parentheses have been added to clarify fractions4 ,underscores before bracketed numbers_/letters in equations denote a subscript4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of the chapter and minor typos have been corrected4 ,,preface ,in the general advance of technical knowledge and research during the last decade1 the ,soap ,industry has not remained stationary4 ,while there has not perhaps been anything of a very revolutionary character1 steady progress has still been made in practically all branches1 and the aim of the present work is to describe the manufacture of ,household and ,toilet ,soaps as carried out to-day in an up-to-date and well-equipped factory4 ,in the more scientific portions of the book1 an acquaintance with the principles of elementary chemistry is assumed1 and in this we feel justified1 as in these days of strenuous competition1 no soap-maker can hope to compete successfully with his rivals unless he has a sound theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the nature of the raw materials he uses1 and the reactions taking place in the pan1 or at other stages of the manufacture4 ,we also venture to hope that the work may prove useful to ,works' ,chemists and other ,analysts consulted in connection with this ,industry4 ,at the same time1 in the greater part of the book no chemical knowledge is necessary1 the subject being treated in such a way that it is hoped those who are not directly engaged in the manufacture of soap1 but who desire a general idea of the subject1 will find it of value4 ,in the sections dealing with the composition and analysis of materials1 temperatures are expressed in degrees ,centigrade1 these being now almost invariably used in scientific work4 ,in the rest of the book1 however1 they are given in degrees ,fahrenheit 7the degrees ,centigrade being also added in brackets71 as in the majority of factories these are still used4 ,as regards strengths of solution1 in some factories the use of ,baum degrees is preferred1 whilst in others ,twaddell degrees are the custom1 and we have therefore given the two figures in all cases4 ,in the chapter dealing with ,oils and ,fats1 their ,saponification ,equivalents are given in preference to ,saponification ,values1 as it has been our practice for some years to express our results in this way1 as suggested by ,allen in ,commercial ,organic ,analysis1 and all our records1 from which most of the figures for the chief oils and fats are taken1 are so stated4 ,for the illustrations1 the authors are indebted to ,messrs4 ,e4 ,forshaw ,son1 ,ltd41 ,h4 ,d4 ,morgan1 and ,w4 ,j4 ,fraser ,co41 ,ltd4 ,w4 ,h4 ,s4 ,h4 ,a4 ,a4 ,,london1 ,september1 #aijh4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a ,definition of ,soap--,properties--,hydrolysis--,deterg ent ,action4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,oils ,,and ,,fats1 ,,and ,,their ,,saponification #f ,researches of ,chevreul and ,berthelot--,mixed ,glycerides--,modern ,theories of ,saponification--,hydrolysis accelerated by 7#a7 ,,heat ,,or ,,electricity1 7#b7 ,,ferments1 ,castor-seed ,ferment1 ,steapsin1 ,emulsin1 and 7#c7 ,,chemical ,,reagents1 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,twitchell's ,reagent1 ,hydrochloric ,acid1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,zinc ,oxide1 ,soda and ,potash4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,raw ,,materials ,,used ,,in ,,soap-,,making #bd ,fats and ,oils--,waste ,fats--,fatty ,acids--,less-known ,oils and ,fats of ,limited ,use--,various ,new ,fats and ,oils ,suggested for ,soap-making--,rosin--,alkali 7,caustic and ,carbonated7--,water--,salt--,soap-stock 4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,bleaching ,,and ,,treatment ,,of ,,raw ,,materials ,,intended ,,for ,,soap-,,making #da ,palm ,oil--,cotton-seed ,oil--,cotton-seed ,foots--,vegetable ,oils--,animal ,fats--,bone ,fat--,rosin4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,soap-,,making #de ,classification of ,soaps--,direct combination of ,fatty ,acids with ,alkali--,cold ,process ,soaps--,saponification under ,increased or ,diminished ,pressure--,soft ,soap--,marine ,soap--,hydrated ,soaps1 ,smooth and ,marbled--,pasting or ,saponification--,graining ,out--,boiling on ,strength--,fitting--,curd ,soaps--,curd ,mottled--,blue and ,grey ,mottled ,soaps--,milling ,base--,yellow ,household ,soaps--,resting of ,pans and ,settling of ,soap--,utilisation of ,nigres--,transparent soaps--,saponifying ,mineral ,oil--,electrical ,production of ,soap4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,settled ,,soap #fj ,cleansing--,crutching--,liquoring of ,soaps--,filling--,neutralising1 ,colouring and ,perfuming--,disinfectant ,soaps--,framing--,slabbing--,barring--, open and ,close ,piling--,drying--,stamping--,cooling4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,toilet1 ,,textile ,,and ,,miscellaneous ,,soaps #gg ,toilet ,soaps--,cold ,process soaps--,settled ,boiled ,soaps--,remelted ,soaps--,milled ,soaps--,drying--,milling and ,incorporating ,colour1 ,perfume1 or ,medicament--,perfume--,colouring matter--,neutralising and ,superfatting ,material--,compressing--,cutting--,stam ping--,medicated ,soaps--,ether ,soap--,floating ,soaps--,shaving ,soaps--,textile ,soaps--,soaps for ,woollen1 ,cotton and ,silk ,industries--,patent ,textile ,soaps--,miscellaneous ,soaps4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,soap ,,perfumes #ie ,essential ,oils--,source and ,preparation--,properties--,artificial and ,synthetic ,perfumes4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,glycerine ,,manufacture ,,and ,,purification #aaa ,treatment of ,lyes--,evaporation to ,crude ,glycerine--,distillation--,distilled and ,dynamite ,glycerine--,chemically ,pure ,glycerine--,animal ,charcoal for ,decolorisation--,glycerine obtained by other methods of ,saponification--,yield of ,glycerine from ,fats and ,oils4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,raw ,,materials1 ,,soap1 ,,and ,,glycerine #aag ,fats and ,oils--,alkalies and ,alkali ,salts--,essential ,oils--,soap--,lyes--,crude ,glycerine4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,soap ,,industry #adj ,,appendix ,a4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,degrees1 ,,twaddell ,,and ,,baum1 ,,with ,,actual ,,densities #adg ,,appendix ,b4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,different ,,thermometric ,,scales #adh ,,appendix ,c4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,specific ,,gravities ,,of ,,solutions ,,of ,,caustic ,,soda #adi ,,appendix ,d4 ,,table ,,of ,,strength ,,of ,,caustic ,,potash ,,solutions ,,at #fj ,f4 #aea ,,index #aec ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,definition of ,soap--,properties--,hydrolysis--,deterg ent ,action4 ,it has been said that the use of soap is a gauge of the civilisation of a nation1 but though this may perhaps be in a great measure correct at the present day1 the use of soap has not always been co-existent with civilisation1 for according to ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist41 xxviii41 #ab1 #ea7 soap was first introduced into ,rome from ,germany1 having been discovered by the ,gauls1 who used the product obtained by mixing goats' tallow and beech ash for giving a bright hue to the hair4 ,in ,west ,central ,africa1 moreover1 the natives1 especially the ,fanti race1 have been accustomed to wash themselves with soap prepared by mixing crude palm oil and water with the ashes of banana and plantain skins4 ,the manufacture of soap seems to have flourished during the eighth century in ,italy and ,spain1 and was introduced into ,france some five hundred years later1 when factories were established at ,marseilles for the manufacture of olive-oil soap4 ,soap does not appear to have been made in ,england until the fourteenth century1 and the first record of soap manufacture in ,london is in #aebd4 ,from this time till the beginning of the nineteenth century the manufacture of soap developed very slowly1 being essentially carried on by rule-of-thumb methods1 but the classic researches of ,chevreul on the constitution of fats at once placed the industry upon a scientific basis1 and stimulated by ,leblanc's discovery of a process for the commercial manufacture of caustic soda from common salt1 the production of soap has advanced by leaps and bounds until it is now one of the most important of ,british industries4 ,definition of ,soap4--,the word soap 7,latin sapo1 which is cognate with ,latin sebum1 tallow7 appears to have been originally applied to the product obtained by treating tallow with ashes4 ,in its strictly chemical sense it refers to combinations of fatty acids with metallic bases1 a definition which includes not only sodium stearate1 oleate and palmitate1 which form the bulk of the soaps of commerce1 but also the linoleates of lead1 manganese1 etc41 used as driers1 and various pharmaceutical preparations1 e4g41 mercury oleate 7,hydrargyri oleatum71 zinc oleate and lead plaster1 together with a number of other metallic salts of fatty acids4 ,technically speaking1 however1 the meaning of the term soap is considerably restricted1 being generally limited to the combinations of fatty acids and alkalies1 obtained by treating various animal or vegetable fatty matters1 or the fatty acids derived therefrom1 with soda or potash1 the former giving hard soaps1 the latter soft soaps4 ,the use of ammonia as an alkali for soap-making purposes has often been attempted1 but owing to the ease with which the resultant soap is decomposed1 it can scarcely be looked upon as a product of much commercial value4 ,h4 ,jackson has1 however1 recently patented 7,eng4 ,pat4 #f1gab1 #aijf7 the use of ammonium oleate for laundry work4 ,this detergent is prepared in the wash-tub at the time of use1 and it is claimed that goods are cleansed by merely immersing them in this solution for a short time and rinsing in fresh water4 ,neither of the definitions given above includes the sodium and potassium salts of rosin1 commonly called rosin soap1 for the acid constituents of rosin have been shown to be aromatic1 but in view of the analogous properties of these resinates to true soap1 they are generally regarded as legitimate constituents of soap1 having been used in ,great ,britain since #ahbg1 and receiving legislative sanction in ,holland in #ahge4 ,other definitions of soap have been given1 based not upon its composition1 but upon its properties1 among which may be mentioned that of ,kingzett1 who says that ,soap1 considered commercially1 is a body which on treatment with water liberates alkali1 and that of ,nuttall1 who defines soap as an alkaline or unctuous substance used in washing and cleansing4 ,properties of ,soap4--,both soda and potash soaps are readily soluble in either alcohol or hot water4 ,in cold water they dissolve more slowly1 and owing to slight decomposition1 due to hydrolysis 7vide infra71 the solution becomes distinctly turbid4 ,sodium oleate is peculiar in not undergoing hydrolysis except in very dilute solution and at a low temperature4 ,on cooling a hot soap solution1 a jelly of more or less firm consistence results1 a property possessed by colloidal bodies1 such as starch and gelatine1 in contradistinction to substances which under the same conditions deposit crystals1 due to diminished solubility of the salt at a lower temperature4 ,krafft 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahif1 #bjf1 #fja2 #ahii1 #fia2 and #aijb1 #acja7 and his collaborators1 ,wiglow1 ,strutz and ,funcke1 have investigated this property of soap solutions very fully1 the researches extending over several years4 ,in the light of their more recent work1 the molecules1 or definite aggregates of molecules1 of solutions which become gelatinous on cooling move much more slowly than the molecules in the formation of a crystal1 but there is a definite structure1 although arranged differently to that of a crystal4 ,in the case of soda soaps the colloidal character increases with the molecular weight of the fatty acids4 ,soda soaps are insoluble in concentrated caustic lyes1 and1 for the most part1 in strong solutions of sodium chloride1 hence the addition of caustic soda or brine to a solution of soda soap causes the soap to separate out and rise to the surface4 ,addition of brine to a solution of potash soap1 on the other hand1 merely results in double decomposition1 soda soap and potassium chloride being formed1 thus3-- ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cook ,na,cl ,c#ag;,h#ce;,c,o,o,na ,k,cl potassium sodium sodium potassium stearate chloride stearate chloride ,the solubility of the different soaps in salt solution varies very considerably4 ,whilst sodium stearate is insoluble in a #e per cent4 solution of sodium chloride1 sodium laurate requires a #ag per cent4 solution to precipitate it1 and sodium caproate is not thrown out of solution even by a saturated solution4 ,hydrolysis of ,soap4--,the term hydrolysis is applied to any resolution of a body into its constituents where the decomposition is brought about by the action of water1 hence when soap is treated with cold water1 it is said to undergo hydrolysis1 the reaction taking place being represented in its simplest form by the equation3-- #b,na,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,h#b,o ,na,o,h ,h,na7,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b sodium water caustic acid sodium stearate soda stearate ,the actual reaction which occurs has been the subject of investigation by many chemists1 and very diverse conclusions have been arrived at4 ,chevreul1 the pioneer in the modern chemistry of oils and fats1 found that a small amount of alkali was liberated1 as appears in the above equation1 together with the formation of an acid salt1 a very minute quantity of free fatty acid remaining in solution4 ,rotondi 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahhe1 #fja71 on the other hand1 considered that a neutral soap1 on being dissolved in water1 was resolved into a basic and an acid salt1 the former readily soluble in both hot and cold water1 the latter insoluble in cold water1 and only slightly soluble in hot water4 ,he appears1 however1 to have been misled by the fact that sodium oleate is readily soluble in cold water1 and his views have been shown to be incorrect by ,krafft and ,stern 7,ber4 d4 ,chem4 ,ges41 #ahid1 #agdg and #agee71 who from experiments with pure sodium palmitate and stearate entirely confirm the conclusions arrived at by ,chevreul4 ,the extent of dissociation occurring when a soap is dissolved in water depends upon the nature of the fatty acids from which the soap is made1 and also on the concentration of the solution4 ,the sodium salts of cocoa-nut fatty acids 7capric1 caproic and caprylic acids7 are by far the most easily hydrolysed1 those of oleic acid and the fatty acids from cotton-seed oil being dissociated more readily than those of stearic acid and tallow fatty acids4 ,the decomposition increases with the amount of water employed4 ,the hydrolytic action of water on soap is affected very considerably by the presence of certain substances dissolved in the water1 particularly salts of calcium and magnesium4 ,caustic soda exerts a marked retarding effect on the hydrolysis1 as do also ethyl and amyl alcohols and glycerol4 ,detergent ,action of ,soap4--,the property possessed by soap of removing dirt is one which it is difficult to satisfactorily explain4 ,many theories1 more or less complicated1 have been suggested1 but even now the question cannot be regarded as solved4 ,the explanation commonly accepted is that the alkali liberated by hydrolysis attacks any greasy matter on the surface to be cleansed1 and1 as the fat is dissolved1 the particles of dirt are loosened and easily washed off4 ,berzelius held this view1 and considered that the value of a soap depended upon the ease with which it yielded free alkali on solution in water4 ,this theory is considered by ,hillyer 7,journ4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #ebd71 however1 to be quite illogical1 for1 as he points out1 the liberated alkali would be far more likely to recombine with the acid or acid salt from which it has been separated1 than to saponify a neutral glyceride1 while1 further1 unsaponifiable greasy matter is removed by soap as easily as saponifiable fat1 and there can be no question of any chemical action of the free alkali in its case4 ,yet another argument against the theory is that hydrolysis is greater in cold and dilute solutions1 whereas hot concentrated soap solutions are generally regarded as having the best detergent action4 ,rotondi 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahhe1 #fja7 was of the opinion that the basic soap1 which he believed to be formed by hydrolysis1 was alone responsible for the detergent action of soap1 this basic soap dissolving fatty matter by saponification1 but1 as already pointed out1 his theory of the formation of a basic soap is now known to be incorrect1 and his conclusions are therefore invalid4 ,several explanations have been suggested1 based on the purely physical properties of soap solutions4 ,most of these are probably1 at any rate in part1 correct1 and there can be little doubt that the ultimate solution of the problem lies in this direction1 and that the detergent action of soap will be found to depend on many of these properties1 together with other factors not yet known4 ,jevons in #ahgh in some researches on the ,brownian movement or pedesis of small particles1 a movement of the particles which is observed to take place when clay1 iron oxide1 or other finely divided insoluble matter is suspended in water1 found that the pedetic action was considerably increased by soap and sodium silicate1 and suggested that to this action of soap might be attributed much of its cleansing power4 ,alder ,wright considered that the alkali liberated by hydrolysis in some way promoted contact of the water with the substance to be cleansed1 and ,knapp regarded the property of soap solutions themselves to facilitate contact of the water with the dirt1 as one of the chief causes of the efficacy of soap as a detergent4 ,another way in which it has been suggested that soap acts as a cleanser is that the soap itself or the alkali set free by hydrolysis serves as a lubricant1 making the dirt less adherent1 and thus promoting its removal4 ,the most likely theory yet advanced is that based on the emulsifying power of soap solutions4 ,the fact that these will readily form emulsions with oils has long been known1 and the detergent action of soap has frequently been attributed to it1 the explanation given being that the alkali set free by the water emulsifies the fatty matter always adhering to dirt1 and carries it away in suspension with the other impurities4 ,experiments by ,hillyer 7loc4 cit47 show1 however1 that while ,n_/#aj solution of alkali will readily emulsify a cotton-seed oil containing free acidity1 no emulsion is produced with an oil from which all the acidity has been removed1 or with kerosene1 whereas a ,n_/#aj solution of sodium oleate will readily give an emulsion with either1 thus proving that the emulsification is due to the soap itself1 and not to the alkali4 ,plateau 7,pogg4 ,ann41 #ada1 #dd7 and ,quincke 7,wiedmann's4 ,ann41 #ce1 #eib7 have made very complete researches on the emulsification and foaming of liquids and on the formation of bubbles4 ,the former considers that there are two properties of a liquid which play an important part in the phenomenon1 7#a7 it must have considerable viscosity1 and 7#b7 its surface tension must be low4 ,quincke holds similar views1 but considers that no pure liquid will foam4 ,soap solution admirably fulfils ,plateau's second condition1 its surface tension being only about #dj per cent4 of that of water1 while its cohesion is also very small2 and it is doubtless to this property that its emulsifying power is chiefly due4 ,so far as viscosity is concerned1 this can have but little influence1 for a #a per cent4 solution of sodium oleate1 which has a viscosity very little different from that of pure water1 is an excellent emulsifying agent4 ,hillyer1 to whose work reference has already been made1 investigated the whole question of detergent action very exhaustively1 and1 as the result of a very large number of experiments1 concludes that the cleansing power of soap is largely or entirely to be explained by the power which it has of emulsifying oily substances1 of wetting and penetrating into oily textures1 and of lubricating texture and impurities so that these may be removed easily4 ,it is thought that all these properties may be explained by taking into account the low cohesion of the soap solutions1 and their strong attraction or affinity to oily matter1 which together cause the low surface tension between soap solution and oil4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,oils ,,and ,,fats1 ,,and ,,their ,,saponification4 ,researches of ,chevreul and ,berthelot--,mixed ,glycerides--,modern ,theories of ,saponification--,hydrolysis accelerated by 7#a7 ,heat or ,electricity1 7#b7 ,ferments2 ,castor-seed ,ferment1 ,steapsin1 ,emulsin1 and 7#c7 ,chemical ,reagents2 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,twitchell's ,reagent1 ,hydrochloric ,acid1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,zinc ,oxide1 ,soda and ,potash4 ,the term oil is of very wide significance1 being applied to substances of vastly different natures1 both organic and inorganic1 but so far as soap-making materials are concerned1 it may be restricted almost entirely to the products derived from animal and vegetable sources1 though many attempts have been made during the last few years to also utilise mineral oils for the preparation of soap4 ,fats readily become oils on heating beyond their melting points1 and may be regarded as frozen oils4 ,although ,scheele in #aggi discovered that in the preparation of lead plaster glycerol is liberated1 soap at that time was regarded as a mere mechanical mixture1 and the constitution of oils and fats was not properly understood4 ,it was ,chevreul who showed that the manufacture of soap involved a definite chemical decomposition of the oil or fat into fatty acid and glycerol1 the fatty acid combining with soda1 potash1 or other base1 to form the soap1 and the glycerol remaining free4 ,the reactions with stearin and palmitin 7of which tallow chiefly consists7 and with olein 7found largely in olive and cotton-seed oils7 are as follows3-- ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,ch#b,,oh ,,chooc#ah;,h#ce #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#ah;,h#ce ,,choh ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,ch#b,,oh stearin sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide stearate ,,ch#b,,ooc#af;,h#ca ,,ch#b,,oh ,,chooc#af;,h#ca #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#af;,h#ca ,,choh ,,ch#b,,ooc#af;,h#ca ,,ch#b,,oh palmitin sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide palmitate ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#cc ,,ch#b,,oh ,,chooc#ah;,h#cc #c,na,o,h #c,na,o,o,c#ah;,h#cc ,,choh ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#cc ,,ch#b,,oh olein sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide oleate ,berthelot subsequently confirmed ,chevreul's investigations by directly synthesising the fats from fatty acids and glycerol1 the method he adopted consisting in heating the fatty acids with glycerol in sealed tubes4 ,thus1 for example3-- #c;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7c stearic acid glycerol tristearin ,since glycerol is a trihydric alcohol1 i4e41 contains three hydroxyl 7,,oh7 groups1 the hydrogen atoms of which are displaceable by acid radicles1 the above reaction may be supposed to take place in three stages4 ,thus1 we may have3-- 7#a7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#b;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,h#b,o monostearin 7#b7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#b;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh77,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b ,h#b,o distearin 7#c7 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b;,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh77,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7b ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ah;,h#ce,o#b7c ,h#b,o tristearin ,there are two possible forms of monoglyceride and diglyceride1 according to the relative position of the acid radicle1 these being termed alpha and beta respectively1 and represented by the following formul1 where ,r denotes the acid radicle3-- ,monoglyceride3-- ,,ch#b,,or ,,ch#b,,oh 7alpha7 ,,choh and 7beta7 ,,chor ,,ch#b,,oh ,,ch#b,,oh ,diglyceride3-- ,,ch#b,,or ,,ch#b,,or 7alpha7 ,,choh and 7beta7 ,,chor ,,ch#b,,or ,,ch#b,,oh ,according to the relative proportions of fatty acid and glycerol used1 and the temperature to which they were heated1 ,berthelot succeeded in preparing mono-1 di- and triglycerides of various fatty acids4 ,practically all the oils and fats used in soap-making consist of mixtures of these compounds of glycerol with fatty acids1 which invariably occur in nature in the form of triglycerides4 ,it was formerly considered that the three acid radicles in any naturally occurring glyceride were identical1 corresponding to the formula-- ,,ch#b,,or ,,chor ,,ch#b,,or where ,r denotes the acid radicle4 ,recent work1 however1 has shown the existence of several so-called mixed glycerides1 in which the hydroxyls of the same molecule of glycerol are displaced by two or sometimes three different acid radicles4 ,the first mixed glyceride to be discovered was oleodistearin1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce ,o7#b1 obtained by ,heise in #ahif ,mkani fat4 ,hansen has since found that tallow contains oleodipalmitin1 from ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o71 stearodipalmitin1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o71 oleopalmitostearin1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#cc,o77,,oc#af;,h#ca ,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o7 and palmitodistearin1 ,,ch7,,oc#af;,h#ca,o77,,oc#ah;,h#ce,o7#b 1 the latter of which has also been obtained by ,kreis and ,hafner from lard1 while ,holde and ,stange have shown that olive oil contains from #a to #b per cent4 of oleodidaturin1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oc#ah;,h#cc,o77,,oc#ag;,h#cc ,o7#b1 and ,hehner and ,mitchell have obtained indications of mixed glycerides in linseed oil 7which they consider contains a compound of glycerol with two radicles of linolenic acid and one radicle of oleic acid71 also in cod-liver1 cod1 whale and shark oils4 ,in some cases the fatty acids are combined with other bases than glycerol4 ,as examples may be cited beeswax1 containing myricin or myricyl palmitate1 and spermaceti1 consisting chiefly of cetin or cetyl palmitate1 and herein lies the essential difference between fats and waxes1 but as these substances are not soap-making materials1 though sometimes admixed with soap to accomplish some special object1 they do not require further consideration4 ,the principal pure triglycerides1 with their formul and chief constants1 are given in the following table3-- ,transcriber's note3 ,table split to fit on page better4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,glyceride4 ,formula4 ,chief ,occurrence4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,butyrin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#d;,h#g,o7#c ,butter fat ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,isovalerin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#e;,h#i,o7#c ,porpoise1 dolphin ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caproin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#f;,h#aa,o7#c ,cocoa-nut and palm-nut oils ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caprylin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#h;,h#ae,o7#c ,do4 do4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caprin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#aj;,h#ai,o7#c ,do4 do4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,laurin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ab;,h#bc,o7#c ,do4 do4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,myristin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ad;,h#bg,o7#c ,nutmeg butter ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,palmitin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#af;,h#ca,o7#c ,palm oil1 lard ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,stearin ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#ce,o7#c ,tallow1 lard1 cacao butter ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,olein ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#cc,o7#c ,olive and almond oils ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ricinolein ,c#c;,h#e7,o4,c#ah;,h#cc,o#b7c ,castor oil ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,glyceride4 ,melting ,refractive ,saponification ,point1 ,c4 ,index at #fj ,c4 ,equivalent4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,butyrin ,liquid at -#fj #a4dbjae #ajj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,isovalerin 444 444 #aad4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caproin -#be #a4dbgae #abh4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caprylin -#h4c #a4dccaf #aef4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,caprin #ca4a #a4dcfig #ahd4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,laurin #de #a4ddjci #bab4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,myristin #ef4e #a4ddbhe #bdj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,palmitin #fc-fd 444 #bfh4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,stearin #ga4f 444 #bif4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,olein ,solidifies at -#f 444 #bid4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ricinolein 444 444 #caj4g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,of the above the most important from a soap-maker's point of view are stearin1 palmitin1 olein and laurin1 as these predominate in the fats and oils generally used in that industry4 ,the presence of stearin and palmitin1 which are solid at the ordinary temperature1 gives firmness to a fat2 the greater the percentage present1 the harder the fat and the higher will be the melting point1 hence tallows and palm oils are solid1 firm fats4 ,where olein1 which is liquid1 is the chief constituent1 we have softer fats1 such as lard1 and liquid oils1 as almond1 olive and cotton-seed4 ,stearin 7,tristearin7 can be prepared from tallow by crystallisation from a solution in ether1 forming small crystals which have a bright pearly lustre4 ,the melting point of stearin appears to undergo changes and suggests the existence of distinct modifications4 ,when heated to #ee ,c4 stearin liquefies2 with increase of temperature it becomes solid1 and again becomes liquid at #ga4f ,c4 ,if this liquid be further heated to #gf ,c41 and allowed to cool1 it will not solidify until #ee ,c4 is reached1 but if the liquid at #ga4f ,c4 be allowed to cool1 solidification will occur at #gj ,c4 ,palmitin 7,tripalmitin7 may be obtained by heating together palmitic acid and glycerol1 repeatedly boiling the resulting product with strong alcohol1 and allowing it to crystallise4 ,palmitin exists in scales1 which have a peculiar pearly appearance1 and are greasy to the touch4 ,after melting and solidifying1 palmitin shows no crystalline fracture2 when heated to #df ,c4 it melts to a liquid which becomes solid on further heating1 again liquefying when #fa4g ,c4 is reached1 and becoming cloudy1 with separation of crystalline particles4 ,at #fc ,c4 it is quite clear1 and this temperature is taken as the true melting point4 ,it has been suggested that the different changes at the temperatures mentioned are due to varying manipulation1 such as rate at which the temperature is raised1 and the initial temperature of the mass when previously cool4 ,olein 7,triolein7 is an odourless1 colourless1 tasteless oil1 which rapidly absorbs oxygen and becomes rancid4 ,it has been prepared synthetically by heating glycerol and oleic acid together1 and may be obtained by submitting olive oil to a low temperature for several days1 when the liquid portion may be further deprived of any traces of stearin and palmitin by dissolving in alcohol4 ,olein may be distilled in vacuo without decomposition taking place4 ,laurin 7,trilaurin7 may be prepared synthetically from glycerol and lauric acid4 ,it crystallises in needles1 melting at #de-df ,c41 which are readily soluble in ether1 but only slightly so in cold absolute alcohol4 ,scheij gives its specific gravity1 d#fj_/d #j4hidd4 ,laurin is the chief constituent of palm-kernel oil1 and also one of the principal components of cocoa-nut oil4 ,fatty ,acids4--,when a fat or oil is saponified with soda or potash1 the resulting soap dissolved in hot water1 and sufficient dilute sulphuric acid added to decompose the soap1 an oily layer gradually rises to the surface of the liquid1 which1 after clarifying by warming and washing free from mineral acid1 is soluble in alcohol and reddens blue litmus paper4 ,this oily layer consists of the fatty acids or rather those insoluble in water1 acids like acetic1 propionic1 butyric1 caproic1 caprylic and capric1 which are all more or less readily soluble in water1 remaining for the most part dissolved in the aqueous portion4 ,all the acids naturally present in oils and fats1 whether free or combined1 are monobasic in character1 that is to say1 contain only one carboxyl--,,co4,,oh group4 ,the more important fatty acids may be classified according to their chemical constitution into five homologous series1 having the general formul3-- ,i4 ,stearic series ,cn,h#bn#a;,,cooh ,,ii4 ,oleic series ,cn,h#bn-#a;,,cooh ,,iii4 ,linolic series ,cn,h#bn-#c;,,cooh ,,iv4 ,linolenic series ,cn,h#bn-#e;,,cooh ,v4 ,ricinoleic series ,cn,h#bn-#g;,,cooh ,i4 ,stearic ,series4--,the principal acids of this series1 together with their melting points and chief sources1 are given in the following table3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,acid4 ,formula4 ,melting ,found in ,point1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,acetic ,,ch#c;,,cooh #ag ,macassar oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,butyric ,c#c;,h#g;,,cooh 444 ,butter1 ,macassar oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,isovaleric ,c#d;,h#i;,,cooh 444 ,porpoise and dolphin oils4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,caproic ,c#e;,h#aa;,,cooh 444 ,butter1 cocoa-nut oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,caprylic ,c#g;,h#ae;,,cooh #ae ,butter1 cocoa-nut oil1 ,limburg cheese4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,capric ,c#i;,h#ai;,,cooh #cj ,butter1 cocoa-nut oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,lauric ,c#aa;,h#bc;,,cooh #dd ,cocoa-nut oil1 palm-kernel oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,ficocerylic ,c#ab;,h#be;,,cooh 444 ,pisang wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,myristic ,c#ac;,h#bg;,,cooh #ed ,nutmeg butter1 liver fat1 cocoa-nut oil1 dika fat1 croton oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,palmitic ,c#ae;,h#ca;,,cooh #fb4e ,palm oil1 most animal fats4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,daturic ,c#af;,h#cc;,,cooh ,oil of ,datura ,stramonium4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,stearic ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cooh #fi ,tallow1 lard1 most solid animal fats4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,arachidic ,c#ai;,h#ci;,,cooh #ge ,arachis or earth-nut oil1 rape and mustard-seed oils4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,behenic ,c#ba;,h#dc;,,cooh 444 ,ben oil1 black mustard-seed oil1 rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,lignoceric ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh #hj4e ,arachis oil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,carnaubic ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh 444 ,carnauba wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,pisangcerylic ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh 444 ,pisang wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,hynic ,c#bd;,h#di;,,cooh 444 ,hyna fat4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,cerotic ,c#be;,h#ea;,,cooh #gh ,beeswax1 ,china wax1 spermaceti4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,melissic ,c#bi;,h#ei;,,cooh #hi ,beeswax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,psyllostearylic ,c#cb;,h#fe;,,cooh 444 ,psylla wax4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,theobromic ,c#fc;,h#abg;,,cooh 444 ,cacao butter ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,medullic and margaric acids1 which were formerly included in this series1 have now been shown to consist of mixtures of stearic and palmitic1 and stearic palmitic and oleic acids respectively4 ,the acids of this group are saturated compounds1 and will not combine directly with iodine or bromine4 ,the two first are liquid at ordinary temperatures1 distil without decomposition1 and are miscible with water in all proportions2 the next four are more or less soluble in water and distil unchanged in the presence of water1 as does also lauric acid1 which is almost insoluble in cold water1 and only slightly dissolved by boiling water4 ,the higher acids of the series are solid1 and are completely insoluble in water4 ,all these acids are soluble in warm alcohol1 and on being heated with solid caustic alkali undergo no change4 ,,ii4 ,oleic ,series3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,acid4 ,formula4 ,melting ,found in ,point1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,tiglic ,c#d;,h#g;,,cooh #fd4e ,croton oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,moringic ,c#ad;,h#bg;,,cooh #j ,ben oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,physetoleic ,c#ae;,h#bi;,,cooh #cj ,sperm oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,hypogic ,c#ae;,h#bi;,,cooh #cc ,arachis and maize oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,oleic ,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh #ad ,most oils and fats4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,rapic ,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh 444 ,rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,doeglic ,c#ah;,h#ce;,,cooh 444 ,bottle-nose oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,erucic ,c#ba;,h#da;,,cooh #cd ,mustard oils1 marine animal oils1 rape oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,the unsaturated nature of these acids renders their behaviour with various reagents entirely different from that of the preceding series4 ,thus1 they readily combine with bromine or iodine to form addition compounds1 and the lower members of the series are at once reduced1 on treatment with sodium amalgam in alkaline solution1 to the corresponding saturated acids of ,series ,i4 ,unfortunately1 this reaction does not apply to the higher acids such as oleic acid1 but as the conversion of the latter into solid acids is a matter of some technical importance from the point of view of the candle-maker1 a number of attempts have been made to effect this by other methods4 ,de ,wilde and ,reychler have shown that by heating oleic acid with #a per cent4 of iodine in autoclaves up to #bgj-bhj ,c41 about #gj per cent4 is converted into stearic acid1 and ,zrer has devised 7,german ,patent #fb1djg7 a process whereby the oleic acid is first converted by the action of chlorine into the dichloride1 which is then reduced with nascent hydrogen4 ,more recently ,norman has secured a patent 7,english ,patent #a1eae1 #aijc7 for the conversion of unsaturated fatty acids of ,series ,,ii4 into the saturated compounds of ,series ,i41 by reduction with hydrogen or water-gas in the presence of finely divided nickel1 cobalt or iron4 ,it is claimed that by this method oleic acid is completely transformed into stearic acid1 and that the melting point of tallow fatty acids is raised thereby about #ab ,c4 ,another method which has been proposed is to run the liquid olein over a series of electrically charged plates1 which effects its reduction to stearin4 ,stearic acid is also formed by treating oleic acid with fuming hydriodic acid in the presence of phosphorus1 while other solid acids are obtained by the action of sulphuric acid or zinc chloride on oleic acid4 ,acids of ,series ,,ii4 may also be converted into saturated acids by heating to #cjj;,c4 with solid caustic potash1 which decomposes them into acids of the stearic series with liberation of hydrogen4 ,this reaction1 with oleic acid1 for example1 is generally represented by the equation-- ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #b,,koh ,,kc#b;,h#c,o#b ,,kc#af;,h#ca,o#b ,h#b1 though it must be really more complex than this indicates1 for1 as ,edmed has pointed out1 oxalic acid is also formed in considerable quantity4 ,the process on a commercial scale has now been abandoned4 ,one of the most important properties of this group of acids is the formation of isomeric acids of higher melting point on treatment with nitrous acid1 generally termed the elaidin reaction4 ,oleic acid1 for example1 acted upon by nitrous acid1 yields elaidic acid1 melting at #de1 and erucic acid gives brassic acid1 melting at #fj;,c4 ,this reaction also occurs with the neutral glycerides of these acids1 olein being converted into elaidin1 which melts at #cb;,c4 ,the lead salts of the acids of this series are much more soluble in ether1 and the lithium salts more soluble in alcohol than those of the stearic series1 upon both of which properties processes have been based for the separation of the solid from the liquid fatty acids4 ,,iii4 ,linolic ,series3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,acid4 ,formula4 ,melting ,found in ,point1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,elomargaric ,c#af;,h#bi;,,cooh 444 ,chinese-wood oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,elostearic ,c#af;,h#bi;,,cooh #ga ,chinese-wood oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,linolic ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh ,fluid ,linseed1 cotton-seed and maize oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,tariric ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh #ej4e ,tariri-seed oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,telfairic ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh ,fluid ,telfairia oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,these acids readily combine with bromine1 iodine1 or oxygen4 ,they are unaffected by nitrous acid1 and their lead salts are soluble in ether4 ,,iv4 ,linolenic ,series3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,acid4 ,formula4 ,found in ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,linolenic ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,linseed oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,isolinolenic ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,linseed oil4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,jecoric ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh ,cod-liver and marine animal oils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,these acids are similar in properties to those of ,class ,,iii41 but combine with six atoms of bromine or iodine1 whereas the latter combine with only four atoms4 ,v4 ,ricinoleic ,series3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,acid4 ,formula4 ,melting ,found in ,point1 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ricinoleic ,c#ag;,h#bb7,,oh7,,cooh #d-e ,castor oil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,this acid combines with two atoms of bromine or iodine1 and is converted by nitrous acid into the isomeric ricinelaidic acid1 which melts at #eb-ec ,c4 ,pure ricinoleic acid1 obtained from castor oil1 is optically active1 its rotation being alphad #f #be'4 ,hydrolysis or ,saponification of ,oils and ,fats4--,the decomposition of a triglyceride1 brought about by caustic alkalies in the formation of soap1 though generally represented by the equation already given 7pp4 #f and #g7-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,or7 #c,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c,r,o,na1 is not by any means such a simple reaction4 ,in the first place1 though in this equation no water appears1 the presence of the latter is found to be indispensable for saponification to take place2 in fact1 the water must be regarded as actually decomposing the oil or fat1 caustic soda or potash merely acting as a catalytic agent4 ,further1 since in the glycerides there are three acid radicles to be separated from glycerol1 their saponification can be supposed to take place in three successive stages1 which are the converse of the formation of mono- and diglycerides in the synthesis of triglycerides from fatty acids and glycerine4 ,thus1 the above equation may be regarded as a summary of the following three3-- ,,or ,,oh 7i47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,r,o,na ,,or ,,or ,,oh ,,oh 7ii47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,r,o,na ,,or ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh 7iii47 ,c#c;,h#e ,,or ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,oh ,r,o,na ,,oh ,,oh ,geitel and ,lewkowitsch1 who have studied this question from the physical and chemical point of view respectively1 are of opinion that when an oil or fat is saponified1 these three reactions do actually occur side by side1 the soap-pan containing at the same time unsaponified triglyceride1 diglyceride1 monoglyceride1 glycerol and soap4 ,this theory is not accepted1 however1 by all investigators4 ,balbiano and ,marcusson doubt the validity of ,lewkowitsch's conclusions1 and ,fanto1 experimenting on the saponification of olive oil with caustic potash1 is unable to detect the intermediate formation of any mono- or diglyceride1 and concludes that in homogeneous solution the saponification is practically quadrimolecular4 ,kreeman1 on the other hand1 from physico-chemical data1 supports the view of ,geitel and ,lewkowitsch that saponification is bimolecular1 and though the evidence seems to favour this theory1 the matter cannot be regarded as yet definitely settled4 ,hydrolysis can be brought about by water alone1 if sufficient time is allowed1 but as the process is extremely slow1 it is customary in practice to accelerate the reaction by the use of various methods1 which include 7i47 the application of heat or electricity1 7ii47 action of enzymes1 and 7iii47 treatment with chemicals2 the accelerating effect of the two latter methods is due to their emulsifying power4 ,the most usual method adopted in the manufacture of soap is to hydrolyse the fat or oil by caustic soda or potash1 the fatty acids liberated at the same time combining with the catalyst1 i4e41 soda or potash1 to form soap4 ,hitherto the other processes of hydrolysis have been employed chiefly for the preparation of material for candles1 for which purpose complete separation of the glycerol in the first hydrolysis is not essential1 since the fatty matter is usually subjected to a second treatment with sulphuric acid to increase the proportion of solid fatty acids4 ,the colour of the resulting fatty acids is also of no importance1 as they are always subjected to distillation4 ,during the last few years1 however1 there has been a growing attempt to first separate the glycerol from the fatty acids1 and then convert the latter into soap by treatment with the carbonates of soda or potash1 which are of course considerably cheaper than the caustic alkalies1 but cannot be used in the actual saponification of a neutral fat4 ,the two processes chiefly used for this purpose are those in which the reaction is brought about by enzymes or by ,twitchell's reagent4 ,i4 ,application of ,heat or ,electricity4--,up to temperatures of #aej ,c4 the effect of water on oils and fats is very slight1 but by passing superheated steam through fatty matter heated to #bjj-cjj ,c4 the neutral glycerides are completely decomposed into glycerol and fatty acids according to the equation-- ,c#c;,h#e7,,or7#c #c;,h4,,oh ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c,,roh4 ,the fatty acids and glycerol formed distil over with the excess of steam1 and by arranging a series of condensers1 the former1 which condense first1 are obtained almost alone in the earlier ones1 and an aqueous solution of glycerine in the later ones4 ,this method of preparation of fatty acids is extensively used in ,france for the production of stearine for candle-manufacture1 but the resulting product is liable to be dark coloured1 and to yield a dark soap4 ,to expose the acids to heat for a minimum of time1 and so prevent discoloration1 ,mannig has patented 7,germ4 ,pat4 #afj1aaa7 a process whereby steam under a pressure of #h to #aj atmospheres is projected against a baffle plate mounted in a closed vessel1 where it mixes with the fat or oil in the form of a spray1 the rate of hydrolysis being thereby1 it is claimed1 much increased4 ,simpson 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cfd1ehg7 has attempted to accelerate further the decomposition by subjecting oils or fats to the simultaneous action of heat and electricity4 ,superheated steam is passed into the oil1 in which are immersed the two electrodes connected with a dynamo or battery1 the temperature not being allowed to exceed #bgj ,c4 ,,ii4 ,action of ,enzymes4--,it was discovered by ,muntz in #ahga 7,annales de ,chemie1 xxii47 that during