,,lessons ,,on ,,soil ,,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,russell1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond47 ,,goldsmi? ,,company',s ,,soil ,,*emi/1 ,,ro?am/$ ,,exp]im5tal ,,/ation ,cambridge3 at ! ,univ]sity ,press #aiaa ,transcrib]'s note3 ,page numb]s 9 ?is book are indicat$ by numb]s enclos$ 9 curly braces1 e4g4 #ii4 ,!y h be5 locat$ :]e page breaks occurr$ 9 ! orig9al book1 9 accordance ) ,project ,gut5b]g's ,,faq-,v-#ii4 ,9 ! ,,html v]sion ( ?is book1 page numb]s are plac$ 9 ! left m>g94 v ,,preface ,! ,syndics ( ! ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press propose to issue a ,nature ,/udy ,s]ies ( :i* ?is is ! fir/ volume4 ,we c\nt ourselves =tunate 9 secur+ ,dr ,e4 ,j4 ,russell z au?or & ,soil z subject4 ,! subject is fundam5tal1 =1 j z ! soil lies b5ea? ! plant & animal life we see1 s is a k ( ! soil necess>y = all und]/&+ ( flora & fauna4 ,! real complexity ( ! app>5tly simple elem5t ,e>?1 & ! v>iety ( me?ods requir$ = explor+ x1 are typical ( ! problems :i* ! t\t ensemble ( ! outdoor _w pres5ts to ! naturali/4 ,dr ,e4 ,j4 ,russell has n only acquir$ a fir/-rate & fir/-h& k ( 8 subject at ,wye & at ,ro?am/$2 8 own rese>*es h rec5tly ext5d$ our k ( ! micro-organisms 9 ! soil & _! influ5ce on f]tility4 ,fur!r1 :at is v mu* to our purpose1 he has himself _h practical exp]i5ce 9 tea*+ at an elem5t>y s*ool 9 ,wye & at a second>y s*ool 9 ,h>p5d54 ,j at ! pres5t mom5t1 ,c\nty ,c\ncils are try+ to pu% rural education & to awak5 ! intellig5ce ( c\ntry *ildr5 by int]e/+ !m 9 _! surr\nd+s4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a fav\rable opportunity to (f] ^! pages z a concrete sugge/ion 9 model lessons & object lessons1 %[+ exactly :at c be done "u exi/+ conditions4 vi ,! book is int5d$ to help *ildr5 to /udy nature2 !re is no attempt to sub/itute book /udy = nature /udy4 ,h5ce1 :il/ !re are passages ( cont9u\s read+1 x is n a m]e read]4 ,_m tea*]s1 myself among !m1 h felt ! difficulty ( organis+ practical "w = l>ge classes4 ,dr ,russell has writt5 s t1 :il/ nom9ally %[+ ! pupil h[ to le>n1 he is secretly scatt]+ h9ts = ! tea*] :o is le>n+ h[ to tea*4 ,abundant & v>i$ practical ex]cises h be5 sugge/$1 & c>eful in/ructions h be5 giv5 s t ! book %all seem intelligible ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( a tea*]4 ,! propos$ practical "w is n only :at might be done by eag] boys & girls on half-holidays1 b :at c be done by e s*ol> 9 ! c\rse ( ord9>y s*ool "w4 ,! pictorial illu/rations are int5d$ z aids to obs]vation1 n z sub/itutes4 ,draw+ is "o =m ( practical ex]cise1 & ! prep>ation ( correspond+ illu/rations 9 ! s*ol>s' notebooks f ! app>atus us$ 9 ! classroom & ! fields ar\nd ! s*ool may af=d ex]cises 9 arti/ic "w ) p51 bru% or cam]a4 ,suffici5t directions are giv5 = ! supply ( necess>y mat]ials & app>atus4 ,! app>atus propos$ is ( ! simple/ "*4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! book w be f\nd mo/ useful 9 ! high] /&>ds ( elem5t>y s*ools1 9 prep>atory s*ools & 9 ! l[] =ms ( second>y s*ools1 t is1 :]e ! ages ( s*ol>s av]age f #ab to #ad4 ,,hugh ,,ri*>dson ,,york1 #g ,janu>y #aiaa vi ,,cont5ts ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,:at ,,is ,,! ,,soil ,,made ,,(8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a ,,ii4 ,,m ,,ab\t ,,! ,,clay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #i ,,iii4 ,,:at ,,lime ,,does ,,to ,,clay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ai ,,iv4 ,,"s ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,! ,,s& 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bb ,v4 ,,! ,,"p ,,t ,,burns ,,away 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cc ,,vi4 ,,! ,,plant ,,food ,,9 ,,! ,,soil 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #da ,,vii4 ,,! ,,dwell]s ,,9 ,,! ,,soil 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ec ,,viii4 ,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,! ,,plant 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fd ,,ix4 ,,cultivation ,,& ,,tillage 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hb ,x4 ,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,! ,,c\ntryside 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ajj ,,xi4 ,,h[ ,,soil ,,has ,,be5 ,,made 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aaf ,,app5dix 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abh ,,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #acb ,transcrib]'s note3 ,! page numb]s bel[ are ^? 9 ! orig9al book4 ,h[ev]1 9 ?is e-book1 to avoid ! splitt+ ( p>agraphs1 ! illu/rations may h be5 mov$ to ! page prec$+ or foll[+4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,soil & subsoil 9 ,/ ,george's ,s*ool g>d5 4 4 4 4 #b #b4 ,columns %[+ :at #ajj p>ts ( soil & subsoil 7 made ( 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #d #c4 ,columns %[+ :at #ajj p>ts ( dri$ soil & subsoil 7 made ( 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #h #d4 ,clay %r9ks :5 x dries 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aa #e4 ,clay swells up :5 x is plac$ 9 wat] 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ab #f4 ,l&slip 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,phot4 ,val5t9e ,son 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ac #g4 ,clay does n let wat] run ?r\gh 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ad #h4 ,s& all[s air to pass ?r\gh b clay does n 4 4 #ae #i4 ,a brick all[s bo? air & wat] to pass ?r\gh x #ag #aj4 ,lime add$ to turbid clay wat] soon makes ! clay settle 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bj #aa4 ,s& dunes1 ,p5hale1 ,cornwall4 ,phot4 ,geological ,survey 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bc #ab4 ,bl[+ s& cov]+ up mead[s & ru9+ !m4 ,phot4 ,geological ,survey 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #be #ac4 ,model ( a spr+ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bf #ad4 ,foot ( *alk hill at ,h>p5d5 :]e a spr+ breaks out4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bg #ae4 ,! little pool & ! spr+4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bh #af4 ,wat] sp\t+ up f a bore hole1 ,old ,cat]iag ,qu>ry1 ,dunb>4 ,phot4 ,geological ,survey 4 4 4 4 4 #bi #ag4 ,s&y soils 9 wet & 9 dry positions 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ca #ah4 ,map ( ! roads r\nd ,wye 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cb #ai4 ,peat bog 9 ,hoy1 ,orkney3 peat is be+ cut = fuel4 ,phot4 ,val5t9e ,son 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ci #bj4 ,rye gr[+ 9 surface soil1 subsoil1 & s& 4 4 4 4 #db #ba4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 surface soil1 subsoil1 & s& 4 4 #dc #bb4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 soil previ\sly cropp$ ) rye1 & 9 soil previ\sly uncropp$ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #de #bc4 ,pieces ( grass1 leaves1 etc4 *ange to plant food 9 ! surface soil l9t n 9 ! subsoil 4 4 4 4 4 #ej #bd4 ,soil 9 :i* e>?worms h be5 liv+ & mak+ burr[s 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ee #be4 ,fre% soil turns milk bad1 b bak$ soil does n 4 4 #eg #bf4 ,soil conta9s t9y liv+ ?+s t gr[ on gelat9e #eh #bg4 ,our brea? makes lime wat] turn milky 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ei #bh4 ,some?+ 9 ! soil uses up air & makes lime wat] turn milky 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fa #bi4 ,soils are able to /ick to wat]3 clay or loam soils d ?is bett] ?an s&s 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fe #cj4 ,wat] c pass f wet to dry places 9 ! soil1 x c ev5 travel upw>ds 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ff #ca4 ,plants gr[+ 9 soils suppli$ f bel[ ) wat]4 ,all ! wat] ! plants get has to travel upw>ds #fg #cb4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 soils suppli$ ) v>y+ quantities ( wat] 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fi #cc4 ,:eat gr[+ 9 moi/ & 9 dry soils 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ga #cd a & b4 ,plants f\nd on a dry soil _h n>r[ leaves1 ^? on a moi/ soil _h wid] leaves4 ,phot4 ,s4 ,t4 ,p>k9son 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gb1 #gc #ce4 ,plants give out wat] ?r\gh _! leaves 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gd #cf4 ,/eph5 ,hales's exp]im5t 9 #agbg 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ge #cg4 ,hill slope ne> ,h>p5d5 %[+ woodl& at top & arable l& l[] d[n4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong #gg #ch4 ,view fur!r along ! valley2 woodl& & arable above1 r\gh grassl& ne> ! riv]4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gi #ci4 ,r\gh grass pa/ure ne> ! riv]4 ,high] up is arable l&4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ha #dj4 ,aft] h>ve/ ! f>m] breaks up 8 l& ) a pl\gh & !n leaves x alone until se$ "t4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hc #da4 ,roll+ 9 mangold se$ on ! f>m4 ,phot4 ,h4 ,b4 ,hut*9son 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #he #db4 ,soil sampl] 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hh #dc4 ,cultivation & mul*+ r$uce ! loss ( wat] f soils 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ij #dd a & b4 ,maize _c compete successfully ) we$s 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #id1 #ie #de4 ,a plot ( :eat left unt\*$ s9ce #ahhb at ,ro?am/$ has n[ become a d5se ?icket4 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ig #df4 ,a badly dra9$ :eat field 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ii #dg4 ,highly cultivat$ s&y soil 9 ,k5t 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ajc #dh4 ,a ,surrey hea? 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aje #di4 ,woodl& & hea!r on high s&y l&1 ,wimbl$on ,common4 ,phot4 ,r4 ,h4 ,c>t] 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ajg #ej4 ,poor s&y soil 9 ,surrey1 p>tly cultivat$ b ma9ly wood & wa/e 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aji #ea4 ,op5 *alk cultivat$ c\ntry1 ,?anet 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aac #eb4 ,cliffs at ! seaside1 ,manorbi]4 ,phot4 ,geological ,survey 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aag #ec4 ,cliffs 9 inl& di/rict1 ,ar?ur's ,seat1 ,ed9burgh4 ,phot4 ,geological ,survey 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aai #ed4 ,model ( a /ream 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abj #ee4 ,! b5d ( a riv] 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aba #ef4 ,! w9d+ riv]--! ,/\r at ,wye4 ,phot4 ,r4 ,h4 ,c>t] 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abc #eg4 ,sket* map %[+ :y ,godm]%am & ,wye arose :]e !y did on ! ,/\r 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abf #eh4 ,=d at ,coldh>b\r ne> ,h>p5d54 ,phot4 ,lionel ,arm/rong 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abg ,! photographs ( ! pot exp]im5ts are by ,mr ,lionel ,arm/rong4 xi ,,introduction ,! foll[+ pages conta9 ! sub/ance ( lessons giv5 at ! village s*ool at ,wye to ! #d?1 #e?1 #f? & #g? /&>ds 7mix$7 & at ,/ ,george's ,s*ool1 ,h>p5d51 to ! #crd =m4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 an important diff]5ce betwe5 ! actual lessons & ! book4 ,! lessons _h ref]5ce to ! soils r\nd ab\t ! village1 & dealt ma9ly ) local ph5om5a1 g5]al conclusions be+ only sp>+ly drawn2 :ile 9 ! book x has be5 necess>y to ?r[ ! c\rse into a m g5]alis$ =m4 ,! tea*] 9 us+ ! book w h to rev]se ! process1 he mu/ f9d local illu/rations & make lib]al use ( !m dur+ ! c\rse2 x is hop$ t ! in=mation giv5 w help him ov] any difficulties he may exp]i5ce4 ,?is necessity = f9d+ local illu/rations con/itutes "o ( ! fundam5tal diff]5ces betwe5 ,nature ,/udy subjects & o!r subjects ( ! s*ool curriculum4 ,! textbooks 9 "s ( ! o!rs may be necess>y & suffici5t2 9 ,nature ,/udy x is at mo/ only subsidi>y1 s]v+ simply z a guide to ! ?+ t is to be /udi$2 unless ! ?+ itself be be=e ! class x is no bett] ?an a guide to a ca!dral w\ld be )\t ! ca!dral4 ,& j z ! guide is successful only :5 he directs ! att5tion ( ! /rang] to ! important features ( ! place1 & fails directly he becomes g>rul\s & di/racts att5tion1 s a ,nature ,/udy book succe$s xii only 9 z f> z x helps 9 ! /udy ( ! actual ?+1 & fails if x is us$ passively & is sub/itut$ = an active /udy4 ,no description or illu/ration c take ! place ( direct obs]vation2 ! simple/ ?+ 9 ,nature is inf9itely m wond]ful ?an our be/ ^w pictures c ev] pa9t x4 ,! au?or recomm5ds ! tea*] to look ?r\gh ! *apt] be=e x has to be tak5 9 class & !n to make a few exp$itions 9 se>* ( local illu/rations4 ,x is n /rictly necess>y t ! *apt]s %\ld be tak5 9 ! ord] giv54 ,! local ph5om5a mu/ be dealt ) z !y arise & z wea!r p]mits1 or ! opportunity may pass n to return aga9 dur+ ! c\rse4 ,9 almo/ any lane1 field1 or g>d5 a suffici5t numb] ( illu/rations may be obta9$ = our purpose2 if a /ream & a hill are accessible ! mat]ial is practically complete1 especially if ! *ildr5 c be induc$ to pursue _! /udies dur+ _! summ] holiday rambles4 ,( c\rse ?is entails a good deal ( "w = ! tea*]1 b ! results are wor? x4 ,*ildr5 enjoy exp]im5tal & obs]vation lessons 9 :i* !y take an active "p & are n m]ely passive le>n]s4 ,! value ( su* lessons 9 develop+ _! lat5t p[]s & 9 /imulat+ !m to seek = k 9 ! great book ( ,nature is a suffici5t recomp5se to ! en?usia/ic tea*] = ! extra tr\ble involv$4 ,x is n desirable to "w ?r\gh a *apt] 9 "o lesson4 ,*ildr5 unaccu/om$ to make exp]im5ts or to see exp]im5ts done1 w probably require ?ree or f\r lessons = gett+ ?r\gh ea* ( ! fir/ few *apt]s1 & two or ?ree lessons = ea* ( ! o!rs4 xiii ,! pot exp]im5ts ( ,*aps4 ,,vi41 ,,vii4 & ,,viii4 %\ld be />t$ z e>ly 9 ! c\rse z possible4 ,tw5ty fl[] pots are want$ = ! set2 !y %\ld be ( ! same size1 ab\t eight in*es be+ a conv5i5t diamet]1 & %\ld be kept toge!r 9 a w>m place4 ,?ree are fill$ ) s&1 sev5 ) subsoil1 & ! rema9+ t5 ) surface soil4 ,?ree ( ! subsoil pots are uncropp$1 two be+ /or$ moi/ & "o dry4 ,f\r pots ( ! surface soil are uncropp$ & moi/1 a fif? & six? are uncropp$ & dry1 "o ( ^! conta9s e>?worms 7p4 #ed74 ,f\r glaz$ pots1 e4g4 l>ge jam or m>malade j>s1 are also want$ 7p4 #fi74 ,mu/>d1 buck:eat1 or rye make good crops1 b _m o!rs w d4 ,legum9\s crops1 h[ev]1 %[ c]ta9 abnormal *>act]s1 :ile turnips & cabbages are apt to fail3 none ( ^! %\ld be us$4 ,x is highly desirable t ! pots %\ld be duplicat$4 ,! plots also %\ld be />t$ 9 ! s*ool g>d5 z e>ly z conv5i5t4 ,eight are requir$ = ! set3 _! treatm5t is describ$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,plots two y>ds squ>e suffice4 ,a supply ( s&1 ( clay1 & ( lime w be want$1 b x is n necess>y to h fre% mat]ial = ea* lesson4 ,! s& may be obta9$ f a build]1 a s& pit1 ! sea %ore or f a deal] 9 *emical app>atus4 ,! clay may be obta9$ f a brick y>d2 x gives mo/ satisfactory results aft] x has be5 gr\nd ready = brick mak+4 ,modell+ clay is equally satisfactory4 ,a supply ( ra9 wat] is desirable4 ,= a class ( twelve *ildr5 work+ 9 pairs at ! exp]im5ts ! foll[+ app>atus is want$ = ! :ole c\rse3-- xiv ,six tripods & buns5 burn]s or _s lamps #b twelve pipe-clay triangles #d twelve crucibles or t9 lids #c sixte5 gas j>s #d twelve beak]s #bej c4c4 capacity #d two beak]s #ejj c4c4 two beak]s #ajj c4c4 six egg-cups #b twelve funnels #c six funnel /&s #a six p]=at$ glass disks #c two tubulat$ bottles #ejj c4c41 f\r corks to fit cork bor]s #d lbs4 assort$ glass tub+ pe/le & mort> twelve ,erl5mey] flasks #ej c4c4 #c six sauc]s twelve flatbottom$ flasks #ajj c4c41 six fitt$ ) ,india rubb] /opp]s bor$ ) "o hole #c1 & six ) ord9>y corks #c box z 9 ,fig4 #ac six glass tubes #a_/b diamet]1 #ah long #b six lamp *imneys #c six te/ tubes1 corks to fit ?ree !rmomet]s soil sampl] 7p4 #hh7 balance & weights two retort /&s ) r+s & clamp4 ,! figures giv5 9 squ>e brackets are ! quantities t suffice :5 ! tea*] alone does ! exp]im5ts1 x n be+ conv5i5t = ! s*ol>s to d mu*4 xv ,9 conclusion ! au?or desires to t5d] 8 be/ ?anks to ! ,rev4 ,cecil ,grant ( ,/ ,george's ,s*ool1 & to ,mr ,w4 ,j4 ,a%by ( ! ,wye ,s*ool1 = hav+ all[$ him ! use ( _! s*ools & appliances dur+ ! progress ( ^! lessons4 ,especially are 8 ?anks due to ,mr ,lionel ,arm/rong = mu* help ungrudg+ly r5d]$ 9 collect+ mat]ial1 tak+ photographs1 & sup]vis+ ! exp]im5ts4 ,e4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,h>p5d51 ,febru>y1 #aiaa4 #a ,,*apt] ,i ,,:at ,,is ,,! ,,soil ,,made ,,(8 ,app>atus requir$4 ,soil & subsoil f a hole dug 9 ! g>d54 ,clay4 ,six tripods & buns5 burn]s or _s lamps #b4 ,six crucibles or t9 lids & pipe-clay triangles #b4 ,twelve glass j>s or gas cyl9d]s #d4 ,six beak]s #b #a4 ,if we talk to a f>m] or a g>d5] ab\t soils he w say t !re are sev]al k9ds ( soil2 clay soils1 gravel soils1 peat soils1 *alk soils1 & s on1 & we may discov] ?is = ourselves if we make "s rambles 9 ! c\ntry & take c>eful notice ( ! gr\nd ab\t u1 p>ticul>ly if we c leave ! road & walk on ! footpa?s across ! fields4 ,:5 we f9d ! gr\nd v h>d 9 dry wea!r & v /icky 9 wet wea!r we may be sure we are on a clay soil1 & may expect to f9d brick y>ds or tile works some:]e ne>1 :]e ! clay is us$4 ,if ! soil is loose1 dry+ quickly aft] ra91 & if x c be scatt]$ ab\t by ! h& l s& on ! sea %ore1 we "k we are on a s&y soil & c look = pits :]e build]'s s& is dug4 ,b x may v likely happ5 t ! soil is some?