,a ,,critical ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,popular ,,jih,d4 ,a ,,critical ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,popular ,,jih,d4 ,,showing ,,that ,,all ,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,mohammad ,,were ,,defensive2 ,,and ,,that ,,aggressive ,,war1 ,,or ,,compulsory ,,conversion1 ,,is ,,not ,,allowed ,,in ,,the ,,koran4 ,,with ,,appendices ,,proving ,,that ,,the ,,word ,,jihad ,,does ,,not ,,exegetically ,,mean ',,warfare1' ,,and ,,that ,,slavery ,,is ,,not ,,sanctioned ,,by ,,the ,,prophet ,,of ,,islam4 ,,by ,,moulavi ,,gher,,gh ,,ali1 ,author of ,,reforms ,,under ,,moslem ,,rule1 ,,hyderabad 7,,deccan7 ,,under ,,sir ,,salar ,,jung4 ,,calcutta3 ,,thacker1 ,,spink ,,and ,,co4 #ahhe4 ,,calcutta3 ,,printed ,,by ,,thacker1 ,,spink ,,and ,,co4 ,,note4 ,i here take the opportunity of removing a wrong idea of the alleged injunction of the ,prophet against our countrymen the ,hinds4 ,the ,hon'ble ,raja ,siv ,prasad1 in his speech at the ,legislative ,council1 on the #ith ,march1 #ahhc1 while discussing the ,ilbert ,bill1 quoted from ,amir ,khusro's ,tarikh ,ali that1 ,ala-ud-dn ,khiliji once sent for a ,kz1 and asked him what was written in the ,code of ,mehammadan law regarding the ,hinds4 ,the ,kz answered that1 the ,hinds were ,zimmis 7condemned to pay the ,jzya tax72 if asked silver1 they ought to pay gold with deep respect and humility2 and if the collector of taxes were to fling dirt in their faces1 they should gladly open their mouths wide4 ,god's order is to keep them in subjection1 and the ,prophet enjoins on the faithful to kill1 plunder and imprison them1 to make ,mussulmns1 or to put them to the sword1 to enslave them1 and confiscate their property4444' ,vide ,supplement to the ,gazette of ,india1 ,april #ba1 #ahhc1 page #hjg4 ,these alleged injunctions1 ,i need not say here1 after what ,i have stated in various places of this book regarding intolerance1 and compulsory conversion1 are merely false imputations4 ,there are no such injunctions of the ,prophet against either ,zimmis1 7i4e41 protected or guaranteed7 or the ,hinds4 ,,to ,,the ,,honorable ,,syed ,,ahmed ,,khan ,,bahadur1 ,c4,s4,i41 ,,this ,,book ,,is1 ,,without ,,even ,,asking ,,permission4 ,,and ,,wholly ,,without ,,his ,,knowledge4 ,,dedicated ,,as ,a ,,slight ,,but ,,sincere ,,testimony ,,of ,,admiration ,,for ,,his ,,long ,,and ,,various ,,services ,,in ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,islam ,,and ,,in ,,respect ,,of ,,his ,,religious ,,and ,,social ,,reforms ,,in ,,the ,,moslims ,,of ,,india1 ,,and ,,of ,,gratitude ,,for ,,much ,,personal ,,kindness ,,and ,,friendship1 ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,all errata listed below have been corrected in the e-text4 ,mistakes not listed below have been left as they appeared in the printed book1 although missing or misplaced punctuation marks have been corrected4 ,,errata4 ,page ,line ,for ,read v #ba them ,omit #bb them it xvii f4n4 ,maaddite ,moaddite xxxiv #ba ,morra ,murra #bb ,soleim ,suleim xlii #i ,kauuka ,kainuka xliii #bb f4n4 ,mozeima ,mozeina xlv #be ,khusain ,khushain liv #a ,ban ,bani #aj ,ghassianide ,ghassanide lxxxviii #cj ,khalips ,khalifs xci #cj ,caliphater ,caliphate #aa #aj ,kurzibn ,kurz-ibn #ah #i ,god#b ,god3 desist#c desist #af persecution persecution#b #ag 7fitnah 7fitnah#c7 #bg #e liberty and liberty1 any of #f brethern merely brethren1 merely #f-g such a manner such manner #h ,society or ,society1 or #i of it materially of it1 materially #ab deserve pity deserve only pity #cd #f ,ibu ,ibn #fa #f ,rafi ,rafe #gb #bd ibu ibn #be ibu ibn #gc #d bil bin #ij #a as stallions for breeding purposes #ace #bh ,durar ,dinar #acf #af ,sirni ,sirin #aib #a ,jihad does not mean ,read this as a the waging of war marginal gloss #c ,jahad ,jahd4 #ad ,katal and ,kital ,read this as a marginal gloss4 #bj ,conclusion ,ditto1 ditto4 ,,summary ,,of ,,contents4 ,introduction i-civ ,note cv ,genealogical ,table of the ,arabs cvi-cvii ,i4 ,the persecutions suffered by the early ,moslems #a-aa ,,ii4 ,the ,meccans or the ,koreish #aa-af ,,iii4 ,the defensive character of the wars of ,mohammad #af-cd ,,iv4 ,the ,jews #cd-dj ,v4 ,the ,christians or ,romans #dj-da ,,vi4 ,the intolerance #db-ea ,,vii4 ,the ninth chapter of ,sura ,bart #ea-ee ,,viii4 ,the alleged interception of the ,koreish caravans by the ,moslems #ee-fj ,,ix4 ,the alleged assassinations by the command or connivance of ,mohammad #fj-gf ,x4 ,the alleged cruelty in executing the prisoners of war #gf-ia ,,xi4 ,some miscellaneous objections refuted #ia-aad ,,xii4 ,the popular ,jihd or ,crusade #aad-afa ,appendix ,a4 ,the word ,jihad in the ,koran does not mean warfare #afc-aib ,appendix ,b4 ,slavery and concubinage not allowed by the ,koran #aic-bbc ,appendix ,c4 ,koranic references #bbe-bbg ,index #bbi-bdi ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,introduction-- ,paras4 ,page4 #a4 ,object of the book i #b4 ,early wrongs of the ,moslem2 justification in taking up arms1 if taken ii #c4 ,commencement of the war2 the ,koreish being public enemy were liable to be treated as such ib4 #d4 ,but the ,moslems could not take up arms to redress their wrongs under certain circumstances iii #e4 ,moslems otherwise engaged at ,medina had no intention of suffering the horrors of war by taking the initiative1 but were in imminent danger from the enemy iv #f4 ,the ,koreish first attacked the ,moslems at ,medina4 ,they could not forbear the escape of the ,moslems v #g4 ,three battles waged by the ,koreish against ,mohammad--,badr1 ,ohad1 and ,ahzb3 these wars on the ,moslem side were purely in defence1 not waged even to redress their wrongs or re-establish their rights vii #h4 ,the battle of ,badr was defensive on the part of ,mohammad4 ,reasons for the same viii #i4 ,mohammad at ,medina1 owing to the attacks1 inroads1 and threatening gatherings of the ,koreish and other tribes1 had hardly time to think of offensive measures xi #aj4 ,armed opposition of the ,koreish to the ,moslem pilgrims from ,medina in the vicinity of ,mecca4 ,the truce of ,hodeibia xv #aa4 ,the ,koreish again commit hostilities and violate their pledge4 ,war declared against those who had violated the truce4 ,war not carried out xvi #ab4 ,war with foes other than ,koreish xviii #ac4 ,expedition to ,tabk to check the advancing enemy4 ,no war took place xix #ad4 ,number of the wars of ,mohammad much exaggerated3 ,ghazava defined2 number of actual wars xx #ae4 ,the ,revd4 ,mr4 ,green's remarks on the wars of ,mohammad criticised xxiii #af4 ,another view of the wars of ,mohammad xxviii #ag4 ,caravans if waylaid were waylaid by way of reprisal xxx #ah4 ,intolerance2 no compulsory conversion enjoined or took place during ,mohammad's lifetime3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted and refuted xxxi #ai4 ,a brief sketch of the propagation of ,islam at ,mecca3 ,islam at ,mecca2 ,islam at ,abyssinia2 ,conversions at ,nakhla xxxii #bj4 ,rapid stride of ,islam at ,medina xxxvii #ba4 ,the increasing number of ,moslem converts at ,mecca after the ,hegira xxxix #bb4 ,disturbed state of the public peace among the tribes surrounding ,medina4 ,internicine wars1 an obstacle to the propagation of ,islam xl #bc4 ,sketch of the intertribal wars in ,arabia during the lifetime of ,mohammad xli #bd4 ,spread of ,islam in the surrounding tribes at ,medina after the ,hegira ,i--,,vi xliii #be4 ,mecca a barrier against the conversion of the ,southern tribes xliv #bf4 ,tribal conversions in the sixth year4 ,conversion among several other tribes of the ,north and ,north-east in ,a4,h4 ,,viii xlv #bg4 ,surrender of ,mecca1 ,a4,h4 ,,viii xlvii #bh4 ,mecca not compelled to believe ib4 #bi4 ,the wholesale conversion of the remaining tribes1 ,a4,h4 ,,ix and ,x xlviii #cj4 ,the various deputations in the #ith and #ajth year of the ,hegira li #ca4 ,a list of the deputations of conversion received by ,mohammad at ,medina during ,a4,h4 ,,ix and ,x li--lviii #cb4 ,all conversions1 individual and tribal1 were without any compulsion lix #cc4 ,mohammad was not favoured with circumstances round him4 ,the difficulty ,mohammad encountered in his work4 ,marcus ,dods quoted3 ,dr4 ,mohseim's causes of the spread of ,islam and ,hallam quoted lx--lxv #cd4 ,mohammad's unwavering belief in his own mission and his success show him to be a true prophet4 ,mohammad's efforts established monotheism in ,arabia4 ,his manly exertions1 and his single handed perseverance4 ,the business and office of a prophet described4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir and ,stobart quoted lxv--lxix #ce4 ,the reforms of ,mohammad1 his iconoclastic policy4 ,the redemption of ,arabia from venal debauchery and infatuated superstition4 ,muir1 ,marcus ,dods1 ,stephens quoted lxix--lxxvii #cf4 ,indictment against ,mohammad4 ,his alleged cruelty and sensuality4 ,muir1 ,rev4 ,hughes1 ,marcus ,dods1 and ,stanley ,poole refuted lxxviii--lxxxvii #cg4 ,objections to the 7#a7 ,finality of the social reforms of ,mohammad1 7#b7 positive precepts1 7#c7 ceremonial law1 7#d7 morality1 7#e7 want of adaptability to the varying circumstances lxxxvii--lxxxix #ch4 ,all these objections apply rather to the teaching of the ,mohammadan ,common ,law than to the ,koran xc #ci4 7#a7 ,finality of social reforms of ,mohammad discussed4 ,intermediary not to be considered final xc--xcii #dj4 7#b7 ,positive precepts and 7#c7 ceremonial law1 pilgrimage1 ,kibla1 amount of alms1 fasts1 forms and attitude of prayer1 c43 pretentious prayers and ostentatious almsgiving xcii--xcvii #da4 7#d7 ,the ,koran1 both abstract and concrete in morals xcvii--cii #db4 7#e7 ,adaptability of the ,koran to surrounding circumstances cii--ciii #dc4 ,suitability of the ,koran to all classes of humanity ciii--civ ,note cv ,genealogical tables of the tribes mentioned in para4 #ca of the ,introduction cvi--cvii ,,all ,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,mohammad ,,were ,,defensive4 ,i4--,the ,persecution4 #a4 ,the early persecution of ,moslems by the people of ,mecca #b #b4 ,notices of the persecutions in the ,koran #d #c4 ,insults suffered by ,mohammad #e #d4 ,historical summary of the persecutions #h #e4 ,the ,hegira1 or the expulsion of the ,moslems from ,mecca #i #f4 ,the persecution of the ,moslems by the ,koreish after their flight from ,mecca #aa ,,ii4--,the ,meccans or the ,koreish4 #g4 ,a ,koreish chieftain commits a raid near ,medina1 ,a4,h4 #a ib4 #h4 ,the ,koreish march to attack ,medina4 ,battle of ,badr ib4 #i4 ,attack by ,abu ,sofian upon ,medina1 ,a4,h4 #b #ab #aj4 ,battle of ,ohad #ab #aa4 ,mohammad's prestige affected by the defeat ib4 #ab4 ,abu ,sofian threatened the ,moslems with another attack next year #ac #ac4 ,the ,koreish again attack ,medina with a large army4 ,mohammad defends the city4 ,the enemy retire4 ,a4,h4 #e #ad #ad4 ,mohammad with his followers advanced to perform the lesser pilgrimage of ,mecca4 ,the ,koreish oppose ,mohammad1 who return disappointed4 ,the treaty of ,hodeibia #ae #ae4 ,violation of the treaty by the ,koreish and their submission #af #af4 ,two other tribes assume the offensive ib4 ,,iii4--,the ,defensive ,character of the ,wars4 #ag4 ,verses from the ,koran in support of the defensive character of the wars #be #ah4 ,what the above quoted verses show #bf #ai4 ,justification of the ,moslems in taking up arms against their aggressors #bg #bj4 ,the first aggression after the ,hegira was not on the part of ,mohammad #bh #ba4 ,the alleged instances examined #bi #bb4 ,hamza and ,obeida's expeditions ib4 #bc4 ,abwa1 ,bowat1 and ,osheira expeditions #cj #bd4 ,the affair at ,nakhla #ca #be4 ,at ,badr ,mohammad came only in his defence #cc #bf4 ,the first aggression after the ,hegira if from ,mohammad1 might fairly be looked upon as retaliation #cd ,,iv4--,the ,jews4 #bg4 ,the ,jews broke treaties ib4 #bh4 ,bani ,kainukaa1 ,bani ,nazeer1 ,khyber1 and ,ghatafn #ce #bi4 ,notice of them in ,koran #cg #cj4 ,the judgment of ,sd #ch #ca4 ,defensive character of the expedition against the ,jews of ,khyber #dj ,v4--,the ,christians or ,romans4 #cb4 ,tabk1 the last expedition ib4 #cc4 ,description of the wars concluded #da ,,vi4--,the ,intolerance4 #cd4 ,mohammad never taught intolerance #dc #ce4 ,in what sense the wars were religious wars #dd #cf4 ,the alleged verses of intolerance explained #de #cg4 ,sir ,william ,muir quoted #dg #ch4 ,comment on the above quotation #ej #ci4 ,object of ,mohammad's wars #ea ,,vii4--,the ,ninth ,chapter or ,sura ,bart4 #dj4 ,the opening portion of the ,,ix ,sura of the ,koran only relates to the ,koreish who had violated the truce #ee ,,viii4--,the alleged ,interceptions of the ,koreish ,caravans4 #da4 ,the nine alleged interceptions of the ,koreish caravans #eg #db4 ,the interceptions were impossible under the circumstances in which ,mohammad was placed #ei #dc4 ,the interceptions1 if occurred1 were justified by way of reprisal #fj ,,ix4--,the alleged ,assassinations4 #dd4 ,instances of the alleged assassinations cited #fa #de4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,poole quoted #fb #df4 ,asma-bint ,marwan #fc #dg4 ,the story deserves not our belief #fd #dh4 ,abu ,afak #fe #di4 ,kab1 son of ,ashraf #ff #ej4 ,mohammad could never have had any share in ,kab's murder #fh #ea4 ,sofian bin ,khalid #fi #eb4 ,justification of ,sofian's alleged murder #gj #ec4 ,abu ,rafe #gb #ed4 ,oseir bin ,zarim #gc #ee4 ,the intended assassination of ,abu ,sofian #gd #ef4 ,irving and ,muir quoted2 concluding remarks #gf ,x4--,the alleged ,cruelties in executing ,prisoners of ,war and others4 #eg4 ,treatment of the prisoners of war ib4 #eh4 ,law of nations regarding the prisoners of war #gg #ei4 ,the execution of ,nadher ,ibn ,harith #gi #fj4 ,the execution of ,okba #hj #fa4 ,free liberty granted to ,ozza1 a prisoner of war #ha #fb4 ,abul ,ozza proved a traitor and was executed ib4 #fc4 ,the execution of ,moavia ,ibn ,mughira ib4 #fd4 ,justification of ,mughira's execution #hb #fe4 ,the intended execution of the prisoners of ,badr and the wrong version of ,sir ,w4 ,muir #hc #ff4 ,mohammad was never blamed in the ,koran for releasing prisoners #hd #fg4 ,the ,koran enjoins the prisoners of war to be either freely liberated or ransomed1 but neither executed nor enslaved #hg #fh4 ,high treason of the ,bani ,koreiza against ,medina and their execution #hh #fi4 ,the whole of the ,bani ,koreiza were never executed ib4 #gj4 ,the women and children of ,bani ,koreiza were never sold #hi #ga4 ,the exaggerated number of persons executed #ia ,,xi4--,some ,miscellaneous ,objections refuted4 #gb4 ,the execution of ,omm ,kirfa for brigandage #ib #gc4 ,the alleged mutilation of the ,urnee robbers #ic #gd4 ,amputation or banishment substituted temporarily in place of imprisonment for want of a well organized system of jails #ie #ge4 ,torture of ,kinana #if #gf4 ,the alleged execution of a singing girl #ig #gg4 ,the charitable spirit of ,mohammad towards his enemies #ih #gh4 ,abu ,basir not countenanced by the ,prophet in contravention to the spirit of the treaty of ,hodeibia #aja #gi4 ,nueim not employed by the ,prophet to circulate false reports in the enemy's camp #ajb #hj4 ,deception in war allowed by the ,international ,law ib4 #ha4 ,lecky's standard of morality #ajd #hb4 ,the alleged permission to kill the ,jews #ajf #hc4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted #ajh #hd4 ,the expulsion of the ,bani ,nazeer ib4 #he4 ,their fruit-trees were not cut down #aji #hf4 ,females and the treaty of ,hodeibia #aaj #hg4 ,stanley defended #aaa #hh4 ,marriage a strict bond of union #aac ,the ,popular ,jihd4 #hi4 ,the ,koran enjoins only defensive wars #aad #ij4 ,the ,mohammadan ,common ,law and the ,jihd #aaf #ia4 ,when is ,jihd a positive injunction ib4 #ib4 ,the ,hedya quoted and refuted #aag #ic4 ,rule of interpretation #aah #id4 ,the ,common ,law and its commentators #aai #ie4 ,kifya quoted #abj #if4 ,further quotations #aba #ig4 ,the ,kifya refuted #abb #ih4 ,s4 ,,ix1 #e1 discussed #abc #ii4 ,s4 ,,ii1 #ahi1 discussed ib4 #ajj4 ,s4 ,,ii1 #ahi1 and ,,viii1 #dj1 are defensive #abd #aja4 ,all injunctions were local and for the time being #abe #ajb4 ,ainee quoted and refuted ib4 #ajc4 ,sarakhsee quoted and refuted #abf #ajd4 ,ibn ,hajar quoted #abh #aje4 ,ibn ,hajar refuted #abi #ajf4 ,halabi quoted ib4 #ajg4 ,halabi refuted #acb #ajh4 ,ainee again quoted and refuted ib4 #aji4 ,continuation of the above #acc #aaj4 ,traditions quoted and refuted ib4 #aaa4 ,early ,moslem legists against the ,jihd #acd #aab4 ,biographical sketches of the legists #ace #aac4 ,european writers' mistakes #acg #aad4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted and refuted #ach #aae4 ,islam not aggressive #aci #aaf4 ,mr4 ,freeman quoted and refuted #adj #aag4 ,the ,revd4 ,mr4 ,stephens quoted and refuted #ada #aah4 ,mr4 ,bosworth ,smith quoted and refuted #adc #aai4 ,mr4 ,george ,sale quoted and refuted ib4 #abj4 ,major ,osborn quoted #adf #aba4 ,major ,osborn refuted #adi #abb4 ,the ,,ix ,sura of the ,koran ib4 #abc4 ,the ,revd4 ,mr4 ,wherry quoted #aej #abd4 ,example cited from ,jewish history explained #aeb #abe4 ,mosaic injunctions #aec #abf4 ,the ,revd4 ,mr4 ,hughes quoted and refuted #aed #abg4 ,meaning of the word ,jihd #aee #abh4 ,sura ,,xlviii1 #e1 explained #aef #abi4 ,the ,revd4 ,malcolm ,mac,coll quoted #aeg #acj4 ,the untenable theories of the ,mohammadan ,common ,law #aeh-afa ,,appendix ,a4 #a4 ,jihd or ,jihd in the ,koran does not mean war or crusade #afc #b4 ,classical meaning of ,jihd1 c4 #afd #c4 ,post-classical or technical meaning of ,jihd #afe #d4 ,the classical logic and ,arabian poets ib4 #e4 ,the conjugation and declination of ,jahd or ,jihd in the ,koran #aff #f4 ,the number of instances in which they occur in the ,koran #afg #g4 ,in what sense they are used in the ,koran #afh #h4 ,conventional significations of ,jihd #afi #i4 ,mohammadan commentators1 c41 quoted #agj #aj4 ,when the word ,jihd was diverted from its original signification to its figurative meaning of waging religious wars #aga #aa4 ,all verses of the ,koran containing the word ,jihd and its derivations quoted and explained #agf #ab4 ,the above verses quoted with remarks #agg ,the ,meccan ,suras4 #ac4 ,lokman1 ,,xxxi1 #ad ib4 #ad4 ,furkan1 ,,xxv1 #ec1 #eba #agh #ae4 ,the ,pilgrimage1 ,,xxii1 #gf1 #gh ib4 #af4 ,the ,bee1 ,,xvi1 #ajh1 #aaa #agi #ag4 ,the ,spider1 ,,xxix1 #e #ahj #ah4 ,ibid1 #g ib4 #ai4 ,ibid1 #fi ib4 #bj4 ,the ,bee1 ,,xvi1 #dj #aha #ba4 ,creator1 ,,xxxv1 #dj ib4 ,the ,medinite ,suras4 #bb4 ,the ,cow or ,heifer1 ,,ii1 #bae #ahb #bc4 ,al ,amran1 ,,iii1 #acf ib4 #bd4 ,the ,spoils1 ,,viii1 #gc #ahc #be4 ,ibid4 #ge ib4 #bf4 ,ibid4 #gf ib4 #bg4 ,the ,cattle1 ,,vi1 #aji ib4 #bh4 ,mohammad1 ,,xlvii1 #cc #ahd #bi4 ,battle ,array1 ,,lxi1 #aa ib4 #cj4 ,woman4 ,,iv4 #ig #ahe #ca4 ,light4 ,,xxiv1 #eb ib4 #cb4 ,the ,forbidding4 ,,lxvi1 #i ib4 #cc4 ,the ,immunity4 ,,ix1 #gd #ahf #cf4 ,the ,tried1 ,,lx1 #a #ahg #ce4 ,hatib's ,story #ahh #cf4 ,the ,apartment1 ,,xlix1 #ae ib4 #cg4 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #af ib4 #ch4 ,ibid4 #ai ib4 #ci4 ,ibid1 #bj #ahi #dj4 ,ibid1 #bd ib4 #da4 ,ibid1 #da ib4 #db4 ,ibid1 #dd #aij #dc4 ,ibid1 #hb ib4 #dd4 ,ibid1 #hg ib4 #de4 ,ibid1 #hi #aia #df4 ,the ,table1 ,v1 #ci ib4 #dg4 ,ibid1 #eh ib4 #dh4 ,ibid1 #ei ib4 #di4 ,jihd does not mean the waging of war #aib #ej4 ,katal and ,kitl ib4 #ea4 ,conclusion ib4 ,,appendix ,b4 #a4 ,slavery and concubinage not allowed by the ,koran #aic #b4 ,measures taken by the ,koran to abolish future slavery #aid #c4 ,none of the prisoners of war was enslaved #aif #d4 ,bani ,koreiza not enslaved #aih #e4 ,rihana #bja #f4 ,omar1 the second ,khalif1 liberated all the ,arab slaves #bjb #g4 ,concubinage #bjc #h4 ,maria the ,coptic #bjd #i4 ,despatch of ,mokowkas #bje #aj #aa4 ,maria neither a slave nor a concubine #bjg #ab4 ,maria had no son #bji #ac4 ,the story of ,maria and ,haphsa a spurious one #baa #ad4 ,the affair not noticed in the early biographies #bab #ae4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir's authority not valid ib4 #af4 ,the best commentators and traditionalists refute the story #bad #ag4 ,the story not accredited by the ,koran ib4 #ah4 ,the story when fabricated ib4 #ai4 ,zeinab's case #bae #bj4 ,the story a spurious one #baf #ba4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir's conjectures not justified #bag #bb4 ,a wrong translation of ,sir ,w4 ,muir #bai #bc4 ,in ,zeinab's case no exceptional privilege was secured #bbj #bd4 ,the false story traced to ,mukatil ib4 #be4 ,katdas conjectural interpretation not warranted #bbb #bf4 ,other conjectures #bbc ,,appendix ,c4 ,i4--,the verses of the ,koran referring to the persecution of the ,koreish at ,mecca #bbe ,,ii4--,the verses of the ,koran referring to the aggressions of the ,koreish at ,medina as well as those of the inhabitants thereof ib4 ,,iii4--,the verses of the ,koran alluding to the wars of defence against the ,koreish and ,arabs1 c41 with several references to their aggressions ib4 ,,iv4--,the verses of the ,koran alluding to the various battles #bbf ,,introduction4 ,sidenote3 ,object of the book4 #a4 ,in publishing this work1 my chief object is to remove the general and erroneous impression from the minds of ,european and ,christian writers regarding ,islam1 that ,mohammad waged wars of conquest1 extirpation1 as well as of proselytizing against the ,koreish1 other ,arab tribes1 the ,jews1 and ,christians2#a that he held the ,koran in one hand and the scimitar in the other1 and compelled people to believe in his mission4 ,i have endeavoured in this book1 ,i believe on sufficient grounds1 to show that neither the wars of ,mohammad were offensive1 nor did he in any way use force or compulsion in the matter of belief4 ,footnote #a3 ,he now occupied a position where he might become the agent for executing the divine sentence1 and at the same time triumphantly impose the true religion on those who had rejected it4 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 page #baa4 ,london1 #ahgg4 7,new ,edition47 ,the free toleration of the purer among the creeds around him1 which the ,prophet had at first enjoined1 gradually changes into intolerance4 ,persecuted no longer1 ,mohammad becomes a persecutor himself2 with the ,koran in one hand1 and scymitar in the other1 he goes forth to offer to the nations the three-fold alternative of conversion1 tribute1 death4--,mohammed and ,mohammedanism1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 page #acg4 ,second ,edition4 ,sidenote3 ,early wrongs of the ,moslems4 ,sidenote3 ,justification in taking up arms1 if taken4 #b4 ,all the wars of ,mohammad were defensive4 ,he and those who took interest in his cause were severely oppressed at intervals1 and were in a sort of general persecution at ,mecca at the hands of the ungodly and fierce ,koreish4 ,those who were weak and without protection had to leave their city1 and twice fly to the ,christian land of ,abyssinia1 pursued by the wrathful ,koreish1 but in vain4 ,those who remained at ,mecca were subject to all sorts of indignities1 malignity and a deprivation of all religious and social liberty1 because they had forsaken the inferior deities of the ,koreish1 and believed in the only ,,one ,,god of ,mohammad1 in whose mission they had full belief4 ,mohammad and his followers had every sanction1 under the natural and international law1 then and there to wage war against their persecutors with the object of removing the 7fitnah7 persecution and obtaining their civil rights of freedom and religious liberty in their native city4 ,sidenote3 ,commencement of the state of war4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,koreish being public enemies were liable to be treated as such4 #c4 ,the fierce persecutions renewed by the ,koreish at the time of the expulsion of the ,moslems from ,mecca were acts of hostility tantamount to a declaration of war4 ,from that time commenced the state of war between the parties4 ,in the ,arab society at ,mecca there was neither an organized ,government1 nor any distinction between a public and private person and property4 ,there was no regular army in the ,state1 and what existed was not a permanently organized body1 so provided with external marks that it could be readily identified4 ,the form of ,government at ,mecca was patriarchal1 and the chiefs of the ,koreish and the citizens of ,medina themselves constituted an army when occasion arose4 ,therefore1 since the commencement of hostilities or the state of war1 every individual of the ,koreish or the ,meccans was a public enemy of the ,moslems1 and liable to be treated as such in his person and property1 except those who were unable to take part in the hostilities1 or1 as a matter of fact1 abstained from engaging in them4 ,therefore it was lawful for the ,moslems to threaten or to waylay the caravans of the enemy1 which passed to and from ,mecca close to ,medina1 and also to attack the ,koreish at ,mecca1 if they could possibly do so4 ,sidenote3 ,but the ,moslems could not take up arms to redress their wrongs under certain circumstances4 #d4 ,but as the people amongst whom the ,prophet and his fugitive ,moslems now sojourned had only pledged to defend them at ,medina1 the flying ,mohammadans could not take up arms against their aggressors1 the ,koreish1 to defend their rights of religious liberty and citizenship1 much less of taking arms to compel the non-believers to believe in ,moslem faith1 and so they preferred to live in peace at ,medina1 and enjoy the blessings of their new religion without any disturbance from without1 if possible4 ,sidenote3 ,moslems otherwise engaged at ,medina had no intention of suffering the horrors of war by taking the initiative4 ,sidenote3 ,but were in imminent danger from the enemy4 #e4 ,in fact1 the ,moslems1 after suffering so long such heavy persecutions at ,mecca1 had at length got an asylum of peace at ,medina1 where they had very little desire left to entertain any idea of commencing hostilities or undergoing once more the horrors of war1 and were too glad to live in peace after their last escape4 ,the people of ,medina had only agreed to defend the ,prophet from attack1 not to join him in any aggressive steps towards the ,koreish4 ,the attention of ,mohammad and his followers who had fled with him was mainly occupied in preaching and teaching the tenets of ,islam1 in establishing a fraternity between the refugees and the citizens1 in building a house for prayer1 in providing houses for refugees1 in contracting treaties of neutrality with the ,jews of ,medina and other surrounding tribes1 ,bani ,zamra 7a tribe connected with ,mecca7 and also with ,bani ,mudlij 7a tribe of ,kinana related to the ,koreish71 in anticipation of the impending danger#b from the ,koreish1 who had pursued them on the similar occasions before1 and in organizing1 above all these1 some of the religious and civil institutions for the ,moslems1 who were now fast assuming the position of an independent society or commonwealth4 ,under such circumstances1 it was next to impossible for ,mohammad or his adherents to think of anything like an offensive war with their inveterate foes1 or to take up arms for proselytizing purposes4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,sura ,,xxiv1 verse #ed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,koreish first attacked the ,moslems at ,medina4 ,they could not forbear the escape of the ,moslems4 #f4 ,the ,koreish1 seeing the persecuted had left almost all their native lands for a distant city out of their approach1 except by a military expedition1 and losing ,mohammad1 for whose arrest they had tried their utmost1 as well as upon hearing the reception1 treatment1 religious freedom and brotherly help the ,moslems received and enjoyed at ,medina1 could not subdue their ferocious animosity against the exiles4 ,the hostility of the ,koreish had already been aroused4 ,the severity and injustice of the ,koreish was so great1 that when1 in #fae ,a4,d41 a party of #aa ,moslems had emigrated to ,abyssinia1 they had pursued them to overtake them4 ,and again1 in #faf ,a4,d41 when the persecution by the ,koreish was hotter than before1 a party of about #ajj ,moslems had fled from ,mecca to ,abyssinia1 the ,koreish sent an embassy to ,abyssinia to obtain the surrender of the emigrants4 ,there is every reason to believe that the ,koreish1 enraged as they were on the escape of the ,moslems in their third and great emigration in #fbb ,a4,d41 would naturally have taken every strong and hostile measure to persecute the fugitives4#c ,it was in the second year from the general expulsion of the ,moslems from ,mecca that the ,koreish1 with a large army of one thousand strong1 marched upon the ,moslems at ,medina4 ,medina being #bej miles or #ab stages from ,mecca1 the aggressive army1 after marching #h stages1 arrived at ,badr1 which is #c or #d stages from ,medina4 ,mahommad--with only #cjj ,moslems1 more being from among the people of ,medina than the refugees--came out of ,medina in self-defence to encounter the ,koreish1 and the famous battle of ,badr was fought only at thirty miles from ,medina4 ,there could be no doubt that the affair was purely and admittedly a defensive one4 ,sura ,,xxii1 verses #ci-db1 copied at page #ag of this book1 was first published in the matter of taking up arms in self-defence after the battle of ,badr4 ,footnote #c3 ,the idea of forbearance on the part of the ,koreish1 as entertained by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 is not borne out by their former conduct of persecuting the believers and pursuing the fugitives among them4 ,he says3 ,mahomet and ,abu ,bakr trusted their respective clans to protect their families from insult4 ,but no insult or annoyance of any kind was offered by the ,coreish4 ,nor was the slightest attempt made to detain them2 although it was not unreasonable that they should have been detained as hostages against any hostile incursion from ,medina,a4 ,they were contemplating a grand pursuit and attack on the ,moslems1 and had no reason to detain the families of ,mahomet and ,abu ,bakr as hostages whilst they could not think that the ,moslems will take the initiative1 as they were too glad to escape and live unmolested4 ,footnote ,a3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol ,,ii1 page #bfe4 ,sidenote3 ,the three battles waged by the ,koreish against ,mohammad4 #g4 ,the ,koreish carried on three aggressive battles against the ,moslems at ,medina4 ,the first1 called the ,battle of ,badr1 took place at thirty miles from ,medina1 the ,koreish having come down #bej miles from ,mecca4 ,the second1 called the ,battle of ,ohad1 was fought at a distance of one mile from ,medina1 the enemy having advanced #bej miles from ,mecca4 ,the third was the battle of confederates1 in which they had mustered an army of ten thousand strong4 ,the city was besieged for several days1 and the ,moslems defended themselves within the walls of ,medina which they had entrenched4 ,these were the only battles between the ,koreish and ,mohammad1 in each the latter always acted on the defensive4 ,neither he attacked the ,koreish offensively to take revenge1 nor to compel them by force of arms to accept his religion4 ,sidenote3 ,these wars were purely in defence1 not to redress their wrongs or to establish their rights4 ,even these three battles were not waged by ,mohammad to redress wrong or establish imperilled rights4 ,they were only to repel force by right of self-defence4 ,had ,mohammad and his ,moslems invaded ,mecca and fought battles against the ,koreish there1 he would have been justified for waging war to redress the injuries of person and property inflicted by the ,meccans on the ,moslems whom they were tormenting for their religion and had expelled them from their homes1 and had even barred their yearly visitation to the shrine of ,kaba4 ,a war which is undertaken for just causes1 to repel or avert wrongful force1 or to establish a right1 is sanctioned by every law1 religious1 moral or political4 ,sidenote3 ,the battle of ,badr was defensive4 #h4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 the great advocate for the aggressive ,koreish1 holds that the war of ,badr was brought on by ,mahomet himself1#d and that he intended to surprise the caravan of the ,koreish returning from ,syria under the charge of ,abu ,sofian1 and had come out to ,medina to waylay it4 ,abu ,sofian sent for an army of the ,koreish for his aid1 and thus commenced the battle of ,badr4 ,i have given my reasons at pages #gd-gf of the book to show that this is a false account4 ,i will point out from contemporary records1 i4e41 the ,koran1 that ,mohammad neither meant1 nor had he come out of ,medina1 to attack the caravan4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for the same4 ,i4 ,the verses #e and #f of ,sura ,,viii#e show that a part of the believers were quite averse to ,mohammad's coming out of ,medina on the occasion of the battle of ,badr4 ,had their mission been one of plundering rich caravans1 as it is generally alleged1 there could be no reason for that aversion of a party of believers who are accused so often of a hostile attitude towards the ,koreish1 and possessed of that great love of booty and adventure so prominent among the ,arabs4 ,the fact is1 a party of believers had disputed with ,mohammad the necessity of the combat and its probable result outside ,medina4 ,they preferred to defend themselves within its walls4 ,this argument is against the allegation that ,mohammad with his followers had started to waylay the caravan1 and the ,koreish had come only to rescue it4 ,,ii4 ,the #dcrd#f verse of the same ,sura shows that it was by a mere accident or coincidence that all the three parties of the ,moslems1 the ,koreshite army and the caravan had arrived1 and encamped close to ,badr in front of each other4 ,this is an argument against those who say that ,mohammad had intentionally come to ,badr to waylay the caravan there4#g ,there was1 in fact1 no predetermination on the part of ,mohammad either to waylay the caravan1 or encounter the ,koreish army at ,badr4 ,mohammad with his followers had come out only to check the advancing enemy in his self-defence4 ,,iii4 ,the seventh#h verse of the same ,sura shows that while the parties had so accidentally encamped close to each other1 the ,moslems had desired then and there only to attack the caravan1 as a reprisal or by way of retaliation1 instead of combating with the ,koreish army4 ,this is an argument in support of my contention that there was no previous arrangement to attack the caravan4 ,,iv4 ,the same verse also shows that ,mohammad had no intention of attacking the caravan either before his coming out of ,medina1 as it is alleged by ignorant people1 or after coming at ,badr in front of the enemy's army4 ,v4 ,sura ,,viii1 verse #gb1i which treats of the prisoners of the war taken at ,badr1 expressly notes the treachery of the ,meccans before their being taken prisoner1 and refers obviously to their aggressively setting out of ,mecca to attack the ,moslems at ,medina4 ,,vi4 ,sura ,,ix1 verse #ac1aj at a subsequent event of the violation of the truce of ,hodeibia by the ,koreish1 very distinctly charges them with attacking first and waging offensive war and being aggressive4 ,as there was no war or attack from the ,koreish on the ,moslems before ,badr1 ,i conclude that in the war of ,badr the ,koreish were aggressive4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bee1 foot-note4 ,this note has been expunged in the ,new ,edition of ,the ,life3 ,vide page #cag4 ,footnote #e3 #e4 ,remember how thy ,lord caused thee to go forth from thy home on a mission of truth1 and verily a part of the believers were quite averse to it4 #f4 ,they disputed with thee about the truth after it had been made clear1 as if they were being led forth to death and saw it before them4 ,sura ,,viii4 ,footnote #f3 #dc4 ,when ye were encamped on the near side of the valley1 and they were on the further side1 and the caravan was below you1 if ye have made an engagement to attack1 ye would assuredly have failed the engagement2 but ye were led into action notwithstanding1 that ,god might accomplish the thing destined to be done4 ,sura ,,viii4 ,footnote #g3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet4 ,new ,edition1 page #bbf4 ,footnote #h3 ,and remember when ,god promised you that one of the two troops should fall to you1 and ye desired that they who had no arms should fall to you3 but ,god purposed to prove true the truth of his words1 and to cut off the uttermost part of the infidels4 ,footnote #i3 ,but if they seek to deal treacherously with thee--they have already dealt treacherously with ,god before6 ,therefore hath ,he given you power over them4 ,footnote #aj3 ,will ye not do battle with a people who have broken their covenant and aimed to expel your ,apostle and attacked you first8 ,will you dread them8 ,sidenote3 ,mohammad1 owing to the attacks1 inroads and threatening gatherings from the ,koreish and other ,arab tribes1 had hardly time to think of offensive measures4 #i4 ,but ,mohammad1 harassed and attacked every year by the ,koreish and other hostile ,arab tribes1 had hardly any time to wage an aggressive war against his ,koreshite foes1 to establish his imperilled rights1 or to redress the injuries of the ,moslems or his own wrong2 much less of taking up arms to compel them to renounce idolatry and believe in his ,divine mission4 ,during the first year after their expulsion from ,mecca1 the ,moslems were in constant danger from the ferocity of the ,koreish1 and when ,mohammad was contracting treaties of neutrality with the neighbouring tribes1 ,kurz-bin-,jbir1 a ,koreish of the desert1 committed a raid upon ,medina4 ,in the course of the second year the ,koreish fought the battle of ,badr1 followed by a petty inroad of theirs upon ,medina at the end of the year4 ,the ,bani ,nazeer treasoned against ,medina by giving intelligence to1 and entertaining1 the enemy4 ,in the beginning of the third year1 the nomad tribes of ,suleim and ,ghatafn1 inhabitants of the plains of ,najd1 and descendants of a stock common with the ,koreish1 twice projected a plundering attack upon ,medina4 ,at the same time the ,moslems were defeated at the battle of ,ohad1 near ,medina1 by the ,koreish1 which circumstance greatly affected the prestige of the ,prophet1 who was threatened with a similar fate the next year by his victorious enemies4 ,with the opening of the fourth year1 the inimical spirit of many of the ,bedouins1 as well as that of the ,jews of ,bani ,nazeer1 was perceptible1 and in various quarters large masses were organized to act against ,mohammad and to take advantage of the defeat at ,medina4 ,the tribes of ,bani ,asad and ,bani ,lahyn were brought together to follow the victory of the ,koreish at ,ohad4 ,and last1 not least1 the ,moslem missionaries were cut to pieces at ,rji and ,bir ,muna4 ,at the close of the year1 the people of ,medina were alarmed by an exaggerated account of the preparations at ,mecca to attack ,medina as promised last year 7,sura ,,iii1 v4 #agf74 ,during the fifth year certain tribes of ,ghatafn were assembling with suspicious purposes at ,zat-al-,rikaa and the marauding bands near ,dumatal ,jandal threatened a raid upon ,medina4 ,the ,bani ,mustalik1 a branch of ,khozaa1 hitherto friendly to ,mohammad's cause1 took up arms with a view of joining the ,koreish in the intended attack upon ,medina4 ,at the end of the year1 the ,koreish1 joined by an immense force of the ,bedouin tribes1#aa marched against ,medina1 and laid siege to it for many days4 ,the ,bani ,koreiza1 having defected from ,mohammad1 joined the ,koreish army when ,medina was besieged4 ,in the beginning of the sixth year ,uyeina1 the chief of the ,bani ,fezr1 had committed an inroad upon ,medina4#ab ,a ,medinite caravan1 under the charge of ,zeid-bin-,hris1 was seized and plundered by the ,bani ,fezr4#ac ,in the month of ,zul-,kada1 7the eleventh month of the ,arab lunar year71 when war was unlawful throughout ,arabia1 but much more so within the sacred precincts of ,mecca1 ,mohammad and his followers1 longing to visit the house of their ,lord and the sacred places around it1 and to join the yearly pilgrimage which they had grown from their childhood to regard as an essential part of their social and religious life1 not to mention their intense desire of seeing their houses and families from which they were unjustly expelled1 started from ,medina for performing the lesser pilgrimage4 ,they were under the impression that1 in the peaceful habits of pilgrims1 the ,koreish would be morally bound by every pledge of national faith to leave them unmolested1 and ,mohammad had promised them a peaceful entry4 ,but the ,koreish armed themselves and opposed the progress of the ,moslems towards ,mecca1 notwithstanding the pious object and unwarlike attitude of the pilgrims4 ,at length a treaty1 in terms unfavourable to the ,moslems1 but in fact a victory won by ,islam1 was concluded by ,mohammad and the ,koreish at ,hodeibia4 ,by this peace war was suspended for ten years4 ,from my brief sketch of ,mohammad's first six years' sojourn in ,medina1 it is evident that during this time ,medina was constantly in a sort of military defence4 ,the ,moslems were every moment in the danger of an invasion1 attack1 or inroad from without1 and treachery1 conspiracy and treason from within4 ,they either had to encounter superior numbers or to disperse hostile gathering or to chastise sometimes marauding tribes4 ,so ,mohammad could scarcely breathe freely at ,medina1 but much less could he find time and opportunity to mature a scheme of attacking the ,koreish at ,mecca in order to revenge himself and his refugees for the persecutions which the ,koreish had inflicted on the ,moslems1 to redress their wrongs1 and to re-establish their rights of civil and religious liberty1 or to make converts of them or any other tribes at the point of sword4 ,footnote #aa3 ,bani ,ashja1 ,murra ,fezr1 ,suleim1 ,sd1 ,asad1 and several clans of ,ghatafn1 the ,jews of ,wady-al-,koraa and ,khyber4 ,footnote #ab3 ,a party of ,moslems at ,zil ,kassa was slain1 and ,dihya1 sent by ,mohammad to the ,roman ,emperor1 on his return1 was robbed of every thing by the ,bani ,juzm beyond ,wady-al-,kora4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the ,jews at ,khyber were enticing the ,bani ,fezr and ,bani ,sad-bin-,bakr and other ,bedouin tribes to make depredations upon ,medina4 ,sidenote3 ,armed opposition of the ,koreish to the ,moslem pilgrims in the vicinity of ,mecca4 ,sidenote3 ,mohammad proclaimed war against the opposing ,koreish to obtain the right of civil and religious liberty at ,mecca4 #aj4 ,it was only when the ,moslems1 unarmed as they were in pilgrim's garb1 were opposed by the armed ,koreish1 who had encamped at ,z ,towa1 clothed in panther's skin1 or1 in other words1 with a firm resolution to fight to the last1 and when ,osman1 the ,moslem envoy to ,mecca1 was actually placed in confinement1#ad of whom the rumour was constantly rife that he was murdered at ,mecca1 and when a party of the ,koreish had actually attacked the camp of ,mohammad1#ae that excitement1 alarm and anxiety prevailed in the ,moslem camp1 and ,mohammad took a solemn oath from the ,faithful to stand by their cause even unto death4 7,sura ,,xlviii4#af7 ,in the meantime appeals were received from the ,moslems detained in confinement at ,mecca1 and otherwise oppressed for deliverance4 ,vide ,sura ,,iv1 verses #gg1 #ii1 #ajj2 ,sura ,,viii1 verses #gb1 #gc4 ,he1 on this occasion1 proclaimed a war with the ,koreish in the event of their attacking first1 and enjoining the believers to redress their earlier and later wrongs1 to establish their civil and religious liberty1 to have free access to their native city1 to have the free exercise of their religion1 and to make away with the oppressions of ,koreish once for all4 ,the following verses were published on the occasion3--,sura ,,ii1 verses #ahf-aij1 #bab-bae4 ,the ,sura ,,xlviii afterwards had reference to the occasion1 specially verses #aj1 #bb-bg4 ,they are quoted in pp4 #ag-ai4 ,sidenote3 ,the war thus proclaimed did not take place4 ,but happily a truce was agreed upon1 and not a drop of blood was shed on either side4 ,thus the injunctions contained in the verses referred to above were never carried out4 ,mohammad1 in proclaiming this war1 had all the laws and justice on his side4 ,even this war1 had it been waged1 would have been defensive1 undertaken for the purpose of establishing the civil rights of the ,moslems and their religious liberty1 hitherto unjustly denied them4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #gdf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid4 #gde1 see ,sura ,,xlviii4 ,footnote #af3 ,mohammad had gained over some of the ,bedouin tribes in the direction of ,mecca1 and were on friendly terms with him4 ,at this time they were summoned by ,mohammad to join him if there be a war4 ,they did not join him except a very few4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,koreish again commit hostilities and violate their pledges4 ,sidenote3 ,war declared against those who had violated the truce4 #aa4 ,this truce did not last long4 ,the last act of hostility on the part of the aggressive ,koreish was the violation of the truce within two years of its being concluded4 ,this resulted in the submission of ,mecca4 ,the tribe of ,bani ,khoza1#ag who were now converts to ,islam since the truce1 and who had entered into an open alliance with ,mohammad at the treaty1 were attacked by the ,koreish and their allies1 the ,bani ,bakr4#ah ,the aggressed ,moslems appealed for aid to ,mohammad through a deputation1 that displayed their wrongs to ,mohammad and his followers in very touching terms1 urging in a plaintive tone to avenge them upon the treacherous murderers4 ,war was declared by ,mohammad against the aggressors1 who had violated the truce1 and attacked the ,bani ,khoza1 to redress their wrongs4 ,a proclamation was issued declaring immunity from ,god and his ,apostle to those who had broken the league and aided the ,bani ,bakr against the ,khoza4 ,four months' time was allowed them to make terms1 in default of which they were to be warred against1 seized1 and besieged1 in short1 to suffer all the hardships of war4 ,sura ,,ix1 verses #a-ae1 was published declaring the war4 ,it has been copied at pages #bb-be of the book4 ,sidenote3 ,war not carried out4 ,but the threatened war did not actually take place1 and ,mecca surrendered by a compromise4 ,thus ,mohammad obtained his object of civil and religious liberty of the ,moslems at ,mecca and ,medina1 and averted the 7fitnah7 persecutions and oppressions of the ,koreish without actual war or bloodshed1 and also secured peace for his followers in exchange of the constant fear and agitation impending over them4 ,this was promised some years ago in ,sura ,,xxiv1 verse #ed1 which runs as follows3-- ,god hath promised to those of you who believe and do the things that are right1 that ,he will cause them to succeed other in the land1 as ,he gave succession to those who went before them1 and that ,he will establish for them their religion in which they delight1 and that after their fears ,he will give them security in exchange4 ,they shall worship ,me3 nought shall they join with ,me3 ,and whoso after this believe not1 they will be the impious4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the ,bani ,khoza are also taken notice of in ,sura ,,viii1 verses #gc-gd4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the ,bani ,bakr1 son of ,abd ,mont1 were a branch of ,kinna of the ,moaddite stock4 ,sidenote3 ,war with foes other than the ,koreish4 #ab4 ,now ,i shall dispense with the ,koreish and refer to the wars of other enemies of the early ,moslems4 ,there is only one war of the ,arab tribes other than the ,koreish noticed in the ,koran1 and that is the battle of ,honain4 ,in this war the ,sakifites were the aggressors4 ,the battle of ,muraisia is not noticed in the ,koran1 but it is stated by biographers that information of a new project against him after the defeat at ,ohad in the direction of ,mecca1 and the ,bani ,mustalik's raising fresh forces with a view of joining the ,koreish in the threatened attack of ,medina having reached ,mohammad1 he resolved by a bold attempt to prevent their design4 ,i have shown in the book that the expedition of ,mohammad against ,khyber was purely in self-defence4 ,a war undertaken to protect ourselves from the impending danger of an attack from the enemy and with the purpose of checking its advance1 is a defensive war under the ,law4 ,i am not going to treat of expedition of the ,bani ,koreiz separately1 but this much is necessary to say here1 that they had treacherously defected from the ,moslem with whom they had entered into a defensive alliance1 and had joined the confederate army against the ,moslems4 ,for a detail account of them1 the reader is referred to pages #hg-ia of this book4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition to ,tabk to check the advancing enemy4 ,no war took place4 #ac4 ,the expedition of ,mecca1 already described1 ended in a submission and compromise without any resort to arms2 that against ,tabk was undertaken1 as it is admitted by all writers1 ,moslem and ,european1 for purely defensive purposes4 ,mohammad was much alarmed on this occasion owing to the threatening news of a foreign invasion against the ,moslem commonwealth4 ,the following verses of the ,ninth ,sura are most probably directed towards the ,romans and their ,jewish and ,christian allies1#ai if not towards the ,jews of ,khyber3-- #bi4 ,make war upon such of those to whom the ,scriptures have been given as believe not in ,god or in the last day1 and who forbid not that which ,god and ,his ,apostle have forbidden1 and who profess not the profession of the ,truth1 until they pay tribute out of hand1 and they be humbled4 #abd4 ,believers wage war against such of the unbelievers as are your neighbours1 and let them assuredly find rigour in you1 and know that ,god is with those who fear him4--,sura ,,ix4 ,mohammad returned without any war1 and there was no occasion to carry out the injunctions contained in these verses4 ,mohammad had taken great pains1 according to the severity of the impending danger1 to induce the ,moslems to go to war in their own defence4 ,but as the season was hot1 and the journey a long one1 some of them were very backward in doing so4 ,there is a very violent denunciation against those who on various false pretences held back on the occasion4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the ,jews of ,macna ,azrh and ,jabra1 and the ,christian ,chiefs of ,ayla and ,dma4 ,sidenote3 ,number of the wars of ,mohammad4 #ad4 ,the above sketch of the hostilities will show that there were only five battles in which actual fighting took place4 ,the biographers of ,mohammad and the narrators of his campaigns are too lax in enumerating the expeditions led by ,mohammad4 ,they have noted down the names and accounts of various expeditions without having due regard to a rational criticism1 or without being bound by the stringent laws of the technical requirements of traditionary evidence4 ,consequently1 they give us romances of the expeditions without specifying which of them are true and which fictitious4 ,there are many expeditions enumerated by the biographers#bj which have1 in fact1 no trustworthy evidence for their support2 some are altogether without foundation1 and some of them are wrongly termed as expeditions for warring purposes4 ,ghazvt is wrongly understood by ,european writers as meaning plundering expeditions4 ,deputations to conclude friendly treaties1 missions to teach ,islam1 embassies to foreign chiefs1 mercantile expeditions1 pilgrims' processions1 parties sent to disperse or chastise a band of robbers1 or to watch the movements of an enemy1 spies sent to bring information1 and forces dispatched or led to fight with or check an enemy are all called ,ghazavt 7expeditions17 ,sarya and ,bas 7enterprises and despatches74 ,thus the number of ,mohammad's expeditions has been unduly exaggerated1 first by biographers1 who noted down every expedition or warlike enterprise reported in the several authentic and unauthentic traditions long after their occurrences1 and did not at all trouble their heads by criticising them2 and secondly by giving all missions1 deputations1 embassies1 pilgrims' journies1 and mercantile enterprises under the category of ,ghazavt and ,sarya1 lately construed by ,european writers as plundering expeditions1 or a despatch of body of men with hostile intents4 ,the biographers1 both ,arabian and ,european1 have gone so far as to assert that there were #bg expeditions led by ,mohammad in person1 and #gd others headed by persons nominated by himself1 making in all #aja4 ,this number is given by ,ibn ,sd ,ktib ,wkidi 7vide ,kustalni1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 page #chf74 ,ibn ,is-hak also gives the number of ,mohammad's expeditions to be #bg1 while others led at his order are put down at #ch only 7vide ,ibn ,hishm1 pp4 #igb and #igc74 ,ab ,yola has a tradition from ,jabir1 a contemporary of ,mohammad1 who mentions only #ba expeditions4 ,but the best authority1 ,zeid-bin-,arqam1 in the earliest traditions collected by ,bokhri1 ,kitbul ,maghazi1 in two places in his book1 reduces the number to #ai1 including all sorts of expeditions and the number in which he was with ,mohammad4 ,out of these alleged #bg1 #ba1 #ai and #ag expeditions1 there were only #hba or #i1bb in which an actual fighting took place4 ,even the latter minimized numbers are not deserving of confidence4 ,the actual expeditions are as follow3-- #a4 ,badr4 #b4 ,ohad4 99 ,muraisi4 #c4 ,ahazb4 99 ,koreiza4 #d4 ,khyber4 99 ,mecca4 #e4 ,honain4 99 ,tyif4 ,there are no good authorities for the war at ,muraisi with the ,bani ,mustalik4 ,there were no fightings with the ,koreiza1 as their affair was but a continuation of the war of ,ahzab1 and therefore does not require a separate number4 ,at ,mecca there was no action1 and it surrendered by a compromise4 ,as for ,tyif it was a part of the battle of ,honain like ,auts4 ,it was besieged to lay hold of the fugitives who had sought there a shelter1 and subsequently the siege was raised4 ,thus1 there remain only five expeditions1 which ,i have numbered out of nine1 in which ,mohammad fought against his enemies in his and his followers' defence4 ,even these five scarcely deserve the name of battle4 ,from a military point of view1 they were but petty skirmishes in their results4 ,the enemy's loss at ,badr was #di1 at ,ohad #bj1 at ,ahzb #c1 at ,khyber #ic1 and at ,honain #ic2 but the last two numbers are open to doubt1 and seem to be exaggerated4 ,the loss on the ,moslem side was #ad1 #gd1 #e1 #ai1 and #ag respectively4 ,the whole casualties in these wars on the side of the ,moslems were #abi1 and on that of the enemies #beh1 which is exactly double those of the ,moslems1 and looks suspicious2 hence it must be accepted with caution4 ,footnote #bj3 ,the biographers have only compiled or arranged the mass of popular romances and favourite tales of campaigns1 which had become stereotyped in their time1 but were for the most part the inventions of a playful fantasy4 ,footnote #ba3 ,musa-bin-,akba 7died #ada ,a4,h47 ,footnote #bb3 ,ibn ,sd and ,ibn ,is-hak as already alluded to4 ,sidenote3 ,mr4 ,green quoted4 #ae4 ,the ,rev4 ,samuel ,green writes3-- ,it has been insinuated that ,mahomet first took up arms in his own defence1 and by more than one historian he has been justified in seeking to repel or prevent the hostilities of his enemies1 and to exact a reasonable measure of retaliation4 ',the choice of an independent people1' says ,gibbon1 'had exalted the fugitive of ,mecca to the rank of a sovereign1 and he was invested with the just prerogative of forming alliances1 and of waging offensive or defensive war4'#bc ,that such a sentiment was entertained by a ,mahometan does not at all surprise us1 nor is it marvellous that it should be justified by an infidel2 if it be true1 war needs nothing to render laudable but the pretext of former injuries and the possession of power4 ,the defence set up for ,mahomet is equally availing for every sanguinary and revengeful tyrant2 and men1 instead of being bound together by the ties of clemency and mutual forgiveness of injuries1 are transformed into fiends1 watching for the opportunity of destroying each other4#bd ,there was no pretence of former injuries on the part of the ,moslems to make war on the ,koreish4 ,they were actually attacked by the ,koreish and were several times threatened with inroads by them and their allies4 ,so it was not until they were attacked by the enemy that they took up arms in their own defence1 and sought to repel and prevent hostilities of their enemies4 ,the defence set up for ,mohammad is not equally availing of every sanguinary and revengeful tyrant4 ,it was not only that ,mohammad was wronged or attacked1 but all the ,moslems suffered injuries and outrages at ,mecca1 and when expelled therefrom1 they were attacked upon1 were not allowed to return to their homes1 and to perform the pilgrimage there4 ,the social and religious liberty1 a natural right of every individual and nation1 was denied them4 ,a cruel or revengeful tyrant may not be justified in taking up arms in his own defence1 or in seeking to redress his personal wrongs and private injuries2 but the whole ,moslem community at ,mecca was outraged1 persecuted and expelled1--and the entire ,mohammadan commonwealth at ,medina was attacked1 injured and wronged1--their natural rights and privileges were disregarded--after such miseries the ,moslems took up arms to protect themselves from the hostilities of their enemies and to repel force by force2 and were justified by every law and justice4 ,the right of self-defence is a part of the law of nature1 and it is the indispensable duty of civil society to protect its members4 ,even if a sanguinary and revengeful tyrant were to do so in his own behalf1 he would be quite justified in this particular act4 ,a just war1 that is one undertaken for just causes to repel or revert wrongful force1 or to establish a right1 cannot be impeached on any ground1 religious1 moral1 or political4 ,but the ,moslems had tried every possible means of obtaining a pacific solution of the difficulty which had arisen between them and their enemies1 the ,koreish and the ,jews1 to avert war and its horrors4 ,mohammad had repeatedly informed the ,koreish that if they desist they will be forgiven4 #hh4 ,but if they desist1 then verily ,god is gracious1 merciful4 #ahi4 ,but if they desist1 then let there be no hostility1 save against wrong-doers4--,sura ,,ii4 #ai4 ,o ,meccans6 if ye desired a decision1 now hath the decision come to you4 ,it will be better for you to give over the struggle4 ,if ye return to it1 we will return2 and your forces1 though they be many1 shall by no means avail you aught1 because ,god is with the faithful4 #ci4 ,say to the infidels3 ,if they desist what is now past shall be forgiven them2 but if they turn to it1 they have already before them the doom of the former4--,sura ,,viii4 ,and the same was the case regarding the ,jews4 #ajd4 ,many of those who have ,scripture would like to bring you back to unbelief after you have believed1 out of selfish envy1 even after the truth hath been shown to them4 ,forgive them then1 and shun them till ,god shall come with his decree4 ,truly ,god hath power over all things4--,sura ,,ii4 #fc4 ,but if they lean to peace1 lean thou also to it2 and put thy trust in ,god4 ,he verily is the hearing1 the knowing4--,sura ,,viii4 #af4 444 ,thou wilt not cease to discover the treacherous ones among them1 except a few of them4 ,but forgive them and pass it over4 ,verily ,god loveth those who act generously4--,sura ,v4 ,but there could be no peace or mutual agreement on the part of the enemy until the truce of ,hodeibia1 which was also violated by them in a short time4 ,even in the wars which were waged for self-preservation1 the ,prophet had very much mitigated the evils which are necessarily inflicted in the progress of wars4 ,fraud1 perfidy1 cruelty1 killing women1 children and aged persons were forbidden by ,mohammad2#be and a kind treatment of the prisoners of war enjoined4 ,but foremost of these all--slavery1 and domestication of concubinary slaves1 the concomitant evils of war--were abolished by him1 ordering at the same time that prisoners of war should be either liberated gratis or ransomed4 ,neither they were to be enslaved nor killed4 7,vide ,sura ,,xlvii1 verses #d and #e2 and ,appendix ,b of this work47 ,attacking offensively was forbidden by the ,koran 7,,ii1 #ahf ,la ,taatad1 i4e4 ',do not attack first'74 ,mohammad had taken oaths from the ,moslems to refrain from plundering 7vide page #eh of this book74 ,all hostilities and plundering excursions between neighbouring tribes that had become ,musalman he forbade on pain of death2 and this among those who had hitherto lived by plunder or by war1 and who he knew might be deterred by such prohibition from joining him4 ',let us make one more expedition against the ,temim1' said a tribe that was almost1 but not altogether1 persuaded to embrace the faith1 'and then we will become ,musalmans4'#bf ,in avenging my injuries1 said he 7,mohammad71 molest not the harmless votaries of domestic seclusion2 spare the weakness of the softer sex1 the infant at the breast1 and those who in the course of nature are hastening from this scene of mortality4 ,abstain from demolishing the dwellings of the unresisting inhabitants2 destroy not their means of subsistence1 respect their fruit trees1 and touch not the palm1 so useful to the ,syrians for its shade1 and delightful for its verdure4#bg ,the ,bani ,bakr1 writes ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 meanwhile1 foreseeing from the practice of the ,prophet that1 under the new faith1 their mutual enmities would be stifled1 resolved upon a last passage of arms with their foes4 ,the battle of ,shaitain fought at the close of #fcj ,a4,d4 was a bloody and fatal one to the ,bani ,tamm4#bh ,footnote #bc3 ,decline and ,fall1 ,chap4 #a4 ,footnote #bd3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 founder of the religion of ,islamism and of the ,empire of the ,saracens1 by the ,rev4 ,samuel ,green1 page #abf3 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #be3 ,mohammad's instruction to ,abdal-,rahman was--,in no case shalt thou use deceit or perfidy1 nor shalt thou kill any child4--,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #bf3 ',quoted by ,dr4 ,cazenove1' ,christian ,remembrancer1 ,january1 #ahee1 page #ga1 from ,caussin de ,perceval4 ,mohammed ,mohammedanism4 ,by ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,second ,edn41 pp4 #beg #beh4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #bg3 ,an ,history of ,mohammedanism2 comprising the ,life and ,character of the ,arabian ,prophet2 by ,charles ,mills1 page #bg4 ,london #ahah4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,intro41 p4 ccxxvii4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,sidenote3 ,another view of the wars of ,mohammad4 #af4 ,there is another view of the wars of ,mohammad held by some of the ,european and ,american writers that he commenced hostilities on the caravans of the ,koreish which passed from ,medina by way of reprisal and retaliation1#bi and that he at first took up arms in his self-defence1 but at last he proclaimed1 and waged1 offensive wars against the ,koreish4#cj ,i have already shown how improbable the line of action was on the part of ,mohammad under the circumstances at ,medina2 and this line of policy is quite contrary to the several verses of the ,koran on the subject1 all enjoining the waging of wars in self-defence4 ,but supposing that hostilities were first commenced by ,mohammad after the ,hegira1 the state of war having commenced at the expulsion of the ,moslems from ,mecca1 it was lawful for him to take up arms to redress the wrongs of the ,moslems and to establish their lawful right by force of arms4 ,a war commenced on these grounds is a defensive war1 though from a military point of view it may be an offensive one4#ca ,the right of self-defence1 writes ,kent1 a great authority on the ,international ,law1 is part of the law of our nature1 and it is the indispensable duty of civil society to protect its members in the enjoyment of their rights1 both of person and property4 ,this is the fundamental principle of the social compact4444 ,the injury may consist1 not only in the direct violation of personal or political rights1 but in wrongfully withholding what is due1 or in the refusal of a reasonable reparation for injuries committed1 or of adequate explanation or security in respect to manifest and impending danger4#cb ,footnote #bi3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir doubts the intense hatred and bitter cruelty attributed by tradition to the ,koreish1 and says3 ,in accordance with this view is the fact that the first aggressions1 after the ,hegira1 were solely on the part of ,mahomet and his followers4 ,it was not until several of their caravans had been waylaid and plundered and blood had thus been shed that the people of ,mecca were forced in self-defence to resort to arms4 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bfe1 foot-note4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,this note disappears in the new edition of #ahgg4 ,in his work ,the ,coran1 page #bd1 ,london1 #ahgh1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir says3 ,the caravans of ,mecca offered a tempting opportunity for reprisals1 and several expeditions were organized against them4 ,footnote #cj3 ,mr4 ,g4 ,sale writes3 ,he gave out that ,god had allowed him and his followers to defend themselves against the infidels2 and at length1 as his forces increased1 he pretended to have the divine leave even to attack them4 ,the ,prelim4 ,dis4 ,sect4 #aa4 ,mr4 ,henry ,coppe writes regarding ,mohammad3 ,but he soon found that he must take up arms in self defence1 and in the thirteenth year of his mission1 he announced that ,god permitted him not only to fight in his self-defence1 but to propagate his religion by the sword4 ,history of the ,conquest of ,spain by the ,arab-,moors1 by ,henry ,coppe4 ,vol4 ,i1 page #ci4 ,boston1 #ahha4 ,but ,dr4 ,a4 ,sprenger makes the object of the wars of ,mohammad purely defensive4 ,he writes3--,the ,prophet now promulgated1 in the name of ,god1 the law to fight their enemies1 in order to put a stop to persecutions2 and this became henceforth the watchword of his bloody religion4 ,the ,life of ,mohammad1 p4 #bjg3 ,allahabad1 #ahea4 ,footnote #ca3 ,m4 ,bluntschili1 a modern authority on the ,international ,law1 holds3 ,a war undertaken for defensive motives is a defensive war1 notwithstanding that it may be militarily offensive4 ,the ,international ,law1 by ,william ,edward ,hall1 ,m4,a41 ,oxford1 #ahhj1 page #cbj4 ,footnote #cb3 ,kent's ,commentary on ,international ,law4 ,edited by ,j4,t4 ,abdy1 ,,ll4,d41 ,second ,edition1 page #add4 ,sidenote3 ,caravans1 if waylaid1 were by reprisal4 #ag4 ,as regards the threatened attack on the caravans or capturing of it1 there are not any satisfactory grounds of proof2 but if they were attacked and captured1 ,i do not see any reason why they should be objected to4 ,when hostilities commence1 the first objects that naturally present themselves for detection and seizure are the person and property of the enemy4 ,even under the ,international ,law of most civilized countries1 the legitimacy of appropriating the enemy's property rests on the commencement of the state of war4 ,under the old customs of war a belligerent possessed the right to seize and appropriate all the property belonging to an enemy's state or its subjects1 of whatever kind they be or in whatsoever place where the acts of war are permissible4 ,so those who object to the early ,moslems' threatening1 or capturing1 or appropriating the person or property of the enemy1 and call them robbery1 rapine or brigandage1 show their complete ignorance of the ,international ,law1 ancient or modern4 ,sidenote3 ,intolerance--no compulsory conversion enjoined1 or took place during ,mohammad's life-time4 #ah4 ,the subject of the alleged intolerance on the part of ,mohammad1 the ,prophet1 towards the unbelievers has been fully discussed in paragraphs #cd-ci 7pp4 #da-ea74 ,it is altogether a wrong assumption of ,european writers that the ,koran enjoins compulsory conversion of the unbeliever1 or that ,mohammad proselytized at the point of the sword4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3-- ,sidenote3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted4 ,persecution1 though it may sometimes have deterred the timid from joining his ranks1 was eventually of unquestionable service to ,mahomet4 ,it furnished a plausible excuse for casting aside the garb of toleration2 for opposing force to force against those who obstructed the ways of the ,lord2 and last of all for the compulsory conversion of unbelievers4#cc ,opposing force to force and even redressing our wrongs and re-establishing our imperilled rights is not 'intolerance4' ,mohammad did repel the force of his enemies when it was quite necessary for the ,moslem self-preservation and protection1 but he never compelled any of his enemies or unbelievers1 whether a single individual1 or a body of men1 or a whole tribe1 to believe in him4 ,the ,koran and history contradict such an allegation4 ,the ,koran everywhere in the ,meccan and ,medinite ,suras preaches complete toleration of every religion4 ,history nowhere authentically records any instance of ,mohammad's enforcing conversion by means of the sword4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet from original sources1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,edition1 page #fh1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,see also page #eg of the same4 ,sidenote3 ,a brief sketch of the propagation of ,islam at ,mecca4 ,sidenote3 ,conversion at ,nakhla4 #ai4 ,mohammad propagated his religion both at ,mecca and ,medina before1 as well as after1 the ,hegira1 by persuasion and preaching sustained by reasonable evidence4 ,it prevailed against all persecution and opposition of the ,koreish and ,jews4 ,in fact1 it flourished and prospered under the severe persecutions and crushing oppositions by the mere dint of its own truth4#cd ,sometimes the persecution of the ,koreish itself was the cause of conversion to the ,moslem faith4#ce ,the number of converts during the first three years after the assumption by ,mohammad of his prophetical office is estimated at fifty4 ,then commenced the general persecution and the overwhelming opposition4 ,mohammad had1 in order to prosecute his endeavours peaceably and without interruption1 occupied the house of ,arqam1 one of his early converts1 and there preached and recited the ,koran to those who used to be conducted to him4 ,a great multitude believed therein2 but the brunt of the jealousy and enmity of the ,koreish fell upon the converted slaves1 as well as upon strangers and believers among the lower classes1 who had no patron nor protector4 ,some believers1 sixteen in number1 had already left for ,abyssinia4 ,some came back and brought tidings of their kind reception there4 ,at this time about a hundred ,moslems emigrated to ,abyssinia4#cf ,this shows the increasing number of the converts1 who represented for the most part fugitives of ,mecca4 ,there were some ,christian converts to ,islam at ,abyssinia also4#cg ,the ,koreish being disquieted by the hospitable reception of the refugees at ,abyssinia1 and enraged by the refusal of ,najashee to surrender them1 sought to stay the progress of secession from their ranks by utterly severing the party of the ,prophet from social and friendly communication with them4 ,in the seventh year of the ,prophet's mission the ban commenced1 and lasted for full three years4 ,there could be very few conversions during the period of this weary seclusion4 ,the efforts of the ,prophet were chiefly confined to the conversions of the members of his own noble clan1 the ,bani ,hshim1 who1 though unbelievers in his mission1 had resolved to defend his person1 and were with him in their confinement4 ,the time of pilgrimage alone afforded ,mohammad a wider field4 ,he preached against idolatry at the fairs and assemblages of the pilgrims#ch4 ,after his release from imprisonment in the tenth year of his mission1 he went to preach at ,tyif1 but was ignominiously expelled the city#ci4 ,on his return to ,mecca he converted a party of the tribe of ,jinn#dj 7not ,genii according to the vulgar notion7#da at ,nakhla4 ,after his return from ,tyif he preached to an audience of six or seven persons from ,medina1 who believed and spread ,islam there4 ,footnote #cd3 ,i do not mean to say that flourishing under persecution is a convincing proof of the divine origin of a religion4 ,not that a religion established by force is altogether of human invention4 ,almost all religions are divine however they may have been established1 but flourishing under opposition and persecution is a natural course4 ,christianity suffered from persecutions and other harrowing evils for #cjj years1 after which time it was established1 and paganism abolished by public authority1 which has had great influence in the propagation of the one and destruction of the other ever since4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the severity and injustice of the ,cureish1 overshooting the mark1 aroused personal and family sympathies2 unbelievers sought to avert or to mitigate the sufferings of the followers of the ,prophet2 and in so doing they were sometimes themselves gained over to his side4 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,second ,edition1 page #fh4 ,footnote #cf3 ,among them were the representatives of the following tribes or clans of the ,koreish1 the ,hshimites1 ,omiyyiads1 ,bani ,abd ,shams1 ,bani ,asad1 ,bani ,abd bin ,kosyy1 ,bani ,abd-ud-,dr1 ,bani ,zohr1 ,bani ,taym bin ,morra1 the ,mukwhumites1 the ,jomahites1 and the ,bani ,sahm4 ,vide ,sprenger1 page #aij1 ,allahabad1 #ahea4 ,footnote #cg3 ,vide ,hishamee1 page #bei4 ,an allusion to these converts may be found in ,sura ,v1 verses #he and #hf1 if it does not refer to those of ,najrn4 ,footnote #ch3 ,he preached to the following tribes among others3--,bani ,aamr bin ,sasaa1 ,bani ,mohrib1 ,bani ,hafasa 7or ,khafasa71 ,bani ,fezra1 ,bani ,ghassn1 ,bani ,kalb1 ,bani ,hris1 ,bani ,kab1 ,bani ,ozra1 ,bani ,murra1 ,bani ,hanifa1 ,bani ,suleim1 ,bani ,abs1 ,bani ,nazr1 ,bani ,bakka1 ,bani ,kinda1 and ,bani ,khozaimah4 ,footnote #ci3 ,there is something lofty and heroic in this journey of ,mahomet to ,tyif2 a solitary man1 despised and rejected by his own people1 going boldly forth in the name of ,god1--like ,jonah to ,nineveh--and summoning an idolatrous city to repentance and to the support of his mission4 ,it sheds a strong light on the intensity of his own belief in the divine origin of his calling4--,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bjg4 ,footnote #dj3 ,the ,arabs also had a similar clan named ,bani ,shaitn1 a clan of the ,hinzala tribe1 the descendants of ,tamim1 through ,zeid ,monat of the ,moaddite stock4 ,the ,bani ,shaitn 7the children of ,satan7 dwelt near ,kfa4--,vide ,qalqashandi's ,dictionary of ,arab ,tribes4 ,footnote #da3 ,sura ,,xlvi1 verses #bh1 #bi4 ,these people were from ,nisibin and ,nineveh in ,mesopotamia4 ,they were ,chaldeans1 soothsayers1 and cabalists4 ,in the book of ,daniel the ,chaldeans are classed with magicians and astronomers1 and evidently form a sort of the priest class who have a peculiar tongue and learning 7,dan4 ,i4 #d74 ,in ,arabic1 persons of similar professions were called ,kahins4 ,some of this class of people pretended to receive intelligence of what was to come to pass from certain satans or demons1 whom they alleged to hear what passed in the heavens4 ,others pretended to control the stars by enchanting them4 ,they produced eclipses of the sun and moon by their alleged efficiency in their own enchantments4 ,they practised astrology as well as astronomy and fortune-telling4 ,it appears that the ,chaldeans 7,kaldai or ,kaldi7 were in the earliest times merely one out of the many ,cushite tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterwards as ,chaldea or ,babylonia4 ,in process of time as the ,kaldi grew in power1 their name prevailed over that of the other tribes inhabiting the country2 and by the era of the ,jewish captivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabitants of ,babylonia4 ,it had thus come by this time to have two senses1 both ethnic3 in the one1 it was the special appellative of a particular race to whom it had belonged from the remotest times2 in the other1 it designated the nation at large in which the race was predominant4 ,afterwards it was transferred from an ethnic to a mere restricted sense1 from the name of a people to that of a priest caste or sect of philosophers4 ,the ,kaldi proper belonged to the ,cushite race4 ,while both in ,assyria and in ,babylonia1 the sernitic type of speech prevailed for special purposes1 the ancient ,cushite dialect was purely reserved for scientific and religious literature4 ,this is no doubt the learning and the tongue to which reference is made in the ,bible 7,dan4 ,i4 #d74 ,it became gradually inaccessible to the great mass of people who had emigrated by means1 chiefly1 of ,assyrian influence4 ,but it was the ,chaldean learning in the old ,chaldean or ,cushite language4 ,hence all who studied it1 whatever their origin or race1 were1 on account of their knowledge1 termed ,chaldeans4 ,in this sense ,daniel himself1 the master of ,chaldeans 7,dan4 ,v4 #aa471 would1 no doubt1 have been reckoned among them1 and so we find ,seleucas1 a ,greek1 called a ,chaldean by ,strabo 7,,xvi4 #a1 #f74 ,the ,chaldeans were really a learned class1 who by their acquaintance with the language of science became its depositaries4 ,they were priests1 magicians or astronomers1 as their preference for one or other of those occupations inclined them2 and in the last of these three capacities they probably effected discoveries of great importance4 ,the ,chaldeans1 it would appear1 congregated into bodies forming what we may perhaps call universities1 and they all engaged together in it for their progress4 ,they probably mixed up to some extent astrology with their astronomy1 even in the earlier times1 but they certainly made great advance in astronomical science to which their serene sky and transparent atmosphere specially invited them4 ,in later times they seem certainly to have degenerated into mere fortune-tellers 7vide ,smith's ,dict4 of the ,bible1 ,art4 ,chaldeans74 ,in their practice of astromancy or enchanting the stars1 and in pretending to overhear what passed in the heavens1 they1 the ,jinns1 used to sit on the tops of lofty mansions at night-time for hours offering sacrifices to the stars and enchanting them4 ,in their peculiar tongue and learning they called this practice stealing a hearing and sitting for listening 7,suras ,,xv1 verse #ag1 and ,,lxxii1 verses #h1 #i74 ,now at the time of ,mohammad's assuming the ,prophet's office there had been an unusually grand display of numerous falling stars1 which at certain periods are known to be specially abundant4 ,at the same time there were good many comets visible in different parts of heavens1 which certainly might have smitten with terror these ,jinns1 i4e41 the astromancers and soothsayers4 ,there was one comet visible in #fjb ,a4,d41 and other two appeared in #fje ,a4,d4 ,in #fjg ,a4,d4 two more comets were visible2 another one appeared in #fjh ,a4,d4 ,each of the years #fad and #fae had one comet4 ,there were also comets visible in #fag ,a4,d4 7vide ,chambers's ,descriptive ,astronomy74 ,these comets are most probably noticed in the contemporary record 7i4e4 the ,koran74 ,a comet is called ,tariq1 or night comer1 in ,sura ,,lxxxvi1 verse #a2 and described as the star of piercing radiance4 7,annajmus ,saqib4 ,ibid #c47 ,the ,kahins were very much alarmed at the stupendous phenomena of the falling stars and the comets2 and had stopped their soothsaying and divinations4 ,whenever they used to sit on their places of listening1 enchanting1 and divination during night-time1 looking at the heavens1 their eyes met with showers of shooting stars and brilliant comets which bewildered them very much4 ,it is said that the first whose attention was attracted to the unusual shooting stars was a clan of the ,sakeefites of ,us-,tayif 7,ibn ,hisham1 page #aca74 ,these ,jinns1 when they were converted to ,islam at ,nakhla near ,tayif1 expressed their bewilderment from the unusual shower of falling stars and the appearance of numerous comets in their peculiar language3-- ,the heaven did we essay but found it filled with mighty garrison and of darting flames4 ,we sat on some of the seats to listen1 but whoever now listeneth findeth a darting flame in ambush for him4 ,we know not whether evil be meant for them that are on earth1 or whether their ,lord meaneth true guidance for them4--,sura ,,lxxii1 verses #h-aj4 ,so the pretenders of hearing the discourses of heavenly bodies being quite harassed by the extraordinary showers of the falling stars1 and the appearances of numerous comets1 had stopped their divination4 ,this was taken notice of in the ,koran3-- ,they overhear not exalted chiefs1 and they are darted from every side4 ,driven off and consigned to a lasting torment2 while if one steal by stealth then a glistering flame pursueth him4--,sura ,,xxxvii1 verses #h-aj4 ,save such as steal a hearing1 and him do visible flames pursue4--,sura ,,xv1 verse #ah4 ,the satans were not sent down with this ,koran4 ,it beseemed them not1 and they had not the power4 ,for they are far removed from the hearing4--,sura ,,xxvi1 verses #baj-bab4 ,as an instance of terror and bewilderment caused by meteors and shooting stars among credulous people1 ,i will quote the following anecdote3 ,about the middle of the tenth century an epidemic terror of the end of the world had spread over ,christendom4 ,the scene of the last judgment was expected to be in ,jerusalem4 ,in the year #iii the number of pilgrims proceeding eastwards1 to await the coming of the ,lord in that city1 was so great that they were compared to a desolating army4 ,during the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased4 ,every phenomenon of nature filled them with terror4 ,a thunderstorm sent them all upon their knees4 ,every meteor in the sky seen at ,jerusalem brought the whole ,christian population into the streets to weep and pray4 ,the pilgrims on the road were in the same alarm4 ,every shooting star furnished occasion for a sermon1 in which the sublimity of the approaching judgment was the principal topic 7vide ,extraordinary ,popular ,delusions by ,charles ,mackay1 ,,ll4,d41 ,london1 pp4 #bbb and #bbc74 ,it was a conceit or imposture of the ,kahins to pretend that their demons had access to the outskirts of the heavens1 and by assiduous eavesdropping secured some of the secrets of the upper world and communicated the same to the soothsayers or diviners upon earth4 ,the ,jews had a similar notion of the demons 7schedim71 learning the secrets of the future by listening behind the veil 7pargd74 ,the ,koran falsified them in their assertions4 ,it says that the heavens 7or the stars7 are safe and protected against the eavesdropping 7or enchantments7 of the soothsayers4 ,we have set the signs of ,zodiac in the heavens1 and we have decked them forth for the bewilders4 ,and we guard them from every stoned satan4--,sura ,,xv1 verses #af1 #ag4 ,verily we have adorned the lower heaven with the adornment of the stars2 ,and we have guarded them against every rebellious satan4--,sura ,,xxxvii1 verses #f1 #g4 444 ,and we have furnished the lower heaven with lights and have protected it4444--,sura ,,xli1 verse #aa4 ,the ,koran further says that the soothsayers impart to their votaries or to those who go to consult them what they have heard from other people and are liars3-- ,they impart what they have heard1 but most of them are liars4--,sura ,,xxvi1 verse #bbc4 ,it is nowhere said in the ,koran that the stars are darted or hurled at the ,satans4 ,sura ,,lxvii1 verse #e1 literally means1 of a surety we have decked the lower heaven with lights and have made them to be 7means of7 ',rojm' conjectures to the 7or for the7 devils1 i4e4 the astrologer4 ,the primary meaning of ,rajm is a thing that is thrown or cast like a stone3 pl4 ',rojm1' but it generally means speaking of that which is hidden1 or conjecturing or speaking by conjecture1 as in ,sura ,,xviii1 verse #ba4 ,in ,sura ,,xix1 verse #dg1 the word ,la-arjomannaka has been explained both ways1 meaning 7#a7 ,i will assuredly cast stones at thee1 and 7#b7 ,i will assuredly say of thee1 7though7 speaking of that which is hidden 7from me7 or unknown 7by me71 what thou dislikest or hatest4 ,vide ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 page #ajdh4 ,sidenote3 ,rapid stride of ,islam at ,medina4 #bj4 ,next year twelve new converts were made from persons who had come to see the ,prophet from ,medina4 ,they returned as missionaries of ,islam1 and ,islam spread rapidly in ,medina from house to house and from tribe to tribe4 ,the ,jews looked on in amazement at the people whom they had in vain endeavoured from generations to convince of the errors of polytheism1 and to dissuade from the abominations of their idolatry1 suddenly of their own accord casting away idols and professing belief in the one ,true ,god4#db ,thus speedily without let or hindrance1 force or compulsion1 did ,islam take firm root at ,medina and attain to a full and mature growth4 ,there remained not a single house among the ,aws and ,khazraj tribes#dc of ,medina in which there were not believing men and women1 excepting the branch of the ,aws ,allah1 who were not converts till after the siege of ,medina4 ,at this time there were many ,moslems in ,mecca1 ,medina1 and ,abyssinia1 and not a single one of them could be said to have been converted to ,islam by compulsion3 on the contrary1 they were used to be forced to renounce ,islam4 ,footnote #db3 ,after five centuries of ,christian evangelization1 we can point to but a sprinkling here and there of ,christian converts2--the ,bani ,hrith of ,najrn3 the ,bani ,hanfa of ,yemma2 some of the ,bani ,tay at ,tayma1 and hardly any more4 ,judaism1 vastly more powerful1 had exhibited a spasmodic effort of proselytizm under ,dzu ,nows2 but1 as an active and converting agent the ,jewish faith was no longer operative4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,i1 page ccxxxix4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the ,aws or ,khazraj were two branches of the ,azdite tribes of ,yemen from the ,kahlanite stock4 ,after their emigration to the ,north they separated themselves from the ,ghassinides and returned to ,medina1 where they settled4 ,sidenote3 ,the increasing number of ,moslem converts at ,mecca after the ,hegira4 #ba4 ,when the ,moslems were obliged to emigrate from ,mecca under the severe ,koreishite persecutions1 all the followers of the ,prophet with the exception of those detained in confinement or unable to escape from slavery had emigrated with their families to ,medina4 ,but there were many new converts at ,mecca since the expulsion of the ,moslems4 ,those unable to fly from ,mecca in the teeth of the oppressions of the wrathful ,koreish 7,sura ,,iv41 #gg1 #gi1 #ajj7 were increasing4 ,they appealed for deliverance and aid1 while the ,moslem pilgrims were near ,mecca at ,hodeibia1 six years after the ,hegira1 and an allusion is made to the great number of the ,meccan converts1 living at ,mecca during that time in ,sura ,,xlviii1 #be4 ,sidenote3 ,disturbed state of the public peace among the tribes surrounding ,medina4 ,internecine wars an obstacle to the propagation of ,islam4 #bb4 ,irrespective of the wars prosecuted by the ,koreish from the ,south against ,mohammad at ,medina1 and the constant danger of inroad and attack upon ,medina from the neighbouring tribes--a great obstacle in the propagation of ,islam which could only be successfully accomplished in a state of peace and tranquility of both parties1--the most important and great tribes in the ,north and ,centre of ,arabia were at war against each other during the life of ,mohammad1 either before his mission from #egj to #faj ,a4,d4 or during his public mission from #faj to #fcb ,a4,d4 ,the disastrous internecine wars were kept up for scores of years and the evils necessarily inflicted in their progress were not confined to the belligerents only4 ,it required years to remove the evils of war and to efface the traces of misery and sorrow the wars had brought4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,the same remarks apply to the wars fought during ,mohammad's lifetime but before his public mission4 #bc4 ,here ,i will give a brief sketch of the internecine wars which took place among the various ,arab tribes during the time of ,mohammad4 99,wars during ,mohammad's ,lifetime1 between the ,arabian ,tribes in the ,north and ,centre of ,arabia499 ,before his mission1 #egj-faj1 ,a4,d4 7#a47 ,the battle of ,rahrahn between ,bani ,aamir bin ,saasaa and ,bani ,tamim in ,najd1 #egh1 ,a4,d4 7#b47 ,the ,bani ,abs on the side of ,bani ,aamir and ,bani ,zobian on the side of ,tamim1 #egi1 ,a4,d41 at ,sheb ,jabala4 7#c47 ,sacrilegious war at ,tyif called ,harb fi-jr1 #ehj-eij1 ,a4,d4 7#d47 ,several battles between ,bani ,bakr and ,tamim in #fjd1 ,a4,d4 and the following years4 ,during his mission4 7,a7--,while at ,mecca1 #faj-fbb1 ,a4,d4 7#a47 ,the war of ,dhis between ,bani ,abs and ,zobian1 the branches of ,ghatafn in ,central ,arabia2 lasted forty years1 #efh to #fji1 ,a4,d4 7#b47 ,the battle of ,z-kr between the ,bani ,bakr and the ,persians in the ,kingdom of ,hira1 #faa1 ,a4,d4 7#c47 ,the ,bani ,kinda and ,bani ,hris attacked ,bath ,tamim when they had retired to ,kulb in the confines of ,yemen and repulsed them4 7#d47 ,the ,bani ,aws and ,khazraj of ,medina were at war4 ,the battle of ,bos was fought in #fae1 ,a4,d4 ,the ,bani ,aws were assisted by two tribes of ,ghassan1 by ,mozeima and the ,jewish tribes ,nazeer and ,koreiza4 ,the ,bani ,khazraj were supported by ,joheina1 ,ashja and the ,jews of ,kainuka4 7,b7--,while at ,medina1 #fbb to #fcb1 ,a4,d4 7#a47 ,the standing warfare between the ,bani ,hawzin and the ,bani ,abs1 ,zobian1 and ,ashja of ,ghatafn was kept up by assassinations and petty engagements till they become converts to ,islam4 7#b47 ,the ,koreish fought two battles of ,badr and ,ohad against the ,moslems at ,medina in #fbd and #fbe1 ,a4,d41 respectively4 7#c47 ,several clans of the great ,ghatafn family 7the ,bani ,murra1 ,ashja and ,fezra7 the ,bani ,suleim and ,sd1 a branch of ,hawzin1 and ,bani ,asad from ,najd ,bedouin tribes1 and ,bani ,koreiza the ,jews1 had besieged ,medina in #fbg1 ,a4,d41 in confederation with the ,koreish4 7#d47 ,bani ,tamim and ,bani ,bakr renewed their hostilities1 and from #fae to #fcj1 ,a4,d41 several battles occurred between them4 ,the last battle was that of ,shaitain in #fcj1 ,a4,d4 ,in this year1 after the battle1 both the tribes were converted to ,islam4 7#e47 ,the ,bani ,ghaus and ,jadila branches of ,bani ,tay in the north of ,medina warred against each other4 ,the war of ,fasd continued twenty-five years till they embraced ,islam in #fcb1 ,a4,d4 ,sidenote3 ,spread of ,islam in the surrounding tribes at ,medina after the ,hegira ,i-,,vi4 #bd4 ,during the six eventful years of ,mohammad's sojourn at ,medina1 from the ,hegira to the truce of ,hodeibia1 where he was every year attacked or threatened by other hostile ,arab tribes1 acting always in self-defence1 he had converted several members or almost entire tribes residing round ,medina4 ,among them were the following3-- #a4 ,the ,bani ,aslam4#de #b4 ,joheina4#df #c4 ,mozeina4#dg #d4 ,ghifr4#dh #e4 ,saad-bin-,bakr4#di #f4 ,bani ,ashja4#ej ,we never find a single instance even in the ,maghzis 7accounts of the campaigns of ,mohammad1 however untrustworthy they be7 of ,mohammad's converting any person1 families1 or branches of tribes by the scimitar in one hand and the ,koran in the other4 ,footnote #de3 ,the ,bani ,aslam tribe settled north of ,medina in the valley of ,wady-al-,koraa4 ,they were a branch of the ,kozaaite tribes descended from ,himyar4 ,footnote #df3 ,joheina were a branch of ,kozaa1 the descendants of ,himyar4 ,this tribe inhabited in the vicinity of ,yenbo1 north of ,medina4 ,footnote #dg3 ,mozeina were a tribe of the ,moaddite stock of ,mecca4 ,they inhabited in ,najd1 north-east of ,medina4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ghifr were sons of ,moleil-bin-,zamra1 the descendants of ,kinna1 one of the ,moaddite tribes4 ,footnote #di3 ,saad-bin-,bakr were a branch of ,hawazin4 ,mohammad had been nursed among them4 ,footnote #ej3 ,the ,bani ,ashja were a branch of the ,ghatafn of the ,meccan stock of the ,moaddites4 ,the ,bani ,ashja appear all to have been hostile to ,mohammad4 ,they fought against the ,prophet at the siege of ,medina with four hundred warriors in their contingent4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir says1 ,the ,bani ,ashj1 who had joined in the siege of ,medina1 gave in their adhesion shortly after the massacre of the ,coreitza2 they told ,mahomet that they were so pressed by his warring against them1 that they could stand out no longer4--,k4 ,wackidi1 page #fj4 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 #ajg1 footnote4 ,this story is altogether false4 ,we never hear of ,mohammad warring against ,bani ,ashja2 on the contrary1 they had themselves invaded ,medina4 ,sidenote3 ,mecca a barrier against the conversion of the southern tribes4 #be4 ,up to this time1 notwithstanding the persecutions1 exiles and wars against ,islam1 it had spread by the mere force of persuasion among the ,meccans1 some of whom had emigrated to ,abyssinia and most to ,medina1 the whole of the influential tribes of ,aws and ,khazraj at ,medina1 as well as among the ,jews there1 and among some of the tribes in the north1 and east of ,medina and the centre of ,arabia4 ,but as ,mecca in the south had declared war against ,islam1 most of the ,arab tribes connected somehow with the ,meccans1 and those inhabiting the southern and south-eastern parts of ,arabia1 to whom ,mecca served geographically as a barrier1 watched the proceedings of the war and the fate of ,islam1 and had no opportunity of coming to ,medina to embrace ,islam1 nor of having friendly intercourse with the ,moslems1 nor of receiving ,mohammadan missionaries in the face of the wars waged by the ,koreish who were looked upon as the guardians of the ,kaaba1 the spiritual or religious centre of the idolatrous ,arabs4 ,at the end of the last or the fifth year many ,bedouin tribes1 among whom might be counted the ,bani ,ashja1 ,murra1 ,fezara1 ,suleim1 ,sad-bin-,bakr and ,bani ,asad1 had furnished several thousand ,arabs to the ,koreish for the siege of ,medina4 ,only when the aggressions of the ,koreish against the ,moslems were suspended that the warring tribes and those of the ,central1 ,southern and ,eastern ,arabia could think of what they had heard of the reasonable preaching of ,islam against their idolatry and superstitions4 ,sidenote3 ,tribal conversions in the sixth year4 #bf4 ,since the truce of ,hodeibia at the end of the sixth year after the ,hegira ,mecca was opened for intercourse1 where there were some more and fresh conversions4 ,the ,bani ,khozaa1 descendants of ,azd1 were converted to ,islam at the truce of ,hodeibia4 ,at the pilgrimage in the following year some influential men of ,mecca adopted ,islam4 ,the movement was not confined to these leading men1 but was wide and general4 ,in the seventh year the following tribes were converted to ,islam and their deputations joined ,mohammad at ,khyber3 #a4 ,bani ,ashr4#ea #b4 ,khushain4#eb #c4 ,dous4#ec ,sidenote3 ,conversions among several other tribes of the ,north and ,north-east in ,a4,h41 #h4 ,during the same year ,mohammad converted several other tribes in the north and north-east of ,arabia4 ,among them were-- #a4 ,bani ,abs4 #b4 ,zobin4 #c4 ,murra4 #d4 ,fezara4#ed #e4 ,suleim4#ee #f4 ,ozra4 #g4 ,bali4 #h4 ,juzm4#ef #i4 ,slaba4#eg #aj4 ,abdul ,kays4#eh #aa4 ,bani ,tamim4#ei #ab4 ,bani ,asad4#fj ,footnote #ea3 ,the ,bani ,ash-r inhabited ,jedda4 ,they were of the ,kahlnite stock1 the descendants of ,al-,azd4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the ,bani ,khushain were a clan of ,koza1 of ,himiarite stock4 ,footnote #ec3 ,the ,bani ,dous belong to the ,azdite tribe of the stock of ,kahtn4 ,they lived at some distance south of ,mecca4 ,they had joined ,mohammad at ,khyber4 ,footnote #ed3 ,these were the sub-tribes of ,ghatafn of the ,meccan stock4 ,the chief families of ,ghatafn were the ,bani ,ashja1 ,zobian1 and the ,bani ,abs4 ,murra and ,fezra were the branches of ,zobian4 ,they all inhabited ,najd4 ,uyenia1 the chief of the ,bani ,fezra1 had committed an inroad upon ,medina in ,a4,h4 #f4 ,in the same year the ,bani ,fezra had waylaid a ,medina caravan and plundered it4 ,footnote #ee3 ,the ,bani ,suleim1 a branch of the ,bani ,khasafa and a sister tribe to ,hawzin1 who lived near ,mecca1 and in whose charge1 ,mohammad1 when but an infant1 was placed1 were also a tribe of the ,meccan stock descended through ,khasafa from ,mozar and ,modd4 ,bani ,suleim1 like ,bani ,murra and ,fezra1 branches of ,ghatafn1 had long continued to threaten ,mohammad with attacks4 ,the ,bani ,suleim having joined ,aamir bin ,tofeil1 chief of ,bani ,aamir1 a branch of the tribe of ,hawzin with their clans ,usseya1 ,ril1 and ,zakawn1 had cut to pieces a party of ,moslem missionaries at ,bir ,mauna1 invited by ,abu ,bera ,amr ibn ,mlik1 a chief of the ,bani ,aamir1 who had pledged for their security4 ,the ,bani ,suleim had joined also the ,koreish army at the siege of ,medina4 ,in the seventh year1 they had slain another body of ,moslem missionaries sent to them4 ,footnote #ef3 ,the ,bani ,ozra were a tribe of ,koza1 like ,joheina4 ,they1 together with the ,bani ,bali and ,juzm1 inhabited the north of ,arabia in the part of the territory belonging to ,ghassan4 ,the family of ,himyar1 descendants from ,kahtn in ,yemen1 had flourished through the line of ,koza1 the ,bani ,ozza1 ,joheina and other important tribes to the north of the ,peninsula on the border of ,syria4 ,it has been quoted by ,sir ,w4 ,muir from ,katib ,wakidi that the chief of the ,bani ,juzm carried back to them a letter from ,mohammad to this tenor3 ,whoever accepteth the call of ,islam1 he is among the confederates of the ,lord2 whoever refuseth the same1 a truce of two months is allowed for him for consideration4 7,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ajg1 foot-note74 ,the words for consideration are not in the original ,arabic4--,vide ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #ifc4 ,it is not clear what was meant by the two months' truce he was advised to give them1 to make terms before he could commence hostilities1 if the tradition for which there is no authority be true4 ,this has nothing to do with their compulsory conversions4 ,footnote #eg3 ,salaba was a branch of the ,zobin4 ,footnote #eh3 ,the ,bani ,abd-ul-,kays are a ,moaddite tribe1 the descendants of ,rabia4 ,they inhabited ,bahrein on the ,persian ,gulf4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the ,bani ,tamim were branch of ,tbikha1 a tribe of the ,moaddite stock of ,mecca and a sister tribe of ,mozeina4 ,they are famous in the history of ,najd1 a province north-east of ,medina1 from the confines of ,syria to ,yemen4 ,some of these branches were with ,mohammad at the expeditions to ,mecca and ,honain4 ,all the branches of the tribes that had not yet embraced ,islam were now converted4 ,footnote #fj3 ,the ,bani ,asad ibn ,khozeima were a powerful tribe residing near the hill of ,katan in ,najd4 ,they were of the ,moaddite tribe of the ,meccan stock4 ,tuleiba1 their chief1 had assembled a force of cavalry and rapid camel-drivers to make a raid upon ,medina in ,a4,h4 #d4 ,they were dispersed by the ,moslems4 ,in the next year they joined the ,koreish in the siege of ,medina4 ,sidenote3 ,surrender of ,mecca4 ,a4,h41 #h4 #bg4 ,the position of ,islam at ,mecca was greatly strengthened since the truce in ,a4,h4 #f1 by increase in the number of ,moslems1 influential and leading1 as well as of persons of minor note and importance there1 consequently the advocates of ,islam1 peace and compromise were growing in number and confidence4 ,among the idolatrous ,koreish there were no chiefs of marked ability or commanding influence left at ,mecca2 almost all of them had gone over to the cause of ,islam4 ,in the meantime the infraction of the terms of the truce by the ,bani ,bakr and ,koreish caused the surrender of ,mecca without bloodshed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,meccans not compelled to believe4 #bh4 ,though ,mecca had surrendered1 all its inhabitants had not already become converts to ,islam4 ,mohammad did not take any compulsory means to convert the people3 ,although the city had cheerfully accepted his supremacy1 writes ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 all its inhabitants had not yet embraced the new religion1 or formally acknowledged his prophetical claim4 ,perhaps he intended to follow the course he had pursued at ,medina and leave the conversion of the people to be gradually accomplished without compulsion4#fa ,footnote #fa3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #acf4 ,those who had newly joined the ,moslem ,camp at ,mecca to repel the threatening gathering of ,hawzin1 and those of them who preferred submission to the authority of ,mohammad1 are called by ,sir ,w4 ,muir his new converts4 7,,iv41 #adi74 ,but in fact they were not called believers4 ,they are called simply ,muallafa ,qolubohum in the ,koran 7,,ix41 #fj7 which means whose hearts are to be won over4 ,sidenote3 ,the wholesale conversion of the remaining tribes in ,a4,h41 #i #aj4 #bi4 ,now it was more than twenty years that the ,koran had been constantly preached to the surrounding tribes of ,arabs at ,mecca at the time of fairs#fb and at the annual pilgrimage gatherings1#fc by ,mohammad1 and by special missionaries of ,islam from ,medina1 and through the reports of the travellers and merchants coming and going from ,mecca and ,medina to all parts of ,arabia4 ,the numbers of different distant tribes1 clans and branches had spread the tidings of ,islam4 ,there were individual converts in most of the tribes4 ,those tribes already not brought over to ,islam were ready to embrace it under the foregoing circumstances4 ,idolatry1 simple and loathsome1 had no power against the attacks of reason displayed in the doctrines of the ,koran4 ,but the idolatrous ,koreish opposed and attacked ,islam with persecution and the sword1 and strengthened idolatry with earthly weapons4 ,the distant pagan tribes on the side of the ,koreish1 geographically or genealogically1 were prevented by them from embracing the new faith4 ,as soon as the hostilities of the ,koreish were suspended at the truce of ,hodeibia1 the ,arabs commenced to embrace ,islam as already described1 and no sooner they surrendered and ,kaaba#fd stripped of its idols--and the struggle of spiritual supremacy between idolatry and ,islam was practically decided--all the remaining tribes on the south and east who had not hitherto adhered to ,islam hastened to embrace it hosts after hosts during the #ith and #ajth year of the ,hegira4 ,footnote #fb3 ,okz between ,tyif and ,nakhla4 ,mujanna in the vicinity of ,marr-al ,zahrn1 and ,zul-,majz behind ,arafat1 both near ,mecca4 ,footnote #fc3 ,from time immemorial1 tradition represents ,mecca as the scene of a yearly pilgrimage from all quarters of ,arabia3--from ,yemen1 ,hadhramaut and the shores of the ,persian ,gulph1 from the deserts of ,syria1 and from the distant environs of ,hra and ,mesopotamia4--,muir1 ,i1 ccxi4 ,footnote #fd3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir thinks3 ,the possession of ,mecca now imparted a colour of right to his pretensions2 for ,mecca was the spiritual centre of the country1 to which the tribes from every quarter yielded a reverential homage4 ,the conduct of the annual pilgrimage1 the custody of the holy house1 the intercalation of the year1 the commutation at will of the sacred months1--institutions which affected all ,arabia1--belonged by ancient privilege to the ,coreish and were now in the hands of ,mahomet4444 ,moreover1 it had been the special care of ,mahomet artfully to interweave with the reformed faith all essential parts of the ancient ceremonial4 ,the one was made an inseparable portion of the other4--,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #afi4 ,but the remaining tribes who had not hitherto embraced ,islam1 and the chiefs of the ,southern and ,eastern ,arabia1 did not adopt ,islam1 because ,mohammad possessed ,mecca1 a position of no political supremacy4 ,no paramount authority throughout the ,peninsula had ever been vested in the chief who possessed ,mecca4 ,mohammad on the surrender of ,mecca had abolished all the idolatrous institutions which might have served as political or social inducements to the ,pagan ,arabs to embrace ,islam4 ,the intercalation of the year and commutation of the sacred months were cancelled for ever in the plain words of the ,koran3 ,verily1 twelve months is the number of months with ,god1 according to ,god's book1 since the day when ,he created the ,heavens and the earth1 of these1 four are sacred2 this is the right usage4 444 ,to carry over a sacred month to another is an increase of unbelief only4 ,they who do not believe are led into error by it4 ,they allow it one year and forbid it another1 that they may make good the number of months which ,god hath hallowed1 and they allow that which ,god hath prohibited4 ,the evil of their deeds hath been prepared for them by ,satan2 for ,god guideth not the people who do not believe4--,sura ,,ix1 verses #cf1 #cg4 ,the custody of the house was no more an office of honour or privilege4 ,the ancient ceremonial of pilgrimage was not interwoven with the reformed faith4 ,the rites of ,kaaba were stripped of every idolatrous tendency4 ,and the remaining and essential part of the pilgrimage was depreciated4 ,by no means can their flesh reach unto ,god1 neither their blood2 but piety on your part reacheth ,him4--,sura ,,xxii1 verse #ch4 ,and after all the idolaters were not allowed to enter it4 ,it is not for the votaries of other gods with ,god1 witnesses against themselves of infidelity1 to visit the temples of ,god4--,sura ,,ix1 verse #bh4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir himself says regarding ,mohammad3 ,the rites of ,kaaba were retained1 but stripped by him of every idolatrous tendency2 and they still hang1 a strange unmeaning shroud1 around the living theism of ,islam4--,vol4 ,i1 ,intro41 p4 ccxviii4 ,sidenote3 ,the various deputations and embassies in the #ith and #ajth year of the ,hegira4 #cj4 ,during these two years deputations of conversion to ,islam were received by ,mohammad at ,medina from the most distant parts of the ,peninsula1 from ,yemen and ,hazaramaut from ,mahra ,oman and ,bahrein in the south1 and from the borders of ,syria and the outskirts of ,persia4 ,many of the chiefs and princes of ,yemen and ,mahra1 of ,oman1 ,bahrein and ,yemama--christians and pagans--intimated by letter or by embassy their conversion to ,islam4 ,the ,prophet used to send teachers with deputations and embassies1 where they were not already sent1 to instruct the newly converted people the duties of ,islam and to see that every remnant of idolatry was obliterated4 ,sidenote3 ,list of the deputations of conversion received by ,mohammad at ,medina during ,a4,h4 #i and #aj4 #ca4 ,here is a list of the important deputations and embassies as well as the conversion of notable personages during these two years arranged in alphabetical order with geographical and genealogical notes4#fe ,sir ,w4 ,muir thinks it tedious and unprofitable to enumerate them all1#ff while he takes notice of every apocryphal tradition and devours with eagerness all fictions unfavourable to the cause of ,islam4 ,bani ,amir4#fg ,bani ,abd-ul-,kays4#fh ,bani ,ahmas4#fi ,bani ,anaza4#gj ,bani ,asad4#ga ,bani ,azd 7,shanovah74#gb ,bani ,azd 7,oman74#gc ,bani ,bhila4#gd ,bani ,bahra4#ge ,bani ,bajla4#gf ,bani ,baka4#gg ,bani ,bakr bin ,wail4#gh ,bani ,bali4#gi ,bani ,briq4#hj ,bani ,dree4#ha ,farwa4#hb ,bani ,fezra4#hc ,bani ,ghfiq4#hd ,bani ,ghnim4#he ,bani ,ghassn4#hf ,bani ,hamadn4#hg ,bani ,hanfa4#hh ,bani ,hris of ,najrn4#hi ,bani ,hill bin ,aamir bin ,sasa4#ij ,bani ,himyar4#ia ,bani ,jaad4#ib ,bani ,jaafir bin ,kelab bin ,rabia4#ic ,jeifer bin al ,jalandi4#id ,bani ,joheina4#ie ,bani ,jufi4#if ,bani ,kalb4#ig ,bani ,khas-am bin ,anmr4#ih ,bani ,khauln4#ii ,bani ,kilb4#ajj ,bani ,kinna4#aja ,bani ,kinda4#ajb ,bani ,mahrah4#ajc ,bani ,mohrib4#ajd ,bani ,mord4#aje ,bani ,muntafiq4#ajf ,bani ,murrah4#ajg ,bani ,nakh4#ajh ,bani ,nohd4#aji ,bani ,ozra4#aaj ,bani ,raha4#aaa ,bani ,rawasa4#aab ,bani ,saad ,hozeim4#aac ,bani ,sadif4#aad ,bani ,sadoos4#aae ,bani ,sahim4#aaf ,bani ,sakeef4#aag ,bani ,salmni4#aah ,bani ,shaibn4#aai ,bani ,sodaa4#abj ,bani ,taghlib4#aba ,bani ,tajeeb4#abb ,bani ,tamim4#abc ,bath ,tay4#abd ,bani ,zobeid4#abe ,footnote #fe3 ,for these deputations see ,ibn ,is-hak 7died #aea71 ,hishamee 7died #bac71 ,ibn ,sad 7died #bac71 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,chap4 #cjth1 ,seerat ,shm 7died #idb71 and ,halab 7died #ajdd74 ,for the genealogies of these tribes consult ,qalqashandi's ,dictionary of ,tribes1 and ,ibn ,khaldn's ,history4 ,regarding the geographical positions of these tribes the reader is referred to the most valuable map of ,arabia in ,sir ,w4 ,muir's ,annals of ,early ,caliphate1 ,london #ahhb4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #aha and #bbf4 ,footnote #fg3 ,a branch of ,hawzin and sister tribe of the ,sakeef inhabited the province of ,najd and were of the ,moaddite stock4 ,the tribe had taken little share with the rest of the ,bani ,hawzin at the battle of ,honain against the ,moslems ,a4,h4 #h4 ,the famous poet ,lebid1 author of one of the ,moallakas1 belonged to that tribe4 ,see the ,life of ,lebid from ,ketab-ul-,aghani1 in an article on the ,moallaqah by ,lebid1 by ,c4,j4 ,lyall1 ,c4,s41 in the ,journals of the ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 ,no4 #a1 #ahgg1 pp4 #fb-gf3 ,calcutta4 ,footnote #fh3 ,bani ,abd-ul-,kays from ,bahrein4 ,the tribe has been described at page #dg4 ,there were many persons in the embassy4 ,they were ,christians before they embraced ,islam4 ,footnote #fi3 ,descended from ,anmr of the ,kahtanite stock of ,yemen4 ,footnote #gj3 ,a sub-tribe of ,asad1 descendants of ,rabia of the ,moaddite stock4 ,these are the ,aneze of ,burkhardt4 ,footnote #ga3 ,already described at p4 #dg4 ,the rest of them now embraced ,islam4 ,it is said that ,sura xlix1 #ag1 refers to them4 ,footnote #gb3 ,bani ,azd 7,shanovah7 from ,yemen4 ,this tribe was a portion of the ,azdite tribe left at ,yemen at the time of the northern emigration of ,azd4 ,they were a branch of ,kahtan of the ,kahtanite stock4 ,in their emigration northward from ,yemen they resided a long time in ,hijaz at ,batn ,murr near ,mecca4 ,in their journey further on to the north of ,syria1 leaving ,kozaa1 they changed their name to ,ghassn from their long residence1 by the way1 near a fountain of that name4 ,the tribes ,aus and ,khazraj had separated afterwards from these ,ghassanides1 and settled at ,yathrib1 afterwards known as ,medina4 ,one ,surad was the chief of the embassy of ,azd from ,yemen to ,mohammad at ,medina4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir says3 ,this person was recognized by ,mahomet as the ruler of his clan1 and commission was given to him to war against the heathen tribes in his neighbourhood4 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #bai47 ,the ,arabic word yojhid1 in the original biographies1 only means to strive1 and does not mean to make war1 as understood by ,sir ,w4 ,muir4 ,he has himself translated the same word as striving in ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #cb4 ,at page #bfe of the same volume he translates it by to do utmost4 ,i have discussed the subject in full in ,appendix ,a4 of this work4 ,footnote #gc3 ,another branch of the ,azd described above4 ,footnote #gd3 ,bani ,bhila1 otherwise called ,sad ,mant1 descendants of ,ghatafn of the ,moaddite stock4 ,footnote #ge3 ,bani ,bahra 7bin ,amr bin ,al-,hf bin ,koza71 who were a branch of the ,koza of the ,himyarite stock1 had emigrated to the north1 and settled in the ,ghassanide territory4 ,footnote #gf3 ,bani ,bajla1 a sister of ,khas-am and descendants of ,anmar bin ,nizar of the ,kahtanite stock4 ,they inhabited ,yemen4 ,the ,bajla after professing ,islam had destroyed the famous image of ,kholasa4 ,footnote #gg3 ,a branch of ,bani ,aamir bin ,sasa in the centre of ,arabia4 ,footnote #gh3 ,they lived about ,yemama and the shores of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,they were one of the ,moaddite tribes4 ,the war of ,basus between ,bani ,bakr and their sister tribe ,bani ,taghlib had lasted for forty years4 ,there have been famous poets in the ,bani ,bakr tribe1 among whom are ,tarafa1 ,haris bin ,hiliza1 and ,maimn ,al-,asha4 ,the ,bani ,bakr and ,bani ,tamim were constantly at war1 which was abandoned under the influence of ,islam1 when both the parties were converted to it during the lifetime of ,mohammad4 ,footnote #gi3 ,they were a branch of the ,koza from the ,himyarite stock1 the descendants of ,kahtan1 and had settled in the north of ,arabia in the ,ghassanide territory on the borders of ,syria4 ,footnote #hj3 ,a sub-tribe of ,koza4 ,footnote #ha3 ,a clan of the tribe of ,lakhm4 ,footnote #hb3 ,an ,arab of the ,bani ,juzam in the north of ,arabia and ,governor of ,amman in the ,ghassanide territory announced his conversion to ,mohammad by a despatch in ,a4,h4 #h4 ,footnote #hc3 ,they have already been described at page #df4 ,their deputation waited upon ,mohammad on his return from ,tabk4 ,footnote #hd3 ,descendants of ,anmr of the ,kahtanite stock4 ,footnote #he3 ,a sub-tribe of ,azd at ,yemen4 ,footnote #hf3 ,already described under ,bani ,azd4 ,footnote #hg3 ,bani ,hamadn of the ,kahtanite descent4 ,an important tribe in the east of ,yemen4 ,footnote #hh3 ,a ,christian branch of the ,bani ,bakr who inhabited ,yemama4 ,the account of the embassy of the ,bani ,hanfa is more decidedly unfavourable to ,christianity1 but its details appear of doubtful authority4 ,moseilama1 the false ,prophet1 was among the number1 and there are some unlikely anticipations of his sacrilegious claims4 ,as the embassy were departing1 ,mahomet gave them a vessel in which were the leavings of the water with which he had performed his lustration2 and he said1--',when you reach your country1 break down your church1 and sprinkle its sight with this water1 and make in its place a mosque'4444 ,the story appears to me improbable1 because nowhere else is ,mahomet represented as exhibiting such antagonism to ,christians and their churches when they submitted themselves to him4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cjc-d1 footnote4 ,the author changes his opinion in the fourth volume of his work and says3 ,i have there stated 7in ,vol4 ,,ii7 the story to be improbable4 ,but ,i am now inclined to think that during the last year or two of ,mahomet's life1 there was quite enough of antagonistic feeling against ,christianity as it presented itself in the profession of the ,arab and ,syrian tribes to support the narrative4--,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #bah1 footnote4 ,this is a mere presumption on the part of the writer1 and there is no proof of ,mohammad's antagonism towards ,christianity at any period of his life except against those who waged war with him4 ,the following verse of the ,koran will show how far ,i am true3-- ,verily they who believe 7,moslems71 and they who follow the ,jewish religion1 and the ,christians and ,sabeites1 whoever of those believeth in ,god and the ,last ,day1 and doth that which is right shall have their reward with their ,lord3 ,fear shall not come upon them1 neither shall they be grieved4 ,footnote #hi3 ,also a ,christian tribe in ,yemen descended from the ,kahtanite stock of the ,bani ,madhij1 and collateral therefore with ,bani ,kinda4 ,two of the embassy1 one of them being ,akil or ,abd-ul-,masih1 the chief of the deputation1 adopted ,islam4 ,the rest returned with a full guarantee from ,mohammad for the preservation of their social and religious liberty4 ,further information regarding the ,bani ,hris of ,najrn will be found at pp4 #dh and #ajf of this book4 ,ktib al ,wckidi1 p4 #fi4 ,the subsequent history of the ,najrn ,christians is there traced4 ,they continued in possession of their lands and rights under the treaty during the rest of ,mohammad's life and the whole of ,abu ,bakr's ,caliphate4 ,then they were accused of taking usury1 and ,omar expelled them from the land1 and wrote as follows3-- ,the despatch of ,omar1 the ,commander of the ,faithful1 to the people of ,najrn4 ,whoever of them emigrates is under the guarantee of ,god4 ,no ,moslem shall injure them2--to fulfil that which ,mahomet and ,abu ,bakr wrote unto them4 ,now to whomsoever of the chiefs of ,syria and ,irc they may repair1 let such chiefs allot them lands1 and whatever they cultivate therefrom shall be theirs2 it is an exchange for their own lands4 ,none shall injure or maltreat them2 ,moslems shall assist them against oppressors4 ,their tribute is remitted for two years4 ,they will not be troubled except for evil deeds4 ,some of them alighted in ,irc1 and settled in ,najrnia near to ,cufa4 ,that the offence of usury is alleged in justification of this measure appears to me to disprove the common tradition that a command was said to have been given by ,mahomet on his deathbed for the ,peninsula to be swept clear of all other religions but ,islam4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cja-b4 ,footnote #ij3 ,descendants of the great ,ghatafn tribe already described4 ,footnote #ia3 ,bani ,himyar from ,yemen4 ,the ,himyarites are too well-known to be described4 ,the ,himyarite princes of ,ro-en1 ,mu-afir1 ,hamadan and ,bazan1 all of the ,christian faith in ,yemen1 embraced ,islam and announced their conversion by letter sent to ,mohammad through their emissaries which reached him after his return from ,tabk4 ,footnote #ib3 ,either a clan of ,lakhm1 or a branch of ,bani ,amir4 ,footnote #ic3 ,a sub-tribe of the ,bani ,amir bin ,sasa already described4 ,footnote #id3 ,the ,king of ,omn1 together with the people of ,omn1 embraced ,islam during ,a4,h4 #h and #i4 ,the people of ,omn were of the ,azdite stock4 ,footnote #ie3 ,already described at page #dc4 ,footnote #if3 ,a branch of ,saad-al-,ashira from the ,kahtanite stock4 ,this tribe inhabited ,yemen4 ,they had some peculiar prejudice against eating the heart of an animal4 ,mohammad had caused their chief to break his superstition1 which he did by making him eat the roasted heart of an animal4 ,but they returned disgusted when told that his 7the chief's7 mother who had committed infanticide was in hell4 ,however they sent another deputation a second time and finally embraced ,islam4 ,footnote #ig3 ,they settled in ,dumat-ul-,jundal1 now ,jal-al-,jowf1 north of ,arabia4 ,they were a tribe of the ,bani ,koza descended from ,himyar4 ,footnote #ih3 ,a tribe of the ,kahtanite stock at ,yemen4 ,they lived in a hilly country of that name in ,yemen4 ,footnote #ii3 ,they were a tribe of the ,kahtanite stock on the coast of ,yemen4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,a clan of the ,bani ,amir bin ,sasa of the ,hawzin tribe already described4 ,footnote #aja3 ,descendants of ,khazima of the ,moaddite stock4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,the ,bani ,kinda princes1 ,vail bin ,hijar and ,al-,ash-as bin ,kays2 the former1 the chief of the coast1 and the latter1 the chief of the ,hazaramaut in the south of ,arabia4 ,they with their whole clans embraced ,islam4 ,bani ,kinda were a powerful tribe of the ,kahlnite stock4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,a clan of ,ozra from ,koza described at page #df4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,descendants of ,ghatafn of the ,moaddite stock4 ,footnote #aje3 ,they inhabited the sea-coast of ,yemen1 and were a tribe of ,muzhie of the ,kahtanite stock4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,a branch of the tribe of ,amir bin ,sasa4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,a branch of ,zobian4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,they were a tribe of the ,kahtanite stock1 residing in ,yemen4 ,their deputation consisted of two hundred persons4 ,it is said this was the last deputation received by ,mohammad4 ,some time before this ,ali was sent to the ,bani ,nakh-a and other tribes of the ,mudhij stock in ,yemen4 ,footnote #aji3 ,a tribe of ,koza of the ,himyarite stock at ,yemen4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,a sub-tribe of ,koza inhabiting ,syria described at page #df4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,a tribe of ,muzhij of the ,kahtanite stock at ,yemen4 ,footnote #aab3 ,they were a clan of the ,bani ,amir bin ,sasa already described4 ,footnote #aac3 ,a tribe of the ,koza of the ,moaddite stock1 and according to some from ,yemen4 ,footnote #aad3 ,descendants of ,hazaramaut of the ,kahtanite stock at ,yemen4 ,footnote #aae3 ,a clan of the ,bani ,hanifa1 descendants of ,bakr bin ,wail already described4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,a clan of the ,bani ,shaiban1 the descendants of ,bakr bin ,wail already mentioned4 ,footnote #aag3 ,the ,bani ,sakeef 7,thackif7 were a branch of the ,mazar tribes of the ,moaddite stock4 ,they were a sub-tribe of the ,hawzin and sister tribe to the ,bani ,adwn1 ,ghatafn1 and ,suleim4 ,they 7the ,bani ,sakeef7 lived at ,tayif and worshipped the idol ,lat or ,tqhia4 ,orwa1 a chief of ,tayif1 had gone to ,medina to embrace ,islam4 ,his first generous impulse was to return to ,tayif and invite his fellow-citizens to share in the blessings imparted by the new faith4 ,upon his making public his conversion1 he was wounded by a mob and suffered martyrdom4 ,but he left a favourable impression of ,islam at ,tayif4 ,their deputation consisted of six chiefs with fifteen or twenty followers4 ,the ,prophet received them gladly and pitched a tent for their accommodation in the court of his mosque4 ,every evening after supper he paid them there a visit and instructed them in the faith till it was dark4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3--,the martyrdom of ,orwa compromised the inhabitants of ,tayif1 and forced to continue the hostile course they had previously been pursuing4 ,but they began to suffer severely from the marauding attacks of ,bani ,hawazin under ,malik4 ,that chief1 according to his engagement1 maintained the increasing predatory warfare against them4--,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #bjd4 ,at page #aee he says regarding ,malik1--being confirmed in his chiefship he engaged to maintain a constant warfare with the citizens of ,tayif4 ,but there was no such engagement with ,mlik4 ,the authority 7,hishamee7 referred to by ,sir ,w4 ,muir does not speak anything of the alleged engagement4 ,vide ,hishamee1 page #hgi4 ,hishamee has only so much that ,mohammad made ,malik chief of those who were converted from the tribe4 ,these were the clans of ,somla1 ,salma1 and ,fahm1 and that he used to fight with them against the ,sakifites4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir further writes that the inhabitants of ,tayif said among themselves3 ,we have not strength to fight against the ,arab tribe all around that have plighted their faith to ,mahomet1 and bound themselves to fight in his cause 7,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bje74 ,the italics are mine and these words are not to be found in the original authorities4 ,hishamee 7page #iad7 has ,bayaoo va ,aslamoo1 i4e41 they have plighted and submitted 7or converted to ,islam74 ,footnote #aah3 ,descendants of the ,koza inhabited the hills of that name 7,salmn74 ,footnote #aai3 ,descendants and branch of ,bakr bin ,wail4 ,footnote #abj3 ,a tribe of the ,kahtanite stock from ,yemen4 ,footnote #aba3 ,the ,bani ,taghlib bin ,wail were a tribe of the ,moaddite stock of ,meccan origin and a sister tribe to the ,bani ,bakr bin ,wail4 ,their wars are famous in the annals of ,arabia4 ,the war of ,bass has been already alluded to under ,bani ,bakr4 ,these tribes1 the ,bani ,bakr and ,taghlib1 were located in ,yemama1 ,bahrein1 ,najd1 and ,tihama1 but lastly the ,bani ,taghlib had emigrated to ,mesopotamia and professed the ,christian faith4 ,the members of their deputation to ,mohammad wore golden crosses4 ,when invited to ,islam1 they did not embrace it1 but promised to allow their children to become ,moslems4 ,mohammad allowed them to maintain unchanged their profession of ,christianity4 ,their ,christianity was of a notoriously superficial character4 ,the ,taghlib1 said ,ali1 the fourth ,khalif1 are not ,christians2 they have borrowed from ,christianity only the custom of drinking wine4--,dozy ,historie1 i1 #bj4 ,footnote #abb3 ,a clan of ,kinda from the sub-tribe of ,sakun at ,yemen4 ,footnote #abc3 ,the ,bani ,tamim were descendants of ,tabikha bin ,elyas of the ,moaddite stock4 ,they are famous in the history of ,najd1 the northeastern desert of which from the confines of ,syria to ,yemama they inhabited4 ,they were at constant warfare with the ,bani ,bakr bin ,abd ,mont1 descendants of ,kinna of the ,moaddite stock1 from #fae to #fcj ,a4,d4 ,all the branches of the tribe which had not yet converted to ,islam were now converted in ,a4,h4 #i4 ,footnote #abd3 ,the ,bani ,tay was a great tribe of the ,kahtanite stock of ,yemen1 had moved northwards1 and settled in the mountains of ,aj and ,salm to the north of ,najd and ,hijaz and the town of ,tyma4 ,they had adopted ,christianity1 but some of them were ,jews and ,pagans4 ,their intertribal war has been alluded to in para4 #bf4 ,the whole tribe now embraced ,islam4 ,a deputation from the ,bani ,tay1 headed by their chief1 ,zeid-al-,khail1 came to ,medina to ransom the prisoners1 soon after ,ali's expedition4 ,mahomet was charmed with ,zeid1 of whose fame both as a warrior and a poet he had long heard4 ,he changed his name to ,zeid al ,kheir 7the beneficent71 granted him a large tract of country1 and sent him away laden with presents4 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #abe3 ,they were a branch of ,sad-al-,ashir of the ,mazhij tribe of the ,kahtanite stock4 ,they inhabited the sea-coast of ,yemen4 ,sidenote3 ,all the conversions1 individual and tribal1 without any compulsion4 #cb4 ,thus all these tribal conversions and the speedy spread of ,islam in the whole of ,arabia was accomplished without any resort to arms1 compulsion1 threat1 or the scymitar in one hand and the ,koran in the other4 ,the ,pagan ,arabs1 the ,christians and the ,jews1 those who embraced ,islam1 adopted it joyfully and voluntarily4 ,islam had been much persecuted for many years from the third year of its ,prophet's mission to the sixth year after the ,hegira--a period of about sixteen years1 but it flourished alike during persecutions and oppositions as well as during periods of peace and security of the ,moslems4 ,it was the result of ,mohammad's staunch adherence to the uncompromising severity of his inflexible principles of preaching the divine ,truth and his sincere belief in his own mission that he bore steadfastly all the hardships of persecutions at ,mecca and the horrors of the aggressive wars of the ,koreish and others at ,medina1 and persuaded the whole of ,arabia1 ,pagan1 ,jewish and ,christian1 to adopt ,islam voluntarily4#abf ,footnote #abf3 ,the rebellion of almost the whole of ,arabia--wrongly called apostasy--after the death of ,mohammad was chiefly against the ,government of ,abu ,bakr1 the first ,khalifa of the ,republic of ,islam4 ,no such paramount power over the whole of ,arabia was ever vested in the chiefs of ,mecca1 and the ,arabs were unaccustomed to this new form of ,government4 ,they had neither rebelled against ,islam1 nor apostatized from their religion1 except a very few of them who had attached themselves to ,moseilama for a short time4 ,sidenote3 ,mohammad was not favoured with circumstances round him4 #cc4 ,it was not an easy task for ,mohammad to have converted the ,arabs from their national idolatry to a religion of pure and strict monotheism4 ,the aspect of ,arabia was strictly conservative1 and there were no prospects of hopeful changes4 ,the indigenous idolatry and deep-rooted superstition1 the worship of visible and material objects of devotion1--idols and unshaped stones1--something that the eyes can see and the hands can handle1--and the dread of invisible genii and other evil spirits1 held the ,arab mind in a rigorous and undisputed thraldom4 ,arabia was obstinately fixed in the profession of idolatry which the ,peninsula being thickly overspread1 widely diffused and thoroughly organized1 was supported by national pride and latterly by the sword4 ,it was1 writes ,dr4 ,marcus ,dods1 certainly no hopeful task which ,mohammed undertook when he proposed by the influence of religion to combine into one nation tribes so incapable of being deeply influenced by any religion1 and so irreconcilably opposed to one another2 to abolish customs which had the sanction of immemorial usage2 and to root out an idolatry1 which1 if it had no profound hold upon the spiritual nature1 was at least bound up with old family traditions and well-understood tribal interests4#abg ,the sacrifices made to1 and the requirements essential to ,islam1 its numerous positive prohibitions1 the immediate repudiation of old prejudices1 the renunciation of all sorts of idolatry and superstition1 the throwing aside of favourite idols and the abandoning of licentious rites and customs1 the total abstinence from much-relished vices1 the demand for producing practical effect on the will and character1 and the reaping of material fruits from holy and religious life--were barriers insurmountable for the speedy progress of ,islam4 ,notwithstanding these impediments ,mohammad succeeded1 by the influence of his religion1 in combining into one nation the wild and independent tribes1 and putting a stop to their internecine wars2 in abolishing the custom which had the sanction of immemorial usage2 and in rooting out the national idolatry of indigenous growth1 without compromising his inflexible principles of truth and sincerity and honesty2 and without adopting the superstitions and vices of the people4 ,dr4 ,mosheim thinks that1 the causes of this new religion's rapid progress are not difficult to be discovered3 ,mahomet's law itself was admirably fitted to the natural disposition of man1 but especially to the manners1 opinions and vices prevalent among the people of the ,east2 for it was extremely simple proposing few things to be believed2 nor did it enjoin many and difficult duties to be performed1 or such as laid severe restraints on the propensities4#abh ,it is manifest from the history of religions that the people generally try their best to obtain religion's sanction for the vices prevalent among them4 ,but there is no doubt in this that ,mohammad never sanctioned the idolatries and superstitions of the ,arabs1 nor he framed his doctrines according to the opinions and fancies of the people4 ,he preached vehemently against everything he found blamable in the people2 he spared not their dear idols and beloved gods and the dreaded genii1 nor accommodated his preaching and reform to indulge them in their evil practices2 nor did he adopt any of the vices current among the people into his system4 ,mohammad certainly did lay stress on the propensities of the mind and made the actions of the heart answerable to ,god1 and preferred inward holiness to outside form4 #ec4 ,the heart is prone to evils4--,sura ,,xii4 #ch4 ,the hearing and the sight and the heart1 each of these shall be inquired of4--,sura ,,xvi4 #bbe4 ,god will not punish you for a mistake in your oaths2 but ,he will punish you for that which your hearts have assented to4 ,god is gracious1 merciful4 #bhd4 ,whatever is in the ,heavens and in the ,earth is ,god's1 and whether ye disclose what is in your minds or conceal it1 ,god will reckon with you for it2 and whom ,he pleaseth will ,he forgive1 and whom he pleaseth will ,he punish2 for ,god is ,all-powerful4--,sura ,,ii4 #e4 ,and unless made with intent of heart1 mistakes in this matter shall be no crimes in you4--,sura ,,xxxiii4 ,the teachings of the ,koran make our natural inclination subject to regulation4 ,it lays stress upon the heart of men4 ,note the following injunctions regarding internal purity3 #abj4 ,abandon the outside iniquity and its inside4--,sura ,,vi4 #aeb4 ,come not near the pollutions outside or inward4--,ibid4 #ca4 ,say3 ,truly my ,lord hath forbidden filthy actions whether open or secret1 and iniquity and unjust violence4--,sura ,,viii4 ,referring to ,dr4 ,mosheim's cause of the spread of ,islam1 ,i will quote ,henry ,hallam's opinion regarding the causes of the success of ,islam4 ,henry ,hallam1 after enumerating the three important causes of the success of ,islam1 the first of which is those just and elevated notions of the divine nature and of moral duties1 the gold-ore that pervades the dross of the ,koran1 which were calculated to strike a serious and reflecting people1 and explaining the two others which are not against us1 he says3-- ,it may be expected that ,i should add to this what is commonly considered as a distinguishing mark of ,mohammedanism1--its indulgence to voluptuousness4 ,but this appears to be greatly exaggerated4 ,although the character of its founder may have been tainted by sensuality as ferociousness1 ,i do not think that he relied upon inducements of the former kind for the diffusion of his system4 ,we are not to judge of this by rules of ,christian purity1 or of ,european practice4 ,if polygamy was a prevailing usage in ,arabia1 as is not questioned1 its permission gave no additional license to the proselytes of ,mohammed1 who will be found rather to have narrowed the unbounded liberty of oriental manners in this respect2 while his decided condemnation of adultery and of incestuous connections1 so frequent among barbarous nations1 does not argue a very lax and accommodating morality4 ,a devout ,mussulman exhibits much more of the stoical than the epicurean character4 ,nor can any one read the ,koran without being sensible that it breathes an austere and scrupulous spirit4 ,and in fact1 the founder of a new religion or sect is little likely to obtain permanent success by indulging the vices or luxuries of mankind4 ,i should rather be disposed to reckon the severity of ,mohammed's discipline among the causes of its influence4 ,precepts of ritual observance1 being always definite and unequivocal1 are less likely to be neglected1 after their obligation has been acknowledged than those of moral virtue4 ,thus the long fasting1 the pilgrimages1 and regular prayers and ablutions1 the constant almsgiving1 the abstinence from stimulating liquors1 enjoined by the ,koran1 created a visible standard of practice among its followers1 and preserved a continual recollection of their law4 ,but the prevalence of ,islam in the lifetime of its ,prophet1 and during the first ages of its existence1 was chiefly owing to the spirit of martial energy that he infused into it4 ,the religion of ,mohammed is as essentially a military system as the institution of chivalry in the west of ,europe4 ,the people of ,arabia1 a race of strong passions and sanguinary temper1 inured to habits of pillage and murder1 found in the law of their native prophet not a license1 but a command1 to desolate the world1 and the promise of all that their glowing imaginations could anticipate of ,paradise annexed to all in which they most delighted upon earth4#abi ,this is sufficient to refute the opinion of ,dr4 ,mosheim4 ,but what ,hallam says regarding the prevalence of ,islam in the lifetime of the ,prophet1 and during the first ages of its existence1 that the people of ,arabia1 a race of strong passions and sanguinary temper1 inured to habits of pillage and murder1 found in the law of their native prophet not a license1 but a command1 to desolate the world1 is untenable4 ,there was neither a command nor a license to desolate the world1 nor was any person or tribe converted to ,islam with that object in view4 ,all the teachings of the ,koran and the history of the early spread of ,islam falsify such an idea4 ,footnote #abg3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha and ,christ1 by ,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 page #hc4 ,footnote #abh3 ,mosheim's ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ,book ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,iii1 page #gc4 ,footnote #abi3 ,hallam's ,middle ,ages1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aah-i4 ,sidenote3 ,mohammad's unwavering belief in his own mission and his success show him to be a true prophet4 #cd4 ,i will pause here for a while1 and ask the indulgence of the reader to reflect upon the circumstances of the persecutions1 insults and injuries1 expulsion and attack suffered by ,mohammad and his early followers1#acj and his unwavering adherence to preach against the gross idolatry and immorality of his people1 which all show his sincere belief in his own mission1 and his possession of an irresistible inward impulse to publish the ,divine ,truth of his ,revelations regarding the unity in the ,godhead and other moral reforms4 ,his preachings of monotheism1 and his enjoining righteousness1 and forbidding evil deeds1 were not attended to for many years with material success4 ,in proportion as he preached against the gross idolatry and superstition of his people1 he was subjected to ridicule and scorn1 and finally to an inveterate persecution which ruined his and his follower's fortune4 ,but he unflinchingly kept his path2 no threats and no injuries hindered him from still preaching to the ungodly people a purer and higher theology and better morality than had ever been set before them4 ,he claimed no temporal power1 no spiritual domination2 he asked but for simple toleration1 for free permission to win men by persuasion into the way of truth4 ,he declared he was sent neither to compel conviction by miracles1 nor to constrain outward profession by the sword4#aca ,does this leave any doubt of the strong conviction in his mind1 as well as in the truth of his claim1 to be a man sent by ,god to preach the ,divine ,perfection1 and to teach mankind the ways of righteousness8 ,he honestly and sincerely conveyed the message which he had received or which he conscientiously or intuitively believed to have received from his ,god and which had all the signs and marks of truth in itself4 ,what is meant by a ,true ,prophet or a ,revelation is not more than what we find in the case of ,mohammad4#acb ,the general office and main business of a prophet is to proclaim to mankind the ,divine ,perfection1 to teach publicly purer theology and higher morality1 to enjoin the people to do what is right and just1 and to forbid what is wrong and bad4 ,it is neither a part of the prophet to predict future events1 nor to show supernatural miracles4 ,and further1 a prophet is neither immaculate nor infallible4 ,the ,revelation is a natural product of human faculties4 ,a prophet feels that his mind is illumined by ,god1 and the thoughts which are expressed by him and spoken or written under this influence are to be regarded as the words of ,god4 ,this illumination of the mind or the effect of the ,divine ,influence differ in any prophet according to the capacity of the recipient1 or according to the circumstances--physical1 moral1 and religious--in which he is placed4 ,footnote #acj3 ,the early followers of ,mohammad bore persecutions and exile with patience and steadfastness2 and never recanted4 ,look to the increasing number of these early ,moslems1 their magnanimous forbearance1 and the spontaneous abandonment of their dear homes and relations1 and their defending their ,prophet with their blood4 ,the number of ,christian believers during the whole lifetime of ,christ was not more than #abj 7,act ,i1 #ae74 ,they had a material view of the ,messiah's kingdom1 and had fled at the first sound of danger4 ,two of the disciples when walking to ,emmaus observed1 ,we trusted that it had been ,he who should have redeemed ,israel1 and the apostle asked ,jesus after the so-called resurrection1 ,lord1 wilt ,thou at this time restore the kingdom of ,israel8 ,during the periods thus indicated as possible for comparison1 persecution and rejection were the fate of both4 ,but the thirteen years' ministry of ,mahomet had brought about a far greater change to the external eye than the whole lifetime of ,christ4 ,the apostles fled at the first sound of danger1 and however deep the inner work may have been in the #ejj by whom our ,lord was seen1 it had produced as yet but little outward action4 ,there was among them no spontaneous quitting of their homes1 nor emigration by hundreds1 such as distinguished the early ,moslems2 nor any rapturous resolution by the converts of a foreign city to defend the ,prophet with their blood4--,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bgd4 ,footnote #aca3 ,let us for a moment look back to the period when a ban was proclaimed at ,mecca against all the citizens1 whether professed converts or not1 who espoused his cause2 when they were shut up in the ,sheb or quarter of ,abu ,tlib1 and there for three years without prospect of relief endured want and hardship4 ,those must have been steadfast and mighty motives which enabled him amidst all this opposition and apparent hopelessness of success1 to maintain his principles unshaken4 ,no sooner was he relieved from confinement1 than1 despairing of his native city1 he went forth to ,tyif and summoned its rulers and inhabitants to repentance2 he was solitary and unaided1 but he had a message1 he said1 from his ,lord4 ,on the third day he was driven out of the town with ignominy1 blood trickling from the wounds inflicted on him by the populace4 ,he retired to a little distance1 and there poured forth his complaint to ,god3 then he returned to ,mecca1 there to carry on the same outwardly hopeless cause with the same high confidence in its ultimate success4 ,we search in vain through the pages of profane history for a parallel to the struggle in which for thirteen years the ,prophet of ,arabia in the face of discouragement and threats1 rejection and persecution retained his faith unwavering1 preached repentance1 and denounced ,god's wrath against his godless fellow-citizens4 ,surrounded by a little band of faithful men and women1 he met insults1 menaces1 dangers1 with a high and patient trust in the future4 ,and when at last the promise of safety came from a distant quarter1 he calmly waited until his followers had all departed1 and then disappeared from amongst his ungrateful and rebellious people4--,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pages #cad-ae4 ,footnote #acb3 ,that he was the impostor pictured by some writers is refuted alike by his unwavering belief in the truth of his own mission1 by the loyalty and unshaken confidence of his companions1 who had ample opportunity of forming a right estimate of his sincerity1 and finally1 by the magnitude of the task which he brought to so successful an issue4 ,no impostor1 it may safely be said1 could have accomplished so mighty a work4 ,no one unsupported by a living faith in the reality of his commission1 in the goodness of his cause1 could have maintained the same consistent attitude through long years of adverse fortune1 alike in the day of victory and in the hour of defeat1 in the plenitude of his power and at the moment of death4--,islam and its ,founder1 by ,j4,w4,h4 ,stobart1 ,m4,a41 page #bc4 ,of the sincerity of his belief in his own mission there can be no doubt4 ,the great merit is his that among a people given up to idolatry he rose to a vivid perception of the ,unity of ,god1 and preached this great doctrine with firmness and constancy1 amid ridicule and persecution4 ,but there it seems to me that the eulogy of the ,prophet ought to cease4--,islam under the ,arabs by ,r4,d4 ,osborn4 ,london #ahgf1 p4 #ij4 ,sidenote3 ,striking effects of ,mohammad's reforms4 #ce4 ,although his mission was only to convey the message and preach publicly what was revealed to him1 and he was not responsible for the conversion of the ungodly polytheists to the purer theology and higher morality1 or in other words1 to the faith of ,islam1 yet whatever success and beneficial results in the sphere of theology1 morality1 and reforms in social matters he achieved was a strong evidence of his ,divine mission4 ,in the name of ,god and in the character of ,his ,apostle1 he wrought a great reform according to his light in his own country4 ,every good tree bringeth forth good fruit4--7,matt4 ,,vii1 #ag74 ,facts are stubborn things1 and facts are conclusive in these points4 ,the effects produced by his preaching1 and the changes wrought by them in the religious1 social1 and political sphere of the polytheists1 the idolatrous and grossly superstitious ,arabs within a comparatively short period1 mostly consisting of persecutions at ,mecca1 and struggles at ,medina1 were very striking4 ,from an indiscriminate mass of polytheism and gross superstitious belief in gods1 genii1 the sons and daughters of ,god1 he gave them a pure monotheistic belief1 recognizing no other superior power but the ,almighty4 ,he raised the moral standard of his countrymen1 ameliorated the condition of women1 curtailed and mitigated polygamy and slavery1 and virtually abolished them as well as infanticide4 ,he most sternly denounced and absolutely forbade many heinous evils of the ,arab society4 ,he united a number of wild and independent tribes into a nation and abolished their internecine wars4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir says3-- ,few and simple as the positive precepts of ,mahomet up to this time appear1 they had wrought a marvellous and a mighty work4 ,never1 since the days when primitive ,christianity startled the world from its sleep1 and waged a mortal combat with ,heathenism1 had men seen the like arousing of spiritual life1 the like faith that suffered sacrifice and took joyfully the spoiling of goods for conscience sake4 ,from time beyond memory1 ,mecca and the whole ,peninsula had been steeped into spiritual torpor4 ,the slight and transient influence of ,judaism1 ,christianity1 or ,philosophy upon the ,arab mind1 had been but as the ruffling here and there the surface of a quiet lake2--all remained still and motionless below4 ,the people were sunk in superstition1 cruelty1 and vice4 ,it was a common practice for the eldest son to marry his father's widows inherited as property with the rest of the estate4 ,pride and poverty had introduced among them1 as it has among the ,hindus1 the crime of female infanticide4 ,their religion consisted in gross idolatry1 and their faith was rather the dark superstitious dread of unseen beings1 whose goodwill they sought to propitiate1 and to avert their displeasure1 than the belief in an over-ruling ,providence4 ,the ,life to come and ,retribution of good and evil were1 as motives of action1 practically unknown4 ,thirteen years before the ,hegira1 ,mecca lay lifeless in this debased state4 ,what a change those thirteen years had now produced6 ,a band of several hundred persons had rejected idolatry1 adopted the worship of one great ,god1 and surrendered themselves implicitly to the guidance of what they believed a revelation from ,him2--praying to the ,almighty with frequency and fervour1 looking for pardon through ,his mercy1 and striving to follow after good works1 almsgiving1 chastity and justice4 ,they now lived under a constant sense of the ,omnipotent power of ,god1 and of ,his providential care over the minutest of their concerns4 ,in all the gifts of nature1 in every relation of life1 at each turn of their affairs1 individual or public1 they saw ,his hand4 ,and1 above all1 the new spiritual existence in which they joyed and gloried1 was regarded as the mark of ,his especial grace1 while the unbelief of their blinded fellow-citizens was the hardening stamp of ,his predestined reprobation4 ,mahomet was the minister of life to them1--the source under ,god of their new-born hopes2 and to him they yielded a fitting and implicit submission4 ,in so short a period1 ,mecca had1 from this wonderful movement1 been rent into two factions1 which1 unmindful of the old land-marks of tribe and family1 were arrayed in deadly opposition one against the other4 ,the believers bore persecution with a patient and tolerant spirit4 ,and though it was their wisdom so to do1 the credit of a magnanimous forbearance may be freely accorded to them4 ,one hundred men and women1 rather than abjure the precious faith1 had abandoned their homes1 and sought refuge1 till the storm should be overpast1 in ,abyssinian exile4 ,and now even a larger number1 with the ,prophet himself1 emigrated from their fondly-loved city1 with its sacred temple1--to them the holiest spot on earth1--and fled to ,medna4 ,there the same wonder-working charm had within two or three years prepared for them a brotherhood ready to defend the ,prophet and his followers with their blood4 ,jewish truth had long sounded in the ears of the men of ,medna1 but it was not till they heard the spirit-stirring strains of the ,arabian prophet1 that they too awoke from their slumber1 and sprang suddenly into a new and earnest life4#acc ,further on ,sir ,w4 ,muir says3-- ,and what have been the effects of the system which1 established by such instrumentality1 ,mahomet has left behind him4 ,we may freely concede that it banished for ever many of the darker elements of superstition which had for ages shrouded the ,peninsula4 ,idolatry vanished before the battle-cry of ,islam2 the doctrine of the unity and infinite perfections of ,god1 and of a special all-pervading ,providence1 became a living principle in the hearts and lives of the followers of ,mahomet1 even as it had in his own4 ,an absolute surrender and submission to the divine will 7the very name of ,islam7 was demanded as the first requirement of the religion4 ,nor are social virtues wanting4 ,brotherly love is inculcated within the circle of the faith2 orphans are to be protected1 and slaves treated with consideration2 intoxicating drinks are prohibited1 and ,mahometanism may boast of a degree of temperance unknown to any other creed4#acd ,dr4 ,marcus ,dods writes3-- ,but is ,mahommed in no sense a ,prophet8 ,certainly he had two of the most important characteristics of the prophetic order4 ,he saw truth about ,god which his fellowmen did not see1 and he had an irresistible inward impulse to publish this truth4 ,in respect of this latter qualification ,mahommed may stand comparison with the most courageous of the heroic prophets of ,israel4 ,for the truth's sake he risked his life1 he suffered daily persecutions for years1 and eventually banishment1 the loss of property1 of the goodwill of his fellow-citizens1 and the confidence of his friends--he suffered in short as much as any man can suffer short of death1 which he only escaped by flight1 and yet he unflinchingly proclaimed his message4 ,no bribe1 threat or inducement could silence him4 ',though they array against me the sun on the right hand1 and the moon on the left1 ,i cannot renounce my purpose4' ,and it was this persistency1 this belief in his call1 to proclaim the ,unity of ,god which was the making of ,islam4 ,other men have been monotheists in the midst of idolaters1 but no other man has founded a strong and enduring monotheistic religion4 ,the distinction in his case was his resolution that other men should believe4444 ,his giving himself out as a prophet of ,god was1 in the first instance1 not only sincere1 but probably correct in the sense in which he himself understood it4 ,he felt that he had thoughts of ,god which it deeply concerned all around him to receive1 and he knew that these thoughts were given him by ,god1 although not1 as we shall see1 a revelation strictly so called4 ,his mistake lay by no means in his supposing himself to be called upon by ,god to speak for him and introduce a better religion1 but it lay in his gradually coming to insist quite as much on men's accepting him as a prophet as on their accepting the great truth he preached4 ,he was a prophet to his countrymen in so far as he proclaimed the ,unity of ,god1 but this was no sufficient ground for his claiming to be their guide in all matters of religion1 still less for his assuming the lordship over them in all matters civil as well4444 ,the learned doctor further on in his book1 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and ,christ1 remarks3-- ,but as we endeavour to estimate the good and evil of ,islam1 it gradually appears that the chief point we must attend to is to distinguish between its value to ,arabia in the seventh century and its value to the world at large4 ,no one1 ,i presume1 would deny that to ,mohammed's contemporaries his religion was an immense advance on anything they had previously believed in4 ,it welded together the disunited tribes1 and lifted the nation to the forefront of the important powers in the world4 ,it effected what ,christianity and ,judaism had alike failed to effect--it swept away1 once and for ever1 idolatry1 and established the idea of one true ,god4 ,its influence on ,arabia was justly and pathetically put by the ,moslem refugees in ,abyssinia1 who when required to say why they should not be sent back to ,mecca1 gave the following account of their religion and what it had done for them3 ',o king1 we were plunged in ignorance and barbarism2 we worshipped idols2 we ate dead bodies2 we committed lewdness2 disregarded family ties and the duties of neighbourhood and hospitality2 we knew no law but that of the strong1 when ,god sent among us a messenger of whose truthfulness1 integrity1 and innocence we were aware2 and he called us to the unity of ,god1 and taught us not to associate any god with him2 he forbade us the worship of idols1 and enjoined upon us to speak the truth1 to be faithful to our trusts1 to be merciful1 and to regard the rights of others2 to love our relatives and to protect the weak2 to flee vice and avoid all evil4 ,he taught us to offer prayers1 to give alms1 and to fast4 ,and because we believed in him and obeyed him1 therefore are we persecuted and driven from our country to seek thy protection4'#ace ,but after all we have here seen of the opinions of ,dr4 ,marcus ,dods and ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 let us turn to what the ,rev4 ,stephens thinks of ,mohammad3-- ,the aim of ,mahomet was to revive among his countrymen the ,arabs1 as ,moses revived among his countrymen the ,jews1 the pure faith of their common forefather ,abraham4 ,in this he succeeded to a very great extent4 ,for a confused heap of idolatrous superstitions he substituted a pure monotheistic faith2 he abolished some of the most vicious practices of his countrymen1 modified others2 he generally raised the moral standard1 improved the social condition of the people1 and introduced a sober and rational ceremonial in worship4 ,finally he welded by this means a number of wild independent tribes1 mere floating atoms1 into a compact body politic1 as well prepared and as eager to subdue the kingdoms of the world to their rule and to their faith1 as ever the ,israelites had been to conquer the land of ,canaan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,koran also enjoins repeatedly and in very emphatic language the duty of showing kindness to the stranger and the orphan1 and of treating slaves1 if converted to the faith1 with the consideration and respect due to believers4 ,the duty even of mercy to the lower animals is not forgotten1 and it is to be thankfully acknowledged that ,mohammedanism as well as ,buddhism shares with ,christianity the honour of having given birth to hospitals and asylums for the insane and sick4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the vices most prevalent in ,arabia in the time of ,mahomet which are most sternly denounced and absolutely forbidden in the ,koran were drunkenness1 unlimited concubinage and polygamy1 the destruction of female infants1 reckless gambling1 extortionate usury1 superstitious arts of divination and magic4 ,the abolition of some of these evil customs1 and the mitigation of others1 was a great advance in the morality of the ,arabs1 and is a wonderful and honourable testimony to the zeal and influence of the reformer4 ,the total suppression of female infanticide and of drunkenness is the most signal triumph of his work4#acf ,the reverend gentleman quoted above continues3 ,first of all1 it must be freely granted that to his own people ,mahomet was a great benefactor4 ,he was born in a country where political organization1 and rational faith1 and pure morals were unknown4 ,he introduced all three4 ,by a single stroke of masterly genius he simultaneously reformed the political condition1 the religious creed1 and the moral practice of his countrymen4 ,in the place of many independent tribes he left a nation2 for a superstitious belief in gods many and lords many he established a reasonable belief in one ,almighty yet beneficent ,being2 taught men to live under an abiding sense of this ,being's superintending care1 to look to ,him as the rewarder1 and to fear ,him as the punisher of evil-doers4 ,he vigorously attacked1 and modified and suppressed many gross and revolting customs which had prevailed in ,arabia down to his time4 ,for an abandoned profligacy was substituted a carefully regulated polygamy1 and the practice of destroying female infants was effectually abolished4 ,as ,islam gradually extended its conquest beyond the boundaries of ,arabia1 many barbarous races whom it absorbed became in like manner participators in its benefits4 ,the ,turk1 the ,indian1 the ,negro1 and the ,moor were compelled to cast away their idols1 to abandon their licentious rites and customs1 to turn to the worship of one ,god1 to a decent ceremonial and an orderly way of life4 ,the faith even of the more enlightened ,persian was purified3 he learned that good and evil are not co-ordinate powers1 but that just and unjust are alike under the sway of one ,all-wise and ,holy ,ruler1 who ordereth all things in heaven and earth4 ,for barbarous nations1 then1 especially--nations which were more or less in the condition of ,arabia itself at the time of ,mahomet--nations in the condition of ,africa at the present day1 with little or no civilisation1 and without a reasonable religion--,islam certainly comes as a blessing1 as a turning from darkness to light and from the power of satan unto ,god4#acg ,footnote #acc3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,,ll4,d41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bfi-ga4 ,footnote #acd3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cbj-ba4 ,footnote #ace3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha and ,christ1 by ,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 pp4 #ag-ai #aai4 ,footnote #acf3 ,christianity and ,islam3 ,the ,bible and the ,koran1 by ,rev4 ,w4,r4,w4 ,stephens1 pp4 #id1 #ajd1 #aab1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #acg3 ,christianity and ,islam3 ,the ,bible and the ,koran1 by the ,rev4 ,w4,r4,w4 ,stephens1 pp4 #abi-cj1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,sidenote3 ,indictment against ,mohammad4 #cf4 ,what the opponents of ,mohammad can possibly say against his mission is his alleged moral declension at ,medina4#ach ,they accuse him of cruelty#aci and sensuality#adj during his sojourn in that city after he had passed without any blame more than fifty-five years of his age1 and had led a pious missionary life for upwards of fifteen years4 ,these moral stains cannot be inconsistent with his office of being a prophet or reformer4 ,it is no matter if a prophet morally degrades his character under certain circumstances1 or morally degrades his character at the end of his age--after leading for upwards of fifty-five years a life of the highest moral principles1 and as a paragon of temperance and high-toned living--while he has faithfully conveyed the message1 and has sincerely and honestly preached religious reforms1 and the sublimity of his preachings have in themselves the marks of divine truth4 ,if the said prophet defends his stains or immoral deeds by professed revelations1 and justifies himself in his flagrant breaches of morality by producing messages from heaven1 just and equally as he does when he teaches the purer theology and higher morality for which he is commissioned1 then and from that time only we will consider him as an impostor1 guilty of high blasphemy in forging the name of ,god for his licentious self indulgences4 ,but in the case of ,mohammad1 in the first place1 the charges of cruelty and sensuality during a period of six or seven years towards the end of his life1 excepting three years1 are utterly false2 and secondly1 if proved to have taken place1 it is not proved that ,mohammad justified himself by alleging to have received a divine sanction or command to the alleged cruelties and flagrant breaches of morality4 ,the charges of assassinations and cruelties to the prisoners of war and others1 and of the alleged perfidy and craftiness enumerated by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 have been examined and refuted by me in this book4 ,vide pp4 #fj-gc and pp4 #gf-ig4 ,the cases of ,maria1 a slave-girl1 and ,zeinab not coming directly under the object of this book have been treated separately in ,appendix ,b1 pp4 #baa-bbj of this work4 ,mohammad1 in his alleged cruelties towards his enemies1 is not represented by ,sir ,w4 ,muir to have justified himself by special revelation or sanction from on high1 yet the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hughes1 whose work has been pronounced as having the rare merit of being accurate1 makes him 7,mohammad7 to have done them under the sanction of ,god in the ,koran4 ,the best defenders of the ,arabian ,prophet#ada are obliged to admit that the matter of ,zeinab1 the wife of ,zeid1 and again of ,mary1 the ,coptic slave1 are 'an indelible stain' upon his memory2 that he is untrue once or twice to the kind and forgiving disposition of his best nature2 that he is once or twice unrelenting in the punishment of his personal enemies1 and that he is guilty even more than once of conniving at the assassination of inveterate opponents2 but they do not give any satisfactory explanation or apology for all this being done under the supposed sanction of ,god in the ,qurn4#adb ,such is the rare accuracy of ,mr4 ,hughes' work4 ,it is needless for me to repeat here that none of these allegations are either true or facts1 or alleged to have been committed under the sanction of ,god in the ,koran4 ,the ,rev4 ,marcus ,dods writes regarding the character of ,mohammad3-- ,the knot of the matter lies not in his polygamy1 nor even in his occasional licentiousness1 but in the fact that he defended his conduct1 when he created scandal1 by professed revelations which are now embodied as parts of the ,koran4 ,when his wives murmured1 and with justice1 at his irregularities1 he silenced them by a revelation giving him conjugal allowances which he had himself proscribed as unlawful4 ,when he designed to contract an alliance with a woman forbidden to him by his own law1 an inspired permission was forthcoming1 encouraging him to the transgression4#adc ,both of these alleged instances given above are mere fabrications4 ,there was no revelation giving ,mohammad conjugal allowances which he had himself proscribed as unlawful1 nor any permission was brought forward to sanction an alliance forbidden to him by his own law4 ,this subject has been fully discussed by me in my work ,mohammad1 the ,true ,prophet1 and the reader is referred to that work4#add ,a few verses on the marital subject of ,mohammad are greatly misunderstood by ,european writers on the subject1 and ,dr4 ,dods shares the generally wrong idea when he says3-- ,he rather used his office as a title to license from which ordinary men were restrained4 ,restricting his disciples to four wives1 he retained to himself the liberty of taking as many as he pleased4 7,page #bc47 ,this is altogether a gross misrepresentation of the real state of things4 ,mohammad never retained to himself the liberty of taking as many wives as he pleased4 ,on the contrary1 ,sura ,,xxxiii1 #eb1 expressly forbade him all women except those he had already with him1 giving him no option to marry in the case of the demise of some or all of them4 ,this will show that he rather used his office as a restraint against himself of what was lawful for the people in general to enjoy4 ,the only so-called privilege above the rest of the believers 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 #di7 was not to retain to himself the liberty of taking as many wives as he pleased1 but to retain the wives whom he had already married and whose number exceeded the limit of four under ,sura ,,iv1 #c4 ,other believers having more wives than four as in the case of ,kays1 ,ghailn1 and ,naofal1 were requested to separate themselves from the number exceeding the limit prescribed for the first time4 ,this was before polygamy was declared to have been virtually abolished1 i4e41 between the publication of vv4 #c and #abh of ,sura ,,iv4 ,there was neither any breach of morality1 nor anything licentious in his retaining the marriages lawfully contracted by him before the promulgation of ,sara ,,iv1 #c4 ,even this privilege 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 #di7 was counterbalanced by ,ibid1 #eb1 which runs thus3-- ,women are not allowed thee hereafter1 nor to change them for other women1 though their beauty charm thee1 except those already possessed by thee4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane ,poole suffers under the same misrepresentation as other ,european writers#ade do when he says that3-- ,the ,prophet allowed his followers only four wives1 he took more than a dozen himself4 ,he writes3-- ,when1 however1 all has been said1 when it has been shown that ,mohammad was not the rapacious voluptuary some have taken him for1 and that his violation of his own marriage-law may be due to motives reasonable and just from his point of view rather than to common sensuality4 ,did ,mohammad believe he was speaking the words of ,god equally when he declared that permission was given him to take unto him more wives1 as when he proclaimed1 ',there is no god but ,god8'#adf ,mohammad did not violate his own marriage-law1 and never pretended that permission was given to him to take more wives than what was allowed for other people4 ,all his marriages 7which are wrongly considered to have been about a dozen7 were contracted by him before he published the law unjustly said to have been violated by him4 ,he retained these wives after the law was promulgated1 and their number exceeded four1 but he was interdicted to marry any other women in the place of these in case of their demise or divorce4 ,other believers were advised after the promulgation of the law to reduce the number of their wives exceeding four1 but were at liberty to replace their wives within the limit assigned in the case of their demise or divorce4 ,mohammad's case had no breach of morality or sensual license in it4 ,it was very wise of ,mohammad to retain all the wives he had married before ,sura ,,iv1 #c1 came into force1 for the reason that the wives thus repudiated by him might have married some of the unbelievers1 even some of his enemies1 which would have been derogatory to the ,prophet in the eyes of his contemporaries and a laughing-stock for his enemies4 ,footnote #ach3 ,we may readily admit that at the first ,mahomet did believe1 or persuaded himself to believe1 that his revelations were dictated by a divine agency4 ,in the ,meccan period of his life there certainly can be traced no personal ends or unworthy motives to belie this conclusion4 ,the ,prophet was there1 what he professed to be1 'a simple ,preacher and a ,warner2' he was the despised and rejected teacher of a gainsaying people2 and he had apparently no ulterior object but their reformation4 ,mahomet may have mistaken the right means to effect this end1 but there is no sufficient reason for doubting that he used those means in good faith and with an honest purpose4 ,but the scene altogether changes at ,medna4 ,there the acquisition of temporal power1 aggrandisement1 and self-glorification mingled with the grand object of the ,prophet's previous life1 and they were sought after and attained by precisely the same instrumentality4 ,messages from ,heaven were freely brought forward to justify his political conduct1 equally with his religious precepts4 ,battles were fought1 wholesale executions inflicted1 and territories annexed1 under pretext of the ,almighty's sanction4 ,nay1 even baser actions were not only excused1 but encouraged by the pretended divine approval or command4 ,a special license was produced1 allowing ,mahomet a double number of wives2 the discreditable affair of ,mary the ,coptic slave was justified in a separate ,sura2 and the passion for the wife of his own adopted son and bosom friend was the subject of an inspired message in which the ,prophet's scruples were rebuked by ,god2 a divorce permitted1 and marriage with the object of his unhallowed desires enjoined4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cag-h4 ,footnote #aci3 ,but the darker shades of character as well as the brighter must be depicted by a faithful historian4 ,magnanimity or moderation are nowhere discernible as features in the conduct of ,mahomet towards such of his enemies as failed to tender a timely allegiance4 ,over the bodies of the ,coreish who fell at ,badr he exulted with savage satisfaction2 and several prisoners1 accused of no crime but that of scepticism and political opposition1 were deliberately executed at his command4 ,the prince of ,kheibar1 after being subjected to inhuman torture for the purpose of discovering the treasures of his tribe1 was1 with his cousin1 put to death on the pretext of having treacherously concealed them2 and his wife was led away captive to the tent of the conqueror4 ,sentence of exile was enforced by ,mahomet with rigorous severity on two whole ,jewish tribes at ,medna2 and of a third like his neighbours1 the women and children were sold into distant captivity1 while the men amounting to several hundreds were butchered in cold blood before his eyes4 ,in his youth ,mahomet earned among his fellows the honourable title of 'the ,faithful4' ,but in later years1 however much sincerity and good faith may have guided his conduct in respect of his friends1 craft and deception were certainly not wanting towards his foes4 ,the perfidious attack at ,nakhla1 where the first blood in the internecine war with the ,coreish was shed1 although at first disavowed by ,mahomet1 for its scandalous breach of the sacred usages of ,arabia1 was eventually justified by a pretended revelation4 ,abu ,basr1 the freebooter1 was countenanced by the ,prophet in a manner scarcely consistent with the letter1 and certainly opposed to the spirit1 of the truce of ,hodeibia4 ,the surprise which secured the easy conquest of ,mecca was designed with craftiness1 if not with duplicity4 ,the pretext on which the ,bani ,nadhr were besieged and expatriated 7namely1 that ,gabriel had revealed their design against the prophet's life71 was feeble and unworthy of an honest cause4 ,when ,medna was beleaguered by the confederate army1 ,mahomet sought the services of ,nueim1 a traitor1 and employed him to sow distrust among the enemy by false and treacherous reports2 'for1' said he1 'what else is war but a game at deception8' ,in his prophetical career1 political and personal ends were frequently compassed by the flagrant pretence of ,divine revelations1 which a candid examination would have shewn him to be nothing more than the counterpart of his own wishes4 ,the ,jewish and ,christian systems1 at first adopted honestly as the basis of his own religion1 had no sooner served the purpose of establishing a firm authority1 than they were ignored1 if not disowned4 ,and what is perhaps worst of all1 the dastardly assassination of political and religious opponents1 countenanced and frequently directed as they were in all their cruel and perfidious details by ,mahomet himself leaves a dark and indelible blot upon his character4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cjg-i4 ,the reader will observe that simultaneously with the anxious desire to extinguish idolatry1 and to promote religion and virtue in the world1 there was nurtured by the ,prophet in his own heart a licentious self-indulgence2 till in the end1 assuming to be the favourite of ,heaven1 he justified himself by 'revelations' from ,god in the most flagrant breaches of morality4 ,he will remark that while ,mahomet cherished a kind and tender disposition1 'weeping with them that wept1' and binding to his person the hearts of his followers by the ready and self-denying offices of love and friendship1 he could yet take pleasure in cruel and perfidious assassination1 could gloat over the massacre of an entire tribe1 and savagely consign the innocent babe to the fires of hell4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cbb-c4 ,footnote #adj3 ,in domestic life the conduct of ,mahomet with one grave exception was exemplary4 ,as a husband his fondness and devotion was entire1 bordering1 however1 at times upon jealousy4 ,as a father he was loving and tender4 ,in his youth he is said to have lived a virtuous life4 ,at the age of twenty-five he married a widow forty years old2 and for five and twenty years he was a faithful husband to her alone4 ,yet it is remarkable that during this period was composed most of those passages of the ,coran in which the black-eyed ,houris1 reserved for believers in ,paradise1 are depicted in such glowing colours4 ,shortly after the death of ,khadija the ,prophet married again2 but it was not till the mature age of fifty-four that he made the dangerous trial of polygamy1 by taking ,ayesha1 yet a child1 as the rival of ,sauda4 ,once the natural limits of restraint were overpassed1 ,mahomet fell an easy prey to his strong passion for the sex4 ,in his fifty-sixth year he married ,haphsa2 and the following year1 in two succeeding months1 ,zeinab bint ,khozeima and ,omm ,salma4 ,but his desires were not to be satisfied by the range of a harem already greater than was permitted to any of his followers2 rather as age advanced1 they were stimulated to seek for new and varied indulgence4 ,a few months after his nuptials with ,zeinab and ,omm ,salma1 the charms of a second ,zeinab were by accident discovered too fully before the ,prophet's admiring gaze4 ,she was the wife of ,zeid1 his adopted son and bosom friend2 but he was unable to smother the flame she kindled in his breast2 and1 by divine command1 she was taken to his bed4 ,in the same year he married a seventh wife1 and also a concubine4 ,and at last1 when he was full three score years of age1 no fewer than three new wives1 besides ,mary the ,coptic slave1 were within the space of seven months added to his already well-filled harem4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cji-aj4 ,footnote #ada3 ,vide ,muhammad and ,muhammadanism1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,m4,a41 an ,assistant ,master of ,harrow ,school4 ,footnote #adb3 ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 by the ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes1 ,missionary to the ,afghans1 ,peshawar2 ,second ,edition1 page #d1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #adc3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha and ,christ1 by ,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 pp4 #bd #be4 ,footnote #add3 ,vide pp4 #dh-fa4 ,this work is being printed at ,education ,society's ,press1 ,byculla1 ,bombay4 ,it appears that ,dr4 ,dods1 in the first instance1 had in view ,sura ,,xxxiii1 #ea4 ,this is by no means giving ,mohammad conjugal allowances which he himself had proscribed as unlawful4 ,as a preliminary measure to abolish polygamy and to accustom the people to monogamy1 ,mohammad1 when reducing the unlimited polygamy practised in ,arabia1 had put a strong condition to treat their wives1 when more than one1 equitably in every sense of the word1--i4e41 in the matter of social comfort1 love and household establishment 7,sura ,,iv1 #c74 ,when the measure had given a monogamous tendency to the ,arab society1 it was declared that it was impossible practically to treat equitably in all respects the contemporary wives 7,sura ,,iv1 #abh71 and those who had already contracted contemporaneous marriage before the measure referred to above was introduced were absolved from the condition laid down in ,sura ,,iv1 #c1 but were advised1 regarding their then existing wives1 not to yield wholly to disinclination4 ,similarly ,mohammad was also relieved from that condition in ,sura ,,xxxiii1 #ea1 without giving him any conjugal allowance which he had himself pronounced unlawful4 ,the second instance is of ,zeinab's case ,i suppose4 ,zeinab was in no way1 when divorced by ,zeid1 a woman forbidden to him by his own laws4 ,footnote #ade3 ,the ,apostle becomes a creature so exalted that even the easy drapery of ,mohammadan morality becomes a garment too tight-fitting for him4 ',a peculiar privilege is granted to him above the rest of the believers4' ,he may multiply his wives without stint2 he may and he does marry within the prohibited degrees4--,islam under the ,arabs1 by ,r4,d4 ,osborn1 ,london #ahgf1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #adf3 ,studies in a ,mosque1 by ,s4,l4 ,poole1 pp4 #gg and #hj1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,sidenote3 ,finality of the social reforms of ,mohammad4 ,sidenote3 ,positive precepts4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremonial law4 ,sidenote3 ,concrete morals of the ,koran4 ,sidenote3 ,want of adaptibility of the ,koran to surrounding circumstances4 #cg4 ,it has been said with much stress regarding the teachings of ,mohammad3 7#a7 ,that although under the degraded condition of ,arabia1 they were a gift of great value1 and succeeded in banishing those fierce vices which naturally accompany ignorance and barbarism1 but an imperfect code of ethics has been made a permanent standard of good and evil1 and a final and irrevocable law1 which is an insuperable barrier to the regeneration and progress of a nation4 ,it has been also urged that his reforms were good and useful for his own time and place1 but that by making them final he has prevented further progress and consecrated half measures4 ,what were restrictions to his ,arabs would have been license to other men4#adg 7#b7 ,that ,islam deals with positive precepts rather than with principles1#adh and the danger of a precise system of positive precepts regulating the minute detail1 the ceremonial worship1 and the moral and social relations of life1 is1 that it should retain too tight a grip upon men when the circumstances which justified it have changed and vanished away1 and therefore the imposition of a system good for barbarians upon people already possessing higher sort of civilization and the principles of a purer faith is not a blessing but a curse4 ,nay more1 even the system which was good for people when they were in a barbarous state may become positively mischievous to those same people when they begin to emerge from their barbarism under its influence into a higher condition4#adi 7#c7 ,that the exact ritual and formal observations of ,islam have carried with them their own ,nemesis1 and thus we find that in the worship of the faithful formalism and indifferences1 pedantic scrupulosity and positive disbelief flourish side by side4 ,the minutest change of posture in prayer1 the displacement of a simple genuflexion1 would call for much heavier censure than outward profligacy or absolute neglect4#aej 7#d7 ,that morality is viewed not in the abstract1 but in the concrete4 ,that the ,koran deals much more with sin and virtue in fragmentary details than as a whole4 ,it deals with acts more than principles1 with outward practice more than inward motives1 with precepts and commands more than exhortation4 ,it does not hold up before man the hatefulness and ugliness of all sin as a whole4#aea 7#e7 ,that ,islam is stationary2 swathed in the rigid bands of the ,coran1 it is powerless1 like the ,christian dispensation1#aeb to adapt itself to the varying circumstances of time and place1 and to keep pace with1 if not to lead and direct1 the progress of society and the elevation of the race4 ,in the body politic the spiritual and secular are hopelessly confounded1 and we fail of perceiving any approach to free institutions or any germ whatever of popular government4#aec ,footnote #adg3 ,vide ,islam and its ,founder1 by ,j4,w4,h4 ,stobart1 ,b4,a41 page #bbi1 ,london1 #ahgh2 and ,mohammed1 ,buddha and ,christ1 by ,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 pp4 #abb-bc1 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,major ,osborn writes1 ,but to the polity erected on these rude lines was given the attribute of finality4 ,in order to enforce obedience and eliminate the spirit of opposition1 ,mohammad asserted that it was1 down to the minutest details1 the work of a ,divine ,legislature4--,islam under the ,arabs1 pp4 #de and #df4 ,footnote #adh3 ,vide ,the ,faith of ,islam1 by the ,rev4 ,edward ,sell1 page #g1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,footnote #adi3 ,vide ,christianity and ,islam1 the ,bible1 and the ,koran1 by the ,rev4 ,w4,r4,w4 ,stephens1 pp4 #ie and #aca1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #aej3 ,vide ,islam and its ,founder1 by ,j4,w4,h4 ,stobart1 ,b4,a41 page #bcg2 and ,stephens' ,christianity and ,islam1 page #aba4 ,major ,osborn writes3 ,from the hour of his birth the moslem becomes a member of a system in which every act of his life is governed by a minute ritual4 ,he is beset on every side with a circle of inflexible formalities4--,islam under the ,khalifs of ,baghdad1 pp4 #gh-i4 ,he further writes in a footnote1 p4 #gi3 ,thus prayer is absolutely useless if any matter1 legally considered impure1 adheres to the person of the worshipper1 even though he be unconscious of its presence4 ,prayer also is null and void unless the men and women praying are attired in a certain prescribed manner4 ,footnote #aea3 ,vide ,christianity and ,islam1 by ,w4,r4,w4 ,stephens1 pp4 #abb-bc4 ,major ,osborn writes3 ,the ,prophet knew of no religious life where the external rite was not deemed of greater importance than the inner state1 and1 in consequence1 he gave that character to ,islam also4 ,hence there are no moral gradations in the ,koran4 ,all precepts proceed from the will of ,god1 and all are enforced with the same threatening emphasis4 ,a failure of performance in the meanest trivialities of civil life involves the same tremendous penalties as apostacy and idolatry4--,islam under ,khalifs1 p4 #e4 ,he further says3 ,in their religious aspect1 these traditions are remarkable for that strange confusion of thought which caused the ,prophet to place on one level of wickedness serious moral crimes1 breaches of sumptuary regulations1 and accidental omissions in ceremonial observations4 ,sin1 throughout1 is regarded as an external pollution1 which can1 at once1 be rectified by the payment of a fine of some kind4 ,ibid1 page #fb4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,occasionally our author would seem to write what he certainly does not mean2 thus1 in the middle of an excellent summary of the causes of ,islam's decadence1 it is stated1--',swathed in the rigid bands of the ,koran1 ,islam is powerless like the ,christian dispensation to adapt itself to the varying circumstances of time and place4'--,the ,saturday ,review1 ,june #bc1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #aec3 ,vide ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 page #def1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,sidenote3 ,the preceding objections not applicable to the ,koran4 #ch4 ,all these objections more or less apply rather to the teachings of the ,mohammadan ,common ,law 7canon and civil71 called ,fiqah or ,shara1 than to the ,koran1 the ,mohammadan ,revealed ,law4 ,our ,common ,law1 which treats both ecclesiastical and the civil law1 is by no means considered to be a divine or unchangeable law4 ,this subject has been treated by me in a separate work#aed on the ,legal1 ,political and ,social ,reforms to which the reader is referred4 ,the space allowed to me in this ,introduction1 which has already exceeded its proper limit1 does not admit a full and lengthy discussion of the objections quoted above1 but ,i will review them here in as few words as possible4 ,footnote #aed3 ,reforms1 ,political1 ,social and ,legal1 under the ,moslem ,rule1 ,bombay ,education ,society's ,press1 #ahhc4 ,sidenote3 ,finality of the social reforms of ,mohammad4 #ci4 7#a7 ,mohammad had to deal with barbarous nations around him1 to be gradually reformed1 and besides this the subject of social reforms was a secondary question4 ,yet it being necessary to transform the character of the people and to reform the moral and social abuses prevailing among them1 he gradually introduced his social reforms which proved immense blessings to the ,arabs and other nations in the seventh century4 ,perhaps some temporary but judicious1 reasonable and helpful accommodations had to be made to the weakness and immaturity of the people1 as halting stages in the march of reforms only to be set aside at their adult strength1 or to be abolished when they were to begin to emerge from their barbarism under its influence to a higher civilization4 ,consequently gradual amelioration of social evils had necessarily to pass several trials during progress of reform4 ,the intermediate stages are not to be taken as final and irrevocable standard of morality and an insuperable barrier to the regeneration of the ,arabian nation4 ,our adversaries stick indiscriminately to these temporary measures or concessions only1 and call them half measures and partial reforms made into an unchangeable law which exclude the highest reforms1 and form a formidable obstacle to the dawn of a progressive and enlightened civilization4 ,i have in view here the precepts of ,mohammad for ameliorating the degraded condition of women for restricting the unlimited polygamy and the facility of divorce1 together with servile concubinage and slavery4#aee ,mohammad's injunctions and precepts1 intermediary and ultimate1 temporary and permanent1 intended for the removal of these social evils1 are interwoven with each other1 interspersed in different ,suras and not chronologically arranged1 in consequence of which it is somewhat difficult for those who have no deep insight into the promiscuous literature of the ,koran to find out which precept was only a halting stage1 and which the latest4 ,it was only from some oversight on the part of the compilers of the ,common ,law that1 in the first place1 the civil precepts of a transitory nature and as a mediate step leading to a higher reform were taken as final2 and in the second place1 the civil precepts adapted for the dwellers of the ,arabian desert were pressed upon the neck of all ages and countries4 ,a social system for barbarism ought not to be imposed on a people already possessing higher forms of civilizations4 ,footnote #aee3 ,the cankerworm of polygamy1 divorce1 servile concubinage and veil lay at the root4 ,they are bound up in the character of its existence4 ,a reformed ,islam which should part with the divine ordinances on which they rest1 or attempt in the smallest degree to change them by a rationalistic selection1 abetment or variation would be ,islam no longer4 ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 page #deh4 ,sidenote3 ,positive precepts4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremonial law4 #dj4 7#b7 ,in fact the ,koran deals with positive precepts as well as with principles1 but it never teaches a precise system of precepts regulating in minute details the social relations of life and the ceremonial of worship4 ,on the contrary1 its aim has been to counteract the tendency to narrowness1 formality1 and severity which is the consequence of a living under a rigid system of positive precepts4 ,mohammad had to transform the character of the ,arab barbarians who had no religious or moral teacher or a social reformer before his advent4 ,it was therefore necessary to give them a few positive precepts1 moulding and regulating their moral and social conduct1 to make them 'new creatures' with new notions and new purposes1 and to remodel the national life4 7#c7 ,but lest they should confuse virtue as identical with obedience to the outward requirements of the ceremonial law1--the formal ablutions1 the sacrifices in pilgrimages1 the prescribed forms of prayers1 the fixed amount of alms1 and the strict fasts1 the voice of the ,koran has ever and anon been lifted up to declare that a rigid conformity to practical precepts1 whether of conduct or ceremonial1 would not extenuate1 but rather increase in the eyes of ,god the guilt of an unprincipled heart and an unholy life4 ,sidenote3 ,pilgrimage4 ,regarding the pilgrimage#aef or the sacrifices 7its chief ceremony71 the ,koran says3-- ,by no means can their flesh reach unto ,god1 neither their blood1 but piety on your part reacheth him4 ,thus hath he subjected them to you1 that ye might magnify ,god for his guidance3 and announce glad tidings to the doers of good4--,sura ,,xxii1 #ch4 ,sidenote3 ,kibla4 ,regarding the ,kibla in prayers it is said in the ,koran3-- ,the west and the east is ,god's3 therefore whichever way ye turn there is the face of ,god4--,sura ,,ii1 #aji4 ,all have a quarter of the ,heavens to which they turn them2 but wherever ye be1 hasten emulously after good4--,ibid1 #adc4 ,there is no piety in turning your faces toward the east or west1 but he is pious who believeth in ,god and the last day1 and the angels and the scripture1 and the prophets2 who for the love of ,god disburseth his wealth to his kindred2 and to the orphans1 and the needy1 and the wayfarer1 and those who ask1 and for ransoming2 who observeth the prayer1 and payeth alms1 and who is of those who are faithful to their engagements when they have engaged in them1 and patient under ills and hardships1 and in time of trouble1 these are they who are just1 and these are they who fear the ,lord4--,ibid1 #agb4 ,sidenote3 ,amount of alms4 ,in the place of a fixed amount of alms the ,koran only says to give what ye can spare4 ,they will ask thee also what shall they bestow in alms3 ,say3 ,what ye can spare4--,ibid1 #baf1 #bag4 ,sidenote3 ,fasts4 ,instead of imposing a very strict fast1 which in the middle of summer is extremely mortifying1 the ,koran makes its observance optional4 ,and as for those who are able to keep it and yet observe it not1 the expiation of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man4 ,and he who of his own accord performeth a good work1 shall derive good from it3 and good shall it be for you to fast1 if ye knew it4--,ibid1 #ahj4 ,sidenote3 ,no prescribed forms of prayer4 ,the ,koran does not teach any prescribed forms of worship and other ritualistic prayers4 ,no attitude is fixed1 and no outward observance of posture is required4 ,there is no scrupulosity and punctiliousness1 neither the change of posture in prayer nor the displacement of a single genuflexion calls any censure on the devotee in the ,koran4 ,simply reading the ,koran 7,suras ,,lxxiii1 #bj2 ,,xxix1 #dd71 and bearing ,god in mind1 standing and sitting2 reclining 7,,iii1 #ahh2 ,,iv1 #ajd7 or bowing down or prostrating 7,,xxii1 #gf7 is the only form and ritual1 if it may be called so1 of prayer and worship taught in the ,koran4 ,recite then as much of the ,koran as may be easy to you4--,sura ,,lxxiii1 #bj4 ,recite the portions of the ,book which have been revealed to thee and discharge the duty of prayer2 verily prayer restraineth from the filthy and the blameworthy4 ,and assuredly the gravest duty is the remembrance of ,god2 and ,god knoweth what ye do4--,sura ,,xxix1 #dd4 ,and when the ,koran is rehearsed1 then listen ye to it and keep silence3 haply ye may obtain mercy4 ,and think within thine ownself on ,god1 with lowliness and with fear and without loud-spoken words1 at even and at morn2 and be not of the heedless4--,sura ,,vii1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,sidenote3 ,pretentious prayers and ostentatious almsgiving condemned4 ,the ,koran condemns pretentious prayers and ostentatious almsgiving4 ,verily the hypocrites would deceive ,god2 but he will deceive them6 ,when they stand up for prayer1 they stand carelessly to be seen of men1 and they remember ,god but little--,sura ,,iv1 #ada4 ,woe then to those who pray1 ,who in their prayer are careless2 ,who make a show of devotion1 ,but refuse help to the needy4--,sura ,,cvii1 #d-g4 ,and they fall down on their faces weeping1 and it increaseth the humility4--,sura ,,xvii1 #aaj4 ,o ye who believe6 make not your alms void by reproaches and injury2 like him who spendeth his substance to be seen of men1 and believeth not in ,god and in the latter day4 ,the likeness of such an one is that of a rock with a thin soil upon it1 on which a heavy rain falleth1 but leaveth it hard4 ,no profit from their works shall they be able to gain2 for ,god guideth not the unbelieving people4--,sura ,,ii1 #bff4 ,we have made ready a shameful chastisement for the unbelievers1 and for those who bestow their substance in alms to be seen of men1 and believe not in ,god and in the last day4 ,whoever hath satan for his companion1 an evil companion hath he6--,sura ,,iv1 #db4 ,sidenote3 ,no indispensable hours or places for prayers4 ,there are no indispensable hours or places to be observed for prayers4 ,in ,suras ,,xi1 #aaf2 and ,,iv1 #ajd1 the time of prayer is set down in general terms without specifying any fixed hour4 ,there are some more times named in ,suras ,,xvii1 #ha1 #hb2 ,,xx1 #acj2 ,l1 #ch1 #ci2 and ,,lii1 #dh1 #di1 but they are special cases for ,mohammad himself1 and as an excess in the service4 ,vide ,sura ,,xvii1 #ha4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,marcus ,dods observes3-- ,there are two features of the devout character which the ,mohammedans have the merit of exhibiting with much greater distinctness than we do4 ,they show not the smallest hesitation or fear in confessing ,god1 and they reduce to practice the great principle that the worship of ,god is not confined to temples or any special place3-- ,most honour to the men of prayer1 ,whose mosque is in them everywhere6 ,who amid revel's wildest din1 ,in war's severest discipline1 ,on rolling deck1 in thronged bazaar1 ,in stranger land1 however far1 ,however different in their reach ,of thought1 in manners1 dress or speech1-- ,will quietly their carpet spread4 ,to ,mekkeh turn the humble head1 ,and1 as if blind to all around1 ,and deaf to each distracting sound1 ,in ritual language ,god adore1 ,in spirit to his presence soar1 ,and in the pauses of the prayer1 ,rest1 as if rapt in glory there4 ,there are of course formalists and hypocrites in ,islam as well as in religions of which we have more experience4 ,the uniformity and regularity of their prostrations resemble the movements of a well-drilled company of soldiers or of machines1 but the ,koran denounces woe upon those who pray1 but in their prayers are careless1 who make a show of devotion1 but refuse to help the needy2 while nowhere is formalism more pungently ridiculed than in the common ,arabic proverb1 ,his head is towards the ,kibleh1 but his heels among the weeds4 ,we could almost excuse a touch of formalism for the sake of securing that absolute stillness and outward decorum in worship which deceives the stranger as he enters a crowded mosque into the belief that it is quite empty4 ,persons who hold themselves excused from the duty of worship by every slight obstacle might do worse than get infected with the sublime formalism of ,cais1 son of ,sad1 who would not shift his head an inch from the place of his prostration1 though a huge serpent lifted its fangs close to his face and finally coiled itself round his neck4 ,and if some are formal1 certainly many are very much in earnest4#aeg ,sidenote3 ,ablutions4 ,the ablutions have not been imposed as burdens1 or as having any mysterious merit1 but merely as a measure of cleanliness4 ,god desireth not to lay a burden upon you1 but he desireth to purify you4 ,footnote #aef3 ,the institution of pilgrimage is a harmless one1 and conducive to unity in religion for ,arabs1 and gives moreover an impetus to trade at large4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,mohammed1 ,buddha1 and ,christ1 by ,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 pp4 #cj-a4 ,sidenote3 ,koran both abstract and concrete in morals4 #da4 7#d7 ,the ,koran seems fully aware of the danger of the precise and fixed system of positive precepts moulding and regulating every department of life4 ,the danger is that the system of formalism in which men are tied down to the performance of certain religious functions1 minutely and precisely fixed in respect to time1 place and manner1 so that neither less nor more is required of them1 retains too tight a grip upon them1 when the circumstances which justified it have changed or vanished away4 ,the moral growth of those who live under such a system of minute and punctilious restraint is stunted and retarded4 ,the tendency of mankind to formalism is so strong that they very commonly1 though often unconsciously1 fall into the error of imagining that there is a peculiar intrinsic merit and virtue in the mere discharge of those prescribed forms of duties and religious ceremonies4 ,morality is with them not in the abstract but in the concrete1 as consisting of a mass of religious observances1 rather than of a certain disposition of heart towards ,god and man4 ,the ,koran deals with vice and virtue as a whole as well as in fragmentary details4 ,it treats of inward motives as much as of outward practice1 of exhortations equally with precepts and commands4 ,it holds up before man the hatefulness and ugliness of vice as a whole4 ,it does not enclose the whole of the practical morality and piety within the narrow compass of a fixed number of precepts4 ,it lays the foundation of that far-reaching charity which regards all men as equal in the sight of ,god1 and recognizes no distinction of races and classes4 #abj4 ,and abandon the semblance of wickedness and wickedness itself4 ,they1 verily1 whose only acquirement is iniquity shall be repaid for what they have gained4 #aeb4 ,say3 ,come1 ,i will rehearse what your ,lord hath made binding on you1 that ye assign not aught to ,him as sharers of his ,divine honour1 and that ye be good to your parents2 and that ye slay not your children because of poverty1 for them and for you will ,we provide2 and that ye come not near to pollutions1 outward or inward2 and that ye slay not anyone whom ,god hath forbidden you1 unless for a just cause4 ,this hath ,he enjoined on you3 haply ye will understand4--,sura ,,vi4 #ca4 ,say3 ,only hath my ,lord forbidden filthy actions1 whether open or secret1 and iniquity1 and unjust violence1 and to associate with ,god that for which ,he hath sent down no warranty1 and to speak of ,god that of which ye have no knowledge4--,sura ,,vii4 #cc4 ,to those who avoid great crimes and scandals1 but commit only lighter faults1 verily1 thy ,lord will be rich in forgiveness4 ,he well knew you when ,he produced you out of the earth1 and when ye were embryos in your mothers' womb4 ,assert not then your own purity4 ,he best knoweth who feareth him4--,sura ,,liii4 #ac4 ,o men6 verily ,we have created you of a male and a female3 and ,we have divided you into peoples and tribes that ye might take knowledge one of another4 ,truly the most worthy of honour in the sight of ,god is he who feareth ,him most4 ,verily ,god is ,knowing1 ,cognizant4--,sura ,,xlix4 #adc4 ,and every nation has a quarter of the ,heavens4 ,it is ,god who turneth them towards it3 hasten then emulously after good3 wheresover ye be1 ,god will one day bring you all together3 verily ,god is all powerful4--,sura ,,ii4 #eb4 ,and to thee ,we have sent down the ,book of the ,koran with truth1 confirmatory of previous scripture and its safeguard4 ,judge therefore between them by what ,god hath sent down1 and follow not their desires1 after the truth which hath come unto thee4 ,to everyone of you have ,we given a rule and an open way4 #ec4 ,and if ,god had pleased ,he had surely made you all one people2 but ,he would test you by what ,he hath given to each4 ,be emulous then in good deeds4 ,to ,god do ye all return1 and ,he will tell you concerning the subjects of your disputes4--,sura ,v4 #abg ,and vie in haste for pardon from your ,lord1 and a ,paradise1 vast as the ,heavens and the ,earth1 prepared for the ,god-fearing4 #abh4 ,who gives alms1 alike in prosperity and in distress1 and who master their anger1 and forgive others6 ,and ,god loveth the doer of good4 #abi4 ,and who1 after they have done a base deed or committed a wrong against their own souls1 remember ,god and implore forgiveness of their sins--and who can forgive sins but ,god only8--and persevere not in what they have willingly done amiss4--,sura ,,iii4 #ba4 ,vie in hasting after pardon from your ,lord1 and ,paradise--whose outspread is as the outspread of the ,heaven and of the ,earth4 ,prepared is it for those who believed in ,god and his apostles4 ,such is the bounty of ,god3 to whom ,he will ,he giveth it3 and of immense bounty is ,god6--,sura ,,lii4 #ahc4 ,ye shall assuredly be tried in your possessions and in yourselves4 ,and many hurtful things shall ye assuredly hear from those to whom the scriptures were given before you1 and from those who join other gods with ,god4 ,but if ye be steadfast and fear ,god1 then this verily is ,god's decree for the affairs of life4--,sura ,,iii4 #af4 ,o my son6 observe prayer and enjoin the right and forbid the wrong1 and be patient under whatever shall betide thee3 verily this is a bounden duty4--,sura ,,xxxi4 #ch4 ,yet let the recompense of evil be only a like evil2 but he who forgiveth and maketh peace1 shall find his reward for it from ,god2 verily ,he loveth not those who act unjustly4 #ci4 ,and there shall be no way open against those who1 after being wronged1 avenge themselves4 #dj4 ,only shall there be a way open against those who unjustly wrong others1 and act insolently on the earth in disregard of justice4 ,these6 a grievous punishment doth await them4 #da4 ,and whoso beareth wrongs with patience and forgiveth1--this verily is a bounden duty4--,sura ,,xlii4 ,sidenote3 ,adaptability of the ,koran to surrounding circumstances4 #db4 7#e7 ,the ,koran keeps pace with the most fully and rapidly-developing civilization1 if it is rationally interpreted1 not as expounded by the ,ulema in the ,common ,law ,book and enforced by the sentiment of a nation4 ,it is only the ,mohammadan ,common ,law1 with all its traditions or oral sayings of the ,prophet1--very few of which are genuine reports1 and the supposed chimerical concurrence of the learned ,moslem ,doctors and mostly their analogical reasonings 7called ,hadees1 ,ijma1 and ,kias71 passed under the name of ,fiqah or ,shariat1 that has blended together the spiritual and the secular1 and has become a barrier in some respects regarding certain social and political innovations for the higher civilization and progress of the nation4 ,but the ,koran is not responsible for this all4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane ,poole writes3-- ,the ,koran does not contain1 even in outline1 the elaborate ritual and complicated law which now passes under the name of ,islam4 ,it contains merely those decisions which happened to be called for at ,medina4 ,mohammad himself knew that it did not provide for every emergency1 and recommended a principle of analogical deduction to guide his followers when they were in doubt4 ,this analogical deduction has been the ruin of ,islam4 ,commentators and ,jurists have set their nimble wits to work to extract from the ,koran legal decisions which an ordinary mind could never discover there2 and the whole structure of modern ,mohammadanism has been built upon the foundation of sand4 ,the ,koran is not responsible for it4#aeh ,i can only differ from the above in the allegation that ,mohammad recommended a principle of analogical deduction4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,the ,speeches and ,table-talk of the ,prophet ,mohammad1 by ,stanley ,lane ,poole1 pages lii and liii1 ,introduction1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,sidenote3 ,suitability of the ,koran to all classes of humanity4 #dc4 ,thus the system of religious and moral teaching of the ,koran admirably suits the lower and the higher forms of humanity4 ,the precepts which regulate some department of social life1 moral conduct1 and religious ceremonial are blessings to the barbarous2 and that portion of the ,koran which inculcates large principles1 for the due application of which much must be left to the individual conscience1 suits the same people when they begin to emerge from their barbarism under its influence into a higher condition1 or to those already possessing the higher forms of civilization4 ,for instance1 the command to give full measure1 to weigh with just balance1 to abstain from wine and gambling1 and to treat persons with kindness are intended for men not reaching the high forms of civilization4 ,the teachings of the ,koran regarding the graces of truth1 honesty and temperance and mercy1 the virtues of meekness1 and the stress laid upon thoughts and inclinations are fit to instruct persons who have attained the higher forms of civilization1 and have outgrown the need of positive precepts of minute detail4 ,c4 ,ali4 ,hyderabad1 ,deccan1 ,march #ahhd4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,despite the reference to a ,note on page cv in the ,table of ,contents1 no such page exists in this edition of the printed book4 ,,kahtan4 4--------------------------------------- 4 ,yarab4 ,hazaramaut4 99 ,yoshjab4 99 ,sadif4 ,saba4 4-----------------------------4 ,himyar4 ,kahlan4 99 99 4---------------------------4 ,kozaa4 ,rabia4 ,zeid4 ,al-,hafi4 99 99 4-----------------------4 ,hamadan4 ,abad4 99 4--------------------4 99 99 99 ,ghous4 ,aslom4 ,amran4 ,amr4 99 99 4-------------------4 99 99 4----------4 ,zeid4 ,murrah4 ,muzhij4 ,tay4 ,ash-ar4 4-------4 ,bahra4 99 ,bali4 99 4------4 4-------4 ,jarm4 ,taghlib4 ,mahra4 ,adi4 ,khaulan4 ,ghous4 ,kharija4 ,vabra4 4--------------4 ,jadila4 4---------4 ,lakhm4 ,ofeir4 ,juzam4 ,kalb4 ,khoshain4 4------------4 ,dar4 ,kinda4 ,taym ,allat4 ,ans4 ,illah4 ,sukun4 4---------------4 ,morad4 ,saad-ul-,ashira ,joheina4 ,saad4 ,nohd4 4------------------4 ,jufi4 ,ozra4 ,harb4 ,amr4 4----------4 ,nakha4 ,raha4 ,sada4 4-----------------------4 4--------------------4 ,azd4 ,anmar4 4------------------4 4--------------4 ,mazin4 ,shahnvah4 ,khas-am4 ,ghous4 ,ghafiq4 4--------------------4 4--------------4 ,bajila4 ,ahmas4 ,saalba4 ,harisa4 ,samala4 ,doos4 ,haddan4 ,jafna4 4------4 7,the ,ghassinides74 ,aus4 ,khazraj4 4------------------4 ,adi4 ,afsa4 ,lohay4 ,bariq4 ,aslam4 ,khozaa4 ,salaman4 ,mustalik4 ,,moadd4 99 99 ,,nizar4 4--------------------------------------- -----4 ,mozar 7,modhar74 ,rabia4 99 4--------------------------------------- -4 99 ,al-,ns4 ,al-,ys4 4-----4 99 ,kays4 99 ,anaza4 ,khundif4 ,aylan4 ,jadila4 4------------4 99 4-----------------4 99 ,tbikha4 ,modrika4 ,khasafa4 ,ghatafan4 99 99 ,add4 99 99 4----------4 ,mansr4 4-------------4 4---4 ,aasir4 ,reis4 4-------4 ,tamim4 99 ,mozeina4 ,hozeil4 4-----4 99 ,suleim4 ,hawazan4 99 99 ,khozeima4 ,sad ,monat ,darim4 4----4 ,bakr4 ,bahila4 ,lahyn4 99 ,saliba bin ,sd4 ,makwan4 99 99 ,movahib4 ,kinana4 4--------4 99 4--------------4 4---------4 ,asha4 ,baghiz4 4-----4 ,sakeef4 ,saad4 ,saasaa4 ,abd ,monat4 ,nazar4 4------4 ,ussya4 ,ril4 ,aamir4 4----4 ,malik4 ,zobian4 ,abs4 4--------------4 99 99 ,bakr4 ,fahr or 99 99 ,koreish4 ,rabia4 ,hilal4 ,zamra4 ,mudlij4 ,ghalib4 4-------------------------4 ,ghifar4 4------------4 ,loway4 ,kilab4 ,kaab4 ,aamir4 99 99 ,shahm4 ,murra4 ,fezra4 99 4---------4 99 4--------------------- ,rivas4 ,kosheir4 99 ,jaada4 ,baka4 ,kb ,khozeima4 99 4-----------------4 4------------- ,muntafiq4 ,murrah4 99 99 ,abd-ul-,kays4 99 99 4-------------4 4-----4 4--------4 ,kilab4 ,taym4 ,mukhzum4 ,sahm4 ,jamah4 ,aus ,allat4 4--------4 ,taym ,allah4 ,kossay4 ,zohra4 ,wail4 4--------------------------4 4--------4 99 ,abd ,manaf4 ,abd-ud-,dr4 99 ,taghlib4 ,bakr4 4---------------------------4 99 ,asad4 99 ,hashim4 ,abd ,shams4 ,hanifa4 ,abd-ul-,muttlib4 ,omayya4 99 99 4----------------------4 ,harab4 7,sakhr74 4------4 ,abbas4 ,abdullah4 ,abu ,talib4 ,abu ,sofian4 ,taheem 99 ,ibn ,abbas4 ,mohammad4 ,ali4 99 ,moavia4 ,shaiban4 99 99 ,sads4 ,,all ,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,mohammad ,,were ,,defensive4 ,the ,persecutions4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the early persecutions of ,moslems by the people of ,mecca4 ,the severe persecution which ,mohammad and his early converts suffered at ,mecca at the hands of their fellow-citizens1 the ,koreish1 is a fact admitted by all historians4 ,the ,koran1 which may be regarded as a contemporary record of the ill-feeling manifested towards the ,prophet and his followers1 bears ample testimony to the fact4 ,not only were the early ,moslems persecuted for renouncing the pagan religion and obtaining converts to the monotheistic religion of ,mohammad1 but they were also tortured and otherwise ill-treated to induce them to return to the religion which they had forsaken4 ,the persecution seems to have been so great that ,mohammad was compelled to recognize those of his followers1 who by force and cruelty were compelled to renounce ,islam and profess paganism1 but were inwardly steadfast in their belief of the one true ,god1 as true ,moslems4 ,the ,koran says3 ,whoso after he hath believed in ,god denieth ,him1 if he were forced to it1 and if his heart remain steadfast in the faith1 shall be guiltless2 but whoso openeth his breast to infidelity1 on them1 in that case1 shall be wrath from ,god1 and a severe punishment awaiteth them4--,sura xvi1 #ajh4 ,the incarceration and tortures1 says ,mr4 ,stobart1 chiefly by thirst in the burning rays of the sun1 to which these humble converts were subjected1 to induce their recantation and adoration of the national idols1 touched the heart of ,mahomet1 and by divine authority1 he permitted them1 under certain circumstances1 to deny their faith so long as their hearts were steadfast in it4#aei ,sidenote3 #b4 ,notices of the persecution in the ,koran4 ,the oppressions1 trials1 and sufferings which the early ,moslems underwent compelled them to fly from their homes1 leaving their families and property in the hands of their oppressors4 ,they chose this course rather than revert to paganism4 ,they held steadfastly to the one true ,god whom their ,prophet had taught them to trust and believe4 ,all these facts are clearly outlined in the following verses of the ,koran3-- ,and as to those who when oppressed have fled their country for the sake of ,god1 ,we will surely provide them a goodly abode in this world1 but greater the reward of next life1 did they but know it4 ,they who bear ills with patience1 and put their trust in the ,lord6--xvi1 #dc1 #dd4 ,to those also who after their trials fled their country1 then did their utmost and endured with patience1 verily1 thy ,lord will afterwards be forgiving1 gracious4--,ibid1 #aaa4 ,but they who believe1 and who fly their country1 and do their utmost in the cause of ,god1 may hope for ,god's mercy3 and ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful4--ii1 #bae4 ,and they who have fled their country and quitted their homes and suffered in my cause and have fought and fallen--,i will blot out their sins from them and will bring them into gardens beneath which the streams do flow4--iii1 #aid4 ,and as to those who fled their country for the cause of ,god1 and were afterwards slain1 or died1 surely with goodly provision will ,god provide for them6 for verily1 ,god is the best of providers6--xxii1 #eg4 ,those believers who sit at home free from trouble1 and those who toil in the cause of ,god with their substance and their persons1 shall not be treated alike4 ,god hath assigned to those who strive with their persons and with their substance1 a rank above those who sit at home4 ,goodly promises hath ,he made to all3 ,but ,god hath assigned to those who make efforts a rich recompense above those who sit still at home4 ,the angels1 when they took the souls of those who had been unjust to their own weal1 demanded1 ',what hath been your state8' ,they said1 ',we were the weak ones of the earth4' ,they replied1 ',was not ,god's earth broad enough for you to flee away in8' ,these6 their home shall be ,hell1 and evil the passage to it-- ,except the men and women and children who were not able through their weakness to find the means of escape1 and were not guided on their way4 ,these haply ,god will forgive3 for ,god is ,forgiving1 ,pardoning4--iv1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,god doth not forbid you to deal with kindness and fairness towards those who have not made war upon you on account of your religion1 or driven you forth from your homes3 verily1 ,god loveth those who act with fairness4 ,only doth ,god forbid you to make friends of those who1 on account of your religion1 have warred against you1 and have driven you forth from your homes1 and have aided your expulsion3 and whoever maketh friends of them1 these therefore are evil-doers4--lx1 #h1 #i4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,insults suffered by ,mohammad4 ,the ,prophet himself suffered insults and personal injuries from the hands of his persecutors4 ,he was prevented from offering his prayers 7xcvi1 #aj74 ,he allowed himself to be spat upon1 to have dust thrown upon him1 and to be dragged out of the ,kaaba by his own turban fastened to his neck4 ,he bore all these indignities with the utmost humility1 and he daily beheld his followers treated oppressively4 ,after his uncle's death his life was attempted1 but he escaped by flying to ,medina4 ,and call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee1 to detain thee prisoner or to kill thee or to banish thee3 they plotted--but ,god plotted2 and of plotters is ,god the best4--viii1 #cj4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,historical summary of the persecutions4 ,about #fae of the ,christian era1 the ,koreish of ,mecca began to persecute the faith of ,islam4 ,those who had no protection among the early ,moslems were hard pressed1 as related above4 ,a body of eleven men1 some with their families1 fled the country1 and found refuge1 notwithstanding their pursuit by the ,koreish1 across the ,red ,sea at the ,court of ,abyssinia4 ,this was the first ,hegira1 or flight of the persecuted ,moslems4 ,after some time1 the persecution being resumed by the ,koreish more hotly than ever1 a larger number of ,moslems1 more than hundred1 emigrated to ,abyssinia4 ,this was the second flight of the ,moslems4 ,the ,koreish had sent an embassy to the ,court of ,abyssinia to fetch back the refugees4 ,the king denied their surrender4 ,about two years later the ,koreish formed a hostile confederacy1 by which all intercourse with the ,moslems and their supporters was suspended4 ,the ,koreish forced upon the ,moslems1 by their threats and menaces1 to retire from the city4 ,for about three years1 they1 together with the ,prophet and the ,hashimites and their families1 had to shut themselves up in the ,sheb of ,abu ,tlib4 ,they remained there1 cut off from communication with the outer world4 ,the ban of separation was put rigorously in force4 ,the terms of the social and civil ban put upon them were1 that they would neither intermarry with the proscribed1 nor sell to or buy from them anything1 and that they would entirely cease from all intercourse with them4 ,mohammad1 in the interval of the holy months1 used to go forth and mingle with the pilgrims to ,mecca1 and preached to them the abhorrence of idolatry and the worship of the ,one ,true ,god4 ,the ,sheb1 or quarter of ,abu ,tlib1 lies under the rocks of ,abu ,cobeis4 ,a low gateway cut them off from the outer world1 and within they had to suffer all privations of a beleaguered garrison4 ,no one would venture forth except in the sacred months1 when all hostile feelings and acts had to be laid aside4 ,the citizens could hear the voices of the half-famished children inside the ,sheb and this state of endurance on the one side1 and persecution on the other1 went on for some three years4 ,five of the chief supporters of the adverse faction detached from the league and broke up the confederacy and released the imprisoned religionists4 ,this was in the tenth year of ,mohammad's ministry4 ,soon after ,mohammad and the early ,moslems suffered a great loss in the death of his venerable uncle and protector ,abu ,tlib4 ,thus1 ,mohammad and his followers became again exposed to the unchecked insults and persecutions incited by ,ab ,sofian1 ,abu ,jahl1 and others2 and being a handful in the hostile city1 were unable to cope with its rich and powerful chiefs4 ,at this critical period1 either because he found it unsafe to remain at ,mecca1 or because he trusted his message would find more acceptance elsewhere1 ,mohammad set off to ,tayef of the ,bani ,thakif1--the town was one of the great strongholds of idolatry4 ,there was a stone image1 called ,al-,lt1 adorned with costly vestments and precious stones1 was an object of worship1 and esteemed to be one of the daughters of ,god4 ,here ,mohammad preached to unwilling ears1 and met with nothing but opposition and scorn from the chief men1 which soon spread to the populace4 ,he was driven out of the town1 maltreated1 and wounded4 ,he could not return to and enter ,mecca unless protected by ,mut-im1 a chief of the blood of ,abd ,shams4 ,at the yearly pilgrimage1 a little group of worshippers from ,medina was attracted and won over by the preaching of ,islam2 and the following year it increased to twelve4 ,they met ,mohammad and took an oath of allegiance4 ,a teacher was deputed by ,mohammad to ,medina1 and the new faith spread there with a marvellous rapidity4 ,again the time of pilgrimage arrived1 and more than seventy disciples from ,medina pledged themselves to receive and defend him at the risk of their lives and property4 ,this was all done in secret2 but the ,koreish1 having got notice of it1 renewed such severities and persecutions1 including1 in some cases1 imprisonment1 as hastened the departure of the ,moslems to ,medina1 their city of refuge4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,the ,hegira4 ,mohammad1 being much troubled by the intolerance of the people and the personal safety and security of himself and his followers being endangered1 and mutual intercourse denied1 saw that it was hopeless to expect any forbearance on the part of the ,koreish1 who would not permit him to live and preach his religion at home1 and looked for assistance and protection from a strange land4 ,he asked the people of ,medina to receive and protect him4 ,the ,medina converts1 who had come to ,mecca on pilgrimage1 pledged themselves to ,mohammad1 and promised to defend him as they would defend their wives and children4 ,the ,medina converts1 although not acting on the offensive1 became at once objects of suspicion to the ,koreish1 who endeavoured to seize those who were in ,mecca4 ,they maltreated one of the ,medina converts who fell into their hands1 and the work of persecution was recommenced in right earnest4#afj ,two months elapsed before the believers1 except those detained in confinement or who were unable to escape from slavery1 or women and children1 could emigrate4 ,families after families silently disappeared1 and house after house was abandoned4 ,one or two quarters of the city were entirely deserted4 ,the ,koreish held a council and proscribed ,mohammad1 who escaped together with ,abu ,bakr1 leaving ,ali in his house1 around whom1 to lull the suspicions of his neighbours1 he threw his own mantle1 and desired him to occupy his bed4 ,mohammad and his follower took refuge in a cave4 ,the ,koreish despatched scouts in all directions to search for ,mohammad1 but in vain4 ,after hiding for three days in the cave1 ,mohammad and ,abu ,bakr started for ,medina1 where they arrived safely4 ,the foregoing circumstances would have fully justified immediate hostilities on the part of ,mohammad1 but he did not take up arms until compelled to do so by the attacks of the ,meccans4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,the persecution of the ,moslems by the ,koreish after their flight from ,mecca4 ,notwithstanding the flight of the ,prophet and of all the early ,moslem converts who were able to effect an escape except their families1 women and children1 and those weak ,moslems who could not leave ,mecca1 the ,meccans or the ,koreish did not forgive the fugitives and did not abstain from their aggressions against them4 ,they maltreated the children and weak ,moslems left at ,mecca 7iv1 #gg1 #ii and #ajj71 expelled the ,moslems from their houses1 and would not allow them to come back to ,mecca for a pilgrimage 7ii1 #bad74 ,the ,meccans several times invaded the ,medina territory with the avowed intention of making war upon the ,moslems 7and actually fought the battles of ,bedr1 ,ohad1 ,khandak or ,ahzb1 at ,medina71 consequently the ,moslems were forced to resort to arms in pure self-defence4 ,these were sufficient grounds for the ,moslems to assume the offensive4 ,they were desirous also of rescuing their families and those who had been unable to join in the flight from the tyranny and oppression of the ,meccans4 ,yet they were in no instance the aggressors4 ,driven from their homes and families they did not resort to arms until absolutely compelled to do so in self-defence4 ,all that ,mohammad claimed for himself and his followers was1 full liberty of conscience and actions1 and permission to preach and practice his religion without being molested4 ,this being refused1 he advised his followers to leave the city and seek refuge elsewhere4 ,they emigrated twice to ,abyssinia1 and for the third time were expelled to ,medina1 where he himself followed1 when his own life was attempted4 ,footnote #aei3 ,islam and its ,founder1 by ,j4,w4,h4 ,stobart1 ,b4,a41 page #gf4 ,but1 in fact1 there was no such permission4 ,the verse quoted above says1 that the wrath and punishment of ,god will be on those who deny ,god1 except those who do so by being forced4 ,the latter were not put on the same footing as the former2 in short1 those who denied ,god under compulsion were not counted unbelievers4 ,footnote #afj3 ,the support of the ,medina adherents1 and the suspicion of an intended emigration1 irritated the ,koreish to severity2 and this severity forced the ,moslems to petition ,mahomet for leave to emigrate4 ,the two causes might co-exist and re-act one another2 the persecution would hasten the departure of the converts1 while each fresh departure would irritate the ,koreish to greater cruelty4--,william ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc1 foot-note4 ,the ,meccans or the ,koreish4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,a ,koreish chieftain commits a raid near ,medina4--,a4,h41 ,i4 ,the attitude of the ,koreish towards the ,prophet and his followers after the flight rapidly became more hostile4 ,kurz-ibn ,jbir1 one of the marauding chieftains of the ,koreish1 fell upon some of the camels and flocks of ,medina1 while feeding in a plain a few miles from the city1 and carried them off4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,the ,koreish march to attack ,medina4 ,mohammad marches forth in defence1 and gains the battle at ,badr4--,a4,h41 ,,ii4 ,still there was no hostile response from ,medina1 till the aggressors 7the ,koreish7 brought from ,medina an army of #iej strong1 mounted on #gjj camels and #ajj horses1 to ,badr1 nine stages from ,mecca1 advancing towards ,medina4 ,then the ,prophet set out from ,medina at the head of his small army of #cje to check the advance of his aggressors4 ,this was the first offensive and defensive war between the ,koreish and ,mohammad respectively4 ,the aggressors lost the battle4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,attack by ,abu ,sofian upon ,medna4--,a4,h41 ,,ii4 ,after this ,abu ,sofian1 the head of the ,koreish1 accompanied by #bjj mounted followers1 alarmed ,mohammad and the people of ,medina by a raid upon the cornfields and palm gardens two or three miles north-east of ,medina4 ,the nomad tribes of ,suliem and ,ghatafn1 who were descended from a common stock with the ,koreish1 being probably incited by them1 or at least by the example of ,abu ,sofian1 had twice assembled and projected a plundering attack upon ,medina--a task in itself congenial with their predatory habits4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,the battle of ,ohad4 ,the ,koreish made great preparations for a fresh attack upon ,medina4 ,one year after the battle of ,badr1 they commenced their march1--three thousand in number1 seven hundred were mailed warriors1 and two hundred well mounted cavalry4 ,reaching ,medina they encamped in an extensive and fertile plain to the west of ,ohad4 ,mohammad met ,abu ,sofian at the head of #gjj followers and only two horsemen1 but lost the battle and was wounded4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,mohammad's prestige affected by the defeat4 ,mohammad's prestige being affected by the defeat at ,ohad1 many of the ,bedouin tribes began to assume an hostile attitude towards him4 ,the ,bani ,asad1 a powerful tribe connected with the ,koreish in ,najd and ,bani ,lahyan in the vicinity of ,mecca1 prepared to make a raid upon ,medina4 ,the ,mohammadan missionaries were killed at ,raj and ,br ,mana4 ,the marauding bands of ,duma also threatened a raid upon the city4 ,bani ,mustalik also raised forces to join the ,koreish in their threatened attack upon ,medina4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,abu ,sofian threatened the ,moslems with another attack next year4 ,abu ,sofian1 while retiring from the field1 victorious as he was1 threatened the ,moslem with a fresh attack the next year as he said to ,omar3 ,we shall meet again1 let it be after a year1 at ,badr4 ,medina and the ,moslems1 however1 enjoyed a long exemption from the threatened attack of the ,koreish4 ,at length the time came when the forces of the ,koreish and the ,moslems were again to meet at ,badr4 ,but the year was one of great draught1 and the ,koreish were desirous that the expedition should be deferred to a more favorable season4 ,accordingly the ,koreish engaged ,naeem1 an ,arab of a neutral tribe1 to repair to ,medina1 and there to give forth an exaggerated account of the preparations of the ,koreish1 in the hope that1 with the field of ,ohad fresh in memory1 it might deter the ,moslems from setting out to meet them4 ,but ,mohammad1 with a force of fifteen hundred men and only ten horses1 set forth for ,badr4 ,the ,koreish1 who never appeared mortified at the triumph of ,mohammad1 began to project another grand attack upon him4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,the ,koreish again attack ,medina with a large army4 ,mohammad defends the city4 ,the enemy retire4 7,ditch or ,nations4--,a4,h41 ,v47 ,the winter season in the next year was chosen for the renewal of hostilities by the ,koreish4 ,they joined an immense force of the ,bedouin tribes 7the entire army was estimated at ten thousand71 marched against ,mohammad1 and besieged ,medina4 ,mohammad defended the city by digging a ,ditch4 ,the army of ,medina was posted within the trench1 and that of the ,koreish encamped opposite them4 ,in the meantime ,abu ,sofian succeeded in detaching the ,jewish tribe of ,koreiza from their allegiance to ,mohammad4 ,the danger to ,medina from this defection was great4 ,the enemy made a general attack1 which was repulsed4 ,bad weather set in1 and ,abu ,sofian ordered the allied force to break up4 ,the enemy retired1 and never came again to attack the ,moslems4 ,this1 therefore1 was the last war of aggression on the part of the ,koreish1 and of defence on the part of ,mohammad4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,mohammad1 with his followers1 advanced to perform the lesser pilgrimage of ,mecca4 ,the ,koreish opposed ,mohammad1 who returned disappointed4--,a4,h4 ,,vi4 ,six years had passed since the expulsion of ,mohammad and his followers from ,mecca4 ,they had not since visited the ,holy house1 nor had they joined the yearly pilgrimage1 which was an essential part of their social and religious life4 ,mohammad undertook to perform the lesser pilgrimage to ,mecca in the month of ,zalkada1 in which war was unlawful throughout ,arabia4 ,mohammad1 with his followers1 the pious and peaceful worshippers1 fifteen hundred in number1 set forth for ,mecca4 ,the pilgrims carried no arms1 but such as were allowed by custom to travellers1--namely1 each a sheathed sword4 ,the ,koreish1 with their allies1 the surrounding tribes1 hearing of the approach of the pilgrims1 took up arms4 ,they pushed forward to obstruct the pilgrims4 ,mohammad encamped at ,hodeibia1 where a treaty of peace was concluded between the ,koreish and ,mohammad4 ,the treaty was to the effect1 that war should be suspended for ten years1 neither party attacking the other4 ,whosoever wished to join ,mohammad and enter into treaty with him1 should have liberty to do so4 ,if any one goeth over to ,mohammad1 without the permission of his guardian1 he shall be sent back to his guardian4 ,but if any one from amongst the followers of ,mohammad return to the ,koreish1 the same shall not be sent back1 provided1 on the part of the ,koreish1 that ,mohammad and his followers retire from us this year without entering our city4 ,in the coming year he may visit ,mecca--he and his followers--for three days1 when we shall retire therefrom4 ,but they may not enter it with any weapons1 save those of the travellers--namely1 to each a sheathed sword4 ,bani ,khoza entered into the alliance of ,mohammad1 and ,bani ,bakr adhered to the ,koreish4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,violation of the treaty by the ,koreish1 and their submission4 ,the peace remained unbroken until the ,koreish violated the treaty of ,hodeibia#afa and treacherously killed several men of the ,bani ,khoza4 ,mohammad marched against them in the eighth year of the ,hegira in defence of the injured and oppressed ,bani ,khoza1 and to chastize the ,koreish for violation of the treaty4 ,but the ,koreish submitted to the authority of ,mohammad before he arrived at ,mecca1 and the city was occupied without resistance4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,two other tribes assume the offensive4 ,soon after1 the great and warlike tribe of ,hawazin and ,thakeef assumed the offensive4 ,they assembled at ,autas1 and advanced upon ,honain to attack ,mohammad4 ,he was obliged to leave ,mecca and set out to disperse them1 who were beaten back at ,honain 7,s4 ix1 #bf-bh74 ,taif of the ,thakeef was besieged1 but in vain4 ,footnote #afa3 ,unfortunately several missionary expeditious sent by ,mohammad were met with unfavorable circumstances4 ,the party sent to ,bani ,suleim1 demanding their allegiance to the faith of ,islam1 was slain4 ,another party sent to ,bani ,leith was surprised1 and its camels plundered4 ,a small party sent by ,mohammad to ,fadak was cut to pieces by ,bani ,murra4 ,another party sent to ,zat ,atlah to call upon the people to embrace ,islam1 of which only one person escaped4 ,mohammad's messenger despatched to the ,ghassanide ,prince at ,bostra was murdered by the chief of ,muta4 ,his army sent to avenge the treachery of the chief was defeated4 ,all these mishaps and reverses dangerously affected the prestige of ,mohammad1 and encouraged the ,meccans to violate the truce4 ,the defensive character of the wars4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,verses from the ,koran in support of the defensive character of the wars4 ,this brief sketch of the defensive wars of ,mohammad with the ,koreish will fully show1 that those who assert that ,mohammad was aggressive or revengeful in his wars1 or that he made war to force his religion upon the people1 are altogether in the wrong4 ,i will now quote some verses of the ,koran1 showing that all the wars of ,mohammad with the ,koreish were defensive wars4 #ci4 ,verily1 ,god will ward off#afb mischief from believers3 lo1 ,god loveth not the false1 the unbeliever4 #dj4 ,a sanction is given to those who have been fought1#afc because they have suffered outrages1 and verily1 ,god is well able to succour them-- #da4 ,those who have been driven forth from their homes wrongfully1 only because they say1 ',our ,lord is the ,god4' ,and if ,god had not repelled some men by others1 cloisters and churches and oratories and mosques wherein the name of ,god is ever commemorated1 would surely have been destroyed6 ,and him who helpeth ,god will ,god surely help3 ,verily1 ,god is ,strong1 ,mighty4 #db4 ,they who1 if ,we established them in this land1 will observe prayer and pay the alms of obligation and enjoin what is recognized as right--and forbid what is unlawful4 ,and the final issue of all things is unto ,god4--,sura1 xxii4 #ahf4 ,and fight for the cause of ,god against those who fight against you3 but commit not the injustice of attacking them first3 verily1 ,god loveth not the unjust4 #ahg4 ,and kill them wherever ye find them1 and eject them from whatever place they have ejected you1 for 7fitnah7#afd persecution is worse than slaughter3 yet attack them not at the sacred mosque1 until they attack you therein2 but if they attack you1 then slay them--,such is the recompense of the infidels6-- #ahh4 ,but if they desist1#afe then verily ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful6 #ahi4 ,and do battle against them until there be no more 7fitnah7 persecution1 and the worship be that of ,god3 but if they desist1 then let there be no hostility1 save against wrong-doers4 #bad4 ,they will ask thee concerning war in the ,sacred ,month4 ,say3 ,the act of fighting therein is a grave crime2 but the act of turning others aside from the path of ,god1 and unbelief in ,him1 and to prevent access to the ,sacred ,mosque1 and to drive out his people1 is worse in the sight of ,god2 and persecution#aff 7fitnah#afg7 is worse than bloodshed4 ,but they will not cease to war against you until they turn you from your religion1 if they be able3 but whoever of you shall turn from his religion1 and die an infidel1 their works shall be fruitless in this world and in the next3 and they shall be consigned to the fire2 therein to abide for aye4 #bae4 ,but they who believe1 and who fly their country1 and do their utmost in the cause of ,god1 may hope for ,god's mercy3 and ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful4 #bde4 ,and fight in the cause of ,god2 and know that ,god is ,he who ,heareth1 ,knoweth4 #bdg4 ,hast thou not considered the assembly of the children of ,israel after the death of ,moses1 when they said to a prophet of theirs1--',raise up for us a king2 we will do battle for the cause of ,god8' ,he said1 ',may it not be that if to fight were ordained you1 ye would not fight8' ,they said1 ',and why should we not fight in the cause of ,god1 since we are driven forth from our dwellings and our children8' ,but when fighting was commanded them they turned back1 save a few of them3 ,but ,god knew the offenders6 #beb4 ,and by the will of ,god they routed them2 and 7,dood7 ,david slew ,goliath2 and ,god gave him the kingship and wisdom1 and taught him according to his will3 and were it not for the restraint of one by the means of the other imposed on men by ,god1 verily the earth had assuredly gone to ruin1 but ,god is bounteous to his creatures4--,sura1 ii4 #gf4 ,let those then fight in the cause of ,god who barter this present life for that which is to come2 for whoever fighteth on ,god's path1 whether he be slain or conquer1 ,we will in the end give him a great reward4 #gg4 ,but what hath come to you that ye fight not on the path of ,god1 and for the weak among men1 women and children1 who say1 ',o our ,lord6 bring us forth from this ,city whose inhabitants are oppressors2 give us a champion from thy presence2 and give us from thy presence a defender8' #gh4 ,they who believe1 fight on the path of ,god2 and they who believe not1 fight on the path of ,thgoot3 ,fight then against the friends of ,satan--,verily1 the craft of ,satan shall be powerless6 #hf4 ,fight then on the path of ,god3 lay not burdens on any but thyself2 and stir up the faithful4 ,the prowess of the infidels1 ,god will haply restrain2 for ,god is the stronger in prowess1 and the stronger to punish4 #ia4 ,they desire that ye should be unbelievers as they are unbelievers1 and that ye should be alike4 ,take therefore none of them for friends1 until they have fled their homes for the cause of ,god4 ,if they turn back1 then seize them and slay them wherever ye find them2 but take none of them as friends or helpers4 #ib4 ,except those who seek asylum among your allies1 and those who come over to you--prevented by their own hearts by making war on you1 or from making war on their own people4 ,had ,god pleased1 ,he would certainly have given them power against you1 and they would certainly have made war upon you6 ,but1 if they depart from you1 and make not war against you and offer you peace1 then ,god alloweth you no occasion against them4 #ic4 ,ye will find others who seek to gain your confidence as well as that of their own people3 ,so oft as they return to sedition1 they shall be overthrown in it3 ,but if they leave you not1 nor propose terms of peace to you1 nor withhold their hands1 then seize them1 and slay them wherever ye find them4 ,over these have ,we given you undoubted power4--,sura1 iv4 #ai4 ,o ,meccans6 ,if ye desired a decision1 now hath the decision come to you4 ,it will be better for you if ye give over the struggle 7or attacking upon ,medina or the ,moslem74 ,if ye return to it we will return2 and your forces1 though they may be many1 shall by no means avail you aught1 because ,god is with the faithful4 #ci4 ,say to the infidels3 ,if they desist 7from persecuting1 obstructing1 and attacking the ,moslems71 what is now past shall be forgiven them2 but if they return to it 7commit again the hostilities71 they have already before them the doom of the ancients6 #dj4 ,fight then against them till civil strife be at an end1 and the religion be all of it ,god's2 and if they desist1 verily ,god beholdeth what they do4 #da4 ,but if they turn their back1 know ye that ,god is your protector3 ,excellent protector6 and excellent helper6 #gc4 444 ,and they who have believed1 but have not fled their homes1 shall have no rights of kindred with you at all1 until they too fly their country4 ,yet if they seek aid from you on account of the faith1 your part it is to give them aid1 except against a people between whom and yourselves there may be a treaty4 ,and ,god beholdeth your actions4 #gd4 ,and the infidels have the like relationships one with another4 ,unless ye do the same 7i4e41 aid the oppressed and repel the oppressor71 there will be discord in the land and great corruption4--,sura1 viii4 7,when the ,meccans broke the ,hodeibia treaty mentioned in the above paragraph1 the ,koreish and ,bani ,bakr attacked ,bani ,khoza1 who were in alliance with ,mohammad4 ,it became incumbent on him to assist ,bani ,bakr and to chastize the aggressors4 ,the following verses were published on that occasion1 but happily1 before the expiration of the fixed period1 the ,koreish submitted and ,mecca was taken without bloodshed1 and these verses were not acted upon3--7 #a4 ,an immunity from ,god and ,his ,apostle to those with whom ye are in league 7and they have violated the same--compare verses #d1 #h and #aj7 among the polytheist ,meccans4 #b4 ,go ye therefore at large in the land four months 7i4e41 four sacred months from ,shaw-wal4 ,the treaty was violated by the ,koreish in ,ramzan1 a month immediately previous to the sacred months4 ,it is announced here that four months' time is given to the aggressors1 who violated the treaty of ,hodeibia1 to make terms4 ,after the time is over 7verse #e7 the ,moslems will commence hostilities to defend their allies1 the ,bani ,khoza71 but know that ye shall not find ,god feeble1 and that those who believe not1 ,god will put to shame4 #c4 ,and a proclamation on the part of ,god and ,his ,apostle to the people on the day of the greater pilgrimage1 that ,god is free from any engagement with those who worship other gods with ,god1 as is his ,apostle4 ,if then1 ye turn to ,god1 it will be better for you2 but if ye turn back1 then know that ye shall not find ,god feeble3 and to those who believe not1 announce thou a grievous punishment4 #d4 ,but this concerneth not those ,polytheists with whom ye are in league1 and who have afterwards in no way failed you1 and not yet aided any one against you4 ,observe1 therefore1 your engagement with them through the whole time of their treaty4 ,verily1 ,god loveth those who fear ,him4 #e4 ,and when the sacred months are passed#afh kill those who join other gods with ,god#afi wherever ye find them2 and seize them1 and besiege them1 and lay wait for them with every kind of ambush2 but if they repent and observe prayer and pay the obligatory alms1 then let them go their way4#agj ,verily1 ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful4 #f4 ,if any one of those who join gods with ,god ask an asylum of thee1 grant him an asylum1 in order that he hear the ,word of ,god2 then let him reach his place of safety4 ,this1 for that they are people devoid of knowledge4 #g4 ,how can they who add gods to ,god be in league with ,god and ,his ,apostle1 save those with whom ye made a league at the sacred temple8 ,so long as they are true to you1#aga be ye true to them3 verily1 ,god loveth those who fear ,him4 #h4 ,how can they8 since if they prevail against you1 they will not regard in their dealing with you1 either ties of blood or good faith3 ,with their mouths they content you1 but their hearts are averse1 and most of them are perverse doers4 #i4 ,they sell the signs of ,god for a mean price1 and turn others aside from his way2 of a truth1 evil is it that they do6 #aj4 ,they respect not with a believer either ties of blood or good faith2 and these are the transgressors6 #aa4 ,yet if they turn to ,god and observe prayer1 and pay the impost1 then are they your brethren in religion3 and ,we make clear the signs for men of knowledge4#agb #ab4 ,but if1 after alliance made1 they violate their covenant and revile your religion1 then do battle with the ringleaders of infidelity--verily there is no faith in them6 ,haply they will desist4 #ac4 ,will ye not do battle with a people 7the ,meccans7 who have broken their covenant and aimed to expel your ,apostle and attacked you first8 ,will ye dread them8 ,god truly is more worthy of your fear if ye are believers6 #ad4 ,make war on them3 ,by your hands will ,god chastize them and put them to shame1 and give victory over them1 and heal the bosom of a people who believe4 #cf4 444 and attack those who join gods with ,god one and all1 as they attack you one and all4--,sura1 ix4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,what the above-quoted verses show4 ,i need not repeat here what these verses and the facts related above show1 that the wars of ,mohammad with the ,koreish were merely defensive1 and the ,koreish were the aggressors1 and that ,mohammad was quite justified in taking up arms against them4 ,in the state of nature every man has a right to defend1 writes ,mr4 ,edward ,gibbon1#agc by force of arms1 his person and his possessions2 to repel1 or even to repeat1 the violence of his enemies1 and to extend his hostilities to a reasonable measure of satisfaction and retaliation4 ,in the free society of the ,arabs1 the duties of subject and citizen imposed a feeble restraint2 and ,mahommed1 in the exercise of a peaceful and benevolent mission1 had been despoiled and banished by the injustice of his countrymen4 ,it has been fully shown in the foregoing paragraphs that the ,moslems in ,mecca enjoyed neither safety nor security4 ,religious freedom was denied to them1 though they were harmless and peaceful members of the community4 ,besides this they were expelled from their homes1 leaving their families and their property in the hands of their persecutors1 and were prevented from returning to ,mecca1 and were refused access to the ,sacred ,mosque2 and1 above all1 they were attacked by the ,meccans in force at ,medina4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,justification of the ,moslems in taking up arms against their aggressors4 ,the persecution of the early ,moslems by the ,koreish was on religious grounds4 ,they would not allow the believers to renounce the religion of their forefathers and profess ,islam4 ,their intolerance was so strong and harsh that they tortured some of the professors of the new faith to renounce the same and to rejoin their former idolatry4 ,taking away the lives1 the fortune1 the liberty1 any of the rights of our brethren1 merely for serving their ,maker in such manner as they are persuaded they ought1 when by so doing they hurt not human society1 or any member of it1 materially1 is evidently inconsistent with all justice and humanity3 for it is punishing those who have not injured us1 and who1 if they mistake1 deserve only pity from us4#agd ,the early ,moslems had had every international right to resent persecution and intolerance of the ,meccans and to establish themselves by force of arms1 to enjoy their religious liberty and to practise their religion freely4 ,sidenote #bj4 ,the first aggression after the ,hegira was not on the part of ,mohammad4 ,some of the ,european biographers of ,mohammad say1 that the first aggressions after the ,hegira were solely on the part of ,mahomet and his followers4 ,it was not until several of their caravans had been waylaid and plundered1 and blood had thus been shed1 that the people of ,mecca were forced in self-defence to resort to arms4#age ,this is not correct4 ,the aggressors1 in the first instance1 were the ,koreish1 who1 as already shown1 followed up their persecution of the ,moslems by an attack upon the city in which the ,prophet and his followers had taken refuge4 ,even taking it for granted that the ,moslems were the first aggressors after the ,hegira1 was not the ,hegira1 or expulsion itself 7leaving aside the previous persecutions and oppressions at ,mecca71 a sufficient reason for the commencement of hostilities by the ,moslems1 who were anxious to secure their moral and religious freedom1 and to protect themselves and their relatives from further aggressions8 ,sir ,william ,muir admits1 that hostilities1 indeed1 were justified by the 'expulsion' of the believers from ,mecca4#agf ,it may be said1 says ,major ,vans ,kennedy1 that1 in these wars1 ,mohammad was the aggressor by his having1 soon after his flight1 attempted to intercept the caravans of ,mecca4 ,but the first aggression was1 undoubtedly1 the conspiracy of the ,koreish to assassinate ,mohammad1 and when to save his life he fled from ,mecca1 himself and his followers were thus deprived of their property1 and obliged to depend for their subsistence on the hospitality of the men of ,medina1 it could not be reasonably expected that they would allow the caravans of their enemies to pass unmolested4#agg ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,the alleged instances examined4 ,there is no proof that ,mohammad1 after the ,hegira1 commenced hostilities against the ,koreish by intercepting their caravans4 ,the alleged instances of the caravans being waylaid by the ,moslems at ,medina are not corroborated by authentic and trustworthy traditions4 ,they have also internal evidences of their improbability4 ,the ,medina people had pledged themselves only to defend the ,prophet from attack1 and not to join him in any aggressive steps against the ,koreish4#agh ,therefore1 it seems impossible that they should have allowed ,mohammad to take any aggressive steps against the ,koreish which would have involved them in great trouble4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,hamza and ,obeida expedition4 ,the alleged expeditions against the ,koreish caravans by ,hamza and the other by ,obeida in pursuit of caravans which escaped1 are in themselves improbable4 ,mohammad would not send fifty or sixty persons to waylay a caravan guarded by two or three hundred armed men4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,the ,abwa1 ,bowat1 ,osheira expeditions4 ,the alleged expeditions of ,abwa1 ,bowat1 and ,osheira1 said to have been led by ,mohammad himself to intercept the ,mecca caravans1 but in vain1 are altogether without foundation4 ,he might have gone1 if he had gone at all1 to ,abwa1 and ,osheira to negotiate friendly terms with ,bani ,dhumra#agi and ,bani ,mudlij1 as his biographers say1 he did4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,the affair at ,nakhla4 ,the affair of the ,nakhla marauding party1 as related in the traditions1 is full of discrepancies1 and is altogether inconsistent and untrustworthy4 ,the very verse 7,sura1 ii1 verse #bad7 which the biographers say was revealed on the occasion1 and which ,i have quoted above 7para4 #af71 contains a reference to the ,meccans' fighting against the ,moslems1 which runs counter to the assumption of the ,european biographers1 who make it an aggressive attack on the part of ,mohammad4 ,it is probable that ,mohammad might have sent some six or eight scouts to bring in news of the movements and condition of the ,koreish1 whose attitude towards ,mohammad had become more hostile since his flight to ,medina4 ,as the ,koreish had a regular and uninterrupted route to ,syria for traffic1 it was only reasonable on the part of ,mohammad to take precautions1 and he was always on his guard4 ,the biographers ,ibn ,is-hak1 ,ibn ,hisham 7p4 #dbd71 ,tabri 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dbb71 ,ibnal ,athir in ,kamil 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hg71 ,halabi in ,insanul ,oyoon 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cah71 say1 that ,mohammad had given written instructions to ,abdoollah-bin-,jahsh1 which was to the effect bring me intelligence of their affairs4 ,they also say that ,mohammad was displeased with ,abdoollah's affair at ,nakhla1 and said1 ,i never commanded thee to fight in the ,sacred ,month4 ,the biographers also relate that ,mohammad even paid blood-money for the slain4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,at ,badr ,mohammad had come only in his defence4 ,some of the ,european biographers of ,mohammad allege1 that the battle of ,badr was brought by ,mohammad himself4 ,they appear to hesitate to justify ,mohammad in defending himself against the superior numbers of the ,koreish1 who had advanced to attack him as far as ,badr1 three stages from ,medina4 ,it is alleged that ,mohammad intended to attack the caravans returning from ,syria1 conducted by ,abu ,sofian1 his arch-enemy1 therefore he set out upon his march with eighty refugees and two hundred and twenty-five people of ,medina1 and halted at ,safra to waylay the caravan4 ,abu ,sofian1 warned of ,mohammad's intention1 sent some one to ,mecca for succour4 ,the ,koreish1 with nine hundred and fifty strong1 marched forth to rescue the caravan4 ,in the meantime1 the caravan had passed unmolested1 but the ,koreish held a council whether to return or go to war4 ,on the one hand1 the biographers say1 it was argued that the object for which they had set out having been secured1 the army should at once retrace its steps4 ,others demanded that the army should advance4 ,two tribes returned to ,mecca1 the rest marched onwards2 but it is not fair to allege that ,mohammad had set forth to attack the caravan4 ,had he any such intention1 the people of ,medina1 who had pledged themselves only to defend him against personal attack1 would not have accompanied him4 ,the presence of a large number of the ,ansrs1 the people of ,medina1 more than double that of the ,mohajirins1 the refugees1 is a strong proof that they had come out only in their defence4 ,mohammad1 on receiving intelligence of the advancing force of the ,koreish1 set out from ,medina to check the advance of the ,meccan force1 and encountered it at ,badr1 three days' journey from ,medina4 ,the ,meccan army had advanced nine days' journey from ,mecca towards ,medina4 ,the forces met at ,badr on the #agth of ,ramzan 7#acth ,january #fbc71 the ,meccans had left ,mecca on the #hth of ,ramzan 7#dth ,january71 and ,mohammad started only on the #abth of ,ramzan 7#hth ,january71 about four days after the ,meccan army had actually set out to attack him4 ,supposing ,abu ,sofian had some reason for apprehending an attack from ,medina1 and sent for succour from ,mecca1 but the object of the ,meccan army of the ,koreish for which they had set out having been secured1 the caravan having passed unmolested1 they ought at once to have retraced their steps4 ,the fact that ,mohammad left ,medina four days after the ,koreish had left ,mecca with a large army advancing towards ,medina1 is strongly in his favour4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,the first aggressions after the ,hegira1 if from ,mohammad1 might fairly be looked upon as retaliation4 ,even taking it for granted that the first aggressions after the ,hegira were solely on the part of the ,moslems1 and that several of the caravans of the ,koreish had been waylaid and plundered1 and blood had been shed1 it would be unfair to condemn ,mohammad4 ,such attacks1 had they been made1 might fairly be looked upon as a retaliation for the ill-treatment of the ,moslems before the flight from ,mecca4 ,public war is a state of armed hostility between sovereign nations or governments4 ,it is a law and requisite of civilized existence that men live in political continuous societies1 forming organized units called states or nations1 whose constituents bear1 enjoy and suffer1 advance and retrograde together1 in peace and in war4 ,the citizen or native of hostile country is thus an enemy1 as one of the constituents of the hostile state or nation1 and as such is subjected to the hardships of war4#ahj ,the almost universal rule of most remote times was1 and continues to be with barbarous nations1 that the private individual of a hostile country is destined to suffer every privation of liberty and protection1 and every description of family ties4 ,but ,mohammad protected the inoffensive citizen or private individual of the hostile country4 ,he even protected those who had actually come out of ,mecca to fight at ,badr1 but were reluctant to do so4 ,mohammad had desired quarters to be given to several persons in the ,koreish army at ,badr4 ,abul ,bakhtari1 ,zamaa1 ,hrith ,ibn ,amir1 ,abbs and other ,bani ,hshim were amongst those named4 ,footnote #afb3 ,or defend1 ',yadafeo' repel4 ,footnote #afc3 ,yoktaloona1 or who fight ,yokateloona4 ,the former reading is the authorized and general4 ,footnote #afd3 ,the primary signification of fitnah is burning with fire4 ,it signifies a trial or probation and affliction1 distress or hardship2 and particularly an affliction whereby one is tried1 proved1 or tested4--,vide ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 p4 #bcce4 ,footnote #afe3 ,desist from persecuting you and preventing you to enter your native city and prohibiting access to the sacred mosque and attacking you1 and from religious intolerance4 ,footnote #aff3 i4e41 the religious persecution and intolerance and hindrance to visit the sacred mosque being suppressed2 you may profess1 preach and practice your religion freely4 ,footnote #afg3 ,vide note #b in p4 #ag4 ,footnote #afh3 ,shaw-wal1 ,zulkada1 ,zulhij1 and ,moharram1 the #ajth1 #aath1 #abth1 and #ast months of the ,arabian year4 ,these verses were promulgated in ,ramzan1 the #ith month of the year4 ,footnote #afi3 ,and have violated the ,hodeibia ,truce4 ,compare verses #d1 #h1 and #ab4 ,footnote #agj3 ,it is not meant that they should be forced to observe prayer or pay obligatory alms1 or in other words be converted to ,islam2 the context and general scope of the ,koran would not allow such a meaning4 ,the next verse clearly enjoins toleration4 ,footnote #aga3 ,the ,bani ,kinana and ,bani ,zamara had not violated the truce of ,hodeibia while the ,koreish and ,bani ,bakr had done so4 ,footnote #agb3 ,this is the same as verse #e4 ,it only means1 if meanwhile they become converts to ,islam1 they are to be treated as brethren in religion4 ,but it cannot mean that it was the sole motive of making war with them to convert them4 ,such an interpretation is quite contrary to the general style of the ,koran4 ,footnote #agc3 ,the ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 by ,edward ,gibbon1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #agd3 ,archbishop ,secker's ,works1 ,,iii1 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #age3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,,ii1 p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #agf3 ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #agg3 ,remarks on the character of ,mohammad 7suggested by ,voltaire's ,tragedy of ,mahomet7 by ,major ,vans ,kennedy4 ,vide ,transactions of the ,literary ,society of ,bombay for #ahba1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dec1 reprint ,bombay1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #agh3 ,mahomet did not send the ,medina converts on any hostile expedition against the ,koreish1 until they had warred with him at ,badr1 and the reason is1 that they had pledged themselves to protect him only at their homes4--,k4 ,wackidi1 #dh2 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #fd1 note4 ,footnote #agi3 ,k4 ,wackidi1 #ih-a_/b4 ,the provisions are noted only generally1 that neither party would levy war against the other1 nor help their enemies4 ,the version quoted by ,weil binding the ,bani ,dhumra to fight for the faith1 c41 is evidently anticipatory and apocryphal4 ,it is not given by the ,secretary of ,wackidi in his chapter of treaties4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,,iii1 p4 #fg1 note4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,contributions to ,political ,science by ,francis ,lieber1 ,,ll4,d41 ,vol4 ,,ii of his miscellaneous writings1 p4 #bea1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,the ,jews4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,the ,jews broke treaties4 ,mohammad1 on his first arrival at ,medina1 made a treaty of alliance with the ,jews1 by which the free exercise of their religion and the possession of their rights and property were guaranteed4 ,it was stipulated in the treaty that either party1 if attacked1 should come to the assistance of the other4 ,medina should be sacred and inviolable for all who joined the treaty4 ,but the ,jews broke their treaty and rebelled4 ,they assisted the enemy during the siege of ,medina1 and committed treason against the city4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,bani ,kainka1 ,bani ,nazeer1 ,koreiza1 ,khyber1 and ,ghatafn4 ,the ,bani ,kainka were the first among the ,jews who broke the treaty and fought against ,mohammad between the battles of ,badr and ,ohad4#aha ,the ,bani ,nazeer broke their compact with ,mohammad after his defeat at ,ohad4 ,they had also made a conspiracy to kill ,mohammad4 ,they were banished2 some of them went over to ,khyber4 ,the ,jewish tribe of ,koreiza had defected from their allegiance to ,mohammad1 and entered into negotiations with the enemy1 when ,medina was besieged by the ,koreish and ,bedouin tribes at the battle of the ,ditch4 ,they were afterwards besieged by ,mohammad4 ,they surrendered at the discretion of ,sd1 who passed a bloody judgment against them4 ,the ,jews of ,khyber 7including those of ,nazeer7 and ,bani ,ghatafn1 who had lately besieged ,medina with the ,koreish in the battle of the ,ditch1 made alliance against ,mohammad1#ahb and were making preparations for an attack on him4 ,they had been inciting the ,bani ,fezra and other ,bedouin tribes in their depredations1 and had combined with ,bani ,sd-,ibn ,bakr to attack upon ,medina4 ,they were subjected at ,khyber1 and made tributaries1 paying jizya in return of the protection guaranteed to them4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,notices of them in the ,koran4 ,the treachery of the ,bani ,kainka1 ,nazeer and ,koreiza1 and ,khyber is noticed in the ,koran in the following verses3-- #eh4 ,they with whom thou hadst leagued1 but who ever afterwards break their league1 and fear not ,god6 #ei4 ,and if thou capture them in battle1 then 7by the example of their fate7 put to flight those who are behind them--they will perhaps be warned3-- #fj4 ,or1 if thou fear treachery from any people1 throw back their treaty to them in like manner3 verily1 ,god loveth not the treacherous4 #fa4 ,and think not that the infidels shall get the better of ,us6 ,verily1 they shall not find ,god to be weak4 #fb4 ,make ready then against them what force ye can1 and squadrons of horse whereby ye may strike terror into the enemy of ,god and your enemy1 and into others beside them whom ye know not1 but whom ,god knoweth2 ,and all that you expend for the cause of ,god shall be repaid you2 and ye shall not be wronged4 #fc4 ,but if they lean to peace1 lean thou also to it2 and put thy trust in ,god3 ,he verily is the ,hearing1 the ,knowing4 #fd4 ,but if they seek to betray thee1 then verily ,god will be all-sufficient for thee4 ,he it is who strengthened thee with his help and with the faithful and made their heart one4 ,hadst thou spent all the riches of the earth1 thou wouldst not have united their hearts2 but ,god hath united them3 ,he verily is ,mighty1 ,wise4 #fe4 ,o ,prophet6 ,god and such of the faithful as follow thee will be all-sufficient for thee6 #ff4 ,o ,prophet6 stir up the faithful to the fight4444--,sura1 viii4 #bf4 ,and ,he caused those of the people of the ,book 7the ,jews7 who had aided the confederates1 to come down out of their fortresses1 and cast dismay into their hearts3 a part ye slew1 a part ye took prisoners4--,sura1 xxxiii4 #bi4 ,make war upon such of those to whom the ,scriptures have been given1#ahc as believe not in ,god1 or in the last day1 and who forbid not that which ,god and his apostles have forbidden1 and who profess not the profession of the ,truth1 until they pay tribute out of hand1 and they be humbled4 #abd4 ,believers6 wage war against such of the unbelievers as are your neighbours1 and let them assuredly find rigour in you3 and know that ,god is with those who fear ,him4--,sura1 ix4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,the judgment of ,sd4 ,the ,bani ,koreiza had surrendered themselves to the judgment of ,sd1 an ,awsite of their allies1 ,bani ,aws4 ,to this ,mohammad agreed4 ,sd decreed that the male captives should be slaughtered4 ,mohammad1 disapproving the judgment1 remarked to ,sd3 ,thou hast decided like the decision of a king1 meaning thereby a despotic monarch4 ,the best authentic tradition in ,bokhari 7,kitb-ul-,jihd7 has the word ',malik1' monarch2 but in other three places of ,bokhari1 ,kitabul ,monakib1 ,maghazi1 and ,istizan1 the narrator has a doubt whether the word was ,allah or ,malik4 ,moslim1 in his collection1 has also ',malik1' and in one place the sentence is not given at all4 ,it was only to eulogize the memory of ,sd after his death1 that some of the narrators of the story gave out that ,mohammad had said that ,sd had decided like the decision of a ,malak1 angel2 or some narrators interpreted the word ,malik1 king1 as meaning ,god2 and therefore put the word ,allah in their traditions4 ,mohammad never said ,malak1 meaning angel1 or ,malik1 allegorically meaning ,allah2 he simply said ,malik1 literally meaning a king or monarch4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,defensive character of the expedition against the ,jews of ,khyber4 ,the expedition against the ,jews of ,khyber was purely defensive in its character4 ,they had1 since the ,jews of the tribe of ,nazeer and ,koreiza being banished from ,medina in consequence of their treason against the ,moslem commonwealth1 had joined them1 been guilty of inciting the surrounding tribes to attack upon ,medina1 and had made alliance with the ,bani ,ghatafn1 who had taken a prominent part among the confederates who had besieged ,medina at the battle of the ,ditch1 to make a combined attack upon ,medina4 ,they1 especially ,abul ,hukeik1 the chief of ,bani ,nazeer1 had excited the ,bani ,fezra and other ,beduoin tribes to commit incursions on ,medina4 ,they had made a combination with the ,bani ,sd-,ibn ,bakr to make inroads on the ,moslims4 ,bani ,sd1 a branch of ,hawazin1 were among the confederates who had besieged ,medina4 ,lately1 ,oseir ,ibn ,zrim1 the chief of ,nazeer at ,khyber1 maintained the same relations with ,bani ,ghatafn1 as their former chief had1 to make a combined attack on ,medina4 ,the ,bani ,ghatafn1 with their branches of ,bani ,fezra and ,bani ,murra1 in league with those of ,khyber1 were always plotting mischief in the vicinity of ,fadak at ,khyber4 ,they 7the ,ghatafn7 had continued for a long time to alarm ,medina with threatened attacks4 ,at the seventh year of the ,hegira timely information was received by ,mohammad of the combined preparation of ,khyber and ,ghatafn4 ,he rapidly set forth in his defence1 and marched to ,khyber at once4 ,he took up a position at ,raj1 between ,khyber and ,ghatafn1 to cut off their mutual assistance4 ,so it was not a sudden and unprovoked invasion1 as ,sir ,w4 ,muir calls it4 ,he writes3 ,mahomet probably waited for some act of aggression on the part of the ,jews of ,kheibar 7it was the fertile lands and villages of that tribe which he had destined for his followers71 or on the part of their allies1 the ,bani ,ghatafn1 to furnish the excuse for an attack4 ,but no such opportunity offering1 he resolved1 in the autumn of this year1 on a sudden and unprovoked invasion of their territory4#ahd ,it will appear from what ,i have stated above1 that the invasion of ,khyber was purely defensive in its character4 ,footnote #aha3 ,hishamee1 p4 #ede4 ,gottengen1 #ahei2 or1 ,the ,life of ,muhammad1 by ,abd etl ,malik ibn ,hishm4 ,london3 ,trbner and ,co41 #ahfg4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,hishamee1 p4 #geg4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,the ,jews of ,khyber1 if it does not relate to ,tabook4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir calls this hostile declaration against ,jews and ,christians1 and says1--,the exclusion and growingly intolerant position of ,islam is sufficiently manifested by the ban issued against the ,jews and ,christians1 as unfit for the sacred rites and holy precincts of the ,meccan temple2 and by the divine commands to war against them until1 in confession of the superiority of ,islam1 they should consent to the payment of a tribute4--,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhi4 ,the command referred to by ,sir ,w4 ,muir refers to the treatment of those who took up arms against the ,mussalmans1 rather than to their ordinary condition4 ,no ban was issued against the ,jews and ,christians1 as unfit for the sacred rites and holy precincts of the ,meccan temple4 ,on the contrary1 the ,christians of ,najran1 when arrived at ,medina1 were accommodated by the ,prophet in his ,mosque1 and they used to say their prayers there4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #fa4 ,the ,christians or ,romans4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,tabk1 the last expedition4 ,the last expedition of ,mohammad was that of ,tabk1 and it was also purely defensive4 ,the travellers and traders arriving from ,syria brought news of the gathering of a large army on the borders of ,syria4 ,a year's pay1 they said1 had been advanced by the ,greek or ,roman ,emperor1 who was then at ,hims1 in order that the soldiers might be well-furnished for a long campaign2 the tribes of the ,syrian desert1 the ,bani ,lakhm1 ,judzam1 ,amila1 and ,ghussan were flocking around the ,roman ,eagles1 and the vanguard was already at ,balc4 ,mohammad at once resolved to meet this danger4 ,when he arrived in the vicinity of the ,syrian border at ,tabk1 he found no troops to oppose him4 ,there were no signs of impending danger1 and he therefore returned with his army to ,medina4 ,this was in the ninth year of the ,hegira4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,the conclusion4 ,this concludes the description of all the wars of the ,prophet4 ,i hope ,i have shown1 on good and reasonable grounds1 and from the surest and most authentic sources1 that the wars were not of an offensive and aggressive character2 but1 on the contrary1 they were wars of defence and protection4 ,the early ,moslems were wronged1 because they believed in the faith of ,mohammad2 they were deprived of their civil and religious rights1 were driven forth from their homes and their properties1 and after all were attacked first1 by the ,koreish and their confederates1 the ,jews and other ,arabian tribes4 ,they fought neither for revenge1 nor to impose the faith of ,mohammad by force of arms1 nor for the plunder of the caravans which passed in proximity to their city4 ,the permission to fight was only given to the believers because they were fought against or were attacked first1 and had been wronged and driven from their homes without just cause4 ,they therefore took up arms against those who first compelled them to fly from their homes1 and then attacked them4 ,this was in full accordance1 therefore1 with the law of nations and the sacred law of nature4 ,the people of ,medina had only pledged themselves to protect ,mohammad from his enemies4 ,they could not1 and would not1 have gone forth or allowed ,mohammad and his ansrs to go forth to plunder the caravan of the ,koreish passing by ,medina4 ,the ,intolerance4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,mohammad never taught intolerance4 ,those people are greatly mistaken who say1 that the one common duty laid upon the ,faithful is to be the agents of ,god's vengeance on those who believe not4 ,these are to be slaughtered until they pay tribute1 when they are allowed to go to ,hell in their own way without further molestation4#ahe ,mohammad did not wage war against the ,koreish and the ,jews because they did not believe in his mission1 nor because he was to be the instrument of ,god's vengeance on them2 on the contrary1 he said1 ,he was no more than a warner4 ,the truth is from your ,lord1 let him then who will1 believe2 and let him who will1 be an unbeliever4#ahf ,let there be no compulsion in religion4#ahg ,verily1 they who believe1 and the ,jews1 and the ,sabeites1 and the ,christians1 whoever of them believeth in ,god and in the last day1 and doth what is right1 on them shall come no fear1 neither shall they be put to grief4#ahh ,even during active hostilities1 those who did not believe were allowed to come and hear the preaching1 and were then conveyed to their place of safety4#ahi ,nor were the wars of ,mohammad to exact tribute from the unbelievers4 ,the tribute was only imposed upon those who had sought his protection1 and even then they were exempted from other regular taxes which the ,moslems paid to their ,commonwealth4 ,on the contrary1 as has already been shown1 ,mohammad merely took up arms in the instances of self-preservation4 ,had he neglected to defend himself after his settlement at ,medina against the continued attacks of the ,koreish and their allies1 he with his followers would1 in all probability1 have been exterminated4 ,they fought in defence of their lives as well as their moral and religious liberties4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,in what sense the wars were religious wars4 ,in this sense the contest might be called a religious war1 as the hostilities were commenced on religious grounds4 ,because the ,koreish persecuted the ,moslems1 and expelled them for the reason that they had forsaken the religion of their forefathers1 i4e41 idolatry1 and embraced the faith of ,islam1 the worship of ,one ,true ,god2 but it was never a religious war in the sense of attacking the unbelievers aggressively to impose his own religion forcibly on them4 ,how much is ,sir ,w4 ,muir in the wrong1 who says1 that fighting was prescribed on religious grounds8 ,hostilities1 he says1 indeed1 were justified by the 'expulsion' of the believers from ,mecca4 ,but the main and true issue of the warfare was not disguised to be the victory of ,islam4 ,they were to fight 'until the religion became the ,lord's alone4'#aij ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,the alleged verses of intolerance explained4 ,the verses of the ,koran referred to above are as follows3 #ahf4 ,and fight for the cause of ,god against those who fight against you3 but commit not the injustice of attacking them first3 verily ,god loveth not the unjust4 #ahg4 ,and kill them wherever ye shall find them1 and eject them from whatever place they have ejected you2 for 7fitnah7 persecution or civil discord is worse than slaughter but attack them not at the sacred ,mosque1 until they attack you therein1 but if they attack you1 then slay them--,such is the recompense of the infidel6 #ahh4 ,but if they desist1 then verily ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful4 #ahi4 ,and do battle against them until there be no more 7fitnah7 persecution or civil discord and the only worship be that of ,god3 but if they desist1 then let there be no hostility1 save against wrong-doers4--,sura1 ii4 ,these verses generally1 and the last one especially1 show that the warfare was prescribed on the ground of self-preservation1 and to secure peace1 safety and religious liberty1 to prevent 7fitnah7 persecution4 ,by preventing or removing the persecution 7fitnah71 the religion of the ,moslems was to be free and pure from intolerance and compulsion to revert to idolatry1 or in other words1 to be the only or wholly of ,god4 ,that is1 when you are free and unpersecuted in your religion1 and not forced to worship idols and renounce ,islam1 then your religion will be pure and free4 ,you shall have no fear of being forced to join other gods with ,god4 ,the same verse is repeated in ,chapter ,,viii4 #ci4 ,say to the unbelievers3 ,if they desist1#aia what is now past shall be forgiven them1 but if they return to it1#aib they have already before them the doom of the former4#aic #dj4 ,fight then against them till fitnah 7civil strife or persecution7 be at an end1 and the religion be all of it ,god's1 and if they desist1 verily ,god beholdeth what they do4 ,this shows that the fighting prescribed here against the ,koreish was only in the case of their not desisting1 and it was only to prevent and suppress their fitnah1 and when their intolerance and persecution was suppressed1 or was no more1 then the ,moslem religion was to become all of it ,god's4 ,they were not forced to join any god with the true ,god4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 in his last chapter on the person and character of ,mohammad1 observes in reviewing the ,medina period3 ,intolerance quickly took the place of freedom2 force1 of persuasion4 444 ,slay the unbelievers wheresoever ye find them was now the watchword of ,islam3--,fight in the ways of ,god until opposition be crushed1 and the ,religion becometh the ,lord's alone6#aid ,here1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir plainly contradicts himself4 ,he has already admitted at the #acfth page of the fourth volume of his work that the course pursued by ,mohammad at ,medina was to leave the conversion of the people to be gradually accomplished without compulsion1 and the same measure he intended to adopt at his triumphal entry into ,mecca4 ,his words are3 ,this movement obliged ,mahomet to cut short of his stay at ,mecca4 ,although the city had cheerfully accepted his supremacy1 all its inhabitants had not yet embraced the new religion1 or formally acknowledged his prophetic claim4 ,perhaps1 he intended to follow the course he had pursued at ,medina1 and leave the conversion of the people to be gradually accomplished without compulsion4 ,this was at the end of the eighth year after the ,hegira4 ,mohammad died at the beginning of the eleventh year1 then the question naturally comes up1 when was that alleged change to intolerance1 and how ,sir ,w4 ,muir says1 this change is traced from the period of ,mohammad's arrival at ,medina8 ,in the action taken in the fifth year of the ,hegira against the ,jewish tribe of ,koreiza1 who had treasoned against the city1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir admits that up to that period ,mohammad did not profess to force men to join ,islam1 or to punish them for not embracing it4 ,his words are3 ,the ostensible grounds upon which ,mahomet proceeded were purely political1 for as yet he did not profess to force men to join ,islam1 or to punish them for not embracing it4#aie ,in a foot-note he remarks3 ,he still continued to reiterate in his ,revelations the axiom used at ,mecca1 ',i am only a public preacher1' as will be shown in the next chapter4 ,further1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 in his account of the first two years after ,mohammad's arrival at ,medina1 admits in a foot-note 7p4 #cb1 ,vol4 ,,iii71 that as yet we have no distinct development of the intention of ,mahomet to impose his religion on others by force3 it would have been dangerous in the present state of parties to advance this principle4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,comment on the above quotation4 ,it will appear from the foregoing statements that in each of the three distinct periods of ,mohammad's sojourn in ,medina1 i4e41 the first two years1 the fifth year1 and the eighth year1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir has himself admitted that ,mohammad had no intention to impose his religion by force1 and did not profess to force people to join ,islam1 or punish them for not embracing it1 and that the conversion of the people at ,medina was gradually accomplished without compulsion1 and the same course he followed at his taking of ,mecca4 ,then there is no room left for the uncalled for and self-contradictory remark of ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 that at ,medina ,intolerance quickly took place of freedom2 force1 of persuasion4 ,up to the end of the eighth year when ,mecca was captured1 there was admittedly no persecution or constraint put in requisition to enforce religion4 ,mohammad breathed his last early in the eleventh year4 ,during the two years that intervened1 the din of war had ceased to sound1 deputations continued to reach the ,prophet from all quarters of ,arabia1 and not a single instance of intolerance or compulsory adoption of faith is found on record4#aif ,mohammad1 neither sooner1 nor later1 in his stay at ,medina1 swerved from the policy of forbearance and persuasion he himself had chalked out for the success of his mission4 ,at ,medina1 he always preached his liberal profession of respect for other creeds1 and reiterated assurances to the people that he was merely a preacher1 and expressly gave out that compulsion in religion was out of question with him4 ,these are his revelations during the ,medina period4 ,verily1 they who believe 7,moslems71 and they who follow the ,jewish religion1 and the ,christians1 and the ,sabeites1--whoever believeth in ,god and the last day1 and doeth that which is right1 shall have their reward with their ,lord3 and fear shall not come upon them1 neither shall they be grieved4 ,sura ,,ii1 #ei4 ,and say to those who have been given the ,scripture1 and to the common folk1 ,do you surrender yourselves unto ,god8 ,then1 if they become ,moslems1 are they guided aright2 but if they turn away1 then thy duty is only preaching and ,god's eye is on his servants4 ,sura ,,iii1 #ai4 ,the ,apostle is only bound to preach3 and ,god knoweth what ye bring to light1 and what ye conceal4 ,sura ,v1 #ii4 ,say3 ,obey ,god and obey the ,apostle4 ,but if ye turn back1 still the burden of his duty is on him only1 and the burden of your duty rests on you4 ,and if ye obey him1 ye shall have guidance2 ,but plain preaching is all that devolves upon the ,apostle4 ,sura ,,xxiv1 #ec4 ,let there be no compulsion in religion4 ,now is the right way made distinct from error2 whoever therefore denieth ,tghoot1#aig and believeth in ,god1 hath taken hold on a strong handle that hath no flaw therein3 ,and ,god is ,he who ,heareth1 ,knoweth4 ,sura ,,ii1 #bcg4 ,whoso obeyeth the ,apostle1 in so doing obeyeth ,god and as to those who turn back from thee1 ,we have not sent thee to be their keeper4 ,sura ,,iv1 #hb4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,the object of ,mohammad's wars4 ,slay the unbelievers wherever ye find them was never the watchword of ,islam4 ,it was only said in self-preservation and war of defence1 and concerned only those who had taken up arms against the ,moslems4 ,the verses--,suras ,,ii1 #ahi2 and ,,viii1 #dj--;have been quoted above in paras4 #ag and #cg 7pp4 #ah1 #ba1 #dd and #de71 and they fully show by their context and scope that they only enjoined war against the ,meccans1 who used to come to war upon the ,moslems4 ,the object of making war is precisely set forth in these verses1 and appears to mean that civil feuds and persecutions be at an end4 ,but ,sir ,w4 ,muir wrongly translates ,fitnah as opposition4 ,he himself has translated the meaning of the word in question as persecution1 in ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #adg1 foot-note2 in translating the tenth verse of the ,sura ,,lxxxv he writes3 ,verily1 they who persecute the believers1 male and female1 and repent themselves not4 ,the original word there is ,fatanoo1#aih from ,fitnah4 ,i do not know why he should put a twofold version on the same word occurring in the same book4 7,suras ,,ii1 #ahg2 ,,viii1 #dj47 ,footnote #ahe3 ,islam under the ,arabs1 by ,major ,r4,d4 ,osborne1 ,london1 #ahgf1 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,,xviii1 #bh4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,,ii1 #beg4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,v1 #gc4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,,ix1 #f4 ,footnote #aij3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #aia3 ,from attacking and persecuting you and preventing you from entering your homes and visiting the sacred mosque4 ,footnote #aib3 ,that is1 if again attack you and commit aggressions4 ,footnote #aic3 ,meaning those who were defeated at ,badr4 ,footnote #aid3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #aie3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bhb4 ,footnote #aif3 ,there is only one instance of intolerance1 i4e41 making converts at the point of sword1 which ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 so zealous in accusing ,mohammad of religious persecution during the ,medina period1 has succeeded in finding out during the ten eventful years of ,mohammad's sojourn in ,medina4 ,i refer to the story of ,khalid's mission in the beginning of the tenth year ,a4,h41 to ,bani ,haris1 a ,christian tribe at ,najran1 whose people had entered into a covenant of peace with ,mohammad1 and to whom an ample pledge had been guaranteed to follow their own faith4 ,according to ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,khalid was instructed to call on the people to embrace ,islam1 and if they declined1 he was1 after three days1 to attack and force them to submit 7,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bbd74 ,the version of the story thus given by the ,biographers of ,mohammad is too absurd to be believed2 because it is a well-established fact that the ,bani ,haris1 or the ,christians of ,najran1 had sent a deputation to ,mohammad only a year ago1 i4e41 in ,a4,h4 #i1 and obtained terms of security from him 7,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bii2 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #dja74 ,it is quite an unfounded1 though a very ingenious1 excuse of ,sir ,w4 ,muir to make the ,bani ,haris consist of two sects1--one of ,christians1 and the other of idolators1--and to say that the operations of ,khalid were directed against the portion of ,bani ,haris still benighted with paganism2 thus reconciling the apocryphal tradition with the fact of the ,bani ,haris being at a treaty of security1 toleration and freedom1 with ,mohammad4 ,i conclude1 he writes in a note1 the operations of ,khlid were directed against the portion of ,bani ,hrith still idolaters3--at all events not against the ,christian portion already under treaty 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 foot-note1 p4 #bbd74 ,see the account of the conversion of ,bani ,hrith to ,christianity long before ,islam in ,hishamee1 pp4 #bj-bb4 ,gibbon1 ,chapter ,,xlii1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bjg1 foot-note2 and ,muir's ,vol4 ,i1 p4 ccxxviii4 ,footnote #aig3 ,a name applied to an idol or idols--especially ,allat and ,ozza1 the ancient idols of the ,meccans4 ,footnote #aih3 ,the past tense1 third person plural1 of the infinitive ,fitnah4 ,the ,ninth ,chapter1 or ,sura ,barat4 ,sidenote #dj4 ,the opening portion of the ,i,xth ,sura of the ,koran only relates to the ,koreish who had violated the truce4 ,sidenote3 ,the injunctions contained in it were not carried out owing to the compromise4 ,sir ,william ,muir1 while relating the publication of some verses of the ninth chapter of the ,koran on the occasion of the great pilgrimage ,a4,h4 #i1 and referring to the opening verses of the ,sura 7from #ast to #gth inclusive7 writes3 ,the passages just quoted completed the system of ,mahomet so far as its relations with idolatrous tribes and races were concerned4 ,the few cases of truce excepted1 uncompromising warfare was declared against them all4#aii ,this is not correct4 ,the mistake1 he as well as others who follow him commit1 lies in their taking the incipient verses of ,chapter ,,ix1 as originally published at the end of the ninth year of the ,hegira1 after the conquest of ,mecca1 in order to set aside every obligation or league with the idolators to wage war with them1 either within or without the sacred territory1 and they were to be killed1 besieged1 and laid in wait for wheresoever found4#bjj ,in fact it has no such bearing of generally setting aside the treaties1 and declaring uncompromising warfare1 and was not published for the first time on the occasion stated above4 ,the opening verses of the ninth ,sura of the ,koran1 which ,i have quoted in full together with necessary notes in para4 #ag 7pp4 #bb-be71 revealed for the first time1 were before the conquest of ,mecca1 when the idolators thereof had broken the truce of ,hodeibia4 ,their violation of the treaty is expressly mentioned in verses #d1 #h1 #aj and #ac1 and the same verses also enjoin to respect and fulfil the treaties of those idolators who had not broken theirs4 ,therefore only those aggressors who had been guilty of a breach of faith1 and instigated others to take up arms against the ,moslems in the attack of ,bani ,bakr1 on ,khoza1 were to be waged war against1 besieged1 and taken captives after the expiration of four months from the date of the publication of the verses in question4 ,but fortunately ,abu ,sofian compromised before the commencement of the sacred months1 and before the period of the four months had elapsed4 ,the people of ,mecca submitted without bloodshed1 and hence it is obvious that the injunctions contained in the commencement of the ninth chapter of the ,koran were never carried out4 ,they remained as dead letter1 and will1 ,i think1 so remain perpetually4 ,almost all ,european writers1 as far as ,i know1 labour under the delusion that at the end of the ninth year ,mohammad published the opening verses of the ninth ,sura1 commonly designated ,sra ,bart4 ,but the fact is that it was published in the eighth year of the ,hegira before the commencement of the sacred months1 probably in the month of ,shabn1 while ,mohammad marched in ,ramzn against ,mecca1 not with the intention of prosecuting war1 for it was to take place after the lapse of ,zikad1 ,zelhaj and ,moharram1 but of taking ,mecca by compromise and preconcerted understanding between himself and ,abu ,sofian4 ,if it be admitted that the preliminary verses of ,sura ,,ix of the ,koran were revealed or published for the first time in the last month of the ninth year of the ,hegira1 then they--the verses--become aimless1 without being pregnant of any object in view4 ,they contain injunctions for carrying hostile operations against those who had broken certain treaties1 had helped others against the ,moslems1 and themselves had also attacked them4 ,they proclaimed war against certain tribes1 whose people did not regard ties of blood and good faith1 and had been the first aggressors against the ,moslems4 ,not many such persons were in the whole of ,arabia at and after the time alleged for the promulgation of these verses1 i4e41 at the last month of the ninth and the whole tenth year4 ,by this time1 almost all ,arabia had tendered voluntary submission to the authority of ,mohammad4 ,deputations from each tribe of the ,arabs continued to reach ,medina during the whole of this period1 and were pledged protection and friendship by the founder of the ,islamic faith4 ,from ,medina the sound of drums and the bray of clarions had now died away4 ,hereupon we are able to speak with certainty that these verses could not be1 and were not1 revealed at the end of the ninth year as it has been asserted by several writers1 both ,mohammadan and ,european4 ,and for the above reasons the most suitable occasion for the revelation of these verses is the breach of the truce of ,hodeibia by the ,koreish and their allies during the eighth year of the ,hegira which caused the reduction of ,mecca by compromise4 ,several ,mohammadan commentators are unanimous in their opinion as to this point4 ,consequently the verses1 ordaining the manifestation of arms against the treaty-breakers and aggressors1 as well as putting them to the sword wherever they were to be found1 i4e41 within or without the harem1 or the precincts of the ,sacred ,mosque1 were not complied with owing to the compromise by the ,koreish4 ,footnote #aii3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #baa ,footnote #bjj3 ,islam and its ,founder1 by ,j4,w4,h4 ,stobart1 ,b4,a41 p4 #agi4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,the alleged ,interception of the ,koreishite ,caravans4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,the nine alleged interceptions of the ,koreish caravans4 ,it has been asserted by ,european biographers of ,mohammad that several caravans of the ,koreish going to and from ,syria were intercepted and waylaid by the ,moslems soon after the ,hegira4 ,the alleged incursions are as follow3 7#a47 ,seven months after ,mohammad's arrival at ,medina1 an expedition headed by ,hamza surprised a caravan under the conduct of ,abu ,jahl4 7#b47 ,a month later a party led by ,obeida was dispatched in the pursuit of another caravan guided by ,abu ,sofian4 7#c47 ,after the expiration of another month1 a third inroad headed by ,sad proceeded to lie in ambush for the ,koreish caravan on the way it was expected to pass4 7#d47 ,nearly twelve months after the ,hegira1 a fourth attempt was undertaken to plunder a caravan of the ,koreishites by ,mohammad himself at ,abwa4 7#e47 ,in the succeeding month ,mohammad again marched to ,bowat with the sole aim of despoiling a caravan composed of precious freight under the immediate escort of ,omeya-bin ,khalf4 7#f47 ,after the lapse of two or three months ,mohammad set out to ,osheira to make aggression on another rich caravan proceeding to ,syria led by ,abu ,sofian4 ,all these expeditions are said to have been not attended by any success on the part of the ,moslems1 the vigilance of the caravans in all cases eluding the pursuit made after them4#bja 7#g47 ,in ,rajab ,a4,h4 #b1 a small band composed of some six persons was ordered to march to ,nakhla to lie in wait there for the caravan of the ,koreish4 ,the party had a scuffle at ,nakhla1 in which a man of the convoy was killed2 while two prisoners and the pilfered goods were taken to ,medina4 ,hereupon ,mohammad was much displeased1 and told ,abdallah-bin ,jahsh1 ,i never commanded thee to fight in the sacred month4 7#h47 ,the caravan of the ,koreish1 which on its passage had safely escaped the chase of the ,moslems1 as already described in ,no4 #f1 was on its way back to ,mecca4 ,mohammad anticipated their return1 and prepared an attack1 which terminated in the famous battle of ,badr4 7#i47 ,all these predatory inroads to intercept the caravans of ,mecca are said to have happened during the first and the second year of the ,hegira1 or before the battle of ,badr4 ,it remains for me now to mention the only remaining instance of ,moslem's foray upon the ,koreishite caravan1 which took place in the sixth year ,a4,h4 at ,al-,is4 ,the attack was completely successful4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,the interceptions were impossible under the circumstances in which ,mohammad was placed4 ,i have already explained 7from paras4 #ba-bd7 that these early expeditions1 numbered #a to #h1 are not corroborated by authentic and trustworthy traditions1 and ,i have also given the probable nature of those marked #d1 #e and #f4 ,it was impossible for ,mohammad and his adherents1 situated as they were1 to make any hostile demonstrations or undertake a pillaging enterprise4 ,the inhabitants of ,medina1 where the ,prophet with his followers had sought a safe asylum1 and at whose invitation he had entered their city1 had solemnly bound themselves on sacred oaths to defend ,mohammad1 so long as he was not himself the aggressor1 from his enemies as they would their wives and their children4#bjb ,mohammad1 on his own part1 had entered into a holy compact with them not to plunder or commit depredations4#bjc ,upon these considerations it was impossible that the people of ,medina would have permitted or overlooked the irruptions so often committed by ,mohammad upon the caravans of the ,koreish3 much less would they have joined with their ,prophet1 had he or any of his colleagues ventured to do so4 ,but granting that the ,medinites allowed ,mohammad to manifest enmity towards the ,koreish by a display of arms1 or that no restraint was put by them upon him when he encroached upon the territories of the neighbouring tribes1 and that the caravans were molested without any grounds of justice1 was it possible1 ,i ask1 for the people of ,medina to avoid the troubles they would be necessarily involved in by the refuge they had given to their ,prophet8 ,they had long suffered from internal feuds1 and the sanguinary conflict of ,bos1 a few years ago1 which had paralyzed their country1 and humiliated its citizens1 was but too fresh in their memory yet4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,the interceptions1 if occurred1 were justified by way of reprisals4 ,let us suppose that these alleged interceptions of the ,meccan caravans by the ,moslems did actually take place1 as related by the biographers of ,mohammad1 were they not all justified by the ,international ,code of the ,arabs1 or the ancient usage and military law of nations4 ,it has been proved beyond all dispute that the ,meccans were the first aggressors in persecuting the ,moslems1 and expelling them from their dear homes at ,mecca with the unbearable annoyance1 they caused the converts