germination of castor seeds a quantity of fatty acid was developed in the seeds1 which he suggested might be due to the decomposition of the oil by the embryo acting as a ferment4 ,schutzenberger in #ahgf showed that when castor seeds are steeped in water1 fatty acids and glycerol are liberated1 and attributed this to the hydrolytic action of an enzyme present in the seeds4 ,no evidence of the existence of such a ferment was adduced1 however1 till #ahij1 when ,green 7,roy4 ,soc4 ,proc41 #dh1 #cgj7 definitely proved the presence in the seeds of a ferment capable of splitting up the oil into fatty acid and glycerol4 ,the first experimenters to suggest any industrial application of this enzymic hydrolysis were ,connstein1 ,hoyer and ,wartenburg1 who 7,berichte1 #aijb1 #ce1 pp4 #cihh-djjf7 published the results of a lengthy investigation of the whole subject4 ,they found that tallow1 cotton-seed1 palm1 olive1 almond1 and many other oils1 were readily hydrolysed by the castor-seed ferment in the presence of dilute acid1 but that cocoa-nut and palm-kernel oils only decomposed with difficulty4 ,the presence of acidity is essential for the hydrolysis to take place1 the most suitable strength being one-tenth normal1 and the degree of hydrolysis is proportional to the quantity of ferment present4 ,sulphuric1 phosphoric1 acetic or butyric acids1 or sodium bisulphate1 may be used without much influence on the result4 ,butyric acid is stated to be the best1 but in practice is too expensive1 and acetic acid is usually adopted4 ,the emulsified mixture should be allowed to stand for twenty-four hours1 and the temperature should not exceed #dj ,c42 at #ej ,c4 the action is weakened1 and at #ajj ,c4 ceases altogether4 ,several investigators have since examined the hydrolysing power of various other seeds1 notably ,braun and ,behrendt 7,berichte1 #aijc1 #cf1 #aadb-aade1 #aijj-aija1 and #cjjc-cjje71 who1 in addition to confirming ,connstein1 ,hoyer and ,wartenburg's work with castor seeds1 have made similar experiments with jequirity seeds 7,abrus peccatorius7 containing the enzyme abrin1 emulsin from crushed almonds1 the leaves of ,arctostaphylos ,uva ,ursi1 containing the glucoside arbutin1 myrosin from black mustard-seed1 gold lac 7,cheirantus cheiri7 and crotin from croton seeds4 ,jequirity seeds were found to have a stronger decomposing action on lanoline and carnauba wax than the castor seed1 but only caused decomposition of castor oil after the initial acidity was first neutralised with alkali4 ,neither emulsin1 arbutin nor crotin have any marked hydrolytic action on castor oil1 but myrosin is about half as active as castor seeds1 except in the presence of potassium myronate1 when no decomposition occurs4 ,s4 ,fokin 7,j4 russ4 phys4 chem4 ,ges41 #ce1 #hca-hce1 and ,chem4 ,rev4 ,fett4 u4 ,harz4 ,ind41 #aijd1 #cj et seq47 has examined the hydrolytic action of a large number of ,russian seeds1 belonging to some thirty different families1 but although more than half of these brought about the hydrolysis of over #aj per cent4 of fat1 he considers that in only two cases1 viz41 the seeds of ,chelidonium majus and ,linaria vulgaris1 is the action due to enzymes1 these being the only two seeds for which the yield of fatty acids is proportional to the amount of seed employed1 while in many instances hydrolysis was not produced when the seeds were old4 ,the seeds of ,chelidonium majus were found to have as great1 and possibly greater1 enzymic activity than castor seeds1 but those of ,linaria are much weaker1 twenty to thirty parts having only the same lipolytic activity as four to five parts of castor seeds4 ,the high percentage of free acids found in rice oil has led ,c4 ,a4 ,brown1 jun4 7,journ4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #be1 #idh-ied71 to examine the rice bran1 which proves to have considerable enzymic activity1 and rapidly effects the hydrolysis of glycerides4 ,the process for the utilisation of enzymic hydrolysis in the separation of fatty acids from glycerine on the industrial scale1 as originally devised by ,connstein and his collaborators1 consisted in rubbing a quantity of the coarsely crushed castor seeds with part of the oil or fat1 then adding the rest of the oil1 together with acidified water 7,n_/#aj acetic acid74 ,the quantities employed were #f-a_/b parts of decorticated castor beans for every #ajj parts of oil or fat1 and #ej to #fj parts of acetic acid4 ,after stirring until an emulsion is formed1 the mixture is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours1 during which hydrolysis takes place4 ,the temperature is then raised to #gj-hj ,c41 which destroys the enzyme1 and a #be per cent4 solution of sulphuric acid1 equal in amount to one-fiftieth of the total quantity of fat originally taken1 added to promote separation of the fatty acids4 ,in this way three layers are formed1 the one at the top consisting of the clear fatty acids1 the middle one an emulsion containing portions of the seeds1 fatty acids and glycerine1 and the bottom one consisting of the aqueous glycerine4 ,the intermediate layer is difficult to treat satisfactorily2 it is generally washed twice with water1 the washings being added to glycerine water1 and the fatty mixture saponified and the resultant soap utilised4 ,the process has been the subject of a considerable amount of investigation1 numerous attempts having been made to actually separate the active fat-splitting constituent of the seeds1 or to obtain it in a purer and more concentrated form than is furnished by the seeds themselves4 ,nicloux 7,comptes ,rendus1 #aijd1 #aaab1 and ,roy4 ,soc4 ,proc41 #aijf1 #gg ,b1 #ded7 has shown that the hydrolytic activity of castor seeds is due entirely to the cytoplasm1 which it is possible to separate by mechanical means from the aleurone grains and all other cellular matter4 ,this active substance1 which he terms lipaseidine1 is considered to be not an enzyme1 though it acts as such1 following the ordinary laws of enzyme action2 its activity is destroyed by contact with water in the absence of oil4 ,this observer has patented 7,eng4 ,pat4 #h1cjd1 #aijd7 the preparation of an extract by triturating crushed castor or other seeds with castor oil1 filtering the oily extract1 and subjecting it to centrifugal force4 ,the deposit consists of aleurone and the active enzymic substance1 together with about #hj per cent4 of oil1 and one part of it will effect nearly complete hydrolysis of #ajj parts of oil in twenty-four hours4 ,in a subsequent addition to this patent1 the active agent is separated from the aleurone by extraction with benzene and centrifugal force4 ,by the use of such an extract1 the quantity of albuminoids brought into contact with the fat is reduced to about #aj per cent4 of that in the original seeds1 and the middle layer between the glycerine solution and fatty acids is smaller and can be saponified directly for the production of curd soap1 while the glycerine solution also is purer4 ,in a further patent ,nicloux 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cdi1bac1 #aijd7 states that the use of an acid medium is unnecessary1 and claims that even better results are obtained by employing a neutral solution of calcium sulphate containing a small amount of magnesium sulphate1 the proportion of salts not exceeding #j4e per cent4 of the fat1 while in yet another patent1 jointly with ,urbain 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cdi1idb1 #aijd71 it is claimed that the process is accelerated by the removal of acids from the oil or fat to be treated1 which may be accomplished by either washing first with acidulated water1 then with pure water1 or preferably by neutralising with carbonate of soda and removing the resulting soap4 ,lombard 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cej1agi1 #aijd7 claims that acids act as stimulating agents in the enzymic hydrolysis of oils1 and further that a simple method of obtaining the active product is to triturate oil cake with its own weight of water1 allow the mixture to undergo spontaneous proteolytic hydrolysis at #dj ,c4 for eight days1 and then filter1 the filtrate obtained being used in place of water in the enzymic process4 ,hoyer1 who has made a large number of experiments in the attempt to isolate the lipolytic substance from castor seeds1 has obtained a product of great activity1 which he terms ferment-oil1 by extracting the crushed seeds with a solvent for oils4 ,the ,verein ,chem4 ,werke have extended their original patent 7addition dated #aath ,december1 #aije1 to ,fr4 ,pat4 #cbh1aja1 ,oct41 #aijb71 which now covers the use of vegetable ferments in the presence of water and manganese sulphate or other metallic salt4 ,it is further stated that acetic acid may be added at the beginning of the operation1 or use may be made of that formed during the process1 though in the latter case hydrolysis is somewhat slower4 ,experiments have been carried out by ,lewkowitsch and ,macleod 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fh1 and ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #ca7 with ferments derived from animal sources1 viz41 lipase from pig's liver1 and steapsin from the pig or ox pancreas4 ,the former1 although it has been shown by ,kastle and ,loevenhart 7,amer4 ,chem4 ,journ41 #aijj1 #di7 to readily hydrolyse ethyl butyrate1 is found to have very little fat-splitting power1 but with steapsin more favourable results have been obtained1 though the yield of fatty acids in this case is considerably inferior to that given by castor seeds4 ,with cotton-seed oil1 #hc-hf per cent4 of fatty acids were liberated as a maximum after fifty-six days1 but with lard only #df per cent4 were produced in the same time4 ,addition of dilute acid or alkali appeared to exert no influence on the decomposition of the cotton-seed oil1 but in the case of the lard1 dilute alkali seemed at first to promote hydrolysis1 though afterwards to retard it4 ,fokin 7,chem4 ,rev4 ,fett4 u4 ,harz4 ,ind41 #aijd1 #aah-abj et seq47 has attempted to utilise the pancreatic juice on a technical scale1 but the process proved too slow and too costly to have any practical use4 ,rancidity4--,the hydrolysing power of enzymes throws a good deal of light on the development of rancidity in oils and fats1 which is now generally regarded as due to the oxidation by air in the presence of light and moisture of the free fatty acids contained by the oil or fat4 ,it has long been known that whilst recently rendered animal fats are comparatively free from acidity1 freshly prepared vegetable oils invariably contain small quantities of free fatty acid1 and there can be no doubt that this must be attributed to the action of enzymes contained in the seeds or fruit from which the oils are expressed1 hence the necessity for separating oils and fats from adhering albuminous matters as quickly as possible4 ,decomposition of ,fats by ,bacteria4--,though this subject is not of any practical interest in the preparation of fatty acids for soap-making1 it may be mentioned1 in passing1 that some bacteria readily hydrolyse fats4 ,schriber 7,arch4 f4 ,hyg41 #da1 #cbh-cdg7 has shown that in the presence of air many bacteria promote hydrolysis1 under favourable conditions as to temperature and access of oxygen1 the process going beyond the simple splitting up into fatty acid and glycerol1 carbon dioxide and water being formed4 ,under anrobic conditions1 however1 only a slight primary hydrolysis was found to take place1 though according to ,rideal 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fi7 there is a distinct increase in the amount of free fatty acids in a sewage after passage through a septic tank4 ,experiments have also been made on this subject by ,rahn 7,centralb4 ,bakteriol1 #aije1 #dbb71 who finds that ,penicillium glaucum and other penicillia have considerable action on fats1 attacking the glycerol and lower fatty acids1 though not oleic acid4 ,a motile bacillus1 producing a green fluorescent colouring matter1 but not identified1 had a marked hydrolytic action and decomposed oleic acid4 ,the name lipobacter has been proposed by ,de ,kruyff for bacteria which hydrolyse fats4 ,,iii4 ,use of ,chemical ,reagents4--,among the chief accelerators employed in the hydrolysis of oils are sulphuric acid and ,twitchell's reagent 7benzene- or naphthalene-stearosulphonic acid71 while experiments have also been made with hydrochloric acid 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fg7 with fairly satisfactory results1 and the use of sulphurous acid1 or an alkaline bisulphite as catalyst1 has been patented in ,germany4 ,to this class belong also the bases1 lime1 magnesia1 zinc oxide1 ammonia1 soda and potash1 though these latter substances differ from the former in that they subsequently combine with the fatty acids liberated to form soaps4 ,sulphuric ,acid4--,the hydrolysing action of concentrated sulphuric acid upon oils and fats has been known since the latter part of the eighteenth century1 but was not applied on a practical scale till #ahdj when ,gwynne patented a process in which sulphuric acid was used to liberate the fatty acids1 the latter being subsequently purified by steam distillation4 ,by this method1 sulpho-compounds of the glyceride are first formed1 which readily emulsify with water1 and1 on treatment with steam1 liberate fatty acids1 the glycerol remaining partly in the form of glycero-sulphuric acid4 ,the process has been investigated by ,fremy1 ,geitel1 and more recently by ,lewkowitsch 7,j4 ,soc4 of ,arts1 ,cantor ,lectures1 #aijd1 #gie et seq471 who has conducted a series of experiments on the hydrolysis of tallow with #d per cent4 of sulphuric acid of varying strengths1 containing from #eh to #ij per cent4 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,acid of #fj per cent4 or less appears to be practically useless as a hydrolysing agent1 while with #gj per cent4 acid only #dg4g per cent4 fatty acids were developed after twenty-two hours' steaming1 and with #hj and #he per cent4 acid1 the maximum of #hi4i per cent4 of fatty acids was only reached after fourteen and fifteen hours' steaming respectively4 ,using #ih per cent4 acid1 #ic per cent4 of fatty acids were obtained after nine hours' steaming1 and after another seven hours1 only #j4f per cent4 more fatty acids were produced4 ,further experiments have shown that dilute sulphuric acid has also scarcely any action on cotton-seed1 whale1 and rape oils4 ,according to ,lant ,carpenter1 some #ge per cent4 of solid fatty acids may be obtained from tallow by the sulphuric acid process1 owing to the conversion of a considerable quantity of oleic acid into isoleic acid 7vide p4 #ab71 but in the process a considerable proportion of black pitch is obtained4 ,c4 ,dreymann has recently patented 7,eng4 ,pat4 #aj1dff1 #aijd7 two processes whereby the production of any large amount of hydrocarbons is obviated4 ,in the one case1 after saponification with sulphuric acid1 the liberated fatty acids are washed with water and treated with an oxide1 carbonate1 or other acid-fixing body1 e4g41 sodium carbonate1 prior to distillation4 ,in this way the distillate is much clearer than by the ordinary process1 and is almost odourless1 while the amount of unsaponifiable matter is only about #a4b per cent4 ,the second method claimed consists in the conversion of the fatty acids into their methyl esters by treatment with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid gas1 and purification of the esters by steam distillation1 the pure esters being subsequently decomposed with superheated steam1 in an autoclave1 with or without the addition of an oxide1 e4g41 #j4a per cent4 zinc oxide1 to facilitate their decomposition4 ,twitchell's ,reagent4--,in ,twitchell's process use is made of the important discovery that aqueous solutions of fatty aromatic sulphuric acids1 such as benzene- or naphthalene-stearosulphonic acid1 readily dissolve fatty bodies1 thereby facilitating their dissociation into fatty acids and glycerol4 ,these compounds are stable at #ajj ,c41 and are prepared by treating a mixture of benzene or naphthalene and oleic acid with an excess of sulphuric acid1 the following reaction taking place3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b ,h#b,,so#d ,c#f;,h#d7,,so#c;,h7,c#ah;,h#ce,o ,h#b,o4 ,on boiling the resultant product with water two layers separate1 the lower one consisting of a clear aqueous solution of sulphuric acid and whatever benzene-sulphonic acid has been formed1 while the upper layer1 which is a viscous oil1 contains the benzene-stearosulphonic acid4 ,this1 after washing first with hydrochloric acid and then rapidly with petroleum ether1 and drying at #ajj ,c4 is then ready for use2 the addition of a small quantity of this reagent to a mixture of fat 7previously purified7 and water1 agitated by boiling with open steam1 effects almost complete separation of the fatty acid from glycerol4 ,the process is generally carried out in two wooden vats1 covered with closely fitting lids1 furnished with the necessary draw-off cocks1 the first vat containing a lead coil and the other a brass steam coil4 ,in the first vat1 the fat or oil is prepared by boiling with #a or #b per cent4 of sulphuric acid 7#ada ,tw4 or #fj ,b47 for one or two hours and allowed to rest1 preferably overnight2 by this treatment the fat is deprived of any dirt1 lime or other impurity present4 ,after withdrawing the acid liquor1 the fat or oil is transferred to the other vat1 where it is mixed with one-fifth of its bulk of water 7condensed or distilled71 and open steam applied4 ,as soon as boiling takes place1 the requisite amount of reagent is washed into the vat by the aid of a little hot water through a glass funnel1 and the whole is boiled continuously for twelve or even twenty-four hours1 until the free fatty acids amount to #he-ij per cent4 ,the amount of reagent used varies with the grade of material1 the smaller the amount consistent with efficient results1 the better the colour of the finished product2 with good material1 from #a_/b to #c_/d per cent4 is sufficient1 but for materials of lower grade proportionately more up to #b per cent4 is required4 ,the reaction appears to proceed better with materials containing a fair quantity of free acidity4 ,when the process has proceeded sufficiently far1 the boiling is stopped and free steam allowed to fill the vat to obviate any discoloration of the fatty acids by contact with the air1 whilst the contents of the vat settle4 ,the settled glycerine water1 which should amount in bulk to #ej or #fj per cent4 of the fatty matter taken1 and have a density of #g-a_/b ,tw4 7#e ,b471 is removed to a receptacle for subsequent neutralisation with milk of lime1 and1 after the separation of sludge1 is ready for concentration4 ,the fatty acids remaining in the vat are boiled with a small quantity 7#j4je per cent41 or #a_/aj of the ,twitchell reagent requisite7 of commercial barium carbonate1 previously mixed with a little water2 the boiling may be prolonged twenty or thirty minutes1 and at the end of that period the contents of the vat are allowed to rest2 the water separated should be neutral to methyl-orange indicator4 ,it is claimed that fatty acids so treated are not affected by the air1 and may be stored in wooden packages4 ,hydrochloric ,acid4--,lewkowitsch 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #aijc1 #fg7 has carried out a number of experiments on the accelerating influence of hydrochloric acid upon the hydrolysis of oils and fats1 which show that acid of a specific gravity of #a4af has a very marked effect on most oils1 cocoa-nut1 cotton-seed1 whale and rape oils1 tallow and lard being broken up into fatty acid and glycerol to the extent of some #hb-if per cent4 after boiling #ajj grams of the oil or fat with #ajj c4c4 of acid for twenty-four hours4 ,the maximum amount of hydrolysis was attained with cocoa-nut oil1 probably owing to its large proportion of the glycerides of volatile fatty acids4 ,castor oil is abnormal in only undergoing about #bj per cent4 hydrolysis1 but this is attributed to the different constitution of its fatty acids1 and the ready formation of polymerisation products4 ,experiments were also made as to whether the addition of other catalytic agents aided the action of the hydrochloric acid2 mercury1 copper sulphate1 mercury oxide1 zinc1 zinc dust1 aluminium chloride1 nitrobenzene and aniline being tried1 in the proportion of #a per cent4 ,the experiments were made on neutral lard and lard containing #e per cent4 of free fatty acids1 but in no case was any appreciable effect produced4 ,so far this process has not been adopted on the practical scale1 its chief drawback being the length of time required for saponification4 ,undoubtedly the hydrolysis would be greatly facilitated if the oil and acid could be made to form a satisfactory emulsion1 but although saponin has been tried for the purpose1 no means of attaining this object has yet been devised4 ,sulphurous ,acid or ,bisulphite4--,the use of these substances has been patented by ,stein1 ,berge and ,de ,roubaix 7,germ4 ,pat4 #fa1cbi71 the fat being heated in contact with the reagent for about nine hours at #age-ahj ,c4 under a pressure of some #ah atmospheres1 but the process does not appear to be of any considerable importance4 ,lime4--,the use of lime for the saponification of oils and fats was first adopted on the technical scale for the production of candle-making material1 by ,de ,milly in #ahca4 ,the insoluble lime soap formed is decomposed by sulphuric acid1 and the fatty acids steam distilled4 ,the amount of lime theoretically necessary to hydrolyse a given quantity of a triglyceride1 ignoring for the moment any catalytic influence1 can be readily calculated2 thus with stearin the reaction may be represented by the equation3-- ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,ch#b,,oh #b;,,chooc#ah;,h#ce #c;,ca7,,oh7#b #c;,ca7,,ooc#ah;,h#ce7b #b;,,choh ,,ch#b,,ooc#ah;,h#ce ,,ch#b,,oh stearin milk of lime calcium stearate glycerol ,in this instance1 since the molecular weight of stearin is #hij and that of milk of lime is #gd1 it is at once apparent that for every #a1ghj parts of stearin1 #bbb parts of milk of lime or #afh parts of quick-lime1 ,ca,o1 would be required4 ,it is found in practice1 however1 that an excess of #c-e per cent4 above the theoretical quantity of lime is necessary to complete the hydrolysis of a fat when carried on in an open vessel at #ajj-aje ,c41 but that if the saponification be conducted under pressure in autoclaves the amount of lime necessary to secure almost perfect hydrolysis is reduced to #b-c per cent4 on the fat1 the treatment of fats with #c per cent4 of lime under a pressure of #aj atmospheres producing a yield of #ie per cent4 of fatty acids in seven hours4 ,the lower the pressure in the autoclave1 the lighter will be the colour of the resultant fatty acids4 ,magnesia4--,it has been proposed to substitute magnesia for lime in the process of saponification under pressure1 but comparative experiments with lime and magnesia1 using #c per cent4 of lime and #b4g per cent4 of magnesia 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 xii41 #afc71 show that saponification by means of magnesia is less complete than with lime1 and1 moreover1 the reaction requires a higher temperature and therefore tends to darken the product4 ,zinc ,oxide4--,the use of zinc oxide as accelerating agent has been suggested by two or three observers4 ,poullain and ,michaud1 in #ahhb1 were granted a patent for this process1 the quantity of zinc oxide recommended to be added to the oil or fat being #j4b to #j4e per cent4 ,rost1 in #aijc1 obtained a ,french patent for the saponification of oils and fats by steam under pressure in the presence of finely divided metals or metallic oxides1 and specially mentions zinc oxide for the purpose4 ,it has also been proposed to use zinc oxide in conjunction with lime in the autoclave to obviate to some extent the discoloration of the fatty acids4 ,other catalytic agents have been recommended from time to time1 including strontianite1 lead oxide1 caustic baryta1 aluminium hydrate1 but none of these is of any practical importance4 ,soda and ,potash4--,unlike the preceding bases1 the soaps formed by soda and potash are soluble in water1 and constitute the soap of commerce4 ,these reagents are always used in sufficient quantity to combine with the whole of the fatty acids contained in an oil or fat1 though doubtless1 by the use of considerably smaller quantities1 under pressure1 complete resolution of the fatty matter into fatty acids and glycerol could be accomplished4 ,they are1 by far1 the most important saponifying agents from the point of view of the present work1 and their practical use is fully described in ,chapter ,v4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,raw ,,materials ,,used ,,in ,,soap-,,making4 ,fats and ,oils--,waste ,fats--,fatty ,acids--,less-known ,oils and ,fats of ,limited ,use--,various ,new ,fats and ,oils ,suggested for ,soap-making--,rosin--,alkali 7,caustic and ,carbonated7--,water--,salt--,soap-stock 4 ,fats and ,oils4--,all animal and vegetable oils and fats intended for soap-making should be as free as possible from unsaponifiable matter1 of a good colour and appearance1 and in a sweet1 fresh condition4 ,the unsaponifiable matter naturally present as cholesterol1 or phytosterol1 ranges in the various oils and fats from #j4b to #b4j per cent4 ,all oils and fats contain more or less free acidity2 but excess of acidity1 though it may be due to the decomposition of the glyceride1 and does not always denote rancidity1 is undesirable in soap-making material4 ,rancidity of fats and oils is entirely due to oxidation1 in addition to free acid1 aldehydes and ketones being formed1 and it has been proposed to estimate rancidity by determining the amount of these latter produced4 ,it is scarcely necessary to observe how very important it is that the sampling of fats and oils should be efficiently performed1 so that the sample submitted to the chemist may be a fairly representative average of the parcel4 ,in the following short description of the materials used1 we give1 under each heading1 figures for typical samples of the qualities most suitable for soap-making4 ,tallows4--,most of the imported tallow comes from ,america1 ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,south ,american mutton tallow is usually of good quality2 ,south ,american beef tallow is possessed of a deep yellow colour and rather strong odour1 but makes a bright soap of a good body and texture4 ,north ,american tallows are1 as a general rule1 much paler in colour than those of ,south ,america1 but do not compare with them in consistence4 ,most of the ,australasian tallows are of very uniform quality and much in demand4 ,great ,britain produces large quantities of tallow which comes into the market as town and country tallow1 or home melt4 ,owing to the increasing demand for edible fat1 much of the rough fat is carefully selected1 rendered separately1 and the product sold for margarine-making4 ,consequently the melted tallow for soap-making is of secondary importance to the tallow melter4 ,the following are typical samples of tallow3-- ,acidity ,saponification 7as ,oleic ,titre1 ,equivalent4 ,acid7 ,c4 ,per ,cent4 ,australian mutton #bhe #j4he #de ,australian mutton #bhd4d #j4dh #dh4c ,australian beef #bhd4b #a4fh #dc4i ,australian beef #bhc4f #j4he #db4f ,australian mixed #bhe4a #c4eb #dd ,australian mixed #bhd4f #a4hi #dc4e ,south ,american mutton #bhd4e #a4aa #dg ,south ,american mutton #bhe #j4ij #dg4d ,south ,american beef #bhd4g #j4ha #de ,south ,american beef #bhd #j4id #dd ,north ,american mutton #bhd4c #a4cb #dd ,north ,american mutton #he #b4ah #dc4b ,north ,american beef1 fine #bhd4e #a4ig #da4e ,north ,american beef1 good #bhc4h #d4cj #db ,north ,american ordinary #bhe4b #e4jg #da4ge ,north ,american prime city #bhf #a4ja #da4b ,selected ,english mutton #bhc4i #a4de #dg ,selected ,english beef #bhd4b #b4dj #dd ,home-rendered or country tallow #bhd4f #e4a #dc ,town tallow #bhe4c #g4d #db4e ,tallow should absorb from #ci to #dd per cent4 iodine4 ,lard4--,lard is largely imported into this country from the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the following is a typical sample of ,american hog's fat offered for soap-making3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #fj ,c4 #bhf #j4e #cg4e #a4dedb ,lard should absorb #ei to #fc per cent4 iodine4 ,cocoa-nut ,oil4--,the best known qualities are ,cochin and ,ceylon oils1 which are prepared in ,cochin 7,malabar7 or the ,philippine ,islands and ,ceylon respectively4 ,the dried kernels of the cocoa-nut are exported to various ports in ,europe1 and the oil obtained comes on the market as ,continental ,coprah ,oil1 with the prefix of the particular country or port where it has been crushed1 e4g41 ,belgian1 ,french and ,marseilles ,coprah ,oil4 ,coprah is also imported into ,england1 and the oil expressed from it is termed ,english ,pressed ,coprah4 ,the following are typical examples from bulk3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #be ,c4 ,cochin oil #bae4e #a4e #bc4e #a4dedj ,cochin oil #bad4c #b4f #bb4a #a4deda ,ceylon oil #bad4f #e4dg #bc #a4dece ,ceylon oil #baf #c4ie #bb4ge #a4dece ,belgian coprah #bad4b #a4fe #bc #a4deda ,belgian coprah #bae #b4fj #bb4a #a4dedj ,french coprah #bad4b #f4ee #bc #a4dece ,french coprah #bad4h #g4db #bb #a4dedj ,pressed coprah #bae4h #g4de #bb4b #a4dedb ,pressed coprah #baf #i4da #bb #a4deee ,cocoa-nut oil should absorb #h4i to #i4c per cent4 iodine4 ,palm-nut ,oil4--,the kernels of the palm-tree fruit are exported from the west coast of ,africa to ,europe1 and this oil obtained from them4 ,typical samples of ,english and ,hamburg oils tested3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #be ,c4 #bbe #d4d #bd #a4deec #bbg #g4g #bc4h #a4deec ,palm-nut oil should absorb #aj to #ac per cent4 iodine4 ,olive ,oil4--,the olive is extensively grown in ,southern ,europe and in portions of ,asia and ,africa bordering the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the fruit of this tree yields the oil4 ,the free fatty acid content of olive oil varies very considerably4 ,very fine oils contain less than #a per cent4 acidity2 commercial oils may be graded according to their free acidity1 e4g41 under #e per cent41 under #aj per cent41 etc41 and it entirely depends upon the desired price of the resultant soap as to what grade would be used4 ,the following is a typical sample for use in the production of high-class toilet soap3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #ae ,c4 #bhh #a4h #ba #a4dgjd ,olive oil should absorb #hj to #hc per cent4 iodine4 ,olive-kernel oil1 more correctly termed ,sulphur olive oil4 ,the amount of free fatty acids is always high and ranges from #dj-gj per cent41 and1 of course1 its glycerol content is proportionately variable4 ,the free acidity increases very rapidly1 and is1 doubtless1 due to the decomposition of the neutral oil by the action of hydrolytic ferment4 ,a representative sample of a parcel tested3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #bj ,c4 #bih #dj4if #a4dfff ,palm oil is produced from the fruit of palm trees1 which abound along the west coast of ,africa4 ,lagos is the best quality1 whilst ,camaroons1 ,bonny1 ,old ,calabar and ,new ,calabar oils are in good request for bleaching purposes4 ,analysis of typical samples of crude palm oil has given3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,water and ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,impurities1 ,per ,cent4 ,per ,cent4 #bgh #aj4g #de #a4f #bhj #ca4b #dd4e #b4h ,palm oil should absorb #ea to #ef per cent4 iodine4 ,in the lower qualities we have examples of the result of hydrolytic decomposition by enzymes1 the free acidity often amounting to #gj per cent4 ,cotton-seed ,oil4--,this oil is expressed from the seeds separated from the wool of the various kinds of cotton tree largely cultivated in ,america and ,egypt4 ,in its crude state cotton-seed oil is a dark fluid containing mucilaginous and colouring matter1 and is not applicable for soap-making4 ,the following figures are representative of well-refined cotton-seed oils3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,per ,cent4 at #bj ,c4 #j4ibbi #bij #j4bd #cc4f #a4dgba #j4ibd #bii #j4ci #ce #a4dgai ,cotton-seed oil should absorb #ajd to #aaj per cent4 iodine4 ,cotton-seed ,stearine4--,the product obtained by pressing the deposit which separates on chilling refined cotton-seed oil4 ,a typical sample tested3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,per ,cent4 #bhe4a #j4je #ch ,arachis ,oil4--,the earth-nut or ground-nut1 from which arachis oil is obtained1 is extensively cultivated in ,north ,america1 ,india and ,western ,africa4 ,large quantities are exported to ,marseilles where the oil is expressed4 ,arachis oil enters largely into the composition of ,marseilles ,white ,soaps4 ,representative samples of commercial and refined oils tested3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,refractive ,gravity fication 7as ,oleic ,titre1 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 at #bj ,c4 valent ,per ,cent4 ,commercial #j4iahd #bih #b4f #bh4f ,refined #j4ibje #bhe #j4bb #bd4j #a4dgab ,arachis oil should absorb #ij to #ih per cent4 iodine4 ,maize ,oil4--,america 7,u4,s47 produces very large quantities of maize oil4 ,typical samples of crude and refined oil gave these figures3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,refractive ,gravity fication 7as ,oleic ,titre1 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 at #bj ,c4 valent ,per ,cent4 ,crude #j4ibdf #bid #a4da #ae ,refined #j4ibdh #bid4a #j4dj #ag4b #a4dgff ,maize oil should absorb #abj to #abh per cent4 iodine4 ,sesame ,oil4--,sesame oil is very largely pressed in ,southern ,france from the seeds of the sesame plant which is cultivated in the ,levant1 ,india1 ,japan and ,western ,africa4 ,a fairly representative sample of ,french expressed oil tested3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,per ,cent4 at #bj ,c4 #j4ibbg #bie4b #a4hd #bb4h #a4dgca ,sesame oil should absorb #ajh to #aaj per cent4 iodine4 ,linseed ,oil4--,russia1 ,india1 and ,argentine ,republic are the principal countries which extensively grow the flax plant1 from the seeds of which linseed oil is pressed4 ,it is used to a limited extent in soft-soap making4 ,a good sample gave on analysis3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,gravity ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index at #ae ,c4 ,per ,cent4 at #ae ,c4 #j4ice #bib #a4b #bj #a4dhdj ,linseed oil should absorb #agj to #ahj per cent4 iodine4 ,hemp-seed oil is produced from the seeds of the hemp plant which grows in ,russia4 ,this oil is used in soft soap-making1 more particularly on the ,continent4 ,a typical sample gave the following figures3-- ,specific ,saponification ,titre1 ,gravity ,equivalent4 ,c4 ,iodine ,no4 at #ae ,c4 #j4ibf #bib4f #ae4h #adc ,sunflower oil is produced largely in ,russia4 ,a specimen tested3-- ,specific ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,gravity ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,iodine ,no4 at #ae ,c4 ,per ,cent4 #j4ibei #bij4g #j4ha #ag #abf4b ,castor ,oil4--,the castor oil plant is really a native of ,india1 but it is also cultivated in the ,united ,states 7,illinois7 and ,egypt4 ,a typical commercial sample tested3-- ,saponi- ,acidity ,optical ,refractive fication 7as ,oleic ,titre1 ,iodine ,no4 ,rotation ,index ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 alpha,d at #be ,c4 valent ,per ,cent4 #caj #a4e #b4h #hd4a #d #ej' #a4dghg ,fish and ,marine ,animal ,oils4--,various oils of this class have1 until recently1 entered largely into the composition of soft soaps1 but a demand has now arisen for soft soaps made from vegetable oils4 ,we quote a few typical analyses of these oils3-- ,specific ,saponi- ,acidity ,unsaponi- ,gravity fication 7as ,oleic ,titre1 fiable at #ae;,c4 ,equi- ,acid7 ,c4 ,matter valent ,per ,cent4 ,per ,cent4 ,pale seal oil #j4ibeb #bhi #j4idg #ae4e #j4h ,straw seal oil #j4ibca #bhh #d4gg #ae4h #a4b ,brown seal oil #j4ibec #bia #af4ch #af4b #a4i ,whale oil #j4iafc #big #a4di #af4a #a4h ,dark whale oil #j4ibhd #cjc #ab4fj #ba4h #b4d ,japan fish oil #j4iccf #bif #d4gi #bf #j4fg ,japan fish oil #j4icbe #cjb #aj4dc #bh #a4ee ,brown cod oil #j4ibfj #cac #ad4ia #ba4h #a4i ,pure herring oil #j4icec #bhh #aa4ci #ba4f #a4e ,kipper oil #j4ibga #big #e4ad #bb4g #c4be ,waste ,fats4--,under this classification may be included marrow fat1 skin greases1 bone fats1 animal grease1 melted stuff from hotel and restaurant refuse1 and similar fatty products4 ,the following is a fair typical selection3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,per ,cent4 ,marrow fat #bhc4c #c4f #ch4g ,white skin grease #bhg4b #d4c #cf4d ,pale skin grease #bhf4c #i4hg #ce4g ,pale bone fat #bhi4g #h4h #dj4g ,brown bone fat #bhi4a #aa4j #da ,brown bone fat #bib #bj4e #dj4b ,animal grease #bhi4d #ch4a #dj4d ,melted stuff #bhf4c #ab4h #cg4g ,the materials in the above class require to be carefully examined for the presence of unsaponifiable matter1 lime salts and other impurities4 ,fatty ,acids4--,we have already described the various methods of liberating fatty acids by hydrolysis or saponification4 ,under this heading should also be included stearines produced by submitting distilled fat to hydraulic pressure1 the distillates from e from unsaponifiable matter1 cocoa-nut oleine1 a bye-product from the manufacture of edible cocoa-nut butter and consisting largely of free acids1 and palm-nut oleine obtained in a similar manner from palm-nut oil4 ,these are all available for soap-making4 ,,less-,,known ,,oils ,,and ,,fats ,,of ,,limited ,,use4 ,shea ,butter4--,shea butter is extracted from the kernels of the ,bassia ,parkii and exported from ,africa and ,eastern ,india4 ,this fat is somewhat tough and sticky1 and the amount of unsaponifiable matter present is sometimes considerable4 ,samples examined by us gave the following data3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #fj ,c4 #cac #h4b #ec4b #a4deff #cjc #g4cc #ec #a4deeh #a4ddga 7,f4 ,acids7 ,mowrah-seed ,oil4--,the mowrah-seed oil now offered for soap-making is derived from the seeds of ,bassia longifolia and ,bassia latifolia4 ,it is largely exported from ,india to ,belgium1 ,france and ,england4 ,the following are the results of some analyses made by us3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,refractive ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,index ,per ,cent4 at #fj ,c4 #bia #aj #dc4d #a4deah #bia4e #g4a #db4g #bia4b #i4i #dc4h #bib #aa4bf #dj4e ,chinese vegetable tallow is the name given to the fat which is found coating the seeds of the tallow tree 7,stillingia sebifera7 which is indigenous to ,china and has been introduced to ,india where it flourishes4 ,the following is a typical sample3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equivalent ,per ,cent4 ,c4 #bhj4b #e4bd #eb4e ,the seeds of the tallow tree yield an oil 7stillingia oil7 having drying properties4 ,borneo ,tallow4--,the kernels of several species of ,hopea 7or ,dipterocarpus71 which flourish in the ,malayan ,archipelago1 yield a fat known locally as ,tangawang fat4 ,this fat is moulded 7by means of bamboo canes7 into the form of rolls about #c inches thick1 and exported to ,europe as ,borneo ,tallow4 ,a sample tested by one of us gave the following data3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,titre1 ,equivalent4 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,c4 ,per ,cent4 #bib #cf #ej4h ,kapok oil is produced from a tree which is extensively grown in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,the ,dutch have placed it on the market and the figures given by ,henriques 7,chem4 ,zeit41 #ag1 #abhc7 and ,philippe 7,monit4 ,scient41 #aijb1 #gcj71 although varying somewhat1 show the oil to be similar to cotton-seed oil4 ,,various ,,new ,,fats ,,and ,,oils ,,suggested ,,for ,,soap-,,making4 ,carapa or ,andiroba oil1 derived from the seeds of a tree 7,carapa ,guianensis7 grown in ,west ,indies and tropical ,america1 has been suggested as suitable for soap-making4 ,deering 7,imperial ,institute ,journ41 #ahih1 #cac7 gives the following figures3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,melting ,point ,equivalent ,per ,cent4 of ,fatty ,acids1 ,c4 #bhg #ab #hi ,another observer 7,rev4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ac1 #aaf7 gives the setting point of the fatty acids as #ef4d ,c4 ,candle-nut oil obtained from the seeds of a tree flourishing in ,india and also the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the following figures have been published3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iodine ,no4 ,observers4 ,references4 ,equiv- alent4#a ,c4 #bii-cjd4i #ac #acf4c-aci4c ,de ,negri ,chem4 ,centr41 #ahih1 p4 #dic4 #bia #afc4g ,lewkowitsch,chem4 ,revue1 #aija1 p4 #aef4 #bif #ab4e #aeb4h ,kassler ,farben-,zeitung1 #aijc1 p4 #cei4 ,curcas oil is produced in ,portugal from the seeds of the purging nut tree1 which is similar to the castor oil plant1 and is cultivated in ,cape ,verde ,islands and other ,portuguese ,colonies4 ,the following data have been observed3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iodine ,no4 ,observers4 ,references4 ,equiv- alent4#b ,c4 #bia4d #j4cf #ii4e ,archbut ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #ahih1 p4 #ajaj4 #bij4c #d4df #ih4c ,lewkowitsch,chem4 ,revue1 #ahih1 p4 #baa4 #bhc4a #j4fh #ajg4i ,klein ,zeits4 angew4 ,chem41 #ahih1 p4 #ajab4 ,the titre is quoted by ,lewkowitsch as #bh4f ,c4 ,goa butter or ,kokum butter is a solid fat obtained from the seeds of ,garcinia indica1 which flourishes in ,india and the ,east ,indies4 ,crossley and ,le ,sueur 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,industry1 #ahih1 p4 #iic7 during an investigation of ,indian oils obtained these results3-- ,saponification ,acidity ,iodine ,no4 ,equivalent4#c ,per ,cent4 #cjj #g4a #cd4b ,safflower oil is extracted from the seeds of the ,carthamus tinctorius1 which1 although indigenous to ,india and the ,east ,indies1 is extensively cultivated in ,southern ,russia 7,saratowa7 and ,german ,east ,africa4 ,its use has been suggested for soft-soap making4 ,the following figures have been published3-- ,saponi fication ,iodine ,observers4 ,references4 ,equiv- ,no4 alent4#d ,average #bie4e #ada4bi ,crossley and ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #ahih1 p4 #iib2 of ,le ,sueur ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijj1 p4 #ajd4 ,twelve #bhg4a #ada4f ,shukoff ,chem4 ,revue1 #aija1 p4 #bej4 ,samples #bhi4b #acj ,tylaikow ,chem4 ,revue1 #aijb1 p4 #ajf4 #bic4g #adb4b ,fendler ,chem4 ,zeitung1 #aijd1 p4 #hfg4 ,maripa fat is obtained from the kernels of a palm tree flourishing in the ,west ,indies1 but1 doubtless1 the commercial fat is obtained from other trees of the same family4 ,it resembles cocoa-nut oil and gives the following figures3-- ,saponi- ,melting fication ,point ,equiv- ,iodine of ,fatty alent4#e ,no4 ,acids1 ,c4 ,observer4 ,reference4 #bag #i4di #be ,bassire ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijc1 p4 #aacg4 ,niam fat1 obtained from the seeds of ,lophira alata1 which are found extensively in the ,soudan4 ,the fat1 as prepared by natives1 has been examined by ,lewkowitsch1 and more recently ,edie has published the results of an analysis4 ,the figures are as follows3-- ,saponi- fication ,titre1 ,iodine ,observers4 ,references4 ,equiv- ,no4 alent4#f ,c4 #bie4a #gh4ab #db4e ,lewkowitsch,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijg1 p4 #abff4 #bhg4g #ge4c ,ede4 ,quart4 ,j4 ,inst4 ,comm4 ,research in ,tropics4 ,cohune-nut oil is produced from the nuts of the cohune palm1 which flourishes in ,british ,honduras4 ,this oil closely resembles cocoa-nut and palm-nut oils and is stated to saponify readily and yield a soap free from odour4 ,the following figures1 obtained in the ,laboratory of the ,imperial ,institute1 are recorded in the official ,bulletin1 #aijc1 p4 #be3-- ,saponification ,iodine ,no4 ,melting ,point of ,equivalent4 ,fatty ,acids1 ,c4 #bec4i-bee4c #ab4i-ac4f #bg-cj ,mafoureira or ,mafura tallow from the nuts of the mafoureira tree1 which grows wild in ,portuguese ,east ,africa4 ,the following figures are published3-- ,saponi- fication ,iodine ,references4 ,equi- ,no4 valent4 ,titre1 ,c4 #bec4h #dd-dh #df4ad ,de ,negri and ,fabris1 ,annal4 del ,lab4 ,chim4 ,delle ,gabelle1 #ahia-b1 p4 #bga4 ,acidity 7as ,oleic ,acid7 ,per ,cent4 ,bulletin ,imp4 ,inst41 #bcb4h-bcc4g #ba4bf #dg4h-ee4h #aijc1 p4 #bg4 ,pongam oil1 obtained from the beans of the pongam tree1 which flourishes in ,east ,india1 has been suggested as available for the soap industry1 but the unsaponifiable matter present would militate against its use4 ,lewkowitsch 7,analyst1 #aijc1 pp4 #cdb-dd7 quotes these results3-- ,saponi- fication ,iodine ,acidity1 ,unsaponifiable1 ,equi- ,no4 ,per ,cent4 ,per ,cent4 valent4#g ,oil extracted #cae #id #c4je #i4bb in laboratory ,indian specimen #cjf #hi4d #j4e #f4if ,margosa oil is obtained from the seeds of ,melia azedarach1 a tree which is found in most parts of ,india and ,burma4 ,lewkowitsch 7,analyst1 #aijc1 pp4 #cdb-cdd7 gives these figures3-- ,saponification ,iodine ,titre1 ,equivalent4#h ,no4 ,c4 #bhd4i #fi4f #db ,dika fat or ,wild ,mango oil is obtained from the seed kernels of various kinds of ,irvingia by boiling with water4 ,lemari 7,bulletin ,imp4 ,inst41 #aijc1 p4 #bjf7 states that this fat is used in the place of cocoa-nut oil in the manufacture of soap4 ,lewkowitsch 7,analyst1 #aije1 p4 #cie7 examined a large sample of dika fat obtained from seeds of ,irvingia bateri 7,south ,nigeria7 and gives the following data3-- ,saponification ,iodine ,titre1 ,unsaponifiable1 ,equivalent4#i ,no4 ,c4 ,per ,cent4 #bbi4d #e4b #cd4h #j4gc ,baobab-seed ,oil4--,balland 7,journ4 ,pharm4 ,chem41 #aijd1 p4 #ebi1 abstracted in ,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #cd7 states that the natives of ,madagascar extract1 by means of boiling water1 from the seeds of the baobab tree1 a whitish solid oil1 free from rancidity1 and possessed of an odour similar to ,tunisian olive oil4 ,he suggests that it may1 with advantage1 replace cocoa-nut oil in soap manufacture4 ,persimmon-seed ,oil4--,lane 7,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #cij7 gives constants for this oil which he describes as semi-drying1 of brownish yellow colour1 and having taste and odour like pea-nut 7arachis7 oil4 ,the following are taken from ,lane's figures3-- ,saponification ,iodine ,titre1 ,equivalent4#aj ,no4 ,c4 #bih4d #aae4f #bj4b ,wheat oil1 extracted from the wheat germ by means of solvents1 has been suggested as applicable for soap-making 7,h4 ,snyder1 abstr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aije1 p4 #ajgd74 ,the following figures have been published3-- ,saponi- fication ,acidity1 ,iodine ,titre1 ,observers4 ,references4 ,equiv- ,per ,no4 alent4#aa ,cent4 ,c4 #cjf #e4fe #aae4ag #bi4g ,de ,negri4 ,chem4 ,zeit41 #ahih 7abstr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i41 #ahih1 p4 #aaee74 #big #bj #aae4fd ,frankforter ,j4 ,amer4 ,c4 ,soc41 ,harding #ahii1 #geh-gfi 7abstr4 in ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i41 #ahii1 p4 #ajcj74 ,tangkallah fat1 from the seeds of a tree growing in ,java and the neighbouring islands1 is suitable for soap-making4 ,schroeder 7,arch4 ,pharm41 #aije1 #fce-fdj1 abstracted in ,j4 ,s4 ,c4 ,ind41 #aijf1 p4 #abh7 gives these values3-- ,saponification ,acidity1 ,iodine ,unsaponifiable1 ,equivalent4#ab ,per ,cent4 ,no4 ,per ,cent4 #bji #a4fg #b4bh #a4dd ,it is a hard fat1 nearly white1 possessing neither taste nor characteristic odour and solidifying at about #bg ,c4 ,oil of ,inoy-kernel4--7,bulletin ,imp4 ,inst41 #aijf1 p4 #bja74 ,the seeds of ,poga oleosa from ,west ,africa yield on extraction an oil which gives the figures quoted below1 and is suggested as a soap-maker's material3-- ,saponification ,iodine ,titre1 ,equivalent4 ,no4 ,c4 #cjd #hi4ge #bb ,,rosin4 ,rosin is the residuum remaining after distillation of spirits of turpentine from the crude oleo-resin exuded by several species of the pine1 which abound in ,america1 particularly in ,north ,carolina1 and also flourish in ,france and ,spain4 ,the gigantic forests of the ,united ,states consist principally of the long-leaved pine1 ,pinus palustris 7,australis71 whilst the ,french and ,spanish oleo-resin is chiefly obtained from ,pinus pinaster1 which is largely cultivated4 ,rosin is a brittle1 tasteless1 transparent substance having a smooth shining fracture and melting at about #ace ,c4 7#bge ,f474 ,the ,american variety possesses a characteristic aromatic odour1 which is lacking in those from ,france and ,spain4 ,it is graded by samples taken out of the top of every barrel1 and cut into #g_/h of an inch cubes1 which must be uniform in size--the shade of colour of the cube determines its grade and value4 ,the grades are as follows3-- ,w4 ,w4 7,water white47 ,w4 ,g4 7,window glass47 ,n4 7,extra pale47 ,m4 7,pale47 ,k4 7,low pale47 ,i4 7,good ,no4 #a47 ,h4 7,no4 #a47 ,g4 7,low ,no4 #a47 ,f4 7,good ,no4 #b47 ,e4 7,no4 #b47 ,d4 7,good strain47 ,c4 7,strain47 ,b4 7,common strain47 ,a4 7,common47 ,unsaponifiable matter is present in rosin in varying amounts4 ,below are a few typical figures taken from a large number of collated determinations3-- ,saponification ,total ,free ,iodine ,equivalent4 ,acid ,no4 ,acid ,no4 ,no4 ,american ,w4 ,w4 #ccj4e #afi4g #aai4a #abf4i ,american ,n4 #cab4c #agi4f #afa4d #acg4h ,french #cbj4e #age #afh #abj4g ,spanish #cac4d #agi #afj #abi4h ,,alkali 7,,caustic ,,and ,,carbonated74 ,the manufacture of alkali was at one time carried on in conjunction with soap-making1 but of late years it has become more general for the soap manufacturer to buy his caustic soda or carbonated alkali from the alkali-maker4 ,although there are some alkali-makers who invoice caustic soda and soda ash in terms of actual percentage of sodium oxide 7,na#b,o71 it is the trade custom to buy and sell on what is known as the ,english degree1 which is about #a per cent4 higher than this4 ,the ,english degree is a survival of the time when the atomic weight of sodium was believed to be twenty-four instead of twenty-three1 and1 since the error on #gf per cent4 ,na#b,o due to this amounts to about #a per cent41 may be obtained by adding this figure to the sodium oxide really present4 ,caustic soda 7sodium hydrate7 comes into commerce in a liquid form as #ij ,tw4 7and even as high as #ajf ,tw471 and other degrees of dilution1 and also in a solid form in various grades as #fj1 #gj1 #gf-gg1 #gg-gh4 ,these degrees represent the percentage of sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 present plus the #a per cent4 ,the highest grade1 containing as it does more available caustic soda and less impurities1 is much more advantageous in use4 ,carbonate of soda or soda ash1 #eh1 also termed light ash1 and refined alkali4 ,this is a commercially pure sodium carbonate containing about #j4e per cent4 salt 7,na,cl74 ,the #eh represents the ,english degrees and corresponds to #ii per cent4 sodium carbonate 7,na#b;,,co#c74 ,soda ash1 #dh1 sometimes called caustic soda ash1 often contains besides carbonate of soda1 #d per cent4 caustic soda 7sodium hydrate71 and #aj per cent4 salt 7sodium chloride71 together with water and impurities4 ,the #dh degrees refers to the amount of alkali present in terms of sodium oxide 7,na#b,o71 but expressed as ,english degrees4 ,caustic potash 7potassium hydrate7 is offered as a liquid of #ej-eb ,b4 7#ih-ajc ,tw47 strength1 and also in solid form as #ge-hj and #hh-ib4 ,the degrees in the latter case refer to the percentage of potassium hydrate 7,,kho7 actually present4 ,carbonate of ,potash4--,the standard for refined carbonate of potash is #ij-ib per cent4 of actual potassium carbonate 7,k#b;,,co#c7 present1 although it can be obtained testing #ie-ih per cent4 ,,other ,,materials4 ,water4--,water intended for use in soap-making should be as soft as possible4 ,if the water supply is hard1 it should be treated chemically2 the softening agents may be lime and soda ash together1 soda ash alone1 or caustic soda4 ,there are many excellent plants in vogue for water softening1 which are based on similar principles and merely vary in mechanical arrangement4 ,the advantages accruing from the softening of hard water intended for steam-raising are sufficiently established and need not be detailed here4 ,salt 7sodium chloride or common salt1 ,na,cl7 is a very important material to the soap-maker1 and is obtainable in a very pure state4 ,brine1 or a saturated solution of salt1 is very convenient in soap-making1 and1 if the salt used is pure1 will contain #bf4d per cent4 sodium chloride and have a density of #da4f ,tw4 7#bd4h ,b474 ,the presence of sulphates alters the density1 and of course the sodium chloride content4 ,salt produced during the recovery of glycerine from the spent lyes often contains sulphates1 and the density of the brine made from this salt ranges higher than #db ,tw4 7#be ,b474 ,soapstock4--,this substance is largely imported from ,america1 where it is produced from the dark-coloured residue1 termed mucilage1 obtained from the refining of crude cotton-seed oil4 ,mucilage consists of cotton-seed oil soap1 together with the colouring and resinous principles separated during the treatment of the crude oil4 ,the colouring matter is removed by boiling the mucilage with water and graining well with salt2 this treatment is repeated several times until the product is free from excess of colour1 when it is converted into soap and a nigre settled out from it4 ,soapstock is sold on a fatty acid basis2 the colour is variable4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #b ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #c ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #d ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #e ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #f ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #g ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #h ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #i ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #aj ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #aa ,calculated by us from saponification value4 #ab ,calculated by us from saponification value4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,bleaching ,,and ,,treatment ,,of ,,raw ,,materials ,,intended ,,for ,,soap-,,making4 ,palm ,oil--,cotton-seed ,oil--,cotton-seed ,foots--,vegetable ,oils--,animal ,fats--,bone ,fat--,rosin4 ,having described the most important and interesting oils and fats used or suggested for use in the manufacture of soap1 let us now consider briefly the methods of bleaching and treating the raw materials1 prior to their transference to the soap-pan4 ,crude ,palm ,oil4--,of the various methods suggested for bleaching palm oil1 the bichromate process originated by ,watts is undoubtedly the best4 ,the reaction may be expressed by the following equation1 though in practice it is necessary to use twice the amount of acid required by theory3-- ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #ad;,h,cl #b,k,cl ,cr#b;,cl#f #g;,h#b,o #f;,cl4 #f;,cl #c;,h#b,o #f;,h,cl #c,o4 ,the palm oil1 freed from solid impurities by melting and subsidence1 is placed in the bleaching tank1 and washed with water containing a little hydrochloric acid4 ,having allowed it to rest1 and drawn off the liquor and sediment 7chiefly sand71 the palm oil is ready for treatment with the bleaching reagent1 which consists of potassium bichromate and commercial muriatic acid4 ,for every ton of oil1 #bb to #bh lb4 potassium bichromate and #de to #fj lb4 acid will be found sufficient to produce a good bleached oil4 ,the best procedure is to act upon the colouring matter of the oil three successive times1 using in the first two treatments one-third of the average of the figures just given1 and in the final treatment an appropriate quantity which can be easily gauged by the appearance of a cooled sample of the oil4 ,the potassium bichromate is dissolved in hot water and added to the crude palm oil1 previously heated to #abe ,f4 7#eb ,c471 the requisite amount of muriatic acid being then run in and the whole well agitated by means of air4 ,the bright red colour of the oil gradually changes to dark brown1 and soon becomes green4 ,the action having proceeded for a few minutes1 agitation is stopped1 and1 after allowing to settle1 the green liquor is withdrawn4 ,when sufficiently bleached the oil is finally washed 7without further heating7 with hot water 7which may contain salt71 to remove the last traces of chrome liquor4 ,if the above operation is carried out carefully1 the colouring matter will be completely oxidised4 ,it is important1 however1 that the temperature should not be allowed to rise above #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c47 during the bleaching of palm oil1 otherwise the resultant oil on saponification is apt to yield a soap of a foxy colour4 ,the bleached oil retains the characteristic violet odour of the original oil4 ,it has been suggested to use dilute sulphuric acid1 or a mixture of this and common salt1 in the place of muriatic acid in the above process4 ,crude ,cotton-seed ,oil4--,the deep colouring matter of crude cotton-seed oil1 together with the mucilaginous and resinous principles1 are removed by refining with caustic soda lye4 ,the chief aim of the refiner is to remove these impurities without saponifying any of the neutral oil4 ,the percentage of free fatty acids in the oil will determine the quantity of caustic lye required1 which must only be sufficient to remove this acidity4 ,having determined the amount of free acidity1 the quantity of caustic soda lye necessary to neutralise it is diluted with water to #ab or #ae ,tw4 7#h or #aj ,b471 and the refining process carried out in three stages4 ,the oil is placed in a suitable tank and heated by means of a closed steam coil to #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 a third of the necessary weak caustic soda lye added in a fine stream or by means of a sprinkler1 and the whole well agitated with a mechanical agitator or by blowing a current of air through a pipe laid on the bottom of the tank4 ,prolonged agitation with air has a tendency to oxidise the oil1 which increases its specific gravity and refractive index1 and will be found in the soap-pan to produce a reddish soap4 ,as the treatment proceeds1 the temperature may be carefully raised1 by means of the steam coil1 to #abj ,f4 7#di ,c474 ,the first treatment having proceeded fifteen minutes1 the contents of the tank are allowed to rest2 the settling should be prolonged as much as possible1 say overnight1 to allow the impurities to precipitate well1 and carry down the least amount of entangled oil4 ,having withdrawn these coloured foots1 the second portion of the weak caustic soda solution is agitated with the partially refined oil1 and1 when the latter is sufficiently treated1 it is allowed to rest and the settled coloured liquor drawn off as before4 ,the oil is now ready for the final treatment1 which is performed in the same manner as the two previous ones4 ,on settling1 a clear yellow oil separates4 ,if desired1 the oil may be brightened and filtered1 after refining to produce a marketable article1 but if it is being refined for own use in the soap-house1 this may be omitted4 ,the residue or foots produced during the refining of crude cotton-seed oil1 known in the trade as mucilage1 may be converted into soapstock as mentioned in the preceding chapter1 or decomposed by a mineral acid and made into black grease ready for distillation by superheated steam4 ,vegetable ,oils4--,the other vegetable oils come to the soap-maker's hand in a refined condition2 occasionally1 however1 it is desirable to remove a portion of the free fatty acids1 which treatment also causes the colouring matter to be preciptated4 ,this is effected by bringing the oil and a weak solution of caustic lye into intimate contact4 ,cocoa-nut oil is often treated in this manner4 ,sometimes it is only necessary to well agitate the oil with #a-a_/b per cent4 of its weight of a #ab ,tw4 7#h ,b47 solution of caustic soda and allow to settle4 ,the foots are utilised in the soap-pan4 ,animal ,fats4--,tallows are often greatly improved by the above alkaline treatment at #afe ,f4 7#gc ,c474 ,it is one of the best methods and possesses advantages over acid processes--the caustic soda removes the free acid and bodies of aldehyde nature1 which are most probably the result of oxidation or polymerisation1 whereas the neutral fat is not attacked1 and further1 the alkaline foots can be used in the production of soap4 ,bone fat often contains calcium 7lime7 salts1 which are very objectionable substances in a soap-pan4 ,these impurities must be removed by a treatment with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid4 ,the former acid is preferable1 as the lime salt formed is readily soluble and easily removed4 ,the fat is agitated with a weak solution of acid in a lead-lined tank by blowing in steam1 and when the treatment is complete and the waste liquor withdrawn1 the last traces of acid are well washed out of the liquid fat with hot water4 ,rosin4--,several methods have been suggested for bleaching rosin2 in some instances the constitution of the rosin is altered1 and in others the cost is too great or the process impracticable4 ,the aim of these processes must necessarily be the elimination of the colouring matter without altering the original properties of the substance4 ,this is best carried out by converting the rosin into a resinate of soda by boiling it with a solution of either caustic soda or carbonated alkali4 ,the process is commenced by heating #cg cwt4 of #ag ,tw4 7#aa ,b47 caustic soda lye1 and adding #bj cwt4 of rosin1 broken into pieces1 and continuing the boiling until all the resinate is homogeneous1 when an addition of #a-a_/b cwt4 of salt is made and the boiling prolonged a little4 ,on resting1 the coloured liquor rises to the surface of the resinate1 and may be siphoned off 7or pumped away through a skimmer pipe7 and the resinate further washed with water containing a little salt4 ,the treatment with carbonated alkali is performed in a similar manner4 ,a solution1 consisting of #b-c_/d cwt4 of soda ash 7#eh71 in about four times its weight of water1 is heated and #bj cwt4 of rosin1 broken into small pieces1 added4 ,the whole is heated by means of the open steam coil1 and care must be taken to avoid boiling over4 ,owing to the liberation of ,,co#b gas1 frothing takes place4 ,a large number of patents have been granted for the preparation of resinate of soda1 and many methods devised to obviate the boiling over4 ,some suggest mixing the rosin and soda ash 7or only a portion of the soda ash7 prior to dissolving in water2 others saponify in a boiler connected with a trap which returns the resinate to the pan and allows the carbonic-acid gas to escape or to be collected4 ,with due precaution the method can be easily worked in open vessels1 and1 using the above proportions1 there will be sufficient uncombined rosin remaining to allow the resultant product to be pumped into the soap with which it is intended to intermix it1 where it will be finally saponified thoroughly4 ,the salt required1 which1 in the example given1 would be #a-a_/b cwt41 may be added to the solution prior to the addition of rosin or sprinkled in towards the finish of the boiling4 ,when the whole has been sufficiently boiled and allowed to rest1 the liquor containing the colouring matter will float over the resinate1 and1 after removal1 may be replaced by another washing4 ,many other methods have been suggested for the bleaching1 refining and treatment of materials intended for saponification1 but the above practical processes are successfully employed4 ,all fats and oils after being melted by the aid of steam must be allowed to thoroughly settle1 and the condensed water and impurities withdrawn through a trap arrangement for collecting the fatty matter4 ,the molten settled fatty materials en route to the soap-pan should be passed through sieves sufficiently fine to free them from suspended matter4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,soap-,,making4 ,classification of ,soaps--,direct ,combination of ,fatty ,acids with ,alkali--,cold ,process ,soaps--,saponification under ,increased or ,diminished ,pressure--,soft ,soap--,marine ,soap--,hydrated ,soaps1 ,smooth and ,marbled--,pasting or ,saponification--,graining ,out--,boiling on ,strength--,fitting--,curd ,soaps--,curd ,mottled--,blue and ,grey ,mottled ,soaps--,milling ,base--,yellow ,household ,soaps--,resting of ,pans and ,settling of ,soap--,utilisation of ,nigres--,transparent ,soaps--,saponifying ,mineral ,oil--,electrical ,production of ,soap4 ,soaps are generally divided into two classes and designated hard1 and soft1 the former being the soda salts1 and the latter potash salts1 of the fatty acids contained in the material used4 ,according to their methods of manufacture1 soaps may1 however1 be more conveniently classified1 thus3-- 7,a7 ,direct combination of fatty acids with alkali4 7,b7 ,treatment of fat with definite amount of alkali and no separation of waste lye4 7,c7 ,treatment of fat with indefinite amount of alkali and no separation of waste lye4 7,d7 ,treatment of fat with indefinite amount of alkali and separation of waste lye4 7,a7 ,direct ,combination of ,fatty ,acids with ,alkali4--,this method consists in the complete saturation of fatty acids with alkali1 and permits of the use of the deglycerised products mentioned in chapter ii41 section #b1 and of carbonated alkalies or caustic soda or potash4 ,fatty acids are readily saponified with caustic soda or caustic potash of all strengths4 ,the saponification by means of carbonated alkali may be performed in an open vat containing a steam coil1 or in a pan provided with a removable agitator4 ,it is usual to take soda ash 7#eh71 amounting to #ai per cent4 of the weight of fatty acids to be saponified1 and dissolve it in water by the aid of steam until the density of the solution is #ec ,tw4 7#cj ,b472 then bring to the boil1 and1 whilst boiling1 add the molten fatty acids slowly1 but not continuously4 ,combination takes place immediately with evolution of carbonic acid gas1 which causes the contents of the vat or pan to swell1 and frequently to boil over4 ,the use of the agitator1 or the cessation of the flow of fatty acids1 will sometimes tend to prevent the boiling over4 ,it is imperative that the steam should not be checked but boiling continued as vigorously as possible until all the alkali has been absorbed and the gas driven off4 ,the use of air to replace steam in expelling the carbonic acid gas has been patented 7,fr4 ,pat4 #ccc1igd1 #aijc74 ,a better method of procedure1 however1 is to commence with a solution of #fd ,tw4 7#ce ,b47 density1 made from half the requisite soda ash 7#i-a_/b per cent471 and when this amount of alkali has all been taken up by the fatty acids 7which have been added gradually and with continuous boiling71 the remaining quantity of soda ash is added in a dry state1 being sprinkled over each further addition of fatty acid4 ,this allows the process to be more easily controlled and boiling over is avoided4 ,it is essential that the boiling by steam should be well maintained throughout the process until all carbonic acid gas has been thoroughly expelled2 when that point is reached1 the steam may be lessened and the contents of the vat or pan gently boiled on strength with a little caustic lye until it ceases to absorb caustic alkali1 the soap being finished in the manner described under 7,d74 ,it is extremely difficult to prevent discoloration of fatty acids1 hence the products of saponification in this way do not compare favourably in appearance with those produced from the original neutral oil or fat4 7,b7 ,treatment of ,fat with ,definite ,amount of ,alkali and no ,separation of ,waste ,lye4--,cold-process soap is a type of this class1 and its method of production is based upon the characteristic property which the glycerides of the lower fatty acids 7members of the cocoa-nut-oil class7 possess of readily combining with a strong caustic soda solution at a low temperature1 and evolving sufficient heat to complete the saponification4 ,sometimes tallow1 lard1 cotton-seed oil1 palm oil and even castor oil are used in admixture with cocoa-nut oil4 ,the process for such soap is the same as when cocoa-nut oil is employed alone1 with the slight alteration in temperature necessary to render the fats liquid1 and the amount of caustic lye required will be less4 ,soaps made of these blends closely resemble1 in appearance1 milled toilet soaps4 ,in such mixtures the glycerides of the lower fatty acids commence the saponification1 and by means of the heat generated induce the other materials1 which alone would saponify with difficulty or only with the application of heat1 to follow suit4 ,it is necessary to use high grade materials2 the oils and fats should be free from excess of acidity1 to which many of the defects of cold-process soaps may be traced4 ,owing to the rapidity with which free acidity is neutralised by caustic soda1 granules of soap are formed1 which in the presence of strong caustic lye are grained out and difficult to remove without increasing the heat2 the soap will thus tend to become thick and gritty and sometimes discoloured4 ,the caustic lye should be made from the purest caustic soda1 containing as little carbonate as possible2 the water used for dissolving or diluting the caustic soda should be soft 7i4e41 free from calcium and magnesium salts71 and all the materials carefully freed from particles of dirt and fibre by straining4 ,the temperature1 which1 of course1 must vary with the season1 should be as low as is consistent with fluidity1 and for cocoa-nut oil alone may be #ge ,f4 7#bd ,c471 but in mixtures containing tallow #ajj to #abj ,f4 7#ch to #di ,c474 ,the process is generally carried out as follows3-- ,the fluid cocoa-nut oil is stirred in a suitable vessel with half its weight of #ga4d ,tw4 7#ch ,b47 caustic soda lye at the same temperature1 and1 when thoroughly mixed1 the pan is covered and allowed to rest4 ,it is imperative that the oils and fats and caustic lye should be intimately incorporated or emulsified4 ,the agitating may be done mechanically1 there being several machines specially constructed for the purpose4 ,in one of the latest designs the caustic lye is delivered through a pipe which rotates with the stirring gear1 and the whole is driven by means of a motor4 ,the agitation being complete1 chemical action takes place with the generation of heat1 and finally results in the saponification of the fats4 ,at first the contents of the pan are thin1 but in a few hours they become a solid mass4 ,as the process advances the edges of the soap become more transparent1 and when the transparency has extended to the whole mass1 the soap is ready1 after perfuming1 to be framed and crutched4 ,the admixture of a little caustic potash with the caustic soda greatly improves the appearance of the resultant product1 which is smoother and milder4 ,the glycerine liberated during the saponification is retained in the soap4 ,although it is possible1 with care1 to produce neutral soaps of good appearance and firm touch by this method1 cold-process soaps are very liable to contain both free alkali and unsaponified fat1 and have now fallen considerably into disrepute4 ,saponification under ,increased or ,diminished ,pressure4--,soaps made by boiling fats and oils1 under pressure and in vacuo1 with the exact quantity of caustic soda necessary for complete combination1 belong also to this class4 ,amongst the many attempts which have at various times been made to shorten the process of soap-making may be mentioned ,haywood's ,patent ,no4 #gei1 #aija1 and ,jourdan's ,french ,patent ,no4 #cci1aed1 #aijc4 ,in the former1 saponification is carried out in a steam-jacketed vacuum chamber provided with an elaborate arrangement of stirrers2 in the other process fat is allowed to fall in a thin stream into the amount of lye required for saponification1 previously placed in the saponification vessel1 which is provided with stirring gear4 ,when the quantities have been added1 steam is admitted and saponification proceeds4 7,c7 ,treatment of ,fat with ,indefinite ,amount of ,alkali and no ,separation of ,waste ,lye4--,soft soap is representative of this class4 ,the vegetable fluid oils 7linseed1 olive1 cotton-seed1 maize7 are for the most part used in making this soap1 though occasionally bone fats and tallow are employed4 ,rosin is sometimes added1 the proportion ranging1 according to the grade of soap required1 from #e to #ae per cent4 of the fatty matter4 ,the ,soft ,soap ,manufacturers' ,convention of ,holland stipulate that the materials used in soft-soap making must not contain more than #e per cent4 rosin2 it is also interesting to note that a patent has been granted 7,eng4 ,pat4 #ag1bgh1 #aijj7 for the manufacture of soft soap from material containing #ej per cent4 rosin4 ,fish or marine animal oils--whale1 seal1 etc41 once largely used as raw material for soft soap1 have been superseded by vegetable oils4 ,the materials must be varied according to the season2 during hot weather1 more body with a less tendency to separate is given by the introduction of oils and fats richer in stearine2 these materials also induce figging4 ,the most important material1 however1 is the caustic potash lye which should average #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b471 i4e41 if a weak solution is used to commence saponification1 a stronger lye must be afterwards employed to avoid excess of water in the soap1 and these average #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b474 ,the potash lye must contain carbonates1 which help to give transparency to the resultant soap4 ,if the lye is somewhat deficient in carbonates1 they may be added in the form of a solution of refined pearl ash 7potassium carbonate74 ,caustic soda lye is sometimes admixed1 to the extent of one-fourth1 with potash lye to keep the soap firmer during hot weather1 but it requires great care1 as a slight excess of soda gives soft soap a bad appearance and a tendency to separate4 ,the process is commenced by running fatty matter and weak potash lyes into the pan or copper1 and boiling together1 whilst the introduction of oil and potash lye is continued4 ,the saponification commences when an emulsion forms1 and the lye is then run in more quickly to prevent the mass thickening4 ,having added sufficient strength for complete saponification1 the boiling is continued until the soap becomes clear4 ,the condition of the soap is judged by observing the behaviour of a small sample taken from the pan and dropped on glass or iron4 ,if the soap is satisfactory it will set firm1 have a short texture and slightly opaque edge1 and be quite clear when held towards the light4 ,if the cooled sample draws out in threads1 there is an excess of water present4 ,if an opaque edge appears and vanishes1 the soap requires more lye4 ,if the sample is turbid and somewhat white1 the soap is too alkaline and needs more oil4 ,the glycerine liberated during saponification is contained in the soap and no doubt plays a part in the production of transparency4 ,hydrated soaps1 both smooth and marbled1 are included in this classification1 but are soda soaps4 ,soap made from cocoa-nut oil and palm-kernel oil will admit of the incorporation of large quantities of a solution of either salt1 carbonate of soda1 or silicate of soda1 without separation1 and will retain its firmness4 ,these materials are1 therefore1 particularly adapted for the manufacture of marine soaps1 which often contain as much as #hj per cent4 of water1 and1 being soluble in brine1 are capable of use in sea-water4 ,for the same reason1 cocoa-nut oil enters largely into the constitution of hydrated soaps1 but the desired yield or grade of soap allows of a variation in the choice of materials4 ,whilst marine soap1 for example1 is usually made from cocoa-nut oil or palm-kernel oil only1 a charge of #b_/c cocoa-nut oil and #a_/c tallow1 or even #b_/c tallow and #a_/c cocoa-nut oil1 will produce a paste which can carry the solutions of silicate1 carbonate1 and salt without separation1 and yield a smooth1 firm soap4 ,the fatty materials1 carefully strained and freed from particles of dirt and fibre1 are boiled with weak caustic soda lye until combination has taken place4 ,saponification being complete1 the solution of salt is added1 then the carbonate of soda solution1 and finally the silicate of soda solution1 after which the soap is boiled4 ,when thoroughly mixed1 steam is shut off1 and the soap is ready for framing4 ,the marbled hydrated soap is made from cocoa-nut oil or a mixture of palm-kernel oil and cocoa-nut oil with the aid of caustic soda lye #cb-a_/b ,tw4 7#bj ,b474 ,as soon as saponification is complete1 the brine and carbonate of soda solution are added1 and the pan allowed to rest4 ,the soap is then carefully tasted as to its suitability for marbling by taking samples and mixing with the colouring solution 7ultramarine mixed with water or silicate of soda solution74 ,if the sample becomes blue throughout1 the soap is too alkaline2 if the colour is precipitated1 the soap is deficient in alkali4 ,the right point has been reached when the marbling is distributed evenly4 ,having thus ascertained the condition of the pan1 and corrected it if necessary1 the colour1 mixed in water or in silicate of soda solution1 is added and the soap framed4 7,d7 ,treatment of ,fat with ,indefinite ,amount of ,alkali and ,separation of ,waste ,lye4--,this is the most general method of soap-making4 ,the various operations are3-- 7a7 ,pasting or saponification4 7b7 ,graining out or separation4 7c7 ,boiling on strength4 ,and in the case of milling soap base and household soaps1 7d7 ,fitting4 7a7 ,pasting or ,saponification4--,the melted fats and oils are introduced into the soap-pan and boiled by means of open steam with a caustic soda lye #ad to #bc4e ,tw4 7#aj to #ae ,b474 ,whether the fatty matters and alkali are run into the pan simultaneously or separately is immaterial1 provided the alkali is not added in sufficient excess to retard the union4 ,the commencement of the saponification is denoted by the formation of an emulsion4 ,sometimes it is difficult to start the saponification2 the presence of soap will often assist this by emulsifying the fat and thus bringing it into intimate contact with the caustic soda solution4 ,when the action has started1 caustic soda lye of a greater density1 #bi to #cc ,tw4 7#ah to #bj ,b471 is frequently added1 with continued boiling1 in small quantities as long as it is being absorbed1 which is ascertained by taking out samples from time to time and examining them4 ,there should be no greasiness in the sample1 but when pressed between finger and thumb it must be firm and dry4 ,boiling is continued until the faint caustic taste on applying the cooled sample to the tongue is permanent1 when it is ready for graining out4 ,the pasty mass now consists of the soda salts of the fat 7as imperfect soap1 probably containing emulsified diglycerides and monoglycerides71 together with water1 in which is dissolved the glycerine formed by the union of the liberated glyceryl radicle from the fat with the hydroxyl radicle of the caustic soda1 and any slight excess of caustic soda and carbonates4 ,the object of the next operation is to separate this water 7spent lye7 from the soap4 7b7 ,graining ,out or ,separation4--,this is brought about by the use of common salt1 in a dry form or in solution as brine1 or by caustic soda lye4 ,whilst the soap is boiling1 the salt is spread uniformly over its surface1 or brine #dj ,tw4 7#bd ,b47 is run in1 and the whole well boiled together4 ,the soap must be thoroughly boiled after each addition of salt1 and care taken that too large a quantity is not added at once4 ,as the soap is gradually thrown out of solution1 it loses its smooth transparent appearance1 and becomes opaque and granular4 ,when a sample1 taken out on a wooden trowel1 consists of distinct grains of soap and a liquid portion1 which will easily separate1 sufficient salt or brine has been added2 the boiling is stopped and the spent lye allowed to settle out1 whilst the soap remains on the surface as a more or less thick mass4 ,the separated spent lye consists of a solution of common salt1 glycerine1 and alkaline salts2 the preparation of crude glycerine therefrom is considered in chapter ix4 ,the degree of separation of water 7spent lye7 depends upon the amount of precipitant used4 ,the aim is to obtain a maximum amount of spent lye separated by the use of a minimum quantity of salt4 ,the amount of salt required for graining out varies with the raw material used4 ,a tallow soap is the most easily grained1 more salt is required for cotton-seed oil soap1 whereas soaps made from cocoa-nut and palm-kernel oils require very large amounts of salt to grain out thoroughly4 ,owing to the solubility in weak brine of these latter soaps1 it is preferable to grain them with caustic soda lye4 ,this is effected by adding1 during boiling1 sufficient caustic lye 7#cb-a_/b ,tw41 #bj ,b47 to produce the separation of the granules of soap4 ,the whole is allowed to rest2 the separated half-spent lye is withdrawn and may be used for the pasting of fresh materials4 ,after the removal of the settled lye1 the grained mass is boiled with sufficient water to dissolve the grain and make it smooth 7close it71 and is now ready for the next operation of boiling on strength4 7c7 ,boiling on ,strength or ,clear ,boiling4--,this is the most important operation and is often termed making the soap4 ,the object is to harden the soap and to ensure complete saponification4 ,caustic soda lye 7#cb-a_/b ,tw41 #bj ,b47 is gradually added until the soap is again opened or grained1 and boiling continued by the use of the dry steam coil4 ,as soon as the caustic soda lye is absorbed1 another portion is slowly added1 and this is continued until the caustic soda or strength remains permanent and the soapy mass1 refusing to absorb more1 is thrown out of solution and grained4 ,the granular mass will boil steadily1 and the boiling should be prolonged1 as the last traces of neutral oil are difficult to completely saturate with alkali4 ,thorough saponification takes place gradually1 and the operation cannot be hurried2 special care has to be bestowed upon this operation to effect the complete combination of fat and alkali4 ,after resting for several hours1 half-spent lye settles to the bottom of the pan4 ,in the case of yellow soaps or milling bases the settled lye is removed to a suitable receptacle and reserved for use in the saponification of other material1 and the soap is then ready for the final operation of fitting4 7d7 ,fitting4--,if the operations just described have been properly performed1 the fitting should present no difficulty4 ,the soap is boiled with open steam1 and water added until the desired degree of closing is attained4 ,as the water is thoroughly intermixed throughout the mass the thick paste gradually becomes reduced to a smooth1 thin consistence4 ,samples are tested from time to time as to their behaviour in dropping off a hot trowel held sideways2 the thin layer should drop off in two or three flakes and leave the surface of the trowel clean and dry4 ,the soap is then in a condition to allow the impurities to gravitate4 ,according to the required soap1 the fit may be coarse 7open7 when the flakes drop off the trowel readily1 or fine 7close7 when the flakes only leave the trowel with difficulty4 ,if the dilution with water has been allowed to proceed too far1 and too fine a fit is produced1 which would be denoted by the layer of soap not leaving the trowel1 a little caustic lye or brine may be very carefully added and the whole well boiled until the desired condition is obtained4 ,a good pressure of steam is now applied to the pan1 causing the contents to swell as high as possible1 this greatly facilitating the settling of impurities2 steam is then turned off1 the pan covered1 and the boil allowed to rest for several days4 ,the art of fitting consists in leaving the contents of the pan in such a condition that1 on standing1 all the impurities precipitate1 and the settled soap1 containing the correct amount of water1 is clear and bright4 ,the above is a general practical outline of the ordinary soap-boiling process4 ,it may be modified or slightly altered according to the fancy of the individual soap-maker or the particular material it is desired to use4 ,fats and oils not only vary in the amount of alkali they absorb during saponification1 but also differ in the strength of the alkali they require4 ,tallow and palm oil require lye of a density of #ae to #ah ,tw4 7#aj to #ab ,b471 but cocoa-nut oil alone would not saponify unless the lye was more concentrated1 #cc to #db ,tw4 7#bj to #be ,b474 ,cotton-seed oil requires weak lyes for saponification1 and1 being difficult to saponify alone even with prolonged boiling1 is generally mixed with animal fat4 ,when fats are mixed together1 however1 their varying alkali requirements become modified1 and once the saponification is begun with weak lye1 other materials are induced to take up alkali of a strength with which alone they would not combine4 ,it is considered the best procedure to commence the pasting or saponification with weak lye4 ,in order to economise tank space1 it is the general practice to store strong caustic lye 7#fj to #gj ,tw41 #cc to #cg ,b47 and to dilute it as it is being added to the soap-pan by the simultaneous addition of water4 ,many manufacturers give all their soap a brine wash to remove the last traces of glycerine and free the soap from carbonates4 ,this operation takes place prior to fitting2 sufficient water is added to the boiling soap to close it and then brine is run in to grain it4 ,after resting1 the liquor is withdrawn4 ,having described the necessary operations in general1 we will now consider their application to the preparation of various kinds of hard soap4 ,curd ,soaps4--,tallow is largely used in the manufacture of white curd soaps1 but cocoa-nut oil sometimes enters into their composition4 ,the first three operations above described1 viz41 pasting1 graining out1 and boiling on strength1 are proceeded with2 the clear boiling by means of a closed steam coil is continued until the head is boiled out and the soap is free from froth4 ,a sample taken and cooled should be hard4 ,boiling is then stopped1 and1 after covering1 the pan is allowed to rest for eight to ten hours1 when the soap is ready for filling into frames1 where it is crutched until perfectly smooth4 ,curd mottled is usually made from melted kitchen stuff and bone grease4 ,its preparation is substantially the same as for curd soap1 but the clear boiling is not carried so far4 ,the art of curd mottled soap-making lies in the boiling4 ,if boiled too long the mottling will not form properly1 and1 on the other hand1 insufficient boiling will cause the soap to contain an excess of entangled lye4 ,having boiled it to its correct concentration the pan is allowed to rest about two hours1 after which the soap is ready for framing1 which should be done expeditiously and the frames covered up4 ,some lye1 containing the impurities from the fats used1 remains in the interstices of the curd1 unable to sink1 and as the soap cools it is enclosed and forms the mottling4 ,the mottling may1 therefore1 be considered as a crystallisation of the soap1 in which the impurity forms the colour4 ,blue and ,grey ,mottled ,soaps4--,these are silicated or liquored soaps in which the natural mottling1 due to the impure materials used in the early days of soap-making1 is imitated by artificial mottling1 and are1 consequently1 entirely different to curd mottled soaps4 ,the materials employed in making mottled soap comprise bleached palm oil1 tallow1 bone fat1 cocoa-nut oil1 palm-kernel oil1 cotton-seed oil1 and1 in some instances1 rosin4 ,the choice of a charge will naturally depend upon the cost2 the property of absorbing a large amount of liquor1 which is characteristic of soaps made from cocoa-nut oil and palm-kernel oil1 is taken advantage of1 as are also the physical properties of the various fats and oils1 with a view to the crystallisation of the resultant soap and the development of the mottle4 ,the fat is saponified1 grained and boiled on strength1 as previously described4 ,after withdrawing the half-spent lye1 the soap is just closed by boiling with water1 and is then ready for the silicate or other saline additions4 ,soap intended to be liquored with silicate of soda should be distinctly strong in free alkali2 the crystalline nature of the soap is increased thereby1 and the mottled effect intensified4 ,some makers1 however1 fit the soap coarsely and allow a nigre to deposit2 then1 after removing the nigre1 or transferring the settled soap to another copper1 containing scraps of mottled soap1 get the soap into a condition for mottling1 and add the silicate of soda solution4 ,to every #a cwt4 of soap1 #bh lb4 of silicate of soda solution1 #cb-a_/b ,tw4 7#bj ,b47 is added1 whilst boiling2 the strength of the silicate solution1 however1 will depend upon the proportion of cocoa-nut oil and palm-kernel oil present in the charge4 ,many soap-makers use #bj ,tw4 7#ac ,b47 7cold7 silicate solution1 whilst others prefer #adj ,tw4 7#ei4e ,b471 with the gradual addition of water to the soap1 kept boiling1 until the product is in the correct mottling condition1 and others1 again1 use bleach liquor1 soda crystals1 pearl ash1 and salt1 together with silicate solution4 ,considerable skill and experience is necessary to discern when the soap acquires the correct mottling state4 ,it should drop off the spatula in large thick flakes1 take considerable time to set1 and the surface should not be glossy4 ,when this mottling condition has been obtained1 the colouring matter1 which would be ultramarine for the blue mottled and manganese dioxide for the grey mottled soap 7#c-d lb4 ultramarine or #a-c lb4 manganese dioxide being sufficient for #a ton of soap71 is mixed with a little water and added to the boiling soap--the boiling is continued until all is thoroughly amalgamated1 and when the steam is shut off the contents of the pan are ready for cleansing4 ,mottled soap is run into wooden frames1 which1 when full1 are covered over and allowed to cool very gradually4 ,on cooling slowly1 large crystals are produced which result in a distinct bold mottle2 if the cooling is too rapid1 a small crystal is obtained and the mottle is not distributed1 resulting in either a small mottle1 or no mottle at all1 and merely a general coloration4 ,in fact1 the entire art of mottling soap consists in properly balancing the saline solutions and colouring matter1 so that the latter is properly distributed throughout the soap1 and does not either separate in coloured masses at the bottom of the frame1 or uniformly colour the whole mass4 ,a sample of the soap should test #de per cent4 fatty acids1 and the amount of salt would range from #a_/b to #a per cent4 ,some of the ,english mottled soaps1 especially those made from materials which give a yellow-coloured ground1 are bleached by soaking in brine1 or pickling in brine containing #b per cent4 of bleach liquor4 ,the resultant soap has a white ground and is firm4 ,the bleach liquor may be made by mixing #a cwt4 bleaching powder with #aj cwts4 of soda ash solution 7#ae ,tw41 #aj ,b471 allowing to settle1 and using the clear liquid1 or by mixing #b parts soda ash solution with #a part of bleaching powder solution1 both solutions being #cj ,tw4 7#ah4h ,b474 ,milling-base4--,the materials generally used are tallows and cocoa-nut oils of the finest quality4 ,the tallow is thoroughly saponified first1 and the graining is performed by the aid of caustic soda lye in preference to salt4 ,the half-spent lyes are withdrawn1 and the cocoa-nut oil added to the pan4 ,this is saponified1 and when the saponification is complete1 boiling-on-strength is proceeded with4 ,special care should be devoted to the boiling-on-strength operation--its value in good soap-making cannot be over-rated--and perfect saponification must be ensured4 ,the half-spent lyes are allowed to deposit during the night1 and the soap must be carefully examined next morning to ascertain if any alkali has been absorbed4 ,if the caustic taste is permanent the strengthening operation is complete1 but should any caustic have been absorbed1 further addition of alkali must be made and the boiling continued4 ,these remarks apply equally to all soaps4 ,the soap1 when ready1 is fitted4 ,bleached palm oil1 olive oil1 castor oil and lard are also employed in the production of special milling soap bases1 a palm oil soap being specially suitable for the production of a violet-scented toilet soap4 ,yellow ,household ,soaps4 7a7 ,bar ,soaps4--,these are made from tallow with an admixture of from #ae-be per cent4 rosin4 ,the best quality is known in the ,south and ,west of ,england as ,primrose ,soap1 but is designated in the ,north of ,england by such names as ,golden ,pale1 ,imperial ,pale1 ,gold ,medal ,pale1 etc4 ,tallow alone produces a very hard soap of inferior lathering qualities2 but rosin combines with alkali to form a soft body1 which1 although not a soap in the strict sense of the term1 is readily soluble in water1 and in admixture with the durable tallow soap renders it more soluble in water and thereby increases its lathering properties4 ,the rosin may be added to the soap-pan after a previous partial saponification with soda ash1 and removal of colouring matter1 and finally saponified with caustic soda lye1 or1 as is more generally adopted1 as a rosin change4 ,the pan is opened with caustic soda lye and saturation of the rosin takes place rapidly2 when completely saponified it is grained with salt1 and the coloured lye allowed to deposit and finally withdrawn4 ,the four operations already detailed apply to this soap4 ,cheaper pale soaps may be made from lower grades of tallow and rosin and are generally silicated4 7b7 ,tablet or ,washer ,type4--,a demand has arisen for soap of free lathering qualities1 which has become very popular for general household use4 ,this soap is usually made from a mixture of cotton-seed oil1 tallow1 and cocoa-nut oil1 with a varying amount of rosin4 ,the tallow yields firmness and durability whilst the other constituents all assist in the more ready production of a copious lather4 ,as to what amount of rosin can be used to yield a finished soap of sufficient body and satisfactory colour1 this naturally depends upon the grade of raw material at the soap-makers' disposal4 ,those fats and oils which yield firm soaps1 will1 of course1 allow a greater proportion of rosin to be incorporated with them than materials producing soaps of less body4 ,rosin imparts softness to a soap1 and also colour4 ,this is a fitted soap and full details of manufacture have already been given4 ,cheaper soaps are produced from lower grade materials hardened with alkaline solutions4 ,resting of ,pans and ,settling of ,soap4--,the fitted soap is allowed to settle from four to six days4 ,the period allowed for resting is influenced1 however1 not only by the size of the boil1 and the season1 but also by the composition of the soap1 for if the base has been made from firm stock it is liable to cool quicker than a soap produced from soft-bodied materials4 ,on subsidence1 the contents of the pan will have divided into the following3-- ,first4 ,on top1 a thin crust of soap1 with perhaps a little light coloured fob1 which is returned to the pan after the removal of the good soap4 ,second4 ,the good settled soap1 testing #fb-fc per cent4 fatty acids4 ,the subject of removing and treatment of this layer is fully dealt with in the next chapter4 ,third4 ,a layer of darker weak soap1 termed nigre1 which on an average tests #cc per cent4 fatty acids1 and1 according to the particular fit employed1 will amount to from #ae-bj per cent4 of the total quantity of soap in the pan4 ,the quantity of nigre may vary not only with the amount of water added during finishing1 but is also influenced by the amount of caustic alkali remaining in the soap paste prior to fitting4 ,if the free caustic alkali-content is high1 the soap will require a large amount of water to attain the desired fit4 ,this water renders the caustic into a lye sufficiently weak to dissolve a quantity of soap1 consequently1 as the nigre is a weak solution of soap together with any excess of alkali 7caustic or carbonate7 and salt which gravitates during the settling1 the quantity is increased4 ,fourth4 ,a solution containing alkaline salts1 mostly carbonates and chlorides1 with a little caustic4 ,the amount of the layer is very variable1 and doubtless1 under certain physical conditions1 this liquor has separated from the nigre4 ,utilisation of ,nigres4--,the nigres are boiled and the liquor separated by graining with salt4 ,nigre may be utilised in various ways4 7#a7 ,it may be used several times with new materials4 ,this particularly refers to soaps of the ,washer type4 ,the colour of the nigre will determine the number of times it can be employed4 7#b7 ,it may be incorporated with a soap of a lower grade than the one from which it was obtained4 ,in this case a system is generally adopted2 for example1 soap of the best quality is made in a clean pan1 the nigre remaining is worked up with fresh material for soap of the next quality1 the nigre from that boil1 in its turn1 is admixed with a charge to produce a batch of third quality1 and the deposited nigre from this is again used for a fourth quality soap--the nigre obtained from this latter boil would probably be transferred into the cheapened washer or perhaps if it was dark in colour into the brown soap-pan4 7#c7 ,the nigre may be fitted and produce a soap similar to the original soap from which it was deposited4 ,it is advisable to saponify a little fat with it4 7#d7 ,nigres from several boils of the same kind of soap can be collected1 boiled1 and fitted4 ,the settled portion may be incorporated with a new charging to keep the resultant soap uniform in colour--unless this is done1 the difference in colour between boils from new materials alone1 and those containing nigre1 is very noticeable4 ,the nigre settled from this fitted nigre boil would be utilised in brown soap4 7#e7 ,according to its colour1 and consistence1 a nigre may be suitable for the production of disinfectant1 or cold-water soaps4 7#f7 ,nigre may be bleached by treatment with a #bj per cent4 solution of stannous chloride--#a cwt4 of this solution 7previously heated7 is sufficient to bleach #bj tons of nigre4 ,transparent ,soaps4--,the production of transparent soaps has recently been fully studied1 from a theoretical point of view1 by ,richardson 7,j4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijh1 pp4 #dad-bj71 who concludes that the function of substances inducing transparency1 is to produce a jelly and retard crystallisation4 ,the old-fashioned transparent soap is prepared by