+ 9 betwe51 & t nei!r s& pits nor #b clay pits c be f\nd2 if we ask :at sort ( soil ?is is we are told x is a loam4 ,a gravel soil w be kn[n at once by its gravel pits1 & a *alk soil by ! :ite *alk qu>ries & old lime kilns1 :ile a peat soil is black1 sometimes m>%y & ne>ly always spongey to tread on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,soil & subsoil 9 ,/ ,george's s*ool g>d5 ,we want to le>n some?+ ( ! soil r\nd ab\t u1 & we w beg9 by digg+ a hole ab\t ?ree feet deep to see :at we c discov]4 ,at ,h>p5d5 ?is is :at ! s*ol>s saw3--! top eight in*es ( soil 0 d>k 9 col\r & easy to dig2 ! soil bel[ 0 r$di% br[n 9 col\r & v h>d to dig2 "o *ang$ into ! o!r s quickly t x 0 easy to see :]e ! top soil end$ & ! bottom soil began2 no fur!r *ange c\ld1 h[ev]1 be se5 bel[ ! eight in* l9e4 ,a draw+ 0 made to %[ ^! ?+s1 & is giv5 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,y may f9d some?+ q diff]5t3 s&1 *alk1 or solid rock may occur bel[ ! soil1 b y %\ld ent] :atev] y see into y\r notebooks & make a draw+1 l ,fig4 #a1 to be kept = future use4 ,be=e fill+ 9 ! hole "s ( ! d>k col\r$ top soil1 & "s ( ! light] col\r$ soil ly+ bel[ 7:i* is call$ ! subsoil71 #c %\ld be tak5 = fur!r exam9ation2 ! two samples %\ld be kept sep>ate & n mix$4 ,fir/ look c>efully at ! top soil & rub "s ( x betwe5 y\r f+]s4 ,we f\nd t our sample 0 wet & !re=e conta9$ wat]2 x 0 v /icky l clay & !re=e conta9$ clay2 !re 7 a few /ones & "s grit pres5t & also "s t9y pieces ( dead plants--roots1 /ems or leaves1 b "s s decay$ t we c\ld n q tell :at !y 74 ,a few pieces ( a s(t :ite /one 7 f\nd t m>k$ on ! blackbo>d l *alk4 ,la/ly1 !re 7 a few fragm5ts ( coal & c9d]s1 b z ^! 7 n a real "p ( ! soil we suppos$ !y _h got 9 by accid5t4 ,! subsoil 0 also wet & ev5 m /icky ?an ! top soil1 x conta9$ /ones & grit1 b seem$ almo/ free f plant rema9s & f ! :ite *alky fragm5ts4 ,a few exp]im5ts w %[ h[ mu* ( "s ( ^! ?+s are pres5t4 ,! am\nt ( wat] may be discov]$ by weigh+ out t5 grams ( soil1 leav+ x to dry 9 a w>m place ne> ! fire or 9 ! sun1 & !n weigh+ x aga94 ,9 "o exp]im5t ! results 73-- ,weight ( top soil be=e dry+ 444 #aj grams #ajj decigrams aft] 444 #h4c #hc ---- --- ,wat] lo/ 444 #a4g #ag ,a column #ajj millimetres long 0 drawn to repres5t ! #ajj decigrams ( soil1 & a m>k 0 drawn #ag millimetres up to %[ ! am\nt ( wat] 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,weight ( bottom soil be=e dry+ 444 #aj grams #ajj decigrams aft] 444 #h4g #hg ,wat] lo/ 444 #a4c #ac #d ,ano!r column %\ld be drawn = ! subsoil4 ,on dry+ ! soil x becomes light] 9 col\r & loses its /ick9ess1 b x has n p]man5tly *ang$ because z soon z wat] is add$ x comes back to :at x 0 be=e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,columns %[+ :at #ajj p>ts ( soil & subsoil 7 made ( ,! dri$ lumps ( soil are n[ to be brok5 up f9ely ) a piece ( wood1 b no?+ mu/ be lo/4 ,x is easy to see %rivell$ pieces ( plant1 b n easy to pick !m out2 ! simple/ plan is to burn !m away4 ,! soil mu/ be c>efully tipp$ on to a t9 lid1 or into a crucible1 heat$ ov] a flame & /irr$ #e ) a long clean nail4 ,fir/ ( all x *>s1 !n !re is a little sp>kl+1 b n mu*1 f9ally ! soil turns r$ & does n *ange any fur!r no matt] h[ mu* x is heat$4 ,! %ade ( r$ w at once be recognis$ z brick r$ or t]ra cotta1 inde$ t]ra cotta means bak$ e>?4 ,:5 ! soil is cold x %\ld be exam9$ aga92 x has become v h>d & ! plant rema9s h ei!r disappe>$ or h *ang$ to a% & crumble away directly !y are t\*$4 ,on weigh+ a fur!r loss is discov]$1 :i* 0 9 our exp]im5t3-- ,weight ( top soil aft] dry+ b be=e burn+ 444 #hc decigrams aft] 444 #gf -- ,! "p t burnt away weigh$ 444 #g ,weight ( subsoil aft] dry+ b be=e burn+ 444 #hg decigrams aft] 444 #hd -- ,! "p t burnt away weigh$ 444 #c ,^! results are ent]$ on ! column 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,! surface soil is se5 to conta9 m mat]ial t w burn away ?an ! subsoil does4 ,:5 ! burnt soil is moi/5$ x does n become d>k & /icky l x did be=e1 x has completely *ang$ & _c be made into soil aga94 ,x is m l brick du/ ?an soil4 ,= fur!r exp]im5ts we %all want a fre% portion ( ! orig9al soil4 ,on a wet aft]noon some?+ 0 notic$ t enabl$ u to get a little fur!r ) our /udies4 ,! ra9 wat] ran d[n a slop+ piece ( gr\nd 9 a t9y *annel x _h made2 ! /reamlet 0 v muddy1 & at fir/ x 0 ?\ght t all ! soil 0 wa%$ away4 ,b we soon saw t ! *annel 0 l9$ #f ) grit1 "s ( :i* 0 mov+ sl[ly d[n & "s n at all4 ,grit c !re=e be sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! soil by wat]4 ,?is sep>ation c be %[n v well by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,rub t5 gra9s ( f9ely p[d]$ soil ) a little wat] 7ra9 wat] is bett] ?an tap wat]71 & c>efully p\r ! muddy liquid into a l>ge glass j>4 ,add m wat] to ! re/ ( ! soil1 %ake1 & aga9 p\r ! liquid into ! j>2 g on do+ ?is till ! j> is full4 ,!n get "s m j>s & /ill keep on till ! liquid is no long] muddy b ne>ly cle>4 ,! "p ( ! soil t rema9s beh9d & w n float ov] into ! j>s is at once se5 to be made up ( small /ones1 grit1 & s&4 ,set ! j>s aside & look at !m aft] a day or s4 ,! liquid rema9s muddy = "s "t1 b !n x cle>s & a ?ick black s$im5t ga!rs at ! bottom4 ,if n[ y v c>efully p\r ! liquid (f y c collect ! s$im5ts3 !y are s(t & /icky1 & c be m\ld$ into patt]ns l clay4 ,9 ord] to see if !y really conta9 clay we mu/ d ! exp]im5t aga91 b use pure clay f a brick y>d1 or modell+ clay1 in/ead ( soil4 ,! muddy liquid is obta9$ z be=e1 x takes a long "t to settle1 b 9 ! end x gives a s$im5t s mu* l t f ! soil1 except 9 col\r1 t we %all be safe 9 say+ t ! s$im5ts 9 ! j>s conta9 ! clay f ! soil4 ,& ?us we h be5 able to sep>ate ! /icky "p ( ! soil--! clay--f ! gritty or s&y "p :i* is n at all /icky4 ,we may ev5 be able to f9d out some?+ m4 ,if we leave ! soil s$im5t & ! clay s$im5t on sep>ate t9 lids to dry1 & !n exam9e !m c>efully we may f9d t ! #g soil s$im5t is really a little m gritty ?an ! clay4 ,al?\gh x conta9s ! clay x also conta9s some?+ else4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t is made v c>efully 9 a prop] way ?is mat]ial c be sep>at$ f ! pure clay4 ,x is call$ silt1 b really !re are a numb] ( silts1 "s almo/ l clay & "s almo/ l s&2 !y %ade "o into ! o!r4 ,if !re is en\gh grit x %\ld be weigh$3 we obta9$ #ad decigrams ( grit f #aj grams ( our top soil & #ag decigrams f #aj grams ( bottom soil4 ,we _c sep>ate ! clay f ! silt1 b :5 ?is is done 9 c>eful exp]im5ts x is f\nd t ! subsoil conta9s m clay ?an ! top soil4 ,we %\ld ( c\rse expect ?is because we h f\nd t ! subsoil is m /icky ?an ! top soil4 ,^! results are put into ! columns z be=e s t we c n[ see at once h[ mu* ( our soil is wat]1 h[ mu* c burn away1 h[ mu* is grit1 & h[ mu* is clay & o!r ?+s4 ,:at w\ld h happ5$ if ! sample _h be5 dug out dur+ wett] or dri] wea!r8 ,! quantity ( wat] w\ld h be5 diff]5t1 b 9 o!r respects ! soil w\ld h rema9$ ! same4 ,x is !re=e be/ to avoid ! *anges 9 ! am\nt ( wat] by work+ always ) #aj grams ( dri$ soil4 ,! results we obta9$ 73-- ,top soil ,subsoil ,weight ( dry soil be=e burn+ 444 #ajj #ajj decigrams aft] 444 #ib #ig --- --- ,! "p t burn$ away weigh$ 444 #h #c ,weight ( grit f #aj grams ( dri$ soil #ag #ai ,! columns are giv5 9 ,fig4 #c4 #h ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,columns %[+ :at #ajj p>ts ( dri$ soil & subsoil 7 made ( ,summ>y4 ,! exp]im5ts made s f> h taught u ^! facts3-- #a4 ,soil conta9s wat]1 grit or s&1 silt1 clay1 a "p t burns away1 & "s :ite *alky specks4 #b4 ,! top lay] ( soil to a dep? ( ab\t eight in*es is diff]5t f ! soil ly+ bel[1 :i* is call$ ! subsoil4 ,x is less /icky1 easi] to dig1 & d>k] 9 col\r4 ,x conta9s m ( ! mat]ial t burns away1 b less clay ?an ! subsoil4 #c4 ,:5 soil is dri$ x is n /icky b h>d or crumbly2 z soon z x is moi/5$ x *anges back to :at x 0 be=e4 ,b :5 soil is burnt x completely alt]s & c no long] be *ang$ back aga94 #a ,see p4 xiv = explanation ( ! figures 9 squ>e brackets4 #i ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,m ,,ab\t ,,! ,,clay ,app>atus requir$4 ,clay1 ab\t #f lbs42 a little dri$1 p[d]$ clay2 s&1 ab\t #f lbs4 ,six glass j>s or cyl9d]s #b4 ,six beak]s #a4 ,six egg-cups #a4 ,six funnels & /&s #b4 ,six p]=at$ glass or t9 disks #b4 ,six glass tubes #b4 ,two tubulat$ bottles fitt$ ) corks4 ,"s se$s4 ,six small j>s ab\t #b 94 x #a 94 #b4 ,bricks4 ,! app>atus 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,pe/le & mort>4 ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t clay w float 9 wat] & only sl[ly settles d[n4 ,is ?is because clay is light] ?an wat]8 ,probably n1 because a lump ( clay seems v heavy4 ,fur!r1 if we put a small ball ( clay into wat] x at once s9ks to ! bottom4 ,only :5 we rub ! clay betwe5 our f+]s or "w x ) a /ick--9 o!r words1 :5 we break ! ball into v t9y pieces--c we get x to float aga94 ,we !re=e conclude t ! clay float$ 9 our j>s 7p4 #f7 = s long n because x 0 light] ?an wat]1 b because ! pieces 7 s small4 ,clay is exce$+ly useful because ( its /ick9ess4 ,dig up "s clay1 if !re is any 9 y\r g>d51 or procure "s f a brick works4 ,y c m\ld x into any %ape y l1 & ! pur] ! clay ! #aj bett] x acts4 ,enorm\s quantities ( clay are us$ = mak+ bricks4 ,make "s model bricks ab\t an in* long & half an in* 9 wid? & dep?1 also make a small bas9 ( ab\t ! same size1 !n set !m aside = a week 9 a w>m1 dry place4 ,!y /ill keep _! %ape2 ev5 if a crack has appe>$ ! pieces /ick toge!r & d n crumble to a p[d]4 ,if y n[ measure ) a rul] any ( ! bricks t h n crack$1 y w f9d t !y h %runk a little & are no long] q an in* long4 ,?is fact is well kn[n to brickmak]s2 ! m\lds 9 :i* !y make ! bricks are l>g] ?an ! brick is want$ to be4 ,b :at w\ld happ5 if in/ead ( a piece ( clay "o in* long y _h a :ole field ( clay8 ,w\ld t %r9k also1 &1 if s1 :at w\ld ! field look l8 ,we c answ] ?is "q 9 two ways2 we may make a model ( a field & let x dry1 & we c pay a visit to a clay mead[ aft] "s hot1 dry wea!r 9 summ]4 ,! model c be made by knead+ clay up "u wat] & !n roll+ x out on "s c>dbo>d or wood z if x 7 a piece ( pa/ry4 ,cut x into a squ>e & draw l9es on ! c>dbo>d "r at ! edges ( ! clay4 ,!n put x into a dry w>m place & leave = "s days4 ,fig4 #d is a picture ( su* a model aft] a week's dry+4 ,! clay has %runk away f ! m>ks1 b x has also %runk all ov] & has crack$4 ,if y get an opportunity ( walk+ ov] a clay field dur+ a dry summ]1 y w f9d simil> b mu* l>g] cracks1 "s ( :i* may be two or ?ree in*es wide1 or ev5 m4 ,sometimes ! crack+ is s bad t ! roots ( plants or ( trees are torn by x1 & ev5 build+s1 9 "s in/ances1 h suff]$ ?r\gh _! f\ndations %r9k+ away4 #aa ,we c n[ und]/& :y "s ( our model bricks crack$4 ,! cracks 7 caus$ by ! %r9kage j z happ5s ) our model field4 ,z soon z ! clay becomes wet x swells aga94 ,a v pretty exp]im5t c be made to %[ ?is4 ,fill a glass tube or an egg-cup ) dry p[d]$ clay1 scrape ! surface level ) a rul]1 & !n /& 9 a glass j> full ( ra9 wat] s t ! :ole is completely cov]$4 ,aft] a %ort "t ! clay beg9s to swell & =ces its way out ( ! egg-cup z %[n 9 ,fig4 #e1 fall+ ov] ! side & mak+ q a little %[]4 ,9 exactly ! same way ! gr\nd swells aft] heavy ra9 & rises a little1 !n x falls aga9 & cracks :5 x becomes dry4 ,d>w9 records "s c>eful measurem5ts 9 a book call$ ,e>?worms & ,vegetable ,m\ld--a l>ge flat /one laid on ! surface ( a field sank #c4cc millimetres#a :il/ ! wea!r 0 dry betwe5 ,may #i? & ,june #ac?1 #ab & rose #a4ia millimetres betwe5 ,septemb] #g? & #ai? ( ! same ye>1 mu* ra9 hav+ fall5 dur+ ! latt] "p ( ?is "t4 ,dur+ fro/s & ?aws ! movem5ts 7 twice z great4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,clay 0 pla/]$ ov] a squ>e piece ( bo>d & completely cov]$ x4 ,aft] dry+ = a week ! clay _h %runk & crack$ ,y mu/ h f\nd out by n[ h[ v slipp]y clay becomes z soon z x is wet en\gh4 ,x is n easy to walk ov] a clay field 9 wet wea!r1 & if ! clay =ms "p ( ! slope ( a hill x may be s slipp]y t x becomes dang]\s4 ,sometimes aft] v heavy ra9s soil re/+ on clay on ! side ( a hill has begun to slide d[nw>ds & moves "s di/ance be=e x /ops4 ,=tunately ^! l& slips z !y are call$1 are n common 9 ,engl&1 b !y d occur4 ,fig4 #f %[s "o 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & ano!r is describ$ by ,gilb]t ,:ite 9 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,clay swell+ up :5 plac$ 9 wat] & ov]fl[+ f ! egg-cup into :i* x 0 put ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,l&slip 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight ,ano!r ?+ t y w h notic$ is t any?+ made ( clay holds wat]4 ,a simple way ( te/+ ?is is to put a r\nd piece ( t9 p]=at$ #ad ) holes into a funnel1 press "s clay on to x & on to ! sides ( ! funnel 7,fig4 #g71 & !n p\r on ra9 wat]4 ,! wat] does n run ?r\gh4 ,pools ( wat] may lie l ?is on a clay field = a v long "t 9 w9t] be=e !y disappe>1 z y w "k v well if y live 9 a clay c\ntry4 ,s :5 a lake or a res]voir is be+ made x sometimes happ5s t ! sides are l9$ ) clay to keep ! wat] 94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,a ?9 lay] ( clay a entirely prev5ts ! wat] runn+ ?r\gh ,if wat] _c get ?r\gh c air8 ,?is is v easily discov]$3 plug a glass tube ) clay & see if y c draw or bl[ air ?r\gh4 ,y _c4 ,clay c be us$ l putty to /op up holes or cracks1 & s long z x keeps moi/ x w nei!r let air nor wat] #ae ?r\gh4 ,take two bottles l ^? 9 ,fig4 #h1 /op up ! bottom tubes1 & fill ) wat]4 ,!n put a funnel ?r\gh ea* cork & fit ! cork 9 tightly1 cov]+ ) clay if !re is any sign ( a leak4 ,put a p]=at$ t9 disk into ea* funnel1 cov] "o well ) clay & ! o!r ) s&4 ,op5 ! bottom tubes4 ,no wat] runs out f ! fir/ bottle because no air c leak 9 ?r\gh ! clay1 b x runs out v quickly f ! second because ! s& lets air ?r\gh4 ,^! prop]ties ( clay & s& are v important = plants4 ,s[ "s se$s 9 a little j> #af full ( clay kept moi/ to prev5t x crack+1 & at ! same "t s[ a few 9 "s moi/ s&4 ,! se$s soon g]m9ate 9 ! s& b n 9 ! clay4 ,x is kn[n t se$s w n g]m9ate unless !y h air & wat] & are w>m en\gh4 ,!y _h wat] 9 bo? j>s1 & !y 7 9 bo? cases w>m1 b !y got no air ?r\gh ! clay & !re=e c\ld n spr\t4 ,pure clay w\ld n be good = plants to gr[ 94 ,air came ?r\gh ! s&1 h[ev]1 & gave ! se$s all !y want$ = g]m9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,s& all[s air to pass ?r\gh x1 & s wat] runs out ( ! bottle4 ,clay does n let air pass1 & ! wat] is !re=e kept 91 ev5 ?\gh ! tube is op54 ,?is also expla9s some?+ else t y may h notic$4 ,if y tri$ bak+ "o ( y\r model bricks 9 ! fire y probably f\nd t ! brick explod$ & %att]$ to pieces3 ! wat] /ill left 9 ! brick *ang$ to /eam :5 x 0 heat$1 b ! /eam c\ld n escape ?r\gh ! clay1 & s x bur/ ! clay4 ,9 a brick works ! heat is v gradually appli$ & ! /eam only sl[ly =ms1 s t x has "t to leak away1 !n :5 x has all gone ! brick c be heat$ /rongly4 ,y %\ld try ?is ) "o ( y\r model bricks2 leave x 9 a hot place ne> ! /ove or on ! radiator = a week or m & !n see if y c bake x )\t mi%ap4 ,let u n[ comp>e a piece ( clay ) a brick4 ,! diff]5ces are s great t y w\ld h>dly ?9k ! brick c\ld h be5 made f clay4 ,! brick is nei!r s(t nor /icky1 & x has n ! smoo? surface ( a piece ( clay1 b is full ( little holes or pores1 :i* look z if !y 7 =m$ 9 lett+ ! /eam out4 ,a brick lets air ?r\gh2 "s air gets into our h\ses ?r\gh ! bricks ev5 :5 ! w9d[s are %ut4 ,wat] w get ?r\gh bricks m easily ?an x does ?r\gh clay4 ,aft] heavy ra9 y #ag c (t5 f9d t wat] has soak$ ?r\gh a brick wall & made ! wall pap] q damp4 ,a pretty exp]im5t c be made ) ! piece ( app>atus %[n 9 ,fig4 #i3 bore 9 a brick a hole ab\t an in* deep & a qu>t] ( an in* wide1 put into ! hole ! piece ( b5t glass tub+1 & fix x 9 ) "s clay or putty1 !n p\r "s wat] black5$ ) ink into ! tube1 m>k+ its position ) a label4 ,/& ! brick 9 a vessel s full ( wat] t ! brick is entirely cov]$4 ,wat] soaks into ! brick & presses ! air out3 ! air tries to escape ?r\gh ! tube & =ces up ! black liquid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a brick /&+ 9 wat]4 ,! air 9 ! brick is driv5 inw>ds by ! wat] & =ces ! liquid up ! tube 9 ord] to escape ,"o m exp]im5t may be tri$4 ,c a brick be *ang$ back into clay8 ,gr9d up ! brick & x =ms a gritty p[d]4 ,moi/5 x1 "w x ) y\r f+]s h[ y please1 b x /ill rema9s a gritty p[d] & nev] takes on ! greasy1 /icky feel+ ( #ah pure clay4 ,inde$ no "o has ev] succe$$ 9 mak+ clay out ( bricks4 ,all ^! exp]im5ts %[ t clay is completely alt]$ :5 x is burnt4 ,we also f\nd t soil is completely alt]$ by burn+1 & if y look back at y\r notes y w see t ! *anges are v mu* alike1 s mu* s t we c safely put d[n "s ( ! *anges 9 ! burnt soil--! r$ col\r1 ! h>d gritt9ess1 & ! abs5ce ( /ick9ess--to ! clay4 ,let u n[ exam9e a piece ( dry1 b unburnt1 clay4 ,x is v h>d & does n crumble1 x is nei!r /icky nor slipp]y4 ,directly1 h[ev]1 we add "s wat] x *anges back to :at x 0 be=e4 ,dry+ !re=e alt]s clay only = ! "t be+1 :il/ bak+ *anges x p]man5tly4 #a ,a little m ?an "o-eigh? ( an in*4 #ai ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,:at ,,lime ,,does ,,to ,,clay ,app>atus requir$4 ,clay1 ab\t #f lbs4 ,"s ( ! clay f ,*apt] ,,ii may1 if necess>y1 be us$ ov] aga94 ,lime1 ab\t #a_/b lb4 ,six funnels1 /&s & disks #b4 ,twelve glass j>s #b4 ,lime wat]#a4 ,if y are 9 a clay c\ntry 9 autumn or e>ly w9t] y w f9d "s ( ! fields dott$ ) :ite heaps ( *alk or lime1 & y w be told t ^! ?