of the new faith in the peaceful prosecution of their religion2 taking all these causes of offence into consideration1 as well as the ,international law and the law of ,nature1 the ,moslems might be said to have law and justice both on their sides in waging war with their harassers for the restoration of their property and homes1 and even in retaliating and making reprisals until they attained the object long sought by them4 ,when the ,meccans1 on their own part1 had first trumpeted hostility against the ,moslems1 the right of self-defence1 as well as military necessity1 compelled the latter to destroy their property1 and obstruct the ways and channels of communication by which their traffic was prospering2 for1 from the moment one ,state is at war with another1 it has1 on general principles1 a right to seize on all the enemy's property of whatsoever kind and wheresoever found1 and to appropriate the property thus taken to its own use1 or to that of the captors4#bjd ,footnote #bja3 ,i have closely followed ,sir ,w4 ,muir in these expeditions2 vide ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #fd-fi4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,the people of ,medna were pledged only to defend the ,prophet from attack1 not to join him in any aggressive steps against the ,coreish4 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,bokharee relates from ,obada-bin ,smat with the usual chain of narrators1 that ,i am one of the ,nakeebs who pledged to the ,prophet4 ,we pledged that we will not join any other god with the ,god1 and will not commit theft1 and will not commit fornication1 and will not commit murder1 and will not plunder4 ,saheeh of ,bokharee1 ,book of ,campaigns1 chapter on ,deputations from ,ansrs4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,wheaton's ,elements of ,international ,law1 p4 #dai1 ,boston1 #ahee2 ,lieber's ,miscellaneous ,writings2 ,political science1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bej1 ,philadelphia1 #ahha4 ,the alleged ,assassinations4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,instances of alleged assassinations cited4 ,there were certain executions of culprits who had perpetrated the crime of high treason against the ,moslem ,commonwealth4 ,these executions1 and certain other cases of murders not grounded on any credible evidences1 are narrated by ,european biographers of ,mohammad as assassinations committed through the countenance and connivance which he lent them4 ,they were about five or six in number1 and they are styled assassinations from there being no trials of the prisoners by a judge and a jury1 nor by any systematic court-martial4 ,the punishment of death was inflicted upon the persons condemned1 either from private enmity or for the unpardonable offence of high treason against the ,state1 but it cannot be said1 as ,i will hereafter show1 that these so-called cases of assassinations had received the high sanction of ,mohammad1 or they were brought about at his direct instigation and assent for their commission4 ,the alleged instances are as follows3-- #a4 ,asma-bint ,marwn4 #b4 ,ab ,afak4 #c4 ,kb-ibn ,ashraf4 #d4 ,sofian-ibn ,khalid4 #e4 ,ab ,rfe4 #f4 ,oseir-ibu ,zrim4 #g4 ,the attempted assassination of ,ab ,sofian4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,mr4 ,poole quoted4 ,before reviewing the truth and falsity of evidence in each of these cases1 and showing how far the ,prophet was privy to them1 ,i will avail myself of a quotation from ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane ,poole1 who has remarked with his usual deep discernment and accurate judgment1 in his ,introduction to ,mr4 ,e4,w4 ,lane's ,selections from the ,koran3 ,the execution of the half-dozen marked ,jews is generally called assassination1 because a ,muslim was sent secretly to kill each of the criminals4 ,the reason is almost too obvious to need explanation4 ,there were no police or law-courts1 or even courts-martial1 at ,medina2 some one of the followers of ,mohammad must therefore be the executer of the sentence of death1 and it was better it should be done quietly1 as the executing of a man openly before his clan would have caused a brawl and more bloodshed and retaliation1 till the whole city had become mixed up in the quarrel4 ,if secret assassination is the word for such deeds1 secret assassination was a necessary part of the internal government of ,medina4 ,the men must be killed1 and best in that way4 ,in saying this ,i assume that ,mohammad was cognisant of the deed1 and that it was not merely a case of private vengeance2 but in several instances the evidence that traces these executions to ,mohammad's order is either entirely wanting or is too doubtful to claim our credence4#bje #a4--;,asma-bint ,marwn4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,asma-bint ,marwn4 ,the first victim was a woman1 writes ,major ,osborn1 ,asma1 daughter of ,marwan2 she had composed some satirical verses on the ,prophet and his followers2 and ,muhammad1 moved to anger1 said publicly3 ',who will rid me of this woman8' ,omeir1 a blind man1 but an ardent ,moslem1 heard the speech1 and at dead of night crept into the apartment where ,asma lay asleep surrounded by her little ones2 he felt about in the darkness till his hand rested on the sleeping woman1 and then1 the next instance his sword was plunged into her breast4#bjf ,the story of ,asma's murder has been variously related by the ,arabian writers1 and the testimonies on which it rests are contradictory and conflicting in themselves4 ,wkidi1 ,ibn ,sd1 and ,ibn ,hishm relate a very strange thing about it1 that she was killed by ,omeir the blind at the dead of night4 ,a blind person commits murder in a stranger's house during nocturnal quietness1 and is not arrested by any one6 ,doctor ,weil writes1 that ,omeir was a former husband of ,asma1 and the origin of the murder may be traced to a long-brooding and private malice4 ,ibn ,askar in his history 7vide ,seerat ,shmee7 relates that ,asma was a fruit-seller2 some person of her tribe asked her if she had better fruits4 ,she said 'yes1' and entered her house followed by that man4 ,she stooped down to take something up1 the person turned right and left1 and seeing that nobody was near1 gave a violent blow on her head1 and thus dispatched her4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,the story deserves not our belief4 ,the historians even relate that ,omeir1 being offended at the verses composed by ,asma1 had volunteered himself of his own free-will to kill her4#bjg ,she might have been a sacrifice to envy or hatred by the sword of her assassin1 but ,mohammad really had no hand in her death4 ,she had made herself an outlaw by deluding the people of ,medina to a breach of treaty with the ,moslems1 whereby the rights and jurisdictions of ,jews and ,moslems were definitively settled4 ,ibn ,ishak quietly leaves unnarrated any transaction with regard to ,asma4 ,wakidi and ,ibn ,sd do not affirm that ,mohammad1 being annoyed at her lampoons1 said dejectedly1 ,who would rid me of that woman8 ,on the contrary1 ,wakidi writes1 that ,omeir had voluntarily swore to take her life4 ,it is only ,ibn ,hisham who relates without citing his authority1 that ,mohammad1 hearing ,asma's verses1 declared3 ,is there nobody for me 7i4e41 to rid me7 from ,bint ,marwn8 ,this version of the story has no corroborative proofs from the earliest biographers1 and we are not inclined to put any faith in it4#bjh #b4--;,ab ,afak4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,ab ,afak4 ,it has been related that ,ab ,afak of ,bani ,amr had enraged the ,moslems by fomenting enmity and sedition against their ,government1 when one ,hris was executed for his murdering treacherously his fellow-comrade in the battle of ,ohad during the time they were fighting together side by side4 ,a convert from amongst the ,bani ,amr vowed to slay ,ab ,afak1 and falling unawares upon him killed him with a cruel blow of his sword4 ,from ,ibn ,ishak we learn that ,mohammad had said with reference to ,ab ,afak1 ,who would rid me of this pestilent fellow8#bji ,the biographers do not give their authorities whence they derived their information of the words attributed to ,mohammad which he is said to have uttered with relation to ,ab ,afak before his followers2 while at the same time it is no fair justice to form a hasty opinion of the fact without a critical examination and well-balancing of evidences of men like ,ibn ,ishak and others who have forgotten to tell us the original sources of their own assertion4 ,besides1 the words quoted above are not equivalent to a peremptory order1 and even granting this last condition1 we are not justified in construing them to mean assassination4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes that1 the ,secretary of ,wckidi says distinctly--',now this was by command of the ,prophet4' 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #acc1 f4n47 ,but it is a very easy thing for the secretary or other biographers to give an ample play to their fancies1 or to fabricate commands1 which the ,prophet had never given out1 on a very slender basis1 or on no reasonable basis at all4 ,the tendency of the biographers is always to exonerate the companions of the ,prophet at the expense of truth1 and to justify their deeds by casting the whole blame upon him4 #c4--,kb1 son of ,ashraf4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,kb1 son of ,ashraf4 ,kb-ibn ,ashraf was an influential ,jew connected with the tribe of ,bani ,nazeer4 ,being very much mortified by the defeat of the ,meccans at the battle of ,badr1 he soon after proceeded to ,mecca1 where he stirred up the ,koreish to avenge themselves on the ,moslems of ,medina4 ,on his return to the latter place he manifested avowed hostility towards the ,moslem ,commonwealth4 ,he was a traitor and a turncoat1 for he not only violated his allegiance to the ,moslems1 but preached rebellion among their enemies4 ,under such circumstances1 he deserved execution by the military and international law1 and was decapitated at ,medina accordingly4 ,the mode of execution was a sudden violence or deception1 but ,mohammad never fulminated any harsh commands against him either for his assassination or for his murder4 ,he deserved capital punishment for his treachery1 which was duly measured out to him in the absence of any legal tribunals for trials of criminals by jury1 for in that case any man was authorized to execute the sentence of the law4 ,even if it be taken for granted that the ,prophet had prayed ,o ,lord1 deliver me from the son of ,ashraf1 in whatsoever manner seemeth good unto thee1 because of his open sedition and verses2 or said1 ,who can ease me of the son of ,ashraf8#baj ,this does not amount to a fiat for murder or execution1 much less for assassination4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,mohammad could not have any share in his murder4 ,the biographers and narrators of the campaigns of ,mohammad generally relate untrustworthy and fabulous details of such events1 and are by no means to be relied upon4 ,mohammad ,ibn ,ishak1 the earliest biographer1 whose work exists1 does not relate that ,mohammad the ,prophet ever prayed for1 or said to his followers1 to be got rid of ,kb2 whereas the latest biographers and traditionalists give us to understand that the ,prophet sanctioned the murder of ,kb by his own express orders4 ,i am far from asserting1 says ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 that every detail in the foregoing narrative1 either of instigation by ,mahomet or of deception by the assassins1 is beyond suspicion4 ,the actors in such scenes were not slow to magnify and embellish their own services at the expense of truth4 ,there may also have been the desire to justify an act of perfidy1 at which even the loose morality of the day was startled1 by casting the burden of it on the infallible ,prophet4 ,but1 after allowing all due weight to both of these considerations1 enough remains to prove1 in this case1 the worst features of assassination1 and the fact that they were directly countenanced1 or rather prompted1 by ,mahomet himself4#baa ,there is no substantial proof in this case which tends to establish the instigation ,mohammad offered for the murder of ,kb4 ,the best traditions for the story of ,kb's assassination rest with ,jbir-bin ,abdullah1#bab and ,ibn ,abbs through ,ikrama4#bac ,none of them can be an authority1 for they were neither eye-witnesses1 nor they heard the ,prophet countenancing or prompting the assassination1 nor they allude to their own authorities4 ,jbir-bin ,abdullah was a mere boy at that time4 ,he was not allowed to appear even at the battle of ,ohad1 which took place after the alleged execution of ,kb1 on account of his tender age4#bad ,ibn ,abbs was even younger than ,jbir1 and besides1 was putting up at ,mecca at the period in question4#bae ,ikrama was a slave of ,ibn ,abbs1 and was notoriously given to the forging of fictitious traditions4#baf #d4--,sofian-bin ,khalid4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,sofian-bin ,khalid4 ,after the reverse at ,medina1 in the battle of ,ohad1 large gatherings were organized in various quarters of ,arabia against the ,moslems4 ,the ,bani ,lahyn1 and other neighbouring tribes1 rallied round the standard of their chief ,sofin1 the son of ,khlid1 at ,orna with the avowed purpose of taking this occasion by the forelock when the tables were turned at ,ohad4 ,mahomet1 knowing that their movements depended solely upon ,sofin1 despatched ,abdullah ibn ,oneis with instructions to assassinate him4#bag ,the accredited envoy volunteered himself for the service1 which he accomplished by destroying ,sofian by surprise4 ,neither ,ibn ,ishak1 nor ,ibn ,hisham1 nor ,ibn ,sd have anything to say about 'instructions' for assassination4 ,abdullah-bin ,oneis may have been sent as a spy to reconnoitre the movements of ,sofin and his army1 or to bring advices concerning him1 but it cannot be affirmed that he was tutored by ,mohammad to assassinate ,sofian1 even on the supposition that his mission was to kill the latter4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,justifications of ,sofian's alleged murder4 ,among the ,arabs the international law of estates in their hostile relations1 and the military law and usage of former times1 not forgetting to mention the ,european international law as late as the last century1 maintained the broad principle that in war everything done against an enemy is lawful that he may be destroyed1 though unarmed and defenceless2 that fraud or even poison may be employed against him2 that a most unlimited right is acquired to his person and property4#bah ,every sort of fraud except perfidy was allowed to be practised towards an enemy in war4 ,i allow of any kind of deceit1 writes ,bynkershoek1 a writer on international law1 the successor of ,puffendorf and the predecessor of ,wolff and ,vattel1 perfidy alone excepted1 not because anything is unlawful against an enemy1 but because when our faith had been pledged to him1 so far as the promise extends1 he ceases to be an enemy4#bai ,in the case of ,sofin there was no perfidy1 treachery1 or violation of faith1 nor was there any permission granted by ,mohammad for his assassination4 ,he sent1 if it be proved he did 7but it is never proved71 ,abdullah against ,sofin who had made every preparation of arms1 and who had mustered together several ,bedouin tribes to attack ,mohammad1 to fight and kill him2 it was a straightforward course allowed by the usages of the military law4 ,mohammad had distinctly and expressly interdicted perfidy1 deceit and assassination4 ,do not1 said he1 charging his commanders and soldiers on the point of marching for a military expedition1 commit perfidy1 and do not mutilate1 and do not kill a child4#bbj ,he also laid down the golden maxim1 ,belief is the restraint to assassination4 ,no believer should commit assassination4#bba #e4--;,ab ,rafe4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,ab ,rafe4 ,ab ,rafe1 called also ,sallm ,ibn ,abul ,hokeik1 was the chief of ,bani ,nazeer1 who had warred with the ,moslems at ,medina1 and had been banished to ,khyber4 ,he had taken a prominent part in the assembling of most of the ,bedouin tribes at the war of the confederates when they besieged ,medina4 ,subsequently1 he had excited ,bani ,fezara and other ,bedouin tribes to carry on their depredations among the ,moslems4 ,a band of the latter was dispatched to inflict condign punishment upon him1 and he met with his death at their hands4 ,but the account of his execution are full of contradictions and discrepancies4 ,but none of these diverse stories has1 that ,mohammad commanded the assassination of ,ab ,rafe1 while ,ibn ,ishak gives no account of him at all4 ,ibn ,hisham has--,that ,ab ,rafe had brought the confederate army against ,mohammad1 and some of ,khazraj had asked permission to kill him1 and ,mohammad permitted them4#bbb ,sir ,w4 ,muir narrates that ,mohammad gave them command to make away with ,abul ,huckeick1#bbc whilst the ,secretary of ,wkidi1 whom he follows1 simply says1 ,he gave command to kill him4 ,making away with a person creates an idea of secret murder tantamount to 'assassination1' but such is not the wording of the original4 ,sending a party to kill1 or fight with an enemy are synonymous1 and permissible by the international or military law1 the ,arab mode of fighting mostly consisting of single combats4 #f4--,oseir-bin ,zrim4#bbd ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,oseir-bin ,zrim4 ,oseir-ibn ,zarim1 the chief of ,bani ,nazeer1 had maintained a hostile animosity against the ,moslems of ,medina1 to war with whom he had enrolled himself in the adverse tribe of ,ghatafn4 ,preparations were briskly made by this tribe to make a havoc of ,medina1 and ,oseir had been made the hero of the enterprise4 ,hereupon ,mohammad delegated the mission of bringing the insurgent to ,medina to ,abdullah-bin ,rawha and some others1 with a promise of making him ,governor of ,khyber1#bbe and treating him with marked distinction1 if he yielded to the wishes of the ,prophet4 ,oseir complied1 and set out with his followers to ,medina4 ,on a camel were mounted ,abdullah-bin1 ,oneis1 and ,oseir4 ,hardly they had travelled six miles when ,oseir repented of his determination to go to ,medina1 and stretched forth his hand towards the sword of ,abdullah1 who leaped from the camel and cut off his leg1 ,oseir in the meantime wounding ,abdullah's head with his camel staff4#bbf ,now1 whether ,oseir was assassinated or murdered perfidiously2 whether he meditated treachery1 and ,abdullah struck him in his self-defence1--whatever might be the case1 certainly there is nothing in the narrative of ,oseir's death to show that ,mohammad had sent him on a secret errand with a view of getting rid of the ,jewish chief as ,sir ,w4 ,muir explains4#bbg ,the story is not imparted by earliest writers like ,ibn ,ishak1 and the traditions of a later date are incoherent1 one-sided1 and imperfect4 ,notwithstanding these inaccuracies1 no account tells us that mandates were issued for fighting with or killing ,oseir1 much less for his assassination4 #g4--,the alleged intended ,assassination of ,ab ,sofian4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the intended assassination of ,ab ,sofian4 ,a ,bedouin ,arab was sent by ,ab ,sofian to ,medina to assassinate ,mohammad4 ,the emissary was tracked in his evil attempt1 and confessed the purpose with which he had come4 ,this is related by ,ibn ,sd ,katib ,wakidi as the cause of ,mohammad's sending ,amr ,ibn ,omeya to assassinate ,ab ,sofian4#bbh ,according to ,hishamee1 ,amr was commissioned by the ,prophet to fight with ,ab ,sofin1 and to kill him in immediate revenge for the murder of ,khobeib and his companions captured at ,raji4#bbi ,now1 ,ibn ,ishak and ,wkid preserve absolute silence on this head4 ,ibn ,hisham relates nothing about assassination4 ,it is only ,ibn ,sd ,ktib ,wkid who hands down to posterity the orders of ,mohammad for the assassination of ,ab ,sofian4 ,this tradition is neither strengthened by any sterling witness1 nor is it a genuine one2 and for this very reason it was not accepted by ,ibn ,ishk or even by ,wakidi1 so prone to the recital of apocryphal traditions4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,irving and ,muir quoted3 concluding remarks4 ,referring to the above attempted assassination ,mr4 ,washington ,irving says3 ,during this period of his career ,mahomet in more than one instance narrowly escaped falling by the hand of an assassin4 ,he himself is charged with the use of insidious means to rid himself of an enemy1 for it is said that he sent ,amru ,ibn ,omeya on a secret errand to ,mecca1 to assassinate ,abu ,sofian1 but the plot was discovered1 and the assassin only escaped by rapid flight4 ,the charge1 however1 is not well substantiated1 and is contrary to his general character and conduct4#bcj ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3 ,there is just a shadow of possibility that the tradition may have been fabricated by the anti-,omeyad party to throw odium on the memory of ,abu ,sofin1 as having been deemed by ,mahomet worthy of death4 ,but this is not to be put against the evidence of unanimous and apparently independent traditions4#bca ,but1 in fact1 there are no unanimous and apparently independent traditions of the command of ,mohammad to assassinate ,ab ,sofian2 there is only one and but one1 by ,ibn ,sd1 which is wholly unreliable1 and that too from the lips of the would-be assassin himself who before the introduction of ,islam was a professional cutthroat1 whose narration1 therefore1 deserves not our belief4 ,even if it be taken for granted that ,mohammad did send some one to assassinate ,ab ,sofian1 who had already sent some one to assassinate ,mohammad as related by ,ibn ,sd1 it was justified in self-defence4 ,it was a measure for retaliation1 not one of mere revenge1 but only a means of protective retribution1 which is lawful under the military law4#bcb ,footnote #bje3 ,selections from the ,kur-n by ,edward ,william ,lane1 with an ,introduction by ,stanley ,lane ,poole4 ,intro41 p4 xliv3 ,trbner ,co41 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,islam under the ,arabs1 by ,r4,d4 ,osborn1 p4 #fj1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,wkidi's ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 pp4 #agb #agc3 ,calcutta ,baptist ,mission ,press2 edited by ,a4 ,von ,kremer4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes that ,hishami says1 that ,mahomet1 being vexed by ,asma's verses1 said publicly1 ',who will rid me of this woman8' ,but there is no such word in ,ibn ,hishm which may be rendered 'publicly4' ,footnote #bji3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #iid4 ,wakidi does not give this sentence4 ,on the contrary1 he says1 ,slim had taken a vow to kill ,ab ,afak or die himself4 ,footnote #baj3 ,ibn ,sad ,ktib ,wkid1 pp4 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,footnote #baa3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #adg-adh4 ,footnote #bab3 ,in the collections of ,bokhri in the ,book of ,campaigns2 and in the ,book of ,jihd by ,moslim4 ,footnote #bac3 ,mohammad-bin ,sd ,ktib ,wakidi and ,mohammad-bin ,ishak4 ,the latter in ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #eea4 ,footnote #bad3 ,vide ,osaba-fi ,tamiz ,issahba2 or1 ,biographical ,dictionary of ,persons who knew ,mohammad1 by ,ibn ,hajr-al-,askalani4 ,part ,i1 ,no4 #ajba1 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #bae3 ,ibn ,abbs was only five years old at that time1 and was at ,mecca4 ,his evidence is consequently inadmissible4 ,footnote #baf3 ,yahya-bin ,saeed al ,ansaree1 ,ali-bin ,abdullah-bin ,abbs1 ,ibnal ,mosayyab1 ,at ,ibrahim-bin ,maisura1 ,mohammad-bin ,sireen1 ,ksim1 and ,abdullah-bin ,omar say that ,ikrama was a liar4 ,vide ,miznul ,etedal of ,zahabi1 ,koukabi ,durrri ,sharah1 ,saheeh ,bokhari1 by ,shamsuddin ,kirmni2 and ,mrafat ,anwa-ilm ,hadees1 by ,abu ,omar-ad-,damishki4 ,footnote #bag3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #bah3 ,elements of ,international ,law1 by ,henry ,wheaton1 ,,ll4,d4 ,sixth edition1 by ,william ,beach ,lawrence1 ,boston1 #ahee2 ,part ,,iv1 ,chapter ,i1 p4 #cgd1 quoting ,bynkershoek2 in p4 #daf1 quoting ,bynkershoek and ,wolff4 ,footnote #bai3 ,ibid1 ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #dgj4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,the collections of ,moslem ,apud ,boreida1 vide ,mishkat1 p4 #ccc4 ,footnote #bba3 ,the collections of ,ab ,dad in the ,book of ,jihd1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,the ,life of ,mohammad based on ,mohammad-ibn ,ishak1 by ,abdel ,malik-ibn ,hisham1 p4 #gad4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,or ,yoseir-bin ,razim4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,as ,khyber was not yet conquered1 neither ,mohammad could make such a promise1 nor the ,jews could have been induced to believe it2 therefore the story is a false one4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,the ,life of ,mohammad1 by ,abdel ,malik-bin ,hisham1 pp4 #ihj-iha4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #af-ag4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,the ,life of ,mohammad1 by ,abdel ,malik-bin ,hisham1 pp4 #iib-iic4 ,the fighting was1 according to ,arab custom1 in single combats4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,mahomet and his ,successors1 by ,washington ,irving1 p4 #aah1 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,footnote #bca3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bj1 foot-note4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,compare ,contributions to ,political ,science1 by ,francis ,lieber1 ,,ll4,d41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bej4 ,the alleged ,cruelties in executing the ,prisoners of ,war and others4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,treatment of the prisoners of war4 ,some of the war prisoners had received the condign punishment of execution for their crimes in conformity with the laws of war4 ,it has been alleged by some ,european biographers of ,mohammad that their 7the war prisoners'7 execution was cruel1 and that they were accused of no crime except their scepticism and political antagonism4#bcc ,the persons executed were as follows3-- #a4 ,nadhr-bin-,harith4 #b4 ,okba4 #c4 ,abul ,ozza4 #d4 ,moavia-bin-,mughira4 ,sidenote3 ,the law of nations regarding the prisoners of war4 ,before reviewing the case of each prisoner1 ,i must note1 by way of introductory remarks1 that1 under the international or military law1 a prisoner of war is a public enemy armed or attached to the hostile army for active aid1 and who has fallen into the hands of the captor1 either fighting or wounded1 on the fields or in the hospitals1 by individual surrender or capitulation4 ,all soldiers1 of whatever species of arms2 all men who belong to the rising en masse of the hostile country2 all those who are attached to the army for its efficiency and promote directly the object of the war1 except religious persons1 officers of medical staff1 hospital nurses and servants1 all disabled men or officers on the field1 or elsewhere1 if captured1 all enemies who have thrown away their arms and asked for quarters1 are prisoners of war1 and as such exposed to the inconveniences as well as entitled to the privileges of a prisoner of war4 ,he is subject to no punishment for being a public enemy1 nor is any revenge wreaked upon him by the international infliction of any suffering or disgrace1 by cruel imprisonment1 want of food1 by mutilation1 death1 or any other barbarity4 ,but a prisoner of war remains answerable for his crimes committed against the captor's army or people before he was captured1 and for which he has not been punished by his own authorities4 ,all prisoners of war are liable to the infliction of retaliatory measures4 #a4--,nadhr-bin-,harith4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,the execution of ,nadhr ,ibn ,harith4 ,nadhr 7,nazr71 one of the prisoners of war1 was executed after the battle of ,badr for his crime of severely tormenting the ,moslems at ,mecca4 ,musb had distinctly reminded him of his torturing the companions of ,mohammad1#bcd so there was nothing of a cruel and vindictive spirit of the ,prophet displayed towards his enemies in the execution of ,nazr as it is made out by ,sir ,w4 ,muir4#bce ,on the other hand1 his execution is denied by some critics1 like ,ibn ,manda and ,ab ,naeem1 who say1 that ,nazr-bin-,haris was present at the battle of ,honain1 ,a4,h4 #h1 six years after that of ,badr1 and was presented with one hundred camels by ,mohammad4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir himself puts down very quietly ,nadhir ,ibn al ,harith's name in a foot-note 7,vol4 ,,iv1 page #aea7 as a recipient of one hundred camels at ,honain4 ,the same ,nadhr-bin-,harith is shown among the earliest ,moslem refugees who had fled to ,abyssinia4 ,these discrepancies leave no doubt that the story of ,nadhr's execution is not a fact4 ,it is also related by the narrators1 who assert ,nazr's execution at ,badr1 that his daughter or sister came to ,mohammad and addressed him several verses1 the hearing of which produced such a tender emotion in him1 that his eyes shed tears and said1 he would not have issued orders for his execution had he heard these verses before4 ,the following are two of the verses which ,mohammad heard3 ,m kn ,zarraka lao mananta va rubba mmannal fata va ho-al mughizul mohnihoo4 ,thou wouldst no harm have seen to set him free1 ,anger how high for pardon has no plea4 ,but ,zobier-bin-,bakr says1 he heard some learned men who objected to these verses on the ground that they were all concocted2 and ,i think that the whole story of ,nazr's execution is a spurious one4 #b4--,okba-bin-,mueit4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,the execution of ,okba4 ,another prisoner1 named ,okba1 was executed after the battle of ,badr for a crime similar to that of ,nazr4 ,it is related that while he was going to be executed1 he asked who would take care of his little girl4 ,mohammad replied1 ,hell-fire6 ,this is altogether an apocryphal story1 and owes its origin to the relation of ,okba to the tribe of ,banunnar1 or the children of fire4 ,wackidi does not give his authorities for the story1 and ,ibn ,is-hak gives only one immediately before him1 which is cut short of another intervening link of authorities up to the scene of occurrence4 ,abu ,daood narrates it from ,masrook1 who gave it on the authority of ,abdullah-bin-,mas-ood1 who does not say he was present at the scene or he heard it directly or indirectly from ,mohammad4 ,besides the circumstances under which ,masrook gave out this story are very suspicious1 and show that calumny was at work4 ,masrook was proposed by ,zohak to be entrusted with the administration of a certain district4 ,ommara1 the son of ,okba1 objected to this1 as ,masrook was one of the murderers of ,osman1 the third ,khalif4 ,masrook in reply said to ,ommara1 on the authority of ,ibn ,masood1 that when thy father was being executed1 he had asked the ,prophet1 who will take care of his little girl4 ,the ,prophet replied1 ,hell-fire4 ,therefore1 ,i am satisfied for thee with what the ,prophet had chosen for thy father4#bcf ,there is a discrepancy in the mode of ,okba's execution as well as about the person who executed him4 ,ibn ,is-hak says1 that it was ,asim who killed him1 and ,ibn ,hisham1 that it was ,ali4 ,ibrahim is of opinion1 that ,okba was executed at ,taimee1#bcg and ,mohammad-bin-,khobeib ,hashimi1#bch that he was crucified1 from which others differ and say that he was beheaded4 ,i have no belief in ,okba's execution at all4 ,sidenote3 #fa4 ,free liberty granted to ,ozza1 a prisoner of war4 ,abul ,ozza1 one of the prisoners of ,badr1 and who was one of the persecutors of the ,moslems at ,mecca1 had besought ,mohammad to release him by way of compassion for his five daughters4 ,mohammad granted him his life and his liberty4#bci ,this directly points to the universal generosity of the ,prophet1 and from this it will appear that the story of ,okba's execution runs contrary to his general character and conduct4 ,on these grounds the execution of ,okba might be rejected as a fiction4 #c4--;,abul ,ozza4 ,sidenote3 #fb4 ,abul ,ozza proved a traitor and was executed4 ,abul ,ozza1 one of the prisoners of ,badr1 was allowed his freedom without any ransom1 on the condition that he would never again bear up arms in any war against the ,prophet2 but he proved a traitor4 ,he exhorted the ,arabs to make war on ,mohammad1 and joined himself the invading army of ,mecca4 ,he was doomed to misfortune1 he was caught at ,hamra1 and duly executed4#bdj ,this was in full accordance with the laws and usages of war 7vide ante1 para4 #eh74 #d4--,moavia ,ibn ,mughira4 ,sidenote3 ,the execution of ,moavia ,ibn ,mughira4 ,moavia ,ibn ,mughira1 also a prisoner of war1 was granted three days' truce1 on the condition that if he were found in ,medina after the appointed time1 he was to be executed4 ,the period had passed1 and he was still lurking at ,medina4 ,at length he was found out and killed by ,zeid and ,ammar on their return from ,hamra-al-,assad1 after five or six days4 ,it is apparent that ,moavia violated his truce1 and his lurking in ,medina might be either as a spy#bda or scout secretly seeking information4 ,sidenote3 #fd4 ,justification of ,mughira's execution4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 who calls him ,othmn ,ibn ,mughra1 makes out a favourable case in his behalf4 ,he writes3 ,he incautiously lingered at ,medna till the last day of his term of grace1 when he set out for ,mecca4#bdb ,but ,ibn ,hisham distinctly writes that he stayed at ,medina after the three days had passed and was found lurking there4 ,even according to ,wackidi he was caught on the fourth day4 ,but this is far from truth1 for1 according to his own account1 ,mohammad was absent after the battle of ,ohad for five days at ,hamra-al-,assad2 then how he 7,ibn ,mughira7 could have endeavoured to avoid the returning ,moslem force from ,hamra-al-,assad1 and lose his way1 as ,sir ,w4 ,muir gives it out1 only on the fourth day8 ,one of the enemies1 who had invaded ,medina and attacked ,mohammad1 was1 after being captured1 allowed three days' truce on explicit conditions that he was to be killed there if found after three days1 and was also provided with a camel and provisions for the way1 was discovered lurking thereabout on the fifth or sixth day1 in consequence of which he lost his life4 ,this is called by ,sir ,w4 ,muir as being perished by a too great confidence in the generosity of his enemy1#bdc--;i4e41 ,mohammad4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,wackidi ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 p4 #aja1 ,calcutta1 #ahee4 ,footnote #bce3 ,it was at ,otheil that the cruel and vindictive spirit of ,mahomet towards his enemies first began to display itself4--,muir's ,life of ,mohamet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aae4 ,after this1 the author narrates the execution of ,nazr4 ,ibn ,is-hak4 ,vide ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #deh2 ,wackidi1 p4 #ajh2 ,abu ,daood1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aj4 ,this story is not given by ,ibn ,hisham and ,ibn ,sd4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,abu ,daood as before4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,zorknee1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eda4 ,footnote #bch3 ,srat ,halabi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cga4 ,footnote #bci3 ,wackidi1 #aje4 ,insn-ul ,oyoon or ,srat ,halab1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dfd4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,wackidi1 p4 #aje2 ,hishami1 p4 #eia2 ,insn-ul-,oyoon or ,srat ,halab1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dfd4 ,footnote #bda3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #eia2 ,wackidi1 pp4 #cbd and #cbe4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #ahe4 ,the intended ,execution of the ,prisoners of ,badr4 ,sidenote3 #fc4 ,the wrong version of ,sir ,w4 ,muir4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3 ,it would even seem to have been contemplated at the close of the battle to kill all the prisoners4 ,mahomet is represented by tradition as himself directing this course4 ,in a foot-note he says1 ,thus ,mahomet said3 ',tell not ,sad of his brother's death' 7,mbad1 a prisoner1 see above1 page #aaj note72 but kill ye every man his prisoner4--7,wckidi1 #ajj47 ,again3 ,take not any man his brother prisoner1 but rather kill him 7page #aja74 ,i would not1 however1 lay too much stress on these traditions4 ,i am inclined rather to view them as called into existence by the passages quoted below from the ,coran4#bdd ,the contemplated execution of the prisoners is not borne out by the traditions which ,sir ,w4 ,muir himself looks upon as fabricated ones4 ,the true translation of the passages in ,wackidi referred to above is as follows3-- ,first passage4--,tell not ,said of his brother's killing 7i4e41 being killed71 so he will kill every prisoner in your hands4--7,wackidi1 page #ajj47 ,this obviously means1 that do not let ,saeed know that his brother ,whid1 who was made prisoner and killed by ,omar or ,abu ,barda1 was killed4 ,if you do so1 he will1 being enraged1 kill every prisoner now in your hands4 ,it is very strange that ,sir ,w4 ,muir translates the sentence to mean kill ye every man his prisoner6 ,second passage4--,no body must take his brother's prisoner1 so that he may be killed1 meaning none of you should seize other person's prisoner4 ,if you do so1 perhaps1 the other person may kill the prisoner in the contest4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir has quite misunderstood the sentence4 ,sidenote3 #ff4 ,mohammad never blamed in the ,koran for relieving prisoners4 ,there are some fictitious traditions on the subject that ,mohammad was reprimanded in the ,koran 7,sura1 viii1 #fh1 #fi7 for releasing the prisoners of ,badr1 meaning that he ought to have executed them4 ,the verse is translated thus3-- ,it is not for a ,prophet to take prisoners until 7hatta7 he hath slaughtered in the land4 ,ye wish to have the goods of this world1 but ,god wishes for the next1 for ,god is ,mighty1 ,wise6 ,were it not for a book from ,god that had gone before1 there would have touched you1 for which ye took1 a mighty punishment4 ,the verse #fh1 if it is rightly translated1 will mean that prisoners should not be executed4 ,the word 'hatta' means 'until1' and is also used as a causative word4 ,i prefer the latter1 and translate-- ,it is not for any ,prophet that prisoners may be brought to him in order that he may make slaughter in the land1 which means1 that it is not proper for a ,prophet to take prisoners of war in order to slaughter them4 ,this meaning is in consonance with the other passage in the ,koran 7xlvii1 #d71 which restricts the treatment of the prisoners of war to either free dismissal or ransom4 ,in the first place1 the verse rather reprimanded those who wished to kill the prisoners2 and in the second1 those who desired to exact ransom for their liberty4 ,they ought to have set them at liberty without any pecuniary advantage1 if they knew any good in their deserving free liberty4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,ibid1 p4 #aag4 ,kind ,treatment of the ,prisoners of ,war by ,mohammad4 ,sidenote3 #fg4 ,the ,koran enjoins1 the prisoners of war to be either freely liberated or ransomed1 but neither executed nor enslaved4 ,the prisoners of war were always treated kindly by ,mohammad1 and the ancient practice of killing and enslaving them was much discouraged and abolished by the ,koran4 ,and when ye meet those who misbelieve1 then strike off heads until ye have massacred them1 and bind fast the bonds6 ,then either a free grant 7of liberty7 or a ransom until the war shall have laid down its burdens4--,sura1 xlvii1 #d and #e4 ,regarding the prisoners of ,badr ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3 ,in pursuance of ,mahomet's commands1 the citizens of ,medina1 and such of the refugees as possessed houses1 received the prisoners and treated them with much consideration4 ,blessing be on the men of ,medina6 said these prisoners in latter days4 ,they made us ride1 while they themselves walked2 they gave us wheatened bread to eat1 when there was little of it1 contenting themselves with dates4 ,it is not surprising that when1 some time after1 their friends came to ransom them1 several of the prisoners who had been thus received declared themselves adherents of ,islam3 and to such the ,prophet granted a liberty without the usual payment4#bde ,the prisoners of the ,bani ,mustalik were released without paying any ransom4#bdf ,the ,bani ,hawazin were made prisoners of war at ,honain1 fought in the eighth year of the ,hegira1 but were all set free without any exaction of ransom from them4 ,mohammad first released his prisoners1 and the men of ,mecca and ,medina cheerfully followed his example4#bdg ,the prisoners were six thousand in number4#bdh ,a party of eighty1 as related by ,moslim in his ,saheeh1 or of forty or fifty ,koreish1 as narrated by ,ibn ,hisham 7p4 #gde71 went round about ,mohammad's camp while stationed at ,hodeibia in ,a4,h4 #f1 seeking to cut off any stray followers1 and having attacked the camp itself with stones and arrows1 they were caught and taken prisoners to ,mohammad1 who1 with his usual generosity1 pardoned and released them4 ,khalid-,ibn-,waleed1 in the year of his victory1 ,a4,h4 #aa1 when he was sent to call the ,bani ,jazima to embrace ,islam1 had made them prisoners and ordered their execution4 ,some of the better-informed of the ,moslems of the injunctions of the ,koran1 of releasing prisoners either freely or by exacting ransom1 interposed and accused him of committing an act of the ,time of ,ignorance4 ,mohammad1 much displeased1 grieved at the intelligence1 and said twice1 ',o ,god6 ,i am innocent of what ,khalid hath done4'#bdi ,footnote #bde3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #abb and #abc4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #adh and #adi4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #hgg4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,ibn ,hisham1 pp4 #hcc and #hce4 ,the ,execution of the ,bani ,koreiza4 ,sidenote3 #fh4 ,high treason of the ,bani ,koreiza against ,medina1 and their execution4 ,the ,bani ,koreiza1 a ,jewish tribe living in the vicinity of ,mecca had entered into an alliance with the ,moslem ,commonwealth to defend the city of ,medina from the attack of the aggressors4 ,while ,medina was besieged by the ten thousand ,koreish and other ,bedouin tribes in ,a4,h4 #f1 they 7the ,koreiza71 instead of co-operating with the ,moslems1 defected from their allegiance and entered into negotiations with the besieging foe4 ,after the cessation of the siege1 they were besieged in their turn1 and a fearful example was made of them1 not by ,mohammad1 but by an arbiter chosen and appointed by themselves4 ,the execution of some of them was not on account of their being prisoners of war2 they were war-traitors and rebels1 and deserved death according to the international law4 ,their crime was high treason against ,medina while it was blockaded4 ,there had no actual fighting taken place between the ,bani ,koreiza and the ,moslems1 after the former had thrown off their allegiance to the latter and had aided and abetted the enemies of the realm4 ,they were besieged by the ,moslems to punish them for their high treason1 and consequently they were not prisoners of war4 ,even such prisoners of war suffer for high treason4 ,treating1 in the field1 the rebellious enemy according to the law and usages of war1 has never prevented the legitimate ,government from trying the leaders of the rebellion1 or chief rebels for high treason1 and from treating them accordingly1 unless they are included in a general amnesty4#bej ,sidenote3 #fi4 ,the whole of the ,bani ,koreiza was never executed4 ,the whole tribe of the ,bani ,koreiza was not executed1 nor all the male prisoners were put to the sword4#bea ,the number slain was comparatively very small4 ,that they were not executed at the commands of ,mohammad1 nor all of them were killed1 nor a divine sanction was alleged for it1 is shown by the following verse of the ,koran3 ,and he caused those of the people of the ,book 7the ,jews7 who had aided the confederates to come down of their fortresses1 and cast dismay into their hearts3 some ye slew2 others ye took prisoners4--,sura1 xxxiii1 #bf4 ,the slaying and taking of prisoners is attributed to them to whom the verse is addressed as their own act4 ,sidenote3 #gj4 ,the women and children of the ,bani ,koreiza were not sold4 ,the rest of the ,bani ,koreiza1--male adults1 women1 and children1--were either liberated or got themselves ransomed4 ,we read in ,oyoon-al-,asar by ,ibn ,sayyad-al-,nas some account of the ransom4 ,osman-bin-,affan gathered much money by the transaction4 ,but ,sir ,w4 ,muir quotes from ,hishamee1 that the rest of the women and children were sent to be sold among the ,bedouin tribes of ,najd1 in exchange of horse and arms4#beb ,but there is no authority for this story4 ,abul ,mo'tamar ,soleiman1 in his ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 gives another account which is more probable4 ,he writes3-- ,out of what was captured from ,bani ,koreiza ,mohammad took seventeen horses and distributed them among his people4 ,the rest he divided into two halves4 ,one-half he sent with ,sd bin ,obdd to ,syria1 and the other half with ,ans bin ,quz to the land of ,ghatafn1 and ordered that they may be used there for breeding purposes4 ,they did so1 and got good horses4#bec ,sidenote3 #ga4 ,the exaggerated number of the persons executed4 ,the number of male adults executed has been much exaggerated1 though it is immaterial1 when an execution duly authorized by the international law of a country takes place1 to consider the smallness or greatness of the number4 ,i cannot do better than quote ,moulvie ,ameer ,ali of ,calcutta on the subject1 who has very judiciously criticised the same3 ,passing now to the men executed1 he says1 one can at once see how it has been exaggerated4 ,some say they were #djj2 others have carried the number even up to #ijj4 ,but ,christian historians generally give it as varying from #gjj to #hjj4 ,i look upon this as a gross exaggeration4 ,even #djj would seem an exaggerated number4 ,the traditions agree in making the warlike materials of the ,bani ,koreiza consist of #cjj cuirasses1 #ejj bucklers1 #a1ejj sabres1 c4 ,in order to magnify the value of the spoil1 the traditions probably exaggerated these numbers4#bed ,but taking them as they stand1 and remembering that such arms are always kept greatly in excess of the number of fighting men1 ,i am led to the conclusion that the warriors could not have been more than #bjj or #cjj4 ,the mistake probably arose from confounding the whole body of prisoners who fell into the hands of the ,moslems with those executed4#bee ,even #bjj seems to be a large number1 as all of the prisoners were put up for the night in the house of ,bint-al-,haris1#bef which would have been insufficient for such a large number4 ,footnote #bej3 ,miscellaneous ,writings of ,francis ,lieber1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,contributions to ,political ,science1 p4 #bgc1 ,philadelphia1 #ahha4 ,footnote #bea3 ,some of the ,koreizites were released1 among whom we hear of ,zobeir ,ibn ,bat1 and ,rifa4 ,they were pardoned by ,mohammad4 ,footnote #beb3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #bec3 ,history of ,mohammad's ,campaigns3 ,edited by ,von ,kremer1 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #bed3 ,compare the remarks of ,ibn-,khaldn 7,prelgomnes d' ,ibn ,khaldoun1 traduits par ,m4 de ,slane1 ,part ,i1 p4 #ad74 ,footnote #bee3 ,a ,critical ,examination of the ,life and ,teachings of ,mohammed1 by ,syed ,ameer ,ali1 ,moulvi1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b41 of the ,inner ,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law1 p4 #aac3 ,william and ,norgate1 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #bef3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #fhi4 ,others say the males were kept in the house of ,osman-bin-,zaed1 and the females and children in the house of ,bint-al-,haris4 ,vide ,insan-al-,oyoon1 by ,halabi4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ic4 ,some ,miscellaneous ,objections ,refuted4 #a4--,omm ,kirfa4 ,sidenote3 #gb4 ,the execution of ,omm ,kirfa for brigandage4 ,the barbarous execution of ,omm ,kirfa1 a female1 who was notorious as the mistress of a nest of robbers1 by tying her each leg to a separate camel and being torn asunder1 is not a fact4 ,it is only mentioned by ,katib ,wckidi1 and is not to be found in any other earliest account of ,wckidi1 ,ibn ,is-hak1 and ,ibn ,hisham4 ,even ,katib ,wckidi does not say that the execution was ordered by ,mohammad1 and it is not fair on the part of ,sir ,w4 ,muir to hold ,mohammad an accomplice in the ferocious act1 because he reads of no disapprobation expressed by the ,prophet at such an inhuman treatment4#beg ,but in the first place the narration is a mere fiction2 and secondly1 the traditions are1 as a rule1 always incomplete2 in one place they are given shorter1 and in another longer1 according to the circumstances of the occasion on which they are originally recited4 ,ibn ,hisham relates1 that ,zaid-bin-,harisa ordered ,kays-bin-,mosahhar to execute ,omm ,kirfa1 so he executed her with a violent execution4 7',katlan ,aneefan1' p4 #ihj47 ,he does not relate that ,mohammad was even informed of the execution after the party had returned from this terrible mission4 ,i think the word 'aneef' 7violent or severe71 as used originally by the narrator1 might have been the cause of the growth of the story of executing by tying up to two camels1 by way of a gratuitous explanation or glossary1 as another tradition relates that she was tied to the tails of two horses 7vide ,koostalanee in his ,commentary on ,bokharee1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cjg74 #b4--,urnee ,robbers4 ,sidenote3 #gc4 ,the alleged mutilation of the ,urnee robbers4 ,some ,urnee robbers1 lately converted1 had plundered the camels of ,medina and barbarously handled their herdsman1 for they cut off his hands and legs1 and struck thorny spikes into his tongue and eyes1 till he died4 ,the bandits were pursued1 captured1 and executed by ,kurz-bin-,jabir4 ,they had merited death1 says ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 but the mode in which he inflicted it was barbarous and inhuman4 ,the arms and legs of eight men were cut off1 and their eyes were put out4 ,the shapeless1 sightless trunks of these wretched ,bedouins were then impaled upon the plain of ,al ,ghba1 until life was extinct4#beh ,as the robbers had mutilated the herdsman1 this gave currency to their having been mutilated in retaliation4 ,but in fact ,mohammad never ordered mutilation in any case4 ,he was so averse to this practice1 that several traditions from various sources emanating from him to the effect1 prove that he prohibited mutilation lest he himself be mutilated by divine judgment4#bei ,sidenote3 #gd4 ,amputation or banishment substituted temporarily in place of imprisonment for want of a well-organized system of jails4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir continues3--,on reflection1 ,mahomet appears to have felt that this punishment exceeded the bounds of humanity4 ,he accordingly promulgated a ,revelation1 in which capital punishment is limited to simple death or crucifixion4 ,amputation of the hands and feet is1 however1 sanctioned as a penal measure2 and amputation of the hands is even enjoined as the proper penalty for theft1 whether the criminal be male or female4 ,this barbarous custom has accordingly been perpetuated throughout the ,mahometan world4 ,but the putting out of the eyes is not recognized among the legal punishments4#bfj ,these alternative punishments were prescribed for the heinous crimes of highway robbery1 dacoity1 and theft by house-breaking4 ,they were 7i7 capital punishment1 7ii7 amputation1 and 7iii7 banishment 7,sura1 v1 #cg1 #db71 according to the circumstances of the case4 ,the last two were of a temporary nature substituted for imprisonment for want of an organized system of jails and prisons4 ,when the ,commonwealth was in its infancy1 the troubles of the invasions and wars of the aggressive ,koreish and their allies had left neither peace nor security at ,medina to take such administrative measures as to organize a system of building1 guarding1 and maintaining jails1 their inmates and their establishments4 ,as soon as jails were established in the ,mohammadan ,commonwealth1 amputation and banishment gave way to imprisonment4 ,the prisoners of war1 not being criminals1 used to be made over by ,mohammad to some citizens of ,medina1 as in the case of the prisoners of the battle of ,badr1 to keep them in their houses as guests1 on account of the want of prisons2 but as for the other criminals--the highway robbers1 dacoits1 and house-breakers--they could not be treated and entertained so hospitably4 ,thus there was left no alternative for them except either to banish such criminals1 or to award them corporal punishment in the shape of amputation4#bfa #c4--,torture of ,kinana4 ,sidenote3 #ge4 ,torture of ,kinana4 ,it is related by the biographers that ,kinana1 chief of the ,jews of ,khyber1 and his cousin had kept back1 in contravention of their compact1 a portion of their riches4 ,on the discovery of this attempt at imposition1 ,kinana was subjected to cruel torture--'fire being placed upon his breast till his breath had almost departed'--in the hope that he would confess where the rest of his treasures were concealed4 ,mahomet then gave command1 and the heads of the chief and his cousin were severed from their bodies4#bfb ,the story of ,kinana's being subjected to extortion and put to death for hiding some treasure1 for which he had contravened his contract1 is altogether a spurious one4 ,kinana was executed in retaliation for treacherously killing ,mahmud1 the brother of ,mohammad-bin-,moslama1 to whom he was made over for execution4 ,there is one tradition1 without any authority1 to the effect1 that ,zobeir was producing fire on ,kinana's breast by the friction of flint and steel4 ,this1 if it be a fact1 does not show that it was done by ,mohammad's direction and approval4 ,on the contrary1 there are several traditions from the ,prophet himself in which he has forbidden to punish any one with fire4 ,it is related by ,bokharee from ,ibn ,abbs1 that ,mohammad said1 ,god only can punish with fire4 ,it is also related by ,abu ,daood from ,abdullah1 that the ,prophet said1 ,no body ought to punish any one with fire except the ,lord of the fire4#bfc #d4--;,a ,singing-,girl executed4 ,sidenote3 #gf4 ,the alleged execution of a singing-girl4 ,from general amnesty extended to the citizens of ,mecca1 ,mahomet excluded ten or twelve persons4 ,of these1 however1 only four were actually put to death4444 ,the two next were renegade ,moslems1 who having shed blood at ,medina had fled to ,mecca1 and abjured ,islam4 ,they were both slain1 and also a singing-girl belonging to one of them1 who had been in the habit of annoying the ,prophet by abusive verses4 ,their names are ,abdallah ibn ,khalal and ,mikyas ibn ,subba4 ,the murder committed by the former is said to have been wilful1 that of the latter unintentional4 ,abdallah had two singing-girls4 ,both were sentenced to death1 but one escaped and afterwards obtained quarter2 the execution of the other appears to have been the worst act committed by ,mahomet on the present occasion4#bfd ,abdullah had committed cold-blooded murder1 and most probably the singing-girl belonging to him had taken a share in his crime4 ,her execution was owing to her being an accomplice or abettor in the foul act which was justified by law4 ,then why should the execution be considered a worst act8 ,mohammad felt the deepest respect for the weaker sex1 and had enjoined during the warfares not to kill women2 but the law makes no difference amongst the sexes1 both sexes being liable to punishment according to their deserts4 ,sidenote3 #gg4 ,the charitable spirit of ,mohammad towards his enemies4 ,the magnanimity1 clemency1 forbearance1 and forgiveness of ,mohammad at the time of his victory at ,mecca were very remarkable4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane ,poole with his usual acumen writes3--,but the final keystone was set in the eighth year of the flight 7,a4,d4 #fcj71 when a body of the ,kureysh broke the truce by attacking an ally of the ,muslims2 and ,mohammad forthwith marched upon ,mekka with ten thousand men1 and the city1 defence being hopeless1 surrendered4 ,now was the time for the ,prophet to show his bloodthirsty nature4 ,his old persecutors are at his feet4 ,will he not trample on them1 torture them1 revenge himself after his own cruel manner8 ,now the man will come forward in his true colours3 we may prepare our horror1 and cry shame beforehand4 ,but what is this8 ,is there no blood in the streets8 ,where are the bodies of the thousands that have been butchered8 ,facts are hard things2 and it is a fact that the day of ,mohammad's greatest triumph over his enemies was also the day of his grandest victory over himself4 ,he freely forgave the ,kureysh all the years of sorrow and cruel scorn they had inflicted on him3 he gave an amnesty to the whole population of ,mekka4 ,four criminals1 whom justice condemned1 made up ,mohammad's proscription list when he entered as a conqueror the city of his bitterest enemies4 ,the army followed the example1 and entered quietly and peaceably2 no house was robbed1 no woman insulted4#bfe #e4--;,abu ,basr4 ,sidenote3 #gh4 ,abu ,basr not countenanced by the ,prophet in contravention of the spirit of the treaty of ,hodeibia4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir says that ,abu ,basr1 the free-booter1 was countenanced by the ,prophet in a manner scarcely consistent with the letter1 and certainly opposed to the spirit1 of the truce of ,hodeibia4#bff ,it was one of the articles of the treaty of ,hodeibia between the ,koreish and ,mohammad1 that if any one goeth over to ,mohammad without the permission of his guardian1 he shall be sent back to him4#bfg ,a short time after1 ,abu ,basr1 a ,moslem imprisoned at ,mecca1 effected his escape and appeared at ,medina4 ,his guardians1 ,azhar and ,akhnas1 sent two servants to ,mohammad with a letter and instructions to bring the deserter back to his house4 ,the obligation of surrender was at once admitted by ,mohammad1 though ,abu ,basr pleaded the persecution which he used to suffer at ,mecca as the cause of refusing to return1 but ,mohammad argued that it was not proper for him to break the terms of the peace1 and ,abu ,basr was compelled to set out for ,mecca4 ,but he had travelled only a few miles when he treacherously seized the sword of one of his escorts and slew him4 ,the other servant fled back to ,medina1 whither ,abu ,basr also followed him4 ,on the return of the latter1 he contended that the ,prophet had already fulfilled the treaty to its very letter in delivering him up1 but the ,prophet replied1 ,alas for his mother6 ,what a kindler of war1 if he had with him any one6 ,when he heard this he knew that the ,prophet was again going to send him back to his guardians1#bfh the ,koreish1 so he went away to the seashore1 where he1 with others who had joined him after their flight from captivity at ,mecca1 used to waylay the caravans from ,mecca4 ,this story1 which is also briefly narrated by ,ibn ,is-hak1 and more fully by ,shamee1 ,zoorkanee and ,ibn-al-,kyyim1 does not show that ,mohammad acted against the spirit and letter of the truce of ,hodeibia4 ,he himself never countenanced ,abu ,basr2 on the contrary1 he delivered him up in conformity with the terms of the treaty of ,hodeibia1 and when he had returned1 ,abu ,basr had every reason to believe that ,mohammad would again despatch him to the quarters whence he had come4 ,but it appears ,abu ,basr went away to the seashore1 out of ,mohammad's jurisdiction1 and it was not the duty of the ,prophet to effect his arrest and send him back to ,mecca whilst he was not with him1 or rather out of his jurisdiction4 ,had he even kept him with himself at ,medina after he had once made him over to the party sent forth to take charge of him1 and were no other demands made for his delivery1 ,i do not think ,mohammad could be fairly blamed for it according to the international law of the ,arabs1 or even according to the terms of the treaty of ,hodeibia itself4 #f4--;,employment of ,nueim to break up the confederates who had besieged ,medina4 ,sidenote3 #gi4 ,nueim not employed by the ,prophet to circulate false reports in the enemy's camp4 ,when ,medina was besieged for several days by the ,koreish and their confederates1 the army of ,medina was harassed and wearied with increasing watch and duty4 ,nueim1 an ,arab of a neutral tribe1 represented himself as a secret believer1 and offered his services to the ,prophet1 who accepted them1 and employed him to hold back the confederates from the siege1 if he could1 saying war verily was a game of deception4 ,nueim excited mutual distrust between the ,jews and the ,koreish4 ,he told the ,jews not to fight against ,mohammad until they got hostages from the ,koreish as a guarantee against their being deserted4 ,and to the ,koreish he said that the ,jews intended to ask hostages from them4 ,do not give them1 he said1 they have promised ,mahomet to give up the hostages to be slain4#bfi ,this is one tradition1 and there is another to the effect that the ,jews had themselves asked for the hostages1 but the ,koreish had not replied yet1 when ,nueim came to the ,jews and said1 he was there with ,abu ,sofian when their messenger had come for the demand of hostages1 and that ,abu ,sofian is not going to send them any4#bgj ,a third tradition in ,motamid ,ibn ,solyman's supplement to ,wackidi's ,campaigns of ,mohammad gives no such story at all4 ,it has altogether a different narration to the effect1 that there was a spy of the ,koreish in the ,moslem camp who had overheard ,abdullah-bin-,rawaha saying1 that the ,jews had asked the ,koreish to send them seventy persons1 who1 on their arrival1 would be killed by them4 ,nueim went to the ,koreish1 who were waiting for his message1 and told what he had heard as already related4#bga ,this contradicts the story given by ,ibn ,hisham and ,mr4 ,muir4 ,but anyhow the story does not prove that ,mohammad had given permission to ,nueim to speak falsehood or spread treacherous reports4 ,sidenote3 #hj4 ,deception in way allowed by the international law4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir is not justified in his remarks when he writes1--,we cannot1 indeed1 approve the employment of ,nueim to break up the confederacy by falsehood and deception1 but this perhaps would hardly affect his character in ,arab estimation2#bgb and further on he writes1--,when ,medna was beleagured by the confederate army1 ,mahomet sought the services of ,nueim1 a traitor1 and employed him to sow distrust among the enemy by false and treacherous reports3 for1 said he1 what else is war but a game at deception4#bgc ,the utmost that can be made out from the former tradition quoted by ,mr4 ,muir1 and contradicted by another tradition of equal force1 is that ,mohammad allowed deception in war by quoting the proverbial saying1 that war is a game at deception4 ,in this he had the sanction of the military law or the international law1 as deception in war is a military necessity1 and allowed by the law and usages of war4 ,a modern author on the international law says3-- ,military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies1 and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war2 it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy1 and every enemy of importance to the hostile government1 or of peculiar danger to the captor2 it allows of all destruction of property1 and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic1 travel1 or communication1 and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy2 of the appropriation of whatever an enemy's country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army1 and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged1 regarding agreements entered into during the war1 or supposed by the modern law of war to exist4#bgd ,sidenote3 #ha4 ,lecky's ,standard of ,morality4 ,but supposing the modern morality does not approve of ,mohammad what hardly affected his character in ,arab estimation1 are there no diversities in moral judgments8 ,the moral unity to be expected in different ages is not a unity of standard or of facts1 but a unity of tendency4 ,that some savage kill their old parents1 that infanticide has been practised without compunction by even civilized nations1 that the best ,romans saw nothing wrong in the gladiatorial shows1 that political or revengeful assassinations have been for centuries admitted1 that slavery has been sometimes honoured and sometimes condemned1 are unquestionable proofs1 that the same act may be regarded in one age as innocent1 and in another as criminal4 ,now it is undoubtedly true1 that in many cases an historical examination will reveal special circumstances explaining or palliating the apparent anomaly4 ,it has been often shown that the gladiatorial shows were originally a form of human sacrifice adopted through religious motives2 that the rude nomadic life of savages rendering impossible the preservation of aged and helpless members of the tribe1 the murder of parents was regarded as an act of mercy both by the murderer and the victim2 that before an effective administration of justice was organized1 private vengeance was the sole preservation against crime1 and political assassination against usurpation2 that the insensibility of some savages to the criminality of theft arises from the fact that they were accustomed to have all things in common2 that the ,spartan law legalizing theft arose partly from a desire to foster military dexterity among the people1 but chiefly from a desire to discourage wealth2 that slavery was introduced through motives of mercy to prevent conquerors from killing their prisoners4 ,all this is true1 but there is another and a more general answer4 ,it is not to be expected1 and it is not maintained1 that men in all ages should have agreed about the application of their moral principles4 ,all that is contended for is1 that these principles are themselves the same4 ,some of what appear to us monstrous acts of cruelty were dictated by that very feeling of humanity1 the universal perception of the merit of which they are cited to disprove2 and even when this is not the case1 all that can be inferred is1 that the standard of humanity was very low4 ,but still humanity was recognized as a virtue1 and cruelty as a vice4#bge ,the alleged permission to kill the ,jews4 ,sidenote3 #hb4 ,murder of ,ibn ,sanina4 ,it is related by some of the biographers of ,mohammad1 eagerly recited by others of ,europe1 that1 on the morning after the murder of ,kb1 ,mahomet gave a general permission to his followers to slay any ,jews whom they might chance to meet1#bgf and that the murder of ,ibn ,sanina1 a ,jewish merchant1 by ,muheiasa1 a ,moslem1 was the direct consequence of this order4 ,when ,huweisa upbraided ,muheiasa for killing his confederate the ,jew1 and appropriating his wealth1--,by the ,lord6 replied ,muheiasa1 if he that commanded me to kill him commanded to kill thee also1 ,i would have done it4 ,what6 ,huweisa cried1 wouldst thou have slain thine own brother at ,mahomet's bidding8--,even so1 answered the fanatic4 ,strange indeed6 ,huweisa responded4 ,hath the new religion reached to this pitch6 ,verily it is a wonderful ,faith4 ,and ,huweisa was converted from that very hour4#bgg ,ibn ,is-hak says this story was related to him by a freedman of the ,bani ,hrisa tribe from the daughter of ,muheiasa1 who had heard it from her father4#bgh 7#a7 ,now there is nothing known of this mysterious person1 the freedman of the tribe of ,hris1 therefore no reliance can be put on his story4 7#b7 ,we have no knowledge of the daughter of the murderer ,muheiasa1 or ,moheisa1 as he is called by the biographer1 ,ibn ,hisham4 7#c7 ,muheiasa himself has not that respectable character which can lend even a shadow of veracity to his narration4 7#d7 ,and lastly1 the story that ,mohammad had given general permission to his followers to slay any ,jew whom they might chance to meet1 and consequently ,muheiasa killed ,ibn ,sanina1 and ,huweisa became a convert to ,islam1 is contradicted by another counter-tradition in ,ibn ,hisham 7pp4 #eed-eee71 who has related from ,ab ,obeida1 who relates from ,ab ,omar-al-,madan1 that1 during the execution of the ,bani ,koreiza 7vide para4 #fh71 one ,kb-bin-,yahooza was made over to ,muheiasa for execution4 ,when the latter executed his victim1 ,huweisa1 his brother1 who was still unbelieving1 upbraided ,muheiasa4 ,if he1 responded ,muheiasa1 that commanded me to kill him had commanded me to kill thee also1 ,i would have killed thee4 ,huweisa was quite surprised at his brother's reply1 and went away astonished4 ,during the night he used to wake up repeatedly1 and wonder at his brother's staunch devotion to his faith4 ,in the morning1 he said1 ,by the ,lord6 ,this is a wonderful faith1 and came to the ,prophet to embrace ,islam4 ,these remarks show that the alleged permission to kill the ,jews1 and ,ibn ,sanina's murder1 and ,huweisa's conversion in consequence thereof1 is all a mere concoction4 ,sidenote3 #hc4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted4 ,even ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 though very fond of collecting all such apocryphal traditions reflecting on the character of the ,prophet1 doubts the veracity of this one1 and declares its improbability and inexpediency4 ,he writes3-- ,but the order itself is a strange one1 and must1 one would suppose1 have been accompanied by some conditions or reservations not here apparent4 ,it was surely not expedient for the ,prophet's cause at this time that the streets of ,medna should have flowed with blood by the strict execution of this command4 ,yet such is the distinct tenor of the best traditions4 ,the order was not an unlikely one to have issued at a time when ,mahomet was irritated against the ,jews by their treachery2 and ,hishmi has a tradition that it was promulgated when ,mahomet directed the massacre of all the males of the ,coreitza1 which would have been the more likely version1 if the other tradition had not been so strong and positive4#bgi ,but the tradition quoted by him is by no means the best or strongest as ,i have shown above4 ,hishamee does not say that the order was promulgated at the execution of the ,bani ,koreiza4 ,he simply narrates the story of ,muheiasa and ,huweisa to have taken place at that time4 ,the expulsion of the ,bani ,nazeer4 ,sidenote3 #hd4 ,the ,bani ,nazeer4 ,the expulsion of the ,bani ,nazeer has been censured by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 who says3 ,the pretext on which the ,bani ,nadhr were besieged and expatriated 7namely1 that ,gabriel had revealed their design against the ,prophet's life71 was feeble and unworthy of an honest cause4#bhj ,a whole ,sura in the ,koran is devoted to the ,bani ,nazeer1 but it does not hint at the alleged crime of their attempt on the life of the ,prophet or their expulsion for the same cause4 ,the traditions on the subject are unsupported1 ex parte1 and legendary4 ,had such a tradition been current at the time of ,mohammad1 or what is called ,sadr ,av-val 7the first or ,apostolic ,age71 we should certainly have had scores of narrators on the subject4#bha ,their crime was treachery1#bhb and they were a dangerous element to ,medina1 for a combination1 at any period1 between the treacherous ,jews and the aggressive ,koreish1 or other enemies of ,islam1 would have proved fatal to the safety of ,medina4 ,but their banishment was too mild a punishment4 ,sidenote3 #he4 ,fruit-trees not cut down4 ,it is said that ,mohammad cut down the surrounding date trees and burned the choicest of them during the siege of the ,bani ,nazeer1 and justified himself by publishing the verses of the ,,lix ,sura of the ,koran4#bhc ,but the date trees cut down were neither bearing fruit1 nor did they supply any staple article of food to the ,bani ,nazeer1 or the public in general4 ,the ,leena mentioned in the verse referred to above is a tree without fruit4 ,thus no fruit trees were destroyed4 7,zoorknee ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #ih47 ,trees not bearing fruits were only cut1 which is also justified under the ,law of ,moses4 7,see ,deuteronomy ,,xx1 #bj47 ,females and the ,treaty of ,hodeibia4 ,sidenote3 #hf4 ,females and the treaty of ,hodeibia4 ,females were not included in the truce of ,hodeibia4 ,the stipulation for the surrender of deserters referred only to the male sex4 ,all women who were to come over to ,medina from ,mecca during the period of the peace were1 by the dictates of ,sura ,,lx1 #aj1 to be tried1 and if their profession was found sincere1 they were to be retained4 ,they were prohibited from marrying the unbelievers4 ,the guardians of such believing females were to receive from the ,moslem commonwealth what they had spent upon their charges4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir understands from ,sura ,,lx1 verse #aj1 that the women referred to therein were the wives of the ,meccans1 and says3--,the unbelief of their husbands dissolved the previous marriage2 they now might legally contract fresh nuptials with believers1 provided only that restitution were made of any sums expended by their former husbands as dower upon them4#bhd ,but there is nothing either to show that the women had their husbands at ,mecca1 or to prove1 that1 on account of their