,,salter',s ,,edition4 ,,field',s ,,chromatography2 ,,or1 ,,treatise ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,as ,,used ,,by ,,artists4 ,,an ,,entirely ,,new ,,and ,,practical ,,edition2 ,,revised1 ,,rewritten1 ,,and ,,brought ,,down ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,,by ,,thomas ,w4 ,,salter1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,ars probat artificem4 ,,london3 ,,winsor ,,and ,,newton1 #ch1 ,,rathbone ,,place1 ,manufacturing ,artists' ,colourmen by ,special ,appointment to ,her ,majesty1 and ,their ,royal ,highnesses the ,prince and ,princess of ,wales4 ,the ,right of ,translation is reserved4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,colouring4 ,chapter4 ,page4 ,i4--,on ,colouring #c ,,ii4--,on the ,relations and ,harmonies of ,colours #ac ,,part ,,ii4 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,generally4 ,,iii4--,on ,classes of ,colours #bg ,,iv4--,on the ,durability and ,fugacity of ,pigments #ca ,v4--,on the ,general ,qualities of ,pigments #df ,,part ,,iii4 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,individually4 ,,vi4--,on ,colours and ,pigments individually #eg ,,vii4--,on the ,neutral1 ,white #fb ,,viii4--,on the ,primary1 ,yellow #ha ,,ix4--,on the ,primary1 ,red #abg ,x4--,on the ,primary1 ,blue #ahc ,,xi4--,on the ,secondary1 ,orange #bci ,,xii4--,on the ,secondary1 ,green #bfc ,,xiii4--,on the ,secondary1 ,purple #bid ,,xiv4--,on the ,tertiary1 ,citrine #caj ,,xv4--,on the ,tertiary1 ,russet #cbj ,,xvi4--,on the ,tertiary1 ,olive #cbe ,,xvii4--,on the ,semi-,neutral1 ,brown #ccd ,,xviii4--,on the ,semi-,neutral1 ,marrone #cfb ,,xix4--,on the ,semi-,neutral1 ,gray #cgb ,,xx4--,on the ,neutral1 ,grey #cha ,,xxi4--,on the ,neutral1 ,black #chg ,addendum #dad ,index #dag ,,notice4 ,among the works consulted in this ,edition are the following1 from most of which extracts have been taken3 ,bancroft's ,philosophy of ,colours4 ,brande's ,manual of ,chemistry4 ,chemical ,news4 ,chevreul on ,colour4 ,fownes' ,manual of ,chemistry4 ,gmelin's ,handbook of ,chemistry4 ,handbooks on ,art4 ,liebig and ,kopp's ,annual ,report of the ,progress of ,chemistry4 ,mrime's ,painting in ,oil4 ,muspratt's ,dictionary of ,chemistry4 ,normandy's ,commercial ,handbook of ,chemical ,analysis4 ,o',neill's ,chemistry of ,calico ,printing4 ,quarterly ,journal of the ,chemical ,society4 ,ruskin's ,elements of ,drawing4 ,watts' ,dictionary of ,chemistry4 ,,part ,i4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,colouring4 ,,chromatography2 ,,or1 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,colouring4 ,how early1 and to what extent1 colouring may have attained the rank of science among the ancients1 are questions not easily set at rest2 but that some progress had been made1 even at a very remote period1 is proved by the magnificent tombs of the ,egyptian kings at ,thebes1 where the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with paintings so fresh and perfect1 as to require neither restoration nor improvement4 ,so far from this1 indeed1 that with all care in copying1 it was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals1 which1 as far as colours went1 threw all others in the background4 ,and yet1 in spite of the scale having comprised pure vermilion1 ochres1 and indigo1 it was not gaudy1 owing to the judicious balance of the colours1 and the artful management of the black4 ,nor was there an ornament throughout the dresses1 wherein the red1 yellow1 and blue1 were not so employed as to produce a delicious harmony4 ,moreover1 it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and proportionably broad1 which was divided into two ranges of gigantic figures1 these were glowing with most exquisite colours1 suited to the drapery and naked parts2 and in which the azure1 yellow1 green1 c41 were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday4 ,again1 an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at ,carnac1 on the site of ancient ,thebes1 one hundred paces wide and sixty deep1 completely crowded with pillars1 which1 together with the ceiling1 roof1 and walls1 were decorated with figures in basso-relievo1 and hieroglyphics--all marvellously beautiful and finely painted1 and as fresh1 splendid and glorious1 after so many ages1 as if they had just been finished4 ,in various accounts these colourings of the ,egyptians are described in the warmest terms of admiration4 ,the most charming are undoubtedly those on the tombs and temples3 others of less merit have been found on the cases and cloths of mummies1 and on papyrus rolls2 but it is to the patterns on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to have been most partial1 and paid the most attention4 ,the ordinary colours employed by them were red1 yellow1 green1 and blue4 ,of the last there were two tints2 black also was common4 ,for white1 the finely prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient4 ,these colours were occasionally modified by mixture with chalk2 but were always1 or nearly always1 applied singly1 in an unmixed state4 ,with regard to their composition1 chemical analysis has shown several of the blues to be oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron2 none containing cobalt4 ,there is little doubt1 however1 that the most brilliant specimens--those which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of ,upper ,egypt after an exposure of three thousand years1 consist of ultramarine--the celebrated ,armenian blue1 possibly1 of the ancients4 ,the reds seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed with lime1 and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres1 with a native cinnabar or vermilion4 ,the yellows are said to have been1 in many cases1 vegetable colours2 but it is likely earths and ochres were their chief source4 ,the greens consist of yellow mixed with copper blue4 ,the bluish-green which sometimes appears on ,egyptian antiquities1 is merely a faded blue4 ,the blacks are both of vegetable and mineral origin1 having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety of ways4 ,but1 as shown by ,layard in his discoveries at ,nineveh1 a knowledge of colouring was not confined to the ,egyptians2 it was likewise possessed by the ,assyrians4 ,the painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have been remarkably elegant2 and although the colours were limited to blue1 red1 white1 yellow1 and black1 yet they were arranged with so much taste and skill1 and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved1 that the combinations were in general agreeable to the eye4 ,the pale yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted1 resembled the tint on the walls of ,egyptian monuments1 and a strong well-defined black outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in ,assyrian as in ,egyptian painting1 black frequently combining with white alone1 or alternating with other colours4 ,as far as they have been analysed1 the pigments employed were mineral1 the brightest being a blue derived from copper4 ,no traces of vegetable colours have been found2 it is presumed that they existed1 but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral pigments1 they have disappeared4 ,that all the colours1 indeed1 employed by the ancients were not permanent1 was proved by the fact of certain blues and reds1 brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed from them1 fading rapidly when exposed to the air4 ,from ,philocles1 the ,egyptian1 and ,gyges1 a ,lydian1 both of whom1 according to ,pliny1 acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in ,egypt1 the ,greeks obtained the knowledge of their ,ars ,chromatica1 which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several centuries1 from the monochromatic of their earlier painters1 to the perfection of colouring under ,zeuxis and ,apelles1 #dej to #cej ,b4,c4 ,unfortunately1 not long after1 or about #cjj ,b4,c41 art rapidly deteriorated2 the invasion of the ,romans commenced2 and the principles of light1 shade1 and colours in painting as understood by the ,greeks1 together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost4 ,the early ,roman and ,florentine painters1 so eminent in other respects1 were almost destitute of those principles1 and of truly refined feeling for the effects of colouring4 ,the partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with the earliest practice of painting in oil4 ,the glory of it belongs to the ,venetians1 to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of the ,greek schools after the capture of ,constantinople at the beginning of the thirteenth century4 ,giovanni ,bellini laid the foundation of colouring1 and ,titian carried it to its highest practical perfection4 ,from the ,venetian it extended to the ,lombard1 ,flemish1 and ,spanish schools4 ,in the practice of these1 however1 there was perhaps as much of instinct as principle1 colouring still remaining to be established in its perfection as a science4 ,according to the true1 natural1 and philosophical classification of painting1 there are but three principal classes or schools2 viz43 the gross and material which is content with mere nature1 and to which belong the ,dutch and ,flemish schools2 the sensible1 which aims at refined and select nature1 and accords with the ,venetian school2 and the intellectual1 which aspires to the ideal in beauty1 grandeur1 and sublimity1 and corresponds with the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,florentine schools4 ,modern art as founded upon the intellectual school of the ancient ,greeks1 became grand1 scientific1 and severe in the practice of ,michael ,angelo1 and ,leonardo da ,vinci2 graceful1 beautiful and expressive in ,raphael1 ,correggio1 ,dominichino1 and ,guido2 and1 aiming at sensible perfection1 it attained harmony of colouring and effect in the works of ,titian and ,tintoret2 but it sunk into grossness and sensuality while perfecting itself materially among the ,flemish and ,dutch4 ,in the practice of the individual in painting1 as well as in all revolutions of pictorial art1 in ancient ,greece as in modern ,italy1 colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of excellence in every school4 ,it has been justly observed1 indeed1 that for near three hundred years1 since painting was revived1 we could hardly reckon six painters that had been good colourists1 among the thousands who had laboured to become such4 ,but there is reason to hope that as ,zeuxis succeeded and excelled ,polygnotus1 and ,titian ,raphael1 the artists of ,britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department of painting4 ,it is even probable that they may surpass them in all other branches1 and in every mode and application of the art1 as they have already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of water-colours4 ,happily1 too1 there has arisen among us a school of colouring that confirms this expectation1 strengthened as it is1 by the suitableness of our climate to perfect vision4 ,for in it we have that mean degree of light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours1 a boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns1 besides those beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to ,england2 respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art4 ,even now it is urged by some to the disparagement of the ,british school1 that it excels in colouring2 as if this were incompatible with any other excellence1 or as if nature1 the great prototype of art1 ever dispensed with it4 ,the graphic branches of painting1 owe everything to colour1 which1 if it does not constitute a picture1 is its flesh and blood4 ,without it1 the finest performances remain lifeless skeletons1 and yield no pleasure4 ,painting is the art of representing visible things by light1 shade1 form1 and colour2 but of these1 colour--and colour alone--is the immediate object which attracts the eye4 ,colouring is1 therefore1 the first requisite--the one thing imparting warmth and life--the chief quality engaging attention2 in short1 the best introduction to a picture1 and that which continues to give it value so long as it is regarded4 ,it is a power1 too1 which is with the most difficulty retained1 being the first to leave the artist himself1 and the first to quit a school on its decline4 ,graphic art without colouring1 is as food without flavour2 and it was the deficiency of colouring in the great works of the ,roman and ,florentine schools that caused ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in them4 ,to relish and estimate truly their greatness1 required1 he said1 a forced and often-repeated attention1 and it was only those persons incapable of appreciating such divine performances1 who made pretensions to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them4 ,gainsborough also1 with a candour similar to that of ,reynolds1 upon viewing the cartoons at ,hampton ,court1 acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could neither appreciate nor enjoy4 ,colouring1 then1 is a necessity2 but there is in it a vicious extreme2 that in which it is rendered so principal as1 by want of subordination1 to overlay the subject4 ,there is also a negative excellence which consists in not always employing pleasing tints1 but of sometimes taking advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues1 as ,poussin did in his ,deluge4 ,in this work1 neither black nor white1 blue1 red1 nor yellow appears2 the whole mass being1 with little variation1 of a sombre grey1 the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere1 by which every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless4 ,this absence of colour1 however1 is a merit1 and not a fault4 ,vandyke employed such means with admirable effect in the background of a ,crucifixion1 and in his ,pieta2 and the ,phaton of ,giulio ,romano is celebrated for a suffusion of smothered red1 which powerfully excites the idea of a world on fire4 ,of the rank and value of this department of painting1 there will be1 as there has been1 difference of judgment and opinion1 as there is variety in the powers of the eye and understanding4 ,but take from ,rubens1 ,rembrandt1 ,titian1 and other distinguished masters1 the estimation of their colouring1 and we fear all that is left to them would hardly preserve their names from oblivion4 ,art cannot1 indeed1 attain its appropriate end1 that of pleasing1 without excellence in colouring4 ,it is colour which the true artist most loves1 and it is colouring in all its complex and high relations1 that he ever seeks to attain4 ,looking above1 and around1 and beneath him1 with the intelligent eye of the colourist1 he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment4 ,with harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze1 colour meets him in every stone he treads on--in the mineral1 vegetable1 and animal creation--in the heavens1 sea1 and earth4 ,for him1 in truth1 colour is as equally diffused as light1 spreading itself over the entire face of nature1 and clothing the whole world with beauty4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,relations ,,and ,,harmony ,,of ,,colour4 ,assured as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art1 colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist1 and on their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend4 ,colour1 remarks ,ruskin1 is wholly relative2 each hue throughout a work is altered by every touch added in other places4 ,thus1 to place white beside a colour is to heighten its tone2 to set black beside a colour is to weaken its tone2 while to put grey beside a colour1 is to render it more brilliant4 ,if a dark colour be placed near a different1 but lighter colour1 the tone of the first is heightened1 while that of the second is lowered4 ,an important consequence of this principle is1 that the first effect may neutralize the second1 or even destroy it altogether4 ,what was cold before1 becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it1 and what was in harmony before1 becomes discordant as other colours are put beside it4 ,for example1 to place a light blue beside a yellow1 tinges it orange1 and consequently heightens its tone4 ,again1 there are some blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it1 and not only hide the orange tint1 but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the yellow is rather green than orange--a very natural result when it is considered that the paler the yellow becomes1 the more it tends to appear green4 ,we learn from these relations of colours1 why dapplings of two or more produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours3 and why hatchings1 or a touch of their contrasts1 thrown as it were by accident upon local tints1 have the same effect4 ,we see1 too1 why colours mixed deteriorate each other1 which they do more--in many cases--by imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically1 than by any chemical action4 ,finally1 we are impressed with the necessity1 not only of using colours pure1 but of using pure colours2 although pure colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness1 as tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony4 ,the powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their correlative powers of light and shade1 and are to be distinguished from their powers individually on the eye1 which are those of light alone4 ,thus1 although orange and blue are equal powers with respect to each other1 as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed4 ,orange is a luminous colour1 and has a powerfully irritating effect1 while blue is a shadowy colour1 possessing a soothing quality--and it is the same1 in various degrees1 with other colours4 ,there are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring1 which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist4 ,of the contrast of hues1 upon which depend the brilliancy1 force1 and harmony of colouring1 we have just spoken2 but there is1 secondly1 the contrast of shades4 ,to this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro1 by which term the painter denotes the harmonious effects of light and shade2 and though they form the simplest part of colouring1 yet they cannot be separated from it--light and shade1 the chiaroscuro1 being a distinct and important branch of painting4 ,a third mode of contrast in colouring is that of warmth and coolness1 upon which depend the toning and general effect of a picture4 ,fourthly1 there is the contrast of colour and neutrality1 the chromatic and achromatic1 or hue and shade4 ,by the right management of this1 local colours acquire value1 gradation1 keeping1 and connection3 whence come breadth1 arial perspective1 and the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture4 ,this principle of contrast applies even to individual colours1 and conduces greatly to good colouring4 ,it may be carried with advantage into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour1 not only as regards light and shade1 but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness1 as well as to colour and neutrality4 ,hence the judicious landscape-painter knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition of his greens1 in addition to their lightness and darkness1 or brilliancy and brokenness1 in producing the most beautiful and varied effects2 effects which spring in other cases from a like management of blue1 white1 c4 ,these powers of a colour upon itself are highly important to the artist1 and lead to that gratification from fine colouring1 which a good eye ever enjoys4 ,in landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious consonance and variety1 while1 equally true to picturesque relations1 she uses also broken forms and figures1 in conjoint harmony with colours2 occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form1 or a primary colour1 for the sake of animation and contrast4 ,and if we inspect her works more closely1 we shall find that they have no uniform tints4 ,whether in the animal1 vegetable or mineral creation--flesh or foliage1 earth or sky1 flower or stone--however uniform the colour may appear at a distance1 it will1 when examined nearly1 be found to consist of a variety of hues and shades1 compounded with harmony and intelligence4 ,it is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in nature1 however much so they may be in art4 ,blue and green have been termed discordant1 and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so4 ,yet those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be separated1 and never to be felt1 either of them1 in its full beauty1 without the other--a blue sky through green leaves1 or a blue wave with green lights through it1 being precisely the loveliest things1 next to clouds at sunrise1 in this coloured world of ours4 ,a good eye for colour will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together1 purple and scarlet1 green and blue1 yellow and neutral grey1 and the like2 and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones1 before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones4 ,upon the more intimate union1 or the blending and gradience of contrasts from one to another mutually1 depend some of the most fascinating effects of colouring4 ,the practical principle employed in producing them is important1 and consists in the blending and gradating by mixture1 while we avoid the compounding of contrasting colours4 ,that is1 the colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them1 or otherwise they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other4 ,this is the case in blending and gradating from green to red1 or from hue to hue--from blue to orange1 or to and from coldness and warmth--from yellow to purple1 or to and from advancing and retiring colours4 ,it is the same in light and shade1 or white and black1 which mix with clearness4 ,now1 there are only two ways in which this distinctness in union of contrasts can be effected in practice3 the one is by hatching or breaking them together in mixture1 without compounding them uniformly2 and the other is by glazing1 in which the colours unite and penetrate mutually1 without monotonous composition4 ,the former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement1 by using atoms of colour in juxtaposition1 instead of in large spaces4 ,and it is to be noted1 in filling up minute interstices of this kind1 that if the colour with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly1 a rather positive point of it had better be put1 with a little white left beside or round it in the interstice4 ,this plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of the colour over the whole interstice4 ,yellow or orange1 for instance1 will hardly show1 if pale1 in small spaces2 but they show brightly in free touches1 however small1 with white beside them4 ,the latter mode is founded on the fact1 that if a dark colour be laid first1 and a little blue or white body-colour struck lightly over it1 a more beautiful gray will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white4 ,similarly1 if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be quickly washed a little very wet carmine1 a much more brilliant red will be produced than by mixing the two colours4 ,transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring1 the former of which belongs to shade and blackness1 the latter to light and whiteness4 ,even contrast has its contrast1 for gradations or intermedia are opposed to contrasts or extremes2 and1 upon the right management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody1 the tone1 effect1 and general expression of a picture4 ,thus1 painting is an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour1 if even it be not such altogether4 ,colour1 it has already been observed1 is wholly relative4 ,in contrasting1 therefore1 any colour1 if we wish it to have light or brilliancy1 we cast its opposite into the shade2 if we would have it warm1 we cool its antagonist2 and if transparent1 we oppose it by an opaque contrary1 and vice vers3 indeed1 in practice1 all these must be in some measure combined4 ,such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone1 and such is the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that contrasts or extremes1 whether of light and shade1 or of colours1 become violent and offensive when they are not reconciled by the interposition of their media1 or intermediates1 which partake of both extremes of the contrasts4 ,thus blue and orange in contrast become reconciled1 softened in effect1 and harmonized1 when a broken colour composed of the two intervenes4 ,the same may be said of other colours1 shades1 and contrasts4 ,seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent dependent on the same principles as light and shade1 it might become a point of good discipline1 after acquiring the use of black and white in the chiaroscuro1 to paint designs in contrast2 that is1 with two contrasting colours only1 in conjunction with black and white--for example1 with blue and orange1 before attempting the whole4 ,indeed1 black can be dispensed with in these cases1 because it may be compounded1 since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from the compounding of contrasting colours4 ,in this way1 even flesh may be painted--for instance1 with red and green alone1 as ,gainsborough is said at one period to have done4 ,some artists have produced pictures in the above hot and cold colours only2 which1 although captivating to the eye1 and true in theory with respect to colour1 light and shade1 are generally false in practice with regard to nature1 which rarely employs such extreme accordances4 ,colouring like this1 therefore1 is more beautiful than true4 ,it is as though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day1 as he saw it looking through a prism1 so that every object glowed with rainbow hues4 ,such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene1 and be true as regards colours1 but as respects nature1 it would be false4 ,colour1 and what in painting is called transparency1 belong chiefly to shade4 ,it has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light only1 and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint1 regarding shadows as simply darkness1 blackness1 or the mere absence of light2 when1 in truth1 shadows are infinitely varied by colour1 and always so by the colours of the lights which produce them4 ,but while we incline attention toward the relation of colour to shade1 both light and shade being strictly co-essential to colour1 a vicious extreme must be avoided4 ,for although1 as transparent1 colour inclines to shade1 and1 as opaque1 it partakes of light2 yet the general tendency of colour is to transparency and shade1 all colour being a departure from light4 ,hence it becomes a maxim1 which he who aspires to good colouring must never lose sight of1 that the colour of shadow is always transparent1 and only that of extreme light objects opaque4 ,it follows1 that white is to be kept as much as possible out of shadow1 and black1 for the same reason1 out of colour4 ,in their stead1 whenever it is necessary to cover1 opaque tints may be employed1 glazed over with transparent colours4 ,such practice would also be more favourable to durability of the tones of pictures1 than the shades and tints produced with black and white4 ,the hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either black or white1 which1 except as local colours1 are always poor and frigid4 ,the perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with brilliancy1 unity with variety1 and freshness with force1 without violating the laws of nature4 ,with regard to the perspective of colours1 or the manner in which they affect the eye1 according to position and distance1 it is a branch of arial perspective or the perspective of light and shade4 ,this is distinguished from linear perspective1 or the perspective of drawing1 as drawing is from colouring2 and they have progressed alike in the art4 ,the most ancient painters seem to have known little of either2 and linear perspective was established as science before the arial1 as drawing and composition preceded colouring4 ,the perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the elements of light1 powers which are by no means uniform4 ,accordingly1 blue is lost in the distance before red1 and yellow is seen at a point at which red would disappear2 yet blue preserves its hue better than yellow1 because colours are cooled in the distance4 ,in this respect1 the compound colours partake of the powers of their components1 in obedience to a general rule1 by which local colours closely connected with black are first lost in the distance1 and those nearly related to white disappear last4 ,the same may be said of local light and shade1 the latter of which is totally lost at great distances2 and it is for this reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen4 ,these powers of colours are1 however1 varied by mist1 air1 altitude1 and mixture1 which produce evanescence2 and by contrast1 which preserves the force of colours by distinguishing them4 ,colours do not decline in force so much by height as by horizontal distance1 because the upper atmosphere is less dense and clouded with vapour3 and hence it is that mountains of great elevation appear much nearer than they really are4 ,from all these circumstances1 it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective--for this will be the arial of light and shade only--but such a subordination of hues and tints1 as the various powers of colours require1 and as is always observable in nature4 ,in furnishing or setting the palette philosophically and upon principle1 it is necessary to supply it with pure blue1 red1 and yellow2 to oppose to these an orange1 of a hue that will neutralise the blue--green1 of a hue that will neutralise the red--and purple1 of a hue that will neutralise the yellow2 and so on to black and white1 which will neutralise each other4 ,as in nature1 the general colour of the sky is blue1 and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky and shade1 so the white which is to represent light should be tinged with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the predominant coldness of black4 ,pure neutral white may thus be reserved as a local colour1 which is a technical term for the natural colour of an object1 unvaried by distance1 reflection1 or anything interfering with distinct vision2 although1 properly speaking1 local colours are subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a composition--whether of light1 shade1 reflection1 or distance4 ,from what we have said1 it will be seen that the relations and harmony of colours form a complex subject1 requiring constant and careful study2 one1 indeed1 into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart and soul4 ,for as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's craft1 so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his life4 ,and this lesson can only be learnt1 by ever watching with a loving eye those wondrous colourings of nature1 in which there is nothing inharmonious or out of place4 ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,generally4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,on ,,classes ,,of ,,colours4 ,by mixing his colours with white1 the artist obtains his tints4 ,by mixing colours with colours1 he produces compound colours1 or hues4 ,and by mixing colours or tints with black1 he gets shades4 ,it is a common error to confound these distinctions4 ,the above classification of colours enables us to understand the simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints1 hues1 and shades of colour4 ,also1 it is calculated to give precision to language respecting colours1 the nomenclature of which has too often been vague and uncertain4 ,there are five classes of colours1 viz43--the ,neutral1 the ,primary1 the ,secondary1 the ,tertiary1 and the ,semi-neutral4 ,neutral ,colours are three only1 white1 black1 and grey4 ,according to the laws of ,optics1 the two first comprise all other colours synthetically1 and afford them all by analysis4 ,these are sometimes called extreme colours1 grey being their intermediate4 ,primary ,colours are three only1 yellow1 red1 and blue4 ,they are such as yield others by being compounded1 but are not themselves capable of being produced by composition of other colours4 ,by way of distinction1 they are occasionally designated entire colours4 ,secondary ,colours1 are three only1 orange1 green1 and purple4 ,each of these is composed of1 or can be resolved into1 two primaries4 ,thus1 orange is composed of red and yellow2 green1 of yellow and blue2 and purple1 of blue and red4 ,tertiary ,colours are three only1 citrine1 russet1 and olive4 ,each of these is composed of1 or can be resolved into1 either two secondary colours1 or the three primaries4 ,thus1 citrine consists of green and orange1 or of a predominant yellow with blue and red2 russet is compounded of orange and purple1 or of a predominant red with blue and yellow2 and olive is composed of purple and green1 or of a predominant blue with yellow and red4 ,the last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all those which are positive or definite2 and the three colours of each genus1 united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them predominates to the eye1 constitute the negative or neutral colours1 of which black and white have been stated to be the opposed extremes1 and greys their intermediates4 ,thus black and white are constituted of1 and comprise latently1 the principles of all colours1 and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light4 ,semi-neutral ,colours belong to a class of which brown1 marrone1 and gray may be considered types4 ,they are so called1 because they comprehend all the combinations of the primary1 secondary1 and tertiary colours1 with the neutral black4 ,of the various combinations of black1 those in which yellow1 orange1 or citrine predominates1 have obtained the name of brown1 c4 ,a second class in which the compounds of black are of a predominant red1 purple1 or russet hue1 comprises marrone1 chocolate1 c4 ,and a third class1 in which the combinations of black have a predominating hue of blue1 green1 or olive1 includes gray1 slate1 c4 ,while treating of the classes of colours1 it may not be out of place to note here the difference between gray as spelt with an a1 and grey as spelt with an e1 the two names being occasionally confounded4 ,gray is semi-neutral1 and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours1 faint of hue2 whence we have blue grays1 olive grays1 green grays1 purple grays1 and grays of all hues in which blue predominates2 but no yellow or red grays1 the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown and marrone1 of which gray is the natural opposite4 ,grey is neutral1 and is composed of or can be resolved into black and white alone1 from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an infinite series4 ,it must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series of shades between the extremes of light and dark1 as each compound colour also may comprise a similar series of hues between the extremes of the colours composing it4 ,and as the relations of colours have been deduced regularly1 from white or light to black or shade2 so the same may be done1 inversely1 from black to white4 ,on this plan the tertiaries1 olive1 russet1 and citrine1 take the place of the primaries1 blue1 red1 and yellow2 while the secondaries still retain their intermediate station and relation to both4 ,thus1 russet and olive compose or unite in dark purple2 citrine and olive in dark green2 russet and citrine in dark orange4 ,the tertiaries have1 therefore1 the same order of relation to black that the primaries have to white2 and we have black primaries1 secondaries1 and tertiaries1 inversely1 as we have white primaries1 secondaries1 and tertiaries1 directly4 ,in other words1 we have light and dark colours in all classes4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,on ,,the ,,durability ,,and ,,evanescence ,,of ,,pigments4 ,pigments may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state1 prepared for the artists' use4 ,hitherto1 we have treated of colours in the abstract sense1 as appealing to the eye only3 we have now to consider them as material bodies4 ,as colour itself is relative1 so is durability of colour relative4 ,for the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual action and reaction1 no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will alter its colour4 ,on the other hand1 none is so fugitive as not to last under some favouring circumstances4 ,time1 of long or short continuance1 has often the effect of fire1 more or less intense4 ,indeed1 it is some sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments1 that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon4 ,thus1 if fire deepen1 or cool1 or warm a colour1 so may time2 if it vary its hues1 so may time2 if it destroy a colour altogether1 so may time ultimately4 ,the power of time1 however1 varies extremely with regard to the period in which it produces those effects1 that are instantly accomplished by fire4 ,that there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be proved from the most celebrated pigments4 ,for instance1 the colour of native ultramarine1 which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary circumstances1 may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice2 and the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will1 when secluded from light and air1 continue fifty years or more2 while fire or time1 which merely deepen the former colour1 will completely dissipate the latter4 ,again1 there have been works of art in which the white of lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere1 but has been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to foul air4 ,these and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed1 when we come to speak of pigments individually2 not for the purpose of destroying the artist's confidence1 but as a caution1 and a guide to the availing himself of their powers properly4 ,it is1 therefore1 the lasting under the usual conditions of painting1 and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed1 that entitles a colour to the character of permanency2 and it is the not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of evanescence3 while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either1 by accidental preservation or destruction under unusually favourable or fatal circumstances4 ,many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water4 ,had this been the case1 the artist need not have looked farther for the furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated enamel pigments4 ,but though such colours for the most part stand well when fluxed on glass1 or in the glazing of enamel1 they are nearly1 without exception1 subject to the most serious changes when ground to the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments1 and become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the substances which compose them4 ,these remarks even apply in a measure to native products1 such as coloured earths and metallic ores4 ,others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up in varnishes and oils1 they are safe from all possibility of change4 ,the assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable varnish--and even that would not resist the action of light1 however well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture4 ,but1 in fact1 varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature1 to the action of a humid atmosphere1 and to other influences3 their protection of colour from change is therefore far from perfect4 ,want of attention to the unceasing mutability of all chemical substances1 as well as to their reciprocal actions1 has occasioned those changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment1 which belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been improperly mixed and applied4 ,it is thus that the best pigments have suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter2 although1 owing to a desultory practice1 the effects and results have not been uniform4 ,if a colour be not extremely permanent1 dilution will render it in some measure more weak and fugitive2 and this occurs in several ways--by a too free use of the vehicle2 by complex mixture in the formation of tints2 by distribution1 in glazing or lackering1 of colours upon the lights downward1 or scumbling colours upon the shades upward2 or by a mixed mode very common among the ,venetian painters1 in which opaque pigments are combined1 as umber and lake4 ,the fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of a picture1 because they are employed pure1 and in greater body in shadows1 and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light1 and by mixture4 ,through partially fading1 moreover1 they balance any tendency to darken1 to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic pigments is disposed4 ,the foregoing circumstances1 added to the variableness of pigments by nature1 preparation1 and sophistication1 have often rendered their effects equivocal1 and their powers questionable4 ,these considerations enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from unnecessary mixture as possible2 for simplicity of composition and management is equally a maxim of good mechanism1 good chemistry1 and good colouring4 ,accordingly1 in respect to the latter1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds remarks1 ,two colours mixed together will not preserve the brightness of either of them single1 nor will three be as bright as two3 of this observation1 simple as it is1 an artist who wishes to colour bright will know the value4 ,there prevail1 notwithstanding1 two principles of practice on the palette1 opposed to each other--the one1 simple2 the other1 multiple4 ,the first is that of having as few pigments as possible2 and consists1 when carried to the extreme1 in employing the three primary colours only4 ,the second is that of having a number of pigments2 and consists1 also when carried to the extreme1 of employing as many1 if possible1 as there are hues and shades of colour4 ,on the former plan1 every tint requires to be compounded2 on the latter1 one pigment supplies the place of two or more4 ,now1 the more pigments are mixed1 the more they are deteriorated in colour1 attenuated1 and chemically set at variance4 ,original pigments1 that is1 such as are not made up of two or more colours1 are purer in hue and generally more durable than those compounded4 ,hence pure intermediate tints in single1 permanent1 original pigments1 are to be preferred to pigments compounded1 often to the dilution and injury of their colours4 ,cadmium ,orange1 for instance1 which is naturally an orange pigment and not composed of red and yellow1 is superior to many mixtures of those colours in a chemical sense1 and to all such mixtures in an artistic sense4 ,at the same time1 it is quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily4 ,colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours1 being1 indeed1 mere mixtures4 ,compound pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with1 in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the palette4 ,it may be inferred from the foregoing that1 between the modes of employing as few pigments as possible1 and of having as many as there are hues and shades of colour1 a middle course is the best4 ,but1 whatever the practice adopted1 permanent original pigments should be used as often as the case will admit2 it being borne in mind1 that a pigment may be compound1 although its colour may be primary4 ,as a rule1 the less colours are mixed1 the purer1 brighter1 and more lasting they will be found4 ,to the practice of producing tints and hues by grinding pigments together1 instead of blending them on the palette1 may be attributed some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the ,flemish school2 they being1 perhaps1 results of intimate combination from grinding1 and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the ingredients compounded4 ,this method has1 in a great measure1 fallen into disuse1 and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the pigments ground were not pure and true1 and did not assimilate well in mixture chemically4 ,the superiority of ,rubens and the ,flemings1 and of ,titian and the ,venetian school1 in colouring and effect1 is due in a considerable degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a full palette4 ,this practice1 as derived from ,reynolds1 is common with the best masters of our own school1 who1 in executing their works1 resort also to nature1 with an improved knowledge of colours and colouring4 ,such attention to colouring and effect1 from the first study and ground of a picture to the finishing1 contributes a beauty to the painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish4 ,the durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent upon the condition in which they exist chemically4 ,if pigments1 for example1 be in a state which chemists have termed protoxide1 they are liable to absorb oxygen on exposure to light1 air1 or moisture1 and becoming what is called peroxidized1 may1 by consequence1 change or fade4 ,in like manner1 lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base1 may owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base1 as well as to the natural infirmity of their colouring matter4 ,on the other hand1 pigments and bases are subject to deoxidation1 or to a loss of oxygen1 in which case the colour is apt to deepen4 ,pigments generally are more affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle1 and by deoxidation and darkening in one of oil4 ,a principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which they bear exposure to light and air1 an artistic proof of their stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect4 ,provided the colour remain unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen1 c41 he seldom hesitates to pronounce it safe4 ,but a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive in another1 believed in by the laboratory1 and found wanting by the studio4 ,it has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed durable and the reverse1 by the man of science and the man of art4 ,the former1 we take it1 looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a certain composition1 possessing maybe an acid and a base1 either1 or neither1 or both of which1 gases and other reagents may injure or destroy4 ,the latter views a colour chiefly as part and parcel of his picture--that picture which may meet with foul exhalations1 but must be exposed to light and air4 ,and he too often thinks as little of the effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture1 as the chemist considers the action of air and light4 ,with the exception of madder1 those colours mostly affected by light and air are of organic origin1 such as gallstone1 ,indian yellow1 and the yellow dye-wood lakes2 the red and purple lakes of cochineal2 indigo2 and sap green4 ,to these may be added the semi-organic ,prussian blue2 and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic4 ,the pigments liable to injury from sulphuretted hydrogen1 c41 are notably those obtained from lead and copper2 and that treacherous compound of iodine and mercury1 known as pure scarlet4 ,many colours are apt to change from the action of white lead and other lead pigments1 c41 principally those which are altered by light and air4 ,many1 too1 cannot safely come into contact with iron1 or ferruginous pigments2 especially the yellows of arsenic1 the lakes of cochineal1 and the blues and greens of copper4 ,with these an iron palette knife is best avoided1 one of ivory or horn being used instead4 ,the latter1 indeed1 is preferable in all cases1 several pigments being slightly affected by iron1 cadmium yellow among the number4 ,numerous colours are likewise injured by lime and fire1 and cannot therefore be employed in fresco1 or enamel painting4 ,of substances which may act deleteriously on colours1 there remain the vehicles and varnishes with which they are mixed4 ,many of these have been blamed1 and often with justice1 for their injurious effects on pigments4 ,the reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined1 if the vehicle1 c41 employed with it be untrustworthy4 ,the presence of lead1 for instance1 in such materials renders them liable to be blackened by foul air1 and by consequence the pigments used therewith4 ,time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures1 but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable4 ,to ensure the former and prevent the latter1 the attention of the artist in the course of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and colours as are prone to adapt themselves1 in changing1 to the intended key of his colouring1 and the right effect of his picture4 ,thus1 if he design a cool effect1 ultramarine has a tendency through time to predominate and aid the natural key of blue4 ,he will1 therefore1 compromise the permanence of this effect1 if in such case he employ a declining or changeable blue1 or if he introduce such reds and yellows as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness1 by which the colouring of many pictures has been destroyed4 ,in a glowing or warm key1 the case is in some measure reversed--not wholly so1 for it is observable that those pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the blue has been most lasting1 by the pigment counteracting the change of colour in the vehicle1 and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion4 ,unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation1 newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution4 ,good colours have ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value1 that to produce such1 after so many ages of research is no ordinary accomplishment4 ,but too many resplendent pigments1 fruits of the fecundity of modern chemistry1 have been found deficient4 ,the yellow and orange chromates of lead1 for instance1 withstanding as they do the action of the sunbeam1 become by time1 foul air1 and the influence of other pigments1 inferior to the ochres4 ,so the dazzling scarlet of iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober vermilion1 being a chameleon colour1 subject to the most sudden and opposite changes4 ,and the blues of cobalt1 as always tending to greenness and obscurity1 cannot rank beside ultramarine4 ,we are far from asserting1 however1 that all modern pigments are inferior1 or that pigments should be looked upon with suspicion because they are modern4 ,several most valuable colours have lately claimed attention1 notably the permanent transparent yellow called ,aureolin4 ,seeing that1 until its introduction1 a yellow combining transparency with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette1 the importance of such an addition1 so long wanted and wished for1 cannot be overrated4 ,equal in beauty and durability with the preceding1 but possessing greater richness and depth1 and of a semi-opacity1 another yellow of the highest order merits regard1 ,orient ,yellow1 distinguished for its lustrous golden hue1 resembling a bright ,indian yellow4 ,dazzling in brilliancy1 and absolute in permanency4 ,cadmium ,red next attracts notice4 ,this new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid orange-scarlet1 the latter colour predominating1 of intense fire1 but with no approach to rankness or harshness1 yielding delicate pale washes1 and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints4 ,with it may be coupled ,cadmium ,orange1 a colour equally brilliant and stable1 and equally without rankness or harshness1 but of a true orange hue1 admirably adapted for sunsets and the like4 ,last of all the fresh pigments of whose thorough durability there is no doubt1 comes the splendid ,viridian1 a green nothing but fire will change1 and no mixture of blue and yellow will afford4 ,clear1 bright1 and transparent as the emerald1 it rivals velvet in its soft gorgeous richness4 ,with this and ,aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed1 sparkling with sunshine1 as it were4 ,other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last few years1 not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing1 but equal1 or superior1 to many formerly used4 ,it were folly1 therefore1 and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers1 especially as their merits were often more than doubtful4 ,new colours1 it is true1 have to be learnt1 for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes1 chemical1 physical1 artistic2 but if they be good and durable1 no amount of time and study spent upon them is thrown away4 ,to think less of the quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced with them is mistaken policy2 and to be content with that quality when better can be had1 shows no real love of art1 but rather indolence and apathy4 ,perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a chance as they are entitled to1 is due to the fashion which prevails of exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours4 ,if their detractors would confine themselves to certain colours1 there could be no denial2 but to assert1 as is often done1 that the cause of modern pictures not standing is owing to modern pigments generally1 is unjust4 ,it is not the materials which should be blamed1 but those who use them4 ,the fact is1 that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the greater variety of colours at his command4 ,in the early periods of art1 when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments1 the painter could not very well go wrong4 ,now-a-days but too many1 wanting the skill of the old masters1 seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of colouring3 with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is obvious4 ,the palette1 we admit1 wants weeding2 not only of the bad new colours1 but of the bad old colours4 ,this1 however1 must be a work of time1 and depend1 not upon the colourman--for where there is a demand there will be a supply--but upon the artists themselves4 ,to this end an increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required1 whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive4 ,it may be fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the progress of chemical science1 which will doubtless add from time to time to the list of stable pigments4 ,we have heard it remarked that there are too many colours already--to which we reply1 there are not too many good colours1 and scarcely can be4 ,the more crowded the palette is with reliable pigments1 the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from their places4 ,in our opinion1 there is ample room for fresh colours1 provided they be durable2 and we have as little sympathy with the stereotyped cry of there being too many1 as with the fashionable unbelief in modern pigments4 ,certainly1 the artist who seeks for permanence among the whites1 reds1 or blues1 will not be troubled with a superfluity4 ,certainly1 too1 colours are as good as ever they were1 and better--better made1 better ground1 better prepared for use4 ,but1 fast and fugitive1 pigments are more numerous1 and for that reason need more careful selection4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,general ,,qualities ,,of ,,pigments4 ,the general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour1 comprehending pureness and richness1 brilliancy and intensity1 delicacy and depth1--truth of hue--transparency or opacity1 well-working1 crispness1 setting up1 or keeping its place1 and desiccation1 or drying well4 ,to all of these must be superadded durability when used1 a quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong1 and one so essential that all other properties put together without it are of no esteem with the artist who merits reputation4 ,we have1 therefore1 given it a previous distinct consideration4 ,it must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing qualifications in perfection1 some being naturally at variance or opposed2 nor is there any1 perhaps1 that cannot boast excellence in one or more of them4 ,beauty commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy1 purity1 and brilliancy2 or depth1 richness1 and intensity4 ,delicacy and depth in the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments1 so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or less of failure in the other1 and when they are united--as they occasionally are--it is with some sacrifice of both4 ,hence the judicious artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour1 one eminent for delicate beauty1 the other for richness and depth4 ,truth of hue is a relative quality in all colours1 except the extreme primaries1 in the relations of which1 blue1 being of nearest affinity to black or shade1 has properly but one other relation1 in which it inclines to red and becomes purple-blue3 it is1 therefore1 faulty or false1 when1 tending to yellow1 it becomes of a green hue4 ,but red1 which is of equal affinity to light and shade1 has two relations1 by one of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson2 and by the other it leans to yellow1 and becomes an orange-red or scarlet1 neither of which is individually false or discordant4 ,yet yellow1 which is of nearest affinity to white or light1 has strictly but one true relation1 by which it inclines to red1 and becomes a warm or orange yellow1 for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow4 ,the best example of true yellow in a pigment1 tending neither to red nor blue1 is furnished by ,aureolin1 alluded to in the last chapter4 ,the secondary and tertiary colours1 having all duplex relations1 may incline without default to either of their relatives4 ,transparency is an essential property of all glazing pigments1 and adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours2 indeed it is the prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend1 as whiteness1 or light1 does upon opacity or reflecting power4 ,opacity is1 therefore1 the antagonist of transparency1 and qualifies pigments to cover in dead-colouring1 or solid painting1 as well as to combine with transparent colours in forming tints2 and hence it is that semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead colouring and for finishing4 ,as excellencies1 therefore1 transparency and opacity are relative only--the first being as indispensable to shade in all its gradations1 as the latter is to light4 ,with regard to transparent and opaque colours generally1 it is worthy of attention in the practice of the oil-painter1 that the best effects of the former are produced when they are used with a resinous varnish2 as opaque pigments are best employed in oil1 and the two become united with best effect in a mixture of these vehicles4 ,the natural and artificial powers1 or depth and brilliancy1 of every colour lie within the extremes of black and white2 hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white4 ,as1 however1 few transparent pigments have sufficient body1 or tinging power for this1 it is often necessary to glaze them over tints1 or deep opaque colours of the required hues4 ,there is a charm in transparent colours which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing2 but glazing1 scumbling1 and their combined process must be employed with discretion1 according to the objects and effects of a picture4 ,working well is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of texture1 and what is called body in colours2 yet every pigment has its peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil1 and these must become matter of every artist's special experience4 ,some of the best pigments are most difficult of management1 while some ineligible colours are rich in body and free in working4 ,accidental circumstances1 however1 may influence all pigments in these respects1 according to the painter's particular mode of operation1 and his vehicle2 upon the affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of working--such as keeping their place1 crispness or setting up1 and drying well4 ,these latter1 with other properties and accidents of pigments1 will be particularly considered in treating of their individual characters2 but it may be remarked that crispness or setting up1 as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied1 are contrary to the nature of many pigments1 and depend in painting with them upon a gelatinous mixture of their vehicle4 ,for example1 mastic and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been rendered drying by the acetate1 or sugar of lead3--simple water1 also albumen1 and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass1 give the same quality to oils and colours2 and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure oils4 ,whitelac varnish1 and other spirit varnishes1 rubbed into the colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very effectually in most instances4 ,this is important1 because glazing cannot be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place1 or with pigments which lend this property to the vehicle1 as some lakes and transparent colours do4 ,fineness of texture is produced by extreme grinding and levigation4 ,pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste1 are miscible in oil and dry therein firmly2 and in case of utility or necessity1 any water-colour in cake1 being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in oil1 the gum acting as a medium of union between the two4 ,thus1 pigments which cannot otherwise be employed in oil1 or varnish1 may be forced into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter1 care being taken to use the palette-knife1 if of steel1 with caution4 ,desiccation or drying4 ,the well-known additions of the acetate1 or sugar of lead1 litharge1 and sulphate of zinc1 either mechanically ground1 or in solution1 for light colours2 and japanner's gold size1 or oils boiled upon litharge1 for lakes2 or1 in some cases1 manganese and verdigris for dark colours1 are resorted to when the pigments or vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone4 ,it would be well if lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives altogether3 assuredly1 no artist with any regard for the permanent texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases1 and in the smallest possible quantity4 ,the best of pigments may be ruined by their injudicious use1 and obtain a character for fugacity which they in no way deserve4 ,it requires attention that an excess of dryer renders oil saponaceous1 is inimical to drying1 and is otherwise injurious4 ,some colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed4 ,sulphate of zinc1 as a siccative1 is less powerful than acetate of lead1 but is far preferable in a chemical sense4 ,it is supposed erroneously to set the colours running2 which is not positively the case1 though it will not retain those disposed to move1 because it wants the property the acetate of lead possesses1 of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and varnish4 ,these two dryers should not be employed together1 since they counteract and decompose each other1 forming two new substances--acetate of zinc1 which is a bad siccative1 and sulphate of lead1 which is insoluble and opaque4 ,the inexperienced ought here to be guarded against the highly improper practice of some artists1 who strew their pictures while wet with acetate of lead1 or use that substance in some other mode1 without grinding or solution2 which1 though it may promote present drying1 will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work1 throw off the colour in sandy spots1 and expose the paintings to peculiar risk from the damaging influence of impure air4 ,it is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or vehicles1 the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence thereon4 ,the direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering oils and colours siccative1 and were probably resorted to before dryers were--not always wisely--added to oils1 particularly in the warm climate of ,italy4 ,the ground may also advance or retard drying1 because some pigments united by mixing or glazing1 become either more or less siccative by their conjunction4 ,many other accidental circumstances may likewise affect drying2 and among these none is to be more guarded against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali1 too often left in the washing of his brushes1 and which1 besides other bad results1 decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most siccatives4 ,in such cases desiccation is retarded1 streaks and patches are formed on the painting1 and the odium of ill drying falls upon some unlucky pigment4 ,to free brushes from this disadvantage1 they should be cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine4 ,dryers should be added to colours only at the time of using them1 because they exercise their drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed1 during which the latter become thick or fatten4 ,too much of the siccative will1 as before noticed1 often retard drying4 ,the various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or less appropriate dryer2 and it would be a matter of useful experience if the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained4 ,it is probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of lead and copper might come into use in particular cases1 such as the oxides of manganese1 to which umber and the ,cappagh browns owe their drying quality4 ,to other good attributes of pigments1 it would be well if we could in all cases add the property of being innoxious4 ,as this1 however1 cannot be1 and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account1 cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to the mouth1 so common in water-painting1 are sufficient guards against any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment4 ,no colour which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure the health of the artist4 ,,part ,,iii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,individually4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,on ,,colours ,,and ,,pigments ,,individually4 ,having briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and pigments generally1 we come to their powers and properties individually--a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited connexions1 every substance in nature and art possessing colour1 the first quality of pigments4 ,with regard to colours individually1 it is a general law of their relations1 confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense1 that those colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty in their lightest tints3 and that those which tend similarly towards shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness1 a rule of course applying to black and white particularly4 ,thus1 the most beautiful yellow1 like