+s improve ! soil4 ,we w make a few exp]im5ts to f9d out :at lime does to clay4 ,put "s clay on to a p]=at$ t9 disk 9 a funnel j z y did on p4 #ad1 press x d[n s t no wat] c pass ?r\gh4 ,!n spr9kle on to ! clay "s p[d]$ lime & add ra9 wat]4 ,soon ! wat] beg9s to leak ?r\gh1 ?\gh x c\ld n d s be=e2 ! addition ( ! lime1 !re=e1 has alt]$ ! clay4 ,if y add$ lime to a g>d5 or a field on :i* wat] lay ab\t = a long "t 9 w9t] y w\ld expect ! wat] to dra9 away1 especially if y made dra9s or cut "s tr5*es along :i* ! wat] c\ld pass4 ,!re are l>ge areas 9 ,engl& :]e ?is has be5 done ) v great advantage4 #bj ,! muddy liquid obta9$ by %ak+ clay ) wat] cle>s quickly if a little lime is /irr$ 94 ,fill two j>s ,a & ,b 7,fig4 #aj7 ) ra9 wat]1 rub clay into ea* & /ir up s z to make a muddy liquid1 !n add "s lime wat] to ,b & /ir well4 ,leave = a %ort "t4 ,flocks quickly appe> 9 ,b1 !n s9k1 leav+ ! liquid cle>1 b ,a rema9s cl\dy = a long "t4 ,b :y %\ld ! liquid cle>8 ,we decid$ 9 our e>li] exp]im5ts t ! clay float$ 9 ! wat] because x 0 9 v t9y pieces2 :5 we took a l>g] lump ! clay sank4 ,! lime has = "s reason or o!r1 :i* we d n und]/&1 made ! small clay p>ticles /ick toge!r to =m ! l>ge flocks1 & ^! c no long] float1 b s9k4 ,if we look at ! lim$ clay 9 our funnel exp]im5t we %all see t ! same *ange has gone on !re2 ! clay has become r loose & fluffy1 & c !re=e no long] hold wat] back4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,addition ( lime to turbid clay wat] n[ makes ! clay settle & leaves ! wat] q cle> ,lime also makes clay less /icky4 ,knead up "o piece ( clay ) ra9 wat] alone & ano!r piece #ba ) ra9 wat] & ab\t #a_/bj its weight ( lime4 ,! lim$ clay breaks easily & works q diff]5tly f ! pure clay4 ,,summ>y4 ,?is1 !n1 is :at we h le>nt ab\t clay4 ,clay is made up ( v1 v1 t9y pieces1 s small t !y float 9 wat]4 ,!y /ick toge!r :5 !y are wett$ & !n press$1 & !y rema9 toge!r2 a piece ( clay m\ld$ into any patt]n w keep its %ape ev5 aft] x is dri$ & bak$4 ,clay is !re=e made into bricks1 e>!nw>e1 pott]y1 etc41 :il/ :ite clay1 :i* is f\nd 9 "s places1 is made into *9a4 ,wet clay %r9ks & cracks z x dries2 ^! cracks c easily be se5 9 ! fields dur+ dry wea!r4 ,?is %r9kage int]f]es ) ! f\ndations ( h\ses & o!r build+s1 caus+ !m to settle4 ,dry clay is diff]5t f wet clay1 x is h>d1 n /icky & n slipp]y1 b x at once becomes l ord9>y clay :5 wat] is add$4 ,aft] bak+1 h[ev]1 clay p]man5tly alt]s & _c aga9 be *ang$ back to :at x 0 be=e4 ,clay w n let wat] pass ?r\gh2 a clay field is !re=e ne>ly always wet 9 w9t] & spr+4 ,nor c air pass ?r\gh until ! clay dries or cracks4 ,lime has a rem>kable action on clay4 ,x makes ! little1 t9y pieces /ick toge!r to =m fea!ry flocks :i* s9k 9 wat]2 lime !re=e causes muddy clay wat] to become cle>4 ,! flocks _c hold wat] back1 & h5ce lim$ clay all[s wat] to pass ?r\gh4 ,lim$ clay is also less /icky ?an pure clay4 ,a clay field or g>d5 is improv$ by add+ lime because ! soil does n rema9 wet s long z x did be=e2 x is also less /icky & !re=e m easily cultivat$4 #a ,lime wat] is made by %ak+ up lime & wat]4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 a well-cork$ bottle4 #bb ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,"s ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,! ,,s& ,app>atus requir$4 ,s&1 ab\t #f lbs42 clay1 ab\t #f lbs4 ,six funnels1 /&s & disks #a4 ,six glass j>s #b4 ,"o box ) glass front %[n 9 ,fig4 #ac fill$ ) clay & s&1 z indicat$4 ,qu>ry *alk 7ab\t #e lbs474 ,six beak]s #a4 ,six egg-cups #a4 ,if !re is a s& pit ne> y1 or a field ( s&y soil1 y %\ld get a supply = ^! exp]im5ts2 if n1 "s build]'s s& c be us$4 ,:5 ! s& is dry y w see t ! gra9s are l>ge & h>d4 ,fur!r1 !y are all sep>ate & d n /ick toge!r2 if y make a hole 9 a heap ( ! s&1 ! sides fall 91 !re is no?+ solid ab\t x1 & y c easily see ! mi/ake ( ! fooli% man :o built 8 h\se ^u ! s&4 ,:5 ! s& is wet x /icks bett] & c be made into a good _m ?+s2 at ! seaside y c make a really f9e ca/le ) wet s&4 ,b z soon z ! s& dries x aga9 becomes loose & beg9s to fall to pieces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,s& dunes1 ,p5hale s&s1 ,cornwall ,/rong w9ds w bl[ ^! fragm5ts ( dry s& ab\t & pile !m up into ! s& hills or dunes common 9 _m seaside di/ricts 7,fig4 #aa74 ,bl[+ s&s c also be f\nd 9 inl& di/ricts2 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,surrey1 9 p>ts ( ,norfolk & _m #bd o!r places are fields :]e s mu* ( ! soil is bl[n away by /rong w9ds t ! crops may suff] injury4 ,9 ,c5tral ,asia s& /orms d v mu* h>m & h 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s buri$ entire cities4 ,fig4 #ab %[s ! ,p5hale s&s 9 ,cornwall gradually cov]+ up "s mead[s & ru9+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,s& f ,p5hale s& dunes bl[+ on to & cov]+ up mead[s ,s& p>ticles1 be+ l>ge1 d n float 9 wat]4 ,if we %ake up s& 9 wat] ! s& s9ks1 leav+ ! wat] entirely cle>4 ,s runn+ wat] does n c>ry s& ) x unless x is runn+ v quickly3 ! s& lies at ! bottom4 ,unlike clay1 s& does n hold wat]4 ,p\r "s wat] on to s& plac$ on ! t9 disk 9 a funnel 7,fig4 #h72 x ne>ly all runs ?r\gh at once4 ,we %\ld !re=e expect a s&y field or a s&y road to dry up v quickly aft] ra9 & n to rema9 wet l a clay field4 ,s mu* is ?is ! case t p pref] to live on a s&y soil r ?an on a clay4 ,! mo/ desirable resid5tial di/ricts r\nd ,london1 ,hamp/ead on ! nor?1 & ! /ret* runn+ f ,haslem]e on ! s\?-we/ to ,maid/one on ! s\?-ea/1 & o!r fav\r$ regions1 are all high up on ! s&4 ,at ! foot ( a hill =m$ ( s& y (t5 f9d a spr+1 especially if clay or solid rock lies bel[4 ,x is easy to make a model t w %[ :y ! spr+ =ms at ?is p>ticul> place4 ,fill ! l[] "p ( ! box %[n 9 ,fig4 #ac ) wet clay1 smoo?+ x out s t x t\*es all ?ree sides & ! glass front2 !n on top ( ! clay put en\gh s& to fill ! box4 ,bore f\r holes 9 ! side z %[n 9 ! picture1 "o at ! bottom1 "o at ! top1 "o j above ! junction ( ! s& & clay1 ! f\r? half way up ! s&1 & fix 9 glass tubes ) clay or putty4 ,p\r #bf wat] on to ! s& out ( a wat]+ c fitt$ ) ! rose s z to imitate ! ra94 ,at fir/ no?+ seems to happ51 b if y look closely y w notice t ! wat] soaks ?r\gh & does n lie on ! surface2 x runs "r d[n to ! clay2 !n x comes out at ! tube !re 7c 9 ! picture74 ,none goes ?r\gh ! clay1 nor does en\gh /ay 9 ! s& to fl[ out ?r\gh ei!r ! top or ! second tube2 ( ! f\r tubes only "o is dis*>g+ any wat]4 ,! dis*>ge does n /op :5 ! supply ( wat] /ops4 ,! ra9 ne$ only fall at int]vals1 b ! wat] w fl[ all ! "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,model spr+4 ,a box ) glass front conta9s a lay] ( clay & "o ( s&4 ,wat] t falls on ! s& runs "r d[n to ! clay b c get no fur!r1 & !re=e fl[s out ?r\gh ! tube c at ! junction ( ! clay & ! s&4 ,! same result is obta9$ :5 *alk takes ! place ( s& ,! exp]im5t %\ld n[ be tri$ ) "s *alk f a qu>ry2 x gives ! same results & %[s t *alk1 l s&1 all[s wat] readily to pass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,foot ( a *alk hill at ,h>p5d5 :]e a spr+ breaks out j "u ! bu% at ! "r-h& side ( ! gate ,j ! same ?+ happ5s out ( doors 9 a s&y or *alky c\ntry2 ! ra9 wat] soaks ?r\gh ! s& or *alk until x comes to clay or solid rock t x _c pass1 !n x /ops4 ,if x c f9d a way out x #bh does s & makes a spr+1 or sometimes a :ole l9e ( spr+s or wet gr\nd4 ,ru%es1 :i* fl\ri% 9 su* wet places1 w (t5 be f\nd gr[+ along ?is l9e1 & may1 inde$1 9 summ] "t be all y c see1 ! wat] hav+ dra9$ away4 ,b aft] mu* ra9 ! l9e aga9 becomes v wet4 ,fig4 #ad %[s ! foot ( a *alk hill ne> ,h>p5d51 :]e a spr+ breaks out j "u ! bu% at ! "r-h& side ( ! gate4 ,9 ,fig4 #ae ! bu% itself is se51 ) ! little pool ( wat] made by ! spr+4 ,"h ! wat] fl[s g5tly1 b else:]e x sometimes happ5s1 z 9 ,fig4 #af1 t ! spr+ breaks out ) great =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,! little pool bel[ ! tree ,n[ /op up ! glass tubes s t ! wat] _c get out4 ,soon ! s& becomes flood$ & is no bett] ?an clay w\ld be4 ,a second model w %[ ?is v well4 ,make a l>ge sauc] ( clay & fill ) s&3 #cj p\r wat] on4 ,! wat] /ays 9 ! s&1 because x _c pass ?r\gh ! clay4 ,a s&y field saturat$ l ?is w !re=e n be dry1 b wet1 & w n make a good position = a h\se4 ,we mu/ !re=e di/+ui% ! two cases illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a %[s s& on a hill1 dry because ! wat] runs ?r\gh until x comes to clay or rock1 :5 x /ops & breaks out z a spr+1 a t9y /ream1 or pond2 ?is is a good build+ site & y may expect to f9d l>ge h\ses !re4 ,b %[s ! s& 9 a bas9 ( clay1 :]e ! wat] _c get away3 "h ! cell>s & d[n/airs rooms are liable to be wet1 & 9 a village ! wells give impure wat]4 ,matt]s c\ld be improv$ if a way out 7 cut = ! wat]1 b !n ! f\ndations ( ! build+s might move a little4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,wat] bur/+ out f an und]gr\nd spr+1 ,old ,cat]iag ,qu>ry1 ,dunb> ,x (t5 happ5s t villages are situat$ at ! junction ( s& & clay1 or *alk & clay1 because ! spr+s furni% =? a good wat] supply4 ,on ! o!r h& l>ge tracts ( clay :i* rema9 wet & /icky dur+ a good "p ( ! ye> are n v attractive to live 91 & ev5 ne> ,london !y 7 ! la/ to be populat$3 ,hi!r ,gre5 9 ! s\?-ca/ & ! clay di/ricts ( ! nor?-we/ h only ( late ye>s be5 built on2 :ile ! s&s & gravels ( ,highgate1 ,*iswick1 ,br5t=d & o!r places _h long be5 occupi$4 ,else:]e1 villages on ! clay d n gr[ quickly unless !re is mu* manufactur+ or m9+2 ! p>i%es are l>ge1 ! roads ev5 n[ are n good :ile !y us$ to be v bad inde$4 ,macaulay tells u t at ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury 9 "s p>ts ( ,k5t & ,sussex none b ! /ronge/ horses c\ld 9 w9t] get ?r\gh ! bog1 9 :i* at e /ep !y sank #ca deep4 ,! m>kets 7 (t5 inaccessible dur+ sev]al mon?s4 4 4 ,! :eel$ c>riages 71 9 ?is di/rict1 g5]ally pull$ by ox54 ,:5 ,pr9ce ,george ( ,d5m>k visit$ ! /ately mansion ( ,petwor? 9 wet wea!r1 he 0 six h\rs 9 go+ n9e miles2 & x 0 necess>y t a body ( /urdy h9ds %\ld be on ea* side ( 8 coa* to prop x up4 ,( ! c>riages :i* convey$ 8 ret9ue sev]al 7 upset & injur$4 ,a lett] f "o ( ! p>ty has be5 pres]v$ 9 :i* ! un=tunate c\ri] compla9s t1 dur+ f\rte5 h\rs1 he nev] once alight$1 except :5 8 coa* 0 ov]turn$ or /uck fa/ 9 ! mud4 ,! ,romans knew h[ to make roads any:]e1 & s !y made !m run 9 a /raight l9e betwe5 ! two places !y wi%$ to connect1 b ! art 0 lo/ 9 lat] ye>s1 & ! c\ntry roads made 9 ,engl& s9ce _! "t usually _h to foll[ ! s& or ! *alk1 avoid+ ! clay z mu* z possible4 ,^! roads we /ill use4 ,fig4 #ah %[s ! roads r\nd ,wye2 y %\ld 9 y\r rambles /udy y\r own roads & see :at soil !y are on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,two positions ( s&4 ,a is dry because ! wat] c dra9 away & break out z a spr+ at c4 ,b is wet because ! wat] _c dra9 away ,!re are sev]al o!r ways 9 :i* s& diff]s f clay4 ,x does n %r9k on dry+ nor does x #cb swell on wett+1 & y w f9d no?+ happ5s :5 y try ) s& ! exp]im5t ) ! model field 7p4 #aa7 or ! egg-cup 7p4 #ab74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! roads r\nd ,wye4 ,z f> z possible !y keep (f ! clay 7! pla9 "p ( ! map7 & keep on ! *alk or ! s& 7! dott$ "p ( ! map7 #cc ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,"p ,,t ,,burns ,,away ,app>atus requir$4 ,leaf m\ld4 ,m\ld f a tree4 ,peat4 ,ab\t #a lb4 soil f a wood1 a well-manur$ g>d5 & a field2 also "s subsoil4 ,six crucibles or t9 lids4 ,six tripods1 pipe-clay triangles1 & buns5 burn]s or _s lamps4 ,six beak]s & egg-cups #a4 ,9 ! autumn leaves fall (f ! trees & =m a ?ick lay] 9 ! woods4 ,!y d n la/ v long2 if !y did !y w\ld 9 a few ye>s almo/ bury ! wood4 ,y c1 9 ! spr+time or e>ly summ] f9d out :at has happ5$ to !m if y g into a wood or c>efully se>* "u a big h$ge 9 a lane :]e ! leaves 7 n swept away4 ,"h & !re y come across skeleton leaves :]e only ! ve9s are left1 all ! re/ hav+ disappe>$4 ,b g5]ally :]e ! leaves h kept moi/ !y h *ang$ to a d>k br[n mass :i* /ill %[s "s ( ! /ructure ( a leaf4 ,?is is call$ leaf m\ld4 ,! top lay] ( soil 9 ! wood is s(t1 d>k 9 col\r1 & is evid5tly leaf m\ld mix$ ) s& or soil4 ,leaf m\ld is highly priz$ by g>d5]s1 inde$ g>d5]s w (t5 make a big heap ( leaves 9 autumn & let !m rot d[n & *ange into m\ld4 ,if y c 9 autumn collect en\gh leaves to make a heap y #cd %\ld d s & leave x some:]e :]e ! ra9 c fall on x1 b cov] x ) a few small bran*es ( trees to prev5t ! w9d bl[+ ! leaves away4 ,! heap %r9ks a great deal dur+ ! fir/ few mon?s1 & 9 ! end x gives a supply ( m\ld t w be v useful if y want to gr[ any plants 9 pots4 ,"s ( ! little holl[s 9 ! bank "u a h$ge1 especially on *alky soils1 are fill$ ) leaf m\ld :i* has sometimes *ang$ to a black p[d] n look+ at all l leaves4 ,y c also f9d m\ld 9 holes 9 decay$ trees2 "h x has =m$ f ! wood ( ! tree4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t dead leaves1 etc41 sl[ly *ange into a black or br[n sub/ance1 %r9k+ v mu* z !y d s4 ,= ?is reason !y d n g on pil+ up ye> aft] ye> till f9ally !y fill ! wood2 in/ead !y decay or rot d[n to =m leaf m\ld3 ! big pile ( ! autumn has *ang$ by ! next summ] to a ?9 lay] :i* mixes ) ! soil4 ,we want n[ to see :at happ5s on a common or a piece ( wa/e gr\nd t is n cultivat$4 ,grass & wild plants gr[ up 9 summ] & die dur+ w9t]2 _! /ems & roots are n tak5 away1 b cle>ly !y d n rema9 :]e !y are1 because next ye> new plants gr[ up4 ,we may suppose t ! dead roots & /ems decay l ! leaves did1 & *ange to a br[n or black m\ld4 ,x looks z if we are "r1 because on digg+ a hole or exam9+ ! side ( a fre%ly cut dit* we %all f9d t ! top lay] ( soil1 j s f> z ! liv+ roots g1 is d>k] 9 col\r ?an ! lay] bel[4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 try & get "s m pro(1 & to d ?is we mu/ /udy "s ( our specim5s a little #ce m closely4 ,we w take "s leaf m\ld1 "s black m\ld f a holl[ 9 ! bank1 "s f a tree1 soils f a wood1 a well-manur$ g>d51 a field & "s subsoil4 ,all except ! subsoil h a d>k col\r1 b ! wood & g>d5 soils are probably d>k] ?an ! field soil4 ,n[ weigh out #b gra9s ( ea* ( ^! & heat 9 a di% z y did ! soil on p4 #d2 notice t all except ! subsoil g black & !n beg9 to sm\ld]1 b ! m\lds sm\ld] m ?an ! soils4 ,!n weigh aga9 & calculate h[ mu* has burnt away 9 ea* case4 ,"h are "s results t h be5 obta9$ at ,h>p5d53-- ,am\nt ,p]c5tage ,col\r be=e ( loss on ,col\r ( burn+ sm\ld]+ burn+ residue ,leaf m\ld d>k br[n mu* #gh4c light grey ,m\ld f dead tree black mu* #fj4f light grey ,soil f wood d>k br[n less #dc4da :ite ,soil f g>d5 almo/ black less #aj4a r$ ,soil f field br[ni% /ill less #e4d r$ ,subsoil r$ none #b4j r$ ,! m\ld ne>ly all burns away & its d>k col\r entirely goes1 s also does ! d>k col\r ( ! soil4 ,our supposition expla9s :y1 9 ! case ( soils1 ! less ! blackness1 ! less ! loss on burn+4 ,if ! #cf br[n or black combu/ible "p is really m\ld =m$ by ! decay ( plant roots1 etc41 !n we %\ld expect t z ! p]c5tage ( m\ld 9 ! soil increas$1 s its blackness w\ld increase & its loss on burn+ w\ld become great]4 ,?is actually happ5s4 ,?is1 !n1 is our idea4 ,we suppose t ! plants t h liv$ 9 pa/ ye>s h decay$ to =m a black mat]ial l leaf m\ld :i* /ops 9 ! soil1 giv+ x a d>ki% col\r4 ,! m m\ld !re is1 ! d>k] ! col\r ( ! soil4 ,we "k t along ) ?is decay !re is a great deal ( %r9kage4 ,z ! black mat]ial is =m$ f ! plant1 x only ext5ds z f> into ! soil z ! plant roots g1 s t !re is a %>p *ange 9 col\r ab\t #f in*es bel[ ! surface 7see also p4 #b74 ,l ! plant ! black mat]ial all burns away :5 ! soil is heat$ suffici5tly4 ,?us we c expla9 all ! facts we h obs]v$1 & 9 :at seems a v likely way4 ,?is does n %[ t our supposition is correct1 b only t x is useful4 ,:5 y come to /udy sci5ce subjects y w f9d su* suppositions1 or hypo!ses z !y are call$1 are frequ5tly us$ s long z !y are f\nd to be helpful4 ,9 our pres5t case we c\ld only get absolute pro( t ! black combu/ible "p ( ! soil really arose f ! decay ( plants by wat*+ ! process ( soil =mation4 ,we %all turn lat] to ?is subject4 ,! black mat]ial is kn[n z humus4 ,f>m]s & g>d5]s l a black soil conta9+ a good deal ( humus because !y f9d x v ri*1 & we %all see lat] on :y ?is is s4 ,va/ areas ( su* soils occurr+ 9 ,manitoba1 9 ,russia1 & 9 ,hung>y are us$ = #cg :eat gr[+1 :ile !re are also areas 9 ! ,f5 di/ricts ( ,engl&4 ,!re is some?+ kn[n z peat t looks r l m\ld1 b is really s diff]5t t y mu/ be c>eful n to confuse ! two4 ,peat is n good = plants1 & does n make ! soil f]tile1 b q ! rev]se4 ,y c see x be+ =m$ on a moor or bog1 & y %\ld at ! fir/ opportunity g & exam9e x4 ,!re 0 a peat bog ne> ,wye t 0 exam9$ ) ! foll[+ results4 ,! peat 0 v fibr\s & _h evid5tly be5 =m$ f plants4 ,x made a lay] ab\t #b feet ?ick & und]nea? x 0 a b$ ( clay2 ?is 0 discov]$ by exam9+ ! dit*es1 "s ( :i* cut "r ?r\gh ! peat into ! clay bel[4 ,a sample ( ! clay put into a funnel1 z on p4 #ad1 did n all[ wat] to pass ?r\gh2 ?is 0 also evid5t f ! v wet nature ( ! gr\nd4 ,! peat b$ 0 bel[ ! level ( ! surr\nd+ l& & 0 9 a sort ( bas92 ! wat] dra9+ f ! high] l& c\ld all collect !re b c\ld n run away1 inde$ x might v well h be5 a %all[ lake4 ,x 0 q cle> t ! plants z !y di$ w\ld decay 9 v wet soil1 & s ! conditions are v diff]5t f ^? we h j be5 /udy+ :]e ! plants decay 9 soil t is only moi/4 ,?is diff]5ce at once %[s itself 9 ! fact t peat g5]ally =ms a ?ick lay]1 :ile m\ld only r>ely does s4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl& ! moors lie high1 b "h aga9 ! peat b$ is l a sauc] or bas91 & !re is soil or rock bel[ t does n let ! ra9 wat] pass ?r\gh4 ,= a great "p ( ! ye> ! b$s are v wet4 #ch ,look at a piece ( peat & notice h[ v fibr\s x is1 q unlike leaf m\ld4 ,:5 x is dry peat easily burns & is mu* us$ z fuel 9 p>ts ( ,scotl&1 ,wales & ,irel&4 ,x is cut 9 blocks dur+ ! spr+1 left to dry 9 heaps dur+ summ]1 & !n c>ri$ away 9 autumn4 ,fig4 #ai %[s a peat bog ) cutt+ go+ on4 ,peat does n easily cat* light & ! fires are g5]ally kept burn+ all night2 !re is no great flame su* z y get ) a coal fire1 b /ill !re is q a nice heat4 ,peat has a rem>kable p[] ( absorb+ wat]4 ,fill an egg-cup ) peat1 pack+ x z tightly z y possibly c1 & !n put x "u wat] & leave = "s days4 ,! peat becomes v wet & swells consid]ably1 ov]fl[+ ! cup j l ! clay did on p4 #ab4 ,aft] long & heavy ra9s peat 9 bogs swells up s mu* t x may become dang]\s2 if ! bog is on ! side ( a hill1 ! peat may ov]fl[ & run d[n ! hill l a riv]1 c>ry+ ev]y?