husbands' unbelief1 their marriages were annulled4 ,as marriage with women with husbands is forbidden in ,sura ,,iv1 verse #bh1 and the verse ,,lx1 #aj1 under discussion1 does not designate them as married women1 ,i fairly conclude that this verse treats only of such as were not married4 ,it is not the ,law of the ,koran that the unbelief of either party dissolves their previous marriage4 ,it only enjoins neither to marry idolatresses1 nor to wed ,moslem daughters with idolaters until they believe4--7,sura ,,ii1 #bbj47 ,sidenote3 #hg4 ,stanley defended4 ,sir ,william ,muir1 after quoting ,sura ,,lx1 #aj-ab1 says1 ,stanley on ,corinthians 7#a ,cor4 ,,vii1 #a-dj7 quotes the above passage1 and says that the rule it contains resembles that of the ,apostle1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #ade4 ,but there is really no analogy between them2 the ,gospel rule differs toto coelo from that of ,mahomet3--,if any brother hath a wife that believeth not1 and she be pleased to dwell with him1 let him not put her away4--,and similarly the case of a believing wife with an unbelieving husband4 7#a ,cor4 ,,vii1 #ab-af47 ,whereas ,mahomet declares the marriage bond de facto annulled by the unbelief of either party1 which indeed was only to be expected from his loose ideas regarding the marriage contract4#bhe ,i think ,stanley is quite correct1 and the ,gospel and the ,koranic rule resemble each other in this respect4 ,because the order1 they 7the believing women7 are not lawful for them 7unbelievers71 nor are the unbelievers lawful for these 7believing women71 does not relate to the women already married2 and the words1 do not retain any right in the infidel woman 444 if any of your wives escape from you to the infidels 444 are to the same purport as #a ,cor4 ,,vii1 #ae1 ,but if the unbelieving depart let them depart4 ,a brother or a sister is not under bondage in such cases4#bhf ,sidenote #hh4 ,marriage a strict bond of union4 ,mohammad had no loose ideas regarding the marriage tie4 ,he had made the marriage contract more firm and irrevocable1 except under very exceptional circumstances1 than it was under the ,arab society2 and called it a strict bond of union4#bhg ,mohammad's own daughter1 ,zeinab1 was the wife of an unbelieving husband and had fled to her father at ,medina under the persecution at ,mecca after the ,hegira4#bhh ,her marriage with her unbelieving partner was not cancelled by ,mohammad1 and on the conversion of the son-in-law1 when he came after a period of six years after his wife had come to ,medina1 ,mohammad rejoined them together under their previous marriage4 ,theirs was neither a fresh marriage nor a fresh dowry4 7,vide ,ibn ,abbas' tradition in the collections of ,ahmed1 ,ibn ,abi ,daood1 ,ibn ,maja and ,trimizee47 ,safwan-bin-,omayya and ,ikrama-bin ,abi ,jahl had believing wives at the time of the conquest of ,mecca1 and their marriages were not dissolved by ,mohammad4 7,vide ,ibn ,shahab's tradition in ,movatta by ,malik1 and in the ,tabakat of ,ibn ,sad ,katib ,wkidi47 ,similarly ,ibn ,sofian and ,hakeem-bin-,hizam had their unbelieving wives retained by them after they had themselves been converted to ,islam1 and their former connubial connection was not severed by ,mohammad4 7,vide the several traditions in ,baihakee to the above effect47 ,it was only the legists and juris-consults of a later age who wrongly construed the passage in ,sura ,,lx1 #aj1 to mean that the unbelief of either party dissolved the marriage tie4 ,footnote #beg3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #beh3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ai4 ,in the collections of ,bokharee the story is traced to ,ans4 ,but ,ans could not be a witness to ,mohammad's command for mutilation1 as ,ans did not come until the expedition to ,khyber2 and the execution of those robbers took place before that4 ,the story from ,jbir in ,ibn ,mardaveih's collections to the same effect is not authentic1 as ,jbir1 who says he was sent by ,mohammad in pursuit of the robbers1 and committed the act1 was not a convert at that time4 ,koostalanee1 the author of ,mooahib1 has declared the tradition of ,ibn ,jarir ,tabari on the subject as an apocryphal1 i4e41 ,zaeef4 ,vide ,zoorkanee on ,movahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #bei3 ,ibn ,hisham 7p4 #dfc7 relates from ,ibn ,is-hak that ,omar asked permission to mutilate ,sohail1 but ,mohammad replied1 ,i would not mutilate him2 if ,i do1 ,god will mutilate me1 though ,i be a ,prophet4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,this subject has been fully and judiciously discussed by the ,honorable ,syed ,ahmed ,khan ,bahadur1 ,c4,s4,i41 in his ,commentary of the ,koran2 ,sura4 iv4 pp4 #aih-bjd4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,vide ,mishkt ,book of ,retaliation1 pp4 #bdc-bdd4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aca1 foot-note4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,introduction to ,lane's ,selections from the ,kur-n1 by ,stanley ,lane ,poole1 p4 lxvii4 ,london3 ,trubner and ,co41 #ahgi4 ,footnote #bff3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,ibid1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,vide ,zoorkanee on ,movahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bdd2 also ,zd-ul-,mad1 by ,ibn-al-,kyyim1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #cgf1 ,cawnpore1 #abih ,a4,h42 and ,seerat-ul-,mohammadiya1 by ,mohammad ,karmat-ul-,ali of ,delhi1 in loco4 ,the ,life is compiled from ,seerat ,halabi and ,seerat ,shmee and was lithographed in ,bombay4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,hishamee1 page #fha2 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bff4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,seerat ,halabi1 or ,insan-al-,oyoon1 ,vol ,,ii1 page #gi4 ,footnote #bga3 ,history of ,mohammad's ,campaigns1 by ,wackidi1 pp4 #cfh-cfi3 ,edited by ,von ,kremer1 ,calcutta1 #ahef4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bhb4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pages #cjh-cji4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,lieber's ,miscellaneous ,writings1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bej4 ,footnote #bge3 ,history of ,european ,morals1 from ,augustus to ,charlemagne4 ,by ,william ,edward ,hartpole ,lecky1 ,m4,a41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aja-ajb4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #adh4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,ibid1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,ibn ,hisham1 p4 #eed4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #adh #adi1 foot-note4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #cjh4 ,footnote #bha3 ,the tradition that ,mohammad had gone to ,bani ,nazeer asking their aid in defraying a certain price of blood1 and they attempted upon his life 7,muir1 ,,iii1 #bjh-bji7 as related by ,ibn ,is-hak 7in ,ibn ,hisham1 page #feb7 is a ,mursal 7vide ,zoorknee1 ,part ,,ii1 page #ie71 and consequently was not current in the ,apostolic ,age4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,ibn ,ockba1 an earliest biographer of ,mohammad1 died #adj1 says1--the cause of the expedition against the ,bani ,nazeer was this3 that they had instigated the ,koreish to fight against ,mohammad1 and had reconnoitred the weak points of ,medina4 ,ibn ,mardaveih ,abd-bin-,hameed1 and ,abdu ,razzak have related traditions to the effect that1 after the event of ,badr1 the ,koreish had written to the ,jews of ,medina to make war upon ,mohammad1 and the ,bani ,nazeer had resolved to break the compact4 ,vide ,zoorknee1 ,part ,,ii1 pp1 #if-ig4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,compare ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bac and #cjb1 foot-note4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #df1 foot-note4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,the verses of the ,koran are given below3 #aj4 ,o ,believers6 when believing women come over to you as refugees1 then make trial of them4 ,god best knoweth their faith2 but if ye have also ascertained their faith1 let them not go back to the infidels2 they are not lawful for them1 nor are the unbelievers lawful for these women4 ,but give them back what they have spent4 ,no crime shall it be in you to marry them1 provided you give them their dowers4 ,do not retain a right in the infidel women1 and demand back what you have spent and let them demand back what they have spent4 ,this is the ordinance of ,god which ,he ordaineth among you3 and ,god is ,knowing1 ,wise4 #aa4 ,and if any of your wives escape from you to the infidels from whom you afterwards take any spoil1 then give to those whose wives shall have fled away1 the like of what they shall have spent2 and fear ,god in whom ye believe4--,sura ,,lx4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,sura ,,iv1 #be4 ,rodwell's translation4 ,how ,mohammad discouraged divorce and took several steps in the ,koran to prohibit the facility of divorce prevailing in the ,arab society has been fully discussed by me in my book ,the ,proposed ,political1 ,legal1 and ,social ,reforms under ,moslem ,rule1 pp4 #abi-adc1 ,bombay ,education ,society ,press1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,some of the baser sort from amongst the ,coreish1 hearing of her departure1 went in pursuit1 determined to bring her back4 ,the first that appeared was ,habbr1 who struck the camel with his spear1 and so affrighted ,zeinab as to cause her a miscarriage4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #g4 ,the ,popular ,jihd or ,crusade2 ,according to the ,mohammadan ,common ,law4 ,sidenote #hi4 ,the ,koran enjoined only defensive wars4 ,almost all the common ,mohammadan and ,european writers think that a religious war of aggression is one of the tenets of ,islam1 and prescribed by the ,koran for the purpose of proselytizing or exacting tribute4 ,but ,i do not find any such doctrine enjoined in the ,koran1 or taught1 or preached by ,mohammad4 ,his mission was not to wage wars1 or to make converts at the point of the sword1 or to exact tribute or exterminate those who did not believe his religion4 ,his sole mission was to enlighten the ,arabs to the true worship of the one ,god1 to recommend virtue and denounce vice1 which he truly fulfilled4 ,that he and his followers were persecuted1 that they were expelled from their houses and were invaded upon and warred against2 that to repel incursions and to gain the liberty of conscience and the security of his followers' lives and the freedom of their religion1 he and they waged defensive wars1 encountered superior numbers1 made defensive treaties1 securing the main object of the war1 i4e41 the freedom of their living unmolested at ,mecca and ,medina1 and of having a free intercourse to the ,sacred ,mosque1 and a free exercise of their religion3 all these are questions quite separate and irrelevant1 and have nothing to do with the subject in hand1 i4e41 the popular ,jihad1 or the crusade for the purpose of proselytizing1 exacting tribute1 and exterminating the idolaters1 said to be one of the tenets of ,islam4 ,all the defensive wars1 and the verses of the ,koran relating to the same1 were strictly temporary and transitory in their nature4 ,they cannot be made an example of1 or be construed into a tenet or injunction for aggressive wars1 nor were they intended so to be4 ,even they cannot be an example or instruction for a defensive war to be waged by the ,mohammadan community or commonwealth1 because all the circumstances under which ,mohammad waged his defensive wars were local and temporary4 ,but almost all ,european writers do not understand that the ,koran does not teach a war of aggression1 but had only1 under the adverse circumstances1 to enjoin a war of defence1 clearly setting forth the grounds in its justification and strictly prohibiting offensive measures4 ,sidenote #ij4 ,the ,common ,law and ,jihad4 ,all the fighting injunctions in the ,koran are1 in the first place1 only in self-defence1 and none of them has any reference to make warfare offensively4 ,in the second place1 it is to be particularly noted that they were transitory in their nature1 and are not to be considered positive injunctions for future observance or religious precepts for coming generations4#bhi ,they were only temporary measures to meet the emergency of the aggressive circumstances4 ,the ,mohammadan ,common ,law is wrong on this point1 where it allows unbelievers to be attacked without provocation4 ,but this it places under the category of a non-positive injunction4 ,a positive injunction is that which is incumbent on every believer4 ,but attacking unbelievers without any provocation1 or offensively1 is not incumbent on every believer4 ,the ,hedaya has3--,the sacred injunction concerning war is sufficiently observed when it is carried on by any one party or tribe of ,mussulmans2 and it is then no longer of any force with respect to the rest4#bij ,sidenote #ia4 ,jihad when positive4 ,the ,mohammadan ,common ,law makes the fighting only a positive injunction where there is a general summons1 7that is1 where the infidels invade a ,mussulman territory1 and the ,imm for the time being issues a general proclamation1 requiring all persons to stand forth to fight17 for in this case war becomes a positive injunction with respect to the whole of the inhabitants1#bia--this is sanctioned by the ,law of ,nations and the ,law of ,nature4 ,sidenote3 #ib4 ,the ,hedaya quoted and refuted4 ,the ,hedaya1 or a ,commentary of the ,mohammadan ,common ,law by ,nuraddin ,ali of ,murghinan 7died in #eic1 ,a4,h47 has3-- ,the destruction of the sword#bib is incurred by the infidels1 although they be not the first aggressors1 as appears from the various passages in the sacred writings which are generally received to this effect4#bic ,this assertion is not borne out by the sacred injunction of the ,koran1 and1 on the contrary1 is in direct contradiction to the same4 ,there are several passages in the ,koran already quoted in pages #af-be1 which expressly forbid the taking of offensive measures1 and enjoin only defensive wars4 ,there are some other passages which are not so expressive as the several others referred to above1 or in other words1 are not conditional4 ,but the law of interpretation1 the general scope and tenor of the ,koran1 and the context of the verses and parallel passages1 all show that those few verses which are not conditional should be construed as conditional in conformity with other passages more clear1 expressive1 and conditional1 and with the general laws of scriptural interpretation4 ,now1 the author of the ,hedaya and other writers on the ,common ,law quote only those few passages from the ,koran which are absolute or unconditional1 and shut their eyes against those many conditional verses1 and general scope and tenor of the ,koran4 ,limited1 or ,conditional4 ,general1 or ,absolute4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sura ,,xxii1 #ci-db4 ,sura ,,ii1 #bde1 7read together with #bdg47 ,sura ,,ii1 #ahf-ahi4 ,sura ,,ix1 #abd4 #bab4 #bad4 ,the context1 parallel passages ,sura ,,iv1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #hf4 and their history1 show them #ia1 #ib1 #ic4 to be limited and conditional1 ,sura ,,viii1 #ci-da1 #eh-ff4 in conformity with the general #gc1 #gd4 scope of the ,koran4 ,sura ,,ix1 #a-ae4 #bi1 #cf4 ,quoted in pages #af-be1 #ce4 ,sidenote3 #ic4 ,rule of interpretation4 ,now1 there are only two verses in the ,koran 7,sura ,,ii1 v4 #bde1 and ,sura ,,ix1 v4 #abd7 containing an absolute or non-conditional injunction for making war against the unbelievers4 ,perhaps you may be able to detach some more sentences1 or dislocate some half verses from amongst those given under the head of conditional4 ,but these absolute1 as well as those detached and dislocated parts of some other verses will not1 by any rule of interpretation1 show absolute injunction to wage war against the unbelievers without any provocation or limitation4 ,there is a rule in the exegesis of the ,koran1 as well as in other ,scriptural interpretations1 that when two commandments1 one conditional1 and the other general or absolute1 are found on the same subject1 the conditional is to be preferred1 and the absolute should be construed as conditional1 because the latter is more expressive of the views of the author than the general which is considered as vague in its expression4 ,the rule is3--,where a passage which is ambiguous1 or which contains any unusual expression1 or in which a doctrine is slightly treated1 or is in general terms1 must be interpreted agreeably to what is revealed more clearly in other parts1 or where a subject is more clearly discussed4 ,a single or general passage is not to be explained in contradiction to many others restricted1 conditional1 and limited consistently with them1 and with proper reservations4 ,sidenote3 #id4 ,the ,common ,law and its commentators4 ,it is not to be wondered that the ,mohammadan legists or the compilers of the ,common ,law are wrong in this point4 ,because1 as a rule1 or as a matter of fact1 they have compiled the ,common ,law from different sources irrespective of the ,koran1 and the commentators of the ,common ,law take the trouble of vindicating its views1 principles and casuistries1 and justifying the ,moslem conquests under the ,khalifs by the authority of the ,koran4 ,then only they commit the unpardonable blunder of citing isolated parts of solitary verses of the ,koran1 which are neither expressive enough nor are in general terms4 ,in doing so1 they avoid the many other conditional and more explicit verses on the same subject4 ,sidenote3 #ie4 ,kifaya quoted4 ,the author of ,kifaya1 a commentary on the ,hedaya1 who flourished in the seventh century of the ,hegira1 remarks on the words of the text1 ,the destruction of the sword is incurred by the infidels1 although they be not the first aggressors1 already quoted in the #ibnd para41 and says2 ,fighting against the infidels who do not become converts to ,islam1 and do not pay the capitation-tax1 is incumbent1 though they do not attack first4 ,the author of the ,hedaya has mentioned this aggressive measure specially1 because apparently the words of ,god1 if they attack you then slay them1#bid indicate that the fighting against the unbelievers is only incumbent when they fight first1 but1 however1 such is not the case4 ,it is incumbent to fight with them1 though they be not the aggressors4#bie ,sidenote3 #if4 ,further quotation4 ,the same author writes in continuation of the above quotation1 and attempts to reconcile his theory with the numerous precepts of the ,koran1 which do not permit the war of aggression3-- ,know1 that in the beginning the ,prophet was enjoined to forgive1 and withdraw from those who joined other gods with ,god4 ,god said1 'wherefore dost thou forgive with kindly forgiveness1 and withdraw from those who join other gods with ,me4' ,then ,he enjoined him to summon the people to the faith by kind warning and kind disputation1 saying1 ',summon thou to the way of thy ,lord with wisdom and kindly warning3 dispute with them in the kindest manner4' ,then ,he allowed fighting1 when they1 the unbelievers1 were the aggressors1 and said3--',a sanction is given to those who have fought because they have suffered outrages2' i4e41 they are allowed to fight in self-defence4 ,and ,god said1 ',if they attack you1 then kill them' 7,,ii1 #ahg72 and also said1 ',if they lean to peace1 lean thou also to it4' 7,,viii4 #fc74 ,then he enjoined to fight aggressively during a certain period4 ,god said1 ',and when the sacred months are passed1 kill them who join other gods with ,god1 wherever ye find them1 and seize them' 7,,ix4 #e74 ,after this ,he enjoined for fighting absolutely1 at every time and in every place4 ,god said1 ',and do battle against them until there be no more 7fitnah7 persecution' 7,,ii4 #ahi2 ,,vii4 #dj74bif ,sidenote3 #ig4 ,the ,kifaya refuted4 ,here the author of ,kifaya has contrived to make out by way of subterfuge and sophistry five successive periods of the policy of the ,koran regarding warfare against the unbelievers3 ,first ,period ,forgiveness and withdrawal ,sura ,,xv1 #he4 ,,vi1 #ajf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,second ,period ,summoning ,sura ,,xvi1 #abf4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,third ,period ,fighting in self-defence ,sura ,,xxii1 #dj4 ,,ii1 #ahg4 ,,viii1 #fc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,fourth ,period ,fighting aggressively ,sura ,,ix1 #e4 during certain times ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,fifth ,period ,aggressive fighting absolutely4 ,sura ,,ii1 #ahi4 ,,viii1 #dj4 ,he is wrong in history1 chronology as well as in understanding the general scope of the ,koran and the tenor of the ,suras4 ,he does not regard even the context of the verses quoted4 ,the verses containing injunctions for turning aside1 shunning1 forgiving1 passing over1 and withdrawing are found even in the later period of the ,medinite ,suras4--7,vide ,sura ,,ii1 #ajc2 ,v1 #af1 #df2 ,sura ,,iv1 #ff1 #hc2 and ,,vii1 #aih47 ,they have nothing to do either with war or peace4 ,the summoning of people to the faith of ,god was the chief duty of the ,prophetical office1 and was not confined to any special period1 and was alike during times of war and peace4 ,even during the actual warfare it was incumbent on the ,prophet to give quarters to the enemy1 if he desired1 to listen to his preachings4--7,vide ,sura ,,ix1 #f47 ,sidenote3 #ih4 ,s4 ,,ix1 v4 #e1 discussed4 ,the fifth verse of the ninth ,sura is by no means an injunction to attack first or wage an aggressive war4 ,this verse is one of the several published at ,medina after the ,meccans had violated the treaty of ,hodeibia and attacked the ,bani ,khozaa1 who were in alliance with ,mohammad4 ,the ,meccans were given four months' time to submit1 in default of which they were to be attacked for their violation of the treaty and for their attacking the ,bani ,khozaa4 ,they submitted beforehand1 and ,mecca was conquered by compromise4 ,the verses referred to above 7,sura ,,ix1 #a-ae1 c47 were not acted upon4 ,so there was no injunction to wage an aggressive war4 ,this subject has been discussed at pages #ea-ee of this work1 and the reader is referred to them for fuller information4 ,sidenote3 #ii4 ,s4 ,,ii1 v4 #ahi1 discussed4 ,the #ahith verse of the second ,sura is not at all an absolute injunction to wage a war of aggression4 ,the verses #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahh and #ahi1 if read together1 will show that the injunction for fighting is only in defence4 ,the verses are3-- #ahf4 ,and fight for the cause of ,god against those who fight against you3 but commit not the injustice of attacking them first2 verily ,god loveth not the unjust4 #ahg4 ,and kill them wherever ye shall find them2 and eject them from whatever place they have ejected you2 for 7fitnah7 persecution is worse than slaughter2 yet attack them not at the sacred ,mosque until they attack you therein1 but if they attack you then slay them3 such is the recompense of the infidels6 #ahh4 ,but if they desist1 then verily ,god is ,gracious1 ,merciful-- #ahi4 ,and do battle1 against them until there be no more 7fitnah7 persecution and the only worship be that of ,god3 but if they desist1 then let there be no hostility1 save against wrong-doers4 ,sidenote3 #ajj4 ,s4 ,,ii1 #ahi1 ,,viii1 #dj1 are defensive4 ,besides1 this verse as well as the fortieth verse of ,sura ,,viii have indications in themselves of their relating to a defensive war4 ,as the torture1 aggression1 in short1 the persecutions suffered by the ,moslems from the ,koreish1 are very clearly indicated by the word fitnah in these two verses1 the object of fighting or counterfighting by the ,moslems is plainly set forth1 which is to suppress the persecutions4 ,they have clear reference to the persecution1 to stop or remove which they enjoined fighting1 and this was fighting in self-defence obviously4 ,they also show that the ,meccans had not desisted from persecuting and attacking the ,moslems1 and therefore a provision was made that if they discontinue their incursions1 there will be no more hostility4 ,this is quite sufficient to show that these verses relate to the defensive wars of ,mohammad4 ,sidenote3 #aja4 ,all injunctions local and for the time being4 ,lastly1 supposing the ,koran permitted waging aggressive wars against the ,meccans1 who were the first aggressors1 this does not corroborate the theory or principle of the ,common ,law of making lawful aggressive wars in future on the authority of these verses1 as all of them in the ,koran on the subject of war relate only to ,pagan ,arabs1 who had long persevered in their hostility to the early ,moslems or to the ,jews1 who1 being in league with the ,moslems1 went over to their enemies1 and aided them against the ,moslems4 ,these verses are not binding on other persons1 who are not under the same circumstance as the ,moslems were under1 at ,medina4 ,see para4 #ij4 ,sidenote3 #ajb4 ,ainee quoted and refuted4 ,another commentator of the ,hedaya1 ,ainee#big 7who died in #hee7 follows ,kifaya already quoted1 and mentions some other verses of the ,koran on the war of aggression1 which the author of ,kifaya has left uncited in his work4 ,they are as follows3-- 444 ,then do battle with the ringleaders of infidelity1--for no oaths are binding on them--that they may desist4--7,sura ,,ix1 #ab47 ,war is prescribed to you1 but from this ye are averse4--7,sura ,,ii1 #bab47 ,march ye forth1 the light and heavy1 and contend with your substance and your persons on the ,way of ,god4--7,sura ,,ix1 #da47 ,the first verse when it is complete runs thus3--,but if1 after alliance made1 they break their oaths and revile your religion1 then do battle with the ringleaders of infidelity1--for no oaths are binding on them--that they may desist2 and fully shows by its wording that it relates to the war of defence1 as the breaking of alliances1 and reviling of the ,moslem religion were the grounds of making war with the object in view that the aggressors may desist4 ,this verse is one of those in the beginning of the ninth ,sura1 which have already been discussed4--7,vide pages #ea-ee47 ,the second verse 7,,ii1 #bab7 does not allow a war of aggression1 as the next verse 7,,ii1 #bad7 expressly mentions the attacks made by the aggressors on the ,moslems4 ,it has been quoted at full length in page #ah4 ,the third verse 7,,ix1 #da7 was published on the occasion of the expedition of ,tbuk1 which was certainly a defensive measure1 and has been discussed in pages #ea to #ee4 ,sidenote3 #ajc4 ,sarakhsee quoted and refuted4 ,sarakhsee generally entitled ,shums-ul-a-imma 7the ,sun of the ,leaders71 who died in #fga ,a4,h41 as quoted by ,ibn ,abdeen in his ,radd-ul-,muhtr1#bih makes several stages in publishing the injunctions for fighting4 ,he writes3-- ,know thou1 that the command for fighting has descended by degrees4 ,first the ,prophet was enjoined to proclaim and withdraw1 ',profess publicly then what thou hast been bidden and withdraw from those who join gods with ,god' 7,,xv1 #id74 ,then he was ordered to dispute kindly2 ',summon thou to the way of thy ,lord with wisdom and with kindly warning3 dispute with them in the kindest warning' 7,,xvi1 #abf74 ,then they were allowed to fight1 ',a sanction is given to those who are fought4444' 7,,xxii1 #dj74 ,then they were allowed to fight if they 7the unbelievers7 attacked them1 ',if they attack you1 then kill them' 7,,ii1 #ahg74 ,after this they were enjoined to fight on the condition of passing over the sacred months1 ',and when the sacred months are passed1 then kill the polytheists' 7,,ix1 #e74 ,after this they were enjoined to fight absolutely1 ',and fight for the cause of ,god4444' 7,,ii1 #ahf1 #bde74 ,and thus the matter was settled4 ,there was no injunction for fighting absolutely or aggressively in the ,koran4 ,i have already explained the #eth verse of the ninth ,sura as not allowing an offensive war4 ,and the same is the case with the #ahfth verse of the second ,sura1 which has in itself the condition of fighting against those only who fought against the ,moslems4 ,the other verse1 #bdeth1 of the same ,sura is restricted by the verse #ahfth1 7and is explained by the verse #bdeth71 which refers to the defensive measures4 ,this verse is quoted in page #ai of this work4 ,sidenote3 #ajd4 ,ibn ,hajar quoted and refuted4 ,shahbudeen ,ahmed-bin-,hajr ,makki writes3-- ,fighting was prohibited before the ,hegira1 as the ,prophet was enjoined only to preach and warn and to be patient in the persecutions of the unbelievers in order to conciliate them4 ,after this1 ,god gave sanction to the ,moslems for fighting1 7after that had been prohibited in seventy and odd verses71 when the unbelievers were the aggressors1 and said1 ',and fight for the cause of ,god against those who fight against you' 7,,ii1 #ahg74 ,and it is a genuine tradition from ,zohri that the first revealed verse sanctioning it was1 ',a sanction is given to those who are fought1 because they have suffered outrages' 7,,xxii1 #dj73 that is a sanction was given for fighting on the ground of the word 'fought4' ,then the war of aggression was made lawful in other than the sacred months1 ',when the sacred months are over4444' 7,,ix1 #e74 ,after this1 in the eighth year of the ,hegira1 after the victory of ,mecca1 the fighting was enjoined absolutely by the words of ,god2 ',march ye forth1 the light and the heavy' 7,,ix1 #da72 and 'attack those who join gods with ,god in all' 7,,ix1 #cf74 ,and this is the very verse of the sword1 and some say the preceding verse is the verse of the sword1 while others think that both bear on the same subject1 i4e41 of the sword4#bii ,sidenote3 #aje4 ,ibn ,hajar refuted4 ,i have already explained the several verses quoted by the author in preceding paras41 but have only to pass remarks on the only verse1 i4e4 7,,ix1 #cf71 which the authors cited have not dared to mention1 because it goes contrary to their assertion4 ,perhaps it is a slip in the rapidity of ,ibn ,hajar remarks1 for which he may be excused4 ,but ,i will not hesitate in saying that generally the ,mohammadan legists1 while quoting the ,koran in support of their theories1 quote some dislocated portion from a verse without any heed to its context1 and thus cause a great and irreparable mischief by misleading others1 especially the ,european writers1 as it is apparent from the testimony of ,mr4 ,lane quoted in para4 #aac of this work4 ,the verse referred to by the author mentioned in the last para41 ,ibn ,hajar ,makki1 is as follows3 ,attack those who join gods with ,god in all1 as they attack you in all4--7,,ix1 #cf47 ,this speaks evidently of the defensive war1 and has not the slightest or faintest idea of a war of aggression on the part of the ,moslems4 ,this verse refers to the expedition of ,tbuk4 ,sidenote3 #ajf4 ,halabi quoted4 ,nooruddeen ,ali al ,halabi 7died #ajdd ,a4,h471 the author of ,insan-ul-,oyoon1 a biography of the ,prophet1 writes3-- ,it is not hidden that the ,prophet for ten and odd years was warning and summoning people without fighting1 and bearing patiently the severe persecutions of the ,meccan ,arabs and the ,medinite ,jews on himself and on his followers1 because ,god had enjoined him to warn and to have patience to bear the injuries by withholding from them1 in accordance with ,his words1 ',withdraw from them' 7,v1 #df72 and 'endure them with patience' 7,,xvi1 #abh2 ,,xviii1 #bg2 ,,xxxi1 #af2 ,,lii1 #dh2 and ,,lxxiii1 #aj74 ,he also used to promise them victory4 ,his companions at ,mecca used to come to him beaten and injured1 and he used to tell them1 ',endure with patience1 ,i am not commanded to fight1' because they were but a small party at ,mecca4 ,after this1 when he was settled at ,medina after the ,hegira and his followers became numerous who preferred him to their fathers1 children1 and wives1 and the unbelievers persisted in their idolatry1 charging him with falsehoods1 then ,god permitted his followers to fight1 but against those only who used to fight against them 7the ,moslems71 and were aggressors1 as he said1 ',if they fight you1 then kill them' 7,,ii1 #ahg74 ,this was in the year of ,safar ,a4,h4 #b4444 ,then the whole ,arab host marched against the ,moslems to fight against them from every direction4 ,the ,moslems passed whole nights in arms1 and during the day they were in the same state1 and longed to pass peaceful nights without fear from anybody except from ,god4 ,then it was revealed1 ',god hath promised to those of you who believe and do the things that are right1 that he will cause them to succeed others in the land1 as he gave succession to those who were before them1 and that ,he will establish for them that religion which they delight in1 and after their fears ,he will give them security in exchange' 7,s4 ,,xxiv1 #ed74 ,after this to attack first was allowed against those who had not fought1 but in other than the sacred months1 viz41 ,rajab1 ,zulkada1 ,zulhijja1 and ,mohuram1 according to the precept1 ',and when the sacred months are passed1 kill those who join gods with ,god 444' 7,,ix1 #e74 ,then the order became incumbent after the victory of ,mecca1 in the next year1 to fight absolutely without any restriction1 without any regard to any condition and time1 by the words of ,god1 ',attack those who join gods with ,god in all' at any time 7,,ix1 #cf74 ,so it is known that the fighting was forbidden before the ,hegira up to the month of ,safar in its second year1 as the ,prophet was in this period ordered to preach and warn without any fighting1 which was forbidden in seventy and odd verses4 ,then it was permitted to fight against only those who fought against them4 ,then it was allowed to fight against those who fought aggressively in other than the sacred months4 ,after this it was enjoined absolutely to wage war against them whether they did or did not fight1 at all times1 whether during the sacred months1 or others of the year4#cjj ,sidenote3 #ajg4 ,halabi refuted4 ,neither the fifth verse of the ninth ,sura1 nor the thirty-sixth of the same1 allowed war of aggression4 ,both of them were published on the occasions of defensive wars1 and the party against whom they were directed were the aggressors4 ,all the verses quoted by ,halabi1 bearing on the subject1 have been discussed and explained in the foregoing pages1 from #ib to #ajf4 ,sidenote3 #ajh4 ,ainee again quoted and refuted4 ,ainee1 the author of the commentary on the ,hedaya1 called ,binayah1 in justifying the war of aggression against the unbelievers1 quotes two verses from the ,koran1#cja and two traditions from the ,prophet1#cjb and says1--,if it be objected that these absolute injunctions are restricted by the word of ,god1 'if they attack you1 then kill them' 7,,ii1 #ahg71 which shows that the fighting is only incumbent when the unbelievers are the aggressors in fighting1 as it was held by ,souri1 the reply is that the verse was abrogated by another1 ',so fight against them until there be no more persecution' 7,,ii1 #ahi71 and 'fight against those who do not believe in ,god4' 7,,ix1 #bi74cjc ,but he is wrong in asserting that the verse ,,ii1 #ahg was abrogated by ,,ii1 #ahi1 and ,,ix1 #bi4 ,there is no authority for such a gratuitous assumption4 ,and besides1 both these verses 7,,ii1 #ahi1 and ,,ix1 #bi7 relate to defensive wars as it has been already explained in paras4 #if-ii4 ,sidenote3 #aji4 ,continuation of the above4 ,the verse #ahi shows by its very wording the existence of fitnah or persecution1 torture1 and fighting on the part of the aggressors4 ,by suppressing the ,meccans' persecution1 the ,moslems had to regain their civil and religious liberty1 from which they were so unjustly deprived4 ,and this war of the ,moslems to repel the force of their aggressors was the war of defence and protection enjoined in the verse4 ,the #bith verse of the ninth ,sura appertains to the expedition of ,tbuk if not to that of ,khyber4 ,these expeditions were of a defensive character4 ,vide pages #cg and #da4 ,sidenote3 #aaj4 ,traditions quoted and refuted4 ,the jurists further quote a tradition from the compilation of ,ab ,daood that the ,prophet had said1 ,the ,jihd will last up to the day of the ,resurrection3 ,but in the first place1 ,jihd does not literally and classically mean warfare or fighting in a war4 ,it means1 as used by the classical poets as well as by the ,koran1 to do one's utmost2 to labour2 to toil2 to exert one's-self or his power1 efforts1 endeavours1 or ability2 to employ one's-self vigorously1 diligently1 studiously1 sedulously1 earnestly1 or with energy2 to be diligent or studious1 to take pains or extraordinary pains4 ,vide ,appendix ,a4 ,in the second place1 ,yezid bin ,abi ,shaiba1 a link in the chain of the tradition1 is a ,mujhool1#cjd i4e41 his biography is not known1 therefore his tradition can have no authority4 ,there is also another tradition in ,bokhree to the effect that the ,prophet had said1 ,i have been enjoined to fight the people until they confess that there is no god but the ,god4 ,this tradition goes quite contrary to the verses of the ,koran which enjoin to fight in defence1--that is1 until the persecution or civil discord was removed4--7,vide ,sura ,,ii1 #ahi2 ,,viii1 #dj47 ,thus it appears that either the whole tradition is a spurious one1 or some of the narrators were wrong in interpreting the words of the ,prophet4 ,sidenote3 #aaa4 ,early ,moslem legists quoted against ,jihd4 ,that the ,koran did not allow war of aggression either when it was revealed1 or in future as the early jurisconsults did infer from it1 will be further shown from the opinions of the early ,moslems2 legists of the first and second century of the ,hegira1 like ,ibn 7son of7 ,omar the second khalif1 ,sotian ,souri1 ,ibn ,shobormah1 ,at and ,amar-bin-,dinar4 ,all these early legists held that the fighting was not religiously incumbent 7wjib71 and that it was only a voluntary act1 and that only those were to be fought against who attacked the ,moslems4#cje ,sidenote3 ,biographical sketches of the legists4 ,i will give here short biographical sketches of the legists named above-- 7#a47 ,ab ,abd-ur-,rahman ,abdullah ibn ,omar ibn-al ,khattab was one of the most eminent among the companions of ,muhammad by his piety1 his generosity1 his contempt of the world1 his learning and his virtues4 ,though entitled by birth to aspire to the highest places in the empire1 he never hearkened to the dictates of ambition2 possessing a vast influence over the ,moslims by his rank1 his instruction1 and his holy life1 he neither employed nor abused it in favour of any party1 and during the civil wars which raged among the followers of ,islamism1 he remained neutral1 solely occupied with the duties of religion4 ,for a period of thirty years persons came from all parts to consult him and learn from him the ,traditions4444 ,he died at ,mekka ,a4,h4 #gc 7,a4,d4 #fib-c7 aged #hd years4444--,tabakat al ,fokaha1 fol4 #e4 7#b47 ,at ,ibn ,abi ,rabah4--,he held a high rank at ,mekka as a juris-consult1 a ,tb1 and a devout ascetic2 and he derived 7his knowledge of the law and the ,traditions7 from the lips of ,jbir ,ibn ,abd ,allah al-,ansr1 and ,abd ,allah ,ibn ,abbas1 ,abd ,allah ,ibn ,zubair1 and many others of ,muhammad's companions4 ,his own authority as a traditionist was cited by ,amr ibn ,dinr1 ,al-,aamash1 ,al-,auzi1 and a great number of others who had heard him teach4 ,the office of ,mufti at ,mekka devolved on him and on ,mujhid1 and was filled by them whilst they lived4444 ,he died ,a4,h4 #aae 7,a4,d4 #gcc-d72 some say #aad at the age of eighty-eight years4--,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 translated from the ,arabic by ,baron ,mac,guckin ,de ,slane2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bjc-bjd4 ,london1 ,,mdcccxliii4 7#c47 ,amr ,ibn ,dinr4--,he is counted among the most eminent of the ,tbis and considered as a traditionist of very highest authority4 ,he was only one of the ,mujatahid ,imms4 ,died ,a4,h4 #abf1 7,a4,d4 #gdc-d71 aged eighty years4--,tab-al-,fokaha4 7#d47 ,abd ,allah ,ibn ,shuburma ibn ,tufail ad ,dubbi1 a celebrated ,imm1 and ,tbi was an eminent jurisconsult of ,kufa4 ,he learned the ,traditions from ,ans1 ,as-,shabi1 and ,ibn ,srn1 and his own authority was cited for ,traditions by ,soffian ,ath-,thauri1 ,sofyan ibn ,oyaina1 and others4 ,his veracity and his eminence as a doctor of the law was universally acknowledged4 ,he was an abstemious1 intelligent1 devout1 generous1 of a handsome countenance1 and possessing a talent for poetry4 ,he acted under the ,khalif ,al-,mamun1 as kad of the cultivated country 7,sawd7 around ,kufa4 ,born ,a4,h4 #ib1 7,a4,d4 #gaj-aa72 died ,a4,h4 #add 7,a4,d4 #gfa-b74--,tabal-,fak4 ,al-,yfi4 7#e47 ,sofyan ,ath-,thauri 7,as-,sauri7 was native of ,kfa and a master of the highest authority in the ,traditions and other sciences2 his piety1 devotion1 veracity1 and contempt for worldly goods were universally acknowledged1 and as an ,imm1 he is counted among the ,mujtahids4444 ,sofyan ibn ,oyaina declared that he did not know a man better informed than ,soyfan ,ath-,thauri respecting what was permitted and what was forbidden by the law4444 ,sofyan was born ,a4,h4 #ie 7,a4,d4 #gac-d74 ,other accounts place his birth in #if or #ig4 ,he died ,a4,h4 #afa 7,a4,d4 #gac-d7 at ,basra4444 ,it has been stated by some that ,sofyan died ,a4,h4 #afb1 but the first is the true date4--,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 translated from the ,arabic by ,baron ,mac,guckin ,de ,slane1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #egf-h4 ,london1 ,,mdcccxliii4 ,sidenote3 #aac4 ,european writers' mistake4 ,that it is a mistake on the part of the ,european writers to assert that the ,koran allows wars of aggression1 or in other words1 to wage war against the unbelievers without any provocation1 is shown by the testimony of ,mr4 ,urquhart and ,mr4 ,edward ,william ,lane4 ,the latter writes3 ,misled by the decision of those doctors1 and an opinion prevalent in ,europe1 ,i represented the laws of 'holy war' as more severe than ,i found them to be according to the letter and spirit of the ,kur-n1 when carefully examined1 and according to the ,hanafee code4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,urquhart for suggesting to me the necessity of revising my former statement on the subject2 and must express my conviction that no precept is to be found in the ,kur-n1 which1 taken with the context1 can justify unprovoked war4#cjf ,sidenote3 #aad4 ,sir ,william ,muir quoted4 ,i will quote several remarks of ,european writers1 including clergymen and ,indian missionaries1 to show how astray they go in attributing to the ,koran and ,mohammad the wars of aggressions and compulsory proselytizing4 ,sir ,william ,muir represents the principles of ,islam as requiring constant prosecutions of war1 and writes-- ,it was essential to the permanence of ,islam that its aggressive course should be continuously pursued1 and that its claim to an universal acceptance1 or at the least to an universal supremacy1 should be enforced at the point of the sword4 ,within the limits of ,arabia the work appeared now to be accomplished4 ,it remained to gain over the ,christian and idolatrous tribes of the ,syrian desert1 and then in the name of the ,lord to throw down the gauntlet of war before the empires of ,rome and ,persia1 which1 having treated with contempt the summons of the ,prophet addressed to them in solemn warning four years ago1 were now rife for chastisement4#cjg ,the occasion to which ,sir ,w4 ,muir refers here was to wipe out the memory of the reverse at ,muta4 ,the expedition to ,muta was occasioned by the murder of a messenger or envoy dispatched by ,mohammad to the ,ghassnide prince at ,bostra4 ,a party was sent to punish the offending chief1 ,sharahbil4 ,this could1 by no means1 be maintained as a warlike spirit or an aggressive course for the prosecution of war1 or for enforcing the claim of universal supremacy at the point of the sword4 ,sidenote3 #aae4 ,islam not aggressive4 ,that ,islam as preached by ,mohammad was never aggressive has been fully shown in several places of the ,koran4 ,during the whole time of his ministry1 ,mohammad was persecuted1 rejected1 despised and at last made an outlaw by the ,koreish at ,mecca1 and a fugitive seeking protection in a distant city2 exiled1 attacked upon1 besieged1 defeated1 and prevented from returning to ,mecca or visiting the ,holy ,kaaba by the same enemies at ,mecca and other surrounding tribes who had joined them1 and even from within ,medina plotted against by the ,jews who were not less aggressive towards him than their confederates of ,mecca1 the ,koreish1 whom they had instigated to make war on him and had brought an overwhelming army1 had proved traitors1 and1 even more injurious than the ,koreish themselves4 ,consequently1 he was constantly in dangers and troubles1 and under such circumstances it was impossible for him to be aggressive1 to get time or opportunity to pursue any aggressive course1 or enforce1 at the point of the sword1 any attempt of his for universal acceptance1 or universal supremacy even if he had designed so4 ,but it was far from his principles to have cherished the object of universal conquest4 ,that ,islam ever stepped beyond the limits of ,arabia and its border lands1 admits ,sir4 ,w4 ,muir in his ,rede ,lecture for #ahha1 just twenty years after he had written the passage ,i am dealing with1 was due to circumstances rather than design4 ,the faith was meant originally for the ,arabs4 ,from first to last1 the call was addressed primarily to them4 ,he writes in a footnote of the same lecture 7page #e73 ,it is true that three or four years before1 ,mahomet had addressed dispatches to the ,kaiser1 and the ,chosroes1 and other neighbouring potentates1 summoning them to embrace the true faith4 ,but the step had never been followed up in any way4#cjh ,sidenote3 #aaf4 ,mr4 ,freeman quoted4 ,mr4 ,freeman writes regarding ,mohammad3-- ,mahomet had before him the example of ,mosaic ,law1 which preached a far more rigorous mandate of extermination against the guilty nations of ,canaan4 ,he had before him the practice of all surrounding powers1 ,christian1 ,jewish1 and ,heathen2 though1 from the disaffection of ,syria and ,egypt to the orthodox throne of ,constantinople1 he might have learned how easily persecution defeats its own end4444 ,under his circumstances1 it is really no very great ground to condemnation that he did appeal to the sword4 ,he did no more than follow the precedents of his own and every surrounding nation4 ,yet one might say that a man of such mighty genius as ,mahomet must have been1 might have been1 fairly expected to rise superior to the trammels of prejudice and precedent4#cji ,mohammad never professed to have followed the footsteps of ,moses and ,joshua in waging war of extermination and proselytism4 ,he only appealed to the sword in his and his followers' defence4 ,never he seems to have been anxious to copy the practice of the surrounding nations1 ,christians1 ,jews1 and ,egyptians4 ,his wars of defence1 as they certainly all were1 were very mild1 specially with regard to the treatment of children1 women1 and old men who were never to be attacked2 and above all1 in the mildness shown towards the captives of war who were either to be set free or ransomed1--but were never to be enslaved1--contrary to the practice of all the surrounding nations4 ,this virtual abolition of slavery 7vide ,sura ,,xlvii1 #e1 and ,appendix ,b7 has been a great boon to mankind in general as a beneficial result of ,mohmamad's wars of defence4 ,sidenote3 #aag4 ,the ,revd4 ,stephens quoted4 ,the ,reverend ,mr4 ,stephens writes3-- ,in the ,koran1 the ,mussulman is absolutely and positively commanded to make war upon all those who decline to acknowledge the ,prophet until they submit1 or1 in the case of ,jews and ,christians1 purchase exemption from the conformity by the payment of tribute4 ,the mission of the ,mussulman1 as declared in the ,koran1 is distinctly aggressive4 ,we might say that ,mahomet bequeathed to his disciples a roving commission to propagate his faith by the employment of force where persuasion failed4 ',o ,prophet1 fight for the religion of ,god'--',stir up the faithful to war1' such are commands which ,mahomet believed to be given him by ,god4 ',fight against them who believe not a ,god1 nor the last day1' 'attack the idolatrous in all the months1' such are his own exhortations to his disciples4#caj ,the ,reverend gentleman is very much mistaken in his assertions against the ,koran4 ,there is no absolute or positive command in the ,koran for a war of aggression or compulsory proselytism4 ,the sentences quoted by ,mr4 ,stephens are but mutilated verses forcibly dislocated from their context4 ,a disjointed portion of a verse1 or a single sentence of it cannot be brought forth to prove any doctrine or theory4 ,due regard must be made for the context1 the general scope1 and parallel passages4 ,the verses referred to by ,mr4 ,stephens are ,sura ,,iv1 #hf1 and ,sura ,,ix1 #bi1 #cf4 ,all these have been quoted in full and discussed elsewhere4#caa ,they relate only to defensive wars4 ,sidenote3 #aah4 ,mr4 ,bosworth ,smith quoted4 ,mr4 ,bosworth ,smith says3-- ,the free toleration of the purer among the creeds around him1 which the ,prophet had at first enjoined1 gradually changes into intolerance4 ,persecuted no longer1 ,mohammed becomes a persecutor himself2 with the ,koran in one hand1 the scymitar in the other1 he goes forth to offer to the nations the threefold alternative of conversion1 tribute1 death4#cab ,mohammad never changed his practice of toleration nor his own teachings into intolerance2 he was always persecuted at ,mecca and ,medina1 but1 for all we know1 he himself never turned a persecutor4 ,the three-fold alternative so much talked of1 and so little proved1 is nowhere to be found in the ,koran4 ,this subject has been fully discussed in paras4 #cd-ci4 ,sidenote3 #aai4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,sale quoted4 ,mr4 ,george ,sale1 in his celebrated preliminary discourse to the translation of the ,koran1 writes1 referring to the thirteenth year of ,mohammad's mission3-- ,hitherto ,mohammed had propagated his religion by fair means1 so that the whole success of his enterprise1 before his flight to ,medina1 must be attributed to persuasion only1 and not to compulsion4 ,for before this second oath of fealty or inauguration at al ,akaba1 he had no permission to use any force at all2 and in several places of the ,korn1 which he pretended were revealed during his stay at ,mecca1 he declares his business was only to preach and admonish2 that he had no authority to compel any person to embrace his religion2 and that whether people believed or not1 was none of his concern1 but belonged solely to ,god4 ,and he was so far from allowing his followers to use force1 that he exhorted them to bear patiently those injuries which were offered them on account of their faith2 and when persecuted himself chose rather to quit the place of his birth and retire to ,medina1 than to make any resistance4 ,but this great passiveness and moderation seems entirely owing to his want of power and the great superiority of his oppressors for the first twelve years of his mission2 for no sooner was he enabled by the assistance of those of ,medina to make head against his enemies1 than he gave out1 that ,god had allowed him and his followers to defend themselves against the infidels2 and at length1 as his forces increased1 he pretended to have the divine leave even to attack them1 and to destroy idolatry1 and set up the true faith by the sword2 finding by experience that his designs would otherwise proceed very slowly1 if they were not utterly overthrown1 and knowing on the other hand that innovators1 when they depend solely on their own strength1 and can compel1 seldom run any risk2 from whence1 the politician observes1 it follows1 that all the armed prophets have succeeded1 and the unarmed ones have failed4 ,moses1 ,cyrus1 ,theseus and ,romulus would not have been able to establish the observance of their institutions for any length of time had they not been armed4 ,the first passage of the ,korn1 which gave ,mohammed the permission of defending himself by arms1 is said to have been that in the twenty-second chapter3 after which a great number to the same purpose were revealed4 ,that ,mohammed had a right to take up arms for his own defence against his unjust persecutors1 may perhaps be allowed2 but whether he ought afterwards to have made use of that means for the establishing of his religion1 is a question which ,i will not here determine4 ,how far the secular power may or ought to interpose in affairs of this nature1 mankind are not agreed4 ,the method of converting by the sword gives no very favourable idea of the faith which is so propagated1 and is disallowed by every body in those of another religion1 though the same persons are willing to admit of it for the advancement of their own2 supposing that though a false religion ought not to be established by authority1 yet a true one may2 and accordingly force is as constantly employed in these cases by those who have the power in their hands as it is constantly complained of by those who suffer the violence4#cac ,i do not agree with these words of ,mr4 ,george ,sale regarding ,mohammad1 and at length1 as his forces increased1 he pretended to have the divine leave even to attack them1 and to destroy idolatry1 and set up the true faith by the sword2 he never attacked the ,koreish or others except in his own defence4 ,the destruction of idolatry was the chief mission of ,mohammad1 and that even was not resorted to by force of arms4 ,there were neither compulsory conversions nor his history points to any extirpation of the idolaters at the point of sword from their native countries1 as the chief objects of his mission4 ,the persecutions and civil discord were to be removed or put a stop to1 and force was used to repel force1 but nothing more4 ,conversion by the sword was not enforced on any proselyte by ,mohammad4 ,sidenote3 #abj4 ,major ,osborn quoted4 ,major ,osborn has drawn a very dark picture of what he calls ,the ,doctrine of ,jehad1 in his ,islam under the ,arabs4#cad ,the defensive wars of ,mohammad are explained by him as means of livelihood congenial to the ,arab mind1 and carrying with it no stain of disgrace or immorality4 ,this was robbery4 ,why should not the faithful eke out their scanty means by adopting this lucrative and honourable profession1 which was open to everyone who had a sword and knew how to use it8444 ,surely1 to despoil these infidels and employ their property to feed the hungry and clothe the naked among the people of ,god1 would be a work well pleasing in ,his sight4444 ,and thus was the first advance made in the conversion of the religion of ,islam with the religion of the sword 7pages #df-dg74 ,after this the ,major writes again3 ,the ninth ,sura is that which contains the ,prophet's proclamation of war against the votaries of all creeds other than that of ,islam 7page #eb74 ,then he quotes several verses1 some of them half sentences1 violently distorted1 from the eighth and ninth ,suras1 in a consecutive form1 without giving the numbers4 ,these are ,sura ,,ix1 #bj1 #cd1 #ce1 #hb1 #aba2 ,sura ,,viii1 #fg2 ,sura ,,ix1 #cf1 #e1 #bi1 #ai2 ,sura ,,xlvii1 #d2 ,sura ,,ix1 #e2 and ,sura ,,viii1 #db4 ,lastly1 the learned ,major concludes by saying1--,such was the character of the ,sacred ,war enjoined upon the ,faithful4 ,it is ,muhammad's greatest achievement and his worst4 ,when subjected himself to the pains of persecution he had learned to perceive how powerless were torments applied to the body to work a change of conviction in the mind4 ',let there be no violence in religion' had then been one of the maxims he had laid down4 ',unto every one of you1' he had said in former days1 speaking of ,jews and ,christians1 'have we given a law1 and an open path2 and if ,god had pleased ,he had surely made you one people2 but ,he hath thought fit to give you different laws1 that he might try you in that which ,he hath given you respectively4 ,therefore1 strive to excel each other in good works2 unto ,god shall ye all return1 and then will ,he declare unto you that concerning which ye have disagreed4' ,but the intoxication of success had long ago stilled the voice of his better self4 ,the aged ,prophet standing on the brink of the grave1 and leaving as his last legacy a mandate of universal war1 irresistibly recalls1 by force of contrast1 the parting words to his disciples of another religious teacher that they should go forth and preach a gospel of peace to all nations4 ,nor less striking in their contrast is the response to either mandate2--the ,arab1 with the ,koran in one hand and the sword in the other1 spreading his creed amid the glare of burning cities1 and the shrieks of violated homes1 and the ,apostles of ,christ working in the moral darkness of the ,roman world with the gentle but irresistible power of light1 laying anew the foundations of society1 and cleansing at their source the polluted springs of domestic and national life4 ,sidenote3 #aba4 ,major ,osborn refuted4 ,the learned author quoted above has either misunderstood the character of the wars of the ,prophet of ,islam1 or has grossly misrepresented it4 ,he errs in two points3 ,first1 he makes the wars as wars of conquest1 compulsion1 and aggression1 whereas they were all undertaken in the defence of the civil and religious rights of the early ,moslems1 who were1 as ,i have said before1 persecuted1 harassed1 and tormented at ,mecca for their religion1 and after a long period of persecution with occasional fresh and vigorous measures1 were condemned to severer and harder sufferings1 were expelled from their homes1 leaving their dear relations1 and religious brethren to endure the calamities of the persecution1 and while taking refuge at ,medina were attacked upon by superior numbers1 several of the surrounding tribes of ,arabs and ,jews joining the aggressive ,koreish1 making ruinous inroads and threatening the ,moslems with still greater and heavier miseries4 ,from this statement it will appear that these wars were neither of conquest nor of compulsory conversion4 ,the second great mistake under which ,major ,osborn seems to labour is that he takes the injunctions of war against the ,meccans or other aggressors as a general obligation to wage war against all unbelievers in the ,moslem faith4 ,in fact1 these injunctions were only against those aggressors who had actually committed great encroachments on the rights and liberties of the early ,moslems1 and had inflicted very disastrous injuries on them4 ,these injunctions had and have nothing to do with the future guidance of the ,moslem world4 ,sidenote3 #abb4 ,the ,i,xth ,sura of the ,koran4 ,it is a great misrepresentation on the part of ,major ,osborn to assert that the ninth ,sura is that which contains the ,prophet's proclamation of war against the votaries of all creeds other than that of ,islam4 ,no statement could be farther from truth than this of his4 ,the ninth ,sura1 or1 more correctly1 the beginning or opening verses of it1 contain the ,prophet's proclamation of war against those of the ,meccan idolaters1 who1 in violation of the treaty of ,hodeibia1 had attacked the ,moslems4--7,sura ,,ix1 #d1 #h1 #aj1 #ab #ac1 vide pages #bc-be47 ,they were allowed four months' time 7,,ix1 #b1 #e7 to make terms4 ,they submitted1 and ,mecca was taken by compromise1 in consequence of which the threatened war was never waged4 ,those who had not broken their treaties were especially mentioned1 with whom the proclamation or the period allowed for peace had no connection4--7,vide ,sura ,,ix1 #d1 #g1 quoted above1 pages #bc-bd47 ,thus it is quite clear that the proclamation of war was only against the violators and aggressors1 and not against the votaries of all creeds other than that of ,islam4 ,i have further discussed the ninth ,sura in para4 #dj of this work4 ,the other verses of this ,sura refer to the expedition of ,tabk1 which was purely defensive in its nature as has been described in para4 #cc of this book4 7,see also para4 #db47 ,sidenote3 #abc4 ,the ,reverend ,wherry quoted4 ,the ,reverend ,e4,m4 ,wherry1 ,m4,a41 in his note on ,sale's ,preliminary ,discourse1 says3-- ,though ,muhammad undoubtedly took ,moses as his pattern1 and supposed himself following in his footsteps when he gave the command to fight against the infidels1 yet there is no comparison between them whatever so far as warring against infidels is concerned4 ,the ,israelites were commanded to slay the ,canaanites as divinely ordained instruments of destruction2 but ,muhammad inaugurated war as a means of proselytism4 ,the ,israelite was not permitted to proselytize from among the ,canaanites1 7,exod4 ,,xxiii4 #bg-cc71 but ,muslims are required to proselytize by sword-power4#cae ,mohammad never had said that he did follow the footsteps of ,moses in giving the command of fighting in self-defence1 and in repelling force by force4 ,there could be no comparison whatsoever between the wars of ,moses1 which were merely wars of conquest1 aggression1 extermination1 and expatriation1 and those of ,mohammad waged only in self-defence4 ,mohammad did not inaugurate his career by prosecuting war as a means of proselytism1 and never did proselytized any one by the sheer strength of the sword4 ,mr4 ,t4,h4 ,horne1 ,m4,a41 writes regarding the extirpation of the ,canaanites3-- ,after the time of ,god's forbearance was expired1 they had still the alternative1 either to flee elsewhere1 as in fact1 many of them did1 or to surrender themselves1 renounce their idolatries1 and serve the ,god of ,israel4 ,compare ,deut4 ,,xx4 #aj-ag4caf ,this was certainly compulsory conversion and proselytizing at the point of the sword4 ,sidenote3 #abd4 ,example cited from the ,jewish history4 ,there is only one instance in the ,koran in which an example is cited for the war of defence by ,mohammad1 from the ,jewish ,history4 ,it is the asking of the children of ,israel their prophet ,samuel to raise up a king for them to fight in their defence against the ,philistines1 who had very much oppressed the ,israelites4 ,saul was appointed king over the ,israelites1 and ,david killed ,goliath1 called ,jlut in the ,koran1 which was in defence of the ,israelites4 ,i have quoted the verses relating to the above subject from the ,koran 7,sura ,,ii1 #bdg and #beb7 in page #aith of this work4 ,hast thou not considered the assembly of the children of ,israel after the death of ,moses1 when they said to a prophet of theirs1--',raise up for us a king2 we will do battle for the cause of ,god8' ,he said1 ',may it not be that when fighting is ordained you1 ye would not fight8' ,they said1 ',and why should we not fight in the cause of ,god1 since we are driven forth from our dwellings and our children8'4444 ,this shows that what the ,koran or ,mohammad took as an example from the history of the ,jews was only their defensive war4 ,sidenote3 #abe4 ,mosaic injunctions4 ,it is very unfair of the ,christians to make too much of the wars of ,mohammad1 which were purely of a defensive nature1 and offer apologies for the most cruel wars of conquest and extermination by ,moses1 ,joshua and other ,jewish worthies under the express commands of ,god4--7,vide ,numbers ,,xxxi2 ,deut4 ,,xxi1 c47 ,but see what ,mr4 ,wherry says4 ,he writes in his comments on the #aia verse of the second ,sura of the ,koran4 7#aia74 ,kill them1 c4 ,much is made of expressions like this1 by some ,christian apologists1 to show the cruel character of the ,arabian prophet1 and the inference is thence drawn that he was an impostor and his ,qurn a fraud4 ,without denying that ,muhammad was cruel1 we think this mode of assault to be very unsatisfactory to say the least1 as it is capable of being turned against the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,if the claim of ,muhammad to have received a divine command to exterminate idolatry by the slaughter of all impenitent idolaters be admitted1 ,i can see no objection to his practice4 ,the question at issue is this4 ,did ,god command such slaughter of idolaters1 as he commanded the destruction of the ,canaanites or of the ,amalekites8 ,taking the stand of the ,muslim1 that ,god did so command ,muhammad and his followers1 his morality in this respect may be defended on precisely the same ground that the morality of ,moses and ,joshua is defended by the ,christian4#cag ,sidenote3 #abf4 ,the ,revd4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes quoted4 ,the ,revd4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes in his ,notes on ,muhammadanism writes3-- ,jihd 7lit4 'an effort'7 is a religious war against the infidels1 as enjoined by ,muhammad in the ,qurn4 ,srat-un-,nisa 7,,vi47 ,fight therefore for the religion of ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,god hath indeed promised ,paradise to every one4 ,but ,god hath preferred those who fight for the faith4 7,,iv1 #ig47 ,srat-ul-,muhammad 7,,xlvii74 ,those who fight in the defence of ,god's true religion1 ,god will not suffer their works to perish4 7,,xlvii1 #e47cah ,the first verse quoted by ,mr4 ,hughes appertains to the war of defence4 ,the verse in itself has express indications of its relating to the war of defence1 but ,mr4 ,hughes was not inclined1 perhaps1 to copy it in full4 ,he merely quotes half a sentence1 and shuts his eyes from other words and phrases of the same verse4 ,the verse has been quoted in page #bj4 ,it is as follows3-- ,fight then on the path of ,god3 lay not burdens on any but thyself2 and stir up the faithful4 ,the powers of the infidels1 ,god will haply restrain2 for ,god is stronger in prowess1 and stronger to punish4--7,sura ,,iv1 #hf47 ,the severe persecution1 the intense torture and mighty aggression of the ,meccans and their allies is referred to in the original word ,bss1 rendered prowess into ,english and referred to in the previous verse #gg1 which shows that the war herein enjoined was to restrain the aggressions of the enemy and to repel force by force4 ,it is very unfair on the part of the ,revd4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes to twist or dislocate half a sentence from a verse and put it forth to demonstrate and prove a certain object of his4 ,sidenote3 #abg4 ,meaning of ,jihad4 ,the second verse quoted by the same author is a mere mistranslation4 ,there is no such word in the original which admits of being rendered as fighting4 ,the true translation of the sentence quoted above from ,sura ,,iv1 verse #ig1 is as follows3-- ,good promises hath he made to all4 ,but ,god hath assigned to the strenuous a rich recompense above those who sit still at home4 ,the word rendered strenuous is originally mojahid 7plural ,mojahidin1 from ,jihd71 which in classical ,arabic and throughout the ,koran means to do one's utmost1 to make effort1 to strive1 to exert1 to employ one's-self diligently1 studiously1 sedulously1 earnestly1 zealously1 or with energy1 and does not mean fighting or warfare4 ,it was subsequently applied to religious war1 but was never used in the ,koran in such a sense4 7,vide ,appendix ,a47 ,sidenote3 #abh4 ,sura ,,xlvii1 v4 #e4 ,the third instance quoted by ,mr4 ,hughes is also a mistranslation of a sentence in verse #e1 ,sura ,,xlvii4 ,the original word is kotel1 which means those who are killed1 and not those who fight1 as explained and translated by the author4 ,the correct rendering of the sentence is this3 ,and those who are killed1 their work ,god will not suffer to miscarry4 ,some read the word ktal1 which means those who fought1 but the general and authorized reading is kotel1 i4e41 those who are killed4 ,even if it be taken for granted that the former is the correct reading1 it will be explained by several other verses which mean fighting in defence1 and not fighting aggressively1 which not only has been never taught in the ,koran but is always prohibited 7,,ii1 #ahf74 ,the verse to that effect runs thus3-- ,and fight for the cause of ,god against those who fight against you2 but commit not the injustice of attacking them first4 ,verily ,god loveth not the unjust4--7,,ii1 #ahf47 ,this verse permitted only defensive war and prohibited every aggressive measure4 ,all other verses mentioned in connection with fighting on the part of the ,moslems must be interpreted in conformity with this4 ,sidenote3 #abi4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,malcolm ,mac,coll quoted4 ,the ,rev4 ,malcolm ,mac,coll writes3-- ,the ,koran divides the earth into parts3 ,dar-ul-,islam1 or the ,house of ,islam2 and ,dar-ul-,harb1 or the ,house of the enemy4 ,all who are not of ,islam are thus against it1 and it is accordingly the duty of the ,true ,believers to fight against the infidels till they accept ,islam1 or are destroyed4 ,this is called the ,djihad or ,holy ,war1 which can only end with the conversion or death of the last infidel on earth4 ,it is thus the sacred duty of the ,commander of the ,faithful to make war on the non-,mussulman world as occasion may offer4 ,but ,dar-ul-,harb or the non-,mussulman world1 is subdivided into ,idolaters and ,ketabi1 or ',people of the ,book1'--i4e41 people who possess divinely inspired ,scriptures1 namely1 ,jews1 ,samaritans1 and ,christians4 ,all the inhabitants of ,dar-ul-,harb are infidels1 and consequently outside the pale of ,salvation4 ,but the ,ketabi are entitled to certain privileges in this world1 if they submit to the conditions which ,islam imposes4 ,other infidels must make their choice between one of two alternatives--,islam or the sword4 ,the ,ketabi are allowed a third alternative1 namely1 submission and the payment of tribute4 ,but if they refuse to submit1 and presume to fight against the ,true ,believers1 they lapse at once into the condition of the rest of ,dar-ul-,harb and may be summarily put to death or sold as slaves4#cai ,i am very sorry the ,rev4 gentleman is altogether wrong in his assertions against the ,koran4 ,there is neither such a division of the world in the ,koran1 nor such words as ,dar-ul-,islam and ,dar-ul-,harb are to be found anywhere in it4 ,there is no injunction in the ,koran to the ,true ,believers to fight against the infidels till they accept ,islam1 failing which they are to be put to death4 ,the words ,dar-ul-,islam and ,dar-ul-,harb are only to be found in the ,mohammadan ,common ,law1 and are only used in the question of jurisdiction4 ,no ,moslem magistrate will pass a sentence in a criminal case against a criminal who had committed an offence in a foreign country4 ,the same is the case in civil courts#cbj4 ,all the inhabitants of ,dar-ul-,harb are not necessarily infidels4 ,mohammadans1 either permanently or temporarily by obtaining permission from the sovereign of the foreign land1 can be the inhabitants of a ,dar-ul-,harb1 a country out of the ,moslem jurisdiction1 or at war with it4 ,sidenote3 #acj4 ,the untenable theories of the ,common ,law and conclusion4 ,it is only a theory of our ,common ,law1 in its military and political chapters1 which allow waging unprovoked war with non-,moslems1 exacting tribute from the people of the ,book1 and other idolaters1 except those of ,arabia1 for which the ,hanafi ,code of the ,common ,law has nothing short of conversion to ,islam or destruction by the sword4 ,as a rule1 our canonical legists support their theories by quotations from the ,mohammadan ,revealed ,law1 i4e41 the ,koran1 as well as from the ,sonnah1 or the traditions from the ,prophet1 however absurd and untenable may be their process of reasoning and argumentative deductions4 ,in this theory of waging war with1 and exacting tribute or the capitation-tax from1 the non-,moslem world1 they quote the #ith and other ,suras4 ,these verses have been copied and explained elsewhere in this book4 ,the casuistic sophistry of the canonical legists in deducing these war theories from the ,koran is altogether futile4 ,these verses relate only to the wars waged by the ,prophet and his followers purely in their self-defence4 ,neither these verses had anything to do with waging unprovoked war and exacting tributes during ,mohammad's time1 nor could they be made a law for future military conquest4 ,these were only temporary in their operations and purely defensive in their nature4 ,the ,mohammadan ,common ,law is by no means divine or superhuman4 ,it mostly consists of uncertain traditions1 ,arabian usages and customs1 some frivolous and fortuitous analogical deductions from the ,koran1 and a multitudinous array of casuistical sophistry of the canonical legists4 ,it has not been held sacred or unchangeable by enlightened ,mohammadans of any ,moslem country and in any age since its compilation in the fourth century of the ,hejira4 ,all the ,mujtahids1 ,ahl ,hadis1 and other non-,mokallids had had no regard for the four schools of ,mohammadan religious jurisprudence1 or the ,common ,law4 ,sidenote3 ,sura ,,xlvii1 #af1 and ,sura ,,xlvii1 #d and #e4 ,sura ,,xlviii1 #af1 is not generally quoted by the canonical legists in support of their theory of ,jehd1 but by some few4 ,it is not in the shape of a command or injunction2 it is in a prophetical tone3-- ,say to those ,arabs of the desert who stayed behind1 ,ye shall be called forth against a people of mighty valour2 ,ye shall do battle with them1 or they shall submit 7,yoslemoon7#cba4444 ,the verses #d and #e of ,sura ,,xlvii1 like all other verses on the subject1 appertain to the wars of defence1 and no one has ever quoted them for wars of aggression4 ,these verses have already been quoted at page #he4 ,the abolition of the future slavery as enjoined in the #eth verse has been treated separately in ,appendix ,b4 ,the ,arabs1 like other barbarous nations round them1 used either to kill the prisoners of war or to enslave them2 but this injunction of the ,koran abolished both of these barbarous practices4 ,the prisoners henceforward were neither to be killed nor enslaved1 but were to be set at liberty with or without ransom4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,ata1 a learned legist of ,mecca1 who flourished at the end