file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bjich-;h4htm or #bjich-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/i_/c_/bjich_/bjich-;h_/#bjich-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/i_/c_/bjich_/bjich-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,superscripted letters are indicated by the carat character followed by the letter7s7 within curly brackets4 ,example3 a ,,stops ,or1 ,how to ,punctuate ,a ,practical ,handbook for ,writers and ,students by ,,paul ,,allardyce ,for a reader that pointeth ill1 ,a good sentence oft may spill4 --,,chaucer--,romaunt of the ,rose ,london ,t4 ,fisher ,unwin ,ltd4 ,adelphi ,terrace ,eighteenth ,impression #ahie ,,contents ,,introduction ,,the ,,full ,,stop ,,the ,,comma ,,the ,,semicolon ,,the ,,colon ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,interrogation ,,the ,,mark ,,of ,,exclamation ,,the ,,dash ,,brackets 7,,or ,,the ,,parenthesis7 ,,inverted ,,commas ,,italics ,,the ,,hyphen ,,the ,,apostrophe ,,ellipsis ,,references ,,to ,,notes ,,correction ,,of ,,proofs ,,introduction ,the ,use of ,punctuation4--,punctuation is a device for marking out the arrangement of a writer's ideas4 ,reading is thereby made easier than it otherwise would be4 ,a writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in groups1 the words in one group being more closely connected with one another than they are with those in the next group4 ,an example will show this grouping in its simplest form3 ,he never convinces the reason1 or fills the imagination1 ----------------------------- --------------------- or touches the heart4 ----------------- ,to understand what is written1 the reader must group the words together in the way intended by the writer2 and in doing this he can receive assistance in various ways4 ,partly by the inflection of the words2 partly by their arrangement2 partly also by punctuation4 ,as to inflection1 we see in ,latin an adjective and a substantive standing together1 yet differing in gender1 in number1 or in case2 and we know that the adjective does not qualify the substantive4 ,but ,english has not the numerous inflections of ,latin4 ,more scrupulous care therefore is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in position such as are connected in meaning4 ,yet this is not always enough4 ,except in the very simplest sentences there are generally several arrangements which are grammatically possible2 and1 though all save one may be absurd in meaning1 the reader may waver for a moment before the absurdity strikes him4 ,some artificial aid is thus needed to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one4 ,there is no fault1 for instance1 to be found with the arrangement of the following words1 yet1 printed without points1 they form a mere puzzle3 ,he had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of the neglect which he had experienced from the ,whigs his old friends however all of them appeared ravished to see him offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the influence of his talents they understood and were willing to see it thrown into the opposite scale4 ,of course1 with a little effort the meaning can be discovered2 but if such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole book1 reading would become a serious task4 ,by means of points1 or stops1 we are spared much of this4 ,the groups are presented ready-made to the eye2 and the mind1 bent on understanding the thought1 is not distracted by having first to discover the connection of the words4 ,the reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping the words not only are grammatically possible1 but lead each to a more or less intelligible meaning4 ,as a rule he can find out from the context which way the writer meant him to take4 ,one politician writes to another3 ,i ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you think of this measure2 and nobody accuses the writer of presumption4 ,we might even pass over the following startling sentence without observing the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men3 ,hence he considered marriage with a modern political economist as dangerous4 ,but when we read that the ,state may impose restrictions on the mothers of young children employed in factories1 we may well have some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed in factories4 ,and it would not be easy to give an answer1 if we were asked to state the precise meaning of ,gray's line3 ,and all the air a solemn stillness holds4 ,in longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is obviously much greater4 ,now by the judicious use of points ambiguous language can occasionally be made clear4 ,the mothers-of-young-children employed in factories is no doubt a bold form1 but it leaves us in no doubt as to the meaning4 ,so the ambiguous word too does not embarrass us when we read3 ,this problem1 too1 easy as it may seem1 remains unsolved4 7,see other examples under ,rules ,,xiv4 and ,,xv47 ,only occasionally1 however1 can clearness be secured by punctuation4 ,no pointing can help us much in ,gray's line1 or could have given to ,pyrrhus the true reading of ,credo te acida ,romanos vincere posse4 ,and1 even where it would make the meaning clear1 it is a lazy device1 the over-use of which is the sure sign of careless or unskilful composition4 ,the true remedy for ambiguity is not punctuation1 but re-writing4 ,punctuation1 it is sometimes said1 serves to mark the pauses that would be made in speaking4 ,this is so far true2 for by the pause we arrange our spoken words into proper groups1 thereby enabling our hearers readily to seize the meaning4 ,but between the punctuation of the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree4 ,by the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought1 while only in the roughest way can the comma1 the semicolon1 and the other points1 imitate its effects4 ,as to how far the attempt at imitation should be carried1 every writer will have to use his own discretion2 but1 whether we point freely or sparingly1 we must for the reader's sake point consistently4 ,it should at the same time be borne in mind that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion4 ,general ,rules4--,keeping in view the use of punctuation1 we can now form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we should insert1 or whether we should insert a point at all4 7#a7 ,the point that will keep the passage most free from ambiguity1 or make it easiest to read1 is the right point to use4 7#b7 ,if the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be not less easy to understand without any point1 let no point be used4 ,the ,relativity of ,points4--,in order to decide in any given case what point ought to be used1 we begin by considering the nature of the pause in itself4 ,but we must do more4 ,we must consider how we have pointed the rest of the passage4 ,the pause that should be marked by a comma in one case1 may require a semicolon in another case2 the colon may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill4 ,this will be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be given4 7,see ,rules ,,xxiii41 ,,xxv47 ,usage4--,except within somewhat narrow limits1 usage does not help us much4 ,different writers have different methods1 and few are consistent4 ,to some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity2 for instance1 in the placing of colons before quotations1 and in the use of inverted commas4 ,but in many cases there can hardly be said to be any fixed usage1 and in these we can freely apply the general rules already laid down4 ,much might be said for a complete disregard of usage1 for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation4 ,sooner or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of part of the work which it is expected to perform4 ,not only is the comma a less effective point than it might be1 but the habit of using it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on ,english style4 ,in the meantime1 and as a step towards a better system1 there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a more or less precise form4 ,nothing more than this has been aimed at in the present work4 ,in giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all1 or with nearly all1 the cases that may arise in writing4 ,punctuation is intimately connected with style4 ,as forms of thought are infinite in number1 so are the modes of expression2 and punctuation1 adapting itself to these1 is an instrument capable of manipulation in a thousand ways4 ,we can therefore set forth only some typical cases1 forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a variety both of applications and of exceptions4 ,it will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their order of strength4 ,it seemed better to deal with the full stop before passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence4 ,again1 it may be said that1 strictly speaking1 italics do not form part of the subject4 ,but they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic4 ,even the sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may not be considered altogether out of place4 ,as few grammatical terms as possible have been made use of4 ,some have been found necessary in order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a little subject4 ,,the ,,full ,,stop ,i4 ,a full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither exclamatory nor interrogative4 ,a penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are incurred4 ,the sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit4 ,he was1 therefore1 competent to annul virtually a penal statute4 ,it might seem that there could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually4 ,how much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style than of punctuation4 ,the tendency of