white1 is that which is lightest and most vivid2 blue is most beautiful when deep and rich2 while red is of greatest beauty when of intermediate depth1 or somewhat inclined to light2 and their compounds partake of these relations4 ,we speak here only of the individual beauty of colours1 and not of that relative beauty by which every tint1 hue1 and shade of colour become pleasing1 or otherwise according to space1 place1 and reference2 for this latter beauty belongs to the general nature and harmony of colours4 ,in respect to pigments individually1 it may be observed that--other things being equal--those pigments are the most beautiful which possess the most colour1 whether they be light or dark1 opaque or transparent1 bright or subdued4 ,there are some which exhibit all their colour at a glance3 there are others that the more they are looked into the more colour they are found to have--containing1 as they do1 an amount of latent colour1 not immediately apparent4 ,apart from the beauty which a wealth of colour imparts1 those pigments imbued with it are1 as a rule1 the most permanent4 ,and not unnaturally so1 for the more colour there is present1 the longer it takes to be affected1 either by exposure or impure air4 ,colour within colour1 therefore1 not only lends charm to a pigment1 but contributes to its safety4 ,there is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a particular colour1 from which many of our best colourists have not been totally free1 and which arises from organic defect1 or mental association4 ,such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the colourist1 who is every way surrounded by dangers4 ,on the one hand1 there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness2 on the other1 into blackness or gloom3 in front he may run into fire and foxiness1 or he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness3 all of which are extremes he must avoid4 ,there are also other important prejudices to which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually1 that demand his particular attention4 ,these are occasioned by the various specific powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and the activity of light1 or the length of time they are viewed4 ,by consequence1 vision becomes over-stimulated1 unequally exhausted1 and endued1 even before it is fatigued1 with a spectrum which not only clouds the colour itself1 but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to surrounding hues1 so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its balance1 and mislead the judgment4 ,this derangement of the organ may be caused by a powerful tint on the palette1 a mass of drapery1 the colour of a wall1 the light of a room1 or other accidental circumstance2 and the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object--of nature1 if possible--or to give it rest4 ,the powers of colours in these respects1 as well as of pigments individually1 together with their reciprocal action and influence chemically1 will be adverted to under their distinct heads4 ,the attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments1 although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect in colouring1 is by no means less necessary in practice4 ,for he who would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view1 in respect to the whole and the parts of a picture1 as regards mind and body1 and concerning itself alone4 ,to this end1 is needed a knowledge of his pigments individually4 ,if nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow1 she has not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them4 ,the mineral1 animal1 vegetable kingdom--each helps him to realize1 however faintly1 her many manifold beauties3 to give some idea1 however slight1 of that glorious flood of colour1 which light lets loose upon the world4 ,metal1 ore1 earth1 stone2 root1 plant1 flower1 fruit2 beast1 fish1 insect--in turn aid the arduous task4 ,the painter's box is a very museum of curiosities1 from every part of the universe4 ,for it1 the mines yield their treasures1 as well as the depths of the sea3 to it come ,arab camel1 and ,english ox1 cuttle-fish and crawling coccus3 in it the ,indian indigo lies next the madder of ,france1 and the gaudy vermilion of ,china brightens the mummy of ,egypt4 ,varied1 indeed1 are the sources whence we derive our pigments2 and if they still leave much to desire1 improvement is clearly manifest4 ,slowly but surely1 year by year1 we are advancing4 ,with the growth of science1 the exhaustless stores of creation1 will there at last be attained--step by step1 though it be--that summit of the artist's hopes1 a perfect palette8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,neutral1 ,,white4 ,the term colour is equivocal when applied to the neutrals1 yet the artist is bound to consider them as colours2 for a thing cannot but be that of which it is composed1 and neutrals are composed of1 or comprehend1 all colours4 ,with regard to colour1 then1 white in a perfect state should be neutral in hue1 and absolutely opaque2 that white being the best which reflects light most brilliantly4 ,this property in white is called body2 by which in other pigments1 especially those that are transparent1 is meant tingeing power4 ,white1 besides its uses as a colour1 is the instrument of light in painting1 and compounds when pure with all colours1 without changing their class4 ,yet it dilutes and cools all colours except blue1 which is specifically cold2 and1 though it does not change nor defile any colour1 it is changed and defiled by all colours4 ,this pureness of white1 if it be not in some degree broken or tinged1 will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture1 and itself become harsh and crude4 ,hence the lowness of tone which has been thought a necessity in painting1 but is such only because our other colours do not approach to the purity of white4 ,had we all necessary colours thus relatively pure as white1 colouring in painting might be carried up to the full brilliancy of nature2 and1 in fact1 more progress has already been made in that respect1 than the prejudice for dulness is disposed to tolerate4 ,locally1 white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture1 and produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees1 according to their specific retiring and advancing powers4 ,these latter1 however1 are not absolute qualities of colours1 but depend on the relations of light and shade1 which are variously appropriate to all colours4 ,hence it is that a white object rightly adapted1 appears to detach1 distribute1 and put in keeping2 as well as to give relief1 decision1 distinctness1 and distance to every thing around it3 hence1 too1 the use and requirement of a white or light object1 in each separate group of a composition4 ,white itself is advanced or brought forward1 unless indeed white surround a dark object1 in which case they retire together4 ,in mixture1 white communicates these properties to its tints1 and harmonizes in conjunction with1 or in opposition to all colours2 but lies nearest in series to yellow1 and remotest from blue1 of which1 next to black1 it is the most thorough contrast4 ,it is correlative with black1 which is the opposite extreme of neutrality4 ,perfect white is opaque1 and perfect black transparent2 hence when added to black in minute proportion1 white gives it solidity2 and from a like small proportion of black combined with white1 the latter acquires locality as a colour1 and better preserves its hue in painting4 ,both white and black communicate these properties to other colours1 in proportion to their lightness or depth2 while they cool each other in mixture1 and equally contrast each other when opposed4 ,these extremes of the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied1 as green1 the mean of the scale1 is the greatest defiler of all colours4 ,rubens regarded white as the nourishment of light1 and the poison of shadow4 ,in a picture1 white should not be merely glittering or brilliant1 but tender as well as bright4 ,the eye should seek it for rest1 brilliant though it may be2 and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in the midst of the flushing of the colours4 ,this effect can only be reached by general depth of middle tint1 by the perfect absence of any white1 save where it is needed1 and by keeping the white itself subdued by grey1 except at a few points of chief lustre4 ,white1 as a pigment1 is of more extensive use than any other colour in oil painting and fresco1 owing to its local quality1 its representing light1 and its entering into composition with all colours in the formation of tints4 ,the old masters have been supposed by some to possess whites superior to our own1 but this may be questioned4 ,the pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be attributed to a proper method of using1 careful preservation of the work1 and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a permanent cold colour into the white--such as plumbago--helped also by judicious contrast4 ,notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous1 a thoroughly unexceptionable white is still a desideratum--one combining the perfect opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white4 ,the nearest approach to it that has yet been made1 is ,chinese white1 which possesses in a great measure the property of the former1 and1 being a preparation of zinc1 has wholly that of the latter4 ,unfortunately ,chinese white is a water-colour pigment only1 not retaining its several advantages1 stability excepted1 when employed in oil4 #a4 ,,constant ,,white1 ,also called ,permanent white1 and ,barytic white1 is1 when well prepared1 of superior body in water1 but has less opacity in oil4 ,it works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner1 and is considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry1 a fault which subjects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses it in compound tints4 ,the semi-transparency of the white1 while wet1 prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried1 when he frequently finds it harsh and chalky1 and out of tone with the rest of his painting4 ,as little gum as possible should be employed with it1 gum being inimical to its body1 or whiteness4 ,the best way of preparing this pigment1 as well as other terrene whites1 so as to preserve their opacity1 is to grind them in simple water1 and to add towards the end of the grinding sufficient only of clear cold jelly of gum tragacanth as will connect them into a body1 and attach them to the paper in painting4 ,cold starch will answer the same purpose4 ,constant white is a sulphate of baryta1 found native and known under the name of heavy-spar1 or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid1 or a soluble sulphate1 to a solution of a barytic salt4 ,in the first mode1 if the white be not well purified from free acid1 it is apt to act injuriously on some pigments4 ,sulphate of baryta is often used for the purpose of adulterating white lead1 the native salt being ground to fine powder1 and washed with dilute sulphuric acid1 by which its colour is improved1 and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out4 ,whether native or artificial1 the compound is quite unaffected by impure air1 and is not poisonous4 ,,lead ,,whites ,comprise and are known under the names of3--,white lead1 ,flake white and ,body-white1 ,cremnitz1 or ,kremnitz1 ,crems or ,krems white1 ,london and ,nottingham white1 ,flemish white1 ,pattison's white1 ,blanc d'argent or ,silver white1 ,ceruse1 ,dutch white1 ,french white1 ,venetian white1 ,hamburgh white1 ,kremser white1 ,sulphate of lead1 c4 ,the heaviest and whitest of these are the best1 and in point of colour and body1 are superior to all other whites4 ,when pure and properly applied in oil and varnish1 they are comparatively safe and durable1 drying well without addition2 but excess of oil discolours them1 and in water-painting they are changeable even to blackness4 ,upon all vegetable lakes1 except those of madder1 they have a destructive effect2 and are injurious to gamboge1 as well as to those almost obsolete pigments1 red and orange leads1 king's and patent yellow1 massicot1 and orpiment4 ,with ultramarine1 however1 red and orange vermilions1 yellow and orange chromes1 yellow and orange and red cadmiums1 aureolin1 the ochres1 viridian and other oxides of chromium1 ,indian red c41 they compound with little or no injury4 ,lead colours must not be employed in water-colour or crayon painting1 distemper1 or fresco4 ,the whites of lead are carbonates of that metal1 with two exceptions3--,flemish white or the sulphate1 and ,pattison's white or the oxychloride4 ,in using all pigments of which lead is the basis1 cleanliness is essential to health4 ,white lead1 by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate1 always contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated oxide4 ,the less of the latter there is present1 the better does the white cover1 and the less liable is it to turn brown4 ,the products formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body3 otherwise1 pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide1 obtained by mixing solutions of carbonate of potash and a lead-salt1 might be best adapted for a pigment4 ,however1 such a carbonate has been lately produced by ,mr4 ,spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or potash solution of lead1 and for this white an opacity is claimed equal to that of the ordinary compound4 ,great as is the opacity of white lead1 it is apt to lose that property in some measure in course of time1 and become more or less transparent4 ,if1 over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues1 there were brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them1 after some years those rubs would indistinctly appear1 and by degrees become more and more visible1 until at last their forms--if not their very colours--could be recognised4 ,from this it would seem that white lead must slowly but surely part with some of its carbonic acid1 and be at length converted into dicarbonate1 a compound possessing less carbonic acid1 and less coating power4 ,impure air1 or sulphuretted hydrogen1 browns or blackens white lead1 converting it partially or wholly into sulphide4 ,it would appear from the recent investigations of ,dr4 ,d4 ,s4 ,price1 that white lead is less liable to be thus affected1 when the pictures in which it is used are exposed to a strong light2 also1 that when such pictures have so suffered1 a like exposure will restore them4 ,we have ourselves noticed the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged by foul gas1 regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and sunshine4 ,the action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very powerful upon sulphide of lead1 an exposure to light for a few days only being sufficient to change a surface of it1 coated with a thin layer of boiled linseed oil1 into a white one4 ,probably1 these agents may have a similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen1 and many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with boiled linseed oil1 and submitting them to a strong light4 ,that the result is due to oxidation1 there can be no doubt4 ,indeed1 the eminent ,french chemist1 ,m4 ,thnard1 was consulted some years back upon the means of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed upon a valuable drawing1 by the changing of the white lead1 and employed for that purpose oxygenated water4 ,he had ascertained its power of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate1 and1 by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid1 soon succeeded in restoring the drawing to its primitive state4 ,here1 again1 the use of the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours1 to which foul air is inimical4 ,in oil painting white lead is essential in the ground1 in dead colouring1 in the formation of tints of all colours1 and in scumbling1 either alone or mixed with other pigments4 ,it is also the best local white1 when neutralized with ultramarine or black2 and it is the true representative of light1 when warmed with ,naples yellow1 or orange vermilion or cadmium1 or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the orange pigments1 according to the light4 ,ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy spar1 gypsum1 or chalk4 ,these injure it in body and brightness1 dispose it to dry more slowly1 keep its place less firmly1 and discolour the oil with which it is applied1 as well as prevent it dissolving completely in boiling dilute potash-ley1 a test by which pure white lead may be known4 ,the adulteration of pigments1 which we have in some instances found practised to a large extent abroad1 is comparatively unfrequent in our own country1 so far at least as regards the superior class of colours employed by artists4 ,as a rule1 such colours when manufactured in ,england may be fairly assumed to be genuine2 and certainly the respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of sophisticating them4 ,we must bear testimony1 indeed1 to the zeal with which they purvey1 regardless of necessary expense1 the choicest and most perfect materials4 ,this should be a matter of congratulation to the painter1 who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his colour-dealer2 for if he were ever so good a chemist1 it would be impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it4 ,the fault must rest with himself1 therefore1 if1 through a mistaken economy1 he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices4 ,of a surety1 the colours of the artist are not among those things in which quality can1 or should1 be sacrificed to cheapness4 #b4 ,,blanc ,d',,argent1 ,,or ,,silver ,,white4 ,these are false appellations of a white lead1 called also ,french white4 ,it is brought from ,paris in the form of drops1 is exquisitely white1 but of less body than flake white1 and has all the properties of the best white leads4 ,being subject to the same changes1 it is unfit for general use as a water-colour1 though good in oil or varnish4 #c4 ,,cremnitz ,,white1 ,known likewise as ,kremnitz1 ,crems1 or ,krems white1 is a carbonate of lead which derives its names from ,kremnitz in ,hungary1 or ,crems or ,krems in ,austria4 ,it is also called ,vienna white1 being brought from ,vienna in cakes of a cubical form4 ,cremnitz white is the brightest white that is used in oil3 it possesses rather less body than flake white1 because the particles are finer4 ,when newly prepared1 it gives out a strong smell of vinegar4 #d4 ,,flake ,,white1 ,called1 when levigated1 ,body white1 is an ,english white lead in the form of scales or plates1 sometimes grey on the surface4 ,it takes its name from its figure1 is occasionally equal to ,crems white in colour1 and generally surpasses in body all other white leads4 ,in composition1 it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead1 the latter decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater proportion in which it is present4 #e4 ,,flemish ,,white1 ,,or ,,sulphate ,,of ,,lead ,is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by sulphuric acid1 much resembling the blanc d'argent4 ,it is inferior1 however1 both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate4 ,hence1 white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted hydrogen into sulphide1 and again been converted into sulphate by oxidation1 with a view to restoring its colour1 becomes peculiarly liable to the influence of impure air4 #f4 ,,london ,,and ,,nottingham ,,whites4 ,the best of these do not essentially differ from each other1 nor from the white leads of other manufactories4 ,the latter variety1 being prepared from flake white1 is usually the greyer of the two4 #g4 ,,pattison',s ,,white1 ,,or ,,oxychloride ,,of ,,lead ,is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead1 formed by precipitating a solution of chloride of lead with soda1 potash1 lime1 or baryta1 in the caustic or hydrated state4 ,it would appear that when the oxychloride is used as a paint1 the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of lead1 and1 in consequence of this saponaceous matter1 is capable of spreading over an extended surface4 ,the product has been described as possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead1 inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body4 ,dr4 ,ure1 however1 found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint compounded of this article1 and1 consequently1 that it is not so effectual as the carbonate4 ,as an artist's pigment1 a partially soluble compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible4 #h4 ,,roman ,,white ,is of the purest white colour1 and differs only from blanc d'argent in the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses in which it is commonly prepared4 ,besides the foregoing1 there are other white leads1 generally foreign1 cheaper1 and adulterated4 ,many of these are mixed with a small quantity of charcoal1 indigo1 or ,prussian blue1 so that the dead yellowish shade which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue4 ,among them may be named-- #i4 ,,ceruse4 ,a ,french variety1 not necessarily1 but not unfrequently1 mixed with different chalky earths in various proportions2 and the following ,belgian kinds3 #aj4 ,,dutch ,,white1 ,containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta4 #aa4 ,,hamburgh ,,white4 ,a mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound4 #ab4 ,,kremser ,,white1 ,differing from the rest in being unadulterated4 #ac4 ,,venetian ,,white ,composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions4 ,,zinc ,,whites4 #ad4 ,,chinese ,,white4 ,the introduction1 in #ahcd1 of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters1 who formerly had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in working4 ,its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead1 a pigment which1 though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil1 is quite unfitted for water4 ,since the period of its production1 ,chinese white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists1 as being the most eligible in their peculiar department4 ,previous to that period1 the complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence2 but in no instance has any picture1 in which this white has been used1 suffered from its employment4 ,to the colour of oxide of zinc1 sulphuretted hydrogen is altogether harmless2 sulphide of zinc being itself white4 ,the variety under notice works and washes well1 possesses no pasty or clogging properties1 and is prepared beautifully white4 ,moreover1 it has the desirable quality of dense body2 so much so1 that1 as the painter works1 his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour4 ,it may likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments1 the following blending very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights--cadmium yellow1 orange1 and red2 gamboge2 aureolin2 yellow ochre2 vermilion2 and light red4 ,without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical defects of white lead1 and retaining the advantages of both1 ,chinese white cannot but be considered as a most important addition4 ,it is a matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil4 #ae4 ,,zinc ,,white ,is either the anhydrous oxide1 the hydrate oxide1 or hydrated basic carbonate of zinc4 ,it varies in opacity and colour according to the mode of manufacture1 and the purity of the compound1 but may always be relied upon as permanent4 ,the whiteness of the best samples rivals that of white lead1 and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous vapours4 ,in opacity it never equals white lead1 and might perhaps serve advantageously as a glaze over that pigment1 either alone or compounded with other colours2 as well as act as a medium of interposition between white lead and those colours which are injured by it1 such as gamboge1 crimson lake1 c4 ,when duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the palette in oil3 in water it has been superseded by ,chinese white4 ,occasionally1 starch1 chalk1 white clay1 and carbonate of baryta1 are employed as adulterants2 none of which1 however1 are inimical to stability4 ,as a pigment1 zinc white may be said to be innoxious4 ,as oxide of zinc does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white lead1 the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry or harden so rapidly4 ,for the purpose of causing it to be more siccative1 the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge1 but by this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air4 ,instead of litharge1 experiments have led to the choice of salts of zinc1 such as the chloride or sulphate1 a small percentage of which1 on being mixed with the oil or oxide1 confers upon it the property of rapidly hardening4 ,the same result is attained by employing an oil1 dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese4 ,in either case1 a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced4 ,these agents might1 with advantage1 be more generally used in the place of litharge for rendering oils siccative4 ,many pigments which are not naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed with an oil made drying by means of lead4 99 99 99 99 99 #af4 ,cadmium ,white4 ,provided the metal be freed from iron1 which we have commonly found to be more or less present1 a white of considerable beauty may be produced2 either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate1 or indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light--the latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity4 ,however prepared1 cadmium white is deficient in body1 and apt to assume a yellow tint on meeting with an impure atmosphere4 #ag4 ,pearl ,white ,is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth1 a pearly white powder of loose texture1 turning grey on exposure1 and blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,it is chiefly used as a cosmetic1 but is said to injure the skin1 rendering it yellow and leather-like2 and it has been known to cause a spasmodic trembling of the face1 ending in paralysis4 ,another preparation under this name1 and now obsolete we believe as a pigment1 was obtained from mother-of-pearl4 ,it is described as exquisitely white1 and of good body in water1 but of little force in oil or varnish4 #ah4 ,tin ,white ,resembles zinc white in some respects1 but has less body and colour1 and dries badly4 ,according to its composition1 it is liable to turn either black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours4 #ai4 ,white ,chalk ,is a well-known native carbonate of lime1 employed by the artist only as a crayon1 or for tracing his designs1 for which purpose it is sawed into suitable lengths4 ,white crayons and tracing chalks1 to be good1 must work and cut free from grit4 ,from this material are prepared whitening and lime1 which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours1 used in distemper1 paper-staining1 c4 ,besides those mentioned1 there are other metallic whites varying in beauty and opacity1 such as those of mercury1 arsenic1 and antimony2 but none of them are of any value or reputation in painting1 on account of their great disposition to change of colour1 whether by light or foul air1 both in water and oil4 ,there are also other terrene whites1 under equivocal names1 among which are ,morat or ,modan white1 ,spanish white1 ,troys or ,troy white1 ,rouen white1 ,china white1 and ,satin white2 the latter being a sulphate of lime and alumina1 which dries with a glossy surface4 ,the common oyster-shell contains a soft white in its thick part1 and there is the white of egg-shells4 ,there is1 too1 an endless variety of native earths1 in addition to those prepared by art4 ,the whole of them1 however1 are destitute of body in oil2 and several1 owing to their alkaline nature1 are injurious to many colours in water1 as well as to all colours which cannot be employed in fresco4 ,among the infinitude of white substances1 the artist finds that there are but three white pigments--those of lead1 zinc1 and baryta4 ,the first possesses the greatest opacity1 while the second and third are most durable4 ,the last1 however1 has so many objectionable qualities1 that the number of eligible whites1 may almost be said to be two--lead and zinc4 ,of these1 the former is blackened by foul air1 and in oil1 the latter is wanting in body4 ,in fact1 there is but one white pigment which approaches perfection--,chinese white2 and this is only a water-colour4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,on ,,the ,,primary1 ,,yellow4 ,yellow is the first of the primary or simple colours1 nearest in relation to1 and partaking most of the nature of1 the neutral white2 it is accordingly a most advancing colour1 of great power in reflecting light4 ,compounded with the primary red1 it constitutes the secondary orange1 as well as its relatives1 scarlet1 and other warm colours4 ,it is the archeus1 or prime colour1 of the tertiary citrine2 characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours called brown1 and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff1 bay1 tawny1 tan1 dan1 dun1 drab1 chestnut1 roan1 sorrel1 hazel1 auburn1 isabela1 fawn1 feuillemort1 c4 ,yellow is naturally associated with red in transient and prismatic colours1 and is the principal power with it in representing the effects of warmth1 heat1 and fire4 ,combined with the primary blue1 yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary green1 as well as1 subordinately1 the tertiaries russet and olive4 ,it also enters in a very subdued degree into cool1 semi-neutral1 and broken colours1 and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the composition of black4 ,as a pigment1 yellow is a tender delicate colour1 easily defiled1 when pure1 by other colours4 ,in painting it diminishes the power of the eye by its action in a strong light1 at the same time becoming less distinct as a colour2 while1 on the contrary1 it assists vision and becomes more distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light4 ,these powers of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the colourist4 ,to remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt upon a colour1 they should be either passed gradually to its opposite colour1 and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints1 or washed in the clear light of day4 ,hence1 in viewing large collections of pictures1 their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the window1 or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard1 which may be carried in the hand1 painted a cool gray4 ,in a warm light1 yellow becomes totally lost1 but is less diminished than all other colours1 except white1 by distance4 ,the stronger tones of any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite colours and contrasts exalt them4 ,the contrasting colours of yellow are a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange1 and a purple inclining to red when the yellow tends to green1 in the mean proportions of thirteen purple to three yellow1 measured in surface or intensity4 ,being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of colours1 yellow accords with it in conjunction2 while1 of all colours1 except white1 it contrasts black most powerfully4 ,yellow is discordant when standing alone with orange1 unsupported by other colours4 ,on account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients1 we find that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated ,,mss4 of old1 glowing with vermilion and ultramarine1 the place of yellow was supplied by gilding4 ,now1 certainly1 no such scarcity exists2 of the three primary colours1 good yellows being the most numerous4 ,it may be observed of yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple1 they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours4 ,the same remark of course applies to pigments which are red or blue4 #bj4 ,,aureolin4 ,in these days a new pigment soon finds its level1 standing or falling according to its merits4 ,there are too many colours already on the palette for a fresh comer to have much chance1 unless it possess some great distinguishing quality1 or can take a place which has never been occupied4 ,such a void aureolin fills4 ,this magnificent yellow pigment1 says the ,chemical ,news1 supplies a desideratum hitherto in vain sought for by artists4 ,it is the nearest approach to a perfect yellow in existence1 and more closely resembles the purity of the prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour4 ,it is transparent1 has great brilliancy and richness1 both pure and in combination1 and is very permanent1 being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities1 or to the direct rays of the sun during an entire summer4 ,aureolin1 with ultramarine and madder red1 completes the triad of brilliant1 permanent1 and transparent primitive colours4 ,the above only tallies with the statements of several scientific chemists and artists of note1 statements which a prolonged personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse4 ,to our knowledge1 aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a pigment can be subjected4 ,we have found it bear with impunity1 even in its lightest and faintest tints1 the foulest gas and the brightest sunshine4 ,damp has no effect upon it2 and in oil1 water1 or fresco1 it is equally eligible4 ,with all other colours aureolin mixes safely and readily1 forming combinations of the utmost variety and value4 ,it affords beautiful transparent tints1 well defined1 and of exceeding purity2 the paler washes being at once clear and delicate1 and admitting the most subtle gradations of tone4 ,the artistic properties of aureolin1 however1 will be best described by quoting the following extract from ,mr4 ,aaron ,penley's ,english ,school of ,painting in ,water ,colours3-- ,i have fully tested the qualifications of ,aureolin for the ,landscape ,painter1 and1 without hesitation1 pronounce it to be the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the introduction of ,rose ,madder4 ,it has supplied a deficiency of a very important character4 ,hitherto1 no ,primitive ,yellow has been quite satisfactory as to its persistence2 so that the ,aureolin will not only be regarded by the artist as a great boon in the production of his works1 but it must also be considered as a real and lasting benefit to pictorial art in general4 ,the permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon1 inasmuch as they have been fully established by the most severe tests to which colour can be subjected1 by several of our ablest and most talented chemists4 ,it is1 therefore1 needless to enlarge upon its merits1 other than that ,i1 for one1 feel grateful for its introduction4 ,its uses are manifold1 and may be considered available for every purpose requiring a ,yellow of its character4 ,as to ,gray--perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately pure and transparent arial tints than are to be produced from a combination of ,cobalt1 ,rose ,madder and ,aureolin2 all of which are of a light description and well suited for the representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere4 ,these colours are each of them beautiful1 and yield a most exquisite range of tones1 which1 as they mix together most kindly1 render them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought4 ,as to ,foliage4--,in speaking of ,aureolin as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage1 it is impossible to say too much in its praise4 ,it imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined--a quality of the highest order4 ,as a colour for drapery it has no equal1 and may be employed with perfect success1 either by itself or with any of the other pigments4 ,the following table of compound tints will be found extremely useful3-- ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,vandyke ,brown4 ,sepia4 ,sepia1 or ,rose ,indigo1 or ,indigo1 or ,french ,madder4 ,french ,blue4 ,blue4 ,cobalt4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,indigo4 ,oxide of ,chromium4 ,emerald ,light ,red4 ,green4 ,cobalt1 or ,indigo4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,aureolin4 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,burnt ,umber4 ,brown ,madder4 ,rose ,madder4 ,aureolin1 in combination with ,cobalt and ,sepia1 or ,rose ,madder1 gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees1 when under the influence of a soft light1 or hazy state of the atmosphere4 ,having most impartially and diligently tested the qualities of the ,aureolin1 ,i can and do most conscientiously recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour painting4 ,the foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water1 and similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil4 ,both in a chemical and artistic sense1 therefore1 this new primitive yellow merits the highest regard1 and justly claims a foremost place among that little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach4 ,for mural decoration1 aureolin is admirably adapted1 but it cannot be used in enamel1 the colour being destroyed by great heat4 ,,cadmium ,,yellows4 ,of these there are three tints1 ,deep1 a so-called ,pale1 and ,lemon4 #ba4 ,,deep ,,cadmium4 ,cadmium ,yellow is comparatively a recent introduction1 the metal itself not having been discovered till #ahah4 ,the cadmium yellows of commerce are 7the chromate excepted7 all sulphides1 and therefore not affected by impure air4 ,until lately1 they were not manufactured in ,england but imported from abroad1 and as a rule were sadly doctored4 ,we have found in them a large proportion of orpiment1 chromate of lead1 c41 together with quantities of soluble salt1 extracted by boiling water4 ,owing to careless preparation1 there was also present an unnecessary amount of dirt1 which interfered as much with the purity of the colour1 as sophistication lessened its stability4 ,for these reasons1 doubtless1 cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion2 and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present popularity1 until they became an article of home produce4 ,deep cadmium yellow1 if genuine1 may without hesitation be declared permanent1 both with respect to foul gas1 and exposure to light or air4 ,the variety under notice is of extreme depth1 inclining to orange1 glowing1 lustrous1 and brilliant4 ,it is not very transparent1 but wonderfully clear and bright1 of great power1 and the most richly toned yellow known4 ,for draperies it is particularly adapted1 and for gorgeous sunsets is invaluable4 ,it works and washes well1 readily throws all other yellows into the shade when used alone1 and combines admirably with ,chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains4 ,by admixture with white1 cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear tints4 ,when compounded with white lead1 however1 the colour has been stated to be destroyed4 ,theoretically1 this might very well happen4 ,cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur--white lead of lead and carbonic acid4 ,if the former parted with some of its sulphur to the latter1 sulphide of lead would result1 which is black4 ,hence1 the partly decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black1 and there would be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black4 ,again1 if the cadmium parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead1 receiving in exchange the carbonic acid of the latter1 a mixture of black sulphide of lead with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished1 the result being a grey4 ,perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning plainer3-- ,cadmium ,yellow ,cadmium4 ,carbonate of ,cadmium 7,white47 ,sulphur4 _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,white ,lead ,lead4 _/ ,sulphide of ,lead 7,black47 ,carbonic ,acid4 ,such is the theory of the reaction which might take place1 but which1 as far as our own experience goes1 does not4 ,some deep cadmium yellow which we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal quantity by weight of ,cremnitz white1 and an oil rub of the compound laid upon a tile4 ,having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory1 we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness occurred1 any diminution in the beauty of the tint2 but could perceive none4 ,hence1 while admitting the possibility of the colour being damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article1 we conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow1 containing no free sulphur1 neither injures1 nor is injured by1 white lead1 and may safely be used therewith4 ,at the same time1 the artist should be warned to satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment1 or otherwise to employ the white of zinc1 at least as a medium of intervention4 ,a good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise be compounded with white lead1 for we have found that a mixture of equal parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone4 ,with all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided4 #bb4 ,,pale ,,cadmium4 ,the cadmium yellow so-called1 is not strictly pale1 but pale only when compared with the preceding4 ,it is1 in fact1 a full rich colour1 brilliant and permanent1 but without that tendency to orange which distinguishes the deep4 ,for some purposes1 when a warm tone is not required1 such a tint is preferable4 ,in water1 especially1 where delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement than in oil1 these differences of hue are important4 ,in the first medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent in the last1 and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in some measure lost in oil4 ,as a consequence1 the colour of the lightest tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in the foreground1 and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a pigment should be duly considered4 ,pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin1 is adapted for golden sunsets1 and yields with ,french blue a beautiful sea-green4 #bd4 ,,lemon ,,cadmium4 ,very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent1 and lemon cadmiums are decidedly fugitive4 ,being1 like the deep and 'pale' varieties1 sulphides1 they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas2 but they will not stand exposure to light and air1 or even to light alone4 ,some which were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually whitened next the glass4 ,yet they were almost identical in composition with the deepest and most orange hues1 and might have reasonably been presumed stable4 ,repeated experiments1 however1 both with samples of our own making and of others' manufacture1 have shown that for a cadmium to be durable1 it must be of a full1 rich1 comparatively deep yellow2 and that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to cannot be depended on4 ,it is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water than in oil1 but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be regarded as eligible in the other4 ,from a somewhat long acquaintance with cadmiums1 we have derived the opinion that their stability rests much on the mode of preparation1 and that an amount of heat is needed sufficient to make the sulphur bite into the base4 ,this opinion1 indeed1 extends to all metallic sulphides1 and our belief is1 that if vermilions were made generally by wet processes1 they would not be found the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are4 #be4 ,,mutrie ,,yellow4 ,under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared1 to which the foregoing remarks are applicable4 ,a water colour rub on exposure to air and light faded rapidly1 no trace of yellow remaining in the pale wash4 ,the sample which came under our notice contained a quantity of free sulphur4 ,it is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious1 so bright1 so clear1 are they1 and of so pure a lemon tint can they be obtained4 ,but as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability1 their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper1 or chromate of baryta4 #bf4 ,,chrome ,,yellows1 ,also called ,jaune ,minrale1 ,jaune de ,cologne or ,cologne ,yellow1 ,pale ,chrome1 and ,deep ,chrome1 are chromates of lead1 in which the latter metal more or less exists1 according to the paleness or depth of the colour4 ,of modern introduction1 they are distinguished for their brilliancy1 their opacity and body1 and their going cordially into tint with white1 both in water and oil4 ,owing1 however1 to a harshness and hardness of tone for which they are peculiar1 a coarse and disagreeable effect is apt to be produced by their use4 ,in general1 they do not accord with the modest hues of nature1 nor harmonize well with the softer beauty of other colours4 ,rivalling the cadmiums in brightness1 they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper varieties of those pigments1 as well as in their permanency4 ,although they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period1 after some time they lose their original hue1 whether employed alone or in tint1 and may even become black in impure air4 ,upon several pigments they produce serious changes1 ultimately destroying ,prussian and ,antwerp blues1 when compounded therewith in the composition of greens1 c4 ,ranging from lemon to deep yellow1 in oil1 provided the atmosphere be good1 the chromes may be found comparatively durable2 but1 on the whole1 the artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist4 ,the chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead1 as well as with the sulphates of baryta and lime4 ,the presence of the first is especially objectionable1 as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened by foul gas4 ,the sulphates of baryta and lime1 however1 are sometimes formed in the process of preparation1 in which case they are rather an advantage than otherwise2 inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to the colour1 but decrease the proportion of leaden base1 and consequently the tendency referred to4 ,we may remark1 indeed1 with respect to pigments1 that it is difficult in many instances to say where manufacture ends and adulteration begins4 ,a substance may be present which1 although not absolutely essential to the colour itself1 has been legitimately employed to impart a desired quality1 or a certain tint4 #bg4 ,,cologne ,,yellow ,is a cheap inferior chrome yellow1 unfit for artistic purposes1 and consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead1 fifteen of sulphate of lead1 and sixty of sulphate of lime4 #bh4 ,,jaune ,,minerale ,is prepared in ,paris1 and differs in no essential particular from ordinary chromate of lead1 except in the paleness of its colour4 ,the chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons1 whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made4 ,another lead yellow1 not a chromate1 has likewise been called jaune minrale4 #bi4 ,,citron ,,yellow ,is chromate of zinc1 a bright pale lemon-like yellow1 slightly soluble in water4 ,it is not affected by foul gas1 but does not preserve its colour on exposure to light and air1 or even when kept in a book4 ,in contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green4 ,compounded1 especially for foliage tints1 this yellow is eligible2 but if purity of hue be desired1 it should certainly not be employed alone4 ,in this chromate1 as in many others1 the affinity of the chromic acid to the base is small2 the former is liable to separate from the latter1 and1 by deoxidation1 to become converted into green oxide of chromium4 #cj4 ,,gallstone ,is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow1 affording richer tints than most other yellows1 but it cannot be depended on for permanency1 and therefore is seldom employed4 ,its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong light1 though not subject to alteration by impure air4 ,in oil it is ineligible4 ,a true gallstone is an animal calculus formed in the gall-bladder1 chiefly of oxen2 but the pigment sold under that name is often replaced by a substitute1 resembling the original in colour1 but of greater stability4 #ca4 ,,gamboge1 ,sometimes designated ,drop ,gum1 and variously written ,gamboge1 ,camboge1 ,gamboage1 ,cambogia1 ,cambadium1 ,cambogium1 ,gambodium1 ,gambogium1 c41 is the produce of several kinds of trees4 ,the natives of the coast of ,coromandel call the tree from which it is principally obtained ,gokathu1 which grows also in ,ceylon and ,siam4 ,from the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid state and dried4 ,our indigenous herb ,celandine yields abundantly1 in the same manner1 a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge4 ,gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour4 ,it is bright and transparent1 but not of great depth1 and in its deepest touches shines too much and verges upon brown4 ,when properly used1 it is more durable than generally reputed1 both in water and oil2 and conduces1 when mixed with other colours1 to their stability and keeping their place1 on account of its gum and resin4 ,it is deepened in some degree by ammoniacal and impure air1 and somewhat weakened1 but not easily discoloured1 by the action of light4 ,time effects less change on this colour than on other bright vegetal yellows2 but white lead and other metalline pigments injure1 while terrene and alkaline substances redden it4 ,in water it works remarkably well1 and forms an opaque emulsion without grinding or preparation1 by means of its natural gum2 but is with difficulty employed in oil1 c41 in a dry condition4 ,it dries well1 however1 in its natural state1 and lasts in glazing when deprived of its gum4 ,with regard to other colours it is perfectly innocent1 and though a strong medicine1 is not dangerous or deleterious in use4 ,gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake1 precipitated upon an aluminous base2 but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of the colour in water1 and mix it with lemon yellow1 with which pigment being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish4 ,glazed over other colours in water1 its resin acts as a varnish which protects them2 and under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits varnishing4 ,it is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments4 ,in landscape1 gamboge affords with indigo or ,antwerp blue clear bright greens1 and with sepia a very useful sober tint4 ,for sunrise and sunset clouds1 a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful4 #cb4 ,,extract ,,of ,,gamboge ,is the colouring matter separated from its greenish gum and impurities by solution in alcohol1 filtration and precipitation1 by which it acquires a powdery texture1 rendering it miscible in oil1 c41 and capable of being employed in glazing4 ,at the same time it is improved in colour1 and retains its original property of working well in water with gum4 ,gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash1 forming a red liquid1 from which it is thrown down by acids4 #cc4 ,,indian ,,yellow ,is a pigment long employed in ,india under the name ,purree1 but has not many years been introduced generally into painting in ,europe4 ,it is imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour1 and is produced from the urine of the camel4 ,it appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime1 and is of a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture2 of greater body and depth than gamboge1 but inferior in these respects to gallstone4 ,indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in water painting2 yet in ordinary light and air1 or even in a book1 the beauty of its colour is not lasting4 ,in oil it is exceedingly fugitive1 both alone and in tint4 ,owing probably to its alkaline nature1 it has an injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them4 ,the colour is not damaged by foul air1 and1 as lime does not destroy it1 the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers4 ,indian yellow washes and works extremely well1 and is adapted for draperies and for compounding landscape greens--where permanency is not required4 ,blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes result from too great a use of indigo2 should this evil exist1 no colour is so fitted to regain the proper tone as ,indian yellow employed thickly4 ,,lakes4 ,there are several pigments of this denomination1 varying in colour and appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation4 ,usually they are in the form of drops1 and their colours are in general bright yellow1 very transparent1 and not liable to change in an impure atmosphere--qualities which would render them very valuable1 were they not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light1 both in water and oil4 ,in the latter vehicle1 they are bad driers1 like most lakes1 and they do not stand the action of white lead and other metallic pigments4 ,if used1 therefore1 it should be as simple as possible4 ,of these lakes1 the following are the best2 but it must be borne in mind that1 as not one of them is permanent1 the compounds they afford are of necessity unstable4 #cd4 ,,yellow ,,lake ,is a bright transparent yellow1 a difficult drier1 and liable to be destroyed by light4 ,it affords beautiful foliage tints1 and would1 if it could be depended on1 be of extreme value in what is called glazing4 #ce4 ,,italian ,,pink1 ,also called ,english and ,dutch ,pink1 is an absurd name for a stronger and richer kind of yellow lake1 warmer in tint and more powerful than the preceding4 ,it is a rich transparent yellow1 yielding a variety of fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different proportions4 ,these three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost every variety of sunny foliage4 ,it gives likewise good olive greens with lamp black4 #cf4 ,,quercitron ,,lake1 ,or ,quercitron ,yellow1 is what its name implies4 ,it is dark in substance1 in grains of a glossy fracture1 perfectly transparent1 and when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour4 ,in painting it follows1 and adds richness and depth to1 gamboge in water1 and goes well into varnish2 but any lead used in rendering oils siccative1 browns it1 and for the same reason it is useless in tints4 #cg4 ,,lemon ,,yellow1 ,or chromate of baryta1 is exceedingly difficult to make well4 ,upon the mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its stability4 ,if properly and carefully prepared1 it is of a vivid lemon tint1 deep or pale1 very clear1 very pure and permanent4 ,it also washes well1 and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange4 ,this may be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability1 not being liable to change by damp or foul air1 by the action of light or the steel palette-knife1 or by mixture with white lead and other pigments1 either in water or oil1 in both of which it works pleasantly4 ,lemon yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light1 and has a peculiarly happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting4 ,in water it exceeds gamboge in brightness1 and compounded therewith improves its beauty4 ,this mixture also goes readily into oil2 indeed it is the best and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour--simple emulsion of the gamboge in a little water1 and trituration of the lemon yellow therewith1 being all that is requisite for the purpose4 ,lemon yellow has not much power1 and is semi-opaque4 ,in distance1 its light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens1 for which a minute quantity of emerald green may be added to it4 ,being uninjured by lime1 the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons4 #ch4 ,,mars ,,yellow1 ,jaune de ,mars1 ,jaune de ,fer1 ,iron ,yellow1 c41 is an artificially prepared iron ochre1 of the nature of sienna earth4 ,in its general qualities it resembles the ochres1 with the same eligibilities and exceptions1 but is more transparent1 as well as purer1 clearer1 richer1 and brighter4 ,like them it is quite permanent4 ,the colours of iron exist in endless variety in nature1 and are capable of the same variation by art1 from sienna yellow1 through orange and red1 to a species of purple1 brown1 and black1 among which are useful and valuable distinctions4 ,they were formerly introduced by the author1 and have been received under the names of ,mars yellow1 ,mars orange1 ,mars red1 ,mars violet1 and ,mars brown4 ,all of them are brighter and purer than native ochres1 and equally stable4 ,when carefully prepared1 these pigments dry well in proportion to their depth1 are marked by a subdued richness rather than brilliancy1 and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres4 ,their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent clearness4 ,we have occasionally found ,mars yellow mixed with orpiment1 or chromate of lead1 for the purpose of brightening the colour4 #ci4 ,,naples ,,yellow ,was a compound of lead and antimony1 anciently prepared at ,naples under the name of ,giallolino1 and was variously of a pleasing light1 warm yellow tint4 ,it was opaque and of good body1 not altered by the light of the sun1 and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish1 under the same management as the whites of lead4 ,like these1 however1 it was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when employed in water4 ,iron was also destructive of the colour of this yellow1 on which account great care was requisite1 in grinding and using it1 not to touch it with the common steel palette knife1 but to compound its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn4 ,for the same reason1 it was apt to suffer in composition with ochres1 ,prussian and ,antwerp blues1 and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient4 ,used pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil1 in which it worked and dried well4 ,it was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified without change4 ,in this state it was called ,giallolino di fornace1 and was introduced as a pigment for artists1 under the erroneous conception that vitrification gives permanence to colours1 when in truth it only increases the difficulty of levigation1 and injures their texture for working4 ,we have spoken of ,naples yellow in the past tense1 because the pigment now sold as such is generally1 or always1 a compound colour1 or manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base4 ,in either case the preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product1 which is perfectly durable and trustworthy4 ,the new ,naples yellow presents an example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different and superior preparation4 ,however fugitive certain colours may have been1 the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would seem to be sufficient recommendation to some4 ,at any rate1 they are still in occasional request1 and we cannot but approve the pious fraud which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original4 ,if an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment1 he had better buy a colour like it that will stand1 even if it be not what he asked for4 ,the tints of ,naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white4 #dj4 ,,antimony ,,yellow1 ,as its name denotes1 was likewise a preparation of that metal1 of a deeper colour than ,naples yellow1 but similar in its properties4 ,it was principally used in enamel and porcelain painting1 and differed greatly in tint4 ,one variety1 brighter than the rest1 is stated not to have been affected by foul air1 and therefore could not have had a lead basis4 ,,ochres1 ,known as ,yellow ,ochre1 ,brown ,ochre1 ,roman ,ochre1 ,transparent ,gold ,ochre1 ,oxford ,ochre1 ,stone ,ochre1 ,di ,palito1 c41 are native earths1 consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with iron1 which latter forms the principal colouring matter4 ,they are among the most ancient of pigments1 and their permanency is proved by the state of the old pictures4 ,in a box of colours found at ,pompeii1 and analyzed by ,count ,chaptal1 he discovered yellow ochre purified by washing1 which had preserved its original freshness4 ,they may all be produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature1 and are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns4 ,several ochres are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality1 that they require no other preparation than that of being washed4 ,their colours may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone1 uncombined with silica and alumina2 but such ferruginous preparations are not equally durable1 and as their chemical action is stronger1 they are more likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron4 ,it often happens in colours that one component of weak stability1 or powerful for evil1 is strengthened and held in check by another2 thus in the case of the ochres1 the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the iron1 both ensure its safety1 and prevent it injuring others4 #da4 ,,yellow ,,ochre1 ,called also ,mineral ,yellow1 is found in most countries1 and abundantly in our own4 ,it differs much both in constitution and colour1 ranging from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow1 and is generally of a warm cast4 ,its natural variety is much increased by artificial dressing and compounding4 ,the best yellow ochres possess no great force1 but as far as they go are valuable pigments1 particularly in fresco and distemper1 being neither subject to change by ordinary light1 nor sensibly affected by impure air1 or the action of lime4 ,by time1 however1 and the direct rays of the sun1 they are somewhat darkened4 ,like other ochres1 they may be safely used in admixture with pigments which are themselves permanent4 ,with carmine and the cochineal lakes1 or intense blue1 the ochres are best not employed4 ,the impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many recommendations4 ,no immediate effect whatever is produced by sulphuretted hydrogen1 and only a slight dirty brown tint is imparted by its prolonged action4 ,this discolouration a short exposure to air and light quickly removes4 ,by keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable1 but a rub of it in a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so4 ,hence1 yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent4 ,yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a landscape4 ,it possesses a slight degree of turbidness1 and is esteemed for this property1 which is considered to give it a retiring quality4 ,by admixture with ,antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet greens1 also a very serviceable yellowish drab with ,vandyke brown4 ,the ochre is valuable in warm skies1 the sails of ships and boats1 sandstone rocks and cliffs1 buildings1 hay1 sheep1 c4 ,it does not compound kindly with any of the cold colours1 and should therefore be used as a wash over others that are dry1 when required to qualify their tints4 #db4 ,,roman ,,ochre ,is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding1 as well as more transparent and cool in tint4 ,in other respects it is similar1 and forms with ,antwerp blue and indigo a like excellent range of greens4 ,we may observe1 however1 that as indigo is not a permanent pigment1 the colours it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is concerned4 ,roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red sails1 and autumnal effects of foliage4 #dc4 ,,brown ,,ochre1 ,likewise known as ,spruce ,ochre and ,ocre de ,rue1 or1 more correctly ,ru1 is a dense1 deep-toned brownish yellow1 fine in sandy foregrounds4 ,with ,indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness1 but stable only as respects the ochre4 ,when mixed with other colours1 it furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use4 ,it covers well1 without being too opaque2 and compounded with black and a little brown-red is good for backgrounds1 c4 #dd4 ,,transparent ,,gold ,,ochre ,resembles in a great degree ,roman ochre1 but is clearer in its tints1 and more transparent4 ,it is also brighter and much less opaque than yellow ochre4 ,it approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw sienna1 though more pure and brilliant1 serving for strong semi-transparent greens and sunny effects4 #de4 ,,oxford ,,ochre ,is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of ,oxford1 semi-opaque1 of a warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture1 absorbent of water and oil1 in both of which it may be safely employed4 ,it is one of the best of yellow ochres4 #df4 ,,stone ,,ochre ,has been confounded with the last variety1 to which1 as well as to ,roman ochre1 it is frequently similar4 ,true stone ochres are found in balls or globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones1 lying near the surface of rocks among the quarries of ,gloucestershire and elsewhere4 ,these balls are smooth and compact1 in general free from grit1 and of a powdery fracture4 ,they vary exceedingly in colour1 from yellow to brown1 murrey1 and gray1 but otherwise do not differ from ordinary ochres4 ,in enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds4 #dg4 ,,di ,,palito ,is a light yellow ochre1 with no special distinguishing quality1 except that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres4 #dh4 ,,orient ,,yellow ,is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence1 and perfectly unexceptionable in all respects1 both in water and oil4 ,we can give it no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability1 as well as in neither injuring1 nor being injured by1 other colours4 ,not possessed of the same amount of transparency1 it is distinguished by greater richness and depth4 ,of a soft golden hue1 lustrous and luminous1 it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque ,indian yellow4 ,a gorgeous and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by compounding the orient with aureolin1 or by using the latter as a glaze4 ,being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive1 the new yellow is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds1 or for sunshine on distant mountains4 ,with ,french blue it affords a beautiful sea green2 and1 mixed with aureolin1 gives fine foliage tints4 ,it is also eligible for draperies and illumination4 ,for enamelling it is inadmissible1 the colour being destroyed by great heat2 but in fresco it may safely be employed4 ,as in the case of aureolin1 we have had a prolonged personal experience of this new yellow1 an experience which justifies us in asserting that there is none more permanent4 ,in the whole range of artistic colours there is no pigment less affected by chemical or physical agents4 ,acid and ammoniacal fumes1 foul gases1 and exposure to damp1 air1 light1 or sunshine1 equally fail to injure it4 ,the perfect impunity with which it bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium is remarkable4 ,the former gas may be continuously passed into