material from the ,google ,print        
project47       ,the ,social ,problems  
,series  ,,edited ,,by  ,,oliphant      
,,smeaton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4  ,,the     
,,children   ,the ,social ,problems     
,series   ,,the ,,children  ,,some      
,,educational ,,problems   ,,by         
,,alexander ,,darroch1 ,m4,a4           
,,professor ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,the 
,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh           
,,london3 ,t4 ,c4  ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack #af   
,,henrietta ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,and      
,,edinburgh #aijg     ,,contents        
,,chap4                                 
,,page     ,i4 ,,introduction--,,the    
,,present ,,unrest ,,in ,,education     
#a    ,,ii4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,and       
,,process ,,of ,,education              
#ac   ,,iii4 ,,the ,,end ,,of           
,,education                             
#bb    ,,iv4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the
 ,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the        
,,provision       ,,of ,,education      
#ca     ,v4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the 
,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the ,,cost  

,,of       ,,education                  
#df    ,,vi4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the
 ,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the        
,,medical       ,,examination ,,of      
,,school ,,children ,,and ,,the         
,,medical       ,,inspection ,,of       
,,schools                               
#ed   ,,vii4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the
 ,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the        
,,feeding ,,of       ,,school ,,children
                                        
#ff  ,,viii4 ,,the ,,organisation ,,of  
,,the ,,means ,,of ,,education          
#gg    ,,ix4 ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,physical
 ,,education                            
#he     ,x4 ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the      
,,infant ,,school                       
#ih    ,,xi4 ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the     
,,primary ,,school                      
#ajg   ,,xii4 ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the    
,,secondary ,,school                    
#aah  ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the    
,,university                            
#abf   ,,xiv4 ,,conclusion--,,the       
,,present ,,problems ,,in ,,education   

#aca     ,,the ,,children     ,,chapter 
,i  ,,introduction--,,the ,,present     
,,unrest ,,in ,,education   ,the        
problems as to the end or ends at which 
our educational agencies should aim in  
the training and instruction of the     
children of the nation1 and of the right
 methods of attaining these ends once   
they have been definitely and clearly   
recognised1 are at the present day      
receiving greater and greater attention 
not only from professed educationalists1
 but also from statesmen and the public 
generally4 ,for1 in spite of all that   
has been done during the past thirty    
years to increase the facilities for    
education and to improve the means of   
instruction1 there is a deep-seated and 
widely spread feeling that1 somehow or  
other1 matters educationally are not    
well with us1 as a nation1 and that in  
this particular line of social          
development other countries have pushed 
forward1 whilst we have been content to 
lag behind in the educational rear4     

,the faults in our present educational  
structure are many1 and in some cases   
obvious to all4 ,in the first place1 it 
is said1 and with much truth1 that there
 is no systematic coherence between the 
different parts of our educational      
machinery1 and no thorough-going        
correlation between the various aims    
which the separate parts of the system  
are intended to realise4 ,as ,mr4 ,de   
,montmorency has recently pointed out1  
we have always had a national group of  
educational facilities1 more or less    
efficient1 but we have never had1 nor do
 we yet possess1 a national system of   
education so differentiated in its aims 
and so correlated as to its parts as to 
form an organic part of the life of the 
nation4#a ,an educational system should 
subserve and foster the life of the     
whole3 it should be so organised as to  
maintain a sufficient and efficient     
supply of all the services which a      
nation requires at the hands of its     
adult members4 ,for it is only in so far

 as the educational system of any       
country fulfils this end that it can be 
organic1 and can be entitled to the     
claim of being called a national system4
  ,this lack of coherence between the   
different parts of our educational      
system and the want of any systematic   
plan or unity running through the whole 
is due to many causes4 ,as a nation1 we 
are little inclined to system-making1   
and as a consequence the problem of     
education as a whole and in its total   
relation to the life and well-being of  
the ,state has received but scant       
attention from politicians4 ,educational
 questions1 in this country1 are rarely 
treated on their own merits and apart   
from considerations of a party1         
political1 or denominational character1 
and hence the problems which have       
received attention in the past and evoke
 discussion at the present are concerned
 with the nature of the constitution1   
and limits of the power of the bodies to
 whom should be entrusted the local     

control of the educational agencies of  
the country1 rather than with the       
problems as to the aims which we should 
seek to realise through our educational 
organisation1 and of the methods by     
which these aims may be best realised4  
,hence1 as a nation1 we have rarely     
considered for its own sake and as a    
whole the problem of the education of   
the children4 ,and until we have done   
so--until we have made clear to         
ourselves the kind of future citizen    
which as a ,state we desire to rear     
up--our educational agencies must       
manifest a like indefiniteness1 a like  
inconsistency1 and a like want of       
connection as do our educational aims   
and ideals4  ,again1 closely connected  
with this first-named defect in our     
educational organisation1 and in fact   
following from it as a logical          
consequence1 is our fatal method of     
developing this or that part of our     
educational system and of leaving the   
other parts to develop1 if at all1      

without any central guidance or control1
 until at length we realise that the    
neglected parts also require attention1 
and must somehow or other be refitted   
into the whole4 ,e4g41 since #ahgj there
 has been a great advance in the extent 
and intent of elementary education in   
both ,england and ,scotland1 but this   
progress has been of a one-sided nature1
 and there has been no corresponding    
advance either in the perfecting of the 
educational system as a whole1 or in the
 co-ordination of the various grades of 
education4 ,in ,scotland1 since the     
passing into law of the ,education ,bill
 of #ahgb1 the means of elementary      
education have been widely extended and 
the methods of teaching have been       
greatly improved1 but there has been no 
corresponding advance in the provision  
of the means of higher education1 and as
 a consequence1 at the present day1 we  
find many districts without adequate    
provision for carrying on the education 
of the youth of the country beyond the  

,primary ,school stage4 ,secondary      
education has been provided in some     
centres by means of endowments2 in      
others through the extension of the term
 elementary so as to include education  
of a more extended nature than was      
originally intended to be covered by    
that term4 ,in ,england until #aijb1    
very much the same conditions prevailed1
 but since then1 mainly in order to     
remedy the state of things created by   
the judgment in the ,cockerton ,case1   
the control of primary1 secondary1 and  
technical education has been placed in  
the hands of the ,county and ,borough   
,councils1 who are empowered to consider
 the educational needs of their area1   
and to take such steps as seem to them  
desirable1 after consultation with the  
,board of ,education1 to supply or aid  
the supply of education other than      
elementary1 and to promote the general  
co-ordination of all forms of education4
 ,tinder the powers so granted much has 
been done throughout ,england during the

 past few years to extend and make      
efficient the means of higher education2
 to erect schools which shall provide   
training for the future services        
required by the community and the ,state
 of the more highly gifted of its       
members1 and to co-ordinate the work of 
the various agencies entrusted with the 
care and education of the children of   
the nation4  ,through the failure of the
 ,education ,bills of #aijd and #aije to
 pass into law1 ,scotland still awaits  
the creation of local authorities       
charged with the control and direction  
of all grades of education1 and in this 
respect her educational organisation is 
much more loosely compacted than the    
system which now exists in ,england4    
,further1 in ,scotland1 on account of   
the absence of one controlling          
authority1 we often find in those       
districts in which the provision for    
higher education is ample1 imperfect    
co-ordination between the aims and work1
 on the one hand1 of the ,primary       

,school1 and on the other1 of schools   
providing higher education4 ,from this  
cause also it follows that1 unlike our  
,german neighbours1 we have made little 
progress in determining the different   
functions which each particular type of 
,higher ,school shall perform in the    
social organism1 and have not assigned  
the particular services which the ,state
 requires of each particular type of    
,higher ,school4 ,it is surely manifest 
that the service which the modern       
industrial ,state looks for from its    
members is not the same in kind and is  
much more complex in its nature than    
that which was required during the      
medival period1 and that if this service
 is to be efficiently supplied1 then    
there is need for ,higher ,schools      
varied in type and having various aims4 
,this want of unity between the various 
parts of our educational system         
manifests itself again in the           
indefiniteness of aim of many of our    
,higher ,schools1 and in the lack of    

co-ordination between the ,higher       
,school on the one hand1 and            
institutions providing university and   
advanced instruction on the other4 ,up  
till quite recently1 the sole aim of our
 ,secondary ,schools was to provide     
students for the ,universities and to   
supply the needs of the learned         
professions4 ,but with the economic     
development of the country1 and as a    
consequence of the keen international   
competition between nation and nation in
 the economic sphere1 there has arisen a
 demand for a higher education different
 in kind from that provided by the older
 ,universities1 and a need for a type of
 ,secondary ,school different in aim and
 curriculum from that which looks mainly
 to the provision of students intending 
to enter upon some one or other of the  
so-called well recognised learned       
professions4 ,it is here1 when compared 
and contrasted with the educational     
systems of some of our ,continental     
neighbours1 that we find the weakest    

point in our own system1 and at the     
present time our most urgent need is for
 the extension and better equipment of  
the central institutions of the country 
which provide higher technical and      
commercial instruction4  ,this          
unsatisfactory condition of things is   
due in large measure1 as we have already
 pointed out1 to our innate dislike as a
 nation of all system-making1 and to the
 distrust felt by many minds of any and 
every form of ,state control of         
education4 ,hence1 partly from these    
causes1 partly as a result of historical
 conditions1 it has followed that       
various authorities have in this country
 the guidance and control of education1 
with the usual result of want of unity  
of aim1 of lack of correlation of means1
 and in some cases of overlapping and   
waste of the means of higher education4 
,in the second place1 while much has    
been done since the advent of compulsory
 elementary education to better the     
means of education and to increase the  

facilities for the higher instruction of
 the youth of the country1 there is a   
widespread belief that all the hopes    
held out by the early advocates of      
universal compulsory education have not 
been realised1 and that our ,primary    
,schools in large measure have failed to
 turn out the type of citizen which a   
,state such as ours requires for her    
after-service4  ,universal education has
 not proved a panacea for all the social
 evils of the ,commonwealth1 and while  
it must be admitted that much good has  
resulted from the adoption of universal 
and compulsory education1 yet at the    
same time certain evils have followed in
 its train4  ,since the institution of  
universal education1 it may be argued   
that the children of the nation have    
received a better training in the use of
 the more mechanical arts of reading1   
writing1 and arithmetic1 but the        
tendency has been to look upon the      
acquisition of these arts as ends in    
themselves1 rather than as mere         

instruments for the further extension   
and development of knowledge and        
practice1 and hence our ,primary ,school
 system1 to a large extent1 has failed  
to cultivate the imagination of the     
child1 and has also failed to train the 
reason and to develop initiative on the 
part of the pupil4 ,there has been more 
instruction1 it has been said1 during   
the last thirty years1 but less         
education2 for the process of education 
consists in the building up within the  
child's mind of permanent and stable    
systems of ideas which shall hereafter  
function in the attainment and          
realisation of the various ends of life4
 ,now1 our school practice is still     
largely dominated by the old conception 
that mere memory knowledge is           
all-important1 and as a consequence much
 of the so-called knowledge acquired    
during the school period is found       
valueless in after life to realise any  
definite purpose1 for it is only in so  
far as the knowledge acquired has been  

systematised that it can afterwards be  
turned to use in the furtherance of the 
aims of adult life4  ,from this it      
follows that1 since much of the         
knowledge acquired during the school    
period has no bearing on the real and   
practical needs of life1 the ,primary   
,school in many cases fails to create   
any permanent or real interest in the   
works either of nature or of society4   
,but a much more serious charge is laid 
at times against our ,primary ,school   
system4 ,it is contended that during the
 past thirty years it has done little to
 raise the moral tone of the community1 
and it has done still less to develop   
that sense of civic and national        
responsibility without which the moral  
and social progress of a nation is      
impossible4 ,our huge city schools are  
manufactories rather than educational   
institutions--places where yearly a     
certain number of the youth of the      
country are turned out able to some     
extent to make use of the mechanical    

arts of reading and writing1 and with a 
smattering of many branches of          
knowledge1 but with little or no        
training for the moral and civic        
responsibilities of life4 ,this is      
evident1 it is urged1 if we consider how
 little the school does to counteract   
and to supplant the evil influences of a
 bad home or social environment4 ,what  
truth there may be in these charges and 
what must be done to remedy this state  
of matters will be discussed when we    
consider later the existing ,elementary 
,school system4 ,here it is sufficient  
to point out that one of the causes at  
work to-day tending to arouse a renewed 
interest in educational problems is the 
feeling now beginning to find expression
 that the kind of universal elementary  
education provided somehow or other     
fails1 and has failed1 to produce all   
that was in the beginning expected of   
it--that it has in the past been too    
much divorced from the real interests of
 life1 and that it must be remodelled if

 it is to fit the individual to perform 
his duty to society4  ,a third fault    
often found with our existing school    
system is that in the case of the       
majority of the children the process of 
education stops at too early an age4    
,the belief is slowly spreading that if 
we are to educate thoroughly the        
children of the nation so as to fit them
 to perform efficiently the after duties
 of life1 something of a more systematic
 character than has as yet been done is 
required1 in order to carry on and to   
extend the education of the child after 
the ,elementary school stage has been   
passed4 ,for it is evident that during  
the ,primary ,school period all that can
 be expected in the case of the larger  
number of children is that the school   
should lay a sound basis in the         
knowledge of the elementary arts        
necessary for all social intercourse1   
and for the realisation of the simpler  
needs of life4 ,a beginning may be made1
 during this period1 in the formation   

and establishment of systems of         
knowledge which have for their aim the  
realisation of the more complex         
theoretical and practical interests of  
after life1 but unless these are        
furthered and extended in the years in  
which the boy is passing from youth to  
manhood1 then as a consequence much of  
what has been acquired during the early 
period fails to be of use either to the 
individual or to society4  ,again1 it is
 surely unwise to give no heed to the   
systematic education of the majority of 
the children during the years when they 
are most susceptible to moral and social
 influences1 and to leave the moral and 
social education of the youth during the
 adolescent period to the unregulated   
and uncertain forces of society4        
,lastly1 in this connection it is       
economically wasteful for the nation to 
spend largely in laying the mere        
foundations of knowledge1 and then to   
adopt the policy of non-interference1   
and to leave to the individual parent   

the right of determining whether the    
foundation so laid shall be further     
utilised or not4  ,a fourth criticism   
urged against our educational system is 
that in the past we have paid too little
 attention to the technical education of
 those destined in after life to become 
the leaders of industry and the captains
 of commerce4 ,our ,higher ,school      
system has been too predominantly of one
 type--it has taken too narrow a view of
 the higher services required by the    
,state of its members1 and our          
educational system has not been so      
organised as to maintain and farther the
 economic efficiency of the ,state4 ,for
 it may be contended that the economic  
efficiency of the individual and of the 
nation is fundamental in the sense that 
without this1 the attainment of the     
other goods of life can not or can be   
only imperfectly realised1 and it is    
obvious that according to the measure in
 which the economic welfare of the      
individual and of the ,state is secured1

 in like measure is secured the         
opportunity for the development and     
realisation of the other aims of the    
individual and of the nation4  ,thus the
 present unrest as regards our          
educational affairs may be largely      
traced to the four causes enumerated4   
,we have begun to realise that our      
educational system lacks definiteness of
 aim1 and that its various parts are    
badly co-ordinated2 that1 in short1 we  
do not as yet possess a national system 
of education which ministers to and     
subserves the life of the ,state as a   
whole4 ,we are further beginning to     
perceive that the provision of the means
 of higher education is too important a 
matter to be left to the care of the    
private individual1 and that education  
must be the concern of the whole body of
 the people4 ,hence it has been said    
that on the creation of a national      
system of education1 fitted to meet the 
needs of the modern ,state1 depends     
largely the future of ,britain as a     

nation4  ,again1 all that was hoped for 
as the result of universal compulsory   
education has not been realised1 and the
 feeling is growing that there is       
something defective in the aims of our  
,primary ,school system1 and that it    
fails1 and has failed1 to develop in the
 individual the moral and social        
qualities required by a ,state such as  
ours1 which is becoming increasingly    
democratic in character4 ,further1 we   
are learning1 partly through experience1
 partly from the example of other       
countries1 that the period during which 
our children must be under the regulated
 control of the school and of society   
must be lengthened1 if we are to realise
 the final aim of all education1 which  
is to enable the individual on the      
intellectual side to apply the knowledge
 gained to the furtherance and extension
 of the various purposes of life1 and on
 the moral side to enable him to use his
 freedom rightly4  ,lastly1 as a nation1
 we are beginning to discover that      

without the better technical training of
 our workmen1 and especially of those to
 whom in after-life will be entrusted   
the control and direction of our        
industries and commerce1 we are likely  
to fall behind the other advanced       
nations in the race for economic        
supremacy4  ,but1 in addition to these  
negative forces at work1 tending to     
produce dissatisfaction with our        
educational position1 the opinion is    
growing stronger and clearer that the   
education1 physical1 intellectual1 and  
moral1 of the children of the nation is 
a matter of supreme importance for the  
future well-being and the future        
supremacy of the nation1 and that it is 
the duty of the ,state to see that the  
opportunity is furnished to each        
individual to realise to the full all   
the potentialities of his nature which  
make for good1 so that he may be enabled
 to render that service to the community
 for which by nature he is best fitted4 
,compulsory elementary education is but 

one stage in the process4 ,we must1 as a
 nation1 at least see that no           
insuperable obstacles are placed in the 
path of those who have the requisite    
ability and desire to advance farther in
 the development of their powers4       
,moreover1 if need be1 we must1 in the  
words of ,rousseau1 compel those who    
from various causes are unwilling to    
realise themselves1 to attain their full
 freedom4  ,this demand for the better  
and fuller education of the children of 
the nation is motived partly by the     
growing conviction that the freedom1    
political1 civil1 and religious1 which  
we as a nation enjoy1 can only be       
maintained1 furthered1 and strengthened 
in so far as we have educated our       
children rightly to understand and      
rightly to use this freedom to which    
they are heirs4 ,democracy1 as a form of
 government and as a power for good1 is 
only possible when the mass of the      
people have been wisely and fully       
educated1 so that they are enabled to   

take an intelligent and comprehensive   
interest in all that pertains to the    
good and future welfare of the ,state4  
,a democracy of ill or partially        
educated people sooner or later becomes 
an ochlocracy1#b ruled not by the best1 
but by those who can work upon the      
self-interest of the badly or           
one-sidedly educated4 ,a true democracy 
is in fact ever aristocratic1 in the    
original sense of that term4 ,a false   
democracy ever tends to become          
ochlocratic1 and the only safeguard     
against such a state of conditions      
arising in a country where              
representative government exists is the 
spread of higher education1 and the     
inculcation of a right conception of the
 nature and functions of the ,state and 
of the duties of citizenship4  ,but     
further1 the demand for increased       
facilities for higher and technical     
education is motived largely by the     
conviction that in the education of our 
children we must in the future more than

 we have done in the past take means to 
secure the fitness of the individual to 
perform efficiently some specific       
function in the economic organisation of
 society4 ,and the demand proceeds1 not 
from any desire to narrow down the aims 
of education1 to place it on a purely   
utilitarian basis1 but from the belief  
that the securing of the physical and   
economic efficiency of the individual is
 of fundamental and primary importance  
both for his own welfare and the        
well-being and progress of the ,state1  
and that in proportion as we secure the 
higher economic efficiency of a larger  
and larger number of the people we also 
secure the essential condition for the  
development and extension of those other
 goods of life which can be attained by 
the majority of a nation only after a   
certain measure of economic prosperity  
and economic security is assured4  ,the 
social evils of our own or of any time  
cannot1 of course1 be removed by any one
 remedy1 but an education which         

endeavours to secure that each          
individual shall have the opportunity to
 develop himself and to fit himself for 
the after performance of the service for
 which by nature he is suited may do    
much to mitigate the evils incident upon
 the industrial organisation of society4
 ,if this end is to be realised1 then   
three things at least are necessary4 ,we
 must seek by some means or other to    
check the large number of our boys and  
girls who1 after leaving the ,primary   
,school1 drift year by year1 either     
through the ignorance or the cupidity or
 the poverty of their parents1 into the 
ranks of untrained labour1 and who in   
the course of two or three years go to  
swell the ranks of the unskilled1 casual
 workers1 and become in many cases1 in  
the course of time1 the unemployed and  
the unemployable4 ,in the second place1 
we must endeavour to secure the better  
technical training of the youth during  
their years of apprenticeship1 and so   
tend to raise the general efficiency of 

the workers of the nation whatever the  
nature--manual or mental--of their      
employment4 ,in the third place1 we must
 endeavour1 by means of our system of   
education1 to increase the mobility of  
labour4 ,in the modern ,state1 where    
changes in the industrial organisation  
are frequent1 the worker who can most   
easily adapt himself to changing        
circumstances is best assured of        
constant employment1 and a great part of
 the social evils of our time may be    
traced to this want of mobility on the  
part of a large number of our workers4  
,the mobility of labour is of course    
always determined within certain limits1
 but much may and could be done by      
pursuing from the beginning a right     
method in educating the child to develop
 its power of self-adaptation to the    
needs of a changing environment4  ,if   
these results are to be attained1 then  
we shall have1 as a nation1 to make     
clear to ourselves the real meaning and 
purpose of education2 we shall have to  

make explicit the nature of the ends    
which we desire to secure as the result 
of our educational efforts1 and we shall
 have to organise our educational       
agencies so that the ends desired shall 
be secured4  ,let us now consider the   
question of the meaning1 purpose1 and   
ends of education4  ,,footnotes3  #a    
,national ,education and ,national      
,life1 p4 #a4  #b ,ochlos1 a mob4       
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the ,,meaning ,,and   
,,process ,,of ,,education   ,of all the
 animals with which the globe is        
peopled1 there is none towards whom     
nature seems1 at first sight1 to have   
exercised more cruelty than towards man1
 in the numberless wants and necessities
 with which she has loaded him1 and in  
the slender means which she affords to  
the relieving of these necessities4 ,in 
other creatures these two particulars   
generally compensate each other4 ,if we 
consider the lion as a voracious and    
carnivorous animal1 we shall easily     
discover him to be very necessitous1 but

 if we turn our eye to his make and     
temper1 his agility1 his courage1 his   
arms1 and his force1 we shall find that 
his advantages hold proportion with his 
wants4444 ,in man alone this unnatural  
conjunction of infirmity and of         
necessity may be observed in the        
greatest perfection4 ,not only the food 
which is required for his sustenance    
flies his search and approach1 or at    
least requires his labour to be         
produced1 but he must be possessed of   
clothes and lodging to defend him       
against the injuries of the weather3    
though to consider him only in himself1 
he is provided neither with arms1 nor   
force1 nor other natural abilities which
 are in any degree answerable to so many
 'necessities4' ',tis by society alone  
he is able to supply his defects and    
raise himself up to an equality with his
 fellow-creatures1 and even acquires a  
superiority over them4#c ,in these terms
 ,hume draws the distinction between man
 and the animals1 and if1 for the term  

,society1 we substitute the word        
,education1 then we shall more truly    
describe the means by which man         
overcomes his natural infirmities and   
meets his necessities4  ,but we have to 
ask1 ,wherein does man differ from the  
animals8 what power or faculty does he  
possess over and above those possessed  
by himself and the animals in common8   
and how does it happen that as his wants
 and needs increase and multiply the    
means to satisfy them also tend to      
increase8 ,now1 the animal is guided    
wholly or mainly by instinct4 ,in the   
case of many animals the whole conduct  
of their life from birth to death is    
governed by this means4 ,in the case1   
indeed1 of some of the higher animals1  
there is a limited power of modifying   
this government by instinct through the 
experience acquired during the lifetime 
of the individual4 ,but man alone       
possesses the power or faculty of       
reason4 ,and it is through the          
possession of this power that he alone  

of all creatures can be educated2 it is 
the possession of this power which      
places him above the rest of creation1  
and it is in the possession of this     
power that the possibility of his       
greatness1 and also of his baseness1    
lies4 ,now1 an instinct may be defined  
as an inborn and inherited system of    
means for the attainment of a definite  
end of such a nature that once the      
appropriate external stimulus is applied
 the system tends to work itself out in 
an automatic manner until the end is    
attained1 and independently of any      
control exercised by the individual4    
,the working out of such an action may  
be accompanied by consciousness1 but the
 power of memory would only be valuable 
in so far as the instinct was imperfect1
 and in so far as the better attainment 
of the end was fostered by direct       
individual experience4 ,thus the greater
 the range of instinct the less the     
scope of and the less the need for      
education--i4e41 for acquiring          

experiences that will function in       
rendering more efficient future action2 
and conversely1 the less the range of   
instinct the greater the need for       
education1 for acquiring experiences    
that may function in the guidance and   
direction of future action4  ,now1 in   
man the range of instinct is small4 ,in 
fact1 it is questionable whether in the 
strict usage of the term he possesses   
any one perfect instinct4 ,but to       
overcome this weakness of his nature he 
possesses the power or faculty of       
reason1 and this consists in the ability
 to self-find1 to self-adapt1 and to    
self-establish systems of means for the 
attainment of definite ends4 ,man's     
splendid power of learning through      
experience and of applying the contents 
of his memory to forecast and mould the 
future is his peculiar glory4 ,it is    
this which distinguishes him from and   
raises him above all other animals4     
,this it is that makes him man4 ,this it
 is that has enabled him to conquer the 

whole world and to adapt himself to a   
million conditions of life4#d ,this it  
is that also makes possible the         
education of the child1 and raises the  
hope that by a truer and deeper         
conception of the process of education  
we shall be enabled to mould the        
character of the children to worthy     
ends4  ,but although man is             
pre-eminently the rational animal1 yet  
reason only operates1 and can only      
operate1 in so far as it is called into 
activity by the need of satisfying some 
inborn or acquired desire4 ,that is1 man
 possesses not only reason1 but also    
certain instinctive tendencies to       
action4 ,in early life1 the instincts of
 curiosity1 of imitation1 of emulation1 
and the various forms of the play       
instinct are ever inciting the child to 
action1 and ever evoking his            
reason-activity to acquire new          
experiences which shall function in the 
more efficient performance of future    
action4 ,at a later stage other         

instinctive tendencies make their       
appearance1 as e4g4 the parental        
instinct1 and serve as motives for the  
further acquisition of new              
experiences--for the establishment of   
other systems of means for the          
attainment of desired ends4 ,but as the 
child passes from infancy to youth and  
manhood1 these instinctive tendencies1  
although ever present1 alter their      
character1 and acquired ends or         
interests become the motives of actions4
 ,but these acquired ends or interests  
are not something created out of        
nothing3 they are grafted upon and arise
 out of the innate and inherited        
instinctive tendencies of man's nature4 
,thus1 e4g41 the instinct of mere       
self-preservation may pass into the     
desire to attain a certain standard of  
life1 or to maintain a certain social   
status2 the instinct of curiosity into  
the desire to find out and to           
systematise knowledge for its own sake4 
,but for the realisation of these       

instinctive ends1 whether in their crude
 or acquired forms1 the finding and the 
establishment of systems of means in    
every case is necessary1 and in order   
that they may be realised man must      
acquire the requisite capacities for    
action4 ,in the case of the animal the  
instinct or impulse to action is        
inherited1 but the capacity for action  
is also inborn or innate4 ,man possesses
 all the innate ends or interests which 
the animal possesses4 ,moreover1 upon   
these innate ends or interests can be   
grafted ends or interests innumerable   
and varied in character1 but in order   
that they may be satisfied he must      
through the evoking into activity of    
reason find and adapt means for their   
attainment4 ,thus the general nature of 
our conscious human life is that        
throughout we are striving to attain    
ends of a more or less explicit nature1 
and endeavouring to find out and to     
establish means for their attainment4   
,whether in the performance of some     