+ be=e x4 ,su* ov]fl[s sometimes occur 9 ,irel& & !y us$ to occur 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&2 y c read ab\t "o on ,p5dle ,hill 9 ,h>rison ,a9swor?'s ,lanca%ire ,wit*es4 ,b !y d n take place :5 dit*es are cut 9 ! bog s t ! wat] c fl[ away in/ead ( soak+ 92 ?is has be5 done 9 ,engl&4 ,?is great p[] ( absorb+ wat] & o!r liquids1 s t]rible :5 x leads to ov]fl[s1 enables peat to be put to v>i\s uses1 & a good deal ( x is sold z peat-moss1 = use 9 /ables4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,cutt+ & c>ry+ peat = fuel1 ,hoy1 ,orkney ,9 ! dit*es ( a peat bog r$ slimy masses c (t5 be f\nd4 ,!y look j l ru/y iron1 & 9 fact !y d conta9 a good deal ( iron1 b !re are also a numb] ( t9y little liv+ ?+s pres5t4 ,! #dj /ones & grit j "u ! peat are usually :ite1 all ! r$ mat]ial f !m hav+ be5 wa%$ out by ! wat] :i* has soak$ ?r\gh ! peat4 ,!n at ! dit* ^! t9y liv+ ?+s take up ! r$ mat]ial because x is useful to !m4 ,peat or moorl& wat] c also dissolve lead f lead pipes & may !re=e be dang]\s = dr9k+ purposes unless x is specially purifi$4 ,:5 y /udy *emi/ry y w be able to %[ t bo? peat itself & moorl& wat]s are acid :ile good m\ld is n4 ,t is :y peat is n good = cultivat$ plants 7see also p4 #if74 ,o!r ?+s besides peat are =m$ :5 plants decay "u wat]4 ,if y /ir up ! bottom ( a /agnant pond ) a /ick bubbles ( gas rise to ! surface & w burn if a light$ mat* is put to !m4 ,?is gas is call$ m>% gas4 ,v unpleasant & un:olesome gases are also =m$4 #a ,! top two in*es ( soil only 7 collect$ "h1 & !re 7 _m leaves1 twigs1 etc4 mix$ 94 ,soils f diff]5t woods v>y consid]ably4 ,if ! sample is tak5 to a great] dep? ! loss on burn+ is mu* less1 & may be only #e or #f p] c5t4 #da ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,plant ,,food ,,9 ,,! ,,soil ,app>atus requir$4 ,! pot exp]im5ts 7p4 xiii74 ,x is a r>e sight 9 ,engl& to see l& 9 a natural uncultivat$ /ate devoid ( vegetation4 ,! hills are cov]$ ) grasses & bu%es1 ! moors ) l+ & hea!r1 commons ) grass1 brack5 & gorse1 a g>d5 t5ds to become smo!r$ 9 we$s1 & ev5 a gravel pa? w n long rema9 free f grass4 ,x is cle> t soil is well suit$ = ! gr[? ( plants4 ,we w make a few exp]im5ts to see :at we c f9d out ab\t ?is prop]ty ( soil4 ,we h se5 t a good deal ( ! soil is s& or grit1 & we %all want to "k :e!r ?is1 l soil1 c support plant life4 ,we h also f\nd t ! subsoil is unlike ! top soil 9 sev]al ways1 & s we %all want to see h[ x behaves t[>ds plants4 ,fill a pot ) soil tak5 f ! top n9e in*es ( an arable field or untr5*$ "p ( ! g>d52 ano!r ) subsoil tak5 f ! l[] dep?1 #i to #ah in*es1 & a ?ird ) clean build]'s s& or wa%$ sea-s&4 ,s[ ) rye or mu/>d1 & ?9 out :5 ! se$s are up4 ,keep ! pots toge!r & equally well suppli$ ) wat]2 ! plants !n h z good a *ance ( gr[? 9 "o pot z 9 any o!r4 #db ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,rye gr[+ 9 surface soil 7,pot #c71 subsoil 7,pot #d71 & s& 7,pot #e7 #dc ,figs4 #bj & #ba are photographs ( sets ( plants gr[n 9 ?is way2 ! weights 9 gra9s 73-- ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,rye ,mu/>d ,rye ,mu/>d ,plants gr[n 9 top soil 7,pot #c7 #ad4e #ag4g #e4f #b4f subsoil 7,pot #d7 #b4i #e4a #a4f #a4a s& 7,pot #e7 #b4j #d4f #j4h #a4j ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 surface soil 7,pot #c71 subsoil 7,pot #d71 s& 7,pot #e7 ,! plants 9 ! soil rema9$ gre5 & made /eady gr[?4 ,^? 9 ! s& nev] %[$ any signs ( gett+ on1 _! leaves turn$ yell[ & #dd fell (f2 9 spite ( ! c>e !y receiv$1 & ! wat]1 w>m? & air giv5 !m1 !y look$ />v$1 & t1 9 fact1 is :at !y really 74 ,nor did ^? 9 ! subsoil f>e mu* bett]4 ,! exp]im5t %[s t ! top soil gives ! plant some?+ t x wants = gr[? & t x _c get ei!r f s& or f ! subsoil2 ?is some?+ we w call plant food4 ,fur!r pro( is easily obta9$4 ,at a clay or gravel pit little or no vegetation is to be se5 on ! slop+ sides or on ! level at ! bottom1 al?\gh ! surface soil is c>ry+ plants t %$ innum]able se$s4 ,a heap ( subsoil ?r[n up f a newly made well1 or ! excavations ( a h\se1 lies b>e = a long "t4 ,! practical man has long s9ce discov]$ ^! facts4 ,a g>d5] is mo/ p>ticul> to keep ! top soil on ! top1 & n to bury x1 :5 he is tr5*+4 ,9 levell+ a piece ( gr\nd = a cricket pit* or t5nis c\rt1 x is n en\gh to lift ! turf & make a level surface2 ! "w has to be done s t at e po9t !re is suffici5t dep? ( top soil 9 :i* ! grass roots may gr[4 ,h[ mu* plant food is !re 9 ! top soil8 ,to answ] ?is "q we mu/ comp>e soil t has be5 cropp$ ) soil t has be5 kept fall[1 i4e4 moi/ b uncropp$4 ,tip out "s ( ! soil t has be5 cropp$ ) rye1 & exam9e x4 ,remove ! rye roots1 !n replace ! soil 9 ! pot & s[ ) mu/>d2 s[ also a fall[ pot ) mu/>d4 ,keep bo? pots prop]ly wat]$4 ,! soil t has c>ri$ a crop is soon se5 to be mu* ! poor] ( ! two4 ,fig4 #bb %[s ! plants1 :ile _! weights 9 grams 73-- #de ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 soil previ\sly cropp$ ) rye1 ,pot #a #ag4h #fb4c ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 soil previ\sly uncropp$1 ,pot #b #c4c #h4f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 surface soil previ\sly cropp$ ) rye 7,pot #a7 & 9 surface soil previ\sly uncropp$ 7,pot #b7 #df ,! rye has tak5 mo/ ( ! plant food t 0 9 ,pot #a leav+ v little = ! second crop4 ,our soil !re=e conta9$ only a little plant food1 n m1 9 fact1 ?an w prop]ly fe$ "o crop4 ,b yet x did n seem to h alt]$ 9 any way1 ev5 9 weight1 9 consequ5ce ( ! plant food be+ tak5 out4 ,9 our exp]im5t ! soil 0 dri$ & weigh$ be=e & aft] ! mu/>d 0 gr[n2 ! results 73-- ,pot #b ,pot #b;a lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 ,weight ( dri$ soil be=e ! exp]im5t #f #f #f #g aft] #f #f #f #f ------ ------ ,diff]5ce #j #j #j #a ,! exp]im5t is n good en\gh to tell u exactly h[ mu* plant food 0 pres5t at ! beg9n+4 ,b we c say t ! am\nt ( plant food 9 ! soil is too small to be detect$ by su* weigh+ z we c d4 ,"h is an acc\nt ( a simil> exp]im5t made #cjj ye>s ago by van ,helmont 9 ,brussels1 & x is int]e/+ because x is "o ( ! fir/ sci5tific exp]im5ts on plant gr[?3-- ,i took an e>!n vessel 9 :i* ,i put #bjj p\nds ( soil dri$ 9 an ov51 !n ,i moi/5$ ) ra9 wat] & press$ h>d into x a %oot ( will[ weigh+ #e p\nds4 ,aft] exactly five ye>s ! tree t _h gr[n up weigh$ #afi p\nds & ab\t #c ounces4 ,b ! vessel _h nev] receiv$ any?+ b ra9 wat] or di/ill$ wat] to moi/5 ! soil 7:5 ?is 0 necess>y71 & x rema9$ full ( soil :i* 0 /ill tightly pack$1 & le/ any du/ f outside %\ld h got into ! soil x 0 cov]$ ) a %eet #dg ( iron coat$ ) t9 b p]=at$ ) _m holes4 ,i did n take ! weight ( ! leaves t fell 9 ! autumn4 ,9 ! end ,i dri$ ! soil once m1 & got ! same #bjj p\nds t ,i />t$ )1 less ab\t two ounces4 ,!re=e ! #afd p\nds ( wood1 b>k & root arose f ! wat] alone4 ,! exp]im5t is wond]fully good & %[s h[ v little plant food !re is 9 ! soil4 ,! conclusion is n q "r1 h[ev]1 al?\gh x 0 = _m ye>s accept$ z pro( ( an anci5t belief1 :i* y w f9d m5tion$ 9 ,k+sley's ,we/w>d ,ho61 t all ?+s arose f wat]4 ,x is n[ kn[n t ! la/ s5t5ce %\ld read1 ,!re=e ! #afd p\nds ( wood1 b>k & root arose *iefly f ! wat] & air1 b a small "p came f ! soil also4 ,b to return to our exp]im5t ) ,pots #a & #b4 ,!y _h be5 kept moi/ be=e ! mu/>d 0 s[n4 ,did ?is moi/ure h any effect on ! soil8 ,take two ( ! pots t h be5 kept dry & uncropp$1 & two t h be5 kept moi/ & uncropp$1 also "o ( dry uncropp$ subsoil & "o ( moi/ uncropp$ subsoil4 ,s[ rye or mu/>d 9 ea* pot & keep !m all equally suppli$ ) wat]4 ,x is soon evid5t t ! top soil is ri*] 9 plant food ?an ! subsoil1 & ! soil /or$ moi/ is r ri*] ?an t /or$ dry1 al?\gh ! diff]5ce "h is less m>k$4 ,9 an exp]im5t 9 :i* ! soils 7 put up e>ly 9 ,july & s[n at ! end ( ,septemb] ! weights ( crops 9 grams obta9$ 73-- #dh ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,plants gr[n 9 top soil /or$ 9 #af4i #b4f moi/ condition 7,pots #aj #aa7 #ah4i #b4h ,plants gr[n 9 top soil /or$ 9 #ab4a #a4h dry condition 7,pots #h #i7 #ad4d #a4i ,plants gr[n 9 subsoil /or$ 9 moi/ condition 7,pot #ac7 #e4e #j4i ,plants gr[n 9 subsoil /or$ 9 dry condition 7,pot #ab7 #e4f #j4h ,! crops on ,pots #aj & #aa ought ( c\rse to weigh ! same1 & s %\ld ! crops on ,pots #h & #i4 ,! diff]5ces arise f ! error ( ! exp]im5t4 ,9 all exp]im5tal "w1 h[ev] c>efully c>ri$ out or h[ev] skilful ! op]ator1 !re is "s error4 ,!re is cle>ly an increase 9 crop z a result ( /or+ ! surface soil 9 a moi/ condition1 %[+ t additional plant food has be5 made1 s9ce ^! pots 7 put up4 ,on ! o!r h& x does n appe> t mu* plant food has be5 made 9 ! subsoil dur+ ?is "t4 ,fur!r evid5ce on ?is po9t is giv5 by an exp]im5t simil> to t 9 ,fig4 #bb1 b :]e mu/>d is gr[n 9 subsoil kept moi/1 b uncropp$ = "s "t1 & 9 subsoil previ\sly cropp$ ) rye4 ,! results 9 grams 73-- ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 subsoil previ\sly cropp$ ) rye #ab4f #b4bg ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 subsoil previ\sly uncropp$ #ab4i #b4bf #di ,^! %\ld be comp>$ ) ! figures on p4 #de4 ,al?\gh ! subsoil lay fall[ = a long "t x produc$ no plant food b is j z poor z ! subsoil t has be5 previ\sly cropp$4 ,^! obs]vations give u a clue t mu/ be foll[$ up 9 answ]+ our next "q4 ,:at has ! plant food be5 made f8 ,cle>ly x is n made f ! s&1 ! clay or ! *alk s9ce all ^! occur 9 ! subsoil4 ,we h se5 7,*ap4 ,i47 t ! top soil diff]s f ! subsoil 9 conta9+ a quantity ( mat]ial t w burn away & is 9 "p at any rate made up ( plant rema9s4 ,x w be easy to f9d out :e!r ^! rema9s furni% any appreciable quantity ( plant food4 ,fill "o pot ) surface soil & ano!r ) ! same weight ( surface soil well mix$ up ) #cj grams ( plant rema9s--pieces ( grass1 or /ems & leaves ( o!r plants cut up into fragm5ts ab\t half an in* long4 ,at ! same "t put up two pots ( subsoil1 "o ( :i*1 z be=e1 is mix$ ) #cj gra9s ( plant rema9s1 & also put up two pots ( s&1 "o conta9+ #cj grams ( plant rema9s & ! o!r none4 ,s[ all six pots ) mu/>d & keep wat]$ & well t5d$4 ,! result ( "o exp]im5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bc & ! weights ( ! crop 9 grams 73-- ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,top soil & pieces ( plants 7,pot #f7 #db4j #e4j ,top soil alone 7,pot #c7 #ag4g #b4f ,diff]5ce 9 top soil #bd4c #b4d #ej ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,subsoil & pieces ( plants 7,pot #g7 #aj4e #a4i ,subsoil alone 7,pot #d7 #e4a #a4a ,diff]5ce 9 subsoil #e4d #j4h ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,pieces ( grass1 leaves1 etc4 *ange into plant food 9 ! surface b n to any great ext5t 9 ! subsoil4 ,mu/>d is gr[+ 9 surface soil 7,pot #c71 9 surface soil & pieces ( grass 7,pot #f71 9 subsoil 7,pot #d71 & 9 subsoil & grass 7,pot #g7 ,n[ let u look at ^! results c>efully4 ,! exp]im5t ) surface soil %[s t ! pieces ( /em & leaf h furni%$ a good deal ( food to ! mu/>d & h caus$ a ga9 ( #bd4c grams 9 ! crop4 ,if we knew :at ! pieces 7 made ( we #ea c\ld pu% ! exp]im5t /ill fur!r & f9d out m ab\t plant food1 b ?is involves *emical problems & mu/ be left alone = ! pres5t4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 say t plant rema9s are an important s\rce ( plant food1 & s9ce we suppose ! black mat]ial ( ! soil to be made ( plant rema9s 7see p4 #cf71 x w be q fair to say also t ?is black mat]ial1 ! humus1 is a s\rce ( plant food4 ,we h !re=e answ]$ ! "q we set1 & we c expla9 "s at any rate ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! surface soil & ! subsoil4 ,! surface soil conta9s a great deal ( ! black mat]ial1 :i* =ms plant food1 :ile ! subsoil does n4 ,?us plants gr[ well on ! surface soil & />ve on ! subsoil4 ,we c also expla9 :y g>d5]s & f>m]s speak ( black soils z ri* soils2 !y conta9 m ?an o!r soils ( ?is black mat]ial t makes plant food4 ,/ill fur!r1 we c expla9 :y ! f>m] (t5 s[s plants l mu/>d1 t>es or clov]1 & !n pl\ghs !m into ! gr\nd4 ,!y are n wa/$1 b !y make food = ! next crop t goes 94 ,n[ let u turn to ! results ( ! subsoil exp]im5ts4 ,! leaves & /ems h increas$ ! crop1 b only by #e4d grams3 !y h n be5 ne>ly s effective z 9 ! surface soil4 ,x is evid5t t ! mu/>d did n fe$ directly on ! leaves & /ems put 92 if x _h !re %\ld h be5 an equal ga9 9 bo? cases4 ,! leaves & /ems cle>ly h to und]go "s *ange be=e !y are made into plant food & ! soil has some?+ to d ) ?is *ange4 ,aft] ! crops are cut ! soils %\ld be tipp$ out & exam9$4 ,m ( ! orig9al pieces ( leaf & /em are f\nd 9 ! subsoil ?an 9 ! surface #eb soil4 ,t is to say1 !re has be5 m *ange 9 ,pot #f conta9+ surface soil ?an 9 ,pot #g conta9+ subsoil4 ,! some?+1 :atev] x may be1 t *anges plant rema9s l leaves1 /ems1 pieces ( grass1 roots1 etc4 into plant food !re=e acts bett] 9 ! surface soil ?an 9 ! subsoil4 ,"h !n we h ano!r diff]5ce betwe5 surface & subsoils4 ,,summ>y4 ,! exp]im5tal results obta9$ 9 ?is *apt] may n[ be summ$ up z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,plant food is pres5t 9 ! top soil only & n to any ext5t 9 ! subsoil4 7#b7 ,!re is n mu* pres5t1 s little inde$ t we c\ld n detect x by weigh+4 7#c7 ,x is1 h[ev]1 always be+ made 9 ! top soil1 if wat] is pres5t4 ,only little is made f ! subsoil4 7#d7 ,! rema9s ( leaves1 /ems1 roots1 etc4 furni% an important s\rce ( plant food4 7#e7 ,b !y h fir/ to und]go "s *ange1 & ! ag5t produc+ ?is *ange is m active 9 ! top soil ?an 9 ! subsoil4 7#f7 ,! top soil is mu* ! mo/ useful "p ( ! soil & %\ld nev] be buri$ dur+ digg+ or tr5*+1 b always c>efully kept on top4 #ec ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,dwell]s ,,9 ,,! ,,soil ,app>atus requir$4 ,g>d5 soil4 ,six bottles & corks #a4 ,twelve ,erl5mey] flasks1 #ej c4c4 capacity #b4 ,cotton wool4 ,milk 7ab\t half a p9t74 ,leaf gelat9e4 ,soil bak$ 9 an ov54 ,six sauc]s #c4 ,! app>atus 9 ,fig4 #bh 7two lots74 ,wa% bottle conta9+ lime wat] 7,fig4 #bg1 also p4 #ai74 ,9 digg+ a g>d5 a numb] ( little animals are f\nd1 su* z e>?worms1 beetles1 ants1 c5tip$es1 millip$es & o!rs4 ,!re are also "s v curi\s =ms ( vegetable life4 ,by c>efully look+ ab\t x is n difficult to f9d pat*es ( soil cov]$ ) a gre5i% slimy gr[?2 !y are f\nd be/ "u bu%es :]e ! soil is n di/urb$1 or else :]e ! soil has be5 press$ d[n by a footm>k & n t\*$ s9ce4 ,any good soil left undi/urb$ = a "t %[s ?is gr[?4 ,put "s fre% moi/ g>d5 soil into a bottle & cork x up tightly s t x keeps moi/4 ,write ! date on ! bottle & !n leave x 9 ! light :]e y c easily see x4 ,aft] a "t--sometimes a long1 sometimes a %ort] "t--! soil becomes cov]$ ) a slimy gr[?1 gre5i% 9 col\r1 m+l$ "h & !re ) r$di% br[n4 ,! long] ! #ed soil is left ! bett]4 ,(t5 aft] sev]al mon?s some?+ fur!r happ5s2 little f]ns beg9 to gr[ & !y live a v long "t inde$4 ,!re is at ,ro?am/$ a bottle ( soil t 0 put up j l ?is z f> back z #ahgd4 ,= a numb] ( ye>s pa/ a beautiful f]n has be5 gr[+ inside ! bottle1 & ev5 n[ x is v heal?y & vigor\s4 ,if1 in/ead ( be+ kept moi/1 ! ri* g>d5 soil is left 9 a dry %$ dur+ ! :ole ( ! w9t] s t x gradually loses its moi/ure1 x w g5]ally %[ q a lot ( :ite fluffy gr[?4 ,all ( ^! liv+ ?+s are v wond]ful1 & "s1 especially e>?worms1 are v useful to g>d5]s & f>m]s4 ,aft] a %[] ( ra9 look c>efully 9 ! g>d5 or else on a lawn1 common1 or pa/ure field :]e ! grass is closely graz$ by cattle or does n naturally gr[ long1 & y w f9d numb]s ( t9y heaps ( soil scatt]$ ab\t4 ,c>efully bru% away a heap & a little hole is se51 n[ hit ! gr\nd ne> x a few times ) a /ick or /amp on x ) y\r foot & ! worm1 if he is ne> ! top1 comes up4 ,:5 he is safely out ( ! way dig c>efully d[n ) a knife or tr[el s z to exam9e ! hole or burr[4 ,at ! top y g5]ally f9d x l9$ ) pieces ( grass or leaves t ! worm has pull$ 92 l[] d[n ! l9+ comes to an end1 b ! col\r ( ! burr[ is r$d] ?an t ( ! re/ ( ! soil :]ev] ! soil has a gre5i% t+e4 ,^! holes are useful because !y let air & wat] d[n into ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,soil 9 :i* e>?worms h be5 liv+ & mak+ burr[s ,! foll[+ exp]im5t %[s :at e>?worms c d4 ,fill a pot ) soil f :i* all ! worms h be5 c>efully pick$ out & ano!r #ee ) soil to :i* e>?worms h be5 add$1 "o worm to e p\nd ( soil4 ,leave !m out ( doors :]e ! ra9 c fall on to !m4 ,y c soon see ! burr[s & ! heaps ( soil or ca/s ?r[n up by ! worms3 ^! ca/s wa% or bl[ ov] ! surface ( ! soil1 cont9ually cov]+ x ) a ?9 lay] ( mat]ial br\ght up f bel[4 ,consequ5tly ! soil conta9+ e>?worms always has #ef a fre% clean look4 ,aft] "s "t ! o!r soil becomes v compact & is cov]$ ) a gre5i% slimy gr[?4 ,:5 ?is happ5s c>efully turn ! pots upside d[n1 knock !m s z to deta* ! soil & lift !m (f4 ,! soil :]e ! e>?worms _h liv$ is full ( burr[s & looks almo/ l a sponge4 ,fig4 #bd %[s :at happ5$ 9 an exp]im5t la/+ f ,june to ,octob]4 ,! o!r soil :]e !re 7 no e>?worms %[s no su* burr[s & is r m compact ?an :5 x 0 put 94 ,e>?worms !re=e d ?ree ?