the colour suspended in water1 or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be poured upon it1 and the yellow remains unchanged4 ,submitted to the direct rays of the sun during an entire summer1 its lightest and faintest tints have preserved their original hue4 ,in a preceding chapter we remarked that1 provided the colour be stable1 the more colour a pigment possesses the better4 ,the latent colour there alluded to1 is one of the advantages of orient yellow4 ,the more it is looked into1 the more colour is seen--there is no suspicion of a base coloured1 the pigment is colour itself4 #di4 ,,orpiment1 ,also called ,king's ,yellow1 ,chinese ,yellow1 ,yellow ,orpiment1 c41 was known in ancient times3 the ,romans called it auri pigmentum or gold colour1 whence1 by corruption1 its present name is derived4 ,it is found in the native state in ,china and elsewhere1 the best quality being in masses1 consisting of plates of a fine golden hue1 intermixed with portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour2 the inferior kinds are yellow or greenish yellow4 ,of orpiment1 or sulphuret of arsenic1 which is produced artificially1 there are two distinct varieties2 one of a bright pure yellow tint1 in which the sulphur predominates1 and one of an orange hue1 in which the arsenic is in excess4 ,the former is the most lasting1 but it is not durable in water1 and still less so in oil1 although not discoloured by impure air4 ,compounded with white lead it is soon destroyed1 nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead enters1 such as chrome yellow1 the old ,naples yellow1 c4 ,the sulphur in combination with the arsenic1 having less affinity for that metal than for lead1 lets it go1 and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish hue4 ,moreover1 as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their oxygen1 and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose colour depends on that element--metallic pigments especially--it is probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the lead2 and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the tint composed of the two colours4 ,with sulphides or pigments containing sulphur1 orpiment may be used with less danger4 ,if employed at all1 however1 it had better be in a pure and unmixed state4 ,we are far from recommending orpiment as an eligible colour1 and it is highly poisonous4 ,brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants4 #ej4 ,,raw ,,sienna1 ,known likewise as ,raw ,sienna ,earth1 ,terra di ,sienna1 c41 is a ferruginous native pigment1 firm in substance1 of a glossy fracture1 and very absorbent4 ,it is of rather an impure yellow colour1 and much used in landscape1 being very serviceable both in distance and foreground4 ,unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation1 the sienna has the objection of being somewhat pasty in working4 ,being little liable to change by the action of either light1 time1 or impure air1 it may safely be employed according to its powers1 in oil1 water1 and other modes of practice4 ,it possesses more body and transparency than the ochres2 and by burning becomes deeper1 orange-russet1 as well as more transparent and drying4 ,raw sienna compounded with cobalt1 indigo1 or ,prussian blue1 and a very little bistre1 yields good sea greens1 that with indigo being the most fugitive4 ,alone1 it is adapted for shipping1 sails1 baskets1 decayed leaves1 brooks and running streams4 #ea4 ,,strontian ,,yellow1 ,to justify its name1 should be a chromate of strontia1 a compound very slightly soluble in water1 and not more stable than the zinc chromate4 ,the pigment1 however1 now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by admixture1 and contains no strontia whatever4 ,its absence cannot be considered a disadvantage1 for the substitute possesses a durability to which the original could lay no claim4 ,other things being equal1 we prefer an original pigment to one compounded1 but a good mixture is decidedly better than a bad original4 ,a light primrose1 clear and delicate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed1 advisedly or not1 as the case may be4 ,the following are for the most part not commercially obtainable1 a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to all numbered colours printed in italics4 ,as a rule1 these have become obsolete as pigments1 or have never been introduced as such4 ,the former could not well be omitted in a work of this kind1 and the latter deserve notice as being at least suggestive4 ,at present1 many of them must be regarded as mere curiosities1 being obtainable only from materials of excessive rarity4 ,in time1 however1 the sources whence they are derived may possibly be found in greater abundance1 and these now fancy products prove of value to the palette4 ,the new metal indium1 for instance1 furnishes a bright yellow sulphide1 like that of cadmium4 ,the colour could not be affected by foul air1 and might possess other advantages which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment4 ,with regard to those compounds available for artistic use1 but which have not to our knowledge been adopted1 several are quite ineligible4 ,it may be thought that they are needlessly referred to1 but they are mentioned as a warning and a guide4 ,strange preparations have been offered as pigments1 and sometimes accepted1 witness turbith mineral1 iodine yellow1 c4 ,in these days of chemistry there is less chance for them1 but they are continually submitted to one's notice1 their merits being enlarged upon in proportion to their worthlessness4 ,through an exceptional ignorance they may still gain a place1 and it has been deemed1 therefore1 not superfluous to allude to them4 ,at the same time we do not pretend to exhaust the list1 any more than we claim to note all substances possessing colour1 but yet not admissible as pigments4 ,some there are which do not retain that colour on drying2 others1 whose preparation involves processes too nice1 complicated1 or expensive1 for manufacturing purposes4 ,there are many colours1 again1 which exist only on paper4 ,we have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers far more vivid than the colours they describe4 ,gorgeous yellows turn out dingy drabs2 dazzling scarlets dirty reds2 and brilliant blues dusky slates4 ,as respects colours1 most books of science need revising4 #eb4 ,arsenic ,yellow1 ,called also ,mineral ,yellow1 has improperly been classed as an orpiment1 from which it differs in not being a sulphide1 and in containing lead4 ,it is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge1 and reduced to powder4 ,it is much like orpiment in colour1 dries better1 and not being affected by lead1 is less liable to change in tint4 ,the presence of the litharge1 however1 renders it subject to be blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,of course it is poisonous4 #ec4 ,bismuth ,yellow1 ,or chromate of bismuth1 may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange yellow1 sparingly soluble in water4 ,the colour is not permanent1 and turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air4 #ed4 ,copper ,yellow1 ,or chromate of copper-potassa1 is of a bright yellow tint1 not insoluble in water4 ,it is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure4 #ee4 ,gelbin's ,yellow1 ,or chromate of lime1 is a pale whitish yellow1 poor in colour1 partly soluble1 and not at all to be depended on4 #ef4 ,indium ,yellow4 ,whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity to render it practically useful remains to be seen4 ,the most abundant source at present known is the ,freiberg blende1 #ajj1jjj parts of which only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium4 ,the metal is chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide1 a fine bright yellow resembling cadmium1 and best obtained by precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen1 or sulphide of ammonium4 ,in the latter1 the yellow dissolves on being heated1 but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint4 ,with one modification1 what was said in a former edition of this ,treatise concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow4 ,the metal from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce1 it has not been employed as a pigment1 and its habits are not therefore ascertained4 ,all we can tell is1 that the colour does not suffer from impure air4 ,indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide4 #eg4 ,iodine ,yellow1 ,or iodide of lead1 is one of those compounds whose presence on the palette should never have been allowed4 ,exceedingly brilliant1 it is also utterly fugitive1 destroyed by exposure or foul gas1 and useless in admixture4 ,we may state here that1 whatever its colour1 no pigment containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon4 ,one of the most unstable of substances1 being slowly volatile even at common temperatures1 iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a constituent4 ,combined with lead1 which is in itself objectionable1 it forms a yellow possessing every bad quality4 #eh4 ,iron ,yellow1 ,or oxalate of protoxide of iron1 has very unadvisedly been recommended as a pigment4 ,it is a bright pale yellow1 but soon loses the beauty of its tint when submitted to air and light1 becoming1 by peroxidation1 red and buffy4 ,even in a book the colour changes4 #ei4 ,madder ,yellow4 ,as our 7the ,editor's7 experience of this product is somewhat at variance with that of the author1 we subjoin his original statement4 ,madder yellow is a preparation from the madder-root4 ,the best is of a bright colour1 resembling ,indian yellow1 but more powerful and transparent1 though hardly equal to it in durability of hue2 metallic1 terrene1 and alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge3 even alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy4 ,we have produced it of various hues and tints1 from an opaque and ochrous yellow1 to a colour the most brilliant1 transparent1 and deep4 ,upon the whole1 however1 after an experience of many years1 we do not consider them eligible pigments4 ,while agreeing with ,mr4 ,field as to the character given of these yellows1 we must confess that we have never been able to obtain1 nor have we ever seen1 a most brilliant madder yellow4 ,colours bearing that name have come under our notice1 but if their hue was pure and vivid1 they have always proved to be falsely so called1 the madder being conspicuous by its absence4 ,what we have succeeded in producing1 and the genuine samples we have met with1 have been fawns1 buffs1 drabs1 c41 decidedly ochrous yellows1 and wanting in stability4 ,it is certain that no true madder yellow1 brilliant and pure1 ranks as a pigment at the present day4 ,a variety known as ,cory's ,yellow ,madder may be briefly described as ,cory's ,brown ,madder4 #fj4 ,massicot1 ,or ,masticot1 is a protoxide of lead1 varying from the purest and most tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow1 and known as ,light1 ,yellow1 and ,golden ,massicot4 ,it has in painting all the properties of white lead1 from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open furnace4 ,in tint with that pigment1 however1 it soon loses its colour and returns to white1 probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom4 ,if used in an unmixed state1 it is permanent in oil under the same conditions as white lead1 but should not be employed in water1 on account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or impure air4 ,it is an admirable dryer1 and has much the same effect as litharge in rendering oils siccative4 ,litharge is merely fused massicot4 ,old writers speak of litharge of silver and litharge of gold1 oxides of lead1 pale and reddish yellow respectively4 ,commercial litharge1 especially that which is foreign1 contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and iron4 ,the principal impurity1 however1 is generally silica1 left undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid4 ,litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils1 which contain a greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead4 ,oils made siccative by means of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged by foul gas4 ,it is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not lasting1 and that the oil1 like white lead1 recovers its original colour on exposure to air and light4 ,some drying oil which we exposed on a tile to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely blackened1 regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day or so to air and light4 ,hence1 although the employment of lead as a siccative is not desirable1 its effects are not so deleterious as might be imagined4 #fa4 ,patent ,yellow1 ,turner's ,yellow1 ,montpellier ,yellow1 ,mineral ,yellow1 ,cassel ,yellow1 c41 is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead1 obtainable either as a pale or a deep yellow4 ,it is a hard1 ponderous1 sparkling substance1 of a crystalline texture and bright colour2 hardly inferior1 when ground1 to chrome yellow4 ,of an excellent body1 and working well in oil and water1 but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air4 ,a variety1 mentioned by ,mrime1 in which bismuth and antimony are also used1 is of greater durability4 #fb4 ,platinum ,yellow4 ,our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of the product do not justify its price4 ,it may be obtained as a bright1 rich1 deep yellow1 of considerable transparency2 but the colour is acted upon by foul gas and exposure4 ,even in a book we have found it assume a dirty greyish cast1 and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer1 wrapped up in paper1 became perfectly black in a few years4 ,the presence of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint1 but does not affect its stability4 #fc4 ,thallium ,yellow4 ,the new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two yellow colours1 a pale and an orange4 ,they are not absolutely insoluble in water1 and the sulphide of thallium being brown1 would probably be damaged by impure air4 ,but whatever their properties as pigments may be1 their habitudes as such are not yet known4 ,the present scarcity of the metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities4 #fd4 ,thwaites' ,yellow4 ,under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back4 ,if well prepared1 it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow colour4 ,the compound is too soluble1 however1 to be of value1 its washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow4 ,hence it turns green after a time1 and becomes otherwise discoloured4 ,like citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast1 it should only be employed1 if at all1 when compounded for foliage tints1 c4 ,this want of durability is to be regretted1 for a good sample of cadmium chrome is marked by exceeding beauty1 unsurpassed for clearness and purity by any other yellow4 #fe4 ,turbith ,mineral1 ,or ,queen's ,yellow1 is a subsulphate of mercury1 of a beautiful lemon yellow colour1 but so liable to change by the action of light or impure air1 that it cannot be used safely1 and hardly deserves attention as a pigment4 #ff4 ,uranium ,yellow ,can be produced of a pale or orange tint1 differing in brightness and depth of colour according to the mode of preparation4 ,it is fairly eligible as a pigment1 and far superior to the many fugitive compounds which have from time to time appeared4 ,being very expensive1 however1 and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced1 uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now4 #fg4 ,yellow ,carmine ,is a rich transparent colour1 somewhat resembling an ochre compounded with ,indian yellow4 ,on exposure to light1 it behaves much as a mixture of those pigments would do1 the rich yellowness entirely disappearing1 and the sober-coloured earth being left behind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from several metals besides those mentioned1 yellows more or less vivid and durable may be obtained--from tin1 nickel1 cerium1 molybdenum1 c42 but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable addition4 ,to justify its being brought out1 a new pigment should own some special advantage1 chemical or artistic1 by which it may be distinguished from other colours4 ,no purpose would be answered by crowding the palette with mere repetitions1 even though they were stable4 ,if1 for instance1 indium yellow were found exactly similar to that of cadmium1 in colour1 opacity1 permanence1 its presence would be quite superfluous4 ,the mistake is often made of offering a fresh compound for a pigment when something as good or better1 and cheaper may be1 already exists4 ,we remember a patient experimenter1 who had produced a pink from cobalt1 wondering why his colour should be so generally declined4 ,the product was not wanting in either beauty or stability1 but he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful1 at least as durable1 and much less expensive4 ,we have said that we do not join in the cry of there being too many pigments1 or share the opinion that there is not room for more1 but we do enforce the necessity of progress4 ,let us have as many good colours as possible1 but let the new be superior to the old1 and all be distinct from each other4 ,as far as yellows are concerned1 the palette possesses both variety and durability4 ,opaque or transparent1 bright or subdued1 deep or pale1 it presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments4 ,most noteworthy are aureolin1 the deep and 'pale' cadmiums1 lemon yellow1 ,mars yellow1 the modern ,naples yellow1 the ochres1 orient yellow1 and raw sienna4 ,whether used alone or in tint these are1 if genuine1 perfectly reliable1 and comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments of the first class4 ,among pigments of the second class1 or the semi-stable1 gamboge holds the foremost place1 for although not strictly durable in itself1 it conduces to the permanence of other colours4 ,chrome yellows1 citron yellow1 strontian yellow1 and ,thwaites' yellow1 also belong to this division4 ,as third class pigments1 or the fugitive1 must be ranked ,mutrie yellow and other lemon cadmiums1 the true gallstone1 ,indian yellow1 the lakes1 orpiment1 ,gelbin's yellow1 massicot1 patent yellow1 and turbith mineral4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that these three classes are subject to modification4 ,a durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend to the second or even the third division1 while a semi-stable or fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively permanent substitute1 as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone4 ,it should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in stability according to the mode of their preparation2 and that1 as there are different degrees of permanence1 there are different degrees of fugacity4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,on ,,the ,,primary1 ,,red4 ,red is the second and intermediate of the primary colours1 standing between yellow and blue2 and is also in like intermediate relation to white and black1 or light and shade4 ,hence red is pre-eminent among colours1 as well as the most positive of all1 forming with yellow the secondary orange and its near relatives1 scarlet1 c42 and with blue1 the secondary purple and its allies1 crimson1 c4 ,it gives some degree of warmth to all colours1 especially to those which partake of yellow4 ,red is the archeus1 or principal colour in the tertiary russet2 enters subordinately into the two other tertiaries1 citrine and olive2 goes largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the semi-neutral marrone or chocolate1 and its relations1 puce1 murrey1 morelle1 mordore1 pompadour1 c42 and is more or less present in browns1 grays1 and all broken colours4 ,it is likewise the second power in harmonizing and contrasting other colours1 as well as in compounding black and all other neutrals1 into which it enters in the proportion of five1--to blue1 eight1--and yellow1 three4 ,red is a colour of double power in this respect too2 that1 in union or connexion with yellow1 it becomes hot and advancing2 but mixed or combined with blue1 cool and retiring4 ,it is1 however1 more congenial with yellow than with blue1 and thence partakes more of the character of the former in its effects of warmth1 the influence of light and distance1 and action on the eye1 by which the power of vision is diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light4 ,on the other hand1 red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night comes on1 or in shade4 ,these qualities of red give it great importance1 render it difficult of management1 and require it to be generally kept subordinate in painting4 ,it is therefore rarely used unbroken1 as the ruling or predominating colour1 or for toning a picture2 on which account it will always seem detached or insulated1 unless repeated and subordinated4 ,hence ,nature is sparing with her red1 employing it with as much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in lavishing green upon them4 ,this latter is of all colours the most soothing to the eye1 and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent of red1 in the proportional quantity of eleven to five1 according to surface or intensity3 being1 when the red inclines to scarlet or orange1 a blue-green2 and when it tends to crimson or purple1 a yellow-green4 ,red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness4 ,it is discordant when standing with orange only1 requiring to be joined or accompanied by their proper contrast1 to resolve or harmonize the dissonance4 ,in landscapes1 c41 abounding with hues allied to green1 a red object properly placed as regards light1 shade1 or distance1 conduces wonderfully to the life1 beauty1 harmony1 and connexion of the colouring4 ,red is1 indeed1 the chief element of beauty in floral nature1 the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom4 ,being the most positive of colours1 and holding the middle station of the primaries1 red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white1 which are the negative powers or neutrals of colours1 and the extremes of the scale4 ,moreover1 as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than to white or light1 this harmony is most remarkable in the union or opposition of white and red1 and this contrast most powerful in black and red4 ,as a primary and simple colour1 red cannot be composed by mixture of other colours4 ,so much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art in flesh1 flowers1 c41 that good pigments of this genus are most indispensable4 ,on the whole1 the palette cannot be considered so well furnished with reds as with yellows4 ,especially is there wanting a permanent transparent scarlet1 a colour for which a prize of #ejj has for many years been offered by the ,society of ,arts4 #fh4 ,,cadmium ,,red4 ,the deep1 pale1 and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded1 were followed by an orange1 which has quite recently been succeeded by a red4 ,this is a most vivid orange-scarlet1 the red predominating1 of exceeding depth1 and intense fire4 ,it is a simple original pigment1 containing no base but cadmium1 and possessing a large amount of latent colour4 ,it is more orange in hue than vermilion1 and has the advantages of flowing and drying well1 of greater brilliancy1 of retaining that brilliancy when dry1 and of considerable transparency4 ,hence this red is preferably employed where opacity is to be avoided--in sunset clouds for instance4 ,as day declines or by artificial light1 the colour approaches very nearly to a deep pure scarlet2 and the best substitute for a permanent transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine1 or by using the latter as a glaze4 ,compounded with white1 the red yields a series of fine flesh tints2 and it mixes readily and safely with other colours4 ,without harshness or rankness1 neither injured by an impure atmosphere nor exposure to light and air1 cadmium red is eligible in every department of art1 enamel painting only excepted4 ,in illumination1 the red contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective4 ,seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds1 not being crimson1 nor of a crimson cast1 was limited to vermilions1 pure scarlet1 red chrome1 and red lead1 of which the first alone were permanent1 there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red1 with its many distinctive properties4 ,,cochineal ,,lakes4 ,lake1 a term derived from the lac or lacca of ,india1 is the name of a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty1 prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing drugs upon aluminous bases4 ,consequently1 the lakes form a numerous class1 both with respect to the variety of their appellations1 and the substances whence they are produced4 ,those under notice are known as ,carmine1 ,crimson ,lake1 ,scarlet ,lake1 ,purple ,lake1 ,chinese ,lake1 ,florentine ,lake1 ,hamburgh ,lake1 ,roman ,lake1 ,venetian ,lake1 c41 and are obtained from the coccus cacti1 an insect found on a species of cactus1 from the juice of which it extracts its nourishment4 ,this coccus is a native of ,mexico1 where two kinds are recognised1 under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal4 ,the latter may be considered a cultivated product1 its food and wants being carefully attended to1 while the former is left in a natural state1 and is less valuable4 ,wild cochineal is distinguished by having a woolly downy coat1 which is not the case with the fine cochineal4 ,the females1 of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred for each male1 are marked by the absence of wings1 and constitute the commercial article4 ,they are generally killed by immersion in boiling water1 which causes them to swell to twice their natural size1 and are then dried and packed for market4 ,the insects shrivel in drying1 and assume the form of irregular grains1 fluted and concave4 ,the best sorts have a silvery-grey colour1 with a purplish reflection1 and seem to be dusted with a white powder4 ,this appearance is often given by means of heavy spar1 carbonate of lead1 ,venice talc1 c4 ,a good lens1 however1 will mostly expose the fraud2 or it may be detected by macerating the insect in water1 and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to settle4 ,cochineal is a very rich colouring substance1 yielding about half its weight of real colouring matter1 which may be easily extracted by boiling in water4 ,dr4 ,warren ,de ,la ,rue1 who examined the living animal1 states that on piercing the side of the insect a purplish-red fluid exuded1 containing the colouring matter in minute granules4 ,this colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure1 in the form of a purple-brown friable mass1 pulverizable to a fine red powder1 transparent when viewed by the microscope1 and soluble both in water and alcohol in all proportions4 ,at temperatures above #acf it decomposed1 and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple4 ,these facts account for the care required in drying cochineal lakes1 and for their liability to change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances1 as in mural decoration4 ,the lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their solubility in ammonia1 a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the colours produced from the latter4 #fi4 ,,carmine4 ,a name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal tinctures1 now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in beauty1 richness of hue1 and powdery texture4 ,we have1 therefore1 blue and other coloured carmines1 though the term is usually confined to the crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal4 ,as at present commonly understood1 carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the most colouring matter and the least aluminous base4 ,hence it is the richest1 deepest1 most intense1 and most permanent4 ,although not to be classed as durable1 yet by reason of its extreme depth1 carmine is more stable than the weaker crimson1 scarlet1 and purple lakes4 ,when well-made1 pure1 and employed alone and in body1 it has been known to retain its colour for years1 especially if protected by oil or varnish4 ,in tint with white lead1 however1 it has no stability2 and though little affected by impure air1 in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed by the action of light4 ,of great power in its full touches1 it possesses considerable clearness in the pale washes1 and works admirably4 ,in landscape1 carmine is seldom used1 the colour being chiefly valued in flower painting and illumination4 ,it has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made in ,england1 owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a scarcity of sunshine4 ,for many years1 however1 they have been produced in this country1 not only finer than any foreign preparations1 but equally good in winter as in summer4 ,carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch1 vermilion1 and with alumina not formed in the process of manufacture4 ,occasionally also1 a portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been obtained is left mixed with it4 ,these accidental or intentional impurities may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid ammonia1 which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the impurities in an insoluble state4 #gj4 ,,crimson ,,lake ,is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine1 and is consequently weaker in colour and less stable4 ,deficient in much of the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter1 it is more commonly employed and more generally useful4 ,this lake is of service in mixing tints1 to impart richness1 in flower painting and illumination1 and is1 like all cochineal colours1 of greater utility in water than in oil4 ,with cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray1 and with cobalt alone a fine purple for heather4 ,distant hills may be strengthened with a tint of ,french blue and lake1 and ,vandyke brown with the crimson will be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground4 ,many other beautiful tints1 unexceptionable in an artistic sense1 are afforded by crimson lake on admixture4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that not one of them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned4 ,all cochineal pigments are more or less affected by strong light1 which weakens their tints1 and in time deprives them of colour2 and it is not by being compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable4 #ga4 ,,scarlet ,,lake ,is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal1 and is of a fine transparent red colour and excellent body1 though1 like other lakes1 it dries slowly4 ,discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water and oil1 and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination with other pigments1 it possesses the common attributes of cochineal lakes4 ,yet when well prepared1 used in sufficient body1 and not unduly exposed1 it has been found to last a lengthened period2 but it ought never to be employed in glazing1 nor at all in works that aim at high reputation and stability4 ,it is in general tinted with vermilion1 which has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet hue and add to their weight2 for upon examining with a powerful lens some fine pictures of ancient masters1 in which lake had been used in glazing1 particles of vermilion were apparent1 from which lake had evidently flown4 ,unfortunately1 these lakes are injured by vermilion as they are by lead1 so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead are particularly apt to vanish4 ,this effect is very remarkable in several pictures of ,cuyp1 where he has introduced a figure in red from which the shadows have disappeared1 owing to their having been formed with lake over vermilion4 ,the scarlet hue of this lake should properly be imparted to it during the process of manufacture1 and not by subsequent mechanical admixture4 #gb4 ,,purple ,,lake ,is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast1 transparent and deep-toned1 and useful in shadows3 in other respects resembling that pigment4 ,red being its predominant colour1 we have preferred classing this so-called purple among the reds1 in spite of its name4 ,on the whole it is more durable than crimson lake4 #gc4 ,,florentine ,,lake ,differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation4 ,formerly the lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth4 ,the same may be said of ,chinese ,lake4 #gd4 ,,hamburgh ,,lake ,is a lake of great power and depth of colour1 purplish or inclining to crimson1 which dries with extreme difficulty1 but differs in no other essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes--an observation which applies to ,roman ,lake1 ,venetian ,lake1 and many others2 none of which1 however beautiful or reputed1 is entitled to the character of stability either in hue1 shade1 or tint4 #ge4 ,,dragon',s ,,blood ,is a resin brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,it is of a warm semi-transparent1 rather dull red colour1 which is deepened by impure air1 and darkened by light4 ,there are two or three sorts1 but that in drops is the best4 ,white lead soon destroys it1 and in oil it dries with extreme difficulty4 ,it is sometimes used to colour varnishes and lackers1 being soluble in oils and alcohol4 ,although it has been recommended as a pigment1 dragon's blood does not merit the attention of the artist4 #gf4 ,,indian ,,lake1 ,likewise called ,lac ,lake4 ,this is obtained from the lac or lacca of ,india1 a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a small insect--coccus ficus--made for the sake of depositing its ova on the branches of several plants1 found in ,siam1 ,assam1 and ,bengal4 ,the twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour more or less deep1 nearly transparent1 hard1 and having a brilliant conchoidal fracture4 ,the roughly-prepared coating is imported in two forms1 called lac-lake and lac-dye1 which contain about #ej per cent of colouring matter1 combined with more or less resin1 and with earthy matters1 consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and silica4 ,indian lake is rich1 transparent1 and deep1--less brilliant and more durable than the colours of cochineal1 but inferior in both respects to those of madder4 ,used thickly or in strong glazing1 as a shadow colour1 it is of great body and much permanence2 but in thin glazing it changes and flies1 as it also does in tint with white lead4 ,in the properties of drying1 c41 it resembles other lakes4 ,the pigment may be dispensed with in favour of madder lake and madder brown1 whose combinations serve for every purpose to which it can be applied1 and are stable4 ,lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures1 and was probably employed by the ,venetians1 who had the trade of ,india when painting flourished at ,venice4 ,,madder ,,lakes4 ,rubric ,lakes1 or ,field's ,lakes1 are derived from the root of rubia tinctorum1 a plant largely grown in ,france and ,holland1 whence the bulk of that used in ,england is obtained4 ,the ,french madders are in a state of very fine powder1 containing one half their weight of gum1 sugar1 salts1 and other soluble substances1 which water speedily dissolves4 ,madder roots in the unground state are imported from the ,levant1 and called ,turkey roots4 ,good qualities of ,turkey madder yield near sixty per cent of extractive matters1 a term that includes everything removable by water and dilute alkalis3 the woody fibre is therefore about forty per cent4 ,this is presuming the root to be genuine1 for madder is often adulterated with brickdust1 red ochre1 red sand1 clay1 mahogany sawdust1 logwood1 sandal and japan-wood1 and bran4 ,unlike cochineal1 madder possesses several colouring matters2 the question of which1 despite the learned researches of ,dr4 ,schunck and others1 is far from settled yet4 ,the following remarks embody our own experience of the root1 simply as a pigment-producing product3-- ,madder contains five colouring matters--yellow1 red1 orange1 purple1 and brown4 ,of these1 the first colour is soluble in cold water4 ,by washing the powdered root quickly with it by decantation1 the yellow and brown are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid4 ,if this be decanted and allowed to stand1 the brown deposits1 leaving a clear buffish-yellow supernatant liquor4 ,in the root from which the extract was poured1 the remaining three colours are left4 ,on adding a strong boiling solution of alum1 these are dissolved1 yielding a fine red liquid4 ,from this there can be thrown down1 by the agency of different chemicals1 a red1 an orange1 or a purple precipitate4 ,or1 supposing the whole of the colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake1 it is possible to convert this--also by the agency of different chemicals--either into orange or purple4 ,hence1 for all practical purposes1 madder contains but three colouring matters3 a yellow1 soluble in cold water2 a brown1 not soluble in1 but capable of being extracted by cold water2 and a red1 soluble in boiling alum1 and furnishing at will a purple or an orange4 ,as was observed in the previous chapter1 no good pigment is obtained from the yellow1 of which the less there is present the better2 but the brown affords a valued product1 which will be duly noticed4 ,it is essential to the purity of the reds1 that the madder should be freed from both these colours2 and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous washing of the root1 that the old lakes were dull and muddy1 mere brick-reds of ochrous hues4 ,for many years1 however1 lakes have been prepared perfectly transparent1 and literally as beautiful and pure in colour as the rose2 qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes and carmine of cochineal4 ,they have justly been considered as supplying a desideratum1 and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the palette in modern times1 since permanent transparent red and rose pigments were previously unknown4 ,the red varieties range from rich crimson to a delicate rose1 and are known as ,madder ,carmine1 ,field's ,carmine1 ,pink ,madder1 ,rose ,madder1 ,madder ,lake1 and ,liquid ,rubiate or ,liquid ,madder ,lake4 #gg4 ,,madder ,,carmine1 ,or ,field's ,carmine1 like that of cochineal1 is the richest and deepest lake prepared1 containing most colouring matter and least base4 ,it differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity1 and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil2 for both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding4 ,in common with the other reds of madder1 its faint washes possess greater clearness than those of cochineal4 ,this carmine is a difficult colour to make well1 exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the fullest tint3 hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of the manufacturer4 ,being expensive also1 the price increasing according to depth of colour1 the lake has been the most liable to adulteration1 of all the reds of madder4 ,mrime states that samples were sent to him from ,berlin1 under the name of carmine madder1 which evidently owed their brightness to tincture of cochineal4 ,it is certain that madder lakes have been imitated on the ,continent with various success by those of lac1 cochineal1 and carthamus or safflower4 ,the best we have seen is the laque de garance1 which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus1 and was of course inferior in durability4 ,as1 however1 liquid ammonia and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal1 lac1 and safflower1 the test is simple4 ,if the liquid remain uncoloured on adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake1 in all probability the pigment is genuine4 #gh4 ,,rose ,,madder4 ,the exquisite flowers of ,bartholomew1 ,miss ,mutrie1 and others1 give evidence of the beauty1 purity1 and stability of the reds of madder1 both in water and oil4 ,this variety1 less intense than the preceding and without its carmine hue1 is of a rich rose colour--a true rose--tending neither to crimson1 scarlet1 nor purple4 ,marked by a peculiar softness1 and an unusual clearness in its pale washes1 rose madder affords the most perfect carnation tints known4 ,not liable to change by the action of light1 impure air1 or admixture with white lead and other colours1 it resembles all madder lakes in these respects4 ,like them1 too1 it is but a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated1 and does not work in water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments4 ,when1 therefore1 permanence is of no consideration1 the latter may still be preferred4 ,in those works1 however1 where the hues and tints of nature are to be imitated with stability and pure effect1 the rose colours of madder are become indispensable4 ,they have this advantage1 moreover1 that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by time--their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour4 ,as they are too beautiful and require saddening for the general use of the painter1 the addition of manganese brown1 cappagh brown1 or burnt umber1 adds to their powers1 and improves their drying in oils2 for which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise employed4 ,in the light touches of bright clouds or mountains1 where a mixture of cadmium yellow and ,chinese white is used1 rose madder is invaluable for glazing over such touches when dry1 should they be required of a warmer hue4 ,the red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of this pigment1 tinged perhaps with the above yellow1 or with gamboge4 ,most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose madder with cobalt1 ,indian red1 purple madder1 yellow ochre1 lamp black1 c4 ,in painting flesh1 the lake cannot be dispensed with4 #gi4 ,,pink ,,madder ,was a weaker preparation of the preceding1 paler in hue and possessing less colour4 ,it was formerly employed in miniature painting1 but with the decline of that art became less and less used1 until it may now be said to be obsolete4 ,the name1 however1 still lives1 but is applied to rose madder1 which is indeed indifferently called ,rose ,madder1 ,pink ,madder1 or ,madder ,lake4 ,speaking of pink roses1 ,mrs4 ,duffield remarks that the local colour is best imitated with pink madder1 and the ,messrs4 ,rowbotham observe this heather may be best represented by cobalt and madder lake4 ,in trade catalogues several names are often given1 as in this instance1 to one and the same pigment4 ,the seeming superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment by one name and some by another4 ,hence arises the value of a list of synonyms4 #hj4 ,,liquid ,,rubiate1 ,rose ,rubiate1 or ,liquid ,madder ,lake1 is a concentrated tincture of madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency4 ,it is used as a water colour only in its simple state1 diluted with water1 and with or without gum4 ,in oil it dries by acting as a siccative4 ,mixed or ground with all other madder colours1 with or without gum1 it forms combinations which work freely in water1 and produce the most charming and stable effects4 ,the rubiate also furnishes a fine red ink1 and is a durable stain for printing on cotton1 c4 ,to the tinting of maps and charts permanently1 it is peculiarly suited4 #ha4 ,,mars ,,red ,or ,rouge de ,mars1 is an artificial iron ochre1 similar in subdued tint and permanence to the native earths4 ,its chemical affinities1 however1 are greater than those of the latter1 and it therefore requires to be employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron4 ,in this respect the red resembles its compeers1 ,mars yellow1 ,mars orange1 ,mars violet1 and ,mars brown1 all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared4 ,possessing the richness and depth of ,indian red1 it is distinguished by the russet-orange hue of light red4 ,its pale washes are marked by considerable clearness4 ,in keeping the ,mars colours separate from the ochres1 we have followed the plan of the author4 ,,ochres ,comprise ,red ,ochre1 ,indian ,red1 ,light ,red1 ,venetian ,red1 ,english ,red1 ,persian ,red1 ,prussian ,red1 ,spanish ,red1 ,brown ,red1 ,indian ,ochre1 ,scarlet ,ochre1 ,carnagione1 ,terra ,puzzoli1 ,english ,vermilion1 ,spanish ,brown1 ,majolica1 ,redding1 ,ruddle1 ,bole1 ,almagra1 ,sil ,atticum1 ,terra ,sinopica1 c4 ,they are rather hues and tints than definite colours1 or more properly belong to the tertiary1 semi-neutral1 and broken colours4 ,as a rule they are native pigments1 found in most countries1 and very abundantly and fine in our own2 but some are products of manufacture1 and obtainable in the variety of nature by art4 ,the colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron1 as that of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide4 ,all the yellow ochres are more or less reddened by being burnt1 as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes red on calcination4 ,it was observed in the fourth chapter that time has often the effect of fire1 more or less intense2 and hence it is that yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue1 by the gradual peroxidation of the iron4 ,similarly1 if a yellow ochre be but partially calcined1 the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken4 ,especially do these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an earthy base2 when1 in fact1 the so-called ochres cannot be classed as such4 ,in this case1 too1 as was lately remarked1 the pigments are more chemically active1 and more likely to affect those colours to which iron is inimical4 #hb4 ,,red ,,ochre ,is a native earth2 sometimes brown ochre burnt1 and called ,brown ,red4 ,it is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red1 and is best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches4 ,for draperies of a dusky red it is well suited1 or even for the shadows of bright-red drapery4 ,in dead colouring it is very valuable4 ,like all ochres1 it is characterized by permanence in water1 oil1 crayons1 and fresco2 and is1 like most of them1 available in enamel-painting4 ,almagra1 the ,sil ,atticum of the ancients1 is a deep red ochre found in ,andalusia2 as is also their ,terra ,sinopica or ,armenian ,bole1 dug originally in ,cappadocia1 and now found in ,new ,jersey and elsewhere under the name of ,bloodstone4 #hc4 ,,indian ,,red1 ,once known as ,persian ,red1 is brought from ,bengal4 ,it is a natural earth rich in peroxide of iron1 of a purple russet hue and good body1 and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints4 ,in a crude state it is a coarse powder1 full of extremely hard and brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic4 ,it is greatly improved by grinding and washing over1 and is very permanent4 ,neither light1 impure air1 mixture with other colours1 time1 nor fire1 effects any sensible change in it2 but being opaque and not keeping its place well1 it is unsuited for glazing4 ,this pigment differs considerably in its hues1 that which is most rosy being esteemed the best1 and affording the purest tints4 ,inferior ochres were formerly substituted for ,indian red1 which procured it a variable character2 but the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine4 ,it is a good drier4 ,mixed with ,indian ink1 it furnishes useful shadows2 and compounded with cobalt or indigo1 most serviceable grays4 ,for sunsets1 where deep purple lines are louring over the horizon's brink1 a mixture of ,french blue with a little ,indian red and lake is admirably adapted4 ,in twilight and stormy clouds1 in sails and buildings1 in shade carnations of portraits and backgrounds1 c41 the red is often employed4 #hd4 ,,light ,,red ,is an ochre of an orange-russet hue1 chiefly valued for its tints4 ,the principal yellow ochres afford this colour best1 and the brighter and clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared1 the brighter will the red be1 and the better flesh tints will it yield with white4 ,light red has the good properties common to ochres1 dries capitally1 and furnishes an excellent crayon4 ,it is much used both in figure and landscape painting1 giving fine grays with cobalt1 and serviceable compounds with yellow ochre1 indigo1 lamp black1 rose madder1 ,payne's grey1 brown madder1 c4 ,terra ,puzzoli1 a volcanic production1 is a species of light red1 as is the ,carnagione of the ,italians4 #he4 ,,venetian ,,red1 ,less known as ,english ,red1 ,prussian ,red1 and ,scarlet ,ochre4 ,true ,venetian red1 that is1 the red of the ,venetians1 was probably brought from ,india1 and similar to our modern ,indian red4 ,the ,venetian red of the present day1 however1 is an artificial product1 containing no earthy base1 and therefore improperly classed among the ochres4 ,it is prepared by calcining sulphate of iron1 to which a little nitre may be advantageously added4 ,the result is a peroxide of iron1 resembling light red1 but more powerful1 and of a more scarlet hue4 ,it is very permanent1 but being a purely iron pigment1 should be cautiously employed with colours affected by that metal4 ,though not bright1 its tints are clear1 and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or ,french blue1 affording fine pearly grays4 ,heightened by madder lake1 it furnishes a glowing red1 very useful in some descriptions of skies2 and saddened by black1 it gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings4 ,with white it produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature1 and much employed by ,titian1 ,vandyke1 and others4 ,compounded with aureolin1 ,venetian red yields a clear orange of considerable transparency4 ,spanish ,red is an ochre differing little from the above4 #hf4 ,,pure ,,scarlet1 ,or ,iodine ,scarlet1 is an iodide of mercury1 having the body and opacity of vermilion1 and being as much inferior to it in permanence as it is superior in brilliancy4 ,of all artistic pigments1 it is at once the most dazzling and the most fugitive1 and should have no place on the palette4 ,if used1 it should be with an ivory knife1 as iron and most metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black2 hence it should never be compounded with metallic pigments4 ,so sensitive1 indeed1 is it to the slightest touch of metal1 that it has been known to turn to a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been taken out of its saucer with a penknife4 ,in the cake1 it must be carefully kept wrapped up in paper1 otherwise the presence of metal tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it4 ,by a foul atmosphere1 the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed1 and even metallized4 ,in contact with the air1 it quickly fades away2 and has been found to vanish completely1 when exposed to light alone4 ,employed in water1 a thick glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability4 ,as a landscape pigment1 the colour is out of the general scale of nature2 but in flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible4 ,nothing certainly can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums1 but its beauty is almost as fleeting as the flowers4 #hg4 ,,red ,,chrome1 ,also called ,scarlet ,chrome1 is a bright chromate of lead of an orange-red colour1 the red being predominant4 ,rank in tone1 it is liable to the changes of the yellow chromes1 though in a less degree4 ,the recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary4 #hh4 ,,red ,,lead1 ,minium1 or ,saturnine ,red1 is an ancient pigment1 by some old writers confounded with cinnabar1 and termed ,sinoper or ,synoper4 ,it is an oxide of uncertain composition1 prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air4 ,of a scarlet colour and fine hue1 it is warmer than common vermilion1 whose body and opacity it possesses1 and with which it was once customary to mix it4 ,bright1 but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury1 it is more durable1 although far less so than vermilion4 ,when pure and alone1 light does not affect its colour1 which soon flies1 however1 on being mixed with white lead or any preparation of that metal4 ,by impure air1 red lead is blackened and ultimately metallized4 ,on account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead1 this red cannot be used in tints2 but employed1 unmixed with other pigments1 in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide1 it may stand a long time under favourable circumstances4 ,it is an excellent dryer in oil1 and has often been used as a siccative with other colours1 but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres1 earths1 and blacks in general4 ,oils1 varnishes1 and1 in some measure1 strong mucilages1 are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of colours1 by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments2 and hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes stood well1 but are not to be relied upon in practice4 ,altogether1 red lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands1 and has naturally had a variable character for permanence4 ,it is frequently adulterated with earthy substances1 such as brickdust1 red ochre1 and colcotha4 ,,vermilions4 ,vermilion is so called from the ,italian word vermiglio 7little worm17 given to the kermes or coccus ilicis1 which was used as a scarlet dye before the introduction of cochineal4 ,it is a sulphuret of mercury1 which previous to levigation is called ,cinnabar2 and is found native in quicksilver mines1 as well as produced artificially4 ,this is an ancient pigment1 the ,greek3 kinnabari of the ,greeks1 and the minium--a term now confined to red lead--of older writers4 ,pliny states that it was so esteemed by the ,romans1 as to have its price fixed by express law of state4 ,among other places1 the natural product is met with in ,california1 ,spain1 and ,peru2 and in ,china there is a native cinnabar so pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion4 ,whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial1 appears to admit of doubt3 ,bouvier thought that the former blackened more than the latter1 and others coincide with him4 ,as1 however1 native vermilion has become commercially obsolete1 the question of their comparative permanence is of little importance4 ,theoretically1 it is difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between the two4 ,vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes1 but the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale1 and are1 we believe1 preferable4 ,our opinion1 expressed with some diffidence1 is1 that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a metal--such as vermilion and cadmium yellow--are more stable when the sulphur is forced to bite into the base4 ,this can only be effected by a considerable degree of heat1 far greater than can be obtained in any moist method4 ,we hold that in pigments so produced1 the sulphur is less liable to oxidation by air and light1 and that therefore the colour better withstands exposure to those agents4 ,before now1 vermilions have been taxed with fading in a strong light3 supposing them genuine1 it would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured4 ,there are two kinds of vermilion in common use1 ,european and ,chinese1 of which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple4 ,these include the several varieties known as--,vermilion1 ,deep ,vermilion1 ,pale ,vermilion1 ,scarlet ,vermilion1 ,chinese ,vermilion1 ,carmine ,vermilion1 ,extract of ,vermilion1 ,orange ,vermilion1 and ,field's ,orange ,vermilion4 #hi4 ,,vermilion1 ,deep or pale1 when well made and pure is of strict permanence1 not sensibly affected by light1 time1 or foul air2 and eligible either in water1 oil1 or fresco4 ,for an enamel colour it is unsuited1 being dissipated at a red heat1 a test that detects the presence of any non-volatile adulterant4 ,the best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour1 higher in tone than all reds1 except the scarlet iodide of mercury4 ,with this it should not be compounded1 but with other pigments it may safely be used in admixture1 as far as its own colour is concerned4 ,of great body1 weight1 and opacity1 it is a somewhat slow drier2 and does not retain that brilliancy when dry1 which is peculiar to it while wet4 ,a want of transparency1 and not drying well1 prevent its being so generally employed as would be desirable4 ,pictures should seem to be painted with colour1 not with pigment1 the material being lost amid the hues1 tints1 and shades2 but with such compounds as vermilion1 the art of concealing art becomes difficult indeed4 ,the pigment is apt to predominate over the colour1 and the painting to look mechanical rather than natural3 particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen1 and all sense of reality is destroyed4 ,for these reasons1 vermilion is a dangerous pigment in unskilled hands1 needing an intimate acquaintance with its physical properties4 ,the extreme weight or specific gravity of the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with other colours2 hence the heavier those mixed with it the better4 ,its almost equal opacity1 too1 and habit of washing up1 militate against its use by young painters4 ,with experience1 however1 and due care1 this is a serviceable colour2 yielding with white most delicate flesh tints1 and in minute proportion with cobalt or ,french blue and white1 tender arial grays4 ,being cheaper than formerly1 vermilion is not so much adulterated as it once was2 although1 even now1 brickdust1 orpiment1 c4 sometimes sophisticate it4 ,the knavish practices to which the pigment has been subjected1 have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists4 ,vermilion has been charged with fading in the light1 and with being blackened by impure air2 but it was the custom to crimson the colour by means of lake1 or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead4 ,with pigments as with persons1 evil communications corrupt good manners--a motto that might be written with advantage on every palette4 #ij4 ,,scarlet ,,vermilion ,resembles the preceding in all respects1 except in being more scarlet in its tint1 and washing better2 advantages which render it more useful when the tone is required to be very bright and pure4 ,at one time1 the ,dutch alone in ,europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich scarlet colour4 #ia4 ,,chinese ,,vermilion1 ,or ,carmine ,vermilion1 partakes of a crimson hue1 and is adapted1 mixed with white1 for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions4 ,like other vermilions1 however1 the colour needs much nicety of management2 and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of cochineal lakes4 ,those colours1 as we have remarked1 cannot safely be brought into contact with vermilion1 either compounded or as a glaze4 ,the reds of madder should be substituted for them4 #ib4 ,,extract ,,of ,,vermilion1 ,a somewhat curious name for a metallic colour1 was a peculiar preparation of the author1 possessing in its time certain advantages over other vermilions1 and especially distinguished by a more scarlet hue4 ,now1 however1 extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are synonymous terms4 #ic4 ,,orange ,,vermilion ,is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion1 with a clear but not bright orange hue4 ,it also washes better1 and is for landscape purposes more generally useful4 ,resembling red-lead in appearance1 it is not subject to its changes1 being perfectly durable in oil and water4 ,a most powerful tinger of white1 its tints are warmer than red-lead's1 affording delicate carnations similar to those of ,titian and ,rubens4 ,this pigment--or1 preferably1 the succeeding variety--may be employed with excellent results in scumbling of flesh1 for which ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment4 ,it dries in simple linseed oil1 but works with best effect in water with a considerable portion of gum4 ,in speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds1 ,mr4 ,penley observes--,orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its opacity1 is a fine tone2 but it must be remembered that transparency is the character of the sunset or sunrise1 and hence arises the difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively4 ,before the introduction of cadmium red1 this and the following pigment were the best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these latter in cases where transparency is sought4 ,orange vermilion is often a mixture1 in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the red and float on its surface4 #id4 ,,field',s ,,orange ,,vermilion ,is a superior preparation to the preceding1 being brighter1 purer1 and clearer4 ,it possesses also1 less opacity1 and is not a compound4 ,both pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange colours1 and are therefore inserted in this chapter4 99 99 99 99 99 #ie4 ,antimony ,red1 ,or ,mineral ,kermes4 ,we have obtained this colour ranging from light orange to deep carmine1 of different degrees of brightness and stability4 ,some of the tints stood well in a book1 but faded on exposure to light and air2 and some even vanished when secluded from those agents4 ,it has more than once been recommended as a pigment1 but our experience is against its adoption by artists4 ,the colour is not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen4 #if4 ,chica ,red ,is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern ,america4 ,a sample examined by ,mr4 ,o',neill was in small irregular lumps1 of a bright scarlet colour1 adherent to the tongue like indigo1 and taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection1 when rubbed against a hard smooth body1 as the finger nail4 ,so far it seems to be only employed by the ,indians as a paint for their bodies1 mixed up with fatty matters4 ,it has doubtless been used in painting3 for in the old churches of those parts of ,america there is a good deal of red colour1 which remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries2 and from the appearance of it1 and such accounts as can be collected1 it is probably this chica4 ,a portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in ,england1 to ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine arts4 ,his report is stated to have been unfavourable2 and the chica1 contained in a gourd labelled ,chica d',andiguez1 was then tested as to its capabilities for dyeing and printing4 ,fine and durable reds were found to be produced by it upon woollen1 equal to those of cochineal4 ,to mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy1 but very solid4 ,chica is described as a very strong colouring matter1 a small quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth1 and as more nearly resembling lac lake than anything else4 ,no information existing as to its price1 or the quantity that could be obtained if it were wanted1 chica remains in the state of an unapplied product4 ,if it really possess1 however1 the durability assigned to it1 this red is worth attention4 ,with regard to the artist's disapproval1 the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared to adapt it for a pigment4 #ig4 ,coal-,tar ,colours4 ,our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the coal-tar colours1 even though they are rather dyes than pigments1 not possessing sufficient stability for the palette4 ,to avoid repeated reference1 we have preferred grouping them in this chapter1 irrespective of hue4 ,consequently1 yellow1 red1 blue1 orange1 green1 purple1 brown1 and black1 will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours4 ,previous to the year #ahef the colouring matters derived from coal-tar were practically unknown4 ,until then1 that black evil-smelling substance was looked upon as almost worthless2 but gradually the unsightly grub emerged into a beautiful butterfly1 clothed first in mauve and next in magenta4 ,after its long winter of neglect1 there sprung from coal-tar the most vivid and varied hues1 like flowers from the earth at spring4 ,at a touch of the fairy wand of science1 the waste land became a garden of tropic tints1 and colour succeeded colour1 until the whole gamut had been gone through4 ,never was transformation more dazzling or more complete4 ,the once despised refuse was now a valued commercial product--indeed a trade in itself4 ,perfectly fascinated by the study1 chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar1 and coal-tar colours were to be seen everywhere4 ,it were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through which coal has to pass to become colour4 ,enough to state that to the introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of coal-tar colours1 the starting point for the production of mauve1 magenta1 c41 being the manufacture of coal-gas4 ,from the destructive distillation of coal1 coal-tar oil results2 and from this are obtained the products which yield the colours in question4 ,among these products may be mentioned aniline1 rosaniline1 napthaline1 chinoline1 carbolic acid1 picric acid1 c41 with their derivatives4 ,of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal1 perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline1 to which we will therefore confine ourselves4 ,discovered in #ahbf1 this body was formerly prepared from indigo--in ,spanish1 anil1 whence the name2 but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol1 a coal-tar product4 ,as the source of mauve and magenta1 aniline must be considered the parent of coal-tar colours generally4 ,little was known of it at one time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime there was formed a splendid purple liquid1 which immediately gave place to a dingy reddish precipitate4 ,from the investigation of this simple fact1 however1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,perkin1 there was created a new and important branch of chemical industry--the manufacture of coal-tar colours4 ,the violet mauve led the way1 followed by the red magenta1 the blue azuline1 the yellow phosphine1 the green emeraldine1 the orange aurine1 by purple1 and brown1 and black4 ,such were the hues1 with many intermediate tints and shades1 which one reaction brought forth4 ,the world rubbed its eyes with astonishment2 and truly it seemed almost as wonderful to produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal1 as to extract sunshine from cucumbers4 ,the history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober story1 but to the artist it is of slight practical interest4 ,sufficiently stable as dyes1 though they be1 coal-tar colours are not adapted to the palette4 ,mauve1 magenta1 with a few others1 hare been introduced as pigments and fairly tried1 but a want of permanence has been fatal to their success4 ,mauve is more durable than magenta1 and the rest vary in stability1 but none of them have proved really fitted for artists' colours4 ,exposed to light and air1 they all more or less fade1 especially in thin washes2 and they have mostly the objection of staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed4 ,used in