dissolving1 previously dried1 genuine yellow soap in alcohol1 and allowing the insoluble saline impurities to be deposited and removed4 ,the alcoholic soap solution is then placed in a distillation apparatus1 or the pan containing the solution is attached by means of a still head to a condenser1 and the alcohol distilled1 condensed and regained4 ,the remaining liquid soap1 which may be coloured and perfumed1 is run into frames and allowed to solidify4 ,the resultant mass is somewhat turbid1 but after storage in a room at #ie ,f4 7#ce ,c47 for several months1 becomes transparent4 ,the formation of the transparency is sometimes assisted and hastened by the addition of glycerine or a solution of cane-sugar4 ,a patent has been granted to ,a4 ,ruch 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cbg1bic1 #aijb7 for the manufacture of transparent glycerine soap by heating in a closed vessel fatty acids together with the requisite quantity of alcoholic caustic soda solution necessary for saponification1 and cooling the resultant soap4 ,it is also proposed to add sugar solution4 ,cheaper qualities of transparent soaps are made by the cold process with or without the aid of alcohol and castor oil1 and with the assistance of glycerine or cane-sugar4 ,with the continual demand for cheaper production1 sugar solution has gradually1 in conjunction with castor oil1 which produces transparency1 superseded the use of alcohol and glycerine4 ,for a small batch1 #ef lb4 ,cochin cocoa-nut oil and #ef lb4 sweet edible tallow may be taken1 melted at #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 and carefully strained into a small steam-jacketed pan4 ,it is imperative that the materials should be of the highest quality and perfectly clean4 ,twenty-three lb4 of pure glycerine and #ef lb4 of bright caustic soda solution made from high grade caustic and having a density of #gb ,tw4 7#ch ,b47 are crutched into the fat2 the alcohol1 which would be #de lb4 in this example1 is then added4 ,the whole must be most intimately incorporated1 and the pan covered and allowed to rest for one hour or one and a half hours4 ,saponification should ensue4 ,to produce a transparent glycerine soap with the aid of castor oil1 and with or without the use of alcohol1 the following is the procedure3-- ,cochin cocoa-nut oil1 sweet edible tallow1 and castor oil1 of each #ef lb4 are taken1 warmed to #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 and carefully strained into the jacketed pan4 ,if it is desired to use glycerine and cane sugar solution1 and no alcohol1 the glycerine 7#be lb47 is now stirred into the fats together with the requisite 7#hc lb47 caustic soda solution #gb ,tw4 7#ch ,b474 ,if it is intended to use alcohol and sugar1 and no glycerine1 the latter is replaced by #dg lb4 of alcohol1 and added after the incorporation of the caustic soda lye4 ,the whole being thoroughly crutched1 the pan is covered and saponification allowed to proceed for one hour or one and a half hours4 ,should the saponification for some reason be retarded1 a little steam may be very cautiously admitted to the jacket of the pan1 the mass well crutched until the reaction commences1 and the whole allowed to rest the specified time4 ,whilst saponification is proceeding1 the sugar solution is prepared by dissolving #ej lb4 cane sugar in #ej lb4 water1 at #afh ,f4 7#gf ,c471 to which may be added #e lb4 soda crystals1 and any necessary colouring matter4 ,the water used for this solution should be as soft as possible1 as hard water is liable to produce opaque streaks of lime soap4 ,it is absolutely necessary before proceeding further to ensure that saponification is complete4 ,a greasy1 soft feel and the presence of strength 7caustic7 would denote incomplete saponification--this can only be remedied by further heating and crutching4 ,deficiency of caustic alkali should also be avoided1 and1 if more lye is required1 great care must be exercised in its addition4 ,saponification being completed1 the sugar solution is carefully and gradually crutched into the soap2 when the contents of the pan have become a homogeneous and syrupy mass1 the crutching is discontinued1 and the pan is covered for one hour4 ,the heat of the soap in the pan should not exceed #agj ,f4 7#gg ,c474 ,having rested the necessary period1 the soap will have a slight froth on the surface1 but will be clear underneath and appear dark4 ,samples may now be withdrawn1 cooled1 and examined prior to framing4 ,if the process has been successfully performed the soap will be firm and transparent1 of uniform colour1 and possess only a faintly alkaline taste4 ,if the sample be firm but opaque1 more sugar solution is required2 this should be added very carefully whilst crutching1 an excess being specially guarded against4 ,if the sample be soft1 although transparent1 and the alkaline taste not too pronounced1 the soap evidently contains an excess of water1 which may be remedied by the addition of a small quantity of soda ash2 too much soda ash 7carbonates7 must be avoided1 lest it should produce efflorescence4 ,having examined the soap and found it to be correct1 or having remedied its defects1 the soap in the pan is allowed to cool to #ade ,f4 7#fc ,c47 and perfume added4 ,the soap is now quickly filled into narrow frames and allowed to cool rapidly4 ,the blocks of soap should not be stripped until quite cold throughout1 and they should be allowed to stand open for a while before slabbing4 ,when freshly cut into tablets1 the soap may appear somewhat turbid1 but the brightness comes with the exposure it will receive prior to stamping and wrapping4 ,saponifying ,mineral ,oil4--,this sounds somewhat incongruous1 as mineral oil is entirely unsaponifiable4 ,most of the suggestions for this purpose consist of the incorporation of mineral oil1 or mineral oil emulsified by aid of ,quillaia bark1 with a cocoa-nut oil soap1 and in all these instances the hydrocarbon merely exists in suspension4 ,g4 ,reale 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cba1eaj1 #aijb71 however1 proposes to heat mineral oil together with spermaceti and strong alkali1 and states that he transforms the hydrocarbons into alcohols1 and these1 absorbing oxygen1 become fatty acids1 which are converted into soap by means of the alkali4 ,in this connection may be quoted the interesting work of ,zelinsky 7,russ4 ,phys4 ,chem4 ,ges4 ,zeits4 ,angew4 ,chem41 #aijc1 #cg74 ,he obtained substances1 by acting with carbon dioxide upon magnesia compounds of chlorinated fractions of petroleum1 which when decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid1 yielded various organic acids4 ,one of these acids on heating with glycerine formed tri-octin1 which had the properties of a fat4 ,dr4 ,engler1 in confirmation of the theory of the animal origin of some petroleums1 obtained what might be described as petroleum 7for it contained almost all the hydrocarbons present in the natural mineral oil7 by distilling animal fats and oils under pressure4 ,electrical ,production of ,soap4--,attempts have been made to produce soap electrically by ,messrs4 ,nodon1 ,brettonneau and ,shee 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bb1abi1 #ahig71 and also by ,messrs4 ,merry and ,noble 7,eng4 ,pat4 #b1cgb1 #aijj74 ,in the former patent1 a mixture of soda-lye and fat is agitated by electricity at a temperature of #aid-bab ,f4 7#ij-ajj ,c471 while in the latter caustic alkali is electrolytically produced from brine1 and deposited on wire-netting in the presence of fat1 which is thereby saponified4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,settled ,,soap4 ,cleansing--,crutching--,liquoring of ,soaps--,filling--,neutralising1 ,colouring and ,perfuming--,disinfectant ,soaps--,framing--,slabbing--,barring--, open and ,close ,piling--,drying--,stamping--,cooling4 ,cleansing4--,after completion of saponification1 and allowing the contents of the pan to settle into the various layers1 as described in the preceding chapter1 the actual soap1 forming the second layer1 is now transferred to the frames1 this being generally termed cleansing the soap4 ,the thin crust or layer at the top of the pan is gently removed1 and the soap may be either ladled out and conveyed to the frames1 or withdrawn by the aid of a pump from above the nigre through a skimmer 7,fig4 #a71 and pipe1 attached by means of a swivel joint 7,fig4 #b7 7which allows the skimmer pipe to be raised or lowered at will by means of a winch1 ,fig4 #c71 to a pipe fitted in the side of the pan as fully shown in ,fig4 #d1 or the removal may be performed by gravitation through some mechanical device from the side of the copper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,skimmer1 with flange for attachment to skimmer-pipe4 ,every precaution is taken to avoid the presence of nigre in the soap being cleansed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,swivel-joint4 ,the temperature at which soap may be cleansed depends on the particular grade--soaps requiring to be liquored should not be cleansed too hot or a separation will take place1 #aej ,f4 7#ff ,c47 may be taken as a suitable temperature for this class of soap2 in the case of firm soaps1 such as milling base1 where cooling is liable to take place in the pan 7and thus affect the yield71 the temperature may be #afe-agj ,f4 7#gd-gg ,c474 ,this latter class of soap is generally run direct to the frames and crutched by hand1 or1 to save manual labour1 it may be run into a power-driven crutching pan 7neutralising material being added if necessary7 and stirred a few times before framing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,winch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,soap-boiling pan1 showing skimmer pipe1 swivel and winch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,hand crutch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,mechanical crutcher4 ,crutching4--,this consists of stirring the hot soap in the frames by hand crutches 7,fig4 #e7 until the temperature is sufficiently lowered and the soap begins to assume a ropiness4 ,crutching may also be performed mechanically4 ,there are various types of mechanical crutchers1 stationary and travelling4 ,they may be cylindrical pans1 jacketed or otherwise1 in the centre of which is rotated an agitator1 consisting of a vertical or horizontal shaft carrying several blades 7,fig4 #f7 or the agitator may take the form of an ,archimedean screw working in a cylinder 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,mechanical crutcher4 ,the kind of soap to be crutched1 whether thin or stiff1 will determine the most suitable type for the purpose4 ,the former class includes washer soap which is generally neutralised1 and coloured and perfumed1 if necessary1 in these crutching pans1 and in that case they are merely used for mixing the liquids with the hot soap prior to its passage along wooden spouts 7,fig4 #h7 provided with outlets over the frames1 in which the crutching is continued by hand4 ,in the case of stiff soaps requiring complete incorporation of liquor1 the screw type is preferable1 the soap being forced upwards by the screw1 and descending between the cylinder and the sides of the pan1 while the reverse action can also be brought into play4 ,the completion of crutching is indicated by the smoothness and stiffness of the soap when moved with a trowel1 and a portion taken out at this point and cooled should present a rounded appearance4 ,when well mixed the resultant product is emptied directly into wheel-frames placed underneath the outlet of the pan4 ,it is important that the blades or worm of the agitating gear be covered with soap to avoid the occlusion of air and to prevent the soap becoming soft and spongy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,wooden soap spout4 ,liquoring of ,soaps4--,this consists of the addition of various alkaline solutions to soap to produce different qualities1 and is best performed in the crutching machines1 although it is in some instances carried out in the frames4 ,in the history of soap-making a large number and variety of substances have been suggested for the purpose of accomplishing some real or supposed desirable effect when added to soap4 ,many of these have had only a very short existence1 and others have gradually fallen out of use4 ,amongst the more practical additions most frequently adopted may be mentioned carbonate of soda1 silicate of soda1 and pearl ash 7impure carbonate of potash74 ,the carbonate of soda may be used in the form of soda crystals1 which1 containing #fb4i per cent4 of water1 dissolves in its own water of crystallisation on heating1 and is in that manner added to the hot soap4 ,in the case of weak-bodied soap1 this addition gives firmness and tends to increase the detergent qualities4 ,the soda carbonate may also be added to soap as a solution of soda ash 7#eh alkali7 either concentrated1 #fb ,tw4 7#cd ,b471 or of various strengths from #be ,tw4 7#af ,b47 upwards4 ,this solution stiffens and hardens soap1 and the addition1 which must not be excessive1 or efflorescence will occur1 is generally made at a temperature of #adj ,f4 7#fj ,c474 ,care should always be taken in the choice of solutions for liquoring4 ,strong soda ash solution with a firm soap will result in a brittle product1 whereas the texture of a weak soap would be greatly improved by such addition4 ,a slight addition of a weak solution of pearl ash1 #d-h ,tw4 7#b4g-e4d ,b471 improves the appearance of many soaps intended for household purposes4 ,for yellow soaps1 containing a low percentage of fatty acids1 solutions of silicate of soda of varying strengths are generally used4 ,it is always advisable to have a test sample made with the soap to ascertain what proportion and what strength of sodium silicate solution is best suited for the grade of soap it is desired to produce4 ,it is important that the soap to be silicated should be distinctly alkaline 7i4e41 have a distinct caustic taste71 or the resultant soap is liable to become like stone with age4 ,the alkaline silicate of soda 7#adj ,tw41 #ei4e ,b47 is the quality most convenient for yellow soaps2 this may be diluted to the desired gravity by boiling with water4 ,for a reduction of #c-d per cent4 fatty acids content1 a solution of #f ,tw4 7#d ,b47 7boiling7 is most suitable1 and if the reduction desired is greater1 the density of the silicate solution should be increased2 for example1 to effect a reduction of #bj per cent4 fatty acids content1 a solution of #ah ,tw4 7#ab ,b47 7boiling7 would probably be found to answer4 ,in some instances #adj ,tw4 7#ei4e ,b47 silicate may be added2 experiment alone will demonstrate the amount which can be satisfactorily incorporated without the soap becoming open1 but #a_/aj of the quantity of soap taken is practically a limit1 and it will be found that the temperature should be low2 the same quantity of silicate at different temperatures does not produce the same result4 ,various other strengths of sodium silicate are employed1 depending upon the composition and body of the soap base--neutral silicate #ge ,tw4 7#ci4d ,b47 also finds favour with some soap-makers4 ,mixtures of soda crystals or soda ash solution with silicate of soda solution are used for a certain grade of soap1 which is crutched until smooth and stiff4 ,glauber's salt 7sodium sulphate7 produces a good smooth surface when added to soap1 but1 owing to its tendency to effloresce more quickly than soda carbonate1 it is not so much used as formerly4 ,common salt sometimes forms an ingredient in liquoring mixtures4 ,potassium chloride and potassium silicate find a limited use for intermixing with soft soaps4 ,it will be readily understood that hard and fast rules cannot be laid down for liquoring soap1 and the correct solution to be employed can only be ascertained by experiment and experience1 but the above suggestions will prove useful as a guide towards good results4 ,a smooth1 firm soap of clear1 bright1 glossy appearance is what should be aimed at4 ,filling4--,some low-grade soaps contain filling1 which serves no useful purpose beyond the addition of weight4 ,talc is the most frequently used article of this description4 ,it consists of hydrated silicate of magnesium and1 when finely ground1 is white and greasy to the touch4 ,the addition of this substance to the hot soap is made by suspending it in silicate of soda solution4 ,whatever filling material is used1 it is important that the appearance of the soap should not be materially altered4 ,neutralising1 ,colouring and ,perfuming4--,the free caustic alkali in soap1 intended for toilet or laundry purposes1 is usually neutralised during the cleansing1 although some soap manufacturers prefer to accomplish this during the milling operation4 ,various materials have been recommended for the purpose1 those in most general use being sodium bicarbonate1 boric acid1 cocoa-nut oil1 stearic acid1 and oleic acid4 ,the best method is the addition of an exact quantity of sodium bicarbonate 7acid sodium carbonate71 which converts the caustic alkali into carbonate4 ,the reaction may be expressed by the equation3-- ,na,o,h ,na,h,c,o#c ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,caustic soda ,bicarbonate of soda ,carbonate of soda ,water ,boric acid in aqueous or glycerine solutions1 and borax 7biborate of soda7 are sometimes used1 but care is necessary in employing these substances1 as any excess is liable to decompose the soap4 ,the addition of cocoa-nut oil is unsatisfactory1 the great objection being that complete saponification is difficult to ensure1 and1 further1 there is always the liability of rancidity developing4 ,stearic and oleic acids are more suitable for the purpose1 but oleic acid has the disadvantage that oleates are very liable to go rancid4 ,a large number of other substances have been proposed1 and in many instances patented1 for neutralising the free caustic alkali4 ,among these may be mentioned--,alder ,wright's method of using an ammoniacal salt1 the acid radicle of which neutralises the caustic alkali1 ammonia being liberated2 the use of sodium and potassium bibasic phosphate 7,eng4 ,pat4 #be1ceg1 #ahii72 a substance formed by treating albumen with formalin 7,eng4 ,pat41 #h1ehb1 #aijj72 wheat glutenin albuminoses 7albumen after acid or alkaline treatment72 malt extract2 and egg1 milk1 or vegetable albumen4 ,the colouring matter used may be of either vegetable or coal-tar origin1 and is dissolved in the most suitable medium 7lye1 water1 or fat74 ,the older types of colouring matter--such as cadmium yellow1 ochres1 vermilion1 umbers--have been superseded4 ,in the production of washer household soaps1 a small quantity of perfume is sometimes added4 ,disinfectant ,soaps4--,to the soap base1 which must be strong to taste1 is added from #c to #d per cent4 of coal-tar derivatives1 such as carbolic acid1 cresylic acid1 creosote1 naphthalene1 or compounds containing carbolic acid and its homologues4 ,the incorporation is made in the crutching pan1 and further crutching may be given by hand in the frames4 ,framing4--,the object of framing is to allow the soap to solidify into blocks4 ,the frames intended for mottled soaps1 which require slow cooling1 are constructed of wood1 often with a well in the base to allow excess of lye to accumulate--for other soaps1 iron frames are in general use4 ,the frame manufactured by ,h4 ,d4 ,morgan of ,liverpool is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,as soon as the frame is filled1 or as soon as the crutching in the frame is finished1 the soap is smoothed by means of a trowel1 leaving in the centre a heap which slopes towards the sides4 ,next day the top of the soap is straightened or flattened with a wooden mallet1 this treatment assisting in the consolidation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,soap frame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,slabbing machine4 ,the length of time the soap should remain in frames is dependent on the quality1 quantity1 and season or temperature1 and varies usually from three to seven days4 ,when the requisite period has elapsed1 the sides and ends of the frames are removed1 and there remains a solid block of soap weighing from #aj to #ae cwt4 according to the size of frame used4 ,the blocks1 after scraping and trimming1 are ready for cutting into slabs4 ,slabbing4--,this may be done mechanically by pushing the block of soap through a framework containing pianoforte wires fixed at equi-distances 7,fig4 #aj1 which shows a machine designed by ,e4 ,forshaw ,son1 ,ltd471 or the soap may be out by hand by pulling a looped wire through the mass horizontally along lines previously scribed1 or1 for a standard sized slab1 the wire may be a fixture in a box-like arrangement1 which is passed along the top of the soap1 and the distance of the wire from the top of the box will be the thickness of the slab 7,fig4 #aa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,banjo slabber4 ,all tallow soaps should be slabbed whilst still warm1 cut into bars1 and open-piled immediately2 if this type of soap is cold when slabbed its appearance will be very much altered4 ,barring4--,the slabs are out transversely into bars by means of the looped wire1 or more usually by a machine 7,fig4 #ab71 the lower framework of which1 containing wires1 is drawn through the soap placed on the base-board2 the framework is raised1 and the bars fall upon the shelf1 ready for transference into piles4 ,it has long been the custom in ,england to cut bars of soap #ae inches long1 and weighing #c lb4 each1 or #cg-a_/b bars of soap to the cwt41 but in recent years a demand has arisen for bars of so many various weights that it must be sometimes a difficult matter to know what sizes to stock4 ,in another type of barring machine1 portions of the slab1 previously cut to size1 are pushed against a framework carrying wires1 and the bars slide along a table ready for handling 7,fig4 #ac74 ,in cutting machines1 through which washer household soap is being passed1 the bar is pushed at right angles through another frame containing wires1 which divides it into tablets2 these may be received upon racks and are ready for drying and stamping4 ,it is needless to say that the slabs and tablets are cut with a view to reducing the amount of waste to the lowest possible limit4 ,such a machine1 made by ,e4 ,forshaw ,son1 ,ltd41 is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,barring machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,bar-cutting machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,tablet-cutting machine4 ,open- and ,close-piling4--,as remarked previously1 tallow soaps should be cut whilst warm1 and the bars open-piled1 or stacked across each other in such a way that air has free access to each bar for a day4 ,the bar of soap will skin or case-harden1 and next day may be close-piled1 or placed in the storage bins1 where they should remain for two or three weeks1 when they will be in perfect condition for packing into boxes ready for distribution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,soap stamp4 ,drying4--,oil soaps1 as soaps of the washer type are termed1 do not skin sufficiently by the open-piling treatment1 and are generally exposed on racks to a current of hot air in a drying chamber in order to produce the skin1 which prevents evaporation of water1 and allows of an impression being given by the stamp without the soap adhering to the dies4 ,it is of course understood that heavily liquored soaps are1 as a rule1 unsuitable for the drying treatment1 as the bars become unshapely1 and lose water rapidly4 ,stamping4--,bar soaps are usually stamped by means of a hand-stamp containing removable or fixed brass letters 7,fig4 #ae71 with a certain brand or designation of quality and the name of the manufacturer or vendor1 and are now ready for packing into boxes4 ,a very large bulk of the soap trade consists of the household quality in tablet form1 readily divided into two cakes4 ,these are stamped in the ordinary box moulds with two dies--top and bottom impressions--the die-plates1 being removable1 allow the impressions to be changed4 ,this type of mould 7,fig4 #af7 can be adjusted for the compression of tablets of varying thickness1 the box preventing the escape of soap4 ,we are indebted to ,e4 ,forshaw ,son1 ,ltd41 for this illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,box mould4 ,the stamping machine may be worked by hand 7,fig4 #ag7 or power driven4 ,where large quantities of a particular tablet have to be stamped1 one of the many automatic mechanical stampers in existence may be employed1 the tablets being conveyed to and from the dies by means of endless belts4 ,such a machine is shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #ah74 ,if necessary1 the soap is transferred to racks and exposed to the air1 after which it is ready for wrapping1 which is generally performed by manual labour1 although in some instances automatic wrapping machines are in use4 ,cardboard cartons are also used for encasing the wrapped tablets1 the object being that these are more conveniently handled by tradesmen and may be advantageously used to form an attractive window display4 ,cooling4--,many attempts have been made to shorten the time required for the framing and finishing of soap1 by cooling the liquid soap as it leaves the pan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,soap-stamping machine1 showing box mould4 ,with milling base1 this is successfully accomplished in the ,cressonnires' plant1 by allowing the hot soap to fall upon the periphery of a revolving drum which can be cooled internally by means of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,automatic stamper4 ,in the case of household soaps1 where the resultant product must be of good appearance and have a firm texture1 the difficulty is to produce a bar fit for sale after the cooling has been performed1 as soap which has been suddenly chilled lacks the appearance of that treated in the ordinary way4 ,several patents have been granted for various methods of moulding into bars in tubes1 where the hot soap is cooled by being either surrounded by running water in a machine of similar construction to a candle machine1 or rotated through a cooling medium2 and numerous claims have been made both for mechanical appliances and for methods of removing or discharging the bars after cooling4 ,in many instances these have proved unsatisfactory1 owing to fracture of the crystalline structure4 ,moreover1 in passing through some of the devices for solidification after chilling1 the soap is churned by means of a worm or screw1 and this interferes with the firmness of the finished bar1 for1 as is well known1 soap which has been handled too much1 does not regain its former firmness1 and its appearance is rendered unsatisfactory4 ,a form of apparatus which is now giving satisfactory results is the ,leimdoerfer continuous cooler 7,fig4 #ai74 ,this consists of a fixed charging hopper1 ,a1 a portable tank1 ,b1 containing tubes1 and a detachable box1 ,c1 which can be raised or lowered by means of a screw1 ,d4 ,the bottom of the hopper is fitted with holes corresponding with the cooling tubes1 e1 and closed by plugs c1 attached to a frame b1 which terminates above in a screw spindle a1 by means of which the frame and plugs can be raised and lowered so as to permit or stop the outflow of soap into the cooling tubes4 ,the tubes are closed at the bottom by slides d1 and the box ,b1 in which they are mounted1 is carried on a truck running on rails4 ,the charging hopper can be connected with the soap-pan by a pipe1 and when the hopper is filled with liquid soap the plugs c are raised and the air in the box ,c exhausted1 thus causing the soap to descend into the cooling tubes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,leimdoerfer cooler4 ,the slides d are closed1 the screw ,d released1 and the box ,b moved away to make room for another4 ,at the end of the rail track is an ejecting device which pushes the cooled soap out of the tubes1 and the truck is run back on a side track to the machine for use over again4 ,in this way the apparatus can be worked continuously1 the soap being received from the cooling pipes on a suitable arrangement for transport to the press or store room4 ,a similar idea has been made the subject of a patent by ,holoubek 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bd1ddj1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #bj74 ,the soap is run into frames or moulds having open sides1 which are closed by being clamped with screws and pressure plates between cooling tubes through which water circulates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,holoubek's cooler4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,toilet1 ,,textile ,,and ,,miscellaneous ,,soaps4 ,toilet ,soaps--,cold ,process ,soaps--,settled ,boiled ,soaps--,remelted ,soaps--,milled ,soaps--,drying--,milling and ,incorporating ,colour1 ,perfume1 or ,medicament--,perfume--,colouring ,matter--,neutralising and ,superfatting ,material--,compressing--,cutting--,stam ping--,medicated ,soaps--,ether ,soap--,floating ,soaps--,shaving ,soaps--,textile ,soaps--,soaps for ,woollen1 ,cotton and ,silk ,industries--,patent ,textile ,soaps--,miscellaneous ,soaps4 ,toilet ,soaps4--,by the term toilet soap is inferred a soap specially adapted for toilet use by reason not only of its good detergent and lathering qualities1 but also on account of its freedom from caustic alkali and any other ingredient likely to cause irritation or injury to the skin4 ,toilet soaps may be simply classified according to their method of preparation into the following four classes3-- 7#a7 ,cold process soaps4 7#b7 ,settled boiled soaps4 7#c7 ,remelted soaps4 7#d7 ,milled soaps4 ,soaps of the first class are of comparatively trifling importance1 having been superseded by the other qualities4 ,details of the cold process have already been given on page #df2 it is only necessary to add the desired perfume and colouring matter to the soap4 ,the second class consists of good quality settled soaps1 direct from the copper1 to which have been added1 prior to framing1 suitable perfume and colouring matter1 also1 if necessary1 dealkalising materials4 ,the third class is represented by soaps made by the old ,english method of remelting1 which are often termed perfumers'1 or little pan soaps4 ,the soap-base or mixture of various kinds of soap is remelted in a steam-jacketed pan1 or pan provided with steam coils1 and agitated4 ,the agitation must not be too vigorous or lengthy1 or the soap will become aerated4 ,when all the soap is molten1 additions of pearl ash solution are made to give it a finer and smoother texture1 render it more transparent1 and increase its lathering properties4 ,the necessary colour1 in a soluble form1 is well incorporated1 and lastly the perfume4 ,owing to volatilisation1 much of the perfume is lost when added to hot soap1 and it is necessary to add a large quantity to get the desired odour2 hence the cheaper essential oils have to be used1 so that the perfume of this class of soap is not so delicate as that of milled soaps1 although it is quite possible to produce remelted soaps as free from uncombined alkali as a milled toilet soap4 ,palm-oil soap often forms the basis for yellow and brown toilet soaps of this class4 ,the old-fashioned ,brown ,windsor soap was originally a curd soap that with age and frequent remelting had acquired a brown tint by oxidation of the fatty acids--the oftener remelted the better the resultant soap4 ,medicaments are sometimes added to these soaps1 e4g41 camphor1 borax1 coal-tar1 or carbolic4 ,oatmeal and bran have been recommended in combination with soap for toilet purposes1 and a patent 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bf1cif1 #ahif7 has been granted for the use of these substances together with wood-fibre impregnated with boric acid4 ,after cooling in small frames1 the soap is slabbed1 and cut into blocks1 and finally into portions suitable for stamping in a press 7hand or steam driven7 with a design or lettering on each side4 ,milled ,toilet ,soaps4--,practically all high-class soaps now on the market pass through the ,french or milling process4 ,this treatment1 as its name implies1 was first practised by the ,french who introduced it to this country1 and consists briefly of 7i47 drying1 7ii47 milling and incorporating colour1 perfume or medicament1 7iii47 compressing1 and 7iv47 cutting and stamping4 ,the advantages of milled soap over toilet soap produced by other methods are that the former1 containing less water and more actual soap1 is more economical in use1 possesses a better appearance1 and more elegant finish1 does not shrink or lose its shape1 is more uniform in composition1 and essential oils and delicate perfumes may be incorporated without fear of loss or deterioration4 ,only soap made from best quality fats is usually milled1 a suitable base being that obtained by saponifying a blend of the finest white tallow with a proportion1 not exceeding #be per cent41 of cocoa-nut oil1 and prepared as described in ,chapter ,v4 ,the first essential of a milling base is that the saponification should be thorough and complete2 if this is not ensured1 rancidity is liable to occur and a satisfactory toilet soap cannot be produced4 ,the soap must not be short in texture or brittle and liable to split1 but of a firm and somewhat plastic consistency4 7i47 ,drying4--,the milling-base1 after solidification in the frames1 contains almost invariably from #bh to #cj per cent4 of water1 and this quantity must be reduced to rather less than half before the soap can be satisfactorily milled4 ,cutting the soap into bars or strips and open piling greatly facilitates the drying1 which is usually effected by chipping the soap and exposing it on trays to a current of hot air at #ie-aje ,f4 7#ce-dj ,c474 ,there are several forms of drying chambers in which the trays of chips are placed upon a series of racks one above another1 and warm air circulated through1 and ,fig4 #ba shows a soap drying apparatus with fan made by ,w4 ,j4 ,fraser ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 ,the older method of heating the air by allowing it to pass over a pipe or flue through which the products of combustion from a coke or coal fire are proceeding under the floor of the drying chamber to a small shaft1 has been superseded by steam heat4 ,the air is either drawn or forced by means of quickly revolving fans through a cylinder placed in a horizontal position and containing steam coils1 or passed over steam-pipes laid under the iron grating forming the floor of the chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,soap-drying apparatus4 ,it will be readily understood that in the case of a bad conductor of heat1 like soap-chippings1 it is difficult to evaporate moisture without constantly moving them and exposing fresh surfaces to the action of heat4 ,in the ,cressonnires' system1 where the shavings of chilled soap are dried by being carried through a heated chamber upon a series of endless bands 7the first discharging the contents on to a lower belt which projects at the end1 and is moving in the opposite direction1 and so on71 this is performed by intercepting milling rollers in the system of belts 7,eng4 ,pat4 #d1iaf1 #ahih7 whereby the surfaces exposed to the drying are altered1 and it is claimed that the formation of hardened crust is prevented4 ,in the ordinary methods of drying1 the chips are frequently moved by hand to assist uniform evaporation4 ,the degree of saturation of the air with moisture must be taken into consideration in regulating the temperature and flow of air through the drying chamber1 and for this purpose the use of a hygrometer is advantageous4 ,it is very important that the correct amount of moisture should be left in the soap1 not too much1 nor too little2 the exact point can only be determined by judgment and experience1 and depends to a considerable extent upon the nature of the soap1 and also on the amount of perfume or medicament to be added1 but speaking generally1 a range of #aa to #ad per cent4 gives good results4 ,if the soap contains less than this amount it is liable to crumble during the milling1 will not compress satisfactorily1 and the finished tablet may have a tendency to crack and contain gritty particles so objectionable in use4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the soap is left too moist1 it is apt to stick to the rollers and mill with difficulty1 and during compression the surface assumes a blistered and sticky appearance4 7ii47 ,milling and ,incorporation of ,colour1 ,perfume or ,medicament4--,the object of milling is to render the soap perfectly homogeneous1 and to reduce it to a state in which colour1 perfume1 or any necessary neutralising material or other substance may be thoroughly incorporated4 ,the milling machine consists of smooth granite rollers1 fitted with suitable gearing and working in an iron framework 7,fig4 #bb74 ,the rollers are connected in such a manner that they rotate at different speeds1 and this increases the efficiency of the milling1 and ensures that the action of the rollers is one of rubbing rather than crushing4 ,by means of suitably arranged screws the pressure of the rollers on one another can be adjusted to give the issuing soap any desired thickness2 care should be taken that the sheets of soap are not unnecessarily thick or the colour and odour will not be uniform4 ,the soap1 in the form of chips1 is introduced on to the rollers through a hopper1 and after one passage through the mill1 from bottom to top1 one of the serrated knife edges is applied and the ribbons of the soap are delivered into the top of the hopper where the colour1 perfume1 and any other desired admixture is added1 and the milling operation repeated three or four times4 ,when the incorporation is complete the other scraper is fixed against the top roller and the soap ribbon passed into the receptacle from which it is conveyed to the compressor4 ,a better plan1 however1 especially in the case of the best grade soaps1 where the perfumes added are necessarily more delicate and costly1 is to make the addition of the perfume when the colour has been thoroughly mixed throughout the mass4 ,another method is to mill once and transfer the mass to a rotary mixing machine1 fitted with internal blades1 of a peculiar form1 which revolve in opposite directions one within the other as the mixer is rotated4 ,the perfume1 colouring matter1 etc41 are added and the mixer closed and set in motion1 when1 after a short time1 the soap is reduced to a fine granular condition1 with the colour and perfume evenly distributed throughout the whole4 ,by the use of such machines1 the loss of perfume by evaporation1 which during milling is quite appreciable1 is reduced to a minimum1 and the delicacy of the aroma is preserved unimpaired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,milling machine4 ,prolonged milling1 especially with a suitable soap base1 tends to produce a semi-transparent appearance1 which is admired by some1 but the increased cost of production by the repeated milling is not accompanied by any real improvement in the soap4 ,perfume4--,the materials used in perfuming soap will be dealt with fully in the next chapter4 ,the quantity necessary to be added varies considerably with the nature of the essential oils1 and also the price at which the soap is intended to be sold4 ,in the cheaper grades of milled soaps the quantity will range from #aj-cj fluid ozs4 per cwt41 and but rarely exceeds #ah-bj ozs41 whereas in more costly soaps as much as #dj-ej fluid ozs4 are sometimes added to the cwt4 ,colouring ,matter4--,during recent years an outcry has been made against highly coloured soaps1 and the highest class soaps have been manufactured either colourless or at the most with only a very delicate tint4 ,it is obvious that a white soap guarantees the use of only the highest grade oils and fats1 and excludes the introduction of any rosin1 and1 so far1 the desire for a white soap is doubtless justified4 ,many perfumes1 however1 tend to quickly discolour a soap1 hence the advantage of giving it a slight tint4 ,for this purpose a vegetable colouring matter is preferable1 and chlorophyll is very suitable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,compressor4 ,a demand still exists for brightly coloured soaps1 and this is usually met by the use of coal-tar dyes4 ,the quantity required is of course extremely small1 so that no harm or disagreeable result could possibly arise from their use4 ,neutralising and ,superfatting ,material4--,if desired1 the final neutralisation of free alkali can be carried out during the milling process1 any superfatting material being added at the same time4 ,the chief neutralising reagents have already been mentioned in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,with regard to superfatting material1 the quantity of this should be very small1 not exceeding #f-h ozs4 per cwt3 ,the most suitable materials are vaseline1 lanoline1 or spermaceti4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--;,hand soap-stamping press4 7iii47 ,compressing4--,the next stage is the compression and binding of the soap ribbons into a solid bar suitable for stamping1 and the plant used 7,fig4 #bc7 for this purpose is substantially the same in all factories4 ,the soap is fed through a hopper into a strong metal conical-shaped tube like a cannon1 which tapers towards the nozzle1 and in which a single or twin screw is moving1 and the soap is thereby forced through a perforated metallic disc1 subjected to great pressure1 and compressed4 ,the screws must be kept uniformly covered with shavings during compression to obviate air bubbles in the soap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,screw press4 ,the soap finally emerges through the nozzle 7to which is attached a cutter of suitable shape and size according to the form it is intended the final tablet to take7 as a long1 polished1 solid bar1 which is cut with a knife or wire into lengths of #b or #c feet1 and if of satisfactory appearance1 is ready for cutting and stamping4 ,the nozzle of the plodder is heated by means of a ,bunsen burner to about #abj or #acj ,f4 7#di-ee ,c47 to allow the soap to be easily forced out1 and this also imparts a good gloss and finish to the ejected bar--if the nozzle is too hot1 however1 the soap will be blistered1 whereas insufficient heat will result in streaky soap of a poor and dull appearance4 7iv47 ,cutting and ,stamping4--,in cutting the soap into sections for stamping1 the cutter should shape it somewhat similar to the required finished tablet4 ,many manufacturers cut the soap into sections having concave ends1 and in stamping1 the corners are forced into the concavity1 with the result that unsightly markings are produced at each end of the tablet4 ,it is preferable to have a cutter with convex ends1 and if the stamping is to be done in a pin mould the shape should be a trifle larger than the exact size of the desired tablet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf--,pin mould4 ,the stamping may be performed by a hand stamper 7,fig4 #bd71 a screw press 7,fig4 #be71 or by a steam stamper4 ,the screw press works very satisfactorily for toilet soaps4 ,there are two kinds of moulds in use for milled soaps3-- 7a7 ,pin ,moulds in which tablets of one size and shape only can be produced 7,fig4 #be74 ,the edges of the mould meet very exactly1 the upper part of the die carries two pins attached to the shoulder1 and these are received into two holes in the shoulder of the bottom plate4 ,the superfluous soap is forced out as the dies meet4 7b7 ,band or ,collar ,moulds4--,in this form 7,fig1 #bg7 the mould may be adjusted to stamp various sized tablets1 say from #b ozs4 to #e-a_/c ozs4 and different impressions given by means of removable die plates4 ,the band or collar prevents the soap squeezing out sideways4 ,we are indebted to ,r4 ,forehaw ,son1 ,ltd41 for the loan of this illustration4 ,it is usual to moisten the soap or mould with a dilute solution of glycerine if it should have a tendency to stick to the die plates4 ,the soap is then ready for final trimming1 wrapping1 and boxing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg--;,band ,mould4 ,,medicated ,,soaps4 ,the inherent cleansing power of soap renders it invaluable in combating disease1 while it also has distinct germicidal properties1 a #b per cent4 solution proving fatal to ,b4 coli communis in less than six hours1 and even a #a per cent4 solution having a marked action on germs in fifteen minutes4 ,many makers1 however1 seek more or less successfully to still further increase the value of soap in this direction by the incorporation of various drugs and chemicals2 and the number of medicated soaps on the market is now very large4 ,such soaps may consist of either hard or soft soaps to which certain medicaments have been added1 and can be roughly divided into two classes1 7a7 those which contain a specific for various definite diseases1 the intention being that the remedy should be absorbed by the pores of the skin and thus penetrate the system1 and 7b7 those impregnated with chemicals intended to act as antiseptics or germicides1 or1 generally1 as disinfectants4 ,the preparation of medicinal soaps appears to have been first taken up in a scientific manner by ,unna of ,hamburg in #ahhf1 who advocated the use of soap in preference to plasters as a vehicle for the application of certain remedies4 ,theoretically1 he considered a soap-stock made entirely from beef tallow the most suitable for the purpose1 but in practice found that the best results were obtained by using a superfatted soap made from a blend of one part of olive oil with eight parts of beef tallow1 saponified with a mixture of two parts of soda to one part of potash1 sufficient fat being employed to leave an excess of #c or #d per cent4 unsaponified4 ,recent researches have shown1 however1 that even if a superfatted soap-base is beneficial for the preparation of toilet soaps 7a point which is open to doubt71 it is quite inadmissible for the manufacture of germicidal and disinfectant soaps1 the bactericidal efficiency of which is much restricted by the presence of free fat4 ,many of the medicaments added to soaps require special methods of incorporation therein1 as they otherwise react with the soap and decompose it1 forming comparatively inert compounds4 ,this applies particularly to salts of mercury1 such as corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride1 and biniodide of mercury1 both of which have very considerable germicidal power1 and are consequently frequently added to soaps4 ,if simply mixed with the soap in the mill1 reaction very quickly takes place between the mercury salt and the soap1 with formation of the insoluble mercury compounds of the fatty acids1 a change which can be readily seen to occur in such a soap by the rapid development on keeping1 of a dull slaty-green appearance4 ,numerous processes have been suggested1 and in some cases patented1 to overcome this difficulty4 ,in the case of corrosive sublimate1 ,geissler suggested that the soap to which this reagent is to be added should contain an excess of fatty acids1 and would thereby be rendered stable4 ,this salt has also been incorporated with milled soap in a dry state in conjunction with ammonio-mercuric chloride1 beta-naphthol1 methyl salicylate1 and eucalyptol4 ,it is claimed that these bodies are present in an unchanged condition1 and become active when the soap is added to water as in washing4 ,ehrhardt 7,eng4 ,pat4 #b1djg1 #ahih7 patented a method of making antiseptic mercury soap by using mercury albuminate--a combination of mercuric chloride and casein1 which is soluble in alkali1 and added to the soap in an alkaline solution4 ,with biniodide of mercury the interaction can be readily obviated by adding to the biniodide of mercury an equal weight of potassium iodide4 ,this process1 devised and patented by ,j4 ,thomson in #ahhf1 has been worked since that time with extremely satisfactory results4 ,strengths of #a_/b1 #a1 and #c per cent4 biniodide are sold1 but owing to the readiness with which it is absorbed by the skin a soap containing more than #a_/b per cent4 should only be used under medical advice4 ,a similar combination of bromide of mercury with potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium bromide has recently been patented by ,cooke for admixture with liquid1 hard1 or soft soaps4 ,zinc and other ,metallic ,salts4--,at various times salts of metals other than mercury have been added to soap1 but1 owing to their insolubility in water1 their efficiency as medicaments is very trifling or nil4 ,compounds have been formed of metallic oxides and other salts with oleic said1 and mixtures made with vaseline and lanoline1 and incorporated with soap1 but they have not met with much success4 ,another chemical commonly added to soap is ,borax4 ,in view of its alkaline reaction to litmus1 turning red litmus blue1 this salt is no doubt generally regarded as alkaline1 and1 as such1 without action on soap4 ,on the contrary1 however1 it is an acid salt containing an excess of boric acid over the soda present1 hence when it is added to soap1 fatty acids are necessarily liberated1 causing the soap to quickly become rancid4 ,as a remedy for this it has been proposed to add sufficient alkali to convert the borax into neutral mono-borate of soda which is then added to the soap4 ,this process is patented and the name ,kastilis has been given to the neutral salt4 ,the incorporation of borax with the addition of gum tragasol forms the subject of two patents 7,eng4 ,pats4 #d1dae1 #aijd2 and #be1dbe1 #aije72 increased detergent and lasting properties are claimed for the soap4 ,another patented process 7,eng4 ,pat4 #ag1bah1 #aijd7 consists of coating the borax with a protective layer of fat or wax before adding to the soap with the idea that reaction will not take place until required4 ,boric acid possesses the defects of borax in a greater degree1 and would1 of course1 simply form sodium borate with liberation of fatty acids1 so should never be added to a neutral soap4 ,salicylic ,acid is often recommended for certain skin diseases1 and here again the addition of the acid to soap under ordinary conditions results in the formation of sodium salicylate and free fatty acids4 ,to overcome this a process has recently been patented for rubbing the acid up with vaseline before addition to soap1 but the simplest way appears to be to add the soda salt of the acid to soap4 ,amongst the more common milled medicated toilet soaps may be mentioned1 in addition to the above3-- ,birch ,tar ,soap1 containing #e or #aj per cent4 birch tar1 which has a characteristic pungent odour and is recommended as a remedy for eczema and psoriasis4 ,carbolic ,soap4--,a toilet soap should not contain more than #c per cent4 of pure phenol1 for with larger quantities irritation is likely to be experienced by susceptible skins4 ,coal ,tar4--,these soaps contain1 in addition to carbolic acid and its homologues1 naphthalene and other hydrocarbons derived from coal1 naphthol1 bases1 etc4 ,various blends of different fractions of coal tar are used1 but the most valuable constituents from a disinfectant point of view are undoubtedly the phenols1 or tar acids1 though in this case as with carbolic and cresylic soaps1 the amount of phenols should not exceed #c per cent4 in a toilet soap4 ,an excess of naphthalene should also be avoided1 since1 on account of its strong odour1 soaps containing much of it are unpopular4 ,the odour of coal tar is considerably modified by and blends well with a perfume containing oils of cassia1 lavender1 spike1 and red thyme4 ,formaldehyde4--,this substance is one of the most powerful disinfectants known1 and it may be readily introduced into soap without undergoing any decomposition1 by milling in #b-c per cent4 of formalin1 a #dj per cent4 aqueous solution of formaldehyde1 which is a gas4 ,white soaps containing this chemical retain their whiteness almost indefinitely4 ,new combinations of formaldehyde with other bodies are constantly being brought forward as disinfectants4 ,among others the compound resulting from heating lanoline with formaldehyde has been patented 7,eng4 ,pat4 #g1afi1 #ahih71 and is recommended as an antiseptic medicament for incorporation with soap4 ,glycerine4--,nearly all soaps contain a small quantity of this body which is not separated in the lyes4 ,in some cases1 however1 a much larger quantity is desired1 up to some #f or #h per cent4 ,to mill this in requires great care1 otherwise the soap tends to blister during compression4 ,the best way is to dry the soap somewhat further than usual1 till it contains say only #i or #aj per cent4 moisture and then mill in the glycerine4 ,ichthyol or ,ammonium-,ichthyol-,sulphonate is prepared by treating with sulphuric acid1 and afterwards with ammonia1 the hydrocarbon oil containing sulphur obtained by the dry distillation of the fossil remains of fish and sea-animals1 which form a bituminous mineral deposit in ,germany4 ,this product has been admixed with soap for many years1 the quantity generally used being about #e per cent42 the resultant soap is possessed of a characteristic empyreumatic smell1 very dark colour1 and is recommended for rosacea and various skin diseases1 and also as an anti-rheumatic4 ,ichthyol has somewhat changed its character during recent years1 being now almost completely soluble in water1 and stronger in odour than formerly4 ,iodine4--,a soap containing iodine is sometimes used in scrofulous skin diseases4 ,it should contain some #c per cent4 iodine1 while potassium iodide should also be added to render the iodine soluble4 ,lysol4--,this name is applied to a soap solution of cresol1 ,lysol ,soap being simply another form of coal-tar soap4 ,the usual strength is #aj per cent4 lysol1 and constitutes a patented article 7,fr4 ,pat4 #cei1jfa1 #aije74 ,naphthol4--beta-,naphthol1 also a coal-tar derivative1 is a good germicide1 and1 incorporated in soap to the extent of #c per cent4 together with sulphur1 is recommended for scabies1 eczema and many other cutaneous affections4 ,sulphur4--,since sulphur is insoluble in water1 its action when used in conjunction with soap can be but very slow and slight4 ,sulphur soaps are1 however1 very commonly sold1 and #aj per cent4 is the strength usually advocated1 though many so-called sulphur soaps actually contain very little sulphur4 ,they are said to be efficacious for acne and rosacea4 ,sulphur soaps1 when dissolved in water1 gradually generate sulphuretted hydrogen1 which1 although characteristic1 makes their use disagreeable and lessens their popular estimation4 ,terebene4--,the addition of this substance to soap1 though imparting a very refreshing and pleasant odour1 does not materially increase the disinfectant value of the soap4 ,a suitable strength is #e per cent4 ,thymol4--,this furnishes a not unpleasant1 and very useful antiseptic soap1 recommended especially for the cleansing of ulcerated wounds and restoring the skin to a healthy state4 ,the normal strength is #c per cent4 ,it is preferable to replace part of the thymol with red thyme oil1 the thymene of which imparts a sweeter odour to the soap than if produced with thymol alone4 ,a suitable blend is #b-a_/b per cent4 of thymol crystals and #a-a_/b per cent4 of a good red thyme oil4 ,of the vast number of less known proposed additions to toilet soaps1 mention may be made in passing of3-- ,fluorides4--,these have been somewhat popular during recent years for the disinfection of breweries1 etc41 and also used to some extent as food preservatives4 ,of course only neutral fluorides are available for use in soap1 acid fluorides and soap being obviously incompatible4 ,in the authors' experience1 however1 sodium fluoride appears to have little value as a germicide when added to soap1 such soaps being found to rapidly become rancid and change colour4 ,albumen4--,the use of albumen--egg1 milk1 and vegetable--in soap has been persistently advocated in this country during the past few years4 ,the claims attributed to albumen are1 that it neutralises free alkali1 causes the soap to yield a more copious lather1 and helps to bind it more closely1 and a further inducement held out is that it allows more water to be left in the soap without affecting its firmness4 ,experiments made by the authors did not appear to justify any enthusiasm on the subject1 and the use of albumen for soap-making in this country appears to be very slight1 however popular it may be on the ,continent4 ,numerous other substances have been proposed for addition to soaps1 including yeast1 tar from peat 7sphagnol71 ,swedish wood tar1 permanganate of potash1 perborates and percarbonates of soda and ammonia1 chlorine compounds1 but none of these has at present come much into favour1 and some had only ephemeral existence4 ,of the many drugs that it has been suggested to admix in soap for use in allaying an irritable condition of the skin1 the majority are obviously better applied in the form of ointments1 and we need not consider them further4 ,ether ,soap4--,another form of medicated soap made by a few firms is a liquid ether soap containing mercuric iodide1 and intended for surgeons' use4 ,this1 as a rule1 consists of a soap made from olive oil and potash1 dissolved in alcohol and mixed with ether1 the mercuric iodide being dissolved in a few drops of water containing an equal weight of potassium iodide1 and this solution added to the alcohol-ether soap4 ,floating ,soaps4--,attempts have been made to produce tablets of soap that will float upon the surface of water1 by inserting cork1 or floats1 or a metallic plate in such a manner that there is an air space between the metal and the soap4 ,the more usual method is to incorporate into hot soap sufficient air1 by means of a specially designed self-contained jacketed crutcher1 in which two shafts carrying small blades or paddles rotate in opposite directions1 to reduce the density of the soap below that of water and so enable the compressed tablet to float4 ,the difference in weight of a tablet of the same size before and after aerating amounts to #aj per cent4 ,ordinary milling soap is used as a basis for this soap2 the settled soap direct from the copper at #agj ,f4 7#gg ,c47 is carefully neutralised with bicarbonate of sodium1 oleic or stearic acids1 or boro-glyceride1 perfumed and aerated4 ,floating soap1 which is usually white 7some are of a cream tint71 cannot be recommended as economical1 whilst its deficiency in lathering properties1 owing to occluded air1 is a serious drawback to its popularity as a toilet detergent4 ,shaving ,soaps4--,the first essential of a shaving soap1 apart from its freedom from caustic alkali or any substance exerting an irritating effect upon the skin1 is the quick production of a profuse creamy lather which is lasting4 ,gum tragacanth is used in some cases to give lasting power or durability1 but is not necessary1 as this property is readily attained by the use of a suitable proportion of potash soap4 ,the best shaving soaps are mixtures of various proportions of neutral soda and potash soaps1 produced by the combination of ordinary milling base with a white potash soap1 either melted or milled together4 ,glycerine is sometimes added1 and is more satisfactorily milled in4 ,every precaution should be taken to ensure thorough saponification of the soaps intended for blending in shaving soap1 otherwise there will be a tendency to become discoloured and develop rancidity with age4 ,shaving soaps are delicately perfumed1 and are placed on the market either in the form of sticks which are cut from the bar of soap as it leaves the compressor1 or stamped in flat cakes4 ,shaving creams and pastes are of the same nature as shaving soaps1 but usually contain a larger proportion of superfatting material and considerably more water4 ,,textile ,,soaps4 ,in the woollen1 cloth1 and silk textile industries1 the use of soap for detergent and emulsifying purposes is necessary in several of the processes1 and the following is a brief description of the kinds of soap successfully employed in the various stages4 #a4 ,woollen ,industry4--,the scouring of wool is the most important operation--it is the first treatment raw wool is subjected to1 and if it is not performed in an efficient manner1 gives rise to serious subsequent troubles to manufacturer1 dyer1 and finisher4 ,the object of scouring wool is to remove the wool-fat and wool perspiration 7exuded from the skin of sheep71 consisting of cholesterol and isocholesterol1 and potassium salts of fatty acids1 together with other salts1 such as sulphates1 chlorides1 and phosphates4 ,this is effected by washing in a warm dilute soap solution1 containing in the case of low quality wool1 a little carbonate of soda2 the fatty matter is thereby emulsified and easily removed4 ,soap1 to be suitable for the purpose1 must be free from uncombined caustic alkali1 unsaponified fat1 silicates1 and rosin4 ,wool can be dissolved in a moderately dilute solution of caustic soda1 and the presence of this latter in soap1 even in small quantities1 is therefore liable to injure the fibres and make the resultant fabric possess a harsh feel1 and be devoid of lustre4 ,unsaponified fat denotes badly made soap--besides reducing the emulsifying power of the liberated alkali1 this fat may be absorbed by the fibres and not only induce rancidity but also cause trouble in dyeing4 ,soaps containing silicates may have a deleterious action upon the fibres1 causing them to become damaged and broken4 ,by general consent soaps containing rosin are unsuitable for use by woollen manufacturers1 as they produce sticky insoluble lime and magnesia compounds which are deposited upon the fibres1 and give rise to unevenness in the dyeing4 ,a neutral olive-oil soft soap is undoubtedly the best for the purpose of wool scouring1 as1 owing to its ready solubility in water1 it quickly penetrates the fibres1 is easily washed out1 and produces a good feel so essential in the best goods1 and tends to preserve the lustre and pliability of the fibre4 ,the high price of olive-oil soap1 however1 renders its use prohibitive for lower class goods1 and in such cases no better soap can be suggested than the old-fashioned curd mottled or curd soaps 7boiled very dry71 as free as possible from uncombined caustic alkali4 ,the raw wool1 after this cleansing operation1 is oiled with olive oil or oleine1 prior to spinning2 after spinning and weaving1 the fabric1 in the form of yarn or cloth1 has to be scoured to free it from oil4 ,the soap in most general use for scouring woollen fabrics is neutral oleine-soda soap4 ,some manufacturers prefer a cheap curd soap1 such as is generally termed second curd1 and in cases where lower grades of wools are handled1 the user is often willing to have soap containing rosin 7owing to its cheapness7 and considers a little alkalinity desirable to assist in removing the oil4 ,another operation in which soap is used1 is that of milling or fulling1 whereby the fabric is made to shrink and thus becomes more compact and closer in texture4 ,the fabric is thoroughly cleansed1 for which purpose the soap should be neutral and free from rosin and silicates1 otherwise a harsh feeling or stickiness will be produced4 ,curd soaps or finely-fitted soaps made from tallow or bleached palm oil1 with or without the addition of cocoa-nut oil1 give the best results4 ,all traces of soap must be carefully removed if the fabric is to be dyed4 ,the woollen dyer uses soap on the dyed pieces to assist the milling1 and finds that a good soap1 made from either olive oil1 bleached palm oil1 or tallow1 is preferable1 and1 although it is generally specified to be free from alkali1 a little alkalinity is not of consequence1 for the woollen goods are1 as a rule1 acid after dyeing1 and this alkalinity would be instantly neutralised4 #b4 ,cotton ,industry4--,cotton fibres are unacted upon by caustic alkali1 so that the soap used in cleaning and preparing cotton goods for dyeing need not be neutral1 in fact alkalinity is a distinct advantage in order to assist the cleansing4 ,any curd soap made from tallow1 with or without the addition of a small quantity of cocoa-nut oil1 may be advantageously used for removing the natural oil4 ,in cotton dyeing1 additions of soap are often made to the bath1 and in such cases the soap must be of good odour and neutral1 lest the colours should be acted upon and tints altered4 ,soaps made from olive oil and palm oil are recommended4 ,the same kind of soap is sometimes used for soaping the dyed cotton goods4 ,the calico-printer uses considerable quantities of soap for cleansing the printed-cloths4 ,the soap not only cleanses by helping to remove the gummy and starchy constituents of the adhering printing paste1 but also plays an important part in fixing and brightening the colours4 ,soaps intended for this class of work must be quite neutral 7to obviate any possible alteration in colour by the action of free alkali71 free from objectionable odour and rosin1 and readily soluble in water4 ,these qualities are possessed by olive-oil soaps1 either soft or hard4 ,a neutral olive-oil soft soap1 owing to its solubility in cold water1 may be used for fibres coloured with most delicate dyes1 which would be fugitive in hot soap solutions1 and this soap is employed for the most expensive work4 ,olive-oil curd 7soda7 soaps are in general use2 those made from palm oil are also recommended1 although they are not so soluble as the olive-oil soaps4 ,tallow curd soaps are sometimes used1 but the difficulty with which they dissolve is a drawback1 and renders them somewhat unsuitable4 #c4 ,silk ,industry4--,silk is secured to remove the sericin or silk-glue and adhering matter from the raw silk1 producing thereby lustre on the softened fibre and thus preparing it for the dyer4 ,the very best soap for the purpose is an olive-oil soft soap2 olive-oil and oleine hard soaps may also be used4 ,the soap is often used in conjunction with carbonate of soda to assist the removal of the sericin1 but1 whilst carbonates are permissible1 it is necessary to avoid an excess of caustic soda4 ,tallow soaps are so slowly soluble that they are not applicable to the scouring of silk4 ,the dyer of silk requires soap1 which is neutral and of a pleasant odour4 ,the preference is given to neutral olive-oil soft soap1 but hard soaps 7made from olive oil1 oleine1 or palm oil7 are used chiefly on account of cheapness4 ,it is essential1 however1 that the soap should be free from rosin on account of its frequent use and consequent decomposition in the acid dye bath1 when any liberated rosin acids would cling to the silk fibres and produce disagreeable results4 ,patent ,textile ,soaps4--,stockhausen 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bd1hfh1 #ahig7 makes special claim for a soap1 termed ,monopole ,soap1 to be used in place of ,turkey-red oils in the dyeing and printing of cotton goods and finishing of textile fabrics4 ,the soap is prepared by heating the sulphonated oil 7obtained on treatment of castor oil with sulphuric acid7 with alkali1 and it is stated that the product is not precipitated when used in the dye-bath as is ordinary soap1 nor is it deposited upon the fibres4 ,another patent 7,eng4 ,pat4 #af1chb1 #ahig71 has for its object the obviating of the injurious effects upon wool1 of alkali liberated from a solution of soap4 ,it is proposed to accomplish this by sulphonating part of the fat used in making the soap4 ,miscellaneous ,soaps4--,under this heading may be classed soaps intended for special purposes and consisting essentially of ordinary boiled soap to which additions of various substances have been made4 ,with additions of naphtha1 fractions of petroleum1 and turpentine1 the detergent power of the soap is increased by the action of these substances in removing grease4 ,amongst the many other additions may be mentioned3 ox-gall or derivatives therefrom 7for carpet-cleaning soap71 alkali sulphides 7for use of lead-workers71 aniline colours 7for home-dyeing soaps71 pumice and tripoli 7motorists' soaps71 pine-needle oil1 in some instances together with lanoline 7for massage soaps71 pearl-ash 7for soap intended to remove oil and tar stains71 magnesia1 rouge1 ammonium carbonate1 chalk 7silversmiths' soap71 powdered orris1 precipitated chalk1 magnesium carbonate 7tooth soaps74 ,soap powders or dry soaps are powdered mixtures of soap1 soda ash1 or soda crystals1 and other chemicals1 whilst polishing soaps often contain from #he to #ij per cent4 siliceous matter1 and can scarcely be termed soap4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,soap ,,perfumes4 ,essential ,oils--,source and ,preparation--,properties--,artificial and ,synthetic ,perfumes4 ,the number of raw materials1 both natural and artificial1 at the disposal of the perfumer1 has increased so enormously during recent years that the scenting of soaps has now become an art requiring very considerable skill1 and a thorough knowledge of the products to be handled4 ,not only does the all-important question of odour come into consideration1 but the action of the perfumes on the soap1 and on each other1 has also to be taken into account4 ,thus1 many essential oils and synthetic perfumes cause the soap to darken rapidly on keeping1 e4g41 clove oil1 cassia oil1 heliotropin1 vanillin4 ,further1 some odoriferous substances1 from their chemical nature1 are incompatible with soap1 and soon decompose any soap to which they are added1 while in a few cases1 the blending of two unsuitable perfumes results1 by mutual reaction1 in the effect of each being lost4 ,in the case of oils like bergamot oil1 the odour value of which depends chiefly on their ester content1 it is very important that these should not be added to soaps containing much free alkali1 as these esters are readily decomposed thereby4 ,some perfumes possess the property of helping the soap to retain other and more delicate odours considerably longer than would otherwise be possible4 ,such perfumes are known as fixing agents or fixateurs1 and among the most important of these may be mentioned musk1 both natural and artificial1 civet1 the oils of ,peru balsam1 sandalwood1 and patchouli1 and benzyl benzoate4 ,the natural perfumes employed for addition to soaps are almost entirely of vegetable origin1 and consist of essential oils1 balsams1 and resins1 animal perfumes such as musk1 civet1 and ambergris being reserved principally for the preparation of extraits4 ,as would be expected with products of such diverse character1 the methods employed for the preparation of essential oils vary considerably4 ,broadly speaking1 however1 the processes may be divided into three classes--7#a7 expression1 used for orange1 lemon1 and lime oils2 7#b7 distillation1 employed for otto of rose1 geranium1 sandalwood1 and many other oils2 and 7#c7 extraction1 including enfleurage1 by which the volatile oil from the flowers is either first absorbed by a neutral fat such as lard1 and then extracted therefrom by maceration in alcohol1 or directly extracted from the flowers by means of a volatile solvent such as benzene1 petroleum ether1 or chloroform4 ,the last process undoubtedly furnishes products most nearly resembling the natural floral odours1 and is the only one which does not destroy the delicate fragrance of the violet and jasmine4 ,the yield1 however1 is extremely small1 and concrete perfumes prepared in this way are therefore somewhat costly4 ,the essential oils used are derived from upwards of twenty different botanical families1 and are obtained from all parts of the world4 ,thus1 from ,africa we have geranium and clove oils2 from ,america1 bay1 bois de rose1 ,canadian snake root1 cedarwood1 linaloe1 peppermint1 petitgrain1 and sassafras2 from ,asia1 camphor1 cassia1 cinnamon1 patchouli1 sandalwood1 star anise1 ylang-ylang1 and the grass oils1 viz41 citronella1 lemongrass1 palmarosa1 and vetivert2 from ,australia1 eucalyptus2 while in ,europe there are the citrus oils1 bergamot1 lemon1 and orange1 produced by ,sicily1 aspic1 lavender1 neroli1 petitgrain1 and rosemary by ,france1 caraway and clove by ,holland1 anise by ,russia1 and otto of rose by ,bulgaria4 ,attempts have been made to classify essential oils either on a botanical basis or according to their chemical composition1 but neither method is very satisfactory1 and1 in describing the chief constituents and properties of the more important oils1 we have preferred therefore to arrange them alphabetically1 as being simpler for reference4 ,it is a matter of some difficulty to judge the purity of essential oils1 not only because of their complex nature1 but owing to the very great effect upon their properties produced by growing the plants in different soils and under varying climatic conditions1 and still more to the highly scientific methods of adulteration adopted by unscrupulous vendors4 ,the following figures will be found1 however1 to include all normal oils4 ,anise ,stell1 or ,star ,anise1 from the fruit of ,illicium verum1 obtained from ,china4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ihj-j4iij2 optical rotation1 faintly dextro- or lvo-rotatory1 #j #cj' to -#b2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eec-a4eee2 solidifying point1 #ad-ag ,c42 solubility in #ij per cent4 alcohol1 #a in #c or #d4 ,the chief constituents of the oil are anethol1 methyl chavicol1 d-pinene1 l-phellandrene1 and in older oils1 the oxidation products of anethol1 viz4 anisic aldehyde and anisic acid4 ,since anethol is the most valuable constituent1 and the solidifying point of the oil is roughly proportional to its anethol content1 oils with a higher solidifying point are the best4 ,aspic oil1 from the flowers of ,lavandula spica1 obtained from ,france and ,spain1 and extensively employed in perfuming household and cheap toilet soaps2 also frequently found as an adulterant in lavender oil4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijd-j4iac2 optical rotation1 ,french1 dextro-rotatory up to #d1 rarely up to #g1 ,spanish1 frequently slightly lvo-rotatory to -#b1 or dextro-rotatory up to #g2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #b to #f per cent42 most oils are soluble in #fe per cent4 alcohol #a in #d1 in no case should more than #b4e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol be required for solution4 ,the chief constituents of the oil are3 linalol1 cineol1 borneol1 terpineol1 geraniol1 pinene1 camphene and camphor4 ,bay oil1 distilled from the leaves of ,pimenta acris1 and obtained from ,st4 ,thomas and other ,west ,indian ,islands4 ,it is used to some extent as a perfume for shaving soaps1 but chiefly in the ,bay ,rhum toilet preparation4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4ihj2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#c2 phenols1 estimated by absorption with #e per cent4 caustic potash solution1 from #de to #fj per cent42 the oil is generally insoluble in #ij per cent4 alcohol1 though when freshly distilled it dissolves in its own volume of alcohol of this strength4 ,the oil contains eugenol1 myrcene1 chavicol1 methyl eugenol1 methyl chavicol1 phellandrene1 and citral4 ,bergamot oil1 obtained by expression from the fresh peel of the fruit of ,citrus ,bergamia1 and used very largely for the perfuming of toilet soaps4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhj-j4hhf2 optical rotation1 #aj to #bj2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #ce-dj per cent41 and occasionally as high as #db-dc per cent42 frequently soluble in #a4e parts of #hj per cent4 alcohol1 or failing that1 should dissolve in one volume of #hb4e or #he per cent4 alcohol4 ,when evaporated on the water-bath the oil should not leave more than #e-f per cent4 residue4 ,among the constituents of this oil are3 linalyl acetate1 limonene1 dipentene1 linalol1 and bergaptene4 ,bitter ,almond ,oil4--,the volatile oil obtained from the fruit of ,amygdalus communis4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jde-a4jf2 optically inactive2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4edd-a4ede2 boiling point1 #agf-agg ,c42 soluble in #a or #a4e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil consists almost entirely of benzaldehyde which may be estimated by absorption with a hot saturated solution of sodium bisulphite4 ,the chief impurity is prussic acid1 which is not always completely removed4 ,this may be readily detected by adding to a small quantity of the oil two or three drops of caustic soda solution1 and a few drops of ferrous sulphate solution containing ferric salt4 ,after thoroughly shaking1 acidulate with dilute hydrochloric acid1 when a blue coloration will be produced if prussic acid is present4 ,the natural oil may frequently be differentiated from artificial benzaldehyde by the presence of chlorine in the latter4 ,as there is now on the market1 however1 artificial oil free from chlorine1 it is no longer possible1 by chemical means1 to distinguish with certainty between the natural and the artificial product4 ,to test for chlorine in a sample1 a small coil of filter paper1 loosely rolled1 is saturated with the oil1 and burnt in a small porcelain dish1 covered with an inverted beaker1 the inside of which is moistened with distilled water4 ,when the paper is burnt1 the beaker is rinsed with water1 filtered1 and the filtrate tested for chloride with silver nitrate solution4 ,canada snake root oil1 from the root of ,asarum canadense4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idj-j4ifb2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dij2 saponification number1 #ajj-aae2 soluble in #c or #d volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the principal constituents of the oil are a terpene1 asarol alcohol1 another alcohol1 and methyl eugenol4 ,the oil is too expensive to be used in other than high-class toilet soaps4 ,cananga or ,kananga oil1 the earlier distillate from the flowers of ,cananga odorata1 obtained chiefly from the ,philippine ,islands4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iaj-j4idj2 optical rotation1 -#ag to -#cj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4diid-a4ejbd2 esters1 calculated as linalyl benzoate1 #h-ae per cent42 soluble in #a4e to #b volumes of #ie per cent4 alcohol1 but becoming turbid on further addition4 ,the oil is qualitatively similar in composition to ,ylang-,ylang oil1 and contains linalyl benzoate and acetate1 esters of geraniol1 cadinene1 and methyl ester of p-cresol4 ,caraway oil1 distilled from the seeds of ,carum carui4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijg-j4iae2 optical rotation1 #gg to #gi2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dhf2 soluble in #c to #h volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil should contain #ej-fj per cent4 of carvone1 which is estimated by absorption with a saturated solution of neutral sodium sulphite4 ,the remainder of the oil consists chiefly of limonene4 ,cassia oil1 distilled from the leaves of ,cinnamomum cassia1 and shipped to this country from ,china in lead receptacles4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jfj-a4jfh2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #c #cj'2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4fjad-a4fjdh2 soluble in #c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol as a general rule1 but occasionally requires #a to #b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the value of the oil depends upon its aldehyde content1 the chief constituent being cinnamic aldehyde4 ,this is determined by absorption with a hot saturated solution of sodium bisulphite4 ,three grades are usually offered1 the best containing #hj-he per cent4 aldehydes1 the second quality1 #ge-hj per cent41 and the lowest grade1 #gj-ge per cent4 ,other constituents of the oil are cinnamyl acetate and cinnamic acid4 ,this oil gives the characteristic odour to ,brown ,windsor soap1 and is useful for sweetening coal-tar medicated soaps4 ,cedarwood oil1 distilled from the wood of ,juniperus virginiana4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ich-j4ifj2 optical rotation1 -#ce to -#de2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejac-a4ejcj4 ,the principal constituents are cedrene and cedrol4 ,cinnamon oil1 distilled from the bark of ,cinnamomum zeylanicum4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jj-a4jce2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#b2 usually soluble in #b to #c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol1 but sometimes requires #a volume of #hj per cent4 alcohol for solution2 aldehydes1 by absorption with sodium bisulphite solution1 #ee-ge per cent42 and phenols1 as measured by absorption with #e per cent4 potash1 not exceeding #ab per cent4 ,the value of this oil is not determined entirely by its aldehyde content as is the case with cassia oil1 and any oil containing more than #ge per cent4 aldehydes must be regarded with suspicion1 being probably admixed with either cassia oil or artificial cinnamic aldehyde4 ,the addition of cinnamon leaf oil which has a specific gravity at #ae ,c4 of #a4jdd-a4jfe is detected by causing a material rise in the proportion of phenols4 ,besides cinnamic aldehyde the oil contains eugenol and phellandrene4 ,citronella ,oil4--,this oil is distilled from two distinct ,andropogon grasses1 the ,lana ,batu and the ,maha pangiri1 the former being the source of the bulk of ,ceylon oil1 and the latter being cultivated in the ,straits ,settlements and ,java4 ,the oils from these three localities show well-defined chemical differences4 ,ceylon ,citronella oil has the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4ibj2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#ab2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhj-a4dhd2 soluble in #a volume of #hj per cent4 alcohol2 total acetylisable constituents1 calculated as geraniol1 #ed-gj per cent4 ,singapore ,citronella ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hij-j4hii2 optical rotation1 usually slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfg-a4dga2 soluble in #a to #a4e volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol2 total acetylisable constituents1 calculated as geraniol1 #hj-ij per cent4 ,java ,citronella ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hij-j4ija2 optical rotation1 -#a to -#f2 total acetylisable constituents1 calculated as geraniol1 #ge-ij per cent42 soluble in #a-b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the chief constituents of the oil are geraniol1 citronellal1 linalol1 borneol1 methyl eugenol1 camphene1 limonene1 and dipentene4 ,it is very largely used for perfuming cheap soaps1 and also serves as a source for the production of geraniol4 ,bois de ,rose ,femelle oil1 or ,cayenne linaloe oil1 distilled from wood of trees of the ,burserace species4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgd-j4hhj2 optical rotation1 -#aa #cj' to -#af2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjh-a4dfcj2 soluble in #a4e to #b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil consists almost entirely of linalol1 with traces of saponifiable bodies1 but appears to be free from methyl heptenone1 found by ,barbier and ,bouveault in ,mexican linaloe oil4 ,this oil is distinctly finer in odour than the ,mexican product4 ,clove oil1 distilled from the unripe blossoms of ,eugenia caryophyllata1 the chief source of which is ,east ,africa 7,zanzibar and ,pemba74 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jde-a4jfa2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#a #cj'2 phenols1 estimated by absorption with #e per cent4 potash solution1 #hf-ib per cent42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ecjj-a4ecfj2 soluble in #a to #b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the principal constituent of the oil is eugenol1 together with caryophyllene and acet-eugenol4 ,while within certain limits the value of this oil is determined by its eugenol content1 oils containing more than #ic per cent4 phenols are usually less satisfactory in odour1 the high proportion of phenols being obtained at the expense of the decomposition of some of the sesquiterpene4 ,oils with less than #hh per cent4 phenols will be found somewhat weak in odour4 ,this oil is extensively used in the cheaper toilet soaps and is an important constituent of carnation soaps4 ,as already mentioned1 however1 it causes the soap to darken in colour somewhat rapidly1 and must not therefore be used in any quantity1 except in coloured soaps4 ,concrete orris oil1 a waxy substance obtained by steam distillation of ,florentine orris root4 ,melting point1 #ce-de ,c41 usually #dj-de ,c42 free acidity1 calculated as myristic acid1 #ej-hj per cent42 ester1 calculated as combined myristic acid1 #d-aj per cent4 ,the greater part of the product consists of the inodorous myristic acid1 the chief odour-bearing constituent being irone4 ,the high price of the oil renders its use only possible in the very best quality soaps4 ,eucalyptus ,oil4--,though there are some hundred or more different oils belonging to this class1 only two are of much importance to the soap-maker4 ,these are3-- 7i47 ,eucalyptus citriodora4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4ije2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #b2 soluble in #d-e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil consists almost entirely of citronellic aldehyde1 and on absorption with saturated solution of sodium bisulphite should leave very little oil unabsorbed4 7ii47 ,eucalyptus globulus1 the oil used in pharmacy1 and containing #ej-fe per cent4 cineol4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iaj-j4icj2 optical rotation1 #a to #aj2 soluble in #b to #c parts of #gj per cent4 alcohol2 cineol 7estimated by combination with phosphoric acid1 pressing1 decomposing with hot water1 and measuring the liberated cineol71 not less than #ej per cent4 ,besides cineol1 the oil contains d-pinene1 and valeric1 butyric1 and caproic aldehydes4 ,it is chiefly used in medicated soaps4 ,fennel 7sweet7 oil1 obtained from the fruit of ,foeniculum vulgare1 grown in ,germany1 ,roumania1 and other parts of ,europe4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4ihe2 optical rotation1 #f to #be2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eae-a4edh2 usually soluble in #b-f parts #hj per cent4 alcohol1 but occasionally requires #a part of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,the chief constituents of the oil are anethol1 fenchone1 d-pinene1 and dipentene4 ,geranium oils1 distilled from plants of the ,pelargonium species4 ,there are three principal kinds of this oil on the market--the ,african1 obtained from ,algeria and the neighbourhood1 the ,bourbon1 distilled principally in the ,island of ,runion1 and the ,spanish4 ,the oil is also distilled from plants grown in the ,south of ,france1 but this oil is not much used by soap-makers4 ,a specially fine article is sold by a few essential oil firms under the name of ,geranium-sur-,rose1 which as its name implies1 is supposed to be geranium oil distilled over roses4 ,this is particularly suitable for use in high-class soaps4 ,the following are the general properties of these oils4 ,it will be seen that the limits for the figures overlap to a considerable extent4 ,african4 ,bourbon4 ,spanish4 ,french4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c4 4#hij-4ijj 4#hhh-4hie 4#hie-4hih 4#hig-4ijj ,optical rotation4 -#f to -#aj-i to -#ah-h to -#aa-h to -#aa ,esters1 calculated as #bj-bg #bg-cb #bj-bg #ah-bc geranyl tiglate per cent4 per cent4 per cent4 per cent4 ,total alcohols1 as #fh-ge #gj-hj #fe-ge #ff-ge geraniol4 per cent4 per cent4 per cent4 per cent4 ,solubility in #gj per cent4 alcohol4 #a in #a4e-b #a in #a4e-b #a in #b-c #a in #a4e-b ,the oil contains geraniol and citronellol1 both free1 and combined with tiglic1 valeric1 butyric1 and acetic acids2 also l-menthone4 ,the ,african and ,bourbon varieties are the two most commonly used for soap-perfurmery1 the ,spanish oil being too costly for extensive use4 ,ginger-grass oil1 formerly regarded as an inferior kind of palma-rosa but now stated to be from an entirely different source4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhi-j4hig2 optical rotation1 #ae4 ,the oil contains a large amount of geraniol1 together with di-hydrocumin alcohol1 d-phellandrene1 d-limonene1 dipentene1 and l-carvone4 ,guaiac wood oil1 distilled from the wood of ,bulnesia sarmienti4 ,specific gravity at #cj ,c41 #j4ifg-j4ige2 optical rotation1 -#d #cj' to -#g2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejf-a4ejg2 soluble in #c to #e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the principal constituent of the oil is guaiac alcohol1 or gusiol4 ,this oil1 which has what is generally termed a tea-rose odour1 is occasionally used as an adulterant for otto of rose4 ,lavender oil1 distilled from the flowers of ,lavandula vera1 grown in ,england1 ,france1 ,italy and ,spain4 ,the ,english oil is considerably the most expensive1 and is seldom1 if ever1 used in soap4 ,the ,french and ,italian oils are the most common1 the ,spanish oil being a comparatively new article1 of doubtful botanical origin1 and more closely resembling aspic oil4 ,english ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhc-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#d to -#aj2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #e-aj per cent42 soluble in #c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,french and ,italian ,oils4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhe-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#b to -#i2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dei-a4dfd2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #bj-dj per cent41 occasionally higher2 soluble in #a4e-c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,there was at one time a theory that the higher the proportion of ester the better the oil1 but this theory has now to a very large extent become discredited1 and there is no doubt that some of the finest oils contain less than #cj per cent4 of esters4 ,spanish ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iae2 optical rotation1 -#b to #g2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #b-f per cent42 soluble in #a-b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the chief constituents of lavender oil are linalyl acetate1 linalol1 geraniol1 and linalyl butyrate1 while the ,english oil also contains a distinct amount of cineol4 ,lemon oil1 prepared by expressing the peel of the nearly ripe fruit of ,citrus limonum1 and obtained almost entirely from ,sicily and ,southern ,italy4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hef-j4hfj2 optical rotation1 #eh to #fc2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgcj-a4dgej2 aldehydes 7citral71 #b4e to #d per cent4 ,the principal constituents of the oil are limonene and citral1 together with small quantities of pinene1 phellandrene1 octyl and nonyl aldehydes1 citronellal1 geraniol1 geranyl acetate1 and the stearopten1 citraptene4 ,lemon-grass 7so-called verbena7 oil1 distilled from the grass ,andropogon citratus1 which is grown in ,india and1 more recently1 in the ,west ,indies4 ,the oils from these two sources differ somewhat in their properties1 and also in value1 the former being preferred on account of its greater solubility in alcohol4 ,east ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hih-j4ijf2 optical rotation1 -#j #cj' to -#f2 aldehydes1 by absorption with bisulphite of soda solution1 #fe to #gh per cent42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhe-a4dhg2 soluble in #b-c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,west ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhf-j4hic2 optical rotation1 faintly lvo-gyrate2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhee-a4dhgf2 soluble in #j4e volume of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,lime oil1 obtained by expression or distillation of the peel of the fruit of ,citrus medica1 and produced principally in the ,west ,indies4 ,expressed ,oil4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4hhe2 optical rotation1 #ch to #ej4 ,its most important constituent is citral4 ,distilled ,oil4--,this is entirely different in character to the expressed oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hed-j4hgj2 optical rotation1 #ch to #ed2 soluble in #e-h volumes of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,linaloe oil1 distilled from the wood of trees of the ,burserace family1 and obtained from ,mexico4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgf-j4hib2 optical rotation1 usually lvo-rotatory1 -#c to -#ac1 but occasionally dextro-rotatory up to #e #cj'2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #a-h per cent42 total alcohols as linalol1 determined by acetylation1 #ed-ff per cent42 soluble in #a-b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,this oil consists mainly of linalol1 together with small quantities of methyl heptenone1 geraniol1 and d-terpineol4 ,marjoram oil1 distilled from ,origanum majoranoides1 and obtained entirely from ,cyprus4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iff2 phenols1 chiefly carvacrol1 estimated by absorption with #e per cent4 caustic potash solution1 #hj-hb per cent42 soluble in #b-c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,this oil is used in soap occasionally in place of red thyme oil4 ,neroli ,bigarade oil1 distilled from the fresh blossoms of the bitter orange1 ,citrus bigaradia4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hge-j4hhb2 optical rotation1 #j #dj' to #aj1 and occasionally much higher2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfh-a4dgj2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #aj-ah per cent42 soluble in #j4ge-a4ge volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol1 becoming turbid on further addition of alcohol4 ,the chief constituents of the oil are limonene1 linalol1 linalyl acetate1 geraniol1 methyl anthranilate1 indol1 and neroli camphor4 ,orange 7sweet7 oil1 expressed from the peel of ,citrus aurantium4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hdi-j4heb2 optical rotation1 #ie to #ii2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgbf-a4dgcb4 ,the oil contains some #ij per cent4 limonene1 together with nonyl alcohol1 d-linalol1 d-terpineol1 citral1 citronellal1 decyl aldehyde1 and methyl anthranilate4 ,palmarosa1 or ,east ,indian geranium oil1 distilled from ,andropogon ,schoenanthus1 a grass widely grown in ,india4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhh-j4hie2 optical rotation1 #a to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgb-a4dgf2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #g-ad per cent42 total alcohols1 as geraniol1 #ge-ic per cent42 solubility in #gj per cent4 alcohol1 #a in #c4 ,the oil consists chiefly of geraniol1 free1 and combined with acetic and caproic acids1 and dipentene4 ,it is largely used in cheap toilet soaps1 particularly in rose soaps4 ,it is also a favourite adulterant for otto of rose1 and is used as a source of geraniol4 ,patchouli oil1 distilled from the leaves of ,pogostemon patchouli1 a herb grown in ,india and the ,straits ,settlements4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ife-j4iij2 optical rotation1 -#de to -#fc2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejd-a4eaa2 saponification number1 up to #ab2 sometimes soluble in #j4e to #a volume of #ij per cent4 alcohol1 becoming turbid on further addition4 ,the solubility of the oil in alcohol increases with age4 ,the oil consists to the extent of #ig per cent4 of patchouliol and cadinene1 which have little influence on its odour1 and the bodies responsible for its persistent and characteristic odour have not yet been isolated4 ,peppermint oil1 distilled from herbs of the ,mentha family1 the ,european and ,american from ,mentha piperita1 and the ,japanese being generally supposed to be obtained from ,mentha arvensis4 ,the locality in which the herb is grown has a considerable influence on the resulting oil1 as the following figures show3-- ,english4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iaj2 optical rotation1 -#bb to -#cc2 total menthol1 #ee-ff per cent42 free menthol1 #ej-fj per cent42 soluble in #c-e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,american4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijf-j4ibj2 optical rotation1 -#bj to -#cc2 total menthol1 #ej-fj per cent42 free menthol1 #dj-ej per cent4 ,the ,michigan oil is soluble in #c-e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol1 but the better ,wayne ,county oil usually requires #a-b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol1 and occasionally #j4e volume of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,french4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iag-j4ibe2 optical rotation1 -#f to -#aj2 total menthol1 #de-ee per cent42 free menthol1 #ce-de per cent42 soluble in #a to #a4e volumes of #hj per cent4 ,japanese4--,specific gravity at #be ,c41 #j4hie-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 lvo-rotatory up to -#dc2 solidifies at #ag to #bg ,c42 total menthol1 #gj-ij per cent41 of which #fe-he per cent4 is free2 soluble in #c-e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the dementholised oil is fluid at ordinary temperatures1 has a specific gravity of #j4ijj-j4ijf at #ae ,c41 and contains #ej-fj per cent4 total menthol4 ,some twenty different constituents have been found in ,american peppermint oil1 including menthol1 menthone1 menthyl acetate1 cineol1 amyl alcohol1 pinene1 l-limonene1 phellandrene1 dimethyl sulphide1 menthyl isovalerianate1 isovalerianic aldehyde1 acetaldehyde1 acetic acid1 and isovalerianic acid4 ,peru balsam oil1 the oily portion 7so-called cinnamein7 obtained from ,peru balsam4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ajj-a4ajg2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro-rotatory up to #b2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4efi to #a4egf2 ester1 calculated as benzyl benzoate1 #hj-hg per cent42 soluble in #a volume of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil consists chiefly of benzyl benzoate and cinnamate1 together with styracin1 or cinnamyl cinnamate1 and a small quantity of free benzoic and cinnamic acids4 ,petitgrain oil1 obtained by distillation of the twigs and unripe fruit of ,citrus bigaradia4 ,there are two varieties of the oil1 the ,french and the ,south ,american1 the former being the more valuable4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hhf-j4ijj2 optical rotation1 -#c to #f2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjd-a4dfej2 esters1 calculated as linalyl acetate1 #dj-ee per cent41 for the best qualities usually above #ej per cent42 soluble as a rule in #b-c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol1 but occasionally requires #a-b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,among its constituents are limonene1 linalyl acetate1 geraniol and geranyl acetate4 ,pimento oil 7allspice71 distilled from the fruit of ,pimenta officinalis1 which is found in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jdj-a4jfj2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ebi-a4ecf2 