+s3-- 7#a7 ,!y make burr[s 9 ! gr\nd & s let 9 air & wat]4 7#b7 ,!y drag leaves into ! soil & ?us help to make ! mixture ( soil & leaf m\ld4 7#c7 ,!y keep on br++ fre% soil up to ! surface1 & !y di/urb ! surface s mu* t x is always clean & free f ! slimy gr[?4 ,all ^! ?+s are v useful & s a g>d5] %\ld nev] want to kill worms4 ,! great naturali/1 ,d>w91 sp5t a long "t 9 /udy+ e>?worms at 8 home 9 ,k5t & wrote a v int]e/+ book ab\t !m1 call$ ,e>?worms & ,vegetable ,m\ld4 ,he %[s t ea* ye> worms br+ up ab\t #a_/ej? ( an in* ( soil1 s t if y laid a p5ny on ! soil n[ & no "o took x1 9 #ej ye>s x might be cov]$ ) an in* ( soil4 ,pavem5ts t 7 on ! surface :5 ! ,romans occupi$ ,brita9 are n[ cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,fre% soil turns milk bad1 b bak$ soil does n ,b besides ^! !re are "s liv+ ?+s too small to see1 t h only be5 f\nd by c>eful exp]im5ts1 b y c easily repeat "s ( ^! #eg exp]im5ts y\rselves4 ,divide a little ri* g>d5 soil into two p>ts & bake "o 9 ! kit*5 ov5 on a patty t94 ,p\r a little milk into ea* ( two small flasks1 /op up ) cotton wool 7see ,fig4 #be7 & boil = a few m9utes v c>efully s t ! milk does n boil ov]1 !n all[ to cool4 ,next c>efully take out ! /opp] f "o ( ! flasks & drop 9 a little ( ! bak$ soil1 label ! flask bak$ soil & put back ! /opp]4 ,into ! o!r flask drop a little ( ! unt\*$ soil & label x2 leave bo? flasks 9 a w>m place till ! next day4 ,c>efully op5 ! /opp]s & smell ! milk3 ! bak$ soil has done no?+ & ! milk smells p]fectly sweet2 ! unbak$ soil1 on ! o!r h&1 has made ! milk bad & x smells l *eese4 ,if y h a good microscope y c g fur!r3 look at a drop ( ! liquid f ea* flask & y f9d 9 ea* case ! #eh r\nd fat globules ( ! milk1 b ! bad milk conta9s 9 addition "s t9y creatures1 look+ l v %ort p9s1 d>t+ 9 & out among ! fat globules4 ,^! liv+ ?+s mu/ h come f ! unbak$ soil or !y w\ld h be5 pres5t 9 bo? flasks3 !y mu/ also h be5 kill$ by bak+ 9 ! ov54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,soils conta9 t9y ?+s t gr[ on gelat9e ,ano!r exp]im5t is easy b takes a little long] to %[4 ,mix two %eets ( leaf gelat9e ) a qu>t] #ei ( a p9t ( boil+ wat]1 p\r into ea* ( ?ree sauc]s1 & cov] ov] ) plates4 ,!n /ir up "s bak$ soil 9 a cup half full ( cold boil$ wat]1 & quickly put a teaspoonful ( ! liquid into a second cup1 also half full ( cold boil$ wat]4 ,/ir quickly & put a spoonful on to ! jelly1 tilt+ x ab\t s t x cov]s ! :ole surface & label ! sauc] bak$ soil4 ,d ! same ) ! unbak$ soil1 labell+ ! sauc]2 leave ! ?ird jelly alone & label x unt\*$4 ,cov] all ?ree ) plates & leave 9 a w>m place4 ,aft] a day or s little specks beg9 to appe> on ! jelly conta9+ ! unbak$ soil1 b n on ! o!rs 7,fig4 #bf72 !y gr[ l>g]1 & be=e long !y *ange ! jelly to a liquid4 ,! o!r jellies #fj %[ v few specks & are little alt]$4 ,^! creatures mak+ ! specks came f ! soil because s few are f\nd on ! jelly alone2 !y 7 kill$ 9 ! bak+ & s d n occur on ! bak$ soil jelly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,bottle conta9+ lime wat]1 us$ to %[ t brea? makes lime wat] milky ,y c also %[ t brea?+ is go+ on 9 ! soil ev5 aft] y h pick$ out e liv+ ?+ t y c see4 ,fir/ ( all y mu/ d a little exp]im5t ) y\r own brea?+ s t y may "k h[ to />t4 ,%ake up a little fre% lime ) wat] & leave x to /& = #bd h\rs4 ,p\r a little ( ! cle> liquid into a flask or bottle fitt$ ) a cork & two tubes1 "o long & "o %ort l t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg4 ,!n brea! 9 ?r\gh ! tube ,a s t ! air y take 9 comes ?r\gh ! lime wat]3 notice t no *ange occurs4 ,next brea! out ?r\gh ! tube ,b s t y\r brea? passes ?r\gh ! lime wat]2 ?is "t ! lime wat] turns v milky4 ,y !re=e alt] 9 "s way ! air t y brea!3 y "k also t y ne$ fre% air4 ,n[ we c get on ) our soil exp]im5ts4 ,take two small flasks ( equal size fitt$ ) corks & jo9$ by a glass tube b5t l a ,u ) ! ends curl$ ov]4 ,put "s lime wat] into ea* flask & a little wat] 9 ! ,u-tube4 ,n[ make a small musl9 bag l a sausage3 fill x ) moi/ fre% g>d5 soil1 tie x up ) a silk ?read & hang x 9 "o ( ! flasks by hold+ ! end ( ! ?read outside & pu%+ 9 ! cork till x is held firmly 7see ,fig4 #bh74 ,fix on ! o!r flask1 & aft] ab\t five m9utes m>k ! level ( ! liquid ) a piece ( /amp pap]2 leave 9 a w>m place b out ( ! sun4 #fa ,9 "o or two days y w see t ! wat] 9 ! ,u-tube has mov$ t[>ds ! soil flask1 %[+ t "s air has be5 us$ up by ! soil2 fur!r1 ! lime wat] has turn$ milky4 ,b 9 ! o!r flask1 :]e !re is no soil1 ! lime wat] rema9s q cle>4 ,?is proves1 !n1 t "s ( ! t9y creatures want air j z mu* z we d4 ,! air readies !m ?r\gh passages 9 ! soil1 ?r\gh ! burr[s ( e>?worms & o!r animals1 or by man's ef=ts 9 digg+ & pl\gh+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,a bag ( soil is fix$ into a flask conta9+ lime wat]4 ,9 a few days "s ( ! air has be5 us$ up1 & ! lime wat] has turn$ milky ,n[ try ! exp]im5t ) v dry g>d5 soil3 little or no *ange takes place4 ,z soon z y add wat]1 h[ev]1 brea?+ beg9s aga91 air is absorb$ & ! lime wat] turns milky j z be=e4 ,wat] is !re=e want$ j z mu* z air4 ,if y _h v magnify+ eyes & c\ld see ?+s s enl>g$ t ^! little creatures seem$ to #fb y to be an in* long1 & if y look$ d[n into ! soil1 x w\ld seem to y to be an extraord9>ily wond]ful place4 ,! little gra9s ( soil w\ld look l great rocks & on !m y w\ld see creatures ( all %apes & sizes mov+ ab\t1 & fe$+ on :atev] 0 suitable to !m1 "s be+ de/roy$ by o!rs v mu* l>g] ?an !mselves1 "s app>5tly dead or asleep1 yet wak+ up :5ev] x becomes w>m] or !re 0 a little m moi/ure4 ,y w\ld see !m *ang+ useless dead roots & leaves into v valuable plant food2 inde$ x is !y t br+ ab\t ! *anges obs]v$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,occasionally y w\ld see a v /range sight inde$--a great snake-l creature1 ov] ?ree miles long & ne>ly half a mile r\nd1 w\ld ru% along dev\r+ ev]y?+ be=e x & leave beh9d x a great tunnel d[n :i* a mighty riv] w\ld sudd5ly p\r1 & :at d y ?9k x w\ld be8 ,:at y n[ call an e>?worm & ?9k is f\r in*es long1 go+ ?r\gh ! soil leav+ its burr[ along :i* a drop ( wat] trickles6 ,t %[s y h[ t9y ^! little soil creatures are4 ,^! busy little creatures are call$ micro-organisms because ( _! small size4 ,b !y are n all useful4 ,"s c turn milk bad z we h already se51 & !re=e all jugs & di%es mu/ be kept clean le/ any ( !m %\ld be pres5t4 ,o!rs c cause disease4 ,x has happ5$ t a *ild :o has cut its f+] & has got "s soil into ! cut1 & n wa%$ x out at once1 has be5 made v ill4 ,y may sometimes notice %eep limp+ ab\t 9 ! fields1 especially 9 damp fields2 an organism gets into ! foot & causes tr\ble4 #fc ,,summ>y4 ,! soil is full ( liv+ ?+s1 "s l>ge l e>? worms1 o!rs v small4 ,e>?worms are v useful3 !y make burr[s 9 ! soil1 ?us all[+ air & wat] to get 93 !y drag 9 leaves & !y keep on cov]+ ! surface ) soil f bel[4 ,besides ^! & ! o!r l>ge creatures1 !re are micro-organisms s small t !y _c be se5 )\t a v good microscope3 !y live & brea! & require air1 wat] & food4 ,"s are v useful & *ange dead p>ts ( plants or animals into valuable plant food4 ,almo/ any?+ t c be consum$ by fire c be consum$ by !m4 ,o!rs are h>mful4 #fd ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,! ,,plant ,app>atus requir$4 ,dry p[d]$ soil1 s&1 clay1 leaf m\ld1 se$s4 ,six funnels1 disks1 /&s & glass j>s #c4 ,six glass tubes ab\t #a_/b 94 diamet] & #ah 94 long #b4 ,musl91 /r+1 ?ree beak]s4 ,six lamp *imneys /&+ 9 t9 lids #c4 ,pot exp]im5ts 7p4 xiii71 gr[+ plant4 ,two te/ tubes fitt$ ) split corks 7,fig4 #ce74 ,if y h ev] tri$ to gr[ a plant 9 a pot y mu/ h discov]$ t x ne$s mu* att5tion if x is to be kept alive4 ,x wants wat] or x )]s2 x mu/ be kept w>m en\gh or x is kill$ by cold2 x has to be f$ or x gets yell[ & />v$2 also x ne$s fre% air & light4 ,^! five ?+s are necess>y = ! plant3 ,wat]1 ,w>m?1 ,food1 ,fre% air1 ,light4 ,we may add a six?3 !re mu/ be no h>mful sub/ance pres5t 9 ! soil4 ,wild plants gr[+ 9 _! native haunts get no att5tion & yet _! wants are suppli$4 ,we w try & f9d out h[ ?is is done4 #fe ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,loam & s& bo? reta9 wat]1 b loam bett] ?an s& ,wat] comes f ! ra91 b ! ra9 does n fall e day4 ,h[ d ! plants manage to get wat] on dry days8 ,a simple exp]im5t w %[ y "o way4 ,put ab\t f\r tablespoonsful ( dry soil on to ! funnel %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi & !n p\r on two tablespoonsful ( wat]4 ,measure :at runs ?r\gh4 ,y w f9d x v little2 mo/ ( ! wat] /icks to ! soil4 ,ev5 aft] sev]al days ! soil 0 /ill r moi/4 ,soil has ! p[] ( keep+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] 9 res]ve = ! plant1 x only all[s a small "p ( ! ra9 to run ?r\gh4 ,d ! exp]im5t also ) s&1 p[d]$ clay1 & leaf m\ld4 ,"s wat] always rema9s beh9d1 b less 9 ! case ( s& ?an 9 ! o!rs4 ,9 "o #ff exp]im5t #cj cubic c5timetres ( wat] 7 p\r$ on to #ej gra9s ( soil b only #aj cubic c5timetres pass$ ?r\gh1 b :5 an equal am\nt 0 p\r$ on to #ej gra9s ( s& no less ?an #bj cubic c5timetres pass$ ?r\gh4 ,v s&y soils1 !re=e1 possess less p[] ( /or+ wat] ?an d soils ) m clay or m\ld 9 !m1 su* z loams1 clays or black soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,wat] c rise upw>ds 9 soil4 ,x c1 9 fact1 travel 9 any direction1 f wet to dry places ,fur!r1 wat] has a wond]ful p[] ( pass+ f wet places to dry places 9 ! soil4 ,tie a piece ( musl9 ov] ! end ( a tube & fill ) dry soil1 tapp+ x d[n z mu* z y c1 !n /& ! tube 9 wat] z 9 ,fig4 #cj4 ,fill ano!r ) s& #fh & place 9 wat]4 ,notice t ! wat] at once beg9s to rise 9 bo? tubes & w g on = a long "t1 always pass+ f ! wet to ! dry places4 ,x rises high] 9 ! soil ?an x does 9 ! s&4 ,en\gh wat] may pass up ! tube 9 ?is way to supply ! ne$s ( a gr[+ plant4 ,fill a glass lamp *imney ) dry soil1 pack+ x d[n tightly1 put into wat] & !n s[ ) :eat4 ,! plants gr[ v well4 ,a long] tube may be made f two *imneys fa/5$ toge!r by means ( a t9 coll> /uck on ) ,canada balsam or seal+ wax 7,fig4 #ca74 ,our plants grew well 9 ?is also1 b on a s&i] soil1 :]e ! wat] c\ld n rise s high1 x might happ5 t !y w\ld n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,:eat gr[+ 9 soils suppli$ f bel[ ) wat]4 ,all ! wat] ! plant gets has to travel upw>ds ,?us we %all expect great diff]5ces 9 ! moi/ure ( v>i\s soils4 ,9 "s di/ricts !re is mu* m ra9 ?an 9 o!rs1 & !re=e ! soils get a l>g] supply ( wat]4 ,s&y soils all[ wat] to run ?r\gh :ile a loam holds x l a sponge1 9 a loam also ! wat] readily moves f wet to dry places4 ,fur!r1 wat] runs d[n hills & collects 9 l[-ly+ holl[s or valleys2 "h1 !re=e1 ! soil is moi/] ?an x is some:at high] up4 ,:at w be ! effect ( ^! moi/ure diff]5ces on plants8 ,y mu/ f9d out 9 two ways4 ,visit a soil t y "k is dry--a s&y1 gravelly or *alky soil 9 a high situation--& look c>efully at ! plants !re1 !n g to "s moi/]1 l[] gr\nd & see :at ! plants %[4 ,y _c be q c]ta91 h[ev]1 t any?+ y see is simply due to wat] supply1 because !re may be o!r diff]5ces 9 ! soil z well4 ,s y mu/ try ! second me?od1 & t is to f9d out by exp]im5ts :at is ! effect ( v>y+ #fi quantities ( wat] on ! plant gr[?4 ,bo? me?ods mu/ be us$1 b x may be m conv5i5t to />t ! exp]im5ts fir/1 & :ile !y are go+ on to collect obs]vations 9 y\r rambles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,mu/>d gr[+ 9 soils suppli$ ) v>y+ quantities ( wat]4 #af v little wat]1 #c a nice am\nt ( wat]1 #ae too mu* wat] ,fill f\r glaz$ pots ) dry soil3 keep "o dry2 "o only j moi/2 ! ?ird is to be v moi/ & %\ld be wat]$ m frequ5tly ?an ! second2 & ! f\r? is to be kept flood$ ) wat]1 any way out be+ /opp$ up4 ,s[ :eat or mu/>d 9 all f\r & keep out ( ! ra94 ,! result ( "o exp]im5t ) mu/>d is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cb4 ,:]e no wat] 0 suppli$ !re 0 no gr[? & ! se$s rema9$ unalt]$4 ,:]e only little wat] 0 suppli$ 7,pot #af7 ! plants made "s gr[?1 b n v mu*3 ! leaves 7 small & %[$ no great vig\r2 #gj :]e suffici5t wat] 0 giv5 7,pot #c7 ! plants grew v well & _h ?ick /ems & l>ge leaves2 :]e too mu* wat] 0 giv5 7,pot #ae7 ! plants 7 v sickly & small4 ,! weights 73-- ,gre5 weight ,aft] dry+ ,plants ) too mu* wat] #c4i #j4e too little wat] #e4c #j4i a nice quantity ( wat] #ag4g #b4f ,fig4 #cc %[s two pots ( :eat1 "o kept only j suffici5tly moi/ = gr[?1 ! o!r kept v moi/ b n too wet4 ,y c see :at a diff]5ce !re is2 9 ! dri] pot ! leaves are r n>r[ & ! plants are small1 9 ! moi/] pot ! leaves are wide & ! plants big4 ,b !re 0 also ano!r diff]5ce t ! photograph does n br+ out v well--! plants 9 ! r dry soil 71 z y c see1 9 full e>1 ripe & yell[1 :ile ^? 9 ! v moi/ soil 7 /ill gre5 & gr[+4 ,we see !n 7#a7 t on moi/ soils !re is great] gr[? ?an on dry soils1 b ! plants d n rip5 s quickly2 7#b7 9 v wet soils mu/>d--& _m o!r plants also--w n gr[4 ,wat] is n itself h>mful4 ,x is easy to gr[ _m plants 9 wat] conta9+ ! prop] food1 b air mu/ be bl[n ?r\gh ! wat] at frequ5t int]vals4 ,9 ! wat]-logg$ soil ( ,pot #ae ! tr\ble arose n f too mu* wat] b f too little air4 ,air is want$ because plants are liv+ & #ga brea?+ 9 e "p1 9 ! roots z well z 9 ! leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,?is :eat gr[+ on v moi/ soil 0 /ill gre5 & gr[+ vigor\sly1 :il/ ?is :eat gr[+ on r dry soil 0 yell[ & ripe ,n[ turn to :at y h se5 9 y\r walks4 ,y w\ld probably notice t on ! dri]1 s&y or gravel gr\nd !re 0 no?+ l z great a gr[? ( grass or ( o!r plants z on ! moi/] soil4 ,?is is s mu* l :at we f\nd 9 ! pot exp]im5ts t we %all n be wrong 9 suppos+ t ! diff]5ce 9 wat] supply l>gely acc\nt$ = ! diff]5ce 9 gr[?4 ,b y may also h notic$ some?+ else4 ,plants 9 ! dri] soil h g5]ally #gb n>r[ leaves & ! grasses are roll$ up & f9e1 :il/ ^? on ! damp soil1 includ+ ! grasses1 h usually broad leaves4 ,?us 9 ! dry s&y soil y may f9d broom1 spurrey1 %eep's fescue1 p9e trees1 all ) n>r[ leaves2 :il/ on ! moi/] soil y may f9d burdock1 primroses1 cocksfoot & o!r broad-leav$ plants4 ,figs4 #cd a & b %[ "s plants we f\nd on a dry1 gravelly pat* on ,h>p5d5 common1 & on a moi/ loam 9 ! riv] valley bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd a4 ,plants collect$ on dry s&y soil4 ,broom1 %eep's fescue1 cre/$ dog/ail & gorse1 all ) n>r[ leaves #gc ,be=e we c acc\nt = ?is obs]vation1 we mu/ asc]ta9 a little m closely :at becomes ( ! wat] ! plant takes up4 ,x c]ta9ly does n all /ay 9 ! plant1 & ! only way out seems to be ?r\gh ! leaves4 ,put a te/ tube on ! leaf ( a gr[+ plant & fix a split cork r\nd ! /em3 leave 9 sunlight = a few h\rs & notice t wat] beg9s to collect 9 ! te/ tube 7,fig4 #ce74 ,! exp]im5t %[s t wat] passes out ( ! plant ?r\gh ! leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd b4 ,plants collect$ on moi/ loam4 ,all h wide leaves ,?is exp]im5t 0 fir/ made by ,/eph5 ,hales1 & describ$ by him ?us 9 #agbg3 ,hav+ by _m #gd evid5t pro(s 9 ! =ego+ exp]im5ts se5 ! great quantities ( liquor t 7 imbib$ & p]spir$ by trees1 ,i 0 desir\s to try if ,i c\ld get any ( ?is p]spir+ matt]2 & 9 ord] to d x1 ,i took sev]al glass *ymical retorts1 b a p ,fig4 #cf & put ! b\ghs ( sev]al sorts ( trees1 z !y 7 gr[+ ) _! leaves on1 into ! retorts1 /opp+ up ! m\? p ( ! retorts ) bladd]4 ,by ?is means ,i got sev]al ounces ( ! p]spir+ matt] ( v9es1 figtrees--& o!r trees1 :i* matt] ,hales f\nd to be almo/ pure wat]4 ,! te/ tube exp]im5t %\ld n[ be made ) a n>r[-leav$ grass l %eep's fescue & ) a wide-leav$ grass l cocksfoot4 ,y w f9d t wide-leav$ plants pass out m wat] ?an ^? ) n>r[ leaves1 & h5ce wide-leav$ plants occur 9 damp situations or on damp soils l loams & clays1 :ile n>r[-leav$ plants c gr[ on dry1 s&y soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,plants give out wat] ?r\gh _! leaves ,ano!r ?+ y w notice is t fields ly+ at ! side ( a riv] & liable to be flood$1 & fields #ge high up 9 wet hill di/ricts1 are cov]$ ) grass4 ,9 a clay c\ntry !re is also a great deal ( grass l& & n mu* pl\gh$ l&2 if y live :]e !re is mu* clay y c easily discov] ! reason4 ,clay becomes v wet & /icky :5 ra9 falls1 & v h>d 9 dry wea!r3 x is1 !re=e1 difficult to cultivate4 ,f>m]s _c af=d to sp5d too mu* money on cultivation1 & s !y pref] grass1 because once x is e/abli%$ x goes on indef9itely & does n want pl\gh+ up & re-s[+4 ,& besides1 f>m]s h le>n$ by exp]i5ce t grass c tol]ate m wat] & less w>m? ?an mo/ o!r ,engli% crops4 ,!re is mu* m grass l& 9 ^? p>ts ( ,engl& :]e ! ra9fall is high & ! temp]ature r #gf l[--e4g4 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,engl&--?an 9 ! ea/]n c\nties :]e ! ra9fall is l[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,/eph5 ,hales's ,exp]im5t 7f ,vegetable ,/aticks1 ,vol4 ,i4 #agbg7 ,! diff]5ce 9 wat] supply1 !re=e1 leads u to expect ! foll[+ diff]5ces betwe5 s&y soils & clays or loams3-- ,on s&y soils 7! wat] cont5t be+ small7 ! wild plants & trees usually h small leaves4 ,cultivat$ plants d n give v heavy crops1 b !y rip5 e>ly4 ,on clay soils 7! wat] cont5t be+ good7 wild plants & trees usually h l>g] leaves4 ,cultivat$ plants give good crops1 b !y rip5 r late4 ,if ! wat] cont5t is too good or ! clay is too /icky ! l& is g5]ally put into grass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,hill slope ne> ,h>p5d54 ,woodl& at ! top1 arable l& l[] d[n4 ,9 ! valley !re is grass l& b ?is is hidd5 by ! cottages ,plants require to be suffici5tly w>m4 ,"s l tropical heat & c only be gr[n 9 hot h\ses2 o!rs c )/& a c]ta9 am\nt ( cold & w gr[ up on ! m\nta9s4 ,our common cultivat$ crops come 9 betwe5 & w n gr[ 9 too cold or expos$ a situation2 ?us y f9d v little cultivat$ l& #hjj ft4 above sea level1 & n usually mu* above #ejj ft4 ,at ?is height x is left z grass l&1 & high] up z woodl&1 moor1 or wa/e l&4 ,grass requires less w>m? & c !re=e gr[ at great] heights ?an _m o!r crops4 ,if y />t at ! top ( a hill 9 ,d]by%ire1 & walk d[n1 y w see t ! top is moorl&1 l[] d[n comes grass l&1 /ill l[] y may f9d arable l&1 & if ! valley is damp y w f9d m grass at ! bottom4 ,figs4 #cg & #ch %[ typical views ( ! hill slopes fur!r s\?3 !y are tak5 ne> ,h>p5d54 ,! top ( ! hill 9 ea* case is ov] #djj ft4 above sea level1 & has nev] be5 ?