file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bjhga-;h4htm or #bjhga-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/h_/g_/bjhga_/bjhga-;h_/#bjhga-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/h_/g_/bjhga_/bjhga-;h4zip7 ,transcribers note3 ,in this text1 subscripted numbers are represented thus3 #ab ,,human ,,foods ,,and ,,their ,,nutritive ,,value by ,,harry ,,snyder1 ,b4,s4 ,new ,york ,the ,mac,millan ,company #aiad ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aijh1 by the ,mac,millan ,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,november1 #aijh4 ,reprinted ,october1 #aiji2 ,september1 #aiaj2 ,february1 #aiaa2 ,september1 #aiab2 ,may1 ,december1 #aiac2 ,june1 #aiad4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,since #ahig instruction has been given at the ,university of ,minnesota1 ,college of ,agriculture1 on human foods and their nutritive value4 ,with the development of the work1 need has been felt for a text-book presenting in concise form the composition and physical properties of foods1 and discussing some of the main factors which affect their nutritive value4 ,to meet the need1 this book has been prepared1 primarily for the author's classroom4 ,it aims to present some of the principles of human nutrition along with a study of the more common articles of food4 ,it is believed that a better understanding of the subject of nutrition will suggest ways in which foods may be selected and utilized more intelligently1 resulting not only in pecuniary saving1 but also in greater efficiency of physical and mental effort4 ,prominence is given in this work to those foods1 as flour1 bread1 cereals1 vegetables1 meats1 milk1 dairy products1 and fruits1 that are most extensively used in the dietary1 and to some of the physical1 chemical1 and bacteriological changes affecting digestibility and nutritive value which take place during their preparation for the table4 ,dietary studies1 comparative cost and value of foods1 rational feeding of men1 and experiments and laboratory practice form features of the work4 ,some closely related topics1 largely of a sanitary nature1 as the effect upon food of household sanitation and storage1 are also briefly discussed4 ,references are given in case more extended information is desired on some of the subjects treated4 ,while this book was prepared mainly for students who have taken a course in general chemistry1 it has been the intention to present the topics in such a way as to be understood by the layman also4 ,this work completes a series of text-books undertaken by the author over ten years ago1 dealing with agricultural and industrial subjects3 ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life1 ,dairy ,chemistry1 ,soils and ,fertilizers1 and ,human ,foods and their ,nutritive ,value4 ,it has been the aim in preparing these books to avoid as far as possible repetition1 but at the same time to make each work sufficiently complete to permit its use as a text independent of the series4 ,one of the greatest uses that science can serve is in its application to the household and the everyday affairs of life4 ,too little attention is generally bestowed upon the study of foods in schools and colleges1 and the author sincerely hopes the time will soon come when more prominence will be given to this subject1 which is the oldest1 most important1 most neglected1 and least understood of any that have a direct bearing upon the welfare of man4 ,,harry ,,snyder4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,general ,,composition ,,of ,,foods #a ,water2 ,dry ,matter2 ,variations in ,weight of ,foods2 ,ash2 ,function of ,ash in ,plant ,life2 ,organic ,matter2 ,products of ,combustion of ,organic ,matter2 ,classification of ,organic ,compounds2 ,non-nitrogenous ,compounds2 ,carbohydrates2 ,cellulose2 ,amount of ,cellulose in ,foods2 ,crude ,fiber2 ,starch2 ,microscopic ,structure of ,starch2 ,dextrin2 ,food ,value of ,starch2 ,sugar2 ,pectose ,substances2 ,nitrogen-free-extract2 ,fats2 ,fuel ,value of ,fats2 ,iodine ,number of ,fats2 ,glycerol ,content of ,fats2 ,ether ,extract and ,crude ,fat2 ,organic ,acids2 ,dietetic ,value of ,organic ,acids2 ,essential ,oils2 ,mixed ,compounds2 ,nutritive ,value of ,non-nitrogenous ,compounds2 ,nitrogenous ,compounds2 ,general ,composition2 ,protein2 ,sub-divisions of ,proteins2 ,crude ,protein2 ,food ,value of ,protein2 ,albuminoids2 ,amids and ,amines2 ,alkaloids2 ,general ,relationship of the ,nitrogenous ,compounds4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,changes ,,in ,,composition ,,of ,,foods ,,during ,,cooking ,,and ,,preparation #bg ,raw and ,cooked ,foods compared as to ,composition2 ,chemical ,changes during ,cooking2 ,general ,changes affecting ,cellulose1 ,starch1 ,sugar1 ,pectin ,bodies1 ,fats1 ,proteids2 ,effect of ,chemical ,changes on ,digestibility2 ,physical ,changes during ,cooking2 ,action of ,heat on ,animal and ,plant ,tissues2 ,amount of ,heat required for ,cooking2 ,bacteriological ,changes2 ,insoluble ,ferments2 ,soluble ,ferments2 ,bacterial ,action ,necessary in ,preparation of ,some ,foods2 ,injurious ,bacterial ,action2 ,general ,relationship of ,chemical1 ,physical1 and ,bacteriological ,changes2 ,esthetic ,value of ,foods2 ,color of ,foods2 ,natural and ,artificial ,colors2 ,conditions under which ,use of ,chemicals in ,preparation of ,foods is ,justifiable4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,vegetable ,,foods #cg ,general ,composition2 ,potatoes2 ,chemical and ,mechanical ,composition2 ,uses of ,potatoes in ,dietary2 ,sweet ,potatoes2 ,carrots2 ,parsnips2 ,cabbage2 ,cauliflower2 ,beets2 ,cucumbers2 ,lettuce2 ,onions2 ,spinach2 ,asparagus2 ,melons2 ,tomatoes2 ,sweet ,corn2 ,eggplant2 ,squash2 ,celery2 ,dietetic ,value of ,vegetables2 ,nutrient ,content of ,vegetables2 ,sanitary ,condition of ,vegetables2 ,miscellaneous ,compounds in ,vegetables2 ,canned ,vegetables2 ,edible ,portion and ,refuse of ,vegetables4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,fruits1 ,,flavors ,,and ,,extracts #dh ,general ,composition2 ,food ,value2 ,apples2 ,oranges2 ,lemons2 ,grape ,fruit2 ,strawberries2 ,grapes2 ,peaches2 ,plums2 ,olives2 ,figs2 ,dried ,fruits2 ,uses of ,fruit in the ,dietary2 ,canning and ,preservation of ,fruits2 ,adulterated ,canned ,fruits2 ,fruit ,flavors and ,extracts2 ,synthetic ,preparation of ,flavors4 ,,chapter ,v ,,sugars1 ,,molasses1 ,,syrup1 ,,honey1 ,,and ,,confections #eh ,composition of ,sugars2 ,beet ,sugar2 ,cane ,sugar2 ,manufacture of ,sugar2 ,sulphur ,dioxid and ,indigo1 ,uses of1 in ,sugar ,manufacture2 ,commercial ,grades of ,sugar2 ,sugar in the ,dietary2 ,maple ,sugar2 ,adulteration of ,sugar2 ,dextrose ,sugars2 ,inversion of ,sugars2 ,molasses2 ,syrups2 ,adulteration of ,molasses2 ,sorghum ,syrup2 ,maple ,syrup2 ,analysis of ,sugar2 ,adulteration of ,syrups2 ,honey2 ,confections2 ,coloring ,matter in ,candies2 ,coal ,tar ,dyes2 ,saccharine4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,legumes ,,and ,,nuts #ga ,general ,composition of ,legumes2 ,beans2 ,digestibility of ,beans2 ,use of ,beans in the ,dietary2 ,string ,beans2 ,peas2 ,canned ,peas2 ,peanuts2 ,general ,composition of ,nuts2 ,chestnuts2 ,the ,hickory ,nut2 ,almonds2 ,pistachio2 ,cocoanuts2 ,uses of ,nuts in the ,dietary4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,milk ,,and ,,dairy ,,products #hj ,importance in the ,dietary2 ,general ,composition2 ,digestibility2 ,sanitary ,condition of ,milk2 ,certified ,milk2 ,pasteurized ,milk2 ,tyrotoxicon2 ,color of ,milk2 ,souring of ,milk2 ,use of ,preservatives in ,milk2 ,condensed ,milk2 ,skim ,milk2 ,cream2 ,buttermilk2 ,goat's ,milk2 ,koumiss2 ,prepared ,milks2 ,human ,milk2 ,adulteration of ,milk2 ,composition of ,butter2 ,digestibility of ,butter2 ,adulteration of ,butter2 ,general ,composition of ,cheese2 ,digestibility2 ,use in the ,dietary2 ,cottage ,cheese2 ,different ,kinds of ,cheese2 ,adulteration of ,cheese2 ,dairy ,products in the ,dietary4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,meats ,,and ,,animal ,,food ,,products #ih ,general ,composition2 ,mineral ,matter2 ,fat2 ,protein2 ,non-nitrogenous ,compounds2 ,why ,meats vary in ,composition2 ,amides2 ,albuminoids2 ,taste and ,flavor of ,meats2 ,alkaloidal ,bodies in ,meats2 ,ripening of ,meats in ,cold ,storage2 ,beef2 ,veal2 ,mutton2 ,pork2 ,lard2 ,texture and ,toughness of ,meat2 ,influence of ,cooking upon the ,composition of ,meats2 ,beef ,extracts2 ,miscellaneous ,meat ,products2 ,pickled ,meats2 ,saltpeter in ,meats2 ,smoked ,meats2 ,poultry2 ,fish2 ,oysters1 ,fattening of2 ,shell ,fish2 ,eggs1 ,general ,composition2 ,digestibility of ,eggs2 ,use of ,eggs in the ,dietary2 ,canned ,meats1 ,general ,composition4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cereals #aba ,preparation and ,cost of ,cereals2 ,various ,grains used in making ,cereal ,products2 ,cleanliness of2 ,corn ,preparations2 ,corn ,flour2 ,use of ,corn in ,dietary2 ,corn ,bread2 ,oat ,preparations2 ,cooking of ,oatmeal2 ,wheat ,preparations2 ,flour ,middlings2 ,breakfast ,foods2 ,digestibility of ,wheat ,preparations2 ,barley ,preparations2 ,rice ,preparations2 ,predigested ,foods2 ,the ,value of ,cereals in the ,dietary2 ,phosphate ,content of ,cereals2 ,phosphorus ,requirements of a ,ration2 ,mechanical ,action of ,cereals upon ,digestion2 ,cost and ,nutritive ,value of ,cereals4 ,,chapter ,x ,,wheat ,,flour #acc ,use for ,bread ,making2 ,winter and ,spring ,wheat ,flours2 ,composition of ,wheat and ,flour2 ,roller ,process of ,flour ,milling2 ,grades of ,flour2 ,types of ,flour2 ,composition of ,flour2 ,graham and ,entire ,wheat ,flours2 ,composition of ,wheat ,offals2 ,aging and ,curing of ,flour2 ,macaroni ,flour2 ,color2 ,granulation2 ,capacity of ,flour to absorb ,water2 ,physical ,properties of ,gluten2 ,gluten as a ,factor in ,bread ,making2 ,unsoundness2 ,comparative ,baking ,tests2 ,bleaching2 ,adulteration of ,flour2 ,nutritive ,value of ,flour4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,bread ,,and ,,bread ,,making #aeh ,leavened and ,unleavened ,bread2 ,changes during ,bread ,making2 ,loss of ,dry ,matter during ,bread ,making2 ,action of ,yeast2 ,compressed ,yeast2 ,dry ,yeast2 ,production of ,carbon ,dioxid ,gas and ,alcohol2 ,production of ,soluble ,carbohydrates2 ,production of ,acids in ,bread ,making2 ,volatile ,compounds produced during ,bread ,making2 ,behavior of ,wheat ,proteids in ,bread ,making2 ,production of ,volatile ,nitrogenous ,compounds2 ,oxidation of ,fat2 ,influence of the ,addition of ,wheat ,starch and ,gluten to ,flour2 ,composition of ,bread2 ,use of ,skim ,milk and ,lard in ,bread ,making2 ,influence of ,warm and ,cold ,flours in ,bread ,making2 ,variations in the ,process of ,bread ,making2 ,digestibility of ,bread2 ,use of ,graham and ,entire ,wheat in the ,dietary2 ,mineral ,content of ,white ,bread2 ,comparative ,digestibility of ,new and ,old ,bread2 ,different ,kinds of ,bread2 ,toast4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,baking ,,powders #ahf ,general ,composition2 ,cream of ,tartar ,powders2 ,residue from ,cream of ,tartar ,baking ,powders2 ,tartaric ,acid ,powders2 ,phosphate ,baking ,powders2 ,mineral and ,organic ,phosphates2 ,phosphate ,residue2 ,alum ,baking ,powders2 ,residue from ,alum ,baking ,powders2 ,objections urged against ,alum ,powders2 ,action of ,baking ,powders and ,yeast ,compared2 ,keeping ,qualities of ,baking ,powders2 ,inspection of ,baking ,powders2 ,fillers2 ,home-made ,baking ,powders4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,vinegar1 ,,spices1 ,,and ,,condiments #aic ,vinegar2 ,chemical ,changes during ,manufacture of ,vinegar2 ,ferment ,action2 ,materials used in ,preparation of ,vinegars2 ,characteristics of a ,good ,vinegar2 ,vinegar ,solids2 ,acidity of ,vinegar2 ,different ,kinds of ,vinegars2 ,standards of ,purity2 ,adulteration of ,vinegar2 ,characteristics of ,spices2 ,pepper2 ,cayenne2 ,mustard2 ,ginger2 ,cinnamon and ,cassia2 ,cloves2 ,allspice2 ,nutmeg2 ,adulteration of ,spices and ,condiments2 ,essential ,oils of2 ,uses of ,condiments in ,preparation of ,foods2 ,action of ,condiments upon ,digestion2 ,condiments and ,natural ,flavors4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,chocolate1 ,,and ,,cocoa #bjc ,tea2 ,sources of ,tea ,supply2 ,composition of ,tea2 ,black ,tea and ,green ,tea2 ,judging ,teas2 ,adulteration of ,tea2 ,food ,value and ,physiological ,properties of ,tea2 ,composition of ,coffee2 ,adulteration of ,coffee2 ,chicory in ,coffee2 ,glazing of ,coffee2 ,cereal ,coffee ,substitutes2 ,cocoa and ,chocolate ,preparations2 ,composition of ,cocoa2 ,chocolate2 ,cocoa ,nibs2 ,plain ,chocolate2 ,sweet ,chocolate2 ,cocoa ,butter2 ,nutritive ,value of ,cocoa2 ,adulteration of ,chocolate and ,cocoa2 ,comparative ,composition of ,beverages4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,digestibility ,,of ,,food #bad ,digestibility1 how ,determined2 ,completeness and ,ease of ,digestion ,process2 ,example of ,digestion ,experiment2 ,available ,nutrients2 ,available ,energy2 ,caloric ,value of ,foods2 ,normal ,digestion and ,health2 ,digestibility of ,animal ,foods2 ,digestibility of ,vegetable ,foods2 ,factors influencing ,digestion2 ,combination of ,foods2 ,amount of ,food2 ,method of ,preparation of ,food2 ,mechanical ,condition of ,foods2 ,mastication2 ,palatability of ,foods2 ,physiological ,properties of ,foods2 ,individuality2 ,psychological ,factors4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,comparative ,,cost ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,foods #bca ,cost and ,nutrient ,content of ,foods2 ,how to compare ,two ,foods as to ,nutritive ,value2 ,cheap ,foods2 ,expensive ,foods2 ,nutrients ,procurable for a ,given ,sum2 ,examples2 ,comparing ,nutritive ,value of ,common ,foods at ,different ,prices2 ,cost and ,value of ,nutrients4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,dietary ,,studies #bdd ,object of ,dietary ,studies2 ,wide and ,narrow ,rations2 ,dietary ,standards2 ,number of ,meals per ,day2 ,mixed ,dietary ,desirable2 ,animal and ,vegetable ,foods2 ,economy of ,production2 ,food ,habits2 ,underfed ,families2 ,cheap and ,expensive ,foods2 ,food ,notions2 ,dietary of ,two ,families ,compared2 ,food in its ,relation to ,mental and ,physical ,vigor2 ,dietary ,studies in ,public ,institutions4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,rational ,,feeling ,,of ,,man #bfa ,object2 ,human and ,animal ,feeding ,compared2 ,standard ,rations2 ,why ,tentative ,dietary ,standards2 ,amounts of ,food ,consumed2 ,average ,composition of ,foods2 ,variations in ,composition of ,foods2 ,example of a ,ration2 ,calculations of ,balanced ,rations2 ,requisites of a ,balanced ,ration2 ,examples2 ,calculations of ,rations for ,men at ,different ,kinds of ,labor4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,water #bfh ,importance2 ,impurities in ,water2 ,mineral ,impurities2 ,organic ,impurities2 ,interpretation of a ,water ,analysis2 ,natural ,purification of ,water2 ,water in ,relation to ,health2 ,improvement of ,waters2 ,boiling of ,water2 ,filtration2 ,purification of ,water by ,addition of ,chemicals2 ,ice2 ,rain ,waters2 ,waters of ,high and ,low ,purity2 ,chemical ,changes which ,organic ,matter of ,water ,undergoes2 ,bacterial ,content of ,water2 ,mineral ,waters2 ,materials for ,softening ,water2 ,uses of2 ,economic ,value of a ,pure ,water ,supply4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,food ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,household ,,sanitation ,,and ,,storage #bhd ,injurious ,compounds in ,foods2 ,nutrient ,content and ,sanitary ,condition of ,food2 ,sources of ,contamination of ,food2 ,unclean ,ways of ,handling ,food2 ,sanitary ,inspection of ,food2 ,infection from ,impure ,air2 ,storage of ,food in ,cellars2 ,respiration of ,vegetable ,cells2 ,sunlight1 ,pure ,water1 and ,pure ,air as ,disinfectants2 ,foods contaminated from ,leaky ,plumbing2 ,utensils for ,storage of ,food2 ,contamination from ,unclean ,dishcloths2 ,refrigeration2 ,chemical ,changes that take ,place in the ,refrigerator2 ,soil2 ,disposal of ,kitchen ,refuse2 ,germ ,diseases spread by ,unsanitary ,conditions around ,dwellings due to ,contamination of ,food2 ,general ,considerations2 ,relation of ,food to ,health4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,laboratory ,,practice #bii ,object of ,laboratory ,practice2 ,laboratory ,note-book and ,suggestions for ,laboratory ,practice2 ,list of ,apparatus ,used2 ,photograph of ,apparatus ,used2 ,directions for ,weighing2 ,directions for ,measuring2 ,use of ,microscope2 ,water in ,flour2 ,water in ,butter2 ,ash in ,flour2 ,nitric ,acid ,test for ,nitrogenous ,organic ,matter2 ,acidity of ,lemons2 ,influence of ,heat on ,potato ,starch ,grains2 ,influence of ,yeast on ,starch ,grains2 ,mechanical ,composition of ,potatoes2 ,pectose from ,apples2 ,lemon ,extract2 ,vanilla ,extract2 ,testing ,olive ,oil for ,cotton ,seed ,oil2 ,testing for ,coal ,tar ,dyes2 ,determining the ,per ,cent of ,skin in ,beans2 ,extraction of ,fat from ,peanuts2 ,microscopic ,examination of ,milk2 ,formaldehyde in ,cream or ,milk2 ,gelatine in ,cream or ,milk2 ,testing for ,oleomargarine2 ,testing for ,watering or ,skimming of ,milk2 ,boric ,acid in ,meat2 ,microscopic ,examination of ,cereal ,starch ,grains2 ,identification of ,commercial ,cereals2 ,granulation and ,color of ,flour2 ,capacity of ,flour to absorb ,water2 ,acidity of ,flour2 ,moist and ,dry ,gluten2 ,gliadin from ,flour2 ,bread-making ,test2 ,microscopic ,examination of ,yeast2 ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,alum2 ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,phosphoric ,acid2 ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,ammonia2 ,vinegar ,solids2 ,specific ,gravity of ,vinegar2 ,acidity of ,vinegar2 ,deportment of ,vinegar with ,reagents2 ,testing ,mustard for ,turmeric2 ,examination of ,tea ,leaves2 ,action of ,iron ,compounds upon ,tannic ,acid2 ,identification of ,coffee ,berries2 ,detecting ,chicory in ,coffee2 ,comparative ,amounts of ,soap ,necessary with ,hard and ,soft ,water2 ,solvent ,action of ,water on ,lead2 ,suspended ,matter in ,water2 ,organic ,matter in ,water2 ,deposition of ,lime by ,boiling ,water2 ,qualitative ,tests for ,minerals in ,water2 ,testing for ,nitrites in ,water4 ,,review ,,questions #cbc ,,references #cej ,,index #ceg ,,human ,,foods ,,and ,,their ,,nutritive ,,value ,,chapter ,i ,,general ,,composition ,,of ,,foods #a4 ,water4--,all foods contain water4 ,vegetables in their natural condition contain large amounts1 often #ie per cent1 while in meats there is from #dj to #fj per cent or more4 ,prepared cereal products1 as flour1 corn meal1 and oatmeal1 which are apparently dry1 have from #g to #ad per cent4 ,in general the amount of water in a food varies with the mechanical structure and the conditions under which it has been prepared1 and is an important factor in estimating the value1 as the nutrients are often greatly decreased because of large amounts of water4 ,the water in substances as flour and meal is mechanically held in combination with the fine particles and varies with the moisture content1 or hydroscopicity1 of the air4 ,oftentimes foods gain or lose water to such an extent as to affect their weight2 for example1 one hundred pounds of flour containing #ab per cent of water may be reduced in weight three pounds or more when stored in a dry place1 or there may be an increase in weight from being stored in a damp place4 ,in tables of analyses the results1 unless otherwise stated1 are usually given on the basis of the original material1 or the dry substance4 ,potatoes1 for example1 contain #b-a_/b per cent of crude protein on the basis of #ge per cent of water2 or on a dry matter basis1 that is1 when the water is entirely eliminated1 there is #aj per cent of protein4 ,the water of foods is determined by drying the weighed material in a water or air oven at a temperature of about #ajj ,c1 until all of the moisture has been expelled in the form of steam1 leaving the dry matter or material free from water4#a ,the determination of dry matter1 while theoretically a simple process1 is attended with many difficulties4 ,substances which contain much fat may undergo oxidation during drying2 volatile compounds1 as essential oils1 are expelled along with the moisture2 and other changes may occur affecting the accuracy of the work4 ,the last traces of moisture are removed with difficulty from a substance1 being mechanically retained by the particles with great tenacity4 ,when very accurate dry matter determinations are desired1 the substance is dried in a vacuum oven1 or in a desiccator over sulphuric acid1 or in an atmosphere of some non-oxidizing gas1 as hydrogen4 #b4 ,dry ,matter4--,the dry matter of a food is a mechanical mixture of the various compounds1 as starch1 sugar1 fat1 protein1 cellulose1 and mineral matter1 and is obtained by drying the material4 ,succulent vegetable foods with #ie per cent of water contain only #e per cent of dry matter1 while in flour with #ab per cent of water there is #hh per cent1 and in sugar #ii per cent4 ,the dry matter is obtained by subtracting the per cent of water from #ajj1 and in foods it varies from #e per cent and less in some vegetables to #ii per cent in sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,for ,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,dry ,,matter ,,and ,,ash ,,in ,,foods4 #a1 desiccator2 #b1 muffle furnace for combustion of foods and obtaining ash2 #c1 water oven for drying food materials4 #c4 ,ash4--,the ash1 or mineral matter1 is that portion obtained by burning or igniting the dry matter at the lowest temperature necessary for complete combustion4 ,the ash in vegetable foods ranges from #b to #e per cent and1 together with the nitrogen1 represents what was taken from the soil during growth4 ,in animal bodies1 the ash is present mainly in the bones1 but there is also an appreciable amount1 one per cent or more1 in all the tissues4 ,ash is exceedingly variable in composition1 being composed of the various salts of potassium1 sodium1 calcium1 magnesium1 and iron1 as sulphates1 phosphates1 chlorides1 and silicates of these elements4 ,there are also other elements in small amounts4 ,in the plant economy these elements take an essential part and are requisite for the formation of plant tissue and the production in the leaves of the organic compounds which later are stored up in the seeds4 ,some of the elements appear to be more necessary than others1 and whenever withheld plant growth is restricted4 ,the elements most essential for plant growth are potassium1 calcium1 magnesium1 iron1 phosphorus1 and sulphur4#a ,in the animal body minerals are derived1 either directly or indirectly1 from the vegetable foods consumed4 ,the part which each of the mineral elements takes in animal nutrition is not well understood4 ,some of the elements1 as phosphorus and sulphur1 are in organic combination with the nitrogenous compounds1 as the nucleated albuminoids1 which are very essential for animal life4 ,in both plant and animal bodies1 the mineral matter is present as mineral salts and organic combinations4 ,it is held that the ash elements which are in organic combination are the forms mainly utilized for tissue construction4 ,while it is not known just what part all the mineral elements take in animal nutrition1 experiments show that in all ordinary mixed rations the amount of the different mineral elements is in excess of the demands of the body1 and it is only in rare instances1 as in cases of restricted diet1 or convalescence from some disease1 that special attention need be given to increasing the mineral content of the ration4 ,an excess of mineral matter in foods is equally as objectionable as a scant amount1 elimination of the excess entailing additional work on the body4 ,the composition of the ash of different food materials varies widely1 both in amount1 and form of the individual elements4 ,when for any reason it is necessary to increase the phosphates in a ration1 milk and eggs do this to a greater extent than almost any other foods4 ,common salt1 or sodium chloride1 is one of the most essential of the mineral constituents of the body4 ,it is necessary for giving the blood its normal composition1 furnishing acid and basic constituents for the production of the digestive fluids1 and for the nutrition of the cells4 ,while salt is a necessary food1 in large amounts1 as when the attempt is made to use sea water as a beverage1 it acts as a poison1 suggesting that a material may be both a food and a poison4 ,when sodium chloride is entirely withheld from an animal1 death from salt starvation ensues4 ,many foods contain naturally small amounts of sodium chloride4 #d4 ,organic ,matter4--,that portion of a food material which is converted into gaseous or volatile products during combustion is called the organic matter4 ,it is a mechanical mixture of compounds made up of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and sulphur1 and is composed of various individual organic compounds1 as cellulose1 starch1 sugar1 albumin1 and fat4 ,the amount in a food is determined by subtracting the ash and water from #ajj4 ,the organic matter varies widely in composition2 in some foods it is largely starch1 as in potatoes and rice1 while in others1 as forage crops consumed by animals1 cellulose predominates4 ,the nature of the prevailing organic compound1 as sugar or starch1 determines the nutritive value of a food4 ,each has a definite chemical composition capable of being expressed by a formula4 ,considered collectively1 the organic compounds are termed organic matter4 ,when burned1 the organic compounds are converted into gases1 the carbon uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide1 hydrogen to form water1 sulphur to form sulphur dioxide1 and the nitrogen to form oxides of nitrogen and ammonia4 #e4 ,classification of ,organic ,compounds4--,all food materials are composed of a large number of organic compounds4 ,for purposes of study these are divided into classes4 ,the element nitrogen is taken as the basis of the division4 ,compounds which contain this element are called nitrogenous1 while those from which it is absent are called non-nitrogenous4#b ,the nitrogenous organic compounds are composed of the elements nitrogen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 oxygen1 and sulphur1 while the non-nitrogenous compounds are composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,in vegetable foods the non-nitrogenous compounds predominate1 there being usually from six to twelve parts of non-nitrogenous to every one part of nitrogenous1 while in animal foods the nitrogenous compounds are present in larger amount4 ,,non-,,nitrogenous ,,compounds #f4 ,occurrence4--,the non-nitrogenous compounds of foods consist mainly of cellulose1 starch1 sugar1 and fat4 ,for purposes of study1 they are divided into subdivisions1 as carbohydrates1 pectose substances or jellies1 fats1 organic acids1 essential oils1 and mixed compounds4 ,in plants the carbohydrates predominate1 while in animal tissue the fats are the chief non-nitrogenous constituents4 #g4 ,carbohydrates4--,this term is applied to a class of compounds similar in general composition1 but differing widely in structural composition and physical properties4 ,carbohydrates make up the bulk of vegetable foods and1 except in milk1 are found only in traces in animal foods4 ,they are all represented by the general formula ,,ch#bn#bn1 there being twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms1 the hydrogen and oxygen being present in the same proportion as in water4 ,as a class1 the carbohydrates are neutral bodies1 and1 when burned1 form carbon dioxide and water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,cellular ,,structure ,,of ,,plant ,,cell4 #h4 ,cellulose is the basis of the cell structure of plants1 and is found in various physical forms in food materials4#c ,sometimes it is hard and dense1 resisting digestive action and mechanically inclosing other nutrients and thus preventing their being available as food4 ,in the earlier stages of plant growth a part of the cellulose is in chemical combination with water1 forming hydrated cellulose1 a portion of which undergoes digestion and produces heat and energy in the body4 ,ordinarily1 however1 cellulose adds but little in the way of nutritive value1 although it is often beneficial mechanically and imparts bulk to some foods otherwise too concentrated4 ,the mechanical action of cellulose on the digestion of food is discussed in ,chapter ,,xv4 ,cellulose usually makes up a very small part of human food1 less than #a per cent4 ,in refined white flour there is less than 4#je of a per cent2 in oatmeal and cereal products from 4#e to #a per cent1 depending upon the extent to which the hulls are removed1 and in vegetable foods from 4#a to #a per cent4 ,the cellulose content of foods is included in the crude fiber of the chemist's report4 #i4 ,starch occurs widely distributed in nature1 particularly in the seeds1 roots1 and tubers of some plants4 ,it is formed in the leaves of plants as a result of the joint action of chlorophyll and protoplasm1 and is generally held by plant physiologists to be the first carbohydrate produced in the plant cell4 ,starch is composed of a number of overlapping layers separated by starch cellulose2 between these layers the true starch or amylose is found4 ,starch from the various cereals and vegetables differs widely in mechanical structure2 in wheat it is circular1 in corn somewhat angular1 and in parsnips exceedingly small1 while potato starch granules are among the largest4#d ,the nature of starch can be determined largely from its mechanical structure as studied under the microscope4 ,it is insoluble in cold water because of the protecting action of the cellular layer1 but on being heated it undergoes both mechanical and chemical changes2 the grains are partially ruptured by pressure due to the conversion into steam of the moisture held mechanically4 ,the cooking of foods is beneficial from a mechanical point of view1 as it results in partial disintegration of the starch masses1 changing the structure so that the starch is more readily acted upon by the ferments of the digestive tract4 ,at a temperature of about #abj ,c4 starch begins to undergo chemical change1 resulting in the rearrangement of the atoms in the molecule with the production of dextrine and soluble carbohydrates4 ,dextrine is formed on the crust of bread1 or whenever potatoes or starchy foods are browned4 ,at a still higher temperature starch is decomposed1 with the liberation of water and production of compounds of higher carbon content4 ,when heated in contact with water1 it undergoes hydration changes2 gelatinous-like products are formed1 which are finally converted into a soluble condition4 ,in cooking cereals1 the hydration of the starch is one of the main physical and chemical changes that takes place1 and it simply results in converting the material into such a form that other chemical changes may more readily occur4 ,before starch becomes dextrose1 hydration is necessary4 ,if this is accomplished by cooking1 it saves the body just so much energy in digestion4 ,many foods owe their value largely to the starch4 ,in cereals it is found to the extent of #gb to #gf per cent2 in rice and potatoes in still larger amounts2 and it is the chief constituent of many vegetables4 ,when starch is digested1 it is first changed to a soluble form and then gradually undergoes oxidation1 resulting in the production of heat and energy1 the same products--carbon dioxide and water--being formed as when starch is burned4 ,starch is a valuable heat-producing nutrient2 a pound yields #ahfj calories4 ,see ,chapter ,,xv4 #aj4 ,sugar4--,sugars are widely distributed in nature1 being found principally in the juices of the sugar cane1 sugar beet1 and sugar maple4 ,they are divided into two large classes3 the sucrose group and the dextrose group1 the latter being produced from sucrose1 starch1 and other carbohydrates by inversion and allied chemical changes4 ,because of the importance of sugar in the dietary1 ,chapter ,v is devoted to the subject4 #aa4 ,pectose ,substances are jelly-like bodies found in fruits and vegetables4 ,they are closely related in chemical composition to the carbohydrates1 into which form they are changed during digestion2 and in nutrition they serve practically the same function4 ,in the early stages of growth the pectin bodies are combined with organic acids1 forming insoluble compounds1 as the pectin in green apples4 ,during the ripening of fruit and the cooking of vegetables1 the pectin is changed to a more soluble and digestible condition4 ,in food analysis1 the pectin is usually included with the carbohydrates4 #ab4 ,nitrogen-free-extract4--,in discussing the composition of foods1 the carbohydrates other then cellulose1 as starch1 sugar1 and pectin1 are grouped under the name of nitrogen-free-extract4 ,methods of chemical analysis have not yet been sufficiently perfected to enable accurate and rapid determination to be made of all these individual carbohydrates1 and hence they are grouped together as nitrogen-free-extract4 ,as the name indicates1 they are compounds which contain no nitrogen1 and are extractives in the sense that they are soluble in dilute acid and alkaline solutions4 ,the nitrogen-free-extract is determined indirectly1 that is1 by the method of difference4 ,all the other constituents of a food1 as water1 ash1 crude fiber 7cellulose71 crude protein1 and ether extract1 are determined2 the total is subtracted from #ajj1 and the difference is nitrogen-free-extract4 ,in studying the nutritive value of foods1 particular attention should be given to the nature of the nitrogen-free-extract1 as in some instances it is composed of sugar and in others of starch1 pectin1 or pentosan 7gum sugars74 ,while all these compounds have practically the same fuel value1 they differ in composition1 structure1 and the way in which they are acted upon by chemicals and digestive ferments4#a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,for ,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,fat4 #ac4 ,fat4--,fat is found mainly in the seeds of plants1 but to some extent in the leaves and stems4 ,it differs from starch in containing more carbon and less oxygen4 ,in starch there is about #dd per cent of carbon1 while in fat there is #ge per cent4 ,hence it is that when fat is burned or undergoes combustion1 it yields a larger amount of the products of combustion--carbon dioxid and water--than does starch4 ,a gram of fat produces #b-a_/d times as much heat as a gram of starch4 ,fat is the most concentrated non-nitrogenous nutrient4 ,as found in food materials1 it is a mechanical mixture of various fats1 among which are stearin1 palmitin1 and olein4 ,stearin and palmitin are hard fats1 crystalline in structure1 and with a high melting point1 while olein is a liquid4 ,in addition to these three1 there are also small amounts of other fats1 as butyrin in butter1 which give character or individuality to materials4 ,there are a number of vegetable fats or oils which are used for food purposes and1 when properly prepared and refined1 have a high nutritive value4 ,occasionally one fat of cheaper origin but not necessarily of lower nutritive value is substituted for another4 ,the fats have definite physical and chemical properties which enable them to be readily distinguished1 as iodine number1 specific gravity1 index of refraction1 and heat of combustion4 ,by iodine number is meant the percentage of iodine that will unite chemically with the fat4 ,wheat oil has an iodine number of about #ajj1 meaning that one pound of wheat oil will unite chemically with one pound of iodine4 ,fats have a lower specific gravity than water1 usually ranging from 4#hi to 4#id1 the specific gravity of a fat being fairly constant4 ,all fats can be separated into glycerol and a fatty acid1 glycerol or glycerine being common constituents1 while each fat yields its own characteristic acid1 as stearin1 stearic acid2 palmitin1 palmitic acid2 and olein1 oleic acid4 ,the fats are soluble in ether1 chloroform1 and benzine4 ,in the chemical analysis of foods1 they are separated with ether1 and along with the fat1 variable amounts of other substances are extracted1 these extractive products usually being called ether extract or crude fat4#e ,the ether extract of plant tissue contains in addition to fat appreciable amounts of cellulose1 gums1 coloring1 and other materials4 ,from cereal products the ether extract is largely fat1 but in some instances lecithin and other nitrogenous fatty substances are present1 while in animal food products1 as milk and meat1 the ether extract is nearly pure fat4 #ad4 ,organic ,acids4--,many vegetable foods contain small amounts of organic acids1 as malic acid found in apples1 citric in lemons1 and tartaric in grapes4 ,these give characteristic taste to foods1 but have no direct nutritive value4 ,they do not yield heat and energy as do starch1 fat1 and protein2 they are1 however1 useful for imparting flavor and palatability1 and it is believed they promote to some extent the digestion of foods with which they are combined by encouraging the secretion of the digestive fluids4 ,many fruits and vegetables owe their dietetic value to the organic acids which they contain4 ,in plants they are usually in chemical combination with the minerals1 forming compounds as salts1 or with the organic compounds1 producing materials as acid proteins4 ,in the plant economy they take an essential part in promoting growth and aiding the plant to secure by osmotic action its mineral food from the soil4 ,organic acids are found to some extent in animal foods1 as the various lactic acids of meat and milk4 ,they are also formed in food materials as the result of ferment action4 ,when seeds germinate1 small amounts of carbohydrates are converted into organic acids4 ,in general the organic acids are not to be considered as nutrients1 but as food adjuncts1 increasing palatability and promoting digestion4 #ae4 ,essential ,oils4--,essential or volatile oils differ from fats1 or fixed oils1 in chemical composition and physical properties4#f ,the essential oils are readily volatilized1 leaving no permanent residue1 while the fixed fats are practically non-volatile4 ,various essential oils are present in small amounts in nearly all vegetable food materials1 and the characteristic flavor of many fruits is due to them4 ,it is these compounds which are used for flavoring purposes1 as discussed in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the amount in a food material is very small1 usually only a few hundredths of a per cent4 ,the essential oils have no direct food value1 but indirectly1 like the organic acids1 they assist in promoting favorable digestive action1 and are also valuable because they impart a pleasant taste4 ,through poor methods of cooking and preparation1 the essential oils are readily lost from some foods4 #af4 ,mixed ,compounds4--,food materials frequently contain compounds which do not naturally fall into the five groups mentioned1--carbohydrates1 pectose substances1 fats1 organic acids1 and essential oils4 ,the amount of such compounds is small1 and they are classed as miscellaneous or mixed non-nitrogenous compounds4 ,some of them may impart a negative value to the food1 and there are others which have all the characteristics1 as far as general composition is concerned1 of the non-nitrogenous compounds1 but contain nitrogen1 although as a secondary rather than an essential constituent4 #ag4 ,nutritive ,value of ,non-nitrogenous ,compounds4--,the non-nitrogenous compounds1 taken as a class1 are incapable alone of sustaining life1 because they do not contain any nitrogen1 and this is necessary for producing proteid material in the animal body4 ,they are valuable for the production of heat and energy1 and when associated with the nitrogenous compounds1 are capable of forming non-nitrogenous reserve tissue4 ,it is equally impossible to sustain life for any prolonged period with the nitrogenous compounds alone4 ,it is when these two classes are properly blended and naturally united in food materials that their main value is secured4 ,for nutrition purposes they are mutually related and dependent4 ,some food materials contain the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds blended in such proportion as to enable one food alone to practically sustain life1 while in other cases it is necessary1 in order to secure the best results in the feeding of animals and men1 to combine different foods varying in their content of these two classes of compounds4#g ,,nitrogenous ,,compounds #ah4 ,general ,composition4--,the nitrogenous compounds are more complex in composition than the non-nitrogenous4 ,they are composed of a larger number of elements1 united in different ways so as to form a much more complex molecular structure4 ,foods contain numerous nitrogenous organic compounds1 which1 for purposes of study1 are divided into four divisions1--proteids1 albuminoids1 amids1 and alkaloids4 ,in addition to these1 there are other nitrogenous compounds which do not naturally fall into any one of the four divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,for ,,determining ,,total ,,nitrogen ,,and ,,crude ,,protein ,,in ,,foods4 ,the material is digested in the flask 7#c7 with sulphuric acid and the organic nitrogen converted into ammonium sulphate1 which is later liberated and distilled at #a1 and the ammonia neutralized with standard acid 7#b74 ,also in some foods there are small amounts of nitrogen in mineral forms1 as nitrates and nitrites4 #ai4 ,protein4--,the term protein is applied to a large class of nitrogenous compounds resembling each other in general composition1 but differing widely in structural composition4 ,as a class1 the proteins contain about #af per cent of nitrogen1 #eb per cent of carbon1 from #f to #g per cent of hydrogen1 #bb per cent of oxygen1 and less than #b per cent of sulphur4 ,these elements are combined in a great variety of ways1 forming various groups or radicals4 ,in studying the protein molecule a large number of derivative products have been observed1 as amid radicals1 various hydrocarbons1 fatty acids1 and carbohydrate-like bodies4#h ,it would appear that in the chemical composition of the proteins there are all the constituents1 or simpler products1 of the non-nitrogenous compounds1 and these are in chemical combination with amid radicals and nitrogen in various forms4 ,the nitrogen of many proteids appears to be present in more than one form or radical4 ,the proteids take an important part in life processes4 ,they are found more extensively in animal than in plant bodies4 ,the protoplasm of both the plant and animal cell is composed mainly of protein4 ,proteids are divided into various subdivisions1 as albumins1 globulins1 albuminates1 proteoses and peptones1 and insoluble proteids4 ,in plant and animal foods a large amount of the protein is present as insoluble proteids2 that is1 they are not dissolved by solvents1 as water and dilute salt solution4 ,the albumins are soluble in water and coagulated by heat at a temperature of #aeg to #afa ,f4 ,whenever a food material is soaked in water1 the albumin is removed and can then be coagulated by the action of heat1 or of chemicals1 as tannic acid1 lead acetate1 and salts of mercury4 ,the globulins are proteids extracted from food materials by dilute salt solution after the removal of the albumins4 ,globulins also are coagulated by heat and precipitated by chemicals4 ,the amount of globulins in vegetable foods is small4 ,in animal foods myosin in meat and vitellin1 found in the yolk of the egg1 and some of the proteids of the blood1 are examples of globulins4 ,albuminates are casein-like proteids found in both animal and vegetable foods4 ,they are supposed to be proteins that are in feeble chemical combination with acid and alkaline compounds1 and they are sometimes called acid and alkali proteids4 ,some are precipitated from their solutions by acids and others by alkalies4 ,peas and beans contain quite large amounts of a casein-like proteid called legumin4 ,proteoses and peptones are proteins soluble in water1 but not coagulated by heat4 ,they are produced from other proteids by ferment action during the digestion of food and the germination of seeds1 and are often due to the changes resulting from the action of the natural ferments or enzymes inherent in the food materials4 ,as previously stated1 the insoluble proteids are present in far the largest amount of any of the nitrogenous materials of foods4 ,lean meat and the gluten of wheat and other grains are examples of the insoluble proteids4 ,the various insoluble proteids from different food materials each has its own composition and distinctive chemical and physical properties1 and from each a different class and percentage amount of derivative products are obtained4#a ,while in general it is held that the various proteins have practically the same nutritive value1 it is possible that because differences in structural composition and the products formed during digestion there may exist notable differences in nutritive value4 ,during digestion the insoluble proteids undergo an extended series of chemical changes4 ,they are partially oxidized1 and the nitrogenous portion of the molecule is eliminated mainly in the form of amids1 as urea4 ,the insoluble proteins constitute the main source of the nitrogenous food supply of both humans and animals4 #bj4 ,crude ,protein4--,in the analysis of foods1 the term crude protein is used to designate the total nitrogenous compounds considered collectively2 it is composed largely of protein1 but also includes the amids1 alkaloids1 and albuminoids4 ,crude protein and total nitrogenous compounds are practically synonymous terms4 ,the various proteins all contain about #af per cent of nitrogen2 that is1 one part of nitrogen is equivalent to #f4be parts of protein4 ,in analyzing a food material1 the total organic nitrogen is determined and the amount multiplied by #f4be to obtain the crude protein4 ,in some food materials1 as cereals1 the crude protein is largely pure protein1 while in others1 as potatoes1 it is less than half pure protein1 the larger portion being amids and other compounds4 ,in comparing the crude protein content of one food with that of another1 the nature of both proteids should be considered and also the amounts of non-proteid constituents4 ,the factor #f4be for calculating the protein equivalent of foods is not strictly applicable to all foods4 ,for example1 the proteids of wheat--gliadin and glutenin--contain over #ah per cent of nitrogen1 making the nitrogen factor about #e4fh instead of #f4be4 ,if wheat contains #b per cent of nitrogen1 it is equivalent to #ab4e per cent of crude protein1 using the factor #f4be2 or to #aa4d1 using the factor #e4g4 ,the nitrogen content of foods is absolute2 the protein content is only relative4#i #ba4 ,food ,value of ,protein4--,because of its complexity in composition1 protein is capable of being used by the body in a greater variety of ways than starch1 sugar1 or fat4 ,in addition to producing heat and energy1 protein serves the unique function of furnishing material for the construction of new muscular tissue and the repair of that which is worn out4 ,it is distinctly a tissue-building nutrient4 ,it also enters into the composition of all the vital fluids of the body1 as the blood1 chyme1 chyle1 and the various digestive fluids4 ,hence it is that protein is required as a nutrient by the animal body1 and it cannot be produced from non-nitrogenous compounds4 ,in vegetable bodies1 the protein can be produced synthetically from amids1 which in turn are formed from ammonium compounds4 ,while protein is necessary in the ration1 an excessive amount should be avoided4 ,when there is more than is needed for functional purposes1 it is used for heat and energy1 and as foods rich in protein are usually the most expensive1 an excess adds unnecessarily to the cost of the ration4 ,excess of protein in the ration may also result in a diseased condition1 due to imperfect elimination of the protein residual products from the body4#aj #bb4 ,albuminoids differ from proteids in general composition and1 to some extent1 in nutritive value4 ,they are found in animal bodies mainly in the connective tissue and in the skin1 hair1 and nails4 ,some of the albuminoids1 as nuclein1 are equal in food value to protein1 while others have a lower food value4 ,in general1 albuminoids are capable of conserving the protein of the body1 and hence are called protein sparers1 but they cannot in every way enter into the composition of the body1 as do the true proteins4 #bc4 ,amids and ,amines4--,these are nitrogenous compounds of simpler structure than the proteins and albuminoids4 ,they are sometimes called compound ammonia in that they are derived from ammonia by the replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with an organic radical4 ,in plants1 amids are intermediate compounds in the production of the proteids1 and in some vegetables a large portion of the nitrogen is amids4 ,in animal bodies amids are formed during oxidation1 digestion1 and disintegration of proteids4 ,it is not definitely known whether or not a protein in the animal body when broken down into amid form can again be reconstructed into protein4 ,the amids have a lower food value than the proteids and albuminoids4 ,it is generally held that1 to a certain extent1 they are capable1 when combined with proteids1 of preventing rapid conversion of the body proteid into soluble form4 ,when they are used in large amounts in a ration1 they tend to hasten oxidation rather than conservation of the proteids4 #bd4 ,alkaloids4--,in some plant bodies there are small amounts of nitrogenous compounds called alkaloids4 ,they are not found to any appreciable extent in food plants4 ,the alkaloids1 like ammonia1 are basic in character and unite with acids to form salts4 ,many medicinal plants owe their value to the alkaloids which they contain4 ,in animal bodies alkaloids are formed when the tissue undergoes fermentation changes1 and also during disease1 the products being known as ptomaines4 ,alkaloids have no food value1 but act physiologically as irritants on the nerve centers1 making them