file was produced from images produced  
by ,core ,historical ,literature in     
,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell         
,university7       ,riverside           
,educational ,monographs  ,,edited ,,by 
,,henry ,,suzzallo  ,,professor ,,of    
,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,education     
,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia        
,,university  ,,new ,,ideals ,,in       
,,rural ,,schools  ,,by  ,,george       
,,herbert ,,betts1 ,,ph4 ,d4            
,,professor ,,of ,,psychology ,,cornell 
,,college1 ,,iowa  ,illustration        
,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company ,,boston1
 ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,chicago  ,the     
,riverside ,press ,cambridge            
,,copyright1 #aiac1 ,,by ,,george       
,,herbert ,,betts  ,,all ,,rights       
,,reserved     ,,contents               
,,editor',s ,,introduction              
v       ,,preface                       
ix    ,i4 ,,the ,,rural ,,school ,,and  
,,its ,,problem                    #a   
,,ii4 ,,the ,,social ,,organization ,,of
 ,,the ,,rural ,,school        #be      

,,iii4 ,,the ,,curriculum ,,of ,,the    
,,rural ,,school                 #eg    
,,iv4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,the       
,,rural ,,school                   #ib  
,,outline                               
#aba     ,,editor',s ,,introduction     
,in presenting a second monograph on the
 rural school problem in this series we 
register our sense of the importance of 
rural education4 ,too long have the     
rural schools suffered from neglect4    
,both the local communities and the     
,state have overlooked the needs of the 
rural school system4 ,at the present    
hour there is an earnest awakening of   
interest in rural life and its          
institutions4 ,already there is a small 
but certain movement of people toward   
the country and the vocation of         
agriculture4 ,a period of agricultural  
prosperity1 the reaction of men and     
women against the artificialities of    
city life1 the development of farming   
through the application of science1 and 
numerous other factors have made country

 life more congenial and have focused   
attention upon its further needs4 ,it is
 natural1 therefore1 that the rural     
school should receive an increased share
 of attention4  ,educational            
administrators1 legislators1 and        
publicists have become aware of their   
responsibility to provide the financial 
support and the efficient organization  
that is needed to develop country       
schools4 ,the more progressive of them  
are striving earnestly to provide laws  
that will aid rather than hamper the    
rural school system4 ,in his monograph  
on ,the ,improvement of the ,rural      
,school1 ,professor ,cubberley has done 
much to interpret current efforts of    
this type4 ,from the standpoint of state
 administration he has contributed much 
definite information and constructive   
suggestion as to how the ,state shall   
respond to the fundamental need for 7#a7
 more money1 7#b7 better organization1  
and 7#c7 real supervision for rural     
schools4  ,it is not so clear1 however1 

that rural patrons1 school directors1   
and teachers have become fully aware of 
their duty in the matter of rural school
 improvement4 ,to be sure much has been 
done by way of experiment in many rural 
communities2 but it can scarcely be said
 that rural communities in general are  
thoroughly awake to the importance of   
their schools4 ,the evidence to the     
contrary is cumulative4 ,the first      
immediate need is to reawaken interest  
in the school as a center of rural life1
 and to suggest ways and means of       
transmuting this communal interest into 
effective institutional methods4 ,to    
this end1 ,professor ,betts has been    
asked to treat the rural school problem 
from a standpoint somewhat different    
from that assumed by ,professor         
,cubberley2 that is1 from the point of  
view of the local community immediately 
related to1 and concerned with1 the     
rural school4 ,in consequence his       
presentation emphasizes the things that 
ought to be done by the local           

authorities1--parent1 trustee1 and      
teacher4 ,its soundness may well be     
judged by the pertinent order of his    
discussion4 ,having stated his problem1 
he initiates his discussion by          
suggesting how the social relations of  
the school are to be reorganized2 only  
later does he pass to the detail of     
curricula and teaching methods4 ,it is a
 clear recognition of the fact that the 
community is the crucial factor in the  
making of a school4 ,the ,state by sound
 fiscal and legislative policies may do 
much to make possible a better country  
school2 but only the local authorities  
can realize it4 ,the trained teacher    
with modern notions of efficiency may   
attempt to enlarge the curriculum and to
 employ newer methods of teaching1 but  
his talents are useless if he is        
hampered by a conservative1             
unappreciative1 and indifferent         
community4 ,when the school becomes a   
social center of the community's        
interest and life1 there will be no     

difficulty in achieving any policy which
 the ,state permits or which a skilled  
teacher urges4 ,scattered schools will  
be consolidated1 and isolated ungraded  
schools will be improved4 ,given an     
interested community1 the modern teacher
 can vitalize every feature of the      
school1 changing the formal curriculum  
into an interesting and liberalizing    
interpretation of country life and the  
pedantic drills and tasks of instruction
 into a skillful ministry to real and   
abiding human wants4     ,,preface   ,no
 rural population has yet been able     
permanently to maintain itself against  
the lure of the town or the city4 ,each 
civilization at one stage of its        
development comprises a large proportion
 of rural people4 ,but the urban        
movement soon begins1 and continues     
until all are living in villages1 towns1
 and cities4 ,such has been the movement
 of population in all the older         
countries of high industrial            
development1 as ,england1 ,france1 and  

,germany4 ,a similar movement is at     
present going on rapidly in the ,united 
,states4  ,no great social movement ever
 comes by chance2 it is always to be    
explained by deep-seated and adequate   
causes4 ,the causes lying back of the   
rapid growth of our cities at the       
expense of our rural districts are very 
far from simple4 ,they involve a great  
complex of social1 educational1 and     
economic forces4 ,as the spirit of      
adventure and pioneering finds less to  
stimulate it1 the gregarious impulse1   
the tendency to flock together for our  
work and our play1 gains in ascendancy4 
,growing out of the greater intellectual
 opportunities and demands of modern    
times1 the standard of education has    
greatly advanced4 ,and under the        
incentive of present-day economic       
success and luxury1 comfortable         
circumstances and a moderate competence 
no longer satisfy our people4 ,hence    
they turn to the city1 looking to find  
there the coveted social1 educational1  

or economic opportunities4  ,it is      
doubtful1 therefore1 whether1 even with 
improved conditions of country life1 the
 urbanization of our rural people can be
 wholly checked4 ,but it can be greatly 
retarded if the right agencies are set  
at work4 ,the rural school should be    
made and can be made one of the most    
important of these agencies1 although at
 the present time its influence is      
chiefly negative4 ,with the hope of     
offering some help1 however slight1 in  
adjusting the rural school to its       
problem1 this little volume is written  
by one who himself belongs to the rural 
community by birth and early education  
and occupation4  ,g4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,cornell  
,,college1 ,february1 #aiac4     ,,new  
,,ideals ,,in ,,rural ,,schools     ,i  
,,the ,,rural ,,school ,,and ,,its      
,,problem  ,the general problem of the  
rural school   ,the general problem of  
the rural school is the same as that of 
any other type of school--to render to  
the community the largest possible      

returns upon its investment in education
 with the least possible waste4 ,schools
 are great education factories set up at
 public expense4 ,the raw material      
consists of the children of succeeding  
generations1 helpless and inefficient   
because of ignorance and immaturity4    
,the school is to turn out as its       
product men and women ready and able to 
take up their part in the great world of
 activities going on about them4 ,it is 
in this way1 in efficient education1    
that society gets its return for its    
investment in the schools4  ,the word   
education has in recent years been      
taking on a new and more vital meaning4 
,in earlier times the value of education
 was assumed1 or vaguely taken on faith4
 ,education was supposed to consist of  
so much learning1 or a given amount of  
discipline1 or a certain quantity of    
culture4 ,under the newer definition1   
education may include all these things1 
but it must do more2 it must relate     
itself immediately and concretely to the

 business of living4 ,we no longer      
inquire of one how much he knows1 or the
 degree to which his powers have been   
cultivated2 but rather to what extent   
his education has led to a more fruitful
 life in the home1 the state1 the       
church1 and other social institutions2  
how largely it has helped him to more   
effective work in a worthy occupation2  
and whether it has resulted in greater  
enjoyment and appreciation of the finer 
values of personal experience1--in      
short1 whether for him education spells 
efficiency4  ,we are thus coming to see 
that education must enable the          
individual to meet the real problems of 
actual experience as they are confronted
 in the day's life4 ,nor can the help   
rendered be indefinite1 intangible1 or  
in any degree uncertain4 ,it must       
definitely adjust one to his place1 and 
cause him to grow in it1 accomplishing  
the most for himself and for society2 it
 must add to the largeness of his       
personal life1 and at the same time     

increase his working efficiency4  ,this 
is to say that one's education must 7#a7
 furnish him with the particular        
knowledge required for the life that he 
is to live1 whether it be in the shop1  
on the farm1 or in the profession4 ,for 
knowledge lies at the basis of all      
efficiency and success in whatever      
occupation4 ,education must 7#b7 shape  
the attitude1 so that the individual    
will confront his part of the world's   
work or its play in the right spirit4   
,it must not leave him a parasite1      
whether from wealth or from poverty1    
ready to prey upon others2 but must make
 him willing and glad to do his share4  
,education must 7#c7 also give the      
individual training in technique1 or the
 skill required in his different        
activities2 not to do this is at best   
but to leave him a well-informed and    
well-intentioned bungler1 falling far   
short of efficiency4  ,the great        
function of the school1 therefore1 is to
 supply the means by which the requisite

 knowledge1 attitude1 and skill can be  
developed4 ,it is true that the child   
does not depend on the school alone for 
his knowledge1 his attitude1 and his    
skill4 ,for the school is only one of   
many influences operating on his life4  
,much of the most vital knowledge is not
 taught in the school but picked up     
outside2 a great part of the child's    
attitude toward life is formed through  
the relations of the home1 the          
community1 and the various other points 
of contact with society2 and much of his
 skill in doing is developed in a       
thousand ways without being taught4 ,yet
 the fact remains that the school is    
organized and supported by society to   
make sure about these things1 to see    
that the child does not lack in         
knowledge1 attitude1 or skill4 ,they    
must not be left to chance2 where the   
educative influences outside the school 
have not been sufficient1 the school    
must take hold4 ,its part is to         
supplement and organize with conscious  

purpose what the other agencies have    
accomplished in the education of the    
child4 ,the ultimate purpose of the     
school is to make certain of efficiency4
  ,the means by which the school is to  
accomplish these ends are 7#a7 the      
social organization of the school1 or   
the life and activities that go on in   
the school from day to day2 7#b7 the    
curriculum1 or the subject-matter which 
the child is given to master2 and 7#c7  
the instruction or the work of the      
teacher in helping the pupils to master 
the subject-matter of the curriculum and
 adjust themselves to the organization  
of the school4  ,these factors will of  
necessity differ1 however1 according to 
the particular type of school in        
question4 ,it will therefore be         
necessary to inquire into the special   
problem of the rural school before      
entering into a discussion of the means 
by which it is to accomplish its aim4   
,the special problem of the rural school
  ,each type of school has not only its 

general problem which is common to all  
schools1 but also its special problem   
which makes it different from every     
other class of schools4 ,the special    
problem of any type of school grows out 
of the nature and needs of the community
 which supports the school4 ,thus the   
city school1 whose pupils are to live   
the industrial and social life of an    
urban community1 confronts a different  
problem from that of a rural school1    
whose pupils are to live in a farming   
community4 ,each type of school must    
suit its curriculum1 its organization1  
and its instruction to the demands to be
 met by its pupils4 ,the knowledge      
taught1 the attitudes and tastes        
developed1 and the skill acquired must  
be related to the life to be lived and  
the responsibilities to be undertaken4  
,the rural school must therefore be     
different in many respects from the town
 and city school4 ,in its organization1 
its curriculum1 and its spirit1 it must 
be adapted to the requirements of the   

rural community4 ,for1 while many pupils
 from the rural schools ultimately      
follow other occupations than farming1  
yet the primary function of the rural   
school is to educate for the life of the
 farm4 ,it thus becomes evident that the
 only way to understand the problem of  
the rural school is first to understand 
the rural community4 ,what are its      
industries1 the character of its people1
 their economic status1 their standards 
of living1 their needs1 their social    
life8  ,the rural community is          
industrially homogeneous4 ,there exists 
here no such a diversified mixture of   
industries as in the city4 ,all are     
engaged in the same line of work4       
,agriculture is the sole occupation4    
,hence the economic interests and       
problems all center around this one     
line4 ,the success or failure of crops1 
the introduction of a different method  
of cultivation or a new variety of      
grain1 or the invention of an           
agricultural implement interests all    

alike4 ,the farmer engaged in planting  
his corn knows that for miles around all
 other farmers are similarly employed2  
if he is cutting his hay or harvesting  
his grain1 hundreds of other mowing     
machines and harvesters are at work on  
surrounding farms4  ,this fund of common
 interest and experience tends to social
 as well as industrial homogeneity4     
,good-fellowship1 social responsiveness 
and neighborliness rest on a basis of   
common labor1 common problems1 and      
common welfare4 ,like-mindedness and the
 spirit of coperation are after all more
 a matter of similar occupational       
interests than of nationality4  ,another
 factor tending to make the rural       
community socially more homogeneous than
 the city community is its relatively   
stable population1 and the fact that the
 stream of immigration is slow in       
reaching the farm4 ,it is true that the 
,european nations are well represented  
among our agricultural population2 but  
for the most part they are not          

foreigners of the first generation4     
,they have assimilated the ,american    
spirit1 and become familiar with        
,american institutions4 ,the great flood
 of raw immigrants fresh from widely    
diverse nations stops in the large      
centers of population1 and does not     
reach the farm4  ,the prevailing spirit 
of democracy is still another influence 
favoring homogeneity in the rural       
community4 ,much less of social         
stratification exists in the country    
than in the city4 ,social planes are not
 so clearly defined nor so rigidly      
maintained4 ,financial prosperity is    
more likely to take the direction of    
larger barns and more acres than of     
social ostentation and exclusiveness4   
,america has no servile and ignorant    
peasantry4 ,the agricultural class      
constituting our rural population       
represents a high grade of natural      
intelligence and integrity4 ,great      
political and moral reforms find more   
favorable soil in the rural regions than

 in the cities4 ,the demagogue and the  
boss find farmers impossible to control 
to their selfish ends4 ,vagabonds and   
idlers are out of place among them4     
,they are a hard-headed1 capable1 and   
industrious class4 ,as a rule1 ,american
 farmers are well-to-do1 not only       
earning a good living for their         
families1 but constantly extending their
 holdings4 ,their farms are increasingly
 well improved1 stocked1 and supplied   
with labor-saving and efficient         
machinery4 ,their land is constantly    
growing in value1 and at the same time  
yielding larger returns for the money   
and labor invested in it4  ,the standard
 of living is distinctly lower in farm  
homes than in town and city homes of the
 same financial status4 ,the house is   
generally comfortable1 but small4 ,it is
 behind the times in many easily        
accessible modern conveniences possessed
 by the great majority of city dwellers4
 ,the bath1 modern plumbing and heating1
 the refrigerator1 and other kindred    

appliances can be had in the country    
home as well as the city4 ,their lack is
 a matter of standards rather than of   
necessity4 ,they will be introduced into
 thousands of rural homes as soon as    
their need is realized4  ,the           
possibilities for making the rural home 
beautiful and attractive are unequaled  
in the city for any except the very     
rich4 ,it is not necessary that the     
farmhouse shall be crowded for space2   
its outlook and surroundings can be     
arranged to give it an sthetic quality  
wholly impossible in the ordinary city  
home4 ,that this is true is proved by   
many inexpensive farmhouses that are a  
delight to the eye4 ,on the other hand1 
it must be admitted that a large        
proportion of farmhouses are lacking in 
both architectural attractiveness and   
environmental effect4 ,not infrequently 
the barns and sheds are so placed as to 
crowd the house into the background1 and
 the yards for stock allowed to infringe
 upon the domain of the garden and the  

lawn4 ,all this can be easily remedied  
and will be when the sthetic taste of   
the dwellers on the farm comes to be    
offended by the incongruous and ugly4   
,no stinting in the abundance of food is
 known on the farm4 ,the farmer supplies
 the tables of the world1 and can       
himself live off the fat of the land4   
,grains1 vegetables1 meats1 eggs1       
butter1 milk1 and fruits are his stock  
in trade4 ,if there is any lack in the  
farmer's table1 it is due to            
carelessness in providing or preparing  
the food1 and not to forced economy4    
,while the farming population in general
 live well1 yet many tables are lacking 
in variety1 especially in fruit and     
vegetables4 ,time and interest are so   
taken up with the larger affairs of     
crops and stock1 that the garden goes by
 default in many instances4 ,there is no
 market readily at hand offering fruit  
and vegetables for sale as in the city1 
and hence the farm table loses in       
attractiveness to the appetite and in   

hygienic excellence4 ,it is probable    
that the prosperous city workman sits   
down to a better table than does the    
farmer1 in spite of the great advantage 
possessed by the latter4  ,the          
population of rural communities is      
necessarily scattering4 ,the nature of  
farming renders it impossible for people
 to herd together as is the case in many
 other industries4 ,this has its good   
side1 but also its bad4 ,there are no   
rural slums for the breeding of poverty 
and crime2 but on the other hand1 there 
is an isolation and monotony that tend  
to become deadening in their effects on 
the individual4 ,stress and over-strain 
does not all come from excitement and   
the rush of competition2 it may equally 
well originate in lack of variety and   
unrelieved routine4 ,how true this is is
 seen in the fact that insanity1 caused 
in this instance chiefly by the stress  
of monotony1 prevails among the farming 
people of frontier communities out of   
all proportion to the normal ratio4     