simple1 practical act1 or in trying to  
observe accurately what is presented to 
us through the senses1 or in            
endeavouring to realise imaginatively   
something not directly presented to the 
senses1 or in performing an abstract    
process of thought1 the activity of     
reason in its formal aspect is ever one 
and the same4 ,hence in education we    
have not to do with the development of  
many powers or faculties but with the   
development or the evolution of the one 
power or faculty of reason1 and the     
process of development in its general   
nature is always the same in kind--viz41
 the process of systematically building 
up knowledge which shall function in the
 future determination of conduct4 ,what 
varies in each case1 at each stage of   
development1 is the nature of the       
material which goes to form this or that
 system1 and the character of the       
identity or link of connection which    
binds part to part within any given     
system4 ,a system of knowledge may be   

built up of perceptual elements1 of     
ideas derived directly through the      
medium of the senses4 ,of such a        
character are the systems of knowledge  
possessed by the artist and the         
musician4 ,again1 a system of knowledge 
may be composed wholly or mainly of     
images--of remembered ideas1 so altered 
and so modified as to form and fit into 
a new whole4 ,lastly1 the elements which
 go to form the component parts of the  
system may be of a conceptual character4
 ,thus we may select the number aspect  
of things for consideration and         
treatment1 and so build up and establish
 within the mind of the child a number  
system4 ,but in each and every case the 
power at work is the activity of reason1
 and the end ever in view in the        
selection and in the formation of the   
system is the satisfaction of some end  
or interest desired either for its own  
sake or as a means to some further and  
remoter end4  ,further1 a system of     
knowledge may differ not only in the    

nature of the materials of which it is  
composed1 but also in the mode of its   
formation2 i4e41 the nature of the      
identity which binds part to part within
 the system may vary in character4 ,now 
it is upon the nature of the systems    
which we ultimately form in the mind of 
the child and upon the method which we  
pursue in our process of system or      
knowledge making that the resultant     
character of our education depends4  ,a 
system of knowledge may be related as   
regards its parts by some qualitative or
 quantitative bond of identity4 ,all    
sciences of mere classification are     
formed in this way1 and the formation of
 such systems is in some cases a        
necessary preliminary to the evolution  
of the higher forms of system4 ,but the 
important point to note is that all such
 systems are valuable only as a means to
 the further recognition1 the further   
classification1 of similar instances4   
,an individual whose mind was wholly    
formed in this way might be compared to 

a well-arranged museum1 where everything
 is classified and arranged on the basis
 of qualitative identity4 ,but          
manifestly this mere arranging and      
classifying of knowledge has only a     
limited value4 ,such systems can never  
be used as means for the realisation of 
any practical need of life1 can never by
 themselves lead us to intrinsically    
connected knowledge4  ,a second and     
higher form of system is established    
whenever the bond of connection between 
part and part is an identity of function
 or of law4 ,all language systems are of
 this nature1 and the more highly       
synthetic the language the more         
intrinsic the connection there is       
between the parts of the system4        
,further1 it should be noted that       
systems of this character can be used   
for the attainment of other ends than   
those of mere recognition and           
classification4 ,they1 of course1 can be
 used as instruments of intercourse1 of 
culture1 and of commerce4 ,but they may 

further be utilised in education in the 
training of the pupil to self-apply a   
system of knowledge to the solution of  
relatively new problems1 and it is for  
this reason mainly that the ancient     
languages possess their value as        
educational instruments4  ,lastly1      
systems of knowledge may be formed in   
which the inter-relation of part to part
 within the system is that of identity  
of cause and effect4 ,in the            
establishment of scientific knowledge   
the aim is to show the causal           
inter-relation of part to part within a 
systematic whole or unity4 ,hence also1 
as in the case of language systems1     
systems of this nature are capable of   
being used to train the pupil to        
self-apply knowledge in the solution of 
practical and theoretical problems1 and 
in the realising of the practical ends  
of life4 ,once again it must be noted   
that in the establishment of the various
 systems of knowledge the one activity  
ever present is that of reason seeking  

ever to connect part to part in order   
that some end or interest may be        
attained4 ,moreover1 we may misuse the  
power of reason1 and employ it in the   
attainment of ends which are valueless  
in the sense that they further no real  
interest or end in life4 ,this is done  
whenever knowledge is crammed1 whenever 
the bond of connection between one part 
of knowledge and the other is extrinsic1
 and whenever facts are connected and   
remembered by bonds of a more or less   
accidental or factitious nature4 ,and   
since such knowledge can further no     
direct interest or end in life1 its     
acquisition must1 as a rule1 be motived 
by some strong indirect interest4 ,as a 
consequence1 whenever the indirect      
interest1 whatever its nature may       
be1--the fear of punishment1 or the     
passing of an examination1--ceases to   
operate1 then the desire for further    
acquisition also ceases4 ,hence it      
follows that the establishment of any   
such system is of comparatively little  

value4 ,it may pave the way at a later  
period for the formation of a system of 
intrinsically connected knowledge1 but  
as a general rule such systems1 because 
they cannot be used1 tend soon to drop  
out of mind1 and to be of no further    
consequence in the determination of     
conduct4 ,but further1 this misuse of   
reason1 this inciting of the mind to    
memorise facts unrelated except by their
 mere accidental time or space          
relations1 will if persisted in tend to 
render the individual dull1 stupid1 and 
unimaginative4  ,the systems of         
knowledge1 then1 of most value are those
 which establish intrinsic connections  
between part and part2 for it is only by
 means of systems of this character that
 action can be determined and knowledge 
extended4 ,in this sense we may agree   
with ,herbert ,spencer#e that science or
 systematised knowledge is of chiefest  
value both for the guidance of conduct  
and for the discipline of mind4 ,at the 
same time we must not fall into the     

,spencerian error of identifying science
 with the study of surrounding          
phenomena1 and in making the antithesis 
between science and linguistic studies  
one between dealing with real things on 
the one hand1 and mere words on the     
other4  ,further1 since the             
establishment of a system of means is   
always through the self-finding and the 
self-forming of the system1 this        
furnishes the key to the only sound     
method of education--viz41 that the     
child must be trained in the            
self-discovering and the self-connecting
 of knowledge4 ,this does not mean that 
the method should be heuristic in       
,rousseau's sense1 that the child should
 be told nothing1 but be left to        
rediscover all knowledge for himself4   
,but it does mean that in the imparting 
of the garnered experience of the race  
the child must be trained in the methods
 by which the race has slowly and       
gradually built up a knowledge of the   
means necessary for the realisation of  

the many and complex ends of civilised  
life4  ,before passing on to consider   
the ends at which we should aim in the  
education of the child1 it may be well  
briefly to summarise the conclusions    
reached4        #a4 ,man is             
distinguished from the rest of creation 
by the possession      of reason3 the   
animal life is mainly or wholly guided  
by instinct4       #b4 ,man like the    
animals possesses instincts or          
instinctive      tendencies1 but for    
their realisation he must seek out and  
establish systems of means for their    
attainment4 ,bereft of these            
instinctive tendencies of his nature1   
man would have no incentive      to     
acquire experiences for the more        
efficient guidance of his      future   
conduct4       #c4 ,in the course of the
 development and extension of experience
      there gradually becomes grafted   
upon these innate instincts1            
interests or ends of an acquired nature1
 and one of the main      functions of  

education is to create1 foster1 and     
establish on a      permanent and stable
 basis1 interests of ethical and social 
worth4       #d4 ,the power of reason is
 no occult power3 it is simply the      
capacity for finding and establishing   
systems of means for the      attainment
 of ends2 or it may be defined as the   
power of acquiring      experience and  
of self-applying this experience in the 
future      guidance of conduct4        
#e4 ,the evolution of intelligence in   
man is the evolution of this            
reason-activity to the attainment of new
 and more complex      theoretical and  
practical ends or interests4 ,at an     
early stage the      systems of         
knowledge established are for the       
attainment of the      relatively simple
 needs of life1 and are composed of     
perceptual and      imagined elements4  
,at a later stage the systems formed may
 be of      the most complex nature1 and
 are composed of conceptual elements4   
#f4 ,man is the only being capable of   

education in the strict usage      of   
the term4 ,he alone must acquire the    
means for the realisation of      the   
various desired ends of life4       #g4 
,the process of education is a process  
which1 utilising as      motives to     
acquirement the instinctive tendencies  
of the child's      nature1 seeks to    
establish systems of means for their    
realisation1      and upon these innate 
or inborn instincts to graft acquired   
ends or      interests which shall      
hereafter function in the attainment of 
ends      of economic1 ethical1 and     
social worth4       #h4 ,the only truly 
educative method is the method which    
trains the      pupil to find1          
establish1 and apply systems of         
knowledge in the      attainment of ends
 of felt value4   ,,footnotes3  #c      
,hume's ,treatise of ,human ,nature1    
,bk4 ,,iii4 part ii4 sec4 #b4  #d       
,principles of ,heredity1 by ,g4        
,archdall ,reid1 p4 #bce4  #e ,cf4      
,herbert ,spencer1 ,education1          

especially chap4 i4     ,,chapter ,,iii 
,,the ,,end ,,of ,,education   ,we have 
seen that the process of education is   
the process of acquiring and organising 
experiences that will function in the   
determination of future conduct and     
ensure the more efficient performance of
 future action2 or we may say that the  
process is one by which means are       
gradually established and fixed in the  
mind for the attainment of ends of value
 for the realisation of the varied and  
complex interests of life4  ,now1 this  
acquisition and organisation of         
experience is never entirely left to the
 blind control of inherited impulse1 nor
 is the child wholly left to gather and 
organise his experiences upon the       
incentive of any innate or acquired     
interest that may for the time engage   
his will4 ,the various agencies of      
society--the home1 the school1 the shop 
and yard--are ever constantly seeking to
 establish such or such systems of      
ideas1 and to prevent the formation of  

other systems4 ,hence it follows that   
education is not a mere natural         
process--not a process of acquiring     
experience in response to the demands of
 this or that natural need1 but that it 
is a regulated process1 controlled with 
the view of finally leading the child to
 acquire certain experiences1 to        
organise certain systems of means for   
the attainment of such or such ends4    
,moreover1 at various periods in        
history1 the end or ends of education1  
the kinds of experience thought         
necessary and valuable for the child to 
acquire have varied1 and still vary1 and
 must vary according to the nature of   
the civilisation into which the child is
 born and to which his education must   
somehow or other adjust him2 i4e41 there
 is no one type of experience1 no one   
kind of education1 which is equally     
suited to meet the needs of the child   
born in a modern industrial ,state and  
the child whose education must fit him  
hereafter to fulfil his duties as a     

member of a savage tribe4  ,further1 in 
determining the nature of the           
experiences useful to acquire1 we must  
take into account not only the          
civilisation to which the child is to be
 adjusted1 but we must also take note of
 the nature of the services which the   
given society requires of its adult     
members4 ,these services vary in        
character1 and there can be no one kind 
of education which equally fits the     
individual to perform efficiently any   
and every service4 ,to postulate this   
would be to affirm that there is a kind 
of experience useful for the realisation
 indifferently of any and every purpose 
of adult life1 and to affirm that a     
system of knowledge acquired and        
organised for the attainment of certain 
definite ends can be used for the       
furtherance of ends different in        
character and having no intrinsic       
connection with each other4 ,further1 to
 assert that there is one type of       
education equally suited to train and to

 develop the reason-activity of the     
individual in every direction is to     
neglect the fact that individuals differ
 in innate capacity4 ,these differences 
are due in part to differences in the   
extent and character of the receptive   
powers of individuals1 and are to be    
traced1 probably1 to differences in the 
size and constitution of the sensory    
areas of the brain1 and are due also in 
part to inborn differences in the       
capacity for acquiring and utilising    
experiences4 ,as a consequence of these 
differences one individual will acquire 
and organise certain kinds of experience
 more readily than others4  ,but not    
only have the ends sought to be realised
 through the educational agencies of    
society varied in the past--not only do 
we find that the ideals at present vary 
in character according to the stage of  
civilisation which the particular       
country has reached--we also find that  
the agencies of society determining the 
character and end of education also     

vary4 ,for in the discussion of the ends
 sought to be attained by means of      
education1 we must remember that these  
are not determined by the teacher1 but  
by the adult portion of the ,community  
organised in the forms of the ,family1  
the ,state1 the ,church1 and various    
miscellaneous associations#f desirous of
 promoting the welfare of the community4
 ,at one time the ,church largely       
determined the character and ends of    
education1 but the tendency at the      
present time is for the ,state to       
control more and more the education of  
the rising generation4 ,in some         
countries the entire control of all     
forms of education1 primary1 secondary1 
and technical1 has come under the       
guidance of the ,state1 and in our own  
country elementary education is now     
largely under the control of the ,state 
authorities1 and the other forms of     
education tend increasingly to come     
under this control4 ,not only is this   
so1 but the period during which the     

,state exercises its control over the   
education of the child is gradually     
being lengthened4  ,many causes are at  
work tending to produce these results in
 the first place1 it is being clearly   
realised that there can be no           
thorough-going co-ordination of the     
various grades of instruction until all 
the agencies of education in each area  
are placed under one authority acting   
under the guidance of some central body 
responsible for the organisation and    
direction of the education of the       
district as a whole4 ,further1 there can
 be no satisfactory settlement of the   
problem as to what particular function  
each distinct type of ,higher ,school   
shall perform until the whole means of  
education are under one determining     
authority4  ,in the second place1 the   
higher education of the children of the 
nation is too important a matter to be  
left entirely to the care of the private
 individual1 and its cost is too great  
in many cases to be wholly borne by each

 individual parent4 ,but this provision1
 organisation1 and control of the means 
of higher education by the ,state does  
not necessarily imply that it should be 
free--that the whole burden should be   
laid on the shoulders of the general    
taxpayer4 ,yet unless means are provided
 by which the poor but clever boy can   
realise himself1 then there is so much  
loss to the community4  ,in the third   
place1 the organisation of all forms of 
education and the more extended         
provision of higher and especially of   
technical training is necessary1 if for 
no other reason than as a means of      
economic protection and economic        
security4  ,lastly1 the better          
organisation of our educational agencies
 is necessary as a means of securing a  
democracy capable of understanding the  
meaning of moral and civic freedom and  
of using this rightly4  ,but while the  
concrete nature of the ends to which our
 educational efforts are directed may   
vary in accordance with the needs of a  

changing and progressive civilisation1  
nevertheless the general nature of the  
ends sought to be attained by the       
education of the children of a nation is
 permanent and unchangeable4 ,that is1  
we have to recognise a universal as well
 as a particular element in our         
educational ideals4 ,now1 the universal 
aim of all education is1 or rather      
should be1 to correlate the child with  
the civilisation of his time2 to lead   
him to acquire those experiences which  
will in after-life enable him to perform
 ably and rightly his duties as a       
worker1 as a citizen1 and as a member of
 an ethical and spiritual community     
organised for the securing of the       
well-being of the individual4 ,and the  
higher the civilisation1 the more       
difficult1 the more complex1 and the    
more lengthened must be this process of 
acquiring experiences necessary to fit  
the individual to his environment4      
,hence1 whatever the particular nature  
of the environment may be1 the aim of   

education must be the fitting of the    
individual to his natural and social    
environments4 ,hence also any           
organisation of the means of education  
must have as its threefold object the   
securing of the physical efficiency1 of 
the economic efficiency1 and the ethical
 efficiency of the rising generation4   
,in short1 as ,mr4 ,bagley#g puts it1   
the securing of the social efficiency of
 the individual must be the ultimate aim
 of all education4 ,to be socially      
efficient implies that as the result of 
the process of education certain        
experiences1 and the power of applying  
them1 have been acquired by each        
individual1 so that by this means he is 
enabled to perform some particular      
social service for the community of a   
directly or indirectly economic nature4 
,for if1 as the result of the educative 
process1 we establish systems of means  
for the realisation of ends which have  
no social value1 then so far we have    
failed to make the individual socially  

efficient4 ,the youth we would train has
 little time to spare2 he owes but the  
first fifteen or sixteen years of his   
life to his tutor1 the remainder is due 
to action4 ,let us employ this short    
time in necessary instruction4 ,away    
with your crabbed1 logical subtleties2  
they are abuses1 things by which our    
lives can never be made better4#h ,in   
these words ,montaigne writes against   
the false ideal that the mere           
accumulation of knowledge apart from any
 purpose it may serve in enabling us    
better to understand either the world of
 nature or of history should be the aim 
of education1 and throughout all        
education we must ever keep in mind that
 knowledge acquired must be capable of  
being used and applied for the          
realisation of some social purpose1     
otherwise it is so much useless lumber1 
to the individual a burden1 soon        
dropped1 to society valueless1 since it 
can maintain and further no real        
interest of the community4  ,but to be  

socially efficient implies not merely   
that the individual should be fitted to 
perform some service economically useful
 to the community1 it further implies   
that as the result of the process of    
education there should have been        
acquired certain capacities of action   
which restrain him from unduly          
interfering with the freedom of others4 
,he must acquire certain experiences    
which restrain him from hindering the   
full and free development of others2 he 
must be trained to use his freedom      
rightly1 to acquire those capacities for
 action which fit him to take his place 
in the moral cosmos of his time and     
generation4 ,further1 as ,mr4 ,bagley   
also points out1 to be socially         
efficient implies in addition that the  
individual should contribute something  
further to the advancement of the       
civilisation into which he is born1 and 
thus pass on to his successors an       
increasing heritage4  ,the threefold aim
 of all education1 then1 is to secure   

the physical1 the economic1 and the     
ethical efficiency of the future members
 of the community2 and our educational  
agencies must throughout keep this      
threefold aspect in view4  ,to secure   
the physical efficiency of the child is 
necessary1 in the first place1 because a
 strong1 healthy1 vigorous body is a    
good in itself1 apart from the fact that
 without sound health the other ends of 
life cannot1 or can be only imperfectly 
realised4 ,it is an erroneous point of  
view to maintain that many men have done
 good intellectual work in spite of     
physical ill-health1 and even in cases  
where there was present some physical   
defect4 ,the real thing to keep in mind 
is that these individuals do not        
represent the average1 and that for the 
normal individual weak health or the    
presence of physical defect lessens his 
intellectual and moral vigour4 ,we can1 
in the light of modern psychology1 no   
longer regard mind and body as separate 
entities having a development           

independent of each other1 but must     
regard them as conditioning and         
conditioned by each other4  ,in the     
second place1 the care of the physical  
health of the child is important1       
because any impairment or defect in the 
sense organs--the avenues of            
experience--implies a corresponding     
defect or want in mental growth1 and as 
a consequence tends to render the       
individual economically and socially    
less efficient in after-life4  ,in the  
third place1 and this truth is being    
gradually put into practice in the      
education of the weak-minded and of the 
physically defective1 sound physical    
health is one of the conditions of right
 moral activity4 ,this truth ,rousseau  
emphasised when he declared3 that the   
weaker the body1 the more it commands2  
the stronger it is1 the better it obeys4
 ,all the sensual passions find lodgment
 in effeminate bodies1 and the less they
 are satisfied the more irritable they  
become4 ,the body must needs be vigorous

 to obey the soul3 a good servant ought 
to be robust4  ,we shall inquire further
 into this question when we come to     
treat of the physical education of the  
child1 but what we wish to point out is 
that one aim of all our educational     
efforts must be to secure the physical  
efficiency of the rising generation1 on 
the grounds that sound physical health  
is a good in itself2 is a means to the  
securing of the economic efficiency of  
the individual and of society2 and is a 
condition of securing the ethical       
efficiency of the individual4  ,in the  
second place1 the securing of the       
economic efficiency of the individual   
must be one of the aims of our          
educational efforts4 ,this does not     
imply that our educational curriculum   
should be based on purely utilitarian   
lines1 and that all subjects whose      
utilitarian value is not immediately    
apparent should be banished from the    
schoolroom4 ,but it does imply that     
whether in the education of the         

professional man or of the industrial   
worker all instruction either directly  
or indirectly must have as its final    
result the efficiency of the individual 
as a worker4 ,an education which fits   
the individual to use his leisure       
rightly may have as much effect in      
increasing the productive powers of the 
individual as that which looks more     
narrowly to his technical training4     
,further1 we must remember that the     
larger number by far of the children of 
the modern ,state must in after-life    
become industrial workers1 and that any 
system of education which neglects this 
fact1 which makes no provision for the  
technical training of the children of   
the working classes1 and has no adequate
 system of selecting and training those 
who by innate capacity are fitted to    
become the leaders in industry1 is a    
system not in harmony with the          
characteristics of modern life1 and that
 unless this economic efficiency is     
secured1 then the opportunity for the   

development of the other ends of life   
cannot be secured4  ,lastly1 the        
securing of the ethical efficiency of   
the future members of the ,state must be
 one of our ultimate aims4 ,the ethical 
aim of education may be said to be the  
supreme end1 in the sense that it is the
 essential condition for the security1  
the stability1 and the progress of      
society2 and also from the fact that the
 ethical spirit of doing the work for   
the sake of the work should permeate all
 education4  ,in concluding this chapter
 what needs to be emphasised is that    
while the process of education remains  
ever the same1 ever consists in         
acquiring and organising experience1 in 
and through the working of reason       
incited to activity by the need of      
satisfying some natural or acquired     
interest1 in order that future action   
may be rendered more efficient1 and     
whilst the general nature of the ends to
 be attained may be said to be permanent
 and unchangeable1 yet the particular   

and concrete ends at which we should aim
 in the education of our children is a  
practical question which every nation   
has1 from time to time1 to ask and      
answer afresh in the light of her       
national ideals and in view of her      
national aspirations4 ,nay1 further1 it 
is a question which with every necessary
 change in her internal organisation1   
and with every fundamental alteration in
 her relation to her external           
neighbours1 has to be asked and answered
 anew by each and every ,state desirous 
of retaining her place amongst the      
nations of the world and of securing the
 welfare and happiness of her individual
 members4 ,it is mainly because we as a 
nation have not realised this truth that
 our educational organisation has1      
neither in the explicitness and         
clearness of its aims1 nor in the       
distinction1 gradation1 and             
co-ordination of its means1 attained the
 same thoroughness and self-consistency 
as that possessed by the educational    

systems of some of our ,continental     
neighbours4  ,,footnotes3  #f ,cf4      
,professor ,findlay1 ,journal of        
,education 7,sept4 #ahii71 also         
,principles of ,class ,teaching1 p4 #b4 
#g ,cf4 ,the ,educative ,process1 chap4 
iii41 esp4 pp4 #ei1 #fj 7,macmillan74   
#h ,montaigne1 ,the ,education of       
,children1 ,l4 ,e4 ,rector1 ,ph4,d4     
7,international ,education ,series71    
,appleton1 ,new ,york4     ,,chapter    
,,iv  ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the       
,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the         
,,provision ,,of ,,education   ,the end 
of education is1 as we have seen1 the   
securing of the future social efficiency
 of the rising generation1 and the      
method in every case is through the     
evoking of the reason-activity of the   
individual to organise and establish in 
the minds of the young and immature1    
systems of ideas which will hereafter   
function as means in the attainment of  
ends of definite social worth4  ,the    
question now arises as to whether the   

provision and organisation of the       
agencies of education may be safely left
 to the care and self-interest of the   
individual parent1 or whether on        
principle such provision is a duty which
 devolves upon the ,state4  ,the        
principle of the ,state provision of the
 means of elementary education has now  
practically been admitted1 and whether  
wisely or unwisely1 the larger part by  
far of the cost of this provision now   
falls upon the shoulders of the general 
and local taxpayer4 ,e4g41 in ,england  
in #aijb there were six hundred and     
thirty-three thousand fee-paying        
children in the ,public ,elementary     
,schools1 and over five millions        
receiving their education free4#i       
,further1 by the ,education ,act        
7,england7 of #aijb and by the          
,education and ,local ,taxation ,account
 7,scotland7 ,act of the same year the  
principle of the ,state aid for the     
provision of the means of secondary and 
technical education may be said also    

practically to have been recognised4 ,by
 the former ,act certain ,imperial funds
 derived from the income on ,probate and
 ,licence duties were handed over to the
 ,councils of counties and boroughs for 
expenditure on the provision of the     
means of education other than           
elementary1 and at the same time these  
bodies were empowered1 if they thought  
it necessary1 to impose a limited rate  
for the same purpose4 ,in ,scotland at  
the same time a certain part of         
,scotland's share of the whisky money   
was set aside for the provision of      
secondary education in urban and rural  
districts1 and ,secondary ,education    
,committees were appointed in the       
counties and principal boroughs charged 
with the allocation of the funds towards
 the aid and increase of the provision  
of higher education in their respective 
districts4  ,but while this has been    
done1 the question as to whether and to 
what extent the ,state should undertake 
the provision of the means of higher    

education is still one on which there is
 no general agreement4 ,if it is the    
duty of the ,state to see that the      
provision of the means of education1    
elementary1 secondary1 technical1 and   
university1 is adequate to the          
attainment of the end of securing the   
future social efficiency of all the     
members of the community1 then it must  
be admitted that the means at present   
provided for this purpose are totally   
inadequate1 and that the method followed
 in furnishing this provision is not of 
a kind to ensure that the funds granted 
are spent in the manner best calculated 
to extend the agencies and to increase  
the efficiency of the higher education  
of the children of the nation4 ,this    
latter objection applies more especially
 in the case of ,scotland4 ,in that     
country certain nominated bodies who are
 responsible only to themselves and to  
the ,scotch ,education ,department are  
entrusted with the expenditure of the   
monies received for the extension of the

 means of higher education1 and since   
these bodies stand in no intimate       
connection with the representative      
bodies entrusted with the control of    
elementary education1 no efficient      
co-ordination of the two grades of      
education is possible4 ,further1 in some
 cases sectional interests rather than  
the educational interests of the        
district as a whole are the main motives
 at work in determining the distribution
 of the funds amongst the various bodies
 claiming to participate in its         
benefits4 ,the uncertainty of the amount
 of income available for this purpose1  
and the limitation in ,england of the   
power of rating1 might also be urged in 
objection to this peculiarly ,english   
method of providing the means for the   
higher education of the youth of the    
country4  ,similar reasons to those     
urged prior to #ahgj in favour of the   
,state provision of elementary education
 may be urged in favour of the extension
 of the principle to higher education4  

,these reasons are nowhere more clearly 
stated than in the writings of ,john    
,stuart ,mill4  ,in discussing the      
functions of government1 ,mill lays down
 that education is one of those things  
which it is admissible on principle that
 a ,government should provide for the   
people1 and although in adducing the    
reasons for the ,state undertaking this 
duty he is concerned mainly with the    
provision of the means of elementary    
education1 yet looking to the altered   
social conditions of our own time1 and  
taking into account the difference in   
the economic relations which exist now  
between ,great ,britain and her         
,continental rivals1 the arguments      
advanced by ,mill are no less applicable
 now to the extension of the principle  
of ,state provision4 ,let us consider   
these arguments4  ,in the first place1  
,mill declares that there are certain   
primary elements and means of knowledge 
that all human beings born into the     
community must acquire during childhood4