body1 some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and the like1 where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage2 but in landscapes and pictures of life1 coal-tar pigments are best avoided4 ,cakes of red1 blue1 violet1 and other hues1 may be prepared for painting1 by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina1 or with soap and alumina in a moist state--thus3 #aej parts of white curd soap1 dissolved in #ajjj parts of hot water1 are mixed with an alcoholic or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or solid coal-tar colour4 ,to this are added #bej parts by weight of washed gelatinous alumina4 ,the whole is then well stirred1 collected on a filter1 drained1 and dried4 ,several hues1 tints1 and shades may be obtained by compounding3 for instance1 an orange is produced on admixture of picric yellow with aniline red1 or a green by adding the same yellow to aniline blue4 #ih4 ,cobalt ,reds4 ,there are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red colours of more or less beauty and intensity1 but all vastly inferior to those of madder1 in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the palette4 ,durable as a rule1 they are in general characterized by a fatal chalkiness1 and poorness of hue4 ,more expensive than the madder colours1 and without their purity1 delicacy1 depth1 or transparency1 cobalt reds have often been offered as pigments1 and as often declined4 ,a colour may be good in itself1 but if there is something better and at the same time cheaper1 its introduction into commerce is out of the question4 #ii4 ,copper ,reds4 ,a somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white heat for twenty minutes1 a mixture of certain proportions of blue vitriol1 mono-carbonate of soda1 and copper filings4 ,the product1 however1 is affected by impure air1 and is otherwise not so desirable as an iron oxide4 ,an interesting account has lately been given by ,professor ,church of a new animal pigment1 containing copper1 found in the feathers of the violet plantain-eater and two species of ,turacus1 natives respectively of the ,gold ,coast1 the ,cape1 and ,natal4 ,turacine1 the name proposed for it1 is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable pigment1 with copper as an essential element1 which has been hitherto isolated4 ,the colour is extracted by solution in an alkali1 and precipitation by an acid1 and is changed on long exposure to air and moisture to a green hue4 ,as the entire plumage of a bird yields not more than three grains of pigment1 turacine must be looked upon as a mere curiosity4 #ajj4 ,ferrate of ,baryta1 ,produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute solutions of baryta salts1 has been described as carmine-coloured and permanent4 ,we have not found it to be so--an experience which has evidently not been confined to ourselves2 and we cannot help thinking that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work into another1 to the special confusion of students4 ,it is but fair1 however1 to add that in ,mr4 ,watts' ,dictionary of ,chemistry1 the latest and best work of the kind1 this ferrate is said to become brick-red after washing and drying at #ajj ,c41 and to be only tolerably stable4 #aja4 ,gold ,reds4 ,many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the metallic gold or the red oxide1 which then unites with the organic compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate4 ,sugar1 gum1 the decoctions of cochineal1 gamboge1 fustic1 turmeric1 sumach1 catechu1 and ,brazil wood1 all afford red pulverulent colours4 ,boiled with sugar1 gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red4 ,whatever their merits1 the excessive costliness of these preparations renders them inadmissible as pigments4 ,at one time1 indeed1 a gold compound known as purple of ,cassius was so employed1 but this soon became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple4 #ajb4 ,iodine ,pink4 ,there may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour1 analogous in composition to pure scarlet4 ,it is apt to pass into the scarlet modification1 and is in other respects even less to be depended on than that variety4 #ajc4 ,kermes ,lake ,is an ancient pigment1 perhaps the earliest of the ,european lakes1 and so called from the ,arabic ,alkermes4 ,it is sometimes spelt cermes1 whence probably cermosin and crimson1 and kermine and carmine4 ,in old books it is named vermilion1 in allusion to the insect1 or vermes1 from which it is prepared4 ,this insect is the coccus ilicis1 which feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of ,europe4 ,like the coccus cacti1 it is covered with a whitish dust1 and yields a tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol4 ,kermes and the lac of ,india doubtless afforded the lakes of the ,venetians1 and appear to have been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of ,van ,eyck4 ,the former1 under the appellation ,greek3 kurno kokino1 is said to be employed by the modern ,greeks for dyeing their caps red4 ,some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour1 warmer than cochineal lakes1 and having less body and brilliancy4 ,they worked well1 however1 and withstood the action of light better than the latter1 though the sun ultimately discoloured and destroyed them4 ,in other respects1 they resembled the lakes of cochineal4 ,as a colouring matter1 kermes is only about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance4 #ajd4 ,lawson's ,red4 ,in #ahfa it was stated that ,professor ,lawson had prepared a new dye of great richness1 in the laboratory of ,queen's ,college1 ,canada1 from an insect1 a species of coccus1 found the previous summer for the first time on a tree of the common black spruce 7,abies nigra71 in the neighbourhood of ,kingston4 ,having been but recently observed1 a sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of experiments as to its nature and uses2 but the habits of the insect1 as well as the properties of the dye1 seemed to indicate that it might become of practical importance4 ,in colour it closely resembled ordinary cochineal1 but was rather more scarlet in hue4 ,it was described as capable of being produced in temperate countries4 ,the colouring matter had not then been thrown upon a base1 nor do we know that it has since been introduced as a pigment4 ,if it possessed greater stability than cochineal1 with equal brilliancy and depth1 this dye might form one of those colours of the future1 to whose possible sources we would direct attention4 #aje4 ,manganese ,red4 ,bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic metallic sulphides forming a class of sulphur-salts1 called by ,berzelius1 hyposulpharsenites4 ,the hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate1 uninjured by sulphuretted hydrogen1 and so far applicable as a pigment4 ,containing arsenic1 it would of course be poisonous2 and would probably be found to fade on exposure to air and light4 #ajf4 ,murexide4 ,the red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest among printers and dyers on its introduction in #aheg1 or thereabouts4 ,for purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other colour1 but not being able to stand the effects of air and light1 its employment was limited4 ,we are not aware that murexide has yet been brought forward as a pigment1 and judging from its character as a dye1 it would scarcely enrich the palette4 ,dyes and pigments have much in common1 and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent pigment4 ,murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan1 which is itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric acid1 and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and nails red4 ,the first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple powder1 dissolving in water with a fine purple tint1 leaving a little residue undissolved4 ,owing to improvements in manufacture1 it is now capable of being prepared almost chemically pure1 and with that green metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of certain insects4 ,when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a concentrated solution of murexide1 it is immediately decoloured2 a fact which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to suffer from an impure atmosphere1 as from exposure to light and air4 ,when an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid1 a light shining powder results1 called purpuric acid4 ,this dissolves in alkalies1 and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured compounds1 termed ,purpurates4 ,among them may be mentioned a red purpurate of lead1 a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of mercury1 a purple-red purpurate of silver1 a dark red-brown purpurate of strontia1 a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt1 a scarlet purpurate of platinum1 a yellow purpurate of zinc1 and a green purpurate of baryta4 ,all of these1 however1 being more or less soluble in water1 and owing their colours to murexide1 would be ill adapted for pigments4 #ajg4 ,paille de ,mil1 ,or ,african ,cochineal1 is a substance obtained from ,africa4 ,whether it has received its name of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not clear1 but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal1 though it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants4 ,the colours it yields are deficient in brightness1 and it has otherwise been reported unfavourably of4 #ajh4 ,peganum ,harmala1 ,the seeds of which afford a red colour1 has been investigated by the ,french1 but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy and stability4 #aji4 ,persulphomolybdates4 ,the metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic acid with a base are pulverulent1 in many cases of a red colour1 and for the most part insoluble in water4 ,with barium1 the acid furnishes a yellowish-red powder1 insoluble in1 but made denser by water1 which imparts to it a cinnabar colour4 ,with calcium it is said to yield a scarlet1 sparingly soluble in water4 ,with chromium1 uranium1 lead1 platinum1 and copper1 it gives a dark red2 that from the last metal turning brown when collected on a filter4 ,it likewise produces reds with zinc1 cadmium1 iron1 mercury1 and tin2 of which the last is slightly soluble in water4 ,molybdenum being a rare metal1 and persulphomolybdate of potash1 the salt used in the foregoing reactions1 difficult to prepare1 it is unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this generation4 ,nevertheless1 as we have observed before1 such fancy products should not be altogether ignored1 it being quite as well to have some knowledge of our resources1 even though those resources be not at present available4 ,all the rare metals afford coloured compounds3 tantalum1 niobium1 pelopium1 vanadium1 tellurium1 titanium1 yttrium1 lanthanum1 didymium1 glucinum1 cerium1 thorinum1 zirconium1 palladium1 rhodium1 iridium1 ruthenium1 osmium1 indium1 thallium1 c42 and it is just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with the palette4 #aaj4 ,red ,chalk1 ,the colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron1 is used as a crayon4 ,some specimens are excessively hard1 so much so that they are difficult to crush1 even in an iron mortar2 while others have the consistence of the softest iron-ochres4 ,they vary too in tint from a fawn colour to the softest brick-red1 occasionally being almost as bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and ,venetian red4 ,the amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to thirty-seven per cent1 according to the depth and hardness of the samples4 ,when a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich1 but not too rich1 in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited1 it offers a remarkable change of colour1 becoming a dull sage-green4 ,perhaps this1 if it were permanent1 might prove useful in foliage tints4 #aaa4 ,red ,precipitate1 ,or mercuric oxide1 may be obtained either of a brick-red or orange-yellow colour4 ,it is destroyed by impure air1 and on exposure to sunshine gradually turns black1 being superficially decomposed into oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide4 #aab4 ,rose ,pink ,is a coarse kind of lake1 produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with decoction of ,brazil wood1 peachwood1 sapan1 bar1 camwood1 c4 ,it is a pigment much used by paper-stainers1 and in the commonest distemper painting1 c41 but is too perishable to merit the attention of the artist4 ,chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from ,brazil wood1 which he looked upon as the pure colouring matter1 or as containing the pure colouring matter1 and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many salts4 ,possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly made rose pink4 #aac4 ,rouge1 ,the rouge vgtale of the ,french1 is a species of carmine1 prepared from safflower or carthamus1 which is the flower of a plant growing in the north of ,africa1 ,india1 and other warm climates4 ,safflower yields two colours--a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water1 and about five per cent of red1 insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies4 ,the red1 or carthamin1 furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty1 marked by richness1 transparency1 and free working4 ,its extreme fugacity1 however1 militates against its employment by artists4 ,as a dye1 its manner of fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter2 requiring no mordant1 like madder or cochineal1 and needing no solution1 like indigo or anotta1 but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is brought into contact with it4 ,but even for a dye the colour is fugitive1 fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine1 and sometimes being quite bleached in the course of a day4 ,it is when combined with levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes most serviceable4 ,possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow1 rouge is an unrivalled--and a most harmless--aid to beauty4 ,chinese ,rouge and ,pink ,saucers have much of the qualities of1 and appear to be also prepared from1 the safflower4 #aad4 ,rufigallic ,red4 ,when a duly proportioned mixture of gallic acid and oil of vitriol is carefully and gradually heated to #adj1 a viscid wine-red liquid results4 ,if this be poured into cold water1 after cooling1 a heavy brown-red granular precipitate is formed1 soluble in #cccc parts of boiling water4 ,it dissolves in potash-ley1 and to fabrics impregnated with alum or iron mordants1 imparts the same shades of colour as madder2 the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine4 ,whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of the red1 and whether those reds would be stable1 it might be worth while to ascertain4 #aae4 ,sandal ,red4 ,we have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods1 because it is said 7by ,professor ,h4 ,dussance7 to be obtainable not only equal in beauty and brightness to carmine1 but of greater permanence4 ,the process of preparation is as follows3--,the powdered root exhausted by alcohol gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess4 ,the combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a filter1 washed with alcohol1 dried1 dissolved in acetic acid1 and mixed with a quantity of water4 ,the red being insoluble therein is precipitated1 while the acetate of lead remains dissolved4 ,after being washed1 the colour is dried at a low temperature4 ,the ,professor affirms that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen1 or by light and air2 and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint the carriages of the ,emperor ,napoleon1 remained as bright at the end of nine years as when it was put on4 ,possessing such properties1 it is curious that the red has never been--in this country at least--introduced as an artistic pigment1 the more especially as seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery4 #aaf4 ,silver ,red4 ,by adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of silver1 a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained4 ,it is1 however1 apt to be injured both by foul air and exposure4 #aag4 ,sorgho ,red4 ,some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in most parts of the ,chinese sorgho1 chiefly in the unpressed stem4 ,the red1 which is extracted in an impure state1 is dissolved in weak potash-ley1 thrown down by sulphuric acid1 and washed with water4 ,this purified product1 soluble in alcohol1 caustic alkalies1 and dilute acids1 has been employed in ,austria1 ,baden1 c41 for the dyeing of silks and woollens with the common tin mordants4 ,the colours produced from it are unchanged1 they say1 by warm soapsuds or light4 ,we do not know whether the red found its way to ,england1 but it has certainly not appeared here as a pigment4 #aah4 ,thallium ,red4 ,the orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash1 is converted by nitric acid into an orange-red4 ,the latter compound1 which is a terchromate1 is almost insoluble in cold water1 #bhad parts being required to dissolve it4 ,if the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong nitric acid it is dissolved1 yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals on the solution cooling4 ,these crystals likewise seem to be the terchromate4 #aai4 ,tin ,pink4 ,by igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide1 chalk1 chromate of potash1 and a little silica and alumina1 a dingy red mass is obtained1 which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed with water containing hydrochloric acid4 ,for the same reason that the pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments1 this tin product is commercially ineligible4 ,having1 however1 the advantage of being cheap1 and being probably durable1 it would be well adapted for the common purposes of painting1 in place of the fugitive rose pink4 #abj4 ,ultramarine ,red8 ,in ,gmelin's ,handbook of ,chemistry it is remarked that ,hydrogen gas passed over ignited ultramarine1 colours it light red1 from formation of liver of sulphur1 hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the same time4 ,on most carefully making the experiment with a sample of native blue 7the variety referred to7 we did not succeed in effecting this change3 no alteration to red or even to purple took place1 the only result being that the colour was entirely spoilt1 having assumed a leaden slate-gray hue4 ,at our request1 the trial was kindly repeated by well-known chemists1 who took every precaution to ensure success4 ,several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon1 but in no case was a red or anything like a red obtained1 the products ranging from a slate-gray to a drab-grey4 ,sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead1 a fact which proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur4 ,seeing that not only no red was produced1 but that no tendency to red was imparted1 is it possible the change described by ,gmelin occurred under exceptional circumstances8 ,all conversant with chemical matters will admit that results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated1 owing it may be to some slight difference in the materials employed1 or some slight variation of the process4 ,perhaps a link1 considered of no importance at the time and overlooked1 has been lost1 and thus the whole chain of proceeding becomes useless4 ,it is1 therefore1 within the bounds of probability that the red ultramarine of the great ,german chemist was furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue1 or by a modified form of the method he gives4 ,we have noticed the subject at some length because if a red ultramarine1 brilliant and durable1 could be obtained1 the colour might prove of value4 ,a permanent artificial compound corresponding to ,french blue would certainly be an acquisition4 #aba4 ,uranium ,red4 ,by treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of sulphuretted hydrogen1 and saturating gradually with ammonia1 a red finally results4 ,this colour is insoluble in water1 and it has the objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite time1 colouring the liquid light red4 ,the product is brighter and more beautiful while moist2 when dried and powdered1 its tone--slightly approaching vermilion--is duller4 ,the colour may be obtained of several degrees of brilliancy1 but1 apart from the question of expense1 it would be inadmissible in oil1 the red gradually altering by contact therewith4 ,the most persistent tint at length resembles burnt ,sienna4 #abb4 ,wongshy ,red4 ,there was imported a few years ago from ,batavia a new colouring principle1 under the name of wongshy1 and consisting of the seed-capsule of a species of gentian4 ,the aqueous extract1 freed from the pectin which it contains1 yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow precipitates1 from which acids separate the colouring matter of a vermilion hue4 ,when thus prepared it is insoluble in water1 and would so far be adapted for a pigment4 ,the red has not1 however1 been employed as such1 and we are unacquainted with its habitudes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally to red1 and indeed to all other colours4 ,it is not assumed that the list is exhausted3 there are other reds1 but they are1 like some we have mentioned1 ineligible as pigments1 either by reason of their fugacity1 their costliness1 the difficulty of producing them on a scale1 or the sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable4 ,while endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of pigments actually in use1 it is our object to give a selection only of numbered italicised colours2 ample enough1 however1 to include those which have become obsolete or nearly so1 and full enough to afford some insight into our resources4 ,the nearer we approach perfection1 the more eager we are to arrive at it3 the path before us1 therefore1 cannot fail to be of interest4 ,looking back1 and noting those pigments commonly employed1 we find that the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes--the good1 bad1 and indifferent2 or the permanent1 the semi-stable1 and the fugitive4 ,among permanent reds1 rank cadmium red1 madder reds1 ,mars red1 the ochres1 and vermilions4 ,in the second or semi-stable class1 must be placed cochineal lakes1 ,indian lake1 and red chrome4 ,to the third division1 or the fugitive1 belong dragon's blood1 pure scarlet1 red lead1 and the coal-tar reds4 ,with regard to the foregoing classification1 it must be borne in mind that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by adventitious circumstances4 ,sometimes pigments are varied or altogether changed by the grounds on which they are employed1 the vehicles in which they are used1 the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed1 and the varnishes by which they are covered4 ,and as there is no exact and constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments1 so there is no exact and constant result in their use4 ,artists vary as much as the pigments they employ3 some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with which they treat their colours1 the cleanliness with which they surround them1 and the care with which they compound them3 in the hands of such artists pigments have every chance4 ,some1 however1 are characterized by a careless manipulation1 a dirty mode of working1 an utter disregard for all rules of admixture3 with such painters the best colours may be ruined4 ,and here1 indeed1 it may be asked1 whether these latter are not more properly termed painters than artists1 chiefly belonging as they do to that slap-dash school which manufactures pictures simply to sell them4 ,duly subordinated1 the commercial side of art has a value which it were affectation to ignore2 but to paint merely for the present1 heedless of the future1 is to sink art to the level of a trade1 not the most honest4 ,for it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of thought bestowed on the materials1 the sloppy manipulation1 the careless compounding2 sins of omission and commission that cause him1 on finding his picture becoming chaos1 to join the detractors of modern pigments4 ,in classifying colours therefore1 those also should be classified who use them3--into artists1 whose love for art would render it more lasting than themselves2 and into painters1 whose motto is ,vita brevis est1 ,ars quoque4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,on ,,the ,,primary1 ,,blue4 ,the third and last of the primary or simple colours is blue1 which bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light4 ,hence it is the most retiring and diffusive of all colours1 except purple and black2 and all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting1 to a greater or less extent1 in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to light--first white1 then yellow1 orange1 red1 c4 ,blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness' in colouring1 and it communicates this property variously to all other colours with which it happens to be compounded4 ,most powerful in a strong light1 it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light1 owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade1 and its power of absorbing light4 ,consequently1 the eye of the artist is liable to be deceived when painting with blue in too low a light1 or toward the close of day1 to the endangering of the warmth and harmony of his picture4 ,entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all greens1 and with red in all purples1 blue characterizes the tertiary olive1 and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral black1 c41 as well as of the semi-neutral gray1 c43 it therefore is changed in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black1 as it is likewise by distance4 ,blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and broken colours1 and being nearest in the scale to black1 breaks and contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white1 as in pale blues1 skies1 c4 ,being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light1 it is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance4 ,there is an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and darkness1 and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour1 but a mixture of black and white2 but pure or neutral black and white compound in infinite shades1 all of which are neutral also1 or grey4 ,it is true that a mixture of black and white is of a cool hue1 because black is not a primary colour1 but a compound of the three primary colours in which blue predominates1 a predominance which is rendered more sensible when black is diluted with white4 ,as to the colour of the sky1 in which light and shade are combined1 that is likewise neutral1 and never blue except by contrast2 thus1 the more the light of the sun partakes of a golden or orange hue1 and the more parched and burnt the earth is1 the bluer appears the sky1 as in ,italy and all hot countries4 ,in ,england1 where the sun is cooler1 and a perpetual verdure reigns1 infusing blue latently into the landscape1 the sky is warmer and nearer to neutrality1 partaking of a diversity of greys1 which beautifully melodize with blue as their key1 and harmonize with the light and landscape4 ,therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the direct and reflected light of the scene3 if this light were of a rose colour1 the neutral of the sky would be converted into green1 or if purple1 the sky would become yellow4 ,similarly would it be in all cases1 according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast1 as may be often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting of the sun4 ,in art1 blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green1 and less so with purple1 both which are cool colours2 consequently blue requires its contrast1 orange1 in equal proportion whether of surface or intensity1 to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its coldness4 ,in nature1 however1 blue is not discordant with either green or purple1 nor are any two colours 7as we have said before7 ever found so4 ,on the palette of nature each colour is an example of colouring3 no colour is too absolute or defined1 no perfectly pure blue appears beside a perfectly pure green4 ,a blue flower nestled in its green leaves does not offend the nicest eye1 but the blue and green are not blue and green alone4 ,there is1 perhaps1 but a single gleam of pure colour in each3 the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades1 so broken and blended and beautifully harmonized1 that no jarring discord is possible4 ,hue melts into hue1 tint into tint1 shade into shade2 and thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest painter may stoop to learn4 ,we have spoken of blue1 which is termed a cold colour1 as retiring2 and of yellow and red1 which are called warm colours1 as advancing4 ,by this we must not be understood to mean that blue1 as blue1 expresses distance2 or that yellow and red1 as yellow and red1 express nearness4 ,colours are advancing or retiring in their quality--as depth1 delicacy1 c41 not in their hue4 ,a blue object set side-by-side a yellow one will not look an inch farther off1 but a red or orange cloud1 in the upper sky1 will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us1 as it is in reality4 ,we grant that in certain objects1 blue is a sign of distance1 but that is not because blue1 as a mere colour1 is retiring2 but because the mist in the air is blue1 and therefore any warm colour which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or subdued in its blue4 ,blue in itself1 however1 is no more1 on this account1 retiring1 than brown is retiring1 because when stones are seen through brown water1 the deeper they lie1 the browner they appear4 ,neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses1 as such1 the smallest power of expressing either nearness or distance2 they merely express themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the moment1 or in that place1 signs of nearness or distance4 ,thus1 purple in a violet is a sign of nearness1 because the closer it is looked at the more purple is seen2 but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance1 because a mountain close at hand is not purple1 but green or grey4 ,it may1 indeed1 be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more or less denote distance1 and a powerful or dark colour nearness2 but even this is not always so4 ,heathery hills will usually give a pale and tender purple near1 and an intense or dark purple far away3 the rose colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet1 but deep and full on the snow in the distance2 and the green of a ,swiss lake is pale in the clear waves on the beach1 but intense as an emerald in the sunstreak1 six miles from shore4 ,and in any case1 when the foreground is in strong light1 with much water about it or white surface1 casting intense reflections1 all its colours may be perfectly delicate1 pale1 and faint2 while the distance1 when it is in shadow1 may relieve the whole foreground with deepest shades of purple1 blue green1 or ultramarine blue4 ,there is one law1 however1 about distance1 which has some claims to be considered constant1 namely1 that dulness and heaviness of colour are more or less indicative of nearness4 ,all distant colour is pure colour3 it may not be bright1 but it is clear and lovely1 not opaque nor soiled2 for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect colour1 purify or harmonize it2 hence a bad colourist is peculiarly incapable of expressing distance4 ,it is not of course meant that bad colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come forward2 but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of its place4 ,a failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with its remoteness2 a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground1 though coloured badly2 but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a dull distance1 it will be no distance at all4 ,this seeming digression is not out of place1 as it will enable the artist better to understand that it is in their quality1 not in their hue1 that colours are advancing or retiring2 and that he must rely on the depth1 delicacy1 c41 of his pigments1 and not simply on their colours1 to produce effects of distance4 ,of all colours1 except black1 blue contrasts white most powerfully4 ,in all harmonious combinations of colours1 whether of mixture or neighbourhood1 blue is the natural1 prime1 or predominating power4 ,accordingly1 blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to the composition1 and may more frequently be repeated therein1 pure or unbroken1 than either of the other primaries2 whence the employment of ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture4 ,blue pigments1 like blue flowers1 are more rare than those of the other primary colours4 ,in permanent blues the palette is very deficient1 the list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the cobalts have been mentioned4 ,that there is room for new blues1 durable and distinct1 cannot therefore be denied4 ,a good addition has been made of late years in the ,german ,colin1 known here as ,cerulian ,blue and ,coeruleum4 ,what is chiefly wanted1 however1 is a colour combining the wonderful depth1 richness1 and transparency of ,prussian blue with the strict stability of ultramarine4 ,a permanent ,prussian blue would be the most valued gift the palette could receive4 ,,cobalt ,,blues comprise ,cerulian ,blue or ,coeruleum1 ,cobalt ,blue1 ,smalt1 ,royal ,blue1 ,dumont's ,blue1 ,saxon ,blue1 ,thnard's ,blue1 ,leithner's ,blue1 ,hungary ,blue1 ,dutch ,ultramarine1 ,zaffre or ,enamel ,blue1 ,vienna ,blue1 ,paris ,blue1 ,azure1 c41 and are obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases with cobalt4 ,they are divisible into three classes--the stannic cerulian blue1 the aluminous cobalt blues1 and the siliceous smalts4 ,of these1 the first possesses the least depth2 the second hold a middle position2 while the third are marked by exceeding richness4 ,although not to be ranked with ultramarine1 the stannic and aluminous blues may be described as durable1 or at least as durable rather than semi-stable4 ,there are1 as we have before observed1 different degrees of permanence1 and the blues in question are not readily affected4 ,with regard to smalts1 they are1 as artist's pigments1 inferior in stability to other blues of cobalt4 #abc4 ,,cerulian ,,blue1 or ,coeruleum4 ,under the name ,colin there has of late years been imported from ,germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference has just been made4 ,this comparatively new pigment--which likewise contains or is mixed with gypsum1 silica1 and sometimes magnesia--has the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light1 tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other4 ,this advantage1 added to its permanence1 has conferred a popularity upon coeruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained for it4 ,a light and pleasing blue1 with a greenish-grey cast by day1 it possesses little depth or richness1 and is far excelled in beauty by a good aluminous cobalt4 ,a certain chalkiness1 moreover1 somewhat detracts from its transparency1 and militates against its use in water4 ,it is in oil1 and as a night colour1 that coeruleum becomes of service1 as our present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity of blues generally4 ,if those galleries were illuminated by means of the electric light1 we have it on the authority of ,chevreul that all colours and shades would show as well as by day3 the same purpose would be answered by the magnesium light4 ,some artificial lights are the ruin of colours2 in the soda flame 7alcohol and salt7 for instance1 yellow chromate of lead appears white1 while red ochre and aniline blue appear black4 ,like other blues of cobalt1 coeruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in time1 but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action of light and impure air1 although chemically it is more open to the influence of the latter1 owing to its tin base4 ,in admixture it may safely be employed1 as well as in fresco or enamel4 ,for stage skies1 c41 in high-art scenery1 the blue is admirably adapted4 ,now that there are so many scene-painters who are artists--and so many artists who are scene-painters--in bringing ,nature to the foot-lights the effect of gas on colours is of importance4 #abd4 ,,cobalt ,,blue1 to which the various appellations have been given of ,thnard's ,blue1 ,vienna ,blue1 ,paris ,blue1 ,azure1 ,cobalt-,ultramarine1 c41 is the name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a base of alumina4 ,it may1 therefore1 be not improperly called a blue lake1 the colour of which is brought up by fire1 in the manner of enamel blues4 ,the discovery of this important pigment was made in #ahjb by ,m4 ,thnard1 who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina and crystals of cobalt4 ,there may be employed with the aluminous base1 either the arseniate1 the borate1 or the phosphate of cobalt2 but the latter in preference1 as it produces the purest colour4 ,the arseniate has always a violet tinge1 more visible by gas-light than by day2 while1 on account of the arsenic1 the blue is more apt to be greened by impure air1 by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic4 ,the purity of the colour1 however1 does not altogether depend on the compound of cobalt used2 in a great measure--as with other pigments--it rests on the purity of the materials4 ,to obtain a perfect blue1 neither inclining to purple nor green1 the cobalt and alumina should be freed from iron1 and the former1 as much as possible1 from nickel also4 ,with the absence of these and proper skill1 a true and brilliant blue may be produced1 almost rivalling the finest ultramarine4 ,apart1 too1 from its increased beauty1 a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of greater permanence than the ordinary products1 being less liable to that greenness and obscurity which time confers4 ,though not possessing the body1 transparency1 and depth of ultramarine1 nor its natural and modest hue1 commercial cobalt blue works better in water than that pigment in general does2 and is hence an acquisition to those who have not the management of the latter4 ,resisting the action of strong light and acids1 its beauty declines by time1 while impure air greens and ultimately blackens it4 ,nevertheless1 these changes are not readily effected1 especially in well made samples full of colour1 and sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted4 ,what wheat is to a loaf1 colour is to a pigment--it has to be ground and made up for use2 in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums1 in the other with oils4 ,it often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter1 and refuse to compound kindly therewith4 ,occasionally this repugnance manifests itself in a few days1 occasionally not for months4 ,we know of a green which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils1 sinking and separating therefrom in the course of a week1 and leaving the clear oil on the top4 ,repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as pigments1 coaxed not to 'run1' to work well1 to dry well1 c42 and in the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed4 ,given a colour1 it might puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment2 luckily ,commerce lends her aid4 ,lasting success1 it is true1 does not always follow1 and oils will rise to the surface now and then1 giving green hues to blues1 orange hues to reds1 and buff hues to yellows4 ,hence changes of colour have been imputed before now to chemical alteration1 when in reality the results have been physical1 caused by the subsidence of the pigments1 and the floating of the vehicles employed4 ,cobalt blue dries well in oil1 does not injure or suffer injury from pigments in general1 and may be used with a proper flux in enamel1 as well as in fresco4 ,it affords clear bright tints in skies and distances1 but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground1 and to assume a violet tinge by artificial light4 ,with madder brown it yields a range of fine pearly neutrals2 and with light red1 in any proportion1 gives beautiful cloud tints4 ,in combination with aureolin and sepia1 or rose madder1 cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees1 when under the influence of a soft light1 or hazy state of the atmosphere4 ,in water-colour painting1 cobalt is tolerably firm on paper1 and consequently answers better for some purposes than ,french blue4 ,in middle distances1 if the cobalt possess a tendency to chalkiness1 the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective1 especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark3 it should1 however1 be observed that the change is but temporary1 indigo being a fugitive pigment4 ,in marine painting in water-colours1 cobalt is most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands4 ,when dry1 it can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light red1 whereby a prismatic character is realized4 ,any strength of tone can be obtained by repeating the washes1 and should the colour be too powerful1 it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge2 or if too cold and blue1 by a thin wash of burnt ,sienna1 merely the water stained4 ,the blues of cobalt1 on whatever base they may be prepared1 are distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being decolorised by acids4 #abe4 ,,smalt1 ,invented about the year #aedj1 in ,saxony1 is a vitreous compound of cobalt and silica1 in fact a blue glass4 ,since the fifteenth century1 cobalt has been used in different parts of ,europe to tinge glass2 and so intense is the colouring power of its oxide1 that pure white glass is rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part1 while one twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint4 ,in common with cobalt blue1 the name ,azure has sometimes been given to it4 ,varying exceedingly in quality and colour1 the rougher kinds have been employed by the laundress1 and in the making of porcelain1 pottery1 stained glass1 encaustic tiles1 c42 as well as to cover the yellow tinge of paper4 ,for this last purpose1 however1 smalt is not perfectly adapted1 the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly1 and the paper when written on blunting the nibs of pens4 ,hence it has been superseded to a great extent by artificial ultramarine1 the presence of which may be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper4 ,a coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt1 whether it be the ,powder ,blue of the washtub and ,blue ,sand of the pottery1 or the ,dumont's and ,royal ,blue of the artist and high-class manufacturer4 ,but the strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio3 both in water and oil its beauty soon decays1 as is often the case with other vitrified pigments2 nor is it in other respects eligible1 being1 notwithstanding its richness and depth1 very inferior to the cobalts preceding4 ,it may seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so fugitive1 but we may briefly explain it by saying when vitreous pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette requires1 they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided state4 ,the best smalt in lumps appears black1 yields a blue powder on grinding1 becomes paler on further grinding1 and may be almost decolourised by continued and excessive grinding4 ,smalt1 it has been stated1 is merely a blue glass2 and when a piece of blue glass1 or a blue crystal of sulphate of copper1 is reduced to the fineness of flour1 the blue is lost4 ,in vitrified and crystallised compounds1 colour depends on cohesion3 sufficiently separate the particles1 and the colour more or less disappears4 ,not only1 moreover1 does grinding effect an optical change in vitreous pigments1 but it imposes further alteration4 ,that colour which was safe when locked up in a mass1 crushed to minute atoms is no longer so3 imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for ages1 but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as though it had never been subjected to heat at all4 ,to sum up1 vitreous pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form1 but are not more stable than others when reduced to extreme division4 ,as far as regards artists' colours1 therefore1 vitrification does not impart permanence4 ,the grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt1 which cannot1 consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed from that drawback--an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in general4 ,hence it does not wash well1 and in mural decoration is sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is laid on1 whilst it yet remains wet4 ,of little body1 it is a vivid and gorgeous blue2 bright1 deep1 and transparent1 bordering on the violet hue4 ,it is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting4 ,the inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk4 #abf4 ,,cyanine4 ,beckmann is fully convinced that the cyanus of ,theophrastus and the coeruleum of ,pliny were a blue copper earth4 ,however that may be1 in these days both names signify cobalt compounds1 coeruleum being a stannate of cobalt1 and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and ,prussian blue4 ,unlike the former1 cyanine1 being composed of two old colours1 can lay no claim to originality4 ,in the fourth chapter it was observed1 it is quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily4 ,colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours1 being1 indeed1 mere mixtures4 ,compound pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with1 in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the palette4 ,whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a question for artists to decide3 in our opinion1 with so many semi-stable original pigments1 the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be deprecated4 ,cyanine is a rich1 deep1 transparent blue1 but its richness and depth1 as well as to a great extent its transparency1 depend upon ,prussian blue1 which is not strictly stable4 ,hence the peculiar properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the ,prussian blue itself1 the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and light1 and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent cobalt4 ,a mixture1 be it remembered1 necessarily partakes of the qualities of its constituents1 and if one of these be fugitive1 the compound cannot preserve its original hue4 ,within the last few years1 a compound similar to cyanine has appeared1 under the name of ,leitch's ,blue4 #abg4 ,,indigo1 or ,indian ,blue1 was known to the ancients under the name of ,indicum1 whence its present appellation4 ,in modern ,europe1 it first came into extensive use in ,italy2 but about the middle of the sixteenth century1 the ,dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity4 ,present in the woad plant1 which is a native of ,great ,britain1 indigo is chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called ,indigofera1 found in ,india1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,the colouring matter of these is wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves1 as a secretion or juice2 not1 however1 in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see indigo1 but as a colourless substance1 which continues white only so long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect3 when this is by any means destroyed1 oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere1 and the principle becomes blue4 ,the best indigo is so light as to swim upon water1 but the commercial article seldom contains more than #ej per cent4 of blue colouring matter or true indigo1 the remainder consisting of either accidental or intentional impurities4 ,in painting1 indigo is not nearly so bright as ,prussian blue1 but it is extremely powerful and transparent1 and may be described as a ,prussian blue in mourning4 ,of great body1 it glazes and works well both in water and oil4 ,its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false character of extreme durability as a pigment1 a quality in which it is nevertheless very inferior even to ,prussian blue4 ,by impure air it is injured1 and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others1 but not durable2 while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive4 ,employed in considerable body in shadow1 it is more permanent1 but in all respects ,prussian blue is superior4 ,despite this want of stability1 indigo is a favourite colour with many artists1 who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect4 ,it is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes1 especially in admixture1 that its sin of fugacity is overlooked4 ,hence we find indigo constantly mentioned in works on painting1 their authors forgetting or not caring to remember that wholesome axiom1 a fugitive colour is not rendered durable by being compounded4 ,artistically1 it is adapted for moonlights1 and when mixed with a little lamp black1 is well suited for night clouds1 distant cliffs1 c4 ,with a little raw umber and madder it is used for water in night effects4 ,with the addition of a little madder it forms a good gray2 and with madder and burnt ,sienna is useful for dark rocks1 this combination1 with raw ,sienna1 being also eligible for boats4 ,for these and other mixed tints1 however1 ,prussian blue saddened by black with a suspicion of green in it1 is equally fitted1 and is more permanent4 ,indeed1 it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such a compound1 under the name say1 of ,factitious ,indigo4 ,indigo in dust1 or in small bits1 is often adulterated with sand1 pulverized slate1 and other earthy substances4 ,that indigo is best which is lightest1 brightest1 most copper-coloured1 most fine-grained1 and inodorous4 #abh4 ,,intense ,,blue is indigo refined by solution and precipitation4 ,by this process1 indigo becomes more durable1 and1 being separated from impurities1 is rendered much more powerful1 transparent1 and deep4 ,it washes and works admirably in water2 in other respects it possesses the common properties of indigo4 ,it is apt1 however1 to penetrate the paper on which it is employed1 if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter used in its preparation4 ,this is not always easily effected1 and we cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry method would be preferable4 ,indigo may1 by cautious management1 be volatilized1 and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid of acids and alkalies4 ,the best mode of subliming this substance is to mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of ,paris1 make the whole into a paste with water1 spread it upon an iron plate1 and1 when quite dry1 heat it by a spirit lamp4 ,the volatilization of the indigo is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum1 and the surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure indigo1 which may be readily removed by a thin spatula4 ,at a higher temperature1 charring and decomposition take place4 #abi4 ,,prussian ,,blue1 otherwise called ,berlin ,blue1 ,paris ,blue1 ,prussiate of ,iron1 ,ferrocyanide of ,iron1 c41 was accidentally discovered in #agaj by ,diesbach1 a colour-maker at ,berlin4 ,it is a compound of iron and cyanogen1 of varying composition1 formed by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a persalt of iron1 or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained from the prussiate and a protosalt4 ,the finest blue is furnished by sesquinitrate of iron1 but the salt almost exclusively employed is the protosulphate1 the freedom of which from copper is essential to the colour of the blue4 ,as is the case with other pigments1 ,prussian blue differs considerably in colour1 in depth1 and in permanence1 according to the purity of the materials1 the mode of manufacture1 and the absence of adulterants4 ,like smalt1 it is known in the washtub as well as in the studio2 and in the cheaper varieties1 alumina1 starch1 chalk1 oxide of iron1 c41 are often largely present4 ,a good unsophisticated sample in the dry state is intense blue1 almost black1 hard and brittle1 much resembling in appearance the best indigo1 and having a similar copper-red fracture4 ,it does not effervesce with acids1 as when adulterated with chalk2 nor become pasty with boiling water1 as when sophisticated with starch4 ,further1 it feels light in the hand1 adheres to the tongue1 is inodorous1 tasteless1 not poisonous1 and is insoluble in water4 ,forming a bulky mass while moist1 ,prussian blue shrinks to a comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat2 and1 when once dried1 being difficult to reduce again to the state of extreme division which it possessed while wet1 it is frequently sold and used in paste for common purposes4 ,we have said that a good sample of ,prussian blue is insoluble in water1 and for artistic use it should certainly be so1 as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on which it is employed1 a defect formerly very prevalent4 ,all ,prussian blues1 however1 are not insoluble1 and these are not only liable to the drawback named1 but are less to be depended on for permanence4 ,improper proportions1 for instance1 of sesquichloride of iron and potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which1 when washed even with cold water1 continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour1 through the partial solution of the prussiate4 ,all commercial ,prussian blue1 and indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes1 give up the ferrocyanide to boiling water1 thereby colouring it greenish yellow2 but a sample which parts with its prussiate to cold water is quite unfitted for the palette1 for which the most perfect specimen is none too stable4 ,in spite of the learned researches of ,professor ,williamson1 whose name is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of ,schunck and ,de ,la ,rue with madder and cochineal1 ,prussian blue is not yet entirely understood4 ,complex and uncertain in composition1 uncertain too in its habitudes1 our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete survey1 but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's craft4 ,prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency1 with a soft velvety richness1 and of such intense depth as to appear black in its deepest washes4 ,notwithstanding it lasts a long time under favourable circumstances1 its tints fade by the action of strong light2 becoming white1 according to ,chevreul1 in the direct rays of the sun1 but regaining its blue colour in the dark2 hence that subdued light which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue4 ,its colour has the singular property of fluctuating1 or of coming and going1 under certain conditions2 and which it owes to the action and reaction by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately4 ,it also becomes greenish sometimes by a development of the oxide of iron2 and is purpled1 darkened1 or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air4 ,time has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour1 which forms tints of much beauty with white lead1 though they are not equal either in purity1 brilliancy1 or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine4 ,when carefully heated1 ,prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green hue2 its colour1 therefore1 depending on the presence of water1 must not be exposed to a high temperature4 ,and as it is likewise injured or destroyed by alkalis1 which decompose it into oxide of iron and a soluble prussiate1 the blue should be avoided in fresco1 on account of the lime2 neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline nature1 nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution1 but with clean rain or distilled water1 either of which is preferable for colours generally4 ,prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil1 but its great and principal use is in painting deep blues1 in which its body helps to secure its permanence1 and its transparency gives force to its depth4 ,it is also valuable in compounding deep purples with lake1 and is a powerful neutralizer and component of black1 to the intensity of which it adds considerably4 ,prussian blue borders slightly on green1 a quality which militates against its use in skies and distances4 ,in spite1 however1 of its want of1 or deficiency in1 durability1 the old water-colour painters so employed it1 neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake4 ,it is serviceable in mixed tints of greens1 affording with light red a sea-green neutral4 ,dissolved in oxalic acid1 the blue is available as an ink1 or for tinting maps4 ,besides the preceding1 there is a ,basic ,prussian ,blue1 formed by simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol4 ,this compound dissolves entirely by continued washing with water1 yielding a beautiful deep blue solution1 from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid form by the addition of any salt4 ,probably it was this basic preparation1 so cheaply and easily made1 that conferred upon ,prussian blue the character of staining paper4 ,in name1 there is also another variety of this pigment1 known as ,native ,prussian ,blue2 which is really a native phosphate of iron1 occurring as a blue earthy powder1 or as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure4 #acj4 ,,antwerp ,,blue1 ,haerlem ,blue1 ,berlin ,blue1 ,mineral ,blue1 is a lighter and somewhat brighter ,prussian blue1 with less depth and less permanence4 ,it is a species of lake1 having a considerable proportion of aluminous base1 to which its paler tint is due4 ,as the stability of ,prussian blue rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the pigment contains1 when its particles of colour are set farther apart by the intervention of the alumina1 the permanence of its hue is endangered4 ,it was remarked1 with respect to vitrified pigments1 that colour depends on cohesion4 ,more or less1 this holds good as regards all pigments2 but not only1 as was also observed1 does colour rest on cohesion1 in many instances durability depends likewise4 ,it is only when a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating3 native ultramarine1 for example1 may be weakened almost to white1 and will still preserve its hue4 ,if1 however1 a colour be naturally fugitive1 and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it possesses1 that colour cannot with impunity be paled3 witness the cochineal lakes1 which the deeper they are1 the more durable they are found2 and so it is with ,prussian blue4 ,antwerp blue is distinguished from the latter by its more earthy fracture4 #aca4 ,,turnbull',s ,,blue1 ,or ,ferricyanide of ,iron1 is formed by adding the red prussiate of potash to a protosalt of iron4 ,this blue is lighter and more delicate than ordinary ,prussian blue1 and is believed to resist the action of alkalies longer4 ,it is a question whether the common ,prussian blue obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety4 ,however that may be1 there is1 as far as permanence goes1 little or no difference between the two kinds4 ,,ultramarines4 ,,artificial ,,ultramarines comprise the varieties known as ,french ,ultramarine1 ,french ,blue1 ,brilliant ,ultramarine1 ,factitious ,ultramarine1 ,guimet's ,ultramarine1 ,new ,blue1 ,permanent ,blue1 ,gmelin's ,german ,ultramarine1 ,bleu de ,garance1 ,outremer de ,guimet1 c4 ,the unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound which1 while possessing similar properties1 could be produced in quantity1 and at a less costly rate4 ,in demolishing some furnaces employed in making soda1 by means of decomposing sulphate of soda1 some earth had been found impregnated with a light blue1 which was proved to have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of success4 ,as a stimulus1 there was offered a prize of six thousand francs or #ejj for the production of artificial ultramarine by the ,socit d',encouragement of ,paris1 which was won in #ahbh by ,m4 ,guimet4 ,it is fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture1 and to this day ,guimet's ultramarine is the finest made4 ,as an instance of how the researches of different men may1 almost simultaneously1 lead to the same results1 it is curious that very shortly after the problem was also solved by ,gmelin4 ,the cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of controversy1 but was believed generally to be due to iron4 ,when1 however1 the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made1 this assumption was shown to be false1 by the fact that a blue could be obtained with materials perfectly free from iron4 ,the absolutely necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica1 alumina1 sulphur1 and soda2 and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium3 it is certain that the blue colour is dependant on the soda1 inasmuch as potash yields an analogous compound which is purely white4 ,a number of substances1 such as iron1 lime1 magnesia1 and potash1 may be present as impurities1 and were1 in part at least1 purposely added to the earlier manufactures2 but they are found to be superfluous4 ,nevertheless1 as regards iron1 it is probable that a very small portion1 such as is usually contained in the ingredients1 greatly facilitates the production of the blue1 and may even be essential in some cases4 ,the colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings4 ,green portions1 more or less in quantity1 are often formed in the crucibles1 especially on the first ignition4 ,on repeated heating they pass into a blue tint4 ,artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed from all traces of the green modification1 and are therefore less beautiful than the natural varieties1 having a shade of green or grey4 ,this defect1 however1 is certainly not discernible in ,guimet's products1 which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing with a little ,prussian blue4 ,depth for depth1 the artificial are darker and less azure than the natural varieties1 but the superiority of the latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue1 although this is considerable1 as in their far greater transparency4 ,the finest ,french ultramarine is never so transparent as the native2 it is brilliant1 it is powerful1 it is permanent1 it is nearly--but only nearly--transparent4 ,possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics and qualities of the genuine1 it works1 washes1 and dries well2 and is useful either in figures1 draperies1 or landscape4 ,rivalling in depth1 although not equalling in colour1 the pure azure of native ultramarine1 it answers to the same acid tests1 but is sometimes distinguished therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid4 ,not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue2 unless1 indeed1 as occasionally happens1 it retain a portion of alkali1 with which it may have been combined in the preparation1 but from which it should have been freed4 ,darkened as a rule by fire1 factitious ultramarine becomes dingy blue1 and at last white1 when strongly ignited for a long time2 and is1 like the true variety1 decolourised by ignition in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas4 ,at a high temperature1 this effect is even produced by silica1 whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or porcelain2 and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered white4 ,being unaffected by alkalis1 it is eligible in mural decoration1 and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting1 on account of the silica and alumina which it contains1 two substances with which a soluble silicate readily unites4 ,if artificial ultramarine be mixed with a soluble silicate1 for example silicate of potash1 and be laid on a properly prepared ground1 it will become so firmly fixed1 says ,mr4 ,barff1 that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will remove it1 or affect its brilliancy4 ,judging from the behaviour of ultramarine1 therefore1 if the colours employed in siliceous painting contain silica and alumina1 they should adhere as firmly to the surface on which they are placed2 and this is really the case4 ,it is possible to produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will remain liquid for twenty-four hours4 ,if1 while in the liquid state1 colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry1 their particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina chemically combined with potash4 ,according to the author quoted1 the admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy or depth of the colours1 and the method may be used for all those which are not injured by potash1 and are in themselves adapted to the art4 ,with respect to permanence1 the finer varieties of artificial ultramarines may1 undoubtedly1 be pronounced stable2 but1 like all other colours1 these blues are apt to vary in quality1 and inferior kinds are liable to lose their purity in a measure1 and become grayer4 ,moreover1 they are made by different processes1 and the mode adopted for the manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour1 but may influence to some extent its durability4 ,from the following experiment of an ingenious artist and friend of the author1 it is evident that the production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived4 ,he took a picture1 the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary manner with ,prussian blue and white2 and having painted over the clear part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best factitious ultramarine1 cobalt blue1 and genuine ultramarine1 so as to match the ground of the sky1 and to disappear to the eye thereon by blending with the ground1 when viewed at a moderate distance1 he set the picture aside for some months4 ,upon examination1 it appeared that the colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways1 and departed from the hue of the ground3 the factitious ultramarine had blackened1 the cobalt blue greened1 the genuine ultramarine remained a pure azure1 like a spot of light1 while their ground1 the ,prussian blue sky1 seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a grey or slate colour4 ,other things being equal1 those artificial ultramarines are most durable which possess the most colour2 and all are1 perhaps1 most permanent in water4 ,if used in that vehicle1 care should be taken to employ a gum free from acid2 also1 whether in water or oil1 not to compound the blue with a pigment which may possibly contain acid1 such as constant white4 ,acid1 as we have said1 is the great test for ultramarine2 whence if a sample be sophisticated with cobalt1 its blue colour will not be entirely destroyed4 ,with high-class artistic pigments1 however1 adulteration is the exception and not the rule4 ,it is as a powder-blue for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised1 