modern literature is in favour of the short sentence4 ,in the prose of ,milton and of ,jeremy ,taylor1 the full stop does not come to release the thought till all the circumstances have been grouped around it1 and the necessary qualifications made4 ,in ,macaulay the circumstances and the qualifications are set out sentence by sentence4 ,so the steps of reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he thought them out for himself4 ,they might be welded together thus3 ,seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are incurred1 and seeing that the sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit1 it follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal statute2 and it might seem that there could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually4 ,both forms are correct in point of punctuation4 ,which is the better form is a question of style4 ,take another example3 ,the sides of the mountain were covered with trees2 the banks of the brooks were diversified with flowers2 every blast shook spices from the rocks2 and every mouth dropped fruits upon the ground4 ,there is here an advantage in putting these four statements together1 instead of making four separate sentences4 ,we can more easily combine the details1 and so form a single picture--a picture of fertility4 ,,ii4 ,as a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be grammatically complete4 ,but some parts of the sentence necessary to make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply4 ,it is well said1 in every sense1 that a man's religion is the chief fact with regard to him4 ,a man's or a nation of men's4 ,by religion ,i do not mean here the church-creed which he professes1 the articles of faith which he will sign and1 in words or otherwise1 assert4 ,not this wholly1 in many cases not this at all4 ,,iii4 ,when a sentence is purposely left unfinished1 the dash takes the place of the full stop4 7,see ,rule ,,xl47 ,excuse me1 said ,i1 but ,i am a sort of collector4 ,not ,income-tax8 cried ,his ,majesty1 hastily removing his pipe from his lips4 ,,iv4 ,a full stop is placed after most abbreviations1 after initial letters1 and after ordinal numbers in ,roman characters4 ,gen4 i4 #bj2 two lbs42 ,a4,d4 #ahhc2 #c p4m42 c41 and etc42 ,m4,d41 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill2 ,william ,,iii41 ,king of ,england2 ,,ms41 ,,ll4,d4 7not ,m4,s4 and ,l4,l4,d474 ,note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent another point from being used immediately after it4 ,but if they occur at the end of a sentence1 another full stop is not added2 or1 more correctly1 it may be said that ,rule ,,iv4 does not apply at the end of a sentence4 ,mr1 ,messrs1 ,dr--abbreviations which retain the last letter of the whole word--are written without a point4 ,,the ,,comma ,v4 ,the comma indicates a short pause in a sentence4 ,it is used when we wish to separate words that stand together1 and at the same time to stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence4 ,when the earl reached his own province1 he found that preparations had been made to repel him4 ,though it is difficult1 or almost impossible1 to reclaim a savage1 bred from his youth to war and the chase1 to the restraints and the duties of civilized life1 nothing is more easy or common than to find men who have been educated in all the habits and comforts of improved society1 willing to exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the fisher4 ,,vi4 ,where there is no danger of obscurity1 the subject must not be separated from the predicate by any point4 ,the eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect of your duty4 ,,vii4 ,when the subject is long1 a comma may be placed after it4 ,to say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that now came upon him1 is to say only what his previous life would have led us to expect4 ,in every sentence the subject1 whether expressed in one word or in several words1 must be grasped as a whole2 and1 when the subject is long1 one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark its termination4 ,the eye at once observes the separating line4 ,note the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences4 ,,viii4 ,when the subject consists of several parts1 e4g41 of several nouns1 a comma is placed after the last part4 ,a few daring jests1 a brawl1 and a fatal stab1 make up the life of ,marlowe4 ,time1 money1 and friends1 were needed to carry on the work4 ,this rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception to it4 ,when the last noun sums up all the others1 or marks the highest point of a climax1 no comma is placed after it4 ,freedom1 honour1 religion was at stake4 ,if religion be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax1 the predicate is read with religion1 and with it alone4 ,when so great a thing as religion is said to be at stake1 everything else is dropped out of sight1 or is held to be included4 ,but write the three names as if they were of equal importance2 the comma should then be inserted3 ,freedom1 honour1 and religion1 were at stake4 ,but it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this3 ,time and tide wait for no man4 ,for we see without the aid of a point that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally4 ,the principle might be applied also in cases like the following1 though few writers carry it so far3 ,it was the act of a high-spirited1 generous1 just nation4 ,it was the act of a high-spirited1 generous1 and just1 nation4 ,,ix4 ,dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the sentence in which they occur4 ,the usual point is the comma4 ,be his motives what they may1 he must soon disperse his followers4 ,this relation of your army to the crown will1 if ,i am not greatly mistaken1 become a serious dilemma in your politics4 ,of course1 this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger points1 especially by those for the semicolon and the colon4 ,it is often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence by a strong point4 ,,exceptions4--7,i7 ,no point is needed if either the dependent clause or the principal clause be short4 ,he would be shocked if he were to know the truth4 ,but if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically1 it is marked off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis1 however short it may be4 7,see ,rule ,x47 ,if the sentence last quoted were inverted1 a comma would be placed after the dependent clause4 ,if he were to know the truth1 he would be shocked4 ,in the first form of this example1 he would be shocked is a definite1 finished statement1 the necessary qualification to which should follow with as little pause as possible4 ,but in the inverted form1 the first part of the sentence--if he were to know the truth--is not a finished statement1 and the mind may pause for a moment before going on to the consequence1 knowing that the consequence must follow4 7#b7 ,no point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it4 ,they had so long brooded over their own distresses that they knew nothing of how the world was changing around them4 ,note that by the word so the clause that they knew nothing is joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence2 and that the two clauses that they knew nothing and how the world was changing around them1 are even more closely joined to one another by the preposition of4 ,for the same reason1 where the object is a clause1 there is no point before it4 ,he confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter4 ,a useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different kinds of relative clauses4 7,rule ,,xiv47 ,x4 ,words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence are marked off by commas4 ,he resolved1 therefore1 to visit the prisoner early in the morning4 ,this1 ,i think1 is the right view of the case4 ,the first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are1 in all probability1 derived from colours4 ,the following are some of the words and phrases that come under this rule3 therefore1 too1 indeed1 however1 moreover1 then1 accordingly1 consequently2 in short1 in fine1 in truth1 in fact1 to a certain extent1 all things considered4 ,this rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly1 and might really be restricted to cases like the ,i think of the second example4 ,nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words as therefore and indeed4 ,where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence1 they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets4 ,,xi4 ,where two parts of a sentence have some words in common1 which are not expressed for each of them1 but are given only when the words in which they differ have been separately stated1 the second part is marked off by commas4 ,his classification is different from1 and more comprehensive than1 any other which we have met4 ,this foundation is a nursing-mother of lay1 as distinguished from religious1 oratorios4 ,these examples come within the principle of ,rule ,x4 ,,xii4 ,when words are common to two or more parts of a sentence1 and are expressed only in one part1 a comma is often used to show that they are omitted in the other parts4 ,london is the capital of ,england2 ,paris1 of ,france2 ,berlin1 of ,germany4 ,in the worst volume of elder date1 the historian may find something to assist or direct his enquiries2 the antiquarian1 something to elucidate what requires illustration2 the philologist1 something to insert in the margin of his dictionary4 ,though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this way1 it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally clear without it4 ,it is unnecessary in the following sentence3 ,saul hath slain his thousands1 and ,david his ten thousands4 ,,xiii4 ,words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are often followed by a