,farming is naturally the most healthful
 of the industrial occupations4 ,the    
work is for the greater part done in the
 open air and sunshine1 and possesses   
sufficient variety to be interesting4   
,the rural population constitutes the   
high vitality class of the nation1 and  
must be constantly drawn upon to supply 
the brain1 brawn1 and nerve for the work
 of the city4 ,the farmer is1 on the    
whole1 prosperous2 he is therefore      
hopeful and cheerful1 and labors in good
 spirit4 ,that so many farmers and      
farmers' wives break down or age        
prematurely is due1 not to the inherent 
nature of their work1 but to a lack of  
balance in the life of the farm4 ,it is 
not so much the work that kills1 as the 
continuity of the work unrelieved by    
periods of rest and recreation4 ,with   
the opportunities highly favorable for  
the best type of healthful living1 no   
inconsiderable proportion of our        
agricultural population are shortening  
their lives and lowering their          

efficiency by unnecessary over-strain   
and failure to conform to the most      
fundamental and elementary laws of      
hygienic living1 especially with        
reference to the relief from labor that 
comes through change and recreation4    
,the rural community affords few        
opportunities for social recreations and
 amusements4 ,not only are the people   
widely separated from each other by     
distance1 but the work of the farm is   
exacting1 and often requires all the    
hours of the day not demanded for sleep4
 ,while the city offers many            
opportunities for choice of recreation  
or amusement1 the country affords almost
 none4 ,the city worker has his         
evenings1 usually ,saturday afternoon1  
and all day ,sunday free to use as he   
chooses4 ,such is not the case on the   
farm2 for after the day in the field the
 chores must be done1 and the stock     
cared for4 ,and even on ,sunday1 the    
routine must be carried out4 ,the work  
of the farm has a tendency1 therefore1  

to become much of a grind1 and certainly
 will become so unless some limit is set
 to the exactions of farm labor on the  
time and strength of the worker4 ,it    
separates the individual from his       
fellows in the greater part of the farm 
work and gives him little opportunity   
for social recreations or play4  ,one of
 the best evidences that the conditions 
of life and work on the farm need to be 
improved is the number of people who are
 leaving the farm for the city4 ,this   
movement has been especially rapid      
during the last thirty years of our     
history1 and has continued until        
approximately one half our people now   
live in towns or cities4 ,not only is   
this loss of agricultural population    
serious to farming itself1 creating a   
shortage of labor for the work of the   
farm1 but it results in crowding other  
occupations already too full4 ,there is 
no doubt that we have too many lawyers1 
doctors1 merchants1 clerks1 and the like
 for the number of workers engaged in   

fundamental productive vocations4       
,smaller farms1 cultivated intensively1 
would be a great economic advantage to  
the country1 and would take care of a   
far larger proportion of our people than
 are now engaged in agriculture4  ,all  
students of social affairs agree that   
the movement of our people to towns and 
cities should be checked and the tide   
turned the other way4 ,so important is  
the matter considered that a concerted  
national movement has recently been     
undertaken to study the conditions of   
rural life with a view to making it more
 attractive and so stopping the drain to
 the city4  ,middle-aged farmers move to
 the town or city for two principal     
reasons3 to educate their children and  
to escape from the monotony of rural    
life4 ,young people desert the farm for 
the city for a variety of reasons1      
prominent among which are a desire for  
better education1 escape from the       
monotony and grind of the farm life1 and
 the opportunity for the social         

advantages and recreations of the city4 
,that the retired farmer is usually     
disappointed and unhappy in his town    
home1 and that the youth often finds the
 glamour of the city soon to fade1 is   
true4 ,but this does not solve the      
problem4 ,the flux to the town or city  
still goes on1 and will continue to do  
so until the natural desire for social  
and intellectual opportunities and for  
recreation and amusement is adequately  
met in rural life4  ,farming as an      
industry has already felt the effects of
 a new interest in rural life4 ,probably
 no other industrial occupation has     
undergone such rapid changes within the 
last generation as has agriculture4 ,the
 rapid advance in the value of land1 the
 introduction of new forms of farm      
machinery1 and above all the application
 of science to the raising of crops and 
stock1 have almost reconstructed the    
work of the farm within a decade4       
,special corn trains and dairy trains   
have traversed nearly every county in   

many ,states1 teaching the farmers      
scientific methods4 ,lecturers on       
scientific agriculture have found their 
way into many communities4 ,the ,federal
 ,government has encouraged in every way
 the spread of information and the      
development of enthusiasm in            
agriculture4 ,the agricultural schools  
have given courses of instruction during
 the winter to farmers4 ,farmers'       
institutes have been organized2         
corn-judging and stock-judging contests 
have been held2 prizes have been offered
 for the best results in the raising of 
grains1 vegetables1 or stock4 ,new      
varieties of grains have been           
introduced1 improved methods of         
cultivation discovered1 and means of    
enriching and conserving the soil       
devised4 ,stock-breeding and the care of
 animals is rapidly becoming a science4 
,farming bids fair soon to become one of
 the skilled occupations4  ,such1 then1 
is a brief view of the situation of     
which the rural school is a part4 ,it   

ministers to the education of almost    
half of the ,american people4 ,this     
industrial group are engaged in the most
 fundamental of all occupations1 the one
 upon which all national welfare and    
progress depend4 ,they control a large  
part of the wealth of the country1 the  
capital invested in agriculture being   
more than double that invested in       
manufactures4 ,agricultural wealth is   
rapidly increasing1 both through the    
rise in the value of land and through   
improved methods of farming4 ,the       
conditions of life on the farm have     
greatly improved during the last decade4
 ,rural telephones reach almost every   
home2 free mail delivery is being       
rapidly extended in almost every section
 of the country2 the automobile is      
coming to be a part of the equipment of 
many farms2 and the trolley is rapidly  
pushing out along the country roads4    
,yet1 in spite of these hopeful         
tendencies1 the rural community shows   
signs of deterioration in many places4  

,rural population is steadily decreasing
 in proportion to the total aggregate of
 population4 ,interest in education is  
at a low ebb1 the farm children having  
educational opportunities below those of
 any other class of our people4 ,for1   
while town and city schools have been   
improving until they show a high type of
 efficiency1 the rural school has barely
 held its own1 or has1 in many places1  
even gone backward4 ,the rural community
 confronts a puzzling problem which is  
still far from solution4  ,certain      
points of attack upon this problem are1 
however1 perfectly clear and obvious4   
,first1 educational facilities must be  
improved for rural children1 and their  
education be better adapted to farm     
life2 second1 greater opportunities must
 be provided for recreation and social  
intercourse for both young and old2     
third1 the program of farm work must be 
arranged to allow reasonable time for   
rest and recreation2 fourth1 books1     
pictures1 lectures1 concerts1 and       

entertainments must be as accessible to 
the farm as to the town4 ,these         
conditions must be met1 not because of  
the dictum of any person1 but because   
they are a fundamental demand of human  
nature1 and must be reckoned with4      
,what1 then1 is the relation of the     
rural school to these problems of the   
rural community8 ,how can it be a factor
 in their solution8 ,what are its       
opportunities and responsibilities8     
,the adjustment of the rural school to  
its problem  ,as has been already       
stated1 the problem of any type of      
school is to serve its constituency4    
,this is to be done through relating the
 curriculum1 the organization1 and the  
teaching of the school to the immediate 
interests and needs of the people       
dependent on the school for their       
education4 ,that the rural school has   
not yet fully adjusted itself to its    
problem need hardly be argued4  ,it has 
as good material to work upon in the    
boys and girls from the farm as any type

 of schools in the country4 ,they come  
of good stock2 they are healthy and     
vigorous2 and they are early trained to 
serious work and responsibility4 ,yet a 
very large proportion of these children 
possess hardly the rudiments of an      
education when they quit the rural      
school4 ,many of them go to school for  
only a few months in the year1          
compulsory education laws either being  
laxly enforced or else altogether       
lacking4 ,a very small percentage of the
 children of the farm ever complete     
eight grades of schooling1 and not a    
large proportion finish more than half  
of this amount4  ,this leaves the child 
who has to depend on the rural school   
greatly handicapped in education4 ,he   
has but a doubtful proficiency in the   
mechanics of reading1 and has read but  
little4 ,he knows the elements of       
spelling1 writing1 and number1 but has  
small skill in any of them4 ,he knows   
little of history or literature1 less of
 music1 nothing of art1 and has but a   

superficial smattering of science4 ,of  
matters relating to his life and        
activities on the farm he has heard     
almost nothing4 ,the rural child is not 
illiterate1 but he is too close to the  
border of illiteracy for the demands of 
a twentieth-century civilization2 it is 
fair neither to the child nor to        
society4  ,the rural school seems in    
some way relatively to have lost ground 
in our educational system4 ,the grades  
of the town school have felt the        
stimulus of the high school for which   
they are preparing1 and have had the    
care and supervision of competent       
administrators4 ,the rural school is    
isolated and detached1 and has had no   
adequate administrative system to care  
for its interests4 ,no wonder1 then1    
that certain grave faults in adjustment 
have grown up4 ,a few of the most       
obvious of these faults may next claim  
our attention4  ,the rural school is    
inadequate in its scope4 ,the children  
of the farm have as much need for       

education and as much right to it as    
those who live in towns and cities4 ,yet
 the rural school as a rule never       
attempts to offer more than the eight   
grades of the elementary curriculum1 and
 seldom reaches this amount4 ,it not    
infrequently happens that no pupils are 
in attendance beyond the fifth or the   
sixth grade4 ,this may be due either to 
the small number of children in the     
district1 or1 more often1 to lack of    
interest to continue in school beyond   
the simplest elements of reading1       
writing1 and number4 ,it is true that   
certain ,states1 such as ,illinois and  
,wisconsin1 have established a system of
 township high schools1 where secondary 
education equal to that to be had in the
 cities is available to rural children4 
,in other ,states a county high school  
is maintained for the benefit of rural  
school graduates4 ,in still others1     
arrangements are made by which those who
 complete the eight grades of rural     
schools are received into the town high 

schools with the tuition paid by the    
rural school districts4 ,the movement   
toward secondary education supplied by  
the rural community for its children is 
yet in its infancy1 however1 and has    
hardly touched the larger problem of    
affording adequate opportunities for the
 education of farm children4  ,the      
grading and organization of the rural   
school is haphazard and faulty4 ,this is
 partly because of the small enrollment 
and irregular attendance1 and partly    
because of the inexperience and lack of 
supervision of the teacher4 ,children   
are often found pursuing studies in     
three or four different grades at the   
same time4 ,and even more often they    
omit altogether certain fundamental     
studies because they or their parents   
have a notion that these studies are    
unnecessary4 ,sometimes1 owing to the   
small number in attendance1 or to the   
poor classification1 several grades are 
entirely lacking1 or else they are      
maintained for only one or two pupils4  

,on the other hand1 classes are often   
found following each other at an        
interval of only a few weeks1 thereby   
multiplying classes until the teacher is
 frequently attempting the impossible   
task of teaching twenty-five or thirty  
classes a day4 ,children differing in   
age by five or six years1 and possessing
 corresponding degrees of ability1 are  
often found reciting in the same        
classes4 ,that efficient work is        
impossible under these conditions is too
 obvious to require discussion4  ,the   
rural schools possess inadequate        
buildings and equipment4 ,the average   
rural schoolhouse consists of one room1 
with perhaps a small hallway4 ,the      
building is constructed without         
reference to architectural effect1      
resembling nothing so much as a large   
box with a roof on it4 ,it is barren and
 uninviting as to its interior4 ,the    
walls are often of lumber painted some  
dull color1 and dingy through years of  
use4 ,the windows are frequently dirty1 

and covered only by worn and tattered   
shades4 ,there is usually no attempt to 
decorate the room with pictures1 or to  
relieve its ugliness and monotony in any
 way4 ,the library consists of a few    
dozens of volumes1 not always supplied  
with a case for their protection4 ,of   
apparatus there is almost none4 ,the    
work of the farm is done with efficient 
modern equipment1 the work of the       
farmer's school with inadequate and     
antiquated equipment4  ,while the length
 of the school year is increasing in the
 rural districts1 the term is yet much  
shorter than in town and city schools4  
,many communities have not more than six
 months of school1 and few more than    
eight4 ,this shortage is rendered all   
the more serious by the irregular       
attendance of the rural school children4
 ,a considerable amount of absence on   
the part of the younger ones is         
unavoidable under present conditions    
when the distance is great and the      
weather bad4 ,after all allowance is    

made for this fact1 however1 there is   
still an immense amount of unnecessary  
waste of time through non-attendance4   
,many rural schools show an average     
attendance for the year of not more than
 sixty per cent of the enrollment4      
,going to school is not yet considered a
 serious business by many of the rural  
patrons1 and truant officers are not so 
easily available in the country as in   
the city4  ,in financial support the    
rural school has of necessity been      
behind the city school4 ,wealth is not  
piled up on a small area in agricultural
 communities as is the case in the city4
 ,it would often require square miles of
 land to equal in value certain city    
blocks4 ,but making full allowance for  
this difference1 the farmers have not   
supported their schools as well as is   
done by the patrons of town and city    
schools4 ,the school taxes for rural    
districts are much lower than in city   
districts1 in most instances not more   
than half as high4 ,it is this          

conservatism in expenditure that is     
responsible for many of the defects in  
the rural school1 and particularly for  
the relatively inefficient teaching that
 is done4 ,the rural teachers are the   
least educated1 the least experienced1  
and the most poorly paid of any class of
 our teachers4 ,they consist almost     
wholly of girls1 a large proportion of  
whom are under twenty years of age1 and 
who continue teaching not more than a   
year or two4 ,not only is this the case1
 but effective supervision of the       
teaching is wholly impossible because of
 the large area assigned to the county  
or district superintendent of rural     
schools4 ,in no great industrial project
 should we think of placing our youngest
 and most inexperienced workers in the  
hardest and most important positions1   
and this without supervision of their   
work4  ,the rural school has not1       
therefore1 yet been adjusted to its     
problem4 ,it has a splendid field of    
work1 but is not developing it4 ,our    

farming population have capacity for    
education and need it1 but they are not 
securing it4 ,there is plenty of money  
available for the support of the rural  
school1 but the school is not getting   
it4 ,enough well-equipped teachers can  
be had for the rural schools1 but the   
standards have not yet required adequate
 preparation1 nor the pay been          
sufficient to warrant extensive         
expenditure for it4  ,in the rural      
school is found the most important and  
puzzling educational problem of the     
present day4 ,if our agricultural       
population are not to fall behind other 
favored classes of industrial workers in
 intelligence and preparation for the   
activities that are to engage them1 the 
rural school must begin working out a   
better adjustment to its problem4 ,its  
curriculum must be broader and richer1  
and more closely related to the life and
 interests of the farm4 ,the            
organization of the school1 both on the 
intellectual and the social side1 must  

bring it more closely into touch with   
the interests and needs of the rural    
community4 ,the support and             
administration of rural education must  
be improved4 ,teachers for the rural    
schools must be better educated and     
better paid1 and their teaching must be 
correspondingly more efficient4 ,the    
following pages will be given to a      
discussion of these problems of         
adjustment4     ,,ii  ,,the ,,social    
,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,rural       
,,school   ,every school possesses two  
types of organization3 7#a7 an          
intellectual organization involving the 
selection and arrangement of a          
curriculum1 and its presentation through
 instruction2 and 7#b7 a social         
organization involving1 on the one hand1
 the inter-relations of the school and  
the community1 and on the other the     
relations of the pupils with each other 
and the teacher4   ,the rural school and
 the community  ,the rural school and   
community are not at present in vital   

touch with each other4 ,the community is
 not getting enough from the school     
toward making life larger1 happier1 and 
more efficient2 it is not giving enough 
to the school either in helpful         
coperation or financial support4  ,in   
general1 it must be said that most of   
our rural people1 the patrons of the    
rural school1 have not yet conceived    
education broadly4 ,they think of the   
school as having fulfilled its function 
when it has supplied the simplest       
rudiments of reading1 writing1 and      
number4 ,and1 naturally enough1 the     
rural school has conceived its function 
in the same narrow light2 for it is     
controlled very completely by its       
patrons1 and a stream cannot rise higher
 than its source4  ,because of its      
isolation1 the pressing insistence of   
its toil1 and the monotony of its       
environment1 the rural community is in  
constant danger of intellectual and     
social stagnation4 ,it has far more need
 that its school shall be a stimulating1

 organizing1 socializing force than has 
the town or city4 ,for the city has a   
dozen social centres entirely outside   
the school3 its public parks1 theatres1 
clubs1 churches1 and streets1 even1     
serve to stimulate1 entertain1 and      
educate4 ,but the rural community is    
wanting in all these social forces2 it  
is lacking in both intellectual and     
social stimulus and variety4  ,one of   
the most pressing needs of country      
districts is a common neighborhood      
center for both young and old1 which    
shall stand as an organizing1 welding1  
vitalizing force1 uniting the community 
on a basis of common interests and      
activities4 ,for while1 as we have seen1
 the rural population as a whole are    
markedly homogeneous1 there is after all
 but little of common acquaintanceship  
and mingling among them4 ,thousands of  
rural families live lives of almost     
complete social isolation and lack of   
contact with neighbors4  ,this condition
 is one of the gravest drawbacks to farm

 life4 ,the social impulse and the      
natural desire for recreation and       
amusement are as strong in country boys 
and girls as in their city cousins1 yet 
the country offers young people few     
opportunities for satisfying these      
impulses and desires4 ,the normal social
 tendencies of youth are altogether too 
strong to be crushed out by repression2 
they are too valuable to be neglected2  
and they are too dangerous to be left to
 take their own course wholly unguided4 
,the rural community can never hope to  
hold its boys and girls permanently to  
the life of the farm until it has       
recognized the necessity for providing  
for the expression and development of   
the spontaneous social impulses of      
youth4  ,furthermore1 the social        
monotony and lack of variety of the     
rural community is a grave moral danger 
to its young people4 ,it is a common    
impression that the great city is strewn
 thick with snares and pitfalls         
threatening to morals1 but that the     

country is free from such temptations4  
,the public dance halls and cheap       
theaters of the city are beyond doubt a 
great and constant menace to youthful   
ideals and purity4 ,but the country1    
going to the opposite extreme1 with its 
almost utter lack of recreation and     
amusement places1 offers temptations no 
less insidious and fatal4  ,the great   
difficulty at this point is that young  
people in rural communities are thrown  
together almost wholly in isolated pairs
 instead of in social groups2 and that  
there are no objective resources of     
amusement or entertainment to claim     
their interest and attention away from  
themselves4 ,they are freed from all    
chaperonage and the restraints of the   
conventions obtaining in social groups  
at the very time in their lives when    
these are most needed as steadying and  
controlling forces4 ,the result is that 
the country districts1 which ought to be
 of all places in the world the freest  
from temptation and peril to the morals 

of our young people1 are really more    
dangerous than the cities4 ,the sequel  
is found in the fact that a larger      
proportion of country girls than of city
 girls go astray4 ,nor is the rural     
community more successful in the morals 
of its boys than its girls4 ,in other   
words1 the lack of opportunities for    
free and normal social experience1 the  
consequent ignorance of social          
conventions1 and the absence of         
healthful amusement and recreation1 make
 the rural community a most unsafe place
 in which to rear a family4  ,but the   
necessity for social recreation and     
amusement does not apply to the young   
people alone4 ,their fathers and mothers
 are suffering from the same            
limitations1 though of course with      
entirely different results4 ,the danger 
here is that of premature aging and     
stagnation4 ,while the toil of the city 
worker is relieved by change and        
variety1 his mind rested and his mood   
enlivened by the stimulus from many     

lines of diversion1 the lives of the    
dwellers on the farm are constantly     
threatened by a deadly sameness and     
monotony4  ,the indisputable tendency of
 farmers and their wives to age so      
rapidly1 and so early to fall into the  
ranks of fogyism1 is due far more to    
lack of variety and recreation and to   
dearth of intellectual stimulus than to 
hard labor1 severe as this often is4    
,age is more than the flight of the     
years1 the stoop of the form1 or the    
hardening of the arteries2 it is also   
the atrophy of the intellect and the    
fading away of the emotions resulting   
from disuse4 ,the farmer needs          
occasionally to have something more     
exciting than the alternation of the    
day's work with the nightly chores4 ,and
 his wife should now and then have an   
opportunity to meet people other than   
those for whom she cooks and sews4  ,but
 what has all this to do with the social
 organization of the rural school8      
,much4 ,the country cannot have its     

theaters1 parks1 and crowded            
thoroughfares like the city4 ,but it    
needs and must have some social center1 
where its people may assemble for       
recreation1 entertainment1 and          
intellectual growth and development4    
,and what is more natural and feasible  
than that the public school should be   
this center8 ,here is an institution    
already belonging to the whole people1  
and set apart for the intellectual      
training of the young4 ,why should it   
not also be made to minister to the     
intellectual needs of their elders as   
well1 and to the social needs of all8   
,why should not the public school       
building1 now in use but six hours a day
 for little more than half the year1 be 
open at all times when it can be helpful
 to any portion of the community8  ,if  
young people are to develop naturally1  
if they are to make full use of their   
social as well as their intellectual    
powers1 if they are to be satisfied with
 their surroundings1 they must be       