useful from a medicinal rather than from a nutritive point of view4 ,to medical and pharmaceutical students the alkaloids form a very important group of compounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,flour4 #a1 flour2 #b1 starch2 #c1 gluten2 #d1 water2 #e1 fat2 #f1 ash4 #be4 ,general ,relationship of the ,nitrogenous ,compounds4--,among the various subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds there exists a relationship similar to that among the non-nitrogenous compounds4 ,from proteids1 amids and alkaloids may be formed1 just as invert sugars and their products are formed from sucrose4 ,although glucose products are derived from sucrose1 it is not possible to reverse the process and obtain sucrose or cane sugar from starch4 ,so it is with proteins1 while the amid may be obtained from the proteid in animal nutrition1 as far as known the process cannot be reversed and proteids be obtained from amids4 ,in the construction of the protein molecule of plants1 nitrogen is absorbed from the soil in soluble forms1 as compounds of nitrates and nitrites and ammonium salts4 ,these are converted1 first1 into amids and then into proteids4 ,in the animal body just the reverse of this process takes place1--the protein of the food undergoes a series of changes1 and is finally eliminated from the body as an amid1 which in turn undergoes oxidation and nitrification1 and is converted into nitrites1 nitrates1 and ammonium salts4 ,these forms of nitrogen are then ready to begin again in plant and animal bodies the same cycle of changes4 ,thus it is that nitrogen may enter a number of times into the composition of plant and animal tissues4 ,nature is very economical in her use of this element4#e ,,chapter ,,ii ,,changes ,,in ,,composition ,,of ,,foods ,,during ,,cooking ,,and ,,preparation #bf4 ,raw and ,cooked ,foods ,compared4--,raw and cooked foods differ in chemical composition mainly in the content of water4 ,the amount of nutrients on a dry matter basis is practically the same1 but the structural composition is affected by cooking1 and hence it is that a food prepared for the table often differs appreciably from the raw material4 ,cooked meat1 for example1 has not the same percentage and structural composition as raw meat1 although the difference in nutritive value between a given weight of each is not large4 ,during cooking1 foods are acted upon chemically1 physically1 and bacteriologically1 and it is usually the joint action of these three agencies that brings about the desirable changes incident to their preparation for the table4 #bg4 ,chemical ,changes during ,cooking4--,each of the chemical compounds of which foods are composed is influenced to a greater or less extent by heat and modified in composition4 ,the chemistry of cooking is mainly a study of the chemical changes that take place when compounds1 as cellulose1 starch1 sugar1 pectin1 fat1 and the various proteids1 are subjected to the joint action of heat1 moisture1 air1 and ferments4 ,the changes which affect the cellulose are physical rather than chemical4 ,a slight hydration of the cellular tissue1 however1 does take place4 ,in human foods cellulose is not found to any appreciable extent4 ,many vegetables1 as potatoes1 which are apparently composed of cellular substances1 contain but little true cellulose4 ,starch1 as previously stated1 undergoes hydration in the presence of water1 and1 at a temperature of #abj ,c41 is converted into dextrine4 ,at a higher temperature disintegration of the starch molecule takes place1 with the formation of carbon monoxid1 carbon dioxid1 and water1 and the production of a residue richer in carbon than is starch4 ,on account of the moisture1 the temperature in many cooking operations is not sufficiently high for changes other than hydration and preliminary dextrinizing4 ,in ,chapter ,,xi is given a more extended account of the changes affecting starch which occur in bread making4 ,during the cooking process sugars undergo inversion to a slight extent4 ,that is1 sucrose is converted into levulose and dextrose sugars4 ,at a higher temperature1 sugar is broken up into its constituents--water and carbon dioxide4 ,the organic acids which many fruits and vegetables contain hasten the process of inversion4 ,when sugar is subjected to dry heat1 it becomes a brown1 caramel-like material sometimes called barley sugar4 ,during cooking1 sugars are not altered in solubility or digestibility2 starches1 however1 are changed to a more soluble form1 and pectin--a jelly-like substance--is converted from a less to a more soluble condition1 as stated in ,chapter ,i4 ,changes incident to the cooking of fruits and vegetables rich in pectin1 as in the making of jellies1 are similar to those which take place in the last stages of ripening4 ,the fats are acted upon to a considerable extent by heat4 ,some of the vegetable oils undergo slight oxidation1 resulting in decreased solubility in ether1 but since there is no volatilization of the fatty matter1 it is a change that does not materially affect the total fuel value of the food4#aa ,there is a general tendency for the proteids to become less soluble by the action of heat1 particularly the albumins and globulins4 ,the protein molecule dissociates at a high temperature1 with formation of volatile products1 and therefore foods rich in protein should not be subjected to extreme heat1 as losses of food value may result4 ,during cooking1 proteids undergo hydration1 which is necessary and preliminary to digestion1 and the heating need be carried only to this point1 and not to the splitting up of the molecule4 ,prolonged high temperature in the cooking of proteids and starches is unnecessary in order to induce the desired chemical changes4 ,when these nutrients are hydrated1 they are in a condition to undergo digestion1 without the body being compelled to expend unnecessary energy in bringing about this preliminary change4 ,hence it is that1 while proper cooking does not materially affect the total digestibility of proteids or starches1 it influences ease of digestion1 as well as conserves available energy1 thereby making more economical use of these nutrients4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,cells ,,of ,a ,,partially ,,cooked ,,potato4 7,after ,k,,nig47 #bh4 ,physical ,changes4--,the mechanical structure of foods is influenced by cooking to a greater extent than is the chemical composition4 ,one of the chief objects of cooking is to bring the food into better mechanical condition for digestion4#ab ,heat and water cause partial disintegration of both animal and vegetable tissues4 ,the cell-cementing materials are weakened1 and a softening of the tissues results4 ,often the action extends still further in vegetable foods1 resulting in disintegration of the individual starch granules4 ,when foods are subjected to dry heat1 the moisture they contain is converted into steam1 which causes bursting of the tissues4 ,a good example of this is the popping of corn4 ,heat may result1 too1 in mechanical removal of some of the nutrients1 as the fats1 which are liquefied at temperatures ranging from #ajj to #bjj ,f4 ,many foods which in the raw state contain quite large amounts of fat1 lose a portion mechanically during cooking1 as is the case with bacon when it is cut in thin slices and fried or baked until crisp4 ,when foods are boiled1 the natural juices being of somewhat different density from the water in which they are cooked1 slight osmotic changes occur4 ,there is a tendency toward equalization of the composition of the juices of the food and the water in which they are cooked4 ,in order to achieve the best mechanical effects in cooking1 high temperatures are not necessary1 except at first for rupturing the tissues2 softening of the tissues is best effected by prolonged and slow heat4 ,at a higher temperature many of the volatile and essential oils are lost1 while at lower temperatures these are retained and in some instances slightly developed4 ,the cooking should be sufficiently prolonged and the temperature high enough to effectually disintegrate and soften all of the tissues1 but not to cause extended chemical changes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,cells ,,of ,,raw ,,potato1 ,,showing ,,starch ,,grains4 7,after ,k,,nig47 ,there is often an unnecessarily large amount of heat lost through faulty construction of stoves and lack of judicious use of fuels1 which greatly enhances the cost of preparing foods4 ,ovens are frequently coated with deposits of soot2 this causes the heat to be thrown out into the room or lost through the chimney1 rather than utilized for heating the oven4 ,in an ordinary cook stove it is estimated that less than #g per cent of the heat and energy of the fuel is actually employed in bringing about physical and chemical changes incident to cooking4#ac #bi4 ,bacteriological ,changes4--,the bacterial organisms of foods are destroyed in the cooking1 provided a temperature of #aej ,f4 is reached and maintained for several minutes4 ,the interior of foods rarely reaches a temperature above #bjj ,f41 because of the water they contain which is not completely removed below #bab4 ,one of the chief objects in cooking food is to render it sterile4 ,not only do bacteria become innocuous through cooking1 but various parasites1 as trichina and tapeworm1 are destroyed1 although some organisms can live at a comparatively high temperature4 ,cooked foods are easily re-inoculated1 in some cases more readily than fresh foods1 because they are in a more disintegrated condition4 ,in many instances bacteria are of material assistance in the preparation of foods1 as in bread making1 butter making1 curing of cheese1 and ripening of meat4 ,all the chemical compounds of which foods are composed are subject to fermentation1 each compound being acted upon by its special ferment body4 ,those which convert the proteids into soluble form1 as the peptonizing ferments1 have no action upon the carbohydrates4 ,a cycle of bacteriological changes often takes place in a food material1 one class of ferments working until their products accumulate to such an extent as to prevent their further activity1 and then the process is taken up by others1 as they find the conditions favorable for development4 ,this change of bacterial flora in food materials is akin to the changes in the vegetation occupying soils4 ,in each case1 there is a constant struggle for possession4 ,bacteria take a much more important part in the preparation of foods than is generally considered4 ,as a result of their workings1 various chemical products1 as organic acids and aromatic compounds1 are produced4 ,the organic acids chemically unite with the nutrients of foods1 changing their composition and physical properties4 ,man is1 to a great extent1 dependent upon bacterial action4 ,plant life also is dependent upon the bacterial changes which take place in the soil and in the plant tissues4 ,the stirring of seeds into activity is apparently due to enzymes or soluble ferments which are inherent in the seed4 ,a study of the bacteriological changes which foods undergo in their preparation and digestion more properly belongs to the subject of bacteriology1 and in this work only brief mention is made of some of the more important parts which microrganisms take in the preparation of foods4 #cj4 ,insoluble ,ferments4--,insoluble ferments are minute1 plant-like bodies of definite form and structure1 and can be studied only with the microscope4#a ,they are developed from spores or seeds1 or from the splitting or budding of the parent cells4 ,under suitable conditions they multiply rapidly1 deriving the energy for their life processes from the chemical changes which they induce4 ,for example1 in the souring of milk the milk sugar is changed by the lactic acid ferments into lactic acid4 ,in causing chemical changes1 the ferment gives none of its own material to the reacting substance4 ,these ferment bodies undergo life processes similar to plants of a higher order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,lactic ,,acid ,,bacteria1 ,,much ,,enlarged4 7,after ,,russell47 ,all foods contain bacteria or ferments4 ,in fact1 it is impossible for a food stored and prepared under ordinary conditions1 unless it has been specially treated1 to be free from them4 ,some of them are useful1 some are injurious1 while others are capable of producing disease4 ,the objectionable bacteria are usually destroyed by the joint action of sunlight1 pure air1 and water4 #ca4 ,soluble ,ferments4--,many plant and animal cells have the power of secreting substances soluble in water and capable of producing fermentation changes2 to these the term soluble ferments1 or enzymes1 is applied4 ,these ferments have not a cell structure like the organized ferments4 ,when germinated seed1 as malted barley1 is extracted1 a soluble and highly nitrogenous substance1 called the diastase ferment1 is secured that changes starch into soluble forms4 ,the soluble ferments induce chemical change by causing molecular disturbance or splitting up of the organic compounds1 resulting in the production of derivative products4 ,they take an important part in animal and plant nutrition1 as by their action insoluble compounds are brought into a soluble condition so they can be utilized for nutritive purposes4 ,in many instances ferment changes are due to the joint action of soluble and insoluble ferments4 ,the insoluble ferment secretes an enzyme which induces a chemical change1 modified by the further action of the soluble ferment4 ,many of the enzymes carry on their work at a low temperature1 as in the curing of meat and cheese in cold storage4#ad #cb4 ,general ,relationship of ,chemical1 ,physical1 and ,bacteriological ,changes4--,it cannot be said that the beneficial results derived from the cooking of foods are due to either chemical1 physical1 or bacteriological change alone1 but to the joint action of the three4 ,in order to secure a chemical change1 a physical change must often precede1 and a bacteriological change cannot take place without causing a change in chemical composition2 the three are closely related and interdependent4 #cc4 ,esthetic ,value of ,foods4--,foods should be not only of good physical texture and contain the requisite nutrients1 but they should also be pleasing to the eye and served in the most attractive manner4 ,some foods owe a part of their commercial value to color1 and when they are lacking in natural color they are not consumed with a relish4 ,there is no objection to the addition of coloring matter to foods1 provided it is of a non-injurious character and does not affect the amount of nutrients1 and that its presence and the kind of coloring material are made known4 ,some foods contain objectionable colors which are eliminated during the process of manufacture1 as in the case of sugar and flour4 ,as far as removal of coloring matter from foods during refining is concerned1 there can be no objection1 so long as no injurious reagents or chemicals are retained1 as the removal of the color in no way affects the nutritive value or permits fraud1 but necessitates higher purification and refining4 ,the use of chemicals and reagents in the preparation and refining of foods is considered permissible in all cases where the reagents are removed by subsequent processes4 ,in the food decisions of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 it is stated3 ,not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the preparation of food products for clarification or refining and eliminated in the further process of manufacture4 #ae ,,chapter ,,iii ,,vegetable ,,foods #cd4 ,general ,composition4--,vegetable foods1 with the exception of cereals1 legumes1 and nuts1 contain a smaller percentage of protein than animal food products4 ,they vary widely in composition and nutritive value2 in some1 starch predominates1 while in others1 sugar1 cellulose1 and pectin bodies are most abundant4 ,the general term vegetable foods is used in this work to include roots1 tubers1 garden vegetables1 cereals1 legumes1 and all prepared foods of vegetable origin4 #ce4 ,potatoes contain about #ge per cent of water and #be per cent of dry matter1 the larger portion being starch4 ,there is but little nitrogenous material in the potato1 only #b4be per cent1 of which about half is in the form of proteids4 ,there are ten parts of non-nitrogenous substance to every one part of nitrogenous2 or1 in other words1 the potato has a wide nutritive ratio1 and as an article of diet needs to be supplemented with foods rich in protein4 ,the mineral matter1 cellular tissue1 and fat in potatoes are small in amount1 as are also the organic acids4 ,mechanically considered1 the potato is composed of three parts1--outer skin1 inner skin1 and flesh4 ,the layer immediately beneath the outer skin is slightly colored1 and is designated the fibro-vascular layer4 ,the outer and inner skins combined make up about #aj per cent of the weight of the potato4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,potato4 7,after ,,cowden and ,,bussard47 a1 skin2 b1 cortical layer2 c1 outer medullary layer2 d1 inner medullary layer4 ,a large portion of the protein of the potato is albumin1 which is soluble in water4 ,when potatoes are peeled1 cut in small pieces1 and soaked in water for several hours before boiling1 #hj per cent of the crude protein1 or total nitrogenous material1 is extracted1 rendering the product less valuable as food4 ,when potatoes are placed directly in boiling water1 the losses of nitrogenous compounds are reduced to about #g per cent1 and1 when the skins are not removed1 to #a per cent4 ,digestion experiments show that #ib per cent of the starch and #gb per cent of the protein are digested4#ab ,compared with other foods1 potatoes are often a cheap source of non-nitrogenous nutrients4 ,if used in excessive amounts1 however1 they have a tendency to make the ration unbalanced and too bulky4 ,,mechanical ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,potato ,per ,cent ,unpeeled potatoes #ajj4j ,outer1 or true skin #b4e ,inner skin1 or fibro-vascular layer,a #h4e ,flesh #hi4j ,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,potato ,,carbohydrates --------------------------------------- ,water ,crude ,fat,nitrogen-free- ,protein extract ,fiber,ash ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,outer1 or true skin #hj4a #b4g #j4h #ad4f #a4h ,inner skin1 or fibro-vascular layer #hc4b #b4c #j4a #ab4f #j4g #a4a ,flesh #ha4a #b4j #j4a #ae4g #j4c #j4h ,average of #hf ,american analyses,b #gh4j #b4b #j4a #ah4h #j4i ,average of #aah ,european analyses,c #ge4j #b4a #j4a #ba4j #j4g #a4a ,footnote ,a3 ,including a small amount of flesh4 ,footnote ,b3 ,from an unpublished compilation of analyses of ,american food products4 ,footnote ,c3 ,knig1 ,chemie der ,nahrungs-und ,genussmittel1 #c;d ed41 ,,ii1 p4 #fbf4 #cf4 ,sweet ,potatoes contain more dry matter than white potatoes1 the difference being due mainly to the presence of about #f per cent of sugar4 ,there is approximately the same starch content1 but more fat1 protein1 and fiber4 ,as a food1 they supply a large amount of non-nitrogenous nutrients4 #cg4 ,carrots contain about half as much dry matter as potatoes1 and half of the dry matter is sugar1 nearly equally divided between sucrose and levulose1 or fruit sugar4 ,like the potato1 carrots have some organic acids and a relatively small amount of proteids4 ,in carrots and milk there is practically the same per cent of water4 ,the nutrients in each1 however1 differ both as to kind and proportion4 ,experiments with the cooking of carrots show that if a large amount of water is used1 #cj per cent or more of the nutrients1 particularly of the more soluble sugar and albumin1 are extracted and lost in the drain waters4#ab ,the color of the carrot is due to the non-nitrogenous compound carrotin1 ,c#bf;,h#ch4 ,carrots are valuable in a ration not because of the nutrients they supply1 but for the palatability and the mechanical action which the vegetable fiber exerts upon the process of digestion4 #ch4 ,parsnips contain more solid matter than beets or carrots1 of which #c to #d per cent is starch4 ,the starch grains are very small1 being only about one twentieth the size of the potato starch grains4 ,there is #c per cent of sugar and an appreciable amount of fat1 more than in any other of the vegetables of this class1 and seven times as much as in the potato4 ,the mineral matter is of somewhat different nature from that in potatoes2 in parsnips one half is potash and one quarter phosphoric acid1 while in potatoes three quarters are potash and one fifth phosphoric acid4 #ci4 ,cabbage contains very little dry matter1 usually less than #aj per cent4 ,it is proportionally richer in nitrogenous compounds than many vegetables1 as about two of the ten parts of dry matter are crude protein1 which makes the nutritive ratio one to five4 ,during cooking #cj to #dj per cent of the nutrients are extracted4 ,cabbage imparts to the ration bulk but comparatively little nutritive material4 ,it is a valuable food adjunct1 particularly used raw1 as in a salad1 when it is easily digested and retains all of the nutrients4#ab ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,cabbage4 #dj4 ,cauliflower has much the same general composition as cabbage1 from which it differs mainly in mechanical structure4 #da4 ,beets4--,the garden beet contains a little more protein than carrots1 but otherwise has about the same general composition1 and the statements made in regard to the losses of nutrients in the cooking of carrots and to their use in the dietary apply also to beets4 #db4 ,cucumbers contain about #d per cent of dry matter4 ,the amount of nutrients is so small as to scarcely allow them to be considered a food4 ,they are1 however1 a valuable food adjunct1 as they impart palatability4 #dc4 ,lettuce contains about #g per cent of solids1 of which #a4e is protein and #b4e starch and sugar4 ,while low in nutrients1 it is high in dietetic value1 because of the chlorophyll which it contains4 ,it has been suggested that it is valuable1 too1 for supplying iron in an organic form1 as there is iron chemically combined with the chlorophyll4 #dd4 ,onions are aromatic bulbs1 valuable for condimental rather than nutritive purposes4 ,they contain essential and volatile oils1 which impart characteristic odor and flavor4 ,in the onion there are about #a4e per cent of protein and #i4e per cent of non-nitrogenous material4 ,onions are often useful in stimulating the digestive tract to action4 #de4 ,spinach is a valuable food1 not to be classed merely as a relish4 ,its composition is interesting2 for1 although there is #ij per cent water1 and less than #aj per cent dry matter1 it still possesses high food value4 ,spinach contains #b4a per cent crude protein1 or about one part to every four parts of carbohydrates4 ,in potatoes1 turnips1 and beets there are ten or more parts of carbohydrates to every one part of protein4 #df4 ,asparagus is composed largely of water1 about #ic per cent4 ,the dry matter1 however1 is richer in protein than that of many vegetables4 ,asparagus contains1 too1 an amid compound1 asparagin1 which gives some of the characteristics to the vegetable4 #dg4 ,melons4--,melons contain from #h to #aj per cent of dry matter1 the larger portion of which is sugar and allied carbohydrates4 ,the flavor is due to small amounts of essential oils and to organic acids associated with the sugars4 ,melons possess condimental rather than nutritive value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,tomato4 #dh4 ,tomatoes4--,the tomato belongs to the night-shade family1 and for this reason was long looked upon with suspicion4 ,it was first used for ornamental purposes and was called love-apple4 ,gradually1 as the idea of its poisonous nature became dispelled1 it grew more and more popular as a food1 until now in the ,united ,states it is one of the most common garden vegetables4 ,it contains #g per cent of dry matter1 #d per cent of which is sucrose1 dextrose1 and levulose4 ,it also contains some malic acid1 and a small amount of proteids1 amids1 cellulose1 and coloring material4 ,in the canning of tomatoes1 if too much of the juice is excluded1 a large part of the nutritive material is lost1 as the sugars and albumins are all soluble and readily removed4#af ,if the seeds are objectionable1 they may be removed by straining and the juice added to the fleshy portion4 ,the product then has a higher nutritive value than if the juice had been discarded with the seeds4 #di4 ,sweet ,corn4--,fresh1 soft1 green1 sweet corn contains about #ge per cent of water4 ,the dry matter is half starch and one quarter sugar4 ,the protein content makes up nearly #e per cent1 a larger proportional amount than is found in the ripened corn1 due to the fact that the proteids are deposited in the early stages of growth and the carbohydrates mainly in the last stages4 ,sweet corn is a vegetable of high nutritive value and palatability4 #ej4 ,eggplant contains a high per cent of water1--#ij per cent4 ,the principal nutrients are starch and sugar1 which make up about half the weight of the dry matter4 ,it does not itself supply a large amount of nutrients1 