 ,if their parents have the power of    
obtaining for them this instruction and 
fail to do so1 they commit a double     
breach of duty4 ,the child grows up an  
imperfect being1 socially inefficient1  
and members of the community are liable 
to suffer seriously from the            
consequences of this ignorance and want 
of education in their fellow-citizens4  
,in the second place1 ,mill urges that  
unlike that the giving of other forms of
 help1 the provision of education is not
 one of the things in which the tender  
of help perpetuates the state of things 
which renders help necessary4           
,instruction strengthens and enlarges   
the active faculties2 its effect is     
favourable to the growth of the spirit  
of independence--it is help towards     
doing without help4  ,in the third      
place1 he declares that the question of 
the provision of elementary education is
 not one between its provision by the   
,government on the one hand1 and its    
provision through voluntary agencies on 

the other4 ,the full cost of the        
education of the children of the lower  
working classes in ,great ,britain as in
 other countries has never been wholly  
paid for out of the wages of the        
labourer1 and hence the question lies   
between the ,state provision of         
education and its provision by certain  
charitable agencies4 ,as a rule1 when   
provided by the latter1 it is both      
inefficient in quantity and poor in     
quality4  ,lastly1 ,mill lays down that 
in the matter of education the          
intervention of ,government is          
necessary1 because neither the interest 
nor the judgment of the consumer is a   
sufficient security for the goodness of 
the commodity4  ,but at the same time he
 strenuously insists that there should  
be no monopoly of education by the      
,state4 ,it is not desirable1 he        
declares1 that a government should have 
complete control over the education of  
the people4 ,to possess such a control  
and actually to exert it would be       

despotic4 ,the ,state may1 however1     
require that all its people shall have  
received a certain measure of education1
 but it may not prescribe from whom or  
where they may obtain it4  ,at the      
present day1 and under the changed      
economic conditions which now prevail1  
it can no longer be asserted that the   
imparting of the mere elements of       
knowledge is adequate either to secure  
the future social efficiency of the     
children of the lower classes of society
 or that such a modicum of instruction  
as is provided by our ,elementary       
,schools is sufficient to protect the   
community from the ignorance of its ill 
educated and badly trained members4 ,the
 hooliganism of many of our large cities
 is due to our system of half educating1
 half training the children of the      
slums1 of laying too much stress on the 
acquisition of certain mechanical arts  
in our ,primary ,schools and in         
conceiving them as ends in themselves4  
,further1 our system of primary         

education fails on its moral side1 and  
this in two ways4 ,it seems unaware of  
the fact that all moral education is an 
endeavour to implant in the minds of the
 young desires that shall impel them    
hereafter to good rather than to evil1  
and that this end can only be attained  
in so far as the natural instinctive    
tendencies of the child's nature which  
make for good are cultivated and        
trained1 and in so far as those other   
instinctive tendencies which make for   
social destruction are inhibited by     
having their character altered so as to 
be directed into channels which make for
 the social welfare4 ,in the second     
place1 we leave off the education of the
 children at too early an age4 ,we hand 
over the children of the poorer classes 
during the most critical period of their
 lives to the influences of the streets 
and of the bad home1 counteracted only  
by the efforts of the slum visitor or   
the missionary4 ,after furnishing them  
with the mere instruments of knowledge1 

we entrust either to them or their      
parents the liberty of using1 misusing1 
or non-using the instruments provided4  
,moreover1 we do nothing of a systematic
 nature to instil into the youth of our 
poorer citizens the fact that they are  
members of a corporate community and    
future citizens of a ,state1 and that   
hereafter they have duties towards that 
,state the performance of which is the  
only rational ground of their possession
 of rights as against the ,state4 ,e4g41
 in many of our slums we have the best  
examples of individualism run mad1 of   
the conception that the individual is a 
law unto his private self1 and that all 
government is something alien1 something
 forced upon the individual from the    
outside and impinging upon his private  
will1 instead of law being what it      
really is1 an expression of the social  
conditions under which the welfare of   
the individual and of society may be    
attained4  ,further1 it must be         
maintained that our present policy in   

education is economically wasteful4 ,to 
spend1 as we do yearly1 larger and      
larger sums of money on the elementary  
education of our children1 and then1 in 
a large number of cases1 to fail to     
reach the ends of securing either the   
social efficiency of the individual or  
the protection of society against the   
ignorance of its members1 is surely1 to 
say the least1 unwise4 ,again1 if we    
really set before us this aim of the    
social efficiency of the future         
individual1 we must do something to     
carry on the education of the children  
of the poorer classes after the         
,elementary ,school stage has been      
passed4  ,one of the strongest points in
 the ,german system of education1 as    
compared and contrasted with our own1 is
 the care which is taken of the higher  
education of the children of the working
 classes during the period when it is   
most important that some control should 
be exercised over the youth of the      
country1 throughout the time when the   

boy is most open to temptation1 and when
 the moral forces of society are potent 
for good and evil in shaping and forming
 his character4 ,the great majority of  
the children in a modern ,state are and 
must be destined for industrial service2
 the great majority of the children of  
the working classes must1 at or about   
the age of fourteen1 leave the ,primary 
,school and enter upon the learning of  
some trade4 ,but manifestly at this     
early stage the larger number are not   
fitted to guide and control their own   
lives2 and if moral education aims1 as  
it ought to aim1 at fitting the         
individual for freedom1 at fitting him  
to guide and direct his own life in the 
light of a self-accepted and a          
self-directed ideal1 then some measure  
of control1 of guidance1 and of         
regulation is necessary in the years    
when the child is passing from youth to 
manhood4 ,now1 it is this fact1 this    
truth1 which the ,germans as a nation   
have realised4 ,they declare that it is 

neither wise nor prudent nor for the    
ultimate benefit of the ,state to leave 
the vast majority of the youth without  
guidance1 and sometimes even without    
proper moral control exercised over them
 during the great formative period of   
their lives4 ,nay1 further1 they believe
 that a ,state which neglects its duty  
here is not doing what it ought to do   
for the future moral good1 for the      
future economic welfare1 and for the    
future happiness of its individual      
members4 ,hence1 in several of the      
,german ,states1 the ,state control over
 the child does not cease when at       
fourteen years of age he leaves the     
,elementary ,school1 but is continued   
until the age of seventeen2 and this is 
effected by the establishment of        
compulsory ,evening ,schools4 ,in       
particular1 by a law which came into    
force in ,berlin on the #ast ,april     
#aije1 every boy and girl in that city1 
with certain definitely specified       
exceptions1 must attend at an ,evening  

,continuation ,school for a minimum of  
not less than four hours and a maximum  
of not more than six hours per week4    
,moreover1 this enactment has been      
rendered necessary not to level up the  
majority1 but to level up the minority4 
,this development is a development for  
which the voluntary ,evening            
,continuation ,school prepared the way2 
and compulsory attendance has become    
possible on account of the willingness  
of the ,german youth to learn1 and of   
his desire to make himself proficient in
 his particular trade or profession4    
,further1 the school authorities1 in    
this matter of compulsory attendance at 
an ,evening ,continuation ,school1 have 
with them the hearty co-operation of the
 great body of employers2 and the burden
 of seeing that the pupil attends       
regularly is not put upon the parent but
 upon the employer4 ,by these means1 and
 by other agencies of a voluntary       
character1 every care is taken that the 
,berlin youth shall have the opportunity

 of finding that employment for which by
 nature he is best suited1 and that     
thereafter he shall learn thoroughly the
 particular trade or calling he may     
enter upon4  ,contrast what we do1 or   
rather what we do not do1 in this matter
 of providing higher education for the  
sons and daughters of the working       
classes4 ,in our large towns the great  
majority of our boys and girls leave the
 ,elementary ,school at or before the   
age of fourteen4 ,in many cases the     
instruction given during this period    
soon passes away1 and leaves little     
permanent result behind4 ,evening       
,continuation ,schools are indeed       
provided1 but only a small proportion of
 our youth takes advantage of this means
 of further instruction4 ,the larger    
number of the children of the lower     
working classes drift1 for a year or    
two1 into various forms of unskilled    
employment1 chosen in most cases because
 the immediate pecuniary reward is here 
greater than in the case of learning a  

trade2 and after spending two or three  
years in employments which do nothing to
 educate them1 some drift1 by accident1 
into this or that particular trade1     
while the others remain behind to swell 
the number of the unskilled4 ,during    
this period nothing of an organised     
nature is done to secure the physical   
efficiency of the youth of our working  
classes2 nothing or almost nothing is   
done to secure his future industrial    
efficiency2 and1 as a consequence1 year 
after year1 as a nation1 we go on       
fostering an army of loafers1 increasing
 the ranks of the unskilled workers1 and
 even in our skilled trades adding to   
the number of those who are mere process
 workers1 at the expense of producing   
workers acquainted both theoretically   
and practically with every department of
 their particular calling4 ,no wonder   
that the delegates of the               
brass-workers#aj of ,birmingham1        
contrasting what they have seen in      
,berlin with what they daily see in     

their own trade at home and in their own
 city1 bitterly declare that the ,berlin
 youth has from infancy been under      
better care and training at home1 at    
school1 at the works1 and in the ,army2 
and consequently1 as a man1 he is more  
fitted to be entrusted with the liberty 
which the ,birmingham youth has perhaps 
from childhood only abused4  ,space does
 not permit me to go at fuller length   
into this question1 but before leaving  
the particular problem let me put the   
issue plainly1 because it is an issue   
which we as a nation must soon clearly  
realise1 and must answer in either one  
or other of two ways4 ,we may go on as  
at present1 insisting that a certain    
amount of elementary education is       
compulsory for all1 and leaving it a    
matter for the individual parent and the
 individual youth to take advantage of  
the means of higher education provided  
voluntarily1 and as a rule without any  
great direct cost to them4 ,in this way1
 trusting to the voluntary agencies at  

work in society1 we may hope that either
 through enlightened self-interest1 or  
through a higher conception of the duty 
of the individual to the ,state1 or     
through a loftier moral ideal becoming  
prevalent and actual in society1 an     
increasing number of parents will see   
that the means provided for the higher  
education of their children are duly    
taken advantage of1 and that the        
majority of the youth will make it their
 aim to use these means to secure their 
physical and industrial efficiency4 ,if 
we adopt this course1 then it must be   
the duty of the school authorities of   
the various districts to see that       
,evening ,schools of various types      
suited to the needs of the various      
classes of students are duly provided1  
and that no insurmountable obstacles are
 placed in the way of those desirous and
 anxious to take advantage of the means 
of higher education4 ,further1 it must  
become the duty of the employers of the 
country to see that the youth are       

encouraged in every way to take         
advantage of instruction designed with  
the above-named end in view1 and        
moreover the general public must do all 
in their power to co-operate with and to
 aid the endeavours of school           
authorities and employers of labour4 ,in
 this way1 as has been the case in      
,berlin1 the voluntary system of        
,evening ,continuation and ,trade       
,schools may gradually and in time pave 
the way for the compulsory ,evening     
,school4 ,without doubt this were the   
better way1 if it could be effected and 
that quickly4  ,but if in this matter we
 have delayed too long--if we have      
allowed our educational policy in the   
past to be guided by a one-sided and    
narrow individualism--if for too        
lengthened a period we have permitted   
our political action to be determined by
 the false ideal that1 in the matter of 
providing for and furthering his        
education as a citizen and as an        
industrial worker1 liberty for each     

individual consists in allowing him to  
choose for himself1 regardless of       
whether or not that choice is for his   
own and the ,state's ultimate good1 then
 it may be necessary in the immediate   
future to take steps to remove or remedy
 this defect in our present educational 
organisation4 ,for it is                
necessary--essentially necessary--on    
various grounds that the education of   
the boys and girls of our working       
classes should not cease absolutely at  
the ,elementary ,school stage1#aa but   
that1 with certain definite and         
well-considered exceptions1 all should  
continue for several years thereafter to
 fit themselves for industrial and      
social service4 ,if this result can be  
effected by moral means1 good and well2 
if not1 legal compulsion must1 sooner or
 later1 be resorted to4 ,for it is1 as  
it has always been1 a fundamental maxim 
of political action that the ,state     
should and must compel her members to   
utilise the means by which they may be  

raised to freedom4   ,the second line of
 argument which ,mill follows in his    
advocacy of the ,state provision of     
education is that instruction is one of 
the cases in which the aid given does   
not foster and re-create the evil which 
it seeks to remedy4 ,education which is 
really such does not tend to enervate   
but to strengthen the individual4 ,its  
effect is favourable to the growth of   
independence4 ,it is a help towards     
doing without help4  ,on similar        
grounds1 we may urge that it is the duty
 of the ,state to see that the means for
 the higher education of the youth of   
the country are adequate in quantity and
 efficient in quality4 ,the better      
technical training of our workmen is    
necessary if we are to secure their     
economic self-sufficiency and fit them  
to become socially useful as members of 
a community4 ,one aim therefore         
underlying any future organisation of   
education must be to secure the         
industrial efficiency of the worker and 

to ensure that the results of science   
shall be utilised in the furtherance of 
the arts and industries of life4 ,this  
can only be effected by the better      
scientific training1 by the more        
intensive and the more thorough         
education of those children of the      
nation who by natural ability and       
industry are fitted in after-life to    
guide and control the industries of the 
country4  ,mr4 ,haldane1#ab during the  
past few years1 in season and out of    
season1 has called the attention of the 
public of ,great ,britain to the fact   
that in the organisation and equipment  
of their system of technical education  
,germany is much in advance of this     
country1 and that the ,german people    
have thoroughly and practically realised
 that1 if they are to compete           
successfully with other nations1 then   
one of the aims of their educational    
system must be to teach the youth how to
 apply knowledge in the furtherance and 
advancement of the economic interests of

 life4 ,with this end in view we have   
the establishment throughout the ,german
 ,states of numerous schools and        
colleges having as their chief aim the  
application of knowledge to the arts and
 industries4 ,in our own country this   
branch--this very important branch--of  
education has been left1 for the most   
part1 to the care of private            
individuals1 and although the ,state has
 done something in recent years to      
encourage and develop this side of      
education1 yet much more requires to be 
done2 and1 above all1 it is desirable   
that whatever is done in the future     
should be done in a regular1 systematic1
 and organised manner and with definite 
aims in view4  ,but it is not merely in 
the higher reaches of ,german education 
that the industrial aim is kept in view4
 ,it pervades and permeates the whole   
system from the lowest to the highest   
stages4 ,even in the ,primary ,school   
the requirements of practical life are  
not left out of sight4 ,in school1 said 

a former ,prussian ,director of         
,education1 children are to learn how to
 perform duties1 they are to be         
habituated to work1 to gain pleasure in 
work1 and thus become efficient for     
future industrial pursuits4 ,this has   
been the aim from the earliest times of 
,prussian education2 and to this day it 
is plainly understood by all ,state and 
local administrative officers1 as well  
as by all teachers and the majority of  
the parents1 that the people's school   
has more to do than merely teach the    
vehicles of culture--reading1 writing1  
and arithmetic--that the chief aim is   
rather the preparation of citizens who  
can and will cheerfully serve their ,god
 and their native country as well as    
themselves4  ,in the third place1 the   
question of the provision of the means  
of higher education is not one between  
its provision on the one hand by means  
of the ,government1 and on the other by 
means of purely voluntary agencies4     
,higher education1 e4g41 in ,scotland   

has rarely been provided and paid for at
 its full cost by the individual parent 
or by associations of individual        
parents1 but has been maintained1 in    
some cases in a high degree of          
efficiency1 by endowments left for this 
purpose4 ,these endowments are now in   
many cases insufficient to meet the     
demand made for education1 and the      
stream of private benevolence in        
providing the means of education has    
either ceased to flow or flows in an    
irregular and uncertain fashion4        
,further1 the incomes of even the       
moderately well-to-do of our middle     
classes are not sufficient to bear the  
whole cost of the more expensive        
education required to fit their sons and
 daughters for the after-service of the 
community4 ,hence1 just as in ,mill's   
time the question of the provision of   
elementary education lay between the    
,state provision and the provision by   
means of charitable agencies1 so to-day 
the problem of the provision of         

secondary and technical education is    
between its adequate provision and      
organisation by the ,state1 and its     
inadequate1 uncertain provision by means
 of the endowments of the past and by   
the charitable agencies of the present4 
,manifestly1 in the light of modern     
conditions1 with the economic           
competition between nation and nation   
becoming keener and keener1 and knowing 
full well that the future belongs to the
 nation with the best equipped and the  
best trained army of industrial workers1
 we can no longer rest content with any 
haphazard method of providing the means 
of higher education3 whatever the cost  
may be1 we must realise that the time   
has come to put our educational house in
 order and to establish and organise our
 system of higher education so that it  
will subserve each and every interest of
 the ,state4 ,this can only be effected 
in so far as the nation as a whole      
realises the need for the better        
education of the children1 and takes    

steps to secure that this shall be      
provided1 and that there shall be       
afforded to each the opportunity of     
fitting himself by education to put his 
talents to the best use both for his own
 individual good and the good of the    
community4 ,lastly1 as ,mill urges1 the 
self-interest of the individual is      
neither sufficient to ensure that the   
education will be provided1 nor in many 
cases is his judgment sufficient to     
ensure the goodness of the education    
provided by voluntary means4  ,but1 in  
addition to the reasons urged by ,mill  
for the ,state provision and control of 
the means of elementary education1 and  
these reasons are1 as we have seen1 as  
urgent and as cogent to-day for the     
extension of the principle to the       
provision of the means of secondary and 
technical education1 still further      
reasons may be advanced4  ,in the first 
place1 there can be no co-ordination of 
the different stages of education until 
all the agencies of instruction in each 

area or district are placed under one   
central control4 ,until this is effected
 we must have at times overlapping of   
the agencies of instruction4 ,in some   
cases there may also be waste of the    
means of education4 ,in every case there
 will be a general want of balance      
between the various parts of the system4
  ,in the second place1 one object of   
any organisation of the means of        
education should be the selection of the
 best ability from amongst the children 
of our ,elementary ,schools and the     
further education of this ability at    
some one or other type of ,intermediate 
or ,secondary ,school4 ,in order that   
this may be economically and efficiently
 effected1 the instruction of the       
,elementary ,school should enable the   
pupil at a certain age to fit himself   
into the work of the ,high ,school1 and 
our ,high ,schools' system should be so 
differentiated in type as to furnish not
 one type of such education but several 
in accordance with the main classes of  

service required by the community of its
 adult members4 ,manifestly such a      
co-ordination of the means and such a   
grading of the agencies of education1 if
 not impossible on the voluntary        
principle1 is at least difficult of     
complete realisation4  ,hence1 on the   
ground that the higher education of the 
young is necessary for the securing of  
their after social efficiency1 on the   
ground that it is necessary for the     
economic and social security of the     
community1 on the ground that aid in    
higher education is a help towards doing
 without help and that its provision in 
many cases cannot be fully met by the   
voluntary contribution of the           
individual1 we may urge the need for the
 ,state's undertaking its adequate and  
efficient provision4  ,further1 we must 
remember that the ,state must take a    
longer view of the problem of education 
than is possible for the individual4 ,at
 best the latter looks but one          
generation ahead4 ,he is content to     

secure the education and the future     
welfare of his children4 ,in the life of
 the ,state this is not sufficient4 ,she
 must look to the needs of the remote   
future as well as of the immediate      
present1 and hence her educational      
outlook must be wider and go farther    
than that of any mere private           
individual4 ,lastly1 if we understand   
the true nature and function of the     
,state1 we need have no fear that the   
,state should control the education of  
all the people4 ,what we have to fear on
 the one side is the bureaucratic       
control of education1 and on the other  
its control and direction by one class  
in the interests of itself4 ,the ,state 
exists for--the reason of its very being
 is to secure--the welfare of the       
individual1 and the ,state approaches   
its perfection when its organisation is 
fitted to secure and ensure the widest  
scope for the full and free development 
of each individual4  ,the evil of       
bureaucracy can be removed only by our  

representative bodies becoming more     
effective voices of the social and moral
 will of the community1 just as the evil
 of class control can only be           
effectually abolished by the rise and   
spread of the true democratic spirit1   
ever seeking that the agencies of the   
,state shall be directed towards the    
removing of the obstacles which hinder  
the full realisation of the life of each
 of its members4  ,,footnotes3  #i ,cf4 
,graham ,balfour1 ,educational ,system  
of ,great ,britain1 p4 #bg1 #bnd ed4    
#aj ,brass-workers of ,berlin and       
,birmingham 7,king74  #aa ,it must not  
be forgotten that the instruction of the
 common schools 7,volksschule71 closing 
with the pupil's fourteenth year1 ends  
too soon1 that the period most          
susceptible to aid1 most in need of     
education1 the years from fifteen to    
twenty 444 are now not only allowed to  
lie perfectly fallow1 but to lose and   
waste what has been so laboriously      
acquired during the preceding period at 

school4 ,in the rural parts of ,northern
 ,germany efforts are being made to     
remedy this evil by the institution of  
schools providing half-year winter      
courses4 ,cf4 ,professor ,paulsen's ,the
 ,german ,universities and ,university  
,study1 p4 #aag 7,english translation74 
#ab ,cf4 ,education and ,empire4        
,,chapter ,v  ,,the ,,relation ,,of     
,,the ,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the   
,,cost ,,of ,,education   ,but while we 
may hold that it is the duty of the     
,state to see that the means for the    
education of the children of the nation 
is both adequate in extent and efficient
 in quality1 and so organised that it   
affords opportunities for each to secure
 the education which is needed to equip 
him for his after-work in life1 it by no
 means follows as a logical consequence 
that the whole cost of this provision   
should be borne by the community in its 
corporate capacity and that the         
individual parent should1 if he so      
chooses1 be relieved from any direct    

payment for the education of his        
children4 ,to assert this would be      
implicitly to affirm that the education 
of a man's children is no part of his   
duty--that it is an obligation which    
does not fall upon him as an individual1
 but only as a member of a community1   
and that so long as he pays willingly   
the proportion of the cost of education 
assigned to him by taxes and rates1 he  
has fulfilled his obligation4           
,education1 on such a view1 becomes a   
matter of national concern in which as a
 private individual the parent has no   
direct interest4 ,this position carried 
out to its logical conclusion would     
imply that the child and his future     
belong wholly to the ,state1 and it     
would also involve the establishment of 
a communal system of education such as  
is set forth in the ,republic of ,plato4
 ,further1 such a position logically    
leads to the contention that the other  
necessities of life requisite for       
securing the social efficiency of the   

future members of the ,state should also
 be provided by the ,state in its       
corporate capacity acting as the        
guardian of the young1 and from this we 
are but a short way from the position   
that it belongs to the community to     
superintend the propagation of the      
species1 and to regulate the marriages  
of its individual members4 ,this is     
,state socialism in its most extreme    
form1 and is contrary to the spirit of a
 true liberalism1 a true democracy1 and 
a true ,christianity4  ,the opposing    
position--the position of liberalism    
untainted by socialism--is that it is   
the duty of the ,state to see that as   
far as possible the social inequalities 
which arise through the individualistic 
organisation of society are removed or  
remedied1 and that equality of          
opportunity is secured to each to make  
the best of his own individual life4 ,in
 the educational sphere this implies    
that any obstacles in the way of a man's
 educating his children should be       

removed1 if and in so far as these      
obstacles are irremovable by any private
 effort of his own1 and that the        
opportunity of obtaining the best       
possible education should be open to the
 children of the poor if they are fitted
 by nature to profit by such an         
education4 ,it further implies that the 
means of higher education1 provided at  
the public expense1 should not be wasted
 on the children of any class if by     
nature they are unfitted to benefit by  
the means placed at their disposal2     
i4e41 a national system of education    
must be democratic in the sense that the
 means of higher education shall be open
 to all1 rich and poor1 in order that   
each individual may be enabled to fit   
himself for the particular service for  
which by nature he is best suited4 ,it  
must see1 further1 that any obstacles   
which prevent the full use of these     
means by particular individuals are1 as 
far as may be possible1 removed4 ,a     
national system of education1 on the    

other hand1 must be aristocratic in the 
sense that it is selective of the best  
ability4 ,lastly1 it must be            
restrictive1 in order that the means of 
higher education may be utilised to the 
best advantage1 and not misused on those
 who are unfitted to benefit therefrom4 
,closely connected with the position    
that it is the duty of the ,state to see
 not merely to the adequate and         
efficient provision of the means of     
education1 but also that the whole cost 
of the provision should be borne by the 
,state1 is the contention that because  
the ,state imposes a legal obligation   
upon the individual parent to provide a 
certain measure of education for his    
children1 it is also a logical          
conclusion from this step that education
 should be free4 ,the object of public  
education is the protection of society1 
and society must pay for its protection1
 whether it takes the form of a         
policeman or a pedagogue4#ac  ,but the  
provision of the means of elementary    

education1 and the imposing of a legal  
obligation upon each individual parent  
to utilise the means provided1 is not   
merely or solely for the protection of  
society4 ,education confers not only a  
social benefit upon the community1 but a
 particular benefit upon the individual4
 ,its provision falls not within the    
merely negative benefits conferred by   
the ,state by its protection of the     
majority against the ignorance and      
wickedness of the minority1 but it      
belongs to the positive benefits        
conferred by ,government upon its       
individual members4 ,the ,state in part 
undertakes the provision of the means of
 education1 as ,mill pointed out1 in    
order to protect the majority against   
the evil consequences likely to result  
from the ignorance and want of education
 of the minority4 ,as this provision    
confers a common benefit on all1 so far1
 but only in so far1 as education is    
protective1 can its cost be laid upon   
the shoulders of the general taxpayer4  