phenols1 estimated by absorption with #e per cent4 potash solution1 #fh-hf per cent42 soluble in #a-b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil contains eugenol1 methyl eugenol1 cineol1 phellandrene1 and caryophyllene4 ,rose oil 7otto of rose71 distilled from the flowers of ,rosa damascena1 though occasionally the white roses 7,rosa alba7 are employed4 ,the principal rose-growing district is in ,bulgaria1 but a small quantity of rose oil is prepared from roses grown in ,anatolia1 ,asia ,minor4 ,an opinion as to the purity of otto of rose can only be arrived at after a very full chemical analysis1 supplemented by critical examination of its odour by an expert4 ,the following figures1 however1 will be found to include most oils which can be regarded as genuine4 ,specific gravity at #cj ,c41 #j4hej-j4heh2 optical rotation at #cj ,c41 -#a #cj' to -#c2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfjj-a4dfde2 saponification value1 #g-aa2 solidifying point1 #ai-bb ,c42 iodine number1 #ahg-aid2 stearopten content1 #ad-bj per cent42 melting point of stearopten1 about #cb ,c4 ,a large number of constituents have been isolated from otto of rose1 many of which are1 however1 only present in very small quantities4 ,the most important are geraniol1 citronellol1 phenyl ethyl alcohol1 together with nerol1 linalol1 citral1 nonylic aldehyde1 eugenol1 a sesquiterpene alcohol1 and the paraffin stearopten4 ,rosemary oil1 distilled from the herb ,rosemarinus officinalis1 and obtained from ,france1 ,dalmatia1 and ,spain4 ,the herb is also grown in ,england1 but the oil distilled therefrom is rarely met with in commerce4 ,the properties of the oils vary with their source1 and also with the parts of the plant distilled1 distillation of the stalks as well as the leaves tending to reduce the specific gravity and borneol content1 and increase the proportion of the lvo-rotatory constituent 7lvo-pinene74 ,the following figures may be taken as limits for pure oils3-- ,french and ,dalmatian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ijj-j4iaf2 optical rotation1 usually dextro-rotatory1 up to #ae1 but may occasionally be lvo-rotatory1 especially if stalks have been distilled with the leaves2 ester1 calculated as bornyl acetate1 #a-f per cent42 total borneol1 #ab-ah per cent42 usually soluble in #a-b volumes of #hb4e per cent4 alcohol4 ,spanish4--,the properties of the ,spanish oil are similar to the others1 except that it is more frequently lvo-rotatory4 ,rosemary oil contains pinene1 camphene1 cineol1 borneol1 and camphor4 ,sandalwood oil1 obtained by distillation of the wood of ,santalum album 7,east ,indian71 ,santalum cygnorum 7,west ,australian71 and ,amyris balsamifera 7,west ,indian74 ,the oils obtained from these three different sources differ very considerably in value1 the ,east ,indian being by far the best4 ,east ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ige-j4ihj2 optical rotation1 -#ad to -#bj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejde-a4ejfj2 santalol1 #ib-ig per cent42 usually soluble in #d-f volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol1 though1 an old oil occasionally is insoluble in #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,west ,australian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iej-j4ifh2 optical rotation1 #e to #g2 alcohols1 calculated as santalol1 #gc-ge per cent42 insoluble in #gj per cent4 alcohol1 but readily dissolves in #a-b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,west ,indian4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idh-j4ifg2 optical rotation1 #ac #cj' to #cj2 insoluble in #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,in addition to free santalol1 the oil contains esters of santalol and santalal4 ,sassafras oil1 distilled from the bark of ,sassafras officinalis1 and obtained chiefly from ,america4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jf-a4jh2 optical rotation1 #a #ej' to #d2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ebd-a4ecb2 soluble in1 #f-aj volumes of #he per cent4 alcohol1 frequently soluble in #aj-ae volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the chief constituents are safrol1 pinene1 eugenol1 camphor1 and phellandrene4 ,the removal of safrol1 either intentionally or by accident1 owing to cooling of the oil and consequent deposition of the safrol1 is readily detected by the reduction of the specific gravity below #a4jf4 ,thyme oil1 red and white1 distilled from the green or dried herb1 ,thymus vulgaris1 both ,french and ,spanish oils being met with4 ,these oils are entirely different in character4 ,french4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ia-j4icc2 slightly lvo-rotatory up to -#d1 but usually too dark to observe2 phenols1 by absorption with #aj per cent4 aqueous caustic potash1 #be-ee per cent42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dij-a4ejj2 soluble in #a-a4e volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,spanish4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iee-j4iff2 optical rotation1 slightly lvo-gyrate2 phenols1 #gj-hj per cent42 refractive index at #bj ,c42 #a4ejhh-a4eabb2 soluble in #b-c volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,in addition to the phenols1 thymol or carvacrol1 these oils contain cymene1 thymene and pinene4 ,the white thyme oil is produced by rectifying the red oil1 which is generally effected at the expense of a considerable reduction in phenol content1 and hence in real odour value of the oil4 ,verbena ,oil4--,the oil usually sold under this name is really lemon-grass oil 7which see supra74 ,the true verbena oil or ,french verveine is1 however1 occasionally met with4 ,this is distilled in ,france from the verbena officinalis1 and has the following properties3 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hia-j4hih2 optical rotation1 slightly dextro- or lvo-rotatory2 aldehydes1 #gj-ge per cent42 soluble in #b volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the oil contains citral4 ,vetivert oil1 distilled from the grass1 ,andropogon muricatus1 or ,cus ,cus1 and grown in the ,east ,indies4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ja-a4jc2 optical rotation1 #bj to #bf2 saponification number1 #ae-cj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eba-a4ebd2 soluble in #b volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,the price of this oil makes its use prohibitive except in the highest class soaps4 ,wintergreen ,oil4--,there are two natural sources of this oil1 the ,gaultheria procumbens and the ,betula lenta4 ,both oils consist almost entirely of methyl salicylate and are practically identical in properties1 the chief difference being that the former has a slight lvo-rotation1 while the latter is inactive4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4ahj-a4ahg2 optical rotation1 ,gaultheria oil1 up to -#a1 ,betula oil1 inactive2 ester as methyl salicylate1 at least #ih per cent42 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eced-a4ecfd2 soluble in #b-f volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,besides methyl salicylate1 the oil contains triaconitane1 an aldehyde or ketone1 and an alcohol4 ,ylang-ylang oil1 distilled from the flowers of ,cananga odorata1 the chief sources being the ,philippine ,islands and ,java4 ,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4ibd-j4iej2 optical rotation1 -#cj to -#fj1 and occasionally higher2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dif-a4eab2 ester1 calculated as linalyl benzoate1 #bg-de per cent41 occasionally up to #ej per cent42 usually soluble in #a_/b volume of #ij per cent4 alcohol4 ,the composition of the oil is qualitatively the same as that of ,cananga oil1 but it is considerably more expensive and therefore can only be used in the highest grade soaps4 ,artificial and ,synthetic ,perfumes4 ,during the past few years the constitution of essential oils has been studied by a considerable number of chemists1 and the composition of many oils has been so fully determined that very good imitations can often be made at cheaper prices than those of the genuine oils1 rendering it possible to produce cheap soaps having perfumes which were formerly only possible in the more expensive article4 ,there is a considerable distinction1 however1 often lost sight of1 between an artificial and a synthetic oil4 ,an artificial oil may be produced by separating various constituents from certain natural oils1 and so blending these1 with or without the addition of other substances1 as to produce a desired odour1 the perfume being1 at any rate in part1 obtained from natural oils4 ,a synthetic perfume1 on the other hand1 is entirely the product of the chemical laboratory1 no natural oil or substance derived therefrom entering into its composition4 ,the following are among the most important bodies of this class3-- ,amyl salicylate1 the ester prepared from amyl alcohol and salicylic acid1 sometimes known as ,orchide or ,trfle4 ,this is much used for the production of a clover-scented soap4 ,it has the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jeb-a4jed2 optical rotation1 #a #af' to #a #dj'2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejef2 and should contain not less than #ig per cent4 ester1 calculated as amyl salicylate4 ,anisic aldehyde1 or aubpine1 prepared by oxidation of anethol1 and possessing a pleasant1 hawthorn odour4 ,this has the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4abf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4efic2 is optically inactive1 and dissolves readily in one volume of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,benzyl ,acetate1 the ester obtained from benzyl alcohol and acetic acid4 ,this has a very strong and somewhat coarse1 penetrating odour1 distinctly resembling jasmine4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #a4jfb-a4jfe2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejbj2 and it should contain at least #ig-ih per cent4 ester1 calculated as benzyl acetate4 ,citral1 the aldehyde occurring largely in lemon-grass and verbena oils1 also to a less extent in lemon and orange oils1 and possessing an intense lemon-like odour4 ,it has a specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hif-j4hig1 is optically inactive1 and should be entirely absorbed by a hot saturated solution of sodium bisulphite4 ,citronellal1 an aldehyde possessing the characteristic odour of citronella oil1 in which it occurs to the extent of about #bj per cent41 and constituting considerably over #ij per cent4 of eucalyptus citriodora oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hfb2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ddg2 optical rotation1 #h to #ab2 and it should be entirely absorbed by a hot saturated solution of sodium bisulphite4 ,coumarin1 a white crystalline product found in ,tonka beans1 and prepared synthetically from salicylic acid4 ,it has an odour resembling new-mown hay1 and melts at #fg ,c4 ,geraniol1 a cyclic alcohol1 occurring largely in geranium1 palma-rosa1 and citronella oils4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hhc-j4hhe2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgfb-a4dggj2 it is optically inactive1 and boils at #bah-bbe ,c4 ,heliotropin1 which possesses the characteristic odour of heliotrope1 is prepared artificially from safrol4 ,it crystallises in small prisms melting at #hf ,c4 ,hyacinth4--,most of the articles sold under this name are secret blends of the different makers4 ,styrolene has an odour very much resembling hyacinth1 and probably forms the basis of most of these preparations1 together with terpineol1 and other artificial bodies4 ,the properties of the oil vary considerably for different makes4 ,ionone1 a ketone first prepared by ,tiemann1 and having when diluted a pronounced violet odour4 ,it is prepared by treating a mixture of citral and acetone with barium hydrate1 and distilling in vacuo4 ,two isomeric ketones1 alpha-ionone and beta-ionone1 are produced1 the article of commerce being usually a mixture of both4 ,the two ketones have the following properties3-- ,alpha-ionone4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4icch2 refractive index at #af4e ,c41 #a4ejjdh 7,chuit72 optically it is inactive4 ,beta-ionone4--,specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4idhh2 refractive index at #af4h ,c41 #a4ebjgj 7,chuit72 optically it is inactive also4 ,the product is usually sold in #aj or #bj per cent4 alcoholic solution ready for use4 ,jasmine4--,this is one of the few cases in which the artificial oil is probably superior to that obtained from the natural flowers1 possibly due to the extreme delicacy of the odour1 and its consequent slight decomposition during preparation from the flowers4 ,the chemical composition of the floral perfume has been very exhaustively studied1 and the artificial article now on the market may be described as a triumph of synthetical chemistry4 ,among its constituents are benzyl acetate1 linalyl acetate1 benzyl alcohol1 indol1 methyl anthranilate1 and a ketone jasmone4 ,linalol1 the alcohol forming the greater part of linaloe and bois de rose oils1 and found also in lavender1 neroli1 petitgrain1 bergamot1 and many other oils4 ,the article has the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4hgj-j4hgf2 optical rotation1 -#ab to -#ad2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dfc-a4dfd2 and when estimated by acetylation1 yields about #gj per cent4 of alcohols4 ,linalyl acetate1 or artificial bergamot oil1 is the ester formed when linalol is treated with acetic anhydride4 ,it possesses a bergamot-like odour1 but it is doubtful whether its value is commensurate with its greatly increased price over that of ordinary bergamot oil4 ,it has the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #j4iab4 ,musk 7,artificial74--,several forms of this are to be obtained1 practically all of which are nitro-derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons4 ,the original patent of ,baur1 obtained in #ahhi1 covered the tri-nitro-derivative of tertiary butyl xylene4 ,the melting point of the pure article usually lies between #ajh and #aab ,c41 and the solubility in #ie per cent4 alcohol ranges from #a in #abj to #a in #bjj1 though more soluble forms are also made4 ,an important adulterant1 which should always be tested for1 is acetanilide 7antifebrin71 which may be detected by the characteristic isocyanide odour produced when musk containing this substance is boiled with alcoholic potash1 and a few drops of chloroform added4 ,acetanilide also increases the solubility in #ie per cent4 alcohol4 ,neroli ,oil 7,artificial74--,like jasmine oil1 the chemistry of neroli oil is now very fully known1 and it is therefore possible to prepare an artificial product which is a very good approximation to the natural oil1 and many such are now on the market1 which1 on account of their comparative cheapness1 commend themselves to the soap-perfumer4 ,these consist chiefly of linalol1 geraniol1 linalyl acetate1 methyl anthranilate1 and citral4 ,mirbane ,oil or ,nitrobenzene4--,this is a cheap substitute for oil of bitter almonds1 or benzaldehyde1 and is a very coarse1 irritating perfume1 only suitable for use in the very cheapest soaps4 ,it is prepared by the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on benzene at a temperature not exceeding #dj ,c4 ,its specific gravity is #a4bje-a4bjf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eej2 and boiling point1 #bjf ,c4 ,niobe oil1 or ethyl benzoate1 the ester obtained from ethyl alcohol and benzoic acid1 and having the specific gravity at #ae ,c41 #a4jid-a4jie2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4eafg2 boiling point1 #aif4e-aih ,c42 soluble in #a4e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,oeillet is a combination possessed of a sweet carnation-like odour and having as a basis1 eugenol or isoeugenol4 ,its properties vary with the source of supply4 ,rose ,oil 7,artificial74--,several good and fairly cheap artificial rose oils are now obtainable1 consisting chiefly of citronellol1 geraniol1 linalol1 phenyl ethyl alcohol1 and citral4 ,in some cases stearopten or other wax is added1 to render the oil more similar in appearance to the natural article1 but as these are inodorous1 no advantage is gained in this way1 and there is1 further1 the inconvenience in cold weather of having to first melt the oil before use4 ,safrol1 an ether which is the chief constituent of sassafras oil1 and also found in considerable quantity in camphor oil4 ,it is sold as an artificial sassafras oil1 and is very much used in perfuming cheap toilet or household soaps4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #a4ajc-a4ajf2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ecgc2 and it dissolves in fifteen volumes of #hj per cent4 alcohol4 ,santalol1 the alcohol or mixture of alcohols obtained from sandalwood oil4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4igie2 optical rotation1 -#ah2 and refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4ejg4 ,terebene1 a mixture of dipentene and other hydrocarbons prepared from turpentine oil by treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid1 is used chiefly in medicated soaps4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4hfb-j4hfh2 the oil is frequently slightly dextro- or lvo-rotatory2 the refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dgj-a4dgh4 ,terpineol1 an alcohol also prepared from turpentine oil by the action of sulphuric acid1 terpene hydrate being formed as an intermediate substance4 ,it has a distinctly characteristic lilac odour1 and on account of its cheapness is much used in soap perfumery1 especially for a lilac or lily soap4 ,its specific gravity at #ae ,c4 is #j4icf-j4idj2 refractive index at #bj ,c41 #a4dhab-a4dhce2 and boiling point about #baj-bab ,c4 ,it is optically inactive1 and readily soluble in #a4e volumes of #gj per cent4 alcohol4 ,vanillin1 a white crystalline solid1 melting at #hj-hb ,c4 and prepared by the oxidation of isoeugenol4 ,it has a strong characteristic odour1 and occurs1 associated with traces of benzoic acid and heliotropin1 in the vanilla bean4 ,it can only be used in small quantity in light-coloured soaps1 as it quickly tends to darken the colour of the soap4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,glycerine ,,manufacture ,,and ,,purification4 ,treatment of ,lyes--,evaporation to ,crude ,glycerine--,distillation--,distilled and ,dynamite ,glycerine--,chemically ,pure ,glycerine--,animal ,charcoal for ,decolorisation--,glycerine obtained by other ,methods of ,saponification--,yield of ,glycerine from ,fats and ,oils4 ,as pointed out in ,chapter ,,ii4 the fatty acids1 which1 combined with soda or potash1 form soap1 occur in nature almost invariably in the form of glycerides1 i4e41 compounds of fatty acids with glycerol1 and as the result of saponification of a fat or oil glycerine is set free4 ,in ,chapter ,v4 processes of soap-making are described in which 7#a7 the glycerine is retained in the finished soap1 and 7#b7 the glycerine is contained in the lyes1 in very dilute solution1 contaminated with salt and other impurities4 ,these lyes1 though now constituting the chief source of profit in the manufacture of cheap soaps1 were till early in last century simply run down the drains as waste liquor4 ,much attention has been devoted to the purification and concentration of glycerine lyes2 and elaborate plant of various forms has been devised for the purpose4 ,treatment of ,lyes4--,the spent lyes withdrawn from the soap-pans are cooled1 and the soap1 which has separated during the cooling1 is carefully removed and returned to the soap-house for utilisation in the manufacture of brown soap4 ,spent lyes may vary in their content of glycerol from #c to #h per cent41 and this depends not only upon the system adopted in the working of the soap-pans1 but also upon the materials used4 ,although1 in these days of pure caustic soda1 spent lyes are more free from impurities than formerly1 the presence of sulphides and sulphites should be carefully avoided1 if it is desired to produce good glycerine4 ,the lyes are transferred to a lead-lined tank of convenient size1 and treated with commercial hydrochloric acid and aluminium sulphate1 sufficient being added of the former to neutralise the free alkali1 and render the liquor faintly acid1 and of the latter to completely precipitate the fatty acids4 ,the acid should be run in slowly1 and the point when enough has been added1 is indicated by blue litmus paper being slightly reddened by the lyes4 ,the whole is then agitated with air1 when a sample taken from the tank and filtered should give a clear filtrate4 ,having obtained this clear solution1 agitation is stopped1 and the contents of the tank passed through a filter press4 ,the scum1 which accumulates on the treatment tank1 may be transferred to a perforated box suspended over the tank1 and the liquor allowed to drain from it4 ,the filtered liquor is now rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of caustic soda or carbonate1 and1 after filtering1 is ready for evaporation4 ,the acid and alum salt used in the above treatment must be carefully examined for the presence of arsenic1 and any deliveries of either article1 which contain that impurity1 rejected4 ,lime1 bog ore1 and various metallic salts1 such as ferric chloride1 barium chloride1 and copper sulphate have been suggested1 and in some instances are used instead of aluminium sulphate1 but the latter is generally employed4 ,evaporation to ,crude ,glycerine4--,the clear treated lyes1 being now free from fatty1 resinous1 and albuminous matter1 and consisting practically of an aqueous solution of common salt 7sodium chloride7 and glycerine1 is converted into crude glycerine by concentration1 which eliminates the water and causes most of the salt to be deposited4 ,this concentration was originally performed in open pans heated by fire or waste combustible gases4 ,in the bottom of each pan was placed a dish in which the salt deposited1 and this dish was lifted out periodically by the aid of an overhead crane and the contents emptied and washed4 ,concentration was continued until the temperature of the liquor was #cjj ,f4 7#adi ,c471 when it was allowed to rest before storing4 ,this liquor on analysis gave #hj per cent4 glycerol and from #i to #aj-a_/b per cent4 salts 7ash72 hence the present standard for crude glycerine4 ,concentration in open pans has now been superseded by evaporation in vacuo4 ,the subject of the gradual development of the modern efficient evaporating plant from the vacuum pan1 originated and successfully applied by ,howard in #ahac in the sugar industry1 is too lengthy to detail here1 suffice it to say that the multiple effects now in vogue possess distinct advantages--the greatest of these being increased efficiency combined with economy4 ,the present type of evaporator consists of one or more vessels1 each fitted with a steam chamber through which are fixed vertical hollow tubes4 ,the steam chamber of the first vessel is heated with direct steam1 or with exhaust steam 7supplied from the exhaust steam receiver into which passes the waste steam of the factory72 the treated lyes circulating through the heated tubes is made to boil at a lower temperature1 with the reduced pressure1 than is possible by heating in open pans4 ,the vapour given off by the boiling liquor is conveyed through large pipes into the steam chamber of the second vessel1 where its latent heat is utilised in producing evaporation1 the pressure being further reduced1 as this second vessel is under a greater vacuum than ,no4 #a4 ,thus we get a double effect1 as the plant consisting of two pans is termed4 ,the vapours discharged from the second vessel during boiling are passed through pipes to the steam chamber of the third vessel 7in a triple effect71 and there being condensed1 create a partial vacuum in the second vessel4 ,the third vessel may also be heated by means of live steam4 ,the vapours arising from the last vessel of the evaporating plant1 or in the case of a single effect from the vessel1 are conveyed into a condenser and condensed by injection water1 which is drawn off by means of the pump employed for maintaining a vacuum of #bh inches in the vessel4 ,in the most recent designs of large evaporative installations1 the vapours generated from the last vessel are drawn through a device consisting of a number of tubes enclosed in a casing1 and the latent heat raises the temperature of the treated lyes proceeding through the tubes to supply the evaporator4 ,it will thus be observed that the object of multiple effects is to utilise all the available heat in performing the greatest possible amount of work4 ,special devices are attached to the plant for automatically removing the condensed water from the steam chambers without the loss of useful heat1 and as a precaution against splashing over and subsequent loss of glycerine through conveyance to the steam chamber1 dash plates and catch-alls or save-alls of various designs are fitted on each vessel4 ,in working the plant1 the liquor in each vessel is kept at a fairly constant level by judicious feeding from one to the other2 the first vessel is1 of course1 charged with treated lyes4 ,as the liquor acquires a density of #db ,tw4 7#be ,b47 salt begins to deposit1 and may be withdrawn into one of the many patented appliances1 in which it is freed from glycerine1 washed and dried ready for use at the soap pans4 ,difficulty is sometimes experienced with the tubes becoming choked with salt1 thereby diminishing and retarding evaporation4 ,it may be necessary to dissolve the encrusted salt with lyes or water1 but with careful working the difficulty can be obviated by washing out with weak lyes after each batch of crude glycerine has been run away1 or by increasing the circulation4 ,it is claimed that by the use of the revolving heater designed by ,lewkowitsch1 the salting up of tubes is prevented4 ,the salt having been precipitated and removed1 evaporation is continued until a sample taken from the last vessel has a density of #fj ,tw4 7#cc4c ,b47 at #fj ,f4 7#ae4e ,c474 ,when this point is reached1 the crude glycerine is ready to be withdrawn into a tank1 and1 after allowing the excess of salt to deposit1 may be transferred to the storage tank4 ,the colour of crude glycerine varies from light brown to dark brown1 almost black1 and depends largely on the materials used for soap-making4 ,the organic matter present in good crude glycerine is small in amount1 often less than #a per cent42 arsenic1 sulphides and sulphites should be absent4 ,crude glycerine is refined in some cases by the producers themselves2 others sell it to firms engaged more particularly in the refined glycerine trade4 ,distillation4--,crude glycerine is distilled under vacuum with the aid of superheated steam4 ,the still is heated directly with a coal or coke fire1 and in this fire space is the superheater1 which consists of a coil of pipes through which high pressure steam from the boiler is superheated4 ,the distillation is conducted at a temperature of #cef;,f4 7#ahj ,c474 ,to prevent the deposition and burning of salt on the still-bottom during the distillation1 a false bottom is supported about #a foot from the base of the still4 ,with the same object in view1 it has been suggested to rotate the contents with an agitator fixed in the still4 ,every care is taken that the still does not become overheated2 this precaution not only prevents loss of glycerine through carbonisation1 but also obviates the production of tarry and other bodies which might affect the colour1 taste1 and odour of the distilled glycerine4 ,the vacuum to be used will1 of course1 depend upon the heat of the fire and still1 but as a general rule good results are obtained with an #ah inch vacuum4 ,there are quite a large number of designs for still heads1 and catch-alls1 having for their object the prevention of loss of glycerine4 ,the distillate passes into a row of condensers1 to each of which is attached a receptacle or receiver4 ,it is needless to state that the condensing capacity should be in excess of theoretical requirements4 ,the fractions are of varying strengths and quality2 that portion1 with a density less than #ad ,tw4 7#ai4d ,b471 is returned to the treated-lyes tank4 ,the other portion of the distillate is concentrated by means of a dry steam coil in a suitable vessel under a #bh inch vacuum4 ,when sufficiently concentrated the glycerine may be decolorised1 if necessary1 by treating with #a per cent4 animal charcoal and passing through a filter press1 from which it issues as dynamite glycerine4 ,the residue in the still1 consisting of #ej-fj per cent4 glycerine and varying proportions of various sodium salts--e4g4 acetate1 chloride1 sulphate1 and combinations with non-volatile organic acids--is generally boiled with water and treated with acid4 ,the tar1 which is separated1 floats on the surface as the liquor is cooling1 and may be removed by ladles1 or the whole mixed with waste charcoal1 and filtered4 ,the filtrate is then evaporated1 when the volatile organic acids are driven off2 the concentrated liquor is finally mixed with crude glycerine which is ready for distillation1 or it may be distilled separately4 ,distilled ,glycerine4--,this class of commercial glycerine1 although of limited use in various other branches of industry1 finds its chief outlet in the manufacture of explosives4 ,specifications are usually given in contracts drawn up between buyers and sellers1 to which the product must conform4 ,the chief stipulation for dynamite glycerine is its behaviour in the nitration test4 ,when glycerine is gradually added to a cold mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids1 it is converted into nitro-glycerine1 which separates as an oily layer on the surface of the acid4 ,the more definite and rapid the separation1 the more suitable is the glycerine for dynamite-making4 ,dynamite glycerine should be free from arsenic1 lime1 chlorides1 and fatty acids1 the inorganic matter should not amount to more than #j4a per cent41 and a portion diluted and treated with nitrate of silver solution should give no turbidity or discoloration in ten minutes4 ,the specific gravity should be #a4bfb at #ae ,c4 7#ei ,f47 and the colour somewhat yellow4 ,chemically pure glycerine or double distilled glycerine is produced by redistilling once distilled glycerine4 ,every care is taken to avoid all fractions which do not withstand the nitrate of silver test4 ,the distillation is very carefully performed under strict supervision4 ,the distillate is concentrated and after treatment with animal charcoal and filtration should conform to the requirements of the ,british ,pharmacopoeia4 ,these are specified as follows3 ,specific gravity at #ae4e ,c41 #a4bfj4 ,it should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead1 copper1 arsenium1 iron1 calcium1 potassium1 sodium1 ammonium1 chlorides1 or sulphates4 ,it should contain no sugars and leave no residue on burning4 ,animal ,charcoal for ,decolorisation4--,the application of animal charcoal for decolorising purposes dates back a century1 and various are the views that have been propounded to explain its action4 ,some observers base it upon the physical condition of the so-called carbon present1 and no doubt this is an important factor1 coupled with the porosity4 ,others consider that the nitrogen1 which is present in all animal charcoal and extremely difficult to remove1 is essential to the action4 ,animal charcoal should be freed from gypsum 7sulphate of lime71 lest in the burning1 sulphur compounds be formed which would pass into the glycerine and contaminate it4 ,the char should be well boiled with water1 then carbonate of soda or caustic soda added in sufficient quantity to give an alkaline reaction1 and again well boiled4 ,the liquor is withdrawn and the charcoal washed until the washings are no longer alkaline4 ,the charcoal is then separated from the liquor and treated with hydrochloric acid2 opinions differ as to the amount of acid to be used4 ,some contend that phosphate of lime plays such an important part in decolorising that it should not be removed1 but it has1 however1 been demonstrated that this substance after exposure to heat has very little decolorising power4 ,animal charcoal boiled with four times its weight of a mixture consisting of equal parts of commercial hydrochloric acid 7free from arsenic7 and water for twelve hours1 then washed free from acid1 dried1 and burned in closed vessels gives a product possessed of great decolorising power for use with glycerines4 ,a good animal charcoal will have a dull appearance1 and be of a deep colour2 it should be used in fine grains and not in the form of a powder4 ,the charcoal from the filter presses is washed free from glycerine 7which is returned to the treated lyes71 cleansed from foreign substances by the above treatment and revivified by carefully heating in closed vessels for twelve hours4 ,glycerine obtained by other ,methods of ,saponification4--,french saponification or candle crude glycerine is the result of concentration of sweet water produced in the manufacture of stearine and by the autoclave process4 ,it contains #he-ij per cent4 glycerol1 possesses a specific gravity of #a4bdj-a4bdb1 and may be readily distinguished from the soap-crude glycerine by the absence of salt 7sodium chloride74 ,this glycerine is easily refined by treatment with charcoal4 ,the glycerine water resulting from acid saponification methods requires to be rendered alkaline by the addition of lime--the sludge is separated1 and the liquor evaporated to crude4 ,the concentration may be performed in two stages--first to a density of #cb ,tw4 7#bj ,b471 when the calcium sulphate is allowed to deposit1 and the separated liquor concentrated to #dh ,tw4 7#bh ,b47 glycerine1 testing #he per cent4 glycerol and upwards4 ,yield of ,glycerine from ,fats and ,oils4--,the following represent practicable results which should be obtained from the various materials3-- ,tallow #i per cent4 of #hj per cent4 ,glycerol4 ,cotton-seed oil #aj ,cocoa-nut oil #ab ,palm-kernel oil #ah ,olive oil #aj ,palm oil #f ,greases 7,bone fats7 #f-h ,the materials vary in glycerol content with the methods of preparation2 especially is this the case with tallows and greases4 ,every care should be taken that the raw materials are fresh and they should be carefully examined to ascertain if any decomposition has taken place in the glycerides--this would be denoted by the presence of an excess of free acidity1 and the amount of glycerol obtainable from such a fat would be correspondingly reduced4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,raw ,,materials1 ,,soap1 ,,and ,,glycerine4 ,fats and ,oils--,alkalies and ,alkali ,salts--,essential ,oils--,soap--,lyes--,crude ,glycerine4 ,raw ,materials4--,average figures have already been given in ,chapters ,,iii4 and ,,viii4 for the more important physical and chemical characteristics of fats and oils1 also of essential oils2 the following is an outline of the processes usually adopted in their determination4 ,for fuller details1 text-books dealing exhaustively with the respective subjects should be consulted4 ,,fats ,,and ,,oils4 ,it is very undesirable that any of these materials should be allowed to enter the soap pan without an analysis having first been made1 as the oil may not only have become partially hydrolysed1 involving a loss of glycerine1 or contain albuminous matter rendering the soap liable to develop rancidity1 but actual sophistication may have taken place4 ,thus a sample of tallow recently examined by the authors contained as much as #dj per cent4 of an unsaponifiable wax1 which would have led to disaster in the soap pan1 had the bulk been used without examination4 ,after observing the appearance1 colour1 and odour of the sample1 noting any characteristic feature1 the following physical and chemical data should be determined4 ,specific ,gravity at #ae ,c4 ,this may be taken by means of a ,westphal balance1 or by using a picnometer of either the ordinary gravity bottle shape1 with perforated stopper1 or the ,sprengel ,u-tube4 ,the picnometer should be calibrated with distilled water at #ae ,c4 ,the specific gravity of solid fats may be taken at an elevated temperature1 preferably that of a boiling water bath4 ,free acidity is estimated by weighing out from #b to #e grammes of the fat or oil1 dissolving in neutral alcohol 7purified methylated spirit7 with gentle heat1 and titrating with a standard aqueous or alcoholic solution of caustic soda or potash1 using phenol-phthalein as indicator4 ,the contents of the flask are well shaken after each addition of alkali1 and the reaction is complete when the slight excess of alkali causes a permanent pink coloration with the indicator4 ,the standard alkali may be ,n_/#b1 ,n_/#e1 or ,n_/#aj4 ,it is usual to calculate the result in terms of oleic acid 7#a c4c4 ,n_/#aj alkali #j4jbhb gramme oleic acid71 and express in percentage on the fat or oil4 ,example4--#a4higf grammes were taken1 and required #e4b c4c4 of ,n_/#aj ,,koh solution for neutralisation4 #e4b #j4jbhb #ajj ------------------ #g4gb per cent4 free fatty acids1 #a4higf expressed as oleic acid4 ,the free acidity is sometimes expressed as acid value1 which is the amount of ,,koh in milligrammes necessary to neutralise the free acid in #a gramme of fat or oil4 ,in the above example3-- #e4b #e4fa ---------- #ae4c acid value4 #a4higf ,the saponification equivalent is determined by weighing #b-d grammes of fat or oil into a wide-necked flask 7about #bej c4c4 capacity71 adding #cj c4c4 neutral alcohol1 and warming under a reflux condenser on a steam or water-bath4 ,when boiling1 the flask is disconnected1 #ej c4c4 of an approximately semi-normal alcoholic potash solution carefully added from a burette1 together with a few drops of phenol-phthalein solution1 and the boiling under a reflux condenser continued1 with frequent agitation1 until saponification is complete 7usually from #cj-fj minutes7 which is indicated by the absence of fatty globules4 ,the excess of alkali is titrated with ,n_/#a hydrochloric or sulphuric acid4 ,the value of the approximately ,n_/#b alkali solution is ascertained by taking #ej c4c4 together with #cj c4c4 neutral alcohol in a similar flask1 boiling for the same length of time as the fat1 and titrating with ,n_/#a hydrochloric or sulphuric acid4 ,the saponification equivalent is the amount of fat or oil in grammes saponified by #a equivalent or #ef4a grammes of caustic potash4 ,example4--#a4higf grammes fat required #ah4ie c4c4 ,n_/#a acid to neutralise the unabsorbed alkali4 ,fifty c4c4 approximately ,n_/#b alcoholic potash solution required #be4f c4c4 ,n_/ acid44 #be4f - #ah4ie #f4fe c4c4 ,n_/#a ,,koh required by fat4 #a4higf #ajjj _/ #f4fe #bhe4c ,saponification ,equivalent4 ,the result of this test is often expressed as the ,saponification ,value1 which is the number of milligrammes of ,,koh required for the saponification of #a gramme of fat4 ,this may be found by dividing #ef1ajj by the saponification equivalent or by multiplying the number of c4c4 of ,n_/#a alkali absorbed1 by #ef4a and dividing by the quantity of fat taken4 ,thus1 in the above example3-- #f4fe #ef4a _/ #a4higf #aif4f ,saponification ,value4 ,the ester or ether value1 or number of milligrammes of ,,koh required for the saponification of the neutral esters or glycerides in #a gramme of fat1 is represented by the difference between the saponification and acid values4 ,in the example given1 the ester value would be #aif4f - #ae4c #aha4c4 ,unsaponifiable ,matter4--,the usual method adopted is to saponify about #e grammes of the fat or oil with #ej c4c4 of approximately ,n_/#b alcoholic potash solution by boiling under a reflux condenser with frequent agitation for about #a hour4 ,the solution is then evaporated to dryness in a porcelain basin over a steam or water-bath1 and the resultant soap dissolved in about #bjj c4c4 hot water4 ,when sufficiently cool1 the soap solution is transferred to a separating funnel1 #ej c4c4 of ether added1 the whole well shaken1 and allowed to rest4 ,the ethereal layer is removed to another separator1 more ether being added to the aqueous soap solution1 and again separated4 ,the two ethereal extracts are then washed with water to deprive them of any soap1 separated1 transferred to a flask1 and the ether distilled off upon a water-bath4 ,the residue1 dried in the oven at #ajj ,c4 until constant1 is the unsaponifiable matter1 which is calculated to per cent4 on the oil4 ,in this method1 it is very frequently most difficult to obtain a distinct separation of ether and aqueous soap solution--an intermediate layer of emulsion remaining even after prolonged standing1 and various expedients have been recommended to overcome this1 such as addition of alcohol 7when petroleum ether is used71 glycerine1 more ether1 water1 or caustic potash solution1 or by rotatory agitation4 ,a better plan is to proceed as in the method above described as far as dissolving the resulting soap in #bjj c4c4 water1 and then boil for twenty or thirty minutes4 ,slightly cool and acidify with dilute sulphuric acid 7#a to #c71 boil until the fatty acids are clear1 wash with hot water free from mineral acid1 and dry by filtering through a hot water funnel4 ,two grammes of the fatty acids are now dissolved in neutral alcohol saturated with some solvent1 preferably a light fraction of benzoline1 a quantity of the solvent added to take up the unsaponifiable matter1 and the whole boiled under a reflux condenser4 ,after cooling1 the liquid is titrated with ,n_/#b aqueous ,,koh solution1 using phenol-phthalein as indicator1 this figure giving the amount of the total fatty acids present4 ,the whole is then poured into a separating funnel1 when separation immediately takes place4 ,the alcoholic layer is withdrawn1 the benzoline washed with warm water 7about #cb ,c47 followed by neutral alcohol 7previously saturated with the solvent71 and transferred to a tared flask1 which is attached to a condenser1 and the benzoline distilled off4 ,the last traces of solvent remaining in the flask are removed by gently warming in the water-oven1 and the flask cooled and weighed1 thus giving the amount of unsaponifiable matter4 ,constitution of the ,unsaponifiable ,matter4--,unsaponifiable matter may consist of cholesterol1 phytosterol1 solid alcohols 7cetyl and ceryl alcohols71 or hydrocarbons 7mineral oil74 ,cholesterol is frequently found in animal fats1 and phytosterol is a very similar substance present in vegetable fats4 ,solid alcohols occur naturally in sperm oil1 but hydrocarbons1 which may be generally recognised by the fluorescence or bloom they give to the oil1 are not natural constituents of animal or vegetable oils and fats4 ,the presence of cholesterol and phytosterol may be detected by dissolving a small portion of the unsaponifiable matter in acetic anhydride1 and adding a drop of the solution to one drop of #ej per cent4 sulphuric acid on a spot plate1 when a characteristic blood red to violet coloration is produced4 ,it has been proposed to differentiate between cholesterol and phytosterol by their melting points1 but it is more reliable to compare the crystalline forms1 the former crystallising in lamin1 while the latter forms groups of needle-shaped tufts4 ,another method is to convert the substance into acetate1 and take its melting point1 cholesterol acetate melting at #aad4c-aad4h ,c41 and phytosterol acetate at #abe4f-acg ,c4 ,additional tests for cholesterol have been recently proposed by ,lifschtz 7,ber4 ,deut4 ,chem4 ,ges41 #aijh1 #beb-bee71 and ,golodetz 7,chem4 ,zeit41 #aijh1 #afj74 ,in that due to the former1 which depends on the oxidation of cholesterol to oxycholesterol ester and oxycholesterol1 a few milligrammes of the substance are dissolved in #b-c c4c4 glacial acetic acid1 a little benzoyl peroxide added1 and the solution boiled1 after which four drops of strong sulphuric acid are added1 when a violet-blue or green colour is produced1 if cholesterol is present1 the violet colour being due to oxycholesterol ester1 the green to oxycholesterol4 ,two tests are suggested by ,golodetz 7#a7 the addition of one or two drops of a reagent consisting of five parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and three parts of formaldehyde solution1 which colours cholesterol a blackish-brown1 and 7#b7 the addition of one drop of #cj per cent4 formaldehyde solution to a solution of the substance in trichloracetic acid1 when with cholesterol an intense blue coloration is produced4 ,water4--,from #e to #bj grammes of the fat or oil are weighed into a tared porcelain or platinum dish1 and stirred with a thermometer1 whilst being heated over a gas flame at #ajj ,c4 until bubbling or cracking has ceased1 and reweighed1 the loss in weight representing the water4 ,in cases of spurting a little added alcohol will carry the water off quietly4 ,to prevent loss by spurting1 ,davis 7,j4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #bc1 #dhg7 has suggested that the fat or oil should be added to a previously dried and tared coil of filter paper contained in a stoppered weighing bottle1 which is then placed in the oven and dried at #ajj ,c4 until constant in weight4 ,of course1 this method is not applicable to oils or fats liable to oxidation on heating4 ,dregs1 ,dirt1 ,adipose ,tissue1 ,fibre1 etc4--,from #aj to #ae grammes of the fat are dissolved in petroleum ether with frequent stirring1 and passed through a tared filter paper4 ,the residue retained by the filter paper is washed with petroleum ether until free from fat1 dried in the water-oven at #ajj ,c4 and weighed4 ,if the amount of residue is large1 it may be ignited1 and the proportion and nature of the ash determined4 ,the amount of impurities may also be estimated by ,tate's method1 which is performed by weighing #e grammes of fat into a separating funnel1 dissolving in ether1 and allowing the whole to stand to enable the water to deposit4 ,after six hours' rest the water is withdrawn1 the tube of the separator carefully dried1 and the ethereal solution filtered through a dried tared filter paper into a tared flask4 ,well wash the filter with ether1 and carefully dry at #ajj ,c4 ,the ether in the flask is recovered1 and the flask dried until all ether is expelled1 and its weight is constant4 ,the amount of fat in the flask gives the quantity of actual fat in the sample taken2 the loss represents the water and other impurities1 and these latter may be obtained from the increase of weight of the filter paper4 ,starch may be detected by the blue coloration it gives with iodine solution1 and confirmed by microscopical examination1 or it may be converted into glucose by inversion1 and the glucose estimated by means of ,fehling's solution4 ,iodine ,absorption4--,this determination shows the amount of iodine absorbed by a fat or oil1 and was devised by ,hbl1 the reagents required being as follows3-- 7#a7 ,solution of #be grammes iodine in #ejj c4c4 absolute alcohol2 7#b7 solution of #cj grammes mercuric chloride in #ejj c4c4 absolute alcohol1 these two solutions being mixed together and allowed to stand at least twelve hours before use2 7#c7 a freshly prepared #aj per cent4 aqueous solution of potassium iodide2 and 7#d7 a ,n_/#aj solution of sodium thiosulphate1 standardised just prior to use by titrating a weighed quantity of resublimed iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution4 ,in the actual determination1 #j4b to #j4e gramme of fat or fatty acids is carefully weighed into a well-fitting stoppered #bej c4c4 bottle1 dissolved in #aj c4c4 chloroform1 and #be c4c4 of the ,hbl reagent added1 the stopper being then moistened with potassium iodide solution and placed firmly in the bottle1 which is allowed to stand at rest in a dark place for four hours4 ,a blank experiment is also performed1 using the same quantities of chloroform and ,hbl reagent1 and allowing to stand for the same length of time4 ,after the expiration of four hours #bj c4c4 of #aj per cent4 solution of potassium iodide and #aej c4c4 water are added to the contents of the bottle1 and the excess of iodine titrated with ,n_/#aj sodium thiosulphate solution1 the whole being well agitated during the titration1 which is finished with starch paste as indicator4 ,the blank experiment is titrated in the same manner1 and from the amount of thiosulphate required in the blank experiment is deducted the number of c4c4 required by the unabsorbed iodine in the other bottle2 this figure multiplied by the iodine equivalent of #a c4c4 of the thiosulphate solution and by #ajj1 dividing the product by the weight of fat taken1 gives the ,iodine ,number4 ,example4--#a c4c4 of the ,n_/#aj sodium thiosulphate solution is found equal to #j4jabf gramme iodine4 #j4cahg gramme of fat taken4 ,blank requires #dh4e c4c4 thiosulphate4 ,bottle containing oil requires #dj4j c4c4 thiosulphate4 #dh4e - #dj4j #h4e1 and the iodine absorption of the fat is-- #h4e #j4jabf #ajj ------------------ #cc4f4 #j4cahg ,wijs showed that by the employment of a solution of iodine monochloride in glacial acetic acid reliable iodine figures are obtained in a much shorter time1 thirty minutes being sufficient1 and this method is now in much more general use than the ,hbl4 ,wijs' iodine reagent is made by dissolving #ac grammes iodine in #a litre of glacial acetic acid and passing chlorine into the solution until the iodine is all converted into iodine monochloride4 ,the process is carried out in exactly the same way as with the ,hbl solution except that the fat is preferably dissolved in carbon