but the way in which it is prepared1 by combination with butter1 bread crumbs1 and eggs1 makes it a nutritious and palatable dish1 the food value being derived mainly from the materials with which it is combined1 the eggplant giving the flavor and palatability4 #ea4 ,squash and ,pumpkin4--,squash has much the same general composition and food value as beets and carrots1 although it belongs to a different family4 ,pumpkins contain less dry matter than squash4 ,the dry matter of both is composed largely of starch and sugar and1 like many other of the vegetables1 they are often combined with food materials containing a large amount of nutrients1 as in pumpkin and squash pies1 where the food value is derived mainly from the milk1 sugar1 eggs1 flour1 and butter or other shortening used4 #eb4 ,celery4--,the dry matter of celery is comparatively rich in nitrogenous material1 although the amount is small1 and the larger proportion is in non-proteid form4 ,when grown on rich soil1 celery may contain an appreciable quantity of nitrates and nitrites1 which have not been converted into amids and proteids4 ,the supposed medicinal value is probably due to the nitrites which are generally present4 ,celery is valuable from a dietetic rather than a nutritive point of view4 #ec4 ,sanitary ,condition of ,vegetables4--,the conditions under which vegetables are grown have much to do with their value1 particularly from a sanitary point of view4 ,uncooked vegetables often cause the spread of diseases1 particularly those1 as cholera and typhoid1 affecting the digestive tract4 ,particles of dirt containing the disease-producing organisms adhere to the uncooked vegetable and find their way into the digestive tract1 where the bacteria undergo incubation4 ,when sewage has been used for fertilizing the land1 as in sewage irrigation1 the vegetables are unsound from a sanitary point of view4 ,such vegetables should be thoroughly cleaned and also well cooked1 in order to render them sterile4 ,vegetables to be eaten in the raw state should be dipped momentarily into boiling water1 to destroy the activity of the germs present upon the surface4 ,they may then be immediately immersed in ice-cold water1 to preserve the crispness4 #ed4 ,miscellaneous ,compounds in ,vegetables4--,in addition to the general nutrients which have been discussed1 many of the vegetables contain some tannin1 glucosides1 and essential oils2 and occasionally those grown upon rich soils have appreciable amounts of nitrogen compounds1 as nitrates and nitrites1 which have not been built up into proteids4 ,vegetables have a unique value in the dietary1 and while as a class they contain small amounts of nutrients1 they are indispensable for promoting health and securing normal digestion of the food4 #ee4 ,canned ,vegetables4--,when sound vegetables are thoroughly cooked to destroy ferments1 and then sealed in cans while hot1 they can be kept for a long time without any material impairment of nutritive value4 ,during the cooking process there is lost a part of the essential oils1 which gives a slightly different flavor to the canned or tinned goods4#ag ,in some canned vegetables preservatives are used1 but the enactment and enforcement of national and state laws have greatly reduced their use4 ,when the cans are made of a poor quality of tin1 or the vegetables are of high acidity1 some of the metal is dissolved in sufficient quantity to be objectionable from a sanitary point of view4#ah #ef4 ,edible ,portion and ,refuse of ,vegetables4--,many vegetables have appreciable amounts of refuse1#ai or non-edible parts1 as skin1 pods1 seeds1 and pulp1 and in determining the nutritive value1 these must be considered1 as in some cases less than #ej per cent of the weight of the material is edible portion1 which proportionally increases the cost of the nutrients4 ,ordinarily1 the edible part is richer in protein than the entire material as purchased4 ,in some cases1 however1 the refuse is richer in protein1 but the protein is in a less available form4 ,see comparison of potatoes and potato skins4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,fruits1 ,,flavors1 ,,and ,,extracts #eg4 ,general ,composition4--,fruits are characterized by containing a large amount of water and only a small amount of dry matter1 which is composed mainly of sugar and non-nitrogenous compounds4 ,fruits contain but little fatty material and protein4 ,a large portion of the total nitrogen is in the form of amid compounds4 ,organic acids1 as citric1 tartaric1 and malic1 are found in all fruits1 and the essential oils form a characteristic feature4 ,the taste of fruits is due mainly to the blending of the various organic acids1 essential oils1 and sugars4 ,although fruits contain a high per cent of water1 they are nevertheless valuable as food4#bj ,the constituents present to the greatest extent are sugars and acids4 ,the sugar is not all like the common granulated sugar1 but in ripe fruits a part is in the form known as levulose or fruit sugar1 which is two and a half times sweeter than granulated sugar4 ,sugars are valuable for heat-and fat-producing purposes1 but not for muscle repairing4 ,proteids are the muscle-forming nutrients4 ,the organic acids1 as malic acid in apples1 citric acid in lemons and oranges1 and tartaric acid in grapes1 have characteristic medicinal properties4 ,the sugar1 proteid1 and acid content of some of our more common fruits is given in the following table3#ba ,,composition ,,of ,,fruits ,,water ,,proteids ,,sugar ,,acid ,,in ,,kind ,,of ,,juice ,,acid ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,per ,cent,per ,cent,per ,cent,per ,cent ,apples 7,baldwin7 #he4j #j4ej #aj4ge #j4ib ,malic ,apples1 sweet #hf4j #j4ej #aa4ge #j4bj ,malic ,blackberries #hh4i #j4ij #aa4ej #j4ge ,malic ,currants #hf4j -- #a4if #e4hj ,tartaric ,grapes #hc4j #a4ej #aj to #afa4b to #e,tartaric ,strawberries #ij4h #j4ie #e4cf #a4dj ,malic ,oranges #he4j #a4aj #aj4jj #a4cj ,citric ,lemons #hd4j #j4ie #b4jj #g4bj ,citric ,in addition to sugars1 acids1 and proteids1 there are a great many other compounds in fruits4 ,those which give the characteristic taste are called essential or volatile oils4 #eh4 ,food ,value4--,when the nutrients alone are considered1 fruits appear to have a low food value1 but they should not be judged entirely on this basis1 because they impart palatability and flavor to other foods and exercise a favorable influence upon the digestive process4 ,in the human ration fruits are a necessary adjunct4 #ei4 ,apples4--,apples vary in composition with the variety and physical characteristics of the fruit4 ,in general they contain from #aj to #af per cent of dry matter1 of which #ge per cent1 or more1 is sugar or allied carbohydrates4 ,among the organic acids malic predominates1 and the acidity ranges from #j4a to #j4h per cent4 ,apples contain but little protein1 less than #a per cent4 ,there is some pectin1 or jelly-like substance closely related to the carbohydrates4 ,the flavor of the apple varies with the content of sugar1 organic acids1 and essential oils4 ,during storage some apples appear to undergo further ripening1 resulting in partial inversion of the sucrose1 and there is a slight loss of weight1 due to the formation of carbon dioxide4 ,the apple is an important and valuable adjunct to the dietary4#bb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,apple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,orange4 #fj4 ,oranges contain nearly the same proportion of dry matter as apples1 the larger part of which is sugar4 ,citric acid predominates and ranges in different varieties from #a to #b4e per cent4 ,the amounts of protein1 fat1 and cellulose are small4 ,in some varieties of oranges there is more iron and sulphur than is usually found in fruits4 ,all fruits1 however1 contain small amounts1 but not as much as is found in green vegetables4 ,the average composition of oranges is as follows3 ,,physical ,,composition,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,edible ,,portion ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,rind #bj to #cj ,solids #aj to #af ,pulp #be to #ce ,sugars #h to #ab ,juice #ce to #ej ,citric acid #a to #b4e ,ash #j4e #fa4 ,lemons differ from oranges in containing more citric acid and less sucrose1 levulose1 and dextrose4 ,the ash of the lemon is somewhat similar in general composition to the ash of the orange1 but is larger in amount4 ,the average composition of the lemon is as follows3 ,,physical ,,composition,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,edible ,,portion ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,rind #be to #ce ,solids #aj to #ab ,pulp #be to #ce ,sugar #b to #d ,juice #dj to #ee ,citric acid #f to #i #fb4 ,grape ,fruit4--,the rind and seed of this fruit make up about #be per cent1 leaving #ge per cent as edible portion4 ,the juice contains #ad per cent solids1 of which nearly #aj per cent is sugar and #b4e per cent is citric acid4 ,there is more acid in grape fruit than in oranges and appreciably less than in lemons4 ,the characteristic flavor is due to a glucoside-like material4 ,otherwise the composition and food value are about the same as of oranges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,strawberry4 #fc4 ,strawberries contain from #h to #ab per cent of dry matter1 mainly sugar and malic acid4 ,the protein1 fat1 and ash usually make up less than #b per cent4 ,essential oils and coloring substances are present in small amounts4 ,it has been estimated that it would require #ge pounds of strawberries to supply the protein for a daily ration4 ,nevertheless they are valuable in the dietary4 ,it has been suggested that the malic and other acids have antiseptic properties which1 added to the appearance and palatability1 make them a desirable food adjunct4 ,strawberries have high dietetic rather than high food value4 #fd4 ,grapes contain more dry matter than apples or oranges4 ,there is no appreciable amount of protein or fat1 and while they add some nutrients1 as sugar1 to the ration1 they do not contribute any quantity4 ,their value1 as in the case of other fruits1 is due to palatability and indirect effect upon the digestibility of other foods4 ,in the juice of grapes there is from #aj to #ae per cent or more of sugar1 as sucrose1 levulose1 and dextrose4 ,grapes contain also from #a to #a4e per cent of tartaric acid1 which1 during the process of manufacture into wine1 is rendered insoluble by the alcohol formed1 and the product1 known as argole1 is used in the preparation of cream of tartar4 ,differences in flavor and taste of grapes are due to variations in the sugar1 acid1 and essential oil content4 #fe4 ,peaches contain about #ab per cent of dry matter1 of which over #aj per cent is sugar and other carbohydrates4 ,there is less than #a4e per cent of protein1 fat1 and mineral matter and about #j4e per cent of acid4 ,the peach contains also a very small amount of hydrocyanic acid1 which is more liberally present in the kernel than in the fruit4 ,flavor is imparted mainly by the sugar and essential oils4 ,peaches vary in composition with variety and environment4#bc #ff4 ,plums contain the most dry matter of any of the fruits1 about #bb per cent1 mainly sugar4 ,about one per cent is acid and about #j4e per cent are protein and ash4 ,there are a great many varieties of plums1 varying in composition4 ,dried plums 7prunes7 have mildly laxative properties4 #fg4 ,olives4--,the ripe olive contains about #ae per cent of oil1 exclusive of the pit1 which makes up #bj per cent of the weight4 ,in green1 preserved olives there is considerably less oil4 ,because of the oil the olive has food value4 ,olive oil is slightly laxative and assists mechanically in the digestion of foods4 #fh4 ,figs4--,dried figs contain about #ej per cent of sugar and #c4e per cent of protein4 ,the fig has a mildly laxative action4 #fi4 ,dried ,fruits4--,many fruits are prepared for market by drying4 ,the dried fruit has a slightly different composition from the fresh fruit because of loss of the volatile and essential oils1 and minor chemical changes which take place during the drying process4 ,when free from preservatives1 dried fruits are valuable adjuncts to the dietary and can be advantageously used when fresh fruits are not obtainable4 #gj4 ,canning and ,preservation of ,fruits4--,to obtain the best results in canning1 the fruit should not be overripe4 ,after the ripened state has been reached fermentation and bacterial changes occur1 and it is more difficult to preserve the fruit than when not so fully matured4#bd ,when a fruit has begun to ferment1 it is hard to destroy the ferment bodies and their spores so as to prevent further ferment action4 ,the chemical changes that occur in the last stages of ripening are similar to those which take place during the cooking process whereby the pectin or jelly-like substances are rendered more soluble and digestible4 #ga4 ,adulterated ,canned ,fruits4--,analyses of a number of canned fruits1 made by various ,boards of ,health1 show the presence of small amounts of arsenic1 tin1 lead1 and other poisonous metals4 ,the quantity dissolved depends upon the kind1 age1 and condition of the canned goods and the state of the fruit when canned4 ,the longer a can of fruit or vegetable has been kept in stock1 the larger is the amount of tin or metal that has been dissolved4 ,when fresh canned1 there is usually very little dissolved tin1 but in old goods the amount may be comparatively large4 ,the tin used for the can is occasionally of poor quality and may contain some arsenic1 which also is dissolved4 ,the occasional use of canned goods preserved in tin is not objectionable1 but they should not be used continually if it can be avoided4 ,preservatives1 as borax1 salicylic acid1 benzoic acid1 and sodium sulphate1 are sometimes added to prevent fermentation and to preserve the natural appearance of the fruit or vegetable4#ah #gb4 ,fruit ,flavors and ,extracts4--,formerly all fruit extracts and flavors were obtained from vegetable sources2 at present many are made in the chemical laboratory by synthetic methods2 that is1 by combining simpler organic compounds and radicals to produce the material having the desired flavor and odor4 ,the various fruit flavors are definite chemical compounds1 and can be produced in the laboratory as well as in the cells of plants4 ,when properly made1 there is no difference in chemical composition between the two4 ,as prepared in the laboratory1 however1 traces of acids1 alkalies1 and other compounds1 used in bringing about the necessary chemical combination1 are often present1 not having been perfectly removed4 ,hence it is that natural and artificial flavors differ mainly in the impurities which the artificial flavors may contain4 ,some of the flavoring materials have characteristic medicinal properties1 as the flavor of bitter almond1 which contains hydrocyanic acid1 a poisonous substance4 ,flavors and extracts should not be indiscriminately used4 ,in small amounts they often exert a favorable influence upon the digestion of foods1 and the value of some fruits is in a large measure due to the special flavors they contain4 ,a study of the separate compounds which impart flavor to fruits1 as the various aldehydes1 ethers1 and organic salts1 belongs to organic chemistry rather than to foods4 ,some of the simpler compounds of which flavors are composed may exist in entirely different form or combination in food products2 as for example1 pineapple flavoring is ethyl butrate4 ,this can be prepared by combination of butyric acid from stale butter with alcohol which supplies the ethyl radical4 ,the chemical union of the two produces the new compound1 ethyl butrate1 the distinctive flavoring substance of the pineapple4 ,banana flavor can be made from stale butter1 caustic soda1 and chloroform4 ,none of these materials1 as such1 go into the flavor1 but an essential radical is taken from each4 ,these manufactured products1 when properly made1 are in every essential similar to the flavor made by the plant and stored up in the fruit4 ,the plant combines the material in the laboratory of the plant cell1 and the manufacturer of essences puts together these same constituents in a chemical laboratory4 ,in the fruit1 however1 the essential oil is associated with a number of other compounds4 ,,chapter ,v ,,sugars1 ,,molasses1 ,,syrup1 ,,honey1 ,,and ,,confections #gc4 ,composition of ,sugars4--,the term sugar is applied to a large class of compounds composed of the elements carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,sugars used for household purposes are derived mainly from the sugar cane and the sugar beet4#be ,at the present time about two fifths are obtained from the cane and about three fifths from the beet4 ,when subjected to the same degree of refining1 there is no difference in the chemical composition of the sugars from the two sources2 they are alike in every respect and the chemist is unable to determine their origin4 ,the production of sugar is an agricultural industry2 the methods of manufacture pertain more to industrial chemistry than to the chemistry of foods1 and therefore a discussion of them is omitted in this work4#bf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,sugar ,,crystals4 #gd4 ,commercial ,grades of ,sugar4--,sugars are graded according to the size of the granule1 the color and general appearance of the crystals1 and the per cent of sucrose or pure sugar4 ,common granulated sugar is from #ih4e to #ii4g per cent pure sucrose4 ,the impurities consist mainly of moisture and mineral matter4 ,in the process of refining1 sulphur fumes are frequently used for bleaching and clarifying the solution4#bf ,the sulphurous acid formed is neutralized with lime1 which is rendered insoluble and practically all removed in subsequent filtrations4 ,there are1 however1 traces of sulphates and sulphites in ordinary sugar1 but these are in such small amounts as not to be injurious to health4 ,when sugar is burned1 as in the bomb calorimeter1 so as to permit collection of all of the products of combustion1 granulated sugar yields about #j4ja of a per cent of sulphur dioxid4#ac ,occasionally coloring substances1 as a small amount of indigo1 are added to yellow tinged sugars to impart a white color1 much on the same principle as the bluing of clothes4 ,the amount used is usually extremely small1 and the effect on health has never been determined4 ,occasionally1 however1 bluing is used to such an extent that a blue scum appears when the sugar is boiled with water4 ,sugar has high value for the production of heat and energy4 ,digestion experiments show that when it is used in the dietary in not excessive amounts1 it is directly absorbed by the body and practically all available4 ,it can advantageously be combined with other foods to form a part of the ration4#bg ,when a ration contains the requisite amount of protein1 sugar is used to the best advantage4 ,alone it is incapable of sustaining life1 because it does not contain any nitrogen4 ,when sugar was substituted for an excess of protein in a ration1 it was found to produce heat and energy at much less expense4 ,many foods1 as apples1 grapes1 and small fruits1 contain appreciable amounts of sugar and owe their food value almost entirely to their sugar content4 ,in the dietary1 sugar is too frequently regarded as a condiment instead of a nutrient1 to be used for imparting palatability rather than for purposes of nutrition4 ,while valuable for improving the taste of foods1 the main worth of sugar is as a nutritive substance2 used in the preparation of foods it adds to the total heat and energy of the ration4 ,sugar is sometimes used in excessive amounts and1 as is the case with any food or nutrient1 when that occurs1 nutrition disturbances result1 due to misuse of the food4 ,statistics show that the average consumption of sugar in the ,united ,states is nearly #gj pounds a year per capita4 ,in the dietary of the adult1 sugar to the extent of four ounces per day can be consumed advantageously4 ,the exclusion of sugar from the diet of children is a great mistake1 as they need it for heat and energy and to conserve the protein for growth4 ,sugar is one of the most important forms in which carbohydrates can be added to the diet of children4 ,the great reduction in the price of sugar which has taken place in recent years is probably one of the causes of the improved physique of the rising generation4 ,the fear that sugar may injure children's teeth is1 largely illusory4 ,the negroes who live largely on sugar cane have the finest teeth the world can show4 ,if injudiciously taken1 sugar may1 however1 injure the child's appetite and digestion4 ,the craving for sweets which children show is no doubt the natural expression of a physiological need1 but they should be taken with1 and not between1 meals4#bh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,nutrients ,,of ,a ,,ration ,,with ,,sugar4 ,the hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested4 #ge4 ,sugar in the ,dietary4--,sugar has an important place in the dietary4 ,it not only serves for the production of heat and energy in the body1 but is also valuable in enabling the proteids to be used more economically4 ,in reasonable amounts1 it is particularly valuable in the dietary of growing children1 as the proteids of the food are then utilized to better advantage for growth4 ,the unique value of sugar depends upon its intelligent use and its proper combination with other foods1 particularly with those rich in the nitrogenous compounds or proteids4 ,sugar alone is incapable of sustaining life1 but combined with other foods is a valuable nutrient4 ,the amount which can be advantageously used depends largely upon the individual4 ,ordinarily three to five ounces per day is sufficient1 although some persons cannot safely consume as much as this4 ,in the case of diabetes mellitus1 the amount of sugar in the ration must be materially reduced4 ,persons in normal health and engaged in outdoor work can use sugar to advantage4#bi ,many of the harvest drinks1 made largely from molasses with a little ginger1 and used extensively in some localities1 are not without merit1 as they contain an appreciable amount of nutrients4 ,milk contains more sugar as lactose or milk sugar than any other nutrient4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,nutrients ,,of ,a ,,ration ,,without ,,sugar4 ,the hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested4 ,the craving for sugar by growing children and athletes is natural4 ,sugar1 however1 is often injudiciously used1 and a perverted taste may be established which can be satisfied only by excessive amounts4 ,this results in impaired digestion and malnutrition4 #gf4 ,maple ,sugar4--,sugar obtained by evaporation from the sap of the maple tree 7,acer saccharinum7 is identical1 except for the foreign substances which it contains1 with that from the beet and sugar cane4 ,the mottled appearance and characteristic color and taste of maple sugar are due to the various organic acids and other compounds present in the maple sap and recovered in the sugar4 ,maple sugar1 as ordinarily prepared1 has #j4d of a per cent or more of ash or mineral matter1 while refined cane sugar contains less than one tenth as much4#cj ,hence1 when maple sugar is adulterated with cane and beet sugars1 the ash content is noticeably lowered1 as is also the content of organic acids4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to determine with absolute certainty pure high grade maple sugar from the impure low grade to which a small amount of granulated sugar has been added4 #gg4 ,adulteration of ,sugar4--,sugar at the present time is not materially adulterated4 ,other than the substances mentioned which are used for clarification and color1 none are added during refining which remain in the sugar in appreciable amounts4 ,sugar does not readily lend itself to adulteration1 as it has a definite crystalline structure1 and materials that would be suitable for its adulteration are of entirely different physical character4#ca ,cane sugar is not easily blended with glucose1 or starch sugar1 because of the physical differences between the two4 ,the question of the kind of sugar to use in the household1 as granulated1 loaf1 or pulverized1 is largely one of personal choice1 as there is no appreciable difference in the nutritive value or purity of the different kinds4 #gh4 ,dextrose ,sugars4--,products known as glucose and dextrose sugars are made from corn and other starches2 they can also be prepared from cane sugar by the use of heat1 chemicals1 or ferments for carrying on the process known as inversion4 ,the dextrose sugars differ from cane sugar in containing a dissimilar number of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen atoms in the molecule4 ,the formula of the dextrose sugars is ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 while that of cane sugar is ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa4 ,by the addition of one molecule of water1 ,h#b,o1 to a molecule of sucrose1 two molecules of invert sugar 7dextrose and glucose7 are produced3#a ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa ,h#b ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,in bringing about this change1 acids are employed1 but the acid in no way enters into the chemical composition of the final product2 it is removed as described during the process of sugar manufacture4 ,the action of the acid brings about a catalytic change1 the acid being necessary only as a presence reagent to start the chemical reaction4 ,when properly prepared and the acid product thoroughly removed1 dextrose and glucose have practically the same food value as sugar4 ,when they are digested1 heat and energy are produced1 and a given weight has about the same fuel value as an equal weight of sugar4 ,some of the glucose-yielding products can be made at less expense than sugar1 and when they are sold under their right names there is no reason why they should not be used in the dietary1 as they serve the same nutritive purpose4 #gi4 ,molasses is a by-product obtained in the refining of sugar4 ,it is a mixture of cane sugar and invert sugars1 as levulose and dextrose4 ,when in sugar making the sucrose is removed by crystallization1 a point is finally reached where the solution1 or mother liquid1 as it is called1 refuses to give up any further crystals2#ca then this product1 consisting of various sugars and small amounts of organic acids and ash1 is partially refined and clarified to form molasses4 ,the term ,new ,orleans molasses was formerly applied to the product obtained by the use of open kettles for the manufacture of sugar1 but during recent years the vacuum pan process has been introduced1 and ,new ,orleans molasses is now an entirely different article4 ,the terms first1 second1 and third molasses are applied to the liquids obtained after the removal of the first1 second1 and third crops of sugar crystals2 first molasses being richer in sucrose1 while third molasses is richer in dextrose and invert sugars4 ,the ash in molasses ranges from #d to #f4e per cent4 ,some of the low grades of molasses are used in the preparation of animal foods4 ,the taste and physical characteristics of molasses are due largely to the organic acids and impurities that are present1 as well as to the proportion in which the various sugars occur4 ,when used with soda in cooking and baking operations1 the organic acid of the molasses liberates carbon dioxide gas1 which acts as a leavening agent4 ,because of the organic acids1 molasses should not be stored in tin or metalware dishes1 as the solvent action results in producing poisonous tin and other metallic salts4 ,the food value of molasses is dependent entirely upon the amount of dry matter and the per cent of sugar4 ,a large amount of water is considered an adulterant2 ordinarily molasses contains from #bj to #cc per cent4 ,if a sample of molasses contains #ge per cent of dry matter1 it has slightly less than three fourths of the nutritive value of the same weight of sugar4 #hj4 ,syrups4--,the term syrup is applied to natural products obtained by evaporation and purification of the saccharine juices of plants4 ,sorghum syrup is from the sorghum plant1 which is pressed by machinery and the juice clarified and evaporated so as to contain about #be per cent of water4 ,in sorghum syrups there are from #cj to #de per cent of cane sugar1 and from #ab to #bj per cent of glucose and invert sugars4 ,cane syrup is made from the clarified juice of the sugar cane1 and has about the same general composition as sorghum syrup4 ,maple syrup1 prepared from the juice of the sugar maple1 is characteristically rich in sucrose and contains but little glucose or reducing sugars4 ,the flavor of all the syrups is due mainly to organic acids1 ethereal products1 and impurities4 ,in some instances the essential flavor can be produced synthetically1 or derived from other and cheaper materials2 and by the use of these flavors1 mixed syrups can be prepared closely resembling many of the natural products4 ,when properly made1 they are equal in nutritive value to natural syrups4 ,when sold under assumed names1 they are to be considered and classified as adulterated1 and not as syrups from definite and specific products4 ,low-grade syrups and molasses are often used for making fuel alcohol4 ,they readily undergo alcoholic fermentation and are valuable for this purpose1 rendering it possible for a good grade of fuel alcohol to be produced at low cost4 ,the manufacture of sugar1 syrups1 and molasses has been brought to a high degree of perfection through the assistance rendered by industrial chemistry4 ,losses in the process are reduced to a minimum1 and the various steps are all controlled by chemical analysis4 ,sugar has the physical property of deflecting a ray of polarized light1 the amount of deflection depending upon the quantity of sugar in solution4 ,this is measured by the polariscope1 an instrument by means of which the sugar content of sugar plants is rapidly determined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,syrup4 #ha4 ,honey is composed largely of invert sugars gathered by the honeybee from the nectar of flowers4 ,it varies in composition and flavor according to its source4 ,the color depends upon the flower from which it came1 white clover giving a light-colored1 pleasant-flavored honey1 while that from buckwheat and goldenrod is dark and has a slightly rank taste4 ,the comb is composed largely of wax1 which has somewhat the same general composition as fat1 but contains ethereal instead of glycerol bodies4 ,on account of the predominance of invert sugars1 pure honey has a levulo or left-handed rotation when examined by the polariscope4 ,honey contains from #fj to #ge per cent of invert sugars1 and from #ab to #bj per cent of water1 while the ash content is small1 less than one tenth of one per cent4 ,strained honey is easily adulterated with glucose products4 ,adulteration with cane sugar is readily detected1 as pure honey contains only a very small amount of sucrose4 ,honey can be made by feeding bees on sugar2 the sugar undergoes inversion1 with the production of dextrose4 ,such honey1 although not adulterated1 is inferior in quality and lacking in natural flavor4#ah #hb4 ,confections4--,by blending various saccharine products1 confections are made4 ,usually sucrose 7cane and beet sugar7 is used as the basis for their preparation4 ,sucrose has definite physical properties1 as crystalline structure1 and forms chemical and mechanical combinations with acid1 alkaline1 and other substances2 it also unites with water1 and when heated undergoes changes in structural composition4 ,the presence of small amounts of acid substances1 or variations in the concentration of the sugar solution1 materially affect the mechanical relation of the sugar particles to each other1 and their crystallization4 ,usually crystallization takes place when there is less than #be per cent of water present4 ,the form1 size1 and arrangement of the crystals are influenced by agitation during cooling4 ,to secure desired results1 often small quantities of various other substances are employed for their mechanical action4 ,glucose is frequently used1 and is said to be necessary for the production of some kinds of candy4 ,candies are colored with various dyes and pigments1 many of which are harmless1 although some are injurious4 ,coal tar dyes are frequently employed for this purpose4 ,objection has generally been urged against their use1 as it is believed many of them are injurious to health4 ,it cannot be said1 however1 that all are poisonous1 as some are known to be harmless4 ,the use of a few coal tar dyes is allowed by the ,united ,states government4 ,mineral colors are now rarely1 if ever1 used4 ,impure candies result from objectionable ingredients1 as starch1 paraffin1 and large amounts of injurious coloring substances4 ,coal tar coloring materials are identified in the way described in ,experiment ,no4 #ac4 ,confectionery1 when properly prepared and unadulterated1 has the same nutritive value as sugar and the other ingredients1 and is entitled to a place in the dietary for the production of heat and energy4 ,much larger amounts of candies are sold and consumed during the winter than the summer months1 suggesting that in cold weather candy is most needed in the dietary4 #hc4 ,saccharine is an artificial sweetening1 five hundred times sweeter than cane sugar4 ,it contains in its molecule1 chemically united1 benzine1 sulphuric acid1 and ammonia radicals4 ,it is employed for sweetening purposes in cases of diabetes mellitus1 where physicians advise against the use of sugar4 ,it has no food value4 ,a small amount is sometimes added to canned corn and tomatoes to impart a sweet taste4 ,the physiological properties of saccharine have not been extensively investigated4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,legumes ,,and ,,nuts #hd4 ,general ,composition of ,legumes4--,peas1 beans1 lentils1 and peanuts are the legumes most generally used for human food4 ,as a class1 they are characterized by high protein content and a comparatively low per cent of starch and carbohydrates4 ,they contain the largest amount of nitrogenous compounds of any of the vegetable foods1 and hence are particularly valuable in the human ration as a substitute for meats4#cb ,for feeding animals the legumes are highly prized1 particularly the forage crops1 clover and alfalfa4 ,these secure their nitrogen1 which is the characteristic element of protein1 from the free nitrogen of the air1 through the workings of bacterial organisms found in the nodules on the roots of the plants4 ,the legumes appear to be the only plants capable of making use of the nitrogen of the air for food purposes4 #he4 ,beans contain about #bd per cent of protein and but little fat1 less than is found in any of the grain or cereal products4 ,the protein of the bean differs from that of cereals in its general and structural composition4 ,it is a globulin known as legumin1 and is acted upon mainly by ferments working in alkaline solutions1 as in the lower part of the digestive tract4 ,beans have about the same amount of ash as the cereals1 but the ash is richer in potash and lime4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,beans4 ,,hacked ,,part ,,indigestible4 #hf4 ,digestibility of ,beans4--,beans are usually considered indigestible1 but experiments show they are quite completely digested1 although they require more work on the part of the digestive tract than many other foods4 ,the digestibility was found to vary with individuals1 #hf per cent of the protein being digested in one case1 and only #gb per cent in another4 ,the protein of beans is not as completely digested as that of meats4 ,when beans were combined with other foods1 forming a part of a ration1 they were more completely digested than when used in large amounts and with only a few other foods4 ,the presence of the skin is in part responsible for low digestibility4 ,when in the preparation of beans the skins1 which contain a large amount of cellulose1 are removed1 the beans are more completely digested4 ,by cooking from twenty minutes to half an hour in rapidly boiling water containing a small amount of soda1 the skins are softened and loosened and are then easily removed by rubbing in cold water4 ,some of the soda enters into combination with the legumin4 ,along with the skins a portion of the germ is lost4 ,the germ readily ferments1 which is probably the cause of beans producing flatulence with some individuals during digestion4 ,after the skins are removed the nutrients are more susceptible to the action of the digestive fluids4 ,experiments show that #db per cent of the protein of baked skinned beans is soluble in pepsin and pancreatin solutions1 while under similar conditions there is only #c4he per cent of the protein soluble from beans baked without removal of the skins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,beans1 ,,raw ,,and ,,cooked4 ,,skins1 ,,wet ,,and ,,dry4 #hg4 ,use of ,beans in the ,dietary4--,there is no vegetable food capable of furnishing so much protein at such low cost as beans2 from a pound costing five cents about one fifth of a pound of protein and three fifths of a pound of carbohydrates are obtained4 ,beans can1 to a great extent1 take the place of meats in the dietary4 ,there is more protein in beans than in beef4 ,four ounces of uncooked beans or six ounces of baked beans are as much as can conveniently be combined in the dietary1 and these will furnish a quarter of the protein of the ration4 ,in the case of active out-of-door laborers over a pound of baked beans per day is often consumed with impunity4 #hh4 ,string ,beans4--,string beans--green beans with pod--contain a large amount of water1 #he to #hh per cent4 ,the dry matter is rich in protein1 nearly #bj per cent1 although in the green beans as eaten1 containing #he per cent water1 there is less than #b-a_/b per cent4 ,lima beans are richer in protein than string beans1 as the green pod is not included4 ,string beans are valuable both for the nutrients they contain and for the favorable influence they exert upon the digestibility of other foods4 #hi4 ,peas4--,in general composition and digestibility1 peas are quite similar to beans4 ,they belong to the same family1 ,leguminos1 and the protein of each is similar in quantity and general properties4 ,the statements made in regard to the composition1 digestibility1 and use of beans in the dietary apply with minor modifications to peas4 ,when used in the preparation of soups1 they add appreciable amounts of nutrients4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,pea ,,starch ,,granules4 #ij4 ,canned ,peas4--,in order to impart a rich green color1 copper sulphate has been used in the canning of peas4 ,physiologists differ as to its effect upon health4 ,while a little may not be particularly injurious1 much interferes with normal digestion of the food and forms insoluble copper proteids4 ,in some countries a small amount of copper sulphate is tolerated1 while in others it is prohibited4 #ia4 ,peanuts4--,peanuts differ from peas and beans in containing more fat4 ,they should be considered a food1 for at ordinary prices they furnish a large amount of protein and fat4 ,like the other members of the legume family1 the peanut is rather slow of digestion and requires considerable intestinal work for completion of the process4 ,,nuts #ib4 ,general ,composition4--,nuts should be regarded as food1 for they contribute to a ration appreciable amounts of nutrients4 ,the edible portion of nearly all is rich in fat2 pecans1 for example1 contain as high as #gj per cent4 ,in protein content nuts range from #c per cent in cocoanuts to #cj per cent in peanuts4 ,the carbohydrate content is usually comparatively low1 less than #e per cent in hickory nuts1 although there is nearly #dj per cent in chestnuts4 ,on account of high fat content1 nuts supply a large amount of heat and energy4#cc #ic4 ,chestnuts are characterized by containing less fat and protein and much more carbohydrate material1 especially starch1 than is found in other nuts4 ,in southern ,europe chestnuts are widely used as food2 the skins are removed1 and the nuts are steamed1 boiled1 or roasted1 and sometimes they are dried and ground into flour4 ,chestnuts are less concentrated in protein and fat1 and form a better balanced food used alone than do other nuts4 #id4 ,the ,hickory ,nut1 which is a characteristically ,american nut1 contains in the edible portion about #ae per cent protein1 #fe per cent fat1 and #ab per cent carbohydrates4 #ie4 ,the ,almonds used in the ,united ,states come chiefly from southern ,europe1 although they are successfully raised in ,california4 ,they contain about #ee per cent fat and #bb per cent protein4 ,the flavor of almonds is due to a small amount of hydrocyanic acid4 #if4 ,pistachio4--,some nuts are used for imparting color and flavor to food products1 as the pistachio nut1 the kernel of which is greenish in color and imparts a flavor suggestive of almonds4 ,the pistachio has high food value1 as it is rich in both fat and protein4 ,it is employed in the manufacture of confectionery and in ice cream for imparting flavor and color4 #ig4 ,cocoanuts grow luxuriantly in many tropical countries1 and have a high food value4 ,they are characteristically rich in fat1 one half of the edible portion being composed of this nutrient4 ,for tropical countries they supply the fat of a ration at less expense than any other food4 ,when used in large amounts they should be supplemented with foods rich in carbohydrates1 as rice1 and in proteids1 as beans4 ,cocoanut milk is proportionally richer in carbohydrates and poorer in fat and protein than the meat of the cocoanut4 ,in discussing the cocoanut1 ,woods states3#cd ,the small1 green1 and immature nuts are grated fine for medicinal use1 and when mixed with the oil of the ripe nut it becomes a healing ointment4 ,the jelly which lines the shell of the more mature nut furnishes a delicate and nutritious food4 ,the milk in its center1 when iced1 is a most delicious luxury4 ,grated cocoanut forms a part of the world-renowned ,east ,india condiment1 curry4 ,dried1 shredded 7desiccated7 cocoanut is an important article of commerce4 ,from the oil a butter is made1 of a clear1 whitish color1 so rich in fat1 that of water and foreign substances combined there are but ,o4#jjfh4 ,it is better adapted for cooking than for table use4 ,at present it is chiefly used in hospitals1 but it is rapidly finding its way to the tables of the poor1 particularly as a substitute for oleomargarine4 #ih4 ,use of ,nuts in the ,dietary4--,when nuts can be secured at a low price per pound1 ten cents or less1 they compare favorably in nutritive value with other staple foods4 ,digestion experiments with rations composed largely of nuts show that they are quite thoroughly digested4 ,professor ,jaffa of the ,california ,experiment ,station1 in discussing the nutritive value of nuts and fruits1 says3#ce ,it is certainly an error to consider nuts merely as an accessory to an already heavy meal1 and to regard fruit merely as something of value for its pleasant flavor1 or for its hygienic or medicinal virtues4 ,the agreement of one food or another with any person is more or less a personal idiosyncrasy1 but it seems fair to say that those with whom nuts and fruits agree1 can1 if they desire1 readily secure a considerable part of their nutritive material from such sources4 ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,nuts 7,from ,fifteenth ,annual ,report1 ,maine ,agricultural ,experiment ,station47 ,,refuse,,edible ,,edible ,,portion ,,value,a ------------------------------ ,,portion,water,prot4 ,fat ,carb4 ,ash ,,per ,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,calories ,almonds #fd4h #ce4b #a4g #g4c #ai4c #f4b #j4g #ajfe ,almonds1 kernels -- #ajj4j #d4h #ba4j #ed4i #ag4c #b4j #cjcj ,brazil nuts #di4f #ej4d #b4g #h4f #cc4f #c4e #b4j #aede ,filberts #eb4a #dg4i #a4h #g4e #ca4c #f4b #a4a #aege ,filberts1 kernels -- #ajj4j #c4g #ae4f #fe4c #ac4j #b4d #cbij ,hickory nuts #fb4b #cg4h #a4d #e4h #be4e #d4c #j4h #abfe ,pecans #di4g #ej4c #a4d #e4b #ce4f #g4b #j4h #agcc ,pecans1 kernels -- #ajj4j #b4i #aj4c #gj4h #ad4c #a4g #cdde ,walnuts #eh4j #db4j #a4b #g4j #bg4j #f4a #j4g #ache ,walnuts1 kernels -- #ajj4j #b4h #af4g #fd4d #ad4h #a4c #ccje ,chestnuts #af4a #hc4i #ca4j #e4g #f4g #ci4j #a4e #aaae ,acorns #ce4f #fd4d #b4f #e4b #bd4a #cj4i #a4f #afij ,beechnuts #dj4h #ei4b #b4c #ac4j #cd4j #g4h #b4a #ahbj ,butternuts #hf4d #ac4f #j4f #c4h #h4c #j4e #j4d #dcj ,litchi nuts #da4f #eh4d #aj4e #a4g #j4a #de4b #j4i #hge ,pion1 ,p4 edulis #dj4f #ei4d #b4j #h4g #cf4h #aj4b #a4g #aije ,pion1 ,p4 monophylla #da4g #eh4c #b4b #c4h #ce4d #ae4c #a4f #ahej ,pion1 ,p4 sabiniana #gg4j #bc4j #a4b #f4e #ab4c #a4i #a4a #fge ,pistachio1 kernels -- #ajj4j #d4b #bb4f #ed4e #ae4f #c4a #cjaj ,peanuts1 raw #bf4d #gc4f #f4i #bj4f #cj4g #ac4h #a4f #aice ,peanuts1 kernels -- #ajj4j #i4c #bg4i #db4j #ah4g #b4a #bfdj ,roasted peanuts #cb4f #fg4d #a4a #bj4f #cc4a #aj4i #a4g #aihe ,shelled peanuts -- #ajj4j #a4f #cj4e #di4b #af4b #b4e #biee ,peanut butter -- -- #b4j #bi4c #df4f #ag4a ,b#e4j #bhcj ,cocoanuts #dh4h #ea4b #g4b #b4i #be4i #ad4c #j4i #adae ,cocoanuts1 shredded -- -- #c4e #f4c #eg4c #ca4f #a4c #cabe ,cocoanut milk -- -- #ib4g #j4d #a4e #d4f #j4h #ig ,footnote ,a3 ,calculated from analyses4 ,footnote ,b3 ,including salt1 #d4a4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,milk ,,and ,,dairy ,,products #ii4 ,importance in the ,dietary4--,there is no article of food which enters so extensively into the dietary as milk1 and it is one of the few foods which supply all the nutrients1--fats1 carbohydrates1 and proteids4#cf ,milk alone is capable of sustaining life for comparatively long periods1 and it is the chief article of food during many diseases4 ,an exclusive milk diet for a healthy adult1 however1 would be unsatisfactory2 in the case of young children1 milk is essential1 because the digestive tract has not become functionally developed for the digestion of other foods4 ,it is necessary to consider not only the composition and nutritive value of milk1 but also its purity or sanitary condition4 #ajj4 ,general ,composition4--,average milk contains about #hg per cent water and #ac per cent dry matter4 ,the dry matter is composed approximately of3 ,per ,cent ,fat #c4e ,casein #c4be ,albumin #j4ej ,milk sugar #e4jj ,ash #j4ge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,milk ,,fat ,,globules4 ,fat is the most variable constituent of milk4 ,occasionally it is found as low as #b per cent and as high as #f per cent or more4 ,the poorest and richest milks differ mainly in fat content1 as the sugar1 ash1 casein1 and albumin1 or solids of the milk serum1 are fairly constant in amount and composition4 ,variations in the content of fat are due to differences in feed and in the breed and individuality of the animal4 #aja4 ,digestibility4--,milk is one of the most completely digested of foods1 about #ie per cent of the protein and fat and #ig per cent of the carbohydrates being absorbed and utilized by the body4 ,in a mixed ration1 the nutrients of milk are practically all absorbed4 ,milk also exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of other foods with which it is combined4 ,this is doubtless due to the digestive action of the special ferments or enzymes which milk contains4 ,in milk there is a soluble ferment material or enzyme which has the power of peptonizing proteids4 ,it is this ferment which carries on the ripening process when cheese is cured in cold storage1 and it is believed to be this body which promotes digestion of other foods with which milk is combined4#bg ,milk is not easily digested by some persons4 ,the tendency to costiveness caused by a milk diet can be largely overcome by the use of salt with the milk1 or of some solid food1 as toast or crackers1 to prevent coagulation and the formation of masses resistant to the digestive fluids4 ,barley water and lime water in small amounts are also useful for assisting mechanically in the digestion of milk4 ,milk at ordinary prices is one of the cheapest foods that can be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,dirt ,,in ,a ,,sample ,,of ,,unsanitary ,,milk4 #ajb4 ,sanitary ,condition of ,milk4--,equally as important as composition is the sanitary condition or wholesomeness of milk4 ,milk is a food material which readily undergoes fermentation and is a medium for the distribution of germ diseases4 ,the conditions under which it is produced and the way in which it is handled determine largely its sanitary value1 and are of so much importance in relation to public health that during recent years city and state boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection and examination of milk along with the chemical tests for detecting its adulteration4 ,some of the more frequent causes of contaminated and unsound milk are3 unhealthy animals1 poor food and water1 unsanitary surroundings of the animals1 and lack of cleanliness and care in the handling and transporting of the milk4 ,outbreaks of typhoid and scarlet fevers and other germ diseases have frequently been traced to a contaminated milk supply4#cg #ajc4 ,certified ,milk4--,when milk is produced under the most sanitary conditions1 the number of bacterial bodies per cubic centimeter is materially reduced4 ,in order to supply high grade milk containing but few bacteria1 special precautions are taken in the care of the animals1 and in the feeding and milking1 and all sources of contamination of the milk are eliminated as far as possible4 ,such milk1 when sold in sterilized bottles1 is commonly called certified milk1 indicating that its purity is guaranteed by the producer and that the number of bacteria per unit does not exceed a certain standard1 as #hjjj per cubic centimeter4 ,ordinary market milk contains upwards of #ej1jjj4 #ajd4 ,pasteurized ,milk4--,in order to destroy the activity of the bacterial organisms1 milk is subjected to a temperature of #aeg ,f4 for ten minutes or longer1 which process is known as pasteurization4 ,when milk is heated to a temperature above #ahj1 it is sterilized4 ,below #aeg1 the albumin is not coagulated4 ,by pasteurizing1 milk is much improved from a sanitary point of view1 and whenever the milk supply is of