,but the provision by the ,state of the 
means of education is not merely        
undertaken for the protection of any    
given society against the ignorance and 
the lawlessness of its own individual   
members1 it is also undertaken in order 
to secure the increased efficiency of   
the nation as an economic and military  
unit in antagonism1 more or less1 with  
similar units4 ,at the present day this 
is one main motive at work in the demand
 made for the better and more intensive 
training of the industrial classes4 ,to 
secure the industrial and military      
efficiency of the nation is explicitly  
set forth as the main aim of the ,german
 organisation of the means of education4
 ,we may deplore this tendency of our   
times4 ,we may condemn the rise of the  
intensely national spirit of the modern 
world1 and regret that the ideal of     
universal peace and universal harmony   
between the nations of the earth seems  
to fade for ever and for ever as we     
move4 ,but we have to look the facts in 

the face1 and to realise that the       
educational system of a nation must     
endeavour to secure the industrial and  
military efficiency of its future       
members as a means of security and      
protection against other competing      
nations and as one of the essential     
conditions for the self-preservation of 
the particular ,state in that war of    
nation against nation which ,hobbes so  
eloquently describes3 ,for the nature of
 war1 consists not in actual fighting2  
but in the known disposition thereto1   
during all the time there is no         
assurance to the contrary4#ad  ,in so   
far1 then1 as the provision of education
 by the ,state is undertaken with this  
end in view1 it may be maintained that  
part1 at least1 of the cost of its      
provision should be borne by the general
 taxpayer in return for the greater     
national and economic security which he 
enjoys through the greater efficiency of
 the nation as an economic and military 
unit4  ,but the spread and the higher   

efficiency of education confers in      
addition both a local and an individual 
benefit4 ,it confers a local benefit1 in
 so far as by its means advantages      
accrue to any particular district4 ,it  
confers an individual benefit1 in so far
 as through the means of education      
placed at his disposal the individual is
 enabled to attain to a higher degree of
 social efficiency than would otherwise 
have been possible4  ,further1 if we    
look at this question not from the point
 of view of benefit received1 but from  
that of the obligation imposed1 we reach
 a similar result4 ,it is an obligation 
upon the ,state to see that the means of
 education and their due co-ordination  
and organisation are of such a nature   
both in extent and in quality as to     
furnish a complete system of means for  
the training up of the youth of the     
country to perform efficiently all the  
services required by such a complex     
community as the modern ,state4 ,this   
duty devolves upon the ,state chiefly   

for the reason set forth by ,adam ,smith
 in his discussion of the functions of  
government4 ,it is the duty of the      
sovereign1 he declares1 to erect and    
maintain certain public institutions    
which it can never be for the interest  
of any individual to erect and maintain1
 because the profit could never repay   
the expense to the individual1 or small 
number of individuals1 though it may    
frequently do much more than repay it to
 a great society4#ae  ,it becomes       
further an obligation placed upon the   
local authority to aid the central      
authority of the ,state in the          
establishment and distribution of the   
means of education4 ,the local authority
 by its more intimate knowledge of local
 circumstances is the most competent to 
judge of the nature of the education    
suited to serve its own particular      
needs1 and is best qualified to         
undertake the distribution of the means4
  ,but the obligation to take advantage 
of the means for the future benefit of  

his children is a moral obligation      
placed upon the shoulders of the        
individual parent4 ,it becomes a legal  
obligation only when1 and in so far as1 
the moral obligation is not realised by 
a certain number of the community4      
,certainly one reason for the making of 
the education of a man's children a     
legal obligation is the protection of   
society against the ignorance and       
wickedness of the minority1 but the     
other and principal aim is to endeavour 
to secure that what at first was imposed
 as a merely external or legal          
obligation may pass into a moral and    
inherent obligation1 so that the        
individual from being governed by       
outward restraint may in time be        
governed by an inward and self-imposed  
ideal4  ,it is no doubt difficult in any
 particular case to determine exactly   
what precise part of the cost should be 
allocated to each of the three          
benefiting parties1 but in any national 
organisation of the means of education  

this threefold distribution of cost     
should somehow or other be undertaken4  
,from this it follows1 that while it may
 legitimately be laid down that upon the
 ,state must fall the obligation of     
securing the adequate provision and the 
due distribution of the means of        
education1 yet the further duty of the  
,state in this respect is limited to the
 removing of obstacles which stand in   
the way of the fulfilment of the        
parent's obligation to educate his      
children1 and to the securing to each   
child equality of opportunity to obtain 
an education in kind and quality which  
will serve to fit him hereafter to      
perform his special duty to society4    
,although since #ahia elementary        
education has been practically free in  
this country and the whole cost of its  
provision is now undertaken at the      
public expense1 yet except from the     
socialistic position that the provision 
of education is a communal and not a    
personal and moral obligation1 this     

public provision of the funds for       
elementary education can be upheld from 
the individualistic point of view only  
on two grounds4 ,in the first place1 it 
might be maintained that the protective 
benefit derived from the imparting of   
the elements of education is so great to
 all that its cost may legitimately be  
laid upon the community in its corporate
 capacity4 ,it is on this ground of     
education being beneficial to the whole 
society that ,adam ,smith declares that 
the expense of the institutions for     
education may1 without injustice1 be    
defrayed by the general contributions of
 the whole society4 ,but at the same    
time ,adam ,smith recognises that       
education provides an immediate and     
personal benefit1 and that the expense  
might with equal propriety be laid upon 
the shoulders of those benefited4  ,in  
the second place1 it may be maintained  
that the imposition of school fees      
created such a hindrance in a large     
number of cases to the fulfilment of the

 moral obligation that it was expedient 
on the part of the ,state to remove this
 obstacle by freeing education as a     
whole4 ,in support of this1 it might be 
further urged that the difficulty of    
discriminating between the marginal     
cases in which the imposition of school 
fees really proved a hindrance and those
 in which it did not is great1 and that 
the partial relief of payment of school 
fees laid the stigma of pauperism upon  
many who from unpreventable causes were 
unable to meet the direct cost of the   
education of their children4  ,but1     
except on the grounds that either the   
protective benefit to society is so     
great and so important1 or that the     
charging of any part of the cost        
directly to the parent imposes a        
hindrance in a large number of cases1   
there is no justification for the       
contention that because the ,state      
compels the individual to educate his   
children1 therefore the ,state should   
fully provide the means4  ,if this be   

so1 then the further contention that the
 means of education from the elementary 
to the university stage should be       
provided at the public expense1 and that
 no part of the cost should be laid     
directly upon the individual parent's   
shoulders1 must also be judged to be    
erroneous4  ,the first duty of the      
,state1 in the matter of the provision  
of higher education1 is limited to      
seeing that the provision of the means  
of higher education is adequate to the  
demand made for it2 further1 it may     
endeavour to encourage and to stimulate 
this demand in various ways4 ,the means 
being provided1 the second duty of the  
,state is to endeavour to secure that   
any hindrance which might reasonably    
prevent the use of these means by those 
fitted to benefit therefrom should be   
removed4 ,but the only justification for
 the interference of the ,state is that 
the compulsion exacted in the matter of 
taxes or otherwise is of small moment   
compared with the capacity for freedom  

and intellectual development set free in
 the individuals benefited4 ,in other   
words1 the cost involved by the removal 
of the hindrance must be reckoned as    
small compared with the ultimate good to
 the community as manifested in the     
higher development--in the higher       
welfare of its individual members4  ,but
 the practical realisation of the ideal 
need not involve that education should  
be free from the lowest to the topmost  
rung of the so-called educational       
ladder4 ,it is indeed questionable      
whether the ladder simile has not been a
 potent instrument in giving a wrong    
direction to our ideals of the essential
 nature of what an educational          
organisation should aim at4 ,education  
should indeed provide a system of       
advancing means1 but the system of means
 may lead to many and various aims      
instead of one4 ,however that may be1   
what we wish to insist upon is that the 
,state's duty in this matter can be     
fulfilled not by freeing education as a 

whole1 but by establishing a system of  
bursaries or allowances1 enabling each  
individual who otherwise would be       
hindered from using the means to take   
advantage of the higher education       
provided4  ,in the awarding of aid of   
this nature1 the two tests of ability to
 profit from the education and of need  
of material means must both be employed4
 ,if the former test only is applied1   
then the result is that in many cases   
the advantage is secured by those best  
able to pay for higher education4 ,if   
the objection be made that the granting 
of aid on mere need shown is to place   
the stigma of pauperism upon the        
recipient1 then the only answer is that 
in so thinking the individual           
misconceives the real nature of the aid1
 fails to understand that it is help    
towards doing without help--aid to      
enable the individual to reach a higher 
and fuller development of his powers1   
both for his own future welfare and for 
the betterment of society4  ,,footnotes3

  #ac ,national ,education and ,national
 ,life1 ibid4 p4 #aja4  #ad ,hobbes1    
,leviathan1 p4 #a4 chap4 xiii4  #ae     
,adam ,smith1 ,wealth of ,nations1 ed4  
,j4 ,shield ,nicholson 7,nelsons74      
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,the ,,relation ,,of   
,,the ,,state ,,to                      
,,education--,,medical ,,examination    
,,and ,,inspection ,,of ,,school        
,,children   ,in considering the        
question of the relation of the ,state  
to education1 we have adopted the       
position that it is the duty of the     
,state to see to the adequate provision 
of the means of education1 to their due 
distribution and to their proper        
organisation4 ,at the same time we found
 that the obligation of the ,state in   
this respect did not necessarily involve
 that the whole cost of this provision  
should be borne at the public expense1  
and that no part of the burden should be
 placed on the shoulders of the         
individual parents4 ,as regards the     
provision of elementary education1 we   

indeed found that the whole burden might
 be legitimately laid upon the general  
taxpayer1 upon the grounds either that  
the protective benefit of elementary    
education to the community was great1 or
 that the hindrance opposed by the      
imposition of school fees to the        
fulfilment of a man's moral obligation  
to provide for the education of his     
children was so general that a case     
might be made out for freeing elementary
 education as a whole4 ,but except from 
the position that the provision of      
education was a communal and not a      
personal obligation1 we found no grounds
 for the contention that education      
throughout its various stages should be 
a charge upon the community as a whole4 
,but the provision of the means of      
education may involve much more than the
 mere provision of adequately equipped  
school buildings and of fully trained   
teachers1 and we have now to inquire    
what other provision is necessary in    
order to secure the after social        

efficiency of the children of the       
nation1 and what part of this provision 
rightly may be included within the scope
 of the duties of the ,state4  ,is the  
medical inspection of children attending
 ,public ,elementary ,schools one of    
these duties1 and1 if so1 what action on
 the part of the ,state does this       
involve8  ,the importance of the        
thorough and systematic medical         
examination of children attending school
 as a necessary measure to secure their 
after physical and economic efficiency  
as well as for their intellectual       
development and welfare during the      
school period has been recognised by    
many ,continental countries4 ,to take   
but one or two illustrative examples1 we
 may note that in ,brussels every place 
of public instruction is visited at     
least once in every ten weeks by one of 
the sixteen doctors appointed for this  
purpose4 ,the school doctor amongst     
other duties has to report on the state 
of the various classrooms1 their        

heating1 lighting and ventilation1 and  
also upon the condition in which he has 
found the playgrounds1 lavatories and   
cloakrooms attached to the school4      
,cases of illness involving temporary   
absence from school are reported to him 
as well as the cases involving prolonged
 absence from school4  ,children are    
medically examined upon admission to    
school1 and a record is made of their   
age1 height1 weight1 chest measurement1 
etc4 ,any natural or accidental         
infirmity is chronicled1 state of eyes  
and teeth1 dental operations performed  
at school1 etc4 ,this examination is    
repeated annually1 so as to keep a      
record of each child's physical         
development4 ,great attention1 moreover1
 is paid to the cleanliness of the      
children attending school1 and the      
children are examined daily by the      
teacher upon their entrance to          
school4#af  ,in most of the large towns 
of ,germany a system of periodical      
medical examination and inspection of   

children attending school has also been 
established4 ,e4g41 in #aija ,berlin    
appointed ten doctors for this purpose1 
with the following amongst other        
duties3--        #a4 ,to examine        
children on their first admission as to 
their fitness      to attend school4    
#b4 ,to examine children with the       
co-operation of a specialist for        
the presence of defect in the particular
 sense organs 7sight1      hearing74    
#c4 ,to examine children who are        
supposed to be defective and who may    
require special treatment4       #d4 ,to
 examine periodically the school        
buildings and arrangements      and to  
report on any hygienic defects4#ag   ,in
 ,england1 although there is no specific
 provision for the incurring of the     
expense of conducting the medical       
inspection of children attending the    
,public ,elementary ,schools1 it is     
generally held that the expense may be  
legitimately included in the general    
powers assigned to educational          

authorities under the ,act of #ahgj2    
and1 especially since #ahib1 in several 
areas1 a definite system of medical     
inspection has been established1 and in 
many others there is a likelihood that  
some system of medical inspection will  
be organised in the immediate future4   
,according to the ,report of the        
,inter-,departmental ,committee on the  
,medical ,inspection and ,feeding of    
,school ,children1 published in         
,november #aije1 out of #cbh local      
education authorities1 #dh had          
established a more or less definitely   
organised system of medical examination1
 whilst in eighteen other districts     
teachers and sanitary officers had      
undertaken organised work for the       
amelioration of the physical condition  
of children attending ,public           
,elementary ,schools4 ,as a rule1 this  
inspection is limited to the examination
 of the children and to the discovering 
of defects of eyesight1 hearing1 or     
physical development4 ,when the         

existence of the defect is discovered1  
the parent is notified1 but as a general
 rule the public authority does not     
include within its duties the treatment 
of the ailments and defects or the      
provision of remedial instruments when  
required4  ,further1 in no case has     
there been carried out a thorough       
anthropometric record1 such as that in  
vogue in the schools of ,brussels1 of   
the condition of the physical nature of 
the child upon admission to school and  
his subsequent physical development4    
,in ,scotland we find no general or     
adequate system of medical inspection   
carried out by the local school         
authorities4 ,the ,report of the ,royal 
,commission on ,physical ,training      
7,scotland71 issued in ,march #aijc1    
declares1 however1 that such a system is
 urgently needed1 mainly for remedial   
purposes4 ,by this means defects in the 
organs of sight or hearing1 in mental   
development1 in physical weakness1 or in
 state of nutrition1 such as demand     

special treatment in connection with    
school work1 might be detected1 and by  
simple means removed or mitigated4 ,but 
although in the ,education 7,scotland7  
,bill of #aije provision was made for   
the institution of medical inspection at
 the public expense1 yet through the    
failure of the ,bill to pass nothing of 
a systematic nature has been done to    
organise the medical inspection of      
,elementary ,school children in any     
district in ,scotland4  ,from this brief
 account of what either has been already
 done or is proposed to be done1 it is  
apparent that there is a gradual        
awakening of the nation to the fact that
 the care of the physical nature of the 
child during the school period is of    
fundamental importance from the point of
 view of the future welfare and         
efficiency of the nation4 ,in the       
endeavour to reach this aim it is       
necessary that the examination of the   
child should be undertaken in a         
systematic manner1 and that means should

 be adopted for the remedy of any       
defects4 ,in particular every child on  
admission to school should be examined  
in order to discover whether there is   
any defect present in the special organs
 of sense1#ah and periodical            
examinations should be made in order to 
discover whether the school work is     
tending to produce any injury to the    
various senses4 ,for it is a well-known 
fact that often cases of seeming        
stupidity and seeming carelessness are  
not due either to the want of           
intelligence on the one hand or of      
inattention on the other1 on the part of
 the child1 but may be traced to slight 
defects of eyesight and of hearing4 ,in 
order that they may discover these      
defects teachers ought to be trained in 
the observation of the main symptoms    
which imply defects1 and should be      
practised in the art of applying the    
simpler and more obvious remedies for   
eye and ear defects4 ,more difficult    
cases should be referred to the medical 

officer of the school4 ,again1 it ought 
to be a matter of inquiry at the        
beginning of the school period as to    
whether the child possesses any physical
 defect which would make it difficult   
for him to undertake the full work of   
the school4 ,in some cases it would be  
found that the child was altogether     
unable to undertake this work1 and      
measures should be taken to remedy the  
defect before the child enters upon the 
school course4 ,lastly1 it is now       
realised that more attention must be    
paid to the differences that exist      
between individual children1 and that in
 the case of children with a low degree 
of intelligence it is much better both  
for themselves and for the school       
generally to institute special classes  
or special schools for their education4 
,but in order that this medical         
examination may be thoroughly and       
systematically carried out1 special     
legislative authority must be given to  
education authorities to incur expense  

under this head1 and regulations must be
 laid down by the central authority for 
the carrying out of this inspection so  
as to secure something like a uniform   
system of examination throughout the    
country4 ,for this purpose there should 
be attached to each school area a       
medical officer1 or officers1 charged   
with the sole duty of attending to the  
hygienic conditions under which the     
school work is carried on1 and of       
periodically examining the children     
attending the schools of his district4  
,that the duty of carrying out the      
medical examination of school children  
falls upon the ,state and should be met 
out of public funds may be justified on 
various grounds4 ,in the first place1 it
 is necessary as a measure of           
protection1 in order to prevent the     
child's growing up imperfectly1 and thus
 becoming in adult life a less efficient
 member of society4 ,school work often  
accentuates certain troubles1 and these 
if neglected tend gradually to render   

the individual more and more unfitted to
 undertake some special occupation in   
after-life4 ,any eye specialist could   
furnish evidence of numerous cases in   
which the eyes have been ruined through 
some slight defect becoming intensified 
through misuse4  ,in the second place1  
the examination for physical and mental 
defect cannot in a large number of cases
 be left to the self-interest and       
judgment of the individual parent1 and  
unless undertaken by the public         
authority will not be undertaken at all4
  ,in the third place1 if it is left to 
merely voluntary agencies1 it is        
imperfectly done1 and in many cases     
recourse is had to the various voluntary
 agencies when the trouble has become   
acute1 and in some cases impossible of  
remedy4  ,on these three grounds--of its
 necessity for the future public        
welfare1 that the self-interest of the  
parent often proves but a feeble motive 
power1 and that the voluntary agencies  
placed at the disposal of the poor are  

unable systematically to undertake this 
work--we may maintain that the duty may 
legitimately be laid upon the ,state4   
,but the further question as to how far 
it becomes the duty of the ,state to    
undertake the provision of remedial     
measures either in the way of supplying 
medical aid or in the provision in      
necessitous cases of remedial measures1 
as e4g4 spectacles in the case of       
defective eyesight1 is a question of    
much greater difficulty4  ,at present   
any positive help of this nature is the 
exception rather than the rule1 and is  
undertaken by agencies worked on the    
voluntary principle1 and the remedial   
measures adopted are limited to the     
treatment of certain minor ailments4    
,e4g41 in ,liverpool1 ,birmingham1 and  
other places1 ,queen's nurses regularly 
visit the schools1 and undertake either 
in school or at the homes of the        
children simple curative treatment of   
minor surgical cases4 ,but while it may 
be held that the duty of the ,state is  

limited to the medical examination of   
school children in order to discover the
 presence of physical and mental        
defects1 and that this being done1 any  
further responsibility1 whether in the  
way either of providing or procuring    
remedies1 falls upon the individual     
parent1 yet we have sufficient evidence 
to show that1 in many cases1 either     
through the poverty or the apathy and   
indifference of the parents1 no steps   
are taken in the way of providing the   
necessary remedies1 and as a consequence
 we have growing up in our midst        
children who in after-life will1 through
 the lack of simple curative treatment  
undertaken at the proper time1 become   
more or less socially inefficient4      
,moreover1 it is to be noted that in    
this matter the ,state has already      
recognised its public obligation to     
provide remedial aid in its provision   
for the education and lodging of the    
blind1 the deaf and the dumb1 and in the
 measures taken within recent years for 

the special education of the defective  
and the epileptic4 ,the provision for   
these purposes may indeed be justified  
on the grounds that the expense of the  
education of children of the industrial 
classes so afflicted is beyond the      
powers of any one individual1 or group  
of individuals1 to supply1 and that     
unless undertaken by the ,state it would
 not be efficiently made1 with the      
consequence of throwing the maintenance 
hereafter of these particular classes   
upon the community3 on the ground1      
therefore1 of the future protective     
benefit to society1 such expense may be 
legitimately laid upon the community as 
a whole4 ,further1 in these cases1 the  
danger of the weakening of the sense of 
parental responsibility is not an       
extreme danger to the ,commonwealth1    
since the aid is definitely limited to a
 restricted number of cases1 and since  
the moral obligation imposed upon the   
individual to provide for the education 
of his children could in many cases not 

be fulfilled without the by far greater 
portion of the expense being provided by
 means of public or voluntary aid4  ,in 
like manner1 the expense of the special 
education of the morally defective in   
,industrial ,schools and in other       
institutions may be justified on the    
ground of the present and future        
protective benefit to society4 ,in these
 cases parental government has either   
altogether ceased or become too weak to 
act as an effective restraining force1  
and as a consequence the community for  
its own self-preservation has to        
undertake the control and education of  
the actual or incipient youthful        
criminal4 ,in their ,report the ,royal  
,commissioners on ,physical ,training   
7,scotland7 sadly declare that          
,industrial and similar institutions    
certainly give the boys and girls who   
come under their influence advantages in
 feeding and physical training which are
 not open to the children of independent
 and respectable though poor parents4   

,the contrast between the condition of  
children as seen in the poorer day      
schools and children in ,industrial     
institutions1 whose parents have        
altogether failed to do their duty1 is  
both marked and painful4#ai  ,and yet it
 might be urged that the protective     
benefit likely to be derived in the     
future by the provision of remedial     
means for the removal of the simpler    
defects in the case of the children of  
parents unable without great difficulty 
to supply these themselves is no less   
evident than in the more extreme cases4 
,but here the only sound principle of   
guidance is to ask whether the remedial 
measures required are reasonably within 
the power of the parent to provide4 ,if 
they are not1 no community which        
exercises a wise forethought will suffer
 children to grow up gradually becoming 
more and more defective1 more and more  
likely in after-life to be a burden upon
 its resources4 ,but this question of   
the provision of remedial aid involves a

 much larger question1 which we shall   
now discuss4   ,,appendix  ,as showing  
the need for the systematic examination 
of the special sense organs1 ,i append a
 summary of the results arrived at and  
the conclusions reached by ,dr4 ,wright 
,thomson after examination of the       
eyesight of children attending the      
,public ,elementary ,schools under the  
,glasgow ,school ,board3--        ,the  
teachers tested the visual acuteness of 
#eb1dic children1 and      found        
#ah1efe1 or #ce per cent41 to be below  
what is regarded as the      normal     
standard4       ,i examined the #ah1efe 
defectives by retinoscopy1 and found    
that      #aa1bji1 or #ba per cent4 of  
the whole1 had ocular defects4          
,the percentage with ocular defects was 
fairly constant in all the      schools1
 but the percentage with defective      
vision was very      variable--i4e41    
many children with normal eyes were     
found to see      badly4       ,the     
proportion of these cases was highest in

 the poor and      closely-built        
districts and in old schools1 and was   
lowest in the      better class schools 
and in those near the outskirts of the  
city4       ,the proportion of such     
cases in the country schools of         
,chryston      and ,cumbernauld was much
 lower than in any of the city schools2 
and      in ,industrial ,schools1 where 
the children are fed at school1 the     
proportion was lower than among ,board  
,school children of a      corresponding
 social class4       ,defective vision1 
apart from ocular defect1 seems to be   
due1      partly to want of training of 
the eyes for distant objects1 and       
partly to exhaustion of the eyes1 which 
is easily induced when work      is     
carried on in bad light1 or the         
nutrition of the children      defective
 from bad feeding and unhealthy         
surroundings4       ,regarding training 
of the eyes for distant objects1 much   
might be      done in the infant        
department by the total abolition of    

sewing1      which is definitely hurtful
 to such young eyes1 and the            
substitution of competitive games       
involving the recognition of      small 
objects at a distance of #bj feet or    
more4       ,teachers can determine the 
visual acuteness1 but they cannot       
decide whether or not an ocular defect  
is present4       ,visual acuteness1    
especially among poor children1 is      
variable at      different times4       
,teachers should have access to         
sight-testing materials at all          
times1 and should have the opportunity  
of referring suspected cases      for   
medical opinion4       ,an annual       
testing by the teachers1 followed by    
medical inspection      of the children 
found defective1 would soon cause all   
existing      defects to be corrected1  
and would lead to the detection of those
      which develop during school life4 
,an examination of #ejb children        
attending the ,church of ,scotland      
,training ,college ,school1 ,glasgow1 as

 regards defects in eyesight and        
hearing1 was made by ,drs4 ,rowan and   
,fullerton respectively1 with the       
following results3--        ,as regards 
eyesight--       #fa4ee per cent4 were  
passed as normal1 while of those        
defective      #g4eg were aware of the  
fact2 some few of these had already     
received      treatment1 but #cj4hh were
 quite unaware that there was anything  
wrong1 these unfortunates being expected
 to do the same work as1      and hold  
their own with1 their more fortunate    
classmates4       ,as regards hearing-- 
#ed4d per cent4 were found normal4      
#bg4f         were defective4           
#ah4          were distinctly defective4
       ,i append the very valuable      
suggestions and conclusions of ,dr4     
,rowan1 who conducted the examination on
 the eyesight of children3--            
,after examining #ejb children1 which   
involved the examination of      #ajjd  
eyes1 one is forced to certain          
conclusions4 ,these children are        

taken at random1 and in this way they   
may be considered as a fair      sample 
of their age and class4       ,i think  
one of the first things that force      
themselves on our      notice is the    
difficulties under which many of those  
children      labour1 and of which they1
 their parents and teachers are quite   
unaware4 ,the children are considered   
dull1 careless1 or lazy1 as      the    
case may be3 they themselves1 poor      
unfortunates1 do not know      how to   
complain1 and seem just to struggle     
along as best they can1      though this
 struggle1 without adequate result1 must
 discourage      them1 and in this      
indirect way1 too1 make their future    
prospects      more hopeless4           
,some would be considerably benefited by
 treatment and operation1      or both1 
while for some little can be done4 ,some
 of those who could      be benefited   
are deprived of help by their parents'  
ignorance or      prejudice4       ,in  
the case of those for whom little or    

nothing can be done1 and      whose     
sight is very defective1 it seems to me 
the question ought to      be raised as 
to whether their present mode of        
education should not      be replaced by
 some other1 which would endeavour to   
develop their      abilities in other   
ways than through their eyesight2 in    
short1 they      should have special    
training with the view of fitting them  
for some      form of employment for    
which they are more fitted than the     
ordinary      occupations of everyday   
life4 ,this raises a difficult question1
 and      each case would have to be    
settled on its merits4 ,the difficulty  
must be faced2 otherwise the children   
will simply drift and become      idle  
and useless1 while1 if educated1 at any 
rate partly1 on the      system for the 
blind1 they would become useful members 
of society4       ,i think no one1 after
 studying the result of this examination
 of      what may be by some considered 
a small number of children1 can         

doubt that a thorough medical           
examination of all school children      
should be made when they enter school1  
and this examination      repeated at   
regular intervals4       ,i hold this   
applies not only to the children of the 
poor1 but to      children in all ranks 
of life1 as one constantly1 and that1   
too1 in      private practice1 meets    
with cases where children are considered
      dull and lazy1 while the real     
fault lies with the parents1 who have   
not taken the trouble to ascertain the  
physical fitness or      unfitness of   
their children4       ,i am glad to say 
it is now becoming more common for      
children to be      taken to the family 
doctor1 to a specialist1 or to both1 to 
be      thoroughly overhauled before    
starting school-life2 and in many       
cases with most satisfactory results1 as
 their training can be      modified or 
treatment ordered which prevents the    
development of      those pathological  
conditions which1 in many cases1 would  

limit the      choice of occupation1 or1
 if these are already present1 they can 
at      least be modified or even       
overcome4       ,i wish to emphasise the
 fact that those thorough medical       
examinations should be repeated in the  
case of all children at      regular    
intervals1 as in this way alone can a   
proper physical      standard be        
maintained1 and deviations from the     
normal detected      promptly and in    
many cases cured before the sufferer is 
aware of      their presence4       ,how
 often in examining our adult patients  
do we find them much      surprised when
 they are told and convinced by actual  
proof that all      their life they have
 depended on one eye only6 ,this fact1  
of      course1 they sometimes          
accidentally discover for themselves1   
and      come with the statement that   
the eye has suddenly gone blind4 ,in    
the majority of these cases the weaker  
eye is useless1 and the      possibility
 of making it of any use is1 at their   

age1 practically      nil4              
,,footnotes3  #af ,cf4 ,special ,report 
on ,educational ,subjects1 vol4 ii4  #ag
 ,cf4 ,report on ,elementary ,schools of
 ,berlin and ,charlottenburg1 by ,g4    
,andrew1 ,esq4  #ah ,cf4 ,appendix1 pp4 
#fb-fe4  #ai ,report ,royal ,commission 
on ,physical ,training 7,scotland71 vol4
 i4 7,neill  ,co14 ,edinburgh74         
,,chapter ,,vii  ,,the ,,relation ,,of  
,,the ,,state ,,to ,,education--,,the   
,,feeding ,,of ,,school ,,children   ,a 
much more important and far-reaching    
question than that of the ,state        
provision for the medical examination   
and inspection of children attending    
,public ,elementary ,schools is the     
question of whether1 and to what extent1
 the ,state should undertake the        
provision of school meals for underfed  
children4  ,of the existence of the evil
 of under and improper feeding of       
children1 especially in many of our     
large towns1 there is no doubt4 ,the    
numerous voluntary agencies which have  

been brought into existence to cope with
 the former are sufficient evidence that
 the evil exists and that it is of a    
widespread nature4 ,again1 the high rate
 of infant mortality amongst the        
children of the lower classes is largely
 due to ignorance on the part of parents
 of the nature and proper preparation of
 food suitable for children4 ,further1  
the social conditions under which many  
of the poor live in our large towns is a
 contributing cause of this improper    
feeding4 ,in many cases there is no     
adequate provision in the home for the  
cooking and preparation of food1 and in 
others the absence of the mother at work
 during the day necessitates the        
children fending for themselves in the  
providing of their meals4 ,however1 in  
considering this question we must       
carefully distinguish between three     
distinct causes operating to produce the
 condition of underfeeding1 and as a    
consequence resulting in three distinct 
classes of underfed children4 ,as the   