comma4 7#a7 ,the object is usually placed after the verb2 when placed at the beginning of the sentence1 it should be separated from the subject by a comma1 unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be readily seized4 ,the proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind in such cases1 no human judgment can determine4 ,there is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as there is for inserting it after a long subject4 ,moreover1 there is often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by inversion4 ,in ,english1 the meaning of words is so greatly determined by their position that1 in altering the usual arrangement of a sentence1 there is risk of being misunderstood4 ,the danger of inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with the words going before1 and not with its own verb4 ,if there is a possibility of this1 the point should not be used4 ,of course no point should be placed after the object in such a sentence as the following3--,one ,i love1 and the other ,i hate4 7#b7 ,an adverbial phrase1 that is a phrase used as an adverb1 is usually placed after the verb2 when it begins the sentence1 a comma follows it unless it is very short4 ,from the ridge a little way to the east1 one can easily trace the windings of the river4 ,in order to gain his point1 he did not hesitate to use deception4 ,in ordinary circumstances ,i should have acted differently4 ,no point would be used in the above sentences1 if the adverbial phrases occurred in their usual position4 ,he did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his point4 ,nor is any point used when1 as often happens in such sentences1 the verb precedes the subject4 ,not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village we hope to reach4 7#c7 ,an adjective phrase1 that is a phrase used as an adjective1 is usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies2 when it appears in any other place1 a comma is often usefully placed before it4 ,a question was next put to the assembly1 of supreme importance at such a moment4 ,the phrase of supreme importance at such a moment is to be taken along with question2 the comma shows that it is not to be taken along with assembly4 ,there is here a further reason for the point1 inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the importance of an independent statement4 ,but1 where the connexion between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close1 and where there is no risk of ambiguity1 no point is to be used4 ,the morning was come of a mighty day--such a sentence needs no point4 ,observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before them1 wherever they are placed4 7,see next rule47 ,,xiv4 ,adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off by commas1 if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately2 no point is used if they are used restrictively4#a ,the ,religio ,laici1 which borrows its title from the ,religio ,medici of ,browne1 is almost the only work of ,dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion4 ,that sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the splendid sayings that are recorded of kings4 ,the advocates for this revolution1 not satisfied with exaggerating the vices of their ancient government1 strike at the fame of their country itself4 ,the ships bound on these voyages were not advertised4 ,chapter ,,vii41 where we stopped reading1 is full of interest4 ,the chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest4 ,we must explain this distinction at some length2 for1 on the one hand1 it is hardly ever observed1 and1 on the other hand1 almost every sentence that we write furnishes an example of it4 ,footnote #a3 ,to distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses1 different names have been used3 co-ordinating and restrictive 7,bain72 continuative and definitive1 or restrictive 7,mason74 ,examine the first sentence which we have quoted4 ,it contains both a co-ordinate clause1 ,which borrows its title1 c41 and a restrictive clause1 ,which can be considered as a voluntary effusion4 ,in distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a mechanical nature4 7a7 ,the first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent statement2 the second cannot4 ,thus3 ,the ',religio ,laici' borrows its title from the ',religio ,medici' of ,browne4 ,it is almost the only work1 c42 or1 ,the ',religio ,laici' 7it borrows its title from the ',religio ,medici' of ,browne7 is almost the only work1 c4 ,we cannot in the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with the only work of ,dryden4 7b7 ,the first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and intelligent sentence2 if we were to omit the second clause1 the sentence would cease to have any meaning4 ,these tests may be practically useful2 but they are rough and by no means infallible4 ,let us see the reason for the distinction4 ,the name ,religio ,laici of itself tells us what thing is spoken about4 ,it is the name of one thing1 and only of one thing4 ,the clause that follows informs us1 indeed1 of a fact concerning the poem2 but the information is given purely as information1 not in order to keep us from confounding this ,religio ,laici with some other ,religio ,laici that did not borrow its title4 ,work of ,dryden1 however1 is the name of a class1 for ,dryden wrote many works4 ,now the whole class is not here in question2 it must be limited1 narrowed1 or restricted1 to one part of it1 namely ,dryden's voluntary effusions2 and it is thus limited1 narrowed1 or restricted1 by the relative clause which can be considered as a voluntary effusion4 ,take another example1 where the name in both cases is that of a class1 and note the difference of meaning which results from different pointing3--,the houses in ,london which are badly built1 ought to be pulled down4 ,the houses in ,london expresses a class of objects2 the relative clause limits the name to a smaller class1 the badly built houses2 and the meaning is1 that houses of this smaller class ought to be pulled down4 ,now insert the comma3--,the houses in ,london1 which are badly built1 ought to be pulled down4 ,the class is not narrowed2 and the meaning is1 that all houses in ,london1 seeing they are badly built1 ought to be pulled down4 ,the difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being understood1 there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an adjective clause is contracted4 ,compare the fourth example given under the rule with the following sentence3--,people not satisfied with their present condition1 should strive to alter it4 ,in this sentence not satisfied limits the general name people2 the advice is given only to one section of the people3 the dissatisfied as distinguished from the satisfied people4 ,so a single adjective may be used co-ordinately3 ,what6 replied the ,emperor1 you do not see it8 ,it is my star1 brilliant4 ,this is a case where a dash would be more expressive4 ,note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows the substantive4 ,if the adjunct is placed elsewhere1 different considerations apply4 ,see ,rule ,,xiii4 7#c74 ,neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets1 that goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion4 ,,xv4 ,words in apposition are generally marked off by commas4 ,james ,watt1 the great improver of the steam-engine1 died on the #beth of ,august1 #ahai4 ,but where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or distinguishing sense1 the principle of ,rule ,,xiv4 applies1 and no point is used4 ,thus we should write ,burns1 the poet1 ,dickens1 the novelist2 but1 if we wished to distinguish them from another ,burns and another ,dickens1 we should omit the comma4 ,it is of ,pliny the naturalist1 not of ,pliny the letter-writer1 that we are now speaking4 ,again1 where the general name precedes1 we should in most cases use no point1 for the special name will be restrictive3 the poet ,burns1 the novelist ,dickens4 ,there is1 perhaps1 not much authority for the consistent carrying out of this distinction2 but it seems useful and logical4 ,some cases1 such as ,paul the ,apostle1 ,william the ,conqueror1 ,thomas the ,rhymer1 ,peter the ,hermit1 present no difficulty4 ,the name and the descriptive title are blended together1 and form as distinctly one name as does ,roderick ,random4 ,,xvi4 ,a conjunction marks a transition to something new--enforcing1 qualifying1 or explaining1 what has gone before1 and is therefore generally preceded by some point4 ,the proper point before a conjunction is determined by many circumstances3 among others1 by the more or less close connexion of the things joined1 by the number of words1 and by the use of points for other purposes in the same sentence4 ,to deal with the different conjunctions one by one1 would involve a repetition of much that is said in other rules4 ,for instance1 if1 unless1 though1 for1 because1 since1 and the like1 will be pointed in accordance with ,rule ,,ix4 ,it will be well1 however1 to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common conjunctions1 and and or4 #a4 ,,and4--7a7 ,where and joins two single words1 as a rule no point is used4 ,no work has been so much studied and discussed4 ,compare this with the following sentence1 where groups of words are joined4 ,the work has been much studied1 and has been much discussed4 ,in the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the meaning4 ,on this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in the present year4 ,as the sentence stands1 published in the present year applies both to books and to pamphlets3 books published in the present year1 and pamphlets published in the present year4 ,if there were a comma before and1 the meaning would be3 ,on this shelf you will put books of any date1 and pamphlets of the present year4 7b7 ,when and joins