\ght wor? cultivat+1 b has always be5 left z #gh wood because x is too expos$ = f>m crops4 ,on ! l[] slopes ! arable fields are se51 :ile at ! bottom bord]+ ! riv] is r\gh grass l&1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ci4 ,! top is too cold & w9dy1 & ! bottom too wet1 to be wor? cultivat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,view fur!r along ! valley1 woodl& & arable above r\gh grass l& ne> ! riv] ,z ! plant root is alive x wants air4 ,! effect ( keep+ air out c be se5 by s[+ "s b>ley or onion se$s 9 ! gr\nd & !n p\r+ a lot ( wat] on & pla/]+ ! soil d[n ) a spade4 ,s[ ano!r r[ 9 nicely crumbl$ soil1 n too wet1 press ! se$s well 91 b d n pla/] ! soil4 ,?is second lot w g5]ally d mu* bett] ?an ! fir/4 ,if ! gr\nd r\nd a plant is frequ5tly trodd5 s t x becomes v h>d ! plant makes mu* less gr[? ?an if ! soil 7 kept nice & loose4 ,a good g>d5] takes v great pa9s 9 prep>+ 8 gr\nd be=e he s[s 8 se$s1 & he is c>eful t no "o %\ld walk on 8 b$s le/ 8 plants %\ld suff]4 ,,summ>y4 ,we may n[ collect toge!r ! v>i\s ?+s we h le>nt 9 ?is *apt]4 ,plants require wat]1 air1 w>m?1 food1 & light1 & !y w n gr[ if h>mful sub/ances are pres5t4 ,! ra9-wat] t falls rema9s = "s "t 9 ! soil1 & does n at once run away or dry (f3 wat] c also move f wet to dry places 9 ! soil4 ,!re=e ! plant does n ne$ ra9 e day1 b c draw on ! /ock 9 ! soil dur+ dry wea!r4 ,a s&y soil is usually dri] ?an a loam or a clay1 especially if x lies r high3 plants gr[+ on a s&y soil make less gr[? & h n>r[] & small] leaves ?an ^? on a moi/] soil4 ,situations m ?an five or six hundr$ feet above sea level are1 9 ,engl&1 z a rule1 too bleak & #hj expos$ = ! ord9>y cultivat$ crops4 ,su* l& is1 !re=e1 ei!r grass l&1 moorl&1 d[nl& or woodl&4 ,! roots ( plants are liv+ & require air4 ,! soil mu/ n be trodd5 too h>d r\nd !m or air _c get 91 nor c x if too mu* wat] is pres5t4 ,grass c put up ) m wat] & less w>m? ?an mo/ cultivat$ crops4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,r\gh grass pa/ure ne> ! riv]1 above t is arable l& & /ill high] is woodl& ,in/ances ( ^! facts may be f\nd 9 go+ d[n any hill #ejj ft4 or m 9 height3 ! top is usually wood or wa/e1 be+ too cold = crops1 bel[ ?is may come grass l&1 l[] /ill arable l&4 ,x is bo? w>m] & moi/] 9 ! valley 7s9ce wat] runs d[n hill71 & s we c acc\nt = ! prov]bial f]tility ( valleys4 ,b j ne> ! riv]1 if !re is "o1 ! gr\nd may be too wet = crops1 & !re=e grass is gr[n4 ,clay l& t is r too wet to pl\gh is usually left 9 grass4 #hb ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,cultivation ,,& ,,tillage ,app>atus requir$4 ,plot exp]im5ts1 hoe+ & mul*+4 ,!rmomet]4 ,soil sampl] 7,fig4 #db1 p4 #hh74 ,?is tool consi/s ( a /eel tube #b 94 9 diamet] & #i 94 long1 ) a slit cut along its l5g? & all ! edges %>p5$4 ,! tube is fix$ on to a v]tical /eel rod1 b5t at ! end to a r+ #b 94 9 diamet]1 ?r\gh :i* a /\t wood5 h&le passes4 ,x is readily made by a blacksmi?4 ,f>m]s & g>d5]s ?r\gh\t ! spr+1 summ] & autumn1 are busy pl\gh+ or digg+1 hoe+ or 9 o!r ways cultivat+ ! soil4 ,unless all ?is is well done ! soil fails to produce mu*2 ! slugg>d's g>d5 has always be5 a by-^w & a reproa*4 ,9 try+ to und]/& :y !y d x we mu/ rememb] t plant roots ne$ wat]1 w>m? & air2 if ! soil is too compact or if !re is too mu* wat] ! plant suff]s1 z we h se54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,aft] h>ve/ ! f>m] breaks up 8 l& ) a pl\gh & !n leaves x alone until se$ "t ,"o great object ( cultivation is1 !re=e1 to prev5t ! soil be+ too compact & too wet4 ,aft] ! h>ve/ ! f>m] breaks up 8 gr\nd ) a pl\gh & !n leaves x alone till se$ "t 7,fig4 #dj74 ,a g>d5] does ! same ?+ ) a =k 9 8 kit*5 g>d5--he _c v well else:]e1 or ! plant roots might #hc become too cold4 ,if !re is fro/ dur+ ! w9t] bo? f>m] & g>d5] are pleas$ because !y say ! fro/ mell[s ! gr\nd2 y c see :at !y mean if y walk on a fro/y morn+ ov] a pl\gh$ field4 ,! l>ge clods ( e>? are no long] /icky1 !y already %[ signs ( break+ up1 & if !y are n froz5 too h>d c easily be %att]$ by a kick4 ,! *ange has be5 br\ght ab\t 9 exactly ! same way z ! bur/+ ( wat]-pipes by fro/4 ,:5 wat] freezes x exp&s ) enorm\s =ce & bur/s op5 any?+ t conf9es x2 wat] freez+ 9 ! pores ( ! soil =ces ! little fragm5ts ap>t4 ,?is action is s important t fur!r illu/rations %\ld be look$ =4 ,a piece ( wet *alk left out on a fro/y night (t5 crumbles to pieces4 ,x is dang]\s #hd to climb cliffs 9 ! e>ly spr+ because pieces ( rock t h be5 split (f dur+ ! w9t] fro/s by ! exp&+ wat] may easily give way4 ,fro/ plays havoc ) walls built ( fl9ts & ) old bricks t are beg9n+ to we>4 ,if !re are sev]al fro/s1 ) falls ( ra9 or sn[ & ?aws co9+ 9 betwe51 ! soil is mov$ ab\t a good deal by ! freez+ & melt+ wat]4 ,bulbs & cutt+s are sometimes =c$ out ( ! gr\nd1 :il/ grass & "y :eat may be s loos5$ t !y h to be roll$ 9 aga9 z soon z ! wea!r p]mits4 ,:5 ! gr\nd has be5 dug 9 autumn & left 9 a v r\gh /ate all ?is loos5+ "w ( ! fro/ is v mu* help$1 because s mu* ( ! soil may become froz54 ,if 9 spr+ y dig a piece ( l& t has already be5 dug 9 autumn1 & !n try digg+ a piece t has n1 y w f9d ! fir/ mu* easi] "w ?an ! second 9 all b v s&y soils4 ,a little be=e ! se$s are s[n1 ! soil has to be dug or cultivat$ aga9 s t x may become m level & brok5 into small] pieces4 ,! f>m] !n h>r[s & ! g>d5] rakes x1 & x becomes /ill f9]4 ,v great c>e is be/[$ on ! prep>ation ( ! se$ b$1 & x w take y long] to le>n ?is ?an any o!r "p ( outdoor g>d5+4 ,! soil has to be made f9e & dry1 & no pa9s mu/ be sp>$ 9 gett+ x s4 ,:5 at la/ ! soil is f9e en\gh ! se$ is put 94 ,b x is n en\gh simply to let ! se$ tumble into ! gr\nd4 ,x has to be press$ 9 g5tly ) a spade or a roll]1 n too h>d or ! soil becomes too /icky4 ,fig4 #da %[s ?is op]ation be+ c>ri$ out on ! f>m4 ,!n ! soil %\ld be left alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,roll+ 9 mangold se$s on ! f>m #hf ,if y wat* an allotm5t hold] :o gr[s onions really well work+ away at 8 se$-b$ y w see :at a beautifully f9e til? he gets4 ,if y try to d ! same y w probably fail2 8 se$s w be up be=e y\rs & w gr[ into heal?i] plants4 ,only aft] long practice w y succe$1 & !n y w h ma/]$ "o ( ! great my/]ies ( g>d5+4 ,z soon z ! plants are up !y h to be ho$1 & ! m (t5 ?is is done ! bett]4 ,hoe+ has sev]al useful effects on ! soil2 dur+ summ] "t "s exp]im5ts may be made to f9d out :at ^! are4 ,a piece ( gr\nd is want$ t has got no crop on x4 ,set out ?ree /rips ea* six feet wide & six feet long1 leave "o entirely alone1 hoe ! second once a week1 & ! ?ird ?ree times a week2 put labels on s t no mi/ake c arise4 ,! surface ( ! unt\*$ plot becomes v compact & glaz$ 9 appe>ance2 ! o!r soils look nice & crumbly4 ,take ! temp]ature ( ! soils by plac+ a !rmomet] into x at v>i\s dep?s--half in*1 ?ree in*es1 & six in*es--also take ! temp]ature ( ! air2 ent] up ! results z 9 ! table1 :i* %[s :at happ5$ at ,h>p5d54 ,air ,date temp]ature ,soil temp]ature ,ho$ ,ho$ ,unt\*$ once ?ree times weekly weekly #aiaj ,june #bj? #cj #a_/b in* #ce #ca4e #ca4e #c in*es #cj4e #bi4h #bh4h #f in*es #bg #bf4e #bd ,june #bg? #ah #a_/b in* #ag4e #ag #ag #c in*es #af4g #af4c #af4b #f in*es #ae4h #ae4e #ae4f #hg ,! !rmomet] read+s are 9 degrees c5tigrade4 ,rem>ks4 ,june #bj?3 ,hot sunny day1 !re _h be5 no ra9 s9ce ,june #aa?4 ,june #bg?3 ,cold1 cl\dy day1 sev]al cold1 wet days dur+ ! pa/ week4 ,on ! cold day !re 0 v little diff]5ce betwe5 ! plots1 b on ! hot day ! ho$ plots 7 cool] ?an ! o!rs4 ,n[ only ! top in* is t\*$ by ! hoe1 & s x appe>s t ! lay] ?us loos5$ %ields ! re/ ( ! soil f ! sun's heat4 ,if ?is is ! case we ought to f9d t any o!r loose mat]ial w\ld act 9 j ! same way4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 set out a f\r? plot alongside ! o!rs1 cov] x ) /raw or cut grass 7a cov] l ?is is call$ a mul*71 & take ! temp]ature !re4 ,"s ( ! results 7 z foll[s3-- ,air ,date temp]ature ,soil temp]ature ,ho$ plot ,mul*$ plot #aiaj ,sept4 #bd? #ae #a_/b in* #ag4e #ab4be #c in*es #ab4e #aa4ge #f in*es #ab4be #aa4e ,oct4 #e? #ag #a_/b in* #ag #ae4e #c in*es #af4g #ae #f in*es #ae4e #ad4e ,rem>ks4 ,sept4 #bd?3 ,w>m day aft] a r cold spell4 ,oct4 #e?3 ,aft] a long spell ( dry1 w>m wea!r4 ,! unt\*$ plot _h become smo!r$ 9 we$s & c\ld no long] be us$ = ?is exp]im5t4 ,! mul*$ soil is1 h[ev]1 cool] ev5 ?an ! ho$ soil1 & our expectation t mul*+ w\ld keep ! soil cool has turn$ out to be correct4 #hh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,soil sampl]4 7,see p4 #hb = description7 ,x may be expect$ t ! hott] soil--! unho$ plot--w also be dri] ?an ! o!rs1 & ?is c be f\nd out by a simple exp]im5t4 ,take a sample by mak+ a hole six indies deep ) /raight & n ) slop+ sides3 ?is is be/ done by driv+ a tube two in*es wide into ! soil 7,fig4 #db73 if y h n got su* a tool y may use a tr[el1 b y w h to be v quick & v c>eful4 ,weigh ! soil--or a "p ( x if y h got a great deal--!n set x to dry 9 a w>m place = ?ree or f\r days4 ,weigh aga9 :5 x is dry3 ! diff]5ce gives ! loss ( wat]3 f9d :at x w\ld be 9 a hundr$ p>ts4 ,our results 73-- #hi ,date ,p]c5tage ( wat] 9 ! ,unt\*$ soil ,soil ho$ once ,soil ho$ ?ree weekly times weekly #aiaj ,june #d? #ba4a #ai4e #ag4i ,june #bj? #ad4g #af4j #af4j ,june #bg? #ai4c #ah4d #bj4e ,rem>ks4 ,june #d?2 ,! wea!r is /ill cold & ! summ] has n yet begun4 ,june #bj?3 ,hot day foll[+ on "s hot1 dry wea!r4 ,june #bg?3 ,ra9 _h rec5tly fall54 ,:5 hoe+ is done 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! summ] x dries ! soil1 & ! m frequ5t ! hoe+ ! dri] ! soil 7see ,june #d? results74 ,b lat] on1 :5 ! hot wea!r beg9s1 ! ho$ soil loses mu* less moi/ure ?an ! unt\*$ plot2 ! latt] lo/ #f4d p] c5t4 9 #af days 9 ! top six in*es1 :il/ ! soil ho$ once weekly lo/ #c4a p] c5t41 & ! "o ho$ ?ree times weekly lo/ only #a4d2 ! two ho$ soils are n[ equal1 & are bo? moi/] ?an ! unt\*$ soil4 ,:5 m ra9 comes !y get j z wet z ! o!rs3 hoe+ does n prev5t wat] f s9k+ 91 b x does prev5t wat] f gett+ lo/4 ,our exp]im5t has1 !re=e1 %[n u t hoe+ makes a loose lay] ( soil :i* %ields ! re/ ( ! soil f ! sun's heat1 & prev5ts x gett+ too hot or too dry4 ,a ho$ soil is cool] & moi/]1 & !re=e bett] suit$ = ! gr[? ( plant roots ?an an unho$ soil4 #ij ,! mul* ( /raw or dri$ grass 0 f\nd to h ! same effect 9 cons]v+ ! wat] z ! loose lay] ( soil obta9$ by hoe+4 ,"s results 73-- ,p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ,date ,ho$ soil ,mul*$ soil #aiaj ,sept4 #bd? #ai4f #bj4g ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,cultivation & mul*+ r$uce ! loss ( wat] f soils ,^! results are s important t "s indoor exp]im5ts %\ld be made to furni% m pro(4 ,fix up ?ree inv]t$ bell j>s ) corks & b5t tubes z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc1 fill all ) dry soil well press$ d[n1 !n add wat] c>efully till x appe>s 9 ! glass tubes4 ,next day m>k ) /amp pap] ! level ( liquid 9 ea* tube & !n leave "o j> #ia unt\*$1 c>efully cultivate ) a p5knife e two or ?ree days ! top qu>t] ( an in* ( ! second1 & cov] ! ?ird ) a lay] ( grass4 ,aft] a week notice aga9 ! levels ( ! liquid & m>k ) pap]2 y f9d t ! wat] has fall5 mo/ 9 ! unt\*$ j>1 %[+ t m has be5 lo/ f ?is ?an f ! j>s cov]$ ) a mul* ei!r ( soil or ( dry grass4 ,a slate or flat /one acts l a mul*2 if y leave "o on ! soil = a few days 9 hot wea!r & !n lift x up on a hot day y w see t ! soil und]nea? is q moi/2 y may also f9d sev]al slugs or o!r animals t h gone !re = ! sake ( ! coolness & ! moi/ure4 ,plants & trees also keep (f ! sun's heat & s make ! soil cold & moi/4 ,grass l& is 9 summ] & autumn1 & ev5 9 e>ly w9t]1 cool] ne> ! surface ?an b>e l&4 ,at ,h>p5d5 we f\nd3-- ,soil temp]ature ,date ,grass l& ,b>e l& #aiaj ,sept4 #bd? #a_/b in* #ac #ag4e #c in*es #ab4e #ab4e #f in*es #ab4e #ab4be ,oct4 #e? #a_/b in* #ag4e #ag #c in*es #ae #af4g #f in*es #ad4e #ae4e ,ev5 if ! gr\nd is n cov]$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( protection is /ill possible4 ,trees are (t5 plant$ r\nd ponds to prev5t evaporation ( ! wat]4 ,! w9d helps to dry ! soil v mu*1 & a h$ge #ib t %ields f ! w9d n only protects ! crop b also keeps ! soil moi/3 a road ) high h$ges at ea* side rema9s wet = a long "t aft] m expos$ p>ts h dri$4 ,! effect on ! temp]ature c be well se5 on a day :5 a ,n4,e4 w9d is bl[+4 ,fix up on a piece ( ! exp]im5tal gr\nd a little h$ge made ( small pea-/akes or bru%wood1 & take ! soil temp]ature at "o in* dep?1 bo? on ! w9dw>d & on ! leew>d side4 ,two results 73-- ,temp]ature at #a in* dep?--%elt]$ side #ae4e w9dw>d side #ad ,we h already se5 t on ! hot day1 ,june #bj?1 ! top half-in* ( soil 0 hott] ?an ! air3 ! m]cury 9 ! !rmomet] rose directly x 0 put into ! soil4 ,!re is no?+ v unusual ab\t ?is2 if y t\* a piece ( iron ly+ on ! soil y f9d x hott] ?an ! air4 ,l[] d[n ! soil _h ! same temp]ature z ! air1 & /ill l[] x 0 cool]#a4 ,! sun's heat travels s sl[ly into ! soil 9 summ] t mon?s pass be=e x gets f> d[n1 b !n1 z x takes s long to get 91 x also takes a long "t to get out1 & x takes /ill long] to get ei!r 9 or out if !re is a mul* or if grass is gr[+4 ,dur+ ! e>ly w9t] y may notice t ! fir/ fall ( sn[ soon melts on ! arable l& b rema9s long] on ! grass2 t[>ds ! end ( ! w9t]1 h[ev]1 ! rev]se happ5s & ! sn[ melts fir/ on ! grass4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 expla9+ ?is4 ,! arable l& is1 z we h se51 w>m] 9 autumn & e>ly w9t] ?an grass l&1 #ic & s x melts ! sn[ m rapidly4 ,b dur+ w9t] ! grass l& loses its heat m sl[ly1 & !re=e x is w>m] at ! end ( ! w9t] ?an ! arable l&1 h5ce ! sn[ melts m quickly4 ,9 ,*ap4 ,v4 x 0 po9t$ out t d>k col\r$ soils ri* 9 humus are greatly fav\r$ by g>d5]s & f>m]s4 ,! value ( humus c easily be %[n3 take a sample ( soil f a g>d5 t has = a long "t be5 well manur$ & ano!r f a field close by--next to x if y c--& f9d ! am\nts ( moi/ure pres5t4 ,two soils at ,ro?am/$ gave ! foll[+ results3-- ,date ,april #f? ,may #f? ,july #f? ,oct4 #bh? ,moi/ure 9 d>k soil ri* 9 humus #bj4j #ah4j #bj4g #bc4c ,moi/ure 9 light] soil poor 9 humus #ac4a #aa4i #ab4j #ag4e ,humus1 !re=e1 keeps ! wat] 9 ! soil & saves x f be+ lo/4 ,ano!r b5eficial effect ( hoe+ is to keep d[n we$s4 ,we$s ov]cr[d ! plant1 %ut out light1 take food & wat]1 & occupy space4 ,few plants c compete aga9/ we$s1 "s fail v badly 9 ! /ruggle4 ,s[ two r[s ( maize two y>ds ap>t2 keep "o well ho$ = a y>d on ea* side & leave ! o!r alone to /ruggle ) ! we$s t w gr[4 ,fig4 #dd %[s ! result ( ?is exp]im5t at ,/ ,george's ,s*ool4 ,at ,ro?am/$ a piece ( :eat 0 left unh>ve/$ 9 #ahhb1 & ! plot has n be5 t\*$ s9ce2 ! :eat 0 all[$ to %$ its se$ #id & to gr[ up )\t any att5tion4 ,we$s fl\ri%$1 b ! :eat did n2 ! next ye> !re 0 b little :eat1 & by #ahhf only a few plants c\ld be se51 s /unt$ t "o w\ld h>dly recognise !m4 ,! gr\nd /ill rema9s unt\*$1 & is n[ ! d5se ?icket se5 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,mo/ ( our l& w\ld become l ?is if x 7 neglect$ = a few ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd a4 ,! ho$ plot1 no we$s4 ,maize _c compete successfully aga9/ we$s #ie ,f>m]s occasionally leave _! gr\nd )\t a crop = a :ole ye> & cultivate x z (t5 z !y c to kill ! we$s4 ,?is practice is call$ fall[+1 & is v anci5t2 x is mu* less common n[ t crops l mangolds & sw$es are gr[n1 :i* c1 if necess>y1 be ho$ all ! summ]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd b4 ,unt\*$ plot1 _m we$s ,we h already se5 7p4 #fi7 t ord9>y cultivat$ plants w n live 9 a wat]-logg$ soil4 #if ,:]ev] !re is an excess ( wat] x mu/ be remov$ be=e satisfactory results c be obta9$4 ,fig4 #df %[s a field ( :eat 9 ,may :]e ! crop is all b kill$ & only c]ta9 we$s survive on a pat* ( undra9$ l& t lay wet all ! w9t]4 ,dra9+ l& is difficult & some:at exp5sive2 tr5*es are fir/ cut to a prop] dep?1 & dra9 pipes are laid on ! bottom1 tak+ c>e t !re is a g5tle slope all ! way to ! dit*4 ,! ra9 soaks into ! soil & gets into ! pipes1 = !y are n jo9$ toge!r l gas or wat] pipes1 b left ) little spaces 9 betwe52 x !n runs out into ! dit*4 ,usually only clay soils ne$ dra9age1 b occasionally s&y soils d also 7see pp4 #cj1 #ajf74 ,a great deal ( dra9age 0 c>ri$ out 9 ,engl& betwe5 #ahdj & #ahfj1 & x l$ to a m>k$ improvem5t 9 agriculture & 9 c\ntry life g5]ally4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great deal t wants do+ n[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,a plot ( :eat left unt\*$ s9ce #ahhb at ,ro?am/$ has n[ become a d5se ?icket ,! addition ( *alk or lime to soil 0 f\nd 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 to improve x v mu* by mak+ x less /icky & less imp]vi\s to air & wat]4 ,*alk or lime does m ?an ?is4 ,x puts out ( action c]ta9 injuri\s sub/ances or acids t may be =m$1 & ?us makes ! conditions m fav\rable = plants & = ! useful micro-organisms2 f>m]s & g>d5]s express ?is by say+ t x sweet5s ! soil4 ,a ,unit$ ,/ates prov]b runs3 ,a lime c\ntry is a ri* c\ntry4 ,v _m soils 9 ,engl& are improv$ by add+ lime or *alk4 ,!re are consid]able areas 9 ! s\?