provided with suitable opportunities for
 social mingling and recreation in      
groups4 ,this is nature's way2 there is 
no other way4 ,the school might and     
should afford this opportunity4 ,there  
is not the least reason why the school  
building1 when it is adapted to this    
purpose1 should not be the common       
neighborhood meeting place for all sorts
 of young people's parties1 picnics1    
entertainments1 athletic contests1 and  
every other form of amusement approved  
in the community4  ,such a use of the   
school property would yield large       
returns to the community for the small  
additional expense required4 ,it would  
serve to weld the school and community  
more closely together4 ,it would vastly 
change the attitude of the young toward 
the school4 ,it would save much of the  
dissatisfaction of young people with the
 life of the farm4 ,it would prove a    
great safeguard to youthful morals4 ,it 
would lead the community itself to a new
 sense of its duty toward the social    

life of the young1 and to a new concept 
of the school as a part of the community
 organization4 ,finally1 this broadened 
service of the school to its community  
would have a reflex influence on the    
school itself1 vitalizing every         
department of its activities1 and giving
 it a new vision of its opportunities4  
,the first obstacle that will appear in 
the way of such a plan is the inadequacy
 of the present type of country         
schoolhouse4 ,and this is a serious     
matter2 for the barren1 squalid little  
building of the present day would never 
fit into such a project4 ,but this type 
of schoolhouse must go--is going4 ,it is
 a hundred years behind our             
civilization1 and wholly inadequate to  
present needs4 ,passing for later       
discussion the method by which these    
buildings are to be supplanted by better
 ones1 let us consider further the      
details of the plan of making the school
 the neighborhood center4  ,first of    
all1 each school must supply a larger   

area and a greater number of people than
 at present4 ,it is financially         
impossible to erect good buildings to   
the number of our present schools4 ,nor 
are there pupils enough in the small    
district as now organized to make a     
school1 nor people enough successfully  
to use the school as a neighborhood     
center4  ,let each township1 or perhaps 
somewhat smaller area1 select a central1
 well-adapted site and thereon erect a  
modern1 well-equipped school building4  
,but this building must not be just the 
traditional schoolhouse with its        
classrooms and rows of desks4 ,for it is
 to be more than a place where the      
children will study and recite lessons  
from books2 it is to be the place where 
all the people of the neighborhood1 old 
and young1 will assemble for            
entertainment1 amusement1 and           
instruction4 ,here will be held         
community picnics1 social               
entertainments1 young people's parties1 
lectures1 concerts1 debating contests1  

agricultural courses for the farmers1   
school programs1 spreads and banquets1  
and whatever else may belong to the     
common social and intellectual life of  
the community4  ,the modern rural school
 building will therefore be home-like as
 well as school-like4 ,in addition to   
its classrooms it will contain an       
assembly room capable of seating several
 hundred people4 ,the seating of this   
room may be removable so that the floor 
can be cleared for social purposes or   
the room used for a dining-room4 ,one or
 two smaller rooms will be needed for   
social functions1 club and committee    
meetings4 ,these rooms should be made   
attractive with good furniture1 rugs1   
couches1 and pictures4 ,the building    
will contain well-equipped laboratories 
for manual training and domestic        
science1 the latter of which will be    
found serviceable in connection with    
serving picnics1 spreads1 and the like4 
,the entire building should be          
architecturally attractive1 well heated 

and ventilated1 commodious1 well        
furnished1 and decorated with good      
pictures4 ,in it should be housed a     
library containing several thousand     
well-selected books1 besides magazines  
and newspapers4 ,the laboratories and   
equipment should be fully equal to those
 found in the town schools1 but should  
be adapted to the work of the rural     
school4  ,the grounds surrounding the   
rural school building can easily be     
ample in area1 and beautiful in outlook 
and decoration4 ,here will be the       
neighborhood athletic grounds for both  
boys and girls1 shade trees for picnics1
 flowers and shrubs1 and ground enough  
for a school garden connected with the  
instruction in agriculture4 ,nor is it  
too much to believe that the district   
will in the future erect on the school  
grounds a cottage for the principal of  
the school and his family1 and thus     
offer an additional inducement for      
strong1 able men to devote their        
energies to education in the rural      

communities4  ,now contrast this        
schoolhouse and equipment with the      
typical rural building of the present4  
,adjoining a prosperous farm1 with its  
large house1 its accompanying barns1    
silos1 machine houses1 and all the      
equipment necessary to modern farming1  
is the little schoolhouse4 ,it is a     
dilapidated shell of a rectangular box1 
barren of every vestige of beauty or    
attractiveness both inside and out4 ,at 
the rear are two outbuildings which are 
an offense to decency and a menace to   
morals4 ,within the schoolhouse the     
painted walls are dingy with smoke and  
grime4 ,the windows are broken and      
dirty1 no pictures adorn the walls4 ,the
 floor is washed but once or twice a    
year4 ,the room is heated by an ugly box
 of a stove1 and ventilated only by     
means of windows which frequently are   
nailed shut4 ,the grounds present a     
wilderness of weeds1 rubbish1 and piles 
of ashes4 ,it is all an outrage against 
the rights of the country child1 and an 

indictment of the intelligence and      
ideals of a large proportion of our     
people4  ,if it is said that the plan   
proposed to remedy this situation is    
revolutionary1 it will be admitted4     
,what our rural schools of to-day need  
is not improvement but reorganization4  
,for only in this radical way can they  
be made a factor in the vitalizing and  
conserving of the rural community which1
 unless some new leaven is introduced1  
is surely destined to disorganization   
and decay4   ,the consolidation of rural
 schools  ,the first step in            
reorganizing the rural schools is       
consolidation4 ,our rural school        
organization1 buildings1 and equipment  
are a full century behind our industrial
 and social advancement4 ,the present   
plan of attempting to run a school on   
approximately every four square miles of
 territory originated at a time of      
poverty1 and when the manufacturing     
industries were all carried on in the   
homes and small shops4 ,our rural people

 are now well-to-do1 and manufacturing  
has moved over into a well-organized set
 of factories2 but the isolated little  
school1 shamefully housed1 meagerly     
equipped1 poorly attended1 and          
unskillfully taught1 still remains4     
,such a system of schools leaves our    
rural people educationally on a par with
 the days of cradling the grain and     
threshing it with a flail2 of planting  
corn by hand and cultivating it with a  
hoe2 of lighting the house with a tallow
 dip1 and traveling by stage-coach4     
,the well-meant attempts to improve the 
rural school as now organized are       
futile4 ,the proposal to solve the      
problem by raising the standards for    
teachers1 desirable as this is2 by the  
raising of salaries2 or by bettering the
 type of the little schoolhouse1 are at 
best but temporary makeshifts1 and do   
not touch the root of the problem4 ,the 
first and most fundamental step is to   
eliminate the little shacks of houses   
that dot our prairies every two miles   

along the country roads4  ,for not only 
is it impossible to supply adequate     
buildings so near together1 but it is   
even more impossible to find children   
enough to constitute a real school in   
such small districts4 ,there is no way  
of securing a full head of interest and 
enthusiasm with from five to ten or     
twelve pupils in a school4 ,the classes 
are too small and the number of children
 too limited to permit the organization 
of proper games and plays1 or a         
reasonable variety of association       
through mingling together4              
,furthermore1 it will never be possible 
to pay adequate salaries to the teachers
 in these small schools4 ,nor will any  
ambitious and well-prepared teacher be  
willing to remain in such a position1   
where he is obliged to invest his time  
and influence with so few pupils1 and   
where all conditions are so adverse4    
,the chief barrier to the centralization
 of rural education has been local      
prejudice and pride4 ,in many cases a   

true sentimental value has attached to  
the little red schoolhouse4 ,its praises
 have been sung1 and orator and writer  
have expanded upon the glories of our   
common schools1 until it is no wonder   
that their pitiful inadequacy has been  
overlooked by many of their patrons4    
,in other cases opposition has arisen to
 giving up the small local school       
because of the selfish fear that the    
loss of the school would lower the value
 of adjacent property4 ,still others    
have feared that consolidation would    
mean higher school taxes1 and have      
opposed it upon this ground4  ,but      
whatever the causes of the opposition to
 consolidation1 this opposition must    
cease before the rural school can       
fulfill its function and before the     
rural child can have educational        
opportunities even approximating those  
given the town child4 ,and until this is
 accomplished1 the exodus from the farm 
will continue and ought to continue4    
,pride1 prejudice1 and penury must not  

be allowed to deprive the farm boys and 
girls of their right to education and   
normal development4  ,the movement      
toward consolidation of rural schools   
and transportation of the children to a 
central school has already attained     
considerable headway in many regions of 
the country4#a ,it is now a part of the 
rural school system in thirty-two       
,states4 ,massachusetts1 the leader in  
consolidation1 began in #ahfi4 ,the     
movement at first grew slowly in all the
 ,states1 not only having local         
opposition to overcome1 but also meeting
 the problem of bad country roads       
interfering with the transportation of  
pupils4  ,during the past half-dozen    
years1 however1 consolidation has been  
gaining headway1 and is now going on at 
least five times as fast as the average 
for the twenty-five years preceding     
#aijf4 ,indiana is at present the banner
 ,state in the rapidity of              
consolidation1 the expenditure for      
conveyance having considerably more than

 trebled since #aijd4 ,the broad and    
general sweep of the movement1 together 
with the fact that it is practically    
unheard of for schools that have once   
tried consolidation to go back to the   
old system1 seems to indicate that the  
rural education of the not distant      
future will1 except in a few regions1 be
 carried on in consolidated schools4    
,the relative cost of maintaining       
district and consolidated schools is an 
important factor4 ,yet this factor must 
not be given undue prominence4 ,it is   
true that the cost of education must be 
kept at a reasonable ratio with the     
standard of living of a community4 ,but 
it is also true that the consolidated   
rural school must be looked upon as an  
indispensable country-life institution1 
and hence as having claim to a more     
generous basis of support than that     
accorded the district school4  ,while it
 is impossible1 owing to such widely    
varying conditions1 to make an          
absolutely exact statement of the       

relative expense of the two types of    
schools1 yet it has been shown in many  
different instances that the cost of    
schooling per day in consolidated       
schools is but slightly1 if any1 above  
that in most district schools4  ,the    
aggregate annual cost is usually        
somewhat higher in the consolidated     
schools1 owing to the fact of a greatly 
increased attendance4 ,a comparison made
 between the cost per day's schooling in
 the smaller district schools and       
consolidated schools almost invariably  
shows a lower expenditure for the       
latter4 ,for example1 the fifteen       
districts in ,hardin ,county1 ,iowa1    
having in #aijh an enrollment of nine or
 less1 averaged a cost of #bg4e cents a 
day for each pupil4#b ,at the same time 
the cost per day in the consolidated    
rural schools of northeastern ,ohio was 
only #ag4d cents a day1 the district    
schools being more than fifty-seven per 
cent higher than the consolidated4      
,similar comparisons show the same trend

 in many other localities4 ,in a great  
many of the small district schools the  
cost per pupil is as high as in         
consolidated schools where a high school
 course is also provided4 ,it has been  
found that the average cost per year of 
schooling a child in a consolidated     
school is but little above thirty       
dollars1 while in practically all       
smaller district schools it far exceeds 
this amount1 not infrequently going     
above fifty dollars4 ,this means that   
average rural districts that are putting
 at least thirty dollars a year into the
 schooling of each child can1 by        
consolidating their schools1 secure     
greatly improved educational facilities 
with no heavier financial burden4  ,not 
the least important of the advantages   
growing out of rural school             
consolidation is the improved           
attendance4 ,experience has shown that  
fully twenty-five per cent more children
 of school age are enrolled under the   
consolidated than under the district    

system4 ,the advantage of this one      
factor alone can hardly be              
over-estimated1 but the increase in     
regularity of attendance is also as     
great4 ,the average daily attendance of 
rural schools throughout the country is 
approximately sixty per cent of the     
enrollment1 and in entire ,states falls 
below fifty per cent4 ,it has been found
 that consolidation1 with its attendant 
conveyance of pupils1 commonly increases
 the average daily attendance by as much
 as twenty-five per cent4  ,it is true  
that in many regions it may at present  
prove impossible to consolidate all the 
rural schools4 ,in places where the     
population is so sparse as to require   
transportation for very long distances1 
or where the country roads are still in 
such a condition in wet seasons as to be
 practically impassable1 consolidation  
must of necessity be delayed4 ,in such  
communities1 however1 the rural school  
need not be completely at a standstill4 
,much can be done to make even the      

one-room schoolhouse attractive and     
hygienic4 ,with almost no expense1 the  
grounds can be set with shade trees1    
shrubs1 and perennial flowering plants4 
,the yard can be made into a lawn in    
front1 and into an athletic ground at   
the sides or the rear4 ,enough ground   
can be added to provide for all these   
things1 and a school garden besides4    
,the building can be rendered more      
inviting through better architecture1   
and more attention to decoration and    
cleanliness4 ,an adequate supply of     
books and other equipment can be        
provided4 ,while the isolated rural     
school can never take the place of the  
consolidated school1 while it should    
always be looked upon as only           
temporarily occupying a place later to  
be filled by a more efficient type of   
school1 it can after all be rendered    
much more efficient than it is at       
present4 ,and since the one-room school 
will without doubt for years to come be 
required as a supplement of the         

consolidated school1 it should receive  
the same careful thought and effort     
toward its improvement that is being    
accorded the school of better type4     
,financial support of the rural school  
,the rural school has never had adequate
 financial support4 ,there has been good
 reason for this in many regions of the 
country where farm property was low in  
value1 the land sparsely settled and not
 all improved1 or else covered by heavy 
mortgages4 ,as these conditions have    
gradually disappeared and the           
agricultural population become more     
prosperous1 the school has in some      
degree shared the general prosperity4   
,but not fully4 ,a smaller proportion of
 the margin of wealth above living      
necessities is going into rural         
education now than in the earlier days  
of less prosperity4 ,while the farmer   
has vastly improved his farm1 he has    
improved his school but little4 ,while  
he has been adding modern machinery and 
adopting scientific methods in caring   

for his grain and stock1 his children   
have not had the advantage of an        
increasingly efficient school4  ,the    
poverty of the rural school finds its   
explanation in two facts3 7#a7 the      
relatively low value of the taxable     
property of the rural as compared with  
the town or city district1 and 7#b7 the 
lower rate of local school tax paid in  
country than in urban districts4 ,the   
first of these disadvantages of the     
rural district cannot be remedied2 but  
for the second1 there seems to be no    
valid economic reason4  ,the approximate
 difference in the local school-tax rate
 paid in urban and rural districts is   
shown in the following instances1 which 
might be duplicated from other          
,states3--  ,in ,kansas1 the local      
school tax paid in #aiaj by towns and   
cities was above eighty per cent more   
than that paid by country districts4 ,in
 ,missouri1 the current report of the   
,state ,superintendent shows towns and  
cities seventy-five per cent higher than

 the country4 ,in ,minnesota1 towns and 
cities average nearly three times the   
rate paid by rural districts4 ,in ,ohio1
 towns and cities are more than ten per 
cent higher than rural districts1 even  
where the rural district maintains a    
full elementary and high school course4 
,in ,nebraska and ,iowa1 the town and   
city rate is about double that of       
country districts4  ,when there is added
 to this difference the further fact    
that town and city property is commonly 
assessed at more nearly its full value  
than rural property1 the discrepancy    
becomes all the greater4  ,it is not    
meant1 of course1 that farmers should   
pay as high a school-tax rate for the   
elementary rural school as that paid by 
town patrons who also have a high school
 available4 ,but1 on the other hand1 if 
better school facilities are to be      
furnished the country children1 rural   
property should bear its full share of  
the taxes required4 ,the farmer should  
be willing to pay as much for the       

education of his child as the city      
dweller pays for a similar education for
 his4  ,during the last generation      
farmers have been increasing in wealth  
faster than any other class of          
industrial workers4 ,their land has     
doubled in value1 barns have been built1
 machinery has been added1 automobiles  
purchased1 and large bank credits       
established4 ,yet very little of this   
increased prosperity has reached the    
school4 ,library1 reference works1 maps1
 charts1 and other apparatus are usually
 lacking4 ,in ,iowa1 as a fair example1 
a sum of not less than ten nor more than
 fifteen cents a year for each pupil of 
school age in the district is required  
by law to be expended for library books4
 ,yet in not a few districts the law is 
a dead letter or the money grudgingly   
spent6 ,in many rural schools the       
teacher has to depend on the proceeds of
 a social1 an exhibition1 or a box party
 to secure a few dollars for books or   
pictures for the neighborhood school1   

and sometimes even buys brooms and dust 
pans from the fund secured in this way4 
,this is all wrong4 ,the school should  
be put on a business basis4 ,it should  
have the necessary tools with which to  
accomplish its work1 and not be forced  
to waste the time and opportunity of    
childhood for want of a few dollars     
expended for equipment4 ,its patrons    
should realize that just as it pays to  
supply factory1 shop1 or farm with the  
best of instruments for carrying on the 
work1 so it pays in the school4 ,cheap  
economy is always wasteful1 and never   
more wasteful than when it cripples the 
efficiency of education4  ,state aid for
 rural schools has been proposed and in 
some instances tried1 as a mode of      
solving their financial problem4 ,where 
this system has been given a fair trial1
 as for example in ,minnesota1 it has   
resulted in two great advantages3 7#a7  
it has encouraged the local community to
 freer expenditure of their own money   
for school purposes1 since the          

contribution of the ,state is           
conditioned on the amount expended by   
the district4 ,this is an important     
achievement1 since it serves to train   
the community to the idea of more       
liberal local taxation for school       
purposes1 and it is probable that the   
greater part of the support of our      
schools will continue to come from this 
source4 ,another advantage of state aid 
is 7#b7 that it serves to equalize      
educational opportunities1 and hence to 
maintain a true educational democracy4  
,wealthier localities are caused to     
contribute to the educational facilities
 of those less favored1 and a common    
advancement thereby secured4  ,while the
 theory of state aid to rural education 
is wholly defensible1 and while it has  
worked well in practice1 yet there is   
one safeguard that needs to be          
considered4 ,it is manifestly unfair to 
ask the people of towns and cities to   
help pay for the support of the rural   
schools through the medium of the ,state

 treasury except on condition that the  
patrons of the rural schools themselves 
do their fair share4 ,mr4 ,a1 living in 
a town where he pays twenty mills school
 tax1 ought not to be asked to help     
improve ,mr4 ,b's rural school1 while   
,mr4 ,b is himself paying but ten mills 
of school tax4 ,the farmer is as able as
 any one else to pay a fair rate of     
taxation for his school1 and should be  
willing to do so before asking for aid  
from other taxation sources4 ,rural     
education must not be placed on the     
basis of a missionary enterprise4 ,state
 aid should be used to compensate for   
the difference in the economic basis for
 taxation in different localities1 and  
not for a difference in the rates of    
taxation between localities equally able
 to pay the same rate4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,we may  
conclude1 then1 that while neither the  
rural school nor the community has been 
fully aware of the possibilities for    
mutual helpfulness and coperation1 yet  