the separate words of a series of three or more words1 a comma is placed before it4 ,trees1 and bridges1 and houses1 were swept down by the flooded stream4 7c7 ,but where the different words are intended to be combined quickly1 so as to present to the mind only one picture1 they would be spoken without any pause1 and in writing must not be separated by any point4 ,whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder1 the stream came down upon them4 7d7 ,two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with one another than with the other words of the series1 and are1 therefore1 not to be separated by any point4 ,in the following sentence1 all qualifies both tracts and pamphlets1 and thus joins them closely4 ,my unbound books1 and all my tracts and pamphlets1 are to be tied up with pink tape4 7e7 ,when and occurs only between the two last words of the series1 the comma is usually inserted before it4 ,trumpets1 drums1 and kettle-drums1 contended in noise with the shouts of a numerous rabble4 ,many writers omit this comma4 ,but it seems useful in order to make the previous rule 7d7 effective4 #b4 ,when and joins two phrases1 a comma generally precedes it4 ,the ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner1 and with due solemnity4 ,if1 as in the following sentence1 a preposition is common to two phrases1 and is not repeated in the second1 no comma is used4 ,with proper care and good instruments1 the work may be successfully carried out4 #c4 ,when and joins two clauses1 the preceding point may be the comma1 the semicolon1 or even the full stop4 ,which point is right in any particular case1 will depend upon considerations set out in other rules4 ,the following example illustrates different cases3 ,within that charmed rock1 so ,torridge boatmen tell1 sleeps now the old ,norse ,viking in his leaden coffin1 with all his fairy treasure and his crown of gold2 and1 as the boy looks at the spot1 he fancies1 and almost hopes1 that the day may come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader as boldly as the men of ,devon did then4 ,and past him1 far below1 upon the soft south-eastern breeze1 the stately ships go sliding out to sea4 ,,or4--,the rules for the conjunction and apply with little change to the conjunction or2 but there are one or two special points to note4 7a7 ,when or is preceded at no great distance by either or whether1 the two words should be separated by no point4 ,they must either yield this point or resign4 ,it does not matter whether we go or stay4 ,but a point is inserted if the words stand farther apart1 or if each is followed by a complete clause4 ,either this road leads to the town1 or we have misunderstood the directions4 7b7 ,or1 joining two alternatives1 takes no point before it2 but when it joins two words that are used1 not as real alternatives1 but as synonyms1 a comma is inserted4 ,england or ,france might be asked to join the alliance4 ,here or is used as a real alternative conjecture1 and therefore without any point4 ,in the following examples1 the or joins equivalent expressions3 ,england1 or the nation of shopkeepers1 would never be asked to join such an alliance4 ,we perceive1 or are conscious of1 nothing but changes1 or events4 ,as a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples1 it may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for a moment stop the flow of the sentence4 ,a real alternative1 on the other hand1 forms an essential part of it1 and is within its current4 ,,xvii4 ,in cases where no point would be used before a conjunction1 a comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted4 ,i pay this tribute to the memory of that noble1 reverend1 learned1 excellent person4 ,in the following examples no point occurs2 for it cannot be said that a conjunction is omitted4 ,to insert the conjunction would be to express a slightly different shade of meaning3 ,a grand old man4 ,three tall young soldiers4 ,old man is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use only a single word to express the idea4 ,,xviii4 ,where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed1 some stronger point may be used if it be omitted4 ,let us get an ,american revenue as we have got an ,american ,empire4 ,english privileges have made it all that it is2 ,english privileges alone will make it all that it can be4 ,,xix4 ,a comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case1 if a mark of exclamation be not used1 or be reserved till the first distinct pause in the sentence4 ,yet ,i own1 my lord1 that yours is not an uncommon character4 ,i am1 ,sir1 yours truly1 ,john ,smith4 ,o ,italy1 gather thy blood into thy heart6 ,o ,thou1 who in the heavens dost dwell6 ,whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the vocative case1 depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which the words would be spoken4 ,if1 in speaking1 a slight pause would be made1 the comma1 not the mark of exclamation1 is the proper point4 ,,xx4 ,if a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force1 a comma follows it each time that it occurs2 but1 in the case of an adjective repeated before a noun1 not after the last expression of it4 ,it was work1 work1 work1 from morning till night4 ,he travelled a long1 long way4 ,dean ,alford1 in ,the ,queen's ,english1 says that this mode of pointing such expressions as the wide wide world1 the deep deep sea1 makes them absolute nonsense4 ,the suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition4 ,and we doubt whether ,dean ,alford himself would have omitted the comma in our first example4 ,,the ,,semicolon ,,xxi4 ,the semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of a sentence between which there is a very distinct break1 but which are too intimately connected to be made separate sentences4 ,the patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels that his cure has begun2 and1 perhaps1 the day of his perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so great4 ,the author himself is the best judge of his own performance2 no one has so deeply meditated on the subject2 no one is so sincerely interested in the event4 ,not one word is said1 nor one suggestion made1 of a general right to choose our own governors2 to cashier them for misconduct2 and to form a government for ourselves4 ,the semicolon is used in enumerations1 as in the last example1 in order to keep the parts more distinctly separate4 ,,xxii4 ,when a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not joined by conjunctions1 the clauses are separated by semicolons4 ,to command a crime is to commit one2 he who commands an assassination1 is by every one regarded as an assassin4 ,his knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact2 his pursuits were too eager to be always cautious4 ,if the conjunction and were inserted in the last sentence1 the comma would be used instead of the semicolon4 ,a conjunction forms a bridge over the gap between two statements1 and1 where they are neither long nor complicated1 we pass from one to the other without noticing any distinct break4 ,but there is such a break when the conjunction is omitted1 and therefore we use a stronger point4 ,the two parts of an antithesis are generally separated in this way4 ,,xxiii4 ,a pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for other purposes4 7,see ,introduction3 ,relativity of ,points47 ,i got several things of less value1 but not all less useful to me1 which ,i omitted setting down before3 as1 in particular1 pens1 ink1 and paper2 several parcels in the captain's1 mate's1 gunner's1 and carpenter's keeping2 three or four compasses1 some mathematical instruments1 dials1 perspectives1 charts1 and books of navigation4 ,in this ,i was certainly in the wrong too1 the honest1 grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of the best principles1 both as a religious ,christian and as a grateful friend2 as appeared afterward to my full satisfaction4 ,in the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects enumerated4 ,had commas been used throughout1 the reader would have been left to find out the arrangement for himself4 ,,the ,,colon ,,xxiv4 ,the colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those indicated by the semicolon4 ,god has willed it3 submit in thankfulness4 ,the wind raged1 and the rain beat against the window3 it was a miserable day4 ,nevertheless1 you will say that there must be a difference between true poetry and true speech not poetical3 what is the difference8 ,the first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence2 that it is ,god's will1 is a reason for submitting4 ,the proper point therefore should be something less than the full stop4 ,but there is a striking difference between the clauses2 for we pass from an affirmation to a command4 ,therefore something more than the semicolon is needed4 ,had the clauses been similar in construction1 the pause would have been sufficiently indicated by the semicolon3 ,god has willed it2 man has resisted4 ,in the second example there is not the same change of grammatical construction1 but the change in thought is equally great2 we pass from a statement of details to a statement of the general result4 ,the colon is frequently used in sentences of this kind1 where the phrase in short is implied but is not expressed4 ,many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash4 ,,xxv4 ,a pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a colon1 when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a different nature4 ,the ,essay plainly appears the fabric of a poet3 what ,bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles2 the order1 illustration1 and embellishments1 must all be ,pope's4 ,not that we are to think that ,homer wanted judgment1 because ,virgil had it in a more eminent degree2 or that ,virgil wanted invention1 because ,homer possessed