of the first century of the ,hegira1 and held a high rank there as a juris-consult1 7vide para4 #aab7 held1 that ,jihad was only incumbent on the ,companions of the ,prophet1 and was not binding on any one else after them4 ,see para4 #aab1 and ,tafsr ,majma-ul-,bayn by ,tabrasee under ,sura ,,ii4 #bab4 ,footnote #bij3 ,the ,hedaya or ,guide2 or1 ,a ,commentary on the ,mussulman ,laws1 translated by ,charles ,hamilton2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,book ,,ix1 ,ch4 ,i1 page #adj ,london1 ,,mdccxci4 ,footnote #bia3 ,the ,hedaya or ,guide2 or1 ,a ,commentary on the ,mussulman ,laws1 translated by ,charles ,hamilton2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,book ,,ix1 ,ch4 ,i1 page #ada4 ,footnote #bib3 ,arab ,kattl2 meaning war in its operation1 such as fighting1 slaying1 c4 ,footnote #bic3 ,the ,hedaya1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ada4 ,footnote #bid3 ,sura ,,ii1 #ahg4 ,footnote #bie3 ,the ,hedaya1 with its commentary called ,kifaya1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gjh4 ,calcutta ,medical ,press1 #ahcd4 ,as a general rule the ,mohammadan authors do not refer to the verses of the ,koran by their number4 ,they generally quote the first sentence1 or even a portion of it4 ,the ,no4 of verses are mine4 ,i have followed ,fluegel and ,rodwell's numbers of verses in their editions and translations of the ,koran4 ,footnote #bif3 ,kifaya as before4 ,footnote #big3 ,binayah1 a commentary of the ,hedaya1 by ,ainee4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 page #ghi4 ,footnote #bih3 ,part4 ,,iii1 page #bai4 ,footnote #bii3 ,tuhfatul ,muhtj fi ,sharah-al-,minhaj1 ,part ,,iv1 page #acg4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,insan-ul-,oyoon1 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #bhi1 #bia4 ,chapter on ,campaign4 ,footnote #cja3 ,sura ,,ix1 #e and #ab4 ,these verses have been discussed at pages #ea-ee4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,the ,jihd will last till the day of the ,resurrection4 ,i have been enjoined to fight the people until they confess there is no god but the ,god4 ,for these traditions see the next para4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,vide ,ainee's ,commentary of the ,hedaya1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #gij4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,vide ,ainee's ,commentary of the ,hedaya1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #gih4 ,footnote #cje3 ,vide ,kzee ,budrudeen ,mahmood bin ,ahmed ,ainee's 7who died in #hee ,a4,h47 ,commentary on the ,hedaya called ,binayah1 and generally known by the name of ,ainee1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ghi-ij1 ,book of ,institute4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,the ,modern ,egyptians1 by ,edward ,william ,lane2 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aag1 note3 fifth edition1 ,london1 #ahga4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #bea-beb4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,the ,early ,caliphate and ,rise of ,islam1 being the ,rede ,lecture for #ahha1 delivered before the ,university of ,cambridge by ,sir ,william ,muir1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d41 page #e1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,footnote #cji3 ,the ,history and ,conquests of the ,saracens1 by ,edward4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 pp4 #da-db2 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #caj3 ,christianity and ,islam2 ,the ,bible and the ,koran2 by the ,rev4 ,w4,r4,w4 ,stephens1 ,london1 #ahgg1 pp4 #ih-ii4 ,footnote #caa3 ,vide paras4 #ag1 #bi1 #abf4 ,footnote #cab3 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism4 ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain in ,february and ,march #ahgd1 by ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,second ,edition1 page #acg2 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #cac3 ,the ,koran1 by ,george ,sale4 ,the ,chandos ,classics4 ,the ,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section ,,ii1 pp4 #cg-ch4 ,footnote #cad3 ,london3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 #ahgf1 pp4 #df-ed4 ,footnote #cae3 ,a ,comprehensive ,commentary on the ,qurn2 comprising ,sale's ,translation and ,preliminary ,discourse1 with additional ,notes and ,emendations1 by the ,revd4 ,e4,m4 ,wherry1 ,m4,a41 page #bbj2 ,london3 ,trbner ,co41 #ahhb4 ,footnote #caf3 ,an ,introduction to the ,critical ,study and ,knowledge of the ,holy ,scripture1 by ,thomas ,hartwell ,horne1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #ebd2 ,london4 #ahbh4 ,footnote #cag3 ,commentary on the ,qurn by the ,revd4 ,wherry1 page #ceh4 ,footnote #cah3 ,notes on ,muhammadanism2 being outlines of the ,religious ,system of ,islam1 by the ,revd4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes1 ,m4,r4,a4,s41 ,c4,m4,s41 ,missionary to the ,afghans1 page #bjf2 ,second ,edition1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #cai3 ,the ,nineteenth ,century2 ,london1 ,december #ahgg1 page #hcb4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,this subject has been fully treated in my ,the ,proposed ,political1 ,legal1 and ,social ,reforms in ,moslem ,states1 pp4 #bb-be3 ,bombay ,education ,society ,press1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #cba3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 with other ,european translators of the ,koran1 translates the word they shall profess ,islam 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ci1 footnote74 ,it ought to be translated they shall submit4 ,there is a difference of opinion among the commentators and canonical legists in this word4 ,some translate the word ,yoslemoon shall profess ,islam1 and others shall submit4 ,this difference in the interpretation of the same word is merely of a sectarian nature1 each party wishing to serve their own purpose4 ,those legists who held that the polytheists and idolaters may either be fought against or be submitted to the authority of ,islam by being tributaries1 took the word in its proper sense of submission4 ,those who held that the people of the ,book ought only to be made tributaries1 while all other idolaters and polytheists should be compelled either to perish or to embrace ,islam1 interpret the word technically to mean the religion of ,islam4 ,but as the verse is not a legal command1 we condemn at once the casuistic sophistry of the legists4 ,appendix ,a ,,on ,,the ,,word ,,jihad ,,as ,,occurring ,,in ,,the ,,koran ,,and ,,wrongly ,,translated ,,warfare4 ,sidenote3 ,jihd or ,jihd does not mean war or crusade4 #a4 ,the popular word ,jihd or ,jihd1 occurring in several passages of the ,koran1 and generally construed by ,christians and ,moslems alike as meaning hostility or the waging of war against infidels1 does not classically or literally signify war1 warfare1 hostility or fighting1 and is never used in such a sense in the ,koran4 ,the ,arabic terms for warfare or fighting are ,harab and ,kitl4 ,sidenote3 ,classical meaning of ,jihd1 c4 #b4 ,the words ,jahada1 and ,jhada signify that a person strove1 laboured or toiled2 exerted himself or his power1 or efforts1 or endeavours1 or ability employed himself vigorously1 diligently1 studiously1 sedulously1 earnestly or with energy2 was diligent or studious1 took pains or extraordinary pains#cbb2 for example1 the term ,jhada fil-amr signifies that a person did his utmost or used his utmost powers1 or efforts1 or endeavours1 or ability in prosecuting an affair4#cbc ,the infinitive noun ,jihdan also means difficulty or embarrassment1 distress1 affliction1 trouble1 inconvenience1 fatigue1 or weariness4#cbd ,jauharce1 a lexicologist of great repute1 whose work is confined to classical terms and their significations1 says in his ,sihh that ,jhada fi ,sabeelillah or ,mojhadatan and ,jihdan and also ,ajtahada and ,tajhada mean expending power and effort4 ,fayoomee1 author of ,misbahel ,moneer1 which contains a very large collection of classical words and phrases of frequent occurrence1 also says that ,jhada fi ,sabeelillah ,jihdan and ,ajtahada fil ,amr mean he expended his utmost efforts and power in seeking to attain an object4 ,sidenote3 ,post-classical or technical meaning of ,jihd4 #c4 ,it is only a post-classical and technical meaning of ,jihd to use the word as signifying fighting against an enemy4 ,mr4 ,lane says1 ,jahada came to be used by the ,moslems to signify generally he fought1 warred or waged war against unbelievers and the like4 ,this signification is now given by those lexicologists who do not restrict themselves to the definition of classical terms or significations1 like the author of ,kmoos4 ,mr4 ,lane1 the celebrated author of ,maddool ,kmoos an ,arabic-,english lexicologist1 clearly shows that the definition of ,jihd1 as the act of waging war1 is only of ,moslem origin and is not classical4 ,and ,i will show in sequence that the ,moslem usage of ,jihd1 as signifying the waging of war1 is a post-,koranic usage1 and that in the ,koran it is used classically and literally in its natural sense4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,classical tongue and ,arabian poets4 #d4 ,what is called the classical language of ,arabia or the loghat1 and is an authority for the genuineness of the ,arabic terms and their significations1 is the language which was spoken throughout the whole of the ,peninsula previous to the appearance of ,mohammad4 ,after the death of ,mohammad the language was rapidly corrupted by the introduction of foreign words4 ,this was doubtless owing to the great extension of the ,mohammadan power at this period4 ,the classical poets are those who died before these great conquests were effected1 and are the most reliable authorities for ,arabic words and their significations1 and they are called ,jhil4 ,next to the classical poets are the post-classical1 or ,mokhadrams1 ,islmi and ,mowallads4 ,mokhadram is a poet who lived partly before and partly after ,mohammad1 and who did not embrace ,islmism during the life of the ,prophet4 ,the ,islmi poets are the ,mohammadan poets of the first and second centuries of the ,hejira1 and ,mowallads1 the poets of the fourth rank1 followed the ,islmis4 ,the earliest classical poets date only a century before the birth of ,mohammad1 and the latest1 about a century after his death4 ,the period of the ,islmi poets is the first and second centuries1--i4e41 those who lived after the first corruption of the ,arabic language1 but before the corruption had become extensive4 ,the ,mowallads co-existed with the general and rapid corruption of the language from the beginning or middle of the second century4 ,sidenote3 ,the conjugation and declension of ,jahd and ,jihd #e4 ,the words ,jahd and ,jihd and their derivations1 amounting to fourteen in number1 occur in the following passages in the ,koran3-- #a4 ,jhada ,chapter xxix1 #e2 ix1 #ai4 #b4 ,jhadka ,do4 xxxi1 #ad1 xxix1 #g4 #c4 ,jhadoo ,do4 ii1 #bae2 viii1 #gc1 #ge1 #gf2 ix1 #af1 #bj1 #hi2 xlix1 #ae2 iii1 #acf2 xvi1 #aaa2 xxix1 #fi4 #d4 ,yojhido ,do4 xxix1 #e4 #e4 ,yojhidoona ,do4 v1 #ei4 #f4 ,yojhidoo ,do4 ix1 #dd1 #hb4 #g4 ,tojhidoona ,do4 lxi1 #aa4 #h4 ,jihd ,do4 xxv1 #ed2 xxii1 #gg2 ix1 #bd2 lx1 #a4 #h499 ,jahd ,do4 v1 #eh2 vi1 #aji2 xvi1 #dj2 xxiv1 #eb2 xxxv1 #dj4 #i499 ,johd ,do ix1 #hj4 #aj4 ,jhid ,do4 ix1 #gd2 lxvi1 #i4 #aa4 ,jhidhoom ,do4 xxv1 #ed4 #ab4 ,mojhidna ,do4 iv1 #ig2 bis4 xlvii1 #cc4 #ac4 ,mojhidoona ,do4 iv1 #ig4 #ad4 ,jhidoo ,do4 v1 #ci2 ix1 #da1 #hg2 xxii1 #gg4 ,sidenote3 ,the number of instances in which they occur in the ,koran4 #f4 ,there are altogether #cf verses in the ,koran containing the words noted above1 in the following chapters and verses3-- ,chapter ii1 #bae4 ,do4 iii1 #acf4 ,do4 iv1 #ig4 ,do4 v1 #ci1 #eh1 #ei4 ,do4 vi1 #aji4 ,do4 viii1 #gc1 #ge1 #gf4 ,do4 ix1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #da1 #dd1 #gd1 #hj1 #hb1 #hg1 #hi4 ,do4 xvi1 #dj1 #aaa4 ,do4 xxii1 #gg4 ,do4 xxiv1 #eb4 ,do4 xxv1 #ed4 ,do4 xxix1 #e1 #g1 #fi4 ,do4 xxxi1 #ad4 ,do4 xxxv1 #dj4 ,do4 xlvii1 #cc4 ,do4 xlix1 #ae4 ,do4 xl1 #a4 ,do4 xli1 #aa4 ,do4 xlvi1 #i4 ,sidenote3 ,in what sense they are used in the ,koran4 #g4 ,out of the above1 the verses containing the words ,jahd and ,johd1--i4e41 v1 #eh2 vi1 #aji2 xvi1 #dj2 xxiv1 #eb2 xxxv1 #dj2 and ix1 #hj1 marked 991 are altogether out of dispute1 as in all the former passages1 except the last one1 its obvious meaning is most or utmost solemn oaths1#cbe or most energetic oaths or strongest or most forcible oaths1#cbf and the latter signifies small provisions upon which a man possessing a little property can live with difficulty4 ,the rest are of two kinds--first1 the verses occurring in the ,meccan ,suras4 ,as then the ,moslems had not resorted to arms in their defence1 though suffering from persecutions1 ,mohammadan commentators and jurists and ,christian writers are unanimous in construing ,jihd in its natural sense of exertion1 effort1 energy1 and painstaking4 ,secondly1 the verses containing the same words occurring in the ,medina ,suras1 which were revealed or published when the ,moslems had taken arms in their defence4 ,as regards this period1 the words are considered to have an entirely new and an altogether fortuitous meaning1 viz41 a religious war of aggression4 ,even some verses of this period are rendered by ,mohammadans and ,christians in the literal sense of the word4 ,sidenote3 ,conventional significations of ,jihd4 #h4 ,i fully admit that in the post-classical language of the ,arabs1--i4e41 that in use subsequent to the time of ,mohammad1 when the language was rapidly corrupted1 the word ,jihd was used to signify warfare or fighting1 but this was in a military sense4 ,since that period the word has come to be used as meaning the waging of a war or a crusade only in military tactics1 and more recently it found its way in the same sense into the ,mohammadan law-books and lexicons of later dates4 ,but the subsequent corrupt or post-classical language cannot be accepted as a final or even a satisfactory authority upon the point4 ,it was decided by common consent1 says ,mr4 ,edward ,william ,lane1 in his ,arabic-,english ,lexicon 7,preface1 pp4 viii and ix71 that no poet1 nor any other person1 should be taken as an absolute and unquestionable authority with respect to the words or their significations1 the grammar1 or the prosody of the classical language1 unless he were one who had died before the promulgation of ,el-,islm1 or who had lived partly before and partly after that event2 or1 as they term it1 unless he were a ',jhilee' or a ',mukhadram1' or 7as some pronounce it7 ',mukhadrim1' or ',muhadram' or ',muhadrim4' ,a poet of the class next after the ,mukhadrams is termed an ',islmee3' and as the corruption of the language had become considerable in his time1 even among those who aimed at chasteness of speech1 he is not cited as an authority absolutely and unquestionably like the two preceding classes4 ,a poet of the next class1 which is the last1 is termed ',muwelled2' he is absolutely post-classical2 and is cited as an unquestionable authority with respect only to the rhetorical sciences4 ,the commencement of the period of the ,muwelleds is not distinctly stated3 but it must have preceded the middle of the second century of the ,flight2 for the classical age may be correctly defined as having nearly ended with the first century1 when very few persons born before the establishment of ,el-,islm through ,arabia were living4 ,thus the best of the ,islmi poets may be regarded1 and are generally regarded1 as holding classical rank1 though not as being absolute authorities with respect to the words and the significations1 the grammar1 and the prosody of the classical language4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,chenry1 ,m4,a41 writes3#cbg-- ,within a century of ,mohammad's flight from ,mecca1 the ,moslem empire stretched from ,kashgar and ,mooltan to ,morocco and the ,pyrenees1 and the ,arab man of letters was exposed to the corrupting propinquity of men of very different races4 ,only a poet of ,ignorance1 that is1 one who died before the preaching of ,islam1 or a ,mokhadram1 that is1 who was contemporary with it1 was looked upon as of paramount and unquestionable authority4 ,an ,islmi1 that is1 one who was born after the rise of ,islam1 was of least consideration1 and after the first century1 the poets are called ,muwalladn and are only quoted for their literary beauties1 and not as authorities for the ,arab tongue4 ,sidenote3 ,mohammadan commentators1 c41 quoted4 #i4 ,all commentators1 paraphrasts1 and jurisconsults admit that the primary and original signification of the words ,jahad and ,jihd is power1 ability1 and toil1 and that its use1 as making wars or crusades1 is conventional and figurative4 ,ibn ,attiah says regarding verse #fi1 ,chapter ,,xxix1 that it is ,meccan1 and was revealed before the enjoining of the ,orfee or conventional ,jihd 7vide ,fat-hul bayan fi maquasidil ,koran1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #eag1 by ,siddik ,hussan74 ,khateeb ,koostlane1 in his ,irshadussari1 a paraphrase of ,bokhari1 says that ,jihd is derived from ,jahd1 which means toil and labour1 or from ,johd1 which means power4 ,and in technical language it means fighting with infidels to assist ,islam 7,vol4 ,v1 page #bf74 ,mohammad ,allauddin ,al ,haskafi 7died #ajhh ,a4,h471 the author of ,dur-ral-,mukhtr1 a commentary on ,tanviral ,absr1 by ,sheikh ,mohammad ,al ,tamartshi 7died #ajjd71 says in the chapter on ,jihd1 that in the classical language it is the infinitive noun of ,jhada fi ,sabil-,allah1 and in the language of the law it means inviting the infidels to the true faith and fighting with him who does not accept it4 ,and ,ibn bidin ,shmi1 in his annotation on the above work1 says3 ,the infinitive noun of ,jhada means to do one's utmost1 and that it is general1 and includes any person who supports all that is reasonable and forbids what is wrong4 ,sidenote3 ,when the word ,jihd was diverted from its original signification to its figurative meaning of waging religious war8 #aj4 ,it is admitted by all lexicologists1 commentators1 and jurisconsults that ,jihd in classical ,arabic means to labour1 strive earnestly1 and that the change of its meaning or the technical signification occurred only in the post-classical period1 i4e41 long after the publication of the ,koran4 ,it is obviously improper1 therefore1 to apply the post-classical meaning of the word where it occurs in the ,koran4 ,this fact is further admitted by all the ,mohammadan commentators and ,english translators of the ,koran1 who render the word in its original and literal meaning in all the ,meccan and in the early ,medinite ,suras or ,chapters of the ,koran4#cbh ,it is only in a few of the latest chapters of the ,koran published at later dates at ,medina1 that they 7the commentators and translators7 deviate from the original meaning1 and prefer the subsequent unclassical and technical signification of waging war or crusade4 ,sidenote3 ,all verses of the ,koran containing the word ,jihd and its derivation quoted and explained4 #aa4 ,i herein place in juxtaposition the several ,english translations of the word ,jihd1 together with its etymological derivation and several grammatical forms1 to show1 in the first place1 that ,mr4 ,george ,sale and the ,rev4 ,j4,m4 ,rodwell and other ,european authors generally give the literal1 original1 and classical meaning2 and in the second place1 to show how they differ in giving various meanings1 literal and technical1 in some passages to the same word in the same verses4 ,it will be observed from a perusal of the statement1 that the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell1 ,m4,a41 is more correct than the earliest ,english translator of the ,koran1 ,mr4 ,george ,sale1 and the latest1 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,palmer4 ,the latter is the most unsatisfactory of all in this respect1 as everywhere1 except in six places--,,xxix1 #g2 ,v1 #ci1 #ei2 ,,iv1 #ig2 and ,,ix1 #gd1 #hi--;he translates ,jihd as meaning fighting--a circumstance which not unnaturally leads to the supposition that he had paid but slight heed to the context4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a ,,xxxi4 #ad ,jhadka ,strive ,endeavour to prevail ,strive4 #b ,,xxv4 #ed ,jhid1 ,jihdan4 ,oppose them herewith with strong opposition4 ,by means of the ,koran strive against them with a mighty strife4 ,fight strenuously2 strenuous fight4 #c ,,xxii4 #gg ,jhidoo ,fight in the defence of ,god's religion4 ,do valiantly ,fight strenuously4 #d ,,xvi4 #aaa ,jhadoo ,have since sought in the defence of the true religion4 ,fought ,fought strenuously4 #e ,,xxix4 #e ,jhada ,striveth ,maketh efforts ,fight strenuously2 fight strenuously4 #f ,,xxix4 #g ,jhadka ,endeavour ,strive ,strive4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #g ,,xxix4 #fi ,jhadoo ,utmost endeavour ,made efforts ,fight strenuously4 #h ,,xvi4 #dj ,jahd ,most solemnly ,most sacred ,most strenuous4 #i ,,xxxv4 #dj ,jahd ,most solemn ,mightiest ,most strenuous4 #aj ,,ii4 #bae ,jhadoo ,fight in ,god's cause ,fight ,wage war4 #aa ,,iii4 #acf ,jhadoo ,those who fought strenuously4 ,did valiantly ,fought well4 #ab ,,viii4 #gc ,jhadoo be-am-walhim-w-anfosa-him4 ,employed their substance and their persons in fight for the religion of ,god4 ,spent their substance and themselves for the cause of ,god4 ,fought strenuously with their wealth and person4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ac ,,viii4 #ge ,jhadoo ,have fought for ,god's true religion4 ,fought ,fought strenuously4 #ad ,,viii4 #gf ,jhadoo ,have fought with you4 ,fought ,fought strenuously4 #ae ,,vi4 #aji ,jahd ,most solemn ,most binding ,most strenuous #af ,,xlvii4 #cc ,mojhidna ,who fight valiantly ,valiant ,fought strenuously4 #ag ,,lxi4 #aa ,jhidoo ,defend ,god's true religion with your substance and in your person4 ,do valiantly ,to fight strenuously4 #ah ,,iv4 #ig #ast4 ,mojhidna #ast4 ,those who employ their fortune and their persons for the religion of ,god4 #a4 ,defend ,god's true religion valiantly4 #a4 ,strenuous4 #bnd4 ,mojhidina4 #bnd4 ,those who employ their fortune and persons4 #b4 ,contend earnestly4 #b4 ,strenuous4 #crd4 ,mojhidina4 #crd4 ,those who fight #c4 ,strenuous #c4 ,strenuous4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ai ,,xxiv4 #eb ,jahd ,most solemn ,most solemn ,most strenuous4 #bj ,,lxvi4 #i ,jhid ,attack the hypocrites with arguments4 ,make war ,fight strenuously4 #ba ,,ix4 #gd ,jhid ,wage war ,contend ,strive strenuously4 #bb ,,lxi4 #a ,jihadan ,to fight in the defence of my religion4 ,to fight ,fighting strenuously4 #bc ,,xlix4 #e ,jhadoo ,who employ their substance and their person in the defence of ,god's true religion4 ,contend with their substance and their person4 ,fight strenuously with their wealth and their persons4 #bd ,,ix4 #af ,jhadoo ,those among you who sought for his religion4 ,valiantly ,fought strenuously4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #be ,,ix4 #ai ,jhada ,fighteth ,fighteth ,strenuous4 #bf ,,ix4 #bj ,jhadoo ,fought for his religion4 ,do valiantly ,fought strenuously4 #bg ,,ix4 #bd ,jihdan ,advancement ,efforts ,fighting strenuously4 #bh ,,ix4 #da ,jhidoo ,employ your substance and your person for the advancement of ,god's religion4 ,contend with your substance and with your person4 ,fight strenuously with your wealth and your persons4 #bi ,,ix4 #dd ,yojhidoo ,employing their substance and their persons for the advancement of ,god's true religion4 ,contending with your substance and your person4 ,fighting strenuously4 #cj ,,ix4 #hb ,yojhidoo ,employ their substance and their persons for the advancement of ,god's true religion4 ,contending with their riches and their persons4 ,fighting strenuously with their wealth and their persons4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ca ,,ix4 #hg ,jhidoo ,go forth to war ,contend ,fight strenuously4 #cb ,,ix4 #hi ,jhidoo ,expose their fortunes and their lives4 ,contend with purse and persons4 ,strenuous with their wealth and with their person4 #cc ,v4 #ci ,jhidoo ,fight for his religion4 ,contend earnestly ,be strenuous4 #cd ,v4 #eh ,jhd ,most firm ,most solemn ,most strenuous4 #ce ,v4 #ei ,yojahidoona ,they shall fight for the religion of ,god4 ,will they contend ,strenuous4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,serial ,no4 ,no4 of the ,chapter and the ,verse of the ,koran4 ,original ,words4 ---------------------------- ,george ,sale's ,translation4 ,,english ,rev4 ,rodwell's ,translation4 ,henry ,palmer's ,translation4 ,,translations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ab4 ,the above verses quoted with remarks4 ,i will now proceed to give a correct translation of all the verses of the ,koran referred to above1 in the chronological order of the chapters of the ,koran as far as it is ascertained together with my observations and remarks on them1 and quotations from ,mohammadan commentators when necessary4 ,i4--,,the ,,meccan ,,suras4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,lokman1 ,,xxxi1 #ad4 #ac4 ,but if they exert their utmost 7,jhadka7 to make thee to join that with ,me of which thou hadst no knowledge1 obey them not4 ,chapter ,,xxxi is one of the oldest of the ,meccan ,suras1 having been revealed between the sixth and tenth year of the ,prophet's mission4 ,the admonition relates to a man's behaviour to his parents4 ,he is enjoined to treat them with kindness1 but not to obey them if they lead him to polytheism4 ,here ,jhad means if they two 7parents7 task or toil thee1 or make efforts and endeavour 7that thou shouldst associate any god with ,god71 and none of the translators and commentators take the word to mean the making of war or hostilities or fighting4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,furkan1 ,,xxv1 #ec1 #ed4 #ad4 ,moreover had ,we pleasured ,we had certainly raised up a warner in every city4 ,do not then obey the unbelievers1 but by means of this 7,jhid7 exert with them with a 7,jihadan kabir7 strenuous exertion 7or labour with great labour74 ,this evidently relates to the ,koran1 or the warning mentioned in the preceding verse1 and it is wrong to translate ,jihd as meaning to fight strenuously with them1 or as inciting to strenuous fighting as translated by ,henry ,palmer 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hh74 ,mr4 ,sale and the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell do not translate it fighting1 and so ,mohammadan commentators4 ,fakhr-ud-din ,razi 7died #fjf ,a4,h471 the ,imam1 in his great commentary says3 ,some say ,jhid hoom bih ,jihdn ,kabir means to make efforts in preaching1 but some say it meant fighting1 and others say it meant both2 but the former is nearer the truth1 as the chapter was revealed at ,mecca1 and the command for fighting was issued after the ,flight1 some time afterwards 7,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #dij74 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,the ,pilgrimage1#cbi ,,xxii1 #gf1 #gh4 #ae4 ,believers6 bow down with worship your ,lord and work righteousness1 haply ye may prosper4 ,and 7',jhidoo'7 make efforts in ,god1 as 7,jihdehi7 your making efforts is ,his due1 ,he hath elected you1 and hath not laid on you any hardship in religion1 the ,faith of your father ,abraham4 ,he hath named you the ,muslims4 ,messrs4 ,sale and ,palmer translate the word here as meaning fighting1 which is wrong1 as it is unclassical and not literal4 ,rodwell translates it do valiantly1 and ,sir ,william ,muir says it is used in the more general sense 7,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cb74 ,this verse is a brief and concise version of the great maxim in ,deut4 ,,vi4 #e2 ,mark ,,xii4 #cj2 and ,luke ,x4 #bg1-- ,thou shalt love thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy mind1 and with all thy strength4 ,see also ,luke ,,xiii4 #bd3 ,strive to enter in at the straight gate4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,the ,bee1 ,,xvi1 #ajh1 #aaa4 #af4 ,whoso after he hath believed in ,god denieth ,him if he were forced to it1 and if his heart remain steadfast in the faith1 shall be guiltless2 but whoso openeth his heart to infidelity--on them1 in that case1 shall be wrath from ,god1 and a severe punishment awaiteth them4 ,to those also who after their trials fled their country1 then 7,jhadoo7 toiled and endured with patience4 ,verily1 thy ,lord will afterwards be forgiving1 gracious4 ,dr4 ,sprenger 7,life of ,mohammad1 p4 #aei7 explains this verse of the seven slaves purchased and manumitted by ,abu ,bekr4 ,they had been tortured for professing ,islam1 shortly after ,mohammad assumed the prophetic office4 ,the flight referred to in verse #aaath is the early ,abyssinian flight4 ,these verses relate to the persecutions endured by humble and needy ,moslems from their townspeople of ,mecca4 ,these ,moslems1 after being persecuted and forced as far as denying ,god1 while their remaining steadfast in the faith1 had to flee elsewhere1 and then suffered much in their wanderings2 but they endured their labours and fatigues1 losses1 disadvantages both in body and mind1 patiently4 ,there is no allusion to fighting or waging war4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell and ,mr4 ,palmer are both wrong in translating ',jhadoo' as fighting4 ,sale is right in not translating it as fighting1 but he is too paraphrastic when he translates1 and who have since fought in defence of the true religion1 as their ,jihd was only their great exertion and toil in suffering from persecutions4 ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,the ,spider1 ,,xxix1 #e4 #ag4 ,and whoso 7',jhada'7 labours 7',yojhido'7 toils for his own good only4 ,verily ,god is independent of all the worlds4 ,mr4 ,palmer is wrong in making ,jhada and ,yojhido to mean fighting strenuously4 ,mr4 ,sale and the ,rev4 ,w4 ,rodwell are right in translating by striveth and efforts respectively1 and so is ,sir ,w4 ,muir in taking it into1 what he styles1 the general sense of the verse 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cb74 ,sidenote3 7#f7 ,the ,spider1 ,,xxix1 #g4 #ah4 ,moreover ,we have enjoined on man to show kindness to parents1 but if they 7,jhad7 strive with thee in order that thou join that with ,me of which thou hast no knowledge1 then obey them not4 ,to ,me do ye return1 and ,i will tell you of your doings4 ,none of the commentators take the word ,jhad in this passage to mean fighting or crusade1 and it is difficult1 therefore1 to understand why the word should have been distorted from its proper literal and classical meaning in other places of the same book4 ,sidenote3 7#g7 ,the ,spider1 ,,xxix1 #fi4 #ai4 ,and those who 7,jhadoo7 made efforts for ,us1 in our path will we surely guide2 for verily ,god is with those who do righteous deeds4 ,mr4 ,palmer translates the word here as meaning fought1 contrary to ,mr4 ,sale1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell1 and ,sir ,william ,muir1 who translate it endeavour1 effort1 and strive4 ,the conventional term ,jihd1 meaning crusade or warfare1 was not in use in the time of the revelation of the ,koran4 ,sidenote3 7#h7 ,the ,bee1 ,,xvi1 #dj4 #bj4 ,and they swear by ,god with their 7,jahd7 utmost oaths that ',god will never raise him who once is dead4' ,nay2 but on ,him is a promise binding though most men know it not4 ,sale renders the word most solemnly2 ,rodwell1 most sacred oath2 ,palmer1 most strenuous oath4 ,sidenote3 7#i7 ,creator1 ,,xxxv1 #dj4 #ba4 ,they swore by ,god with their 7,jahd7 utmost oath that should a preacher come to them they would yield to guidance more than any people3 but when the preacher came to them1 it only increased in them their estrangement4 ,sale's rendering is most solemn oath1 ,rodwell's1 mightiest oath1 and ,palmer's1 most strenuous oath4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,medinite ,,suras4 ,sidenote3 7#aj7 ,the ,cow or ,heifer1 ,,ii1 #bae4 #bb4 ,but they who believe1 and who fly their country1 and 7,jahadoo7 exert their utmost in the way of ,god1 may hope for ,god's mercy1 and ,god is ,gracious and ,merciful4 ,mr4 ,sale and the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell translate ,jahadoo as those who fight1 and ,mr4 ,palmer as those who wage war2 but there is no reason to change the proper meaning of the word4 ,sir ,william ,muir translates the verse thus3-- ,but they that believe and they who emigrate for the sake of their faith and strive earnestly in the way of ,god1 let them hope in the mercy of ,god1 for ,god is forgiving1 merciful4#ccj ,in a footnote he says3--,the word ,jihd is the same as that subsequently used for a religious war2 but it had not yet probably acquired its fixed application4 ,it was employed in its general sense before the ,hejira1 and probably up to the battle of ,badr4#cca ,i have only to add that the word never acquired its fixed application during the lifetime of the ,prophet1 nor is it used as such in any chapter of the ,koran either before or after the ,hejira4 ,the connection of flight mentioned in the verse as put together with ,jihd1 shows that it means the labour1 toil1 and distress which befel the fugitives in leaving their families unprotected in the hands of their persecutors on their expulsion from their country4 ,sidenote3 7#aa7 ,a'l ,amrn1 ,,iii1 #acf4 #bc4 ,do ye think that ye could enter ,paradise without ,god taking knowledge of those among you who 7,jhadoo7 have toiled and of those who steadfastly endured4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,rodwell translates ,jhadoo1 did valiantly1 and does not agree with ,sale and ,palmer1 who translate it1 fought strenuously1 or fought well4 ,by the connection of enduring patiently1 the word ,jhadoo probably means those who toiled and suffered in their exile from ,mecca4 ,sidenote3 7#ab7 ,the ,spoils1 ,,viii1 #gc4 #bd4 ,verily1 they who believe and have fled their homes and 7,jhadoo7 toiled with their substance and themselves in the way of ,god1 and they who have taken in and have helped1 shall be near of kin the one to the other4 ,and they who have believed1 but have not fled their homes1 shall have no rights of kindred with you at all1 until they too fly their country4 ,yet if they seek aid from you1 on account of the faith1 your part is to give them aid1 except against a people between whom and yourself there may be a treaty4 ,and ,god beholdeth your actions4 ,sale renders the word ,jihd 7or ,jhadoo7 in this passage as meaning employed their substance and their persons in fighting4 ,rodwell 444 ,spent their substance and themselves4 ,palmer 444 ,fought strenuously with their wealth and person4 ,as the word ,jihd has been applied here to both one's-self and his substance or wealth1 it cannot mean fighting1 even if taken in the technical signification4 ,sidenote3 7#ac7 ,the ,spoil1 ,,viii1 #ge4 #be4 ,but as for those who have believed and fled their country and 7,jhadoo7 took pains in the way of ,god1 and have been a refuge or help1 these are the faithful1 mercy is their due and a noble provision4 ,sale 444 ,fought4 ,rodwell 444 ,fought4 ,palmer 444 ,fought strenuously4 ,there is nothing in this passage to warrant a departure from the literal and proper signification of the word ,jhadoo1 and using it in a post-,koranic sense4 ,sidenote3 7#ad7 ,the ,spoil1 ,,viii1 #gf4 #bf4 ,and they who have believed and have since fled their country1 7,jhadoo7 toiled with you1 these also are of you4 ,those who are united by the ties of blood are the nearest of kin to each other4 ,this is in the ,book of ,god4 ,verily ,god knoweth all things4 ,sale 444 ,fought4 ,rodwell 444 ,fought4 ,palmer 444 ,fought strenuously4 ,there is no valid excuse here for changing the signification of the word ,jhadoo into that which is never used in the ,koran or in the classical ,arabic4 ,sidenote3 7#ae7 ,the ,cattle1 ,,vi1 #aji4 #bg4 ,with their 7,jahd7 most binding oath have they sworn by ,god4444 ,sale 444 ,most solemn oath4 ,rodwell 444 ,most binding oath4 ,palmer 444 ,most strenuous oath4 ,sidenote3 7#af7 ,mohammad1 ,,xlvii1 #cc #bh4 ,and ,we will surely test you until ,we know 7,mojhideena7 who did their utmost1 and who were the steadfast among you2 and ,we will test the reports4 ,sale 444 ,who fight valiantly4 ,rodwell 444 ,valiant4 ,palmer 444 ,fought valiantly4 ,mojhid is not synonymous with ,moktil ,sidenote3 7#ag7 ,battle ,array1 ,,lxi1 #aa4 #bi4 ,believe in ,god and ,his ,apostle and 7,jhidoo7 do strive in the way of ,god with your wealth and your persons6 ,sale 444 ,who fought valiantly4 ,rodwell 444 ,who fought valiantly4 ,palmer 444 ,fight strenuously4 ,devotion or worship has been divided into two kinds1--bodily1 which also includes mental2 and pecuniary or monetary1 and the believers are exhorted here to worship ,god both bodily and mentally4 ,sidenote3 7#ah7 ,women1 ,,iv1 #ig4 #cj4 ,those believers who sit at home free from trouble and those who 7#a1 ,mojhidoona7 toil in the way of ,god with their substance and their persons shall not be treated alike4 ,god has assigned to those who 7#b1 ,majhadoona7 strive with their persons and with their substance a rank above those who sit at home4 ,goodly promises hath ,he made to all2 but ,god hath assigned to those 7#c1 ,mojhadna7 who make efforts a rich recompense above those who sit at home4 ,sale3 #ast 444 ,those who employ their fortune and their substance for the religion of ,god4 #bnd 444 ,those who employ their fortune and their substance4 #crd 444 ,those who fight4 ,rodwell3 #ast 444 ,those who fight valiantly4 #bnd 444 ,contend earnestly4 #crd 444 ,strenuous4 ,palmer3 #ast 444 ,strenuous4 #bnd 444 ,strenuous4 #crd 444 ,strenuous4 ,i have already explained the two sorts of worship or service of ,god--bodily and mental4 ,the same applies here too4 ,sidenote3 7#ai7 ,light1 ,,xxiv1 #eb4 #ca4 ,and they swore by ,god with their utmost oath4444 ,sale 444 ,most solemn oath4 ,rodwell 444 ,most solemn oath4 ,palmer 444 ,most strenuous oath4 ,sidenote3 7#bj7 ,the ,forbidding1 ,,lxvi1 #i4 #cb4 ,o ,prophet1 7,jhid7 do thy utmost with the unbelievers and hypocrites1 and be strict towards them4 ,sale 444 ,attack the infidels with arms and the hypocrites with arguments4 ,rodwell 444 ,make war4 ,palmer 444 ,fight strenuously4 ,sidenote3 7#ba7 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #gd4 #cc4 ,the same verse1 word for word4 ,sale 444 ,wage war4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend against4 ,palmer 444 ,strive strenuously4 ,the word ,jhid is the same in both the passages1 yet the translators differ in their interpretation of it4 ,as there had been no war against the hypocrites1 the word cannot be held to bear the construction they put on it1 even if we deprived it of its proper signification4 ,in one place ,sale takes ,jhid to mean attacking with arms1 and in another he takes it in the sense of attacking with arguments4 ,there is no signification of attacking in ,jihd1 but only that of exerting1 and the verse simply means1 exert thyself in preaching to1 and remonstrating with1 the unbelievers and hypocrites1 and also be strict towards them1--i4e41 not to be smooth with them1 nor to be beguiled by them4#ccb ,sidenote3 7#bb7 ,the tried1 ,,lxi4 #cd4 ,o ,ye believers6 take not my foe and your foe for friends3 ye show them kindness although they believe not that truth which hath come to you3 they drive forth the ,apostle and yourself because ye believe in ,god your ,lord6 ,if ye have come forth#ccc 7,jihdan7 labouring in my cause1 and from a desire to please ,me1 ye show them kindness in private1 then ,i well know what ye conceal and what ye discover6 ,and whoso of you doth this hath verily1 therefore1 gone astray from the even way4 ,sale translates ,jihdan as meaning to fight in the defence of my religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,to fight on my path4 ,palmer 444 ,fighting strenuously4 ,the translators quoted above say that ,htib had informed the ,meccans of an intended surprise of ,mecca on the part of ,mohammad with the view of making terms for his own family1 which had been left there4 ,on this occasion the passage was revealed4 ,this shows that the campaign of ,mecca is termed ,jihd4 ,but ,sir ,william ,muir does not agree with them4 ,he says in a footnote3--,the opening verses of the sixtieth ,sura are said to refer to ,htib2 but they appear to have a general bearing against too great intimacy with the ,coreish during the truce and to be1 therefore1 of a prior date4#ccd #ce4 ,htib's story4 ,the story regarding ,htib's revelation of the intended attack upon ,mecca by ,mohammad1 is not supported by authentic and trustworthy traditions4 ,the authentic tradition of ,bokhari#cce only states that the occasion of the verse being revealed was in the case of ,htib1 but does not say that it was during the campaign of ,mecca1 nor that the information contained anything about the intended campaign4 ,the authentic tradition only says that the report contained information regarding some of the affairs of the ,prophet4 ,besides this1 it is wrong to translate in kun tum kharajtum ,jihadan fi ,sabili1 as if ye go forth to fight in defence of my religion1 or if ye go forth to fight on my path1 or if ye go forth fighting strenuously in my cause4 ,it simply means1 if you have come out striving in my cause1 and the sentence is a complement or correlative of the verse1 meaning1 if you have come out of ,mecca1 striving1 or to strive1 in my cause1 suffering from exile and undergoing the afflictions and distresses of living homeless1 leaving your family and property unprotected1 and all these pains 7,jihd7 you have taken to please me1 then you should not make friends with my foes and your foes1 who do not believe in the truth which has come to you1 and have driven out the ,prophet and yourselves 7from ,mecca1 your home7 only for the reason that you believe in ,god your ,lord4 ,sidenote3 7#bc7 ,the ,apartment1 ,,xlix1 #ae4 #cf4 ,the true believers are those only who believe in ,god and his ,apostle and afterwards doubt not2 and who 7,jhadoo7 strive with their substance and their persons on the path of ,god4 ,these are the sincere4 ,sale here translates ,jhadoo those who employ their substance and their persons in the defence of ,god's true religions4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend with their substance and their persons4 ,palmer 444 ,fight strenuously with their wealth and persons4 ,see my observations under ,no4 #ag1 para4 #bh4 ,sidenote3 7#bd7 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #af4 #cg4 ,think not that ye shall be forsaken and that ,god doth not yet know those among you who 7,jhadoo7 do their utmost and take none for their intimate friends besides ,god and ,his ,apostles and the faithful4 ,but ,god is well apprised of your doings4 ,sale 444 ,fought for his religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,fought valiantly4 ,palmer 444 ,fought strenuously4 ,sidenote3 7#be7 ,ibid1 #ai4 #ch4 ,do ye place the giving drink to the pilgrims and the visitation of the sacred temple on the same level with him who believeth in ,god and the last day1 and 7,jhada7 taketh pains in the way of ,god4 ,they are not held equal by ,god1 and ,god guideth not the unrighteous4 ,sale 444 ,fighteth4 ,rodwell 444 ,fighteth4 ,palmer 444 ,is strenuous4 ,sidenote3 7#bf7 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #bj4 #ci4 ,they who have believed and fled their homes and 7,jhadoo7 toiled with their substance and with their persons on the path of ,god are of the highest degree with ,god1 and these are they who shall enjoy felicity6 ,sale 444 ,employ their substance and their persons in the defence of ,god's true religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,and striven with their substance and with their persons in the path of ,god4 ,palmer 444 ,been strenuous in the way of ,god with their wealth and their persons4 ,sidenote3 7#bg7 ,ibid1 #bd4 #dj4 ,say1 if your father and your sons and your brethren and your wives1 and your kindred and wealth which ye have gained1 and merchandise which ye fear may be unsold1 and dwellings wherein ye may delight be dearer to you than ,god and ,his ,apostle and 7,jihdan7 toiling in ,my cause1 then wait until ,god shall ,himself enter on ,his work2 ,god guideth not the impious4 ,sale 444 ,advancement of his religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,efforts on his path4 ,palmer 444 ,fighting strenuously4 ,sidenote3 7#bh7 ,ibid1 #da4 #da4 ,march ye forth light and heavy and 7,jhidoo7 toil with your substance and persons on the way of ,god4 ,this1 if ye knew it1 will be best for you4 ,sale 444 ,employ your substance and your persons for the advancement of ,god's true religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend with your4444 ,palmer 444 ,fight strenuously with your wealth and persons4 ,sidenote3 7#bi7 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #dd4 #db4 ,they who believe in ,god and in the last day will not ask leave to be exempt from 7,yojhadoo7 toiling with their substance and their persons4 ,but ,god knoweth them that fear ,him4 ,sale 444 ,employ their substance and their persons for the advancement of ,god's true religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,contending with their substance and persons4 ,palmer 444 ,fighting strenuously4 ,sidenote3 7#cj7 ,ibid1 #hb4 #dc4 ,they who were left in their homes were delighted behind ,god's ,apostle and were averse from 7,yojhidoo7 exerting with their riches and their persons for the cause of ,god1 and said1 ',march not out in the heat4' ,say1 a fiercer heat will be the fire of hell6 ,would that they understood this4 ,sale 444 ,employ their substance and their persons for the advancement of ,god's true religion4 ,rodwell 444 ,contending with their riches and their persons4 ,palmer 444 ,fighting strenuously with their wealth and their person4 ,sidenote3 7#ca7 ,ibid1 #hg4 #dd4 ,moreover when a ,sura was sent down with ',believe in ,god1 and 7,jhidoo7 toil in company with his ,apostle1' those of them who are possessed of riches demanded exemption1 and said1 ',allow us to be with those who sit at home4' ,sale 444 ,go forth to war4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend4 ,palmer 444 ,fight strenuously4 ,sidenote3 7#cb7 ,the ,immunity1 ,,ix1 #hi4 #de4 ,but the ,apostle1 and those who share his faith 7,jhadoo7 exerted with their substance and their persons1 and these 6 good things await them and these are they who shall be happy4 ,sale 444 ,expose their fortune and their lives4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend with purse and person4 ,palmer 444 ,are strenuous with their wealth and with their persons4 ,sidenote3 7#cc7 ,the ,table1 ,v1 #ci4 #df4 ,o ye who believe6 fear ,god and desire union with ,him and 7,jhidoo7 toil on ,his path4 ,it may be that you will obtain happiness4 ,sale 444 ,fight4 ,rodwell 444 ,contend earnestly4 ,palmer 444 ,be strenuous4 ,sidenote3 7#cd7 ,ibid1 #eh4 #dg4 ,and the faithful will say1 ',are these they who swore by ,god their 7,jahda7 utmost oath that they were surely on your side8' ,vain their works2 and they themselves shall come to ruin4 ,sale 444 ,most firm4 ,rodwell 444 ,most solemn4 ,palmer 444 ,most strenuous4 ,sidenote3 7#ce7 ,ibid1 #ei4 #dh4 ,o ye who believe6 should any of you desert his religion1 ,god will then raise up a people whom ,he loveth1 and who love ,him1 lowly towards the faithful1 lofty to the unbelievers 7,yojhidoona7 striving in the path of ,god1 and not fearing the blame of the blamer4 ,this is the ,grace of ,god2 on whom ,he will ,he bestoweth it1 and ,god is all-embracing1 ,omniscient6 ,sale 444 ,they shall fight for the religion of ,god4 ,rodwell 444 ,for the cause of ,god will they contend4 ,palmer 444 ,strenuous in the way of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,jihd does not mean the waging of war4 #di4 ,these are all the verses of the ,koran which contain the word ,jahd or ,jihd1 or any derivations from them4 ,i believe that ,i have clearly shown by means of a careful comparison between the translators and commentators and the original passages in the ,koran1 that the word ,jahd or ,jihd in the classical ,arabic and as used in the ,koran does not mean waging war or fighting1 but only to do one's utmost and to exert1 labour or toil4 ,the meaning which has come to be ascribed to the word is undoubtedly a conventional one1 and is one that has been applied to it at a period much less recent than the revelation of the various chapters of the ,koran4 ,sidenote3 ,katal and ,kitl4 #ej4 ,i do not mean to contend that the ,koran does not contain injunctions to fight or wage war4 ,there are many verses enjoining the ,prophet's followers to prosecute a defensive war1 but not one of aggression4 ,the words katal and kitl distinctly indicate this4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 #ea4 ,i have already analysed all the verses containing these words 7katal and kitl7 in this book4 ,what ,i have aimed at in the ,appendix is to show that those authors and translators who cite certain verses of the ,koran containing the word ,jahd or ,jihd and its derivations in support of their assertion1 and that the ,mohammadan religion sanctions the waging of war and the shedding of blood1 are altogether in the wrong4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,the ,sihh of ,jouhari 7who died #cig or #cih71 the ,ass of ,zamakhshire 7born #dfg1 died #ech ,a4,h471 ,lisanul-,arab of ,ibn ,mokarram 7born #fcj1 died #gaa71 and ,kamoos of ,fyrozabadee 7born #gbi1 died #haf71 vide ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 ,book ,i1 ,part ,,ii1 page #dgc4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,the ,misbh by ,fayoomee 7finished #gcd ,a4,h471 vide ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 ,book ,i1 ,part ,,ii1 page #dgc4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,sihh1 ,ass1 ,ibnel ,atheer ,jezree1 author of ,nihayeh 7died #fjf71 the ,mughrib of ,almotarrazi 7born #ecf1 died #faj71 the ,misbh and ,kmoos1 vide ,lane1 ibid1 page #dgd4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,vide ,rodwell's ,translation of the ,koran in loco4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,vide ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon in loco4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,the ,assemblies of ,al ,hariri1 translated from the ,arabic by ,thomas ,chenry1 ,m4,a41 ,vol4 ,i1 ,introduction1 p4 #fg4 ,william and ,norgate1 #ahfg4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,in the treaty of ,medina1 which was made as early as the second year of the ,hejira1 the word ,jihd is used1 regarding which ,sir ,w4 ,muir says3--,this word came subsequently to have exclusively the technical signification of ,jihd or crusade or fighting for the ,faith4 ,if we give it this signification here1 it would involve the clause in the suspicion of being a later addition2 for as yet we have no distinct development of the intention of ,mahomet to impose his religion on others by force3 it would have been dangerous1 in the present state of parties1 to advance this principle4 ,the word is sometimes used in the more general sense in the ,coran2 ,sura ,,xxix1 #e1 #fi2 ,,xx1 #gg1 and a few other places4--,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cb4 ,again he says with reference to ,sura ,,ii1 v4 #bae1 which also contains the same word3 ,the word 7,jihd7 is the same as that subsequently used for a religious war1 but it had not yet probably acquired its fixed application4 ,it was applied in its general sense before the ,hejira1 and probably up to the battle of ,badr4--,ibid1 p4 #gd1 footnote4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,this ,sura is generally said to have been revealed at ,mecca1 but this is probably only the case as regards verses #a1 #bd1 #dc1 #ef1 #fj1 #fe1 #fg1 #ge4 ,mr4 ,muir places it at the close of the ,meccan ,suras of the fifth period4 ,see ,nold1 p4 #aeh2 ,rev4 ,rodwell1 p4 #ejj4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,vide ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #gd4 ,footnote #cca3 ,ibid1 footnote4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,vide ,sura ,,lxxii1 #i2 ,,xvii1 #fi4 ,footnote #ccc3 i4e41 from ,mecca when driven out of it by the ,meccans in your persecution4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #cce3 ,kitabul ,jihd1 ,maghzi and ,tafseer4 ,,appendix ,b4 ,,slavery ,,and ,,concubine-,,slaves ,,as ,,concomitant ,,evils ,,of ,,war4 ,sidenote3 ,slavery and concubinage not allowed by the ,koran4 #a4 ,it is a false accusation against the ,koran1 that it allows enslavement of the captives of war1 and sanctions female captives to the conquerors' embrace1 or1 in other words1 female captives are made concubines on the field of battle4 ,there is not a single sentence in the ,koran allowing either of the above allegations4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 in his ,life of ,mahomet1 could neither quote any verse of the ,koran sanctioning the enslavement of the captives of war or servile concubinage1 nor was he able to relate any instance of them during the several battles described therein4 ,yet1 in a recent work1#ccf he refers boldly1 but vaguely1 to the ,koran2 and regarding the battle of ,walaja fought by ,khlid against the ,persians in ,a4,h4 #ab writes1 after quoting ,khlid's oration on gaining the victory3-- ,now1 also1 the cunning device of the ,corn1 with respect to the other sex1 began to tell4 ,persian ladies1 both maids and matrons1 'taken captive by the right hand1' were forthwith1 without stint of number1 lawful to the conquerors' embrace2 and1 in the enjoyment of this privilege1 they were nothing loth to execute upon the heathen 'the judgment written4' ,i do not understand why1 if such was the case1 ,khlid did not refer the believers to the so-called cunning device of the ,koran8 ,by referring to this imaginary device of the ,koran to the lawfulness of female captives to the conquerors' embrace1 he might have struck a chord1 at which every ,bedouin heart would have leapt with joy1 instead of referring1 as he did1 merely to the riches of the land and fair fields4 ,in fact there is no such inducement in the ,koran4 ,sidenote3 ,measures taken by the ,koran to abolish slavery4 #b4 ,slaves are mentioned in the ,koran defacto1 but not dejure4 ,the ,koran took several measures to abolish future slavery4 ,its steps for its abolition were taken in every moral1 legal1 religious1 and political departments4 ,the liberation of slaves was morally declared to be a work of piety and righteousness--7,sura ,,xc1 #ac2 ,,ii1 #agb74ccg ,legally the slaves were to be emancipated on their agreeing to pay a ransom--7,sura ,,xxiv1 #cc74cch ,they were to be set at liberty as a penalty for culpable homicide--7,sura ,,iv1 #id72cci or in expiation for using an objectionable form of divorce--7,sura ,,lviii1 #d72cdj and also they were to be manumitted from the ,public ,funds out of the poor-taxes--7,sura ,,ix1 #fj74cda ,they were religiously to be freed in expiation of a false oath taken in mistake--7,sura ,v1 #ia74cdb ,these were the measures for the abolition of existing slavery4 ,the future slavery was abolished by the ,koran by putting hammer deep unto its root and by annihilating its real source4 ,the captives of war were1 according to the clear injunctions of the ,koran contained in the #eth verse of the #dgth ,sura1 to be dismissed either by a free grant or by exacting a ransom4 ,they were neither to be enslaved nor killed4 #d4 ,when ye encounter the unbelievers strike off their heads1 till ye have made a great slaughter among them1 and of the rest make fast the fetters4 #e4 ,and afterwards let there either be free dismissals or ransoming1 till the war hath laid down its burdens4 ,thus do4444 ,sura ,,xlvii4 ,these verses convey very clearly the decree of the abolition of future slavery1 and do not require any further remarks4 ,moreover they were acted upon accordingly even in the lifetime of the ,prophet4 ,sidenote3 ,none of the prisoners of war were enslaved4 #c4 ,none of the prisoners of ,badr ,a4,h4 #b1 of ,karkart-al-,kadr ,a4,h4 #c1 of ,katan in ,najd ,a4,h4 #d1 of ,zat-al ,riqa#cdc ,a4,h4 #e1 of ,bani ,mustalik ,a4,h4 #e1 of ,koreiza ,a4,h4 #e1 of ,batan ,makka ,a4,h4 #f1cdd or of ,honain 7,hawzin7 ,a4,h4 #h1cde was enslaved4 ,all1 without an exception1 were set free either by way of free dismissal1 or by exacting ransom 7in cash or in exchange of ,moslem prisoners7 in strict conformity with the dictates of ,sura ,,xlvii1 #e4 ,there were no prisoners in the battles of ,ohad ,a4,h4 #c1 ,ahzab ,a4,h4 #e1 and ,khyber ,a4,h4 #g4cdf ,sidenote3 ,bani ,koreiza not enslaved4 #d4 ,some will contend regarding the ,bani ,koreiza that their women and children were made slaves1 and as such sold in ,najd4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quotes the judgment of ,sd in the case of the ,bani ,koreiza1--,that the female captives and the children shall be sold into slavery1 and that it was approved of by ,mohammad4 ,he writes further3-- ,a fifth of the booty was1 as usual1 reserved for the ,prophet1 and the rest divided4 ,from the fifth ,mahomet made certain presents to his friends of female slaves and servants2 and then sent the rest of the women and children to be sold among the ,bedouin tribes of ,najd in exchange for horses and arms4#cdg ,i have shown in para4 #cj of this book 7pages #cg and #ch7 that ,mohammad never appreciated the judgment of ,sd4 ,and ,i have further to add that the said judgment1 according to true reports1 did not contain the illegal verdict of enslaving the women and children of the ,bani ,koreiza1 as this might have gone directly against the ,koran and the precedents of the ,prophet4 ,in the collections of ,bokhari1 ,book of ,campaigns1 ,chapter on ,bani ,koreiza1 there are two traditions cited on the subject4 ,both of them quote the words of ,sd to the effect that the women and children be imprisoned4 ,the same is the case in ,bokhari's other chapters 7,book of ,jihd1 ,chapter on the ,surrender of ,enemy1 ,book of ,mankib1 ,chapter on the ,merits of ,sd74 ,it is not a fact that ,mohammad made certain presents to his friends of the female slaves out of the captives of ,bani ,koreiza4 ,the captives were not made slaves1 therefore it is wrong to confound captives with slaves4 ,there is no proof to the effect that they were enslaved4 ,the ,koran distinctly says that they were prisoners 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 #bf74 ,in fact1 the women and children were not guilty of treason1 and deserved no punishment4 ,sd's judgment must be either wrong regarding them1 or applied only to those who were guilty4 ,one woman alone1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 was put to death2 it was she who threw the millstone from the battlements 7,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bgg74 ,i conclude1 therefore1 that all the women and children were released afterwards2 some ransomed themselves1 others went off with their freedom4 ,but nobody was ever sold in slavery4 ,the assertion of ,hishamee1 quoted by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 that the women and children were sent to be sold among the ,bedouin tribes of ,najd in exchange for horses and arms 7,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bgi71 is void of all authority1 and is in direct contradiction of what ,abul ,mo'tamar ,soleiman bin ,tarkhan 7died #adc ,a4,h4 and was prior to ,hishamee7 says1 and whose account seems to be more probable4 ,his version is that the horses of ,bani ,koreiza were sent by ,mohammad to ,syria and ,najd for the purpose of breeding1 and that they got big horses4 ,vide ,wkidi ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 page #cgd1 ,calcutta1 #ahee4 ,this shows that only horses1 and not women and children1 were sent to ,najd4 ,the words of ,hishamee 7page #fic7 are sabya min sabya ,bani ,koreiza4 ,sabya1 plural of sabi1 applies to both person and property1 as they say sabal advva vaghairohu1 he made captive1 captured or took prisoner the enemy1 and other than an enemy4 7,vide ,lane's ,arabic ,dictionary1 page #acjc1 col4 #a47 ,so probably ,hishamee had in view only the horses captured of the ,bani ,koreiza and sent to ,najd1 but not the women and children of the captives of ,koreiza4 ,sidenote3 ,rihna4 #e4 ,rihna1 a woman of the captives of ,koreiza1 is said by ,sir ,w4 ,muir to have been taken by ,mohammad for his concubine4 ,he always confounds prisoners with slaves1 and female captives as well as slaves with concubines4 ,there are several conflicting and contradictory traditions regarding ,rihna4 ,mohammad bin ,sd ,ktib ,wakidi has related various traditions from ,omar-bin-al ,hakam1 ,mohammad bin ,kb1 and from other various sources that ,mohammad had married ,rihna4 ,the ,ktib says this tradition is held by learned men4 ,but he has also heard some one relating that she was his concubine4#cdh ,but ,sir ,w4 ,muir chooses the latter uncertain and unauthentic traditions4 ,he writes in a footnote3-- ,she is represented as saying1 when he offered her marriage and the same privileges as his other wives3 ',nay1 ,o ,prophet6 ,but let me remain as thy slave2 this will be easier both for me and for thee4'#cdi ,even if this tradition be a genuine one1 he is not authorized in his remarks in the text1 where he says-- ,he invited her to be his wife1 but she declined2 and chose to remain 7as indeed1 having refused marriage1 she had no alternative7 his slave or concubine4 ,she was neither enslaved1 nor made a concubine4 ,it is to be regretted that the writer of the ,life of ,mahomet most absurdly confounds slavery and concubinage4 ,sidenote3 ,omar1 the second ,khalif1 liberated all the ,arab slaves4 #f4 ,during the sovereignty of ,omar1 the second ,khalif1 in accordance with the injunctions of ,mohammad to abolish slavery1 all the existing ,arab slaves were set free4 ,it will appear that the wishes of ,mohammad to that effect were but partially carried out4 ,in ages that succeeded the death of ,mohammad1 they were altogether lost sight of1 and even ,arabs were allowed to be enslaved by the later jurists4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 in his latest work1 entitled ,the ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 says3-- ,yet great numbers of the ,arabs themselves were slaves1 taken prisoner during the apostasy1 or in the previous intertribal warfare1 and held in captivity by their fellow-countrymen4 ,omar felt the inconsistency4 ,it was not fit that any of the noble race should remain in bondage4 ,when1 therefore1 he succeeded to the ,caliphate1 he decreed3 ',the ,lord1' he said1 'hath given to us of ,arab blood the victory1 and great conquests without4 ,it is not meet that any one of us1 taken in the days of ,ignorance1#cej or in the wars against the apostate tribes1 should be holden in slavery4' ,all slaves of the ,arab descent were accordingly ransomed1 excepting only such bondmaids as had borne their masters' children4 ,men who had lost wives or children now set out in search1 if haply they might find and claim them4 ,strange tales are told of some of the disconsolate journeys4 ,ashth recovered two of his wives taken captive in ,nojeir4 ,but some of the women who had been carried prisoners to ,medna preferred remaining with their captors4#cea ,even this speech of ,omar shows that no one was enslaved during the wars of ,mohammad1 as he only refers to the captives of the days of ,ignorance before the ,prophet1 and those taken in wars against the apostate tribes after him having been enslaved4 ,sidenote3 ,concubinage4 #g4 ,the ,koran has never allowed concubinage with female captives4 ,and after the abolition of future slavery enjoined in the ,koran1 there is no good in discussing the subject of concubinage1 which depends on the legality or otherwise of slavery4 ,the ,koran had taken early measures for preventing the evil directly and indirectly1 positively and negatively4 ,in the first place1 it recognizes marriage as the only legal condition of the union of both sexes4 ,marriage was also enjoined with the existing female slaves4 7,vide ,sura ,,iv1 #c1 #bi2 and ,,xxiv1 #cb1 #cc47 ,the prevention of concubinage is set forth in plain terms in ,sura ,v1 #g4 ,the verses run thus3-- #c4 ,and if ye are apprehensive that ye shall not deal fairly with orphans1 then of other women who seem good in your eyes marry1 but two or three or four1 and if ye still fear that ye shall not act equitably1 then 7marry7 one only2 or 7marry7 the slaves whom ye have acquired4 ,this will be more proper that ye may not have numerous families or households4 ,and give women their dowry as a free gift2 but if of their own free will they kindly give up aught thereof to you1 then enjoy it as convenient and profitable4 #bi4 ,and whoever of you is not rich enough to marry free-believing women1 then let him marry such of your believing maidens as have fallen into your hands as slaves4 ,god well knoweth your faith4 ,ye are sprung1 the one from the other4 ,marry them then with the leave of their masters1 and give them a fair dower2 but let them be chaste and free from fornication1 and not entertainers of lovers4--,sura ,,iv4 #cb4 ,and marry those among you who are single1 and your good servants and your handmaidens4 ,if they are poor1 ,god of his bounty will enrich them4 ,and ,god is all-bounteous1 knowing4 ,and let those who cannot find a match live in continence till ,god of his bounty shall enrich them4 #cc4 ,and to those of your slaves who desire a deed of manumission1 execute it for them1 if ye know good in them1 and give them a portion of the wealth of ,god which ,he hath given you4--,sura ,,xxiv4 ,and you are permitted to marry virtuous women1 who are believers1 and virtuous women of those who have been given the ,scriptures before you1 when you have provided them their portions1 living chastely with them without fornication1 and not taking concubines4--,sura ,v4 ,the #bhth verse of the fourth ,sura does by no means sanction concubinage4 ,it has nothing to do with it4 ,it only treats of marriage4 ,it1 together with its preceding verse1 points out whom we can marry and whom not4 ,its next verse interdicts concubinage when it enjoins marriage with the then existing slaves4 ,sidenote3 ,maria the ,coptic4 #h4 ,i will here take the opportunity of noticing ,maria the ,coptic1 who is alleged to have been a concubine-slave of ,mohammad1 although she does not come under the category of prisoners made slaves4 ,according to ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 the ,roman ,governor of ,egypt had written to ,mohammad3--,i send for thine acceptance two damsels1 highly esteemed among the ,copts4#ceb ,the writer converts them at once into two slave-girls1 and remarks1 a strange present1 however1 for a ,christian ,governor to make4#cec ,she was neither a captive1 nor a slave1 nor was she described as such in the ,governor's letter4 ,i am at a loss to know why or how she has been treated by the biographers of the ,prophet as a slave or a concubine4 7#a7 ,i have great doubts regarding the truth of the story that ,mokowkas the ,governor had sent two maids to ,mohammad1 and taking it for granted they were so sent1 that one of them was the alleged ,maria2 7#b7 it is not a fact that she was a slave2 7#c7 nor a concubine-slave of the ,prophet2 7#d7 nor she as such bore a son to him2 7#e7 and lastly1 the notorious scandal about her much talked of by ,european writers is a mere calumny and a false story4 ,it will be a very tedious and irksome task to copy the various traditions bearing on the above subjects and to discuss their authenticity1 and criticise their genuineness1 on the principles of the technicalities peculiar to the ,science of ,traditions1 as well as on the basis of scientific and rational criticism4 ,therefore ,i will notice only briefly each of the above subjects4 ,sidenote3 ,dispatch to ,mokowkas4 #i4 7#a7 ,that ,mohammad had sent a dispatch to ,mokowkas1 the ,roman ,governor of ,egypt1 and that in reply he had sent ,maria the ,coptic maid1 together with other presents1 to ,mohammad1 is not to be found in the traditions collected by the best critics of ,mohammadan traditions like ,bokhari and ,muslim1 who had sifted the whole incoherent mass of genuine and apocryphal traditions regarding the ,prophet1 and had picked up but a very small portion of them which they thought to be relatively genuine4 ,we can fairly conclude that such a tradition1 which is related by other non-critics and story-tellers1 who have indiscriminately narrated every tradition--whether genuine or apocryphal--like ,wkidi and ,ibn ,sd1 was surely rejected by these ,imams 7,doctors in the ,science of ,tradition7 as having not the least possibility of its genuineness4 ,even ,ibn ,ishak 7died #aej71ced ,hisham-bin-,abdul ,malik 7died #bac ,a4,h471#cee and ,abul ,mo'tamar ,soleiman 7died #adc ,a4,h4#cef7ceg have not inserted the portion of the tradition of ,maria the ,coptic maid being sent by the ,egyptian ,governor to ,mohammad4 ,the tradition narrated by ,ibn ,sd--7#a7 through ,wkidi and ,abd-ul-,hamd from ,jfar1 7#b7 and ,abdullah bin ,abdur ,rahmn bin ,abi ,ssta--is undoubtedly apocryphal1 ,wkidi and ,abd-ul-,hamd are of impeached integrity1 or no authority at all4 ,ibn ,khallikan1 in his ,biographical ,dictionary1 translated by ,slane1 writes regarding ,wkidi3--,the ,traditions received from him are considered of feeble authority1 and doubts have been expressed on the subject of his 7veracity47#ceh ,ibn ,hajar ,askaln writes regarding ,wkidi in his ,takrib1 that he has been struck off as an authority 7literally left out71 notwithstanding his vast knowledge4 ,zahabi's opinion of ,wkidi in ,mizn-al-,etedal is that ,ahmed bin ,hanbal said he was the greatest liar4 ,bokhari and ,ab ,htim say he is struck off 7or left out as an authority74 ,regarding ,abd-ul-,hamd1 ,zahabi writes that ,abu ,htim said he is not quoted as an authority1 and ,sofin said he was a weak authority4 ,jfar and ,abdullah bin ,abdur ,rahmn bin ,abi ,ssta are of the middle period in the ,tabaeen's class1 and do not quote their authority on the subject4 ,sidenote3 ,maria neither a slave2 #aj4 7#b7 ,supposing that the ,governor of ,egypt had sent two ,coptic maids1 with other presents1 to ,mohammad1 it does not follow necessarily that they were slave-girls4 ,it is never stated in history that they were captives of war1 or1 if they were so1 that they were enslaved subsequently4 ,there is no authority for a haphazard conjecture that they were slave-girls4 ,sidenote3 nor a concubine-slave4 #aa4 7#c7 ,even if it be admitted that ,maria the ,coptic was a slave-girl1 there is no proof that she was a concubine-slave4 ,it is a stereotyped fabrication of traditionists1 and the unpardonable blunder on the part of ,european writers1 that they almost always confound female-slaves1 and even sometimes captives1 with concubine-slaves4 ,none of the six standard collectors of traditions--,imams ,bokhari 7died #bef ,a4,h471 ,muslim 7died #bfa ,a4,h471 ,aboo ,daood 7died #bge ,a4,h471 ,tirmizee 7died #bgi ,a4,h471 ,nasee 7died #cjc ,a4,h471 and ,ibn ,mja 7died #bgc ,a4,h47--has narrated that ,maria the ,coptic was a concubine-slave of the ,prophet4 ,even the early biographers--,ibn ,ishak 7died #aej ,a4,h47 and ,ibn ,hisham 7died #bac ,a4,h47 have not made any mention to this effect4 ,it is only ,mohammad bin ,sd1 the ,secretary to ,wkidi1 who narrates the tradition1--firstly through ,wkidi1 ,abd-ul-,hamd1 and ,jfar1 and secondly through ,wkidi1 ,yakoob bin ,mohammad1 and ,abdullah bin ,abdur ,rahmn bin ,abi ,ssta4 ,these both ascriptions are apocryphal4 ,i have already quoted my authorities against ,wkidi and ,abd-ul-,hamd4 ,yakoob bin ,mohammad has been impeached by ,abu ,zara1 a critic in the ,science of ,traditions4#cei ,jfar and ,abdullah both flourished after the first century4 ,their evidence to the supposed fact about a century ago is inadmissible4 ,in the ,biographical ,dictionaries of the contemporaries of the ,prophet1 there are three persons named ,maria4#cfj ,one is said to have been a housemaid of the ,prophet2 the second was a housemaid whose kunniat 7patronymic7 is given as ,omm ,rabab 7mother of ,rabab74 ,the third is called ,maria the ,coptic4 ,it appears there was only one ,maria2 she may have been a female servant in the household of the ,prophet4 ,the narrators have1 by citing different circumstances regarding them1 made them three different persons1 and one of them a concubine-slave1 as they could not think a house or family complete without a slave-girl or a concubine-slave4 ,the biographers often commit such blunders4 ,in giving different anecdotes of really the same persons1 they make as many persons as they have anecdotes4 ,that anyone of the ,marias was a concubine-slave is a mere conjecture1 or a stereotyped form of traditional confusion in mixing up maidservants with slaves or concubine-slaves4 ,sidenote3 ,maria had no son4 #ab4 7#d7 ,those who have converted ,maria into a slave or a concubine-slave have furnished her--the creature of their own imagination--with a son4 ,there are various traditions as to the number and names of the ,prophet's sons1 all of whom died in infancy4 ,some traditions give different names to one1 and others give as many sons as the names are reported4 ,there might have been a son of ,mohammad by the name of ,ibrahim1 but that he was born of ,maria the ,coptic is a perfect myth4 ,this piece of the story is the continuation of the traditions of ,ibn ,sd1 which ,i have already criticized in paras4 #i and #aa4 ,ibn ,sd has related another tradition through ,omar bin ,asim and ,katda to the effect that ,mohammad's son ,ibrahim was born of a captive woman4 ,asim has been condemned by ,abu ,hatim1 a doctor and critic in the ,mohammadan traditional literature2#cfa and ,katda 7died #aag ,a4,h47 was not a contemporary witness of what he relates4 ,thus he fails in giving any authority to his narration4 ,there are two more traditions in ,ibn ,sd from similar authorities like ,katda1 namely1 ,zohri 7died #abd ,a4,h47 and ,mak-hool 7died #aah ,a4,h47--not contemporaries of ,mohammad1 but of the class of ,tabaeen--to the effect that ,mohammad had said1 ,had ,ibrahim lived1 the capitation-tax would have been remitted to every ,copt6 and that ,had ,ibrahim lived1 his