there are many hopeful signs that both  
are awakening to a sense of             
responsibility4 ,federal and state      
commissions have been created to study  
the rural problem1 national and state   
teachers' associations are seeking a    
solution of the rural school question1  
and1 better still1 the patrons of the   
rural schools are in many places alive  
to the pressing need for better         
educational facilities for their        
children4  ,growing out of these        
influences and the faithful work of many
 state and county superintendents1 and  
not a few of the rural teachers         
themselves1 a spirit of progress is     
gaining headway4 ,several thousand      
consolidated schools are now rendering  
excellent service to their patrons and  
at the same time acting as a stimulus to
 other communities to follow their      
example4 ,state aid to rural education  
is no longer an experiment4 ,the people 
are in many localities voluntarily and  
gladly increasing their taxes in order  

that they may improve their schools4    
,teachers' salaries are being increased1
 better equipment provided1 and         
buildings rendered more habitable4  ,the
 great educational problem of the       
immediate future will be to encourage   
and guide the movement which is now     
getting under way4 ,for mistakes made   
now will handicap both community and    
school for years to come4 ,the attempt  
to secure better schools by improving   
conditions in local districts should be 
definitely abandoned except in          
localities where conditions make        
consolidation impracticable for the     
present4 ,the new consolidated school   
building should take definitely into    
account the fact that the school is to  
become the neighborhood social center1  
and the structure should be planned as  
much with this function in view as with 
its uses for school purposes4 ,the new  
type of rural school is not to aim      
simply to give a better intellectual    
training1 but is at the same time to    

relate this training to the conditions  
and needs of our agricultural           
population4 ,and all who have to do with
 the rural schools in any way are to    
seek to make the school a true          
vitalizing factor in the community--a   
leaven1 whose influence shall permeate  
every line of interest and activity of  
its patrons and lead to a fuller and    
richer life4   ,the rural school and its
 pupils  ,one of the surest tests of any
 school is the attitude of the          
pupils--the spirit of loyalty1          
coperation1 and devotion they manifest  
with reference to their education4 ,do  
they1 on the whole1 look upon the school
 as an opportunity or an imposition8 ,do
 they consider it their school1 and make
 its interests and welfare their        
concern1 or do they think of it as the  
teacher's school1 or the board's school 
or the district's school8 ,these        
questions are of supreme importance1 for
 the question of attitude1 quite as much
 as that of ability1 determines the use 

made of opportunity4  ,it must be       
admitted that throughout our entire     
school system there remains something to
 be desired in the spirit of coperation 
between pupils and schools4 ,the feeling
 of loyalty which the child has for his 
home does not extend commensurately to  
the school4 ,too often the school is    
looked upon as something forced upon the
 child1 for his welfare1 perhaps1 but   
after all not as forming an interesting 
and vital part of his present           
experience4 ,it is often rather a place 
where so much time and effort and       
inconvenience must be paid for so many  
grades and promotions1 and where1       
incidentally1 preparation is supposed to
 be made for some future demands very   
dimly conceived4 ,at best1 there is     
frequently a lack of feeling of full    
identity of interests between the child 
and the school4  ,the youth1 immaturity1
 and blindness of childhood make it     
impossible1 of course1 for children to  
conceive of their school in a spirit of 

full appreciation4 ,on the other hand1  
the very nature of childhood is         
responsiveness and readiness of         
coperation in any form of interesting   
activity1--is loyalty of attitude toward
 what is felt to minister to personal   
happiness and well-being4 ,in so far1   
therefore1 as there exists any lack of  
loyalty and coperation of pupils toward 
their school1 the reasons for such      
defection are to be sought first of all 
in the school1 and not in the child4    
,while this negative attitude of the    
pupils exists in some degree in all our 
schools1 it is undoubtedly more marked  
in our rural schools than in others4 ,in
 a negligible number of cases does this 
lack of coperation take the form of     
overt rebellion against the authority of
 the school4 ,it is manifested in other 
ways1 many of them wholly unconscious to
 the child1 as1 for example1 lack of    
desire to attend school1 and            
indifference to its activities when     
present4  ,attending school is the most 

important occupation that can engage the
 child4 ,yet the indifference of        
children and their parents alike to the 
necessity for schooling makes the small 
and irregular attendance of rural school
 pupils one of the most serious problems
 with which educators have to deal4     
,county superintendents have in many    
places offered prizes and diplomas with 
the hope of bettering attendance1 but   
such incentives do not reach the source 
of the difficulty4 ,the remedy must     
finally lie in a fundamental change of  
attitude toward the school and its      
opportunities4 ,good attendance must    
spring from interest in the school work 
and a feeling of its value1 rather than 
from any artificial incentives4  ,how   
great a problem poor attendance at rural
 schools is1 may be realized from the   
fact that1 in spite of compulsory       
education laws1 not more than seventy   
per cent of the children accessible to  
the rural school are enrolled1 and of   
this number only about sixty per cent   

are in daily attendance4 ,this is to say
 that under one half of our farm        
children are daily receiving the        
advantages of even the rural school4 ,in
 some ,states this proportion will fall 
as low as three tenths instead of one   
half4 ,in many rich agricultural        
counties of the ,middle ,west1 having a 
farming population of approximately ten 
thousand1 not more than forty or fifty  
pupils per year complete the eight      
grades of the rural school4  ,if the    
rural school is to be able to claim the 
regular attendance and spontaneous      
coperation of the children it must 7#a7 
be reasonably accessible to them1 7#b7  
be attractive and interesting in itself1
 and 7#c7 offer work the value and      
application of which are evident4  ,the 
inaccessibility of the rural school has 
always been one of its greatest         
disadvantages4 ,in a large proportion of
 cases1 a walk of from a mile to a mile 
and a half along country roads or across
 cultivated fields has been required to 

reach the schoolhouse4 ,during inclement
 weather1 or when deep snow covers the  
ground1 this distance proves almost     
prohibitive for all the smaller         
children4 ,wet feet and drenched        
clothing have been followed by severe   
colds1 coughs1 bronchitis1 or worse1 and
 the children have not only suffered    
educationally1 but been endangered      
physically as well4  ,it has been found 
in all instances that public conveyance 
of pupils to the consolidated schools   
greatly increases rural school          
patronage4 ,it makes the school         
accessible4 ,the regular wagon service  
does away with the hit-and-miss method  
of determining for each succeeding day  
whether it is advisable for the child to
 start for school4 ,so important is this
 factor in securing attendance1 that a  
careful study by ,knorr#c of the        
attendance in ,ohio district and        
consolidated schools shows twenty-seven 
per cent more of the total school       
population in school under the influence

 of public conveyance and other features
 peculiar to consolidation than under   
the district system4 ,he concludes that1
 broadly speaking1 by a system of       
consolidated schools with public        
conveyance1 rural school attendance can 
be increased by at least one fourth4    
,the life in the typical rural school is
 not sufficiently interesting and       
attractive to secure a strong hold upon 
the pupils4 ,the dreary ugliness of the 
physical surroundings has already been  
referred to4 ,and even in districts     
where the building and grounds have been
 made reasonably attractive1 there is   
yet wanting a powerful factor--the      
influence of the social incentive that  
comes from numbers4 ,in hundreds of our 
rural schools the daily attendance is   
less than a dozen pupils1 frequently not
 representing more than three or four   
families4 ,the classes can therefore    
contain not more than two or three      
pupils1 and often only one4 ,there is no
 possibility of organizing games1 or    

having the fun and frolic possible to   
larger groups of children4 ,add to this 
the fact that the teaching is often     
spiritless and uninspiring1 and the     
reason becomes still more plain why so  
many rural children drop out of school  
with scarcely the rudiments of an       
education4  ,here1 again1 the           
consolidated school1 with its attractive
 building1 its improved equipment1 its  
larger body of pupils1 and its better   
teaching1 appears as a solution of the  
difficulty4 ,for it does what the       
present type of district school can     
never do--it makes school life          
interesting and attractive to its       
pupils1 and this brings to bear upon    
them one of the strongest incentives to 
continue in school and secure an        
education4  ,finally1 much of the work  
of the school has not appealed to the   
pupils as interesting or valuable4 ,this
 has not been altogether the fault of   
the curriculum1 but often has come from 
the lack of adaptability of the work to 

the pupils studying it4 ,through        
frequent changes of teachers1 poor      
classification1 and irregularity of     
attendance1 rural pupils have often been
 forced to go over and over the same    
ground1 without any reference to whether
 they were ready to advance or not4 ,in 
other cases1 careless grading has placed
 children in studies for which they were
 utterly unprepared1 and from which they
 could get nothing but discouragement   
and dislike for school4 ,in still other 
instances the course pursued has been   
ill-balanced1 and in no degree          
correlated4 ,often the whim of the child
 determines whether he will or will not 
study certain subjects1 the teacher     
lacking either the knowledge or         
insistence to bring about a better      
organization of the work4  ,the         
unskilled character of the rural        
school-teaching force1 and the          
impossibility of securing any reasonable
 supervision as the system is at present
 organized1 make us again turn to the   

consolidated school as the remedy for   
these adverse conditions4 ,for with its 
improved attendance1 its skilled        
teaching1 and its better supervision1 it
 easily and naturally renders such      
conditions impossible4 ,give the        
consolidated school1 in addition1 the   
greatly enriched curriculum which it    
will find possible to offer its pupils1 
and the vexing question of the relation 
of the rural school to its pupils will  
be far toward solution4  ,let us next   
consider somewhat in detail the         
curriculum of the rural school4         
,,footnotes3  ,footnote #a3 ,see        
,consolidated ,rural ,schools1 ,bulletin
 #bcb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of           
,agriculture4  ,footnote #b3 ,bulletin  
#bcb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of            
,agriculture1 p4 #ch4  ,footnote #c3    
,bulletin #bcb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of  
,agriculture1 p4 #ea4     ,,iii  ,,the  
,,curriculum ,,of ,,the ,,rural ,,school
   ,if we grant the economic ability to 
support good schools1 then the          

curriculum offered by any type of       
school1 the scope of subject-matter     
given the pupils to master1 is a measure
 of the educational ideals of those     
maintaining and using the schools4 ,if  
the curriculum is broad1 and            
representative of the various great     
fields of human culture2 if it relates  
itself to the life and needs of its     
patrons2 if it is adapted to the        
interests and activities of its pupils1 
it may be said that the people believe  
in education as a right of the          
individual and as a preparation for     
successful living4 ,but if1 on the other
 hand1 the curriculum is meager and     
narrow1 consisting only of the rudiments
 of knowledge1 and not related to the   
life of the people or the interests of  
the pupils1 then it may well be         
concluded that education is not highly  
prized1 that it is not understood1 or   
that it is looked upon as an incidental4
   ,the scope of the rural school       
curriculum  ,modern conditions require a

 broader and more thorough education    
than that demanded by former times1 and 
far more than the typical district rural
 school affords4 ,the old-time school   
offered only the three ,r's1 and this   
was thought sufficient for an education4
 ,but these times have passed4 ,not only
 has society greatly increased in wealth
 during the last half-century1 but it   
has also grown much in intelligence4    
,many more people are being educated now
 than formerly1 and they are also being 
vastly better educated4 ,for the concept
 of what constitutes an education has   
changed1 and the curriculum has grown   
correspondingly broader and richer4  ,it
 is therefore no longer possible to     
express the educational status of a     
community in the percentage of people   
who can merely read and write4          
,educational progress has become a      
national ideal4 ,the elementary schools 
in towns and cities have been greatly   
strengthened both in curriculum and     
teaching4 ,high schools have been       

organized and splendidly equipped1 and  
their attendance has rapidly increased4 
,but all this development has hardly    
touched the rural school4 ,the          
curriculum offered is pitifully narrow  
even for an elementary school1 and very 
few high schools are supported by rural 
communities4 ,in fact1 a large          
proportion of our rural population are  
receiving an education but little in    
advance of that offered a hundred years 
ago in similar schools4 ,this is not    
fair to the children born and reared on 
the farm2 it is not fair to one of the  
greatest and most important industries  
of our country2 and it cannot but result
 disastrously in the end4  ,if the rural
 school is to meet its problem1 it must 
extend the scope of its curriculum4 ,it 
was formerly thought by many that       
education1 except in its simplest       
elements1 was only for those planning to
 enter the learned professions4 ,but    
this idea has given way before the      
onward sweep of the spirit of democracy1

 and we now conceive education as the   
right and duty of all4 ,nor by education
 do we mean the simple ability to read1 
write1 and number4  ,our present-day    
civilization demands not only that the  
child shall be taught to read1 but also 
that he shall be supplied with books and
 guided in his reading4 ,through reading
 as a tool he is to become familiar with
 the best in the world's literature and 
its history4 ,he is not only to learn   
number1 but is to be so educated that he
 may employ his number concepts in      
fruitful ways4 ,he must not only be     
familiar with the mechanics of writing1 
but must have knowledge1 interests1     
experience that will give him something 
to write about4 ,the three ,r's are     
necessary tools1 but they are only      
tools1 and must be utilized in putting  
the child into possession of the best   
and most fruitful culture of the race4  
,and1 practically1 they must put him    
into command of such phases of culture  
as touch his own life and experience and

 make him more efficient4  ,the rural   
school cannot extend the scope of its   
curriculum simply by inserting in the   
present curriculum new studies related  
to the life and work of the farm4 ,the  
modification must be deeper and more    
thoroughgoing than this4 ,a full        
elementary course of eight years and a  
high school course of four years should 
be easily accessible to every rural     
child4 ,less than this amount of        
education is inadequate to prepare for  
the life of the farm1 and fails to put  
the individual into full possession of  
his powers4 ,nor1 in most instances1    
should the high schooling be left to    
some adjacent town1 which is to receive 
the rural pupils upon payment of tuition
 to the town district4 ,unless the town 
is small1 and practically a part of the 
rural community1 it cannot supply1      
either in the subject-matter of the     
curriculum or the spirit of the school1 
the type of education that the rural    
children should have4 ,for in so far as 

the town or city high school leads to   
any specific vocation1 it certainly does
 not lead toward industrial occupations1
 and least of all toward agriculture4   
,it rather prepares for the professions1
 or for business careers4 ,its tendency 
is very strongly to draw the boys and   
girls away from the farm instead of     
preparing them for it4  ,while the rural
 child1 therefore1 must be provided with
 a better and broader education1 he     
should usually not be sent to town to   
get it4 ,if he is1 the chances are that 
he will stay in town and be lost to the 
farm4 ,indeed1 this is precisely what   
has been happening2 the town or city    
high school has been turning the country
 boy away from the farm4 ,for not only  
does what one studies supply his        
knowledge2 it also determines his       
attitude4  ,if the curriculum contains  
no subject-matter related to the        
immediate experience and occupation of  
the pupil1 his education is certain to  
entice him away from his old interests  

and activities4 ,the farm boy whose     
studies lack all point of contact with  
his life and work will soon either lose 
interest in the curriculum or turn his  
back upon the farm4 ,if the boys and    
girls born on the farm are to be        
retained in this form of industry1 the  
rural school must be broadened to give  
them an education equal to that afforded
 by town or city for its youth4 ,if the 
rural community cannot accomplish this  
end1 it has no claim on the loyalty and 
service of its youth4 ,rural children   
have a right to a well-organized1       
well-equipped1 and well-taught          
elementary school of eight years and a  
high school of four years1 with a       
curriculum adapted especially to their  
interests and needs4  ,it is not meant1 
of course1 that the rural school1 with  
its present organization and            
administration1 can extend the scope of 
its curriculum to make it the equal of  
that offered in the grades of the town  
or city school4 ,radical changes1 such  

as those discussed in the preceding     
chapter1 will have to be made in the    
rural district system before this is    
possible4 ,that these changes are being 
made and the full elementary and high   
school course offered in many           
consolidated rural schools1 scattered   
from ,florida to ,idaho1 is proof both  
of the feasibility of the plan and of an
 awakened public demand for better rural
 education4  ,the broadened curriculum  
of the rural school must contain        
subject-matter especially related to the
 interests and activities of the farm2  
upon this all are agreed4 ,but it must  
not stop with vocational subjects alone4
 ,for1 while one's vocation is          
fundamental1 it is not all of life4     
,education should help directly in      
making a living2 it must also help to   
live4 ,broad and permanent lines of     
interest must be set up and trained to  
include many forms of experience4 ,the  
child must come to know something of the
 great social institutions of his day   

and of the history leading to their     
development4 ,he must become familiar   
with the marvelous scientific           
discoveries and inventions underlying   
our modern civilization4 ,he must be led
 to feel appreciation for the beautiful 
in art1 literature1 and music2 and must 
have nurtured in his life a love for    
goodness and truth in every form4 ,in   
short1 through the curriculum the latent
 powers constituting the life capital of
 every normal child are to be stimulated
 and developed to the end that his life 
shall be more than mere physical        
existence--to the end that it shall be  
crowned with fullness of knowledge1     
richness of feeling1 and the victory of 
worthy achievement4 ,this is the right  
of every child in these prosperous and  
enlightened times1--the right of the    
country child as well as the city child4
 ,and society will not have done its    
duty in providing for the education of  
its youth until the children of the farm
 have full opportunities for such       

development4   ,the rural elementary    
school curriculum  ,by the elementary   
school is meant the eight grades of work
 below the high school which the rural  
school is now meant to cover4  ,whatever
 is put into the curriculum of a        
nation's schools finally becomes a part 
of national character and achievement4  
,what the children study in school comes
 to determine their attitudes and shape 
their aptitudes4 ,the old ,greek        
philosophers1 becoming teachers of      
youth1 turned the nation into a set of  
students and disputants over            
philosophical questions4 ,sparta taught 
her boys the arts of war1 and became the
 chief military nation of her time4     
,germany introduces technological       
studies into her schools1 and becomes   
the leading country in the world in the 
arts of manufacture4 ,let any people    
emphasize in their schools the studies  
that lead to commercial and professional
 interests1 and neglect those that      
prepare for industrial vocations1 and   

the industrial welfare of the nation is 
sure to suffer4  ,the curriculum of the 
rural school must1 therefore1 contain   
the basic subjects that belong to all   
culture1--the studies that every normal1
 intelligent person should have just    
because he belongs to the               
twentieth-century civilization1 and in  
addition must include the subjects that 
afford the knowledge and develop the    
attitude and technique belonging to the 
life of the farm4 ,let us now consider  
this curriculum somewhat more in detail4
  ,the mother tongue4 ,mastery of his   
mother tongue is the birthright of every
 child4 ,he should first of all be able 
to speak it correctly and with ease4 ,he
 should next be able to read it with    
comprehension and enjoyment1 and should 
become familiar with the best in its    
literature4 ,he should be able to write 
it with facility1 both as to its        
spelling and its composition4 ,finally1 
he should know something of the         
structure1 or grammar1 of the language4 