a larger share of it3 each of these great authors had more of both than1 perhaps1 any man besides1 and are only said to have less in comparison with one another4 ,homer hurries and transports us with a commanding impetuosity2 ,virgil leads us with an attractive majesty3 ,homer scatters with a generous profusion2 ,virgil bestows with a careful magnificence4 ,compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon replaces the comma4 7,rule ,,xxiii47 ,note also how the last sentence is divided in the middle into two parts1 and that each of these two parts is itself divided into two parts4 ,by ,rule ,,xxii4 the second division is indicated by the semicolon2 and we bring out the grouping of the sentence by using a colon for the first division4 ,,xxvi4 ,the colon is used before enumerations1 especially where namely1 or viz41 is implied but is not expressed2 and when so used it is sometimes followed by the dash4 ,three nations adopted this law3 ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,one thing thou lackest3 go thy way1 sell whatsoever thou hast1 and give to the poor4 ,dr ,johnson's chief works are the following3--,rasselas1 ,the ,dictionary1 ,the ,lives of the ,poets1 and ,the ,vanity of ,human ,wishes4 ,when1 as in the last example1 a list of things is given in a formal way1 the dash is generally added4 ,the combination of the two points is partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so strong as the full stop1 partly1 perhaps1 an imitation of a finger-post4 ,,xxvii4 ,the colon is generally placed before a quotation1 when notice of the quotation is given by some introductory words4 ,in this case also the dash is sometimes used4 ,in this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short sentence1 that in which he says3 ,the law ought to forbid it1 because conscience does not permit it4 ,on the last morning of his life he wrote these words3--,i have named none to their disadvantage4 ,i thank ,god ,he hath supported me wonderfully4 ,the colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is introduced by formal words such as the following3--,he spoke these words1 he spoke as follows1 he made this speech4 ,but1 in the first sentence quoted above1 the introductory words are grammatically incomplete without the quotation1 which forms the object of the verb says2 the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used4 ,sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the quotation may be so close1 or the quotation itself may be so short1 as to make the comma sufficient4 ,he kept repeating to us1 ,the world has sadly changed4 ,short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any point before them4 ,it was a usual saying of his own1 that he had no genius for friendship4 ,,xxviii4 ,the colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the following1 when used in marking a new stage in an argument3--,again1 further1 to proceed1 to sum up1 to resume4 ,to sum up3 ,if you will conform to the conditions ,i have mentioned1 ,i will sign the agreement4 ,but to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion3 ,if ,astrea1 or ,justice1 never finally took her leave of the world till the day that1 c4 ,after these words1 we have a choice of the comma1 the colon1 and the full stop4 ,the comma will generally be used if the argument be contained in a single sentence2 the full stop1 if the argument be of very considerable length4 ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,interrogation ,,xxix4 ,the point of interrogation is placed after a direct question4 ,where are you going1 my pretty maid8 ,whether of them twain did the will of his father8 ,the question may end in the middle of a sentence3 ,is he happy8 you ask4 ,we have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in the middle or at the end of the sentence4 ,you would not consent to that1 by whomsoever proposed4 ,you would not consent to that8--by whomsoever proposed4 ,there is a slight shade of difference in meaning2 in the second form1 by whomsoever proposed is added as an afterthought4 ,,xxx4 ,indirect questions are not strictly questions at all1 and therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation4 ,he asked me whether ,i had seen his friend2 whether ,i had spoken to him2 and how ,i liked him4 ,if we restore these questions to the direct form1 the point of interrogation is inserted4 ,he asked me3 ,have you seen my friend8 ,have you spoken to him8 ,how do you like him8 ,,xxxi4 ,when a sentence contains more than one question1 sometimes the point of interrogation is placed after each of them1 sometimes it is placed only at the end of the sentence4 ,it is placed after each1 if each is in reality a distinct question2 it is placed only at the end1 if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer4 ,in many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether they do so unite4 ,is it better that estates should be held by those who have no duty than by those who have one8 by those whose character and destination point to virtues than by those who have no rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but their own will and appetite8 ,do you imagine that it is the ,land ,tax ,act which raises your revenue1 that it is the annual vote in the ,committee of ,supply which gives you your army1 or that it is the ,mutiny ,bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline8 ,no6 surely no6 ,oh6 why should ,hymen ever blight ,the roses ,cupid wore8 ,or why should it be ever night ,where it was day before8 ,or why should women have a tongue1 ,or why should it be cursed1 ,in being1 like my ,second1 long1 ,and louder than my ,first8 ,,xxxii4 ,exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of exclamation after them1 not a point of interrogation4 7,see ,rule ,,xxxv47 ,,xxxiii4 ,a point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding it is true1 or whether the expression preceding it is well applied1 or that some statement or expression is made or used ironically4 ,while you are revelling in the delights 787 of the ,london season1 ,i am leading a hermit life1 with no companions save my books4 ,,the ,,mark ,,of ,,exclamation ,,xxxiv4 ,the mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words used interjectionally2 that is to say1 after expressions of an exclamatory nature4 ,the exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear1 or the utterance of a wish1 a command1 or a prayer4 ,quick6 ,begone6 ,out of my sight6 ,heaven preserve us6 ,would that better feelings moved them6 ,o ,lord1 be merciful unto me1 a sinner6 ,interjections are not always followed immediately1 and are sometimes not allowed at all1 by a mark of exclamation4 ,no rule can be given more precise than this3 7#a7 ,that we should not insert a mark of exclamation immediately after an interjection1 unless we should make a distinct pause after it in speaking2 and 7#b7 that no mark of exclamation is to be used at all1 unless the exclamatory nature of the sentence is more or less strongly marked4 ,it is useful to notice the difference between ,o and ,oh4 ,the former is used only before the vocative case1 and never has a mark of exclamation1 or indeed any point1 placed immediately after it4 ,alas6 all our hopes are blasted4 ,lo1 he cometh6 ,o ,dido1 ,dido1 most unhappy ,dido6 ,unhappy wife1 still more unhappy widow6 ,oh1 do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day6 ,,xxxv4 ,the mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which1 though interrogatory in form1 are really exclamatory4 ,how could he have been so foolish6 ,and shall he never see an end to this state of things6 ,shall he never have the due reward of labour6 ,shall unsparing taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being1 a creature famishing in the midst of abundance1 fainting1 expiring with hunger's feeble moan1 surrounded by a carolling creation6 ,this rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of exclamation1 and not a point of interrogation1 is placed after what are called rhetorical questions1 or statements made more striking by being put in the form of questions4 ,they are not asked for the sake of receiving a direct answer1 and are in reality exclamations4 ,still all rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated2 the point of interrogation is sometimes more effective4 ,the sentences quoted under ,rule ,,xxxi4 would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were used4 ,in each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most as a question or as the expression of emotion4 ,,xxxvi4 ,the mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical statement4 ,they did not fight1 tens against thousands2 they did not fight for wives and children1 but for lands and plunder3 therefore they are heroes6 ,the mark of exclamation keeps up the semblance of seriousness which is of the essence of irony4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the mark of exclamation is placed after the statement of some absurdity4 ,he has been labouring to prove that ,shakespeare's plays were written by ,bacon6 ,to him the parliamentary vote was a panacea for all human ills1 and the ballot-box an object as sacred as the ,holy ,grail to a knight of the ,round ,table6 ,the same reason applies to its use after such sentences as after ironical statements4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the mark of exclamation may be placed after any impressive or striking thought4 ,the ,angel of ,death has been abroad throughout the land3 you may almost hear the very beating of his wings6 ,it may be doubted whether the mark of exclamation is in such cases of any great service2 for the impressiveness of a sentence ought to appear in the sentence itself1 or to be given to it by the context4 ,there is a real danger1 as the style of many people shows1 in thinking that punctuation is intended