causes or groups of causes are different
 in nature1 so the remedies also vary in
 character4 ,moreover1 in many cases we 
find all three causes operating1 now one
 and now the other1 to produce the      
chronic underfeeding of the child4  ,in 
the first place1 the underfeeding of the
 child may arise through the temporary  
poverty of the parent due to his        
temporary illness or temporary          
unemployment4 ,in normal circumstances1 
in these cases relief is best afforded  
by means of the voluntary agencies of   
society4 ,in abnormal circumstances1    
such as are caused by a widespread      
depression of industry1 the evil may be 
met by a special effort on the part of  
the voluntary agencies or by            
municipalities or other bodies providing
 temporary relief-work4  ,in the second 
place1 the underfeeding of the child may
 be due to the chronic and permanent    
poverty of the parent4 ,the wages of the
 breadwinner even when in full work may 
be insufficient to afford adequate      

support for a numerous family4 ,this    
condition of things is not peculiar to  
,great ,britain1 but is a common        
characteristic in the life of the poor  
of all civilised nations4 ,this is where
 the real sting of the problem of       
underfeeding lies1 and the causes at    
work tending to produce this condition  
of things are too deep-seated and too   
widely spread to be removed by any one  
remedy4 ,moreover1 in endeavouring to   
cure this disease of the ,commonwealth  
we are ever in danger of perpetuating   
and intensifying the causes at work     
tending to produce the evil4  ,in the   
third place1 the underfeeding of the    
child may arise through the             
indifference1 the selfishness1 or the   
vice of the parents4 ,in such cases the 
parents could feed their children1 but  
do not4 ,manifestly in cases of this    
character there is no obligation placed 
upon the ,state and no rightful claim   
upon any charitable agency to provide   
food for the children4 ,to give aid     

simply weakens further the parental     
sense of responsibility1 and leaves a   
wider margin to be spent on vicious     
pleasures4 ,but while there is no       
obligation placed upon the ,state to    
provide the necessaries of life for the 
child1 there is need and justification  
in such cases for the intervention of   
the ,state4 ,there is need1 for         
otherwise the child suffers through the 
criminal neglect of the parents1 and the
 community must interfere for the sake  
of the future social efficiency of the  
individual and of the nation4 ,there is 
justification1 for here as in the case  
of the parents of the morally defective1
 parental responsibility has either     
ceased to act or become too weak a      
motive force to be effective in securing
 the welfare of the child4 ,as the      
individual parent neglects his duty1 so 
and to the corresponding degree to which
 this neglect extends1 must the duty be 
enforced by the ,state4 ,but in the     
enforcing of this or of any duty we must

 be quite sure that the neglect is      
really due to the weakened sense of     
responsibility of the parent1 that it is
 a condition of things which he could   
remove if he had the moral will to do   
so1 and that the neglect is not due to  
causes beyond the power of the parent to
 remove4  ,cases in which there is      
culpable neglect of the child due not to
 poverty1 but to the fact that the money
 which should go to the proper nutrition
 of the child is squandered in drink1 or
 on other enervating pleasures1 are     
therefore cases in which recourse must  
be had to measures which enforce upon   
the parent the obligation to feed and   
clothe his children4 ,the really        
difficult question is as to the best    
means of enforcing this obligation4     
,manifestly to punish by fine or        
imprisonment does little in many cases  
to alleviate the sufferings of the      
children4 ,the punishment falls upon    
them as well as upon the parent1 and    
where the latter is dead to1 or careless

 of1 the public opinion of his fellows1 
it fails to initiate that reform of     
conduct which ought to be the aim of all
 punishment4 ,if indeed by imposition of
 fine1 or by imprisonment1 the          
individual realises his neglect of duty1
 repents1 and as a consequence reforms1 
then good and well1 but as a rule the   
neglect of the child is in such cases a 
moral disease of long standing and not  
easily cured1 and so we find often that 
neither punishment by fine nor          
imprisonment1 even when repeated several
 times1 is effective in making the      
parent realise his responsibility and   
reform his conduct4 ,all the while the  
child goes on suffering4 ,he is no      
better fed during the period of fine or 
imprisonment1 and the wrath of the      
parent is often visited upon his        
unoffending head4  ,the second method of
 cure proposed is to feed the children  
at the public expense and to recover the
 cost by process of law4 ,but the       
practical difficulties in carrying out  

this plan are similar in kind to those  
formerly experienced in the recovery of 
unpaid school fees4 ,the cost of        
recovering is often greater than the    
expense involved1 and as a consequence  
local authorities are not inclined to   
prosecute4 ,further1 there is the       
difficulty of discriminating between    
underfeeding due to wilful and culpable 
neglect and underfeeding due to the     
actual chronic poverty of the parent4   
,if this plan is to be effective1 some  
simpler method of recovery of cost than 
that which now prevails must be adopted4
 ,e4g41 it might be enacted that the sum
 decreed for should be deducted from the
 weekly wages of the parent by his      
employer4 ,here again many difficulties 
would present themselves in the carrying
 out of this plan4 ,in the case of      
certain employments this could not be   
done4 ,in other cases1 employers would  
be unwilling to undertake the invidious 
task4 ,moreover1 the cost of collection 
might equal or be greater than the cost 

incurred4 ,above all1 such a method     
would do little to alleviate the        
sufferings and better the nutrition of  
the child4 ,in most cases the school    
provides but one meal a day4 ,experience
 has shown that in the case of children 
of the dissolute the free meal at the   
school means less food at home4 ,were   
the cost deducted from the weekly wages 
of the parent1 the result would be      
intensified4 ,so great have been the    
difficulties felt in this matter that   
with one or two exceptions no foreign   
country has made the attempt to recover 
the cost of feeding from the parent4    
,yet the disease requires a remedy4 ,the
 evil is too dangerous to the future    
social welfare of the community to be   
allowed to go on unchecked and          
unremedied4 ,moreover1 to endeavour to  
educate the persistently underfed       
children of our slums is to do them a   
twofold injury4 ,by the exercises of the
 school we use up1 in many cases1 with  
little result1 the small store of energy

 lodged in the brain and nervous system 
of the child1 and leave nothing either  
for the repair of the nervous system or 
for the growth of his body generally4   
,we prematurely exhaust his nervous     
system1 and by so doing we hinder his   
bodily growth and development4 ,to make 
matters worse1 we often insist that the 
child in order to aid his physical      
development must undergo an exhausting  
system of physical exercises when what  
is most wanted for this purpose is good 
and nourishing food and a sufficiency of
 sleep4 ,at the same time that we are   
neglecting the nutrition of his body we 
are spending an increasing yearly sum on
 the so-called education of his mind4   
,what1 then1 is the remedy8 ,if fining  
and imprisonment of the parent only     
accentuate the sufferings of the child1 
if they fail to make the parent realise 
his responsibility and reform his       
conduct1 if the provision of a free meal
 at school means less food at home1 then
 there is only one thorough-going remedy

 for the evil1 and that is to take the  
child away from the parent1 to educate  
and feed him at the public expense1 and 
to recover the cost as far as possible  
from the parent4 ,in ,norway this       
drastic method has been adopted4 ,under 
a law passed on the #fth ,january #ahif1
 the authorities are empowered to place 
neglected children in suitable homes or 
families at the cost of the             
municipality1 the parent1 however1 being
 liable1 if called upon1 to defray the  
cost4#bj  ,the reasons for taking this  
extreme step are obvious4 ,by no method 
of punishing the persistently dissolute 
and neglectful parent can you be assured
 of securing the proper nutrition and   
welfare of the child4 ,parental         
affection in these cases is dead1 and   
parental responsibility for the present 
and future welfare of the child has     
ceased to act as a motive force4 ,as a  
consequence1 the child grows up to be1  
at best1 socially inefficient1 and      
liable in later life to be a burden upon

 the community4 ,in many cases1 the evil
 and sordid influences of his home and  
social environment soon check any       
springs of good in his nature1 and more 
than likely he becomes in later life not
 merely a socially inefficient member of
 the community but an active socially   
destructive agent4 ,hence1 on the ground
 of the future protective benefit to    
society1 on the ground of securing the  
future social efficiency of the         
individual1 on the ground that it is    
only by some such system we can ever    
hope to raise the moral efficiency of   
the rising generation of the slums1 the 
method above advocated is worthy of     
consideration4  ,against the adoption of
 such a method of treatment of the      
dissolute parent many objections may be 
urged1 and it would be foolish to       
minimise the dangers which might follow 
its systematic and thorough carrying    
into practice4 ,but the possible injury 
to the community through the weakening  
of the sense of parental responsibility 

seems to me small in comparison with the
 future good likely to result from the  
increased physical1 economic1 and       
ethical efficiency of the next          
generation which might reasonably be    
expected to follow from the rigorous    
carrying out of such a plan for a time4 
,the fear lest a larger and larger      
number of parents might endeavour to rid
 themselves of the direct care of their 
children1 if this plan were adopted1    
need not deter us4 ,if this plan were   
carried into practice1 then some        
extension of the scope of the           
,industrial ,acts would be rendered     
necessary1 and some such extension seems
 to have been in the minds of the       
,select ,committee in their ,report on  
the ,education 7,provision of ,meals7   
,bill1 #aijf1 in considering their      
recommendations4#ba  ,but the importance
 of the two classes of cases already    
considered sinks into comparative       
insignificance compared with the third  
class of cases4 ,temporary underfeeding 

caused by temporary poverty can be met  
in many ways without to any appreciable 
degree lessening the sense of the moral 
obligation of the parent to provide the 
personal necessities of food and        
clothing for his children4 ,in the case1
 again1 of the persistently dissolute   
and neglectful parent1 moral            
considerations have ceased to operate1  
and so the individual by some method or 
other must be forced to perform whatever
 part of the obligation can be exacted  
from him4  ,but in the third class of   
cases parental responsibility may be an 
active and willing force1 yet the means 
available may be so limited in extent   
that the child is in the chronic        
condition of being underfed4 ,no one who
 carefully considers the information    
recently supplied by the ,board of      
,education as to the methods of feeding 
the children attending ,public          
,elementary ,schools in the great       
,continental cities and in ,america can 
arrive at any other conclusion than that

 here we are in the presence of an evil 
not local but general1 and apparently   
incidental to the organisation of the   
modern industrial ,state4 ,for whether  
by voluntary agencies1 by municipal     
grants1 or by ,state aid1 every great   
,continental city has found it necessary
 to organise and institute some system  
of feeding school children4  ,the only  
inference to be drawn from such a       
condition of things is that in a large  
number of cases the normal wages of the 
labourer are insufficient to maintain   
himself and his family in anything like 
a decent standard of comfort4 ,how large
 a proportion of the population of our  
great cities is in this condition it is 
difficult exactly to estimate1 but there
 is no doubt that a very considerable   
number of cases of the chronic          
underfeeding of school children may be  
traced to the insufficiency of the home 
income to support the family4 ,the moral
 obligation to provide the personal     
necessities of food and clothing for his

 children is active1 but the means for  
the realisation of the obligation cannot
 be provided in many cases the endeavour
 fully to meet the needs of the child   
results in the lessened efficiency of   
the breadwinner of the family4  ,the    
real causes at work tending to keep the 
wages of the unskilled labourer ever    
hovering round a mere subsistence rate  
must be removed1 if anything like a     
permanent cure of this social evil is to
 be effected4 ,we must endeavour on the 
one hand to lessen the supply of        
unskilled labour4 ,by so doing the      
reward of such labour will tend to be   
increased materially4 ,on the other     
hand1 we must during the next decade or 
two endeavour by every means in our     
power to ensure that a larger and larger
 number of the children of the very poor
 shall in the next generation pass into 
the ranks of skilled labour4  ,but in   
the meantime something must be done4    
,the children are there2 they still     
suffer2 and their wrongs cry aloud for  

redress4 ,it is certainly true that any 
aid given to the child will tend        
meanwhile to keep the wages at bare     
subsistence rates4 ,it is also true that
 the distribution of relief only tends  
to make the poor comfortable in their   
poverty1 instead of helping them to rise
 out of it4 ,all this and much more     
might be urged against the demand to    
institute and organise the systematic   
public feeding of school children4 ,but 
these evils are evils which fall upon   
the present adult population4 ,education
 has1 however1 to do with the future1   
with the next generation and not with   
this4 ,its aim is to secure that as     
large a number as possible of the       
children of the present generation will 
grow up to be economically and ethically
 efficient members of the community4 ,to
 secure this end the problem of         
underfeeding is only one of the problems
 that must be solved4 ,if we adopt some 
systematic plan for securing the full   
nutrition of the children of the        

present1 this must go hand in hand with 
other remedies4 ,during the stage of    
transition we shall have to take into   
account that for a time the wages of the
 poorest class of labourer will tend to 
remain at their present low rate2 we    
shall have to face the danger that by   
giving such aid we may in some cases    
still further weaken the sense of moral 
obligation of the parents of the present
 generation4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we 
do nothing1 or if we look to the present
 voluntary agencies to go on doing what 
they can to remedy the evil1 what then8 
,will the evil be lessened in the next  
generation8 ,assuredly not1 if the      
experience of the present and of the    
past are safe guides as to what we may  
expect in the future4  ,hence we have no
 hesitation in urging that the feeding  
of children attending the ,public       
,elementary ,schools should be organised
 on lines similar to the recommendations
 laid down in the ,special ,report from 
the ,special ,committee on ,education   

7,provision of ,meals7 ,bill1 #aijf4bb  
,but if we carry out these              
recommendations and do nothing else1    
then it may be that we shall partially  
remedy the evil in the next generation1 
but we shall to a large extent          
perpetuate the present condition of     
things4 ,side by side with this1 we must
 institute and set other agencies at    
work4 ,by the institution of ,free      
,kindergarten ,schools in the poorer    
districts of our large towns1 by        
postponing the beginning of the formal  
education of the child to a later age1  
by a scientific course of physical      
education1 by better trade and technical
 schools1 and if need be by the         
compulsory attendance of children at    
evening continuation schools1 we must   
bend our every effort to secure that the
 ranks of the casual1 the unskilled1 and
 the unemployable shall be lessened1 and
 the ranks of the skilled and           
intelligent worker increased4  ,as the  
freeing of elementary education can be  

justified on the ground that the        
education of the child is necessary for 
the future protection of the ,state1 so 
on similar grounds it may be urged that 
the nutrition of the child is also      
necessary4 ,without this our merely     
educational agencies can never          
adequately secure the social efficiency 
of the coming generation4 ,at the same  
time1 unless in the future the need for 
free education and free food becomes    
less and less1 and unless by the means  
sketched above we rear up a generation  
economically and morally independent1   
then truly we have not discovered the   
method by which man can be raised to    
independence and rationality4           
,,appendix  ,recommendations of the     
,select ,committee on ,education        
7,provision of ,meals7 ,bill1 #aijf4    
,the evidence1 verbal and documentary1  
placed before the ,committee      has   
led them to arrive at the following     
general conclusions3--       #a4 ,that  
it is expedient that the ,local         

,education ,authority should      be    
empowered to organise and direct the    
provision of a midday meal      for     
children attending ,public ,elementary  
,schools1 and that      statutory powers
 should be given to ,local ,authorities 
to establish      ,committees to deal   
with school canteens4       #b4 ,that   
such ,committees should be composed of  
representatives of      the ,local      
,education ,authority1 representatives  
of the ,voluntary      ,subscribers1 and
 where thought desirable a              
representative of the      ,board of    
,guardians1 and of the local branch of  
the ,society for the      ,prevention of
 ,cruelty to ,children1 where such      
exists4 ,that the ,head      ,teacher1  
the ,school ,attendance ,officer1 and   
the ,relieving ,officer      should work
 in association with such ,committee4   
#c4 ,that power should be given for the 
,local ,education ,authorities1         
when they deem it desirable1 to raise   
loans and spend money on the            

provision of suitable accommodation and 
officials1 and for the      preparation1
 cooking1 and serving of meals to the   
children      attending ,public         
,elementary ,schools4       #d4 ,that   
only in extreme and exceptional cases1  
where it can be      shown that neither 
the parents' resources nor ,local       
,voluntary ,funds      are sufficient to
 cover the cost1 and after the consent  
of the      ,board of ,education as to  
the necessity for such expenditure has  
been obtained1 a ,local ,authority may  
have recourse to the rates for      the 
provision of the cost of the actual     
food2 the local rate for      this      
purpose to in no case exceed d4 in the 4
       #e4 ,that the ,local ,education  
,authority should1 as far as possible1  
associate with itself1 and encourage the
 continuance of1 voluntary      agencies
 in connection with the work of feeding 
of children4       #f4 ,that whatever   
steps may be necessary1 by way of       
extension of      the ,industrial       

,schools and the ,prevention of ,cruelty
 to ,children      ,acts or otherwise1  
should be taken to secure that parents  
able to      do so and neglecting to    
make proper provision for the feeding of
      their children shall be proceeded 
against for the recovery of the         
cost2 and that the ,guardians1 or where 
available the ,society for      the     
,prevention of ,cruelty to ,children1   
and not the ,local ,education           
,authority1 be empowered to prosecute in
 any cases coming under the      law in 
respect to the neglect of parents to    
make proper provision      for the      
feeding of their children4       #g4    
,that payment for meals1 prior to the   
meal1 whenever possible1      should be 
insisted upon from the parents4         
#h4 ,that it is undesirable that meals  
should be served in rooms               
habitually used for teaching purposes1  
and that the ,regulations of      the   
,board of ,education should carry this  
recommendation into      effect4        

#i4 ,that whilst strong testimony has   
been placed before the      ,committee  
to the effect that the teachers have    
given and are giving      admirable     
service in the way of supervising the   
provision of meals      to the children1
 it is the opinion of the ,committee    
that it ought      not to be made part  
of the conditions attaching to the      
appointment      of any teacher that he 
7or she7 shall or shall not take part in
      dispensing meals provided for the 
children1 and that the ,board of        
,education should carry this            
recommendation into effect4             
,,footnotes3  #bj ,cf4 ,underfed        
,children in ,continental and ,american 
,cities 7presented to ,parliament1      
,april #aijf74  #ba ,cf4 ,report on     
,education 7,provision of ,meals7 ,bill1
 especially ,recommendation #f1         
,appendix1 p4 #ge4  #bb ,cf4 ,appendix1 
p4 #ge4     ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,the     
,,organisation ,,of ,,the ,,means ,,of  
,,education   ,throughout we have       

assumed that it is the duty of the      
,state to see to the adequate provision1
 to the due distribution1 and to the    
proper co-ordination of all the agencies
 of education1 and we have taken up this
 position mainly on the ground that     
neither the adequate provision nor the  
proper co-ordination of the means of    
education can be safely left to the     
self-interest of the individual or any  
group of individuals4 ,if left to be    
accomplished by purely voluntary        
agencies1 both the provision and the    
co-ordination will remain imperfect1 and
 as a nation we can no longer neglect   
the systematic organisation and grading 
of the means of education4  ,but a      
misapprehension must first be removed4  
,in declaring that all the agencies of  
formal education should be under control
 of the ,state1 it is not to be inferred
 that this control should be            
bureaucratic4 ,in many minds ,state     
control is synonymous with government by
 inspectors and other officials of the  

central authority4 ,but bureaucratic    
control in a nation whose government is 
founded on a representative basis is a  
disease rather than a normal condition  
of such government4 ,in a country where 
the sovereign power is vested in an     
individual or in a limited number of    
individuals1 bureaucratic control is and
 must be an essential feature of its    
government4 ,on the other hand1 where   
the government is founded upon the      
representative principle1 the appearance
 of bureaucracy is an indication of some
 imperfection in the organisation of the
 ,state itself4 ,the introduction of the
 representative principle may have been 
too premature or its extension too      
rapid1 and as a consequence the         
government of the people by themselves  
is ineffective through the general want 
of an enlightened self-interest amongst 
the majority of the nation4 ,in such a  
condition of affairs1 if progress is to 
be made1 it can only be accomplished    
effectively through an enlightened      

minority forcing its will upon the      
unenlightened and ignorant majority1 and
 as a result we may have the creation of
 an army of official inspectors whose   
chief duty becomes to secure that the   
will of the central authority is        
realised4 ,in such a condition of things
 the tendency ever is for more and more 
power to fall into the hands of the     
permanent officials4  ,but this         
condition of things may arise in a      
government founded upon the             
representative principle in another way4
 ,the organs through which the will of  
the people makes itself known may be    
imperfect1 so that as a consequence it  
fails to find adequate expression1 or   
its expression is felt only at          
infrequent intervals4 ,if1 for example1 
the central authority is so overburdened
 with work that little or insufficient  
attention is given to many matters of   
supreme importance for the welfare of   
the nation1 then it follows that more   
and more power will pass into the hands 

of its executive and advisory officers4 
,this condition of things will be       
further intensified if the governing    
bodies charged with the local control of
 national affairs are too weak or too   
unenlightened to make their voice       
effective4 ,now1 the tendency to the    
bureaucratic control of the educational 
affairs of our own country may be traced
 to all three causes4 ,the want of an   
enlightened self-interest in the matter 
of education amongst a large number of  
the people1 the ineffectiveness of      
,parliament to deal thoroughly with     
purely educational questions1 and the   
weakness in many cases of the local     
governing bodies have all contributed to
 the gradual creation of the            
bureaucratic control of education in    
,great ,britain4 ,but this form of      
control is not entirely evil1 and in    
certain cases it may be a necessary     
stage in the development of a democracy 
passing from unenlightenment to         
enlightenment4 ,the remedies for this   

imperfection1 this disease of           
representative government in the matter 
of educational control1 are 7#a7 the    
spread of a more enlightened            
self-interest as to the value of        
education as a means of securing the    
social efficiency of the nation and of  
the individual1 7#b7 the effective      
control of education by the central     
authority1 and 7#c7 the strengthening of
 the local authorities by devolving upon
 them more and more important           
educational duties4 ,by this means the  
control of education by the ,state will 
become more and more the control of the 
people by themselves and for themselves1
 and the chief function of officials and
 inspectors will then be to advise      
central and local authorities how best  
to realise the educational aims desired 
by the common will of the people4  ,let 
us now consider the main principles     
which should guide the ,state in her    
organisation of the means of education4 
,in the first place1 and upon this all  

are agreed1 the control of all grades of
 education1 primary1 secondary1 and     
technical1 should be entrusted to one   
body in each area or district4 ,for     
there can be no co-ordination           
established between the work of the     
various school agencies1 and there can  
be no differentiation of the functions  
to be undertaken by the various types of
 school1 until there has been           
established unity of control4  ,in      
,england1 by the ,act of #aijb1 a great 
step was taken towards the unification  
of all the agencies of education4       
,according to its provisions1 the       
,school ,board system was abolished4    
,every ,county ,council and ,county     
,borough ,council1 and the ,borough     
,councils of every non-county borough   
with a population of over #aj1jjj1 and  
the ,district ,council of every urban   
district with a population over #bj1jjj1
 became the local education authority   
for elementary education1 while the     
,county ,council and the ,county        

,borough ,council became the authorities
 for higher education1 with the         
supplementary aid of the ,councils of   
all non-county boroughs and urban       
districts4 ,by this means the           
unification of educational control has  
been realised1 and already in many      
districts of ,england much has been done
 to further the means of higher         
education and to co-ordinate this stage 
with the preceding primary stage4  ,in  
,scotland the question of the extension 
of the area of educational control and  
of the unification of the various       
agencies directing education still      
awaits solution4 ,several plans have    
been put forward to effect these        
ends4#bc  ,in the first place1 it has   
been proposed to retain the present     
parish ,school ,boards for the purpose  
of elementary education1 and to combine 
two or more ,school ,boards for the     
purposes of providing secondary and     
technical education4 ,this plan1        
however1 meets with little favour4 ,it  

would be difficult to carry into        
practice1 and if realised would         
imperfectly fulfil the end of           
co-ordinating the work of the various   
school agencies4 ,its only              
recommendations are its apparent        
simplicity1 and the fact that it could  
be carried out with the least possible  
change in the existing conditions4  ,in 
the second place1 it is proposed to     
retain the ,school ,board system1 but to
 extend the area over which any         
particular educational authority exerts 
its control1 and to place under its     
direction all grades of education4 ,in  
the practical carrying out of this plan 
the present district areas of counties  
selected for other purposes have been   
proposed as educational units4 ,on the  
other hand1 it has been declared that in
 many cases these areas are unsuitable  
for educational purposes1 and it has    
been proposed that new areas should be  
delimited for this purpose4  ,the chief 
merit1 if it be a merit1 of this plan is

 the retention in educational control of
 the ad hoc principle--i4e41 of the     
principle of entrusting one single      
national interest to a body charged with
 the sole duty of conserving and        
furthering the interest4 ,the only      
reasons advanced are the great          
importance of the educational interest  
and the fear that if it is entrusted to 
bodies charged with other duties this   
interest may tend to be neglected4 ,but 
although both sentiment and the         
interests of political parties are      
involved in the advocacy of the ad hoc  
principle1 it must be kept in mind that 
the ,school ,board system in ,scotland  
is universal and that the difficulties  
of the system which prevailed in        
,england before its abolition do not    
exist in ,scotland4 ,as a consequence1  
it has been much more effective in      
,scotland than in ,england1 and has a   
much firmer hold on the sentiments of   
the people4  ,in the third place1 it has
 been proposed to hand over the         

educational duties of the country to the
 ,county ,councils and to the ,burgh    
,councils of the more important towns1  
to adopt1 in principle1 a system of     
educational control similar to that     
established in ,england by the ,act of  
#aijb4  ,many reasons may be urged for  
the adoption of the last-named plan1 and
 we shall briefly state the more        
important4  #a4 ,an ad hoc authority by 
its very nature is necessarily weaker   
than an authority entrusted not merely  
with the care of a single interest but  
with the care of the public interests as
 a whole4 ,if there is to be            
decentralisation of any part of the     
functions of the central authority1 then
 any form of decentralisation which     
consists in the handing over of         
particular interests to different local 
bodies1 however it may be for the       
advantage of the particular interest is 
radically bad for the general interests 
of the community4 ,the calling into     
existence of a number of local          

authorities each having the care of one 
particular interest1 each pursuing its  
own aim independently and without       
consideration of the differing and often
 conflicting aims of the other bodies1  
each having the power of rating for its 
own particular purpose without any      
regard for the general interest of the  
taxpayer1 is radically an unsound form  
of decentralisation4  #b4 ,the          
establishment of such a form of control 
fails1 and must necessarily fail1 in the
 local authorities securing the maximum 
of freedom and the minimum of           
interference from the executive officers
 of the central legislative authority4  
,so long as the separate interests of   
the community are entrusted to different
 local authorities1 so long must there  
remain to the central authority and to  
its executive officers the power of     
regulating and harmonising the various  
and often contending interests so as to 
secure that the general interest of the 
individual does not suffer1 and the more

 keenly each particular body furthers   
the particular interest entrusted to its
 care the greater is the necessity for  
this central control and interference1  
and that the central control should be  
effective4  #c4 ,the separation of the  
so-called educational interests from the
 other interests of the community is not
 for the good of education itself4 ,the 
real educational interests which have to
 be determined by the adult portion of  
the community are the exact nature of   
the services which a nation such as ours
 requires of its future members4 ,this  
determined1 the method of their         
attainment is best entrusted to the     
educational expert4 ,the first-named end
 will be better realised by a body      
composed of men of diverse interests    
than by one which is made up of men with
 one intense but often narrow interest4 
#d4 ,the larger the powers entrusted to 
any body and the more freedom possessed 
by it in devising and working out its   
schemes1 the better chance there is of  

attracting the best men in the community
 to undertake the work4  #e4 ,it is     
questionable whether the interests of   
the teacher would not be better         
furthered by a local authority entrusted
 with the care of the interests of the  
community as a whole than by a body     
having charge of education alone4 ,men  
entrusted with the larger interests of  
the community are usually more ready to 
take wider views than the man who is    
narrowed down to one interest4 ,as a    
rule1 they know the value of good work  
done1 and are ready and willing to pay  
for it wherever they find it4  #f4      
,lastly1 we may urge the test of        
practical experience4 ,in ,england1 and 
especially in ,london1 since the control
 of education has passed into the hands 
of the ,county ,councils a great advance
 has been made both in the furthering   
and in the co-ordination of the means of
 education4  ,whether ultimately the    
control of education be vested in       
,district ,school ,boards or in the     