-ea/]n & ea/]n c\nties :]e ! soil is v *alky2 "h y f9d a wond]fully ri* assortm5t ( fl[]s & %rubs4 ,:]e !re is too mu* *alk ! soil is n f]tile1 because x lets wat] #ih ?r\gh too easily1 z 0 %[n on p4 #bf3 b = ?is v reason x is admirable = resid5tial purposes4 ,!re are "s exceptions to ! rule t plants ne$ lime4 ,"s plants w n tol]ate x at all2 su* are rhodod5drons1 azaleas1 foxgloves1 spurrey1 & broom2 :]ev] y see ^! gr[+ y may be sure t lime is abs5t4 ,lime really diff]s f *alk1 b *anges into x s quickly 9 ! soil t ! action ( bo? is almo/1 ?\gh n q1 ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,a :eat field 9 ,may4 ,! l>ge pat* 9 ! c5tre :]e ! crop is do+ badly lay "u wat] = mu* ( ! w9t] because ( ! bad dra9age ,,summ>y4 ,! v>i\s ?+s we h le>nt 9 ?is ,*apt] are3-- ,autumn & w9t] cultivation are ne$$ to loos5 ! soil s t ra9 c soak 9 & n lie ab\t 9 pools1 & also to facilitate work+ 9 spr+4 ,! soil has to be brok5 d[n v f9ely & made r dry = a se$ b$4 ,! se$ has to be roll$ 9 & !n left entirely alone4 ,z soon z ! little plants are up ! soil mu/ be ho$1 & ! m (t5 ?is is done ! bett]4 ,hoe+ keeps ! soil cool & moi/ 9 hot wea!r1 ! loose lay] act+ l a mul* ( /raw4 ,any?+ else t %ields ! soil f ! sun or ! w9d has ! same action b is n s effective z ! mul*4 ,fur!r1 hoe+ keeps d[n we$s1 :i* successfully compete aga9/ almo/ any cultivat$ plants4 ,humus also prev5ts ! loss ( moi/ure f soils4 ,dra9age may be necess>y to remove excess ( wat]4 ,lim+ or *alk+ ! soil is b5eficial1 n only because ( ! improvem5ts m5tion$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii41 b also because c]ta9 injuri\s sub/ances are !reby remov$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s plants t w n tol]ate lime4 #a ,at great dep?s bel[ ! surface ! temp]ature rises aga9 f q ano!r cause4 #ajj ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,! ,,c\ntryside ,9 ?is *apt] we want to put toge!r mu* ( :at we h le>n$ ab\t ! diff]5t k9ds ( soil1 s t z we g ab\t ! c\ntry we may "k :at to look = on a clay soil1 a s&y soil1 & s on4 ,we h se5 t clay holds wat] & is v wet & /icky 9 w9t]1 :ile 9 summ] x becomes h>d & dry1 & is liable to crack badly4 ,x greets a' w9t] & girns a' summ]1 z "o ( ,dr ,john ,br[n's *>act]s said ( 8 soil4 ,clay soils are !re=e h>d to dig & exp5sive to cultivate3 ! f>m] calls !m heavy & usually pref]s to put !m into grass because once ! grass is up x la/s z long z x is want$ & nev] ne$s to be res[n4 ,b 9 ! days :5 we grew our own :eat1 be=e we import$ x f ! ,unit$ ,/ates & o!r c\ntries1 ?is clay l& 0 widely cultivat$ = :eat & beans4 ,s long z :eat 0 #fj_/- to #ajj_/- a qu>t] x 0 a v pr(itable crop1 b1 :5 "s =ty ye>s ago x fell to #dj_/- & !n l[] /ill1 ! l& ei!r w5t out ( cultivation l ! d]elict f>ms ( ,essex1 or x 0 *ang$ to grass l& & us$ = cattle graz+4 ,great 0 ! di/ress t foll[$2 "s di/ricts inde$ 7 ye>s 9 recov]+4 ,b new me?ods came 93 ! l& ne> ,london 0 us$ = dairy #aja f>m+1 & else:]e x 0 improv$ = graz+1 & ! clay di/ricts1 al?\gh completely *ang$1 are n[ m prosp]\s aga94 ,_m ( ! fields /ill %[ ! ridges or l&s 9 :i*1 :5 !y grew :eat1 !y 7 laid up to let ! wat] run away1 & _m ( !m keep _! old names1 b ^! are ! only relics ( ! old days4 ,! l& is n1 & nev] 01 v valuable4 ,! roads are wide1 & on ei!r side h wide wa/e /rips cut up r\ghly by horse tracks1 c>t ruts & ant hills4 ,brack51 gorse1 ru%es1 ?i/les & brambles gr[ !re1 & y may f9d _m f9e blackb]ries 9 ,septemb]4 ,! co>se ,aira grass is f\nd ) its leaves z r\gh z files4 ,! villages are (t5 built r\nd gre5s :i* s]ve z ! village playgr\nd1 :]e ! boys & "y m5 n[ play cricket & football1 & _! =efa!rs practis$ ar*]y1 play$ quoits & o!r games4 ,on a few village gre5s ! ,maypole c /ill be se51 :il/ ! /ocks 9 :i* (f5d]s 7 plac$ are also left 9 "s places4 ,! h$ges are (t5 high & /raggl+1 & !re are num]\s woods & plantations conta9+ mu* oak4 ,"s ( ! woods are v anci5t & probably =m "p ( ! primeval =e/s t once l>gely cov]$ ,engl&4 ,epp+ ,=e/ 9 ,essex1 ! ,=e/ ( ,blean & ! ,k+'s ,wood 9 ,k5t1 h probably nev] be5 cultivat$ l&4 ,9 ! days :5 %ips 7 made ( oak ^! woods & h$ges 7 v valuable1 b n[ !y are ( little use z s\rces ( timb]4 ,in/ead !y are valu$ = q ano!r reason3 !y af=d %elt] = foxes & = game birds4 ,! clay di/ricts are & always h be5 fam\s = fox hunt+2 ! ,pyt*ley1 ,quorn1 ,belvoir1 #ajb & o!r celebrat$ packs h _! homes 9 ! broad1 clay1 grassy vales ( ! ,midl&s4 ,! vale ( ,blackmoor & o!r clay regions are equally fam\s4 ,! plantations & h$g][s are f9e places = primroses & foxgloves1 :ile 9 ! pa/ures1 & especially ! poor pa/ures1 are f\nd ! ox-ey$ daisy & quak+ grass1 t make su* f9e nosegays1 z well z t sure sign ( pov]ty1 ! yell[ rattle4 ,b _m ( ^! poor pa/ures h be5 improv$ by dra9+1 lim+1 & ! use ( suitable manures4 ,al?\gh ! roads are bett] ?an !y 7 7see p4 #cj7 !y are /ill (t5 bad & lie wet = weeks toge!r 9 w9t]1 especially :]e ! h$ges are high4 ,num]\s brick & tile y>ds may be f\nd & iron ore is n uncommon2 9 "s places x is work$ n[1 9 o!rs x is no long] work$ & no?+ rema9s ( ! lo/ indu/ry save only a few names ( fields1 ( ponds1 or ( cottages4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,highly cultivat$ s& 9 ,k5t4 ,gooseb]ries are gr[+ 9 ! =egr\nd1 vegetables beh9d1 & hops 9 backgr\nd ,a s&y soil is 9 s _m ways ! opposite ( a clay soil t we %all expect to f9d correspond+ diff]5ces 9 ! look ( ! c\ntry4 ,a s&y soil does n hold wat]3 x may get wat] up f ! subsoil to supply ! plant 7see p4 #ff71 or1 if x happ5s to lie 9 a bas9 ( clay1 x may ev5 be v wet3 o!rwise x is likely to be too dry = ord9>y plants4 ,we may !re=e look out = two sorts ( s& c\ntry1 ! "o cultivat$ because !re is en\gh wat] = ! crops1 & ! o!r n cultivat$ because ! wat] is lack+4 ,^! c readily be f\nd4 ,we w /udy ! cultivat$ s&s fir/4 ,z s& is n good plant food 7p4 #dc7 ^! soils want a lot ( manure1 & s are n good = ord9>y f>m]s4 ,b !y are v easy to cultivate--= :i* reason !y #ajd are call$ light soils--& c be dug at any "t2 se$s c be s[n e>ly1 & e>ly crops c be got4 ,consequ5tly ^! soils are v useful = m5 do+ special "w l fatt5+ w9t] & spr+ %eep1 or produc+ special crops l fruit or potatoes1 & = m>ket g>d5]s :o gr[ all sorts ( vegetables1 c>rots1 p>snips1 potatoes1 peas1 & s on4 ,fig4 #dg is a view ( a highly cultivat$ s&y region 9 ,k5t %[+ gooseb]ries 9 ! =egr\nd1 vegetables beh9d1 & a hop g>d5 beh9d t aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,a ,surrey hea? ,! uncultivat$ s&s are sometimes n really s v diff]5t1 & "s ( !m1 p]haps _m ( !m1 might be improv$ or reclaim$ & made to gr[ ^! special crops if x 7 wor? :ile4 ,b !y always require special treatm5t & !re=e !y h be5 left alone4 ,9 days ( old our ance/ors dislik$ !m v mu*2 villan\s1 rascally hea?s ,cobbett always call$ !m4 ,!re 7 practically no villages & few cottages1 because ! l& 0 too b>r5 to produce en\gh food2 ! few dwell]s on ! hea?1 or ! hea!n1 7 s ignorant & b5ight$ t ! "n came to /& g5]ally = all su* p & has rema9$ 9 our language long aft] its orig9al mean+ 0 lo/4 ,z !re 7 s few inhabitants ! hea?s us$ to be great places = robb]s1 highwaym51 & evil-do]s g5]ally2 ,gad's ,hill on ! ,watl+ ,/4 betwe5 ,ro*e/] & ,graves5d1 ,f9*ley ,common1 ,h\nsl[ ,hea? & o!rs equally dread$ by travell]s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 7 b>r5 s&y tracts4 ,b 9 our "t we no long] ne$ to dread !m2 we c enjoy ! inf9ite *>m ( ! breezy1 op5 c\ntry ) its br[n vegetation1 ! p9k blossom ( ! bell-%ap$ hea? & ! lilac blossom ( ! #ajf hea!r1 ! spla%es ( yell[ f ! ragwort or ! gorse & ! d>k p9e & l>* plantations4 ,9 ! spr+ ! "y %oots ( brack5 l5d a beautiful light gre5 col\r to ! sc5e1 :ile 9 ! autumn ! fad$ gr[? cov]s x all ) a ri* br[n4 ,p n[ l to live amid su* surr\nd+s1 & s ^! hea?s1 t h be5 unt\*$ = s long & are "p ( ! orig9al primeval ,engl& z x 0 9 ! days ( ! ,britons1 are becom+ dott$ ) r$ brick$ & r$ til$ villas1 & are fa/ los+ _! anci5t "*4 ,! hea?s are n ev]y:]e dry2 !re are num]\s clay bas9s :]e ! s& lies wet1 :]e peat =ms 7see p4 #cg71 & :]e m>% plants l ! bog asphodel1 sundew1 or cotton grass c be f\nd4 ,9 walk+ ov] a hea? y soon le>n to f9d ^! wet places by ! col\r ( ! grass & ! abs5ce ( hea!r4 ,9 "s places !re is a good deal ( wood1 especially p9es1 l>*es1 & silv] bir*es3 all ^! are v common on ! ,surrey s&s1 will[s also gr[ 9 ! damp places4 ,fig4 #dh %[s a ,surrey hea?--,blackhea?--) hea!r1 gorse & brack52 ) p9e-woods 9 ! di/ance & ev]y:]e "s b>e pat*es ( s&4 ,mu* ( ! ,new ,=e/ is on ! s&1 z also is ,b\rnem\?1 fam\s = its f9e p9e woods4 ,fig4 #di is a view ( su* woods on ,wimbl$on common4 ,b else:]e !re is no wood3 ! peasants burn ! turf1 & s y f9d _! cottages h huge fireplaces3 in/ead ( f5ces r\nd _! g>d5s or r\nd ! plantations !re are walls made ( turf4 ,su* are ! ,dor*e/] hea?s s f9ely describ$ by ,h>dy 9 ,! ,return ( ! ,native & o!r novels4 ,o!r s&s1 h[ev]1 are cov]$ ) grass & n ) hea!r1 & _m ( ^! h a special value #ajh = golf l9ks1 especially "s ( ! dry1 invigorat+ s&s by ! seaside4 ,! fam\s l9ks at ,/ ,&rews1 & at ,little/one1 are examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,woodl& & hea!r on light s&y soil1 ,wimbl$on ,common ,9 betwe5 ! f]tile & ! b>r5 s&s come a numb] t are cultivat$ )\t be+ v good4 ,!y are mu* l ! o!rs1 c>ry+ a vegetation t is usually ( ! n>r[ leav$ type 7p4 #gb71 & n v d5se4 ,on ! road sides y see broom1 hea!r1 hea?1 h>ebells1 along ) gorse & brack5 ) milkwort ne/l+ und]nea?3 cre/$ dog's tail & %eep's fescue are common grasses1 :ile spurrey1 knotwood1 corn m>igold1 are a few ( ! num]\s we$s 9 ! arable fields4 ,g>d5s are easily dug1 b x is be/ to put into !m only ^? plants t1 l ! native vegetation1 c )/& dr\ght3 vegetable g>d5s mu/ be well manur$ & well lim$4 ,fig4 #ej %[s "s ( ?is k9d ( c\ntry 9 ,surrey1 ! b>ley field is surr\nd$ by wood & v poor grass on ! high] slopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,poor s&y soil 9 ,surrey1 p>tly cultivat$ b ma9ly wood & wa/e ,x is easy to travel 9 a s& c\ntry because ! roads dry v quickly aft] ra91 al?\gh !y may be du/y 9 summ]4 ,sometimes ! lanes are sunk r deeply 9 ! s(t s&1 =m+ v pretty banks on ei!r side4 ,loams1 z we h se5 7p4 #b71 lie 9 betwe5 s&s & clays3 !y are nei!r v wet nor v dry3 n too heavy nor yet too light3 !y are v well suit$ to our ord9>y f>m crops1 & !y =m by f> ! be/ soils = g5]al f>m+2 :eat1 oats1 b>ley1 %eep1 cattle1 milk1 fruit & vegetables c all be produc$3 inde$ ! f>m] on a good loam is 9 ! =tunate position ( be+ able to produce almo/ any?+ he f9ds mo/ pr(itable4 ,9 a loam di/rict t does n #aaj lie too high ! l& is g5]ally all tak5 up1 ev5 ! roads are n>r[ & !re are few commons4 ,! h$ges are /raight & cut %ort1 ! f>m h\ses & build+s are well kept1 & !re is a g5]al air ( prosp]ity all r\nd4 ,good elms gr[ & almo/ any tree t is plant$ w succe$4 ,loams %ade (f on "o side into s&2 ! v f]tile s&s already describ$ might q truly be call$ s&y loams4 ,on ! o!r side !y %ade (f into clays2 ! heavy loams us$ to be spl5did :eat soils1 b are n[1 l clays1 (t5 ( little value4 ,b !y =m pleasant1 undulat+ c\ntry1 nicely wood$1 & dott$ ov] ) ?at*$ cottages2 ! fields are less wet & ! roads are r bett] ?an on ! clays4 ,:5 prop]ly manag$ !y make excell5t grass l&4 ,*alky soils /& out q %>ply f all o!rs3 _! :ite col\r1 _! lime kilns n[ (t5 disus$1 _! noble bee* trees1 &1 above all1 ! great v>iety ( fl[]+ plants enable ! travell] at once to "k t he is on ! *alk4 ,_m plants l *alk & ^! may be f\nd 9 abundance1 b "s1 su* z foxgloves1 hea!r1 broom or rhodod5drons _c tol]ate x at all1 & s !y w n gr[4 ,*alk1 l s&1 is dry1 & ! roads c be trav]s$ v soon aft] ra94 ,!y are n v good1 h[ev]2 (t5 !y are only m5d$ ) fl9ts1 :i* occur 9 ! *alk & are !re=e easily obta9able1 & ! %>p fragm5ts play sad havoc ) bicycle tyres4 ,! bye roads & lanes are (t5 n>r[1 w9d+1 & worn deep especially at ! foot ( ! hills1 s t ! banks get a fair am\nt ( moi/ure & c>ry a d5se vegetation4 ,among ! pr(usion ( fl[]s y c f9d scabi\s1 ! b$/raws1 vet*es1 ragwort1 #aaa figwort1 & _m a plant r>e 9 o!r places1 l ! wild or*ids2 :ile ! cornfields are (t5 yell[ ) *>lock4 ,9 ! h$g][s are hazels1 gueld] roses1 maples1 dogwood1 all intw9$ ) long trails ( bryony & travell]'s joy4 ,9 ! autumn ! travell]'s joy produces ! long1 hairy tufts t h e>n$ = x ! "n ( old man's be>d1 :ile ! gueld] roses be> clu/]s ( r$ b]ries4 ,! great v>iety ( fl[]s attracts a correspond+ v>iety ( butt]flies1 mo?s & o!r insects2 !re are also numb]s ( birds & rabbits--inde$ a *alk c\ntry teems ) life 9 spite ( ! b>e look ( ! ,d[ns4 ,! roads runn+ at ! foot ( ! *alk ,d[ns & connect+ ! villages1 & f>mh\ses built !re = ! good wat] supply1 are p>ticul>ly ri* 9 plants because !y sometimes cut into ! *alk & sometimes into ! neighb\r+ clay1 s& or rock4 ,n[ & !n a spr+ bur/s out & a little /ream takes its rise3 if y foll[ x y w g5]ally f9d wat]cress cultivat$ some:]e4 ,besides ! bee* trees y also f9d a%1 sycamore1 maples1 &1 9 ! *ur* y>ds1 "s v5]able yews4 ,usually ! *alk di/ricts 7 inhabit$ v e>ly3 !y are dry & heal?y1 ! l& c be cultivat$ & ! heights comm& ext5sive views ov] ! c\ntry1 s t approa*+ enemies c\ld easily be se54 ,on ! *alk d[ns & pla9s are f\nd _m rema9s ( tribes t liv$ !re 9 ! remote ages ( ! pa/1 ^: v names are n[ lo/4 ,/range weapons & ornam5ts are sometimes dug up 9 ! camps :]e !y liv$ & work$2 ! b>r[s c be se5 9 :i* !y 7 buri$1 & ! temples 9 :i* !y wor%ipp$2 ,/oneh5ge itself1 ! be/ kn[n ( all ^!1 lies on ! *alk4 #aab ,sev]al ( ! camps /ill keep ! "n ! anci5t ,britons gave !m--! ,mai-dun1 ! encampm5t on ! hill1 *ang$ 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s to ,maid51 z 9 ,maid5 ,hill1 ne> ,dor*e/]1 9 ,dorset1 ,maid5 ,b[]1 ne> ,dun/able1 & s on4 ,"s ( _! roads are /ill 9 use to ?is day1 ! ,icknield ,way 7! way ( ! ,ic5i1 a ,belgic tribe71 ! ,pilgrim's ,way ( ! s\!rn c\nties & o!rs4 ,ev5 ! pres5t villages g back to v anci5t times1 & ! *ur*es are (t5 sev5 or eight hundr$ ye>s old4 ,9 places ! l& is too /eep or too elevat$ to be cultivat$1 & s x is left z pa/ure = ! %eep or %eep walk2 :]e cultivation is possible ! fields are l>ge & )\t h$ges1 l ^? %[n 9 ,fig4 #ea2 dur+ autumn1 w9t] & spr+ !re are _m %eep ab\t1 p5n$ or fold$ on ! arable l&1 eat+ ! crops ( sw$es1 turnips1 rape1 vet*es or mu/>d gr[n = !m1 or graz+ on ! aft]ma? ( sa9fo9 or grass & clov]4 ,s important are %eep 9 *alk di/ricts t ! :ole s*eme ( f>m+ is (t5 bas$ on _! requirem5ts1 b corn is also a valuable crop1 &1 especially 9 dry di/ricts1 b>ley1 s t *alk soils are (t5 spok5 ( z %eep & b>ley soils4 ,al?