unknown purity1 it should be pasteurized4#ch ,after the milk has been thus treated1 the same care should be exercised in keeping it protected to prevent fresh inoculation or contamination1 as though it were unpasteurized milk4 ,for family use milk can be pasteurized in small amounts in the following way3 ,before receiving the milk1 the receptacle should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water or dry heat1 as in an oven4 ,the milk is loosely covered and placed in a pan of water1 a false bottom being in the pan so as to prevent unequal heating4 ,the water surrounding the milk is gradually heated until a temperature of #aei ,f4 is registered1 and the milk is kept at this temperature for about ten minutes4 ,it is then cooled and placed in the refrigerator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,pasteurizing ,,milk4 #aje4 ,tyrotoxicon4--,tyrotoxicon is a chemical compound produced by a ferment body which finds its way into milk when kept in unsanitary surroundings4 ,it induces digestion disorders similar to cholera1 and when present in large amounts1 may prove fatal4 ,it sometimes develops in cream1 ice cream1 or cheese1 but only when they have been kept in unclean places or produced from infected milk4 #fja4 ,color of ,milk is often taken as a guide to its purity and richness in fat4 ,while a yellow tinge is usually characteristic of milks rich in fat1 it is not a hard and fast rule1 for frequently light-colored milks are richer in fat than yellow-tinged ones4 ,the coloring material is independent of the percentage of fat1 and it is not always safe to judge the richness of milk on the basis of color4 #ajg4 ,souring of ,milk4--,souring of milk is due to the action of the lactic acid organism1 which finds its way into the milk through particles of dust carried in the air or from unclean receptacles which contain the spores of the organism4#ci ,when milk sours1 a small amount of sugar is changed to lactic acid which reacts upon the casein1 converting it from a soluble to an insoluble condition4 ,when milk is exposed to the air at a temperature of from #gj to #ij ,f41 lactic acid fermentation readily takes place4 ,at a low temperature the process is checked1 and at a high temperature the organisms and spores are destroyed4 ,in addition to lactic acid ferments1 there are large numbers of others which develop in milk1 changing the different compounds of which milk is composed4 ,in the processes of butter and cheese making1 these fermentation changes are controlled so as to develop the flavor and secure the best grades of butter and cheese4 #ajh4 ,use of ,preservatives in ,milk4--,in order to check fermentation1 boric acid1 formalin1 and other preservatives have been proposed4 ,physiologists object to their use because the quantity required to prevent fermentation is often sufficient to have a medicinal effect4 ,the tendency is to use excessive amounts1 which may interfere with normal digestion of the food4 ,milk that is cared for under the most sanitary conditions has a higher dietetic value and is much to be preferred to that which has been kept sweet by the use of preservatives4 #aji4 ,condensed ,milk is prepared by evaporating milk in vacuum pans until it is reduced about one fourth in bulk1 when it is sealed in cans1 and it will then keep sweet for a long time4 ,occasionally some cane sugar is added to the evaporated product4 ,when diluted1 evaporated milk has much the same composition as whole milk4 ,when a can of condensed milk has been opened1 the same care should be exercised to prevent fermentation as if it were fresh milk4 #aaj4 ,skim ,milk differs in composition from whole milk in fat content4 ,when the fat is removed by the separator1 there is often left less than one tenth of a per cent4 ,skim milk has a much higher nutritive value than is generally conceded1 and wherever it can be procured at a reasonable price it should be used in the dietary as a source of protein4 #aaa4 ,cream ranges in fat content from #ae to #ce per cent4 ,it is generally preferred to whole milk1 although it is not as well balanced a food1 because it is deficient in protein4 ,cream should contain at least #be per cent of fat4 #aab4 ,buttermilk is the product left after removal of the fat from cream by churning4 ,it has about the same amount of nutrients as skim milk4 ,the casein is in a slightly modified form due to the development of lactic acid during the ripening of the cream1 and on this account buttermilk is more easily digested and assimilated by many individuals than milk in other forms4 ,the development of the acid generally reduces the number of species of other than the lactic organisms1 and these are increased4 #aac4 ,goat's ,milk is somewhat richer in solids than cow's milk1 containing about one per cent more proteids1 a little more fat1 and less sugar4 ,when used as a substitute for human or cow's milk1 it generally needs to be slightly diluted1 depending1 however1 upon the composition of the individual sample4 #aad4 ,koumiss is a fermented beverage made from milk by the use of yeast to secure alcoholic fermentation4 ,koumiss contains about one per cent each of lactic acid and alcohol1 and the casein and other nutrients are somewhat modified by the fermentation changes4 ,koumiss is generally considered a non-alcoholic beverage possessing both food and dietetic value4 #aae4 ,prepared ,milks4--,various preparations are made to resemble milk in general composition4 ,these are mechanical mixtures of sugar1 fats1 and proteids4 ,milk sugar1 casein1 or malted proteids are generally the materials employed in their preparation4 ,often the dried and pulverized solids of skim milk are used4 ,many of the prepared milks are deficient in fat4 ,while they are not equal to cow's milk1 their use is often made necessary from force of circumstances4 #aaf4 ,human ,milk is not as rich in solid matter as cow's milk4 ,it contains about the same amount of fat1 one per cent more sugar1 and one per cent less proteids4 ,in human milk nearly one half of the protein is in the form of albumins1 while in cow's milk there is about one fifth in this form4 ,the fat globules are much smaller than those of cow's milk4 ,in infant feeding it is often necessary to modify cow's milk by the addition of water1 cream1 and milk sugar1 so as to make it more nearly resemble in composition human milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,testing ,,milk4 #a1 pipette2 #b1 lactometer2 #c1 acid measure2 #d1 centrifuge2 #e1 test bottle4 #aag4 ,adulteration of ,milk4--,milk is not as extensively adulterated as it was before the passage and enforcement of the numerous state and municipal laws regulating its inspection and sale4 ,the most frequent forms of adulteration are addition of water and removal of cream4 ,these are readily detected from the specific gravity and fat content of the milk4 ,the specific gravity of milk is determined by means of the lactometer1 an instrument which sinks to a definite point in pure milk4 ,in watered milk it sinks to greater depth1 depending upon the amount of water added4 ,the fat content of milk is readily and accurately determined by the ,babcock test1 in which the fat is separated by centrifugal action4 ,for the detection of adulterated milk the student is referred to ,chapter ,,vi1 ,chemistry of ,dairying1 by ,snyder4 ,,butter #aah4 ,composition4--,butter is made by the churning or agitation of cream and is composed mainly of milk fats and water1 together with smaller amounts of ash1 salt1 casein1 milk sugar1 and lactic acid4 ,average butter has the following composition3 ,per ,cent ,water #aj4e ,ash and salt #b4e ,casein and albumin #a4j ,fat #hf4j ,when butter contains an abnormal amount of water1 it is considered adulterated4 ,according to act of ,congress standard butter should not contain over #af per cent of water nor less than #hb4e per cent of fat4 #aai4 ,digestibility of ,butter4--,digestion experiments show that practically all of the fat1 #ih per cent1 is digestible and available for use by the body4 ,butter is valuable only for the production of heat and energy4 ,alone1 it is incapable of sustaining life1 because it contains no proteid material4 ,it is usually one of the more expensive items of food1 but it is generally considered quite necessary in a ration4#e ,it has been suggested that it takes an important part mechanically in the digestion of food4 #abj4 ,adulteration of ,butter4--,in addition to containing an excess of water1 butter is adulterated in other ways4 ,old1 stale butter is occasionally melted1 washed1 salted1 and reworked4 ,this product is known as renovated butter1 and has poor keeping qualities4 ,frequently preservatives are added to such butter to delay fermentation changes4 ,oleomargarine and butterine are made by mixing vegetable and animal fats4#dj ,highly colored stearin1 cotton-seed oil1 and lard are the usual materials from which oleomargarine is made4 ,it has practically the same composition1 digestibility1 and food value as butter4 ,when sold under its true name and not as butter1 there is no objection1 as it is a valuable food and supplies heat and energy at less cost than butter4 ,the main objection to oleomargarine and butterine is that they are sold as butter4#da ,the coloring of butter is not generally looked upon as adulteration1 for butter naturally has a more or less yellow tinge4 ,according to an act of ,congress1 butter colors of a non-injurious character are allowed to be used4 ,,cheese #aba4 ,general ,composition4--,cheese1 is made by the addition of rennet to ripened milk1 resulting in coagulation of the casein1 which mechanically combines with the fat4 ,it differs from butter in composition by containing1 in addition to fat1 casein and appreciable amounts of mineral matter4 ,the composition varies with the character of the milk from which the cheese was made4 ,average milk produces cheese containing a larger amount of fat than proteids1 while cheese from skimmed or partially skimmed milk is proportionally poorer in fat4 ,ordinarily there is about #ce per cent of water1 #cc per cent of fat1 and #bg per cent of casein1 and albumin or milk proteids1 the remainder being ash1 salt1 milk sugar1 and lactic acid4 ,cheese is characterized by its large percentage of both fat and protein1 and has high food value4 ,it contains more fat and protein than any of the meats2 in fact1 there are but few foods which have such liberal amounts of these nutrients as cheese4 ,the odor and flavor of cheese are due to workings of bacteria which result in the production of aromatic compounds4 ,the purity and condition of the milk1 as well as the method of manufacture and the kind of ferment material used1 determine largely the flavor and odor4 ,cheese is generally allowed to undergo a ripening or curing process before it is used as food4 ,the changes resulting consist mainly in increased solubility of the proteids1 with the formation of a small amount of amid and aromatic compounds4#db #abb4 ,digestibility4--,cheese is popularly considered an indigestible food1 but extended experiments show that it is quite completely digested1 although in the case of some individuals not easily digested4 ,in general1 about #ie per cent of the fat and #ib per cent and more of the protein is digested1 depending upon the general composition of the cheese and the digestive capacity of the individual4 ,as far as total digestibility is concerned1 there appears to be but little difference between green and well-cured cheese4 ,so far as ease of digestion is concerned1 it is probable that some difference exists4 ,there is also but little difference in digestibility resulting from the way in which milk is made into cheese1 the nutrients of ,roquefort1 ,swiss1 ,camembert1 and ,cheddar being about equally digestible4#ac ,the differences in odor and taste are due to variations in kind and amount of bacterial action4 ,when combined with other foods1 cheese may exercise a beneficial influence upon digestion in the same way as noted from the use of several foods in a ration4 ,no material differences were observed in digestibility when cheese was used in small amounts1 as for condimental purposes1 or when used in large amounts to furnish nutrients4 ,artificial digestion experiments show that cheese is more readily acted upon by the pancreatic than by the gastric fluids1 suggesting that cheese undergoes intestinal rather than gastric digestion4 ,it is possible this is the reason that cheese is slow of digestion in the case of some individuals4 #abc4 ,use in the ,dietary4--,cheese should be used in the dietary regularly and in reasonable amounts1 rather than irregularly and then in large amounts4 ,cheese is not a luxury1 but ordinarily it is one of the cheapest and most nutritious of human foods4 ,a pound of cheese costing #ae cents contains about a quarter of a pound of protein and a third of a pound of fat2 at the same price1 beef yields only about half as much fat and less protein4 ,cheese at #ah cents per pound furnishes more available nutrients and energy than beef at #ab cents per pound4 ,in the dietary of ,european armies1 cheese to a great extent takes the place of beef4 ,see ,chapter ,,xvi4 #abd4 ,cottage ,cheese is made by coagulating milk and preparing the curd by mixing with it cream or melted butter and salt or sugar as desired4 ,when milk can be procured at little cost1 cottage cheese is one of the cheapest and most valuable foods4#dc #abe4 ,different ,kinds of ,cheese4--,by the use of different kinds of ferments and variations in the process of manufacture different types or kinds of cheese are made1 as ,roquefort1 ,swiss1 ,edam1 ,stilton1 ,camembert1 etc4 ,in the manufacture of ,roquefort cheese1 which is made from goats' and ewes' milk1 bread is added and the cheese is cured in caves1 resulting in the formation of a green mold which penetrates the cheese mass1 and produces characteristic odor and flavor4 ,stilton is an ,english soft1 rich cheese of mild flavor1 made from milk to which cream is usually added4 ,it is allowed to undergo an extended process of ripening1 often resulting in the formation of bluish green threads of fungus4 ,limburger owes its characteristic odor and flavor to the action of special ferment bodies which carry on the ripening process4 ,neufchatel is a soft cheese made from sweet milk to which the rennet is added at a high temperature4 ,after pressing1 it is kneaded and worked1 and then put into packages and covered with tin foil4 #abf4 ,adulteration of ,cheese4--,the most common forms of adulteration are the manufacture of skim-milk cheese by the removal of the fat from the milk1 and substitution of cheaper and foreign fats1 making a product known as filled cheese4 ,when not labeled whole milk cheese1 or sold as such1 there is no objection to skim-milk cheese4 ,it has a high food value and is often a cheap source of protein4 ,the manufacture of filled cheese is now regulated by the national government1 and all such cheese must pay a special tax and be properly labeled4 ,as a result1 the amount of filled cheese upon the market has very greatly decreased1 and cheese is now less adulterated than in former years4 ,the national dairy law allows the use of coloring matter of a harmless nature in the manufacture of cheese4 #abg4 ,dairy ,products in the ,dietary4--,the nutrients in milk are produced at less expense for grain and forage than the nutrients in beef1 hence from a pecuniary point of view1 dairy products1 as milk and cheese1 have the advantage4 ,in the case of butter1 however1 the cost usually exceeds that of meat4 ,in older agricultural regions1 where the cost of beef production reaches the maximum1 dairying is generally resorted to1 as it yields larger financial returns1 and as a result more cheese and less beef are used in the dietary4 ,as the cost of meats is enhanced1 dairy products1 as cheese1 naturally take their place4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,meats ,,and ,,animal ,,food ,,products #abh4 ,general ,composition4--,animal tissue is composed of the same classes of compounds as plant tissue4 ,in each1 water makes up a large portion of the weight1 and the dry matter is composed of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds1 and ash or mineral matter4 ,plants and animals differ in composition not so much as to the kinds of compounds1 although there are differences1 but more in the percentage amounts of these compounds4 ,in plants1 with the exception of the legumes1 the protein rarely exceeds #ad per cent1 and in many vegetable foods1 when prepared for the table1 there is less than #b per cent4 ,in meats the protein ranges from #ae to #bj per cent4 ,the non-nitrogenous compounds of plants are present mainly in the form of starch1 sugar1 and cellulose1 while in animal bodies there are only traces of carbohydrates1 but large amounts of fat4 ,fat is the chief non-nitrogenous compound of meats2 it ranges between quite wide limits1 depending upon kind1 age1 and general condition of the animal4 ,meats contain the same general classes of proteins as the vegetable foods2 in each the proteins are made up of albumins1 glubulins1 albuminates1 peptone-like bodies1 and insoluble proteids4 ,the larger portion of the protein of meats and cereals is in insoluble forms4 ,the meat juices1 which contain the soluble portion of the proteins1 constitute less than #e percent of the nitrogenous compounds4 ,meats contain less amid substances than plants1 in which the amids are produced from ammonium compounds and are supposed to be intermediate products in the formation of proteids1 while in the animal body they are derived from the proteids supplied in the food and1 it is generally believed1 cannot form proteids4 ,albuminoids make up the connective tissue1 hair1 and skin1 and are more abundant in animal than in plant tissue4 ,one of the chief albuminoids is gelatine4 ,both plant and animal foods undergo bacterial changes resulting in the production of alkaloidal bodies known as ptomaines1 of which there are a large number4 ,these are poisonous and are what cause putrid and stale meat to be unwholesome4 ,the protein in meat differs little in general composition from that of vegetable origin2 differences in structure and cleavage products between the two are1 however1 noticeable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,meat ,,and ,,extractive ,,substances4 ,while meats from different kinds of animals have somewhat the same general composition1 they differ in physical properties1 and also in the nature of the various nutrients4 ,for example1 pork contains less protein than beef1 but the protein of pork is materially different from that of beef1 as a larger portion is in the form of soluble proteids1 while in beef more is present in an insoluble form4 ,not only are differences in the percentage of individual proteins noticeable1 but there are equally as great differences in the fats4 ,as for example3 some of the meats have a larger proportion of the fat as stearin than do others4 ,hence meats differ in texture and taste more than in nutritive value1 due to the variations in the percentage of the different proteins1 fats1 and extractive material1 rather than to differences in the total amounts of these compounds4 ,the taste and flavor of meat is to a large extent influenced by the amount of extractive material4 ,while the nutrients of meats are divided into classes1 as proteins and fats1 there are a large number of separate compounds which make up each of the individual classes1 and there are also small amounts of compounds which are not included in these groups4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,standard ,,cuts ,,of ,,beef4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,station ,bulletin47 #abi4 ,beef4--,about one half of the weight of beef is water2 the lean meat contains a much larger amount than the fat4 ,as a rule1 the parts of the animal that contain the most fat contain the least water4 ,in some meats there is considerable refuse1 #be to #cj per cent4 ,in average meat about #ab per cent of the butcher's weight is refuse and non-edible parts4#dd ,a pound of average butcher's meat is about one half water1 and over #aj per cent waste and refuse1 which leaves less than #dj per cent fat and protein4 ,meat is generally considered to have a high nutritive value1 due to the comparatively large amounts of fat and protein4 ,beef contains more protein than any vegetable food1 except the legumes1 and from #a to #a4e per cent mineral matter1 exclusive of bone4 ,some of the mineral matter is chemically united with the protein and other compounds4 ,while figures are given for average composition of beef1 it is to be noted that wide variations are frequently to be met with1 some samples containing a much larger amount of waste and trimmings than others1 and this influences the percent of the nutritive substances4 ,in making calculations of nutrients consumed1 as in dietary studies1 the figures for average composition of meat should be used only in cases where the samples do not contain an excess either of fat or trimmings4#de ,when very lean1 there is often a large amount of refuse1 and the meat contains less dry matter and is of poorer flavor than from animals in prime condition4 ,in the case of very fat animals1 a large amount of waste results1 and the flavor is sometimes impaired4 #acj4 ,veal differs from beef in containing a smaller amount of dry matter1 richer in protein1 but poorer in fat4 ,animals differ in composition at different stages of growth in much the same way as plants4 ,in the earlier stages protein predominates in the plant tissue1 while later the carbohydrates are added in larger amounts1 reducing the percentage content of protein4 ,in animals the same is noticeable4 ,young animals are1 pound for pound1 richer in protein than old animals4 ,while in the case of vegetables the increase in size1 or rotundity1 is due to starch and carbohydrates1 in animals it is due to the addition of fat4 ,but plants1 like animals1 observe the same general laws as to changes in composition at different stages of growth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,standard ,,cuts ,,of ,,mutton4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,station ,bulletin47 #aca4 ,mutton4--,there is about the same amount of refuse matter in mutton as in beef4 ,in a side of mutton about #ai percent3 are trimmings and waste1 and in a side of beef #ah4e per cent4 ,mutton1 as a rule1 contains a little more fat and dry matter than beef1 and somewhat less protein4 ,a side of beef1 as purchased1 contains about #ej per cent of water1 #ad4e per cent protein1 and #af4h per cent of fat1 while a side of mutton1 as purchased1 contains #db4i per cent water1 #ab4e per cent protein1 and #bd4g per cent fat4 ,a pound of beef yields a smaller number of calories by #be per cent than a pound of mutton4 ,at the same price per pound more nutrients can be purchased as mutton than as beef4 ,the differences in composition between lamb and mutton are similar to those between veal and beef2 viz4 a larger amount of water and protein and a smaller amount of fat in the same weight of the young animals4 ,differences in composition between the various cuts of lamb are noticeable4 ,the leg contains the least fat and the most protein1 while the chuck is richest in fat and poorest in protein4 ,as in the case of beef1 many of the cheaper cuts contain as much or more nutrients than the more expensive cuts4 ,they are not1 however1 as palatable and differ as to toughness and other physical characteristics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,standard ,,cuts ,,of ,,pork4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,station ,bulletin47 #acb4 ,pork is characterized by a high per cent of fat and a comparatively low per cent of protein4 ,it is generally richest in fat of any of the meats4 ,the per cent of water varies with the fatness of the animal2 in very fat animals there is a smaller amount1 while lean animals contain more4 ,in lean salt pork there is about #bj per cent water1 and in fat salt pork about #g per cent4 ,there is less refuse and waste in pork than in either beef or mutton4 ,ham contains from #ad to #ae per cent of refuse1 and bacon about #g per cent4 ,bacon has nearly twice as much fat and a smaller amount of protein than ham4 ,a pound of bacon1 as purchased1 will yield nearly twice as much energy or fuel value as a pound of ham4 ,digestion experiments show that bacon is quite readily and completely digested and is often a cheaper source of fat and protein than other meats4 ,there is about three times as much fat in bacon as in beef4 ,when prepared for the table bacon contains1 from #dj to #ej per cent of fat4 ,a pound of high grade1 lean bacon furnishes from #j4a to #j4c of a pound of digestible protein and from #j4d to #j4f of a pound of digestible fat1 which is about two thirds as much fat as is found in butter4 ,bacon contains nearly as much digestible protein as other meats and from two to three times as much fat1 making it1 at the same price per pound1 a cheaper food than other meats4 ,in salt pork there is from #fj to #he per cent of fat1 and less protein than in bacon4 ,the protein and fat of pork differ from those in beef not only in percentage