,county and ,burgh ,councils1 one reform
 is urgently needed in ,scotland1 and   
this is the extension of the area of    
educational control1 under a strong     
local authority1 and with the entire    
control of elementary1 secondary1 and   
technical education4  ,in the second    
place1 whatever the area of control     
chosen it should be of such a nature as 
to admit within its bounds of schools of
 different grades and of different      
types1 so that children may pass not    
only from the ,elementary ,school to the
 ,secondary1 but may pass to the        
particular type of ,secondary or ,higher
 ,school which is best fitted to prepare
 them for their future life's work4 ,in 
many cases1 in ,scotland1 we cannot make
 the same clear distinction between the 
various types of school as they do in   
,germany1 but must remain content with  
the division of a school into           
departments2 yet in our large towns and 
in our most populous centres of industry
 we must establish schools of different 

types and with differing particular ends
 in view4  ,the third principle of      
organisation follows from the second4   
,we must see that our educational system
 is so organised as to provide an       
efficient and sufficient supply of all  
the services which the community        
requires of its individual members4 ,in 
particular1 our ,higher ,school system  
must be designed not merely for the     
supply of the so-called learned         
professions1 but must also make due and 
adequate provision for the training of  
those who in after-life are destined for
 the higher industrial and commercial   
posts4 ,in particular1 we must see that 
there is due provision of ,trade and    
,technical ,schools1 where our future   
artisans may become acquainted with the 
theoretical principles underlying their 
particular art4  ,fourthly1 we must     
endeavour to make our ,elementary       
,school system the basis and point of   
departure of all further and higher     
education4 ,this would not involve that 

every child should be educated at a     
,primary and ,state-aided ,school1 but  
it does mean and would involve that the 
,preparatory departments of our present 
,secondary ,schools should model their  
curriculum on the lines laid down in our
 ,elementary ,schools4  ,fifthly1 in the
 organisation of the means of education1
 our system1 as we have already pointed 
out1 must be democratic in the sense    
that the means of higher education shall
 be open to all1 rich and poor1 in order
 that each may be enabled to find and   
thereafter to fit himself for that      
particular employment for which by      
nature he is best suited4 ,it must      
further be aristocratic in the sense    
that it is selective of the best        
ability2 and finally1 it must be        
restrictive in order that the means of  
higher education may be utilised to the 
best advantage1 and not misused on those
 who are unfitted to benefit therefrom4 
,unity of control2 adequacy of area2    
schools of various types1 sufficient in 

number1 and suited to meet the need for 
the supply of the various services      
required by the ,state2 a common basis  
in elementary education2 means of higher
 education open to all who can profit   
thereby2 selection of the best2         
restriction of those unable to benefit  
from higher education--these are the    
principles which must in the future     
guide the ,state organisation of the    
means of education4  ,,footnote3  #bc   
,for a fuller discussion of this        
question1 see ,scotch ,education        
,reform1 by ,dr4 ,douglas and ,professor
 ,jones 7,maclehose74     ,,chapter ,,ix
  ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,physical           
,,education   ,a sound mind in a sound  
body is a short but full description of 
a happy state in this world4 ,he that   
has these two has little more to wish   
for1 and he that wants either of them   
will be but little the better for       
anything else4#bd ,in these words ,locke
 sets forth for all time what should be 
aimed at in the physical education of   

the child1 and in the light of modern   
physiological psychology the position   
must be emphasised anew that one of the 
essential conditions of sound           
intellectual and moral vigour is sound  
physical health1 and that body and mind 
are not things apart1 but that the      
health of the one ever conditions and is
 conditioned by the health of the other4
  ,moreover1 at the present time1 it is 
all the more necessary to insist upon   
the need for the systematic care of the 
physical culture of the child1 since in 
many cases the conditions under which   
the children of the poor live in our    
great towns are most prejudicial to the 
full and free development of the organs 
of the body4 ,the narrow1 overbuilt     
streets in the poorer parts of our      
towns1 the overcrowding of the people in
 tenements1 the unhygienic conditions   
under which the vast majority of our    
very poor live and sleep1 are all active
 forces in preventing the full and free 
development of the physical powers of   

the child4 ,thus the purely educational 
problem of how best to promote the      
physical health and development of the  
child by the systematic exercises of the
 school is involved in the much larger  
and more important social problem of how
 to better the conditions under which   
the very poor live4 ,the agencies of the
 school can do little permanently to    
improve the physique of the children    
until1 concurrently with the school1    
society endeavours to improve the social
 conditions under which the poorest of  
the population of our great cities herd 
together4 ,for a similar reason much of 
the endeavour of the school to found and
 establish in the child's mind interests
 of social worth is counteracted by the 
evil influence of its home and social   
environment4 ,if the physical1 economic1
 and ethical efficiency of the children 
of the slums is ever to be secured1 if  
we are ever to attain a permanent       
result1 then concurrently with the      
creation of new and higher social       

interests must go hand in hand changes  
in the social environment of the child4 
,mere betterment of the physical        
conditions under which our slum         
population live is of no avail unless at
 the same time we have a corresponding  
change in the slum mind by the rise and 
prevalence of a higher ideal of the     
physical and material conditions under  
which their lives ought to be spent4    
,for experience has shown in many cases 
that the mere betterment of the material
 conditions under which the poor live   
without any corresponding change of     
ideals soon results in the re-creation  
of the miserable conditions which       
formerly prevailed4 ,on the other hand1 
the mere instilling of new ideals into  
the minds of the rising generation will 
effect little1 if during the greater    
part of the school period and altogether
 afterwards we leave the child to       
overcome the evil influences of his     
environment as best he may4 ,the ideals 
of the school are too weak1 too feebly  

established1 to prevail against the ever
 present and ever potent influences of  
the environment unless side by side with
 the rise of the new ideals we at the   
same time endeavour to lessen1 if we    
cannot altogether remove1 the obstacles 
which prevent their realisation and     
prevalence4 ,this problem of how to     
raise by education and by means of the  
other social agencies at work the       
children of the slums to a higher ideal 
of life and conduct and to secure their 
future social efficiency is the most    
urgent problem of our day and           
generation4 ,mere school reforms in     
physical and intellectual education will
 effect little unless the other aspects 
of the problem are attacked at the same 
time4  ,further1 our school system1     
which requires that the child should    
restrain his instinctive tendencies to  
action1 and for certain hours each day  
assume a more or less passive and       
cramped attitude1 is also prejudicial to
 the development and free play of the   

organs of the body which have entrusted 
to them the discharge of certain        
functional activities4  ,hence the evil 
effects of the school itself must be    
removed or remedied by some means having
 as their aim the increased functional  
activity of the respiratory and         
circulatory systems of the body4 ,and   
therefore the aim of any system of      
physical exercises should be not merely 
increase of bone and development of     
muscle but also the sustaining and      
improving of the bodily health of the   
child by expanding the lungs1 quickening
 the circulation1 and shaking the       
viscera4 ,this1 as we shall see later1  
is not the only aim of physical         
education4 ,it may further aid in mental
 growth and development1 and be         
instrumental in the production of       
certain mental and moral qualities of   
value both to the individual and to the 
community4  ,another cause operating in 
the school to prevent the full and free 
development of the body is the method of

 much of the teaching which prevails4 ,a
 quite unnecessary strain is often put  
upon the nervous system of the child1   
and as a consequence a lassitude of body
 results which physical exercise not    
only does not tend to remove but        
actually tends to increase4 ,methods of 
teaching which fail to arouse any       
inherent interest in the attainment of  
an end of felt value to the child       
require for the evoking and maintaining 
of his active attention the operation of
 some powerful indirect interest1 and if
 persisted in1 such methods soon result 
in the overworking and exhaustion of    
some one particular system of nervous   
centres1 and in the depletion through   
non-nutrition of other centres4 ,as a   
consequence1 the child is unable to take
 any part in physical exercises or in   
school games with profit to himself4 ,he
 is content to loaf and do as little as 
he can4 ,the evil is further intensified
 if there is also present under or      
improper nutrition of the child4  ,thus 

along with our schemes for the physical 
education of the child we must endeavour
 to improve the methods of our teachers1
 to make them understand that           
experiences acquired through the        
arousing of the direct interest of the  
child are acquired at the least         
physiological cost1 and to make them    
realise under what conditions this      
direct interest can be aroused and      
maintained4 ,no one indeed wishes to    
make everything in the school pleasant  
to the child1 or to reduce self-effort  
to a minimum4 ,but effort and interest  
are not opposed terms4 ,the effort which
 is evoked in the realisation of an     
interest or end of felt value is the    
only kind of effort which possesses any 
educational value4 ,the effort which is 
called forth in the finding and         
establishing of a system of means       
towards an end which the child fails to 
see1 and which1 as a consequence1 rouses
 no direct interest in its attainment1  
is an effort which should for ever be   

banished from the schoolroom4 ,such1    
e4g41 is the effort evoked in the mere  
cramming of empty lists of words or     
dates or facts4 ,little mental good     
results from such a process1 and the    
physiological cost is often great4  ,let
 us now consider the conditions         
necessary for sound physical health1 and
 inquire how far the school agencies can
 aid in the providing of these          
conditions3 they are mainly four in     
number4 ,in the first place1 in order to
 secure the full growth and development 
of the bodily powers1 there is needed a 
sufficiency of food4 ,but mere          
sufficiency is not enough1 the food must
 be varied in quality in order to meet  
the various needs of the body1 and must 
be prepared in such a way as to be      
readily assimilated and rendered fit for
 the nutrition of both body and mind4   
,manifestly the home ought to be the    
chief agent in providing for this need4 
,but1 as we have seen in considering the
 problem of the feeding of school       

children1 the home in many cases is     
unable adequately to provide for it1    
and1 for a time at least1 some method of
 public provision of good and wholesome 
food for the children of the poor may be
 rendered necessary4 ,but much of the   
physical evil results from improper     
nutrition2 and here the school agencies 
may do a great deal in the future by    
furthering the teaching of domestic     
science to the girls of the working     
classes4 ,such teaching1 however1 if it 
is to be effective1 must be real and    
must take into account the actual       
conditions under which their future     
lives are to be spent4 ,at the present  
time much of the teaching is valueless1 
through its neglect of the actual income
 and resources of the working man's     
home4  ,the second condition necessary  
for bodily growth and development is a  
sufficiency of pure air4 ,this is       
necessary1 since the oxygen of the air  
is not only the active agent in the     
maintenance of life1 but is also        

requisite for the combustion of the     
foodstuffs conveyed into the body4 ,much
 has been done within recent years in   
our schools to provide well-ventilated  
classrooms and to instruct teachers how 
to keep the air of the school pure4     
,here again the problem is to a large   
extent a social one1 involving the      
better housing of our great town        
population4  ,a third condition         
necessary for the physical development  
of the child is sleep sufficient in     
quantity and good in quality4 ,the weak1
 puny children in arms to be seen in our
 crowded slums owe their condition1 in  
many cases1 to the want of sound sleep1 
to the fact that they never are allowed 
to rest1 as much as to the under and    
improper feeding to which they are      
subjected4 ,as we shall see in the next 
chapter1 much might be done by the      
establishment of ,free ,kindergarten    
,schools in our overcrowded districts to
 alleviate the lot and to better the    
education of the very young children of 

the poor4  ,but in addition to the three
 conditions already named1 which may be 
classed together as the nutritive       
factors in bodily growth1 there is a    
fourth condition essential for all      
development1 whether bodily or          
mental--viz41 exercise4 ,for development
 is produced by exercise of function1   
use of faculty4444 ,if we wish to       
develop the hand1 we must exercise the  
hand4 ,if we wish to develop the body1  
we must exercise the body4 ,if we wish  
to develop the mind1 we must exercise   
the mind4 ,if we wish to develop the    
whole human being1 we must exercise the 
whole human being4#be  ,but any form of 
exercise will not do4 ,the exercise     
which is given must be given at the     
right time1 must be in harmony with the 
nature of the organ exercised1 and must 
be proportioned to the strength of the  
organ1 if true development is to be     
attained4  ,in order to understand this 
in so far as it bears upon the aims     
which we should set before us in the    

physical education of the child1 it is  
necessary that we should understand what
 modern physiological psychology has to 
teach us of the nature of the nervous   
system4  ,if the reader will look back  
to an earlier chapter1#bf he will find  
that education was defined as the       
process by which experiences are        
acquired and organised in order that    
they may render the performance of      
future action more efficient1 or        
alternatively it is the process by which
 systems of means are formed1 organised1
 and established for the attainment of  
various ends of felt value4 ,the        
establishment of these systems of means 
is only possible because in the human   
infant the nervous system is relatively 
unformed at birth1 is relatively        
plastic1 and so is capable of being     
organised in such and such a definite   
manner4 ,on the other hand1 in many     
animals the nervous system of each is   
definitely formed at birth2 it is so    
organised that experience does little to

 add to or aid in its further           
development4 ,now1 while the nervous    
system of the child at birth is not so  
definitely organised as that of many    
animals1 yet on the other hand it is not
 wholly plastic1 wholly unformed1 so    
that1 as many psychologists and         
educationalists once believed1 it can be
 moulded into any shape we please4      
,rather1 we have to conceive of the     
nervous system of the human infant as   
made up of a series of systems at       
different degrees of development and    
with varying degrees of organisation4#bg
 ,some centres1 as e4g4 those which have
 to do with the regulation of certain   
reflex and automatic actions1 start at  
once into full functional activity2     
others1 as e4g4 those which have to do  
with purely intellectual functions1 are 
relatively unformed and unorganised at  
birth1 and become organised as the      
result of conscious effort1 as the      
result of an educational process1 as the
 result of acquiring1 organising1 and   

establishing experiences for the        
attainment of ends of acquired value4   
,between the systems at the lowest level
 and those at the highest we have       
centres of varying degrees of           
organisation at birth4 ,moreover1 these 
centres of the middle level reach their 
full maturity at different rates4 ,the  
centres1 e4g41 which have to do with the
 co-ordination of hand and eye and with 
the attainment of control over the limbs
 of the body reach their full functional
 activity before1 e4g41 the centres     
having control of the lips and speech4  
,the centres1 again1 which have to do   
with the co-ordination of the sensory   
material derived through the particular 
senses are still longer in reaching     
their full functional activity1 while   
the higher intellectual centres may not 
reach their highest power until well on 
in life4 ,hence1 since education is the 
process of acquiring experiences that   
shall modify future activity1 it can do 
little positively to aid the development

 of the lowest centres2 it can do more  
to modify the development of the middle 
centres2 while the highest centres of   
all are in great part organised as the  
result of direct individual experience4 
,as regards the systems of the lowest   
level1 what we have then to aim at is to
 allow them free room for growth1 and to
 correct as far as possible faults due  
either to the imperfections of nature or
 to the unnatural conditions under which
 the child lives4 ,so long as these     
systems are provided with nutrition and 
allowed freedom in performing their     
functions1 we are unaware of their      
existence4 ,we1 e4g41 only become aware 
that we possess a circulatory system or 
a respiratory or a digestive system when
 the functional activity of these organs
 is impeded4 ,the opinion1 therefore1   
that physical exercise has for its chief
 aim the sustaining and improving of the
 bodily health is no doubt true and     
correct1 but it is not the only aim4 ,on
 this view we are considering only the  

lowest system of centres1 and devising  
means by which we may maintain and      
improve their functional activity4      
,moreover1 it is necessary to endeavour 
to secure the free development of these 
centres and their unimpeded functional  
activity1 because otherwise the         
development of the higher centres is    
hindered1 and the whole nervous system  
rendered unstable and insecure4  ,but a 
wise system of physical education must  
take into account the fact that a       
carefully selected and organised system 
of exercises can do much for the        
development of the centres of the middle
 level which have to do with the proper 
co-ordination of various bodily         
movements4 ,these are only partly       
organised at birth1 and education--the  
acquiring and organising of             
experiences--is necessary for their due 
organisation and their adaptation as    
systems of means for the attainment of  
definite ends4 ,it is for this reason   
that the beginning of the formal        

education of the child at too early an  
age is physiologically and              
psychologically erroneous4 ,in doing    
this we are neglecting the lower centres
 at the time when by nature they are    
reaching their full functional activity1
 and exercising the higher which are at 
an unripe stage of development4         
,moreover1 lower centres not exercised  
during the period when they are         
attaining their full development never  
attain the same functional development  
if exercised later4 ,hence the          
difficulty of acquiring a manual        
dexterity later in life4 ,again1 it is  
on this theory of lower and higher      
centres maturing at different rates and 
attaining their full functional activity
 at different times that we now base our
 education of the mentally defective4   
,we must organise the lower centres2 we 
must educate the mentally defective     
child to get control over these already 
partially organised centres1 before we  
begin to educate the higher and less    

organised centres4 ,moreover1 it is only
 in so far as we can secure this end    
that we can stably build up and organise
 the higher centres of the nervous      
system4 ,hence also such qualities as   
alertness in receiving orders and       
promptness and accuracy in carrying them
 out are1 at first1 best learned through
 the organising and training of the     
centres of the middle level4 ,what we   
really endeavour to do here is to       
organise and establish systems of means 
for the attainment of definite ends1    
which through their systematic          
organisation can be brought into action 
when required promptly and quickly1 and 
once aroused work themselves out with a 
minimum of effort and with a low degree 
of attention1 so that their performance 
involves the least possible             
physiological cost4  ,from this the     
reader will understand that the aim of  
physical education is the aim of all    
education1 viz41 to acquire and organise
 experiences that will render future    

action more efficient4  ,moreover1 the  
early training of the centres of the    
middle level is important for the after 
technical training of our workmen4 ,the 
boy or girl who has never been educated 
in early life to co-ordinate and carry  
out bodily movements promptly and       
accurately is not likely to succeed in  
after-life in any employment which      
requires the ready and exact            
co-ordination of many movements for the 
attainment of a definite end4 ,the      
proper physical education of the child  
is therefore necessary for the securing 
of the after economic efficiency of the 
individual1 and it can also by the      
development of certain mental and moral 
qualities be made instrumental in the   
development of the ethically efficient  
person4  ,we must now briefly note two  
other educational agencies which may be 
employed in the securing of the physical
 and mental efficiency of the           
child--play and games4 ,psychologically1
 games stand midway between play and    

work4 ,in play we have an inherited     
system of means evoked into activity and
 carried out to an end for the pure     
pleasure derived from the activity      
itself4 ,such systems at first are      
imperfectly organised1 but through the  
experience derived the systems become   
more and better adapted for the         
attainment of the ends which they are   
intended to realise4 ,in games1 on the  
other hand1 the activity is undertaken  
for an end only partially connected with
 the means by which it is attained1     
whilst in work the means may have no    
intrinsic connection with the end       
desired4 ,hence the effort of a         
disagreeable nature which work often    
evokes4  ,in animals fully equipped at  
birth by means of instinct for the      
performance of actions the play-activity
 is altogether absent4 ,their lives are 
wholly business-like4 ,on the other     
hand1 in the higher animals1 whose young
 have a period of infancy1 play is      
nature's instrument of education4 ,by   

means of it the systems of the middle   
level which form the larger part of the 
brain equipment of the higher animals   
are gradually organised and fitted for  
the attainment of the ends which in     
mature life they are intended to        
realise4 ,play is their education--is   
the means by which nature works in order
 that experiences may be acquired and   
organised that shall render future      
action more efficient4 ,without this    
power1 the higher animals could not     
reach their full development2 the       
stimulus necessary for the growth of    
their bodies and minds would be         
lacking4#bh  ,play also is nature's     
instrument in the education of the young
 child4 ,the first and most important   
part of his education is obtained by    
this means1 and1 on the basis thus laid1
 must all after-education be built4     
,hence the importance in early life of  
allowing full freedom for the           
manifestation of this activity4 ,hence  
also the very great importance of       

securing that the children of the poor  
should be provided with the means of    
realising the playful activities of     
their nature and of being stimulated and
 encouraged to play4 ,hence one aim of  
the ,kindergarten ,school is to utilise 
the play-activity of the child in the   
development of his body and mind4#bi    
,the third agency which we may employ in
 developing the physical powers of the  
child is that of games4 ,games1 however1
 are not merely useful as means for the 
attainment of the physical development  
of the boy or girl2 they also may be    
made instrumental in the creation and   
fostering of certain mental and moral   
qualities of the greatest after-value to
 the community4 ,no one acquainted with 
the important part which games perform  
in the life of the ,public ,school boy  
can doubt their great educational value4
 ,by means of them the boy acquires     
experiences which in after-life tend to 
make more efficient certain classes of  
actions essential for any corporate or  

communal life4 ,in the playing-fields he
 learns what it is to be a member of a  
corporate body whose good and not the   
attainment of his own private ends must 
be the first consideration4 ,through the
 medium of the games of the school he   
may get to know the meaning of          
self-sacrifice1 of working with his     
fellows for a common end or purpose1 and
 of sinking his own individuality for   
the sake of his side4 ,in addition he   
learns the habits of ready obedience to 
superior knowledge and ability2 to      
submit to discipline2 and to undergo    
fatigue for the common good4 ,if found  
worthy1 he may learn how to command as  
well as to obey1 to think out means for 
the attainment of ends1 and to know and 
feel that the good name of the school   
rests upon his shoulders4 ,these and    
other qualities similar in character may
 be created and established by means of 
the games of the school4 ,and just as   
the utilising of the play-instinct is   
nature's method of education in the     

fitting of the young animal and the     
young child to adapt itself in the      
future to its physical environment1 so  
we may lay down that the games of the   
school may be largely utilised as       
society's method of fitting the         
individual to his after social          
environment1 and in training him to     
understand the true meaning and the real
 purport of corporate life4  ,on        
account1 however1 of the vast size of   
many of our ,public ,elementary ,schools
 and for other reasons1 such as the     
limited playground accommodation in many
 cases and the want of playing-fields1  
organised games play but a small part in
 the physical and moral education of the
 children attending such schools4 ,but  
even here much more might be done than  
is done at present by the teachers in   
the playground to encourage the simpler 
playground games1 and to replace the    
disorganised rough and tumble exercises 
which characterise the activities of so 
many of our poorer population by some   

form of organised activity4#cj ,the     
aimless parading of our streets by the  
sons and daughters of the working and   
lower middle classes in their leisure   
time1 the rough horseplay of the youth  
of the lowest classes1 are due in large 
measure to the fact that during the     
school period they have not been        
habituated to take part with their      
fellows in any form of organised        
activity1 have never realised what a    
corporate life means1 and as a          
consequence are devoid of any social    
interests4  ,one other question must be 
briefly considered1 viz41 ,how far      
should we in the physical education of  
the youth keep in view the end of       
securing the military efficiency of the 
nation8 ,as ,adam ,smith pointed out1   
the defence of any society against the  
violence and invasion of other          
independent societies is the first duty 
of the sovereign4 ,an industrious1 and  
upon that account a wealthy nation is of
 all nations the most likely to be      

attacked1 and unless the ,state takes   
some measures for the public defence1   
the natural habits of the people render 
them altogether incapable of defending  
themselves4#ca ,he further asserts that 
even though the martial spirit of the   
people were of no use towards the       
defence of the society1 yet to prevent  
that sort of mental mutilation1         
deformity1 and wretchedness which       
cowardice necessarily involves in it1   
from spreading themselves through the   
great body of the people1 it would still
 deserve the most serious attention of  
,government4#cb  ,on these three        
grounds1 then1 that the defence of the  
country is the first duty of every      
,government and therefore the first duty
 of every citizen1 that a nation engaged
 in commerce tends to render itself     
unfit to defend itself unless means are 
devised to keep alive the patriotic     
spirit1 and that the keeping alive of   
the patriotic spirit is useful for the  
cultivation of certain necessary social 

qualities1 we may maintain that the     
military efficiency of the youth should 
be included amongst the aims of any     
national system of physical education4  
,if the emphasis which is laid upon the 
securing of the after military          
efficiency of the youth of the nation   
occupies too prominent a place in the   
schemes of physical education of some   
,continental countries1 we on the other 
hand have almost wholly neglected this  
aspect of the question4 ,every          
encouragement therefore should be given 
to the formation of cadet and rifle     
corps in the ,secondary ,schools of the 
country and in the ,evening             
,continuation ,schools attended by the  
sons of the working classes4 ,the time  
when systematic instruction in military 
exercises and in the use of arms shall  
form part of every youth's education has
 not yet arrived1 but the necessity for 
some such step looms already on the     
horizon4  ,,footnotes3  #bd ,locke's    
,thoughts on ,education4  #be ,bowen's  