when it is ground up with soda-ash1 chalk1 gypsum1 c41 and sold sometimes under its own name1 but more frequently as superfine ,saxon smalts4 #acb4 ,,brilliant ,,ultramarine1 lately called ,factitious ,ultramarine1 is a specially fine preparation of ,m4 ,guimet1 presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of any artificial ultramarine1 both in transparency1 purity of hue1 and chemical characteristics4 ,equalling in depth and power the ordinary ,french ultramarine1 it possesses greater clearness1 beauty1 and brightness2 and has1 in a subdued degree1 that quality of light in it1 and of the tint of air1 which forms so distinguishing a feature in the native blue4 #acc4 ,,french ,,ultramarine1 or ,french ,blue1 is a rich deep colour1 but less transparent and vivid than the preceding variety1 which is preferable in unmixed tints4 ,for compound hues1 ,french blue is sufficiently well adapted1 and is extremely useful4 ,with aureolin and burnt ,sienna1 or ,vandyke brown1 it affords valuable autumn greens2 and with lamp black1 or lamp black and light red1 good stormy clouds4 ,a sombre gray for distant mountains is furnished by ,french blue and madder brown1 with a very little gamboge2 and a deep purple for sunsets1 by the blue and purple madder1 or ,indian red and rose madder4 ,with cadmium and orient yellows1 sepia1 viridian1 and many other colours1 this ultramarine is of service4 #acd4 ,,new ,,blue ,is confined to water-colour painting1 and is an artificial ultramarine1 holding a middle position between ,french blue and permanent blue1 being less deep than the one and less pale than the other4 ,it may be said to hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt4 #ace4 ,,permanent ,,blue ,is a pale ultramarine1 with a cobalt hue2 and1 in spite of its name1 less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts4 ,what ,antwerp blue is to ,prussian blue1 this is to ,french blue--that is1 as regards colour4 ,with respect to durability1 however1 permanent and ,antwerp blues cannot be compared2 the former being a weakened variety of a stable1 and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive1 pigment4 ,hence permanent blue justifies its name1 although that name would be more suited to the brilliant1 or ,french1 ultramarine4 #acf4 ,,genuine ,,ultramarine1 ,native ,ultramarine1 ,natural ,ultramarine1 ,real ,ultramarine1 ,true ,ultramarine1 ,ultramarine1 ,pure ,ultramarine1 ,azure1 ,outremer1 ,lazuline1 ,lazulite ,blue1 and ,lazurstein4 ,this most costly1 most permanent1 and most celebrated of all pigments1 is obtained by isolating the blue colouring matter of the lapis lazuli1 a stone chiefly brought from ,china1 ,thibet1 and the shores of ,lake ,baikal4 ,about the antiquity of the stone1 and its colour1 much has been written1 and many conflicting statements have been made2 but there is little doubt that our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients2 and that the first certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of ,arethas1 who lived in the eleventh century1 and who1 in his exposition of a verse in the book of ,revelation1 says1 the sapphire is that stone of which lazurium1 as we are told1 is made4 ,it has been common to confound ultramarine with the cyanus and coeruleum of the ancients2 but their cyanus1 or ,armenian blue1 was a kind of mineral or mountain blue1 tinged with copper2 and their coeruleum1 although it may sometimes have been real ultramarine1 was properly and in general a copper ochre4 ,that ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every probability1 for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone2 and modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining in the ruins of temples of ,upper ,egypt as having all the appearance of ultramarine4 ,whether it is so or not1 however1 could only be proved by analysis2 for1 be it recollected1 although the colour had preserved its hue during so many centuries1 it had been completely buried1 and therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air4 ,mr4 ,layard1 in his ',nineveh1' referring to some painted plaster1 remarks that ,the colours1 particularly the blues and reds1 were as brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed from them as they could originally have been2 but1 on exposure to the air1 they faded rapidly4 ,in all likelihood1 these were of organic1 or semi-organic1 origin1 prepared in some such manner as that mentioned by ,pliny1 who speaks of an earth which1 when boiled with plants1 acquired their blue colour1 and was in some measure inflammable4 ,as a pigment1 cobalt was unknown to the ancients2 but to these vegetable and copper blues of theirs1 a third blue may perhaps be added4 ,experiments made upon blue tiles1 found in a ,roman tesselated foot-pavement at ,montbeillard1 showed that the colour was due to iron4 ,m4 ,gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and enamel by means of iron2 and it is probable that the ancients were first induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring of glass with iron2 that in this art they acquired a dexterity not possessed at present1 and that they employed their iron-smalt as a pigment1 as we do our smalt of cobalt4 ,to sum up1 there are grounds for believing that the ancients were acquainted with copper blues1 vegetable blues1 and iron blues2 and that1 consequently1 the blue described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may1 or may not1 be that pigment4 ,lapis lazuli1 or lazulite1 is usually disseminated in a rock1 which contains1 among other substances1 a fine white lazulite4 ,in the ,muse ,minralogique of ,paris are two splendid specimens of the stone1 in which is seen the transition from the azure to the white4 ,according to the quantity and quality of blue present1 the lapis varies from an almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white1 dotted and streaked at intervals with pale blue4 ,the exceeding beauty of good samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after1 both as a gem for adorning the person1 and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration4 ,in ,china the stone is highly esteemed1 being worn by mandarins as badges of nobility conferred only by the ,emperor2 and in the apartments of a summer palace near ,st4 ,petersburg1 the walls are covered with amber1 interspersed with plates of this costly lapis4 ,besides the colouring principle of the lazulite1 there are always more or less mica and iron pyrites1 the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron1 which has often been mistaken for pellets of gold4 ,having chosen portions of the stone most free from these impurities1 it is simply requisite to reduce them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment2 and probably this was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern process4 ,this curious method1 which is mechanical rather than chemical1 depends for its success on the character and proportions of the materials employed1 as well as on the nicety of working4 ,when well carried out1 it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter1 yielding the colour at first deep and rich1 then lighter and paler1 and lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of ,ultramarine ,ash4 ,the refuse1 containing little or no blue1 furnishes the useful pigment1 ,mineral ,gray4 ,the immense price of ultramarine--or1 as it was at first called1 azurrum ultramarinum1 blue beyond-the-sea--was almost a prohibition to its use in former times4 ,it is related that ,charles ,i4 presented to ,mrs4 ,walpole1 and possibly to ,vandyke also1 five hundred pounds worth of ultramarine1 which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand4 ,even in these days1 despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines1 the native product continues costly1 commanding in proportion to its intensity and brightness1 from two to eight guineas an ounce4 ,to say1 however1 that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense1 is to give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due4 ,it has1 indeed1 not earned its reputation upon slight pretensions1 being1 when of fine quality1 and skilfully prepared1 of the most exquisitely beautiful blue1 ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of light and colour1--transparent in all its shades1 and pure in all its tints4 ,a true medial blue1 when perfect1 partaking neither of purple on the one hand1 nor of green on the other1 it sustains no injury either by damp and impure air1 or by the intensest action of light1 and is so eminently durable1 that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings4 ,drying well1 working well in oil and fresco1 ultramarine may be safely compounded with pigments generally1 excepting only an acid sulphate of baryta or constant white4 ,the blue has so much of the property of light in it1 and of the tint of air--is so purely a sky-colour1 and hence so singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky1 and to become the antagonist of sunshine--that it is indispensable to the painter4 ,moreover1 it is so pure1 so true1 so unchangeable in its tints and glazings1 as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous colouring of nature in flesh and flowers4 ,to this may be added that it enters so admirably into purples1 blacks1 greens1 grays1 and broken hues1 that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying light and air into all colours1 both in mixture and glazing1 as well as gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture4 ,nevertheless1 ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this commendation4 ,frequently it is coarse in texture1 in which case it is apparently more deep and valuable2 yet such blue cannot be used with effect1 nor ground fine without injuring its colour4 ,again1 it is apt to be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli1 which is an exceedingly varying and compound mineral1 abounding with earthy and metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition3 hence ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide1 when it has a purple cast2 and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide1 when it is of a green tone2 while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron1 which imparts a dark and dusky hue4 ,occasionally1 it is true1 artists have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones2 still are they imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this pigment in painting4 ,growing deeper by age has been attributed to ultramarine2 but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the fire that could be subject to the change2 and it has been reasonably supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded1 it may have taken this appearance by contrast4 ,ultramarine1 prepared from calcined lapis1 is not liable to so deepen2 but this advantage may be purchased at some sacrifice of the vivid1 warm1 and pure azure colour of the blue produced from unburnt stone4 ,we have frequently found ultramarine to be darkened1 dimmed1 and somewhat purpled by ignition2 and the same results ensue1 in many instances1 when the lazulite is calcined4 ,in burning the stone1 the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled1 and during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the beauty of the colour3 our belief in this being so is strengthened by the fact that certain samples of ultramarine1 ignited with sulphur1 were not improved thereby4 ,similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or improper mode of treatment1 for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues1 containing particles of mica1 metal1 c41 and possessing a dull green1 black1 or purple hue4 ,of course the perfection of the pigment is dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself4 ,though unexceptionable as an oil-colour1 both in solid painting and glazing1 it does not work so well as some other blues in water2 nor is it1 unless carefully prepared1 so well adapted for mixed tints1 on account of a gritty quality1 of which no grinding will entirely divest it1 and which causes it to separate from other pigments4 ,when extremely fine in texture1 however1 or when a considerable portion of gum1 which renders it transparent1 can be employed to give connexion or adhesion while flowing1 it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil2 but when its vivid azure is to be preserved1 as in illuminated manuscripts and missals1 little gum must be used4 ,the fine greens1 purples1 and grays of the old masters1 are often unquestionably compounds of ultramarine2 and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco4 ,pure ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark1 and in hue from pale warm azure to the deepest cold blue4 ,native ultramarine consists of silica1 alumina1 sulphur1 and soda2 its colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium4 ,in these respects1 as well as in that of being decolourised by acids1 the natural product resembles the artificial4 ,as a precious material1 the former has been subject to adulteration2 and it has been dyed1 damped1 and oiled to enrich its appearance2 attempts of fraud1 however1 which may be easily detected4 ,in the preceding edition of this work the author adds--and the genuine may be as easily distinguished from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into lemon-juice1 or any other acid1 which almost instantly destroys the colour of the true ultramarine totally1 and without effervescence4 ,with this statement1 so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds1 we are not inclined to agree4 ,genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by acids2 but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether it is decolourised without effervescence3 that this is the case the author himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine4 ,moreover1 the violent effervescence which he describes as ensuing on the latter being dropped into an acid1 does not of necessity take place3 in ,m4 ,guimet's finest variety1 the brilliant ultramarine1 acid produces little or no effervescence4 ,seeing1 therefore1 that both sorts are decolourised by acids1 and that both may or may not effervesce therewith1 the acid test must be considered fallacious4 ,experiments made with different samples of each1 showed that native ultramarines offered greater resistance to acid than the artificial1 taking longer to decolourise2 and that the residues of the first were in general of a purer white than those of the last4 ,it was also found that the brilliant ultramarine1 above referred to1 was less readily decolourised than other ,french or ,german kinds4 99 99 99 99 99 #acg4 ,blue ,carmine4 ,in a former edition of this work there appeared the following3--,blue carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum1 of which little is known as a substance or as a pigment4 ,it is said to be of a beautiful blue colour1 and durable in a strong light1 but is subject to be changed in hue by other substances1 and blackened by foul air3 we may conjecture1 therefore1 that it is not of much value in painting4 ,in his estimate of this colour the author was certainly right4 ,it is formed when a solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated1 or nearly saturated1 solution of molybdate of ammonia4 ,a blue precipitate falls1 which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide1 hydrated1 and abundantly soluble in water4 ,when dried1 it furnishes a dark blue powder1 resembling powdered indigo1 having a bitter1 rough1 metallic taste1 and reddening litmus strongly4 ,the solubility of this hydrated oxide is alone fatal to its employment as a pigment4 ,it may1 indeed1 be rendered comparatively insoluble in water by ignition2 but the anhydrous oxide so obtained is nearly black1 and as a colour worthless4 ,a more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta1 produced by mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta4 ,a white1 flocculent precipitate results1 which rapidly condenses to a crystalline powder1 and turns blue on ignition4 ,it is1 however1 a costly compound1 of little merit1 and not likely to come into use4 ,it is insoluble in water4 #ach4 ,blue ,ochre1 which has been improperly called ,native ,prussian ,blue1 is a native hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence1 found with iron pyrites in ,cornwall1 and also in ,north ,america4 ,what ,indian red is to the colour red1 and ,oxford ochre to yellow1 this pigment is to the colour blue1 being sober and subdued rather than brilliant4 ,it has the body of other ochres1 more transparency1 and is of considerable depth4 ,both in water and oil it works well1 dries readily1 and does not suffer in tint with white lead1 nor change when exposed to the action of strong light1 damp1 or impure air4 ,as far as its powers extend1 therefore1 it is an eligible pigment1 though not generally employed nor easily procured2 it may1 however1 be artificially prepared4 ,answering to similar acid tests as ultramarine1 it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown hue on exposure to a red heat4 #aci4 ,cobalt ,prussian ,blue4 ,gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling ,prussian blue--that1 in fact1 there can be obtained a ,prussian blue with a base of cobalt instead of iron4 ,in the moist state1 the similarity is sufficiently great1 but when washed and dried1 the product is1 with us1 a dingy slate colour4 ,possibly1 if such a blue could be produced1 it might exceed in permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron4 ,of course the compound would be much more expensive4 ,copper ,blues are now seldom or never employed as artists' pigments4 ,the following are the principal varieties3-- #adj4 ,bice1 ,blue ,bice1 ,iris1 ,terre ,bleu1 was prepared1 when true1 from the ,armenian stone1 which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper4 ,it was of a light bright hue1 but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine4 ,the ,persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment1 being a sort of copper ore1 which1 when the stone was pounded and sifted1 furnished a fine paint1 very bright and pleasant4 ,it could not1 however1 stand the effects of the atmosphere like the ,tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli1 in the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour4 ,ground smalts1 blue verditer1 and other pigments1 have passed under the name of bice4 #ada4 ,blue ,ashes1 or ,mountain ,blue1 are both hydrated carbonates of copper1 the first being artificially prepared1 and the second found native in ,cumberland4 ,neither is durable1 especially in oil2 and1 as pigments1 both are precisely of the character of verditer4 ,by treating the natural malachite green with an alkali1 it may be converted into blue4 #adb4 ,blue ,verditer1 or ,verditer1 is an oxide of copper1 formed by precipitating nitrate of copper with lime4 ,it is of a beautiful light blue colour1 little affected by light1 but greened and ultimately blackened by time1 damp1 and impure air--changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in water4 ,it is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining4 #adc4 ,egyptian ,blue1 called by ,vitruvius1 ,coeruleum1 is frequently found on the walls of the temples in ,egypt1 as well as on the cases enclosing mummies4 ,count ,chaptal1 who analysed some of it discovered in #ahji in a shop at ,pompeii1 found that it was blue ashes1 not prepared in the moist manner1 but by calcination4 ,he considers it a kind of frit1 of a semi-vitreous nature2 and this would appear to be the case from ,sir ,h4 ,davy obtaining a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat1 for two hours1 a mixture of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda1 twenty of powdered flints1 and three of copper4 ,the colour is very brilliant when first made1 and retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting2 but it has the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil1 when ground impalpably for artistic use4 ,one remarkable effect of this copper smalt--for it is nothing else--is1 that by lamp-light it shows somewhat greenish1 but shines by day with all the brightness of azure4 ,mrime believes that ,paul ,veronese employed this sort of blue in many of his pictures where the skies have become green4 #add4 ,saunders ,blue1 a corrupt name from ,cendres ,bleues1 the original denomination probably of ultramarine ashes1 is of two kinds1 the natural and artificial4 ,the first is a blue mineral found near copper mines1 while the last is simply a verditer4 #ade4 ,schweinfurt ,blue1 or ,reboulleau's ,blue1 is prepared by fusing together equal weights of ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash1 and adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass4 ,the result is1 so to speak1 a sort of blue ,scheele's green1 into which latter colour it soon passes when rubbed with oil4 #adf4 ,cotton ,seed ,blue4 ,cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda or caustic lime4 ,in both cases1 a considerable residue is left after drawing off the bleached oil4 ,this residue is treated with sulphuric acid1 and distilled at a high temperature1 when there is left a compact mass of a deep greenish-blue colour4 ,on further treatment of this mass with strong sulphuric acid1 the green tint disappears1 and a very intense pure blue colour is produced4 ,the blue mass is a mixture of the coloured substance with some sulphuric acid1 sulphate of soda1 and fats4 ,the two former may be removed by washing with water2 the latter by treatment with naptha4 ,alcohol now dissolves the blue colour1 and water precipitates it from the solution chemically pure4 ,this blue has not been introduced as a pigment2 and of its permanence1 and other attributes1 we know nothing4 #adg4 ,gold ,blue4 ,gold purple1 under the name of ,purple of ,cassius1 was once very well known3 a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue4 ,resembling indigo1 the colour is not remarkably brilliant1 and1 unless several precautions are carefully observed1 is rather violet than blue4 ,when obtained1 the colour must be quickly washed by decantation1 or it changes first to violet and then to purple4 ,its costliness1 lack of brightness1 and tendency to redden1 are against its employment on the palette4 ,in enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour1 and in exceptional cases might be useful4 #adh4 ,iodine ,blue4 ,it is curious that iodine1 which gives a yellow with lead1 should also afford a blue with the same metal4 ,when a solution of iodine in aqueous soda 7carbonate of soda is not so good7 is added to nitrate or acetate of lead-oxide1 a transient violet-red precipitate falls1 which decomposes spontaneously under water1 yielding iodine and a beautiful blue powder4 ,the colour1 however1 is exceedingly fugitive1 even the carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead salt4 ,bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury1 iodine is capable of furnishing the three primary colours1 distinguished alike by their brilliancy and fugacity4 #adi4 ,iridium ,blue4 ,the rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide and the sesquioxide4 ,but being slightly soluble in water and decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen1 it would not1 other considerations apart1 be an acquisition4 #aej4 ,manganese ,blue4 ,an aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a violet mixture1 which afterwards becomes colourless1 and deposits a blue precipitate4 ,this retains its colour after washing and drying1 but cannot be recommended as a pigment1 being liable to suffer in contact with organic substances1 which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates and permanganates4 #aea4 ,platinum ,blue4 ,with mercurous nitrate1 the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick smalt blue1 and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate4 ,the compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and mercurous nitrate4 ,upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to depend1 for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid1 the nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected2 but boiling water extracts the nitrate and leaves a white residue4 ,a blue containing mercurous nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air1 and be otherwise objectionable4 #aeb4 ,tungsten ,blue is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on tungstic acid4 ,it remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures1 is opaque1 and of a blackish indigo-blue colour4 ,as a pigment1 there is little to recommend it4 #aec4 ,wood-,tar ,blue4 ,the colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words1 and it is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally familiar4 ,at present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored1 but the fact that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as that transient purple colouration by which aniline was once chiefly distinguished4 ,as aniline is a product of coal-tar1 so picamar is a product of wood-tar2 and as the former gives a purple with hypochlorites1 so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water4 ,both are distinguished by coloured tests1 but there is this advantage in the picamar blue--it is comparatively permanent4 ,picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to an alcoholic solution of impure picamar1 or even to wood-tar oil deprived of its acid4 ,the liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint1 which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour4 ,from ,greek3 pitta pitch1 and ,greek3 kallos ornament1 the blue is named ,pittacal4 ,the mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described4 ,dumas states1 that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions1 or obtained by evaporation1 it closely resembles indigo1 and1 like it1 acquires a coppery hue when rubbed4 ,it is inodorous1 tasteless1 and not volatile2 and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid1 forming a red liquid1 which1 when saturated by an alkali1 becomes of a bright blue4 ,it is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus4 ,with acetate of lead1 protochloride of tin1 ammonio-sulphate of copper1 and acetate of alumina1 it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of violet1 said not to be affected by air or light1 and therefore recommended for dyeing4 ,like indigo1 pittacal is believed to contain nitrogen1 but its ultimate composition has not been accurately determined4 ,dumas considers it identical with a blue product obtained in #ahbg from coal-tar by ,,mm4 ,barthe and ,laurent4 ,if this be the case1 its greater stability over coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt4 ,that1 however1 has yet to be ascertained4 ,our object in noticing this blue has been two-fold3 first1 to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of colour2 and secondly1 to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for indigo1 possessing greater durability4 #aed4 ,zinc-,cobalt ,blue4 ,cobalt1 as furnishing a blue colour1 is usually associated with alumina1 silica1 or tin2 and1 as furnishing a green colour1 with zinc4 ,but there is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only free from green1 but inclining rather to red4 ,it is made by adding to a solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt1 and washing and igniting the precipitate4 ,the result is a vitreous blue with a purple cast1 of little body1 and exceedingly difficult to grind4 ,altogether1 it is not unlike smalt1 over which it has no advantages as an artistic pigment either in colour or permanence4 ,for tinting porcelain1 however1 it is admirably adapted1 imparting thereto a very pure dark blue of extraordinary beauty4 ,this blue is distinguished from smalt by dissolving in acetic acid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,compared with the wide range of yellows1 or even with reds1 the artist finds the number of his blues limited4 ,the perfect native and excellent artificial ultramarines1 the good blues of cobalt1 the fair ,prussian blue1 and the doubtful indigo1 are the four varieties he has for years been in the habit of using1 and is still mainly dependent on4 ,our division1 therefore1 into permanent1 semi-stable1 and fugitive1 is easily effected4 ,in the front rank1 pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally1 stands genuine ultramarine4 ,behind it1 are the artificial ultramarines2 and behind them again1 cobalt and cerulian blue4 ,to a greater or less extent1 all these are durable4 ,among the semi-stable1 must be classed cyanine or ,leitch's blue1 smalt1 and ,prussian blue4 ,to the fugitive1 belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense blue1 ,antwerp blue1 and the copper blues4 ,in this list of blues1 which grace or disgrace the palette of the present day1 there is one colour which1 although not permanent1 is almost indispensable4 ,as yet1 the chemist cannot in all cases lay down the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed4 ,the painter who unnecessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his craft1 and a poor opinion of the value of his work2 but1 even with the best intentions and the utmost self-esteem1 the artist cannot always confine himself to strictly stable pigments4 ,he has no right to use orpiment instead of cadmium yellow1 or red lead instead of vermilion1 or copper blue instead of cobalt3 he has no business to employ indigo when ,prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose2 but--what pigment can he substitute for ,prussian blue itself8 ,none4 ,in its wondrous depth1 richness1 and transparency1 it stands alone3 there is no yellow to compare with it1 no red to equal it1 no blue to rival it4 ,in force and power it is a colour among colours1 and transparent beyond them all4 ,the great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with solid or opaque colours of their own hues1 giving tone and atmosphere generally1 together with beauty and life2 to convert primary into secondary1 and secondary into tertiary colours1 with brilliancy2 to deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows1 and to impart force and tone to black itself4 ,for such effects1 no pigment can vie with ,prussian blue4 ,what purples it produces1 what greens it gives1 what a matchless range of grays2 what velvety glow it confers1 how it softens the harshness of colours1 and how it subdues their glare4 ,no2 until the advent of a perfect palette1 the artist can scarcely part with his ,prussian blue2 nor can the chemist1 who has nothing better to offer1 hold him to blame4 ,it is for ,art to copy ,nature with the best materials she possesses3 it is for ,science to learn the secrets of ,nature1 and turn them to the benefit of ,art4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,on ,,the ,,secondary1 ,,orange4 ,orange is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light1 being in all the variety of its hues composed of yellow and red4 ,a true or perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity2 and the proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect yellow4 ,when orange inclines to red1 it takes the names of scarlet1 poppy1 c43 in gold colour1 c41 it leans towards yellow4 ,combined with green it forms the tertiary citrine1 and with purple the tertiary russet3 it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with black1 and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white4 ,orange is an advancing colour in painting3--in nature it is effective at a great distance1 acting powerfully on the eye1 diminishing its sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is viewed4 ,it is of the hue1 and partakes of the vividness of sunshine1 as it likewise does of all the powers of its components1 red and yellow4 ,pre-eminently a warm colour1 being the equal contrast of or antagonist to blue1 to which the attribute of coolness peculiarly belongs1 it is discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red1 unresolved by their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours1 purple and green4 ,as an archeus or ruling colour1 orange is one of the most agreeable keys in toning a picture1 from the richness and warmth of its effects4 ,if it predominate therein1 for the colouring to be true1 the violet and purple should be more or less red1 the red more or less scarlet1 the yellow more or less intense and orange1 and the orange itself be intense and vivid4 ,further1 the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently become yellower1 the light blues be more or less light grey1 and the deep indigo more or less marrone4 ,although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues1 tints1 and shades2 yet simple original pigments of whatever class--whether secondary1 tertiary1 or semi-neutral--are1 it has been said before1 often superior to those compounded1 both in a chemical and artistic sense4 ,hence a thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance than a thoroughly good original yellow1 a green than a blue1 or a purple than a red4 ,to produce pure and permanent compound hues requires practice and knowledge1 and we too often see in the works of painters combinations neither pleasing nor stable4 ,colours are associated with each other which do not mix kindly1 and compounds formed of which one or both constituents are fugitive4 ,as a consequence1 mixed tints are frequently wanting in clearness1 and1 where they do not disappear altogether1 resolve themselves into some primary colour2 orange becoming red by a fading of the yellow1 green yellow by a fading of the blue1 and purple blue by a fading of the red4 ,again1 with regard to compound tints1 there is the danger of one colour reacting upon and injuring another1 as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and ,prussian blue1 where the former ultimately destroys the latter4 ,of course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each other will remain permanent2 the green1 for instance1 furnished by aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself4 ,to produce1 however1 the effects desired1 the artist does not always stop to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding1 even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and chemical properties4 ,at all times1 therefore1 but especially when such knowledge is slight1 good orange1 c41 pigments are of more or less value1 as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great extent avoided4 ,in mingling primary with primary1 if one colour does not compound well with the other1 or is fugacious1 the result is failure2 but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture3 a green1 for example1 is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or yellow2 and even if either of the latter be fugitive1 the green will remain a green if originally durable4 ,thus the secondaries1 if they are not already of the colour required1 may be brightened or subdued1 deepened or paled1 with comparative impunity4 ,the artist who1 from long years of experience1 knows exactly the properties and capabilities of the colours he employs1 may in a measure dispense with secondary pigments1 and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable1 beautiful1 and pure2 but even he must sometimes resort to them1 as when a green like emerald or viridian is required1 which no mixture of blue and yellow will afford4 ,the primaries1 by reason of their not being able to be composed of other colours1 occupy the first place on the palette1 and are of the first importance2 but the secondaries are far too useful to be disregarded1 and have a value of their own1 which both veteran and tyro have cause to acknowledge4 ,the list of original orange pigments was once so deficient1 that in some old treatises on the subject of colours1 they are not even mentioned4 ,this may have arisen1 not merely from their paucity1 but from the unsettled signification of the term orange1 as well as from improperly calling these pigments reds1 yellows1 c4 ,in these days1 however1 orange pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves2 they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette4 #aee4 ,,burnt ,,sienna1 or ,burnt ,terra di ,sienna1 is calcined raw ,sienna1 of a rich transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour1 richer1 deeper1 and more transparent than the raw earth4 ,it also works and dries better1 has in other respects the qualities of its parent colour1 and is a most permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally4 ,for the warm tints in rocks1 mud banks1 and buildings1 this colour is excellent4 ,when mixed with blue it makes a good green2 furnishing a bright green with cobalt1 and one much more intense with ,prussian blue4 ,for the foresea1 whether calm or broken by waves1 it may be employed with a little madder2 while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp black1 it meets the hues of old posts1 boats1 and a variety of near objects1 as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the component colours4 ,used with white1 it yields a range of sunny tones2 and with aureolin or ,french blue and aureolin will be found of service1 the last compound giving a fine olive green4 ,similar but fugitive greens are afforded by admixture of burnt ,sienna with indigo and yellow or ,roman ochre1 or raw ,sienna2 tints which may be saddened into olive neutrals by the addition of sepia1 and rendered more durable by substituting for indigo ,prussian blue and black4 ,mixed with viridian1 it furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness1 beauty1 and permanence2 and1 alone1 is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage4 ,for the dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of ,payne's gray and burnt ,sienna will prove serviceable2 while for red sails the ,sienna1 either by itself1 with brown madder1 or with ,indian red1 cannot be surpassed4 ,for foregrounds1 banks and roads1 cattle and animals in general1 burnt ,sienna is equally eligible1 both alone and compounded4 ,it has a slight tendency to darken by time4 #aef4 ,,cadmium ,,orange was first introduced to the art-world at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1 where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and beauty1 a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was associated1 and a beauty devoid of coarseness4 ,we remember well the power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance2 and how1 on near approach1 it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade4 ,it has in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with1 added to a total absence of rankness or harshness4 ,a simple original colour1 containing no base but cadmium1 it is of perfect permanence1 being uninjured by exposure to light1 air or damp1 by sulphuretted hydrogen1 or by admixture4 ,having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain amount of transparency1 it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the like1 either alone or compounded with aureolin4 ,of great depth and power in its full touches1 the pale washes are marked by that clearness and delicacy which are so essential in painting skies4 ,as day declines1 and blue melts into green1 green into orange1 and orange into purple1 the proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and transparent4 ,transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or into2 and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number of thin washes of determined character1 each lighter than the preceding one4 ,with due care in preserving their forms1 from the commencement to the termination1 such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and most aerial4 ,for bits of bright drapery1 a glaze over autumn leaves1 and mural decoration1 this colour is adapted2 while in illumination it supplies a want formerly much felt4 ,with the exception of scarlet or bright orange1 said ,mr4 ,bradley1 nine or ten years since1 in his ,manual of ,illumination1 our colours are everything we could wish4 ,as an original pigment1 a permanent scarlet does not yet exist2 but the brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed1 nor its claim to be the only unexceptionable bright orange known4 ,it even assists the formation of the other colour3 remarks the author mentioned1 ,brilliancy is obtained by gradation4 ,suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf1 for example4 ,the whole should be painted in pure orange1 with the gentlest possible after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl4 ,when dry1 a firm line--not wash--of carmine1 7of madder1 preferable4--,ed471 passed within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf1 will give to the whole the look of a bright scarlet surface1 but with an indescribable superadded charm1 that no merely flat colour can possess4 ,in the same branch of art1 illumination1 cadmium orange1 opposed to viridian1 presents a most dazzling contrast1 especially if relieved by purple4 #aeg4 ,,chinese ,,orange belongs to the coal-tar colours1 and ought strictly to have been classed therewith4 ,we have preferred1 however1 to keep it separate1 because1 as ,chinese ,orange1 it was introduced as a pigment1 and has not been employed as a dye4 ,in colour1 it somewhat resembles burnt ,sienna1 enriched1 reddened1 brightened1 and made more transparent1 by admixture with crimson lake4 ,from its behaviour1 it would seem to be composed of yellow and red1 such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would afford4 ,its pale washes are uncertain1 being apt to resolve themselves into red and yellow1 of which the latter appears the most permanent2 for1 on exposure to light and air1 the red more or less flies1 leaving here a yellow1 and there a reddish-yellow ground3 in places both red and yellow disappear4 ,like all fugitive colours1 it is comparatively stable when used in body2 but even then it entirely loses its depth and richness1 and in a great measure its redness1 becoming faded and yellowish4 ,in thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible2 and1 being neither a red1 an orange1 nor a brown1 is unsuited to pure effects4 ,nevertheless1 where it need not be unduly exposed2 in portfolio illuminations1 for instance1 the richness1 subdued brilliancy1 and transparency of this pigment1 justify its adoption4 ,it is not affected by an impure atmosphere4 ,aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in the strongest alcohol1 saturating the solution with ,dammar resin1 filtering the tincture1 and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or solution of common salt1 stirring well all the time4 ,the water or brine solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture4 ,the colour after being collected on a filter1 washed1 and dried1 can be ground with linseed oil1 poppy oil1 or oil varnishes4 #aeh4 ,,chrome ,,orange1 ,orange ,chrome1 or ,orange ,chromate of ,lead1 is a sub-chromate of lead of an orange-yellow colour1 produced by the action of an alkali on chrome yellow4 ,like all the chromates of lead1 it is characterized by power and brilliancy2 but also by a rankness of tone1 a want of permanence1 and a tendency to injure organic pigments4 ,by reason of its lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air1 but is on the whole preferable to the chrome yellows1 being liable in a somewhat less degree to their changes and affinities4 ,as1 however1 a colour has no business to be used if a better can be procured1 the recent introduction of cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary4 #aei4 ,,mars ,,orange1 ,orange de ,mars1 is a subdued orange of the burnt ,sienna class1 but without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter4 ,marked by a special clearness and purity of tone1 with much transparency1 it affords bright sunny tints in its pale washes1 and combines effectively with white4 ,being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than native ochres1 and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments affected by iron1 such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue4 #afj4 ,,mixed ,,orange4 ,orange being a compound colour1 the place of original orange pigments can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red2 either by glazing one over the other1 by stippling1 or by other modes of breaking and intermixing them1 according to the nature of the work and the effect required4 ,for reasons lately given1 mixed pigments are apt to be inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour1 working1 and other properties2 yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with better results than others2 as is the case with liquid rubiate and gamboge4 ,generally speaking1 the compounding of colours is easier in oil than in water2 but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning with the predominating colour1 and adding the other or others to it4 ,perhaps in this1 our first chapter on the secondary colours1 and consequently on colours that can be compounded1 a few remarks on mixed tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous4 ,there are two ways1 we take it1 of looking at a picture--from a purely chemical1 and from a purely artistic1 point of view4 ,regarded in the first light1 it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or a daub1 provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly compounded4 ,the effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of the materials1 their permanence1 fugacity1 and conduct towards each other4 ,painting is essentially a chemical operation3 with his pigments for reagents1 the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction1 not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory1 but often as surely4 ,as colour is added to colour1 and mixture to mixture1 acid meets alkali1 metal animal1 mineral vegetable1 inorganic organic4 ,with so close a union of opposite and opposing elements1 the wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish1 but that they ever live4 ,it behoves the artist1 then1 not only to procure the best and most permanent pigments possible1 but to compound them in such a manner that his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful4 ,to effect or aid in effecting this1 although he may not always be able to act upon them1 the following axioms should be borne in mind3-- #a4 ,if they do not react on each other1 a permanent pigment added to a permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture4 #b4 ,if they do react on each other1 a permanent pigment added to a permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture4 #c4 ,a permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a semi-stable mixture4 #d4 ,a permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive mixture4 ,consequently-- #e4 ,a permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by improper compounding4 #f4 ,a semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being compounded4 #g4 ,as a chain is only as strong as its weakest link1 so a mixture is only as permanent as its least durable constituent4 ,to give illustrations-- #a4 ,ultramarine added to ,chinese white yields a permanent mixture4 #b4 ,ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture4 #c4 ,ultramarine added to ,prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture4 #d4 ,ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture4 ,except in the second instance1 where the blue is either partially or wholly destroyed--in time1 be it remembered1 not at once--according to the quantity and strength of the acid in the white1 the ultramarine remains unchanged4 ,hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions may appear wrong2 inasmuch as1 it may be argued1 a blue mixture cannot be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left4 ,to this we reply1 unless both constituents are fugitive1 a mixture will always more or less possess colour2 but1 if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive1 a mixture will slowly but surely lose the colour for which it was compounded1 and be as a mixture semi-stable or fugitive4 ,it need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange1 green1 and purple hues which the artist can compound1 depends mainly on the number of permanent yellows1 reds1 and blues at his disposal4 ,in mixed orange1 therefore1 a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the first importance4 ,it should1 however1 be remarked that mixed orange1 more sober and less decided1 is obtainable by the use of citrine and russet2 in the former of which yellow predominates1 and in the latter1 red3 consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet1 red to citrine1 or citrine to russet4 ,,permanent ,,yellows4 ,,permanent ,,reds4 ,aureolin4 ,cadmium ,red4 ,cadmium1 deep4 ,liquid ,rubiate4 ,cadmium1 pale4 ,madder ,carmine4 ,lemon ,yellow4 ,rose ,madder4 ,mars ,yellow4 ,mars ,red4 ,naples ,yellow1 modern4 ,ochres4 ,ochres4 ,vermilions4 ,orient ,yellow4 ,raw ,sienna4 ,none of these pigments react on each other1 and from them can be produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford4 #afa4 ,,neutral ,,orange1 or ,penley's ,neutral ,orange1 is a permanent compound pigment composed of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder3 it is chiefly valuable in water-colour4 ,paper1 being white1 is too opaque to paint upon1 without some wash of colour being first passed over it2 otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh4 ,it must1 therefore1 be gone over with some desirable tint1 that shall break1 in a slight degree1 the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper4 ,for this purpose1 a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole surface of the paper with a large flat brush1 care being taken never to drive the colour too bare1 i4e4 never to empty the brush too closely1 but always to replenish before more is actually required4 ,this first wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper1 but secures the pencil sketch from being rubbed out4 ,the reason why1 in this compound1 yellow ochre1 as a yellow1 is preferred to any of the others1 is1 that it is a broken yellow1 that is1 a yellow slightly altered by having another hue1 such as red1 or brown1 in its composition4 ,it is somewhat opaque too1 and hence1 from this quality1 is especially adapted for distances4 ,brown madder also is a subdued red1 which1 when in combination with the former1 produces a neutral orange1 partaking of the character of soft light4 ,as a general rule1 yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight1 and brown madder in that which is more sombre and imperfect3 hence the pigment can be yellowed or reddened1 by the addition of one or the other4 ,for a clear sunset1 the neutral orange must be repeated1 with a preponderance of ochre at the top1 assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun2 the madder being added downwards4 ,in treating of distant mountains1 a distinction is to be made between them and the clouds1 the former requiring solidity1 while the latter are only to be regarded as vapour and air4 ,mountains1 being opaque bodies1 are acted upon by atmosphere more or less1 according to their position1 their distance1 and the state of the weather4 ,to express this distinction1 recourse must be had to an under tint1 except where the tone is decidedly blue--an uncommon case4 ,no mixture can give this with such truth as the neutral orange4 ,a wash1 therefore1 should be passed over the mountains1 with nearly all yellow in the high lights1 or in the gleams of sunshine1 and1 on the contrary1 almost all brown madder for the shadows4 ,these two degrees of tone must be run into each other while the drawing is wet4 ,a beautiful and soft under tone will thus be given to receive the greys4 #afb4 ,,orange1 ,,or ,,burnt ,,roman ,,ochre1 called also ,spanish ,ochre1 is a very bright yellow or ,roman ochre burnt1 by which operation it acquires warmth1 colour1 transparency1 and depth4 ,moderately bright1 it forms good flesh tints with white1 dries and works well both in water and oil1 and is a very good and eligible pigment4 ,it may be used in enamel painting1 and has all the properties of its original ochre in other respects4 ,a redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before ignition1 the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water4 99 99 99 99 99 #afc4 ,anotta1 ,annotto1 ,annatto1 ,arnotto1 ,arnotta1 ,terra ,orellana1 ,rocou1 c41 is met with in commerce under the names of cake anotta1 and flag or roll anotta4 ,the former1 which comes almost exclusively from ,cayenne1 should be of a bright yellow colour3 the latter1 which is imported from the ,brazils1 is brown outside and red within4 ,it is prepared from the pods of the bixa orellana1 and appears generally to contain two colouring matters1 a yellow and a red1 which are apt to adhere to each other and produce orange4 ,anotta dissolves with difficulty in water1 but readily in alcohol and alkaline solutions1 from which last it may be thrown down as a lake by means of alum4 ,being1 however1 exceedingly fugitive and changeable1 it is not fit for painting2 but is chiefly employed in dyeing silk1 and colouring varnishes and cheese4 ,very red cheese should be looked upon with suspicion1 for although the admixture of anotta is in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure1 it is commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre4 ,several instances are on record that ,gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated with red lead1 through having been coloured with anotta containing it1 and that this contamination has produced serious consequences4 ,bixine is a purified extract of anotta made in ,france1 and used by dyers4 #afd4 ,antimony ,orange1 ,golden ,sulphur of ,antimony1 or ,golden ,yellow1 is a hydro-sulphuret of antimony of an orange colour1 which is destroyed by the action of strong light4 ,it is a bad dryer in oil1 injurious to many pigments1 and in no respect eligible either in water or oil4 #afe4 ,chromate of ,mercury has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion1 for though it is of a bright ochrous red in powder1 when ground it becomes a bright ochre-orange1 and affords with white very pure orange tints4 ,nevertheless it is a bad pigment1 since light soon changes it to a deep russet colour1 and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness4 #aff4 ,damonico1 or ,monicon1 is an iron ochre1 being a compound of raw ,sienna and ,roman ochre burnt1 and having all their qualities4 ,it is rather more russet in hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt ,roman ochre1 has considerable transparency1 is rich and durable in colour1 and furnishes good flesh tints4 ,as in orange ochre1 powdered nitre may be employed in its preparation4 ,notwithstanding its merits1 it is obsolete or nearly so2 doubtless because burnt ,sienna mixed with burnt ,roman ochre sufficiently answers the purpose4 #afg4 ,gamboge ,orange4 ,on adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge1 a rich bright orange is precipitated1 which may be washed on a filter till the washings are colourless1 and preserves its hue with careful drying4 ,the orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book1 but it cannot be recommended as an artistic pigment4 ,perhaps in dyeing1 the lead and gamboge solutions might be worth a trial4 #afh4 ,laque ,minrale is a ,french pigment1 a species of chromic orange1 similar to the orange chromate of lead4 ,this name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron4 #afi4 ,madder ,orange1 or ,orange ,lake4 ,it has been said that the yellows so-called produced from madder are not remarkable for stability1 differing therein from the reds1 purples1 russets1 and browns4 ,like them1 this 'orange' is of doubtful colour and permanence1 and not to be met with1 brilliant and pure1 on the palette of to-day4 ,the russet known as ,rubens' madder has a tendency to orange4 #agj4 ,orange ,lead1 of a dull orange colour1 is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot4 ,like litharge1 it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils1 and1 being a better drier than white lead1 may be substituted for it in mixing with pigments which need a siccative1 as the bituminous earths4 ,minium sometimes leans to orange2 and there is made from ceruse a peculiar red1 ,mineral ,orange4 ,orange ,orpiment1 or ,realgar1 has also been called ,red ,orpiment1 improperly1 since it is a brilliant orange1 inclining to yellow4 ,there are two kinds1 a native and an artificial1 of which the former is the sandarac of the ancients1 and is rather redder than the latter4 ,they possess the same qualities as pigments1 and as such resemble yellow orpiment1 to which the old painters gave the orange hue by heat1 naming it alchemy and burnt orpiment4 ,orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur than the yellow1 and is of course highly poisonous4 ,it is often sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre4 #agb4 ,thallium ,orange is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the protoxide of thallium1 as an orange-yellow precipitate4 ,the scarcity of the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments1 but if the chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air1 and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid1 they might possibly prove fitted for the palette4 ,it is a question whether their very slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection2 and1 although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere1 we are inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the chromates of lead4 ,like lead sulphide1 the sulphide of thallium ranges from brown to brownish-black1 or grey-black2 and1 like it too1 is subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate4 ,it is1 however1 much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead2 and hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former hue on exposure to a strong light4 ,mr4 ,crookes1 who discovered this new metal in #ahfa1 believes that the deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is due to the presence of thallium4 ,he has frequently found it1 he says1 in the dark-coloured varieties1 and considers the variations of colour in cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium4 ,that thallium affects the colour is most probable1 but it is not necessarily the cause of the orange hue4 ,the tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of manufacture1 seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be obtained lemon-yellow1 pale yellow1 deep yellow1 orange-yellow1 and orange-red4 ,with deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished1 we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than imparts to it an orange shade1 the thallium being likewise in the form of sulphide1 and therefore more or less black4 ,on chromate of cadmium1 made with bichromate of potash1 thallium would naturally confer an orange hue4 #agc4 ,uranium ,orange is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a yellowish-red1 or1 when reduced to powder1 an orange-yellow1 uranate of baryta4 ,it is an expensive preparation1 superfluous as a pigment4 #agd4 ,zinc ,orange4 ,when hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of sodium1 a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour1 slightly soluble in water1 and not permanent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for a secondary colour1 orange is well represented on the modern palette1 and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be found among the primaries4 ,burnt ,sienna1 cadmium orange1 ,mars orange1 neutral orange1 and orange or burnt ,roman ochre1 are all strictly permanent4 ,the so-called orange vermilions were1 it will be remembered1 classed among the reds4 ,as semi-stable1 must be ranked chrome orange2 and as fugitive1 ,chinese orange1 orange orpiment1 and orange lead4 ,from the foregoing division1 the predominance of eligible orange pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest4 ,unfortunately1 with many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound colours should receive as much attention as the primaries1 and that it is their duty1 not only to the art which they practice1 but to the patrons for whom they practice it1 that their orange and green and purple hues1 should be as durable as their yellows1 reds1 and blues4 ,for such1 the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest1 unless its colour be primary2 so wedded are they to that passion for compounding which the chemist views with dismay4 ,with dismay1 because he knows that the rules of mixture are severe1 and cannot with impunity be altered2 that1 although disguised in oil or gum1 each pigment is a chemical compound1 with more or less of affinity and power1 more or less likely to act or be acted upon4 ,because he knows that1 except with the most experienced artists1 compounding leads to confusion2 and that in it the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong4 ,look at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond1 and tell us whether they always bear scrutiny--surely not4 ,admirable1 perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense1 how often is their beauty like the hectic flush of consumption1 which carries with it the seeds of a certain death4 ,will that orange where ,indian yellow figures ever see old age1 or that green with indigo1 or purple with cochineal lake8 ,will they not rather spread over the picture the ,upas-tree of fugacity1 and kill it as they die themselves6 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,on ,,the ,,secondary1 ,,green4 ,green1 which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours and in relation to light and shade1 is the second of the secondary colours4 ,it is composed of the extreme primaries1 yellow and blue1 and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities2 because such a green will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of eleven to five1 either of space or power4 ,of all compound colours1 green is the most effective1 distinct1 and striking1 causing surprise and delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow1 so dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye4 ,compounded with orange1 green converts it into the one extreme tertiary citrine2 while mixed with purple1 it becomes the other extreme tertiary olive3 hence its relations and accordances are more general1 and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours1 than those of any other individual colour4 ,accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation4 ,it is1 indeed1 in every respect a central or medial colour1 being the contrast1 compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five1 of the middle primary red1 on the one hand1 and of the middle tertiary russet1 on the other2 while1 unlike the other secondaries1 all its hues1 whether tending to blue or yellow1 are of the same denomination4 ,these attributes of green1 which render it so universally effective in contrasting colours1 cause it also to become the least useful in compounding them1 and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture4 ,nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with black1 for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more vivid tints of nature are opposed4 ,accordingly1 the various greens of foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue4 ,as green is the most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage2 so red1 its harmonizing colour1 with compounds of red1 is most general and principal in flowers4 ,purple flowers are commonly contrasted with centres or variegations of bright yellow1 as blue flowers are with like relievings of orange2 and there is a prevailing hue1 or character1 in the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant1 by which it is harmonized with the colours of its flowers4 ,the chief discord of green is blue2 and when they approximate or accompany each other1 they require to be resolved by the opposition of warm colours4 ,it is in this way that the warmth of distance and the horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a landscape4 ,its less powerful discord is yellow1 which needs to be similarly resolved by a purple-red1 or its principles4 ,in tone1 green is cool or warm1 sedate or gay1 either as it inclines to blue or to yellow2 yet in its general effects it is cool1 calm1 temperate1 and refreshing4 ,having little power in reflecting light1 it is a retiring colour1 and readily subdued by distance3 for the same reason1 it excites the retina less than most colours1 and is cool and grateful to the eye4 ,as a colour individually1 green is eminently beautiful and agreeable1 but it is more particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour1 red1 as it often is in nature1 even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants and trees4 ,the autumn only is called the painter's season1 remarks ,constable1 from the great richness of the colours of the dead and decaying foliage1 and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies2 but the spring has1 perhaps1 more than an equal claim to his notice and admiration1 and from causes not wholly dissimilar1--the great variety of tints and colours of the living foliage1 accompanied by their flowers and blossoms4 ,the beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted1 as they now are1 with the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot1 and which still show the drear remains of the season that is past4 ,the number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its importance2 hence the variety of greens is very great1 though the classes of those in common use are not very numerous4 ,of the three secondaries1 green is the colour most often met with1 and1 consequently1 the most often compounded3 for this last reason1 perhaps1 the palette is somewhat deficient in really good original greens--more deficient than there is any necessity for4 ,,chrome ,,oxides4 ,by numerous methods both wet and dry1 oxides of chromium are obtainable pale and deep1 bright and subdued1 warm and cool1 opaque and transparent3 sometimes hydrated1 in which case they cannot be employed in enamelling2 and sometimes anhydrous1 when they are admissible therein4 ,but whatever their properties may be1 chemical1 physical1 or artistic1 they are all strictly stable4 ,neither giving nor receiving injury by admixture1 equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to light1 air1 or damp1 these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every respect4 ,for the most part they are eligible in water and oil1 drying well in the latter vehicle1 and requiring in the former much gum4 ,they have long been known as affording pure1 natural1 and durable tints2 but1 until within the last few years1 have been rather fine than brilliant greens4 ,lately1 however1 processes have been devised1 yielding them almost as bright1 rich1 and transparent1 as the carmine of cochineal itself4 #age4 ,,oxide ,,of ,,chromium1 ,opaque ,oxide of ,chromium1 ,green ,oxide of ,chromium1 ,chrome ,oxide1 ,true ,chrome ,green1 ,native ,green1 c41 is found native in an impure state as ,chrome ,ochre1 but is always artificially prepared for artistic use4 ,obtained anhydrous by dry modes1 this is the only chrome oxide available in enamelling1 and is the one seen on superior porcelain4 ,it is a cold1 sober sage green1 deep-toned1 opaque1 and1 although dull1 agreeable to the eye4 ,its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and pleasing1 possessing a silvery luminous quality1 and giving the effect of atmosphere4 ,being very dense and powerful1 it must be employed with care to avoid heaviness1 and is preferably diluted with a large quantity of white1 or compounded with transparent yellow4 ,in the hands of a master1 this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink1 ,italian pink1 and ,indian yellow2 three beautiful but fugitive pigments1 of which the two last may be replaced by aureolin4 ,of this ,mr4 ,penley observes1 as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage1 it is impossible to say too much in its praise4 ,it imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined2 and he brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue extremely useful4 ,in flat tints1 the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water4 #agf4 ,,transparent ,,oxide ,,of ,,chromium being deficient in body1 is only eligible in oil4 ,a very pale greyish-white green in powder1 it gives an agreeable yellowish green of some depth in oil1 moderately bright1 but not very pure or clear4 ,we are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater beauty1 brightness1 purity1 and clearness than the above4 ,of a bluish green hue1 a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at present unavailable4 #agg4 ,,veronese ,,green1 or ,french ,veronese ,green1 is a comparatively recent introduction1 similar in colour and general properties to the following2 beside which1 however1 it appears dull1 muddy1 and impure4 ,it is often adulterated with arsenic to an enormous extent1 which interferes with its transparency1 mars its beauty1 and renders it of course rankly poisonous4 #agh4 ,,viridian is a still later addition to the palette1 and the only permanent green which can be described as gorgeous1 being not unlike the richest velvet4 ,pure and clear as the emerald1 it may be called the ,prussian ,blue of ,greens1 of such richness1 depth1 and transparency is it4 ,in hue of a bluish-green1 its deepest shades verge on black1 while its light tints are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed4 ,no compound of blue and yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable1 so gifted with the quality of light1 and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid effects4 ,used with aureolin1 it gives foliage greens sparkling with sunshine2 and1 fitly compounded1 will be found invaluable for the glassy liquidity of seas1 in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ pigments more or less transparent4 ,the general failing in the representation of the sea is1 that instead of appearing liquid and thin1 it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity4 ,in order to convey the idea of transparency1 some object is often placed floating on the wave1 so as to give reflection2 and it is strange that we find our greatest men having recourse to this stratagem4 ,to say it is not true in all cases1 is saying too much2 but this we do assert1 that as a general principle it is quite false1 and we prove it in this way3 water has its motion1 more or less1 from the power of the wind2 it is acted upon in the mass1 and thus divided into separate waves1 and these individually have their surface ruffled1 which renders them incapable of receiving reflection4 ,the exception to this will be1 where the heaving of the sea is the result of some gone-by storm1 when the wind is hushed1 and the surface becomes bright and glassy4 ,in this state1 reflections are distinctly seen4 ,another exception will be in the hollow portion of the waves1 as they curl over1 and dash upon the shore4 ,as viridian1 like the sea1 is naturally liquid and thin1 bright and glassy1 the extract we have quoted from ,mr4 ,penley1 points to this green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting2 in which1 it may be added1 its perfect permanence and transparency will be appreciated in glazing4 ,its fitness for foliage has been remarked2 but in draperies the colour will prove equally useful1 and in illumination will be found unrivalled4 ,in the last branch of art1 indeed1 viridian stands alone1 not only through its soft rich brilliancy1 but by the glowing contrast it presents with other colours3 employed as a ground1 it throws up the reds1 c41 opposed to it1 in a marvellous manner4 ,like the three preceding oxides of chromium1 viridian neither injures nor is injured by other pigments2 is unaffected by light1 damp1 or impure air2 and is admissible in fresco4 ,in enamelling it cannot be used2 the colour1 depending on the water of hydration1 being destroyed by a strong heat4 ,,copper ,,greens are commercially known as ,emerald ,green1 ,malachite ,green1 ,scheele's ,green1 ,schweinfurt ,green1 ,verdigris1 ,green ,bice1 ,green ,verditer1 ,brunswick ,green1 ,vienna ,green1 ,hungary ,green1 ,green ,lake1 ,mineral ,green1 ,patent ,green1 ,mountain ,green1 ,marine ,green1 ,saxon ,green1 ,french ,green1 ,african ,green1 ,persian ,green1 ,swedish ,green1 ,olympian ,green1 ,imperial ,green1 ,mitis ,green1 ,pickle ,green1 c4 ,the general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour1 well suited to the purposes of house-painting1 but seldom adapted to the modesty of nature in fine art2 considerable permanence1 except when exposed to the action of damp and impure air1 which ultimately blacken most of them2 and good body4 ,they have a tendency to darken by time1 dry well as a rule in oil1 and are all more or less poisonous1 even those not containing arsenic4 #agi4 ,,emerald ,,green1 ,schweinfurt ,green1 ,vienna ,green1 ,imperial ,green1 ,brunswick ,green1 ,mitis ,green1 c41 is a cupric aceto-arsenite1 prepared on the large scale by mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water4 ,it differs from ,scheele's ,green1 or cupric arsenite1 in being lighter1 more vivid1 and more opaque4 ,powerfully reflective of light1 it is perhaps the most durable pigment of its class1 not sensibly affected by damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually subject3 indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in tint with white4 ,it works better in water than in oil1 in which latter vehicle it dries with difficulty4 ,bearing the same relation to greens generally as ,pure ,scarlet bears to reds1 its vivid hue is almost beyond the scale of other bright pigments1 and immediately attracts the eye to any part of a painting in which it may be employed4 ,too violent in colour to be of much service1 it has the effect1 when properly placed1 of toning down at once1 by force of contrast1 all the other greens in a picture4 ,if discreetly used1 it is occasionally of value in the drapery of a foreground figure1 where a bright green may be demanded2 or in a touch on a gaily painted boat or barge4 ,when required1 no mixture will serve as a substitute4 ,compounded with aureolin1 it becomes softened and semi-transparent1 yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and beauty4 #ahj4 ,,scheele',s ,,green1 or ,swedish ,green1 resembles the preceding variety in being a compound of copper and arsenic1 and therefore rankly poisonous2 but differs from it in containing no acetic acid1 in possessing less opacity1 and in having a darker shade4 ,it is a cupric arsenite1 with the common attributes of emerald green1 under which name it is sometimes sold4 ,of similar stability1 it must not be employed with the true ,naples yellow or antimoniate of lead1 by which it is soon destroyed4 ,upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys1 dresses1 paper-hangings1 artificial leaves1 and even cheap confectionery1 it is not our province to enlarge3 the constant-recurring diseases and deaths1 which1 directly or indirectly1 result from the employment of arsenical pigments1 are such every-day facts that they are merely deplored and forgotten4 ,with arsenic on our heads1 our clothes1 our papers1 our sweets1 our children's playthings1 we are so accustomed to live--and die--in a world of poison1 that familiarity with it has bred contempt4 ,into the fatal popularity1 therefore1 of arsenical colours for decorative purposes1 we shall not further enter2 but it behoves us to deprecate their presence1 and the presence of all poisonous pigments1 in colour-boxes for the young4 ,it is one of the pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its way1 openly if allowed1 furtively otherwise3 and as in early life we have a preference for brilliancy1 so vivid a pigment as ,scheele's green is an object of special attention4 ,artistically1 it matters little whether a pigment is noxious or not1 but we hold that poison should not be put into the hands of the young2 and indeed are of opinion that a box of colours is about the worst present a child can receive4 #aha4 ,,malachite ,,green1 or ,mountain ,green1 is met with in ,cumberland1 and is also found in the mountains of ,kernhausen1 whence it is sometimes called ,hungary ,green4 ,it is prepared from malachite1 a beautiful copper ore employed by jewellers1 and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper1 combined with a white earth1 and often striated with veins of mountain blue1 to which it bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer4 ,the colour1 which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed for native ultramarine1 varies from emerald-green to grass-green1 and inclines to grey4 ,it has been held in great esteem by some1 and considered strictly stable1 on the assumption1 probably1 that a pigment obtained from a stone like ultramarine1 and by the same method1 could not be otherwise than permanent4 ,that it is so1 with respect to light and air1 there is no denying2 but the green1 when separated from the ore and purified for artistic use1 is merely a carbonate of copper1 and therefore subject to the influence of damp and impure air1 in common with other non-arsenical copper colours4 ,as a pigment1 native malachite green has the same composition1 or very nearly the same1 as that which can be artificially produced1 and answers to the same tests4 ,water-rubs of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas4 ,practically1 there is little or no difference between them3 both preserve their colour if kept from damp and foul air1 both are injured by those agents1 and both are liable to darken in time1 especially when secluded from light4 ,the artificial1 however1 can be obtained of a much finer colour than the natural1 which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral gray4 ,on the whole1 they can scarcely be recommended for the palette1 and are certainly inferior in durability to ,scheele's and ,schweinfurt greens4 ,in fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible2 but1 apart from the question of damp1 we should deem the conjunction of lime with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence4 ,by the action of alkalies1 even the native green malachite may be converted into blue2 and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some ancient monuments was not originally malachite green4 #ahb4 ,,verdigris1 or ,viride ris1 is of two kinds1 common or impure1 and crystallized or ,distilled ,verdigris1 or1 more properly1 refined verdigris4 ,the best is made at ,montpellier in ,france1 and is a sub-acetate of copper of a bright green colour inclining to blue4 ,the least durable of the copper greens1 it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light1 c41 and becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas4 ,in oil1 verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air1 but moisture and an impure atmosphere change its colour1 and cause it to effloresce or rise to the surface through the oil4 ,it dries rapidly1 and is exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours4 ,in varnish it stands better2 but cannot be considered safe or eligible1 either alone or compounded4 ,vinegar dissolves it1 forming a solution used for tinting maps1 and formerly much employed for colouring pickles1 c4 ,the painters1 who lived at the time when the arts were restored in ,italy1 used this pigment2 and the bright greens seen in some old pictures are made by glazings of verdigris4 ,it is often largely adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper4 #ahc4 ,,mixed ,,green ,green1 being a compound of blue and yellow1 may be got by combining those colours in the several ways of working--by mixing1 glazing1 hatching1 or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various hues required4 ,to obtain a pure green1 which consists of blue and yellow only1 a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with red1 and a yellow tinged with blue4 ,if either a blue or a yellow were taken1 tinged with red1 this latter colour would go to produce some grey in the compound1 which would tarnish the green4 ,the fine nature-like greens1 which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the ,italian schools1 appear to have been compounded of ultramarine1 or ultramarine ashes and yellow4 ,whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the warm yellow hues of the foreground1 and blue colouring of the distance and sky1 are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape1 c41 because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically1 and impart homogeneity to the whole3 a principle conducive to a fine tone and durability of effect1 and applicable to all mixed tints4 ,in compounding colours1 it is desirable not only that they should agree chemically1 but that they should have1 as far as possible1 the same degree of durability4 ,in these respects1 aureolin and ultramarine1 gamboge and ,prussian blue1 ,indian yellow and indigo1 are all judicious mixtures1 although not all to be recommended4 ,,permanent ,,yellows4 ,,permanent ,,blues4 ,aureolin4 ,cerulian ,blue4 ,cadmium ,yellow1 pale4 ,cobalt ,blue4 ,cadmium ,yellow1 deep4 ,genuine ,ultramarine4 ,lemon ,yellow4 ,brilliant ,ultramarine4 ,mars ,yellow4 ,french ,ultramarine4 ,naples ,yellow1 modern4 ,new ,blue4 ,ochres4 ,permanent ,blue4 ,orient ,yellow4 ,raw ,sienna4 ,the foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other1 and yield the best mixed greens1 chemically considered1 the palette can afford4 ,in an artistic sense1 we confess1 the result is not so satisfactory3 the list of blues1 it must be admitted1 being somewhat scant4 ,among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth1 richness1 and transparency of ,prussian blue1 and none consequently which will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality4 ,that the artist1 therefore1 will dispense with ,prussian blue1 it would be too much to expect4 ,there is1 however1 less necessity for it since the introduction of viridian1 a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of ,prussian blue and yellow1 and which may be varied in hue by being compounded with aureolin or ultramarine4 ,our object in this work is to give precedence to the chemical rather than the artistic properties of pigments1 to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable1 and the semi-stable from the fugitive4 ,a colour or a mixture may be chemically bad but artistically good1 and vice vers2 but the chemist looks upon no pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent1 and ignores its mere beauty when void of durability4 ,hence1 all artistic considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments3 if it be possible to use them alone1 so much the better for the permanence of painting2 if not1 so much the worse will it be1 according to the degree of fugacity of the colours employed4 #ahd4 ,,bronze1 and the three succeeding varieties1 are greens resembling each other in being semi-stable1 and more or less transparent4 ,bronze is a species of ,prussian green1 of a dull blue-black hue4 ,in its deep washes it appears a greenish-black with a coppery cast4 ,it is used in ornamental work1 and sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces4 #ahe4 ,,chrome ,,greens1 commonly so called1 are compounds of chromate of lead and ,prussian blue1 a mixture which is also known as ,brunswick ,green4 ,fine bright greens1 they are suited to the ordinary purposes of mechanic painting1 but are quite unfit for the artist's craft1 chrome yellow reacting upon and ultimately destroying ,prussian blue when mixed therewith4 ,for the latter1 cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted1 although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity4 ,under the names of ,english ,green1 ,green ,cinnabar1 c41 'new' green pigments have been from time to time introduced1 which have turned out mixtures of ,prussian blue and chromate of lead2 not made1 however1 by compounding the two1 but directly by processes similar to the following3--,a mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash1 the necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of acetate of lead by sulphate of iron1 and filtering the supernatant liquid4 ,or2 to a solution of ,prussian blue in oxalic acid1 first chromate of potash is added1 and then acetate of lead4 ,by the last process1 superior and more permanent chrome greens may be produced1 free from lead1 by using chloride of barium or nitrate of bismuth in place of the acetate of lead4 ,chromate of baryta1 or chromate of bismuth is then formed1 neither of which acts on the ,prussian blue4 ,it should be added that where the latter pigment is present1 no green will serve for painting walls containing lime1 as its action alters the tint of the ,prussian blue4 #ahf4 ,,hooker',s ,,green is a compound of ,prussian blue and gamboge1 two pigments possessing a like degree of stability1 and perfectly innocuous to each other4 ,it is a mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with chromate of lead4 ,there are two varieties in common use--,no4 #a1 a light grass green1 in which the yellow predominates2 and ,no4 #b1 a deeper and more powerful green1 with a larger amount of blue4 #ahg4 ,,prussian ,,green1 like the preceding1 is composed of ,prussian blue and gamboge2 but contains a very great excess of the former1 and is therefore a bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency1 verging on black in its deep washes4 ,yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge1 but is not so eligible4 ,a true ,prussian green1 which has been recommended as a pigment1 can be produced as a simple original colour1 with a base wholly of iron4 ,it is got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron with red prussiate of potash4 ,we have made this green and given it a fair trial1 but our verdict is decidedly against it4 ,in colour it is far from being equal to a good compound of ,prussian blue and gamboge1 and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air1 the film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing4 ,another ,prussian green1 with a base of cobalt1 is obtained by precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash4 ,according to the mode adopted1 and the degree of heat1 either a light or dark green results2 but this also is inferior in colour1 and presents no advantage as to permanence4 #ahh4 ,,sap ,,green1 ,verde ,vessie1 or ,iris ,green1 is a vegetal pigment prepared from the juice of the berries of the buckthorn1 the green leaves of the woad1 the blue flowers of the iris1 c4 ,it is usually preserved in bladders1 and is thence sometimes called ,bladder ,green4 ,when good1 it is of a dark colour and glossy fracture1 extremely transparent1 and a fine natural yellowish green4 ,this gummy juice1 inspissated and formed into a cake1 is occasionally employed in flower painting4 ,it is1 however1 a very imperfect pigment1 disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere1 and to mildew2 while1 having little durability in water and less in oil1 it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other4 ,similar pigments1 obtained from coffee-berries1 and named ,venetian and ,emerald ,greens1 are of a colder colour1 equally defective and fugitive1 and now obsolete4 #ahi4 ,,terre ,,verte1 or ,green ,earth1 is a sober bluish green with a grey cast4 ,it is a species of ochre1 containing silica1 oxide of iron1 magnesia1 potash1 and water4 ,not bright and of little power1 it is a very durable pigment1 being unaffected by strong light or impure air1 and combining with other colours without injury4 ,it has not much body1 is semi-transparent1 and dries well in oil4 ,veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found mixed with terre verte1 to the detriment of its colour2 and there are varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter1 which1 although generally brighter1 are inferior in other respects1 and not true terre vertes4 ,verona ,green and ,verdetto or ,holy ,green1 are ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue4 ,these are met with in the ,mendip ,hills1 ,france1 ,italy1 and the island of ,cyprus1 and have been used as pigments from the earliest times4 ,rubens has availed himself much of terre verte1 not in his landscapes merely1 but likewise in the carnation tints in his figures of a dead ,christ4 ,it is evident that much of the glazing is done with this colour3 it is1 in fact1 most useful in glazing2 because1 having only a thin substance1 it can be rendered pale by a small portion of white2 although in the end it becomes darker by a concentration of its molecules4 ,mrime states that in the greater part of ,alexander ,veronese's works--in his ,death of ,cleopatra1 in the ,louvre1 for instance--there are some demi-tints which are too green1 and which it is certain were not so originally4 ,terre verte1 therefore1 must be employed with caution2 and it would be well to ascertain beforehand whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid on the picture1 by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural state4 ,if the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it acquires by being ground up1 it may fairly be assumed that it will attain to the same degree of strength whenever1 having completely dried1 its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible4 ,umber and terra di ,sienna are of this class4 ,in combination with ,indian red and ,naples yellow1 terre verte forms a series of mild russet greens1 of much use in middle distance4 99 99 99 99 99 #aij4 ,chrome ,arseniate is an agreeable apple-green colour1 prepared from arseniate of potash and salts of chromic oxide4 ,it is durable1 but possesses no advantages over the chrome oxides1 and is of course poisonous4 #aia4 ,cobalt ,green1 ,rinman's ,green1 ,vert de ,zinc or ,zinc ,green4 ,true cobalt green is made by igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small quantity of carbonate of cobalt4 ,to give a green tint to an enormous proportion of the former1 an inappreciable amount of the latter will suffice4 ,some samples which were analysed1 consisted almost entirely of zinc1 there being only two or three per cent4 of cobalt present4 ,this green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and artistically bad1 or at least indifferent4 ,it is a moderately bright green1 apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture1 permanent both alone and compounded1 but so sadly deficient in body and power1 as to have become almost obsolete4 ,with other physical defects1 and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides1 cobalt green has never been a favourite with artists1 though justly eulogised by chemists4 #aib4 ,copper ,borate is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax1 washing the residue with cold water1 and1 after drying1 igniting it1 fusion being carefully avoided4 ,in this manner1 a pretty yellowish green is produced1 which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade3 the mass is levigated for use4 ,the compound has the objection of being glassy1 and possessing little body1 but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence4 #aic4 ,copper ,chrome may be prepared by several methods1 but the colour is in no case so fine as ,scheele's or ,schweinfurt green1 nor is it as stable4 #aid4 ,copper ,stannate1 or ,tin-,copper ,green1 equals in colour any of the copper greens free from arsenic4 ,the cheapest way of making it is to heat #ei parts of tin in a ,hessian crucible with #ajj parts nitrate of soda1 and dissolve the mass when cold in a caustic alkali4 ,to the clear solution1 diluted with water1 a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added3 a reddish-yellow precipitate falls1 which on being washed and dried1 becomes a beautiful green4 ,on the palette it would be superfluous1 but for common purposes might be found of service4 #aie4 ,elsner's ,green is also a combination of tin and copper4 ,it is made by adding to a solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic1 previously clarified by a solution of gelatine4 ,to this mixture are added ten or eleven per cent4 of protochloride of tin1 and lastly an excess of caustic potash or soda4 ,the precipitate is then washed and dried1 whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue1 but without the brightness or durability of the preceding stannate4 #aif4 ,green ,bice1 or ,green ,verditer1 is the same in substance as blue verditer1 which is converted into green verditer by boiling4 ,this pigment is one of the least eligible of copper greens4 #aig4 ,green ,ochre4 ,by partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash1 we have produced a fine dark blue-green1 resembling ,prussian green1 of great depth and transparency4 ,there are1 however1 difficulties in the process2 and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or equal to a mixture of the ochre and ,prussian blue4 #aih4 ,green ,ultramarine is ,french or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting4 ,it is a somewhat bright bluish-green1 becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued exposure4 ,chemically1 it is not a bad colour2 but artists generally have decided against it4 #aii4 ,manganese ,green1 or ,cassel ,green4 ,by several methods1 manganate of baryta may be obtained either as an emerald-green1 a bluish-green1 or a pale green4 ,the manganates1 however1 are decomposed by contact with organic matter2 and hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed1 as well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments4 #bjj4 ,mineral ,green is the commercial name of ,green ,lakes1 prepared from sulphate of copper4 ,these vary in hue and shade1 have all the properties of the common non-arsenical copper-greens1 and1 not being subject to change of colour by oxygen and light1 stand the weather well1 and are excellent for the use of the house-painter1 c4 ,having a tendency to darken and blacken by time and foul air1 they are not eligible in the nicer works of fine art4 ,another ,mineral ,green adopted in ,germany as a substitute for the poisonous ,schweinfurt green1 is composed of chromate of lead1 carbonate of copper1 oxide of iron1 and chalk4 ,valueless for the palette1 it has not the beauty of ,schweinfurt green1 but is recommended as being free from arsenic4 ,it is not1 however1 altogether harmless1 and should not be used in confectionery or the like4 #bja4 ,molybdenum ,green4 ,a clear malachite green colour1 when dried1 is produced from molybdate of soda and potash-chrome-alum1 or from the molybdate and alum with ammonia4 ,being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better1 its introduction1 for use by artists1 would be attended with no advantage4 ,there is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate1 by adding neutral molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper4 ,the precipitate is a very pale green colour1 flocculent at first1 but crystalline after washing4 ,like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment4 #bjb4 ,quinine ,green is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour4 ,it is furnished by acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime1 hydrochloric acid1 and ammonia1 successively4 ,thus prepared1 the green resembles a resin1 insoluble in water1 but soluble in alcohol1 and turned blue by acetic acid4 ,its alcoholic solution dyes silk green1 and also woollen and cotton when mordanted with albumen4 #bjc4 ,roman ,green1 brought from ,rome some years back by a ,president of the ,royal ,academy1 appeared to be a mixture of ,prussian blue and ,dutch or ,italian pink4 ,it was a fugitive compound1 which became blue in fading4 #bjd4 ,silicate of ,baryta4 ,one part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta1 yields a pale green solid mass1 permanent1 but deficient in colour when ground4 ,it might be employed in enamelling4 #bje4 ,titanium ,green has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in common use2 but1 apart from its expense1 the colour is very inferior to ,scheele's green1 c4 ,titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal1 produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic acid in dilute hydrochloric acid1 and heating the mixture to ebullition rapidly4 ,the dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid1 and dried with great care1 since it decomposes at temperatures above #ajj4 #bjf4 ,uranium ,green is an oxide of a deep dull green colour1 inclining to olive1 and nearly black when in lumps4 ,a durable but unattractive preparation1 equalled in permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds4 #bjg4 ,vanadium ,green falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved in a strong acid4 ,it is a beautiful green precipitate1 but at present simply a curiosity1 owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium4 99 99 99 99 99 ,adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff1 we point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium1 ,veronese green1 viridian1 emerald green1 ,scheele's green1 and terre verte1 as more or less worthy of being dubbed durable4 ,as semi-stable1 malachite green1 bronze1 ,hooker's green1 and ,prussian green1 must be classed4 ,verdigris1 chrome greens1 and sap green1 should be branded as fugitive3 the chrome greens1 because they are always commercially composed of chromate of lead and ,prussian blue1 two compounds which are semi-stable in themselves1 but become fugacious when compounded4 ,a reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are many not known to the palette1 which are nevertheless very greatly superior1 as regards permanence1 to some that disgrace it4 ,why these latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily explained3 it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours4 ,pictures do not stand1 is the common cry2 therefore1 says the public1 there are no good pigments now-a-days4 ,to which we answer1 newly built houses are constantly falling down2 therefore there are no good bricks in these times4 ,of a truth1 one conclusion is as reasonable as the other3 in either case1 if rotten materials be used1 the result cannot be lasting2 but in neither case does it follow1 because such materials are employed1 that there are no better obtainable4 ,a well-built house implies a conscientious builder1 and a well-painted picture implies a conscientious artist4 ,it is because1 we fear1 that there are so few conscientious artists1 that there are so few permanent paintings2 not1 certainly1 because there are no good pigments4 ,in this last belief1 however1 the public is encouraged by certain painters1 who seek thereby to excuse their own shortcomings1 forgetting that it is a bad workman who finds fault with his tools4 ,it has been well observed that when artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems1' or pigments enjoyed by the medivalists and unattainable now1 it would be far better were they to make the best use of existing materials1 and study their further development4 ,there is no need for this cant cry of fugacity1 which casts such a blight on modern art4 ,durable pigments are not yet obsolete1 they have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings equal in permanence to those of the old masters4 ,titian1 says ,haydon1 got his colours from the colour shops on the ,rialto1 as we get ours from ,brown's2 and if ,apelles or ,titian were living now1 they would paint just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,the ,,secondary1 ,,purple4 ,purple1 the third and last of the secondary colours1 is composed of red and blue1 in the proportions of five of the former to eight of the latter2 proportions which constitute a perfect purple1 or one of such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow1 in the ratio of thirteen to three1 either of surface or intensity4 ,when mixed with its co-secondary colour1 green1 purple forms the tertiary olive2 and1 when compounded with the remaining secondary1 orange1 it constitutes in like manner the tertiary russet4 ,of the three secondary colours it is the coolest1 as well as the nearest in relation to black or shade2 in which respect1 and in never being a warm colour1 it resembles blue4 ,in other respects also1 purple partakes of the properties of blue1 which is its archeus1 or ruling colour2 hence it is to the eye a retiring colour1 that reflects light little1 and loses rapidly in power in a declining light1 and according to the distance at which it is viewed4 ,by reason of its being the mean between black and blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours4 ,nature employs this hue beautifully in landscape1 as a sub-dominant1 in harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks into deep orange or red4 ,girtin1 who saw ,nature as she is1 and painted what he saw1 delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow4 ,as a ruling colour1 whether in flesh or otherwise1 purple is commonly too cold1 or verges on ghastliness1 a fault which is to be as much avoided as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring1 stigmatized as foxiness4 ,yet1 next to green1 purple is the most generally pleasing of the consonant colours2 and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial colour1 as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state1 as from its individual beauty4 ,romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle1 and ,tullus ,hostilius1 after having subdued the ,tuscans1 assumed the pretexta or long robe1 broadly striped with purple4 ,under the ,roman emperors1 it became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty1 and the wearing of it by any who were not of the ,imperial family1 was deemed a treasonable usurpation1 punishable by death4 ,at the decline of the empire1 the ,tyrian purple was an important article of commerce1 and got to be common in the clothing of the people4 ,pliny says1 ,nepos ,cornelius1 who died in the reign of ,augustus ,csar1 when ,i was a young man1 assured me that the light violet purple had been formerly in great request1 and that a pound of it usually fetched #ajj denaria 7about #d sterling73 that soon after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion2 and that this was followed by the ,tyrian dibapha1 which could not be bought for less than #ajjj denaria 7nearly #dj sterling7 the pound2 which was its price when ,p4 ,lentulus ,spinter was dile1 ,cicero being then ,consul4 ,but afterwards1 the double-dyed purple became less rare1 c4 ,the ,tyrian purple alluded to was obtained from the purpur1 a species of shell-fish adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining ,tyre4 ,on account1 probably1 of its extreme costliness1 it was frequently the custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet1 previous to applying the ,tyrian purple4 ,this imparted to the latter a crimson hue1 and explains doubtless the term1 double-dyed4 ,the ,greeks feigned the ancient purple to be the discovery of ,hercules ,tyrius1 whose dog1 eating by chance of the fish from which it was produced1 returned to him with his mouth tinged with the dye4 ,alexander the ,great is said to have found in the royal treasury1 at the taking of ,susa1 purple to the enormous value of #ejjj talents1,a which had lain there one hundred and ninety-two years1 and still preserved its freshness and beauty4 ,when inclining to red1 purple takes the name of crimson1 c42 and when leaning to blue1 the names of violet1 lilac1 mauve1 c4 ,blue is a colour which it serves to mellow1 or follows well into shade4 ,the contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light and the primaries2 while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of the tertiary citrine on the side of shade1 and less perfectly so of the semi-neutral brown4 ,as the extreme primaries1 blue and yellow1 when either compounded or opposed1 afford1 though not the most perfect harmony1 yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours2 so the extremes1 purple and orange1 yield the most pleasing of the secondary consonances4 ,this analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and semi-neutral colours1 while the mean or middle colours furnish the most agreeable contrasts or harmonies4 ,in nature pure purple is not a common colour1 and on the palette purple pigments are singularly few4 ,they lie under a peculiar disadvantage as to apparent durability and beauty of colour1 owing to the neutralizing power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid2 as well as to the general warm colour of light1 and the yellow tendency of almost all vehicles and varnishes1 by which the colour of purple is subdued4 #bjh4 ,,burnt ,,carmine is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in colour the purple of gold1 for which1 in miniature and water-painting1 it is substituted4 ,it is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme richness and depth1 eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of draperies4 ,as it is generally impossible1 however1 to alter the nature of a pigment by merely changing its colour1 burnt carmine is scarcely more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced4 ,if used1 therefore1 it should be in body1 and not in thin washes or as a glaze4 ,durable pigments are admissible in any form2 but semi-stable pigments 7gamboge excepted7 should only be employed in body4 #bji4 ,,burnt ,,lake holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary carmine2 and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding1 with less richness1 and likewise less permanence4 #baj4 ,,indian ,,purple is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of copper4 ,it is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple1 neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine2 and is chiefly of service in draperies4 ,it is apt to lose its purple colour in a great measure on exposure to light and air1 and assume an inky blackness2 a defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk4 #baa4 ,,mars ,,violet1 ,violet de ,mars1 ,purple ,ochre1 or ,mineral ,purple1 is a dark ochre1 native of the ,forest of ,dean in ,gloucestershire4 ,it is of a murrey or chocolate colour1 and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white4 ,it is of a darker colour than ,indian red1 which has also been classed among purples1 but has a similar body and opacity1 and generally resembles that pigment4 ,it may be prepared artificially1 and some natural red ochres burn to this colour4 ,being difficult and sometimes impossible to procure1 ,mars violet is often compounded2 in which case it is liable to vary both in hue and stability4 ,as1 however1 ,indian red is always taken for its basis1 the mixture is never wholly fugitive1 nor exhibits any very glaring contrast on exposure4 #bab4 ,,mixed ,,purple4 ,purple being a secondary colour1 composed of blue and red1 it follows of course that any blue and red pigments1 which are not chemically at variance1 may be employed in producing mixed purples of any required hue1 either by compounding or grinding them together ready for use1 or by combining them in the various modes of operation in painting4 ,in such compounding1 the more perfect and permanent the original colours are1 the more perfect and permanent will be the purple obtained4 ,to produce a pure purple1 neither the red nor the blue must contain or incline to yellow2 while to compound a durable purple1 both the red and the blue must be durable also4 ,ultramarine and the reds of madder yield beautiful and excellent purples1 equally stable in water or oil1 in glazing or tint1 whether under the influence of light or impure air4 ,cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples2 and some of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion1 which furnish tints equally permanent1 but less transparent than the above1 and less easily compounded4 ,facility of use1 and other advantages1 are obtained at too great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures1 such as the lakes of cochineal with indigo4 ,,permanent ,,reds4 ,,permanent ,,blues4 ,cadmium ,red4 ,cerulian ,blue4 ,liquid ,rubiate4 ,cobalt ,blue4 ,madder ,carmine4 ,genuine ,ultramarine4 ,rose ,madder4 ,brilliant ,ultramarine4 ,mars ,red4 ,french ,ultramarine4 ,ochres4 ,new ,blue4 ,vermilions4 ,permanent ,blue4 ,it should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples with blue2 those which contain more or less yellow1 as cadmium red and orange vermilion1 furnish purples partaking more or less of olive1 which is a compound of purple and green4 ,to those reds may be added the russet ,rubens ,madder and the marrone ,madder ,brown1 two pigments which are alike eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange4 ,no purple1 it will be remarked1 equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake and ,prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given2 just as no mixed green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a constituent4 ,but1 as our compound tints are given rather as examples of durability than beauty1 all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of necessity ignored4 #bac4 ,,purple ,,madder1 ,field's ,purple1 or ,purple ,rubiate1 is the only durable organic purple the palette possesses4 ,marked by a soft subdued richness rather than by brilliancy1 it leans somewhat towards marrone1 and affords the greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint4 ,unfortunately1 in the whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such small quantity as madder purple2 hence its scarcity and high price cause it to be confined to water-colour painting1 in which the clearness and beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a drawing4 ,with raw ,sienna and indigo or ,prussian blue1 subdued by black1 it gives beautiful shadow tints1 and will be found useful in sky and other effects compounded with cobalt1 rose madder1 ,french blue and sepia1 yellow ochre and cobalt1 lamp black and cobalt1 light red1 ,vandyke brown1 burnt ,sienna1 or aureolin4 ,with great transparency1 body1 and depth1 it is pure and permanent in its tints1 neither gives nor sustains injury on admixture1 dries and glazes well in oil1 works well1 and is altogether most perfect and eligible4 ,for fresco it is admirably adapted1 being quite uninjured by lime4 ,there is a lighter and slightly brighter sort1 containing less colouring matter and more base1 which has all the properties of the above with less intensity of colour4 ,for the sake of cheapness1 the purple is sometimes compounded in oil1 generally of brown madder and a blue4 ,provided the latter be stable1 transparent1 and mix kindly1 no greater objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown madder and yellow ochre4 #bad4 ,,violet ,,carmine is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness1 employed in draperies and the like4 ,it is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the root of the ,anchusa tinctoria1 commonly known as alkanet1 a plant growing in the ,levant1 and some other warm countries4 ,it was used by the ancients as a dye1 or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be dyed purplish-red3 the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a paint4 ,its colouring matter or anchusin has the character of a resin1 and is dark-red1 softened by heat1 insoluble in water1 soluble in alcohol and alkalis1 and freely so in ether1 fats1 and volatile oils1 to all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue4 ,to obtain anchusin1 all the soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water3 it is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash1 from which it may be readily precipitated by an acid4 ,its alcoholic solution yields with different reagents crimson1 flesh-coloured1 blue1 and violet precipitates1 none of which1 however1 can be classed as durable4 ,the variety under notice1 violet carmine1 resembles the other colours afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light4 ,on continued exposure1 it loses its beauty and brightness1 together with much of its colour1 and1 like ,indian purple1 assumes an inky blackness4 ,hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects1 and should only be used in body4 99 99 99 99 99 #bae4 ,archil ,purple4 ,archil may be regarded as the ,english1 cudbear as the ,scotch1 and litmus as the ,dutch name for one and the same substance1 extracted from several species of lichens by various processes4 ,these lichens1 which are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea1 are cleaned and ground into a pulp with water1 treated from time to time with ammoniacal liquor1 and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the atmosphere4 ,peculiar principles existing in the lichens are1 by the joint instrumentality of the air1 water1 and ammonia1 so changed as to generate colouring matter1 which1 when perfect1 is expressed4 ,soluble in water and alcohol1 this colouring principle yields by precipitation with chloride of calcium a compound known as ',solid ,french ,purple'1 a pigment more stable than the archil colours generally1 but all too fugitive for the palette4 #baf4 ,bismuth ,purple4 ,a purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated solution of potash4 ,as soon as the oxide becomes brown-red1 the mixture is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once1 the residue being immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water4 ,on the whole1 the result is not1 for an artistic pigment1 worth the trouble involved in the preparation4 #bag4 ,burnt ,madder is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the hue required4 ,bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt carmine to the carmine of cochineal1 burnt madder is a permanent and perfectly unexceptionable pigment4 ,by reason1 probably1 of its great price1 it is not mentioned in trade catalogues1 and must be held as commercially unknown4 #bah4 ,cobalt ,purples are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most delicate violet4 ,we have produced them by wet and dry methods1 varying in brilliancy and beauty1 but characterised generally by want of body1 and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness4 ,chemically1 good and stable colours1 they are not received with favour on the palette1 and certainly may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red4 ,when a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original pigment1 and superior in its physical attributes1 no objection can fairly be taken to its artistic preference4 ,there are other things to be considered in a pigment besides permanence1 or even permanence and colour combined4 ,the two together do not constitute a perfect pigment1 that is1 a material of practical utility and value4 ,in the last chapter1 allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and the other1 and yet is--at present1 at least--quite unfitted for artistic use4 ,hence1 with a strong partiality for simple original pigments1 we are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably preferred4 ,all we contend for is1 that each constituent of such mixtures should be stable1 and neither give nor receive injury by being compounded4 #bai4 ,gold ,purple1 ,purple of ,cassius1 or ,cassius's ,purple ,precipitate1 was discovered in #afhc by ,cassius of ,leyden4 ,it is a compound of tin and gold1 best formed by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin1 till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green1 and then adding this liquid1 drop by drop1 to a solution of perchloride of gold1 which is free from nitric acid and very dilute3 after twenty-four hours the purple is deposited4 ,when recently prepared1 the colour is brightened by boiling nitric acid4 ,not brilliant1 but rich and powerful1 this purple varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to murrey or dark purple3 it also differs in degrees of transparency4 ,working well in water1 it is an excellent though costly pigment1 once popular in miniatures1 but at present rarely1 if ever used1 as purple madder is cheaper1 and perfectly well supplies its place4 ,retaining its colour at a high red heat1 it is now confined to enamel and porcelain painting1 and to tinging glass of a fine red4 ,if1 whilst in its hydrated state1 it be washed with ammonia1 a bright purple liquid results1 from which a violet colour1 somewhat less expensive1 can be produced1 by combining the gold purple with alumina1 and calcining the product in the same way that is practised with cobalt4 ,this compound may be exposed to the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected4 #bbj4 ,prussian ,purple4 ,a prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue1 affording good shadow tints and clear pale washes4 ,it has not1 however1 been introduced as a pigment1 as ordinary ,prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar colour4 #bba4 ,sandal ,wood ,purple4 ,sandal wood contains about #af per cent4 of colouring matter1 soluble with difficultly in water1 but readily dissolved by alcohol4 ,from the latter solution1 chloride of tin throws down a purple1 and sulphate of iron a deep violet precipitate2 neither of which is remarkable for permanence4 #bbb4 ,tin ,violet4 ,by heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness1 a dark violet mass is obtained1 which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the palette4 ,it communicates in glazings a variety of tints1 from rose-red to violet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so scant is the number of good purples in common use1 that there are but two which can be classed as durable1 namely1 purple madder and the true ,mars violet4 ,foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine4 ,as there are different degrees both of permanence and fugacity1 so are there different degrees of semi-stability4 ,burnt carmine1 burnt lake1 ,indian purple1 and violet carmine1 all belong to this division2 but the first certainly is more permanent than the rest4 ,rich and beautiful as it is1 purple madder cannot be called brilliant2 while ,mars violet is1 of course1 ochrous4 ,unlike green and orange1 therefore1 purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and durable3 as regards purple1 brilliancy implies a semi-stability that borders more or less closely on fugacity4 ,until the advent of a perfect palette1 however1 brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold their own4 ,their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists of artist-colours--lists compiled1 be it remembered1 in obedience to the law of demand and supply4 ,if art were really so much honoured as some of its disciples pretend1 none but durable colours would be employed4 ,in our opinion1 if a picture be worth painting at all1 it is worth painting with permanent pigments2 but many evidently think otherwise4 ,deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they practise nor to themselves1 we would urge such to bear in mind this axiom1 semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes4 ,even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue1 but in glazing and the like1 their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed4 ,it is this semi-stability1 recommended to the thoughtless and indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it1 that is the bane of modern art4 ,even our greatest painters have yielded to its fascination4 ,who has not gazed upon one of ,turner's fading pictures with still more of sadness than enjoyment1 that anything so grand1 so beautiful1 so true1 should slowly but surely be passing away8 ,a feeling akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck1 abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed1 and sinking deeper and deeper4 ,mournful1 indeed1 is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter2 mournful the thought that in years to come1 the monument sought for will not be found4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,a talent of money1 i4e41 a talent's weight of silver1 was equal to nearly #bdd4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,the ,,tertiary1 ,,citrine4 ,citrine1 or the colour of the citron1 is the first of the tertiary class of colours1 or ultimate compounds of the primary triad1 yellow1 red1 and blue2 in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour1 and blue the extreme subordinate4 ,for citrine being an immediate compound of the secondaries1 orange and green1 of both which yellow is a constituent1 the latter colour is of double occurrence therein1 while the other two primaries enter singly into its composition4 ,the mean or middle hue comprehends eight blue1 five red1 and six yellow1 of equal intensities4 ,hence citrine1 according to its name1 which is that of a class of colours and used commonly for a dark yellow1 partakes in a subdued degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow4 ,in estimating1 therefore1 its properties and effects in painting1 it is to be regarded as participating of all the relations of yellow4 ,by some this colour is improperly called brown1 as almost all broken colours are4 ,the harmonizing contrast of citrine is a deep purple1 which may be seen beautifully opposed to it in nature1 when the green of summer declines4 ,as autumn advances1 citrine tends towards its orange hues1 including the colours termed aurora1 chamoise1 and others before enumerated under the head of yellow4 ,it is the most advancing of the tertiary colours1 or nearest in relation to light2 and is variously of a tender1 modest1 cheering character4 ,to understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers of the tertiary colours1 require a cultivation of perception and a refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed4 ,to a great extent the colourist1 like the poet1 is born not made2 but although he must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true1 hard work alone1 with his head1 his eyes1 and his hands1 will enable him to learn and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary colours4 ,they are at once less definite and less generally evident1 but more delightful--more frequent in nature1 though rarer in common art1 than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries4 ,there is very little pure colour in the world3 now and then a gleam dazzles us1 like a burst of sunshine through grey mists2 but as a rule1 nature prefers broken colours to absolute hues4 ,most pure in spring1 most full in summer1 most mellow in autumn1 most sober in winter1 her tints and shades of colour are always more or less interlaced1 from white and the primaries to the semi-neutral and black4 ,of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few1 unless we include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called citrines4 ,the following are best entitled to this appellation3-- #bbc4 ,,brown ,,pink1 ,brown ,stil de ,grain1 ,citrine ,lake1 or ,quercitron ,lake is usually prepared from the berries of ,avignon 7ramnus infectorius71 better known as ,french1 ,persian1 or ,turkey berries2 but a more durable and quicker drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark4 ,if produced from the former1 it must be branded as fugitive1 but if from the latter1 it may be termed semi-stable4 ,in either case it is a lake1 precipitated from the alkaline decoction by means of alum1 in such proportions that the alkali shall not be more than half saturated4 ,the excess of soda or potash employed imparts a brown hue2 but the lake being in general an orange broken by green1 falls into the class of citrine colours1 sometimes inclining to greenness1 and sometimes towards the warmth of orange4 ,it works well both in water and oil1 in the latter of which it is of great depth and transparency1 but its tints with white lead are very fugitive1 and in thin glazing it does not stand3 the berry variety dries badly4 ,a fine rich colour1 more beautiful than eligible1 it is popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds4 ,modified by admixture with burnt ,sienna or gamboge1 it yields a compound which1 with the addition of a small quantity of indigo1 gives a warm though not very durable green4 ,in many of the ,flemish pictures the foliage has become blue from the yellowish lake1 with which the ultramarine was mixed1 having faded4 ,it has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body4 ,their use generally has been deprecated1 but in shadows such vegetable colours as brown pink are sometimes of advantage1 as they are transparent1 lose part of their richness by the action of the air1 and do not become black4 ,moreover1 if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken1 they mitigate it very much4 ,this last1 indeed1 is the most legitimate purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can be put4 #bbd4 ,,mars ,,brown1 or ,brun de ,mars1 is either a natural or artificial ochre containing iron1 or iron and manganese4 ,of much richness and strict permanence1 it resembles raw umber in being a brown with a citrine cast1 but is generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the latter pigment4 #bbe4 ,,mixed ,,citrine4 ,what has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more particularly applicable to the tertiary1 it being more difficult to select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than two1 that shall unite and work together cordially4 ,hence the mixed tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries2 and as their hues are of extensive use in painting1 original pigments of these colours are proportionably estimable to the artist4 ,nevertheless there are two evident principles of combination1 of which he may avail himself in producing these colours in the various ways of working2 the one being that of combining two original secondaries2 and the other1 of uniting the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate4 ,thus in the case of citrine1 either orange and green may be directly compounded2 or yellow1 red1 and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall be in excess4 ,these colours are1 however1 obtained in many instances with best and most permanent effect1 not by the intimate combination of pigments upon the palette1 but by intermingling them1 in the manner of nature1 on the canvas1 so as to produce the appearance at a proper distance of a uniform colour4 ,thus composed is the citrine colour of fruit and foliage1 on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of orange and green1 or of yellow1 red1 and green4 ,the truth and beauty resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious fruit-pieces of the late ,w4 ,hunt1 where the bloom on the plum1 the down of the peach1 c41 are given with wondrous fidelity to nature4 ,in the russet hues of autumn foliage1 where purple and orange have broken or superseded the summer green1 this interlacing of colour appears2 and also in the olive foliage of the rose-tree1 formed in the individual leaf by the ramification of purple in green4 ,besides the durable yellows1 reds1 and blues1 the following orange and green pigments are eligible for mixed citrines4 ,they may likewise1 however1 be safely and simply compounded by slight additions1 to an original brown1 of that primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required hue4 ,,permanent ,,orange4 ,,permanent ,,green4 ,burnt ,roman ,ochre4 ,oxide of ,chromium1 opaque4 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,oxide of ,chromium1 transparent4 ,cadmium ,orange4 ,veronese ,green4 ,mars ,orange4 ,viridian4 ,neutral ,orange4 ,emerald ,green4 ,scheele's ,green4 ,terre ,verte4 #bbf4 ,,raw ,,umber1 or ,umber1 is a natural ochre1 chiefly composed of oxide of manganese1 oxide of iron1 silica1 and alumina4 ,it is said to have been first brought from ancient ,ombria1 now ,spoleto1 in ,italy4 ,found in ,england1 and in most parts of the world1 that which comes from ,cyprus1 under the name of ,turkish or ,levant umber1 is the best4 ,of a quiet brown-citrine colour1 semi-opaque1 it dries rapidly1 and injures no other good pigment with which it may be mixed4 ,by time it grows darker1 a disadvantage which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on exposure4 ,for light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely useful1 and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens4 ,to mud walls1 tints for stone1 wood1 gray rocks1 baskets1 yellow sails1 and stormy seas1 this citrine is suited4 ,some artists have painted on grounds primed with umber1 but it has penetrated through the lighter parts of the work4 ,mrime states that there are several of ,poussin's pictures so painted2 that fine series1 ,the ,seven ,sacraments1 being clearly among the number4 99 99 99 99 99 #bbg4 ,cassia ,fistula is a native vegetal pigment1 though it is more commonly employed as a medicinal drug4 ,it is brought from the ,east and ,west ,indies in a sort of cane1 in which it is naturally produced4 ,as a pigment it is deep1 transparent1 of an imperfect citrine colour1 inclining to dark green1 and diffusible in water without grinding1 like gamboge and sap green4 ,once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre1 it is not now to be met with on the palette4 #bbh4 ,citrine ,brown4 ,from boiling1 hot1 or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and hyposulphite of soda in excess1 we have obtained an agreeable citrine-brown colour1 varying in hue and tint according to the mode of preparation and proportions of materials employed4 ,it is a hydrated oxide of chromium which1 when washed and carefully dried1 yields a soft floury powder4 ,transparent1 and affording clear1 delicate pale washes1 the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment2 partly owing to certain physical objections1 and partly to a tendency to greenness4 ,this tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue1 whether hydrated or anhydrous2 and indeed distinguishes more or less nearly all the compounds of chromium4 ,green1 in fact1 is the natural colour of such compounds1 the colour which they are constantly struggling to attain2 and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium1 being clothed in their native hue1 are of such strict stability4 ,the inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses1 may be seen by washing the precipitate with boiling water4 ,it has been supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct compound of chromium and oxygen1 but a feeble union of the green oxide with chromic acid4 ,if this be the case1 the citrine cast of the brown oxide is easily explained1 as well as the gradual addition to its green by the deoxidation of the chromic acid4 ,in mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like1 the tendency to green of this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant2 but whether the oxide be adapted to the palette or not1 we believe the colour might be utilized4 ,in dyeing1 for instance1 the solutions of bichromate of potash and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial1 the liquids of course being kept separate1 and the brown washed with cold water4 ,various patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously treated with hyposulphite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,several other browns1 and ochrous earths1 partake of a citrine hue1 such as ,cassel ,earth1 ,bistre1 c4 ,but in the confusion of names1 infinity of tones and tints1 and variations of individual pigments1 it is impossible to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement4 ,we have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing pigments under their proper heads4 ,of the three citrines in common use1 ,mars brown and raw umber are strictly stable2 while brown pink1 the purest original citrine the palette possesses1 is either semi-stable or fugitive1 according to the colouring substance used in its preparation4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,on ,,the ,,tertiary1 ,,russet4 ,russet1 the second or middle tertiary colour1 is1 like citrine1 constituted ultimately of the three primaries1 red1 yellow1 and blue2 but with this difference--instead of yellow as in citrine1 the archeus or predominating colour in russet is red1 to which yellow and blue are subordinates4 ,for orange and purple being the immediate constituents of russet1 and red being a component part of each of those colours1 it follows that red enters doubly into russet1 while yellow and blue appear but once therein4 ,the proportions of its middle hue are eight blue1 ten red1 and three yellow1 of equal intensities4 ,thus composed1 russet takes the relations and powers of a subdued red2 and many pigments and dyes of the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours4 ,in fact1 nominal distinction of colours is only relative2 the gradation from hue to hue1 as from tint to tint1 and shade to shade1 being of such unlimited extent1 that it is impossible to pronounce absolutely where one hue1 tint1 or shade ends1 and another begins4 ,the harmonizing1 neutralizing1 or contrasting colour of russet1 is a deep green2 or when the russet inclines to orange1 a gray or subdued blue4 ,these are often beautifully opposed in nature1 being medial accordances or in equal relation to light1 shade and other colours1 and among the most agreeable to sense4 ,russet1 as we have said1 partakes of the relations of red1 but it is a hue moderated in every respect1 and qualified for greater breadth of display in the colouring of nature and art2 less so1 perhaps1 than its fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful4 ,the powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive2 and its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks it--not so much courting as being courted4 ,of the tertiary colours1 russet is the most important to the artist2 and there are many pigments classed as red1 purple1 c41 which are of russet hues4 ,but there are few true russets1 and only one original pigment of that colour is now known on the palette1 to wit-- #bbi4 ,,rubens' ,,madder1 ,orange ,russet1 ,russet ,rubiate1 or ,field's ,russet4 ,this is a very rich crimson russet with a flush of orange2 