amounts1 but also in the nature of the individual proteins and fats4 ,the composition of pork varies with the nature of the food that is consumed by the animal4 ,experiments show that it is possible by judicious feeding in the early stages of growth to produce pork with the maximum of lean meat and the minimum of fat4 ,after the animal has passed a certain period1 it is not possible by feeding to materially influence the percentage of nutrients in the meat4 ,the flavor1 too1 of pork1 as of other meats1 is dependent largely upon the nature of the food the animal consumes4 ,when there is a scant amount of available protein in the ration1 the meat is dry1 nearly tasteless1 and contains less of the soluble nitrogenous compounds which impart flavor and individuality4 #acc4 ,lard is prepared from the fat of swine1 and is separated from associated tissue by the action of heat4 ,a large amount of fat is found lining the back of the abdominal cavity1 and this is known as leaf lard4 ,slight differences are noticeable in the composition and quality of lard made from different parts of the hog4 ,leaf lard is usually considered the best4 ,lard is composed of the three fats1 olein1 stearin1 and palmatin1 and has a number of characteristic physical properties1 as specific gravity1 melting point1 iodine absorption number1 as well as behavior with various reagents1 and these enable the mixing of other fats with lard to be readily detected4 ,lard is used in the preparation of oleomargarine1 and it is also combined with various vegetable oils1 as cotton-seed oil1 in the making of imitation or compound lards4#df ,lard substitutes differ little in general composition from pure lard1 except in the structure of the crystals and the percentage of the various individual fats4 #acd4 ,texture and ,toughness of ,meats4--,in discussing the texture of meats1 ,professor ,woods states3#de ,whether meats are tough or tender depends upon two things3 the character of the walls of the muscle tubes and the character of the connective tissues which bind the tubes and muscles together4 ,in young and well-nourished animals the tube walls are thin and delicate1 and the connective tissue is small in amount4 ,as the animals grow older or are made to work 7and this is particularly true in the case of poorly nourished animals71 the walls of the muscle tubes and the connective tissues become thick and hard4 ,this is the reason why the flesh of young1 well-fed animals is tender and easily masticated1 while the flesh of old1 hard-worked1 or poorly fed animals is often so tough that prolonged boiling or roasting seems to have but little effect on it4 ,after slaughtering1 meats undergo marked changes in texture4 ,these changes can be grouped under three classes or stages4 ,in the first stage1 when the meat is just slaughtered1 the flesh is soft1 juicy1 and quite tender4 ,in the next stage the flesh stiffens and the meat becomes hard and tough4 ,this condition is known as rigor mortis1 and continues until the third stage1 when the first changes of decomposition set in4 ,in hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in either the first or second stage4 ,in cold climates it is seldom eaten before the second stage1 and generally1 in order to lessen the toughness1 it is allowed to enter the third stage1 when it becomes soft and tender1 and acquires added flavor4 ,the softening is due in part to the formation of lactic acid1 which acts upon the connective tissue4 ,the same effect may be produced1 though more rapidly1 by macerating the meat with weak vinegar4 ,meat is sometimes made tender by cutting the flesh into thin slices and pounding it across the cut ends until the fibers are broken4 #ace4 ,influence of ,cooking upon the ,composition of ,meats4#dg--;,it is believed by many that losses are prevented and the nutritive value conserved when1 in the cooking of meat1 it is placed directly into boiling water rather than into cold water and then brought to the boiling point and cooked4 ,extensive experiments have been made by ,dr4 ,grindley in regard to this and other points connected with the cooking of meats1 and in general it was found that the temperature of the water in which the meat was placed made little difference in its nutritive value or the amount of material extracted4 ,it was found that by both methods there was dissolved #b4c percent of the protein matter1 #a percent of the nitrogenous extractives1 #a4f per cent of non-nitrogenous material1 and #j4h per cent of ash1 of the raw meat1 which was equivalent to about #ac per cent of the total proteid material and #ha percent of the ash4 ,the cold water extract contained bodies coagulated by heat4 ,cold water did not extract any of the fat1 but during the process of cooking1 appreciable amounts were lost mechanically4 ,cooked meats were found to be less soluble in cold water than raw meats4 ,during the process of boiling1 meat shrinks in weight about #dj or #de per cent1 depending mainly upon the size of the pieces and the content of fat4 ,the loss in weight is practically a loss of water1 and the loss of nutrients1 all told1 amounts to about #d per cent1 or more1 depending upon the mechanical loss4#dh ,but slight differences were found in the composition of the meats cooked three and five hour periods4 ,careful study in this laboratory has shown that when meat is cooked in water at #hj to #he ,c41 placing meat in hot or cold water at the start has little effect on the amount of nutrients in the meat which passes into the broth4 ,the meat was in the form of cubes1 one to two inches1 and in pieces weighing from one to two pounds4 ,it is commonly supposed that when meat is plunged into boiling water1 the albumin coagulates and forms a crust1 which prevents the escape of nutritive materials into the broth4 ,it is also believed that if a rich broth is desired1 to be used either as a soup or with the meat as a stew1 it is more desirable to place the meat in cold water at the start4 ,from the results of these experiments1 however1 it is evident that1 under these conditions1 there can be little advantage in using hot or cold water at the beginning4 ,when meats were cooked by dry heat1 as in roasting1 a larger amount of nutrients was rendered soluble in water than during boiling4 ,the losses of nutrients were much smaller when meats were cooked by dry heat than when cooked in water1 being on the average1 water #ce per cent1 nitrogenous extractives #i per cent1 non-nitrogenous extractives #ag per cent1 fat #g per cent1 ash #ab per cent1 and a small loss of protein4 ,the nutrients in the broth of the meat started in hot water amounted to about #a per cent of protein1 #a per cent of fat1 and ,o4#e per cent of ash1 the amount of nutrients being directly proportional to the length of time and temperature of the cooking4 ,in general1 the larger the pieces1 the smaller the losses4 ,beef that has been used in the preparation of beef tea loses its extractive materials1 which impart taste and flavor1 but there is only a small loss of actual nutritive value4 ,clear meat broth contains little nutriment--less than unfiltered broth4 ,most of the nitrogenous material of the broth is in the form of creatin1 sarkin1 and xanthin1 nitrogenous extractives or amid substances having a much lower food value than proteids4 ,experiments show that some of these extractives have physiological properties slightly stimulating in their action1 and it is believed the stimulating effect of a meat diet is in part due to these4#di ,they are valuable principally for imparting taste and flavor1 and cannot be regarded as nutrients4 ,the variations in taste and flavor of meats from different sources are due largely to differences in extractive material4 ,in general1 the various methods of cooking materially modify the appearance1 texture1 and flavor of meat1 and hence its palatability1 but have little effect on total nutritive value4 ,whether it be cooked in hot water1 as in boiling or stewing1 or by dry heat1 as in roasting1 broiling1 or frying1 meat of all kinds has a high food value1 when judged by the kind and amount of nutrient ingredients which are present4 #ej ,beef extracts of commerce contain about #ej per cent of extractive matters1 as amids1 together with smaller amounts of soluble proteids2 ash1 mainly added salt1 is also present in liberal amounts 7#bj per cent74 ,beef extracts have condimental value imparting taste and flavor1 which make them useful for soup stocks1 but they furnish little in the way of nutritive substance4 #acf4 ,miscellaneous ,meat ,products4--,by combining different parts of the same animal1 or different meats1 a large number of products known as sausage are made4 ,these vary in composition with the ingredients used4 ,in general1 they are richer in fat than beef and contain about the same amount of protein4 ,potato flour and flour from cereals are sometimes used in their preparations1 but the presence of any material amount1 unless so stated on the package1 is considered an adulterant4 ,pickled meats are prepared by the use of condiments1 as salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 and saltpeter4 ,during the smoking and curing of meats1 no appreciable losses of nutrients occur4#ea ,the smoke acts as a preservative1 and imparts condimental properties4 ,saltpeter 7potassium nitrate7 has been used from earliest times in the preparation of meats2 it preserves color and delays fermentation changes4 ,when used in moderate amounts it cannot be regarded as a preservative or injurious to health4 ,excessive amounts1 however1 are objectionable4 ,smoked meats1 prepared with or without saltpeter1 give appreciable reactions for nitrites1 compounds formed during combustion of the wood by which the meat was smoked4 ,many vegetables contain naturally much larger amounts of nitrates1 taken from the soil as food1 than meat that has been preserved with saltpeter4#eb #acg4 ,poultry4--,the refuse and waste from chickens1 as purchased on the market1 ranges from #ae to #cj per cent4 ,the fat content is much lower than in turkeys or ducks1 the largest amount being found in geese4 ,the edible portion of all fowls is rich in protein1 particularly the dark meat1 and the food value is about equal to that of meat in general4 ,when it is desired to secure a large amount of protein with but little fat1 chicken supplies this1 perhaps1 better than any other animal food4 ,a difference is observed in the composition of the meat of young and old fowls similar to that between beef and veal4 ,the physical composition and1 to a slight extent1 the solubility of the proteids are altered by prolonged cold storage1 the difference being noticeable mainly in the appearance of the connective tissue of the muscles4 ,in discussing poultry as food1 ,langworthy states3#ec ,a good1 fresh bird shows a well-rounded form1 with neat1 compact legs1 and no sharp1 bony angles on the breast1 indicating a lack of tender white meat4 ,the skin should be a clear color 7yellow being preferred in the ,american market7 and free from blotches and pin feathers2 if it looks tight and drawn1 the bird has probably been scalded before being plucked4 ,the flesh should be neither flabby nor stiff1 but should give evenly and gently when pressed by the finger4 #ach4 ,fish4--,from #cj to #fj per cent of the weight of fresh fish is refuse4 ,the edible portion contains from #ce to #ej per cent1 and in some cases more1 of water4 ,the dry matter is rich in protein2 richer than many meats4 ,the nutrients in fish range between comparatively wide limits1 the protein in some cases being as low as #f per cent1 in flounder1 and in others as high as #cj per cent1 in dried codfish4 ,the amount of fat1 except in a few cases1 as salmon and trout1 is small4 ,salmon is the richest in fat of any of the fishes4 ,when salted and preserved1 the proportion of water is lessened and that of the nutrients is increased4 ,fish can take the place of meat in the dietary1 but it is necessary to add a larger amount of fat to the ration because of the deficiency of most fish in this ingredient4 ,fish has about the same digestibility as meats4 ,it is believed by many to be valuable because it supplies a large amount of available phosphates4 ,analyses1 however1 show that the flesh of fish contains no more phosphorus compounds than meats in general1 and its food value is due to protein rather than to phosphates4#ed ,fish appears to be as completely and easily digested as meats4 ,differences in flavor1 taste1 and palatability are due to small amounts of flavors and extractive materials1 varying according to the food consumed by the fish and the conditions under which they lived4 ,the flesh of fish decays more readily than that of other meats and produces ptomaines1 or toxic substances1 which are the result of fermentation changes usually associated with putrefaction4 ,cases of poisoning from eating unsound fish are not infrequent4#ee ,shellfish have about the same general composition as fish4 ,in clams there is a larger amount of dry matter than in oysters1 which contain about #ab per cent1 half of which is protein4 ,when placed in fresh water1 the oyster increases in size and undergoes the process known as fattening4 ,oftentimes impure water is used for this purpose1 which makes the eating of raw oysters a questionable practice from a sanitary point of view1 as the water in which they are floated often contains disease-producing germs1 as typhoid4 ,during the process of fattening1 although the oyster increases in size and weight1 it decreases in percentage of nutrients4 ,in discussing the composition of oysters1 ,atwater states3#g ,they come nearer to milk than almost any other food material as regards both the amounts and relative proportions of nutrients4 #aci4 ,eggs1 ,general ,composition4--,eggs are a type of concentrated nitrogenous food4 ,about #ge per cent 7shell removed7 is water1 about one third is yolk1 and a little over #ej per cent is albumin or white4 ,the shell makes up from #aj to #ab per cent of the weight4 ,the yolk and white differ widely in composition4 ,the yolk contains a much larger per cent of solids than the white1 and is rich in both fat and protein1 from a third to a half of the weight being fat4 ,the white has about the same amount of water1 #hh per cent1 as average milk1 but1 unlike milk1 the dry matter is mainly albumin4 ,the entire egg 7edible portion7 contains about equal parts of fat and protein2 #ab to #ac per cent of each and an appreciably large amount of ash or mineral matter1--from #j4h to #a per cent1 consisting mainly of phosphates associated with the albumin4 ,there is no material difference in chemical composition between white and dark shelled eggs1 or between eggs with different colored yolks4 ,it is simply a question of coloring matter4 ,the egg is influenced to an appreciable extent by feed and general care of the fowls4 ,the egg and the potato contain about the same amount of water4 ,they are1 however1 distinct types of food1 the potato being largely composed of carbohydrates and the egg of protein and fat4 ,eggs resemble meat somewhat in general composition1 although they contain rather less of protein and fat4 ,when eggs are boiled there is a loss of weight due to elimination of water2 otherwise the composition is unaltered1 the coagulation of the albumin1 as stated in ,chapter ,i1 consisting simply in a rearrangement of the atoms of the molecule4 ,the egg is particularly valuable in the dietary of the convalescent1 when it is desired to secure the maximum amount of phosphorus in organic combination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,graphic ,,composition ,,of ,,an ,,egg4 ,the flavor of eggs is in part due to the food supplied to the fowls1 as well as the age of the egg4 ,experiments show that onions and some other vegetables1 when fed to fowls1 impart odors and taste to the eggs4 ,the keeping qualities of eggs are also dependent upon the food supplied4 ,in experiments at the ,cornell ,experiment ,station1 when hens were fed on a narrow1 nitrogenous ration1 a large number of eggs were produced containing the minimum amount of solid matter and of poor keeping quality1 while a larger sized egg of better keeping quality was obtained when a variety of foods1 nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous1 was supplied4 #adj4 ,digestibility of ,eggs4--,digestion experiments show that there is but little difference in the digestibility of eggs cooked in different ways4 ,a noticeable difference1 however1 is observed in the rapidity with which the albumin and proteids are dissolved in a pepsin solution4 ,in general1 it was found that1 when the albumin was coagulated at a temperature of #ahj1 it was more rapidly and completely dissolved in the pepsin than when coagulated at a temperature of #bab4 ,when eggs were cooked at a temperature of #bab1 the hard-boiled eggs appeared to be slightly more digestible than the soft-boiled eggs1 but the digestion was not as complete as when the cooking was done at a temperature of #ahj2 then no difference in digestibility was found between eggs cooked for a short or a long time4 ,the egg is one of the most completely digested of all foods1 practically all the protein and fat being absorbed and available to the body4 ,langworthy1 in discussing ,jorissenne's investigations on the digestibility of eggs1 states3#ec ,the yolk of raw1 soft-boiled1 and hard-boiled eggs is equally digestible4 ,the white of soft-boiled eggs1 being semi-liquid1 offers little more resistance to the digestive juices than raw white4 ,the white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very thoroughly masticated4 ,unless finely divided1 it offers more resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semi-fluid white1 and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract many days and decompose4 ,from this deduction it is obvious that thorough mastication is a matter of importance4 ,provided mastication is thorough1 marked differences in the completeness of digestion of the three sorts of eggs1 in the opinion of the writer cited1 will not be found4 #ada4 ,use of ,eggs in the ,dietary4--,when eggs are at the same price per dozen as meat is per pound1 they furnish a larger amount of nutrients4 ,in general1 a dozen eggs have a little higher food value than a pound of meat4 ,eggs are usually a cheaper source of food because a smaller amount is served than of meat4 ,when eggs are #be cents per dozen1 the cost of ten eggs for a family of five is less than that of a pound or a pound and a quarter of beef at #bb cents per pound4 ,the meat1 however1 would furnish the larger amount of nutrients4 ,eggs are valuable1 too1 in the dietary because they are frequently combined with flour1 cereal products1 and vegetables1 which contain a large amount of starch1 and some of which contain small amounts of protein4 ,this combination furnishes a balanced ration1 as well as secures palatability and good mechanical combination of the foods4 ,eggs in combination with flour1 sugar1 butter1 and other materials have equally as great a value as when used alone and as a substitute for meat4 ,eggs vary in weight from #ag4e to #bh ounces1 and more per dozen4 ,they should be purchased and sold by weight4 ,when stored1 eggs lose weight4 ,the egg cannot be considered as entirely germ proof1 and care is necessary in its handling and use1 the same as with other food articles4 ,the cause of the spoiling of eggs is due largely to exterior bacterial infection4 ,,canned ,,meats #adb4 ,general ,composition4--,canned meats differ but little in composition from fresh meats4 ,usually during the process of cooking and canning there is a slight increase in the amount of dry matter1 but the relative proportion of protein and fat is about the same as in fresh meat4 ,it is frequently stated that the less salable parts are used in the preparation of canned meats1 as it is possible by cooking and the addition of condiments to conceal the inferior physical properties4 ,as to the accuracy of these statements1 the author is unable to say4 ,the shrinkage or loss in weight during canning amounts to from #cj to #dj per cent4 ,the liquids in which the cooking and parboiling are done are sometimes used in the preparation of beef extracts4 ,salt1 saltpeter1 and condiments are generally added during the canning process4 ,saltpeter is used1 as it assists in retaining the natural color and prevents some objectionable fermentation changes4 ,in moderate amounts it is not generally considered an adulterant4 ,an extensive examination by ,wiley and ,bigelow of packing-house products and preserved meats showed that of the latter only a small amount contained objectionable preservatives4 ,the authors1 after an extended investigation1 reported favorably upon their composition and sanitary value1 saying they found so little to criticise and so much to commend in these necessary products4 ,in this bulletin they do not classify saltpeter as an adulterant4#ea ,where fresh meats cannot be secured1 canned meats are often indispensable4 ,usually the nutrients of canned meats cost more than those of fresh meats1 and in their use as food much care should be exercised to prevent contamination after opening the cans4 ,occasionally the meat contains ferment materials that have not been entirely destroyed during cooking1 and these1 when the cans are stored in warm places1 develop and cause deleterious changes to occur4 ,consequently canned meats should be stored at a low temperature4 ,by recent congressional act1 these preparations are now made under the supervision of government inspectors4 ,all diseased animals are rejected1 and the sanitary conditions under which the meat is prepared have been greatly improved4 ,formerly1 the most frequent forms of adulteration were substitution of one meat for another1 as the mixing of veal with chicken1 and the use of preservatives1 as borax and sulphites4 ,while the cost of the nutrients in canned meats is generally much higher than in fresh meats1 the latter are not always easily obtained1 or capable of being kept for any length of time1 and hence canned meats are often indispensable4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cereals #adc4 ,preparation and ,cost of ,cereals4--,the grains used in the preparation of cereal foods are wheat1 oats1 corn1 rice1 and1 to a less extent1 barley and rye4 ,for some of these the entire cleaned grain is ground or pulverized1 while for others the bran and germ are first removed4 ,in order to improve their keeping qualities1 they are often sterilized before being put up in sealed packages4 ,special treatment1 as steaming or malting1 is sometimes given to impart palatability and to lessen the time required for cooking4 ,as a class1 the cereal foods are clean1 nutritious1 and free from adulteration4 ,extravagant claims are sometimes made as to their food value1 and frequently excessive prices are charged1 out of proportion to the cost of the nutrients in the raw material4 ,within recent years the number of cereal preparations has greatly increased1 due to improvements and variations in the methods of manufacture4#ef ,cereal foods are less expensive than meats and the various animal food products4 ,they contain no refuse1 are easily prepared for the table1 and may be kept without appreciable deterioration4 ,some of the ready--to-eat brands are cooked1 dried1 and crushed1 and sugar1 glucose1 salt1 and various condimental materials added to impart taste4 ,others contain malt1 or are subjected to a malting or germinating process to develop the soluble carbohydrates1 and such foods are sometimes called predigested4 ,it is believed that the cereals are being more extensively used in the dietary1 which is desirable both from an economic and a nutritive point of view4 ,special care is necessary in the cooking and preparation of cereals for the table1 in order to develop flavor and bring about hydration and rupturing of the tissues1 as explained in ,chapter ,,ii4 #add4 ,corn ,preparations4--,corn or maize is characterized by a high percent of fat and starch1 and1 compared with wheat and oats1 a low content of protein4#eg ,removal of the bran and germ lessens the per cent of fat4 ,the germ is removed principally because it imparts poor keeping qualities4 ,many of the corn breakfast foods contain #a per cent or less of fat and from #h to #i per cent of protein4 ,coarsely ground corn foods are not as completely digested and assimilated as those more finely ground4 ,as in the case of wheat products1 the presence of the bran and germ appears to prevent the more complete absorption of the nutrients4 ,finely ground corn meal compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour4 ,corn flour is prepared by removal of the bran and germ and granulation of the more starchy portions of the kernel1 and has better keeping qualities than corn meal from which the bran and germ have not been so completely removed4 ,at times corn flour has been sufficiently low in price to permit its use for the adulteration of wheat flour4 ,the mixing of corn and wheat flours1 however1 is prohibited by law unless the product is so labeled4 ,when combined with wheat flour1 corn bread and various other articles of food are prepared1 but used alone corn flour is not