,froebel 7,great ,educator ,series71 p4 
#dh4  #bf ,cf4 chap4 ii4  #bg ,cf4      
,mac,dougall's ,physiological           
,psychology 7,dent72 also ,sir ,james   
,crichton ,browne's article on          
,education and the ,nervous ,system1 in 
,cassell's ,book of ,health4  #bh       
,principles of ,heredity1 ibid4 p4 #bdb4
  #bi ,cf4 next chapter4  #cj           
,suggestions for the ,consideration of  
,teachers 7,english ,board of           
,education71 chapter on ,physical       
,education4  #ca ,adam ,smith1 ,wealth  
of ,nations1 p4 #bib4  #cb ,ibid4 p4    
#cbi4     ,,chapter ,x  ,,the ,,aim ,,of
 ,,the ,,infant ,,school   ,it is       
needless to point out that the method of
 educating the infant mind is the method
 of all education--viz41 the regulation 
of the process by which experiences are 
acquired and organised so as to render  
the performance of future action more   
efficient4 ,this1 as we shall see later1
 is the fundamental truth at the        
foundation of the ,kindergarten method  

of ,froebel1 and it must guide and      
control our conduct not only during the 
earlier stages but throughout the whole 
process of education4  ,moreover1 since 
the early acquisitions of the child are 
the bases upon which all further        
knowledge and practice are founded1 we  
must realise how important these first  
experiences are for the whole future    
development of the child4 ,further1 we  
have seen that all education--all       
acquiring and organising of experience  
in early life--must be motived by the   
felt desire to satisfy some instinctive 
need of the child's nature1 and that it 
is these instinctive needs which        
determine the nature and scope of his   
early activities4  ,later1 indeed1      
acquired interests may be grafted upon  
the innate and instinctive needs1 but at
 the beginning and during his first     
years the child's whole life is         
determined by the primitive desires of  
human nature4  ,now1 the first          
instinctive need which requires the aid 

of education is the need felt by the    
child to acquire some measure of control
 over his bodily movements and over the 
things in his immediate physical        
environment4 ,hence the first stage in  
education is the regulation of the      
process by which the child acquires and 
organises those experiences which shall 
give him this control4 ,nature herself  
indeed provides the means for the       
attainment of this end1 but education   
can do much to aid in the attainment and
 to shorten the period of incomplete    
attainment4 ,by means of the assistance 
given1 the control exercised and the    
direction afforded1 we enable the child 
to organise the lower centres of the    
nervous system which have to do with the
 control of the larger bodily movements1
 and thus establish organised systems of
 means for the attainment of certain    
definite ends4  ,the second stage       
supervenes when the need is felt by the 
child for some measure of control over  
his social environment4 ,for the young  

child soon realises that it is only in  
so far as he can exert some influence   
over the persons intimately connected   
with his welfare that he can make his   
wants known and find means for the      
satisfaction of his desires4 ,hence     
arises the need for some method of      
communication with his fellows1 and from
 this springs the desire for some system
 of signs and for a language to enable  
him to make his wants known4 ,chiefly by
 means of the educative process of      
imitating the experiences of others1 he 
gradually acquires a language and finds 
himself at home in his social world4    
,during this period the centres called  
into activity1 developed1 and organised 
are mainly those connected with the lip 
and speech centres1 and a certain stage 
of organisation having been attained1   
the opportunity is now afforded for the 
fuller functional development of the    
higher centres entrusted with the duty  
of receiving1 discriminating1 and       
co-ordinating the data of the special   

organs of sense4  ,the period during    
which the child is gradually acquiring  
control over his immediate physical and 
social environments may roughly be said 
to extend to the end of his third year4 
,from that time onwards the worlds of   
nature and of society for their own sake
 become objects of curiosity to the     
child4 ,every new object presents him   
with a variety of fresh sensations4 ,he 
feels1 tastes1 and bites everything that
 comes within his reach1 and so acquires
 a world of new experiences4 ,hence for 
the first six years of his life a child 
has quite enough to do in learning its  
place in the universe and the nature of 
its surroundings1 and to compel it      
during any part of that period to give  
its attention to mere words and symbols 
is to stint it of the best part of its  
education for that which is only of     
secondary importance1 and to weaken the 
foundations of its whole mental         
fabric4#cc  ,if1 then1 during this      
period the child is left wholly to      

gather his experiences as he may1 he no 
doubt acquires by his own self-activity 
a world of new ideas1 but the result of 
this unregulated process will be that   
the knowledge gained will be largely    
unsystematised1 and much of the         
experience acquired may be of a nature  
which may give a false direction to his 
whole after-development4 ,hence arise   
three needs4 ,in the first place1 we    
must endeavour to see that new          
experiences are presented to the child  
in some systematic manner1 in order that
 the knowledge may be so organised that 
it may serve as means to the attainment 
of ends1 and so render future activity  
more accurate and more efficient4 ,in   
the second place1 we must endeavour to  
prevent the acquisition of experiences  
which if allowed to be organised would  
give an immoral direction to conduct2   
and in the third place1 we must         
endeavour to establish early in the mind
 of the child organised systems of means
 which may hereafter result in the      

prevalence of activities socially useful
 to the community4  ,now1 these three   
aims are or should be the aims of the   
,kindergarten ,school1 and we shall now 
inquire into the ends which the         
,kindergarten ,school sets before it1   
and for this purpose we shall state the 
fundamental principles which ,froebel   
himself laid down as the guiding        
principles of this stage of education4  
,on its intellectual side the           
,kindergarten as conceived by ,froebel  
has four distinct aims in view4 ,the    
first aim is by means of comparing and  
contrasting a series of objects         
presented in some regular and systematic
 manner to lead the child to note the   
likenesses and differences between the  
things1 and so through and by means of  
his own self-activity to build up       
coherent and connected systems of ideas4
 ,by this method the teacher builds up  
in the mind of the young child systems  
of ideas regarding the colours1 forms1  
and other sense qualities of the more   

common objects of his environment4 ,the 
second aim is by means of some form of  
concrete construction to give expression
 to the knowledge so gained1 to make    
this knowledge more accurate and        
definite1 and thus by a dialectical     
return to make the experiences of the   
child definite and accurate1 so as to   
render future action more efficient1 and
 thus pave the way for further progress4
 ,the third aim is to utilise the       
play-activity of the child in the       
acquisition of new experiences and in   
their outward concrete expression4 ,the 
fourth is to engage the child in the    
production of something socially useful1
 something which engages his genuine    
work-activity4 ,in short1 what ,froebel 
clearly realised was that the mere      
taking in of new experiences by the     
child mind in any order was not         
sufficient4 ,experiences to be useful   
for efficient action must be            
assimilated--must be organised into a   
system--and in order that this may be   

possible the experiences must be        
presented in such a manner as will      
render them capable of being organised4 
,moreover1 this mere taking in of new   
experiences is not enough4 ,there must  
be a giving out or expression of the    
knowledge acquired1 for it is only in so
 far as we can turn to use new          
experiences that we can be sure that    
they are really ours4 ,now1 since the   
forms of expression natural to the young
 child are those which evoke his        
practical constructive efforts1 all     
outward expression in its earlier stages
 must assume a concrete form4 ,the aim  
of the so-called ,gifts in ,froebel's   
scheme is to build up an organised      
system of sense-knowledge2 the aim of   
the ,occupations of the ,kindergarten is
 to develop the power of concrete       
expression of the child4 ,the ,gifts and
 the ,occupations are correlative       
methods1--the one concerned with the    
taking in1 the other with the outward   
expression of the same experience1--and 

throughout either aspect of the process 
the reason-activity of the child must be
 evoked both in the acquisition and in  
the expression of the new experience4   
,physiologically1 this twofold process  
implies that during the ,kindergarten   
period the sensory areas of the brain   
are being exercised and organised and   
that the associative activity evoked is 
concerned with the co-ordination of the 
impressions derived through these areas4
 ,psychologically1 it implies that      
during this period we are mainly        
concerned with the formation of         
perceptual systems of knowledge composed
 of data derived through the special    
senses and through the active movements 
of the hands and limbs4 ,such a process1
 moreover1 is a necessary preliminary   
for the full after-development of the   
higher association centres of the brain 
and for the formation by the mind of    
conceptual systems of knowledge4  ,for  
if we attempt prematurely to exercise   
the higher centres before the lower have

 reached a certain measure of           
development1 if we attempt to form      
conceptual systems of knowledge1 such as
 all language and number systems are1   
without first laying a sound perceptual 
basis1 then we may do much to hinder    
future mental growth1 if we do not even 
inflict a positive injury to the child4 
,for the education of the senses        
neglected1 all after-education partakes 
of a drowsiness1 a haziness1 and an     
insufficiency which it is impossible to 
cure4#cd  ,on its moral and social side 
the aims of the ,kindergarten ,school   
are no less important4 ,if left to      
follow the naive instinctive needs of   
his nature and to gather experiences    
where and how he may1 the child is      
likely to make acquisitions which later 
may issue in wrong conduct4 ,hence one  
aim of the ,kindergarten is to present  
experiences which may eventually issue  
in right conduct1 and to prevent the    
acquisition of experiences of an immoral
 kind4 ,hence also its insistence upon  

the need of carefully selecting the     
environment of the young child1 so that 
as far as possible its early            
experiences--its first                  
acquisitions--shall be of a healthy     
nature4 ,moreover1 by means of the      
organised activities of the school1 and 
by utilising the play-instinct of the   
child1 it seeks to form and establish   
certain habits of future social worth to
 the community and to the individual4   
,for1 by means of the games and         
occupations of the ,kindergarten        
,school1 the child may first of all     
learn what it means to co-operate with  
his fellows for a common end or purpose2
 may learn to submit to authority which 
he dimly and imperfectly1 it may be1    
perceives to be reasonable2 may be      
trained to habits of accuracy1 of order1
 and of obedience4 ,above all1 the      
,kindergarten system may rouse and      
foster in the mind of the child that    
sense of a corporate life and of a      
common social spirit the prevalence of  

which in after-life is the only secure  
foundation of society4  ,in ,england the
 extreme importance of the education of 
the infant mind has been1 in recent     
years1 clearly acknowledged4 ,the new   
regulations of the ,board of ,education 
no longer allow children under five     
years of age to be included as an       
integral part of a three-,r             
grant-earning ,elementary ,school4 ,a   
special curriculum has been set forth   
for their education4 ,they are to have  
opportunities provided for the free     
development of their bodies and minds   
and for the formation of habits of      
obedience and attention4#ce ,what are   
known as ,kindergarten ,occupations are 
not merely pleasant pastimes for        
children3 if so regarded1 they are not  
intelligently used by the teacher4      
,their purpose is to stimulate          
intelligent individual effort1 to       
furnish training of the senses of sight 
and touch1 to promote accurate          
co-ordination of hand movements with    

sense impressions1 and1 not least       
important1 to implant a habit of        
obedience4  ,formal teaching1 even by   
means of ,kindergarten ,occupations1 is 
undesirable for children under five4 ,at
 this stage it is sufficient to give the
 child opportunity to use his senses    
freely4 ,to attempt formal teaching will
 almost inevitably mean1 with some of   
the children1 either restraint or       
over-stimulation1 with constant danger  
to mental growth and health4#cf  ,from  
these extracts from the ,suggestions for
 the ,consideration of ,teachers of the 
,head of the ,english ,board of         
,education1 it will be evident that the 
spirit of the ,kindergarten now largely 
enters into the curriculum of the infant
 classes4 ,in the future we may hope to 
see it carried further and that no      
formal teaching of the child will be    
undertaken during the first six years of
 his life4 ,further1 we may hope to see 
in the future the infant departments of 
our schools more thoroughly organised   

than they are at present on the         
,kindergarten principle1 and the        
curriculum of the ,infant ,school so    
devised that it shall fit into and pave 
the way for the curriculum of the       
,elementary ,school4 ,for at the earlier
 stage much may be done by the methods  
of the ,kindergarten to lay the basis   
for the teaching of the arts of reading1
 writing1 and arithmetic which it is the
 main business of the ,primary ,school  
to lead the child to acquire4 ,e4g41 at 
the earlier stage1 by the breaking up   
and reconstructing of concrete groups of
 things1 the child can be initiated into
 the meaning of a number system4 ,by    
means of pictures and of concrete forms 
he can be made gradually acquainted with
 alphabetic forms1 and this teaching    
lays the basis for the future           
acquisition of the abstract symbols of  
printed and written words4  ,but while  
much has been done in ,england to       
recognise the importance of the early   
education of the child for the after    

moral and social good both of the       
individual and of the community1 and to 
place the instruction of the infant     
classes in the ,public ,elementary      
,schools upon a rational basis1 little  
attention has been paid in ,scotland to 
this subject4 ,as a rule1 children in   
that country do not enter school before 
the age of five1 and there is no        
separate provision made for the teaching
 of children under that age2 in fact1   
all scholars under seven years of age   
are classified together and form the    
,junior ,division of the school4  ,such 
a state of matters reflects but little  
credit on the educational leaders of    
,scotland1 and indicates an imperfect   
conception of the real nature of the    
educative process4 ,for if education is 
the process of acquiring and organising 
experiences in order to render future   
action more efficient1 it is surely the 
height of folly to allow the young child
 to gather his early experiences as he  
may4 ,moreover1 in the case of the      

children of the slums1 to allow them    
during their early years to gather into 
their brain without any correcting      
agency all the sights and scenes of a   
slum is sheer social madness4 ,the child
 must be removed1 or partially removed1 
from such an atmosphere1 since it has   
reached the imitative stage1 and is     
nearing the selective stage of life4    
,for the moment he imitates anything2   
presently he will imitate what pleases  
him1 what gives him momentary pleasure4 
,before the unmoral selective stage is  
reached1 the stage which inevitably     
precedes the moral and immoral selective
 stage1 it is essential that children   
should receive definite and deliberate  
guidance1 that the imitative faculty    
should be controlled4#cg ,in the case of
 the children of the poorer districts   
this can be done only through the agency
 of the ,infant ,school4 ,much may be   
done by making the instruction of the   
school attractive1 to counteract the    
evil influences of the home and social  

environment1 and to lead the child to   
acquire and organise experiences which  
will issue in moral and not in immoral  
conduct4  ,hence what we need in the    
poorer districts of our large towns is  
,free ,kindergarten ,schools from which 
all formal teaching of the three ,r's is
 abolished1 where for several hours in  
each day the child may be trained to use
 his senses in the accurate             
discrimination and accurate             
systematisation of sense knowledge2     
where he may have his constructive      
activities evoked by the expression in  
concrete form of what he has been led to
 perceive through the medium of the     
senses2 where he may be trained to      
habits of order1 of cleanliness1 of     
submission to authority2 and where for a
 time1 at least1 he may be accustomed to
 live in a purer and healthier          
atmosphere than he can find at home or  
in the street1 and where for a brief    
space he may have that feeling of home  
which he cannot find at home4#ch  ,the  

establishment in the poorer districts of
 our great towns of schools whose       
education follows the method of the     
,kindergarten if accompanied by some    
system of feeding the child would do    
much to secure the after social         
efficiency of the rising generation1 and
 would by its reaction on the home-life 
tend gradually to raise the ideals of   
the very poor4  ,,footnotes3  #cc ,the  
,nervous ,system and ,education1 by ,sir
 ,james ,crichton ,browne1 ibid4 p4     
#cde4  #cd ,the ,nervous ,system and    
,education1 by ,sir ,james ,crichton    
,browne1 ibid4 p4 #cde4  #ce ,cf4 on    
this subject the chapter on ,school     
,nurseries in ,national ,education and  
,national ,life1 ibid4  #cf ,suggestions
 for the ,consideration of ,teachers1   
chap4 iii4 7issued by the ,english      
,board of ,education74  #cg             
,montmorency's ,national ,education and 
,national ,life1 ibid4 p4 #adc4 ,the    
chapter on ,school ,nurseries should be 
read by everyone1 and especially by     

every ,scotsman interested in the       
education of young children4  #ch ,cf4  
,charles ,lamb's ,essay on ,popular     
,fallacies4     ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,the   
,,aim ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,school     
,during the past thirty years no part of
 our educational system has received so 
much attention as the ,elementary       
,schools of the country4 ,if we compare 
the condition of things which prevails  
at the present time with that which     
existed previous to #ahgj1 there can be 
no doubt that a great advance has been  
made both in the better provision of the
 means of education and in the          
efficiency of the instruction given4    
,previous to #ahgj a large number of the
 children of the poor received no       
education4#ci ,of those attending school
 many left with but a scanty knowledge4 
,now practically every child#dj receives
 a training in the primary arts of      
reading1 writing1 and arithmetic2 and   
with the gradual extension of the period
 during which the child must attend     

school1 it has become possible to ensure
 that a larger and larger number of     
children leaving our ,elementary        
,schools have received an education     
which may be of value for the           
after-fulfilment of the simpler         
practical ends of life4 ,again1 previous
 to #ahgj the school buildings were in  
many cases unfit for their purpose2 now 
the ,elementary ,schools of the country 
both in their building arrangements and 
equipment are as a rule much superior to
 the voluntary and endowed schools      
providing secondary education4 ,previous
 to #ahgj anyone was thought good enough
 to undertake the work of teaching2     
since that time more and more attention 
has been paid to the qualifications of  
the teacher and to securing that he     
shall have attained a certain standard  
of education1 and have received a       
certain measure of training before      
engaging upon the work of the           
instruction of the young4 ,we1 e4g41 no 
longer entrust the instruction of the   

younger children in the school to the   
older1 as was the custom under the      
monitorial system of ,bell and          
,lancaster1 and with the abolition of   
the pupil-teacher the last remnant of a 
system introduced at the beginning of   
the nineteenth century1 as the only     
remedy to meet the dire educational     
necessities of the time1 will have been 
removed4  ,but in spite of the great    
advances which have been made1 there is 
a deep-seated feeling now beginning to  
find expression1 that somehow or other  
the ,elementary ,school has not realised
 all the expectations that were once    
thought likely to result from the       
universal education of the children of  
the nation1 and that in particular the  
,primary ,school has failed to foster   
and to establish the moral and social   
qualities necessary for the welfare of a
 ,state whose government is founded on  
the representative principle4  ,this1 it
 seems to me1 is largely due to the     
wrong conception of the aims which the  

,primary ,school is intended to         
realise--a conception which prevailed   
for many years after the introduction of
 compulsory elementary education4 ,for  
some time now1 and especially during the
 past few years1 a counter-reaction has 
set in against the narrowness of the    
aims of the preceding period1 and like  
all reactions it tends to go to the     
opposite extreme1 and so to broaden the 
aims of the ,primary ,school as to be in
 danger of failing to realise           
efficiently any one of the ends which it
 sets before it4  ,the state of things  
immediately preceding #ahgj not         
unnaturally gave rise to the idea that  
the acquisition of the arts of reading1 
writing1 and arithmetic was the one     
indispensable object to be attained in  
the elementary education of the child4  
,this conviction was strengthened by the
 system of ,government grants introduced
 into both ,english and ,scotch schools1
 payments to school managers being      
largely based upon the successes        

obtained in passes in the three         
elementary subjects4  ,certain results  
naturally followed4 ,in the first place1
 no provision was made for the special  
education of the infant classes4 ,since 
the after-success of the child was      
measured by his attainments in the three
 ,r's1 the sooner the infant mind was   
introduced to these subjects the better 
the after-result might be expected to   
be4 ,thus the grant-earning capacity of 
the child became the teacher's chief    
consideration4 ,in the second place1 the
 energies of the teacher were directed  
to secure a certain mechanical accuracy 
in the use of the three elementary arts 
rather than their intelligent           
apprehension4 ,as a consequence1 these  
subjects came in time to be thought of  
as subjects worthy of attainment for    
their own sake and their acquisition as 
an end in itself4 ,hence it was         
forgotten that the acquisition and      
organisation of these systems of        
elementary knowledge are only valuable  

because they are the indispensable means
 of all intercourse1 of all commerce1   
and of all culture4 ,hence also their   
use as instruments for the              
after-realisation of many purposes in   
life tended to be neglected1 or at least
 to fall into the background4           
,individual teachers1 no doubt1 in many 
cases realised the partial error in this
 conception of the aims of the ,primary 
,school1 but the demands of ,government 
inspectors and of school authorities1   
with their rule-of-thumb methods of     
testing the success of the teacher's    
work by the percentage of passes gained1
 tended often to make the teacher1 in   
spite of his better judgment1 look upon 
the child mainly as a three-,r          
grant-earning subject and to consider   
the chief aim of primary education to be
 the securing of a certain mechanical   
proficiency in the use of the three     
elementary arts4  ,under such a method  
of examination it was certainly         
necessary for the teacher to pay some   

attention to the individuality of the   
child4 ,if his efforts were to be at all
 successful it was incumbent upon him to
 discover as early as possible the range
 of the child's previous knowledge in   
the three grant-earning subjects and to 
find out in which of the three the power
 of acquisition of the child was        
naturally weak or naturally strong4     
,where the number of children in a class
 was large1 little individual attention 
could1 of course1 be paid to the child1 
and in such cases the acquisition of the
 subject was aided by the mechanical    
drilling of sections of the class and by
 recourse to all manner of devices for  
ensuring the accurate acquisition of the
 essential subjects4  ,as a result of   
this partial and one-sided conception   
little attention was paid to the use to 
which these subjects may be put in the  
realisation of the practical ends of    
life4 ,arithmetic1 e4g41 seemed to the  
child to be made up of a number of kinds
 of arithmetic1 each process having its 

own rules and methods of procedure2 but 
it never entered into his mind1 and but 
seldom into that of his teacher1 that   
the various arithmetical processes are  
at bottom but diverse forms of the one  
fundamental process of adding to or     
subtracting from a group4 ,proportion   
was one kind of arithmetic1 simple      
interest another1 but that these        
processes symbolised real group-forming 
processes1 or that they had to do with  
any of the realities of life1 was       
apprehended1 if at all1 in the most     
imperfect and hazy manner4  ,in a       
similar manner1 the overcoming of the   
mechanical difficulties of language     
construction occupied the major portion 
of the attention of the child during the
 school period1 and the function of     
language in conveying a knowledge of    
things and persons and events received  
but a small share of his attention4     
,meanings of words were indeed tabulated
 and learnt by heart1 and as a rule the 
child on examination-day could make a   

fair show in deluding the inspector that
 the passage read was intelligently     
apprehended4 ,in very much the same way1
 the overcoming of the mechanical       
difficulties of writing and the drilling
 of the child to form his letters in a  
uniform style received the chief share  
of the school-time devoted to the       
subject4  ,the interest and attention of
 the child having been thus mainly      
occupied in the overcoming of the       
mechanical difficulties involved in the 
learning of the three grant-earning     
subjects1 and little attention having   
been paid to the use of these arts1 it  
followed that upon the conclusion of the
 school period the child left the school
 without any real interests having been 
established as the result of the        
educative process4  ,moreover1 except in
 so far as by their teaching we may     
establish habits of order and of        
accuracy1 the three elementary subjects 
in themselves possess no moral or social
 intent2 hence unless we can make the   

child realise their value as instruments
 for the attainment of ends of social   
worth they in themselves fail to play   
any important part in the building up of
 character4  ,let me put this in another
 way4 ,we have defined education as the 
process of acquiring and systematising  
experiences that will render future     
action more efficient1 or alternatively 
it is the process by which we organise  
and establish in the mind systems of    
ideas for the attainment of ends4 ,but  
if we make the acquisition of these     
elementary arts ends in themselves1 then
 it follows that the more efficient     
action we seek to realise is the more   
efficient manipulation of a number      
system or a language system4 ,if1       
however1 we realise that these arts are 
but means to the realisation of other   
ends1 then we shall understand that it  
is the character of the latter which    
mainly determines the resulting         
character of the education given4       
,partly to this erroneous conception of 

the real function of the elementary     
arts1 and partly to another cause which 
we shall mention later1 may be          
attributed the poor results which our   
,elementary ,school system has attained 
in the establishment of interests of    
moral and social worth4 ,if1 moreover1  
we realise how large a proportion of the
 children left and still do leave school
 at an early age1 before such interests 
can be permanently established1 and in  
some cases with anything but an adequate
 knowledge of the elementary arts       
necessary for all further progress1 we  
may rather be astonished that so much   
has been done than so little4  ,but in  
the reaction against the narrowness and 
formalism of our early aims in          
elementary education1 there is a        
tendency--a strong tendency--at the     
present time to go to the opposite      
extreme1 and to make the elementary     
instrumental arts the vehicles for the  
fostering of real interests at too early
 a stage4 ,this manifests itself on the 

one hand in the desire to make all      
instruction interesting to the child1   
and on the other to introduce the child 
prematurely to a knowledge of the real  
conditions of life1 before he can have  
any intelligent understanding of these  
conditions4 ,from the barrenness and    
formalism of the earlier period1 we now 
have the demand made that the school    
should throughout take into account the 
real and practical necessities of life4 
,the former tendency--the tendency to   
make everything interesting to the child
 by lessening or minimising the         
mechanical difficulties and by          
endeavouring in every way to incite the 
child to become interested in the       
content of the lesson--is best          
exemplified by the character of the     
school books which we now place in the  
hands of our children4 ,the latter      
tendency--the tendency to the premature 
use of the elementary arts--is          
exemplified by the craving to make our  
teaching of arithmetic practical and    

real from the very beginning4  ,in the  
former case1 instead of endeavouring to 
make the process of language            
construction interesting in itself1 we  
divert the child's attention from the   
acquiring and organising of the system  
of language forms to the premature      
acquirement of the content of language4 
,what results is obvious3 the main      
interest being in the content1 the      
interest in the mechanical construction 
of the form suffers1 and as a           
consequence the child never attains a   
full mastery over the instrumental art4 
,in the latter case we attempt to do two
 things at the same time in our teaching
 of arithmetic4 ,in every concrete      
application of arithmetic there are two 
interests involved3 in the first place1 
there is the number interest--the       
interest in the analysing and           
recombining of a group1 undertaken for  
the sake of the reconstruction itself2  
in the second place1 there is the       
business or real interest1 which the    

number interest indeed subserves1 but   
the two interests are in no case        
identical4 ,if we attempt to teach the  
two together1 we as a rule teach both   
badly4 ,the pupil will have but a hazy  
idea of the business relation1 and will 
run the risk of imperfectly organising  
the pure number system4 ,hence all kinds
 of impossible problems may be given to 
the child without raising any suspicion 
of error in his mind1 and such cases    
furnish certain evidence that the       
business relation does not really       
concern him1 but that his whole         
attention is engaged with the purely    
constructive aspect of number4 ,another 
example of the same error of confounding
 two separate things is the blind       
mixture we make of arithmetic and       
measuring4 ,because arithmetic is       
involved in all measuring we assume that
 when the child can add together feet   
and inches1 therefore he has a complete 
knowledge of these spatial magnitudes4  
,but manifestly1 if spatial magnitude is

 to be taught intelligently1 it must at 
first be taught independently of the    
number relation1 which is a general     
system instrumental in the realisation  
of many concrete interests4  ,from these
 considerations1 certain general results
 follow4 ,on the one hand1 the earlier  
conception of the aim of the ,primary   
,school as being mainly concerned with  
the acquirement and organisation of the 
three elementary arts as ends in        
themselves must be condemned4 ,language 
and number systems are means to the     
realisation of certain concrete ends of 
after-life1 and the school during the   
later stages of education must endeavour
 to lead the child to perceive how these
 systems may be utilised in the         
furtherance of these real concrete      
interests4 ,on the other hand1 the      
attempt to combine prematurely these two
 aims will result in the imperfect      
attainment of both4 ,during the earlier 
stages of education the main interest   
must be in the construction for its own 

sake of the language system or the      
number system1 and while the real       
interest may be introduced it must      
always be kept subsidiary to the main   
interest--must first of all be taught   
for its own sake1 and the instrumental  
art only used for its furtherance in so 
far as the acquirement of the former is 
not obstructed4 ,e4g41 the placing of   
geography and history ,readers in the   
hands of the child while he is still    
struggling with the difficulties of     
language construction can only result in
 the history and geography being        
imperfectly understood and the          
organisation of the language system     
being delayed and hindered4  ,once the  
elementary and subsidiary systems have  
been fairly well organised and          
established1 their function as means for
 the furtherance of real interests      
should occupy a larger share of the     
child's attention and of the time of the
 school4 ,these real interests1 however1
 must in every case and at every stage  

be taught at first for their own sake1  
and thereafter their relation to the    
instrumental art explained and applied4 
,gradually1 as they become better       
organised and more firmly established1  
the elementary arts occupy a smaller and
 smaller share of attention1 until      
finally they function automatically1 and
 the whole attention can be directed to 
the furtherance of the real interests to
 which the elementary arts are the      
indispensable means4  ,hence we note    
three stages in the elementary education
 of the child--the stage preceding the  
formal instruction in the elementary    
arts2 the stage in which the formal     
instruction should predominate and      
receive the greater share of the child's
 attention2 the stage in which the      
elementary systems having been in great 
measure organised and established1 they 
may be utilised as means to the         
furtherance of the real interests4 ,the 
first stage corresponds to the ,infant  
or ,kindergarten age3 here the main     

object is to build up in the mind of the
 child systems of ideas about the things
 of his environment2 to extend1 by      
conversation and by reading to the      
child1 the vocabulary of his own        
language2 to give him practice in the   
combining and recombining of concrete   
groups of things1 and to introduce him  
to a knowledge of the various language  
forms in a concrete shape4  ,in the     
second stage1 and here the work of the  
,primary ,school begins1 the main       
emphasis at the beginning must be laid  
on the acquirement and establishment of 
the language and number systems for     
their own sake4 ,if right methods are   
followed1 the child can be interested in
 these processes of construction without
 the need of calling into use at every  
point some real interest4 ,in the       
concluding stage the use of these       
instruments as means to the realisation 
of the simpler practical ends of life   
should receive more attention4  ,one    
reason1 then1 for the poor moral and    

social results effected in the past by  
our ,elementary ,school system has been 
the undue emphasis placed upon the      
acquisition of the merely formal arts to
 the neglect of the real interests to   
which the former are but the means4     
,another cause1 however1 has been       
operative in producing this negative    
result4 ,in the ,elementary ,schools1 in
 the past1 little attention has been    
paid to the individuality of the child1 
and little heed given to the differences
 between children as regards their      
different rates of intellectual growth  
and their differing aptitudes for       
various branches of study4 ,under a     
system of classification which compelled
 each individual1 whether intellectually
 well or moderately or poorly equipped1 
to advance at an equal rate1 attention  
to the individual with any other aim    
than to raise the weak to the standard  
of the average child in acquiring the   
three ,r's was impossible4 ,again1 our  
huge city schools1 partly on account of 