\gh ! pa/ures are v heal?y !re is n g5]ally mu* food or keep = ! animals dur+ ! summ] because ( ! dryness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,op5 *alk cultivat$ c\ntry1 ,isle ( ,?anet ,! black soil ( ! f5 di/ricts & else:]e is widely diff]5t f any ( ! prec$+4 ,x conta9s1 z its col\r %[s1 a l>ge quantity ( combu/ible mat]ial 7,*ap4 ,v471 :i* has a great p[] ( hold+ wat]4 ,^! f5s are !re=e v wet2 until !y 7 dra9$ !y 7 desolate wa/es3 y may #aad read 9 ,k+sley's ,h]ew>d ! ,wake :at !y us$ to be l 9 old days1 & ev5 z late z #affb ,dugdale writes t "h no elem5t is good4 ,! air cl\dy1 gross & full ( rott5 h>rs#a2 wat] putrid & muddy1 yea1 full ( loa?some v]m92 ! e>? spongy & boggy2 & ! fire noisome by ! /9k ( smok+ hassocks#b4 ,b dur+ ! ,/u>t p]iod wide dit*es or dra9s 7 dug1 into :i* ! wat] c\ld fl[ & be pump$ into riv]s4 ,?is reclamation has be5 cont9u$ to ! pres5t "t1 & ! black soils z well z ! o!rs 9 ! ,f5 di/ricts c be made v productive4 ,we h se5 t a *ange 9 ! soil produces a *ange 9 ! plants t gr[ on x4 ,! flora 7i4e4 ! collection ( plants7 ( a clay soil is q diff]5t f t ( a s&y soil1 & bo? are diff]5t f t ( a *alk or ( a f5 soil4 ,9 l mann] dra9+ a mead[ or manur+ x alt]s its flora3 "s ( ! plants disappe> & new ones come 94 ,ev5 an op]ation l m[+ a lawn1 if c>ri$ on suffici5tly regul>ly1 causes a *ange4 ,9 all ^! cases ! plants fav\r$ by ! new conditions are enabl$ to gr[ r bett] ?an ^? t are less fav\r$2 ?us 9 ! regul>ly m[n lawn ! %ort gr[+ grasses h an advantage ov] ^? l brome t gr[ tall]1 & s cr[d !m out4 ,:5 l& is dra9$ ^? plants t l a great quantity ( wat] no long] d q s well z be=e1 :ile ^? t _c put up ) mu* wat] n[ h a bett] *ance4 ,9 ! natural /ate !re is a great deal ( competition among #aae plants1 & only ^? survive t are adapt$ to _! surr\nd+s4 ,y %\ld rememb] ?is on y\r rambles & :5 y see a plant gr[+ wild y %\ld ?9k ( x z "o t has succe$$ 9 ! competition & try to f9d out :y x has be5 enabl$ to d s4 #a ,h>r is an old ^w mean+ sea-fog4 #b ,hassock is ! "n giv5 to co>se grass :i* =ms "p ( ! turf burnt 9 ! cottages4 #aaf ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,h[ ,,soil ,,has ,,be5 ,,made ,app>atus requir$4 ,! app>atus 9 ,fig4 #ed4 ,! "u surface1 ( ! lips ( ! beak]s %\ld be vasel9$ to prev5t ! wat] trickl+ d[n ! sides4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d cliffs or crags 9 inl& places1 b !y usually %[ "o v /rik+ diff]5ce f seaside cliffs4 ,! seaside cliffs may be ne>ly v]tical1 b ! inl& cliffs are n1 except+ = a little way at ! top2 l[] d[n a heap ( /ones & soil lies pil$ aga9/ ! face ( ! cliff & makes a slope up :i* y c climb4 ,if y look at ! cliff y c f9d loose fragm5ts ( x split (f ei!r by ! action ( freez+ wat] 7p4 #hc7 or by o!r causes ready to roll d[n if suffici5tly di/urb$4 ,s long has ?is be5 go+ on t a pile has by n[ accumulat$1 & has be5 cov]$ ) plants gr[+ on ! soil ( ! heap4 ,our int]e/ c5tres 9 ?is soil2 no "o has c>ri$ x !re2 x mu/ h be5 made f ! rock fragm5ts4 ,:5 y get an opportunity ( /udy+ su* a heap1 d s c>efully2 y c !n see h[1 />t+ f a solid rock1 soil has be5 =m$4 ,?is break+ d[n ( ! rock is call$ wea!r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,cliffs at ! seaside1 ,manorbi]1 ,pembroke%ire ,! same *ange has gone on at ! top ( ! cliff4 ,fragm5ts h split (f & ! rock has brok5 #aah d[n into soil :i* /ops :]e x is unless ! ra9 c wa% x away4 ,if !re are no cliffs :]e y live y c see ! same k9d ( action 9 ! banks ( ! lanes1 9 a disus$ qu>ry1 gravel pit or clay pit4 ,:]ev] a v]tical cutt+ has be5 made ?is d[nw>d roll+ beg9s & a heap quickly =ms1 mak+ ! v]tical cut into a slope4 ,plants soon beg9 to gr[1 & be=e long x is cle> t soil has be5 made out ( ! fragm5ts t h roll$ d[n4 ,?is process is kn[n z soil =mation1 b !re is ano!r always go+ on t we mu/ n[ /udy4 ,! heap does n inv>iably lie at ! foot ( ! cliff4 ,if !re is a /ream1 riv]1 or sea at ! foot ! fragm5ts may be c>ri$ away z fa/ z !y roll d[n3 ! diff]5ces %[n 9 ,figs4 #eb & #ec betwe5 a cliff at ! seaside & a cliff inl& arise simply 9 ?is way4 ,9 inl& di/ricts great valleys are 9 c\rse ( "t c>v$ out1 & at ! seaside l>ge areas ( l& h be5 wa%$ away4 ,:at becomes ( ! fragm5ts ?us c>ri$ away by ! wat]8 ,! be/ way ( answ]+ ! "q w\ld be to explore "o ( ^! m\nta9 /reams & foll[ x to ! sea1 b we c le>n a good deal by a few exp]im5ts t c be made 9 ! classroom4 ,we want to make a model /ream & see :at happ5s to little fragm5ts ( soil t fall into x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,inl& cliff4 ,salisbury ,crags1 ,ar?ur's ,seat1 ,ed9burgh ,fix up ! app>atus %[n 9 ,fig4 #ed4 ,! small beak] ,a is to repres5t ! n>r[ m\nta9 /ream1 ! l>g] "o ,b /&s = ! wide riv]1 & ! glass j> ,c = ! m\? ( ! riv] or ! sea4 ,run wat] ?r\gh !m2 notice t x runs quickly ?r\gh ,a1 sl[ly ?r\gh ,b1 & /ill m sl[ly ?r\gh ,c3 we want x to d ?is1 because ! /ream fl[s quickly & ! riv] sl[ly4 #abj ,n[ put "s soil into ,a4 ,at once ! soil is /irr$ up1 ! wat] becomes muddy1 & ! muddy liquid fl[s into ,b4 ,b v soon a *ange sets 91 ! liquid 9 ,a becomes cle>1 & only ! grit & /ones are left 9 ! bottom3 all ! mud--! clay & ! silt--is wa%$ into ,b4 ,!re x /ops = a long "t1 & "s ( x w nev] wa% out4 ,! liquid fl[+ into ,c is cle>] ?an t fl[+ into ,b4 ,if y keep on putt+ fre% portions ( soil into ,a y c keep ,b always muddy1 al?\gh ,a is usually cle>4 ,at ! end ( ! exp]im5t look at ! s$im5t 9 ea* beak]3 9 ,a x is cle> & gritty1 9 ,b x is muddy4 ,if y c get hold ( "s sea wat] put "s ( ! liquid f ,c into x3 v soon ?is liquid cle>s & a deposit falls to ! bottom1 ! sea wat] ?us act+ l ! lime wat] on p4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,model ( a /ream4 ,9 ,a1 :]e ! /ream fl[s quickly1 ! wat] is cle> & ! s$im5t free f mud4 ,9 ,b1 :]e x fl[s sl[ly1 ! wat] is turbid & ! s$im5t muddy #aba ,! exp]im5t %[s u t ! f9e mat]ial wa%$ away by a quickly fl[+ /ream is p>tly deposit$ :5 ! riv] becomes wid] & ! curr5t sl[]1 & a good deal m is deposit$ by ! action ( ! salt wat] :5 ! riv] fl[s into ! sea4 ,! rock t crumbles away inl& is spread out on ! b$ ( ! riv] or at its m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,! two sides ( ! riv] at ! b5d ,! riv] ,/\r at ,wye %[$ all ^! ?+s s cle>ly t ,i w describe x2 y mu/ !n comp>e x ) a riv] t y "k1 & see h[ f> ! same features occur4 ,at ! bridge ! /ream 0 %all[ & fl[$ quickly3 ! bottom 0 gritty & pebbly1 free f mud1 & =m$ a safe place = paddl+4 ,be=e ! bridge 0 built !re _h be5 #abb a =d "h4 ,b fur!r away1 ei!r up or d[n1 ! /ream 0 deep] & wid]1 fl[$ m sl[ly1 _h a muddy bottom1 & s 0 n good = paddl+4 ,at "o place ab\t a mile away "s "o _h wid5$ out ! riv] to =m a lake1 b ?is made ! /ream fl[ s sl[ly 7z x 0 n[ s mu* wid]7 t ! silt & clay deposit$ & ! lake became silt$ up1 i4e4 x became s %all[ t x 0 little m ?an a lake ( mud4 ,! same facts 7 br\ght out at ! b5d ( ! riv]4 ,on its convex side1 ,fig4 #ee1 ! wat] has r fur!r to g 9 gett+ r\nd ! b5d ?an on its concave side ,b1 x !re=e fl[s m quickly1 & c>ries away ! soil ( ! bank & mud f ! bottom4 ,b on its concave aide :]e x fl[s m sl[ly x deposits mat]ial4 ,!re is at ! b5d a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 dep? at ! two sides4 ,on its convex side ! /ream is rapid & deep1 & sc\rs away ! bank2 on its concave side x is sl[]1 %all[]1 & t5ds to become silt$ up4 ,?us ! b5d becomes m & m pron\nc$ unless ! bank r\nd ,a is protect$ 7! o!r bank ( c\rse ne$s no protection7 & ! :ole riv] w9ds ab\t j z y see 9 ,fig4 #ef1 & is p]petually *ang+ its c\rse1 c>ry+ away mat]ial f "o place1 mix+ x up ) mat]ial wa%$ f some:]e else1 & !n deposits x at a b5d or 9 a pool :]e x fir/ becomes a mud flat & !n dry l&4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 is c>ri$ out to sea4 ,we ne$ n foll[ ! ,/\r to ! sea2 ref]5ce to an atlas w %[ :at happ5s to o!r riv]s4 ,"s ( ! clay & silt !y c>ry d[n is deposit$ at _! m\?s1 & becomes a b>1 gives rise to %oals & banks1 or =ms a delta4 ,! re/ is c>ri$ away & deposit$ on ! floor ( ! sea4 #abd ,mat]ial wa%$ away by ! sea f ! coa/ is ei!r deposit$ on o!r p>ts ( ! coa/1 or is c>ri$ out & laid on ! floor ( ! sea4 ,?us a ?ick deposit is accumulat+1 & if ! sea 7 to become dry ?is deposit w\ld be soil4 ,?is has actually happ5$ 9 pa/ ages4 ,! l& we live on1 n[ dry l&1 has _h a mo/ wond]ful hi/ory2 x has m ?an once la9 at ! bottom ( ! sea & has be5 cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( s$im5t c>ri$ f o!r places4 ,!n ! sea became dry l& & ! s$im5t became press$ into rock1 :i* =m$ new soil1 b x at once began to get wa%$ away by /reams & riv]s into new seas1 & gave rise to new s$im5ts on ! floor ( ^! seas4 ,& s ! rock p>ticles h = untold ages be5 go+ ?is p]petual r\nd3 !y become soil2 !y are c>ri$ away by ! riv]s1 9 "t !y rea* ! sea2 !y lie at ! bottom ( ! sea :ile ! s$im5t gradually piles up3 !n ! sea becomes dry l& & ! s$im5ts are press$ into rocks aga94 ,! eat+ away ( ! l& by wat] is /ill go+ on3 x is e/imat$ t ! :ole ( ! ,?ames valley is be+ l[]$ at ! rate ( ab\t "o in* 9 eight hundr$ ye>s4 ,?is seems v sl[1 b eight hundr$ ye>s is only a %ort "t 9 geology1 ! sci5ce t deals ) ^! *anges4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,! w9d+ riv] ,/\r4 ,! riv] w9ds f ! "r to ! left ( ! picture1 !n back aga91 & !n once m to ! left1 pass+ "u ! :ite bridge & 9 front ( ! b>n4 ,wat] does m ?an m]ely pu% ! rock p>ticles along4 ,x dissolves "s ( !m1 & 9 ?is way helps to break up ! rock4 ,spr+ wat] always conta9s dissolv$ matt]1 d]iv$ f ! rocks1 "s ( :i* comes out z fur 9 ! kettles :5 ! wat] is boil$4 ,rocks are also brok5 up by o!r ag5ts4 ,!re is ne>ly always "s li*5 liv+ on ! rock1 & if y #abe peel x (f y c see t x has eat5 away "s ( ! rock4 ,:5 ! li*5 dies x may *ange into food = o!r plants4 ,we h le>nt ^! ?+s ab\t soil =mation4 ,fir/ ( all ! rocks break up into fragm5ts ?r\gh ! splitt+ action ( freez+ wat]1 ! dissolv+ action ( liquid wat]1 & o!r causes4 ,?is process goes on till ! fragm5ts are v small l soil p>ticles4 ,!n plants beg9 to gr[1 & z !y die & decay !y give rise to ! black humus t we h se5 is s valuable a "p ( ! soil 7p4 #ea74 ,?is is h[ v _m ( our soils h be5 made4 ,b ! action ( wat] does n /op at break+ ! rock up into soil2 x goes fur!r & c>ries ! p>ticles away to ! l[] p>ts ( ! riv] b$1 or to ! e/u>y1 to =m a delta1 & mud flats t may be reclaim$1 l ,romney ,m>% 9 ,engl& & _m p>ts ( ,holl& h be54 ,_m ( our pres5t soils h be5 =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,f9ally ! p>ticles may be c>ri$ "r away to sea & spread out on ! bottom to lie !re = _m ages1 b !y may become dry l& aga9 & once m be soil4 ,"o ?+ m we le>nt f ! riv] ,/\r4 ,:y did x fl[ quickly at ! bridge & sl[ly else:]e8 ,we knew t ! soil r\nd ! bridge 0 gravelly1 :il/ up & d[n ! /ream x 0 clayey4 ,! riv] _h n be5 able to make s wide or s deep a b$ ?r\gh ! gravel z x _h ?r\gh ! clay1 & x c\ld !re=e be =d$ "h4 ,we knew also t !re 0 a gravel pit at ! next village on ! riv]1 :]e also !re 0 a bridge & _h be5 a =d1 & s we 7 able to make a r\gh map l ,fig4 #eg1 %[+ t =ds _h occurr$ at ! gravel #abf pat*es1 b n at ! clay places4 ,n[ x 0 obvi\s t an inn1 a blacksmi?'s =ge1 & a few %ops & cottages w\ld soon spr+ up r\nd ! =d1 especially z ! gravel pat* 0 bett] to live on ?an ! clay r\nd ab\t1 & s we readily und]/ood :y our village _h be5 built :]e x 0 & n a mile up or d[n ! /ream4 ,almo/ any riv] w %[ ! same ?+s3 on ! ,lea ne> ,h>p5d5 we f\nd ! riv] fl[$ quickly at ! =d 7,fig4 #eh71 :]e !re 0 a h>d1 /ony bottom & no mud3 :il/ above & bel[ ! =d ! bottom 0 muddy & ! /ream fl[$ m sl[ly4 ,at ! =d !re is z usual a small village4 ,! ,?ames furni%es o!r examples3 bel[ ,ox=d !re are num]\s rocky or gravelly pat*es :]e =ds 7 possible1 & :]e villages !re=e grew up4 ,above ,ox=d1 h[ev]1 ! possibilities ( =d+ 7 few]1 because ! soil is clay & !re is less rock2 ! roads & !re=e ! villages grew up away f ! riv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #eg4 ,sket* map %[+ :y ,godm]%am & ,wye arose :]e !y did on ! ,/\r4 ,at ,a1 ! gravel pat*1 ! riv] has a h>d b$ & c be =d$4 ,a village !re=e grew up "h4 ,at ,b1 ! clay "p1 ! riv] has a s(t b$ & _c be =d$4 ,! l& is wet 9 w9t]1 & ! banks ( ! /ream may be wa%$ away4 ,x is !re=e n a good site = a village ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,=d & ,coldh>b\r1 ne> ,h>p5d5 #abh ,,app5dix ,! tea*] is advis$ to procure1 bo? = 8 own in=mation & 9 ord] to read passages to ! s*ol>s3 ,gilb]t ,:ite1 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,e>?worms & ,vegetable ,m\ld 7,murray74 ,a4 ,d4 ,hall1 ,! ,soil 7,murray74 ,mr ,hugh ,ri*>dson has suppli$ me ) ! foll[+ li/ ( que/ions1 ?r\gh _m ( :i* 8 s*ol>s at ,boo?am ,s*ool1 ,york1 h work$4 ,!y are ins]t$ "h to af=d h9ts to o!r tea*]s & to %[ h[ ! lessons may be v>i$4 ,!y %\ld also prove useful = revis+ & te/+ ! s*ol>s' k4 #a4 ,collect samples ( ! diff]5t soils 9 y\r neighb\rhood--g>d5 soil1 soil f a pl\gh$ field1 f a mole-hill 9 a pa/ure field1 leaf m\ld f a wood1 etc4 ,collect also samples ( ! sub-soils1 s&1 gravel1 clay1 peat4 #b4 ,supplem5t y\r collection by pur*as+ f a g>d5]'s %op "s mix$ pott+ soil & also ! sep>ate +r$i5ts us$ to =m su* a mixture--silv] s&1 leaf m\ld1 peat4 #c4 ,h[ _m diff]5t sorts ( peat c y get samples (8 ,peat m\ld1 peat moss litt]1 sphagnum moss1 turf = burn+1 dry moor peat8 #d4 ,f9d = :at diff]5t purposes s& is 9 use1 su* z mort> mak+1 iron f\nd+1 sc\r+1 bird cages1 & obta9 samples ( ea* k9d4 #abi ,analysis ( ,g>d5 ,soil4 ,ab\t a h&ful ( soil w be requir$ by ea* pupil4 #e4 ,describe ! appe>ance ( ! soil4 ,is x f9e or 9 lumps8 ,does x seem damp or dry8 ,c y see ! sep>ate p>ticles ( m9]al matt]8 ,h[ l>ge are ^!8 ,is !re any evid5ce ( vegetable matt] 9 ! soil8 #f4 ,put "s ( ! soil 9 an evaporat+ bas9 & ov] ?is place a dry filt]+ funnel4 ,w>m ! bas9 g5tly4 ,is any moi/ure giv5 (f8 #g4 ,dry "s ( ! soil at a temp]ature n great] ?an t ( boil+ wat]1 e4g4 by spread+ x out on a biscuit t9 lid1 & lay+ ?is on a radiator4 ,h[ h ! appe>ance & prop]ties ( ! soil be5 *ang$ by dry+8 #h4 ,crumble "s ( ! dri$ soil z f9ely z y c ) y\r f+]s4 ,!n sift x ?r\gh a %eet ( clean wire gauze4 ,:at fraction ( ! soil is f9e en\gh to g ?r\gh ! gauze8 ,describe ! portion :i* w n pass ?r\gh ! gauze4 ,c\nt ! numb] ( wires p] l9e> in* 9 ! gauze4 #i4 ,mix "s ( ! soil ) wat] 9 a flask4 ,let x /&4 ,h[ long does x take be=e ! wat] becomes q cle> aga98 #aj4 ,mix "s m soil ) wat]4 ,let x settle = #cj seconds only4 ,p\r (f ! muddy wat] into a tall glass cyl9d]4 ,add m wat] to ! rema9+ soil1 & p\r (f a second portion ( muddy wat]1 add+ x to ! fir/1 & s on until all ! f9e mud is remov$ f ! soil4 ,all[ ?is muddy wat] ample "t to settle4 #aa4 ,:5 ! f9e mud has settl$ p\r (f ! bulk ( ! wat]2 /ir up ! mud ) ! re/ ( ! wat]2 transf] x to an evaporat+ bas91 & evaporate to dryness4 #ab4 ,does ?is dri$ mud consi/ ( v t9y gra9s ( s& or ( "s mat]ial diff]5t f s&8 ,c y f9d out ) a microscope8 #ac4 ,if ! mud consi/s ( real clay & n ( s& x %\ld be possible to burn x into brick4 ,moi/5 ! dri$ mud aga94 ,roll x if y c into a r\nd clay m>ble4 ,leave ?is to dry sl[ly = a day4 ,!n bake x ei!r 9 a *emical laboratory furnace or 9 an ord9>y fire4 #ad4 ,return to ! soil us$ 9 ,"q #aj1 f :i* only ! f9e mud has be5 wa%$ away4 ,p\r m wat] on to x1 %ake x #acj well1 & p\r (f all ! susp5d$ matt] )\t all[+ x m ?an #e seconds to settle4 ,repeat ! process4 ,collect & dry ! p\r$ (f mat]ial z be=e4 ,:at is ! mat]ial ?is "t1 s& or clay8 #ae4 ,wa% ! rema9+ portion ( ! soil 9 ,"q #ad clean f all matt] :i* does n settle promptly4 ,are !re any pebbles left8 ,if s1 h[ l>ge are !y1 & ( :at k9d ( /one8 #af4 ,take a fre% sample ( ! soil4 ,mix x ) di/ill$ wat] 9 a flask4 ,boil ! mixture4 ,all[ x to settle4 ,filt]4 ,divide ! filtrate into two portions4 ,evaporate bo?1 ! l>g] portion 9 an evaporat+ bas9 ov] wire gauze1 ! small] portion 9 a wat* glass heat$ by /eam4 ,is any residue left aft] heat+ to dryness8 #ag4 ,take a fre% sample ( soil4 ,spread x on a clean s& ba? & heat /rongly ) a ,buns5 flame4 ,does any portion ( ! soil burn8 ,is !re any *ange 9 its appe>ance aft] heat+8 #ah4 ,to a fre% sample ( soil add "s hydro*loric acid4 ,is !re any eff]vesc5ce8 ,if s1 :at conclusions d y draw8 #ai4 ,make a solution ( soil 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & filt] z be=e4 ,is ?is solution acid1 alkal9e or neutral8 ,are y q c]ta9 ( y\r result8 ,did y te/ ! di/ill$ wat] ) litmus pap]8 ,& are y sure t y\r litmus does n conta9 excess ( free acid or free alkali8 ,peat4 #bj4 ,exam9e diff]5t v>ieties ( peat collect$ 7see ,"q #b7 & describe ! appe>ance ( ea*4 #ba4 ,burn a fragm5t ( ea* k9d ( peat on wire gauze4 ,:at d y notice8 #bb4 ,boil "s peat ) di/ill$ wat] & filt] ! solution4 ,:at col\r is x8 ,c y tell :e!r x is acid1 neutral or alkal9e8 ,evaporate "s ( ! solution to dryness4 ,out-(-doors4 #bc4 ,describe ! appe>ance ( ! soil 9 ! fl[] b$s 7a7 dur+ h>d fro/1 7b7 9 ! ?aw :i* foll[s a h>d fro/1 7c7 aft] an ,april %[]1 7d7 9 dr\ght at ! end ( summ]1 7e7 9 damp ,octob] wea!r :5 ! leaves are beg9n+ to fall4 #bd4 ,is ! soil equally friable at diff]5t times ( ! ye>8 #aca #be4 ,9 :at way d dead leaves get c>ri$ into ! soil8 #bf4 ,c y f9d ! worm holes 9 a g>d5 lawn8 9 a g>d5 pa?8 #bg4 ,take a fl[] b$ or grass plot ( small b kn[n area 7say #c y>ds by #b y>ds7 & a wat]+ c ( kn[n capacity 7say #c gallons74 ,f9d h[ mu* wat] mu/ be add$ to ! soil be=e "s ( ! wat] w rema9 on ! surface4 ,:at has be5 ! capacity ( ! soil 9 gallons p] squ>e y>d8 #bh4 ,take two !rmomet]s4 ,lay "o on ! soil1 ! o!r ) its bulb #c in*es deep 9 ! soil4 ,comp>e _! temp]atures at morn+1 noon & night4 #bi4 ,f9d f ! #be-;in* ,ordnance map ! ref]5ce numb]s ( ! fields ne> y\r s*ool4 ,make a li/ ( ! fields1 %[+ = :at crop or purpose ea* field is be+ us$4 #acb ,,index ,acid wat]s1 #dj ,air 9 soil1 #af1 #gj1 #ie ,b>s 9 e/u>ies1 #abb ,black soils1 #cf ,bl[+ s&s1 #bb ,bricks1 #aj1 #af-ah ,*alk1 #bf1 #if ,*alk soils1 #aaj-aab ,clay1 #f1 #i-ba ,clay soils1 #ge1 #ajj-ajb ,cliffs1 #aaf-aai ,d>w9's exp]im5ts1 #aa1 #ef ,deltas1 #abb ,dra9age1 #ai1 #if ,dwell]s 9 ! soil1 #ec-fc ,e>?worms1 #ed-ef ,error ( exp]im5t1 #dh ,fall[1 #ad1 #ie ,f5s1 #aab ,flora1 #aad ,=ds1 #abf ,fro/1 action (1 on soil1 #hc ,grassl&1 #ge ,grit1 #f ,hales's exp]im5t1 #gc ,hea?s1 #ajd ,heavy soils1 #ajj ,hoe+1 #hf-ic ,humus1 #cf1 #ea1 #ic1 #abe ,hypo!ses1 #cf ,l& slips1 #ab ,leaf m\ld1 #cc ,light soils1 #ajd ,lime1 action (1 on clay & soil1 #ai-ba1 #if-ih ,lime wat]1 #ai ,loams1 #b1 #fe1 #ajh ,m>% gas1 #dj ,micro-organisms1 #ef-fb ,moorl&1 #hj ,mul*1 #hg1 #ij ,peat1 #cg-dj1 #acj ,peat bogs1 ov]fl[ (1 #ch ,p]spiration ( plants1 #gd ,plant food1 #da-eb1 #fb ,plant requirem5ts1 #fd ,pl\gh+1 #hb ,pot exp]im5ts1 #da-eb1 #ed1 #fi1 #ga ,roads1 #cj-cb1 #aja-aab ,roll+ ! soil1 #hd ,s&1 #f1 #bb-cb1 #da ,s& dunes1 #bb ,s&y soils1 #fh-gb1 #ajb-ajh ,%r9kage ( clay1 #aj ,silt1 #g ,soil sampl]1 #hb1 #hh ,s[+ se$1 #hd ,spr+s1 #bd-ca1 #aaa ,subsoil1 #b1 #d1 #db1 #dh-ea ,swell+ ( clay1 #aa ,swell+ ( peat1 #ch ,temp]ature ( soil1 #hf-ic ,til?1 #hf ,van ,helmont's exp]im5t1 #df ,villages1 situation (1 #bd1 #cj1 #abf ,wa/es1 #aja1 #ajd ,wat] cont5t ( soil1 #hh-ic ,wat]1 movem5t ( 9 soils1 #fe-fh ,wat] supply & plant gr[?1 #fi-gd ,wea!r+1 #aaf ,we$s1 #id1 #ig ,woodl&1 #hj1 #aja