,this requirement suggests the content  
of the curriculum as to ,english4 ,the  
child must be given opportunity to use  
the language orally2 he must be led to  
talk4 ,but this implies that he must    
have something to say1 and be interested
 in saying it4 ,formal language lessons1
 divorced from all the child's interests
 and activities1 will not meet the      
purpose4 ,facility in speech grows out  
of enthusiasm in speaking4 ,every       
recitation is a lesson in ,english1 and 
should be used for this purpose2 nor    
should the aim be correctness only1 but 
ease and fluency as well4  ,the child   
must also learn to read2 not alone to   
pronounce the printed words of a page1  
but to grasp the thought and feeling1   
and express them in oral reading4 ,this 
presupposes a mastery of the mechanics  
of reading1 the letters1 words1 and     
marks employed4 ,the only way to learn  
to read is by reading4 ,this is true    
whether we refer to learning the        
mechanics of reading1 to learning the   

apprehension and expression of thought1 
or to learning the art of appreciating  
and enjoying good literature4  ,yet1    
trite and self-evident as this truism   
is1 it is constantly violated in        
teaching reading in the rural school4   
,for the course in reading usually      
consists of a series of five readers1   
expected to cover seven or eight years  
of study4 ,these readers contain less   
than one hundred pages of reading matter
 to the year1 or but little more than   
half a page a day for the time the child
 should be in school4 ,the result is    
that the same reader is read over and   
over1 to no purpose4 ,with a rich       
literature available for each of the    
eight years of the elementary school1   
comparatively few of the rural schools  
have supplied either supplementary      
readers or other reading books for the  
use of the children4  ,the result is    
that most rural school children learn to
 read but stumblingly1 and seldom attain
 sufficient skill and taste in reading  

so that it becomes a pleasure4 ,such a  
situation as this indicates the same    
lack of wisdom that would be shown in   
employing willing and skillful workmen  
to garner a rich harvest1 and then      
sending them into the fields with wholly
 insufficient and inadequate tools4 ,the
 rural school must not only teach the   
child the mechanics of reading1 but lead
 him to read and love good books4 ,this 
can be done only by supplying the books 
and giving the child an opportunity to  
read them4  ,comparatively few people   
like to write4 ,the pathway of          
expression finds its way out more easily
 through the tongue than through the    
hand4 ,yet it is highly necessary that  
every one should in this day be able to 
write4 ,nor does this mean merely the   
ability to form letters into words and  
put them down with a pen so that they   
are legible4 ,this is a fundamental     
requisite1 but the mastery of           
penmanship1 spelling1 and punctuation   
is1 however1 only a beginning4 ,one must

 be able to formulate his thoughts      
easily1 to construct his sentences      
correctly1 and to make his writing      
effective2 he must learn the art of     
composition4  ,here again the principle 
already stated applies4 ,the way to     
learn to write is by writing2 not just  
by the dreary treadmill of practicing   
upon formal compositions1 but by having 
something to write that one cares to    
express4 ,the written language lessons  
should1 therefore1 always grow out of   
the real interests and activities of the
 child in the home1 the school1 or on   
the farm1 and should include the art of 
letter-writing1 argumentation and       
exposition1 as well as narration and    
description4  ,the subject of formal    
grammar has little or no place in the   
grades of the elementary school4 ,the   
grammatical relations of the language   
are complicated and beyond the power of 
the child at an early age4 ,nor does the
 study of such relations result in      
efficiency in the use of language1 as is

 commonly supposed4 ,children are       
compelled in many schools to waste weary
 years in the study of logical relations
 they are too young to comprehend1 when 
they should be reading1 speaking1 and   
writing their mother tongue under the   
stimulus and guidance of a teacher who  
is himself a worthy and enthusiastic    
model in the use of speech4 ,only the   
simpler grammatical forms and relations 
should be taught in the grades1 and     
these should have immediate application 
to oral and written speech4             
,arithmetic4 ,arithmetic has for more   
than two hundred years formed an        
important part of the elementary school 
curriculum4 ,it has been taught with the
 double object of affording mental      
discipline for the child1 and of putting
 him into possession of an important    
tool of practical knowledge4 ,it is safe
 to say that a large proportion of the  
patrons of the rural schools of the     
present look upon arithmetic as the most
 important subject taught in the school 

after the simple mechanics of reading4  
,ability to cipher has been thought of  
as constituting a large and important   
part of the educational equipment of the
 practical man4  ,without doubt1 number 
is an essential part of the education of
 the child4 ,yet there is nothing in the
 mere art of numbering things as we meet
 them in daily experience that should   
make arithmetic require so large a      
proportion of time as it has been       
receiving4 ,the child is usually started
 in number in the first grade1 and      
continues it the full eight years of the
 elementary course1 finally devoting    
three or more years of the high school  
course to its continued study4 ,thus1   
nearly one fourth of the entire school  
time of the pupil is demanded by the    
various phases of the number concept4   
,the only ground upon which the         
expenditure of this large proportion of 
time upon number can be defended is that
 of discipline4 ,and modern psychology  
and experimental pedagogy have shown the

 folly and waste of setting up empty    
discipline as an educational aim4       
,education time is too short1 and the   
amount of rich and valuable material    
waiting to be mastered too great1 to    
devote golden years to a relatively     
barren grind4  ,it is probable that at  
least half the time at present devoted  
to arithmetic in the elementary school  
could be given to other subjects with no
 loss to the child's ability in number1 
and with great gain to his education as 
a whole4 ,not that the child knows      
number any too well now4 ,he does not4  
,in fact1 few children finishing the    
elementary school possess any           
considerable degree of ability in       
arithmetic4 ,they can work rather hard  
problems1 if they have a textbook1 and  
the answers by which to test their      
results4 ,but give them a practical     
problem from the home1 the farm1 or the 
shop1 and the chances are two to one    
that they cannot secure a correct       
result4 ,this is not the fault of the   

child1 but the fault of the kind of     
arithmetic he has been given1 and the   
way it has been taught4 ,we have taught 
him the solution of various difficult1  
analytical problems not in the least    
typical of the concrete problems to be  
met daily outside of school2 but we have
 not taught him to add1 subtract1       
multiply1 and divide with rapidity and  
accuracy4 ,we have required him to solve
 problems containing fractions with     
large and irreducible denominators such 
as are never met in the business world1 
but he cannot readily and with certainty
 handle numbers expressed in halves1    
thirds1 quarters1 fifths1 and eighths4  
,he has been compelled to sacrifice     
practical business efficiency in number 
to an attempt to train his powers of    
logical analysis4  ,the arithmetic of   
the district school should be greatly   
simplified and reduced in quantity4 ,its
 quality should be greatly improved both
 as to accuracy and speed in the        
fundamental operations and in the       

various concrete types of problems to be
 met in the home1 on the farm1 and in   
the shop4 ,there need be no fear that   
the mental training will be less        
efficient with this type of arithmetic4 
,for mental development comes only where
 there is mastery1 and there is no      
mastery of the arithmetic as it is      
taught in the rural school to-day4      
,history and civics4 ,every ,american   
child should know the history and mode  
of government of his country4 ,this is  
true first of all because this knowledge
 is necessary to intelligent            
participation in the affairs of a       
republic2 but it is also necessary to   
the right development of the individual 
that he shall realize something of the  
heroism and sacrifice required to       
produce the civilization which he       
enjoys4 ,every person needs to extend   
his thought and appreciation until it is
 large enough to include other peoples  
and times than his own4 ,for only in    
this way can he come to feel kinship    

with the race at large1 and thus save   
himself from provincialism and          
narrowness4  ,this is equivalent to     
saying that the curriculum should afford
 ample opportunity for the study of     
history4 ,nor should the history given  
the child deal chiefly with the military
 and political activities of the nation4
 ,many text books have been little more 
than an account of wars and politics4   
,these are not the aspects of national  
life that most interest and concern the 
child1 especially at the age when he is 
in the elementary school4 ,he should at 
this time be told about the people of   
his country1--their home life1 their    
industries1 their schools and churches1 
their bravery1 their hardships1         
adventures1 and achievements4 ,he must  
come to know something of the great men 
and women of his ,nation and ,state1 the
 writers1 inventors1 explorers1         
scientists1 artists1 and musicians1 as  
well as the soldiers and statesmen4     
,not only does this require that the    

child shall have suitable textbooks in  
history1 but that he shall also have an 
adequate library of interesting         
histories1 biographies1 and historical  
fiction adapted to his age and          
interests4 ,for it is not enough that   
the child shall learn the elementary    
facts of history while he is in the     
elementary school2 more important still 
is it that he shall develop a real      
interest in history1 and form the taste 
for reading historical matter4  ,the    
course in history must1 therefore1      
contain such matter as the child will   
love to read2 for only then will it     
leave the desire to read4 ,it must so   
put a premium upon patriotism1 loyalty  
to country1 and high-grade citizenship  
that the child shall feel the impulse to
 emulate the noble men and women who    
have contributed to our happiness and   
welfare4 ,the study of history1 even in 
the elementary school1 should eventuate 
in loyal1 efficient citizenship4  ,the  
civics taught in the elementary school  

should be very practical and concrete4  
,the age has not yet come for a study of
 the federal or state constitution4 ,it 
is rather the functional aspect of      
government that should be presented at  
this time--the points of contact of     
school district1 township1 county1 state
 and federal government with the        
individual4 ,how the school is supported
 and controlled2 how the bridges are    
built and roads repaired2 the work of   
township and county affairs2 the powers 
and duties of boards of health2 the     
right of franchise and the use of the   
ballot2 the work of the postal system2  
the making and enforcing of laws1--these
 and similar topics suggest what the    
child should come to know from the study
 of civics4 ,the great problem here is  
to influence conduct in the direction of
 upright citizenship1 and to give such a
 knowledge of the machinery1 especially 
of local government1 as will lead to    
efficient participation in its          
activities4  ,geography and nature      

study4 ,the rural school has a great    
advantage over the city school in the   
teaching of geography and nature study4 
,for the country child is closer to the 
earth and its products than the city    
child4 ,the broad expanse of nature is  
always before him2 life in its multiple 
forms constantly appeals to his eye and 
ear4 ,he watches the seeds planted1 and 
sees the crops cultivated and harvested4
 ,he has a very concrete sense of the   
earth as the home of man1 and possesses 
a basis of practical knowledge for      
understanding the resources and products
 of his own and other countries4        
,geography should1 therefore1 be one of 
the most vital and useful branches in   
the rural school4 ,it is to begin       
wherever the life of the child touches  
nature in his immediate environment1 and
 proceed from this on out to other parts
 of his home land1 and finally to all   
lands4  ,but the geography taught must  
not be of the old catechism type1 which 
resulted in children committing to      

memory the definitions of geographical  
terms instead of studying the real      
objects ready at hand4 ,it must not     
concern itself with the pupil's learning
 the names and locations of dozens of   
places and geographical forms of no     
particular importance1 instead of coming
 into immediate touch with natural      
environment and with the earth in the   
larger sense as it bears upon his own   
life4 ,the author has expressed this    
idea in another place as follows3--     
,the content of geography is1 therefore1
 synonymous with the content of the     
experience of the child as related to   
his own interests and activities1 in so 
far as they grow out of the earth as his
 home4 ,towns and cities begin with the 
ones nearest at hand4 ,the concept of   
rivers has its rise in the one that     
flows past the child's home4 ,valleys1  
mountains1 capes1 and bays are but      
modifications of those that lie within  
the circle of personal experience4      
,generalizations must come to be made1  

but they must rest upon concrete and    
particular instances if they are to     
constitute a reality to the learner4    
,what kind of people live in a country1 
what they work at1 what they eat1 and   
how they live in their homes and their  
schools1 what weather they have1 and    
what they wear1 how they travel and     
speak and read1--these are more vital   
questions to the child than the names   
and locations of unimportant streams1   
towns1 capes1 and bays4 ,for they are   
the things that touch his own           
experience1 and hence appeal to his     
interest4 ,only as geography is given   
this social background1 and concerns    
itself with the earth as related to     
social activities1 can it fulfill its   
function in the elementary school4#d    
,hygiene and health4 ,since health is at
 the basis of all success and happiness1
 nothing can be more important in the   
education of the child than the subject 
of practical hygiene4 ,it has been the  
custom in our schools until recently1   

however1 to give the child a difficult  
and uninteresting text book dealing with
 physiology and anatomy1 but containing 
almost nothing on hygiene and the laws  
of health4  ,not only should the course 
in physiology emphasize the laws of     
hygiene1 but this hygiene should in part
 have particular bearing on right living
 under the conditions imposed by the    
farm4 ,food1 its variety1 adaptability1 
and preparation2 clothing for the       
different seasons2 work1 recreation1 and
 play2 care of the eyes and teeth2      
bathing2 the ventilation of the home1   
and especially of sleeping-rooms2 the   
effects of tobacco and cigarettes in    
checking growth and reducing efficiency2
 the more simple and obvious facts      
bearing on the relation of bacteria to  
the growth1 preparation1 and spoiling of
 foods2 the means to be taken to prevent
 bacterial contagion of diseases1--these
 are some of the practical matters that 
every child should know as a result of  
his study of physiology and hygiene4    

,but we must go one step further still4 
,it is not enough to teach these things 
as matters of abstract theory or truth4 
,plenty of people know better hygiene   
than they are practicing4 ,the subject  
must be presented so concretely and     
effectively and be supported by such    
incentives that it will actually lead to
 better habits of living--that it will  
result in higher physical efficiency4   
,agriculture4 ,agriculture is of course 
preeminently a subject for the rural    
school4 ,not only is it of immediate and
 direct practical importance1 but it is 
coming to be looked upon as so useful a 
cultural study that it is being         
introduced into many city schools4  ,it 
has been objected that agriculture as a 
science cannot be taught in the         
elementary school because of the lack of
 age and development of the pupils4     
,this is true1 but neither can any other
 subject be taught to children of this  
age as a complete science4 ,it is       
possible1 however1 to give children in  

the rural elementary school much useful 
information concerning agriculture4     
,perhaps better still1 it is possible to
 develop a scientific attitude and      
interest that will lead to further study
 of the subject in the high school or   
agricultural college1 and that will in  
the mean-time serve to attach the boys  
and girls to the farm4  ,the rural      
school pupils can be made familiar with 
the best modes of planting and          
cultivating the various crops1 and with 
the diseases and insect enemies which   
threaten them2 the selection of seed2   
the rotation of crops1 and many other   
practical things applying directly to   
their home life4 ,school gardens of     
vegetables and flowers constitute       
another center of interest and          
information1 and serve to unite the     
school and the home4  ,similarly the    
animal life of the farm can be studied1 
and a knowledge gained of the best      
varieties of farm stock1 their breeding 
and care4 ,insects and bird life can be 

observed1 and their part in the growth  
or destruction of crops understood4 ,all
 this is not only practicable1 but      
necessary as part of the rural school   
curriculum4 ,anything less than this    
amount of practical agriculture leaves  
the rural school in some degree short of
 fulfilling its function4  ,domestic    
science and manual training4 ,in general
 what is true of agriculture is true of 
domestic science and manual training4   
,they can be presented in the elementary
 school only in the most concrete and   
applied form4 ,but they can be          
successfully presented in this form1 and
 must be if the rural school child is to
 have an equal opportunity with the town
 and city child4 ,the girls can be      
taught the art of sewing1 cooking1 and  
serving1 if only the necessary equipment
 and instruction are available4 ,they   
are ready to learn1 the subject-matter  
is adapted to their age and             
understanding1 and nothing could be more
 vital to their interests and welfare4  

,likewise the boys can be taught the use
 of tools1 the value and finishing of   
different kinds of woods1 and can       
develop no little skill with their      
hands1 while they are at the same time  
receiving mental development and the    
cultivation of practical interests from 
this line of work4 ,it is not in the    
least a question of the readiness of the
 boys to take up and profit by this     
subject1 but is only a matter of        
equipment and teaching4  ,music and art4
 ,nor should the finer aspects of       
culture be left out of the education of 
the country child4 ,he will learn music 
as readily as the city child1 and love  
it not less4 ,indeed1 he needs it even  
more as a part of his schooling1 since  
the opportunities to hear and enjoy     
music are always at hand in the city1   
and nearly always lacking in the        
country4 ,the child should be taught to 
sing and at least to understand and     
appreciate music of worthy type4  ,the  
same principle will apply to art4 ,the  

great masterpieces of painting and      
sculpture have as much of beauty and    
inspiration in them as the great        
masterpieces of literature4 ,yet most   
rural children complete their schooling 
hardly having seen in the schoolroom a  
worthy copy of a great picture1 and much
 less have they been taught the         
significance of great works of art or   
been led to appreciate and love them4   
,physical training4 ,it has been argued 
by many that the rural child has enough 
exercise and hence does not need        
physical training4 ,but this position   
entirely misconceives the purpose of    
physical training4 ,one may have plenty 
of exercise1 even too much exercise1    
without securing a well-balanced        
physical development4 ,indeed1 certain  
forms of farm work done by children are 
often so severe a tax on their strength 
that a corrective exercise is necessary 
in order to save stooped forms1 curved  
spines1 and hollow chests4 ,furthermore1
 the farm child1 lacking the            

opportunities of the city child for     
gaining social ease and control1 needs  
the development that comes from physical
 training to give poise1 ease of        
bearing1 and grace of movement4  ,nor   
must the athletic phase of physical     
training be overlooked4 ,while it is    
undoubtedly true that athletics have    
come to occupy too large a part of the  
time and absorb too great a proportion  
of the interest in many schools1 yet    
this is no reason for omitting          
avocational training wholly from the    
rural school4 ,children require the     
training and development that come from 
games and play quite as much as they    
need that coming from work4 ,the school 
owes a duty to the avocational side of  
life as well as to the vocational4  ,the
 curriculum here proposed is so much    
broader and richer than that now offered
 in the rural district school that it   
will appear to many to be visionary and 
impossible4 ,that it is impossible for  
the old type of rural school will be    

readily admitted4 ,but it is entirely   
practicable and possible in the         
reorganized consolidated school1 and is 
being successfully presented1 in its    
general aspects1 at least1 in many of   
these schools4 ,it is only such an      
education as every rural child is       
entitled to1 and is no more than the    
urban child is already receiving in the 
better class of town and city elementary
 schools4 ,if the rural school cannot   
give the farm child an elementary       
education approximating the one         
out-lined1 it has no claim on his       
loyalty or time2 and he should in       
justice to himself be taken where he can
 receive a worthy education1 even if he 
is thereby lost to the farm4  ,but the  
rural boy and girl need not only a good 
elementary education1 but a high school 
education as well4 ,let us next consider
 the rural high school curriculum4      
,the rural high school curriculum  ,this
 section is presented in the full       
knowledge that comparatively few        

localities have as yet established the  
rural high school4 ,it now forms1       
however1 an integral part of the        
consolidated rural school in not a few  
places1 and is abundantly justifying the
 expenditure made upon it4 ,in other    
localities the tendency is growing to   
send the rural child to the town high   
school1 or even for the family to move  
to town to secure high schooling for the
 children4 ,in still other cases1 and we
 are obliged to admit that these yet    
constitute the rule rather than the     
exception1 the farm boy or girl has no  
opportunity for a high school education4
  ,if we succeed in working out the     
so-called rural problem of our country1 
in maintaining a high standard of       
agricultural population and rural life1 
the rural high school must be an        
important factor in our problem4 ,for   
the children of our farms need and must 
have an education reaching beyond that  
of the elementary school4 ,and this     
schooling must prepare them to find the 