pure1 transparent1 and of a middle hue between orange and purple4 ,prepared from the madder root1 it is not subject to change by the action of light1 time1 or mixture of other pigments4 ,although not so much employed as the marrone ,madder ,brown1 it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal foliage1 c42 and with blue1 the beautiful and endless variety of grays in skies1 flesh1 c4 ,a good glazing colour1 its thin washes afford fine flesh tints in water3 as an oil pigment it dries indifferently1 and requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish4 ,cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for general use in shadows4 ,so saddened1 this lake meets admirably the dark centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums1 while alone its pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves4 #bcj4 ,,mixed ,,russet4 ,what has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of mixed citrine colours1 is likewise applicable to mixed russet4 ,by the immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries1 good and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and purple pigments-- ,,permanent ,,orange4 ,,permanent ,,purple4 ,burnt ,roman ,ochre4 ,mars ,violet1 true4 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,purple ,madder4 ,cadmium ,orange4 ,mars ,orange4 ,neutral ,orange4 ,many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are obvious upon principle1 and it may be produced by adding red in due predominance to some browns2 but these1 like most mixtures1 are inferior to original pigments4 ,to the orange colours there may be added cadmium red and the orange vermilions1 pigments which were classed among the reds1 but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for either compound russets or compound citrines4 ,and as of original purple pigments there are two only which are stable1 such mixtures as madder red and ,french blue will help to swell the list of available permanent purples4 ,rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first mixed with blue and then with orange4 99 99 99 99 99 #bca4 ,prussiate of ,copper differs chemically from ,prussian blue only in having copper instead of iron for its basis4 ,it varies in hue from russet to purple brown1 is transparent and deep1 but1 being very liable to change in colour by the action of light and by other pigments1 has never been much used1 and is now obsolete4 ,the compound has the objection of containing free prussiate of potash1 not removable by continued washing--sometimes as much as five per cent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into1 or verge upon1 the class of russet1 which1 having obtained the names of other classes to which they are allied1 will be found under other heads2 such are some of the ochres1 as ,indian red4 ,burnt carmine is often of the russet hue1 or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange2 as are burnt ,sienna and various browns1 by like additions of lake or other reds4 ,the one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette1 ,rubens' madder1 is permanent4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,the ,,tertiary1 ,,olive4 ,olive is the third and last of the tertiary colours1 and nearest in relation to shade4 ,like its co-tertiaries1 citrine and russet1 it is composed of the three primaries1 blue1 red1 and yellow2 but is formed more directly of the secondaries1 purple and green1 in each of which blue is a constituent3 hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of forming olive1 while red and blue enter therein singly and subordinately4 ,blue is1 therefore1 in every instance the archeus or predominating colour of olive2 its perfect or middle hue comprehending sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow4 ,it partakes in a proportionate measure of the powers1 properties1 and relations of its archeus3 accordingly1 the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is a deep orange4 ,like blue1 olive is a retiring colour1 the most so of all the colours1 being the penultimate of the scale1 or nearest of all in relation to black1 and last1 theoretically1 of the regular distinctions of colours4 ,hence its importance in nature and painting is almost as great as that of black2 it divides the office of clothing the face of creation with green and blue2 with both which1 as with black and grey1 it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances1 changing its name as either hue prevails1 into green1 gray1 ashen1 slate1 c4 ,thus the olive hues of foliage are called green1 and the purple hues of clouds are called gray1 c42 but such terms are general only1 and unequal to the infinite particularity of nature4 ,this infinity1 or endless variation of hue1 tint1 and relation1 of which the tertiaries are susceptible1 gives a boundless license to the revelry of taste1 in which the genius of the pencil may display the most captivating harmonies of colouring1 and the most chaste and delicate expressions2 too subtle to be defined1 too intricate to be easily understood1 and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye4 ,nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations1 while she harmonizes by distinct contrasts4 ,at different seasons we have blossoms of all hues1 variously subordinated2 and when the time of flowers may be considered past1 as if she had no further use for her fine colours1 or were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement1 ,nature lavishes the contents of her palette1 not disorderly1 but in multiplied relations1 over all vegetal creation1 in those rich and beautiful accordances of broken and finishing colours with which autumn is decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness4 ,as a rule1 no colour exists in nature without gradation1 which is to colours what curvature is to lines4 ,the difference in mere beauty between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even tint of rose-colour on paper1 and putting a rose leaf beside it4 ,the victorious beauty of the rose1 as compared with other flowers1 depends wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations1 all other flowers being either less rich in gradation1 not having so many folds of leaf2 or less tender1 being patched and veined instead of flushed4 ,it is not enough1 however1 that colour should be gradated in painting by being made simply paler or darker at one place than another4 ,generally1 colour changes as it diminishes1 and is not only darker at one spot1 but also purer at one spot than elsewhere2 although it does not follow that either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest4 ,very often the two gradations more or less cross each other1 one passing in one direction from paleness to darkness1 another in another direction from purity to dulness2 but there will almost always be both of them1 however reconciled4 ,hence1 every piece of blue1 say1 laid on should be quite pure only at some given spot1 from which it must be gradated into blue less pure--greyish blue1 or greenish blue1 or purplish blue--over all the rest of the space it occupies4 ,in ,turner's largest oil pictures1 there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated2 and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue1 vigour of light1 and even the aspect of transparency in shade1 are essentially dependent on this character alone2 hardness1 coldness1 and opacity1 resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour4 ,given some mud off a city crossing1 some ochre out of a gravel pit1 a little whitening1 and some coal-dust1 and a luminous picture might be painted1 if time were allowed to gradate the mud1 and subdue the dust4 ,but not with the red of the ruby1 the blue of the gentian1 snow for the light1 and amber for the gold1 could such a picture be produced1 if the masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity1 and unvarying in depth4 ,olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic1 there are few olive pigments in commerce4 #bcb4 ,,mixed ,,olive may be compounded in several ways2 directly1 by mixing green and purple2 or indirectly1 by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red1 or by breaking much blue with little orange4 ,cool black pigments1 combined with yellow ochre1 afford eligible olives2 hues which are called green in landscape1 and invisible green in mechanic painting4 ,it is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on the palette or canvass1 those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally employed in the picture4 ,thus1 presuming aureolin to be the principal yellow used1 the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and green1 or for obtaining indirectly citrine1 russet1 and olive4 ,,permanent ,,green4 ,,permanent ,,purple4 ,oxide of ,chromium1 opaque4 ,mars ,violet1 true4 ,oxide of ,chromium1 transparent4 ,purple ,madder4 ,veronese ,green4 ,viridian4 ,emerald ,green4 ,scheele's ,green4 ,terre ,verte4 ,as in the case of russet1 there may be added to the two original purples1 mixtures composed of durable reds and blues4 ,there are so many ways of producing the tertiaries1 that no difficulty can be found in compounding them with stable pigments4 ,each tertiary may be represented as follows3-- ,,citrine ,orange ,green4 7,yellow ,red7 7,yellow ,blue47 #b ,yellow ,red ,blue4 ,,russet ,orange ,purple4 7,yellow ,red7 7,red ,blue47 #b ,red ,yellow ,blue4 ,,olive ,green ,purple4 7,yellow ,blue7 7,red ,blue47 #b ,blue ,yellow ,red4 ,from the above equations1 and by consulting the lists given of permanent primary and secondary colours1 the artist will at once see how easily and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries4 #bcc4 ,,olive ,,green1 sometimes called ,dewint's ,green1 is an arbitrary compound1 or mixed green1 of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness4 ,advisedly or not1 it is used in landscape1 sketching1 c42 but only in water1 olive lake supplying its place in oil4 ,like many other compound pigments1 it is either permanent1 semi-stable1 or fugitive1 according to the constituents of which it is composed4 ,generally speaking1 it is more beautiful than durable1 and is often decidedly fugacious1 fading on exposure4 ,it is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form1 inasmuch as the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another4 ,we have before expressed our dislike to such pigments1 and this uncertainty with regard to their composition serves to strengthen it4 ,nevertheless1 as there are exceptions to every rule1 it must be admitted that the palette possesses compounds always to be relied upon4 #bcd4 ,,olive ,,lake is in commerce exclusively an oil colour4 ,when true1 it is a lake prepared from the green ebony1 or laburnum1 and is of considerable permanence1 transparency1 and depth1 both in water and oil2 in which latter vehicle it dries well4 ,this variety1 however1 may be said to be obsolete2 having given way to a mixture1 usually semi-stable1 and liable to blacken4 99 99 99 99 99 #bce4 ,burnt ,verdigris is what its name expresses1 and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper deprived of acid4 ,it dries remarkably well in oil1 is more durable than the original verdigris1 and is in other respects an improved and more eligible pigment1 although not to be recommended4 #bcf4 ,olive ,oxide of ,chromium4 ,an olive oxide of this metal is obtainable1 transparent1 of strict stability1 and altogether superior to any original or compound olive pigment as yet known4 ,eligible either in water or oil1 it is admirably adapted for autumn foliage1 where a quiet1 subdued1 nature-like green is required4 ,it has not1 however1 been introduced1 partly because of its expense1 and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose4 ,there are more good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's philosophy1 but either they are not wanted1 or are too costly to sell4 ,in a great measure1 both art and science are dependent on commerce4 #bcg4 ,olive ,rinman's ,green4 ,a compound analogous to cobalt green may be made1 of an olive hue1 with more body1 and equally stable4 #bch4 ,olive ,scheele's ,green4 ,cupric arsenite1 when heated1 gives off arsenious acid and water1 leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate4 ,a series of olive colours is so afforded1 which are as durable as their original pigment1 and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful compounds at present in use4 #bci4 ,olive ,schweinfurt ,green is likewise furnished by gentle calcination4 ,it may be directly prepared by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised verdigris and arsenious acid4 ,an olive-green precipitate is immediately formed1 which is apt1 without due precaution1 to pass into an emerald green4 ,a durable copper colour4 #bdj4 ,olive ,terre ,verte4 ,we have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply changing its hue4 ,in oil1 especially1 the colour so produced would be found of service for autumn foliage1 or richly painted foregrounds4 ,a simple original pigment1 consisting wholly of the earth1 it resembles ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air1 and uninjured by admixture2 but differs from it in not darkening by time4 ,semi-transparent1 of sober richness and drying well in oil1 it is1 according to its powers1 a perfectly unexceptionable colour1 of strict stability4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the two olive colours in common use1 olive lake and olive green1 the first is generally semi-stable1 and apt to blacken2 while the second is usually fugitive1 and liable to fade3 both are compounds4 ,the palette1 therefore1 possesses no original olive pigment1 good or bad4 ,a glance at the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures referred to might with advantage be superseded4 ,it is clear that the olive pigments which the palette does not know1 are better than those with which it is acquainted4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,semi-,,neutral1 ,,brown4 ,as colour1 according to the regular scale descending from white1 ceases properly with the last of the tertiaries1 olive1 in theory the neutral black would here form a fitting conclusion4 ,practically1 however1 every coloured pigment1 of every class or tribe1 combines with black as it exists in pigments--not simply being deepened or lowered in tone thereby1 but likewise defiled in colour1 or changed in class4 ,hence there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds1 having black for their basis1 which1 though they differ not theoretically from the preceding order inverted1 are yet in practice imperfect or impure4 ,these broken compounds of black1 or coloured blacks and greys1 we have distinguished by the term1 semi-neutral1 and divided them into three classes3 ,brown1 ,marrone1 and ,gray4 ,what tints are with respect to white1 they are with regard to black1 being1 so to speak1 black tints or shades4 ,the first of the series is ,,brown1 a term which1 in its widest acceptation1 has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken colour1 and is1 in a more limited sense1 the rather indefinite name of a very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues4 ,accordingly there are browns of every denomination except blue2 to wit1 yellow-brown1 red-brown1 orange-brown1 purple-brown1 citrine-brown1 russet-brown1 c4 ,but there is no such thing as a blue-brown1 nor1 strictly1 any other coloured brown in which blue predominates2 such predominance of a cold colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray1 ashen1 or slate4 ,brown comprises the hues called dun1 hazel1 auburn1 feuillemort1 mort d'ore1 c42 several of which have been already mentioned as allied to the tertiary colours4 ,the term brown1 then1 denotes rightly a warm broken colour1 of which yellow is a chief constituent3 hence brown is in some measure to shade what yellow is to light4 ,hence1 also1 proper quantities of either the three primaries1 the three secondaries1 or the three tertiaries1 produce variously a brown mixture4 ,browns contribute to coolness and clearness by contrast when opposed to pure colours1 and ,rubens more especially appears to have employed them upon this principle2 although the same may be said of ,titian1 ,correggio1 ,paulo ,veronese1 and all the best colourists4 ,being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and neutrality1 browns equally contrast colour and shade4 ,this accounts for their vast importance in painting1 and the necessity of preserving them distinct from other colours1 to which they give foulness in mixture2 and to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured objects4 ,the tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture4 ,brown by consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty1 as opposed to fair or clean2 and hence brown1 which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in relation to light1 is to be avoided in mixture with light colours4 ,yet is it an example of the wisdom of nature's ,author that brown is rendered1 like green1 a prevailing hue1 and in particular an earth colour1 as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness of the sky4 ,this tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and toning1 as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments and colours so called4 ,it was the fertility and abundance of browns that caused our great landscape-colourist ,wilson1 when a friend went exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown1 to check him in his characteristic way1 with--,i'm sorry for it3 we have gotten too many of them already4 ,nevertheless1 fine transparent browns are obviously very valuable4 ,if red or blue in excess be added to brown1 it falls into the other semi-neutral classes1 marrone or gray4 ,the wide acceptation of the term brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours1 since broken colours in which red1 c4 predominate1 have been improperly called brown4 ,that term1 therefore1 should be confined to the semi-neutral colours1 compounded of1 or like in hue to1 either the primary yellow1 the secondary orange1 or the tertiary citrine1 with a black4 ,the general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds will consequently be more or less purple or blue4 ,the number of browns is great1 as may be seen by the following list4 ,this list1 however1 is good1 and includes a considerable proportion of permanent pigments4 #bda4 ,,asphaltum1 ,asphalt1 ,bitumen1 ,mineral ,pitch1 ,jew's ,pitch1 ,antwerp ,brown1 ,liquid ,asphaltum1 c41 is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which1 rising liquid to the surface of the ,lacus ,asphaltites or ,asphaltic ,lake 7the ,dead ,sea7 concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and sun1 and1 floating in masses to the shores1 is gathered by the ,arabs4 ,the ,french give it an additional name from the region of the lake1 to wit1 ,bitumen of ,judea2 and with the ,english1 from the same cause1 it has the alias of ,jew's pitch4 ,asphaltum is not so called1 however1 after the lake1 as is asserted by a writer in the ,encyclopdia3 it is just the reverse--,pliny says1 ,the ,asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen 7in ,greek1 asphaltos72 and hence its name4 ,a substance resembling asphalt is found at ,neufchtel in ,switzerland1 and in other parts of ,europe4 ,a specimen of the native bitumen1 brought from ,persia1 and of which the author made trial1 had a powerful scent of garlic when rubbed4 ,in the fire it softened without flowing1 and burnt with a lambent flame2 did not dissolve by heat in turpentine1 but ground easily as a pigment in pale drying oil1 affording a fine deep transparent brown colour1 resembling that of commercial asphaltum2 dried firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone1 and worked admirably both in water and oil4 ,asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water1 for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial4 ,the former1 however1 is now seldom to be met with1 the varieties employed on the palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters1 distilled for the sake of their essential oils4 ,these residua are all black and glossy like common pitch1 which differs from them only in having been less acted upon by fire1 and thence in being softer4 ,at present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the distillation of coal at the gas manufactories1 and is chiefly confined to oil-painting1 being first dissolved in turpentine1 which fits it for glazing and shading4 ,its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are lures to its free use with many artists1 notwithstanding the certain destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed1 owing to its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the atmosphere2 but for which1 and a slight liability to blacken1 it would be a most beautiful1 durable1 and eligible pigment4 ,the solution of asphaltum in turpentine1 united with drying oil by heat1 or the bitumen torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil1 acquires a firmer texture1 but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty4 ,if common asphaltum1 as usually prepared with turpentine1 be used with some addition of ,vandyke brown1 umber1 or ,cappah brown ground in drying oil1 it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed to crack4 ,nevertheless1 asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment1 and all the faults of a bad varnish are to be guarded against in employing it4 ,it is common to call the solution in turpentine ,asphaltum1 and the mixture with drying-oil ,bitumen3 the latter is likewise known as ,antwerp ,brown4 ,a preparation for the use of water-colour artists is employed under the name of ,liquid ,asphaltum4 #bdb4 ,,bistre is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires1 whence it derives a strong pyroligneous scent4 ,it is a very powerful citrine-brown1 washes well1 and has a clearness suited to architectural subjects4 ,its use is confined to water-colour painting1 in which it was much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading sketches1 before the general application of ,indian ink to such purposes4 ,of a wax-like texture1 it is perfectly durable1 but unfitted for oil1 drying therein with the greatest difficulty4 ,a substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages where peat is the constant fuel burnt2 which1 purified by solution and evaporation1 yields a fine bistre1 similar to the ,scotch4 ,all kinds of bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere4 #bdc4 ,,bone ,,brown and ,ivory ,brown are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout4 ,though much esteemed by some artists1 they are not quite eligible pigments1 being bad driers in oil1 the only vehicle in which they are now used4 ,moreover1 their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil when exposed to the action of strong light1 or mixed in tint with white lead4 ,the palest of these colours are the most opaque3 the deepest are more durable1 and most so when approaching black4 ,neither bone nor ivory brown is often employed1 but the former may be occasionally applied in forming clear1 silvery1 warm grays1 in combination with zinc white4 #bdd4 ,,burnt ,,umber is what its name denotes1 and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue than the raw umber4 ,a quiet brown1 it affords clear and warm shadows1 but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth4 ,it washes and works capitally in water1 and dries quickly in oil1 in which it is employed as a siccative4 ,perfectly stable in either vehicle1 it may sometimes be substituted for ,vandyke brown1 is eligible in fresco1 and invaluable in buildings4 ,where the lakes of madder require saddening1 the addition of burnt umber increases their powers1 and improves their drying in oil4 ,it contains manganese and iron1 and may be produced artificially4 ,the old ,italians called it falsalo4 #bde4 ,,caledonian ,,brown is a permanent native pigment1 the use of which is confined to oil4 ,a magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency1 it is marked by great depth and richness1 and will be found serviceable where a powerful brown of the burnt ,sienna class is required4 #bdf4 ,,cappah ,,brown1 or ,cappagh ,brown1 is likewise a colour peculiar to oil4 ,it is a species of bog-earth or peat1 mixed with manganese in various proportions1 and found on the estate of ,lord ,audley at ,cappagh1 near ,cork4 ,the specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light weight1 friable texture1 and dark colour2 while those which contain more of the metal are heavy and paler4 ,as pigments1 the peaty ,cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in colour4 ,a prompt drier in oil1 its surface rivels during drying where it lies thick4 ,the other and metallic sort is a more opaque1 a lighter and warmer brown pigment1 which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or thick layer4 ,the first may be regarded as a superior ,vandyke brown1 the second as a superior umber4 ,the two extreme kinds should be distinguished as light and deep ,cappah browns2 the former excellent for dead colouring and grounds1 the latter for glazing and graining4 ,these pigments work well in oil and varnish2 they do not1 however1 keep their place while drying in oil by fixing the oil1 like the driers of lead1 but run4 ,under the names of ,euchrome and ,mineral ,brown1 they have been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting4 #bdg4 ,,cassel ,,earth1 ,terre de ,cassel1 or1 corruptly1 ,castle ,earth1 is specially an oil pigment1 similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue4 ,it is an earth containing bitumen1 a substance which1 with pit-coal1 lignite or brown coal1 jet1 petroleum or rock oil1 naphtha1 c41 is looked upon as a product of the decomposition of organic matter1 beneath the surface of the earth1 in situations where the conditions of contact with water1 and almost total exclusion of atmospheric air1 are fulfilled4 ,deposited at the bottom of seas1 lakes1 or rivers1 and subsequently covered up by accumulations of clay and sand1 the organic tissue undergoes a kind of fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced4 ,the true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action of subterranean heat2 and very closely resemble some of the products yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies4 ,rich as is the tone of colour of ,cassel earth1 it is apt to lose this in some measure on exposure to light4 ,mrime remembers to have seen a head1 the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth alone1 and partly with a mixture of the earth and white2 yet the hair where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with the brown1 the white having fixed the colour4 ,to compensate for its thus fading1 it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent1 such as umber and lamp black4 ,like all bituminous earths1 it needs the strongest drying oil4 ,by calcination1 a greater degree of intensity may be imparted to the colour1 and perhaps a little more solidity4 ,in landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of foregrounds and the trunks of trees1 as well as for painting cavernous rocks or deep recesses in architecture4 ,compounded with burnt lake and a little ,prussian blue1 it gives a black the most profound4 #bdh4 ,,chalon',s ,,brown is a water-colour pigment1 transparent and inclining to red2 deep1 full1 and very rich4 ,on exposure to light it becomes less russet1 but is otherwise strictly stable4 #bdi4 ,,cologne ,,earth1 incorrectly called ,cullen's ,earth1 is a native bituminous earth1 containing less bitumen than ,cassel earth1 and therefore drying more quickly4 ,darker than that variety1 it is less transparent1 and covers better4 ,in its general qualities it resembles ,vandyke brown1 except that in combination with white1 it affords a range of cooler brown tints4 ,useful for the shadows of buildings1 it does not wash so well as sepia1 and is preferred occasionally on that account4 ,by some it has been called durable1 by others branded as fugacious4 ,according to ,bouvier1 brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six months1 all the brown vanishing1 and nothing remaining but a few black lines of the sketch4 ,as it is similar in composition to ,cassel earth1 the safest course would be to mix it with umber1 and not to employ it alone4 ,calcined1 it acquires a reddish hue4 #bej4 ,,indelible ,,brown ,,ink4 ,although this cannot be classed as a pigment1 yet1 being very useful in water-colours1 it may be proper to describe its qualities4 ,the ink is a rich brown fluid1 and1 as its name imports1 is indelibly fixed on the paper as soon as it is dry2 thus allowing the artist to work or wash over it repeatedly1 without its being disturbed4 ,if diluted with water to its faintest tint1 it still continues to retain its indelible properties undiminished4 ,it is generally used with a reed pen1 and employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines4 ,various brown inks1 principally solutions of bistre and sepia1 were adopted in sketching by ,claude1 ,rembrandt1 and many of the old masters4 ,in modern times1 a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists1 known as ,liquid ,prout's ,brown1 has been extensively employed4 ,this contains less fixative than the indelible ink1 and is the vehicle with which nearly all ,samuel ,prout's drawings were executed4 #bea4 ,,leitch',s ,,brown is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting4 ,a most beautiful olive brown1 soft and rich1 it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage tints and the like1 either alone or compounded with burnt ,sienna or cadmium orange4 ,transparent and clear in its washes1 this is a most serviceable colour in landscape generally4 #beb4 ,,mixed ,,brown can be produced in endless variety1 either by adding a warm colour to black1 such as yellow1 orange1 or citrine1 or else by combining the three primaries1 secondaries1 or tertiaries in suitable proportions4 ,by consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those classes1 and by referring to the chapter on ,black1 it will be seen that no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required4 ,for example1 there may be formed from the primaries1 a compound of aureolin1 rose madder1 and ultramarine2 or from the secondaries1 a mixture of cadmium orange1 viridian1 and madder purple4 ,of course1 as with other mixed tints1 the brown hue can be furnished not only by direct compounding of the colours on the palette1 but by laying one colour over the other on the paper or canvass1 or by stippling4 #bec4 ,,mummy1 ,mummy ,brown1 or ,egyptian ,brown1 is a bituminous product mixed with animal remains1 brought from the catacombs of ,egypt1 where liquid bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming4 ,by a slow chemical change1 it has combined during so many ages with substances which give it1 as a rule1 a more solid and lasting texture than simple asphaltum4 ,generally resembling the latter in its other properties and uses as a pigment1 mummy is often substituted for it1 being less liable to crack or move on the canvass4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities2 and as from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it1 but little reliance should be placed on this brown4 ,mummy belongs to the class of pigments which are either good or bad1 according as they turn out4 ,on the whole1 we agree with the ,american artist1 who has been more than once quoted in these pages1 that nothing is to be gained by smearing one's canvass with a part1 perhaps1 of the wife of ,potiphar4 ,with a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober character1 we likewise hold with ,bouvier1 that it is not particularly prudent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead bodies1 which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they may be united4 ,the use of mummy is now confined to oil1 in which1 says ,mr4 ,carmichael1 a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack4 ,if this be the case1 the compound would be preferable to either separate4 #bed4 ,,prussian ,,brown is an iron oxide1 containing more or less alumina1 and prepared by calcining an aluminous ,prussian blue1 or treating an aluminous ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali4 ,possessing the nature and properties of burnt ,sienna1 it is transparent1 permanent1 and dries well in oil4 ,of an orange hue1 it is neither so rich nor so powerful as that pigment1 and is better employed as a glaze than in body4 #bee4 ,,sepia1 ,liquid ,sepia1 ,seppia1 or ,animal thiops1 is named after the sepia or cuttle-fish1 also called the ink-fish1 from its affording a dark liquid1 which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients4 ,all the species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid1 sometimes quite black1 which they emit to obscure the water1 when it is wanted to favour their escape from danger1 or1 by concealing their approach1 to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey4 ,the liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles1 intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue1 and is capable of being so widely spread1 than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several thousand ounces of water4 ,from this liquid1 brought chiefly from the ,adriatic1 but likewise obtainable from our own coasts1 is derived the pigment sepia1 as well as1 partially1 the ,indian ink of the ,chinese4 ,sepia is a powerful dusky brown1 of a fine texture1 transparent1 works admirably in water1 combines cordially with other pigments1 and is very permanent4 ,it is much used as a water-colour1 and for making drawings in the manner of bistre and ,indian ink2 but is not employed in oil1 as it dries therein very reluctantly4 ,extremely clear in its pale tints1 and perhaps the best washing colour known1 sepia must be used with caution1 or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades1 so strong is its colouring property4 ,mixed with indigo1 or1 preferably1 ,prussian blue and black1 it is eligible for distant trees1 for a general shadow tint in light backgrounds1 and for the shade of white linen or white draperies4 ,with madder red it forms a fine hue1 somewhat resembling brown madder1 and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically excellent black4 ,sometimes alone and sometimes in combination with lamp black1 or madder red and ,prussian blue saddened by the black1 it will be found useful in dark foreground boats1 rocks1 near buoys1 sea-weed1 c4 ,compounded with aureolin1 sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable neutral greens for landscape2 and mixed with ,prussian blue1 affords low olive greens1 which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the addition of black4 ,for hills and mountains in mid-distance1 sepia combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service2 or1 for the dark markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams1 the same compound without the cobalt4 ,mixed with purple madder1 it furnishes a fine tint for the stems and branches of trees2 and with ,french blue and madder red gives a really good black4 ,compounds of sepia and yellow ochre1 gamboge1 raw ,sienna1 or cobalt and aureolin1 are severally useful4 ,a rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder red1 burnt ,sienna1 and sepia2 a tint which may be modified by omitting the sepia or the ,sienna1 or reducing the proportions of either4 ,for ,dutch craft1 this tint and its variations are of great value4 ,a wash of sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour4 #bef4 ,,warm ,,sepia is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue1 and is intended for drawings where it would be difficult to keep the whole work of the same tint1 unless the compound were made in the cake of colour4 #beg4 ,,roman ,,sepia is a preparation similar to the preceding1 but with a yellow instead of a red cast4 #beh4 ,,vandyke ,,brown4 ,this pigment1 hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name it bears1 is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine1 deep1 semi-transparent brown colour4 ,the pigment so much esteemed and used by ,vandyke is said to have been brought from ,cassel2 an assertion which seems to be justified by a comparison of ,cassel earth with the browns of his pictures4 ,gilpin in his ,essays on ,picturesque ,beauty1 remarks that ,in the tribe of browns--in oil-painting1 one of the finest earths is known1 at the colour shops1 by the name of ,castle-earth1 or ,vandyke's brown4 ,the ,vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre1 purified by grinding and washing over4 ,apt to vary in hue1 it is durable both in water and oil1 but1 like all bituminous earths1 dries tardily as a rule in the latter vehicle4 ,clear in its pale tints1 deep and glowing in shadows1 in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up3 for this reason1 where it is necessary to lay on a great body of it1 the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake4 ,with madder red1 the brown gives a fine tint1 most useful as a warm shadow colour2 and with ,prussian blue1 clear1 very sober neutral greens for middle distances4 ,in banks and roads1 ,vandyke brown is the general colour for dragging over the surface1 to give roughness of texture3 compounded with yellow ochre1 it affords a good ground tint1 and with purple madder a rich shadow colour4 ,in sunrise and sunset clouds1 a mixture of the brown with cobalt yields a cold neutral green1 adapted for those clouds at the greatest distance from the sun4 ,for foliage tints1 aureolin1 ,french blue1 and ,vandyke brown1 will be found of service2 or as a glaze over such tints1 the yellow and the brown4 ,with raw ,sienna1 brown madder1 ,payne's gray1 gamboge1 and ,roman ochre1 this brown is useful4 ,in a water-colour winter scene1 when the trees are denuded of foliage1 the net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given with cobalt and ,vandyke brown1 used rather dry1 and applied with a brush having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them through a fine-tooth comb before working4 ,grass is likewise represented readily by this means1 and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff or in like positions4 ,the ,campania ,brown of the old ,italian painters was a similar earth4 #bei4 ,,verona ,,brown1 a pigment peculiar to oil painting1 is a native ferruginous earth4 ,a citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens1 it forms with terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and permanence4 #bfj4 ,,yellow ,,madder1 ,cory's ,yellow ,madder1 or ,cory's ,madder1 is classed among the browns for the same reason that ,italian ,pink was ranked among the yellows4 ,it was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow1 brilliant and pure1 exists as a pigment at the present day1 and certainly this preparation can lay no claim to the title4 ,except in name1 it is an orange-brown of the burnt ,sienna hue1 and might therefore with more reason have been called ,orange ,madder4 ,it is a good and permanent colour1 rich and transparent1 at present used only in oil1 we believe1 and chiefly as a glaze4 99 99 99 99 99 #bfa4 ,cadmium ,brown4 ,by igniting the white carbonate of cadmium1 among other methods1 a cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable1 of a very clear and beautiful colour if the process be well conducted4 ,it is1 however1 not eligible as a pigment1 owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the air4 ,in water1 especially1 we have found this brown so eagerly absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more a carbonate1 and as purely white as before4 ,the same result is observable when the powder is exposed3 some shown at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1 on a glass stand1 had to be removed1 its label marked ',cadmium ,brown' being at last found attached to a sample of cadmium white4 ,in oil1 the conversion takes place less readily1 that vehicle having the property of protecting1 to some extent1 pigments from oxidation4 ,it is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown slowly but surely changes to white4 #bfb4 ,catechu ,browns4 ,catechu is an extract of the ,khair tree or acacia catechu of ,bombay1 ,bengal1 and other parts of ,india4 ,with the exception of such earthy matters as are communicated to it during the preparation1 or are added purposely as adulterants1 catechu is entirely soluble both in water and alcohol4 ,an aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour1 and gives the following results3--protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and persalts greenish-brown precipitates2 salts of tin and lead yield brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively2 while acetate of copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues4 ,to our knowledge1 none of these have been introduced as pigments1 but a brown prepared by ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair some years back from the catechu bark has been described as exceedingly rich1 transparent1 and beautiful2 and recommended for painting if not too thinly applied4 #bfc4 ,chrome ,browns are produced by various methods of several hues1 tints1 and shades1 both by wet and dry processes4 ,we have obtained them by many methods1 of different degrees of permanence4 ,some very intense in colour have stood well1 while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened1 but none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides4 ,presuming a paucity of browns1 these preparations of chromium would be worth further attention2 but1 with the objection of being--for browns--somewhat expensive1 they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted4 #bfd4 ,copper ,brown1 varying in hue1 is obtainable1 in the form of prussiate1 c41 but cannot be recommended1 however made4 #bfe4 ,french ,prussian-,brown4 ,according to ,bouvier1 a colour similar to that of bistre1 and rivalling asphaltum in transparency1 is produced by partially charring a moderately dark ,prussian blue2 neither one too intense1 which gives a heavy and opaque brownish-red1 nor one too aluminous and bright1 which yields a feeble and yellowish tint4 ,yielding to a rapture we cannot wholly share1 he describes its qualities in the warmest terms4 ,in his opinion1 it has the combined advantages of asphaltum1 mummy1 and raw ,sienna1 without their drawbacks4 ,i cannot1 he says1 commend too highly the use of this charming bistre-tint3 it is as beautiful and good in water as in oil1 perfectly transparent1 of a most harmonious tone1 and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing4 ,closely resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency1 this brown is preferable to it in every point of view4 ,as the colour is very quickly and easily obtained1 the artist can judge for himself of its proper value4 ,m4 ,bouvier's process is1 to place upon a clear fire a large iron spoon1 into which1 when red hot1 some pieces of the ,prussian blue are put about the size of a small nut3 these soon begin to crackle1 and throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot4 ,the spoon is then removed1 and allowed to cool3 if suffered to remain too long on the fire1 the right colour will not be produced4 ,when the product is crushed small1 some of it will be found blackish1 and the rest of a yellowish brown3 this is quite as it should be4 ,chemically1 the result is a mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised prussiate4 #bff4 ,gambogiate of ,iron4 ,dr4 ,scoffern read a paper at the ,meeting of the ,british ,association of ,science1 in #ahea1 describing this combination as a rich brown1 like asphaltum1 but richer1 as well as more durable in oil4 ,it has not been1 however1 employed as a pigment1 or at least is not at present4 #bfg4 ,hypocastanum1 or ,chestnut ,brown1 is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut4 ,this now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour1 warmer than brown pink1 and very durable both in water and oil2 in the latter of which it dries moderately well4 #bfh4 ,iron ,browns1 native or artificial1 are well represented on the palette1 but nothing would be easier than to increase their number4 ,of all metals1 iron is the richest source of colour1 capable of affording all colours with the exception of white4 ,none of them1 however1 are so numerous as the browns1 a description of which would fill this chapter4 ,suffice it to state they are obtainable of every hue1 tint1 and shade1 and are generally permanent4 ,they are made on a large scale and sold under various names for house-painting1 c4 #bfi4 ,manganese ,brown is an oxide of manganese1 which is quite durable both in water and oil1 and dries admirably in the latter4 ,a fine1 deep1 semi-opaque brown of good body1 it is deficient in transparency1 but might be useful for glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it1 and as a local colour in draperies1 c4 #bgj4 ,nickel ,brown4 ,a very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel1 bright and clear in its pale washes1 and of some richness in oil4 ,unless thoroughly washed1 it has a tendency to greenness in time4 #bga4 ,ochre ,browns4 ,the slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre1 with its merely temporary effect thereon1 was observed in the eighth chapter1 where allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium on the earth4 ,sulphur alone1 and in the dry state1 ignited with yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns1 varying in hue1 and of greater or less durability4 ,those browns1 however1 which we have made by this process1 although standing well in a book1 have not withstood exposure to light and air4 ,they have all become pale1 whitish1 or of a drab cast1 evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur1 or rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination4 ,practically1 therefore1 ochres have an antipathy to sulphur1 moist or dry1 by itself or in combination2 and are1 so to speak1 the disinfectants of the palette4 ,ever waging war against sulphurous vapours1 the native earths serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air1 whether they be used alone1 or employed in admixture with such pigments as are injured thereby4 #bgb4 ,purple ,brown is a refuse manufacture from ,indian red washings4 ,a dull1 heavy1 coarse colour1 it belongs to the class of common pigments which are unexceptionable for decorative painting1 but scarcely suited to the higher branches of art4 ,as this work professes simply to treat of artistic pigments1 that have been1 are1 or might be1 more than a passing reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters1 c41 would be out of place4 #bgc4 ,rubens' ,brown1 still in use in the ,netherlands under this appellation1 is an earth of a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the ,vandyke brown of ,english commerce3 it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the latter pigment4 ,beautiful and durable1 it works well both in water and oil1 and much resembles the brown employed by ,teniers4 #bgd4 ,uranium ,brown4 ,yellow1 red1 orange1 green1 have been previously noticed as being derived from uranium1 and to this list of colours may now be added brown4 ,a warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced1 which possesses considerable permanence1 although not equal to that of uranium yellow4 #bge4 ,zinc ,brown4 ,a yellow-brown1 so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with the ochrous colours of that denomination1 is made by combining zinc with another metal by the aid of heat4 ,experience tells us that it is1 chemically1 a thoroughly good and stable pigment4 ,safely to be used in admixture1 it is a clear1 bright colour1 affording good greens by compounding with blue4 ,of no great power1 and semi-opaque1 this yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at present used1 but is probably too much like them in hue and other properties to be of any special value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the preceding1 there are those browns of a citrine or russet cast which are elsewhere described1 such as raw umber1 madder brown1 c4 ,moreover1 there are numberless other varieties1 obtainable from most of the metals1 from many organic substances1 and from a combination of the two4 ,of all colours1 a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered3 success may not be met with in seeking a yellow1 red1 or blue1 or an orange1 green1 or purple2 but it is strange if in the course of one's experiments a brown does not turn up4 ,no difficulty1 therefore1 would have been found in greatly extending the present list2 but it was felt that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices of a colour1 with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature and art1 and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by admixture4 ,with the exception of ivory and bone browns1 and perhaps ,cassel and ,cologne earths1 all the browns commonly employed may be considered more or less durable4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,on ,,the ,,semi-,,neutral1 ,,marrone4 ,we have adopted the term ,,marrone1 or maroon as it is sometimes called1 for our second and middle semi-neutral1 as applicable to a class of impure colours composed of black and red1 black and purple1 or black and russet1 or of black and any other denomination in which red predominates4 ,it is a mean between the warm1 broken1 semi-neutral browns1 and the cold1 semi-neutral grays4 ,marrone is practically to shade1 what red is to light2 and its relations to other colours are those of red1 c41 when we invert the scale from black to white4 ,it is therefore a following1 or shading1 colour of red and its derivatives2 and hence its accordances1 contrasts1 and expressions agree with those of red degraded2 consequently red added to dark brown converts it into marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail4 ,in smaller proportions1 red gives to lighter browns the names of bay1 chestnut1 sorrel1 c4 ,owing to confused nomenclature1 most of the colours and pigments of this class have been assigned to other denominations--puce1 murrey1 morelle1 chocolate1 columbine1 pavonazzo1 c41 being variously ranked among reds1 browns1 and purples4 ,this vagueness also accounts for pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they bear1 and explains why ,brown ,ochre has been classed among the yellows1 ,italian ,pink among the same1 ,brown ,pink among the citrines1 c4 ,as adapted to the walls of a picture gallery1 marrone1 more or less deep and inclined to crimson1 is one of the best colours known4 ,for the reason that each colour has its antagonist1 and consequently may affect a picture well or ill1 according to its tone or general hue1 there can be no universally good colour for such a purpose4 ,what suits one picture or style of painting may not suit another3 with a blood-red sunset1 for instance1 or portrait with crimson drapery1 marrone would be out of place4 ,but as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate background1 all that can be done in large collections is to study the general effect1 sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the many4 ,if cool-coloured landscapes predominate1 with blue skies and green foliage1 it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably contrasts the former1 and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets off the latter4 ,if portraits and historic paintings prevail1 which are in general of a warm advancing nature1 then a modest green may prove eligible4 ,and if engravings form the staple1 the grey hue of the print is best opposed by a bright fawn colour4 ,where several rooms are devoted to pictures1 a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general hue1 and placing them in different chambers3 in each there will be a prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures1 and each can be painted or papered accordingly4 ,however1 whether this plan is adopted or not--and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony--care should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other1 that is1 to let it be seen4 ,pictures crammed together kill each other3 without a pin's point between them1 a speck of wall space visible1 much of the illusion is destroyed4 ,it is only1 says ,chevreul1 the intelligent connoisseur and amateur who1 on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery1 experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce2 because they alone know the best point of view1 and because1 while their attention is fixed on the work they are observing1 they alone end by no longer seeing the surrounding pictures1 or even the frame of that one they contemplate4 ,amid a moving crowd of people1 inseparable from nearly all public exhibitions1 it becomes difficult for the visitor1 intelligent or otherwise1 thus to concentrate his attention on one work4 ,as far1 therefore1 as space will allow1 paintings should be kept separate3 larger rooms1 or fewer pictures1 are what is wanted4,b ,from this digression1 pardonable1 let us hope1 because in the interests of art1 we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments4 #bgf4 ,,brown ,,madder is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown1 bearing the same relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour citrine4 ,one of the most valuable products of the madder root1 it has supplied a great desideratum1 and in water especially is indispensable1 both as a local and auxiliary colour4 ,of intense depth and transparency1 if made with skill1 it affords the richest description of shadows1 either alone or compounded with blue1 and the most delicate pale tints4 ,being quite permanent1 a good drier1 and working most kindly1 it is a pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape painter's notice4 ,containing a large proportion of red1 it is eligible1 with yellow or blue1 for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone4 ,it may be used tolower red curtains or draperies1 and for the darkest touches in flesh4 ,mixed with cobalt1 it forms a fine shadow colour for distant objects2 and with indigo or ,prussian blue and black1 is serviceable for the shades of those nearer the foreground4 ,it is similarly useful when mixed with black1 and will be found advantageous in rusty iron1 as anchors1 chains1 c4 ,for the deepest and richest parts of foregrounds it may be employed alone1 as also for deep dark cracks and fissures1 or strong markings in other near objects1 as boats and figures4 ,with ,french blue1 or cobalt and white1 a set of beautiful warm or cold grays may be obtained1 in proportion as the brown or blue predominates4 ,compounded with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin1 it gives fine autumnal russet greens4 ,a good purple for soft aerial clouds is furnished by cobalt and brown madder1 or for stormy clouds by the brown1 ,prussian blue1 and black3 an equally good slate colour is obtained from cobalt1 sepia1 and the brown4 ,for glazing over foliage and herbage1 a mixture of the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted2 and for brooks and running streams compounds of this brown with raw ,sienna1 cobalt and raw ,sienna1 ,vandyke brown1 and ,french blue1 will each be found useful4 ,black sails are well represented by burnt ,sienna1 ,french blue1 and brown madder2 and red sails by light red or burnt ,sienna with the brown4 #bgg4 ,,mixed ,,marrone4 ,marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and shades by the mixture variously of red1 and black or brown2 or of any other warm colours in which red and black predominate4 ,a reference to the permanent brown1 black1 and red or reddish pigments will show to what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture4 ,in compounding marrone1 the brown or black may be itself compounded1 before the addition of the red1 reddish-purple1 or russet1 requisite for its conversion4 99 99 99 99 99 #bgh4 ,chica ,marrone4 ,chica1 the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter1 is extracted from the ,bignonia chica1 by boiling its leaves in water1 decanting the decoction1 and allowing it to cool1 when a red matter falls down1 which is formed into cakes and dried4 ,insoluble in cold water1 it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies2 is precipitated from alkaline solutions by acids without alteration2 and is bleached by chlorine4 ,another variety of the same substance1 obtained from ,para in ,brazil1 and known as crajuru1 carajuru1 or caracuru1 behaves in a similar manner4 ,this is said to be superior to the former sort4 ,a chica pigment1 brought from ,south ,america1 and examined by the author1 was of a soft powdery texture1 and rich marrone colour4 ,somewhat resembling ,rubens' madder in hue1 it was equal in body and transparency to the carmine of cochineal1 though by no means approaching it in beauty1 or even in durability4 ,simply exposed to the light of a window1 without sun1 the colour was soon changed and destroyed4 ,conclusive evidence as this is that the sample submitted to ,mr4 ,field was worthless1 it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived from chica1 by different modes and from different kinds1 are equally valueless as pigments4 #bgi4 ,chocolate ,lead1 or ,marrone ,red1 is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with about a third of copper oxide1 and reducing the compound to a uniform tint by levigation4 ,it is of a chocolate hue1 strong opaque body1 and dries freely4 ,like all lead and copper colours1 it is blackened by impure air4 #bhj4 ,cobalt ,marrone4 ,there is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown1 which1 like many other colours1 is more beautiful while moist than when dried4 ,permanent1 if carefully made and most thoroughly washed1 it is an expensive compound1 and must rank among those colours which are interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio4 #bha4 ,madder ,marrone1 or ,marrone ,lake1 was a preparation of madder1 of great depth1 transparency1 and stability4 ,working well in water1 glazing and drying in oil1 and in every respect a good pigment1 it was one of those colours which gradually--and often1 as in this case1 unfortunately--become obsolete1 on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of other pigments4 ,there was likewise a deeper kind1 called ,purple ,black4 ,a good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either rose madder1 madder carmine1 or ,rubens' madder1 with a slight portion of black or blue if required4 #bhb4 ,mars ,marrone4 ,under the heading of a ,new ,marrone ,pigment there appeared some months back in a chemical journal the following3--,the blood-red compound obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution can be made 7apparently at least7 to combine with resin thus3 ,to a concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of potassium in ether1 an etherial solution of common resin is added1 and the whole well shaken together4 ,there is then mixed with it a sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate1 when it will be found1 after the mixture has stood a few hours1 that the whole or nearly the whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated resin1 forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question4 ,when this coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water1 the liquid is not the least coloured2 whence it is inferred that the red iron compound has chemically united itself with the resin4 ,the foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest than of practical utility4 ,the blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of iron is in itself not stable3 when the red solution of this salt is so exposed to the sun1 that the rays pass through the glass jar containing it1 it is rendered colourless1 but the colour is retained or restored when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid2 so that when a properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in direct sunshine1 it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the forenoon1 when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to the air1 gradually restore the colour1 which attains its maximum about two o'clock4 ,moreover1 the solution is immediately decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents1 as well as by alkalies and many acids4 ,it is scarcely probable that the union of the red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from change2 and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be a chameleon colour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,failures in the process of burning carmines1 and preparing the purple of gold1 frequently afford good marrones4 ,compounds more or less of that hue are likewise furnished by copper1 mercury1 c4 ,some ochres incline to marrone when calcined3 indeed we have remarked in many instances that the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time2 and that several of the primary and secondary colours may1 by different degrees of burning1 be converted into their analogous secondary1 tertiary1 or semi-neutral colours4 ,the one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed1 brown madder1 is permanent4 ,,footnotes3 ,b ,this was written previous to the opening of the new rooms of the ,royal ,academy at ,burlington ,house4 ,in these1 among other improvements1 the subject of wall space has been considered4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,on ,,the ,,semi-,,neutral1 ,,gray4 ,of the tribe of semi-neutral colours1 ,,gray is third and last1 being nearest in relation to black4 ,in its common acceptation1 and that in which we here use it1 gray1 as was observed in the third chapter1 denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue2 whence we have blue grays1 olive grays1 green grays1 purple grays1 and grays of all hues1 in which blue predominates2 but no yellow or red grays1 the prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown and marrone1 of which gray is the natural opposite4 ,in this sense the semi-neutral ,gray is distinguished from the neutral ,grey1 which springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and white4 ,between gray and grey1 however1 there is no intermediate1 since where colour ends in the one1 neutrality commences in the other1 and vice vers4 ,hence the natural alliance of the semi-neutral gray--definable as a cool coloured grey--with black or shade2 an alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the synthesis of black1 so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of black and white1 so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent colour to the tints4 ,this explains why the tints of black and dark pigments are colder than their originals1 so much so as in some instances to answer the purposes of positive colours4 ,it accounts in some measure for the natural blueness of the sky1 yet not wholly1 for this is in part dependent1 by contrast1 upon the warm colour of sunshine to which it is opposed2 for1 if by any accident the light of nature should be rendered red1 the colour of the sky would not appear purple1 in consequence1 but green4 ,again1 if the sun shone green1 the sky would not be green1 but red inclined to purple2 and so would it be with all colours1 not according to the laws of composition1 but of contrast2 since1 if it were otherwise1 the golden rays of the sun would render a blue sky green4 ,the grays are the natural cold correlatives1 or contrasts1 of the warm semi-neutral browns1 as well as degradations of blue and its allies4 ,hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays1 and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art3 in both they comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring colours in skies1 distances1 carnations1 and the shadowings and reflections of pure light1 c4 ,gray is1 indeed1 the colour of space1 and has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture1 while it furnishes at the same time good connecting tints1 or media1 for harmonizing the general colouring4 ,consequently the grays are among the most essential hues of the art1 though they must not be suffered to predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it1 lest they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds2 yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective1 and proper ruling colours4 ,nature supplies these hues from the sky abundantly and effectively throughout landscape1 and ,rubens has employed them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring1 with fine natural perception in this branch of his art3 witness his works in the ,national ,gallery1 and in that of the ,luxembourg4 ,according to the foregoing relations1 grays favour the effects and force of warm colours1 which in their turn also give value to grays4 ,it is hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted1 enlivened1 and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the foreground1 gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle distances by demi-tints declining into gray2 a union which secures full value to the colours and objects1 and by reconciling opposites gives repose to the eye4 ,as a general rule1 it may be inferred that half of a picture should be of a neutral hue1 to ensure the harmony of the colouring2 or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light and shade4 #bhc4 ,,mineral ,,gray1 or ,mineral ,grey1 as it is often improperly spelt1 is obtainable from the lapis lazuli1 after the blue and ash have been worked out4 ,so derived1 it is a refuse article1 worthless if the stone has been skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine4 ,as this is now generally the case1 the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product1 but a lower species of ash1 a pale whitish blue with a grey cast4 ,possessing the permanence of ultramarine1 it may be regarded in colour as a very weak variety of that blue1 diluted with a large quantity of white slightly tinged by black4 ,a pigment peculiar to oil painting1 it is admirably adapted to that gray semi-neutrality1 the prevalence of which in nature has been just remarked4 ,for misty mornings1 cloudy skies1 and the like1 this gray will be found useful4 #bhd4 ,,mixed ,,gray is formed by compounding black and blue1 black and purple1 black and olive1 c42 and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder brown1 sepia1 c41 transparent mixtures which are much employed4 ,it should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals1 like the secondaries and tertiaries1 may be so compounded as to be permanent1 semi-stable1 or fugitive4 ,the due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted upon1 seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent occurrence4 ,these it is that lend such charm to the whole1 flowing1 as it were1 like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled surface of more decided hues4 ,in the work of every true artist--between whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the poet