to save the trouble of careful composition4 ,in putting the mark after pure exclamations1 usage is more or less uniform2 with regard to impressive sentences1 we are left entirely to our own discretion4 ,,xxxix4 ,when a sentence contains more than one exclamation1 sometimes the mark of exclamation is placed only after the last1 sometimes it is placed after each of them1 the test being whether or not they are in reality1 as well as in form1 several exclamations4 7,compare ,rule ,,xxxi47 ,though all are thus satisfied with the dispensations of ,nature1 how few listen to her voice6 how few follow her as a guide6 ,what a mighty work he has thus brought to a successful end1 with what perseverance1 what energy1 with what fruitfulness of resource6 ,,the ,,dash ,,xl4 ,the chief purpose of the dash is to indicate that something is left unfinished4 ,accordingly1 it marks a sudden1 or abrupt1 change in the grammatical structure of a sentence4 ,when ,i remember how we have worked together1 and together borne misfortune2 when ,i remember--but what avails it to remember8 ,and all this long story was about--what do you think8 ,we cannot hope to succeed1 unless---- ,but we must succeed4 ,note that it is the long dash that is used at the end of a sentence4 ,the full stop is not added where the dash marks an unfinished sentence4 ,but it is common to add the point of interrogation or the mark of exclamation4 ,,xli4 ,the dash is used to mark a faltering or hesitating speech4 ,well--,i don't know--that is--no1 ,i cannot accept it4 ,,xlii4 ,an unexpected turn of the thought may be marked by the dash4 ,he entereth smiling and--embarrassed4 ,he holdeth out his hand to you to shake1 and--draweth it back again4 ,he casually looketh in about dinner-time--when the table is full4 ,he offereth to go away1 seeing you have company--but is induced to stay4 ,french history tends naturally to memoirs and anecdotes1 in which there is no improvement to desire but that they were--true4 ,,xliii4 ,when the subject of a sentence is of such length1 or of such complexity1 that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost sight of1 it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence1 and its place supplied by some short expression that sums it up4 ,a dash follows the subject when thus abandoned4 ,physical ,science1 including ,chemistry1 ,geology1 ,geography1 ,astronomy2 ,metaphysics1 ,philology1 ,theology2 ,economics1 including ,taxation and ,finance2 ,politics and ,general ,literature--all occupied by turn1 and almost simultaneously1 his incessantly active mind4 ,the colon is sometimes used in such cases2 but the dash seems preferable1 as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of a sentence4 ,,xliv4 ,the dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis4 ,this was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth1 that never once--no1 not for a moment of weakness--didst thou revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man4 ,,xlv4 ,the dash is sometimes used instead of the colon1 where the word namely is implied1 but is not expressed4 ,the most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two great commandments--love to ,god1 and love to one's neighbour4 ,in this sentence1 however1 the colon is preferable4 7,see ,rule ,,xxvi474 ,the dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes4 ,,xlvi4 ,the dash is used in rhetorical repetition2 for instance1 where one part of the sentence1 such as the subject1 is repeated at intervals throughout the sentence1 and the rest of the sentence is kept suspended4 ,cannot you1 in ,england--cannot you1 at this time of day--cannot you1 a ,house of ,commons1 trust to the principle which has raised so mighty a revenue8 ,,xlvii4 ,a dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of a paragraph and the paragraph itself4 ,extent and ,boundaries4--,england 7including ,wales7 is bounded on the north by ,scotland2 on the west by the ,irish ,sea1 ,st ,george's ,channel1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean2 on the south by the ,english ,channel2 and on the east by the ,german ,ocean4 ,,xlviii4 ,when we place after a quotation the name of the author from whom it is taken1 the full stop and the dash are used in the same way4 ,one touch of nature makes the whole word kin4--,shakespeare4 ,,xlix4 ,the dash is sometimes used in place of1 or in addition to1 other points1 in order to indicate a pause greater than usual4 ,now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty things8 ,five-sixths repealed--abandoned-sunk--gone--lost for ever4 ,the highest rank2--a splendid fortune2--and a name1 glorious till it was yours1--were sufficient to have supported you with meaner abilities than ,i think you possess4 ,there is seldom any reason for the use of double points4 ,in the last example they cannot be said to be of any real service4 ,but the dash may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop1 in order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and the paragraph4 ,even ,cobbett1 who abhors the dash1 permits it to be used for this purpose4 ,the report of a conversation is often printed in this way4 ,,brackets 7,,or ,,the ,,parenthesis4#a7 ,l4 ,when a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in1 so to speak1 in passing1 the clause is enclosed within brackets4 ,footnote #a3 ,it seems better to use the term brackets both for the curved and for the square brackets4 ,parenthesis can then be kept to its proper use1 as the name for the words themselves which form the break in the sentence4 ,we may note that in like manner the terms comma1 colon1 semicolon1 originally signified divisions of a sentence1 not marks denoting the divisions4 ,period meant a complete sentence2 and it still retains the meaning1 somewhat specialized4 ,it is said1 because the priests are paid by the people 7the pay is four shillings per family yearly71 therefore they object to their leaving4 ,in full confidence of this unalterable truth1 ,i now 7quod felix faustumque sit7 lay the first stone of the ,temple of ,peace4 ,over and above the enclosing brackets1 a parenthesis causes no change in the punctuation of the sentence that contains it2 in other words1 if we were to omit the parenthesis1 no change ought to be necessary in the punctuation of the rest of the sentence4 ,the comma is inserted after the parenthesis in the first example1 because the comma would be needed even if there were no parenthesis4 ,in the second example1 there would be no comma before lay1 if there were no parenthesis2 accordingly the comma is not to be inserted merely because there is a parenthesis4 ,a parenthesis is sufficiently marked off by brackets4 ,observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after1 not before1 the parenthesis4 ,the reason for this is that the parenthesis belongs to the first part of the sentence1 not to the second4 ,,li4 ,a complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is sometimes placed within brackets4 ,godfrey knew all this1 and felt it with the greater force because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness1 for which his own habitual irresolution deprived him of all sympathy4 7,he was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded these fits2 that seemed to him natural enough47 ,still there was just the chance1 ,godfrey thought1 that his father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would induce him to hush it up1 rather than turn his son out and make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round4 ,note that the full stop should be placed inside1 not outside1 the brackets4 ,,lii4 ,where1 in quoting a passage1 we throw in parenthetically something of our own1 we may use square brackets4 ,compare the following account of ,lord ,palmerston3 ,i have heard him ,lord ,palmerston say that he occasionally found that they foreign ministers had been deceived by the open manner in which he told them the truth4 ,the ,leviathan of ,hobbes1 a work now-a-days but little known and not better known now than in ,bentham's time1 and detested through prejudice1 and at second-hand1 as a defence of despotism1 is an attempt to base all political society upon a pretended contract between the people and the sovereign4--,principles of ,legislation4 ,to use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than to break the inverted commas and to begin them again4 ,but in the case of the word sic--where it is inserted in a quotation to point out that the word preceding it is rightly quoted1 and is not inserted by mistake--the ordinary brackets are used4 ,the number of inhabitants were 7sic7 not more than four millions4 ,another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used3 where in the passage quoted some words have been lost1 and are filled in by conjecture4 ,prof4 ,stubbs quotes from one of the ,anglo-,saxon laws3 ,if ceorls have a common meadow1 or other partible land to fence1 and some have fenced their part1 some have not1 and strange cattle come in and eat up the common corn or grass1 let those go who own the gap and compensate to the others4 ,,inverted ,,commas ,,liii4 ,when we quote without any change the words of another person1 they are enclosed within inverted commas4 ,if they are quoted in the indirect form1 or if we quote merely the substance1 and neglect the exact words1 inverted commas are not used4 ,thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires1 ,what are you doing for the people8 ,thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing for the people4 ,he says3 ,there is no property of any description1 if it be rightfully held1 which had not its foundation in labour4 ,he frequently calls them absurd1 and applies to them such epithets as jargon1 fustian1 and the like4 ,the last sentence might be written without inverted commas4 ,by using them we call special attention to the fact that