most satisfactory and successful type of
 life on the farm1 instead of drawing   
them away from the farm4  ,it goes      
without saying that the rural high      
school should be an agricultural high   
school4 ,this does not mean that it     
shall devote itself exclusively to      
teaching agriculture2 but rather that1  
while it offers a broad range of culture
 and information1 it shall emphasize    
those phases of subject-matter that will
 best fit into the interests and        
activities of farm life1 instead of     
those phases that tend to lead toward   
the city or the market-place4 ,its four 
years of work must be fully equal to    
that of the best town or city high      
schools1 but must in some degree be     
different work4 ,it must result in      
efficiency1 and efficiency here must    
relate itself to agricultural life and  
pursuits4  ,a detailed discussion of the
 rural high school curriculum will not  
be required4 ,the principles already    
suggested as applying to the elementary 

school will govern here as well4 ,the   
studies must cultivate breadth of view  
and a wide range of interests1 and must 
at the same time bear upon the immediate
 life and experience of the pupils4 ,the
 lines of study begun in the elementary 
school will be continued1 with the      
purpose of securing deeper insight1 more
 detailed knowledge1 and greater        
independence of judgment and action4    
,english should form an important part  
of the curriculum1 with the double aim  
of securing facility in the use of the  
mother tongue and of developing a love  
for its literature4 ,the rural high     
school graduate should be able to write 
,english correctly as to spelling1      
punctuation1 and grammar2 he should be  
able to express himself effectively1    
either in writing1 conversation1 or the 
more formal speech of the rostrum4      
,above all1 he should be an enthusiastic
 and discriminating reader1 with a      
catholicity of taste and interest that  
will lead him beyond the agricultural   

journal and newspaper1 important as     
these are1 to the works of fiction1     
material and social science1 travel and 
biography1 current magazines and        
journals1 and whatever else belongs to  
the intellectual life of an intelligent1
 educated man of affairs4  ,this is     
asking more than is being accomplished  
at present by the course in ,english in 
the town high school1 but not more than 
is easily within the range of           
possibility4 ,the average high school   
graduate of to-day cannot always spell  
and punctuate correctly1 and commonly   
cannot write well even an ordinary      
business letter2 nor1 it must be feared1
 has his study of literature had a very 
great influence in developing him into a
 good reader of worthy books4  ,but all 
this can be remedied by vitalizing the  
teaching of the mother tongue2 by       
lessening the proportion of time and    
emphasis placed upon critical analysis  
and technical literary criticism1 and   
increasing that given to the drill and  

practice that alone can make sure of the
 fundamentals of spelling1 punctuation1 
and the common forms of composition     
emphasized by all2 and by the           
sympathetic1 enthusiastic teaching of   
good literature adapted to the age and  
interests of the pupils from the        
standpoint of synthetic appreciation and
 enjoyment1 rather than from the        
standpoint of mechanical analysis4  ,the
 rural high school course in social     
science should be broad and thorough4   
,the course in history should not give  
an undue proportion of time to ancient  
and medieval history1 nor to war and    
politics4 ,emphasis should be placed on 
the social1 industrial1 and economic    
phases of human development in modern   
times and in our own country4           
,political economy should form an       
important branch4 ,especially should it 
deal with the problems of production1   
distribution1 and consumption as they   
relate to agriculture4 ,matters of      
finance1 taxation1 and investment1 while

 resting on general principles1 should  
be applied to the problems of the farm4 
,nor should the economic basis of       
support and expenditure in the home be  
overlooked4  ,the course in civics      
should not only present the general     
theory of government1 but should apply  
concretely to the civic relations and   
duties of a rural population4           
,especially should it appeal to the     
civic conscience and sense of           
responsibility which we need among our  
rural people to make the country an     
antidote to the political corruption of 
the city4  ,material science should     
constitute an important section of the  
rural high school curriculum4 ,not only 
does its study afford one of the best   
means of mental development1 but the    
subject-matter of science has a very    
direct bearing on the life and          
industries of the farm4 ,to achieve the 
best results1 however1 the science      
taught must be presented from the       
concrete and applied point of view      

rather than from the abstract and       
general4 ,this does not mean that a     
hodge-podge of unrelated facts shall be 
taught in the place of science2 indeed1 
such a method would defeat the whole    
purpose of the course4 ,it means1       
however1 that the general laws and      
principles of science shall be carried  
out to their practical bearing on the   
problems of the home and the farm1 and  
not be left just as general laws or     
abstract principles unapplied4  ,the    
botany and zology of the rural high     
school will1 of course1 have a strong   
agricultural trend4 ,it will sacrifice  
the old logical classifications and     
study of generic types of animals and   
plants for the more interesting and     
useful study of the fauna and flora of  
the locality4 ,the various farm crops1  
their weed enemies1 the helpful and     
harmful insects and birds1 the animal   
life of the barnyard1 horticulture and  
floriculture1 and the elements of       
bacteriology1 will constitute important 

elements in the course4  ,the course in 
physics will develop the general        
principles of the subject1 and will then
 apply these principles to the machinery
 of the farm1 to the heating1 lighting1 
and ventilation of houses1 to the       
drainage of soil1 the plumbing of       
buildings1 and a hundred other practical
 problems bearing on the life of the    
farm4 ,chemistry will be taught as      
related to the home1 foods1 soils1 and  
crops4 ,a concrete geology will lead to 
a better understanding of soils1        
building materials1 and drainage4       
,physiology and hygiene will seek as    
their aim longer life and higher        
personal efficiency4  ,the course in    
agriculture1 whether presented          
separately or in conjunction with botany
 and zology1 must be comprehensive and  
thorough4 ,not only should it give a    
complete and practical knowledge of the 
selection of seed2 the planting1        
cultivating1 and harvesting of crops2   
the improvement and conservation of the 

soil2 the breeding and care of stock1   
etc41 but it must serve to create and   
develop a scientific attitude toward    
farming4 ,the farmer should come to look
 upon his work as offering the largest  
opportunities for the employment of     
technical knowledge1 judgment1 and      
skill4 ,that such an attitude will yield
 large returns in success is attested by
 many farmers to-day who are applying   
scientific methods to their work4       
,manual training and domestic science   
should receive especial emphasis in the 
rural high school4 ,both subjects have  
undoubted educational value in          
themselves1 and their practical value   
and importance to those looking forward 
to farm life can hardly be              
over-estimated4 ,and in these as in     
other subjects1 the course offered will 
need to be modified from that of the    
city school in order to meet the        
requirements of the particular problems 
to which the knowledge and training     
secured are to be applied4  ,mathematics

 should form a part of the rural high   
school curriculum1 but the traditional  
courses in algebra and geometry do not  
meet the need4 ,the ideal course would  
probably be a skillful combination of   
algebra1 geometry1 and trigonometry     
occupying the time of one or two years1 
and applied directly to the problems of 
mechanics1 measurements1 surveying1     
engineering1 and building on the farm4  
,such an idea is not new1 and textbooks 
are now under way providing material for
 such a course4  ,in addition1 there    
should be a thorough course in practical
 business arithmetic4 ,by this is not   
meant the abstract1 analytical matter so
 often taught as high school arithmetic1
 but concrete and applied commercial and
 industrial arithmetic1 with particular 
reference to farm problems4 ,in         
connection with this subject should be  
given a course in household accounts1   
and book-keeping1 including commercial  
forms and commercial law4  ,it is       
doubtful whether foreign language has   

any place in the rural high school4 ,if 
offered at all1 it should be only in    
high schools strong enough to offer     
parallel courses for election1 and      
should never displace the subjects lying
 closer to the interests and needs of   
the students4  ,the study of music and  
art begun in the elementary school      
should be continued in the high school1 
and a love for the beautiful cultivated 
not only by the matter taught1 but also 
by the sthetic qualities of the school  
buildings and grounds and their         
decoration4 ,on the practical sides     
these subjects will reach out to the    
beautifying of the farm homes and the   
life they shelter4  ,when a well-taught 
curriculum of some such scope of        
elementary and high school work as that 
suggested is as freely available to the 
farm child as his school is available to
 the city child1 will the country boys  
and girls have a fair chance for        
education4 ,and when this comes about1  
the greatest single obstacle to keeping 

our young people on the farm will have  
been removed4   ,,footnotes3  ,footnote 
#d3 ,social ,principles of ,education1  
p4 #bfd4    ,,iv  ,,the ,,teaching ,,of 
,,the ,,rural ,,school  ,the importance 
of teaching   ,teaching is the          
fundamental purpose for which the school
 is run4 ,taxes are levied and          
collected1 buildings erected and        
equipped1 and curriculum organized      
solely that teaching may go on4         
,children are clothed and fed and sent  
to school instead of being put at work  
in order that they may be taught4 ,the  
school is classified into grades1       
programs are arranged1 and regulations  
are enforced only to make teaching      
possible4 ,normal schools are           
established1 teachers are trained1 and  
certificates required in order that     
teaching may be more efficient4  ,the   
teacher confronts a great task4 ,on the 
one hand are the children1 ignorant1    
immature1 and undeveloped4 ,in them lie 
ready to be called forth all the powers 

and capacities that will characterize   
their fully ripened manhood and         
womanhood4 ,given the right stimulus and
 direction1 these powers will grow into 
splendid strength and capacity2 lacking 
this stimulus and guidance1 the powers  
are left crippled and incomplete4  ,on  
the other hand is the subject-matter of 
education1 the heritage of culture which
 has been accumulating through the ages4
 ,in the slow process of human          
experience1 running through countless   
generations1 men have made their        
discoveries in the fields of mathematics
 and science2 they have lived great     
events and achievements which have      
become history2 they have developed the 
social institutions which we call the   
,state1 the church1 the home1 and the   
school2 they have organized great       
industries and carried on complex       
vocations2 they have crystallized their 
ideals1 their hopes1 and their          
aspirations in literature2 and have with
 brush and chisel expressed in art their

 concepts of truth and beauty4 ,the best
 of all this human experience we have   
collected in what we call a curriculum1 
and placed it before the child for him  
to master1 as the generations before him
 have mastered it in their common lives4
 ,for only in this way can the child    
come into full possession of his powers1
 and set them at work in a fruitful way 
in accomplishing his own life-purpose4  
,it is the function of the teacher1     
therefore1 to stand as an intermediary1 
as an interpreter1 between the child and
 this great mass of subject-matter that 
lies ready for him to learn4 ,the race  
has lived its thousands or millions of  
years2 the individual lives but a few   
score4 ,what former generations took    
centuries to work out the child can     
spend only a few months or a few years  
upon4 ,hence he must waste no time and  
opportunity2 he must make no false step 
in his learning1 for he cannot in his   
short life retrieve his mistakes4 ,it is
 the work of the teacher1 through       

instruction and guidance1 that is1      
through teaching1 to save the child time
 in his learning and development1 and to
 make sure that he does not lose his    
opportunity4 ,and this is a great       
responsibility4  ,thus the teacher      
confronts a problem that has two great  
factors1 the child and the              
subject-matter4 ,he must have a         
knowledge of both these factors if his  
work is to be effective2 for he cannot  
teach matter that he does not know1 and 
neither can he teach a person whose     
nature he does not understand4 ,but in  
addition to a knowledge of these        
factors1 the teacher must also master a 
technique of instruction1 he must train 
himself in the art of teaching4  ,the   
teacher must know the child4 ,it has    
been a rather common impression that if 
one knows a certain field of            
subject-matter1 he will surely be able  
to teach it to others4 ,but nothing     
could be further from the truth than    
such an assumption4 ,indeed1 it is      

proverbial that the great specialists   
are the most wretched teachers of their 
subjects4 ,the nature of the child's    
mental powers1 the order of their       
unfoldment1 the evolution of his        
interests1 the incentives that appeal to
 him1 the danger points in both his     
intellectual and his moral              
development1--these and many other      
things about child nature the           
intelligent teacher must clearly        
understand4  ,and the teacher of the    
younger children needs this knowledge   
even more than the teacher of older     
ones4 ,for the earlier years of the     
child's schooling are the most important
 years4 ,it is at this time that he lays
 the foundation for all later learning1 
that he forms his habits of study and   
his attitude toward education1 and that 
his life is given the bent for all its  
later development4 ,nothing can be more 
irrational1 therefore1 than to put the  
most untrained and inexperienced        
teachers in charge of the younger       

children4 ,the fallacious notion that   
anyone can teach little children has    
borne tragic fruit in the stagnation and
 mediocrity of many lives whose powers  
were capable of great achievements4     
,the teacher must know the              
subject-matter4 ,the blind cannot       
successfully lead the blind4 ,one whose 
grasp of a subject extends only to the  
simplest rudiments cannot teach these   
rudiments4 ,he who has never himself    
explored a field can hardly guide others
 through that field2 at least1 progress 
through the field will be at the cost of
 great waste of time and failure to     
grasp the significance or beauty of what
 the field contains4  ,expressed more   
concretely1 it is impossible to         
transplant arithmetic1 or geography1 or 
history1 or anything else that one would
 teach1 immediately from the textbook   
into the mind of the child4 ,the subject
 must first come to be very fully and   
completely a true possession of the     
teacher4 ,the successful teacher must   

also know vastly more of a subject than 
he is required to teach4 ,for only then 
has he freedom2 only then has he outlook
 and perspective2 only then can he teach
 the subject1 and not some particular   
textbook2 only then can he inspire      
others to effort and achievement through
 his own mastery and interest4          
,enthusiasm is caught and not taught4   
,the teacher must know the technique of 
instruction4 ,for teaching is an art1   
based upon scientific principles and    
requiring practice to secure skill4 ,one
 of the greatest tasks of the teacher is
 to psychologize the subject-matter for 
his pupils1--that is1 so to select1     
organize1 and present it that the       
child's mind naturally and easily grasps
 and appropriates it4 ,teaching1 when it
 has become an art1 which is to say1    
when the teacher has become an artist1  
is one of the most highly skilled       
vocations4 ,it is as much more difficult
 than medicine as the human mind is more
 baffling than the human body2 it is as 

much more difficult than preaching as   
the child is harder to comprehend and   
guide than the adult2 it is as much more
 difficult than the law as life is more 
complex than logic4  ,yet1 while we     
require the highest type of preparation 
for medicine1 the ministry1 or the law1 
we require but little for teaching4 ,we 
pay enormous salaries to trained experts
 to apply the principles of scientific  
management to our industries or our     
business1 but we have been satisfied    
with inexpert service for the teaching  
of our children4 ,we are making fortunes
 out of the stoppage of waste in our    
factories1 but allowing enormous waste  
to continue in our schools4 ,if we were 
to put into practice in teaching the    
thoroughly demonstrated and accepted    
scientific principles of education as we
 know them1 we could beyond doubt double
 the educational results attained by our
 children4   ,teaching in the rural     
school  ,the criticisms just made on our
 standards of teaching will apply in    

some degree to all our schools from the 
kindergarten to the university2 but they
 apply more strongly to the rural       
schools than to any other class4 ,for   
the rural schools are the               
training-ground for young1              
inexperienced1 and relatively unprepared
 teachers4 ,except for the comparatively
 small proportion of the town or city   
teachers who are normal school or       
college trained1 nearly all have served 
an apprenticeship in the rural schools4 
,thus the rural school1 besides its     
other handicaps1 is called upon to train
 teachers for the more favored urban    
schools4  ,careful statistical studies#e
 have shown that many rural teachers1   
both men and women1 have had no training
 beyond that of the elementary school4  
,and not infrequently this training has 
taken place in the rural school of the  
type in which they themselves take up   
teaching4 ,the average schooling of the 
men teaching in the rural schools of the
 entire country is less than two years  

above the elementary school1 and of     
women1 slightly more than two years4    
,this is to say that our rural schools  
are taught by those who have had only   
about half of a high school course4  ,it
 is evident1 therefore1 that the rural  
teacher cannot meet the requirement     
urged above in the way of preparation4  
,he does not know his subject-matter4   
,not only has he not gone far enough in 
his education to have a substantial     
foundation1 breadth of view1 and mental 
perspective1 but he frequently lacks in 
the simplest rudiments of the immediate 
subject-matter which he is supposed to  
teach4 ,the examination papers written  
by applicants for certificates to begin 
rural school teaching often betray a    
woful ignorance of the most fundamental 
knowledge4 ,inability to spell1         
punctuate1 or effectively use the       
,english language is common4 ,the most  
elementary scientific truths are        
frequently unknown4 ,a connected view of
 our nation's history and knowledge of  

current events are not always possessed4
 ,the great world of literature is too  
often a closed book4 ,and not seldom the
 simple relations of arithmetical number
 are beyond the grasp of the applicant4 
,in short1 our rural schools1 as they   
average1 require no adequate preparation
 of the teacher1 and do not represent as
 much education in their teaching force 
as that needed by the intelligent       
farmer1 merchant1 or tradesman4  ,the   
rural teacher does not know the child4  
,but little more than children          
themselves1 and with little chance for  
observation or for experience in life1  
it would be strange if they did4 ,they  
have had no opportunity for professional
 study1 and psychology and the science  
of education are unknown to them4 ,the  
attempts made to remedy this fatal      
weakness by the desultory reading of a  
volume or two in a voluntary            
reading-circle course do not serve the  
purpose4 ,the teacher needs a thorough  
course of instruction in general and    

applied psychology1 under the tutelage  
of an enthusiastic expert who not only  
knows his subject1 but also understands 
the problems of the teacher4  ,the rural
 teacher does not know the technique of 
the schoolroom4 ,the organizing of a    
school1 the proper classification of    
pupils1 the assignment of studies1 the  
arrangement of a program of studies and 
recitation1 the applications of suitable
 regulations and rules for the running  
of the school1 are all matters requiring
 expert knowledge and skill4 ,yet the   
rural teacher has to undertake them     
without instruction in their principles 
and without supervisory guidance or     
help4 ,no wonder that the rural school  
is poorly organized and managed4 ,it    
presents problems of administration more
 puzzling than the town school1 and yet 
here is where we put out our novices1   
boys and girls not yet out of their     
teens--young people who themselves have 
no concept of the problems of the       
school1 no knowledge of its complex     

machinery1 and no experience to serve as
 a guide in confronting their work4 ,no 
industrial enterprise could exist under 
such irrational conditions2 and neither 
could the schools1 except that mental   
waste and bankruptcy are harder to      
measure than economic4  ,nor does the   
rural teacher know the technique of     
instruction any better than that of     
organization and management4 ,the       
skillful conducting of a recitation is  
at least as severe a test upon mental   
resourcefulness and skill as making a   
speech1 preaching a sermon1 or          
conducting a lawsuit4 ,for not only must
 the subject-matter be organized for    
immature minds unused to the formal     
processes of learning1 but the effects  
of instruction upon the child's mind    
must constantly be watched by the       
teacher and interpreted with reference  
to further instruction4 ,this skill     
cannot be attained empirically1 by the  
cut-and-dried method1 except at a       
frightful cost to the children4 ,it is  

as if we were to turn a set of          
intelligent but untrained men loose in  
the community with their scalpels and   
their medicine cases to learn to be     
surgeons and doctors by experimenting   
upon their fellows4  ,as would naturally
 be expected1 therefore1 the teaching in
 the average rural school is a dreary   
round of inefficiency4 ,handicapped to  
begin with by classes too small to be   
interesting1 the rural teacher is       
mechanically hearing the recitations of 
some twenty-five to thirty of these     
classes per day4 ,lacking at the        
beginning the breadth of education that 
would make teaching easy1 he finds it   
impossible to prepare for so many       
different exercises daily4 ,the result  
is that the recitations are dull1       
spiritless1 uninteresting4 ,the lessons 
are poorly prepared by the pupils1      
poorly recited1 and hence very          
imperfectly mastered4 ,the more advanced
 work cannot stand on such a foundation 
of sand1 and so1 discouraged1 the child 