their vast size1 partly on the ground   
that they are unable to organise school 
games1 partly on account of their lack  
of any common school interests1 do not  
and cannot foster any sense of a        
corporate life1 any feeling of a common 
social spirit4 ,where our ,english      
,public ,school system is strong1 our   
,elementary and sometimes even our ,day 
,secondary ,school systems are weak4 ,if
 the home fails to foster these         
qualities1 and the school does not or   
cannot fill the gap1 then as a rule we  
turn out our boys and girls poorly      
equipped to fulfil their duties in      
after-life as members of a corporate    
community and as citizens of a ,state4  
,mere teaching of history or of civics  
in our schools will do little to attain 
this end1 unless by some method or other
 we can foster by means of the          
school-life the real civic spirit4 ,it  
is1 of course1 easy to point out the    
nature of the disease2 it is more       
difficult to prescribe a remedy4 ,but   

much might be done to strengthen and    
increase the moral influence of the     
school by a better system of            
classification1 which took into account 
the differences in intellectual capacity
 and in natural aptitude1 and which as a
 consequence1 in the education of the   
child1 paid more attention to each      
child's individuality4 ,this would      
involve much smaller classes than exist 
at present1 and would further involve   
that the children should be under the   
care of one teacher for a longer time   
than is now the rule4 ,at the present   
time1 in many cases1 the teacher is     
employed in teaching the same subjects1 
at the same stage1 year after year1 to a
 yearly fresh batch of sixty or seventy 
children4 ,consequently he learns to    
look upon his pupils as mere subjects to
 whom must be imparted the required     
measure of instruction4 ,of the children
 in themselves1 of their home-life1 of  
their interests outside school1 he knows
 nothing1 and as a rule cares less4  ,if

 in addition to this we ceased erecting 
barracks for the instruction of children
 and erected schools for their          
education1 we should make even a further
 advance in this direction4 ,if it is   
impossible for other reasons to lessen  
the size of our city ,elementary        
,schools1 then the remedy lies in the   
division of the schools into departments
 in which the ,head should be entrusted 
with the supervision of the education of
 the children during several years4 ,in 
this way it would be possible for the   
teacher to get to know each child       
individually1 to direct his education in
 accordance with his aptitudes1 and to  
exert an influence over him4 ,thus1 by  
giving more attention to the organised  
games of the school and by the creation 
of school interests1 much might be done 
to remedy the defects of the school on  
the side of moral and social education4 
,at best1 however1 when the home fails1 
the ,elementary ,school can do little1  
and we must put our trust in the ethical

 agencies of society to assist and      
promote the efforts of the school in the
 furthering of a right social spirit and
 in the creation of a common corporate  
feeling4  ,,footnotes3  #ci ,e4g41 in   
#ahfa it was calculated that only #f per
 cent4 of the children of the poor in   
,england were receiving a satisfactory  
elementary education4 ,cf4 ,balfour     
,graham's ,educational ,system of ,great
 ,britain and ,ireland1 p4 #ad4  #dj    
,e4g41 in #ahgb in ,scotland school     
places were provided for only #h4c per  
cent4 of the population4 ,in #aije      
places were provided for #ba4bb of the  
population4 ,cf4 ,report on ,scotch     
,education1 #aije1 p4 #f4     ,,chapter 
,,xii  ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the           
,,secondary ,,school   ,we have seen    
that on its intellectual side the       
,primary ,school has two main functions 
to perform in the education of the      
child4 ,in the first place1 the school  
must endeavour to secure that the       
elementary arts of reading1 writing1 and

 arithmetic are well organised and well 
established in the mind of the child4   
,the more effectively the language and  
number systems are organised and        
established the more efficiently will   
they function in the performance of     
future action4 ,moreover1 it is only    
when they have become so organised as to
 function automatically that they reach 
their highest efficiency as instruments 
for the further extension of knowledge  
or of practice4  ,in the second place1  
the ,primary ,school must train the     
pupil to the use of these systems as    
instruments for the realisation of other
 and concrete ends or interests4 ,e4g41 
the number system may be used in the    
furtherance of the measuring interest1  
the weighing interest1 and so on4 ,the  
two dangers we have to avoid are on the 
one hand the barren formalism of        
treating the acquisition of these arts  
as ends in themselves1 and on the other 
of supposing that the real interests can
 be intelligently understood merely     

through the instrumentality of the      
elementary arts and that they do not    
require independent treatment of        
themselves4  ,if the child is destined  
to go no farther than the ,elementary   
,school stage1 then at least the        
concluding year of the school should be 
mainly devoted to training him to the   
use of the primary instrumental arts in 
the establishment of systems of         
knowledge necessary for the realisation 
of the simpler practical ends of life4  
,if1 however1 the child is selected for 
a course of higher education1 the       
educative process becomes different in  
nature4 ,in the first-named case we are 
content to give the child practice in   
the application of an already           
established system to concrete problems4
 ,in the second case we endeavour1 using
 the elementary systems as means1 to    
establish other systems of knowledge as 
means to the attainment of still further
 ends4 ,we may1 e4g41 on the basis of   
the vernacular language build up a      

foreign language system as a means      
either to commercial intercourse or to  
literary culture4 ,in short1 the aim of 
the ,secondary ,school is1 using the    
elementary systems as the basal means1  
to organise and establish other systems 
of means for the attainment of the more 
complex interests of after-life1        
practical and theoretical4 ,the object  
of establishing a system of knowledge is
 not to pass examinations1--this is the 
schoolmaster's error1--but to render    
future action more efficient1 to further
 in after-life some complex interest of 
a practical or theoretical nature4 ,to  
the few1 indeed1 the establishment and  
systematisation of knowledge may be an  
end in itself4 ,to the many1 the        
systematisation and establishment is and
 ought to be undertaken as a means to   
the more efficient furtherance of some  
practical end4 ,further1 the only       
justification for the seeking of        
knowledge for its own sake is that      
thereby it may be better understood1    

better established and better           
systematised1 and so become better      
fitted to make practice more efficient4 
,hence the question as regards secondary
 education resolves itself into the     
question as to the nature of the systems
 of knowledge which we should endeavour 
to establish systematically in the mind 
of the child1 and before we can answer  
this question we must know the length of
 time which the child can afford to     
spend at the ,higher ,school and his    
possible vocation in after-life4 ,for if
 education is the process by which the  
child is led to acquire and organise    
experiences so as to render future      
action more efficient1 we must know     
something of the nature of this action1 
something of the nature of the future   
social services for which his education 
is to train him1 and the school period  
must be of sufficient length to enable  
the required systems to be established  
permanently and thoroughly4  ,neglect of
 these two obvious considerations has   

led in the past and even in the present 
leads to two errors in our organisation 
of the means of secondary education4 ,in
 the first place1 until quite recently1 
we have been too much inclined to the   
opinion that secondary education was all
 of one type1 and even where this error 
has been recognised1 as in ,germany1 the
 tendency still exists to emphasise     
unduly the particular type of education 
which has as its main ingredients the   
ancient classical languages4 ,we spend  
years in the attempt to reconstruct and 
establish in the mind of the youth a    
knowledge of these language systems1 and
 in a large number of cases we fail to  
attain adequately even this end4 ,we    
build up laboriously systems of means   
which in after-life function directly in
 the attainment of no end1 and as a     
consequence1 in many cases1 the         
dissolution of the system is as rapid as
 its acquisition was slow4 ,at the time 
of the ,renascence and when first       
introduced into the curriculum of the   

,secondary ,school1 these languages1 and
 especially ,latin1 did then possess a  
high functional value1 since they were  
the indispensable means to the          
furtherance of knowledge and to social  
intercourse4 ,to-day they possess little
 functional value1 and their claim for  
admission into the school curriculum is 
chiefly based upon their so-called      
training and disciplinary values4  ,let 
us consider this for a moment3 in the   
reconstruction of1 say1 the ,latin      
language1 the pupil is being trained in 
the reconstruction and re-establishment 
of a language system whose methods and  
rules of construction are much more     
complex and intricate than those of any 
living language1 and whose forms are so 
designed as to bring out exactly varied 
shades of meaning4 ,hence1 in its       
acquisition the pupil receives practice 
in the exact discrimination of the      
meaning of words1 and in their accurate 
placing and reconstruction within the   
sentence--the unit of expression--in    

order to bring out the exact            
interpretation of the thought or        
statement of fact intended by the       
writer4  ,further1 we may train the     
pupil during the school period to       
self-apply the language system in the   
further interpretation of relatively    
unknown passages4 ,in short1 we can     
train him in the processes of language  
construction and of language            
application4 ,moreover1 in considering  
this question1 we must take into account
 that during the school period the main 
interest must necessarily be directed to
 the acquisition and establishment of   
the system itself1 that little attention
 can be directed towards the content for
 its own sake1 and that the             
establishment of the system so that it  
shall function automatically in the     
interpretation of the content is a stage
 which is attained in comparatively few 
cases1 and then only after many years of
 study4  ,if we then take into account1 
and we must take into account1 the fact 

that the chief value of the ancient     
languages as ,secondary ,school subjects
 lies in their use as training and      
disciplinary instruments--that in       
after-life they function directly in the
 attainment of no practical end1 and    
only indirectly in so far as the habits 
acquired of the exact weighing of the   
meaning of words and of the accurate    
placing of words are carried over for   
the attainment of practical ends in     
which these qualities of exact          
interpretation and exact expression of  
language are the chief requisites--we   
shall understand that while they may be 
of value in securing the efficient      
after-performance of certain social     
services1 they play but a small part in 
the furthering of any service which     
requires an exact knowledge of the      
qualities of things and an accurate     
knowledge of the laws governing the     
operations of nature4  ,in the second   
place1 neglect of the fact that the aim 
of education is to establish systems of 

means for the efficient                 
after-performance of actions has led us 
to neglect the fact that in the         
acquisition and establishment of systems
 of knowledge we require to limit the   
scope of our aims and to carry on the   
process of education during a period    
sufficiently extended to admit of the   
stable establishment of the systems4    
,if1 e4g41 we attempt to establish too  
many systems1 then as a result we often 
stably establish none1 with the further 
result that after the school period has 
passed the knowledge gained soon        
disappears4 ,if1 again1 we attempt in   
too limited a time to establish an      
elaborate and complex system of         
knowledge1 as e4g4 that of the ,latin   
language1 then we never reach the stage 
when it can be self-applied             
intelligently in the furtherance of any 
end4 ,hence1 if a boy leaves the        
,elementary ,school and enters upon a   
,high ,school course with the intention 
of leaving at the age of fifteen or     

sixteen and entering upon some          
employment1 the systems of knowledge    
which can be established during the     
school period must be different from    
those of the boy whose education is     
intended to be extended until           
twenty-one4 ,if1 then1 a national system
 of education is to make adequate       
provision for the efficient             
after-performance of the various social 
services which the nation requires at   
the hands of its adult members2 if1 in  
short1 it is to be organic to the life  
of the ,state as a whole1 then there    
must be not one type of higher education
 but several2 for it is to her ,higher  
,schools that a nation must principally 
look for the preparation of citizens who
 in after-life will discharge the more  
important services of the community4    
,this truth has already been realised in
 other countries1 notably ,germany4 ,we 
are only beginning to realise it1 and to
 take measures to carry it into         
practice4  ,moreover1 in a national     

system of education we shall need not   
one system of advancing means but       
several2 not merely an educational      
ladder that may carry the boy to the    
,university1 but also educational steps 
by which the individual may mount to the
 ,technical or the ,commercial or the   
,art ,college4  ,hence our aims in the  
higher education of the youth1 and as a 
consequence the nature of the systems of
 knowledge which we should endeavour to 
organise and to establish in their      
minds1 will vary in accordance with the 
nature of the service which in adult    
life the boy is likely to perform4 ,now1
 these services may be divided into four
 main classes4  ,in the first place1    
every nation requires an army of        
efficient industrial workers4 ,partly1  
in some cases1 owing to the decline of  
the apprenticeship system1 partly owing 
to the fact that where apprentices are  
still employed no systematic measures   
are taken to instruct the youth in the  
principles underlying his particular    

art1 it is becoming increasingly        
necessary that the school should supply 
and supplement the knowledge required   
for the efficient after-performance of  
the industrial and technical arts4      
,hence one kind of ,higher ,school      
urgently required is the ,trade or      
,technical ,school4 ,in a large number  
of cases this need could be supplied by 
,evening ,continuation ,schools4 ,at    
present1 however1 our ,evening ,schools 
are too predominantly commercial and    
literary1 and do not make adequate      
provision for the trade and technical   
needs of the community4 ,further1 we    
must endeavour to secure that the boy or
 girl enters the ,evening ,continuation 
,school as soon after he leaves the     
,elementary ,school as possible4 ,for in
 many cases at the present time the boy 
after leaving the ,primary ,school loafs
 at night about the streets1 and in a   
short time through disuse forgets much  
of what he learned at school1 and often 
in addition acquires habits which tend  

to unfit him for any future strenuous   
effort4 ,when1 therefore1 he feels the  
need for more knowledge in order to     
advance in his trade1 the ,evening      
,school has too frequently to begin by  
doing over again the work of the        
,elementary ,school before it can enter 
upon the work of establishing the higher
 system of knowledge4  ,in the second   
place1 a nation such as ours requires a 
trained body of servants for the        
efficient carrying on of her commerce4  
,preparation for the simpler forms of   
service could be furnished by the       
commercial classes of the ,evening      
,continuation ,schools4 ,for preparation
 for the higher services1 we require a  
type of school which beginning after the
 ,elementary ,school stage has been     
completed1 carries on the boy's         
education until the fifteenth or        
sixteenth year1 whose chief aim should  
be to lay a sound basis in the          
acquisition and organisation of one or  
two modern languages and in the         

acquirement of the arts instrumental for
 the carrying on of commercial          
transactions4 ,further means of advance 
in these studies should be provided by  
the day or evening ,commercial ,college4
  ,in the third place1 every modern     
nation requires a trained body of       
scientific workers for the after        
carrying on of her industrial and       
technical arts4 ,hence we need a type of
 school which by making the physical    
sciences their chief object of study    
prepare the way for the future training 
of the student in the application of    
scientific knowledge to the furtherance 
of the industrial and technical arts4   
,lastly1 we require a type of secondary 
education which shall prepare the boy   
for the efficient discharge of the      
duties which the ,state requires at the 
hands of her physicians1 her            
theologians1 her jurists4  ,thus1 since 
all education is the acquisition of     
experiences that will render future     
action more efficient1 the nature of the

 secondary education given must depend  
on the nature of the services to which  
the systems of knowledge are the means4 
,a classical education may be a good    
preparation for the after-discharge of  
the duties of the theologian or the     
jurist2 it certainly will not do much   
for the efficient discharge of the      
duties of the mechanical engineer and   
the practical chemist4  ,but one error  
must be avoided4 ,whilst the various    
types of ,secondary ,school must fashion
 their curricula according to the nature
 of the services for which they prepare1
 we must not forget that the school has 
other duties to perform than the mere   
preparation for the social services by  
which a man hereafter earns his living4 
,it must in every case endeavour to     
organise and establish those systems of 
means necessary for the after-discharge 
of the civic duties of life and         
instrumental for the right use of       
leisure4  ,practically we need three    
types of ,higher ,school--one in which  

modern languages form the basal subjects
 of the curriculum2 one in which the    
physical sciences are the main systems  
organised and established2 one in which 
the classical languages form the main   
staple of education4     ,,chapter      
,,xiii  ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,the          
,,university   ,all public institutions 
of learning are called into existence by
 social needs1 and first of all by      
technical practical necessities4        
,theoretical interests may lead to the  
founding of private associations such as
 the ,greek philosophers' schools2      
public schools owe their origin to the  
social need for professional training4  
,thus during the ,middle ,ages the first
 schools were called into being by the  
need of professional training for       
ecclesiastics1 the first learned        
profession1 and a calling whose         
importance seemed to demand such        
training4 ,essentially the same         
necessity called into being the         
,universities of the ,parisian type1    

with their artistic and theological     
faculties4 ,the two other types of      
professional schools1 the law school and
 the medical school1 which were first   
developed in ,italy1 then united with   
the former4 ,the ,universities therefore
 originated as a union of 'technical'   
schools for ecclesiastics1 jurists1 and 
physicians1 to which division the       
faculty of ,arts was related as a       
general preparatory school1 until during
 the nineteenth century it also assumed 
something of the character of a         
professional institution for the        
training of teachers for the ,secondary 
,school4#da  ,thus the early aim of the 
,university was1 as it still continues  
to be1 to provide the training for the  
after-supply of those services which the
 ,state requires at the hands of her    
theologians1 her jurists1 and her       
physicians4 ,in ,germany1 and to some   
extent even in our own country1 the     
,arts faculty of the ,university is     
ceasing to perform the function of a    

,general ,preparatory ,school to the    
professional schools1 and is becoming an
 independent school1 having for its aim 
the preparation of teachers for the     
,intermediate and ,secondary ,schools of
 the country4 ,in ,scotland1 indeed1 it 
serves at the present time as a         
,preparatory ,school mainly to the      
theological faculty4 ,as the ,secondary 
,schools of the country become more     
efficient1 better differentiated1 and   
better organised1 the need of a         
,preparatory ,school within our         
,universities will gradually become     
less1 and the ,university will be able  
to devote more of her energies to the   
training of students preparing for some 
one or other of the above-named         
professions4 ,with this change the      
philosophical studies of the ,arts      
faculty will become increasingly        
important1 and the method of teaching   
the linguistic and scientific studies   
receive a larger share of attention than
 they do at present4  ,but the other and

 perhaps the more important function of 
the ,university is to carry on and to   
extend the work of scientific and       
literary research for its own sake4     
,this is the dominant note of the       
,german and ,american ,universities of  
to-day4 ,the emphasis is laid not so    
much upon their function as schools for 
the supply of certain professional      
services1 but upon them as great        
national laboratories for the extension 
of knowledge and the betterment of      
practice4 ,in ,great ,britain1 and      
especially in ,scotland1 this conception
 of the function of the ,university has 
not received the same prominence as1    
e4g41 in ,germany1 where the intimate   
union of scientific investigation and   
professional instruction gives the      
,german ,universities their peculiar    
character4 ,indeed1 in the latter       
country the tendency at the present time
 is rather to over-emphasise the        
function of the ,universities in        
furthering scientific and literary      

research to the neglect of the other and
 no less important aim4 ,two dangers    
must be avoided4 ,in the first place1   
whenever the chief emphasis is laid upon
 the ,universities as mainly schools for
 professional training1 the teaching    
tends to become narrow and dogmatic4    
,the teacher ceasing to be an           
investigator1 gradually loses touch with
 the spirit of the age1 and as a        
consequence he fails adequately to      
perform the duty of efficiently training
 his students for their after life-work4
 ,in the second place1 when the emphasis
 is laid strongly upon the function of  
the ,university as an institution for   
the carrying on of scientific and       
literary research there is the danger of
 again lapsing into the old fallacy that
 knowledge for knowledge' sake is an end
 in itself1 that the object of education
 is to acquire and organise systems of  
means which function in the attainment  
of no practical end1 and that the       
acquisition of knowledge is valuable for

 the culture of the individual mind     
apart from any social purpose which the 
knowledge subserves4  ,the ,university  
must therefore ever keep in view the two
 aims1 of advancing knowledge not for   
its own sake but in order that future   
action may be rendered more efficient1  
and of adequately training for          
professional services4  ,but to the     
older professions for which the         
,university prepares there have been    
added during the past century other     
vocations or professions which need and 
demand an education no less important   
and no less thorough than the education 
for the well established recognised     
professions4 ,the need for the higher   
training of the future leaders of       
industry and the future captains of     
commerce has been provided by the       
organisation and establishment of       
technological schools and colleges4 ,the
 establishment and organisation of the  
,technical ,university has been more    
thorough in ,germany than in this       

country4 ,there we find established     
newer institutions1 of which the        
,charlottenburg ,college is the best    
known and most important1 for the higher
 education of those intended in         
after-life to perform the more important
 industrial services of the community4  
,these institutions both in their       
organisation and instruction are        
constantly approximating in type to the 
older ,universities4  ,the recently     
established ,universities in the ,north 
of ,england attempt1 with what success  
it is too early yet to declare1 to      
combine both aims of training for the   
older and newer professions4 ,in        
,scotland the latter work is largely    
undertaken by the ,technical ,colleges1 
and in these institutions the increasing
 need is for the extension and          
development of the ,day-school course4  
,one other question of some importance  
remains for brief consideration4 ,in our
 own country1 but more especially in    
,germany1 there is a tendency at the    

present time to effect a complete       
separation between the work of the      
,university and the work of the         
,technical ,college4  ,this separation  
has arisen partly through the operation 
of external historical conditions1 but  
it has also arisen partly through the   
tendency in certain academic circles to 
look down upon technical knowledge and  
ability as something inferior4 ,the     
exclusiveness and the torpor of the     
older ,universities in many cases has   
been a further cause tending to the     
creation of the ,technical ,college     
separated from the ,university4  ,such a
 separation1 however1 is good neither   
for the ,university nor for the         
,technical ,college4 ,the former in     
carrying out the aim of scientific      
research and of the extension of        
knowledge requires ever the vivifying   
touch of actual concrete experience1 and
 this it can only obtain by keeping in  
close contact with those whose chief    
function is the application of          

scientific knowledge to practice4 ,the  
latter in carrying out its more         
practical aims requires1 if it is to be 
saved from the narrowness of mere       
specialisation and from degenerating    
into empirical methods1 the constant    
co-operation of those whose outlook is  
not narrowed down to the immediate      
practical end1 but takes in the subject 
as a whole1 and whose chief function is 
the better systematisation of knowledge4
  ,hence1 while the aim of the          
,university is different from that of   
the ,technical ,college1 they are so    
intimately correlated that neither can  
reach its fullest development without   
the aid and co-operation of the other4  
,the ,technical ,colleges should be the 
professional schools attached to the    
scientific side of the ,universities4   
,moreover1 this division and separation 
is economically wasteful1 since the     
general training in science which must  
precede the practical training has to be
 carried on both in the ,university and 

in the ,technical ,college4  ,in        
,scotland this separation has not       
advanced to such a stage as is the case 
in ,germany4 ,in any further            
reorganisation of university and higher 
education it is earnestly to be hoped   
that the ,day ,technical ,college will  
find its rightful place as an integral  
part of the ,university1 and that the   
latter may realise that her function is 
to further and extend the bounds of     
knowledge in order that practice in     
every sphere of life may be rendered    
more efficient4  ,,footnote3  #da ,cf4  
,prof4 ,paulsen1 ,the ,german           
,universities1 p4 #aaa 7,eng4 ,trans474 
,,chapter ,,xiv  ,,conclusion--,,the    
,,present ,,problems ,,in ,,education   
,the first necessity of the present for 
teachers and for all concerned with the 
upbringing of children is to realise the
 true meaning of education--that it is  
the process by which we lead the child  
to acquire and organise experiences that
 will render future action more         

efficient2 that by our educational      
agencies we seek to establish systems of
 knowledge that shall hereafter function
 in the efficient performance of        
services of social value2 and that the  
only method which really educates and   
can educate is the method which evokes  
the constructive activity of reason in  
the establishment of the various systems
 of means4 ,education does not aim at   
culture nor at knowledge for its own    
sake1 but at fitting the individual for 
social service4 ,our school system tends
 ever to forget this truth4 ,it is in   
constant danger of losing sight of this 
ultimate aim of education by keeping its
 attention too narrowly fixed on some   
nearer and proximate aim4 ,it tends     
often to lay too much stress on mere    
examinations and examination results4   
,it forgets that the only true test of  
knowledge gained lies in the pupil's    
ability to use it intelligently in the  
furtherance of some purpose--and of some
 social purpose1 and that the ultimate  

test of a system of education is the    
kind of social individual it turns out4 
,if our educational system turns out    
boys and girls who in after-life become 
efficient workers1 efficient citizens1  
and men and women who have learned how  
to use their leisure rightly1 then it   
has fulfilled its function4 ,if1 on the 
other hand1 it fails in a large number  
of cases to attain these three ends or  
any one of them1 however it may satisfy 
the other tests applied1 it has not     
performed its function1 is not a system 
which is organic to the welfare of the  
,state4  ,the second necessity is to    
realise the true place of the school as 
the formal agent in the education of the
 child4 ,mankind by a long and laborious
 process has discovered and established 
many systems of knowledge4 ,he has      
created language and invented arts for  
the realisation of the many purposes of 
life4 ,it is the business of the school 
to impart this knowledge to the         
child--to put him in possession at least

 of some part of this heritage which has
 come down to him1 and to do so in such 
a manner that while acquiring the       
experience he shall also be trained in  
the method of finding and establishing  
systems of means for himself and by     
himself4 ,if1 however1 we lay the       
emphasis on the mere imparting of the   
garnered experiences of the ages1 the   
danger to be feared is lest our teaching
 degenerate into mere dogmatism or mere 
cram4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we lay too
 much emphasis on the ability to        
self-find and self-establish systems1 we
 are in danger of losing sight of the   
social purpose of all knowledge--of     
forgetting that the only justification  
for establishing a system of knowledge  
is that it may efficiently function in  
the attainment of some purpose of life4 
,of the more important of the practical 
problems of our own day and generation  
the first and most important is to      
realise that our educational system as  
it exists at present is not fitted to   

produce and maintain an efficient and   
sufficient supply of all the social     
services which the modern ,state        
requires of its adult members1 and that 
we must consider this question of       
education as a whole and in all its     
parts1 and quite clear of mere party    
interests4 ,above all1 we must get over 
the fatal habit of reforming one part of
 the system and leaving the other parts 
alone4 ,the whole problem of education  
from the ,primary ,school to the        
,university requires consideration and  
organisation4 ,we reform now our        
,universities1 then after a period our  
,secondary ,school system1 and so we    
proceed1 advancing here1 retrograding   
there1 but of education as an           
organically connected whole we have no  
thought4  ,but apart from the want of   
organisation as a whole our educational 
system in its parts is at present       
defective4 ,we require to reconsider the
 question of how best to educate the    
children of the very poor4 ,at present  

we fail in a large number of cases to   
train up the children of this class to  
be socially efficient4 ,economically and
 morally we fail to reach any high      
standard4 ,no doubt the home and social 
environment is all against the school   
influence2 but by a more rational system
 of early education1 by taking more care
 of the physical development of the     
child1 and1 if need be1 for a time1     
making public provision for the feeding 
of the children of the very poor1 we    
might do much to remove this defect4    
,above all1 we must endeavour to stem   
the yearly flow of boys and girls at the
 conclusion of the ,primary ,school     
period into mere casual and unskilled   
employments1 and must endeavour by some 
means or other to continue the education
 of the child for some years further4   
,again1 we require to make better       
provision for the technical training of 
our workmen4 ,by a system of ,evening   
,continuation ,schools having as their  
aim the instruction of the youth in the 

arts underlying or subsidiary to his    
particular calling1 we might do much to 
amend this defect4 ,moreover1 the       
,evening ,continuation ,schools might   
play a much more important part than    
they now do in the securing of the      
future moral and civic efficiency of the
 individual and of the nation4  ,lastly1
 and this need is clearly felt by all   
acquainted with the subject1 we require 
the development and extension of our    
,technical ,colleges1 in order that we  
may adequately train those whose duty in
 after-life will be the application of  
advanced scientific knowledge in the    
furtherance of the arts and industries  
of life4                                
,printed by                             
,,morrison  ,,gibb ,,limited1           
,edinburgh