maternal uncles would never have been enslaved6 ,they do not say who was ,ibrahim6 ,another and the last tradition in ,ibn ,sd through ,yahia bin ,hammd1 ,abu ,avna1 ,soleiman-al-,aamash1 ,muslim1 and ,bara is to the effect that ,ibrahim was born from a ,coptic maid of the ,prophet4 ,the narrator ,soleiman-al-,aamash was a modallis 7,takrib in loco71 or in other words1 a liar4 ,besides the whole chain of the narration is ,mo-an-an4 ,in none of the canonical collections of traditions like those of ,bokhari1 ,muslim1 and others ,ibrahim is said to have been born of ,maria4 ,therefore any of their traditions regarding ,ibrahim is not against us4 ,it is also related in some genuine traditions that an eclipse of the sun took place on the day of ,ibrahim's death4#cfb ,the historians have related only one eclipse1 which occurred in the sixth year of the ,hejira1 when ,mohammad was at ,hodeibia4 ,this shows that ,ibrahim could not be ,maria's son4 ,she only could come to ,arabia a year later1 as the dispatches to several princes were sent only in the seventh year4 ,yfaee1 in his history ,mirt-uz-,zamn1 has noted that the sun was eclipsed in the sixth year of the ,hejira4 ,in the tenth year1 he says1--,a genuine tradition has that the sun was eclipsed on the day of ,ibrahim's death1 and it has been stated above that it was eclipsed in the sixth year4 ,there is some difficulty4 ,it was noted once only during the time of the ,prophet4 ,if it occurred twice1 there is no difficulty2 and if not1 one of these two events must be wrong1 either the eclipse took place in the tenth year1 or the ,prophet's son died in the sixth year4 ,but historically the eclipse was noticed only in the sixth year4 ,there are different dates of ,ibrahim's death reported by the biographers--the fourth1 tenth1 and fourteenth of lunar months1 but in none of them can an eclipse take place4 ,sidenote3 ,the story of ,haphsa and ,maria a spurious one4 #ac4 7#e7 ,lastly1 ,i have to notice the infamous calumny against ,mohammad concocted up by his enemies1 that ,haphsa surprized the ,prophet in her own private room with ,maria4 ,she reproached her lord bitterly1 and threatened to make the occurrence known to all his wives4 ,afraid of the exposure and anxious to appease his offended wife1 he begged of her to keep the matter quiet1 and promised to forego the society of ,maria altogether4 ,but he afterwards released himself from it by a special revelation--7,sura ,,lxvi1 #a74 ,sir ,w4 ,muir remarks3-- ,as in the case of ,zeinab1 ,mahomet produced a message from ,heaven1 which disallowed his promise of separation from ,mary4444 ,the passage in the ,koran relating to the affair is as follows3-- ,o ,prophet6 ,why hast thou forbidden thyself that which ,god hath made lawful unto thee1#cfc out of desire to please thy wives2 for ,god is forgiving and merciful8#cfd ,sidenote3 ,the affair not noticed in the early biographies4 #ad4 ,now this is perfectly a fictitious story4 ,neither there was any such affair1 nor is there anything on this head mentioned in the ,koran4 ,it is very strange that ,sir ,w4 ,muir has abruptly left aside1 in this instance1 all his principal authorities1 the ,arabian biographers1 ,ibn ,ishak1 ,wkidi 7his secretary71 and ,tabari4 ,the story is not to be found in any of these biographies1 nor in the canonical collections of ,bokhari1 ,muslim1 and ,tirmizee4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir had himself laid down the rule that only these original authorities are to be depended upon1 and the later authors are to be rejected4 ,he writes3-- ,to the three biographies by ,ibn ,hishm1 by ,wackidi his secretary1 and ,tabari1 the judicious historian of ,mahomet will1 as his original authorities1 confine himself4 ,he will also receive with a similar respect such traditions in the general collections of the earliest traditionists--,bokhari1 ,muslim1 ,tirmizi1 c4--as may bear upon his subject4 ,but he will reject as evidence all later authors1 to whose so-called traditions he will not allow any historical weight whatever4#cfe ,sidenote3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir's authorities not valid4 #ae4 ,but in this instance1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 being anxious to quote his fictitious story to calumniate ,mohammad1 has ceased to be a judicious historian1 and deviates from his self-imposed rule4 ,he does not reject the story as he ought judiciously and conscientiously to have done1 as it is not to be found in any of the earliest and original authorities mentioned by him2 on the contrary1 he compromises himself by condescending to quote from secondary and later authors4 ,he writes in a footnote without quoting his original authority3-- ,the version given in the text is accredited by ,jellood-deen1 ,yahia1 ,beizawi1 and ,zamakshari1 c4 7,vol4 ,,iii1 page #afc47 ,these authors were neither biographers nor historians1 and are therefore no authorities at all4 ,zamakshari and ,beizawi were commentators in the sixth and seventh centuries respectively4 ,they give two stories1 one regarding ,maria and another to the effect that the oath or promise of ,mohammad had been to the effect that he would not again partake of a species of strong-scented honey disliked by his wives4 ,jelal-ud-deen ,mahalli was a commentator of the ninth century of the ,hejira4 ,yahia is not known among the commentators4 ,he may be one of the latest authors4 ,the commentators are generally no authority in the matter of traditional literature4 ,to illustrate allusions in the ,coran1 they are always ready with a story in point1 but unfortunately there are almost always different tales1 all equally opposite to the same allusion4 ,the allusion1 in fact1 was often the father of the story4 ,what was originally1 perhaps1 a mere conjecture of supposed events that might have given rise to an expression in the ,coran1 or was a single surmise in explanation of some passage1 by degrees assume the garb of fact4 ,the tradition and the facts which it professes to attest thus1 no doubt1 often rest on no better authority than that of the verse or passage itself4#cff ,sidenote3 ,the best commentators and traditionists refute the story4 #af4 ,those commentators who are well versed in the ,science of ,traditions1 as well as doctors in the traditional literature1 have rejected the story of ,maria as the subject-matter of ,sura ,,lxvi1 as apocryphal4 ,baghvi1 the author of ,misbah 7the text of ,mishkat71 says that the ,sura was revealed on the subject of honey1 and not in the case of ,maria4 ,the latter story is neither in the ,sahihain 7,bokhari and ,muslim71 nor has it been narrated in any authentic way4 ,hfiz ,ishmael ,ibn ,kaseeral ,qarashi1 as quoted by ,kustlnee 7notes on ,bokhari1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 page #cac71 says that the ,sura was certainly in the case of honey4 ,imam ,novee1 in his notes on ,muslim1 7,vol4 ,i1 page #dfc17 says3--,in fact it was revealed in the case of the honey1 and not in the case of ,maria4 ,sidenote3 ,the story not accredited by the ,koran4 #ag4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir himself admits that the earliest biographers do not relate the story1 but gives a false excuse for his not following their example4 ,he writes3-- ,the biographers pass over the scene in decent silence1 and ,i should gladly have followed their example1 if the ,coran itself had not accredited the facts1 and stamped them with unavoidable notoriety4#cfg ,the allegation is absurdly false1 as everybody can satisfy himself by referring to the ,koran1 which does not contain the fictitious and spurious story4 ,sidenote3 ,the story when fabricated4 #ah4 ,the currency of the story did neither take place during the time of ,mohammad1 its proper age1 nor during the lifetime of the companions4 ,it was fabricated and imposed on some of the ,tabaee of weak authority in the second century4#cfh ,there is no doubt that the whole story is a sheer fabrication from beginning to end4 ,sidenote3 ,zeinab's case4 #ai4 ,in conclusion1 ,i will offer a few remarks in passing regarding ,sir ,w4 ,muir's reference here to ,zeinab's case4 ,he writes3-- ,the charms of a second ,zeinab were by accident discovered too fully before the ,prophet's admiring gaze4 ,she was the wife of ,zeid1 his adopted son and bosom friend2 but he was unable to smother the flame she had kindled in his breast1 and by divine command she was taken to his bed4#cfi ,the story is from the beginning to end all untrue4 ,mohammad knew ,zeinab from her infancy1 she was his cousin2 and he had himself arranged her marriage with ,zeid4 ,when ,zeid divorced her1 she was thirty-five years old1 and possibly could have no charms to fascinate even a stranger4 ,had she been charming or fair to look upon1 ,zeid should not have separated himself from her4 ,there is no historical authority for this1 or for any other version of the story4 ,the ,koran1 while treating the subject1 has not the slightest reference to any of the stories afterwards made out to the effect that ,mohammad had been to ,zeid's house1 and1 having accidentally seen the beauty of ,zeinab's figure through the half-opened door2 or that the wind blew aside the curtain of ,zeinab's chamber1 and disclosed her in a scanty undress1 was smitten by the sight4#cgj ,sidenote3 ,the story a spurious one4 #bj4 ,these stories1 and ,i believe a few more varied accounts of the same1 like those of the story of ,maria the ,coptic1 were originally mere conjectures of supposed events that might have given rise to an expression in the ,koran 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 verse #cg7--;if not wilful misrepresentations of story-tellers and enemies of ,islam--which the ,european writers represent in the garb of facts4 ,the words of the ,koran which have been the father of the story are3-- ,and when thou saidst to him unto whom ,god had shewn favour1 and unto whom thou also hadst shewn favour1 'keep thy wife to thyself1 and fear ,god1' and thou didst hide in thy mind what ,god would bring to light1 and thou didst fear men2 but more right it had been to fear ,god4 ,this shows ,mohammad dissuaded ,zeid from divorcing his wife1 notwithstanding the great facility of divorce common at that time in ,arabia4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir is not justified in copying these stories from ,tabari4 ,they are not related by earliest biographers from any authentic and reliable source4 ,he ought to have rejected them as spurious fabrications under historical criticism1 as he rejects other traditions which are on a better footing of truth than these false and maliciously forged stories4 ,sidenote3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir's conjectures not justified4 #ba4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir has exceeded the limit he himself had marked out for a judicious historian of ,mohammad when he abounds in his wild fancies1 and observes-- ,zeid went straightway to ,mahomet1 and declared his readiness to divorce ,zeinab for him4 ,this ,mahomet declined3 ',keep thy wife to thyself1' he said1 'and fear ,god4' ,but ,zeid could plainly see that these words proceeded from unwilling lips1 and that the ,prophet had still a longing eye for ,zeinab4#cga ,now this is a mere libellous surmise4 ,he goes on still with his defamatory conjectures1 and writes3-- ,still the passion for ,zeinab could not be smothered2 it continued to burn within the heart of ,mahomet1 and at last bursting forth1 scattered other considerations to the wind4#cgb ,mohammad never professed to have received a divine command to marry ,zeinab4 ,it was not necessary for him to have done so4 ,the outcry raised by the ,pagan ,arabs was not because they suspected an intrigue on the ,prophet's part to secure a divorce1 but because they looked upon an adopted son in the light of a true son1 and considered1 therefore1 the marriage with ,zeinab1 after her divorce from ,zeid1 as falling within the prohibited degrees4 ,this adoptive affinity was already abolished in the ,koran 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 #d73 ,god hath not made your adopted sons as your own sons4 ,sir ,w4 ,muir gravely mistakes in his remarks when he says3-- ,the marriage caused much obloquy1 and to save his reputation1 ,mahomet had the impious effrontery to sanction it by special ,revelation from on high1 in which the ,almighty is represented as formally recording a divine warrant for the union4#cgc ,he quotes verse #cf1 ,sura ,,xxxiii4 ,but he has himself admitted 7,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bbi footnote7 that this verse is rather in a recitative style of a past event1 and not a divine command to marry ,zeinab4 ,the words we joined thee in marriage unto her in the verse do not mean a command for marriage4 ,they simply mean that the marriage had taken place4 ,the phrase we joined thee in marriage unto her is a mere form of expression4 ,almost all human actions are attributed to ,god in the ,koran1 and whatever occurs in the world by the ordinary course of nature1 and by the free agency of men1 is referred in the ,koran to the immediate agency of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,a wrong translation of ,sir ,w4 ,muir4 #bb4 ,in the next verse--,there is no offence chargeable to the ,prophet in that which ,god hath enjoined upon him--he wrongly translates ,faraza as enjoined1 and thus conveys an idea of a divine command4 ,faraza means he made 7a thing7 lawful or allowable4 ,see ,lane's ,arabic ,dictionary1 ,bk4 ,i1 ,pt4 ,,vi1 page #bcgc4 ,in giving the above meaning ,mr4 ,lane quotes this very verse4#cgd ,such unions were made lawful not only to ,mohammad1 but for all the ,moslems1 and there was nothing partaking of a special prerogative for him4 ,no special sanction is conveyed by these verses4 ,no special revelation from on high was brought forward to secure his own object or to give him an exceptional privilege4 ,it was merely said that no blame attached to the ,prophet for doing what was lawful4 ,the word ,amr1 translated command and behest1 in ,,xxxiii1 #cg and #ch1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir and others1 in fact means here and in other similar passage 7,,xix1 #ba2 ,,iv1 #ej2 ,,xi1 #gf2 and ,,viii1 #dc1 #df71--;,god's foreknowledge of future contingencies and not a legal command4 ,the same is the case with the word ,qadr in ,,xxxiii1 #ch1 as well as in ,,xv1 #fj1 and ,,lxxiii1 #bj1 which means ,god's prescience and not a predestinated decree4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,zeinab's case no exceptional privilege was secured4 #bc4 ,in conclusion1 ,sir ,w4 ,muir remarks3-- ,our only matter of wonder is that the ,revelations of ,mahomet continued after this to be regarded by his people as inspired communications from the ,almighty1 when they were so palpably formed to secure his own objects1 and pander even to his evil desires4 ,we hear of no doubts or questionings1 and we can only attribute the confiding and credulous spirit of his followers to the absolute ascendency of his powerful mind over all who came within its influence4#cge ,the verses #cg and #ch of the thirty-third ,sura had not in any way secured the objects of ,mohammad1 much less pandered to his evil desire4 ,as his marriage with ,zeinab had taken place long before they were published1 they could not be said to confer any exceptional privilege upon him4 ,sidenote3 ,the false story traced to ,muktil4 #bd4 ,the story copied by commentators that ,mohammad had accidentally seen ,zeinab and admired her is traced to ,muktil1#cgf a commentator of the ,koran in the second century1 who died at ,basra #aej ,a4,h4 ,the doctors 7in traditions71 writes ,ibn ,khallikan in his ,biographical ,dictionary1 translated by ,slane1 differ in opinion respecting ,muktil3 some declare that1 as a traditionist1 he was worthy of confidence1 and others accused him of falsehood4 444 ,ahmed bin ,saiyr says3-- ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn1 a native of ,balkh1 went to ,marw1 whence he proceeded to ,irk4 ,his veracity is suspected2 his ,traditions should be left aside and declarations should be rejected4 ,speaking of the divine attributes1 he said things which it would be sinful to repeat4 ,ibrhm ,ibn ,ykb-al-,juz-,jni called ,muktil an audacious liar4 ,abu ,abd ar-,rahmn an ,nasi said3--,liars notorious for forging ,traditions and passing them off as coming from the ,prophet were four in number3 ,ibn ,abi ,yahya1 at ,medna2 ,al-,wkidi1 at ,baghdad2 ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn1 in ,khorsn2 and ,muhammad ,ibn ,sad1 surnamed ,al-,maslb1 in ,syria4 ,wak ,ibn al-,jarrh said of ,muktil that he was a confirmed liar4 ,abu ,bakr al-,ajurri said3 ,i asked ,ab ,dwd ,sulimn ,ibn al ,ashth concerning ,muktil1 and he answered3--',all ,traditions given by him should be rejected4' ,according to ,omar ,ibn al-,ghalls1 ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn was a liar1 and his traditions were to be rejected4 ,as for ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn1 said ,al-,bukhri1 pass him over in silence4 ,in another place1 he says of him3 ,he is just nothing at all4 ,yahya ,ibn ,mon declared that ,muktil's traditions were of no value2 and ,ahmad ,ibn ,hanbal said3 ,as for ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn1 the author of the ,commentary1 ,i should not like to cite anything on his authority4 ,his ,traditions are to be rejected1 said ,ab ,htim ar-,rzi4 ,according to ,zakariya ,ibn ,yahya as-,sji1 people said of ,muktil ,ibn ,sulimn1 the native of ,khorsn1 that he was a liar1 and that his traditions should be rejected4#cgg ,sidenote3 ,ikrama4 ,ikrama 7died #ajg ,a4,h471 another liar1 had only surmised before ,muktil that ,mohammad might have admired ,zeinab4 ,his words1 as related by the traditionists1 ,abd bin ,hamd and ,ibn-al-,munzar1 are as if she had fallen deep in his mind4#cgh ,but ,muktil has converted this hazardous conjecture into a fact4 ,abd ,allah ,ibn al-,harith relates as follows3-- ,i went to visit ,ali1 the son of ,abd ,allh ,ibu ,abbs1 and ,i saw ,ikrama tied up at the door of a privy1 on which ,i said3 ',is it thus that you treat your slave8' ,to which he replied4 ',know that that fellow has told lies of my father4'#cgi ,sidenote3 ,mohammad bin ,yahya4 ,mohammad bin ,yahya bin ,habbn#chj 7died #aba ,a4,h47 has also given the tradition of ,mohammad's admiring ,zeinab at ,zeid's house1 but does not give his authority4 ,he was not a contemporary narrator1 therefore his narration is apocryphal and technically ,mursal4 ,sidenote3 ,katd's conjectural interpretation not warranted4 #be4 ,all these silly fables1 wild romances1 and scandalous conjectures have their origin in ,katda's improper interpretation of these words1 and thou didst hide in thy mind what ,god would bring to light 7,sura ,,xxxiii1 #cg74 ,katda 7died #aag ,a4,h47 conjectured that the ,prophet concealed his desire that ,zeid should divorce ,zeinab4 ,but all other authors#cha have found fault with ,katda in his surmise1 which is not supported by any word in the text or by any contemporary evidence4 ,this interpretation of ,katda is contradicted by the very words of ,mohammad to ,zeid in the same verse3 ,keep thy wife to thyself and fear ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,other conjectures4 #bf4 ,many have been the conjectures as to what did ,mohammad hide in his mind4 ,there is one by ,katda already explained4 ,another is this1 that he knew ,zeid would divorce her1 but concealing this in his mind1 he interdicted ,zeid from doing so4 ,a third conjecture is this1 that he concealed in his mind that if ,zeid1 contrary to his 7,mohammad's7 advice1 were to divorce her 7,zeinab71 he 7,mohammad7 would marry her4 ,these conjectures are all far-fetched and arbitrary1 but it appears more probable that the social inharmony and domestic disturbances between ,zeid and ,zeinab1 and their resolve of separation1 were withheld from the public by ,mohammad1 fearing the scandal it might give rise to among his enemies4 ,this is the only secret referred to in the verse so often cited4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 page #ge1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,it is to ransom the captive4--,,xc1 #ac4 ,there is no piety in turning your faces towards the east or the west1 but he is pious who believeth in ,god and the ,last ,day1 and the ,angels and the ,scriptures and the ,prophets2 who for the love of ,god disburseth his wealth to his kindred and to the orphans and the needy1 and the wayfarer and those who ask2 and for ransoming1 c4--,,ii1 #agb4 ,footnote #cch3 ,and to those of your slaves who desire a deed of manumission1 execute it for them1 if ye know good in them1 and give them a portion of the wealth of ,god which ,he hath given you4 ,force not your female slaves into sin1 in order that ye may gain he casual fruitions of this world1 if they wish to preserve their modesty4 ,yet if any one compel them1 then verily1 after their compulsion1 will ,god be ,forgiving1 ,merciful4--,,xxiv1 #cc4 ,footnote #cci3 ,a believer killeth not a believer but by mischance3 and whoso killeth a believer by mischance shall be bound to free a believer from slavery1 c4--,,iv1 #id4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,and those who thus put away their wives1 and afterwards would recall their words1 must free a captive before they can come together again1 c4--,,lviii1 #d4 ,footnote #cda3 ,but alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy1 and those who collect them1 and to those whose hearts are won to ,islam1 and for ransoming and for debtors1 and for the cause of ,god1 and the wayfarer1 c4--,,ix1 #fj4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,god will not punish you for a mistaken word in your oaths2 but ,he will punish you in regard to an oath taken seriously4 ,its expiation shall be to feed ten poor persons with such middling food as ye feed your families with1 or to clothe them2 or to set free a captive3 but he who cannot find the means shall fast three days4 ,this is the expiation of your oaths when ye have sworn4 ,keep then your oaths4 ,thus ,god maketh his signs clear to you4 ,haply ye will be thankful4--,v1 #ia4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,vide ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bbc4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,according to ,hishmi1 p4 #gde1 a party of fifty or forty ,koreish went round about ,mohammad's camp at ,hodeibia1 seeking to cut off any stray followers2 and having attacked the camp itself with stones and arrows1 they were caught and taken to ,mohammad1 who pardoned and released them4--,vide ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,,iv1 p4 #ca1 f4n42 and ,moslim's collection of genuine traditions ,kitab-ul ,jihad vas-,siyar1 chapter on ,tanfeel and ,ransom4 ,footnote #cde3 ,all the prisoners of ,hawzin at ,honain were released without taking any ransom and were not made slaves4 ,see ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #adh-adi4 ,that ,mohammad had presented three female slaves to ,ali1 ,othman1 and ,omar from the captives of ,bard ,hawzin1 as stated by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #adi1 is void of all truth4 ,the captives were not enslaved4 ,they were mere prisoners1 as ,sir ,w4 ,muir himself calls them so 7ibid1 pp4 #adh-adi72 yet he styles these three of them female slaves4 ,the captives together with the captured camp were removed to the valley of ,jierna1 pending negotiations 7ibid1 p4 #adb74 ,at the end of the negotiations the prisoners were released4 ,thus there could be no distribution of prisoners to anyone4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,sir ,w4 ,muir writes3--,hishmee says that from the time of ,kheibar slaves became very plentiful among the ,moslems1 p4 #ccc4 ,i do not find that1 excepting the family of ,kinna1 any mention is made of slaves taken at ,kheibar4 ,but money1 which the victors obtained plentifully at ,kheibar1 could purchase them cheaply in any part of ,arabia4 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #gc-gd1 and footnote47 ,but the word originally used by ,hishamee1 sabaya1 means captives and property captured1 and not slaves1 though captives1 if not ransomed1 were used to be made slaves under the ,arab ,international ,law4 ,besides this even the family of ,kinna was never enslaved4 ,kinna was taken captive and executed1 because he had killed ,mahamd bin ,muslama4 ,vide para4 #ge of this book4 ,the story that ,mohammad immediately on ,kinna's execution sent for her and cast his mantle over her1 signifying that she was to be his own1 and consummated his marriage with her1 and that her dower was her freedom 7vide ,muir1 ibid1 pp4 #fh-fi71 is not genuine and authentic4 ,his family1 by which is meant ,sofia and her cousin1 was not enslaved1 and there is no tradition1 genuine or apocryphal1 to corroborate it4 ,i here take the opportunity of quoting a speech ascribed to ,mohammad while addressing ,sofia1 the widow of ,kinna1 copied by ,abul ,mo'tamar ,soleiman 7died ,a4,h4 #adc7 in his ,campaigns of ,mohammad4 ,mohammad addressed her thus3--,i give thee choice either of ,islam1 or of ,judaism4 ,if thou acceptest ,islam1 perhaps ,i may keep thee for myself4 ,but if thou preferest ,judaism1 ,i may perhaps liberate thee1 and join thee to thy family4 ,vide ,wkidi's ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 page #cic1 ,calcutta1 #ahef4 ,this speech shows amply that ,mohammad had no intention of enslaving ,sofia4 ,the story of ,mohammad's marriage with ,sofia after her being given to and purchased from ,dihya1 emanates from ,anas1 who cannot be relied upon4 ,anas had very recently been associated with ,mohammad4 ,he entered ,mohammad's service only the other day when he started for the expedition of ,khyber1 and was but a boy only a dozen-years old at that time4 ,it is related by ,bokhari from ,anas himself1 who said that the ,prophet had asked ,abu ,tulhah to get him a boy to serve him during the ,khyber expedition4 ,so he took me to him1 and ,i was a boy close to maturity 7,bokhari-,kitabul ,jihad74 ,anas has given two contradictory accounts about ,sofia2 in one he says1 ,dihya asked ,mohammad's permission for a captive girl1 and took ,sofia4 ,when ,mohammad heard about ,sofia1 he asked ,dihya to take another one2 and having liberated ,sofia married her1 and her freedom was her dower4 ,in another tradition1 ,anas relates that ,sofia fell to the lot of ,dihya1 and ,mohammad purchased her from him for seven camels4 ,he says3--,the people did not know whether he had married her1 or had made her a concubine-slave1 but when she rode on a camel1 and ,mohammad put veil round her1 the people knew from this that she was his wife4 ,both these traditions are narrated from ,anas by ,moslem in his ,saheeh 7,book on ,marriage74 ,the idea that ,mohammad married ,sofia under the circumstances noted above is not satisfactorily established4 ,it was only the fancy of the people1 or was a conjecture of ,anas4 ,yet ,sir ,w4 ,muir has the effrontery to remark against ,mohammad that3 ,indeed1 he is not free from the suspicion of being influenced in the destruction of ,kinna by the desire of obtaining his wife4 7,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #fh1 footnote47 ,kinna was executed for killing ,mahmood bin ,muslama1 and ,sofia was neither enslaved nor married by ,mohammad4 ,even if it be shown that ,mohammad married her afterwards under some other circumstances1 it 7,sir ,w4 ,muir's presumption7 is an idle guess unwarranted by any reasonable argument4 ,the traditionists1 ,anas and others1 have probably confounded ,sofia1 the aunt of ,mohammad1 who was with him during the expedition of ,khyber 7vide ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #ff1 footnote71 with ,kinna's widow of the same name1 whom they fancied ,mohammad might have married and carried with him on the same camel4 ,the lady for whom ,mohammad lowered his knee to help her to ascend the camel 7ibid1 page #gj7 was most probably ,sofia1 his aunt4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bgh-bgi4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,vide ,the ,biographical ,dictionary of ,persons who knew ,mohammad1 by ,ibn ,hajar4 ,in ,biblotheca ,indica4 ,a collection of oriental ,series1 published by the ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 ,no4 #bae1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,fasciculus #g1 ,calcutta1 #ahff2 ,art4 ,rehana1 ,no4 #ddd4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bgh4 ,footnote #cej3 ,the days of ,ignorance1 that is1 the period preceding ,islam4 ,footnote #cea3 ,two such are named by ,tabari1 ,i1 page #bdh4 ,a light ransom was fixed for each ,arab slave--seven camels and six young ones4 ,in the case of some tribes which had suffered most severely 7as the ,beni ,hanifa1 the ,beni ,kinda1 and the people of ,omn discomfited at ,dab7 even this was remitted4 ,annals of ,early ,caliphate4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,london1 #ahhc1 pp4 #fc1 #fd4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #ef4 ,footnote #cec3 ,ibid1 page #eg1 footnote4 ,footnote #ced3 ,vide ,hishamee1 page #igb4 ,footnote #cee3 ,ibid1 page #iga4 ,footnote #cef3 ,vide ,takrib by ,ibn ,hajar4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,vide ,history of ,muhammad's ,campaigns by ,wkidi2 edited by ,von ,kremer1 ,calcutta1 #ahef1 from p4 #cfj to the end4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #fb4 ,footnote #cei3 ,vide ,mizn-ul-,etedl by ,zahab4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,vide ,nos4 #igf1 #igg1 and #igh in the ,biographical ,dictionary of ,persons who knew ,mohammad1 by ,ibn ,hajar1 published by the ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 ,calcutta1 #ahgj1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ggi1 #ghj1 and #gha4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,vide ,mizn1 by ,zahab4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,an eclipse of the sun occurred on the same day1 and the people spoke of it as a tribute to the death of the ,prophet's son4 ,a vulgar impostor would have accepted and confirmed the delusion2 but ,mahomet rejected the idea4--,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #aff4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,meaning the company of his female slave4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #afa and #afb4 ,taking concubine-slaves was an established and recognized institution of the ,arab society1 until ,mohammad abolished it4 ,practically the custom has prevailed up to the present time4 ,no blame attached to such alliances in the social system of the ,arabs4 ,the ,caliphs of the ,house of ,abbas were all of them the children of concubines except as--,saffah1 ,al-,mahdi1 and ,al-,amin 7,history of ,caliphs4 ,by ,sayte4 ,translated by ,major ,jarret1 page #bj1 ,calcutta1 #ahhj74 ,if the story regarding ,mohammad be true1 there was no fear of exposure or offending the wives4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,introduction1 page ciii4 ,footnote #cff3 ,the ,calcutta ,review1 ,feby4 #ahfh1 page #cgd4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #afj4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,zeid bin ,aslam 7in ,tabrani71 who narrates the story1 though he does not mention ,maria1 is a ,tbaee 7died ,a4,h4 #acf71 and does not quote his authority4 ,besides1 his authority itself is impeached2 vide ,ibn ,adi in his ,kmal4 ,masrook 7in ,saeed bin ,mansoor7 only came to ,medina long after ,mohammad's death2 therefore his narration1 even if it be genuine1 is not reliable4 ,zohak ,ibn ,muzahim 7in ,tabrani71 also a ,tbaee and of impeached authority1 narrates it from ,ibn ,abbs1 but he never heard any tradition from him1 nor had he even seen him 7vide ,mzn-ul-,etedal1 by ,zahabi1 and ,ansb1 by ,sam-ni74 ,his narration must be hence considered as apocryphal4 ,the ascription of ,ibn ,omar's 7died #gc ,a4,h47 story1 not strictly to the point1 is untrustworthy4 ,abu ,hurera's narration is also admitted as apocryphal2 vide ,dur-rul-mansoor1 by ,soyut4 ,all these traditions are noted by ,soyut in his ,dur-rul-mansoor4 ,the tradition by ,nasee 7died #cjc ,a4,h47 from ,anas 7died #ij ,a4,h47 regarding the affair of a slave is equally contradicted by the tradition from ,ayesha1 the widow of the ,prophet1 narrated by the traditionist ,nasee in the same place of his collection of traditions4 ,this is the story of the honey4 ,vide para4 #af1 ubi supra4 ,ayesha's tradition is more trustworthy than that of ,anas4 ,hammd bin ,salma1 a narrator in the ascription of ,anas1 has been impeached owing to the confusion of his memory in the later days of his life 7vide ,tekreeb74 ,sabit1 another link in the same chain1 was a story-teller by profession 7vide ,zahabi's ,tabakt17 and cannot be depended upon4 ,and ,nasee himself has rejected the tradition ascribed to ,anas1 and is reported to have said that ,ayesha's tradition has good ascription1 while there is nothing valid in that regarding ,maria2 vide ,kamlain's ,annotations on ,jellain in loco4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #caj4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bbh1 and footnote at pp4 #bbi and #bcj4 ,footnote #cga3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 page #bbh4 ,the italics are mine4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bbi4 ,the tradition quoted by ,sir ,w4 ,muir in this page is apocryphal and technically ,mursal4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,ibid1 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #cgd3 7,t4,a47 he made a thing lawful1 or allowable1 to him 7,jel in ,,xxxiii1 #ch1 and ,kull in page #bge and ,t4,a4997 relating to a case into which a man has brought himself 7,kull73 this is said to be the meaning when the phrase occurs in the ,kur3 ,an ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 by ,edward ,william ,lane1 page #bcge4 ,footnote #cge3 ,the ,life of ,mahomet1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 page #bca4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,vide ,seerat ,halabi2 or1 ,insan-ul-,oyoon1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #djb4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #dji-daj4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,vide ,dur-rul-mansoor1 by ,sayt1 in loco4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #bjg4 ,footnote #chj3 ,narrated by ,ibn ,sd and ,hkim4 ,footnote #cha3 ,vide ,abdur ,razzk4 ,abd bin ,hamd1 ,ibn ,jarr1 ,ibn-al-,monzar1 ,ibn ,abi ,htim1 and ,tabrni's ,collections of ,traditions4 ,appendix ,c4 ,the references to the particular events and circumstances relating to the defensive wars mentioned in the ,koran1 quoted and referred by me in this work1 may be classified as follows3-- ,i4--,the ,persecutions of the ,koreish at ,mecca 7,b4,h4 #aj-a74 ,sura xvi1 #dc1 #dd1 #aaa4 ,sura ii1 #baj1 #bad1 #bae4 ,sura iii1 #aid4 ,sura iv1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,sura xxii1 #eg4 ,sura lx1 #h1 #i4 ,sura xlvii1 #ad4 ,sura xlviii1 #be4 ,sura ix1 #dj1 #dh1 #ie4 ,,ii4--,the ,aggressions of the ,koreish at ,medina1 as well as those of the ,inhabitants thereof 7,a4,h4 #aj74 ,sura ii1 #bad2 ,sura viii1 #gb2 ,sura ix1 #ac1 #dh1 #gb4 ,,iii4 ,the ,wars of ,defence against the ,koreish and the ,arabs1 c41 with several ,references to their ,aggressions 7,a4,h4 #a-h74 ,sura xxii1 #ci-db4 ,sura ii1 #ahf-ahi1 #bad1 #bae1 #bde1 #bdg1 #beb4 ,sura iv1 #gf-gh1 #hf1 #ia1 #ic4 ,sura viii1 #ai1 #ci-da1 #eh-ff1 #gc1 #gd4 ,sura ix1 #aj1 #ac4 ,,iv4--,the ,various ,battles1 c4 7#a7 ,the ,battle of ,badr 7,a4,h4 #b74 ,sura iii1 #aa1 #aai2 ,sura viii1 #e-ai1 #ci-eb1 #ff-gb2 ,sura xlvii1 #d1 #ae4 7#b7 ,the ,battle of ,ohad 7,a4,h4 #c74 ,sura iii1 #aag-abb2 #acd-aed2 #aei-afb4 7#c7 ,the ,second ,battle of ,badr 7,a4,h4 #d71 and ,the ,expulsion of the ,bani ,nazeer 7,a4,h4 #d74 ,sura iii1 #afg2 and ,sura lix1 #b-ad4 7#d7 ,the ,battle of ,ahzb 7,a4,h4 #e74 ,sura xxxiii1 #i-be4 7#e7 ,the ,jews1 ,bani ,koreiza1 c4 7,a4,h4 #e74 ,sura viii1 #eh-ff2 ,sura xxxiii1 #bf-bg4 7#f7 ,the pilgrimic ,expedition to ,hodeibia 7,a4,h4 #f74 ,sura xlviii1 #a-c1 #aj1 #aa1 #bd1 #be2 ,sura lx4 7#g7 ,the ,expedition to ,khyber 7,a4,h4 #g74 ,sura xlviii1 #ag1 #bj-bb4 7#h7 ,the breach of the truce of ,hodeibia by the ,koreish 7,a4,h4 #h74 7a7 ,before the ,conquest of ,mecca4 ,sura ix1 #a-ae4 7b7 ,after the ,conquest of ,mecca1 ,sura ix1 #af-bd4 7#i7 ,the ,battle of ,honain 7,a4,h4 #h74 ,sura ix1 #be-bg4 7#aj7 ,after the ,battle of ,honain 7,a4,h4 #i74 ,sura ix1 #bh4 7#aa7 ,the ,expedition to ,tabuk against the ,christians 7,romans7 and their ,jewish ,allies 7,a4,h4 #i74 7a7 ,exhortation to go to war in defence4 ,sura ix1 #bi-da1 #abd4 7b7 ,backwardness reproached4 #db-eb1 #ef-eg1 #hb-ij4 7c7 ,exhortations for contribution4 #ec-ee1 #eh-fj1 #ha4 7d7 ,the disaffected chided4 #fe-gf1 #aba1 #abb1 #abe-acj4 7e7 ,the ,bedouins reprobated4 #ia-ajb4 7f7 ,the penitents forgiven4 #ajc-ajg1 #aah4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,amir1 lii4 ,aamir bin ,tofeil1 chief of ,bani ,aamir1 xlvi4 ,abbas1 #cd4 ,abd-bin ,hamid1 #aji f4n41 #bbb4 ,abd bin ,kosayy1 xxxiii4 ,abd ,monat1 xvii f4n4 ,abd ,shams1 xxviii1 #g4 ,abdel ,malik ibn ,hisham1 #gb f4n41 #gc f4n4 ,abd-ud-,dar1 xxxiii4 ,abd-ul-,kays1 xlvi1 lii4 ,abdul ,hamid1 #bjf1 #bjh4 ,abdul ,rahman1 ,mohammad's instruction to him1 xxvii4 ,abdullah1 #if1 #ig4 ,abdullah bin ,abdur ,rahaman bin ,abi ,sasta1 #bjf1 #bjh4 ,abdullah bin al ,harith1 #bbb4 ,abdullah bin ,jahsh1 #ca1 #ef4 ,abdullah bin ,khalal1 #if4 ,abdullah bin ,omar1 #fh f4n4 ,abdullah ibn ,abbas1 #ace4 ,abdullah ibn ,masood1 #gi1 #hj4 ,abdullah ibn ,oneis1 #fi1 #gc4 ,abdullah ibn ,rawha1 #gb1 #ajb4 ,abdullah ibn ,shuburma1 ibn ,tufail ad ,dubbi1 #acf4 ,abdullah ibn ,zubair1 #ace4 ,abdur ,razzak1 #aaj f4n4 ,abs1 xxxiv1 xli1 xlii1 xlvi4 ,ab ,abd-ur-,rahman ,abdullah ibn ,omar ibn-al ,khattab1 #ace4 ,abu ,abd-ur ,rahman an ,nasai1 #bba4 ,abu ,afak1 #fa1 #fd1 #fe4 ,abu ,avana1 #baj4 ,abu ,bakr1 vi1 lix1 #i1 #agi4 ,abu ,bakr al ,ajurri1 #bba4 ,abu ,barda1 #hc4 ,abu ,basir1 #ih1 #ii1 #aja4 ,abu ,bera ,amr ibn ,malik1 a chief of ,bani ,aamir1 xlvi4 ,abu ,cobeis1 #f4 ,abu ,daood1 his book of ,jihad1 #ga f4n41 #gh f4n41 #gi1 #hj f4n41 #if1 #acc1 #bjg4 ,abu ,hattim1 #bjg1 #bji4 ,abu ,hurera1 #bae4 ,abu ,jahl1 #g1 #ee4 ,abu ,naeem1 #gh4 ,abu ,obeida1 #ajg4 ,abu ,omar-ad-,damishki1 #fh f4n4 ,abu ,omar-al-,madni1 #ajg4 ,abu ,rafe1 chief of the ,bani ,nazeer1 #fa1 #ga-gb4 ,abu ,sofian1 viii1 #g1 #aa1 #ad1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ec1 #ee1 #ef1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf2 attempted assassination of1 #fa4 ,abu ,talib1 #f2 his death1 #g4 ,abu ,yola1 xxii4 ,abu ,zara1 #bjh4 ,abul ,bakhtari1 #cd4 ,abul ,hukeik1 the chief of ,bani ,nazeer1 #ci4 ,abul ,mo'tamar ,soleiman1 #hi1 #aig1 #bjj1 #bjf4 ,abul ,ozza1 #gf1 #hj1 #ha4 ,abwa1 ,expedition of1 #bi1 #ef4 ,abyssinia1 ,the emigration of the ,moslems to1 v1 xxxiii1 #e2 the two emigrations of1 #aa2 ,nadhir ibn ,hareth's flight to1 #gh1 #agi4 ,age1 ,the ,apostolic1 #aji4 ,ahl ,hadis1 #afj4 ,ahmas1 liii4 ,ahmed bin ,hanbal1 #bba4 ,ahmed ibn ,abi ,daood1 #aac4 ,ahmed ,khan1 ,syed2 his ,commentary of the ,koran1 #ie f4n4 ,ahzab1 vii1 xxii1 xxiii1 #aj1 #aig4 ,ainee1 a ,commentary of the ,hedaya1 #abe1 #acb1 #acd f4n4 ,ajtahada1 #afd4 ,ajtahada fil ,amr1 #afd4 ,akhnas1 #ii4 ,al-,aamash1 #ace4 ,al-,amaran1 #ahb4 ,al-,amin1 #bab f4n4 ,al-,auzai1 #ace4 ,ali1 #i1 #hj1 #aif4 ,ali bin ,abdullah bin ,abbas1 #fh4 ,al-,is1 #eg4 ,al-,lat1 #g4 ,allah1 #ch4 ,allauddin ,al ,haskafi1 #agj ,almotarrazi1 #afd4 ,al-,mamun1 ,khalif1 #acf4 ,al ,yafi1 #acf4 ,amalekites1 #aec4 ,amar1 commissioned to fight with ,abu ,sofian1 #gd1 #ha1 #bai4 ,amar-bin-,dinar1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf4 ,ameer ,ali1 ,moulvie1 quoted1 #ij4 ,amr1 #fd4 ,amr bin ,saasaa1 xxxiv1 xli4 ,amru ibn ,omerga1 #ge4 ,anaza1 lii4 ,annajmus ,saqib 7star of piercing radiance71 xxxvi4 ,annals of the ,eastern ,caliphate quoted1 #aic1 #bjb4 ,ans1 #ic f4n41 #acf1 #aig-aih1 #bae4 ,ans bin ,qizi1 #hi4 ,ansab1 #bae4 ,ansars1 people of ,medina1 #cb1 #da4 ,apartment1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahh4 ,arabs1 their society1 ii1 #bf2 pagan1 #abe4 ,arafat1 xlviii4 ,arqam1 ,mohammad sought refuge in the house of1 xxxiii4 ,asad1 xii1 xiii1 xxxiii1 xlvi1 lii4 ,asas of ,zamakhshire1 #afc f4n41 #afd4 ,ashar1 xvi4 ,ashja1 xii1 xiii1 xlii1 xliii1 xlv4 ,ashraf1 #ff4 ,asim1 #hj4 ,aslam1 xliii4 ,asma bint ,marwn1 #fa1 #fb-fd4 ,assemblies of ,ali ,hariri1 translated by ,thomas ,chenry1 #afi4 ,as ,sauri1 #acg4 ,as ,shabi1 #acf4 ,astromancy of the ,jinns1 xxxvi4 ,ata1 #fh1 #aaf f4n41 #acd4 ,ata ibn ,abi ,rabah1 #ace4 ,autas1 xxiii1 #af4 ,aws ,allah1 xxxix4 ,aws ,tribes 7,the71 xxxix1 xlii1 xliv4 ,ayesha1 #bae1 #baf4 ,ayla1 the ,christian chief1 xix4 ,azd1 xlv1 lii4 ,azdite ,tribes 7,the71 xxxix1 xlv4 ,azhar1 #ii4 ,azruh1 ,the ,jews of1 xix4 ,b4 ,badr1 vi1 vii1 viii1 ix1 x1 xi1 xxii1 xli1 xlii1 #aj2 the battle of1 #aa1 #cb1 #cd2 ,nadhir executed at1 #gh1 #aaj f4n41 #agj1 #aha1 #aif4 ,baghdad1 #bba4 ,baghvi1 #bad4 ,bahrein1 li4 ,baihakee1 his traditions1 #aad4 ,balca1 #dj4 ,balkh1 #bb4 ,bahila1 lii4 ,bahra1 lii4 ,bajila1 lii4 ,bakka1 xxxiv1 lii4 ,bakr1 xvii1 xxviii1 xli1 xlii1 lii1 #ae1 #bb1 #ec4 ,bali1 xlvi1 liv4 ,bariq1 liv4 ,baus1 ,meaning of1 xxi4 ,bir ,mauna1 xii4 ,boas1 ,battle of1 xlii4 ,bokharee1 xxii1 #if1 #acd1 #aii1 #bjg4 ,c4 ,calcutta ,review 7,the7 quoted1 #bac4 ,campaigns of ,mohammad by ,wackidi1 #gh f4n41 #ajb1 #aig1 #aih4 ,canaan1 #adj4 ,canaanites1 #aec4 ,capitation-tax1 #abj1 #aei4 ,cattle1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahc4 ,caussin de ,perceval1 xxvii4 ,cazenove1 ,dr41 xxvii4 ,chaldean1 xxxv4 ,chenry1 ,thomas1 quoted1 #afi4 ,chosroes1 #adj4 ,christians1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeg4 ,code1 ,the ,hanafee1 #acg1 #aei4 ,commentary of the ,koran1 #aed4 ,commentary on ,international ,law1 xxx4 ,concubinage not allowed by the ,koran1 #aic2 of ,rihana with the ,prophet not proved1 #bja2 of ,maria the ,coptic1 #bjd-baa2 of ,haphsa and ,maria1 #baa4 ,coppe's 7,henry7 ,history of the ,conquest of ,spain by the ,arabs quoted1 xxix4 ,corinthians1 #a1 vii1 #ab-af2 vii1 #ae1 #aab4 ,cow1 ,the 7,sura71 #aha4 ,creator1 ,the 7,sura71 #aha4 ,cushite ,tribes 7,the71 xxxv4 ,cyrus1 #ade4 ,d4 ,dahis1 ,the war of1 xli4 ,daniel1 ,the ,book of1 xxxv4 ,daree1 liv4 ,dar-ul-,harb1 #aeg1 #aeh4 ,dar-ul-,islam1 #aeg1 #aeh4 ,david1 #aeb4 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxiv4 ,descriptive ,astronomy by ,chambers quoted1 xxxvi4 ,deutronomy1 xx1 #bj1 #aaj4 ,ditto1 xx1 #aj-ag1 #aeb4 ,ditto1 xxi1 #aec4 ,ditto1 vi1 #e1 #agh4 ,dhumra1 #cj4 ,dictionary1 ,biographical1 by ,ibn ,khallikan quoted1 #ace-acg1 #bjf1 #bcj4 ,dictionary1 ,biographical1 of persons who knew ,mohammad1 #bjh4 ,dihya sent by ,mohammad to the ,roman ,emperor1 xiii1 #aig4 ,ditch1 ,battle of the1 #ac1 #ce4 ,dods1 ,dr41 quoted1 lx1 lxxiii1 lxxxiii4 ,dous1 xlv4 ,duma1 ,the ,christian chief of1 xix1 #ab4 ,dumatal ,jandal1 xii4 ,dur-rul-,mansoor1 #bae4 ,dur-rul-,mukhtr1 #agj4 ,dzu ,nows1 xxxix4 ,e4 ,early ,caliphate and rise of ,islam1 by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 #adj4 ,egypt1 #adj2 ,governor of1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,exodus1 xxiii1 #bg-cc1 #aea4 ,extraordinary ,popular ,delusions1 by ,charles ,mackay1 quoted1 xxxviii4 ,f4 ,fadak1 #ae f4n41 #ci4 ,fakhr-ud-deen ,razi1 #agh4 ,faraza1 #bai4 ,farwa1 liv4 ,fasd1 ,the war of1 xliii4 ,fayoomee1 ,author of ,misbahel ,moneer1 #afd4 ,females in connection with the treaty of ,hodeibia1 #aaj-aab4 ,fezara1 xiii1 xxxiv1 xlii1 xlv1 xlvi1 liv1 #ce1 #ci2 executed by ,abu ,rafe1 #ga4 ,fitnah 7,persecutions71 ii1 xvii1 #ag1 #ah1 #dd1 #de1 #abb1 #acc4 ,fluegel1 ,translation of the ,koran by1 #abj4 ,forbidding1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahe4 ,freeman1 ,dr41 quoted1 #adj1 #ada4 ,fruit-trees1 #aji-aaj4 ,furkan1 #agg4 ,fyrozabadee1 #afc f4n4 ,g4 ,ghaba1 ,al1 #ic4 ,ghafiq1 liv4 ,ghanim1 liv4 ,ghassan1 ,the tribes of1 xxxiv1 xlii1 xlvi1 liv4 ,ghassanide1 ,prince at ,bostra 7,the71 xxxix1 #af1 #aci4 ,ghatafan1 xii1 xiii1 xli1 #ab1 #ce1 #ci2 tribes of1 #gb1 #hi4 ,ghaus1 xliii4 ,ghazavat1 ,meaning of the word1 xxi4 ,ghifar1 xliii4 ,ghussan1 #dj4 ,gibbon quoted1 xxiv1 #bf1 #di f4n4 ,green1 ,the ,revd4 ,samuel1 quoted1 xxiii-xxiv4 ,h4 ,habbar1 #aac f4n4 ,hafasa1 xxxiv4 ,hafiz ,ishmael ibn ,kaseer-al-,qarashi1 #bad4 ,hakeem-bin-,hizam1 #aad4 ,halabi1 #cj2 ,insan-al-,oyoon of1 #ia2 quoted and refuted1 #abi-acb4 ,hall's 7,william ,edward7 ,international ,law1 xxix4 ,hallam1 lxiii1 lxv4 ,hamadan1 liv4 ,hammad bin ,salma1 #bae4 ,hamra1 ,abul ,ozza caught at1 #ha1 #hb4 ,hamza1 #bi1 #ee4 ,hanafee ,code 7,the71 #acg1 #aei4 ,hanifa1 xxxiv1 xxxix1 liv1 lv1 #bjc4 ,haphsa1 #baa4 ,harb 7,warfare71 #afc4 ,harb-fijar1 ,battle of1 xli4 ,haris1 xxxiii1 xxxiv1 xlii1 lv1 #dh f4n41 #fd1 #ajf4 ,harith of ,najrn1 xxxix4 ,harith ibn ,amir1 #cd4 ,hashim1 xxxiv1 #cd4 ,hashimites 7,the71 xxxiii1 #f4 ,hatib's story1 #ahg4 ,hawazin1 xlii1 xliii1 xlvi1 xlviii1 #af1 #ci1 #hf1 #aif4 ,hazaramaut1 li4 ,hedaya 7,the71 #aaf2 quoted1 #aag1 #aah1 #abj1 #abe4 ,hegira 7,the71 #h4 ,hilal bin ,amr1 bin ,saasaa1 lv4 ,hims1 #dj4 ,himyar1 xliii1 xlvi1 lv4 ,himyarite stock1 xlv4 ,hinzala ,tribe 7,the71 xxxiv4 ,hira1 ,the ,kingdom of1 xli4 ,hisham1 #cd4 ,hishami1 xxxiii1 #gd1 #ha f4n41 #hi1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjj4 ,hisham-bin-,abdul ,malik1 #bjf4 ,history and ,conquest of the ,saracens quoted1 #adj1 #ada4 ,history of ,european ,morals quoted1 #aje4 ,history of ,mohammadanism 7,the71 quoted1 xxviii4 ,history of the ,conquest of ,spain by the ,arabs1 xxix4 ,history1 ,the ,jewish1 #aeb4 ,hodeibia1 ,truce of1 xi1 xiv2 violation of the truce1 xvi1 xxvi1 xliii1 xlix1 #ae1 #bb1 #hf2 one of the articles of the treaty of ,hodeibia1 #ii2 females in connection with it1 #aaj1 #aif4 ,honain1 xviii1 xxii1 xlvii1 #af2 ,nadhir ibn ,harith present at the ,battle of1 #gh1 #hf1 #aif4 ,horne1 ,t4,h41 #aea4 ,hughes1 ,the ,revd4 ,t4,p41 quoted1 #aed4 ,huweisa1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,i4 ,ibn ,abbas2 his evidence1 #fh1 #if1 #aac1 #bae4 ,ibn ,abdeen1 #abg4 ,ibn ,abi ,yahya1 #bba4 ,ibn ,adi1 #bae4 ,ibn ,al ,athir1 #cj1 #afd f4n4 ,ibn ,ky-yim1 #ajj4 ,ibn al ,mosayyib1 #fh4 ,ibn ,attiah1 #agj4 ,ibn ,hajr al ,askalani1 #fc1 #bjf1 #bjh2 quoted and refuted1 #abh1 #abi4 ,ibn ,hisham1 xv1 xxii1 xxxvi1 xlvii1 #cj1 #fc1 #fd1 #fh f4n41 #fi1 #ga1 #gd1 #gh1 #hj1 #hb1 #hf1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic f4n41 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aji f4n41 #bjg1 #bad4 ,ibn ,ishak1 xxii1 #cj1 #fd1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #gi1 #hj1 #ia1 #ic f4n41 #ajj1 #ajf1 #aji f4n41 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,ibn ,jarir ,tabari1 #ic f4n4 ,ibn ,khaldun1 #ij4 ,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary quoted1 #acf f4n41 #acg1 #bjf1 #bbj4 ,ibn ,maja1 #aac1 #bjg4 ,ibn ,manda1 #gh4 ,ibn ,mardaveih1 #ic f4n41 #aji f4n4 ,ibn ,mas-ood1 #gi1 #hj4 ,ibn ,mokrram1 #afc f4n4 ,ibn ,ockba1 #aji f4n4 ,ibn ,omar1 #bae4 ,ibn ,omeya1 #gd4 ,ibn ,sad ,katib ,wakidi1 xxii1 #fc1 #fi1 #gd1 #ge1 #gh1 #aad1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baj4 ,ibn ,saniua1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,ibn ,sayyad al ,nas1 #hi4 ,ibn ,shahab1 #aac4 ,ibn ,shobormah1 #acd4 ,ibn ,sirni1 #acf4 ,ibn ,sofian1 #aad4 ,ibrahim1 #hj4 ,ibrahim1 the son of ,mohammad1 #bji1 #baj4 ,ibrahim bin ,maisura1 #fh f4n4 ,ibrahim ibn ,yakub al ,juz ,jani1 #bba4 ,idolatry1 ,mohammad's abhorence of1 #f4 ,ignorance1 ,time of1 #hg1 #afi1 #bjb4 ,ikrama bin ,abi ,jahl1 his lying character1 #fh1 #aac1 #bbb4 ,imam 7,the71 #aag2 the ,mujtahid1 #acf1 #bjf4 ,immunity1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahe1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia4 ,insan-ul-,oyoon1 #cj1 #hj f4n41 #ha f4n41 #ia f4n41 #ajb1 #abi1 #aca f4n4 ,international ,law1 by ,w4,e4 ,hall1 quoted1 xxix4 ,intolerance of the ,koreish1 #h2 allegation on ,mohammad1 xxxi1 #db1 #ea4 ,introduction of the ,book1 p4 i4 ,introduction of the critical study and knowledge of the ,holy ,scriptures1 by ,t4,h4 ,horne1 quoted1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,irak1 #bba4 ,irshadussari1 #agj4 ,irving1 ,w41 quoted1 #gd4 ,islam1 the first propagation at ,mecca1 xxxii-xli2 the impediments it received on account of internecine wars1 xl4 ,islam under the ,arabs1 by ,major ,r4,d4 ,osborn1 quoted1 #adf1 #adh4 ,islami poets1 #afe1 #afi4 ,israel1 #aeb4 ,israelites commanded to slay the ,canaanites1 #aea4 ,istizan1 #ch4 ,j4 ,jaad1 lv4 ,jaafir bin ,kelab ibn ,rabia1 lv4 ,jabir1 xxii4 ,jabir ibn ,abdullah1 #fh1 #ace4 ,jabra1 ,the ,jews of1 xix4 ,jadila1 xliii4 ,jafar1 #bjf1 #bjh4 ,jahad1 #agj1 #aib4 ,jahada1 #afc1 #aff1 #agj1 #aia4 ,jahada fil ,amr1 #afc4 ,jahada fi ,sabeel ,allah1 #afd1 #agj4 ,jahadaka1 #aff1 #agc4 ,jahadoo1 #aff1 #agc1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,jahd1 #aff1 #afg1 #agj1 #aha1 #ahc4 ,jahid1 #aff1 #agc1 #ahe4 ,jahid-hom1 #aff4 ,jahidoo1 #aff1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #ahj4 ,jahili1 #afe1 #afh4 ,jlt 7,goliath71 #aeb4 ,jarret's 7,major7 ,translation of ,history of ,caliphs by ,sayte1 #bab4 ,jazima1 #hg4 ,jedda1 ,the abode of ,bani ,ashar1 xlv4 ,jeifer bin al ,jalandi1 lvi4 ,jelalud-,deen ,mahalli1 #bac4 ,jews 7,the7 of ,medina1 iv1 #cd-dj1 #gc2 excited to take up arms by ,nueim1 #ajg1 #abe1 #aci1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeg4 ,jierana1 ,the valley of1 #aif4 ,jihad1 ,the popular1 #aad-afa2 meaning defined1 #aee2 does not mean war or crusade1 #afc2 classical meaning of ,jihad1 c41 #afc2 post-classical or technical meaning of ,jihad1 #afd2 the classical tongue and ,arabian poets1 #afe2 the conjugation and declination of ,jahd and ,jihad1 #aff2 the number of instances in which they occur in the ,koran1 #aff2 in what sense they are used in the ,koran1 #afg2 conventional significations of1 #afh2 ,mohammadan commentators quoted1 #agj2 when the word ',jihad' was diverted from its original signification to its figurative meaning1 of waging religious war1 #agj2 all the verses of the ,koran containing the word ,jihad and its derivatives quoted and explained1 #aga-aib4 ,jihdan1 #afd1 #agj1 #age1 #ahf4 ,jinn1 ,tribe of1 xxxiv-xxxviii4 ,jizya1 #ce4 ,johd1 #afg1 #afi4 ,joheina1 xlii1 xliii1 xlvi1 lvi4 ,jomahites 7,the71 xxxiii4 ,joshua1 #ada1 #aec4 ,jouhari1 #afc f4n41 #afd4 ,judzam1 xiii1 xlvi1 #dj4 ,jufi1 lvi4 ,juzam1 see ,judzam4 ,k4 ,kaaba1 viii2 ,moslems prevented from1 xlv1 #e1 #aci2 stripped of its idols1 xlix1 l4 ,kab1 xxxiv1 lvi4 ,kab bin ,yahooza1 #ajg4 ,kab ibn ,ashraf1 #fa1 #ff-fh1 #ajf4 ,kahins1 xxxv1 xxxvi1 xxxviii2 ,kahinite stock 7,the71 xlv4 ,kahlanite stock1 xxxix1 xlv1 xlvi4 ,kainuka1 xlii1 #cd1 #ce4 ,kalb1 xxxiv1 lvi4 ,katib ,wakidi1 xlvi4 ,kent's ,commentary on ,international ,law1 xxx4 ,khalid ibn ,waleed1 #hg1 #aic4 ,khasafa1 xlvi4 ,khas-am bin ,ammar1 lvi4 ,khaulan1 lvi4 ,khazraj tribes1 xxxix1 xlii1 xliv4 ,khoza1 xii1 xvi1 xvii1 xliii1 #abc4 ,khozeimah1 xxxiv4 ,khushain1 xlv4 ,khyber1 xiii1 xviii1 xxii1 xxiii1 #cg f4n4 ,kifaya1 #abb1 #abe4 ,kilb1 lii4 ,kinana1 ,tortures of1 lvi1 #ie2 ,bani1 lii4 ,kinda1 xxxiv1 xlii1 lvi4 ,kitab-ul-,maghazi1 xxii4 ,kital 7,warfare71 #afc1 #aib1 #aic4 ,koostlnee1 his ,commentary of ,bokharee1 xxii1 #ib1 #ic1 #agj4 ,koran does not enjoin compulsory conversion1 xxxi4 everywhere preaches tolerance of every religion1 xxxii4 ,koreish1 ii1 iii1 iv1 v1 vi1 vii1 ix1 x1 xi1 xii1 xiii1 xxiv1 xxxiii1 xxxix2 the heavy persecutions of1 l2 their embassy to the ,court of ,abyssinia1 #e2 send scouts to search for ,mohammad1 #i2 their severity to fugitives1 id42 their maltreatment of children and women1 id42 become more and more hostile1 #aa2 joined by the ,bani ,mustalik1 #ab2 their anxiety to postpone hostilities1 #ac2 besiege ,medina once more1 #ad2 violate the treaty of ,hodeibia1 xvi1 #ae2 their intolerance1 #bg2 excited to take up arms by ,nueim1 an ,arab1 #aja1 #aci1 #ahg4 ,koreishite persecution1 xxxiv2 caravans alleged to be intercepted1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg4 ,koreiza1 ,the ,jewish tribes of1 xiii1 xix1 xxii1 xlii1 #ad1 #cd2 execution of1 #hg-id1 #aif-bjj4 ,kotelu1 #aef4 ,koukabi ,durrari ,sharah1 #fh4 ,kozaite ,tribe 7,the71 xliii1 xlvi4 ,kufa1 #acf2 the abode of ,bani ,shaitan1 xxxiv4 ,kulab1 xlii4 ,kunniat 7patronymic71 #bjh4 ,kurz-bin-,jabir1 a ,koreish1 commits a raid upon ,medina1 xi1 #aa1 #ib4 ,kustalani1 vide ,koostalanee4 ,l4 ,la-,arjomonnaka 7,i will assuredly say of thee71 xxxviii4 ,lahyan1 xii1 #ab1 #fi4 ,lakhm1 #dj4 ,lane1 ,e4,w41 quoted1 #acg-ach f4n41 #afh-afi4 ,lane's ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 xxxviii1 #afc f4n41 #afd1 #afg1 #bjj1 #bai4 ,la-taatad 7do not attack first71 xxvii4 ,law1 ,the common1 in connection with ,jihad1 #aaf-aag2 its commentators1 #aai-abj1 #aeh4 ,law of ,moses 7,the71 #aaj1 #adj4 ,law of ,scriptural interpretations2 limited or conditional1 general or absolute1 #aah4 ,law of the ,koran with regard to unbelievers1 #aaa4 ,law1 ,the ,mohammadan ,revealed1 or the ,koran1 #aei4 ,lecky1 his standard of ,morality1 #ajd-aje4 ,lecture1 ,the ,rede1 quoted1 #adj4 ,leena1 #aaj4 ,legists1 ,the early ,moslem1 against ,jihad1 #acd2 their biographical sketches1 #ace-acg4 ,leith1 #ae f4n4 ,lieber ,francis quoted1 #cc1 #gf1 #hh2 on ,military necessity1 #ajd4 ,life of ,mahomet1 founder of the ,religion of ,islamism1 by the ,revd4 ,s4 ,green1 xxiv4 ,life of ,mohammad by ,dr4 ,sprenger quoted1 xxiv4 ,light1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahe4 ,lisanul-,arab of ,ibn ,mokarram1 #afc4 ,loghat1 or ,the ,classical ,tongue of ,arabia1 #afe4 ,lokman1 #agg4 ,luke1 x1 #bg2 and xiii1 #abd1 #agh4 ,m4 ,mac,coll1 ,the ,revd4 ,malcolm1 quoted1 #aeg4 ,macna1 ,the ,jews of1 xix4 ,maddool ,kamoos1 by ,mr4 ,lane1 #afd4 ,maghazi1 #ch1 #ahg 7accounts of the ,campaigns of ,mohammad71 xliv4 ,mahmud1 killed by ,kinana1 #ie4 ,mahmud bin ,muslama1 brother of ,mohammad bin ,muslama1 #ie1 #aig4 ,mahrah1 lvi4 ,mak-hool1 #bji4 ,malak1 #ch4 ,malik1 #ch4 ,manakib1 #aii4 ,marafat1 ,anwa ilm ,hadees1 #fh4 ,maria the ,coptic1 #bjd2 sent by the ,roman ,governor to ,mohammad1 #bje2 neither a slave nor a concubine1 #bjf-bjh2 had no son1 #bji2 the spurious character about her story1 #baa1 #bad1 #baf4 ,mark1 ,,xii1 #cj1 p4 #agh4 ,marr-al ,zahran1 xlviii4 ,marriage1 a strict bond of union in the ,koran1 #aac4 ,marw1 #bba4 ,marwan1 #fb4 ,masrook1 #gi1 #bae4 ,mecca1 xvi1 xxii1 #g4 ,meccans1 iii1 #i2 their invasion of ,medina1 #aj1 #cb4 ,medina1 #ajj2 ,koreish march upon1 vi1 vii1 xiii2 the flight of ,mohammad to1 #e4 ,mesopotamia1 xxxv1 xlviii4 ,mikyas ibn ,subaba1 #if4 ,mill's 7,charles7 ,history of ,mohammadanism quoted1 xxviii4 ,mirat-uz-,zaman1 #baj4 ,misbah-ul-,moneer of ,fayoomee1 #afd1 #bad4 ,mishkat 7,book of ,retaliation71 #ga f4n41 #if f4n4 ,mizan-ul-,etedal1 #fh1 #bjh1 #baj1 #bae4 ,moadd1 xlvi4 ,moaddite stock 7,the71 xxxiv1 xliii1 xlvii4 ,mo-an-an1 #baj4 ,moavia ibn ,mughira1 #gf1 #ha-hc4 ,modallis1 #baj4 ,modern ,egyptians of ,lane1 #acg1 #ach4 ,mohajirin 7,refugees71 #cb4 ,moharib1 xxxiv1 lvi4 ,moharram1 #bc f4n41 #ec4 ,mojahadatan1 #afd4 ,mojahadina1 #ahd4 ,mojahadoona1 #ahd4 ,mojahid1 #aee1 #ahd4 ,mojahiddin1 #aee4 ,mojahidina1 #aff1 #agd1 #ahd4 ,mojahidoona1 #aff1 #agd1 #ahd4 ,moleil bin ,zamra1 xliii4 ,mohammad1 his incapacity to undertake offensive wars against his enemies1 the ,koreish1 pp4 ii1 iv1 v2 had no intention to waylay the caravans at ,badr1 viii-x2 his singular toleration and his wars of self-defence1 xiv2 the number of his wars1 xx1 xxiii2 considered a sanguinary tyrant by the ,revd4 ,m4 ,green1 xxix2 defence of his allegation1 xxiv-xxv2 a second view of the wars of ,mohammad1 xxviii-xxx4 ,his imprisonment1 his preaching at ,tayif1 xxxiv2 his followers persecuted1 #a2 insults offered him1 #e2 prevented from offering his prayers1 id42 his preaching against idolatry1 #f2 his insecurity at ,mecca1 #g2 sets off to ,tayif1 id42 proscribed by the ,koreish1 #i2 hides himself for three days in a cave1 id42 gains the battle of ,badr1 #aj2 defeated and wounded at ,ohad1 #ab2 fights the battle of the ,ditch1 #ad2 undertakes the lesser pilgrimage of ,mecca1 id42 encamps at ,hodeibia1 #ae2 marches to defend the ,bani ,khoza1 #af2 his wars purely defensive1 #ag-bf2 was justified in taking up arms1 #bg2 his attacks mere acts of retaliation1 #cc2 gives quarters to his enemies1 and enters into a treaty with the ,jews1 #cd-dj2 his last war with the ,romans1 #da2 never taught intolerance1 #dc2 the object of his wars1 #ej-ea2 his alleged interceptions of the ,koreish caravans1 #ee-eg2 the alleged interceptions proved impossible1 #eh2 the assassinations said to have taken place at his own instructions1 #fj-gf2 his alleged cruelty in executing the prisoners of war1 #gf-hc2 represented as directing the execution of the prisoners of ,badr1 #hc-he2 his kind treatment of the prisoners of war1 #he-hg2 had no share in the execution of a singing girl as alleged by his biographers1 #if-ig2 never refused ,abu ,basir from going back to his guardian1 #ii2 his adherence to the treaty of ,hodeibia1 #ajj2 never gave any permission for the murder of ,sanina1 #ajf-ajg2 his ,koran never teaches aggressive wars1 #abe2 ,freeman ,stephens1 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,george ,sale1 ,major ,osborn1 the ,revd4 ,wherry1 the ,revd4 ,hughes1 and the ,revd4 ,mac,coll1 on the wars of ,mohammad1 #adf-afa4 ,mohammad 7,sura71 #ahd4 ,mohammad bin ,ishak1 #fh4 ,mohammad bin ,kobeib ,hashimi1 #hj4 ,mohammad bin ,muslama1 #ie4 ,mohammad bin ,sad ,kalib ,wakidi1 #fh1 #bja1 #bjg4 ,mohammad bin ,sireen1 #fh4 ,mohammad bin ,yahya bin ,habban1 #bbb4 ,mohammad1 ,buddha and ,christ1 by ,dr4 ,dods1 quoted1 lxxiv4 ,mohammad ,karamat-ul ,ali of ,delhi1 #ajj f4n4 ,mohammad and ,mohammadanism1 by ,b4 ,smith1 quoted1 #adc4 ,mokatil1 #ahd1 #bbj-bba4 ,mokhadrams1 poets1 #afe1 #afi4 ,mokowkas1 the ,roman ,governor1 #bje4 ,moleil-bin-,zamra1 xliii4 ,mooahib of ,koostlanee1 #ic f4n4 ,mooltan1 #afi4 ,morad1 lvi4 ,morocco1 #afi4 ,mosaic injunctions1 #aec4 ,moses1 ,the law of1 #aaj1 #adj1 #ada1 #ade1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,mosheim1 ,dr41 quoted1 lxi1 lxiii1 lxv4 ,moslems forced to resort to arms in pure self-defence1 #aj2 threatened by ,abu ,sofian with an attack1 #g1 #ac4 ,moslim1 his collections1 #ga f4n41 #hf1 #aif1 #aih1 #baj1 #bad4 ,movatta1 by ,malik1 #aad4 ,mowallads1 poets1 #afe4 ,mozar1 xlvi4 ,mozeina1 xlii1 xliii4 ,muallafa ,qolubohum 7those whose hearts are to be won over71 xlviii4 ,mudlij1 lv2 a tribe of ,kinana1 iv1 #cj4 ,mufti1 #acf4 ,mughrib of ,almotarrazi 7,the71 #afd f4n4 ,muheiasa1 the murderer of ,ibn ,sanina1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,muir's 7,sir ,w47 ,life of ,mahomet quoted1 i1 vi1 viii1 ix f4n41 xxvii1 xxviii1 xxxi1 xxxii1 xxxiv1 xxxix1 xliii1 xlvi1 xlviii1 xlix1 l1 lxvi1 lxvii1 lxx1 lxxii1 lxxviii1 lxxx1 #i f4n41 #bg1 #bi f4n41 #cj f4n41 #ci1 #dc1 #df1 #dg1 #di f4n41 #ea1 #eb1 #ef1 #eh f4n41 #fd f4n41 #fe1 #fg1 #fh f4n41 #fi1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #hi1 #ia1 #ic1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac f4n41 #ach1 #adj1 #afj f4n41 #agj1 #agh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aic1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bje1 #baj1 #bab1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bai4 ,mujanna1 xlviii4 ,mujhool1 #acd4 ,mujtahid1 #acg1 #afj4 ,mukwhumites 7,the71 xxxiii4 ,muntafiq1 lvi4 ,muraisia1 xviii4 ,murra1 xiii1 xlv1 xlvi1 lvi1 #ae1 #ci4 ,mursul1 #aji f4n4 ,musa-bin-,akba1 xxii4 ,musab1 #gh4 ,mustalik1 xii1 xviii2 a branch of ,khoza1 xxiii1 #ab2 released without ransom1 #hf1 #aif4 ,muta1 ,expedition to1 #ach4 ,mut-im1 #g4 ,n4 ,nadhirbin ,harith1 #gf1 #gg-gh4 ,naeem1 #ac4 ,najashee1 xxxiii4 ,najd1 xii1 #ab2 the ,bedouin tribes of1 xli1 xlii1 xliii1 #hi1 #aif1 #aii1 #bjj2 celebrated for ,bani ,tamim1 xlvii4 ,najran1 ,the ,christians of1 xxxiii1 #cg1 #dh4 ,nakha1 lvi4 ,nakhla1 the ,jinns converted at1 xxxv1 xxxvi1 #cj1 #ef4 ,nasaee1 #bjg1 #bae1 #baf4 ,nations1 ,the battle of1 #ac4 ,nazeer treasoned against ,medina1 xii1 xlii1 #cd1 #ff1 #ga2 its chief1 #gb2 the expulsion of1 #ajh-aaj4 ,nazr1 xxxiv1 #gh4 ,nihayeh of ,ibn-al-,atheer1 #afd f4n4 ,nineteenth century 7,the7 quoted1 #aeh4 ,nineveh1 xxxv4 ,nisibin1 xxxv4 ,noavee1 #bad4 ,nohd1 lvi4 ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 by ,revd4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes1 #aed4 ,nueim1 his alleged employment to break up the confederates who had besieged ,medina1 #aja-aje4 ,numbers1 xxxi1 #aec4 ,nuraddin ,ali-al-,halabi quoted and refuted1 #abi-acb4 ,o4 ,obada-bin-,samat1 #eh f4n4 ,obeida1 #bi1 #ee4 ,ohad1 ,battle of1 vii1 xii1 xviii1 xxii1 xlii1 xlvii1 #aj1 #aa1 #cd1 #fi1 #aig4 ,okaz1 xlviii4 ,okba bin ,mueit1 #gf1 #gi-ha4 ,oman1 li4 ,omar1 #hc1 #aif1 #bjb4 ,omar bin ,asim1 #bji4 ,omar ibn al ,ghallas1 #bji4 ,omar ibn al ,hakam1 #bja4 ,omeir1 #fb1 #fc4 ,omeya bin ,khalf1 #ef4 ,omiyyiads1 xxxiii4 ,omm ,kirfa1 #ia4 ,omm ,rabab1 #bjh4 ,ommara1 #hj4 ,oneis1 #gc4 ,orfee1 #agj4 ,orna1 #fi4 ,osaba-fi-,tamiz ,issahba1 #fh f4n4 ,osborn1 ,r4,d41 ,major1 quoted1 #db1 #fb2 refuted1 lxviii1 lxxxv1 lxxxvii1 lxxxviii1 lxxxix1 #adf-adi4 ,oseir ibn ,zarim1 the chief of ,nazeer of ,khyber1 #ci1 #fa1 #gb-gc4 ,osheira1 ,expedition of1 #bi1 #ef4 ,osman1 the ,moslem envoy to ,mecca1 xv4 ,osman1 #hj1 #aif4 ,osman bin ,affan1 #hi4 ,osman bin ,zaed1 #ia f4n4 ,otheil1 #gh f4n4 ,oyoon-al ,asar1 #hi4 ,ozra1 xxxiv1 lvi1 lvii4 ,p4 ,palmer's 7,h47 ,translation of the ,koran quoted1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia4 ,patriarchal form of ,government at ,mecca1 iii4 ,pargod 7,veil71 xxxviii4 ,people of the ,book 7,kitabi71 #aeg4 ,persia1 ,the ,empire of1 #ach4 ,persecution of the early ,moslems1 #a2 noticed in the ,koran1 #b-d2 their historical summary1 #e2 of the ,medina converts1 #i2 of the ,moslems by the ,koreish after their flight from ,mecca1 #i2 of the ,koreish at ,mecca1 #bbe4 ,philistines1 #aeb4 ,pilgrimage1 #ad1 #agh4 ,pilgrims1 #h4 ,poets ,jahili1 ,mokhadrams1 ,islami1 and ,mowallads1 #afe4 ,poole1 ,s4,l41 quoted1 lxxxv1 #fa1 #ig-ih4 ,prisoners of war defined1 #gf4 ,puffendorf1 #gj4 ,punishment1 ,forms of primitive1 #id-ie4 ,pyrenees1 #afi4 ,q4 ,qadr1 #bbj4 ,qalqashandi's ,dictionary of ,arab tribes1 xxxiv4 ,qarashi1 #bad4 ,r4 ,rabia1 ,the ,bani ,abd-ul-,kays1 the descendants of1 xlvii4 ,radd-ul ,muhtar of ,ibn ,abdeen1 #abg4 ,raha1 lvii4 ,rahrahan1 ,battle of1 xli4 ,raid of a ,koreish chief upon ,medina1 #aa4 of ,bani ,asad and ,bani ,lahyan1 #ab4 of ,bani ,duma1 #ab4 ,rajab1 #ef4 ,raji1 xii1 #ab1 #ci1 #gd4 ,rajm1 ,meaning of1 xxxviii4 ,ramzan1 #bc f4n41 #cb1 #ec4 ,rawasa1 lvii4 ,red ,sea1 #e4 ,reforms1 ,the proposed1 political1 social1 and legal1 #aac f4n41 #aeh f4n4 ,resurrection1 ,the day of1 and ,jihad1 #acc4 ,rifa1 a ,koreishite1 #hh f4n4 ,rihana1 #bja4 ,ril1 a clan of ,bani ,aamir1 xlvi4 ,robbers1 ,the ,urnee1 #ib-ie4 ,rodwell's ,translation of the ,koran quoted1 #abj f4n41 #afg1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia4 ,rojm 7conjecture71 xxxviii4 ,romans1 ,the expedition against them1 #dj-da4 ,rome1 ,the ,empire of1 #ach4 ,romulus1 #ade4 ,s4 ,saad1 xiii1 xlii4 ,saad ,hozeim1 lvii4 ,saad ibn ,bakr1 xiii1 xl1 xliii1 xlv4 ,sabaya1 #aig-bjj4 ,sabit1 #bae4 ,sad1 #ce2 his judgment1 #cg-ch1 #ee1 #aih1 #aii4 ,sad bin ,obadah1 #hi4 ,sadif1 lvii4 ,sadoos1 lvii4 ,sadr ,av-val 7the ,apostolic ,age71 #aji4 ,saeed1 #hc4 ,saeed bin ,mansoor1 #bae4 ,saffah-al-,mahdi1 #bab4 ,safra1 #ca4 ,safwan bin ,omayya1 #aac4 ,saheeh1 #aih4 ,saheeh ,bokharee1 #fh4 ,saheeh of ,moslim1 #hf4 ,sahim1 lvii4 ,sahm1 xxxiii f4n4 ,sakeef1 lvii4 ,sakifites 7,the71 xviii1 xxxvi4 ,salaba1 xlvi4 ,salmni1 lviii4 ,sale1 ,g41 his ,translation of the ,koran1 xxix2 quoted1 #adc-adf1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia4 ,saleim1 xii1 xiii1 #ae f4n4 ,salim1 #fe f4n4 ,sallam ibn ,abul ,hokeik1 ,abu ,rafe1 #ga4 ,sam-in1 #bae f4n4 ,samaritan1 #aeg4 ,samuel1 #aeb4 ,saraya1 ,meaning of1 xxi4 ,sawad1 #acf4 ,sayte's ,history of ,caliphs1 #bab f4n41 #bae f4n4 ,schedim 7,demons71 xxxviii4 ,secker1 ,archbishop1 quoted1 #bg4 ,seerat ,halabi1 #hj f4n41 #ha f4n41 #ajj f4n41 #ajb f4n4 ,seerat ,shamee1 #fc1 #ajj f4n4 ,seerat-ul-,mohammadiya1 #ajj4 ,seleucas1 xxxv4 ,self-defence1 ,right of1 xxv4 ,shaban1 #ec4 ,shahbudeen ,ahmed bin ,hajr ,makki1 quoted and refuted1 #abh-abi4 ,shaiban1 lviii4 ,shaitain1 ,battle of1 xxviii1 xlii4 ,shamee1 #ajj4 ,shamsuddin ,karmani1 #fh f4n4 ,sarakhsee ,sums-ul-,aimma 7the sun of leaders71 #abf-abh4 ,shaw-wal1 #bc4 ,sheb1 the quarter of ,abu ,tleb1 #f4 ,sheb ,jabala1 ,battle of1 xli4 ,sheikh ,mohammad ,al ,tamartashi1 #agj4 ,sihab of ,jouhari1 #afc1 #afd4 ,slane1 ,de1 ,baron ,mac,guckin1 #ace-acg4 ,slavery and concubine-slaves as concomitant evils of war1 #aic-bbd2 slavery and concubinage not allowed in the ,koran1 #aic2 ,sir ,w4 ,muir quoted1 #aic2 measures taken by ,mohammad in the ,koran to abolish slavery1 #aid-aif2 none of the prisoners of war was enslaved1 #aig-aih2 the ,bani ,koreiza not enslaved1 #aih-bjj2 ,omar the second ,khalif liberated all ,arab slaves1 #bjb-bjc4 ,smith1 ,bosworth1 quoted1 i1 xxvii1 #adc4 ,smith's 7,w47 ,dictionary of the ,bible1 xxxvi4 ,sodaa1 lviii4 ,soffian ,ath-,thauri1 #acf-acg4 ,sofia1 #aig1 #aih4 ,sofian ibn ,khalid1 #fa1 #fi-ga4 ,sofian ibn ,oyaina1 #acf1 #acg4 ,sofian ,sowri1 #acd4 ,sohail1 #ic f4n4 ,soleiman-al-,aamash1 #baj4 ,spider1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahj4 ,spoils1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,sprenger1 ,dr41 ,life of ,mahomet quoted1 xxix1 xxxiii1 #agi4 ,stanley defended1 #aab4 ,stephens1 ,the ,revd41 quoted1 lxxv1 #ada-adb4 ,stobart quoted1 lxviii1 #b1 #eb4 ,strabo1 xxxv4 ,suleim1 xii1 xiii1 xlii1 xlv1 xlvi1 #ab4 ,sura ,,ii1 xvi1 xxvi1 xxvii1 #c1 #aj1 #ah-ai1 #db f4n41 #dd1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #aaa1 #aaf f4n41 #aah1 #abj f4n41 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #acj1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #aeb1 #aef1 #aff1 #aga f4n41 #agc f4n41 #aha1 #aid1 #bbe4 ,sura ,,iii1 xii1 #c1 #ej1 #aff1 #agd1 #ahb1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,iv1 xv1 xl1 #d1 #aj1 #ai-ba1 #ej1 #ie1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aah1 #abb1 #adb1 #aed1 #aee1 #aff-afg1 #agb1 #agd1 #ahd1 #aie1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bai1 #bbe4 ,sura ,v1 xxvi1 xxxiii1 #db f4n41 #ej1 #abb1 #acj1 #aff1 #afg1 #aia1 #aie1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,sura ,,vi1 #abb1 #aed1 #aff1 #afg1 #agd1 #agf1 #ahc4 ,sura ,,vii1 #abb4 ,sura ,,viii1 viii1 ix1 x1 xv1 xvi1 xxvi1 #e1 #ba1 #bb1 #ce-cf1 #de1 #ea1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb1 #abd1 #acd1 #adg1 #aff1 #afg1 #agd1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,ix 7,sura ,bart71 xi1 xvii1 xix1 xx1 #a1 #d1 #af1 #bb1 #be1 #cf-cg1 #db f4n41 #ea-ee1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #adc1 #adg1 #adi-aej1 #aei1 #aff-afg1 #agb1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #aie1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,sura ,,xi1 #bai4 ,sura ,,xv1 xxxvi1 xxxvii1 xxxviii1 #abb1 #abg1 #bbj4 ,sura ,,xvi1 #b1 #c1 #abb1 #abg1 #acj1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #ahj1 #bbe4 ,sura ,,xviii1 xxxviii1 #db f4n41 #acj4 ,sura ,,xix1 xxxviii1 #bai4 ,sura ,,xx1 #aga f4n4 ,sura ,,xxii1 vi1 #a1 #c1 #ag1 #aah1 #abb1 #abg1 #abh1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #agh1 #bbe4 ,sura ,,xxiv1 iv1 xviii1 #ej1 #aca1 #aff1 #afg1 #ahe1 #aid1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,sura ,,xxv1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #age1 #agg4 ,sura ,,xxvi1 xxxvii1 xxxviii4 ,sura ,,xxix1 #aff1 #afg1 #agj1 #aga f4n41 #agb1 #agc1 #agi1 #ahj4 ,sura ,,xxxi1 #acj1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #agg4 ,sura ,,xxxii1 xxxvii1 xxxviii4 ,sura ,,xxxiii1 #cg1 #hi1 #aii1 #baf1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,xxxv1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #aha4 ,sura ,,xl1 #afg4 ,sura ,,xli1 xxxviii1 #afg4 ,sura ,,xlvi1 xxxv1 #afg4 ,sura ,,xlvii1 xxvii1 #he1 #ada1 #adg1 #aed1 #aef1 #afj1 #afa1 #aff1 #afg1 #agd1 #ahd1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,xlviii1 xv1 xvi1 xl1 #afj1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,xlix1 #aff1 #afg1 #agc1 #age1 #ahh4 ,sura ,,lii1 #acj4 ,sura ,,lviii1 #aie4 ,sura ,,lix1 #aaj1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,lx1 #d1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab f4n41 #aff1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,sura ,,lxi1 #aff1 #agc1 #age1 #ahd1 #ahf4 ,sura ,,lxvi1 #aff1 #ahe1 #baa1 #bad4 ,sura ,,lxvii1 xxxvii4 ,sura ,,lxxii1 xxxvi1 xxxvii1 #ahf f4n4 ,sura ,,lxxiii1 #acj1 #bbj4 ,sura ,,lxxxv1 #ej4 ,sura ,,lxxxvi1 xxxvi4 ,sura ,,xc1 #aid4 ,sura ,,xcvi1 #e4 ,suras1 ,meccan1 #agg-aha4 ,suras1 ,medinite1 #aha-aia4 ,surat-al-,mohammad1 #aed4 ,surat-un-,nisa1 #aed4 ,syed ,ameer ,ali ,moulvie1 ,m4,a41 ,,llb41 #ia f4n4 ,syria1 viii1 #cj1 #dj1 #hi1 #adj1 #bjj4 ,t4 ,tabaeen1 #bji1 #bae-baf4 ,tabakt al ,fokaha1 #ace-acf4 ,tabakt of ,ibn ,sd ,ktib ,wakidi1 #aad4 ,tabari #cj1 #bab4 ,tabi1 #ace1 #acf4 ,tabikha1 ,the ancestors of ,bani ,tamim1 xlvii4 ,table1 ,the 7,sura71 #aia4 ,tabuk1 xix1 #cg f4n42 the last expedition of ,mohammad against1 #dj4 ,tafseer ,majma-ul-,bayan ,tabarsee1 #aaf f4n41 #ahg4 ,taghlib1 lviii4 ,taimee1 ,okba executed at1 #hj4 ,tajahada1 #afd4 ,tajeeb1 lviii4 ,takreeb1 #baj1 #bae4 ,tamim 7,the71 xxvii1 xxxiv1 xli1 xlvi1 lviii4 ,tanfeel1 #g1 #aif4 ,tanvir-al ,absr1 #agj4 ,tariq 7,comet or night comer71 xxxvi4 ,tay1 xxxix1 xliii1 lviii4 ,tayif1 xxii2 ,mohammad preaches at1 xxxiv2 sacrilegious war at1 xli4 ,taym bin ,morra1 xxxiii4 ,testament1 ,the ,old1 #aec4 ,thakeef1 lvii1 #af4 ,theseus1 #ade4 ,tirmizee1 #aac1 #bjg4 ,tojahidoona1 #aff4 ,tradition 7a mursal71 #aji f4n4 ,traditions quoted and refuted1 #acc4 ,tried1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahf4 ,tuhfat-ul-,muhtaj fi ,sharah-al-,minhaj1 #abi f4n4 ,tuleiba1 chief of ,bani ,asad bin ,khozeima1 xlvii4 ,u4 ,urnee ,robbers1 #ib-ie4 ,urquhart1 #acg4 ,us ,tayif1 xxxvi4 ,usseya1 a clan of ,bani ,aamir1 xlvi4 ,uyeina1 the chief of the ,bani ,fezara1 xiii1 xlvi4 ,v4 ,vans ,kennedy1 ,major1 quoted1 #bh4 ,von ,kemer's ,history of ,mohammad's ,campaigns1 #ij f4n41 #ajb4 ,w4 ,wady-al-,kora1 ,the ,jews of1 xiii1 xliii4 ,wahid1 #hc4 ,wajib 7,legal71 ,jihad not1 #acd4 ,waki ibn al-,jarrah1 #bba4 ,wakidi1 #bi f4n41 #cj1 #fc1 #fd1 #gd1 #gh f4n41 #hj f4n41 #ca f4n41 #ia2 ,campaigns of ,mohammad1 xliii1 #ajb1 #aig1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bba4 ,wars of ,mohammad1 their defensive nature1 ii4 ,weil1 ,dr41 #fc4 ,wheaton's ,international ,law1 #gj f4n4 ,wherry1 ,the ,revd4 ,e4,m41 quoted1 #aej-aeb1 #aed f4n4 ,wolff1 #gj f4n4 ,woman1 ,the 7,sura71 #ahd4 ,y4 ,yafa-ee1 #baj4 ,yahya1 #bac4 ,yahya bin ,hammad1 #baj4 ,yahya bin ,moin1 #bba4 ,yahya bin ,saeed al ,ansaree1 #fh4 ,yakoob bin ,mohammad1 #bjh4 ,yemama1 li4 ,yenbo1 the abode of ,bani ,joheina1 xliii4 ,yemen1 xxxix1 li4 ,yezid bin ,abi ,shaiba1 #acc4 ,yojahido1 #aff1 #agi4 ,yojahidoo1 #aff1 #agf1 #aij4 ,yojahidoona1 #aff1 #agf1 #aia4 ,yoseir bin ,razim 7,oseir bin ,zarim71 #gb f4n4 ,yoslemoon1 #afj4 ,z4 ,zd-al-mad of ,ibn al ,kyyim1 #ajj f4n4 ,zahabi1 #bae4 ,zakawn1 a clan of ,bani ,aamir1 xlvi4 ,zalkada1 #ad1 #bc f4n41 #ec4 ,zama1 #cd4 ,zamra1 iv4 ,zamakhshire1 #afc1 #bac4 ,zat-al-,rikaa1 xii1 #aif4 ,zat ,atlah1 #ae f4n4 ,zeid killed ,moavia1 #ha4 ,zeid1 the adopted son of ,mohammad1 and his connection with ,zeinab1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbb4 ,zeid bin ,arqam1 xxii4 ,zeid bin ,aslam1 #bae4 ,zeid bin ,haris1 seized and plundered by the ,bani ,fezara1 xiii4 ,zeid ,monat1 xxxiv4 ,zeinab1 #aac1 #baa2 her story1 #bae-baf2 the story of ,mohammad's amour1 a spurious one1 #baf2 ,sir ,w4 ,muir's conjectures about her1 not justified1 #bah2 in her case no exceptional privilege was secured to ,mohammad1 #bbj2 the false story traced to ,muktil1 #bbb4 ,zu ,towa1 the ,koreish encamped at1 xv4 ,zil ,kassa1 a party of ,moslems slain at1 xiii4 ,zobeid1 lviii4 ,zobeir1 a ,koreishite1 #hh1 #if4 ,zobian1 xli1 xlii1 xlvi4 ,zohak1 #hj4 ,zohak ibn ,muzahim1 #bae4 ,zohra1 xxxiii4 ,zohri1 #abh1 #bji4 ,zorkanee1 #hj f4n42 on ,mooahib1 #ic1 #ajj1 #aji f4n41 #aaj f4n4 ,zu-kar1 ,battle of1 xli4 ,zulhij1 #bc f4n41 #ec4 ,zul-,kada1 xiii1 #bc f4n4 ,zul-,majz xlviii4 ,calcutta2 ,december1 #ahhg4 ,,thacker1 ,,spink ,,co4',s ,,law ,,publications4 ,,third ,,edition ,,in ,,preparation4 ,,the ,,code ,,of ,,civil ,,procedure1 ,,act ,,xiv ,,of #ahhb1 ,,with ,,notes1 ,,appendices1 c4 ,by the ,hon'ble ,j4 ,o',,kinealy1 ,one of the ,judges of ,her ,majesty's ,high ,court of ,judicature1 ,bengal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,third ,edition4 ,royal #hvo41 cloth4 ,rs4 #ab2 ,post-free1 ,rs4 #ab-f4 ,,the ,,indian ,,penal ,,code1 ,and other ,laws and ,acts of ,parliament relating to the ,criminal ,courts of ,india4 ,with ,notes1 c4 ,third ,edition4 ,by the ,hon'ble ,j4 ,o',,kinealy1 ,one of the ,judges of ,her ,majesty's ,high ,court of ,judicature1 ,bengal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,second ,edition4 ,just ,published4 ,royal ,octavo1 cloth4 ,rs4 #ah4 ,,the ,,code ,,of ,,criminal ,,procedure1 ,,act ,x ,,of #ahhb1 ,,together ,,with ,rulings1 ,circular ,orders1 ,notifications1 etc41 of all the ,high ,courts in ,india2 and ,notifications and ,orders of the ,government of ,india and the ,local ,governments4 ,,edited ,,with ,,copious ,,notes ,,and ,,full ,,index4 ,by ,,william ,,fischer ,,agnew1 ,esq14 ,barrister-at-,law1 and ,,gilbert ,s4 ,,henderson1 ,esq4 ,m4,a41 ,barrister-at-,law1 ,author of ,a ,treatise on the ,law of ,succession in ,india4 ,second ,edition1 ,by ,,gilbert ,s4 ,,henderson ,to judge from the style in which their present work is edited1 the number of cases cited bearing upon the various sections1 the ample notes appended where any explanation is necessary1 and the full and complete indexes to the cases cited1 we have little hesitation in saying that1 while undoubtedly it is at present the best work on the subject1 it need fear no competition in the future4--,englishman4