soon drops out of school4  ,when it is  
also remembered that the tenure of      
service of the teacher is very short in 
the rural schools1 the problem becomes  
all the more grave4 ,the average term of
 service in the rural schools is        
probably not above two years1 and in    
many ,states considerably below this    
amount4 ,this requires that half of the 
rural teachers each year shall be       
beginners4 ,it will be impossible1 of   
course1 as long as teaching is done so  
largely by girls1 who naturally will1   
and should1 soon quit teaching for      
marriage1 to secure a long period of    
service in the vocation4 ,yet the rural 
school is1 as we have seen1 also        
constantly losing its trained teachers  
to the town and city1 and hence breaking
 in more than its share of novices4     
,added to the disadvantage inevitably   
coming from the brief period of service 
in teaching is a similar one growing out
 of a faulty method of administration4  
,in a large majority of our rural       

schools the contract is made for but one
 term of not more than three months4    
,this leaves the teacher free to accept 
another school at the end of the term1  
and not infrequently a school will have 
two or even three different teachers    
within the same year4 ,there is a great 
source of waste at this point1 owing to 
a change of methods1 repetition of work1
 and the necessity of starting a new    
system of school machinery4 ,industrial 
concerns would hardly find it profitable
 to change superintendents and foremen  
several times a year4 ,we do this in our
 schools only because we have not yet   
learned that it pays to apply rational  
business methods to education4  ,nothing
 that has been said in criticism of     
rural teaching ought to be construed as 
a reflection on the rural teachers      
personally4 ,the fact that they can     
succeed as well as they do under        
conditions that are so adverse is the   
best warrant for their intelligence and 
devotion4 ,it is not their fault that   

they begin teaching with inadequate     
knowledge of subject-matter1 with       
ignorance of the nature of childhood1   
and without skill in the technique of   
the schoolroom4 ,the system1 and not the
 individual1 is at fault4 ,the public   
demands a pitifully low standard of     
efficiency in rural teaching1 and the   
excellence of the product offered is not
 likely greatly to surpass what society 
asks and is ready to pay for4  ,once    
again we must turn to the consolidated  
school as the solution of our           
difficulty4 ,the isolated district      
school will not be able to demand and   
secure a worthy grade of preparation for
 teaching4 ,the educational standards   
will not rise high enough under this    
system to create a public demand for    
skilled teachers4 ,nor can such salaries
 be paid as will encourage thorough and 
extensive study and preparation for     
teaching4 ,and1 finally1 the            
professional incentives are not         
sufficiently strong in such schools to  

create a true craft spirit toward       
teaching4  ,while it is impossible to   
measure the improved results in teaching
 coming from the consolidated school in 
the same objective way that we can      
measure increased attendance1 yet there 
is no doubt that one of the strongest   
arguments for the consolidated school is
 its more skillful and inspiring        
teaching4 ,the increased salaries1 the  
possibility of professional association 
with other teachers1 the improved       
equipment1 the better supervision1 and  
above all1 the spirit of progress and   
enthusiasm in the school itself1 all    
serve to transform teaching from a      
treadmill routine into a joyful         
opportunity for inspiration and service4
   ,the training of rural teachers  ,the
 training of the rural teacher has never
 been given the same consideration as   
that of town or city teachers4 ,it is   
true that normal schools are available  
to all alike1 and that in a few ,states 
the rural schools secure a considerable 

number of teachers who have had some    
normal training4 ,but this is the       
exception rather than the rule4 ,in the 
,middle ,western ,states1 for example1  
where there is a rich agricultural      
population1 whole counties can be found 
in which no rural teacher has ever had  
any special training for his work4      
,professional requirements have been on 
a par with the meager salaries paid1 and
 other incentives have not been strong  
enough to insure adequate preparation4  
,state normal schools have1 therefore1  
been of comparatively little assistance 
in fitting teachers for the rural       
school4 ,first of all the rural school  
teacher ordinarily does not go to the   
normal school1 for it is not demanded of
 him4 ,again1 if perchance a prospective
 rural teacher should attend a normal   
school1 a town or city grade position is
 usually waiting for him when he        
graduates4 ,for1 in spite of the growth 
of our normal schools1 they are as yet  
far from being able to supply all the   

teachers required for the urban grade   
positions1 to say nothing about the     
rural schools4 ,the colleges and        
universities are1 of course1 still      
further removed from the rural school1  
since the high schools stand ready to   
employ those of their graduates who     
enter upon teaching4  ,in some ,states1 
as for example1 ,wisconsin1 county      
normal schools have been established    
with the special aim of preparing       
teachers for the rural schools4 ,while  
this movement has helped1 it does not   
promise to secure wide acceptance as a  
method of dealing with the problem4     
,greater possibilities undoubtedly exist
 in the comparatively recent movement   
toward combining normal training with   
the regular high school course4         
,provision for such courses now exists  
in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1    
,texas1 ,minnesota1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1     
,nebraska1 and a number of other        
,states4  ,combining normal training    
with high school education has first of 

all the advantage of bringing such      
training to prospective teachers1       
instead of requiring the teachers to    
leave home and incur additional expense 
in seeking their training4 ,from the    
standpoint of the public it has the     
merit of economy1 in that it utilizes   
buildings1 equipment1 and organization  
already in existence instead of         
requiring new4  ,but whatever may be the
 method employed1 the rural teachers    
should receive better preparation for   
their work than they now have4 ,this    
means1 first1 that the ,state must make 
adequate provision for the teacher to   
receive his training at a minimum of    
expense and trouble2 and second1 that   
the standard of requirement must be such
 that the teacher will be obliged to    
secure adequate preparation before being
 admitted to the school4 ,even with the 
present status of our rural schools it  
is not too much to require that every   
teacher shall have had at least a       
four-year high school education1 and    

that a reasonable amount of normal      
training be had either in conjunction   
with the high school course1 or         
subsequent to its completion4 ,indiana1 
for example1 has found this requirement 
entirely feasible1 and a great influence
 in bettering the tone of the rural     
school4  ,wherever the rural teacher    
secures his training1 however1 one      
condition must obtain3 this preparation 
must familiarize him with the spirit and
 needs of the agricultural community1   
and imbue him with enthusiasm for       
service in this field4 ,it is not       
infrequently the case that town high    
school graduates1 themselves never      
having lived in the country1 possess    
neither the sympathy nor the            
understanding necessary to enable them  
to offer a high grade of service in the 
rural school4 ,not a few of them feel   
above the work of such a position1 and  
look with contempt or pity upon the life
 of the farm4 ,the successful rural     
teacher must be able to identify himself

 very completely with the interests and 
activities of the community2 nor can    
this be done in any half-hearted1       
sentimental1 or professional manner4 ,it
 must be a spontaneous and natural      
response arising from a true interest in
 the people1 a knowledge of their lives1
 and a sincere desire for their welfare4
 ,any preparation that does not result  
in this spirit1 and train in the ability
 to realize it in action1 does not fit  
for the rural school4   ,salaries of    
rural teachers  ,the salaries paid      
teachers in general in different types  
of schools are one measure1 though not a
 perfect one1 of their efficiency4      
,salary is not a perfect measure of     
efficiency1 7#a7 because economic       
ability to pay is a modifying influence4
 ,when the early ,new ,england teacher  
was receiving ten or twelve dollars a   
month and boarding round1 he was        
probably getting all that the community 
could afford to pay him1 although he was
 often a college student1 and not       

infrequently a well-trained graduate4   
,the salaries paid in the various       
occupations are not 7#b7 based upon any 
definite standards of the value of      
service4 ,for example1 the chef in a    
hotel may receive more than the         
superintendent of schools1 and the      
football coach more than the college    
president2 yet we would hardly want to  
conclude that the services of the cook  
and the athlete are worth more to       
society than the services of educators4 
,and within the vocation of teaching    
itself there is 7#c7 no fixed standard  
for judging teaching efficiency4        
,nevertheless1 in general1 teaching     
efficiency is in considerable degree    
measured by differences in salaries paid
 in different localities and in the     
various levels of school work4  ,based  
on the standard of salary as a measure1 
the teaching efficiency of rural        
teachers is1 as we should expect from   
starting nearly all of our beginners    
here1 considerably below that in towns  

or cities4 ,a study by ,coffman#f of    
more than five thousand widely          
distributed teachers as to age1 sex1    
salary1 etc41 shows that the average man
 in the rural school receives an annual 
salary of #cij2 in town schools1 of     
#fac2 and in city schools1 of #iai4 ,the
 average woman in the rural school      
receives an annual salary of #cff2 in   
town schools1 of #dib2 and in city      
schools1 of #eia4 ,men in towns1        
therefore1 receive one and one half     
times as much as men in the country1 and
 in cities1 two and one half times as   
much as in the country4 ,women in towns 
receive a little more than one and one  
third times as much as women in the     
country1 and in the cities almost one   
and two thirds times as much as women in
 the country4  ,the actual amount of    
salary paid rural teachers is perhaps   
more instructive than the comparative   
amounts4 ,the income of the rural       
teacher is barely a living wage1 and not
 even that if the teacher has no        

parental home1 or a gainful occupation  
during vacation times4 ,out of an amount
 of less than four hundred dollars a    
year the teacher is expected to pay for 
a certificate1 a few school journals and
 professional books1 and attend teachers
 institutes or conventions1 besides     
supporting himself as a teacher ought to
 live4 ,it does not need argument to    
show that this meager salary forces a   
standard of living too low for          
efficiency4 ,it would1 therefore1 be    
unfair to ask for efficiency with the   
present standard of salaries4  ,nor is  
it to be overlooked that efficiency and 
salaries must mount upward together4 ,it
 would be as unjust to ask for higher   
salaries without increasing the grade of
 efficiency as to ask for efficiency on 
the present salary basis4 ,it is        
probable that the eighteen- or          
nineteen-year-old boys and girls        
starting in to teach the rural school1  
with but little preparation above the   
elementary grades1 are receiving all    

they are worth1 at least as compared    
with what they could earn in other      
lines4 ,the great point of difficulty is
 that they are not worth enough4 ,the   
community cannot afford to buy the kind 
of educational service they are         
qualified to offer2 it would be a vastly
 better investment for the public to buy
 higher teaching efficiency at larger   
salaries4  ,no statistics are available 
to show the exact percentage of increase
 in rural teachers' salaries during     
recent years1 but this increase has been
 considerable2 and the tendency is still
 upward4 ,in this as in other features  
of the rural school problem1 however1 it
 will be impossible to meet reasonable  
demands without forsaking the rural     
district system for a more centralized  
system of consolidated schools4 ,to pay 
adequate salaries to the number of      
teachers now required for the thousands 
of small rural schools would be too     
heavy a drain on our economic resources4
 ,under the consolidated system a       

considerably smaller number of teachers 
is required1 and these can receive      
higher salaries without greatly         
increasing the amount expended for      
teaching4 ,in this as in other phases of
 our educational problems1 what is      
needed is rational business method1 and 
a willingness to devote a fair          
proportion of our wealth to the         
education of the young4   ,supervision  
of rural teaching  ,our rural school    
teaching has never had efficient        
supervision4 ,the very nature of rural  
school organization has rendered expert 
supervision impossible1 no matter how   
able the supervising officer might be4  
,with slight modifications1 the office  
of county superintendent is1 throughout 
the country1 typical of the attempt to  
provide supervision for the rural       
school4 ,while such a system may have   
afforded all that could be expected in  
the pioneer days1 its inadequacy to meet
 present-day demands is almost too      
patent to require discussion4  ,first of

 all1 it is physically impossible for a 
county superintendent to visit and      
supervise one hundred and fifty teachers
 at work in as many different schools   
scattered over four or five hundred     
square miles of territory4 ,if he were  
to devote all his time to visiting      
country schools1 he would have only one 
day to each school per year4 ,when it is
 remembered that the county             
superintendent must also attend to an   
office that has a large amount of       
correspondence and clerical work1 that  
he is usually commissioned with         
authority to oversee the building of all
 schoolhouses in his county1 that he    
must act as judge in hearing appeals in 
school disputes1 that he must conduct   
all teachers' examinations and in many  
instances grade the papers1 and1        
finally1 that country roads are often   
impassable1 it is seen that his time for
 supervision is greatly curtailed4 ,as a
 matter of fact some rural schools      
receive no visit from the county        

superintendent for several years at a   
time4  ,a still further obstacle comes  
from the fact of the frequent changes of
 teachers among rural schools4 ,a       
teacher visited by the county           
superintendent in a certain school this 
term1 and advised as to how best to meet
 its problems1 is likely to be in a     
different school next term1 and required
 to meet an entirely new set of         
problems4  ,this is all very different  
from the problem of supervision met by  
the town or city superintendent4 ,for   
the town or city district is of small   
area1 and the schools few and close     
together4 ,if the number of teachers is 
large1 the superintendent is assisted by
 principals of different schools1 and by
 deputies4 ,the teaching force is better
 prepared1 and hence requires less close
 supervision4 ,school standards are     
higher1 and the coperation of patrons   
more easily secured4 ,the course of     
study is better organized1 the schools  
better graded and equipped1 and all     

other conditions more favorable to      
efficient supervision4 ,it would not1   
therefore1 be just to compare the       
results of supervision in the country   
districts with those in urban schools   
without making full allowance for these 
fundamental differences4  ,the county   
superintendent is in many ,states       
discriminated against in salary as      
compared with other county officers1    
and1 as a rule1 no provision is made to 
compensate for traveling expenses       
incurred in visiting schools4 ,this1 in 
effect1 places a financial penalty on   
the work of supervision1 as the         
superintendent can remain in his office 
with considerably less expense to       
himself than when he is out among the   
schools4 ,in some instances1 however1 an
 allowance is made for traveling        
expenses in addition to the regular     
salary1 thus encouraging the visiting of
 schools1 or at least removing the      
handicap existing under the older       
system4 ,an attempt has also been made  

in some ,states to relieve the county   
superintendent of the greater part of   
the clerical work of his office by      
employing for him at county expense a   
clerk for this purpose4 ,these two      
provisions have proved of great help to 
the supervisory function of the county  
superintendent's work1 but the task yet 
looms up in impossible magnitude4  ,the 
county superintendency is throughout the
 country almost universally a political 
office4 ,in some ,states1 as1 for       
example1 in ,indiana1 it is appointive  
by a non-partisan board4 ,but1 in       
general1 the candidate of the prevailing
 party1 or the one who is the best      
mixer1 secures the office regardless of 
qualifications4 ,sharing the fortunes of
 other political offices1 the county    
superintendency frequently has applied  
to it the unwritten party rule of two   
terms and out1 thus crippling the       
efficiency of the office by frequent    
changes of administration and           
uncertainty of tenure4  ,no fixed       

educational or professional standard of 
preparation for the county              
superintendency exists in the different 
,states4 ,if some reasonably high       
standard were required1 it would do much
 to lessen the mischievous effects of   
making it a political office4 ,in a     
large proportion of cases the county    
superintendent is only required to hold 
a middle-class certificate1 and has     
enjoyed no better educational facilities
 than dozens of the teachers he is to   
supervise4 ,the author has conducted    
teachers' institutes in the ,middle     
,west for county superintendents who had
 never attended an institute or taught a
 term of school4 ,the salary and        
professional opportunities of the office
 are not sufficiently attractive to draw
 men from the better school positions2  
hence the great majority of county      
superintendents come from the village   
principalships1 the grades of town      
schools1 or even from the rural schools4
  ,a marked tendency of recent years has

 been to elect women as county          
superintendents4 ,in ,iowa1 for example1
 half of the present county             
superintendents are women1 and the      
proportion is increasing4 ,in not a few 
instances women have made exceptional   
records as county superintendents1 and1 
as a whole1 are loyally devoted to their
 work4 ,they suffer one disadvantage in 
this office1 however1 which is hard to  
overcome3 they find it impossible1      
without undue exposure1 to travel about 
the county during the cold and stormy   
weather of winter or when the roads are 
soaked with the spring rains4 ,whether  
they will be able to effect the desired 
cordination between the rural school and
 the agricultural interests of the      
community is a question yet to be       
settled4  ,in spite of the limitations  
of the office of county superintendent1 
however1 it must not be thought that    
this office has played an unimportant   
part in our educational development4 ,it
 has exerted a marked influence in the  

upbuilding of our schools1 and          
accomplished this under the most        
unfavorable and discouraging            
circumstances4 ,among its occupants have
 been some of the most able and         
efficient men and women engaged in our  
school system4 ,but the time has come in
 our educational advancement when the   
rural schools should have better        
supervision than they are now getting or
 can get under the present system4  ,the
 first step in improving the            
supervision1 as in improving so many    
other features of the rural schools1 is 
the reorganization of the system through
 consolidation1 and the consequent      
reduction in the number of schools to be
 supervised4 ,the next step is to remove
 the supervising office as far as       
possible from practical politics by     
making it appointive by a non-partisan  
county board1 who will be at liberty to 
go anywhere for a superintendent1 who   
will be glad to pay a good salary1 and  
who will seek to retain a superintendent

 in office as long as he is rendering   
acceptable service to the county4 ,the  
third step is to raise the standard of  
fitness for the office so that the      
incumbent may be a true intellectual    
leader among the teachers and people of 
his county4 ,nor can this preparation be
 of the scholastic type alone1 but must 
be of such character as to adapt its    
possessor to the spirit and ideals of an
 agricultural people4  ,a wholly        
efficient system of supervision of rural
 teaching1 then1 would be possible only 
in a system of consolidated schools1    
each under the immediate direction of a 
principal1 himself thoroughly educated  
and especially qualified to carry on the
 work of a school adapted to rural      
needs4 ,over these schools would be the 
supervision of the county               
superintendent1 who will stand in the   
same relation to the principals as that 
of the city superintendent to his ward  
or high school principals4 ,the county  
superintendent will serve to unify and  

correlate the work of the different     
consolidated schools1 and to relate all 
to the life and work of the farm4  ,if  
it is said that systems of              
superintendence for rural schools could 
be devised more effective than the      
county superintendency1 this may be     
granted as a matter of theory2 but as a 
practical working program1 there is no  
doubt that the office of county         
superintendent is a permanent part of   
our rural school system1 unless the     
system itself is very radically changed4
 ,all the ,states1 except the ,new      
,england group1 ,ohio1 and ,nevada1 now 
have the office of county               
superintendent4 ,it is likely1          
therefore1 that the plan of district    
superintendence permissive under the    
laws of certain ,states will hardly     
secure wide acceptance4 ,the county as  
the unit of school administration is    
growing in favor1 and will probably     
ultimately come to characterize the     
rural school system4 ,the most natural  

step lying next ahead would1 therefore1 
seem to be to make the conditions       
surrounding the office of county        
superintendent as favorable as possible1
 and then give the superintendent a     
sufficient number of deputies to make   
the supervision effective4 ,these       
deputies should be selected1 of course1 
with reference to their fitness for     
supervising particular lines of         
teaching1 such as primary1 home         
economics1 agriculture1 etc4 ,a         
beginning has already been made in the  
latter line by the employment in some   
counties1 with the aid of the ,federal  
,government1 of an agricultural expert  
who not only instructs the farmers in   
their fields1 but also correlates his   
work with the rural schools4 ,this      
principle is capable of almost          
indefinite extension in our school      
system4   ,,footnotes3  ,footnote #e3   
,see ,coffman1 ,the ,social ,composition
 of the ,teaching ,force4  ,footnote #f3
 ,the ,social ,composition of the       