these were the words actually employed1 and are not simply words like them4 ,so1 in a passage quoted in the indirect form1 if part be quoted exactly1 it is placed within inverted commas4 ,the ,duke of ,portland warmly approved of the work1 but justly remarked that the king was not so absolute a thing of straw as he was represented in it4 ,words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted commas or put in italics4 ,the word friendship1 in the sense we commonly mean by it1 is not so much as named in the ,new ,testament4 ,,liv4 ,when a quotation is interrupted1 as in the report of a conversation1 each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within inverted commas4 ,pardon me1 madam1 answered ,henry1 it was of one ,silas ,morton ,i spoke4 ,,lv4 ,when a quotation occurs in another quotation1 single inverted commas are used for the former4 ,what have you done8 said one of ,balfour's brother officers4 ,my duty1 said ,balfour firmly4 ,is it not written1 ',thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'8 ,some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases4 ,for the inner quotation they would then use the double commas4 ,,lvi4 ,a word that is not classical ,english1 or is used in a sense in which it is not classical ,english1 is either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized4 ,those that have located 7located7 previous to this period are left in undisputed possession1 provided they have improved the land4 ,before long1 ,beckey received not only the best foreigners 7as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang71 but some of the best ,english people too4 ,foreign words are always italicized4 7,rule ,,lxiv47 ,,lvii4 ,the titles of books1 of essays1 and of other compositions2 the names of periodicals2 and the names of ships1 are either enclosed within inverted commas or italicized4 ,in these ,miscellanies was first published the ,art of ,sinking in ,poetry1 which1 by such a train of consequences as usually passes in literary quarrels1 gave in a short time1 according to ,pope's account1 occasion to the ,dunciad4 ,the ,emily ,st ,pierre 7or ,emily ,st ,pierre71 a ,british ship1 was captured on the #ahth ,march1 #ahfb4 ,it appeared in the ,london ,gazette 7or ,london ,gazette74 ,the names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in italics than enclosed within inverted commas4 ,,lviii4 ,if a quotation contains a question1 the point of interrogation stands within the inverted commas4 ,in a voice which was fascination itself1 the being addressed me1 saying1 ,wilt thou come with me8 ,wilt thou be mine8 ,,lix4 ,if an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation1 the point of interrogation stands outside the inverted commas4 ,what does this honourable person mean by a tempest that outrides the wind8 ,observe how in the example given under ,rule ,,lv4 the point of interrogation stands within the double inverted commas1 but outside the single inverted commas4 ,,lx4 ,if an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself interrogatory1 the point of interrogation is placed outside the inverted commas4 ,hast thou never cried1 ,what must ,i do to be saved8 ,the reason is1 that the question to be answered is not the quoted question1 but hast thou never cried8 ,no writer has been bold enough to insert two points of interrogation4 ,,lxi4 ,the last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences4 7#a7 ,but ,i boldly cried out1 ,woe unto this city6 7#b7 ,alas1 how few of them can say1 ,i have striven to the very utmost6 7#c7 ,how fearful was the cry3 ,help1 or we perish6 ,,lxii4 ,where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an exclamatory nature1 or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation of an interrogative nature1 it seems better to place at the end both the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation1 the one inside1 the other outside1 the inverted commas4 ,do you remember who it was that wrote ,whatever ,england's fields display1 ,the fairest scenes are thine1 ,torbay68 ,how much better to cease asking the question1 ,what would he have done in different circumstances86 ,where inverted commas are not used1 it seems sufficient to have only one point1 which must be the one required by the whole sentence1 not by the quotation4 ,do you remember the passage where ,burke alludes to the old warning of the ,church--,sursum corda8 ,,italics ,,lxiii4 ,words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics4 ,in writing1 the substitute for italics is underlining4 ,what1 it may well be asked1 can the interests of the community be those of--,i do not say an individual1 but--the individual8 ,the voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words2 but italics1 only a feeble substitute1 ought not to be used unless every other means of emphasizing fail4 ,many writers of authority have strongly1 and very justly1 condemned the too frequent use of them4 ,double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to4 ,if the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without appreciation or care1 one is entitled to adopt any means that will ensure attention4 ,but if double underlining is allowable only on this ground1 general rules are obviously of no use4 ,,lxiv4 ,words from a foreign language which have not become classical ,english words1 are written in italics4 ,the slightest double entendre made him blush to the eyes4 ,knowledge of ,french is a sine qu non4 ,when foreign words become ,english1 they are no longer italicized4 ,among such words are3 rationale1 aide-de-camp1 quartette1 nave1 libretto4 ,it is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way4 ,,lxv4 ,names of newspapers and magazines1 and names of ships1 are generally written in italics2 as the ,times1 the ,fort-nightly ,review1 the ,great ,eastern4 ,,the ,,hyphen ,,lxvi4 ,the hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound words4 ,paper-knife2 book-keeping2 coal-pit2 water-carrier2 printing-press2 sea-water2 man-of-war2 now-a-days2 high-art decoration2 good-looking4 ,there is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen from those that do not4 ,if one be in doubt about a particular word1 the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary4 ,,lxvii4 ,when one syllable of a word ends with a vowel1 and the next syllable begins with the same vowel1 the hyphen is placed between the syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong1 that is1 that they should not be pronounced together4 ,co-operative2 co-ordinate2 pre-eminently2 re-establish2 re-echo4 ,in the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall be pronounced separately2 as in book-keeping1 shell-less1 cock-crow1 sword-dance4 ,,lxviii4 ,as a rule1 a hyphen should not be placed after a simple prefix3 contravene1 preternatural1 hypercritical1 bilateral4 ,to this there are some exceptions3 7a7 ,anti-religious1 ultra-liberal1 semi-lunar1 co-eval4 ,in these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the hyphen4 ,compare antiseptic1 antinomian1 ultramontane1 semicircle4 ,perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as pseudo-critic1 non-ego1 non-existent4 ,compare pseudonym1 where the prefix is contracted1 and nonentity4 ,words like pre-eminent1 divided for the same reason1 have already been noted4 7b7 ,re-creation1 re-mark4 ,the hyphen distinguishes the etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their derived and ordinary meaning4 7c7 ,pre-,norman1 anti-,darwinian1 philo-,turk4 ,if the capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name1 the hyphen is obviously necessary4 ,,lxix4 ,when a number is written in words and not in figures1 the words making up the number1 if there be more words than one1 are in certain cases separated from each other by the hyphen4 ,the numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and ninety-ninth inclusive4 ,the hyphen is used also when the words are inverted2 as four-and-thirty1 six-and-fortieth4 ,,lxx4 ,fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way1 a hyphen being placed between the numerator and denominator2 as two-thirds1 three-sixteenths4 ,but if the word part or the word share follows1 the hyphen is not used2 as two third parts4 ,,lxxi4 ,several words may be joined by hyphens1 in order to indicate that they are to be read together4 ,the ,i-believe-of-,eastern-derivation monosyllable ,bosh4 ,additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of mothers-of-young-children employed in factories4 ,as this last sentence stands1 the hyphen is really the only means of making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed in factories are the mothers1 not the children4 ,hyphens are sometimes used in cases like the following3 ,a never-to-be-forgotten event1 peace-at-any-rate principles4 ,they are almost invariably used in well-to-do1 alack-a-day4 ,,lxxii4 ,the prefix a before the gerund is followed by a hyphen4 ,they went a-hunting4 ,i lay a-thinking4 ,note that agoing is not divided4 ,,lxxiii4 ,when a word is divided at the end of a line1 part of the word being in the next line1 a hyphen is placed after the part at the end of the line4 ,so far as rules can be given for the division of the word1 it may be said3 7a7 ,the division must be at the end of a syllable4 ,the syllable according to etymological derivation1 and the syllable according to pronunciation1 are not always the same4 ,in case of conflict the pronunciation is to be the guide4 7b7 ,the part in the next line should1 if possible1 begin with a consonant4 ,an examination of a number of words will show that this is only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation4 7c7 ,double letters are divided2 as at-tract1 profes-sion1 dif-ficulty4 ,the following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at random4 ,this seems the best way of illustrating the rule3 ,con-fidently2 investi-gated2 some-thing2 institu-tion2 diffi-culty2 at-tractions2 exclu-sively2 kins-man2 self-organized2 en-tangled2 col-lective2 intermis-sion2 ma-terials2 chan-cellor2 col-lege2 indus-trious2 sub-ject2 his-tory2 con-dition2 ,low-landers2 or-ganization2 re-cognized2 in-famous4 ,some selected examples may be also given3 ,resem-blance2 hum-ble2 se-cond2 trans-lator2 justifi-able2 east-ern2 endea-vour4 ,,the ,,apostrophe ,,lxxiv4 ,the apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters of a word are left out4 ,e'er for ever1 can't for cannot1 don't for do not1 'gin for begin4 ,the apostrophe is not used when the word1 though contracted in the middle1 retains its original pronunciation2 as ,dr4 or ,mr4 ,but it is used where the contraction is at the end of the word3 tho'1 ,peterboro'4 ,,lxxv4 ,the apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns4 ,the following rules determine where it is to be placed3 ,nouns in the singular number-- 7#a7 ,the letter s is added1 and the apostrophe is placed before it4 ,the king's abode4 ,a patriot's reward4 7#b7 ,if the nominative singular of the noun ends in s1 another s is not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to the ear4 ,the apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word4 ,hercules' club4 ,augustus' dignity4 ,words of one syllable follow the first rule3 ,james's share4 ,some words of two syllables follow the first rule1 some the second3 the princess's birthday2 ,francis' style4 ,this distinction is sanctioned by usage4 ,but it may judiciously be disregarded4 ,in speaking we almost entirely ignore it4 ,why should we trouble ourselves with it in writing8 ,nouns in the plural number-- 7#a7 ,the apostrophe is placed after the s of the plural4 ,boys' clothing4 ,our friends' troubles4 7#b7 ,if the plural do not end in s1 an s is added1 and the apostrophe is placed before it4 ,men's opinions4 ,the children's pleasure4 ,,lxxvi4 ,the apostrophe is used before the s of the plural when single letters are used as words4 ,mind your p's and q's4 ,he does not dot his i's nor cross his t's4 ,,marks ,,of ,,ellipsis ,,lxxvii4 ,when1 in the middle of a quotation1 a part is omitted1 several asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the omission4 ,clarendon makes the following remark about ,lord ,falkland3 ,yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he continued in that office1 that was to his death2 for which he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most necessary part of his place4 ,the one1 employing of spies1 or giving any countenance or entertainment to them4 99 99 99 ,the other1 the liberty of opening letters1 upon a suspicion that they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence4 7,one sentence omitted47 ,the ,french and ,spanish nations1 said ,louis ,,xiv41 are so united that they will henceforth be only one4444 ,my grandson1 at the head of the ,spaniards1 will defend the ,french4 ,i1 at the head of the ,french1 will defend the ,spaniards4 ,he who in former years1 wrote ,horace ,walpole of his father1 was asleep as soon as his head touched the pillow 444 now never sleeps above an hour without waking4 ,if the passage omitted be of very considerable length1 for instance if it be a complete paragraph1 or if a line of poetry be omitted1 the asterisks are placed in a line by themselves4 ,there is a tendency to confine the asterisk to such cases1 and to use the full stop for shorter ellipses4 ,if a complete sentence be omitted1 the number of additional full stops is generally four2 if a passage be omitted in the middle of a sentence1 the number is generally three4 ,when some of the letters of a name are omitted1 their place is supplied by a line or dash1 whose length depends on the number of letters omitted4 ,the scene of our story is laid in the town of ,b----4 ,there was one ,h----1 who1 ,i learned in after days1 was seen expiating some maturer offence in the hulks4 ,blakesmoor in ,h----shire4 ,,references ,,to ,,notes ,notes are generally placed at the foot of a page2 though sometimes they are collected at the end of a chapter1 or even at the end of a book4 ,various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the text to which a note refers4 7#a7 ,the six reference signs3 the asterisk 79971 the dagger 7dagger character7 7also called the obelisk71 the double dagger 7double dagger character71 the section 771 the parallels 771 the paragraph 774 ,they are suitable only where the notes are placed at the foot of a page1 and are invariably used in the order in which we have mentioned them4 ,if the number of notes in one page exceeds six1 the signs are doubled4 ,the seventh note is marked thus3 99992 the eighth1 dagger characterdagger character2 the ninth1 double dagger characterdouble dagger character2 and so on4 ,but it is better1 in cases where the notes are so numerous1 to use other means of reference4 7#b7 ,figures3 either within parentheses1 as 7#a71 7#b71 7#c71 c42 or1 more usually1 printed in the raised or superior form1 as 1 c4 ,sometimes the first note in each page is marked2 but it is now common1 in books divided into chapters1 to mark the first note in each chapter with and then go on with continuous numbers to the end of the chapter4 ,superior figures are now the most usual marks of reference in ,english books4 7#c7 ,letters2 which also may either be placed within parentheses or be printed in superior form3 7a71 7b71 7c71 c41 or a b c1 c4 ,italic letters are sometimes used4 ,as a rule the first note in each page is marked 7a7 or a4 ,if in one page there are more notes than there are letters in the alphabet 7which sometimes happens71 we go to 7aa71 7bb71 7cc71 c41 aa bb cc4 ,the letter j is often omitted4 ,it is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page4 ,the sign1 whatever it may be1 is placed at the beginning of the note1 and also in the text immediately after the part to which the note refers4 ,the note may refer to a whole sentence1 to a part of a sentence1 even to a single word2 the sign is placed as the case may be1 at the end of the sentence1 at the end of the part referred to1 or after the single word4 ,,how ,,to ,,correct ,a ,,printer',s ,,proof ,illustration ,,explanation #a4 ,where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals1 draw three lines under it1 and write caps4 in the margin4 #b4 ,where there is a wrong letter1 draw the pen through it1 and make the right letter opposite in the margin4 #c4 ,a letter turned upside down4 #d4 ,the substitution of a comma for another point1 or for a letter put in by mistake4 #e4 ,the insertion of a hyphen4 #f4 ,to draw close together the letters of a word that stand apart4 #g4 ,to take away a superfluous letter or word1 the pen is struck through it and a round top d made opposite1 being the contraction of deleatur'expunge4' #h4 ,where a word has to be changed to ,italic1 draw a line under it1 and write ,ital4 in the margin2 and where a word has to be changed from ,italic to ,roman1 write ,rom4 opposite4 #i4 ,when words are to be transposed1 three ways of marking them are shown2 but they are not usually numbered unless more than three words have their order changed4 #aj4 ,the transposition of letters in a word4 #aa4 ,to change one word for another4 #ab4 ,the substitution of a period or a colon for any other point4 ,it is customary to encircle these two points with a line4 #ac4 ,the substitution of a capital for a small letter4 #ad4 ,the insertion of a word or of a letter4 #ae4 ,when a paragraph commences where it is not intended1 connect the matter by a line1 and write in the margin opposite run on4 #af4 ,where a space or a quadrat stands up and appears1 draw a line under it1 and make a strong perpendicular line in the margin4 #ag4 ,when a letter of a different size from that used1 or of a different face1 appears in a word1 draw a line either through it or under it1 and write opposite w4f41 for 'wrong fount4' #ah4 ,the marks for a paragraph1 when its commencement has been omitted4 #ai4 ,when a word or words have been struck out1 and it is subsequently decided that they shall remain1 make dots under them1 and write the word stet in the margin4 #bj4 ,the mark for a space where it has been omitted between two words4 #ba4 ,to change a word from small letters to small capitals1 make two lines under the word1 and write sm4 caps4 opposite4 ,to change a word from small capitals to small letters1 make one line under the word1 and write in the margin lo4 ca41 for 'lower case4' #bb4 ,the mark for the apostrophe2 and also the marks for inverted commas4 #bc4 ,the manner of marking an omitted passage when it is too long to be written in the side margin4 ,when this occurs1 it may be written either at the top or the bottom of the page4 #bd4 ,marks when lines or words are not straight4 ,when corrected1 the passage given above would read as follows-- ,,antiquity1 like every other quality that attracts the notice of mankind1 has undoubtedly votaries that reverence it1 not from reason1 but from prejudice4 ,some seem to admire indiscriminately whatever has been long preserved1 without considering that time has sometimes co-operated with chance3 all perhaps are more willing to honour past than present excellence2 and the mind contemplates genius through the shades of age1 as the eye surveys the sun through artificial opacity4 ,the great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns and the beauties of the ancients4 ,while an author is yet living1 we estimate his powers by his worst performances2 and when he is dead1 we rate them by his best4 ,to works1 however1 of which the excellence is not absolute and definite1 but gradual and comparative2 to works1 not raised upon principles demonstrative and scientific1 but appealing wholly to observation and experience1 no other test can be applied than ,,length of duration and continuance of esteem4