and the poetaster--there is sentiment as well as colour1 whether the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life4 ,this sentiment1 as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen1 is imparted in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality1 the compounding of which1 as time goes on1 will therefore affect a picture for good or for evil4 ,subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals1 which serves partly to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture4 ,brown ,black ,yellow ,orange ,red1 ,purple1 c4 ,citrine #b ,yellow ,red ,blue #b ,orange ,green ,purple #b ,citrine ,russet ,olive ,marrone ,black ,red ,purple-red ,russet #b ,red #b ,purple-red ,dark ,brown or ,black #b ,russet ,gray ,black ,blue ,purple-blue #b ,white ,olive #b ,blue #b ,purple-blue ,light ,brown1 or ,black #b ,white #b ,olive ,in the last division1 the ,white has been added to remind the reader that grays are coloured greys1 not coloured blacks2 and are therefore faint of hue4 ,this paleness1 however1 need not necessarily be produced by admixture with white3 it can be gained by means of thin washes4 ,as a pigment1 gray may be to all appearance black in bulk4 #bhe4 ,,neutral ,,tint1 or1 more correctly1 ,semi-,neutral ,tint1 is a compound shadow colour of a cool character4 ,it is permanent1 except that on exposure the gray is apt to become grey1 a change which may be prevented by a slight addition of ultramarine ash4 ,so protected1 it becomes serviceable in landscape for the extreme distance1 which1 it may be laid down as a general principle1 should be painted rather cold than otherwise4 ,blue being the principal compound of atmosphere1 it is of the utmost importance to obtain this in the first instance1 particularly as1 from its being only of a blue tint1 not blue colour1 it is so immediately altered and acted upon by subsequent washes2 whereas1 the blue tone once lost1 it will be found very difficult to be recovered4 ,wherever a picture is wanting in air effect1 the cause will1 upon examination1 be seen to rest entirely upon the absence of pure grays1 bordering upon a bluish tone1 not tending1 be it observed1 to brown or purple4 ,a bluish gray1 then1 of rather a cold tone1 such as the neutral tint1 is recommended as the prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances2 and1 as a rule1 it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as possible1 and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere4 #bhf4 ,,payne',s ,,gray resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume a grey cast by time1 but differs from it in having more lilac in its hue1 and being therefore of a warmer tone4 ,giving by itself a clear violet shadow1 it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of burnt ,sienna1 an admixture which1 whether the gray or ,sienna predominates1 affords useful tints4 ,compounded with light red or ,vandyke brown1 the gray is good for shipping and sails1 or the stems and branches of trees2 while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy leaves in high light1 also to very cold tones in foregrounds1 herbage1 c4 ,yellow ochre1 light red1 and ,payne's gray form a mixture for banks and roads2 the ochre1 gray1 and sepia1 a most beautiful tint for stones2 and brown madder and the gray1 a fine shade for the black head and feet of cattle4 ,alone1 the gray is serviceable for slate2 and compounded with light red1 for bricks or tiles in shadow4 #bhg4 ,,ultramarine ,,ash is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has been extracted4 ,although not equal in beauty1 and inferior in strength of colour to ultramarine1 it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade from light to dark1 and in hue from pale azure to cold blue4 ,with a grey cast1 it affords delicate and extremely tender tints1 not so positive as ultramarine1 but which1 as water-colours1 wash much better4 ,it furnishes grays softer1 purer1 and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh1 skies1 distances1 foliage1 shadows of drapery1 c4 than those composed of other blues1 with white and black1 which the old masters were wont to employ4 ,ultramarine1 however1 produces the same effects when broken with black and white1 and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring of a picture4 ,the ash1 compounded with lamp black1 gives a soft cold gray for dark louring clouds1 or for twilight away from the sun's influence4 ,alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains1 and with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the native phosphate of iron1 which has been already described in the tenth chapter under its name of ,blue ,ochre1 might have been classed among the grays1 being similar in colour to the deeper hues of ultramarine ashes4 ,powdered slate1 slate clays1 and several native earths1 likewise rank with grays2 but some of the earths we have tried are not durable1 being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron they contain4 ,it may be proper here to mention those other pigments1 known as tints1 which1 being the result of the experience of accredited masters in their peculiar modes of practice1 serve to facilitate the progress of their amateur pupils1 while they are more or less eligible for artists4 ,such are ,harding's and ,macpherson's ,tints1 composed of pigments which associate cordially1 and sold ready prepared in cakes and boxes for miniature and water painting4 ,of the four grays in use--mineral gray1 ultramarine ash1 neutral tint1 and ,payne's gray--the two first are quite unchangeable1 and the others sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,on ,,the ,,neutral1 ,,grey4 ,grey is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours1 standing between white and black4 ,true or normal grey is only obtainable by admixture of pure white with pure black1 various proportions of which afford numerous tones of pure grey4 ,in practice it may likewise be produced by a thin wash of black over white4 ,the neutral grey differs from the semi-neutral gray in not being coloured by any primary1 secondary1 tertiary1 or semi-neutral2 hence any blue1 purple1 olive1 or gray added to it1 at once destroys the neutrality of grey1 and converts it into gray4 ,thus easily defiled and changed in class1 grey is rather a theoretical than a practical colour4 ,to our knowledge1 there has never been a true grey pigment1 that is1 one composed exclusively of pure white and pure black2 the grays known to the palette as ,mineral ,grey and ,payne's ,grey having been incorrectly named4 ,practically1 the nearest approach to a normal grey is furnished by ,black ,lead1 which forms grey tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use1 and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by experienced artists4 ,being compounded of white and black1 grey partakes in some measure of the qualities of both those colours--for colours1 as a matter of convenience1 they must be called2 although white is often spoken of as no colour1 and black as the complete extinction of all colour4 ,with white predominant1 grey is used1 pure or coloured1 for the general lights of a picture2 just as1 with black predominant1 grey is employed1 pure or coloured1 for the shades4 ,it helps to subdue the absolute white1 and to make the absolute black conspicuous4 ,black and white are in some respects complementary to each other1 and when in contact1 appear to differ more from each other than when viewed separately3 both show with best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey1 normal or otherwise4 ,the primary colours1 also1 gain in brilliancy and purity by the proximity of grey4 ,with dark colours1 such as blue and violet1 and deep tones in general1 grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies2 while with the luminous colours1 such as red1 orange1 yellow1 and the light tints of green1 it forms harmonies of contrast4 ,although grey never produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours1 in most cases the association is dull and inferior to black and white4 ,the only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more happily than white is that with red and orange4 ,grey is inferior to both white and black with red and green1 red and yellow1 orange and yellow1 orange and green1 yellow and green2 and is not so good as white with yellow and blue4 ,in association with sombre colours1 such as blue and violet1 and with broken tones of luminous colours1 grey gives rise to harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white2 but if the colours do not combine well together1 it has the advantage of separating them from each other4 ,associated with two colours1 one sombre1 the other luminous1 grey will perhaps be better than white1 if white produces too strong a contrast of tone3 on the other hand1 grey will be preferable to black1 if that has the inconvenience of increasing too much the proportion of sombre colours4 ,grey associates more happily than black with orange and violet1 green and blue1 or green and violet4 #bhh4 ,,mixed ,,grey4 ,when a ray of solar light 7a sunbeam7 is passed through a prism of flint glass1 and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of white paper1 it is found to consist of numerous rays of different colours1 which are conveniently divided into six groups--red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 violet4 ,optically1 the union of red1 yellow1 and blue1 in proper proportions1 constitutes white light2 whether the rays of the three separate colours are mixed1 or of one with the other two in combination3 the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if it were mixed with blue and yellow1 because green is composed of blue and yellow4 ,consequently1 any primary mixed with a secondary composed of the other two primaries1 forms the complement of rays necessary to constitute or make up white light1 and vice vers4 ,there is1 however1 a very great difference between the results arising from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum1 and those from material colours or pigments4 ,when1 by means of a convex lens1 we reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced2 but when we mix coloured materials1 blues1 yellows1 and reds1 the compound is never white1 but grey or black2 even if these coloured pigments are taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the spectrum4 ,ultramarine1 our purest blue1 reflects red rays as well as blue rays2 aureolin1 our purest yellow1 reflects blue as well as yellow rays2 and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays4 ,now whenever the third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials1 it tends to form grey1 by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other coloured rays to neutralize it1 and the presence of this grey breaks or tarnishes the pure colour4 ,hence it is that to obtain a pure green1 a blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red1 and a yellow tinged with blue3 if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow tinged with red1 this latter colour would go to form some grey in the compound1 which would tarnish the green4 ,in like manner1 to produce pure orange1 neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue2 and similarly with pure purple1 neither the blue nor red should contain yellow4 ,as regards pigments1 then1 a proper mixture of yellow1 red1 and blue2 or of yellow and purple1 red and green1 or blue and orange2 or of orange1 green1 and purple1 affords black if sufficiently intense1 and grey if sufficiently diluted4 ,the black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin wash over a white ground1 or by the direct addition of white4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that suitable proportions of the component colours are essential4 ,when all three of the primaries1 for example1 are mixed together1 colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of equal strength and in right quantities3 if proper proportions are observed1 pure black or normal grey results2 but if not1 there will be produced a coloured black or a coloured grey1 an excess of one or two of the primaries giving rise to brown1 marrone1 or gray4 ,a reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded4 ,as these pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties1 no fixed rules can be given for their admixture3 to ensure neutrality1 practice and a correct eye are indispensable4 ,without perfect neutrality1 difficult to attain and rarely to be met with1 grey ceases to exist4 ,in pure white1 pure grey1 and pure black1 colour is1 so to speak1 conspicuous by its absence4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,the ,,neutral1 ,,black4 ,black is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours descending--the opposite extreme from white--the maximum of colour4 ,to be perfect1 it must be neutral with respect to colours individually1 and absolutely transparent1 or destitute of reflective power as regards light2 its use in painting being to represent shade or depths1 of which black is the element in a picture and in colours1 as white is of light4 ,as there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment1 black deteriorates all colours in deepening them1 as it does warm colours by partially neutralizing them1 but it combines less injuriously with cold colours4 ,though black is the antagonist of white1 yet added to it in minute portion1 it in general renders white more neutral1 solid1 and local1 with less of the character of light4 ,impure black is brown1 but black in its purity is a cold colour1 and communicates a coolness to all light colours2 thus it blues white1 greens yellow1 purples red1 and cools blue4 ,hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours1 and will do well to keep in mind--,the glow of sunshine and the cool of shade4 ,it is a fault of even some of our best colourists1 as evinced by their pictures1 to be too fond of black upon their palettes1 and thence to infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours4 ,with such it is a taste acquired from the study of old pictures2 but in nature hardly any object above ground is black1 or in daylight is rendered neutral thereby4 ,black1 therefore1 should be reserved for a local colour1 or employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead colouring4 ,as a local colour1 black has the effect of connecting or amassing surrounding objects1 and is the most retiring of all colours1 a property which it communicates to other colours in mixture4 ,it heightens the effect of warm as well as light colours1 by a double contrast when opposed to them1 and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep colours4 ,in mixture or glazing1 however1 these effects are reversed1 by reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black4 ,having1 therefore1 the double office of colour and of shade1 black is perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist1 both as to its use and avoidance4 ,it may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous4 ,however small a point of black may be1 it ought to catch the eye1 otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow4 ,all the ordinary shadows should be of some colour--never black1 nor approaching black1 they should be evidently and always of a luminous nature1 and the black should look strange among them2 never occurring except in a black object1 or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very centre of masses of shadow4 ,shadows of absolutely negative grey1 however1 may be beautifully used with white1 or with gold2 but still though the black thus1 in subdued strength1 becomes spacious1 it should always be conspicuous3 the spectator should notice this grey neutrality with some wonder1 and enjoy1 all the more intensely on account of it1 the gold colour and the white which it relieves4 ,of all the great colourists1 ,velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords3 his black is more precious than other people's crimson4 ,yet it is not simply black and white that must be made valuable1 rare worth must be given to each colour employed2 but the white and black ought to separate themselves quaintly from the rest1 while the other colours should be continually passing one into the other1 being all plainly companions in the same gay world2 while the white1 black1 and neutral grey should stand monkishly aloof in the midst of them4 ,crimson may be melted into purple1 purple into blue1 and blue into green1 but none of them must be melted into black4 ,all colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black1 consequently the whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black4 ,it is the same in the synthesis of white2 and1 with like relative consequence1 white includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting4 ,it follows that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour1 and hence their use as colours requires judgment and caution4 ,by due attention to the synthesis of black1 it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all colours1 to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the eye1 and its powers of contrast3 nevertheless1 we repeat1 it must be introduced with caution when hue is of greater importance than shade4 ,even when employed as a shadow1 without much judgment in its use1 black is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light2 and black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and predominate over other hues1 subduing the more delicate tints by their chemical bleaching power upon other colours1 and their own disposition to turn brown or dusky4 ,for these reasons deep and transparent colours1 which have darkness in their constitution1 are better adapted as a rule for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade4 ,many pictures of the early masters1 and especially of the ,roman and ,florentine schools1 evince the truth of our remarks2 and it is to be feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers into this defective employment of black4 ,black substances reflect a small quantity of white light1 which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black4 ,by 'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another colour to form white light2 thus1 green is the complementary of red1 blue of orange1 and yellow of violet1 or vice vers2 because green and red1 blue and orange1 and yellow and violet1 each make up the full complement of rays necessary to form white light4 ,briefly digressing1 we give the following mode of observing complementary colours3--,place a sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting diffused daylight,c into a room2 take a piece of coloured glass and so place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the surface of the paper2 then put an opaque object on the paper close to the coloured glass4 ,the shadow of this object will not appear black or of the colour of the glass1 as might be supposed1 but of its complementary colour2 thus if the glass is red1 the colour of the shadow will be green1 although the whole of the paper surrounding it appears red4 ,similarly1 if the glass is blue1 the shadow will appear orange2 if it is green1 the shadow will appear red2 and so with other colours4 ,it is absolutely essential1 however1 to the success of this experiment1 that the paper be also illuminated with the white light admitted from the other window4 ,it has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white light1 which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black4 ,if this colour is deep1 it gives rise to a luminous complementary1 such as orange1 or yellow1 and enfeebles the black2 while the other complementaries1 such as violet or green1 strengthen and purify it4 ,in colours associated with black1 if green is juxtaposed therewith1 its complementary red1 added to the black1 makes it seem rusty4 ,those colours which best associate with black are orange1 yellow1 blue1 and violet4 ,it would be well to remember that black1 being always deeper than the juxtaposed colour1 entails contrast of tone1 and tends to lower the tone of that colour4 ,most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring1 and owe their colour to the carbon they contain4 ,as the objects of vegetal and animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the action of fire1 black substances more or less fitted for pigments abound4 ,the following are the chief native and artificial black pigments1 or colours available as such3-- #bhi4 ,,black ,,lead1 ,plumbago1 or ,graphite1 contains in spite of its name no lead1 being simply a species of carbon or charcoal4 ,in most specimens iron is present1 varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent1 together with silica and alumina4 ,sometimes manganese and titanic acid are likewise found4 ,it is curious that carbon should occur in two distinct and very dissimilar forms--as diamond1 and as graphite2 one1 white1 hard1 and transparent2 the other1 black1 soft1 and opaque3 the artist1 therefore1 who uses a pigment of plumbago1 paints with nothing more or less than a black diamond4 ,the best graphite1 the finest and most valuable for pencils1 is yielded by the mine of ,borrowdale1 at the west end of ,derwent ,lake1 in ,cumberland1 where it was first wrought during the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,a kind of irregular vein traverses the ancient slate-beds of that district1 furnishing the carbon of an iron-grey colour1 metallic lustre1 and soft and greasy to the touch4 ,universally employed in the form of crayons1 c4 in sketching1 designing1 and drawing1 until of late years it was not acknowledged as a pigment3 yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it4 ,as a water-colour1 levigated in gum in the usual manner1 it may be effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing of pencil drawings1 or as a substitute therein for ,indian ink4 ,even in oil it may be employed occasionally1 as it possesses remarkably the property of covering1 forms very pure grey1 dries quickly1 injures no colour chemically1 and endures for ever4 ,these qualities render it the most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve the neutrality of its tint4 ,although plumbago has usurped the name of ,black ,lead1 there is another substance more properly entitled to this appellation1 and which may be used in the same way1 and with like effects as a pigment4 ,this substance is the sulphide of lead1 found native in the beautiful lead ore1 or ,galena1 of ,derbyshire4 ,an artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and wet processes1 which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the air1 and consequent conversion into grey or white4 ,neither variety can be compared to graphite for permanence1 although the native is preferable to the artificial4 ,plumbago1 or the so-called ,black ,lead1 is often adulterated to an enormous extent with lamp black4 #bij4 ,,blue ,,black1 ,charcoal1 ,liege1 or ,vine ,black1 is a well-burnt and levigated charcoal prepared from vine twigs1 of weaker body than ivory or lamp black1 and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed tints of landscape painting1 in which it is not so likely to look black and sooty as the others may do4 ,of a cool neutral tint1 it has1 in common with all carbonaceous blacks1 a preserving influence on white when duly mixed therewith2 which it owes1 chemically1 to the bleaching power of carbon1 and1 chromatically1 to the neutralizing and contrasting power of black with white4 ,compounded slightly with blue black1 and washed over with zinc white1 white lead may be exposed to any ordinary impure atmosphere with comparative impunity4 ,it would be well for art if carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils1 but of this it is deficient2 and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily1 they re-acquire it at no very distant period4 ,alone1 blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies2 and compounded with cobalt1 affords a good gray for louring clouds4 #bia4 ,,british ,,ink is a compound black1 preferred by some artists to ,indian ink1 on account of its not being liable to wash streaky1 as the latter does3 at the same time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as ,indian ink4 #bib4 ,,indian ,,ink1 sometimes called ,china or ,chinese ,ink1 is chiefly brought from ,china in oblong cakes1 of a musky scent1 ready prepared for painting in water4 ,varying considerably in body and colour1 the best has a shining black fracture1 is finely compact1 and homogeneous when rubbed with water1 in which1 when largely diluted1 it yields no precipitate4 ,without the least appearance of particles1 its dry surface is covered with a pellicle of a metallic appearance4 ,when dry on the paper1 it resists the action of water1 yet it will give way at once to that action1 when it has been used and dried on marble or ivory1 a fact which proves that the alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink2 possibly a compound of the latter on an aluminous base1 might even be employed in oil4 ,different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink1 the principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black1 having all the properties of our lamp black2 the variety of its hues and texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating it receives4 ,from certain ,chinese documents1 we learn that the ink of ,nan-king is the most esteemed2 and among the many sorts imported into this country1 we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp black of the oil of ,sesame2 with which are combined camphor1 and the juice of a plant named ,houng hoa to give it brightness of tone4 ,according to an analysis by ,m4 ,proust1 the better kinds contain about two per cent4 of camphor4 ,by some1 the pigment known as ,sepia has been supposed to enter into their composition4 ,liquid ,indian ,ink is a solution for architects1 surveyors1 c4 #bic4 ,,ivory ,,black is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels4 ,differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing1 when well made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks1 a fine neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil4 ,when insufficiently burnt1 however1 it is brown1 and dries badly2 or if too much burnt1 it becomes cineritious1 opaque1 and faint in hue4 ,with a slight tendency to brown in its pale washes1 this full1 silky black is serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place4 ,it is occasionally adulterated with bone black1 a cheaper and inferior product4 ,being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal1 ivory or bone black had best not be compounded with organic pigments1 in water at least4 ,it is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal solution1 and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged with it4 ,if a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be diluted with water1 and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity1 the solution will soon be deprived of colour4 ,the more perfect the ivory or bone black1 the more powerful is its action likely to be3 either over or under calcined1 animal charcoal is less energetic2 in the former case1 because it is less porous2 in the latter1 because the animal matter1 not being wholly consumed1 makes a kind of varnish in the charcoal which interferes with its acting4 ,to a greater or less extent1 gums1 oils1 and varnishes serve similarly as preventives1 thereby decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture2 but1 in the compounding of colours1 nothing is gained by needless risk4 ,to mix with organic pigments1 therefore1 blue or lamp blacks should be substituted for those of ivory or bone2 that is1 vegetal charcoal should be used instead of animal4 ,it is a question whether even with inorganic pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable4 ,it was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was limited to bodies of organic origin1 but it has since been found that inorganic matters are likewise influenced4 ,through its agency1 says ,graham1 even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium2 whence probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact4 ,the investigation of ,weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal extends to all metallic salts2 with the following1 no doubt remains of this being so1 to wit3--the sulphates of copper1 zinc1 chromium1 and protoxide of iron2 the nitrates of lead1 nickel1 silver1 cobalt1 suboxide and oxide of mercury2 the protochlorides of tin and mercury2 the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron2 and the tartrate of antimony4 ,whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on pigments consisting of these metals1 and1 if so1 how far and under what circumstances1 can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties of pigments is greater than it now is4 ,at present1 perhaps1 it is safer to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints1 inasmuch as1 although it shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree1 it does not possess the same energy4 #bid4 ,,lamp ,,black1 or ,lamblack1 is a smoke black1 being the soot procured by the burning of resins or resinous woods4 ,it is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine texture1 not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from ivory1 but less brown in its pale tones4 ,it has a very strong body that covers readily every underlay of colour1 works well1 but dries badly in oil4 ,on emergency1 it may be prepared extemporaneously for water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle1 and adding gum to the colour3 the nearer the plate is held to the wick of the lamp1 the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black obtained2 at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred1 and blacker4 ,mixed with ,french blue or cobalt1 lamp black gives good cloudy grays1 which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds4 ,with ,french blue and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented2 the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume1 if desired1 a warm tone in shadows4 ,for like purposes1 the black with ultramarine ash affords a very soft hue1 and with light red and cobalt in different proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable4 ,to the dark marking of murky and dirty clouds1 a compound of lamp black and light red is particularly suited2 while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds4 ,french blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills1 very remote2 and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their tints if nearer4 ,in seas the black is useful with raw ,sienna and other colours2 while1 whether in storm or calm1 vessels and boats may be painted with tints of lamp black1 madder brown1 and burnt ,sienna1 varying in degrees of strength according to the distances4 ,lamp black alone1 or with ,french blue1 cobalt and purple madder1 emerald green1 or rose madder1 is good for rocks2 and for dark foreground objects when mixed with madder lake and burnt ,sienna4 ,with aureolin the black furnishes a sober olive for foliage1 and with rose madder a fine colour for the stems and branches of trees4 ,compounded with light red1 it is suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads2 and with yellow ochre or madder red1 to parts of buildings and cattle4 ,a very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints1 lamp black1 ,indian red1 and burnt ,sienna4 ,being a dense solid colour1 this black must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness4 ,hitherto confined to painting and engraving1 lamp black has lately refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making its appearance in photography4 ,by a method which combines the fidelity of that art with the permanence of prints1 there is produced a species of photographic engraving1 so to speak1 having lamp black or carbon for its colouring matter4 ,indeed1 in this ',autotype' process1 as it is called1 any other durable pigment or pigments may be used1 and a photographic picture thus obtained4 ,in copying the works of artists1 especially1 the mode promises to be of value1 inasmuch as by its agency the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction as are employed in the original4 ,if this be in sepia or bistre1 the copy can be autotyped in those colours2 or if a red chalk drawing be required to be multiplied1 the proofs may be in red chalk1 the copy when produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the original4 ,in like manner1 any single colour of the artist's palette is applicable without restriction or limitation1 so that not only are every line and touch rendered absolutely1 but the very pigment used in the original is found in the copy4 ,moreover1 as the pigments are quite unchanged by the action of the other agents employed1 the resulting colour of the print is determined once for all1 just as the artist mixes those pigments on his palette for his picture4 ,as extending the use of lamp black and permanent pigments in general1 this brief digression on ,autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours4 #bie4 ,,mixed ,,black4 ,black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours1 the three secondaries1 or the three tertiaries1 or of all these together2 and1 consequently1 also of the three semi-neutrals1 and may thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad4 ,all antagonistic colours1 or contrasts1 likewise afford the neutral black by composition2 but in all the modes of producing black by compounding colours1 blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour1 and yellow as subordinate to red1 in the proportions1 when their hues are true1 of eight blue1 five red1 and three yellow4 ,it is owing to this predominance of blue in the constitution of black1 that it contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours1 which usually incline to warmth1 and that it produces the cool effect of blueness in glazing and tints1 or however otherwise diluted or dilated4 ,it accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the oxide of manganese1 which gives the red hue1 and that of cobalt1 which furnishes the blue1 are added to brown or yellow frit1 to obtain a velvety black glass4 ,similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a deep blue basis of indigo1 with the ruddy colour of madder and the yellow of quercitron1 c4 ,some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette4 ,prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable black2 and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than any original black pigment alone4 ,hence lakes and deep blues1 added to the common blacks1 greatly increase their clearness and intensity3 in mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures1 ultramarine has evidently been used4 ,in this view1 black altogether compounded of blue with red and yellow1 each deep and transparent1 and duly subordinated according to its powers1 will give the most powerful and transparent blacks2 although1 like most other blacks1 they dry badly in oil4 ,of course1 as with all compound colours1 it depends entirely on the pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not3 a compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey1 gray1 or dirty white1 if each link in the chain of combination be not as strong as its fellows4 99 99 99 99 99 #bif4 ,black ,chalk is an indurated clay1 of the texture of white chalk1 and chiefly used for cutting into crayons4 ,fine specimens have been found near ,bantry in ,ireland1 and in ,wales1 but the ,italian has the most reputation4 ,crayons for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared1 which are deeper in colour and free from grit4 ,wood charcoal is likewise cut into crayons1 that of soft woods1 such as lime1 poplar1 c41 being best adapted for the purpose4 #big4 ,black ,ochre1 ,earth ,black1 or ,prussian ,black1 is a native earth1 combined with iron and alluvial clay4 ,it is found in most countries1 and should be washed and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed4 ,sea-coal1 and other black mineral substances1 have been and may be used as substitutes for the more perfect blacks1 when the latter are not procurable1 which now seldom or never happens4 #bih4 ,bone ,black1 obtained by charring1 is similar to that of ivory1 except that it is a little warmer in tone1 having a reddish or orange tinge1 and is a worse drier in oil4 ,like ivory black1 it is very transparent4 ,immense quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the manufacture of shoe blacking4 #bii4 ,coffee ,black1 though little known and not on sale1 has been strongly recommended by ,bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used4 ,soft without being greasy1 light1 almost impalpable1 even before being ground1 it gives tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white1 a quality precious for making the blues of the sketch1 and dull greens4 ,it is said to dry better than blue or vine black1 and to combine admirably with other colours4 ,de ,montabert prefers calling it ,coffee ,brown1 giving it as an exemplification of a bluish-brown1 but probably this brown hue is owing to want of skill in its manufacture4 ,we have not had personal experience of the colour1 but there is no theoretical reason why a carbonaceous black should not be produced from coffee4 ,the mode of proceeding is to calcine the berry in a covered vessel1 and well wash the resulting charcoal with boiling water by decantation4 ,in order to prevent the powder1 which is of great lightness1 from floating1 it is made into paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water4 #cjj4 ,frankfort ,black is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been washed1 by burning1 in the manner of ivory black2 although the inferior sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods1 of which the hardest1 such as box and ebony1 yield the best4 ,fine ,frankfort black1 though almost confined to copper-plate printing1 is one of the best black pigments extant1 being of a neutral colour1 next in intensity to lamp black1 and more powerful than that of ivory4 ,strong light has the effect of deepening its colour4 ,it is probable that this was the black used by some of the ,flemish painters1 and that the pureness of the greys formed therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing discolourment4 #cja4 ,manganese ,black1 the common black oxide of that metal1 is the best of all blacks for drying in oil without addition4 ,it is also a colour of vast body and tingeing power4 ,as a siccative1 it might be advantageously employed with ivory black4 #cjb4 ,mineral ,black is a native impure carbon of soft texture1 found in ,devonshire4 ,blacker than plumbago1 and free from its metallic lustre1 it is of a neutral colour1 greyer and more opaque than ivory black1 and forms pure neutral tints4 ,being perfectly durable1 and drying well in oil1 it is of value in dead colouring on account of its solid body1 as a preparation for black and deep colours before glazing4 ,it would likewise be the most permanent and best possible black for frescoes4 #cjc4 ,paper ,black1 a pigment unknown to the modern palette1 like most of our numbered italicised colours1 is of the nature of blue or vine black4 ,very soft and of a fine bluish-gray1 it is fitted for flesh1 or for mixing with whites or yellows in landscapes4 #cjd4 ,peach ,black1 or ,almond ,black1 made by burning the stones of fruits1 the shell of the cocoa-nut1 c41 is a violet-black1 once much used by ,parisian artists4 ,bouvier believes it to be a good black1 but at the same time sensibly asks1 of what use is it to have a black of this cast1 which can always be given by lake1 without diminishing but rather increasing the intensity of the black it may be mixed with4 #cje4 ,prussian ,black4 ,the same ,prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air1 yields a black when calcined in a close crucible4 ,very intense1 very soft and velvety1 and very agreeable to work1 this bluish-black dries much more promptly than most other blacks1 and scarcely requires grinding4 ,on account of its extreme division1 however1 it would probably be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks4 ,another ,prussian black1 containing copper1 and made by a wet process1 is obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate1 in proper proportions1 is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of potassium not in excess4 ,a very bulky deep black precipitate is formed1 which is difficult to wash1 and is deep black when dry4 ,it is insoluble in water1 and appears to be a compound analogous to ,prussian blue4 ,as a pigment1 this black is inferior to the preceding4 #cjf4 ,purple ,black is1 or rather was1 a preparation of madder1 of a deep purple hue approaching black4 ,powerful and very transparent1 it glazed and dried well in oil1 and was a durable and eligible pigment4 ,its tints with white lead were of a purple cast4 #cjg4 ,spanish ,black1 or ,cork ,black1 is a soft black1 obtained by charring cork1 and differs not essentially from ,frankfort black1 except in being of a lighter and softer texture4 ,some of my friends1 says ,bouvier1 call it ,beggars' ,ultramarine1 because it produces1 by combinations1 tints almost as fine as ultramarine4 ,a blue but not a velvet black1 where intensity is required some other is to be preferred4 ,for mixtures1 however1 it is stated to be admirable1 and especially for linen1 skies1 distances1 and the various broken tints of carnations1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides those blacks which have been mentioned1 there are others furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances employed as dyes2 but as the blacks in common use are all permanent1 and have been found sufficient for every purpose1 it is scarce needful to swell the list4 ,nor is it more needful1 the ,editor considers1 to swell the book2 lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a moderate-sized mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day4 ,arrived at age1 as it were1 in its twenty-first chapter1 this treatise may fitly conclude with ,black1 the last of the series of colours4 ,let us hope the maxim of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 that success in some degree was never denied to earnest work may apply here4 ,still1 by way of finale1 we would offer a few remarks4 ,in no branch of the science1 perhaps1 is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours1 so liable are theory and practice to clash1 and so often does the experience of one person or one time differ from that of another4 ,he who has turned his attention to pigments1 finds nearly every assertion must be qualified1 for to nearly every rule there is some exception1 and learns that theory alone may mislead4 ,for example1 a colour known to be fugacious may last1 in certain cases1 a surprisingly long time2 while1 on the contrary1 a pigment permanent when used alone1 may be rendered fugitive by improper compounding4 ,again1 what holds good of a colour produced by one process1 or employed in one vehicle or by one artist1 may not be true of the same colour made by a different mode1 or used in another vehicle or by another artist4 ,it is because1 then1 colours are of every degree of durability1 from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive1 and because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time1 place1 and circumstance1 that the chemist's theory is opposed as often to the painter's practice as the experience of artists themselves varies4 ,this may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction which have been brought against writers on pigments1 faults that lie rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors4 ,even at the risk of being tiresome1 we have throughout insisted on the choice of permanent pigments1 not simply for use alone but for mixed tints4 ,to quote ,cennini1 ,i give you this advice1 that you endeavour always to use 444 good colours4444 ,and if you say that a poor person cannot afford the expense1 ,i answer1 that if you work well 7and give sufficient time to your works71 and paint with good colours1 you will acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one2 and your name will stand so high for using good colours1 that if some masters receive a ducat for painting one figure1 you will certainly be offered two1 and your wishes will be fulfilled1 according to the old proverb1 'good work1 good pay4' ,of a truth1 if man cannot dip his brush in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies1 he can at least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him2 preferring1 where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined1 sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity4 ,it must be the wish of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill1 a permanent panorama of those hues of nature which in life he loved so well4 ,to effect this1 genius alone is powerless3 there must be first a proper choice of materials1 and next a proper use of them4 ,the painter's pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed1 either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages1 or one which will quickly topple over like a house of cards4 ,now in nothing more than in painting is prevention better than cure--indeed cure may be said to be here out of the question3 for good or for evil a picture once painted is painted for ever4 ,without a strong constitution there is no hope for it2 no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame1 restore the faded colour1 stop the ravages of consumption3 ,science stands helpless before dying ,art4 ,and yet1 she sighs to think1 it might have been otherwise4 ,if durable pigments had been employed1 if her counsel had been sought1 this need not have been4 ,in the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours would furnish a sad chapter1 telling of gross ignorance1 and a grosser indifference4 ,happily there is promise of a healthier state of things4 ,when this comes1 ,art will be less shy to consult her sister3 in the interests of both there should be closer union4 ,without waiting till the picture is finished--for then it will be too late--let her1 if in doubt1 frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice4 ,now1 not knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used1 never standing by and watching the progress of the work1 how can ,science lend her aid8 ,she would willingly1 for she herself needs help3 at present her knowledge is limited1 not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the properties of pigments4 ,she seeks to mix her pound of theory with an ounce of practice1 and craves a warmer welcome to the studio4 ,for any approximation to the truth to be arrived at1 facts must be noted with the conditions under which they occur1 not by one sister alone nor by the other alone1 but by both4 ,in future1 ,art and ,science should go hand in hand1 mutually dependent on each other1 mutually trustful of each other1 working with and for each other1 earnestly and patiently4 ,,footnotes3 ,c ,light is either direct or diffused--direct1 when the sun's rays fall upon any object2 diffused1 when ordinary daylight illumines objects with white light1 causing them to appear of their peculiar colours4 ,,addendum4 ,with the present rapid progress of applied chemistry1 an addendum in a work of this kind is quite excusable4 ,even while the book is being printed some fact may be announced which the author or editor would wish to insert4 ,in our case this has happened4 ,very recently there has been introduced in ,france as a pigment #cjh4 ,,tungsten ,,white1 or ,tungstate of ,baryta4 ,at the request of a landscape painter1 says ,m4 ,sacc in a letter to ,m4 ,dumas1 ,i was induced to examine in succession all our insoluble white compounds1 with regard to their adaptability to painting purposes4 ,tungstate of baryta answers perfectly1 covers as well as white lead1 and is as unalterable as zinc white4 ,it has been employed by this artist for three months1 and was found equally successful in oil or water colours1 chromolithography1 and even in making white impressions on a black ground4 ,this harmless substitute for the injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in ,paris by ,m4 ,e4 ,rousseau4 ,we have not met with a sample of that gentleman's manufacture1 but judging from our own specimens1 made both by wet and dry processes1 and carefully tried in water and oil1 it would seem that a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered4 ,with us1 at least1 tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead1 and indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white4 ,unaffected by foul air1 the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites when compared with white lead--want of body1 moreover it is a bad dryer4 ,however1 ,m4 ,rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections1 and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white4 ,it is intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of ,field's ,chromatography1 and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed and favourable account of the new pigment4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acacia catechu1 #ced4 ,academy1 ,royal1 at ,burlington ,house1 #cfe4 ,acetate of lead1 as a siccative1 #ea4 improper use of1 #eb4 ,adulteration1 #gj4 of ,anotta1 #bef4 ,artificial ,ultramarine1 #bad4 ,black ,lead1 #cid4 ,cadmium ,yellow1 #hh4 ,carmine1 #acd4 ,chrome ,yellow1 #id4 ,cochineal1 #acb4 ,genuine ,ultramarine1 #bad4 ,indigo1 #bjb4 ,ivory ,black1 #cig4 ,madder1 #adj4 ,madder ,carmine1 #adb4 ,mars ,yellow1 #ajb4 ,prussian ,blue1 #bjc4 ,red ,lead1 #aeb4 ,smalt1 #aih4 ,verdigris1 #bgf4 ,vermilion1 #aef4 ,veronese ,green1 #bfh4 ,white ,lead1 #gj1 #gd1 #ge4 ,yellow and ,orange ,orpiment1 #aac1 #bei4 ,zinc ,white1 #gg4 ,advancing and retiring colours1 #ahf-ahh4 ,advice1 ,cennini's1 #daa4 ,aerial perspective1 #bb4 ,african cochineal1 #agj4 green1 #bga4 ,air and light1 action of1 on pigments1 #ci4 ,air effect1 want of1 #cgh4 ,albumen1 #ej4 ,alchemy1 #bei4 ,alexander the ,great1 #bif4 ,veronese1 #bhd4 ,alkanet1 #cjb4 ,almagra1 #adg4 ,almond ,black1 #djg4 ,american artist1 an1 #cdg4 ,analysis of ,brown1 #cgg4 ,citrine1 #cbi4 ,gray1 #cgg4 ,marrone1 #cgg4 ,olive1 #ccj4 ,russet1 #ccj4 ,anchusa tinctoria1 #cjb4 ,ancients1 colouring of the1 #c4 colours of the1 #e1 #f1 #bah4 ,aniline1 #afb4 colours1 #afb4 cakes of1 #afc4 in oil1 #bdg4 ,animal thiops1 #cdh4 charcoal1 #cig-cii4 jelly1 #ej4 ,anotta1 #bee4 ,antimony1 ,golden ,sulphur of1 #bef4 ,orange1 #bef4 ,red1 #aei4 ,white1 #gi4 ,yellow1 #aje4 ,antipathies of pigments1 #aic4 ,antwerp ,blue1 #bjg4 ,brown1 #cci4 ,apelles1 #g1 #bic4 ,archil1 #cjc4 ,purple1 #cjc4 ,arethas1 #bag4 ,armenian blue1 #e1 #bag1 #bbh4 bole1 #adg4 stone1 #bbh4 ,arsenical pigments1 #bgc4 ,arsenic green1 substitutes for1 #bhh1 #bij4 white1 #gi4 yellow1 #aaf4 ,art and ,science1 #bch1 #dab4 ,artificial ,ultramarine1 #bji-baf4 acid pigments with1 #bad4 adulteration of1 #bae4 green in1 #baa4 gum with1 #bad4 ,artificial ,ultramarine1 in siliceous painting1 #bab4 origin of1 #bji4 prize for1 #bji4 test for1 #bab4 ,artists and painters1 #ahb4 ,arts1 ,society of1 #acj4 ,ash1 ,ultramarine1 #cgi4 ,ashes1 ,blue1 #bbh4 ,asphaltic ,lake1 the1 #ccg4 ,asphaltum and ,asphalt1 #ccg4 ,liquid1 #cci4 ,association of ,science1 ,british1 #ceg4 ,assyrians1 colouring and colours of1 #f4 ,augustus ,csar1 #bie4 ,aureolin1 #db1 #dg1 #hc-hg4 ,chemical ,news on1 #hd4 in admixture1 #hf4 ,mr4 ,aaron ,penley on1 #he4 the purest yellow1 #hd1 #chd4 ,aurine1 #afb4 ,autotype process1 the1 #dja4 ,avignon1 berries of1 #cab4 ,axiom1 a wholesome1 #bja4 ,axioms for compounding1 #bej4 ,azuline1 #afb4 ,azure1 #aib1 #aif1 #bag4 ,b4 ,barff1 ,mr41 #bab4 ,barium and ,bismuth chrome greens1 #bhj4 ,barthe and ,laurent1 ,,mm41 #bce4 ,bartholomew1 ,mr41 #adc4 ,baryta1 ,ferrate of1 #afe4 ,silicate of1 #bij4 ,barytic ,white1 #fe4 ,beauty in ,pigments1 #df4 ,beeswax1 #ej4 ,berries1 ,french1 ,persian1 and ,turkey1 #bab4 ,berzelius1 #afi4 ,bice1 ,green1 #ahg4 ,bignonia chica1 #cfg4 ,bismuth ,purple1 #cjd4 ,bixa ,orellana1 #bee4 ,bixine1 #bef4 ,black1 #bg4 ancient1 #e4 as a colour1 #chg1 #cia4 as a pigment1 #chi4 colours with1 #cib4 on the ,neutral1 #chg4 ,,black ,,pigments3-- ,almond ,black1 #djg4 ,beggars' ,ultramarine1 #dji4 ,black ,chalk1 #djd4 ,black ,lead1 #chb1 #cic4 ,black ,ochre1 #djd4 ,blue ,black1 #cid4 ,bone ,black1 #dje4 ,british ,ink1 #cie4 ,charcoal ,black1 #cid4 ,chinese ,ink1 #cie4 ,coffee ,black1 #dje4 ,copper ,prussian ,black1 #djh4 ,cork ,black1 #dji4 ,earth ,black1 #djd4 ,frankfort ,black1 #djf4 ,galena1 #cid4 ,graphite1 #cic4 ,indian ,ink1 #cie4 ,ivory ,black1 #cig4 ,lamp ,black1 #cii4 ,liege ,black1 #cid4 ,manganese ,black1 #djf4 ,mineral ,black1 #djg4 ,mixed ,black1 #djb4 ,paper ,black1 #djg4 ,peach ,black1 #djg4 ,plumbago1 #cic4 ,prussian ,black1 #djd1 #djh4 ,purple ,black1 #djh4 ,spanish ,black1 #dji4 ,vine ,black1 #cid4 ,bladder ,green1 #bhb4 ,blanc d',argent1 #ga4 ,blending of pigments1 #cg4 ,blood1 ,dragon's1 #acg4 ,bloodstone1 #adg4 ,blue1 #bh4 ancient1 #e1 #bag4 ,armenian1 #e1 #bag4 as a colour1 #ahc4 contrast of1 #ahe1 #ahh4 discordant1 #ahe4 on the ,primary1 #ahc4 ,,blue ,,pigments3-- ,antwerp ,blue1 #bjg4 ,artificial ,ultramarines1 #bji-baf4 ,azure1 #aib1 #bag4 ,basic ,prussian ,blue1 #bjg4 ,berlin ,blue1 #bjc1 #bjg4 ,bice1 #bbh4 ,bleu de ,garance1 #bji4 ,blue ,ashes1 #bbh4 ,blue ,bice1 #bbh4 ,blue ,carmine1 #bbh4 ,blue ,ochre1 #bbf1 #chj4 ,blue ,sand1 #aif4 ,blue ,verditer1 #bbh4 ,brilliant ,ultramarine1 #bae4 ,cerulian ,blue1 or ,coeruleum1 #aij4 ,cobalt ,blue1 #aib4 ,cobalt ,blues1 #ahi-aii4 ,cobalt ,prussian ,blue1 #bbg4 ,cobalt ,ultramarine1 #aib4 ,colin1 #aij4 ,copper ,blues1 #bbg-bcj4 ,cotton ,seed ,blue1 #bcj4 ,cyanine1 #aih4 ,dumont's ,blue1 #aif4 ,dutch ,ultramarine1 #ahi4 ,enamel ,blue1 #ahi4 ,egyptian ,blue1 #bbi4 ,factitious ,ultramarine1 #bae4 ,ferricyanide of ,iron1 #bjh4 ,ferrocyanide of ,iron1 #bjc4 ,french ,blue1 #bae4 ,french ,ultramarine1 #bae4 ,genuine ,ultramarine1 #baf-bbe4 ,gmelin's ,german ,ultramarine1 #bji4 ,gold ,blue1 #bca4 ,guimet's ,ultramarine1 #bji4 ,haerlem ,blue1 #bjg4 ,hungary ,blue1 #ahi4 ,indian ,blue1 #aii4 ,indicum1 #aii4 ,indigo1 #aii4 ,intense ,blue1 #bjb4 ,iodine ,blue1 #bca4 ,iridium ,blue1 #bcb4 ,iris1 #bbh4 ,lazuline1 #bag4 ,lazulite ,blue1 #bag4 ,lazurstein1 #bag4 ,leitch's ,blue1 #aii4 ,leithner's ,blue1 #ahi4 ,manganese ,blue1 #bcb4 ,mineral ,blue1 #bjg4 ,mountain ,blue1 #bbh4 ,native ,prussian ,blue1 #bjg4 ,native ,ultramarine1 #baf4 ,natural ,ultramarine1 #baf4 ,new ,blue1 #baf4 ,outremer1 #bag4 ,outremer de ,guimet1 #bji4 ,paris ,blue1 #aib1 #bjc4 ,permanent ,blue1 #baf4 ,platinum ,blue1 #bcc4 ,powder ,blue1 #aif4 ,prussian ,blue1 #bjc4 ,prussiate of ,iron1 #bjc4 ,pure ,ultramarine1 #bag4 ,real ,ultramarine1 #baf4 ,reboulleau's ,blue1 #bcj4 ,royal ,blue1 #aif4 ,saunders' ,blue1 #bcj4 ,saxon ,blue1 #ahi4 ,schweinfurt ,blue1 #bcj4 ,smalt1 #aie-aih4 ,terre ,bleu1 #bbh4 ,thnard's ,blue1 #aib4 ,true ,ultramarine1 #baf4 ,tungsten ,blue1 #bcc4 ,turnbull's ,blue1 #bjh4 ,ultramarines1 #bji-bbe4 ,verditer1 #bbh4 ,vienna ,blue1 #aib4 ,wood-,tar ,blue1 #bcc4 ,zaffre1 #ahi4 ,zinc-,cobalt ,blue1 #bce4 ,body ,white1 #gb4 ,bole1 ,armenian1 #adg4 ,borrowdale1 #cic4 ,bouvier1 #aec1 #cde1 #cdg1 #cee1 #dje1 #djg1 #dji4 ,box1 the painter's1 #fj4 ,bradley1 ,mr41 #bdf4 ,british ,school1 #i4 ,broken colours1 #af4 ,bronze1 #bgi4 ,brown1 #bh4 analysis of1 #cgg4 as a colour1 #cce4 ,citrine1 #cag4 contrast of1 #ccg4 ,liquid1 ,prout's1 #cde4 ,madder1 #cje4 ,mars1 #cac4 on the ,semi-,neutral1 #ccd4 ,,brown ,,pigments3-- ,animal thiops1 #cdh4 ,antwerp ,brown1 #cci4 ,asphaltum or ,asphalt1 #ccg4 ,bistre1 #cdj4 ,bitumen1 #cci4 ,bitumen of ,judea1 #ccg4 ,bone ,brown1 #cdj4 ,burnt ,umber1 #cda4 ,cadmium ,brown1 #cec4 ,caledonian ,brown1 #cda4 ,campania ,brown1 #ceb4 ,cappah ,brown1 #cdb4 ,cassel ,earth1 #cdc4 ,castle ,earth1 #cdc4 ,catechu ,browns1 #cgd4 ,chalon's ,brown1 #cdd4 ,chestnut ,brown1 #ceg4 ,chrome ,browns1 #cee4 ,cologne ,earth1 #cdd4 ,copper ,brown1 #cee4 ,cory's ,madder or ,yellow ,madder1 #cec4 ,cullen's ,earth1 #cdd4 ,egyptian ,brown1 #cdg4 ,euchrome1 #cdb4 ,french ,prussian ,brown1 #cee4 ,gambogiate of ,iron1 #ceg4 ,hypocastanum1 #ceg4 ,iron ,browns1 #ceg4 ,ivory ,brown1 #cdj4 ,jew's ,pitch1 #ccg4 ,leitch's ,brown1 #cdf4 ,manganese ,brown1 #ceh4 ,mineral ,brown1 #cdb4 ,mineral ,pitch1 #ccg4 ,mixed ,brown1 #cdf4 ,mummy1 #cdg4 ,mummy ,brown1 #cdg4 ,nickel ,brown1 #ceh4 ,ochre ,browns1 #ceh4 ,prussian ,brown1 #cdh4 ,purple ,brown1 #cei4 ,roman ,sepia1 #cea4 ,rubens' ,brown1 #cei4 ,sepia1 #cdh4 ,terre de ,cassel1 #cdc4 ,uranium ,brown1 #cfj4 ,vandyke ,brown1 #cea4 ,verona ,brown1 #cec4 ,warm ,sepia1 #cej4 ,yellow ,madder1 #cec4 ,zinc ,brown1 #cfj4 ,brown ,pink1 #cab4 ,red1 #adg4 ,spanish1 #adf4 ,stil de ,grain1 #cab4 ,browns1 abundance of1 #ccf1 #cfa4 ,brun de ,mars1 #cac4 ,brunswick ,green1 #bga1 #bgi4 ,brushes1 soap and alkali in1 #eb4 ,burlington ,house1 ,royal ,academy at1 #cfe4 ,burnt ,carmine1 #bih4 ,lake1 #bih4 ,madder1 #cje4 ,orpiment1 #bei4 ,roman ,ochre1 #bee4 ,sienna1 #bdc4 ,terra di ,sienna1 #bdc4 ,verdigris1 #cca4 ,c4 ,cadmium ,brown1 #cec4 ,orange1 #cf1 #db1 #bdd4 ,red1 #db1 #acj4 ,white1 #gh4 ,yellow1 #hg1 #ib4 adulteration of1 #hh4 manufacture of1 #ib4 when fugacious1 #ib4 with ,white ,lead1 #hi4 ,caledonian ,brown1 #cda4 ,campania ,brown1 #ceb4 ,camphor1 #cif4 ,cappah or ,cappagh ,brown1 #cdb4 ,carajuru1 #cfg4 ,carbolic acid1 #afb4 ,carbon1 #cic4 ,carmichael1 ,mr41 #cdh4 ,carmine1 #acc1 #ace4 adulteration of1 #acd4 ,blue1 #bbe4 ,burnt1 #bih4 ,field's1 #adb4 ,carmine1 ,madder1 #adb4 manufacture of1 #acd4 ,vermilion1 #aef4 ,violet1 #cjb4 with ,indian ,yellow1 #ih4 ,white ,lead1 #acd4 ,carnac1 ruins at1 #d4 ,carnagione1 #adi4 ,carthamus1 #agd4 ,cartoons at ,hampton ,court1 #aj4 ,cassel ,earth1 #cdc4 ,green1 #bhh4 ,terre de1 #cdc4 ,yellow1 #aba4 ,cassius1 ,purple of1 #cjf4 ,cassius's ,purple ,precipitate1 #cjf4 ,castle ,earth1 #cdc4 ,catechu ,browns1 #ced4 ,celandine1 #if4 ,cendres ,bleues1 #bcj4 ,cennini1 advice of1 #daa4 ,cerulian ,blue or ,coeruleum1 #aij4 ,ceruse1 #gd4 ,chalk1 ,black1 #djd4 ,green1 #agc4 ,red1 #agb4 ,white1 #gi4 ,chalon's ,brown1 #cdd4 ,chaptal1 ,count1 #aje1 #bbi4 ,charcoal1 animal1 #cig1 #cii4 ,black1 #cid4 vegetal1 #cih1 #djf4 ,charles ,i41 #bbj4 ,charred blacks1 #cij1 #cie1 #djf4 ,cheese1 anotta in1 #bef4 ,chemical ,news1 extract from1 #hd4 ,chestnut ,brown1 #ceg4 ,chevreul1 ,m41 #agc1 #aia1 #bje1 #cfd4 ,chiaroscuro1 #ae4 ,chica d',andiguez1 #afj4 ,marrone1 #cfg4 ,red1 #aei4 ,china1 ,mandarins of1 #bai4 ,white1 #hj4 ,chinese ,ink1 #cie4 ,lake1 #acg4 ,orange1 #bdf4 ,rouge1 #agd4 ,vermilion1 #aef4 ,white1 #ge4 ,yellow1 #aaa4 ,chinoline1 #afb4 ,chocolate ,lead1 #cfh4 ,chromate of ,mercury1 #bef4 ,chromates of lead1 organic pigments with1 #bdh1 #bhj4 ,chrome ,arseniate1 #bhd4 ,browns1 #cee4 ,green1 ,true1 #bfg4 ,greens1 #bgi-bha4 ,ochre1 #bfg4 ,chrome ,orange1 #bdh4 ,oxide1 #bfg4 ,oxides1 #bff-bga4 ,red1 #aea4 ,scarlet1 #aea4 ,yellows1 #ic-ie4 adulteration of1 #id4 ,chromium1 ,green ,oxide of1 #bfg4 ,opaque ,oxide of1 #bfg4 ,oxide of1 #bfg4 ,transparent ,oxide of1 #bfh4 ,church1 ,professor1 #afe4 ,cicero1 #bif4 ,cinnabar1 #aec4 ,green1 #bhj4 ,citrine1 #bh4 analysis of1 #cbi4 as a colour1 #caj4 contrast of1 #caa4 on the ,tertiary1 #caj4 ,,citrine ,,pigments3-- ,brown ,pink1 #cab4 ,brown ,stil de ,grain1 #cab4 ,brun de ,mars1 #cac4 ,cassia ,fistula1 #caf4 ,citrine ,brown1 #cag4 ,citrine ,lake1 #cab4 ,mars ,brown1 #cac4 ,mixed ,citrine1 #cad4 ,quercitron ,lake1 #cab4 ,raw ,umber1 #cae4 ,umber1 #cae4 ,citron ,yellow1 #ie4 ,classes of ,colours1 on1 #bg-cj4 ,,classified ,,pigments3-- ,black1 #dji4 ,blue1 #bcf4 ,brown1 #cfa4 ,citrine1 #cai4 ,gray1 #chj4 ,green1 #bia4 ,grey1 #chf4 ,marrone1 #cga4 ,olive1 #ccc4 ,orange1 #bfa4 ,purple1 #cjh4 ,red1 #aha4 ,russet1 #cbd4 ,white1 #hj4 ,yellow1 #abe4 ,claude1 #cde4 ,cleanliness in painting1 #ec4 ,coal-,tar ,colours1 #afj-afd1 #bdg4 cakes of1 #afc4 in oil1 #bdg4 ,cobalt ,blue1 #aib4 chalkiness in1 #aie4 manufacture of1 #aib4 ,blues1 #ahi-aii4 ,green1 #bhe4 ,marrone1 #cfh4 ,prussian ,blue1 #bbg4 ,green1 #bhb4 ,purples1 #cje4 ,ultramarine1 #aib4 ,coccus 7,abies nigra71 #afh4 cacti1 #aca4 ficus1 #ach4 ilicis1 #aec1 #afg4 ,cochineal1 #acb4 adulteration of1 #acb4 ,dr4 ,warren de la ,rue on1 #acb4 lake1 with ,vermilion1 #acf4 ,lakes1 #aca-acg4 ,colin1 #aij4 ,coeruleum1 #aij1 #aih1 #bag1 #bbi4 ,coffee ,black1 #dje4 ,brown1 #dje4 ,cohesion and colour1 #aig1 #bjh4 durability1 #aig1 #bjh4 ,cologne ,earth1 #cdd4 ,yellow1 #id4 ,colour and neutrality1 #cge4 latent1 #eh4 of extreme light objects1 #ba4 of shadow1 #ba4 on the ,relations and ,harmony of1 #ac4 ,coloured rays1 mixture of1 #chd4 ,colouring1 ancient1 #c-g4 false1 #bj4 importance of1 #aj-ab4 on1 #c4 vicious1 #aa-ba4 ,colours1 ancient1 #e1 #f1 #bah4 and ,pigments ,individually1 on1 #eg4 broken1 #af4 classes of3-- ,neutral1 #bg4 ,primary1 #bh4 ,secondary1 #bh4 ,semi-,neutral1 #bi4 ,tertiary1 #bh4 complementary1 #cia4 discordant1 #ag1 #ahe4 entire1 #bh4 extreme1 #bh4 fugacity of ancient1 #f4 held in check1 #ajf4 hot and cold1 #bj4 imaginary1 #aae4 individual beauty of1 #eg4 light and dark1 #cj4 material1 mixture of1 #chd4 mixture and compounding of1 #ag-ai4 not obtainable1 #aad4 not pigments1 #cje4 perspective of1 #bb4 ,colours1 retiring or advancing1 #ahf-ahh4 superfluous1 #abd4 unfitted for pigments1 #aae1 #ahj4 vitrified1 #cc1 #aig4 with black1 #bg1 #cib4 colours1 #bg4 grey1 #chb4 white1 #bg1 #fc4 ,common pigments1 #cei4 ,compounding colours1 on1 #bdb-beb1 #bgg4 ,compound pigments1 #cf4 ,constable1 #bfe4 ,constantinople1 #g4 ,constant 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#ig4 ,indian ,lake1 #aci4 ,indigo1 #bja4 ,massicot1 #abj4 ,orpiment1 #aab4 ,prussian ,blue1 #bjf4 ,red ,lead1 #aeb4 ,yellow ,lakes1 #ii4 ,white1 on the ,neutral1 #fb4 perfect1 #fb1 #fd4 ,,white ,,pigments3-- ,antimony ,white1 #gi4 ,arsenic ,white1 #gi4 ,barytic ,white1 #fe4 ,blanc d',argent1 #ga4 ,body ,white1 #gb4 ,cadmium ,white1 #gh4 ,ceruse1 #gd4 ,china ,white1 #hj4 ,chinese ,white1 #ge4 ,constant ,white1 #fe4 ,cremnitz or ,kremnitz ,white1 #gb4 ,crems or ,krems ,white1 #gb4 ,dutch ,white1 #gd4 ,flake ,white1 #gb4 ,flemish ,white1 #gb4 ,french ,white1 #ga4 ,hamburgh ,white1 #gd4 ,kremser ,white1 #ge4 ,london ,white1 #gc4 ,mercury ,white1 #gi4 ,modan or ,morat ,white1 #hj4 ,nottingham ,white1 #gc4 ,oxychloride of ,lead1 #gc4 ,pattison's ,white1 #gc4 ,pearl ,white1 #gh4 ,permanent ,white1 #fe4 ,roman ,white1 #gd4 ,rouen ,white1 #hj4 ,satin ,white1 #hj4 ,silver ,white1 #ga4 ,spanish ,white1 #hj4 ,sulphate of ,lead1 #gb4 ,tin ,white1 #gi4 ,tungsten ,white1 #dad4 ,troy ,white1 #hj4 ,venetian ,white1 #ge4 ,vienna ,white1 #gb4 ,white ,lead1 #fg-gj4 ,zinc ,white1 #gf4 ,zinc ,whites1 #ge-gh4 ,white1 properties of1 #fb-fd4 use of1 #fd4 ,whites1 classified1 #hj4 in old pictures1 #fe4 ,williamson1 ,professor1 #bje4 ,wilson1 #ccf4 ,winter scene1 a water-colour1 #ceb4 ,wongshy ,red1 #ahj4 ,wood-,tar ,blue1 #bcc4 ,working well in pigments1 #di4 ,y4 ,yellow1 #bh4 as a colour1 #hb4 contrasts of1 #hb1 #hc4 ,yellow1 discordant1 #hc4 ,golden1 #bef4 ,madder1 ,cory's1 #cec4 on the ,primary1 #ha4 ,,yellow ,,pigments3-- ,antimony ,yellow1 #aje4 ,arsenic ,yellow1 #aaf4 ,aureolin1 #hc-hg4 ,bismuth ,yellow1 #aaf4 ,brown ,ochre1 #ajh4 ,cadmium ,yellows1 #hg-ib4 ,cassel ,yellow1 #aba4 ,chinese ,yellow1 #aaa4 ,chrome ,yellows1 #ic-ie4 ,citron ,yellow1 #ie4 ,cologne ,yellow1 #id4 ,copper ,yellow1 #aaf4 ,deep ,cadmium1 #hg4 ,deep ,chrome1 #ic4 ,di ,palito1 #aji4 ,drop ,gum1 #if4 ,dutch ,pink1 #ajj4 ,english ,pink1 #ajj4 ,extract of ,gamboge1 #ig4 ,gallstone1 #ie4 ,gamboge1 #if4 ,gelbin's ,yellow1 #aag4 ,giallolino1 #ajc4 ,indian ,yellow1 #ih4 ,indium ,yellow1 #aag4 ,iodine ,yellow1 #aah4 ,iron ,yellow1 #ajb1 #aah4 ,italian ,pink1 #ajj4 ,jaune de ,cologne1 #id4 ,jaune de ,fer1 #ajb4 ,jaune de ,mars1 #ajb4 ,jaune ,minrale1 #id4 ,king's ,yellow1 #aaa4 ,lakes1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,lemon ,cadmium1 #ia4 ,lemon ,yellow1 #aja4 ,litharge1 #abj4 ,madder ,yellow1 #aah1 #cec4 ,mars ,yellow1 #ajb4 ,massicot1 #abj4 ,mineral ,yellow1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #aba4 ,montpellier ,yellow1 #aba4 ,mutrie ,yellow1 #ib4 ,naples ,yellow1 #ajc4 ,ochres1 #aje-aji4 ,ocre de ,ru1 #ajh4 ,orient ,yellow1 #aaj4 ,orpiment or ,yellow ,orpiment1 #aaa4 ,oxford ,ochre1 #aji4 ,pale ,cadmium1 #ij4 ,pale ,chrome1 #ic4 ,patent ,yellow1 #aba4 ,platinum ,yellow1 #aba4 ,purree1 #ih4 ,queen's ,yellow1 #abc4 ,quercitron ,lake1 or ,yellow1 #ajj4 ,raw ,sienna1 #aac4 ,roman ,ochre1 #ajg4 ,spruce ,ochre1 #ajh4 ,stone ,ochre1 #aji4 ,strontian ,yellow1 #aac4 ,terra di ,sienna1 #aac4 ,thallium ,yellow1 #abb4 ,thwaites' ,yellow1 #abb4 ,transparent ,gold ,ochre1 #ajh4 ,turbith ,yellow1 #abc4 ,turner's ,yellow1 #aba4 ,uranium ,yellow1 #abc4 ,yellow ,carmine1 #abc4 ,yellow ,lake1 #ajj4 ,yellow ,ochre1 #ajf4 ,yellows1 ancient1 #e4 classified1 #abe4 former paucity of1 #hc4 various1 #abd4 ,z4 ,zaffre1 #ahi4 ,zeuxis and ,apelles1 #g4 ,zinc ,brown1 #cfj4 ,cobalt ,blue1 #bce4 ,green1 #bhe4 ,orange1 #bfa1 siccatives1 #ea1 #gg4 ,vert de1 #bhe4 ,white1 #gf4 adulteration of1 #gg4 over ,white ,lead1 #gf4 ,whites1 #ge-gh4 ,,errata4 ,page #af for inharmonious read harmonious #ce for ,there prevails read ,there prevail #dh for as whiteness1 or light do1 read as whiteness or light does #aff for purple of cassius read purple of ,cassius #ahb for which manufactures read which manufactures pictures #beh for ,laque ,minral read ,laque ,minrale #cdb for rivals read rivels #cgh for predominate read predominates ,,the ,,end4 ,,london3 ,printed by ,a4 ,schulze1 #ac1 ,poland ,street4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the errata above and the following have been corrected in the text3 ,page vi ,semi-neutral changed to ,semi-,neutral #aj life less changed to lifeless #ag sun-rise changed to sunrise #bj in the the changed to in the #bb perpective changed to perspective #bi marone changed to marrone #fi di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate #gc hydrogren changed to hydrogen #gg imimical changed to inimical #ha feuillemorte changed to feuillemort #ia ,item numbering has been left consistent with the omission of item no4 #bc #abi extemes changed to extremes #afi muroxide changed to murexide #ahh dullness changed to dulness #aib gaslight changed to gas-light #bjj durablity changed to durability #bjf and #bic developement changed to development #bab decolorized changed to decolourised #bce indentical changed to identical #bda re-acting changed to reacting #bej ,exibition changed to ,exhibition #bgc childrens' changed to children's #ccf toneing changed to toning #ceb fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb #djh analagous changed to analogous #dad announceed changed to announced #dba abies changed to ,abies ,inconsistencies in the use of analyse_/analyze1 harmonise_/harmonize and neutralise_/neutralize have been retained as in the original text1 as have the use of arial and aerial4 ---------------------------------------- --------------