,teaching ,population4     ,,outline    
,i4 ,,the ,,rural ,,school ,,and ,,its  
,,problem   ,the ,general ,problem of   
the ,rural ,school    #a4 ,the general  
problem of the rural school identical   
with that of all schools                
#a    #b4 ,the newer concept measures   
education by efficiency           #b    
#c4 ,this efficiency involves 7#a7      
knowledge17#b7 attitude1   7#c7         
technique1 or skill                     
#c    #d4 ,the purpose of the school is 
to make sure of   these factors of      
efficiency                              
#d   ,the ,special ,problem of the      
,rural ,school    #a4 ,each type of     
school has its special problem          
#e    #b4 ,the rural school problem     
originates in the nature   of the rural 
community                               
#e    #c4 ,characteristics of the rural 
community                       #f      
a4 ,its industrial homogeneity          
#f      b4 ,its social homogeneity      
#g      c4 ,fundamental intelligence of 

the rural population         #h      d4 
,economic status and standards of living
                 #aj      e4 ,rural     
isolation and its social effects        
#aj      f4 ,rural life and physical    
efficiency                      #aa     
g4 ,lack of recreations and amusement   
#ab    #d4 ,recent tendencies toward    
progress in agricultural   pursuits     
#ab    #e4 ,the loss of rural population
 to the cities                  #ac     
,the ,adjustment of the ,rural ,school  
to its ,problem    #a4 ,failure in      
adjustment of the rural school to its   
problem    #ag    #b4 ,the rudimentary  
education received by rural children    
#ag    #c4 ,failure of the rural school 
to participate in recent   educational  
progress                                
#ah    #d4 ,the rural school inadequate 
in its scope                    #ai     
#e4 ,need of better organization in the 
rural school             #bj    #f4     
,inadequacy of rural school buildings   
and equipment          #ba    #g4 ,the  

financial support of the rural school   
#bb    #h4 ,summary and suggestions     
#bc   ,,ii4 ,,the ,,social              
,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,rural       
,,school   ,the ,rural ,school and the  
,community    #a4 ,the fundamental      
relations of school and community       
#be    #b4 ,low community standards of  
education                        #be    
#c4 ,the rural community's need of a    
social center               #bf      a4 
,its social isolation a serious drawback
                 #bg      b4 ,grave     
moral dangers arising from social       
isolation       #bh      c4 ,rural      
environment more dangerous to youth     
than city environment                   
#bi      d4 ,effects of monotony on     
adults                           #cj    
#d4 ,the rural school as a social center
                         #cj    #e4 ,the
 ideal rural school building and        
equipment               #cb    #f4      
,social activities centering in the     
school                   #cc    #g4     

,reorganization needed to make the rural
 school   effective as a social and     
intellectual center                  #cd
   ,the ,consolidation of ,rural        
,schools    #a4 ,consolidation the first
 step toward rural school   efficiency  
#ce    #b4 ,irrationality of present    
district system                    #cf  
#c4 ,obstacles in the way of            
consolidation                       #cg 
#d4 ,the present movement toward        
consolidation                   #ch     
#e4 ,effects of consolidation           
#dj      a4 ,on attendance              
#da      b4 ,on expense                 
#da      c4 ,on efficiency              
#db    #f4 ,the one-room school yet     
needed as a part of the   rural system  
#db   ,financial ,support of the ,rural 
,school    #a4 ,lack of adequate        
financial support of rural schools      
#dc    #b4 ,difference in city and rural
 basis for taxation             #dd     
#c4 ,low school tax characteristic of   
rural communities          #de    #d4   

,state aid for rural schools            
#df    #e4 ,safeguards required where   
the principle of state   aid is supplied
                                        
#dg    #f4 ,summary and conclusion      
#dh   ,the ,rural ,school and its       
,pupils    #a4 ,the spirit of the pupils
 as a test of the school            #ej 
#b4 ,the negative attitude of rural     
pupils toward their school   #ea    #c4 
,causes of this defection to be sought  
in the school         #ea    #d4 ,the   
problem of poor rural school attendance 
#eb    #e4 ,the consolidated school as a
 cure for indifferent   attitude and    
poor attendance                         
#ec   ,,iii4 ,,the ,,curriculum ,,of    
,,the ,,rural ,,school   ,the ,scope of 
the ,rural ,school ,curriculum    #a4   
,the modern demand for a broader        
education                   #eg    #b4  
,the meagerness of the rural school     
curriculum               #eh    #c4 ,the
 rural child requires full elementary   
and high   school course                

#fj    #d4 ,disadvantages of sending    
rural child to town school         #fj  
#e4 ,necessary reorganization in rural  
school offering   broadened curriculum  
#fb    #f4 ,general nature of the new   
curriculum                        #fb   
,the ,rural ,elementary ,school         
,curriculum    #a4 ,relation of the     
curriculum to social standards   and    
ideals                                  
#fd    #b4 ,the mother tongue           
#fe      a4 ,necessity for its mastery  
#fe      b4 ,learning the mechanics of  
the language                  #ff       
c4 ,developing the art of expression1   
oral and     written                    
#fg      d4 ,creation of love for       
reading                            #fg  
e4 ,formal grammar out of place in the  
elementary     school                   
#fh    #c4 ,number                      
#fi      a4 ,the prominent place        
occupied by arithmetic              #fi 
b4 ,importance of development of the    
number concept         #fi      c4 ,an  

undue proportion of time devoted to     
arithmetic       #gj      d4 ,desirable 
changes in the teaching of arithmetic   
#ga    #d4 ,history and civics          
#ga      a4 ,the right and duty of every
 person to know     the history and     
government of his country               
#gb      b4 ,history not to deal chiefly
 with war and     politics1 but to      
emphasize the social and industrial side
    #gb      c4 ,the library of         
historical books                        
#gc      d4 ,functional versus          
analytical civics                       
#gc    #e4 ,geography and nature study  
#gd      a4 ,advantage of the rural     
school in this field             #gd    
b4 ,the social basis of geography       
#ge      c4 ,application of geography   
and nature study     to the farm        
#ge    #f4 ,hygiene and health          
#gf      a4 ,criticism of older concept 
of physiology for     the elementary    
school                                  
#gf      b4 ,content of practical course

 in hygiene                  #gg      c4
 ,application of hygiene to the child's 
health     and growth                   
#gg    #g4 ,agriculture                 
#gh      a4 ,adaptability to the rural  
elementary school             #gh       
b4 ,content of the elementary course in 
agriculture         #gi      c4         
,relation to farm life                  
#gi    #h4 ,domestic science and manual 
training                        #gi     
a4 ,place in elementary rural school    
#hj      b4 ,what can be taught         
#hj      c4 ,its practical application  
#hj    #i4 ,music and art               
#ha      a4 ,necessity in a             
well-balanced curriculum                
#ha      b4 ,appreciation rather than   
criticism the aim              #ha      
#aj4 ,physical training                 
#ha      a4 ,need of physical training  
of rural children             #hb       
b4 ,rural school athletics              
#hb   ,the ,rural ,high ,school         
,curriculum    #a4 ,rural high schools  

not yet common                          
#hc    #b4 ,the functions of the rural  
high school                      #hd    
#c4 ,english in the rural high school   
#hd      a4 ,its aim                    
#he      b4 ,points of difference from  
present high school     course          
#hf    #d4 ,social science to have an   
applied trend                     #hf   
#e4 ,the material sciences as related to
 the problems   of the farm             
#hg    #f4 ,manual training and domestic
 science                        #hi     
#g4 ,a modified course in high school   
mathematics                #hi    #h4   
,foreign language not to occupy an      
important place           #ij    #i4    
,the high school course to include music
 and art             #ij   ,,iv4 ,,the  
,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,rural ,,school  
,the ,importance of ,teaching    #a4    
,teaching the fundamental purpose of the
 school              #ib    #b4 ,the    
child and the subject-matter            
#ib    #c4 ,the teacher as an           

intermediary between child   and        
subject-matter                          
#ic    #d4 ,hence the teacher must know 
the nature of the child         #id     
#e4 ,the teacher must know the          
subject-matter of education       #ie   
#f4 ,failure to measure up to this      
requirement                   #ig       
,teaching in the ,rural ,school    #a4  
,the degree of training of rural        
teachers in the   subject-matter        
#ih    #b4 ,present lack of professional
 training                      #ajj     
#c4 ,the effects of inexperience        
#aja    #d4 ,short tenure of service in 
rural schools                   #ajb    
#e4 ,level of teaching efficiency low   
#ajc    #f4 ,improvement through        
consolidated schools                    
#ajd   ,the ,training of ,rural         
,teachers    #a4 ,inexperienced and     
untrained teachers begin in   the rural 
schools                                 
#aje    #b4 ,normal schools supply few  
teachers to rural schools        #ajf   

#c4 ,a reasonable demand for training of
 rural teachers         #ajg    #d4     
,rural teacher training in normal high  
schools              #ajg    #e4 ,the   
rural teacher's training must be adapted
 to   spirit of rural school            
#ajh   ,salaries of ,rural ,teachers    
#a4 ,salary as a measure of efficiency  
#aji    #b4 ,salaries of rural teachers 
compared with town   and city teachers  
#aaj    #c4 ,necessity of increased     
salaries                            #aaa
    #d4 ,increase in salary and in      
efficiency must go together      #aaa   
#e4 ,salaries in consolidated schools   
#aab   ,supervision of ,rural ,teaching 
#a4 ,impossibility of giving district   
schools efficient   supervision         
#aab    #b4 ,obstacle in number of      
schools and frequent   change of        
teachers                                
#aac    #c4 ,comparison of work of      
county superintendent   with city       
superintendent                          
#aad    #d4 ,political handicaps on     

county superintendent               #aae
    #e4 ,the necessity of better        
educational standards   and better      
salary for the county superintendent    
#aaf    #f4 ,women as county            
superintendents                         
#aaf    #g4 ,efficient supervision      
possible only under a consolidated      
system                                  
#aag     ,,riverside ,,educational      
,,monographs  ,,general ,,educational   
,,theory   ,,dewey',s ,,moral           
,,principles ,,in ,,education           
4#ce  ,,eliot',s ,,education ,,for      
,,efficiency                            
4#ce  ,,eliot',s ,,tendency ,,to ,,the  
,,concrete ,,and ,,practical ,,in       
,,modern ,,education                    
4#ce  ,,emerson',s ,,education          
4#ce  ,,fiske',s ,,the ,,meaning ,,of   
,,infancy                               
4#ce  ,,hyde',s ,,the ,,teacher',s      
,,philosophy                            
4#ce  ,,palmer',s ,,the ,,ideal         
,,teacher                               

4#ce  ,,prosser',s ,,the ,,teacher ,,and
 ,,old ,,age                            
4#fj  ,,terman',s ,,the ,,teacher',s    
,,health                                
4#fj  ,,thorndike',s ,,individuality    
4#ce    ,,administration ,,and          
,,supervision ,,of ,,schools            
,,betts',s ,,new ,,ideals ,,in ,,rural  
,,schools                        4#fj   
,,bloomfield',s ,,vocational ,,guidance 
,,of ,,youth                  4#fj      
,,cabot',s ,,volunteer ,,help ,,to ,,the
 ,,schools                      4#fj    
,,cole',s ,,industrial ,,education ,,in 
,,elementary ,,schools          4#ce    
,,cubberley',s ,,changing ,,conceptions 
,,of ,,education              4#ce      
,,cubberley',s ,,the ,,improvement ,,of 
,,rural ,,schools               4#ce    
,,lewis',s ,,democracy',s ,,high        
,,school                            4#fj
  ,,perry',s ,,status ,,of ,,the        
,,teacher                               
4#ce  ,,snedden',s ,,the ,,problem ,,of 
,,vocational ,,education                

4#ce  ,,trowbridge',s ,,the ,,home      
,,school                                
4#fj  ,,weeks',s ,,the ,,people',s      
,,school                                
4#fj    ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching       
,,bailey',s ,,art ,,education           
4#fj  ,,betts',s ,,the ,,recitation     
4#fj  ,,campagnac',s ,,the ,,teaching   
,,of ,,composition                      
4#ce  ,,cooley',s ,,language ,,teaching 
,,in ,,the ,,grades                     
4#ce  ,,dewey',s ,,interest ,,and       
,,effort ,,in ,,education               
4#fj  ,,earhart',s ,,teaching ,,children
 ,,to ,,study                       4#fj
  ,,evans',s ,,teaching ,,of ,,high     
,,school ,,mathematics                  
4#ce  ,,fairchild',s ,,the ,,teaching   
,,of ,,poetry ,,in ,,the ,,high ,,school
  ,,haliburton ,,and ,,smith',s         
,,teaching ,,poetry ,,in ,,the ,,grades 
4#fj  ,,hartwell',s ,,the ,,teaching    
,,of ,,history                          
4#ce  ,,haynes',s ,,economics ,,in ,,the
 ,,secondary ,,school                   

4#fj  ,,kilpatrick',s ,,the ,,montessori
 ,,system ,,examined                4#ce
  ,,palmer',s ,,ethical ,,and ,,moral   
,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,schools      
4#ce  ,,palmer',s ,,self-,,cultivation  
,,in ,,english                          
4#ce  ,,suzzallo',s ,,the ,,teaching    
,,of ,,primary ,,arithmetic             
4#fj  ,,suzzallo',s ,,the ,,teaching    
,,of ,,spelling                         
4#fj     ,,riverside ,,textbooks ,,in   
,,education  ,edited by ,,ellwood ,p4   
,,cubberley1 ,head of the ,department of
 ,education1 ,leland ,stanford1 ,jr41   
,university4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,the editor and   
the publishers have most carefully      
planned this series to meet the needs of
 students of education in colleges and  
universities1 in normal schools1 and in 
teachers' training courses in high      
schools4 ,the books will also be equally
 well adapted to teachers' reading      
circles and to the wide-awake1          
professionally ambitious superintendent 

and teacher4 ,each book presented in the
 series will embody the results of the  
latest research1 and will be at the same
 time both scientifically accurate1 and 
simple1 clear1 and interesting in style4
  ,the ,riverside ,textbooks in         
,education will eventually contain books
 on the following subjects3--  #a4      
,history of ,education4--#b4 ,public    
,education in ,america4--#c4 ,theory of 
,education4--#d4 ,principles of         
,teaching4--#e4 ,school and ,class      
,management4--#f4 ,school ,hygiene4--#g4
 ,school ,administration4--#h4          
,secondary ,education4--#i4 ,educational
 ,psychology4--#aj4 ,educational        
,sociology4--#aa4 ,the                  
,curriculum4--#ab4 ,special ,methods4   
,now ,ready  99,,rural ,,life ,,and     
,,education4       ,by ,,ellwood ,p4    
,,cubberley4 #a4ej net4 ,postpaid4      
,illustrated4  99,,the ,,hygiene ,,of   
,,the ,,school ,,child4       ,by       
,,lewis ,m4 ,,terman1 ,associate        
,professor of ,education1 ,leland       

,stanford ,junior ,university4 #a4fe    
net4 ,postpaid4 ,illustrated4  99,,the  
,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,educational    
,,ideal4       ,by ,,mabel ,,irene      
,,emerson1 ,first ,assistant in ,charge1
 ,george ,bancroft      ,school1        
,boston4 #a4jj net4 ,postpaid4          
99,,health ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,schools4 
,by ,,ernest ,b4 ,,hoag1 ,medical       
,director1 ,long ,beach ,city ,schools1 
,california1 and ,,lewis ,m4 ,,terman4  
,illustrated4 #a4fj net4      ,postpaid4
  ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company        
,,boston   ,,new ,,york   ,,chicago     
,the ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,professional
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 of ,education         99       99      
99       99       99  ,,theory ,,and    
,,principles ,,of ,,education           
,,american ,,education       ,by        
,,andrew ,s4 ,,draper1 ,commissioner of 
,education of the ,state of ,new        
,york4 ,with an ,introduction by        
,,nicholas ,,murray ,,butler1 ,president
 of      ,columbia ,university4 #b4jj1  

net4 ,postpaid4  ,,growth ,,and         
,,education       ,by ,,john ,m4        
,,tyler1 ,professor of ,biology in      
,amherst ,college4 #a4ej1      net4     
,postpaid4  ,,social ,,development ,,and
 ,,education       ,by ,m4 ,,vincent    
,o',,shea1 ,professor of ,education in  
the ,university of      ,wisconsin4     
#b4jj1 net4 ,postpaid4  ,,the           
,,principles ,,of ,,education       ,by 
,,william ,c4 ,,ruediger1 ,ph4 ,d41     
,assistant ,professor of ,educational   
,psychology in the ,teachers ,college of
 the ,george ,washington                
,university4 #a4be1 net4 ,postpaid4     
,,the ,,individual ,,in ,,the ,,making  
,by ,,edwin ,a4 ,,kirkpatrick1 ,teacher 
of ,psychology1 ,child ,study and       
,school ,laws1 ,state ,normal ,school1  
,fitchburg1 ,mass4 #a4be1 net4          
,postpaid4  ,a ,,theory ,,of ,,motives1 
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,,education       ,by ,,william ,e4     
,,chancellor1 ,superintendent of        
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net4 ,postpaid4  ,,education ,,and ,,the
 ,,larger ,,life       ,by ,c4 ,,hanford
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cents4  ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,and        
,,teaching ,,how ,,to ,,study       ,by 
,,frank ,,mcmurry1 ,professor of        
,elementary ,education in ,teachers     
,college1 ,columbia ,university4 #a4be1 
net4 ,postpaid4     ,the ,,houghton     
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99       99       99       99       99  
,,beginnings ,,in ,,industrial          
,,education       ,by ,,paul ,h4        
,,hanus1 ,professor of the ,history and 
,art of ,teaching in      ,harvard      
,university4 #a4jj1 net4 ,postpaid4     
,,practical ,,aspects ,,and ,,problems  
,,ethics ,,for ,,children4 ,a ,guide for
 ,teachers and ,parents       ,by ,,ella
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,massachusetts ,board of                
,education4 #a4be1 net4 ,postpaid4      
,,character ,,building ,,in ,,school    
,by ,,jane ,,brownlee1 formerly         

,principal of ,lagrange ,school1        
,toledo1      ,ohio4 #afmo4 #a4jj1 net4 
,postpaid4  ,,how ,,to ,,tell ,,stories 
,,to ,,children       ,by ,,sara ,,cone 
,,bryant4 #a4jj1 net4 ,postpaid4        
,,talks ,,on ,,teaching ,,literature    
,by ,,arlo ,,bates1 ,professor of       
,english ,literature in the             
,massachusetts      ,institute of       
,technology4 ,professor ,bates is also  
the author of      ,talks on the ,study 
of ,literature1 ,talks on ,writing      
,english1      etc4 #a4cj1 net4         
,postpaid4  ,,literature ,,and ,,life   
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,,the ,,kindergarten       ,by ,,susan  
,,blow1 ,,patty ,,hill1 and ,,elizabeth 
,,harrison1 assisted by      other      
members of the ,committee of ,nineteen  
of the ,international      ,kindergarten
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,,wheelock and an      ,introduction by 

,,annie ,,laws1 ,chairman of the        
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