tetrachloride instead of in chloroform4 ,bromine absorption has now been almost entirely superseded by the iodine absorption1 although there are several good methods4 ,the gravimetric method of ,hehner 7,analyst1 #ahie1 #di7 was employed by one of us for many years with very good results1 whilst the bromine-thermal test of ,hehner and ,mitchell 7,analyst1 #ahie1 #adf7 gives rapid and satisfactory results4 ,more recently ,mac,ilhiney 7,jour4 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #ahii1 #ajhd-ajhi7 drew attention to bromine absorption methods and tried to rewaken interest in them4 ,the ,refractive index is sometimes useful for discriminating between various oils and fats1 and1 in conjunction with other physical and chemical data1 affords another means of detecting adulteration4 ,where a great number of samples have to be tested expeditiously1 the ,abb refractometer or the ,zeiss butyro-refractometer may be recommended on account of the ease with which they are manipulated4 ,the most usual temperature of observations is #fj ,c4 ,the ,titre or setting point of the fatty acids was devised by ,dalican1 and is generally accepted in the commercial valuation of solid fats as a gauge of firmness1 and in the case of tallow has a considerable bearing on the market value4 ,one ounce of the fat is melted in a shallow porcelain dish1 and #cj c4c4 of a #be per cent4 caustic soda solution added1 together with #ej c4c4 of redistilled methylated spirit4 ,the whole is stirred down on the water bath until a pasty soap is obtained1 when another #ej c4c4 of methylated spirit is added1 which redissolves the soap1 and the whole again stirred down to a solid soap4 ,this is then dissolved in distilled water1 a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid added to liberate the fatty acids1 and the whole warmed until the fatty acids form a clear liquid on the surface4 ,the water beneath the fatty acids is then syphoned off1 more distilled water added to wash out any trace of mineral acid remaining1 and again syphoned off1 this process being repeated until the washings are no longer acid to litmus paper1 when the fatty acids are poured on to a dry filter paper1 which is inserted in a funnel resting on a beaker1 and the latter placed on the water-bath1 where it is left until the clear fatty acids have filtered through4 ,about #aj-ae grammes of the pure fatty acids are now transferred to a test tube1 #f #a1 warmed until molten1 and the tube introduced through a hole in the cork into a flask or wide-mouthed bottle4 ,a very accurate thermometer1 graduated into fifths of a degree ,centigrade 7previously standardised71 is immersed in the fatty acids1 so that the bulb is as near the centre as possible1 and when the fatty acids just begin to solidify at the bottom of the tube1 the thermometer is stirred round slowly4 ,the mercury will descend1 and stirring is continued until it ceases to fall further1 at which point the thermometer is very carefully observed4 ,it will be found that the temperature will rise rapidly and finally remain stationary for a short time1 after which it will again begin to drop until the temperature of the room is reached4 ,the maximum point to which the temperature rises is known as the titre of the sample4 ,,alkalies ,,and ,,alkali ,,salts4 ,care should be bestowed upon the sampling of solid caustic soda or potash as the impurities during the solidification always accumulate in the centre of the drum1 and an excess of that portion must be avoided or the sample will not be sufficiently representative4 ,the sampling should be performed expeditiously to prevent carbonating1 and portions placed in a stoppered bottle4 ,the whole should be slightly broken in a mortar1 and bright crystalline portions taken for analysis1 using a stoppered weighing bottle4 ,caustic ,soda and ,caustic ,potash4--,these substances are valued according to the alkali present in the form of caustic 7hydrate7 and carbonate4 ,about #b grammes of the sample are dissolved in #ej c4c4 distilled water1 and titrated with ,n_/#a sulphuric acid1 using phenol-phthalein as indicator1 the alkalinity so obtained representing all the caustic alkali and one-half the carbonate1 which latter is converted into bicarbonate4 ,one c4c4 ,n_/#a acid #j4jca gramme ,na#b,o or #j4jdj gramme ,na,o,h and #j4jdg gramme ,k#b,o1 or #j4jef gramme ,,koh4 ,after this first titration1 the second half of the carbonate may be determined in one of two ways1 either3-- 7#a7 ,by adding from #c-e c4c4 of ,n_/#aj acid1 and well boiling for five minutes to expel carbonic-acid gas1 after which the excess of acid is titrated with ,n_/#aj soda solution2 or 7#b7 ,after adding two drops of methyl orange solution1 ,n_/#aj acid is run in until the solution acquires a faint pink tint4 ,in the calculation of the caustic alkali1 the number of c4c4 of acid required in the second titration1 divided by #aj1 is subtracted from that used in the first1 and this difference multiplied by #j4jca1 or #j4jdg gives the amount of ,na#b,o or ,k#b,o respectively in the weight of sample taken1 whence the percentage may be readily calculated4 ,the proportion of carbonate is calculated by multiplying the amount of ,n_/#aj acid required in the second titration by #b1 and then by either #j4jjca or #j4jjdg to give the amount of carbonate present1 expressed as ,na#b,o or ,k#b,o respectively4 ,an alternative method is to determine the alkalinity before and after the elimination of carbonate by chloride of barium4 ,about #g-h grammes of the sample are dissolved in water1 and made up to #ajj c4c41 and the total alkalinity determined by titrating #bj c4c4 with ,n_/#a acid1 using methyl orange as indicator4 ,to another #bj c4c4 is added barium chloride solution 7#aj per cent47 until it ceases to give a precipitate1 the precipitate allowed to settle1 and the clear supernatant liquid decanted off1 the precipitate transferred to a filter paper and well washed1 and the filtrate titrated with ,n_/#a acid1 using phenol-phthalein as indicator4 ,the second titration gives the amount of caustic alkali present1 and the difference between the two the proportion of carbonate4 ,when methyl orange solution is used as indicator1 titrations must be carried out cold4 ,reference has already been made 7p4 #ci7 to the manner in which the alkali percentage is expressed in ,english degrees in the case of caustic soda4 ,chlorides are estimated by titrating the neutral solution with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution1 potassium chromate being used as indicator4 ,one c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,ag,n,o#c solution #j4jjehe gramme sodium chloride4 ,the amount of acid necessary for exact neutralisation having already been ascertained1 it is recommended to use the equivalent quantity of ,n_/#aj nitric acid to produce the neutral solution4 ,sulphides may be tested for1 qualitatively1 with lead acetate solution4 ,aluminates are determined gravimetrically in the usual manner2 #b grammes are dissolved in water1 rendered acid with ,h,cl1 excess of ammonia added1 and the gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydrate collected on a filter paper1 washed1 burnt1 and weighed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,carbonated ,alkali 7,soda ,ash74--,the total or available alkali is1 of course1 the chief factor to be ascertained1 and for this purpose it is convenient to weigh out #c4a grammes of the sample1 dissolve in #ej c4c4 water1 and titrate with ,n_/#a sulphuric or hydrochloric acid1 using methyl orange as indicator4 ,each c4c4 of ,n_/#a acid required represents #a per cent4 ,na#b,o in the sample under examination4 ,a more complete analysis of soda ash would comprise3-- ,insoluble matter1 remaining after #aj grammes are dissolved in warm water4 ,this is washed on to a filter-paper1 dried1 ignited1 and weighed4 ,the filtrate is made up to #bjj c4c41 and in it may be determined3-- ,caustic soda1 by titrating with ,n_/#a acid the filtrate resulting from the treatment of #bj c4c4 7equal to #a gramme7 with barium chloride solution4 ,carbonate4--,titrate #bj c4c4 with ,n_/#a acid1 and deduct the amount of acid required for the ,caustic4 ,chlorides4--,twenty c4c4 are exactly neutralised with nitric acid1 titrated with ,n_/#aj ,ag,n,o#c solution1 using potassium chromate as indicator4 ,sulphates4--,twenty c4c4 are acidulated with ,h,cl1 and the sulphates precipitated with barium chloride2 the precipitate is collected on a filter paper1 washed1 dried1 ignited1 and weighed1 the result being calculated to ,na#b,,so#d4 ,sulphides and ,sulphites4--,the presence of these compounds is denoted by the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid respectively when the sample is acidulated4 ,sulphides may also be tested for1 qualitatively1 with lead acetate solution1 or test-paper of sodium nitro-prusside4 ,the total quantity of these compounds may be ascertained by acidulating with acetic acid1 and titrating with ,n_/#aj iodine solution1 using starch paste as indicator4 ,one c4c4 ,n_/#aj iodine solution #j4jjfc gramme ,na#b,,so#c4 ,the amount of sulphides may be estimated by titrating the hot soda solution1 to which ammonia has been added1 with an ammoniacal silver nitrate solution1 #a c4c4 of which corresponds to #j4jje gramme ,na#b,s4 ,as the titration proceeds1 the precipitate is filtered off1 and the addition of ammoniacal silver solution to the filtrate continued until a drop produces only a slight opacity4 ,the presence of chloride1 sulphate1 hydrate1 or carbonate does not interfere with the accuracy of this method4 ,the ammoniacal silver nitrate solution is prepared by dissolving #ac4cde grammes of pure silver in pure nitric acid1 adding #bej c4c4 liquor ammoni fortis1 and diluting to #a litre4 ,carbonate of ,potash 7,pearl ,ash74--,the total or available alkali may be estimated by taking #f4i grammes of the sample1 and titrating with ,n_/#a acid directly1 or adding #ajj c4c4 ,n_/#a sulphuric acid1 boiling for a few minutes1 and titrating the excess of acid with ,n_/#a caustic soda solution1 using litmus as indicator4 ,in this case each c4c4 ,n_/#a acid required1 is equivalent1 in the absence of ,na#b;,,co#c1 to #a per cent4 ,k#b;,,co#c4 ,carbonate of potash may be further examined for the following3-- ,moisture4--,from #b-c grammes are heated for thirty minutes in a crucible over a gas flame1 and weighed when cold1 the loss in weight representing the moisture4 ,insoluble residue1 remaining after solution in water1 filtering and well washing4 ,potassium may be determined by precipitation as potassium platino-chloride thus3--,dissolve #j4e gramme in a small quantity 7say #aj c4c47 of water1 and carefully acidulate with hydrochloric acid1 evaporate the resultant liquor to dryness in a tared platinum basin1 and heat the residue gradually to dull redness4 ,cool in a desicator1 weigh1 and express the result as mixed chlorides1 i4e4 chlorides of soda and potash4 ,to the mixed chlorides add #aj c4c4 water1 and platinic chloride in excess 7the quantity may be three times the amount of the mixed chlorides7 and evaporate nearly to dryness2 add #ae c4c4 alcohol and allow to stand three hours covered with a watch-glass1 giving the dish a gentle rotatory movement occasionally4 ,the clear liquid is decanted through a tared filter1 and the precipitate well washed with alcohol by decantation1 and finally transferred to the filter1 dried and weighed4 ,from the weight of potassium platino-chloride1 ,k#b,pt,cl#f1 is calculated the amount of potassium oxide ,k#b,o by the use of the factor #id_/dhh4b or #j4aibed4 ,chlorides1 determined with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution1 and calculated to ,k,cl4 ,sulphates1 estimated as barium sulphate1 and calculated to ,k#b,,so#d4 ,sodium ,carbonate1 found by deducting the ,k#b;,,co#c corresponding to the actual potassium as determined above1 from the total alkali4 ,iron1 precipitated with excess of ammonia1 filtered1 ignited1 and weighed as ,fe#b,o#c4 ,,sodium ,,chloride 7,,common ,,salt74 ,this should be examined for the following3-- ,actual ,chloride1 either titrated with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution1 using neutral potassium chromate solution as indicator1 or1 preferably1 estimated gravimetrically as silver chloride by precipitation with silver nitrate solution1 the precipitate transferred to a tared filter paper1 washed1 dried and weighed4 ,insoluble matter1 remaining on dissolving #e grammes in water1 and filtering4 ,this is washed1 dried1 ignited and weighed4 ,moisture4--#e grammes are weighed into a platinum crucible1 and heat gently applied4 ,the temperature is gradually increased to a dull red heat1 which is maintained for a few minutes1 the dish cooled in a desicator1 and weighed4 ,sulphates are estimated by precipitation as barium sulphate and calculated to ,na#b,,so#d4 ,sodium4--,this may be determined by converting the salt into sodium sulphate by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid1 igniting to drive off hydrochloric and sulphuric acids1 and fusing the mass until constant in weight1 weighing finally as ,na#b,,so#d4 ,,potassium ,,chloride4 ,this should be examined1 in the same way as sodium chloride1 for chloride1 insoluble matter1 moisture1 and sulphate4 ,the potassium may be determined as potassium platino-chloride1 as described under carbonate of potash4 ,,silicates ,,of ,,soda ,,and ,,potash4 ,the most important determinations for these are total alkali and silica4 ,total alkali is estimated by dissolving #b grammes in distilled water1 and titrating when cold1 with ,n_/#a acid1 using methyl orange as indicator4 ,silica may be determined by dissolving #a gramme in distilled water1 rendering the solution acid with ,h,cl1 and evaporating to complete dryness on the water-bath1 after which the residue is moistened with ,h,cl and again evaporated1 this operation being repeated a third time4 ,the residue is then heated to about #aej ,c41 extracted with hot dilute ,h,cl1 filtered1 thoroughly washed1 dried1 ignited in a tared platinum crucible1 and weighed as ,si,o#b4 ,,essential ,,oils4 ,as already stated1 these are very liable to adulteration1 and an examination of all kinds of oil is desirable1 while in the case of the more expensive varieties it should never be omitted4 ,specific ,gravity4--,as with fats and oils1 this is usually taken at #ae ,c41 and compared with water at the same temperature4 ,in the case of otto of rose and guaiac wood oil1 however1 which are solid at this temperature1 it is generally observed at #cj ,c4 compared with water at #ae ,c4 ,the specific gravity is preferably taken in a bottle or ,u-tube1 but if sufficient of the oil is available and a high degree of accuracy is not necessary1 it may be taken either with a ,westphal balance1 or by means of a hydrometer4 ,optical ,rotation4--,for this purpose a special instrument1 known as a polarimeter1 is required1 details of the construction and use of which would be out of place here4 ,suffice it to mention that temperature plays an important part in the determination of the optical activity of certain essential oils1 notably in the case of lemon and orange oils4 ,for these ,gildemeister and ,hoffmann give the following corrections3-- ,lemon oil1 below #bj ,c4 subtract #i' for each degree below1 above #bj ,c4 add #h' for each degree above4 ,orange oil1 below #bj ,c4 subtract #ad' for each degree below1 above #bj ,c4 add #ac' for each degree above4 ,refractive ,index4--,this figure is occasionally useful1 and is best determined with an ,abb refractometer1 at #bj ,c4 ,solubility in ,alcohol4--,this is found by running alcohol of the requisite strength from a burette into a measured volume of the oil with constant agitation1 until the oil forms a clear solution with the alcohol4 ,having noted the quantity of alcohol added1 it is well to run in a small further quantity of alcohol1 and observe whether any opalescence or cloudiness appears4 ,acid1 ester1 and saponification values are determined exactly as described under fats and oils4 ,instead of expressing the result as saponification value or number1 the percentage of ester1 calculated in the form of the most important ester present1 may be obtained by multiplying the number of c4c4 of ,n_/#a alkali absorbed in the saponification by the molecular weight of the ester4 ,thus1 to find the percentage as linalyl acetate1 the number of c4c4 absorbed would be multiplied by #j4aif and by #ajj1 and divided by the weight of oil taken4 ,alcohols4--,for the estimation of these1 if the oil contains much ester it must first be saponified with alcoholic potash1 to liberate the combined alcohols1 and after neutralising the excess of alkali with acid1 the oil is washed into a separating funnel with water1 separated1 dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate1 and is then ready for the alcohol determination4 ,if there is only a small quantity of ester present1 this preliminary saponification is unnecessary4 ,the alcohols are estimated by conversion into their acetic esters1 which are then saponified with standard alcoholic potash1 thereby furnishing a measure of the amount of alcohol esterified4 ,ten c4c4 of the oil is placed in a flask with an equal volume of acetic anhydride1 and #b grammes of anhydrous sodium acetate1 and gently boiled for an hour to an hour and a half4 ,after cooling1 water is added1 and the contents of the flask heated on the water-bath for fifteen to thirty minutes1 after which they are cooled1 transferred to a separating funnel1 and washed with a brine solution until the washings cease to give an acid reaction with litmus paper4 ,the oil is now dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate1 filtered1 and #a-b grammes weighed into a flask and saponified with alcoholic potash as in the determination of ester or saponification value4 ,the calculation is a little complicated1 but an example may perhaps serve to make it clear4 ,a geranium oil containing #bf4i per cent4 of ester1 calculated as geranyl tiglate1 was acetylated1 after saponification1 to liberate the combined geraniol1 and #b4chbe grammes of the acetylated oil required #i4a c4c4 of ,n_/#a alkali for its saponification4 ,now every #aif grammes of geranyl acetate present in the acetylated oil correspond to #aed grammes of geraniol1 so that for every #aif grammes of ester now present in the oil1 #db grammes have been added to its weight1 and it is therefore necessary to make a deduction from the weight of oil taken for the final saponification to allow for this1 and since each c4c4 of ,n_/#a alkali absorbed corresponds to #j4aif gramme of geranyl acetate1 the amount to be deducted is found by multiplying the number of c4c4 absorbed by #j4jdb gramme1 the formula for the estimation of total alcohols thus becoming in the example given3-- #i4a #j4aed #ajj ,per cent4 of geraniol ---------------------- #gj4b #b4chbe - 7#i4a #j4jdb7 ,the percentage of combined alcohols can be calculated from the amount of ester found1 and by subtracting this from the percentage of total alcohols1 that of the free alcohols is obtained4 ,in the example quoted1 the ester corresponds to #ag4f per cent4 geraniol1 and this1 deducted from the total alcohols1 gives #eb4f per cent4 free alcohols1 calculated as geraniol4 ,this process gives accurate results with geraniol1 borneol1 and menthol1 but with linalol and terpineol the figures obtained are only comparative1 a considerable quantity of these alcohols being decomposed during the acetylation4 ,the aldehyde citronellal is converted by acetic anhydride into isopulegol acetate1 so that this is also included in the determination of graniol in citronella oil4 ,phenols4--,these bodies are soluble in alkalies1 and may be estimated by measuring #e c4c4 or #aj c4c4 of the oil into a ,hirschsohn flask 7a flask of about #ajj c4c4 capacity with a long narrow neck holding #aj c4c41 graduated in tenths of a c4c471 adding #be c4c4 of a #e per cent4 aqueous caustic potash solution1 and warming in the water-bath1 then adding another #be c4c41 and after one hour in the water-bath filling the flask with the potash solution until the unabsorbed oil rises into the neck of the flask1 the volume of this oil being read off when it has cooled down to the temperature of the laboratory4 ,from the volume of oil dissolved the percentage of phenols is readily calculated4 ,aldehydes4--,in the estimation of these substances1 use is made of their property of combining with sodium bisulphite to form compounds soluble in hot water4 ,from #e-aj c4c4 of the oil is measured into a ,hirschsohn flask1 about #cj c4c4 of a hot saturated solution of sodium bisulphite added1 and the flask immersed in a boiling water bath1 and thoroughly shaken at frequent intervals4 ,further quantities of the bisulphite solution are gradually added1 until1 after about one hour1 the unabsorbed oil rises into the neck of the flask1 where1 after cooling1 its volume is read off1 and the percentage of absorbed oil1 or aldehydes1 calculated4 ,in the case of lemon oil1 where the proportion of aldehydes1 though of great importance1 is relatively very small1 it is necessary to first concentrate the aldehydes before determining them4 ,for this purpose1 #ajj c4c4 of the oil is placed in a ,ladenburg fractional distillation flask1 and #ij c4c4 distilled off under a pressure of not more than #dj mm41 and the residue steam distilled4 ,the oil so obtained is separated from the condensed water1 measured1 dried1 and #e c4c4 assayed for aldehydes either by the process already described1 or by the following process devised by ,burgess 7,analyst1 #aijd1 #gh73-- ,five c4c4 of the oil are placed in the ,hirschsohn flask1 about #bj c4c4 of a saturated solution of neutral sodium sulphite added1 together with a few drops of rosolic acid solution as indicator1 and the flask placed in a boiling water-bath and continually agitated4 ,the contents of the flask soon become red owing to the liberation of free alkali by the combination of the aldehyde with part of the sodium sulphite1 and this coloration is just discharged by the addition of sufficient #aj per cent4 acetic-acid solution4 ,the flask is again placed in the water-bath1 the shaking continued1 and any further alkali liberated neutralised by more acetic acid1 the process being continued in this way until no further red colour is produced4 ,the flask is then filled with the sodium sulphite solution1 the volume of the cooled unabsorbed oil read off1 and the percentage of aldehydes calculated as before4 ,solidifying ,point1 or ,congealing ,point4--,this is of some importance in the examination of anise and fennel oils1 and is also useful in the examination of otto of rose4 ,a suitable apparatus may be made by obtaining three test tubes1 of different sizes1 which will fit one inside the other1 and fixing them together in this way through corks4 ,the innermost tube is then filled with the oil1 and a sensitive thermometer1 similar to that described under the ,titre test for fats1 suspended with its bulb completely immersed in the oil4 ,with anise and fennel1 the oil is cooled down with constant stirring until it just starts crystallising1 when the stirring is interrupted1 and the maximum temperature to which the mercury rises noted4 ,this is the solidifying point4 ,in the case of otto of rose1 the otto is continually stirred1 and the point at which the first crystal is observed is usually regarded as the congealing point4 ,melting ,point4--,this is best determined by melting some of the solid oil1 or crystals1 and sucking a small quantity up into a capillary tube1 which is then attached by a rubber band to the bulb of the thermometer1 immersed in a suitable bath 7water1 glycerine1 oil1 etc47 and the temperature of the bath gradually raised until the substance in the tube is sufficiently melted to rise to the surface1 the temperature at which this takes place being the melting point4 ,the melting point of otto of rose is usually taken in a similar tube to the setting point1 and is considered to be the point at which the last crystal disappears4 ,iodine ,absorption4--,in the authors' opinion1 this is of some value in conjunction with other data in judging of the purity of otto of rose4 ,it is determined by ,hbl's process as described under ,fats and ,oils1 except that only #j4a to #j4b gramme is taken1 and instead of #aj c4c4 of chloroform1 #aj c4c4 of pure alcohol are added4 ,the rest of the process is identical4 ,,soap4 ,in the analysis of soap1 it is a matter of considerable importance that all the determinations should be made on a uniform and average sample of the soap1 otherwise very misleading and unreliable figures are obtained4 ,soap very rapidly loses its moisture on the surface1 while the interior of the bar or cake may be comparatively moist1 and the best way is to carefully remove the outer edges and take the portions for analysis from the centre4 ,in the case of a household or unmilled toilet soap1 it is imperative that the quantities for analysis should all be weighed out as quickly after each other as possible4 ,fatty ,acids4--,five grammes of the soap are rapidly weighed into a small beaker1 distilled water added1 and the beaker heated on the water bath until the soap is dissolved4 ,a slight excess of mineral acid is now added1 and the whole heated until the separated fatty acids are perfectly clear1 when they are collected on a tared filter paper1 well washed with hot water and dried until constant in weight4 ,the result multiplied by #bj gives the percentage of fatty acids in the sample4 ,a quicker method1 and one which gives accurate results when care is bestowed upon it1 is to proceed in the manner described above as far as the decomposition with mineral acid1 and to then add #e or #aj grammes of stearic acid or beeswax to the contents of the beaker and heat until a clear layer of fatty matter collects upon the acid liquor4 ,cool the beaker1 and when the cake is sufficiently hard1 remove it carefully by means of a spatula and dry on a filtering paper1 add the portions adhering to the sides of the beaker to the cake1 and weigh4 ,the weight1 less the amount of stearic acid or beeswax added1 multiplied by #bj gives the percentage of fatty acids4 ,care must be taken that the cake does not contain enclosed water4 ,the results of these methods are returned as fatty acids1 but are in reality insoluble fatty acids1 the soluble fatty acids being generally disregarded4 ,however in soaps made from cocoa-nut and palm-kernel oils 7which contain an appreciable quantity of soluble fatty acids7 the acid liquor is shaken with ether1 and1 after evaporation of the ethereal extract1 the amount of fatty matter left is added to the result already obtained as above1 or the ether method described below may be advantageously employed4 ,where the soap under examination contains mineral matter1 the separated fatty acids may be dissolved in ether4 ,this is best performed in an elongated1 graduated1 stoppered tube1 the total volume of the ether1 after subsidence1 carefully read1 and an aliquot part taken and evaporated to dryness in a tared flask1 which is placed in the oven at #ajj ,c4 until the weight is constant4 ,in a complete analysis1 the figure for fatty acids should be converted into terms of fatty anhydrides by multiplying by the factor #j4ihge4 ,in this test the resin acids contained in the soap are returned as fatty acids1 but the former can be estimated1 as described later1 and deducted from the total4 ,total ,alkali4--,the best method is to incinerate #e grammes of the soap in a platinum dish1 dissolve the residue in water1 boil and filter1 making the volume of filtrate up to #bej c4c41 the solution being reserved for the subsequent determination of salt1 silicates1 and sulphates1 as detailed below4 ,fifty c4c4 of the solution are titrated with ,n_/#a acid1 to methyl orange1 and the result expressed in terms of ,na#b,o4 ,number of c4c4 required #j4jca #ajj per cent4 ,na#b,o4 ,the total alkali may also be estimated in the filtrate from the determination of fatty acids1 if the acid used for decomposing the soap solution has been measured and its strength known1 by titrating back the excess of acid with normal soda solution1 when the difference will equal the amount of total alkali in the quantity taken4 ,the total alkali is usually expressed in the case of hard soaps as ,na#b,o1 and in soft soaps as ,k#b,o4 ,free caustic alkali is estimated by dissolving #b grammes of the soap1 in neutral pure alcohol1 with gentle heat1 filtering1 well washing the filter with hot neutral spirit1 and titrating the filtrate with ,n_/#aj acid1 to phenol-phthalein4 ,number of c4c4 required #j4jjca #ej per cent4 free alkali ,na#b,o1 as caustic4 ,free ,carbonated ,alkali4--,the residue on the filter paper from the above determination is washed with hot water1 and the aqueous filtrate titrated with ,n_/#aj acid1 using methyl orange as indicator4 ,the result is generally expressed in terms of ,na#b,o4 ,number of c4c4 required #j4jjca #ej per cent4 free alkali ,na#b,o1 as carbonate4 ,free ,alkali4--,some analysts determine the alkalinity to phenol-phthalein of the alcoholic soap solution without filtering1 and express it as free alkali 7caustic1 carbonates1 or any salt having an alkaline reaction74 ,combined ,alkali4--,the difference between total alkali and free alkali 7caustic and carbonate together7 represents the alkali combined with fatty acids4 ,this figure may also be directly determined by titrating1 with ,n_/#b acid1 the alcoholic solution of soap after the free caustic estimation1 using lacmoid as indicator4 ,the potash and soda in soaps may be separated by the method described for the estimation of potassium in ,pearl ash 7page #abf74 ,the potassium platino-chloride 7,k#b,pt,cl#f7 is calculated to potassium chloride 7,k,cl7 by using the factor #j4cjeb1 and this figure deducted from the amount of mixed chlorides found1 gives the amount of sodium chloride 7,na,cl71 from which the sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 is obtained by multiplying by #j4ebiia4 ,the potassium chloride 7,k,cl7 is converted into terms of potassium oxide 7,k#b,o7 by the use of the factor #j4fcjhg4 ,salt may be determined in #ej c4c4 of the filtered aqueous extract of the incinerated soap1 by exactly neutralising with normal acid and titrating with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution1 using a neutral solution of potassium chromate as indicator4 ,the final reaction is more distinctly observed if a little bicarbonate of soda is added to the solution4 ,number of c4c4 required #j4jjehe #ajj per cent4 of common salt1 ,na,cl4 ,chlorides may also be estimated by ,volhard's method1 the aqueous extract being rendered slightly acid with nitric acid1 a measured volume of ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution added1 and the excess titrated back with ,n_/#aj ammonium thiocyanate solution1 using iron alum as indicator4 ,silicates4--,these are estimated by evaporating #ej c4c4 of the filtered extract from the incinerated soap1 in a platinum dish with hydrochloric acid twice to complete dryness1 heating to #aej ,c41 adding hot water1 and filtering through a tared filter paper4 ,the residue is well washed1 ignited1 and weighed as ,si,o#b1 and from this silica is calculated the sodium silicate4 ,sulphates may be determined in the filtrate from the silica estimation by precipitation with barium chloride solution1 and weighing the barium sulphate1 after filtering1 and burning1 expressing the result in terms of ,na#b,,so#d by the use of the factor #j4fjid4 ,moisture4--,this is simply estimated by taking a weighed portion in small shavings in a tared dish1 and drying in the oven at #aje ,c4 until it ceases to lose weight4 ,from the loss thus found is calculated the moisture percentage4 ,free or ,uncombined ,fat4--,this is usually determined by repeated extraction of an aqueous solution of the soap with petroleum ether2 the ethereal solution1 after washing with water to remove traces of soap1 is evaporated to dryness and the residue weighed4 ,a good method1 which can be recommended for employment where many determinations have to be performed1 is to dissolve #aj grammes of soap in #ej c4c4 neutral alcohol and titrate to phenol-phthalein with ,n_/#a acid4 ,add #c-e drops ,h,cl and boil to expel carbonic acid1 neutralise with alcoholic ,,koh solution and add exactly #aj c4c4 in excess1 boil for fifteen minutes under a reflux condenser and titrate with ,n_/#a acid4 ,the difference between this latter figure and the amount required for a blank test with #aj c4c4 alcoholic ,,koh1 denotes the amount of alkali absorbed by the uncombined fat4 ,examination of the fatty acids as a guide to the probable composition of the soap3-- ,from the data obtained by estimating the titre1 iodine number1 and saponification equivalent of the mixed fatty and rosin acids1 and the rosin content1 a fairly good idea of the constitution of the soap may be deduced4 ,the titre1 iodine number1 and saponification equivalent are determined in exactly the same manner as described under ,fats and ,oils4 ,the presence of rosin may be detected by the ,liebermann-,storch reaction1 which consists in dissolving a small quantity of the fatty acids in acetic anhydride1 and adding to a few drops of this solution #a drop of #ej per cent4 sulphuric acid4 ,a violet coloration is produced with rosin acids4 ,the amount of rosin may be estimated by the method devised by ,twitchell 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahia1 #hjd7 which is carried out thus3-- ,two grammes of the mixed fatty and rosin acids are dissolved in #bj c4c4 absolute alcohol1 and dry hydrochloric acid gas passed through until no more is absorbed1 the flask being kept cool by means of cold water to prevent the rosin acids being acted upon4 ,the flask1 after disconnecting1 is allowed to stand one hour to ensure complete combination1 when its contents are transferred to a ,philips' beaker1 well washed out with water so that the volume is increased about five times1 and boiled until the acid solution is clear1 a fragment of granulated zinc being added to prevent bumping4 ,the heat is removed1 and the liquid allowed to cool1 when it is poured into a separator1 and the beaker thoroughly rinsed out with ether4 ,after shaking1 the acid liquor is withdrawn1 and the ethereal layer washed with water until free from acid4 ,fifty c4c4 neutral alcohol are added1 and the solution titrated with ,n_/#a ,,koh or ,na,o,h solution1 the percentage of rosin being calculated from its combining weight4 ,twitchell suggests #cdf as the combining weight of rosin1 but #ccj is a closer approximation4 ,the method may be also carried out gravimetrically1 in which case petroleum ether1 boiling at #gd ,c4 is used for washing out the beaker into the separator4 ,the acid liquor is run off1 and the petroleum ether layer washed first with water and then with a solution of #a_/b gramme ,,koh and #e c4c4 alcohol in #ej c4c4 water1 and agitated4 ,the rosin is thus saponified and separated4 ,the resinate solution is withdrawn1 acidified1 and the resin acids collected1 dried and weighed4 ,halphen's ,reaction4--,this is a special test to determine the presence or absence of cotton-seed oil fatty acids in mixtures4 ,equal parts of the fatty acids1 amyl alcohol1 and a #a per cent4 solution of sulphur in carbon bisulphide1 are heated in a test-tube placed in a water-bath until effervescence ceases1 then in boiling brine for one hour or longer when only small quantities are present4 ,the presence of cotton-seed oil is denoted by a pink coloration4 ,the reaction is rendered much more rapid1 according to ,rupp 7,z4 ,untersuch4 ,nahr4 ,genussm41 #aijg1 #ac1 #gd71 by heating in a stoppered flask4 ,other bodies which it is occasionally necessary to test for or determine in soap include3-- ,carbolic acid4--,fifty grammes of the soap are dissolved in water and #bj c4c4 of #aj per cent4 caustic potash added4 ,the solution is treated with an excess of brine1 the supernatant liquor separated1 and the precipitate washed with brine1 the washings being added to the liquor withdrawn4 ,this is then evaporated to a small bulk1 placed in a ,muter's graduated tube1 and acidified with mineral acid4 ,the volume of separated phenols is observed and stated in percentage on the soap taken4 ,or the alkaline layer may be rendered acid and steam distilled2 the distillate is made up to a known volume1 and a portion titrated by the ,koppeschaar method with standard bromine water4 ,glycerine4--,five grammes of soap are dissolved in water1 decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid1 and the clear fatty acids filtered and washed4 ,the filtrate is neutralised with barium carbonate1 evaporated to #ej c4c41 and the glycerol estimated by the bichromate method detailed under ,crude ,glycerine4 ,starch or gum may be detected by dissolving the soap in alcohol1 filtering1 and examining the residue on the filter paper4 ,starch is readily recognised by the blue coloration it gives with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide4 ,sugars are tested for by means of ,fehlings' solution1 in the liquor separated from the fatty acids1 after first boiling with dilute acid to invert any cane sugar4 ,mercury will be revealed by a black precipitate produced when sulphuretted hydrogen is added to the liquor separated from the fatty acids1 and may be estimated by filtering off this precipitate on a tared ,gooch's crucible1 which is then dried and weighed4 ,borax or borates are tested for in the residue insoluble in alcohol4 ,this is dissolved in water1 rendered faintly acid with dilute hydrochloric acid1 and a strip of turmeric paper immersed for a few minutes in the liquid4 ,this is then dried in the water-oven1 when if any boric acid compound is present1 a bright reddish-pink stain is produced on the paper1 which is turned blue on moistening with dilute alkali4 ,the amount of the boric acid radicle may be determined by incinerating #e-aj grammes of soap1 extracting with hot dilute acid1 filtering1 neutralising this solution to methyl orange1 and boiling to expel carbon dioxide4 ,after cooling1 sufficient pure neutralised glycerine is added to form one-third of the total volume1 and the liquid titrated with ,n_/#b caustic soda solution1 using phenol-phthalein as indicator4 ,each c4c4 of ,n_/#b ,na,o,h solution corresponds to #j4jca gramme crystallised boric acid1 ,h#c;,,bo#c or #j4jdgg gramme crystallised borax1 ,na#b;,b#d,o#gaj;,h#b,o4 ,,lyes4 ,the amounts of caustic alkali 7if any71 carbonated alkali1 and salt present are determined in the manner already described under ,alkali and ,alkali ,salts4 ,the glycerol content is ascertained by taking #b4e grammes1 adding lead subacetate solution1 and filtering without increasing the bulk more than is absolutely necessary2 the solution is concentrated to about #be c4c41 and the oxidation with bichromate and sulphuric acid conducted as described in the examination of ,crude ,glycerine4 ,the solution1 after oxidation1 is made up to #bej c4c41 and titrated against standard ferrous ammonium sulphate solution1 the formula for the calculation being3-- #j4be - #b4e ,per cent4 of glycerol --- #dj n where n equals the number of c4c4 of oxidised lyes required to oxidise the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution4 ,the estimation of actual glycerol in this is necessarily a matter of considerable importance1 and a very large number of processes1 which are constantly being added to1 have been suggested for the purpose4 ,hitherto1 however1 only two methods have been generally adopted1 viz4 the acetin and the bichromate processes4 ,unfortunately the results obtained by these do not invariably agree1 the latter1 which includes all oxidisable matter as glycerol1 giving sometimes considerably higher results1 and it has been suggested that a determination should be made by both methods1 and the average of the two results considered the true value4 ,this involves a considerable amount of time and trouble1 and it will generally be found sufficient in a works laboratory to determine the glycerol by one method only in the ordinary course1 reserving the other process for use as a check in case of dispute or doubt4 ,acetin ,method4--,this consists in converting the glycerol into its ester with acetic acid1 the acetic triglyceride1 or triacetin being formed4 ,this is then saponified with a known volume of standard alkali1 the excess of which is titrated with acid1 and the percentage of glycerol calculated from the amount of alkali absorbed4 ,from #a to #a4e grammes of the glycerine is weighed into a conical flask of about #aej c4c4 capacity1 #g or #h c4c4 of acetic anhydride added1 together with about #c grammes of anhydrous sodium acetate1 and the whole boiled on a sand-bath under a reflux condenser for one to one and a half hours1 after which it is allowed to cool1 #ej c4c4 water added1 and the ester dissolved by shaking1 and gently warming1 the reflux condenser still being attached as the acetin is very volatile4 ,the solution is then filtered from a white flocculent precipitate1 which contains most of the impurities1 into a larger conical flask1 of some #ejj-fjj c4c4 capacity1 and after cooling1 rendered just neutral to phenol-phthalein by means of ,n_/#b caustic soda solution1 the exact point being reached when the solution acquires a reddish-yellow tint2 #be c4c4 of a strong caustic soda solution is then added1 and the liquid boiled for about fifteen minutes1 the excess of alkali being titrated after cooling1 with ,n_/#a or ,n_/#b hydrochloric acid4 ,a blank experiment is carried out simultaneously1 with another #be c4c4 of the soda solution1 and the difference in the amounts of acid required by the two1 furnishes a measure of the alkali required to saponify the acetin formed1 and hence the amount of glycerol in the crude glycerine may be calculated4 ,example4--#a4dcfg grammes crude glycerine1 after treatment with acetic anhydride1 and neutralising1 was saponified with #be c4c4 of a #aj per cent4 caustic soda solution4 ,the blank experiment required #aaa4je c4c4 ,n_/#a hydrochloric acid4 ,flask containing acetin #ge4c c4c4 ----- #ce4ge c4c4 ,hence1 the acetin formed from the glycerol present in #a4dcfg grammes of the crude glycerine required #ce4ge c4c4 ,n_/#a caustic alkali for its saponification1 so that the percentage of glycerol may be calculated from the following formula3-- #ce4ge #j4jcjfg #ajj ,per cent4 glycerol --------------------- #gf4c4 #a4dcfg ,bichromate ,method4--,this process was originally devised by ,hehner 7,journ4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 #ahhi1 #d-i71 but the modification suggested by ,richardson and ,jaffe 7ibid41 #ahih1 #ccj7 is preferred by the authors1 and has been practised by them for several years with perfectly satisfactory results4 ,twenty-five grammes of the crude glycerine are weighed out in a beaker1 washed into a #bej c4c4 stoppered flask1 and made up to the graduation mark with water4 ,twenty-five c4c4 of this solution are then measured from a burette into a small beaker1 a slight excess of basic lead acetate solution added to precipitate organic matter1 the precipitate allowed to settle1 and the supernatant liquid poured through a filter paper into another #bej c4c4 flask4 ,the precipitate is washed by decantation until the flask is nearly full1 then transferred to the filter1 and allowed to drain1 a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid being added to precipitate the slight excess of basic lead acetate solution1 and the contents of the flask made up with water to #bej c4c4 ,this solution is filtered1 #bj c4c4 measured from a burette into a conical flask of about #aej c4c4 capacity1 #be c4c4 of a standard potassium bichromate solution containing #gd4hf grammes bichromate per litre added1 together with #ej c4c4 of #ej per cent4 sulphuric acid1 and the whole placed in a boiling water-bath for one hour1 after which it is allowed to cool1 diluted with water to #bej c4c41 and this solution run in to #bj c4c4 of a #c per cent4 ferrous ammonium sulphate solution until the latter is completely oxidised1 as shown by no blue coloration being produced when one drop is brought into contact with one drop of a freshly prepared solution of potassium ferricyanide on a spot-plate4 ,the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution is previously standardised by titration with a potassium bichromate solution of one-tenth the above strength1 made by diluting #aj c4c4 of the strong solution to #ajj c4c4 with water4 ,the reaction taking place in the oxidation may be represented by the equation3-- #c;,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #g,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #bh;,h#b,,so#d #i;,,co#b #dj;,h#b,o #g,k#b,,so#d #g;,cr#b7,,so#d7c4 ,now the strong potassium bichromate solution above mentioned is of such a strength that #a c4c4 will oxidise #j4ja gramme glycerine1 and #bj c4c4 of the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution should require about #aj c4c4 of the one-tenth strength bichromate in the blank experiment4 ,if it requires more or less than this1 then the amount of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution which would require exactly #aj c4c4 7corresponding to #j4ja gramme glycerine7 is calculated1 and the oxidised glycerine solution run into this until oxidation is complete4 ,the formula for the calculation of the percentage of glycerol then becomes3-- #j4be -7#bej #j4ja7 ,per cent4 of glycerol ---------- #ejj1 n where n equals the number of c4c4 of oxidised glycerine solution required to oxidise the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution4 ,example3-- ,in the blank experiment #bj c4c4 ferrous ammonium sulphate solution required #i4h c4c4 one-tenth strength bichromate solution1 so that #bj4d c4c4 ferrous solution would equal #aj c4c4 bichromate4 #bj4d c4c4 ferrous solution required #bg4h c4c4 of oxidised glycerine solution before it ceased to give a blue coloration with potassium ferricyanide4 #j4be - 7#bej #j4ja7 ,therefore1 per cent4 of glycerol ------------ #ejj #bg4h #hj4jd per cent4 ,other methods have been suggested for the preliminary purification1 e4g41 silver oxide1 silver carbonate and lead subacetate1 and copper sulphate and caustic potash1 but the lead subacetate alone with care gives satisfactory results4 ,other determinations include those of specific gravity1 alkalinity1 proportion of salts and chloride1 and tests for metals1 arsenic1 sulphur compounds1 sugar1 and fatty acids4 ,specific gravity is determined at #ae ,c41 and may be taken in specific gravity bottle1 or with a ,westphal balance or hydrometer ,it usually ranges from #a4c to #a4ca4 ,alkalinity1 which is usually sodium carbonate1 and may be somewhat considerable if the soap has been grained with caustic alkali1 is determined after dilution with water by titrating with ,n_/#b acid1 using methyl orange as indicator4 ,salts4--,these may be determined by gently incinerating #e-f grammes of the glycerine1 extracting the carbonaceous mass with distilled water1 filtering1 and evaporating the filtrate on the water bath4 ,the dried residue represents the salts in the weight taken4 ,chloride of sodium 7common salt7 may be estimated by dissolving the total salts in water1 adding potassium chromate1 and titrating with ,n_/#aj silver nitrate solution4 ,copper1 lead1 iron1 magnesium1 and calcium may also be tested for in the salts1 by ordinary reactions4 ,arsenic is best tested for by the ,gutzeit method4 ,about #e c4c4 is placed in a test-tube1 a few fragments of granulated zinc free from arsenic1 and #aj c4c4 dilute hydrochloric acid added1 and the mouth of the tube covered with a small filter paper1 moistened three successive times with an alcoholic solution of mercury bichloride and dried4 ,after thirty minutes the filter paper is examined1 when a yellow stain will be observed if arsenic is present4 ,sulphates4--,these may be precipitated with barium chloride in acid solution1 in the usual way1 dried1 ignited1 and weighed4 ,sulphites give with barium chloride a precipitate soluble in hydrochloric acid4 ,if the precipitate is well washed with hot water1 and a few drops of iodine solution together with starch paste added1 the presence of sulphites is proved by the gradual disappearance of the blue starch-iodine compound first formed4 ,thiosulphates are detected by precipitating any sulphite and sulphate with barium chloride1 filtering1 acidifying1 and adding a few drops of potassium permanganate solution1 when in the presence of a mere trace of thiosulphate1 the solution becomes cloudy4 ,sulphides4--,lewkowitsch recommends testing for these by replacing the mercury bichloride with lead acetate paper in the ,gutzeit arsenic test4 ,any sulphide causes a blackening of the lead acetate paper4 ,sugars may be tested for both before and after inversion1 by boiling with ,fehlings' solution1 when no reduction should take place1 if pure4 ,fatty acids are detected by the turbidity they produce when the diluted glycerine is acidified4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,soap ,,industry4 ,until the year #ahec the amount of soap produced annually in this country was readily obtainable from the official returns collected for the purpose of levying the duty1 and the following figures1 taken at intervals of ten years for the half century prior to that date1 show the steady development of the industry during that period3-- ,year4 ,manufactured4 ,consumed4 ,exported4 ,duty per ,ton4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #ahja #eji1ihj #dhb1adj #bf1gij #ba #ahaa #fgh1egj #fea1ghj #bf1gij #ba #ahba #hge1jjj #hci1bij #ce1gaj #bh #ahca #a1jih1baj #iee1cfj #adb1hej #bh #ahda #a1ggf1gij #a1eag1hfj #beh1icj #ad #ahea #a1icg1ejj #a1gda1jgj #aif1dcj #ad ,since the repeal of the soap duty1 the revenue from which had reached about #a1jjj1jjj per annum1 no accurate means of gauging the production exists1 but it is estimated that it has nearly quadrupled during the last fifty-five years1 being now some #g1jjj1jjj or #h1jjj1jjj cwt4 per annum4 ,the number of soap manufacturers in the ,united ,kingdom is nearly #cjj1 and the amount of capital invested in the industry is roughly estimated to approach #bj1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,official figures are still available for the amount and value of soap annually imported and exported to and from the ,united ,kingdom1 the returns for the last eight years being3-- ,imports4 ,household4 ,toilet4 ,total4#ac ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #aijj 444 444 444 444 #aia1bcc #bdd1cde #aija 444 444 444 444 #cjb1eee #cae1jbf #aijb 444 444 444 444 #cfa1hea #dbi1cjj #aijc #bgc1edb #bhd1cgf #be1gdi #ih1jcb #dfb1iei #dii1djg #aijd #bed1dbe #bfh1djh #ag1ifb #ha1afb #chc1abb #dch1iff #aije #bgd1bch #bgi1jdd #ai1fca #ih1ejg #dgc1jfg #ejj1dcj #aijf #cji1ige #caa1aad #ah1eed #aja1bdc #cii1jgj #dfh1jhf #aijg #bbh1jce #bfc1ife #ah1bdd #ii1dcb #ejd1gaj #ede1che ,household and toilet soaps were not given separately prior to #aijc4 ,the imports during the last three years for which complete figures are obtainable1 came from the following sources3-- ,household ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,from ,netherlands #d1cae #c1fbj #c1cfh ,france #ad1cci #ag1ghc #bd1gdg ,italy #bd1bji #ah1abi #cb1igb ,united ,states #bah1gdj #bce1fab #bdb1bid ,other ,foreign ,countries #f1ghe #c1hgc #g1ddh ,total from ,foreign ,countries #bfh1chh #bgi1jag #caj1hbi ,total from ,british ,possessions #bj #bg #bhe ,total #bfh1djh #bgi1jdd #caa1aad ,toilet ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,from ,germany #c1eji #c1eaf #c1jja ,netherlands #e1icg #e1ggc #e1iai ,belgium #a1efh #a1hfa #c1ade ,france #g1abj #g1fcc #e1gid ,italy #a1agf #bee #a1bcc ,united ,states #ei1hfc #gd1eaf #gh1chb ,other ,foreign ,countries #aff #adg #aif ,total from ,foreign ,countries #gi1cci #ic1gja #ig1fgj ,total from ,british ,possessions #a1hbc #d1daa #c1bbe ,total #ha1afb #ih1aab #ajj1hie ,exports4 ,the exports from the ,united ,kingdom during the past eight years have been as follows3-- ,household4 ,toilet4 ,total4#ad ,year4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 ,cwts4 #aijj 444 444 444 444 #hgd1bad #ici1eaj #aija 444 444 444 444 #idg1dhe #iii1ebd #aijb 444 444 444 444 #a1jea1fbd #a1abf1feg #aijc #iih1iie #ijj1had #ch1cgb #bag1ibh #a1jeg1afd #a1adc1ffa #aijd #a1jdi1jbb #iee1ggd #dj1djf #bbh1egd #a1ajh1agd #a1bjh1gab #aije #a1afg1igf #a1jac1hcg #dc1hcg #bdh1dbe #a1bcj1caj #a1bhd1gbg #aijf #a1aca1bid #a1jji1fec #df1cfd #bfa1ahf #a1baj1eih #a1cji1eef #aijg #a1aad1fbd #a1jie1agj #ej1fee #bhj1ahf #a1bdj1hje #a1dei1aac ,household and toilet soaps were not given separately prior to #aijc4 ,the exports for the last three years for which complete figures are available1 consisted of the following3-- ,household ,soap4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,to ,sweden #c1jbg #b1iaa #c1fgg ,norway #d1agc #c1iba #f1jje ,netherlands #ci1dbj #da1aig #dh1fja ,dutch ,possessions in the ,indian ,seas #h1ehf #aj1bic #g1gdf ,belgium #gc1iif #ea1ehc #g1gbi ,france #aa1gda #ab1bbb #bb1ijg ,portuguese ,east ,africa #bh1ihg #db1iha #dj1dgh ,canary ,islands #bd1gfc #bg1hfd #bg1egi ,italy #b1hdb #c1ahg #c1ifb ,turkey #f1igd #g1heh #e1hig ,egypt #ab1aaj #i1dfg #ab1jce ,china 7exclusive of ,hong-,kong and ,macao7 #di1bce #aad1aef #hi1afi ,united ,states #c1hhe #a1ige #c1ibd ,columbia #c1fja #eja #a1cfd ,ecuador #c1jge #c1jif #f1hfa ,chili #e1igb #d1hfe #i1bjc ,brazil #ce1aig #bh1aih #ca1gbf ,argentine ,republic #g1hjb #h1ied #ac1jhd ,other ,foreign ,countries #dj1jeh #ec1iad #gg1fhg ------------------------------- ,total to ,foreign ,countries #cfe1ddd #dbi1adc #dai1fcd --------------------------------- ,to ,channel ,islands #e1cja #h1cbh #g1ifh ,gibraltar #ac1bgb #ac1hfh #ab1ffa ,british ,west ,africa-- ,gold ,coast #bb1eih #ah1eac #bc1dbc ,lagos #g1gea #h1jcb #i1eah ,nigerian ,protectorate #ad1idb #ae1bii #bj1iea ,cape of ,good ,hope #aeh1eag #adc1gej #acf1chh ,natal #gd1hdh #ga1hgd #df1gga ,british ,india ,bombay 7including ,kurachi7 #ei1djf #fh1ide #gg1hfg ,madras #f1cfd #f1fig #aj1cee ,bengal1 ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam4 #bf1ecd #bc1jhg #bb1fdh ,burmah #bf1chi #ce1gbg #cg1ajc ,straits ,settlements and ,dependencies #bf1eaf #cb1bad #ci1gdi ,hong-,kong #ad1aai #ae1aec #ae1fhe ,british ,west ,india ,islands #gd1jfi #eh1hha #fg1cca ,british ,guiana #ab1ffa #ab1jbc #aa1eeg ,other ,british ,possessions #dg1jdc #eb1cjc #ej1jdd ------------------------------- ,total to ,british ,possessions #eij1ccj #ehd1fid #eij1jai ------------------------------- ,total #iee1ggd #a1jac1hcg #a1jji1fec ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,toilet ,soap4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 ,to ,germany #e1jea #f1cbb #f1fbj ,belgium #c1gcj #c1bfe #c1cee ,france #g1ijc #h1ihh #i1cbd ,portuguese ,east ,africa #b1bae #c1igc #d1feh ,egypt #b1cjb #c1cej #c1ebe ,china 7exclusive of ,hong-,kong and ,macao7 #c1jif #c1aae #c1fde ,japan 7including ,formosa7 #c1cjj #d1fdi #c1chb ,united ,states #ej1jdc #ej1ffh #eb1abd ,brazil #a1hgi #b1bda #b1bib ,other ,foreign ,countries #bb1jjb #bf1jha #bi1bad ,total to ,foreign ,countries #aja1eba #aab1feb #aah1aci ,to ,cape of ,good ,hope #ad1jid #ad1hae #ad1ihh ,natal #h1hig #aa1iac #g1bhj ,british ,india-- ,bombay 7including ,kurachi7 #bd1ffe #bd1fgb #bh1caf ,madras #d1ccc #e1hea #f1fbd ,bengal1 ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam #ad1abi #af1jba #ae1ifi ,burmah #c1bii #c1djj #d1ffg ,straits ,settlements and ,dependencies #c1eij #e1jib #d1gih ,ceylon and ,dependencies #ab1baj #aa1aah #ab1hed ,australia-- ,western ,australia #a1edi #a1cid #a1acg ,south ,australia1 7including ,northern ,territory7 #hie #fdd #fcg ,victoria #aa1ihi #ac1fad #ab1ggd ,new ,south ,wales #c1ibj #d1bgh #d1aci ,queensland #ieg #a1jig #a1ajh ,tasmania #dhb #cae #edg ,new ,zealand #e1jic #d1dih #e1ejc ,canada #f1chb #f1aif #h1ahe ,other ,british ,possessions #aa1jfi #aj1hee #ac1eba ,total to ,british ,possessions #abg1jec #ace1ggc #adc1jdg ,total #bbh1egd #bdh1dbe #bfa1ahf ,the following statistics extracted from official consular reports1 etc41 show the extent of the soap industry in other parts of the world4 ,united ,states4--,according to the ,oil1 ,paint and ,drug ,report the total production of soap in the ,united ,states during #aije1 exclusive of soap products to the value of #a1dcg1aah made in establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of other products1 reached a value of #fh1bgd1gjj1 made up in the following manner3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,quantity4 ,value4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,lbs4 ,hard soaps 444 #ef1hgh1dhf ,tallow soap #hdf1gec1gih #cb1faj1hej ,olein soap #bi1cfc1cgf #a1cfc1fcf ,foots soap #he1jjj1acc #c1jij1cab ,toilet soaps1 including medicated1 shaving1 and other special soaps #acj1bbe1dag #i1fjg1bgf ,powdered soaps1 sold as such #abj1fbd1ifh #d1ceh1fhb ,all other soaps #adc1cij1ieg #f1jig1fgj ,soft soap #cc1fac1daf #ffg1jfd ,special soap articles 444 #eed1hha ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,france4--,this country exported common soap during #aijf to the value of #eef1jjj1 or #h1jjj more than in #aije4 ,the chief centre of the soap industry is ,marseilles1 which1 with about fifty soap factories1 produces annually some #c1jjj1jjj cwts4 ,germany imported in #aije soap and perfumery to the value of #c1jcb1 that exported amounting to #ae1cfd4 ,in ,saxony there are eighty soap factories4 ,russia4--,there are fifty large soap factories in ,russia1 the annual output from which is about #b1bej1jjj cwt4 ,roumania4--,this country possesses about #bcj small and eighteen large soap and candle factories1 most of which produce only common soap1 there being only one firm--in ,bucharest--which makes milled soaps4 ,denmark4--,in this country there are some #bjj small soap factories4 ,australia4--,according to a ,board of ,trade report1 there were ninety-eight soap and candle factories in ,australia in #aije1 employing #a1efh hands1 and producing #die1jcf cwt4 of soap4 ,queensland4--,in #aije this country contained twenty-one soap and candle works1 in which #adb hands were employed1 and having an output valued at #hf1cbd4 ,hong-,kong4--,there are about twenty-four soap factories on this island4 ,japan4--,a ,swiss consular report states that in ,japan there are now some fifty soap works1 producing about #ae1jjj1jjj tablets monthly4 ,fiji ,islands4--,these possess only one soap factory1 the output from which is #i cwt4 daily4 ,the following table1 compiled from various consular and other official returns1 shows the quantity and value of soap imported into different countries and places during the years #aije-g3-- ,household4 ,toilet4 ,total4 ,place and ,date4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,quantity4 ,value4 ,europe-- ,cyprus1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #i1ihc ,iceland1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #f1dbc ,switzerland1 444 444 444 444 #a1gjb1hjj 444 #aijf kilos4 444 ,turkey 444 444 444 444 ,about 444 #a1hjj1jjj 444 lb4 per annum ,africa-- ,algeria1 #aijf #ac1fji #bbh1fdj 444 444 444 444 tons ,cape ,colony1 #ae1hig1hjjade1jjj #dbg1fjj 444 444 444 #aijf lb4 lb4 ,gold ,coast1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #bc1ihg ,loureno1 #ceg1fch #d1bic #cf1jjj #b1aie 444 444 ,marques1 #aijf lb4 lb4 ,natal1 #aijf #d1bfc1jjj 444 #i1hgj 444 444 444 lb4 lb4 ,orange ,river #b1chb1jjj #bc1jjja1gdh lb4 444 444 444 ,colony1 #aijf lb4 ,pemba1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #a1jib ,rhodesia1 #aijf #beg1fjj 444 #b1iji lb4 444 444 444 lb4 ,southern ,nigeria1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #aa1iij ,tangier 444 444 444 444 444 #d1eed ,transvaal1 #aijf #d1djg1jjj #ha1jjj #bjb1bjj 444 444 444 lb4 lb4 ,tripoli1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #f1jhj ,tunis1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1eci #bc1gbg tons ,zanzibar1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #f1ajb ,america-- ,bahia1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1jca #fjf1jdf tons milreis ,brazil1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1ghb 444 tons from ,u4,k4 ,british ,guiana1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #ac1gcc ,canada1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #fjj1iii ,columbia1 #aijf-- ,cartagena 444 444 444 444 #fe1iia 444 tons ,barranquilla 444 444 444 444 #had1fga #ad1gab lb4 ,costa ,rica1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #a1bfi from ,u4,k4 ,ecuador1 #aijd 444 444 444 444 #gei1jcd 444 kilos4 ,granada1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #c1hfg ,guatemala1 #aijf 444 #ijj 444 444 444 444 ,martinique1 #aijf #fic1bfi #f1iee 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,mexico1 #aije-f 444 #e1ihb 444 444 444 444 ,san ,domingo1 444 444 444 444 #ged1ehg #aijf lb4 444 ,st4 ,vincent1 #aije-f 444 444 444 444 444 #a1cge ,surinam1 #aijf 444 #c1ije #a1adb 444 444 444 tons ,trinidad1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 444 #bi1ifg ,united ,states1 #aije 444 #cii1gig 444 #a1jga1ddf 444 #a1dga1bdc ,household4 ,toilet4 ,total ,place and ,date4 ,quan- ,quan- ,quantity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value4 tity ,value4 ,asia-- ,ceylon1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #dbc1gjj rupees ,china1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #baf1jdb ,hangchow1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #e1hhh ,india1 #aijf-g 444 444 444 444 #ahc1iih #bae1baj cwts4 ,kiungchow1 #aije 444 #ege 444 444 444 444 ,shanghai1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #ic1bef ,smyrna1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #bfa tons 444 ,australasia-- ,australia1 #aijf 444 444 #hia1aag #fe1hdj 444 444 lb4 ,fiji1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #a1gfj ,new ,zealand1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #cf1hdc ,philippine ,islands1 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #i1acg ,exports4 ,household4 ,toilet4 ,total ,place and ,date4 ,quan- ,quan- ,quantity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value4 tity4 ,value ,europe-- ,candia1 ,crete1 444 444 444 444 #b1bjj #cd1jjj #aijf tons4 ,greece 444 444 444 444 444 ,about #ejj1jjj ,fr4 per annum4 ,italy1 #aijg #c1iib1hjj #ie1hdj 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,leghorn1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #a1eba #cg1jfe tons4 ,spain1 #aije #d1gej1iif #ih1hdj 444 444 444 444 kilos4 ,switzerland1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #gg1cjj 444 kilos4 ,africa-- ,cape ,colony1 #aijf #bjj lb4 444 444 444 444 444 ,natal1 #aijf #ge1bbe lb4 444 444 444 444 444 ,seychelles1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #dai1cbi #abi1eij kilos4 ,rs4 ,america-- ,new ,orleans1 444 444 444 444 444 #ee1ecd #aijf ,perambuco1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #c1ehb #a1jhg1gig1aej tons4 rei ,united ,states1 #dd1aaj1idi 444 444 #a1jdb1ahe 444 444 #aije lb4 ,asia-- ,japan1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 444 #hc1hgg ,smyrna1 #aijf 444 444 444 444 #cbb 444 tons4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,including soap powder and soap stock4 #ad ,including soap powder and soap stock4 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,degrees1 ,,twaddell ,,and ,,baum1 ,,with ,,actual ,,densities4 ,tw4 ,b4 ,density4 ,tw4 ,b4 ,density4 #j #j #a4jjj #dd #bf4j #a4bbj #a #j4g #a4jje #de #bf4d #a4bbe #b #a4d #a4jaj #df #bf4i #a4bcj #c #b4a #a4jae #dg #bg4d #a4bce #d #b4g #a4jbj #dh #bg4i #a4bdj #e #c4d #a4jbe #di #bh4d #a4bde #f #d4a #a4jcj #ej #bh4h #a4bej #g #d4g #a4jce #ea #bi4c #a4bee #h #e4d #a4jdj #eb #bi4g #a4bfj #i #f4j #a4jde #ec #cj4b #a4bfe #aj #f4g #a4jej #ed #cj4f #a4bgj #aa #g4d #a4jee #ee #ca4a #a4bge #ab #h4j #a4jfj #ef #ca4e #a4bhj #ac #h4g #a4jfe #eg #cb4j #a4bhe #ad #i4d #a4jgj #eh #cb4d #a4bij #ae #aj4j #a4jge #ei #cb4h #a4bie #af #aj4f #a4jhj #fj #cc4c #a4cjj #ag #aa4b #a4jhe #fa #cc4g #a4cje #ah #aa4i #a4jij #fb #cd4b #a4caj #ai #ab4d #a4jie #fc #cd4f #a4cae #bj #ac4j #a4ajj #fd #ce4j #a4cbj #ba #ac4f #a4aje #fe #ce4d #a4cbe #bb #ad4b #a4aaj #ff #ce4h #a4ccj #bc #ad4i #a4aae #fg #cf4b #a4cce #bd #ae4d #a4abj #fh #cf4f #a4cdj #be #af4j #a4abe #fi #cg4j #a4cde #bf #af4e #a4acj #gj #cg4d #a4cej #bg #ag4a #a4ace #ga #cg4h #a4cee #bh #ag4g #a4adj #gb #ch4b #a4cfj #bi #ah4c #a4ade #gc #ch4f #a4cfe #cj #ah4h #a4aej #gd #ci4j #a4cgj #ca #ai4c #a4aee #ge #ci4d #a4cge #cb #ai4h #a4afj #gf #ci4h #a4chj #cc #bj4c #a4afe #gg #dj4a #a4che #cd #bj4i #a4agj #gh #dj4e #a4cij #ce #ba4d #a4age #gi #dj4h #a4cie #cf #bb4j #a4ahj #hj #da4b #a4djj #cg #bb4e #a4ahe #ha #da4f #a4dje #ch #bc4j #a4aij #hb #db4j #a4daj #ci #bc4e #a4aie #hc #db4c #a4dae #dj #bd4j #a4bjj #hd #db4g #a4dbj #da #bd4e #a4bje #he #dc4a #a4dbe #db #be4j #a4baj #hf #dc4d #a4dcj #dc #be4e #a4bae #hg #dh4h #a4dce ,tw4 ,b4 ,density4 ,tw4 ,b4 ,density4 #hh #dd4a #a4ddj #aca #eg4a #a4fee #hi #dd4d #a4dde #acb #eg4d #a4ffj #ij #dd4h #a4dej #acc #eg4g #a4ffe #ia #de4a #a4dee #acd #eg4i #a4fgj #ib #de4d #a4dfj #ace #eh4b #a4fge #ic #de4h #a4dfe #acf #eh4d #a4fhj #id #df4a #a4dgj #acg #eh4g #a4fhe #ie #df4d #a4dge #ach #eh4i #a4fij #if #df4h #a4dhj #aci #ei4b #a4fie #ig #dg4a #a4dhe #adj #ei4e #a4gjj #ih #dg4d #a4dij #ada #ei4g #a4gje #ii #dg4h #a4die #adb #fj4j #a4gaj #ajj #dh4a #a4ejj #adc #fj4b #a4gae #aja #dh4d #a4eje #add #fj4d #a4gbj #ajb #dh4g #a4eaj #ade #fj4f #a4gbe #ajc #di4j #a4eae #adf #fj4i #a4gcj #ajd #di4d #a4ebj #adg #fa4a #a4gce #aje #di4g #a4ebe #adh #fa4d #a4gdj #ajf #ej4j #a4ecj #adi #fa4f #a4gde #ajg #ej4c #a4ece #aej #fa4h #a4gej #ajh #ej4f #a4edj #aea #fb4a #a4gee #aji #ej4i #a4ede #aeb #fb4c #a4gfj #aaj #ea4b #a4eej #aec #fb4e #a4gfe #aaa #ea4e #a4eee #aed #fb4h #a4ggj #aab #ea4h #a4efj #aee #fc4j #a4gge #aac #eb4a #a4efe #aef #fc4b #a4ghj #aad #eb4d #a4egj #aeg #fc4e #a4ghe #aae #eb4g #a4ege #aeh #fc4g #a4gij #aaf #ec4j #a4ehj #aei #fd4j #a4gie #aag #ec4c #a4ehe #afj #fd4b #a4hjj #aah #ec4f #a4eij #afa #fd4d #a4hje #aai #ec4i #a4eie #afb #fd4f #a4haj #abj #ed4a #a4fjj #afc #fd4h #a4hae #aba #ed4d #a4fje #afd #fe4j #a4hbj #abb #ed4g #a4faj #afe #fe4b #a4hbe #abc #ee4j #a4fae #aff #fe4e #a4hcj #abd #ee4b #a4fbj #afg #fe4g #a4hce #abe #ee4e #a4fbe #afh #fe4i #a4hdj #abf #ee4h #a4fcj #afi #ff4a #a4hde #abg #ef4j #a4fce #agj #ff4c #a4hej #abh #ef4c #a4fdj #aga #ff4e #a4hee #abi #ef4f #a4fde #agb #ff4g #a4hfj #acj #ef4i #a4fej #agc #fg4j #a4hfe 7,from ,the ,oil and ,colour ,trades ,journal ,diary47 ,,appendix ,b4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,different ,,thermometric ,,scales4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 -#dj -#dj #b #ce4f #dd #aaa4b #hf #ahf4h #ci #ch4b #c #hg4d #de #aac #hg #ahh4f #ch #cf4d #d #ci4b #df #aad4h #hh #aij4d #cg #cd4f #e #da #dg #aaf4f #hi #aib4b #cf #cb4h #f #db4h #dh #aah4d #ij #aid #ce #ca #g #dd4f #di #abj4b #ia #aie4h #cd #bi4b #h #df4d #ej #abb #ib #aig4f #cc #bg4d #i #dh4b #ea #abc4h #ic #aii4d #cb #be4f #aj #ej #eb #abe4f #id #bja4b #ca #bc4h #aa #ea4h #ec #abg4d #ie #bjc #cj #bb #ab #eh4f #ed #abi4b #if #bjd4h #bi #bj4b #ac #ee4d #ee #aca #ig #bjf4f #bh #ah4d #ad #eg4b #ef #acb4h #ih #bjh4d #bg #af4f #ae #ei #eg #acd4f #ii #baj4b #bf #ad4h #af #fj4h #eh #acf4d #ajj #bab #be #ac #ag #fb4f #ei #ach4b #aja #bac4h #bd #aa4b #ah #fd4d #fj #adj #ajb #bae4f #bc #i4d #ai #ff4b #fa #ada4h #ajc #bag4d #bb #g4f #bj #fh #fb #adc4f #ajd #bai4b #ba #e4h #ba #fi4h #fc #ade4d #aje #bba #bj #d #bb #ga4f #fd #adg4b #ajf #bbb4h #ai #b4b #bc #gc4d #fe #adi #ajg #bbd4f #ah #j4d #bd #ge4b #ff #aej4h #ajh #bbf4d #ag #a4d #be #gg #fg #aeb4f #aji #bbh4b #af #c4b #bf #gh4h #fh #aed4d #aaj #bcj #ae #e #bg #hj4f #fi #aef4b #aaa #bca4h #ad #f4h #bh #hb4d #gj #aeh #aab #bhc4f #ac #h4f #bi #hd4b #ga #aei4h #aac #bce4d #ab #aj4d #cj #hf #gb #afa4f #aad #bcg4b #aa #ab4b #ca #hg4h #gc #afc4d #aae #bci #aj #ad #cb #hi4f #gd #afe4b #aaf #bdj4h #i #ae4h #cc #ia4d #ge #afg #aag #bdb4f #h #ag4f #cd #ic4b #gf #afh4h #aah #bdd4d #g #ai4d #ce #ie #gg #agj4f #aai #bdf4b #f #ba4b #cf #if4h #gh #agb4d #abj #bdh #e #bc #cg #ih4f #gi #agd4b #aba #bdi4h -#d #bd4h #di #ajj4d #hj #agf #abb #bea4f #c #bf4f #ci #ajb4b #ha #agg4h #abc #bec4d #b #bh4d #dj #ajd #hb #agi4f #abd #bee4b #a #cj4b #da #aje4h #hc #aha4d #abe #beg #j #cb #db #ajg4f #hd #ahc4b #abf #beh4h #a #cc4h #dc #aji4d #he #ahe #abg #bfj4f 7,from ,soaps1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,hurst1 published by ,scott1 ,greenwood ,son47 ,,appendix ,c4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,specific ,,gravities ,,of ,,solutions ,,of ,,caustic ,,soda4 ,per cent4 by ,lb4 of actual ,na,o,h contained weight of in #a gallon of lye made from commercial caustic of ,degrees ,specific ,twaddell4 gravity4 ,na#b,o4 ,na,o,h4 #gg per #gd per #gj per cent4 cent4 cent4 #a #a4jje #j4cfh #j4dgd #j4jdh #j4jdf #j4jdc #b #a4jaj #j4gdb #j4ieg #j4jig #j4jib #j4jhg #c #a4jae #a4aad #a4dcf #j4adf #j4aca #j4abi #d #a4jbj #a4dhj #a4iji #j4aid #j4ahe #j4ahj #e #a4jbe #a4hcd #b4cfe #j4bdc #j4bca #j4bai #f #a4jcj #b4aid #b4hcj #j4bia #j4bgh #j4bfb #g #a4jce #b4eba #c4beb #j4cce #j4cbj #j4cjc #h #a4jdj #b4ifd #c4gdf #j4chi #j4cga #j4cej #i #a4jde #c4bdd #d4ahd #j4dch #j4dag #j4cic #aj #a4jej #c4eij #d4fca #j4dhf #j4dfa #j4dch #aa #a4jee #c4idc #e4jhf #j4ecf #j4eaj #j4dhc #ab #a4jfj #d4bib #e4ecf #j4ehf #j4eeh #j4ebh #ac #a4jfe #d4fch #e4ihb #j4fcf #j4fjg #j4egc #ad #a4jgj #d4igb #f4dac #j4fhj #j4fec #j4fag #ae #a4jge #e4caa #f4iaa #j4gdb #j4gjg #j4ffh #af #a4jhj #e4fdh #g4bhe #j4ghf #j4gdi #j4gji #ag #a4jhe #e4iha #g4gae #j4hcf #j4gih #j4gee #ah #a4jij #f4caa #h4adj #j4hhf #j4hde #j4hjj #ai #a4jie #f4fci #h4efd #j4icg #j4hid #j4hdf #bj #a4ajj #f4ied #h4igj #j4ihf #j4ida #j4hij #ba #a4aje #g4bgf #i4chf #a4jcg #j4ihi #j4ich #bb #a4aaj #g4eid #i4gif #a4jhg #a4jcg #j4iha #bc #a4aae #g4iaj #aj4bjc #a4acg #a4abc #a4jbf #bd #a4abj #h4bbc #aj4fjg #a4ahg #a4age #a4jga #be #a4abe #h4ehc #aa4ajg #a4bch #a4aha #a4aag #bf #a4acj #h4hic #aa4dga #a4bif #a4bcg #a4agj #bg #a4ace #i4bea #aa4icc #a4ced #a4bib #a4abb #bh #a4adj #i4fad #ab4dja #a4dac #a4cej #a4bgg #bi #a4ade #i4ife #ab4hdd #a4dgj #a4dac #a4ccg #cj #a4aej #aj4cac #ac4cjc #a4ebi #a4dfj #a4cha #ca #a4aee #aj4fff #ac4hei #a4fjj #a4ebh #a4dde #cb #a4afj #aa4jjh #ad4aij #a4fdf #a4eda #a4def #cc #a4afe #aa4cdg #ad4fcg #a4gje #a4fbg #a4eci #cd #a4agj #aa4fia #ae4jha #a4gfd #a4fhd #a4eic #ce #a4age #ab4jbe #ae4eab #a4hbb #a4gci #a4fde #cf #a4ahj #ab4cef #af4aci #a4ijd #a4hag #a4gai #cg #a4ahe #ab4fib #af4cgb #a4idb #a4hec #a4gec #ch #a4aij #ac4jaf #af4gid #a4iih #a4hhg #a4hjd #ci #a4aie #ac4cci #ag4bjc #b4jee #a4ifb #a4hef #dj #a4bjj #ac4ffj #ag4fbi #b4abb #b4jbf #a4iaf #da #a4bje #ad4jeh #ah4acc #b4ahe #b4jhe #a4igc #db #a4baj #ad4dch #ah4fah #b4beb #b4adg #b4jcc #dc #a4bae #ad4hbc #ai4aba #b4cbc #b4bba #b4jig #dd #a4bbj #ae4abd #ai4fac #b4cib #b4bhj #b4afa #de #a4bbe #ae4ejb #ai4iig #b4ddd #b4cch #b4bjf #df #a4bcj #ae4iei #bj4ehf #b4efb #b4dag #b4bhe #dg #a4bce #af4bii #bj4iif #b4eic #b4dge #b4cda #dh #a4bdj #af4fib #ba4ecb #b4ffi #b4edh #b4daj ,per cent4 by ,lb4 of actual ,na,o,h contained weight of in #a gallon of lye made from commercial caustic of ,degrees ,specific ,twaddell4 gravity4 ,na#b,o4 ,na,o,h4 #gg per #gd per #gj per cent4 cent4 cent4 #di #a4bde #ag4jfj #bb4jjh #b4gci #b4fae #b4dgd #ej #a4bej #ag4dbd #bb4dgf #b4hji #b4fha #b4ecf #ea #a4bee #ag4hjj #bb4ifb #b4hha #b4gej #b4fjb #eb #a4bfj #ah4aff #bc4dcc #b4ieb #b4hah #b4fff #ec #a4bfe #ah4ebi #bc4ija #c4jbj #b4hhf #b4gcj #ed #a4bgj #ah4hig #bd4cgf #c4jie #b4iee #b4gie #ee #a4bge #ai4bee #bd4heh #c4aga #c4jbg #b4hfc #ef #a4bhj #ai4fji #be4bie #c4bcg #c4jij #b4icb #eg #a4bhe #ai4ifa #be4gej #c4cjh #c4aeh #b4ihh #eh #a4bij #bj4cah #bf4baj #c4cha #c4bbg #c4jec #ei #a4bie #bj4fee #bf4feh #c4deb #c4cfd #c4aag #fj #a4cjj #ba4aef #bg4aaj #c4ebd #c4cid #c4ahb #fa #a4cje #ba4dje #bg4faa #c4fjc #c4dci #c4bec #fb #a4caj #ba4ghe #bh4aje #c4fhb #c4ead #c4bbd #fc #a4cae #bb4afh #bh4eie #c4gfj #c4eic #c4cie #fd #a4cbj #bb4eef #bi4afa #c4hdi #c4fgd #c4dge #fe #a4cbe #bb4ibf #bi4egd #c4iai #c4gdb #c4eci #ff #a4ccj #bc4caj #cj4jeh #c4iig #c4haf #c4faj #fg #a4cce #bc4fgj #cj4ece #d4jgb #c4hia #c4fha #fh #a4cdj #bd4jdf #ca4jah #d4aef #c4ifg #c4ged #fi #a4cde #bd4daj #ca4dij #d4bcb #d4jdb #c4hbd #gj #a4cej #bd4gfe #ca4idh #d4cab #d4aaf #c4hid #ga #a4cee #be4aeb #cb4ddf #d4cif #d4aif #c4igj #gb #a4cfj #be4ebf #cb4icj #d4dgh #d4bgd #d4jdc #gc #a4cfe #be4ija #cc4dae #d4efa #d4ced #d4aji #gd #a4cgj #bf4bhe #cc4ije #d4fde #d4dcd #d4aid #ge #a4cge #bf4fej #cd4chb #d4gbh #d4eac #d4bfi #gf #a4chj #bg4jba #cd4hee #d4haj #d4eib #d4cdd #gg #a4che #bg4che #ce4cbh #d4hic #d4fgj #d4dah #gh #a4cij #bg4gde #ce4gie #d4ige #d4gid #d4dic #gi #a4cie #bh4aaj #cf4beh #e4jeh #d4hbh #d4efg #hj #a4djj #bh4dfe #cf4gbj #e4ada #d4ijg #d4fdb #ha #a4dje #bh4hcf #cg4bjc #e4bbg #d4ihi #d4gbj #hb #a4daj #bi4bjc #cg4fgd #e4cab #e4jga #d4gig #hc #a4dae #bi4egj #ch4adf #e4cig #e4ace #d4hgc #hd #a4dbj #bi4icj #ch4faj #e4dhb #e4bcc #d4iej #he #a4dbe #cj4bhe #ci4jga #e4efg #e4cad #e4jbg #hf #a4dcj #cj4fde #ci4ecj #e4fec #e4cif #e4ajd #hg #a4dce #cj4iie #ci4ihf #e4gch #e4dfg #e4aha #hh #a4ddj #ca4cdi #dj4dce #e4hbc #e4eeh #e4beh #hi #a4dde #ca4gjj #dj4hhb #e4ijh #e4fdj #e4cce #ij #a4dej #cb4jdc #da4cce #e4ibc #e4gba #e4dab #ia #a4dee #cb4dfj #da4hge #f4jic #e4haf #e4ejb #ib #a4dfj #cb4hgj #db4djj #f4aia #e4iji #e4fjh #ic #a4dfe #cc4bhc #db4ice #f4bij #f4jjd #e4fgi #id #a4dgj #cc4fie #dc4dfg #f4chi #f4jji #e4gfi #ie #a4dge #cd4jib #dc4ihj #f4dhg #f4aic #e4hef #if #a4dhj #cd4ejj #dd4eje #f4ehf #f4bhg #e4idh #ig #a4dhe #cd4hii #de4jac #f4fhe #f4cha #f4jce #ih #a4dij #ce4bde #de4ecj #f4ghd #f4dgf #f4abf #ii #a4die #ce4fia #df4jda #f4hhd #f4ega #f4baf #ajj #a4ejj #cf4jha #df4ede #f4ihb #f4ffe #f4cjc 7,from ,soaps1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,hurst1 published by ,scott1 ,greenwood ,son47 ,,appendix ,d4 ,,table ,,of ,,strength ,,of ,,caustic ,,potash ,,solutions ,,at #fj ,f4 ,specific ,degrees ,per cent4 ,lb4 of ,,koh gravity4 ,twaddell4 ,,koh4 per gal4 #a4jfj #ab #e4ei #j4ei #a4aaj #bb #aa4ca #a4be #a4aej #cj #ae4dh #a4gg #a4aij #ch #ai4bi #b4ba #a4bcj #df #bc4bb #b4hd #a4bhj #ef #bg4hg #c4ef #a4ccj #ff #ca4cb #d4af #a4cfj #gb #ce4ja #d4gf #a4cij #gh #ch4ei #e4cf #a4dbj #hd #dj4ig #e4ha #a4ddj #hh #dc4hc #f4ca #a4dgj #id #dg4af #f4ic #a4ebj #ajd #ea4ji #g4gf #a4fjj #aab #ee4fb #h4hi #a4fhj #acf #fj4ih #aj4bd #a4ghj #aef #fg4fe #ab4jd #a4hhj #agf #ge4gd #ad4bc #b4jjj #bjj #hf4bb #ag4bd 7,from ,soaps1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,hurst1 published by ,scott1 ,greenwood ,son47 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acetic ,acid1 #aj ,acid1 ,acetic1 #aj ---- ,arachidic1 #aj ---- ,behenic1 #aj ---- ,butyric1 #aj ---- ,capric1 #aj ---- ,caproic1 #aj ---- ,caprylic1 #aj ---- ,carnaubic1 #aj ---- ,cerotic1 #aj ---- ,daturic1 #aj ---- ,doeglic1 #aa ---- ,elomargaric1 #ab ---- ,elostearic1 #ab ---- ,erucic1 #aa ---- ,ficocerylic1 #aj ---- ,hynic1 #aj ---- ,hypogic1 #aa ---- ,isolinolenic1 #ab ---- ,isovaleric1 #aj ---- ,jecoric1 #ab ---- ,lauric1 #aj ---- ,lignoceric1 #aj ---- ,linolenic1 #ab ---- ,linolic1 #ab ---- ,margaric1 #aj ---- ,medullic1 #aj ---- ,melissic1 #aj ---- ,moringic1 #aa ---- ,myristic1 #aj ---- ,oleic1 #aa ---- ,palmitic1 #aj ---- ,physetoleic1 #aa ---- ,pisangcerylic1 #aj ---- ,psyllostearylic1 #aj ---- ,rapic1 #aa ---- ,ricinoleic1 #ac ---- ,saponification1 #ai-ba ---- ,stearic1 #aj ---- ,tariric1 #ab ---- ,telfairic1 #ab ---- ,theobromic1 #aj ---- ,tiglic1 #aa ---- value1 #aah1 #abh ,acids1 ,classification of fatty1 #aj ---- ,fatty1 #i-ac ---- ---- ,combination with ,alkali1 #de1 #df ,acids1 ,fatty1 ,preparation by acid process1 #ai-ba ---- ---- ---- by ferment process1 #af ---- ---- ---- by ,twitchell's process1 #bj ---- ,saturated fatty1 #aa ---- ,unsaturated fatty1 #aa ,albumen in soap1 #ij ,alcohols1 ,estimation of1 #abh ,aldehydes1 ,estimation of1 #abi ,alkali1 ,caustic and carbonated1 #ch1 #ci1 #abc-abf ,alkali in soap1 ,determination of1 #aca1 #acb ,amyl salicylate1 #ajg ,andiroba oil1 #cb ,animal charcoal1 #aae ---- fats1 ,treatment of1 #dc ,anise 7star7 oil1 #if ,anisic aldehyde1 #ajh ,arachidic acid1 #aj ,arachis oil1 #bh ,artificial perfumes1 #ajg-aaj ,ash1 ,soda1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ,aspic oil1 #if ,aqueous saponification1 #ad ,aubpine1 #ajh ,b4 ,bacteria1 ,decomposition of fats by1 #ah ,baobab-seed oil1 #cf ,bar soap1 #ed1 #ee ,barring soap1 #fh ,bay oil1 #ig ,behenic acid1 #aj ,benzyl acetate1 #ajh ,bergamot oil1 #ig ---- ---- 7artificial71 #aji ,biniodide soaps1 #hg ,birch-tar soap1 #hh ,bitter almond oil1 #ig ,bleaching palm oil1 #da ---- rosin1 #dc ,boiling-on-strength1 #ea ,bois de ,rose ,femelle oil1 #ii ,bone-fat1 #cj ---- ---- treatment of1 #dc ,borax in soap1 #hh ,boric acid in soap1 #hh ,boric acid in soap1 ,determination of1 #ace ,borneo tallow1 #cb ,brine1 #ci ,bromine absorption of oils and fats1 #abb ,brown ,windsor soap1 #gh1 #ih ,butter goa1 #cc ---- kokum1 #cc ---- shea1 #ca ,butyric acid1 #aj ,butyrin1 #h ,c4 ,calico-printer's soap1 #ic ,cananga oil1 #ih ,candle-nut oil1 #cc ,capric acid1 #aj ,caprin1 #h ,caproic acid1 #aj ,caproin1 #h ,caprylic acid1 #aj ,caprylin1 #h ,carapa oil1 #cb ,caraway oil1 #ih ,carbolic acid in soap1 ,determination of1 #acd ,carbolic soap1 #hh ,carbonate potash1 #ci1 #abe1 #abf ---- soda1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ,carnaubic acid1 #aj ,cassia oil1 #ih ,castor oil1 #cj ,caustic potash1 #ci1 #abc ---- soda1 #ci1 #abc ,cayenne linaloe oil1 #ii ,cedarwood oil1 #ih ,cerotic acid1 #aj ,charcoal1 ,animal1 #aae ,chinese vegetable tallow1 #ca ,cholesterol in unsaponified matter1 #abj ,cinnamon oil1 #ih ,citral1 #ajh ,citronella oil1 #ii ,citronellal1 #ajh ,cleansing soap1 #fj1 #fa ,close-piling soap1 #ga ,clove oil1 #ii ,coal tar soaps1 #hh ,cocoa-nut oil1 #be1 #bf ,cohune-nut oil1 #cd ,cold process soap-making1 #df1 #dg ,colouring soap1 #ff1 #hj1 #hb ,compressing soap1 #hc1 #he ,concrete orris oil1 #ajj ,constitution of oils and fats1 #f1 #g ,conversion of oleic acid into solid acids1 #aa1 #ab ,cooling soap1 #gd1 #gf ,coprah oil1 #be1 #bf ,cotton-seed oil1 #bg1 #db ---- ---- ,refining1 #db ---- soapstock1 #dj ---- stearine1 #bh ,coumarin1 #ajh ,crude glycerine1 #aac1 #acf-aci ,crutching soap1 #fc ,curcas oil1 #cc ,curd mottled soap1 #eb1 #ec ,curd soaps1 #eb ,cutting and stamping toilet soap1 #he ,d4 ,daturic acid1 #aj ,decolorisation1 ,glycerine1 #aae ,decomposition of fats by bacteria1 #ah ,detergent action of soap1 #d1 #e ,diglycerides1 #g ,dika fat1 #cf ,disinfectant soaps1 #ff ,distearine1 #g ,distillation1 glycerine1 #aad ,distilled glycerine1 #aad ,doeglic acid1 #aa ,double distilled glycerine1 #aae ,dregs in fats and oils1 ,determination of1 #abj1 #aba ,drying soap1 #ga1 #gh-hj ,dynamite glycerine1 #aae ,e4 ,elaidin reaction1 #ab ,electrical production of soap1 #ei ,elomargaric acid1 #ab ,elostearic acid1 #ab ,enzymes1 ,action of1 #ae-ah ,erucic acid1 #aa ,essential oils1 #if-ajg ---- ---- ,examination of1 #abg-acj ,ester value1 #aai1 #abh ,ether soap1 #ij ,eucalyptus oil1 #ajj ,evaporation to crude glycerine1 #aab1 #aac ,f4 ,fat1 ,bone1 #cj ---- ,dika1 #cf ---- ,maripa1 #cd ---- ,marrow1 #cj ---- ,niam1 #cd ---- ,tangkallah1 #cg ---- ,treatment of bone1 #dc ,fats1 ,decomposition by bacteria of1 #ah ---- ,treatment of animal1 #dc ---- ,waste1 #cj ,fats and oils1 ,determination of acid value of1 #aah ---- ---- ---- of bromine absorption of1 #abb ---- ---- ---- of dregs1 etc41 in1 #abj1 #aba ---- ---- ---- of free acidity of1 #aag ---- ---- ---- of iodine absorption of1 #aba1 #abb ---- ---- ---- of saponification ---- ---- ---- equivalents of1 #aah ---- ---- ---- of saponification value1 #aah ---- ---- ---- of specific gravity of1 #aag of titre of1 #abb1 #abc ---- ---- ---- of unsaponifiable matter in1 #aai ---- ---- ---- of water in1 #abj ---- ---- ---- ,yield of glycerine from1 #aaf ,fatty acids1 #i-ac1 #ca ---- ---- ,classification of1 #aj ---- ---- ,direct combination with alkali of1 #de1 #df ---- ---- in soap1 ,determination of1 #aca ---- ---- ---- ,examination of1 #acc1 #acd ---- ---- ,preparation by acid process1 #ai-ba ---- ---- ---- by ferment process1 #af ---- ---- ---- by ,twitchell's process1 #bj ---- ---- ,saturated1 #aa ---- ---- ,unsaturated1 #aa ,fennel oil1 #ajj ,ferment process for preparation of fatty acids1 #af ,ferments1 action of1 #ae-ah ,ficocerylic acid1 #aj ,filling soap1 #fe ,fish oils1 #cj ,fitting1 #ea ,floating soap1 #ij1 #ia ,fluorides in soap1 #hh ,formaldehyde soap1 #hh ,framing soap1 #ff ,free alkali in soap1 ,estimation of1 #acb ---- caustic in soap1 ,neutralising1 #ff ---- fat in soap1 ,determination of1 #acc ---- fatty acids1 ,determination of1 #aag ,g4 ,geraniol1 #ajh ,geranium oils1 #aja ,geranium-sur-rose oil1 #aja ,ginger-grass oil1 #aja ,glycerides1 #g1 #h ,glycerine1 ,chemically pure1 #aae ---- ,crude1 #aac1 #acf-aci ---- decolorisation1 #aae ---- distillation1 #aad ---- ,distilled1 #aad ---- dynamite1 #aae ---- in soap1 ,determination of1 #acd1 #ace ---- manufacture1 #aaa-aad ---- saponification1 #aaf ---- soaps1 #hi ---- ,yield of1 from fats and oils1 #aaf ,glycerol determination1 acetin method1 #acf ---- ---- bichromate method1 #acg1 #ach ---- in lyes1 ,estimation of1 #ace ,goa-butter1 #cc ,graining-out1 #ej ,grease1 ,animal1 #cj ---- ,bone1 #cj ---- ,kitchen1 #cj ---- ,skin1 #cj ,guaiac wood oil1 #aja ,h4 ,halphen's reaction1 #acd ,heliotropin1 #ajh ,hemp-seed oil1 #bi ,hyacinth1 #ajh ,hynic acid1 #aj ,hydrated soaps1 #dh1 #di ,hydrolysis accelerated by heat and electricity1 #ad1 #ae ---- accelerated by use of chemical reagents1 #ai-bc ---- accelerated with acid1 #ai1 #ba ---- ,enzymic1 #ae-ah ---- of oils and fats1 #ac-bc ---- of soap1 #c ,hypogic acid1 #aa ,i4 ,ichthyol soap1 #hi ,inoy-kernel oil1 #cg ,iodine absorption of rose oil1 #acj ---- absorption of oils and fats1 #aba1abb3 ---- soap1 #hi ,ionone1 #ajh ,isolinolenic acid1 #ab ,isovaleric acid1 #aj ,isovalerin1 #h ,j4 ,jasmine1 #aji ,jecoric acid1 #ab ,k4 ,kananga oil1 #ih ,kapok oil1 #cb ,kastilis1 #hh ,kokum butter1 #cc ,l4 ,lard1 #be ,lauric acid1 #aj ,laurin1 #h ,lavender oils1 #aja ,lemon-grass oil1 #ajb ,lemon oil1 #ajb ,lignoceric acid1 #aj ,lime oil1 #ajb ---- saponification1 #bb ,linaloe oil1 #ajb ,linalol1 #aji ,linalyl acetate1 #aji ,linolenic acid1 #ab ,linolic acid1 #ab ,linseed oil1 #bi ,lipase1 #ah ,liquoring of soaps1 #fd ,lyes1 analysis of1 #ace ---- ,determination of glycerol in1 #ace ---- ,evaporation of1 #aab ---- ,treatment of1 #aaa1 #aab ,lysol soap1 #hi ,m4 ,mafura tallow1 #ce ,magnesia1 ,hydrolysis by1 #bb ,maize oil1 #bh ,margaric acid1 #aj ,margosa oil1 #ce ,marine animal oils1 #cj ---- soap1 #di ,maripa fat1 #cd ,marjoram oil1 #ajc ,medicated soaps1 #hf-ij ,medullic acid1 #aj ,melissic acid1 #aj ,melting point1 #acj ,mercury soaps1 #hg ,milled toilet soaps1 #gh ,milling soap1 #hj1 #ha ---- soap-base1 #ed1 #gh ,mineral oil1 saponifying1 #eh1 #ei ,mirbane oil or nitrobenzene1 #aji ,mixed glycerides1 #h ,monoglycerides1 #g ,monostearin1 #g ,moringic acid1 #aa ,mottled soaps1 #eb1 #ec ---- ---- ,pickling1 #ed ,moulds1 ,soap1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ,mowrah-seed oil1 #ca ,musk 7artificial71 #aji ,myristic acid1 #h ,myristin1 #h ,n4 ,naphthol soap1 #hi ,neroli ,bigarade oil1 #ajc ---- oil 7artificial71 #aji ,neutralising free caustic in soap1 #ff1 #hj ,niam fat1 #cd ,nigre1 #ef ,nigres1 ,utilisation of1 #ef ,niobe oil or ethyl benzoate1 #aaj ,nitrobenzene1 #aji ,o4 ,oeillet1 #aj ,oil1 ,andiroba1 #cb ---- ,arachis1 #bh ---- ,aspic 7lavender spike71 #if ---- ,baobab-seed1 #cf ---- ,bay1 #ig ---- ,bergamot1 #ig ---- ,bitter almond1 #ig ---- ,bleaching palm1 #da ---- ,bois de ,rose ,femelle1 #ii ---- ,cananga1 #ih ---- ,candle-nut1 #cc ---- ,carapa1 #cb ---- ,caraway1 #ih ---- ,cassia1 #ih ---- ,castor1 #cj ---- ,cayenne linaloe1 #ii ---- ,cedarwood1 #ih ---- ,cinnamon1 #ih ---- ,citronella1 #ii ---- ,clove1 #ii ---- ,cocoa-nut1 #be1 #bf ---- ,cohune-nut1 #cd1 #ce ---- ,concrete orris1 #ajj ---- ,coprah1 #be1 #bf ---- ,cotton-seed1 #bg1 #db ---- ,curcas1 #cc ---- ,eucalyptus1 #ajj ---- ,fennel1 #ajj ---- ,geranium1 #aja ---- ,ginger-grass1 #aja ---- ,guaiac-wood1 #aja ---- ,hemp-seed1 #bi ---- ,inoy-kernel1 #cg ---- ,kananga1 #ih ---- ,kapok1 #cb ---- ,lemon1 #ajb ---- ,lemon-grass1 #ajb ---- ,lime1 #ajb ---- ,linaloe1 #ajb ---- ,linseed1 #bi ---- ,maize1 #bh ---- ,margosa1 #ce ---- ,marjoram1 #ajc ---- ,mowrah-seed1 #ca ---- ,neroli ,bigarade1 #ajc ---- ,olive1 #bf ---- ,olive-kernel1 #bg ---- ,orange1 #afc ---- ,palm1 #bg1 #da ---- ,palm-nut1 #bf ---- ,palmarosa1 #ajc ---- ,patchouli1 #ajc ---- ,peppermint1 #ajc1 #ajd ---- ,persimmon-seed1 #cf ---- ,peru-balsam1 #ajd ---- ,petit-grain1 #ajd ---- ,pongam1 #ce ---- ,refining cotton-seed1 #db ---- ,rose1 #aje ---- ,rosemary1 #aje ---- ,safflower1 #cc1 #cd ---- ,sandalwood1 #aje1 #ajf ---- ,saponifying mineral1 #eh1 #ei ---- ,sassafras1 #ajf ---- ,sesame1 #bh1 #bi ---- ,star-anise1 #if ---- ,sunflower1 #bi ---- ,thyme1 #ajf ---- ,verbena1 #ajf ---- ,vetivert1 #ajf-ajg ---- ,wheat1 #cf ---- ,wild mango1 #cf ---- ,wintergreen1 #ajg ---- ,ylang-ylang1 #ajg ,oils and fats1 ,constitution of1 #f1 #g ---- ---- ,examination of1 #aag-abc ---- ---- ,hydrolysis of1 #ac-bb ---- ,fish and marine animal1 #cj ---- ,lavender1 #aja ---- ,refractive ,index of1 #abb ---- treatment of vegetable1 #dc ,oleic acid1 #aa ---- ---- into solid acids1 ,conversion of1 #aa1 #ab ,olein1 #h1 #i1 #ca ---- ,cocoa-nut1 #ca ---- ,palm-nut1 #ca ,oleodidaturin1 #h ,oleodipalmitin1 #h ,oleodistearin1 #h ,oleopaimitostearin1 #h ,olive-kernel oil1 #bg ,olive oil1 #bf ,open-piling soap1 #ga ,optical rotation1 #abg ,orange oil1 #ajc ,orchide1 #ajg ,orris oil1 concrete1 #ajj ,p4 ,palm oil1 #bg1 #da ---- ---- ,bleaching1 #da ,palmarosa oil1 #ajc ,palmitic acid1 #aj ,palmitin1 #h ,palmitodistearin1 #h ,palm-nut oil1 #bf ,pasting or saponification1 #di ,patchouli oil1 #ajc ,patent textile soaps1 #id ,pearl-ash1 ,analysis of1 #abe1 #abf ,peppermint oil1 #ajc1 #ajd ,perfumer's soaps1 #gg1 #gh ,perfumes1 ,artificial and synthetic1 #ajg-aaj ---- ,soap1 #ie-aaj ,perfuming soaps1 #id ,persimmon seed oil1 #cf ,peru-balsam oil1 #ajd ,petit-grain oil1 #ajd ,phenols1 ,determination of1 #abi ,physetoleic acid1 #aa ,phytosterol in unsaponifiable matter1 #abj ,pickling mottled soap1 #ed ,pisangcerylic acid1 #aj ,polishing soaps1 #id ,pongam oil1 #ce ,potash1 ,carbonate1 #ci1 #abe1 #abf ---- ,caustic1 #hi1 #abc ,potassium chloride1 #abf ---- ,determination of1 #abf1 #acb ,powders1 ,soap1 #id ,psyllostearylic acid1 #aj ,r4 ,rancidity1 #ah1 #bd ,rapic acid1 #aa ,refining cotton-seed oil1 #db ,refractive index of oils and fats1 #abb ,remelted soaps1 #gg1 #gh ,resinate of soda1 #dc1 #dd ,ricinoleic acid1 #ac ,ricinolein1 #h ,rose oil1 #aje ---- ---- 7artificial71 #aaj ,rosemary oil1 #aje ,rosin1 #cg1 #ch1 #dc1 #dd1 #ee ---- ,bleaching1 #dc ---- ,determination of1 #acc1 #acd ---- treatment1 #dc1 #dd ,s4 ,safflower oil1 #cc1 #cd ,safrol1 #aaj ,salt1 #ci1 #abf ---- ,determination of1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #acb ,sandalwood oil1 #aje1 #ajf ,santalol1 #aaj ,saponification1 #ac-bb1 #di ---- accelerated by heat and electricity1 #ad1 #ae ---- accelerated by use of chemical reagents1 #ai1 #bc ---- accelerated with ,twitchell's reagent1 #bj ---- ,acid1 #ai1 #ba ---- ,aqueous1 #ad ---- by ferment process1 #bj ---- equivalent1 #aah ---- ,glycerine1 #aaf ---- ,lime1 #bb ---- under pressure1 #dg ---- value1 #aah1 #abh ,saponifying mineral oil1 #eh1 #ei ,sassafras oil1 #ajf ,saturated acids1 #aa ,scouring soaps1 #ib1 #ic ,sesame oil1 #bh1 #bi ,settled soap1 ,treatment of1 #fj-gf ,shaving soaps1 #ia ,shea butter1 #ca ,silicate of soda in soap1 #fe ,silicates of soda and potash1 #abg1 #ach ,silk scouring soaps1 #ic ---- dyer's soap1 #ic1 #id ,slabbing soap1 #fh ,soap1 ,albumen in1 #ij ---- ,analysis of1 #acj-ce ---- ,bar1 #ed1 #ee ---- ,barring1 #fh ---- -base1 ,milling1 #ed1 #gh ---- ,biniodide1 #hg ---- ,birch-tar1 #hh ---- ,borax1 #hh ---- ,boric acid in1 #hh ---- ---- ---- ---- ,determination1 #ace ---- ,carbolic1 #hh ---- ,classification of1 #de ---- ,cleansing1 #fj1 #fa ---- ,coal-tar1 #hh ---- ,cold process1 #df1 #dg ---- ,compressing1 #hc1 #he ---- ,cooling1 #gd-gf ---- ,crutching1 #fc ---- ,curd1 #eb ---- ,curd mottled1 #ec ---- ,definition of1 #a1 #b ---- ,detergent action of1 #d1 #e ---- ,determination of carbolic acid in1 #acd ---- ---- of fatty acids in1 #aca ---- ---- of free alkali in1 #acb ---- ---- of free fat in1 #acc ---- ---- of glycerine in1 #acd1 #ace ---- ---- of total alkali in1 #aca ---- ---- of water in1 #acc ---- ,drying1 #ga1 #gh-hj ---- ,electrical production of1 #ei ---- ,ether1 #ij ---- ,examination of fatty acids #acc1 #acd ---- ,filling1 #fe ---- ,fluorides in1 #ij ---- formaldehyde1 #hh ---- frame1 #ff ---- framing1 #ff ---- from fatty acids1 #de1 #df ---- ,glycerine1 #hi ---- ,hydrated1 #dh1 #di ---- ,hydrolysis of1 #c ---- ,ichthyol1 #hi ---- ,iodine1 #hi ---- ,lysol1 #hi ---- ,marine1 #di ---- ,milling1 #hj1 #ha ---- ,monopole1 #id ---- ,mottled1 #eb1 #ec ---- moulds1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ---- ,naphthol1 #hi ---- ,neutralising1 colouring and perfuming1 #ff1 #hj1 #hb ---- ,open and close piling1 #ga ---- perfumes1 #ie-aaj ---- ,pickling mottled1 #ed ---- powders1 #id ---- ,properties of1 #b ---- ,salicylic acid1 #hh ---- ,settling of1 #ee ---- ,slabbing1 #fh ---- ,soft1 #da ---- ,stamping1 #ga1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ---- ,sulphur1 #hi ---- ,terebene1 #ij ---- ,thymol1 #ij ---- ,transparent1 #eg1 #eh ---- ,treatment of settled1 #fj-gf ---- ,yellow household1 #ed1 #ee ,soap-making1 #de-ei ---- ---- ,blue and grey mottled1 #ec ---- ---- ,boiling-on-strength1 #ea ---- ---- ,cold process1 #df1 #dg ---- ---- ,combination of fatty acids with alkali1 #de1 #df ---- ---- ,curd1 #eb ---- ---- ,curd1 ,mottled1 #ec ---- ---- ,fitting1 #ea ---- ---- ,graining-out or separation1 #ej ---- ---- ,hydrated1 #di ---- ---- ,pasting or saponification1 #di ---- ---- ,soft1 #dh ---- ---- ,transparent1 #eg1 #eh ---- ---- under pressure1 #dg ,soaps1 ,calico-printer's1 #ic ---- ,disinfectant1 #ff ---- ,floating1 #ij1 #ia ---- ,liquoring of1 #fd1 #fe ---- ,medicated1 #hf-ij ---- ,milled toilet1 #gh ---- ,miscellaneous1 #id ---- ,perfumer's1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,polishing1 #id ---- ,remelted1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,scouring1 #ib ---- ,shaving1 #ia ---- ,silicating1 #fe ---- ,silk dyer's1 #ic1 #id ---- ,textile1 #ia-id ---- ,toilet1 #gg1 #gh ---- ,woollen dyer's1 #ib ,soap-stock1 #dj ,soda ash1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ---- ---- ,caustic1 #ci1 #abe ---- ,carbonate1 #ci1 #abd1 #abe ---- ,caustic1 #ci1 #abc ---- ,resinate1 #dc1 #dd ,soft soap-making1 #dh ,solidifying-point1 #acj ,specific gravity1 ,determination of1 #aag1 #abg ,stamping soap1 #ga1 #gb1 #he1 #hf ,starch1 ,detection of1 #aba1 #ace ,steapsin1 #ah ,stearic acid1 #aj ,stearin1 #h1 #i ,stearine1 ,cotton-seed1 #bh ,stearodipalmitin1 #h ,sulphides and sulphites1 ,determination of1 #abe ,sulphur soap1 #hi ,sunflower oil1 #bi ,superfatting material1 #hc ,synthetic perfumes1 #ajg-aaj ,t4 ,table of caustic potash solutions1 #aea ---- of caustic soda solutions1 #adi1 #aej ---- of comparative densities1 #adg ---- of thermometric equivalents1 #adh ,tablet soap1 #ee ,talc1 #fe ,tallow1 #bd ---- ,borneo1 #cb ---- ,chinese vegetable1 #ca ---- ,mafura1 #ce ,tangkallah fat1 #cg ,tariric acid1 #ab ,telfairic acid1 #ab ,terebene1 #aaj ---- soap1 #ij ,terpineol1 #aaj ,textile soaps1 #ia-id ---- ---- ,patent1 #id ,theobromic acid1 #aj ,thyme oil1 #ajf ,thymol soap1 #ij ,tiglic acid1 #aa ,titre test1 #abb1 #abc ,toilet soaps1 #gg1 #gh ---- ---- ,compressing1 #hc1 #he ---- ---- ,milled1 #gh ---- ---- ,milling1 #hj1 #ha ---- ---- ,stamping1 #he1 #hf ,transparent soaps1 #eg1 #eh ,treatment of animal fats1 #dc ---- ---- bone fat1 #dc ---- ---- lyes1 #aaa1 #aab ---- ---- rosin1 #dc ---- ---- settled soap1 #fj-gf ---- ---- ,vegetable oils1 #dc ,trfle1 #ajg ,triglycerides1 #g1 #h ,trilaurin1 #i ,triolein1 #i ,tripalmitin1 #i ,tristearin1 #g1 #i ,twitchell's process1 #bb ,u4 ,unsaponifiable matter1 ,constitution of1 #aai1 #abj ---- ---- ,determination of1 #aai ,unsaturated acids1 #aa ,utilisation of nigres1 #ef ,v4 ,vanillin1 #aaj ,vegetable oils1 ,treatment of1 #dc ---- tallow1 ,chinese1 #ca ,verbena oil1 #ajf ,vetivert oil1 #ajf ,violet soap1 #ed ,volhard's method for chloride determination1 #acb ,w4 ,waste fats1 #cj ,water1 #ci ---- ---- in fats1 ,determination of1 #abj ---- ---- in soap1 ,determination of1 #acc ,wheat oil1 #cf ,wild mango oil1 #cf ,wintergreen oil1 #ajg ,wool scouring soaps1 #ib ,woollen dyer's soap1 #ib ,y4 ,ylang-ylang oil1 #ajg ,z4 ,zinc oxide1 ,hydrolysis by1 #bb ---- soap1 #hg ,,the ,,aberdeen ,,university ,,press ,,limited ,,stevenson ,,howell',s ,,specialities ,,for ,soapmakers ,wholesale ,perfumers4 ,,essential ,,oils ,,of ,,guaranteed ,,purity4 ,almonds1 ,bay ,leaves1 ,bergamot1 ,caraway1 ,cananga1 ,camomile1 ,cascarilla1 ,cassia1 ,cedar ,wood1 ,cinnamon1 ,citronella1 ,cloves1 ,coriander1 ,eucalyptus ,globulus1 ,fennel1 ,sweet1 ,geranium -- ,algerian1 ,bourbon1 ,east ,indian1 ,french1 ,spanish ,turkish1 ,kuromoji1 ,lavender1 ,lemon1 ,lemon-,grass1 ,limes1 ,neroli1 ,myrbane1 ,orange ,sweet ,bitter1 ,otto of ,rose1 ,patchouli1 ,palmarosa1 ,pimento1 ,petit-,grain1 ,rosemary1 ,sandal ,wood1 ,sage1 ,sassafras1 ,spearmint1 ,thyme1 ,wintergreen ,ylang-,ylang41 c4 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,perfumes ,,finest ,,quality ,almond1 ,bay ,rum1 ,brown ,windsor1 ,cologne1 ,florida1 ,frangipanni1 ,heliotrope1 ,hyacinth1 ,lilac1 ,lily of ,valley1 ,oriental1 ,parisian1 ,walnut ,leaf1 ,wood ,violet1 c4 ,,artificial ,,perfumes4 ,aubepine1 ,cuir de ,russi1 ,coumarin1 ,crategine1 ,heliotropine1 ,lilac1 ,musk1 ,nerolin1 ,terpineol1 ,vanillin1 ,yara-,yara1 c4 ,,soap ,,colours1 ,dark ,blue1 ,rose ,pink1 ,indian ,brown1 ,carbolic ,pink ,red1 ,manchester ,yellow4 c4 c4 ,,speciality3--,,reliable ,,chlorphyl4 ,,standard ,,works ,,southwark ,,st4 ,,london4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,glasgow ,,office #abh1 ,,hope ,,st4 ,,fastest ,,and ,,strongest ,,colours ,,for ,,soap ,in all shades1 alkali-proof4 ,,oil ,,soluble ,,colours ,,for ,,oil ,,and ,,benzine ,,soaps4 ,,blacks ,and all colours soluble in ,oil1 ,wax and ,turps for ,,boot ,,polish4 ,,williams ,,bros4 ,,co41 ,,hounslow4 ,,textile ,,soaps ,,and ,,oils4 ,handbook on the ,preparation1 ,properties and ,analysis of the ,soaps and ,oils used in ,textile ,manufacturing1 ,dyeing and ,printing4 ,,by ,,george ,h4 ,,hurst1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,author of ,soaps1 ,lubricating ,oils1 ,fats and ,greases1 etc4 ,,contents4 ,methods of ,making ,soaps--,special ,textile ,soaps--,relation of ,soap to ,water for ,industrial ,purposes--,soap ,analysis--,fat in ,soap--,animal and ,vegetable ,oils and ,fats--,vegetable ,soap1 ,oils and ,fats--,glycerine--,textile ,oils4 ,price #es4 net 7,post ,free1 #es4 #d;d4 ,home2 #es4 #f;d4 ,abroad74 ,published by ,,scott1 ,,greenwood ,,son1 #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,william ,,tulloch ,,co41 #cj ,george ,square1 ,glasgow1 ,and at #i ,great ,tower ,street1 ,london1 ,e4,c41 #ad ,no4 ,corridor1 ,royal ,exchange1 ,manchester4 ,,glycerine1 ,,crude1 ,,dynamite1 ,,industrial1 ,,chemically ,,pure4 ,all ,kinds of ,chemicals for ,soap and ,explosives ,makers4 ,,nitrate ,,of ,,lead1 ,,farinas1 ,,starches1 ,,gums4 ,,twitchell ,,process ,,of ,,glycerine ,,extraction4 ,,highest ,degree of ,decomposition4 ,,lowest ,cost for ,installation and ,working4 ,,best ,qualities of ,fatty ,acids1 ,glycerine1 ,stearine and ,soap4 ,for ,samples and information1 apply to ,,wm4 ,,tulloch ,,co41 #cj ,,george ,,square1 ,,glasgow4 ,general ,representatives for ,united ,kingdom and ,colonies4 ,,sudfeldt ,,co41 ,,melle 7,,hanover1 ,,germany74 ,,joslin ,,schmidt ,,co41 ,,cincinnati1 ,,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,essential ,oils ,,and ,artificial ,perfumes4 ,,by ,,ernest ,j4 ,,parry1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 #eeb ,pages4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,demy #hvo4 #aijh4 ,,contents4 ,chapters ,i4 ,the ,general ,properties of ,essential ,oils4 ,physical ,properties1 ,optical ,properties1 ,table of ,specific ,gravities1 ,refractive ,indices and ,rotation4--,,ii4 ,compounds occurring in ,essential ,oils4 7,i47 #a4 ,,terpenes--,pinene1 ,camphene1 ,limonene1 ,dipentene1 ,fenchene1 ,sylvestrene1 ,carvestrene1 ,phellandrene1 ,terpinolene1 ,terpinene and ,thujene4 #b4 ,,sesquiterpenes--,cadinene1 ,caryophellene1 ,cedrene1 ,clovene1 ,humulene1 ,ledene1 ,patchoulene1 and ,sesquiterpene from ,oils of ,cannabis ,indica1 ,table1 b4p41 sp4-gr41 opt4 ,rot41 etc41 of same4 7,,ii47 ,,the ,,camphor ,,series--,borneol1 ,isoborneol1 ,camphor1 ,fenchyl ,alcohol1 ,fenchone1 ,thujyl ,alcohol1 ,thujone1 ,terpineol1 ,cineol1 etc41 etc4 7,,iii47 ,,the ,,geraniol ,,and ,,citronellol ,,group--,coriandrol1 ,nerolol1 ,rhodinol1 ,geraniol1 ,linalol1 ,citrenellol1 etc41 ,table1 b4p41 sp4-gr41 ,ref4 ,index1 etc4 7,,iv47 ,,benzene ,,compounds--,cymene1 ,phenols and their ,derivatives1 ,phenols with ,nine ,carbon ,atoms1 ,phenols with ,ten ,carbon ,atoms1 ,alcohols1 ,aldehydes1 ,ketones1 ,acids1 etc4 7,v47 ,,aliphatic ,,compounds--,alcohols1 ,acids1 ,aldehydes1 ,sulphur ,compounds1 etc4--,,iii4 ,the ,preparation of ,essential ,oils4 ,expression1 ,distillation1 ,extraction1 ,table of ,percentages4--,,iv4 ,the ,analysis of ,essential ,oils4 ,specific ,gravity1 ,sprengel ,tube ,method1 ,optical ,methods1 ,melting and ,solidifying ,points1 ,boiling ,point and ,distillation1 ,quantitative ,estimations of ,constituents1 the ,determination of ,free ,alcohols1 ,absorption ,processes4--,v4 ,systematic ,study of the ,essential ,oils4 ,oils of the ,gymnosperms1 ,tabulated ,angiosperms4 7,i47 ,,wood ,,oils4--,cedar ,oils1 ,oils of ,turpentine1 ,american ,turpentine1 ,french ,oil of ,turpentine1 ,german1 ,russian1 and ,swedish ditto1 ,table of ,activities of same1 ,juniper ,wood ,oil4 7,,ii47 ,,fruit ,,oils4--,juniper ,berry ,oil1 ,fir ,cone ,oils4 7,,iii47 ,,leaf ,,oils4--,thuja ,oil1 ,oil of ,savin1 ,cedar ,leaf ,oil1 ,pine ,needle ,oil1 ,cypress ,leaf ,oil1 ,table of ,pine ,oils 7after ,schimmel74 ,,oils ,,of ,,the ,,angiosperms--7,i47 ,,monocotyledons4 7,,ii47 ,,dicotyledons3 7a7 ,,monochlamyde--7b7 ,,gamopetal--7c7 ,,polypetal--,,vi4 ,terpeneless ,oils4 ,terpeneless ,oil of ,lemon1 ,tables of sp4-gr4 and ,rotn4 of several ,terpeneless ,oils1 ,terpeneless ,oil of ,orange1 ,ditto of ,caraway1 of ,lavender1 ,table of sp4-gr4 and ,rotn4 of ,commercial ,samples of ,oils4--,,vii4 ,the ,chemistry of ,artificial ,perfumes4 ,vanillin1 ,coumarin1 ,heliotropin1 ,aubepine or ,hawthorn1 ,ionone1 ,specification of ,patents for ,preparation of ,ionone1 for ,artificial ,violet ,oil1 ,artificial ,musk1 ,specification of ,patent of ,musk ,substitute1 ,artificial ,neroli1 ,artificial ,lilac1 ,artificial ,hyacinth1 ,artificial ,lemon ,oil1 ,artificial ,rose ,oil1 ,niobe ,oil1 ,bergamiol1 ,artificial ,jasmin ,oil1 ,artificial ,cognac ,oil4--,appendix4 ,table on ,constants of the more ,important ,essential ,oils4--,index4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 net 7,post ,free1 #acs4 ,home2 #acs4 #f;d4 ,abroad74 ,,published ,,by ,,scott1 ,,greenwood ,,son1 #h ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london ,e4,c4