suitable for bread making1 because its gluten lacks the binding properties imparted to wheat flour by the gliadin4 ,it is essential that corn be used with foods of high protein content so as to make a balanced ration2 for when it forms a large part of the dietary1 the ration is apt to be deficient in protein4 ,in a mixed dietary1 corn is one of the cheapest and best cereals that can be used4 ,too frequently1 however1 excessive prices are charged for corn preparations that contain no more nutrients than ordinary corn meal4 ,there is no difference between yellow and white corn meal so far as nutritive value is concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,corn ,,starch4 #ade4 ,oat ,preparations are characterized by large amounts of both protein and fat4 ,because of the removal of the hulls1 they contain more protein than the original grain4 ,the oat preparations differ little in chemical composition4 ,they all have about #af per cent of protein1 #g per cent of fat1 and #fe per cent of starch1 and are richer in ash or mineral matter than other cereals4 ,the main difference is in method of preparation and mechanical composition4 ,some are partially cooked and then dried4 ,those costing #g cents or more per pound do not contain any greater amount of nutritive substance than those purchased in bulk at about half the price4 ,at one time it was believed that oats contained a special alkaloid having a stimulating effect when fed to animals4 ,recent investigations1 however1 show that there is no alkaloidal material in oats1 and whatever stimulating effect they may have results from the nutrients they contain4 ,occasionally there is an appreciable amount of cellulose1 or fiber1 left in the oat preparations1 due to imperfect milling4 ,this noticeably lowers the digestibility4 ,oatmeal requires much longer and more thorough cooking than many other cereals1 and it is frequently used as food when not well prepared4 ,digestion experiments show that when oatmeal is cooked for four hours or more1 it is more readily acted upon by the diastase ferment and digested in a shorter time than oatmeal cooked only a half hour4#e ,oatmeal is one of the cheapest sources from which protein is obtained1 and when well cooked it can advantageously form an essential part of the ration4 ,unless thoroughly cooked1 the oat preparations do not appear to be quite so completely or easily digested as some of the other cereals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,oat ,,starch ,,granules4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,wheat ,,starch ,,grains4 #adf4 ,wheat ,preparations differ in chemical composition more than those from oats or corn1 because wheat is prepared in a greater variety of ways4 ,they are made either from the entire kernel1 including the bran and germ1 or from special parts1 as the granular middlings1 as in the case of some of the breakfast foods1 and a few are made into a dough and baked1 then dried and toasted4 ,some special flours are advertised as composed largely of gluten1 but only those that have been prepared by washing out the starch are entitled to be classed as gluten flours4#eh ,for the food of persons suffering from diabetes mellitus physicians advise the use of flour low in starch1 and this can be made by washing and thus removing a portion of the starch from wheat flour1 as directed in ,experiment ,no4 #cj4 ,the glutinous residue is then used for preparing articles of food4 ,analyses of some of the so-called gluten flours show that they contain no more gluten than ordinary flour1 particularly the low grades4 ,a number of wheat breakfast foods are prepared by sterilizing the flour middlings obtained after removal of the bran and germ4 ,these middlings are the same stock or material from which the patent grades of flour are made1 and they differ from wheat flour only in mechanical structure and size of the particles4 ,where granular wheat middlings can be secured in bulk at the same price as flour they furnish a valuable and cheap cereal breakfast food4 ,as to the digestibility and food value1 the wheat breakfast foods have practically the same as graham1 entire wheat1 or ordinary patent flour1 depending upon the stock which they contain4 ,those with large amounts of bran and germ are not as completely digested as when these parts of the kernel are not included4 ,wheat preparations1 next to oats1 have the most protein of any of the cereal foods4 ,occasionally they are prepared from wheats low in gluten and not suitable for bread-making purposes4 ,when purchased in bulk the wheat preparations are among the cheapest foods that can be used in the dietary4#ef ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,barley ,,starch4 #adg4 ,barley ,preparations are not so extensively used as wheat1 oats1 and corn4 ,barley contains a little more protein than corn1 but not quite so much as wheat2 otherwise it is quite similar to wheat in general composition4 ,sometimes in the preparation of breakfast foods barley meal is mixed with wheat or corn4 ,barley is supposed to be more readily digested than some of the other cereals1 because of the presence of larger amounts of active ferment bodies1 and it is frequently used for making an extract known as barley water1 which1 although it contains very little nutritive value1 as less than one per cent of the weight of the barley is rendered soluble1 is useful in its soothing influence and mechanical action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive tract4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,rice ,,starch4 #adh4 ,rice ,preparations4--,rice varies somewhat in composition1 but usually contains a slightly lower percentage of protein than corn and also a smaller amount of fat4 ,it is particularly rich in starch1 and has the least ash or mineral matter of any of the cereals4 ,in order to make a balanced ration1 rice should be supplemented with legumes and other foods rich in proteids4 ,it is a valuable grain1 but when used alone it is deficient in protein4 ,rice is digested with moderate ease1 but is not as completely absorbed by the body as other cereals1 particularly those prepared by fine grinding or pulverization4 ,of late years rice culture has been extensively introduced into some of the southern states1 and the domestic rice seems to have slightly higher protein content than the imported4 ,rice contains less protein than other cereals1 and the starch grain is of different construction4 ,rice does not require such prolonged cooking as oatmeal2 it needs1 however1 to be thoroughly cooked4 #adi4 ,predigested ,foods4#ef ,it is questionable whether it would be of advantage to a healthy person to have his food artificially digested4 ,the body under normal conditions is well adapted to utilize such foods as the ordinary mixed diet provides1 among them the carbohydrates from the cereals4 ,moreover1 it is generally believed that for the digestive organs1 as for all others of the body1 the amount of exercise they are normally fitted to perform is an advantage rather than the reverse4 ,it has been said that 'a well man has no more need of predigested food than a sound man has for crutches4' ,if the digestive organs are out of order1 it may be well to save them work1 but troubles of digestion are often very complicated affairs1 and the average person rarely has the knowledge needed to prescribe for himself4 ,in general1 those who are well should do their own work of digestion1 and those who are ill should consult a competent physician4--,,woods ,,and ,,snyder4 #aej4 ,the ,value of ,cereals in the ,dietary4--,cereals are valuable in the dietary because of the starch and protein they supply1 and the heat and energy they yield4 ,they are among the most inexpensive of foods and1 when properly prepared1 have a high degree of palatability2 then1 too1 they are capable of being blended in various ways with other foods4 ,some are valuable for their mechanical action in digestion1 rather than for any large amount of nutrients4 ,they do not furnish the quantity of mineral matter and valuable phosphates that is popularly supposed4 ,they all contain from #j4e to #a4e percent of mineral matter1 of which about one third is phosphoric anhydrid4 ,in discussing the phosphate content of food1 ,hammersten states3#ei ,very little is known in regard to the need of phosphates or phosphoric acid4444 ,the extent of this need is most difficult to determine1 as the body shows a strong tendency1 when increased amounts of phosphorus are introduced1 to retain more than is necessary4 ,the need of phosphates is relatively smaller in adults than in young developing animals4 ,in the coarser cereals1 which include the bran and germ1 there is the maximum amount of mineral matter1 but1 as in the case of graham bread1 it is not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as the more finely granulated products which contain less4 ,the kind of cereal to use in the dietary is largely a matter of personal choice4 ,as only a small amount is usually eaten at a meal1 there is little difference in the quantity of nutrients supplied by the various breakfast cereals4 ,,total ,,and ,,digestible ,,nutrients ,,and ,,fuel ,,value ,,of ,,cereals ,transcriber's note3 ,this table has been divided into two parts to fit limits on page width4 ,,total ,,nutrients --------------------------- ,c4,h4 ,,kind ,,of ,,food ,water,pro4,fat ---------,ash ,n4,f4,fiber ,ext ---------------------------------------- -------- ,oat ,preparations3 ,oats1 whole grain #aa4jaa4h #e4jei4g #i4e #c4j ,oatmeal1 raw #g4caf4a #g4bff4f #i4i #a4i ,rolled1 steam-cooked #h4baf4a #g4dfe4b #a4c #a4h ,wheat3 ,whole grain #aj4eaa4i #b4aga4i #a4h #a4h ,cracked wheat #aj4aaa4a #a4ggc4h #a4g #a4f ,rolled1 steam-cooked #aj4faj4b #a4hgd4d #a4h #a4e ,shredded wheat #h4aaj4f #a4dgf4f #b4a #a4h ,crumbed and malted #e4fab4b #a4jgg4f #a4g #a4j ,farina #aj4iaa4j #a4dge4i #j4d #j4d ,rye3 ,whole grain #aa4faj4f #a4ggb4e #a4g #a4i ,flaked1 to be eaten #aa4aaj4j #a4d #ge4h #a4g raw ,barley3 ,whole grain #aj4iab4d #a4hfi4h #b4g #b4d ,pearled barley #aa4e #h4e #a4agg4e #j4c #a4a ,buckwheat3 ,flour #ac4f #f4d #a4bgg4e #j4d #j4i ,corn3 ,whole grain #aj4iaj4e #e4dfi4f #b4a #a4e ,corn meal1 unbolted #aa4f #h4d #d4g #gd4j #a4c ,corn meal1 bolted #ab4e #i4b #a4igd4d #a4j #a4j ,hominy #aj4i #h4f #j4fgi4b #j4d #j4c ,pop corn1 popped #d4caj4g #e4jgg4c #a4d #a4c ,hulled corn #gd4a #b4c #j4i #bb4b #j4e ,rice3 ,whole rice1 polished #ab4c #f4i #j4c #hj4j #j4e ,puffed rice #g4a #f4b #j4f #he4g #j4d ,crackers #f4haj4g #h4hga4d #j4e #a4h ,macaroni #aj4cac4d #j4i #gd4a #a4c ,,digestible ,,nutrients ---------------------- ,fuel ,,kind ,,of ,,food ,pro4,fat ,c4,h4,ash ,value per lb4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,calories4 ,oat ,preparations3 ,oats1 whole grain -- -- -- -- -- ,oatmeal1 raw #ab4e #f4efe4e #a4d #agfg ,rolled1 steam-cooked#ab4e #f4gfd4e #a4d #agei ,wheat3 ,whole grain -- -- -- -- -- ,cracked wheat #h4a #a4efh4g #a4b #aeja ,rolled1 steam-cooked #h4e #a4fgj4g #a4a #aeda ,shredded wheat #g4g #a4cga4a #a4d #aeba ,crumbed and malted #i4a #j4igc4g #a4d #afbc ,farina #h4i #a4cgb4i #j4e #afji ,rye3 ,whole grain -- -- -- -- -- ,flaked1 to be eaten #g4h #a4cga4a #a4c #aeaf raw ,barley3 ,whole grain -- -- -- -- -- ,pearled barley #f4f #a4jgc4j #j4c #aead ,buckwheat3 ,flour #e4j #a4agc4a #j4g #adga ,corn3 ,whole grain -- -- -- -- -- ,corn meal1 unbolted #f4b #d4bgc4b #a4j #agbh ,corn meal1 bolted #f4h #a4ggd4f #j4h #afjb ,hominy #f4d #j4egh4g #j4b #afga ,pop corn1 popped #g4i #d4egg4h #a4j #ahhb ,hulled corn #a4g #j4hba4h #j4d #dib ,rice3 ,whole rice1 polished #e4h #j4cgh4d #j4d #aedf ,puffed rice #e4a #j4ehd4j #j4c #afci ,crackers #i4a #g4igj4e #a4d #aije ,macaroni #aa4f #j4hgb4b #a4j #affj ,,chapter ,x ,,wheat ,,flour #aea4 ,use for ,bread ,making4--,wheat is particularly adapted to bread-making purposes because of the physical properties of the gliadin1 one of its proteids4 ,it is the gliadin which1 when wet1 binds together the flour particles1 enabling the gas generated during bread making to be retained1 and the loaf to expand and become porous4 ,wheat varies in chemical composition between wide limits2 it may contain as high as #af per cent of protein1 or as low as #h per cent2 average wheat has from #ab to #ad per cent2 and with these differences in composition1 the bread-making value varies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,starchy 7,,light-,,colored7 ,,and ,,glutinous 7,,dark-,,colored7 ,,wheats4 #aeb4 ,winter and ,spring ,wheat ,flours4--,there are two general classes of wheat3 spring wheat and winter wheat4 ,the winter varieties are seeded in the fall1 and the spring varieties1 which are grown mainly in the ,northwestern states1 ,minnesota1 and ,north and ,south ,dakota1 and the ,canadian ,northwest1 are seeded in the spring and mature in the late summer4 ,winter wheat is confined to more southern latitudes and regions of less severe winter1 and matures in the early summer4 ,there are many varieties of both spring and winter wheat1 although wheats are popularly characterized only as hard or soft1 depending upon the physical properties4 ,the winter wheats are1 as a rule1 more soft and starchy than the spring wheats1 which are usually corneous or flinty to different degrees4 ,there is a general tendency for wheats to become either starchy or glutinous1 owing to inherited individuality of the seed and to environment4 ,there are often found in the same field wheat plants yielding hard glutinous kernels1 and other plants producing starchy kernels containing #e per cent less proteids4 ,wheats of low protein content do not make high-grade flour2 neither do wheats of the maximum protein content necessarily make the best flour4 ,for a more extended discussion of wheat proteids1 the student is referred to ,chapter ,,xi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,wheat ,,kernel3 a1 pericarp2 b1 bran layers2 c1 aleurone cells2 d1 germ4 7,after ,k,,nig47 #aec4 ,composition of ,wheat and ,flour4--,in addition to #ab to #ad per cent proteids1 wheat contains #gb to #gf per cent of starch and small amounts of other carbohydrates1 as sucrose1 dextrose1 and invert sugar4 ,the ash or mineral matter ranges from #a4g to #b4c per cent4 ,there is also about #b per cent fiber1 #b4be per cent ether extract or crude fat1 and about #j4b per cent organic acids4 ,summary3 ,,composition ,,of ,,wheat ,,flour ,per ,cent ,water #ab4jj ,potash ,soda ,lime ,ash ,magnesia #b4be ,phosphoric anhydrid ,sulphuric anhydrid ,other substances ,albumin #j4d ,globulin #j4i ,protein ,gliadin #f4j #ac4jj ,glutenin #e4c ,other proteids #j4d ,other nitrogenous bodies1 as amids1 lecethin #j4be ,crude fat1 ether extract #b4be ,cellulose #b4be ,starch #ff4jj ,sucrose1 dextrose1 soluble carbohydrates1 etc4 #b4jj #aed4 ,roller ,process of ,flour ,milling4--,flours vary in composition1 food value1 and bread-making qualities with the character of the wheat and the process of milling employed4 ,prior to #ahgj practically all wheat flour was prepared by grinding the wheat between millstones2 but with the introduction of the roller process1 steel rolls were substituted for millstones4#fj ,by the former process a smaller amount of flour was secured from the wheat1 but with the present improved systems about #ge per cent of the weight of the grain is recovered as merchantable flour and #be per cent as wheat offals1 bran1 and shorts#fa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,granular ,,wheat ,,flour ,,particles4 ,the wheat is first screened and cleaned1 then passed on to the corrugated rolls1 or the first break1 where it is partially flattened and slightly crushed and a small amount of flour1 known as the break flour1 is separated by means of sieves1 while the main portion is conveyed through elevators to the second break1 where the kernels are more completely flattened and the granular flour particles are partially separated from the bran4 ,the material passes over several pairs of rolls or breaks1 each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together4 ,this is called the gradual reduction process1 because the wheat is not made into flour in one operation4 ,more complete removal of the bran and other impurities from the middlings is effected by means of sieves1 aspirators1 and other devices1 and the purified middlings are then passed on to smooth rolls1 where the granulation is completed4 ,the flour finally passes through silk bolting cloths1 containing upwards of #ab1jjj meshes per square inch4 ,the dust and fine dbris particles are removed at various points in the process4 ,the granulation of the middlings is done after the impurities are removed1 the object being first to separate as perfectly as possible the middlings from the branny portions of the kernel4 ,if the wheat were first ground into a fine meal1 it would be impossible to secure complete separation of the flour from the offal portions of the kernel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,exterior ,,of ,,flour ,,mill ,,and ,,wheat ,,elevator4 ,flour milling is entirely a mechanical process2 the flour stock passes from roll to roll by means of elevators4 ,according to the number of reductions which the middlings and stock undergo1 the milling is designated as a long or a short reduction system2 the term #d1 #f1 #h1 or #aj break process means that the stock has been subjected to that number of reductions4 ,with an #h-;break system of milling1 the process is more gradual than with a #d-;break1 and greater opportunity is afforded for complete removal of the bran4 ,in some large flour mills1 the wheat is separated into forty or more different products1 or streams1 as they are called1 so as to secure a better granulation and more complete removal of the offals1 after which many of these streams are brought together to form the finished flour4 ,what is known as patent flour is derived from the reduction of the middlings1 while the break flours are recovered before the offals are completely removed2 hence they are not of so high a grade4 ,no absolute definition can be given1 however1 of the term patent flour1 as usage varies the meaning in different parts of the country4 #aee4 ,grades of ,flour4--,flour is the purified1 refined1 and bolted product obtained by reduction and granulation of wheat during and after the removal of the branny portions of the wheat kernel4 ,it is defined by proclamation of the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 under authority of an act of ,congress1 as3 ,flour is the fine1 sound product made by bolting wheat meal1 and contains not more than thirteen and one half 7#ac4e7 per cent of moisture1 not less than one and twenty-five hundredths 7#a4be7 per cent of nitrogen1 not more than one 7#a7 per cent of ash1 and not more than fifty hundredths 7#j4ej7 per cent of fiber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,grinding ,,floor ,,of ,,flour ,,mill1 ,,russell-,,miller ,,milling ,,co41 ,,minneapolis1 ,,minn4 ,generally speaking1 flour may be divided into two classes1 high grade and low grade4 ,to the first class belong the first and second patents and1 according to some authorities1 a portion of the straight grade1 or standard patent flour1 and to the second class belong the second clear and red dog4 ,about #gb per cent of the cleaned wheat as milled is recovered in the higher grades of flour1 and about #b or #c per cent as low grades1 a large portion of which is sold as animal food4 ,the high grades are characterized by a lighter color1 more elastic gluten1 better granulation1 and a smaller number of dbris particles4 ,although the lower grade flours contain a somewhat higher percentage of protein1 they are not as valuable for bread-making purposes because the gluten is not as elastic1 and consequently they do not make as good bread4 ,if the impurities from the low grades could be further eliminated1 it is believed that less difference would exist between high and low grade flours4 ,various trade names are used to designate flours1 as a #ie per cent patent1 meaning that #ie per cent of the total flour is included in the patent2 or an #he per cent patent1 when #he per cent of all the flour is included in that particular patent4 ,if all the flour streams were purified and blended1 and only one grade of flour made1 it would be called a #ajj per cent patent4 ,an #he per cent patent is a higher grade flour than a #ie per cent patent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,silk ,,bolting ,,cloth ,,used ,,in ,,manufacture ,,of ,,flour1 ,,magnified4 #aef4 ,composition of ,flour4--,the composition of the different grades of flour made from the same wheat is given in the following table3#fb ,,composition1 ,,acidity1 ,,and ,,heats ,,of ,,combustion ,,of ,,flours ,,and ,,other ,,milled ,,products ,,of ,,wheat ,,water ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbo- ,,ash ,,acidity ,,heat ,,of ,,milled ,,product 7,n #e4g7 ,,hy- ,,calcul- ,,combustion ,,drates ,,ated ,,as ,,per ,,gram ,,lactic ,,determined ,,acid ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,calories ,first patent flour #aj4ee #aa4jh #a4ae #gf4he #j4cg #j4jh #djcb ,second patent flour #aj4di #aa4ad #a4bj #gf4ge #j4db #j4jh #djjf ,straight,a or standard patent #aj4ed #aa4ii #a4fa #ge4cf #j4ej #j4ji #djej flour ,first clear grade #aj4ac #ac4gd #b4bj #gc4ac #j4hj #j4ab #djig flour ,second clear grade #aj4jh #ae4jc #c4gg #fi4cg #a4ge #j4ef #dbfg flour ,red dog flour #i4ag #ah4ih #g4jj #fa4cg #c4dh #j4ei #ddhe ,shorts #h4gc #ad4hg #f4cg #fe4dg #d4ef #j4ad #ddad ,bran #i4ii #ad4jb #d4ci #fe4ed #f4jf #j4bc #daih ,entire-wheat flour #aj4ha #ab4bf #b4bd #gc4fg #a4jb #j4cb #djcb ,graham flour #h4fa #ab4fe #b4dd #gd4eh #a4gb #j4ah #dadh ,wheat #h4ej #ab4fe #b4cf #gd4fi #a4hj #j4ah #dadj ,footnote ,a3 ,straight flour includes the first and second patents and first clear grade4 ,in the table it will be noted that there is a gradual increase in protein content from first patent to red dog1 the largest amount being in the red dog flour4 ,although red dog contains the most protein1 it is by far the poorest flour in bread-making qualities1 and in the milling of wheat often it is not separated from the offals1 but is sold as an animal food4 ,it will also be seen that there is a gradual increase in the ash content from the highest to the lowest grades of flour1 the increase being practically proportional to the grade1--the most ash being in the lowest grade4 ,the grade to which a flour belongs can be determined more accurately from the ash content than from any other constituent4 ,patent grades of flour rarely contain more than #j4ee per cent of ash1--the better grades less than #j4e per cent4 ,the more completely the bran and offals are removed during the process of milling1 the lower the per cent of ash4 ,the ash content1 however1 cannot be taken as an absolute guide in all cases1 as noticeable variations occur in the amount of mineral matter or ash in different wheats2 starchy wheats that have reached full maturity often contain less than hard wheats grown upon rich soil where the growing season has been short1 and from such wheats a soft1 straight flour may have as low a per cent of ash as a hard first patent flour4 ,when only straight or standard patent flour is manufactured by a mill1 all of the flour is included which would otherwise be designated first and second patents and first clear4 #aeg4 ,graham and ,entire ,wheat ,flours4--,when the germ and a portion of the bran are retained in the flour1 and the particles are not completely reduced1 the product is called entire wheat flour4 ,the name does not accurately describe the product1 as it includes all of the flour and only a portion of the bran1 and not the entire wheat kernel4 ,graham flour is coarsely granulated wheat meal4 ,no sieves or bolting cloths are employed in its manufacture1 and many coarse1 unpulverized particles are present in the product#fb4 #aeh4 ,composition of ,wheat ,offals4--,bran and shorts are characterized by a high percentage of fiber1 or cellulose4 ,the ash1 fat1 and protein content of bran are all larger than of flour4 ,the protein1 however1 is not in the form of gluten1 but is largely albumin and globulins1#af which are mainly in the aleurone layer of the wheat kernel1 and are inclosed in branny capsules1 and consequently are in a form not readily digested by man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,flour ,,and ,,gluten4 #a1 flour2 #b1 dough2 #c1 moist gluten2 #d1 dry gluten4 ,the germ is generally included in the shorts1 although occasionally it is removed for special commercial purposes4 ,it is sometimes sterilized and used in breakfast food products4 ,the germ is rich in oil and is excluded from the flour mainly because it has a tendency to become rancid and to impart to the flour poor keeping qualities4 ,wheat oil has cathartic properties1 and it is believed the physiological action of whole wheat and graham bread is in part due to the oil4 ,the germ is also rich in protein1 mainly in the form of globulins and proteoses4 ,a dough cannot be made of pure germ1 because it contains so little of the gliadin and glutenin4 #aei4 ,aging and ,curing of ,flour4--,flours well milled and made from high-grade1 cleaned wheat generally improve in bread-making value when stored in clean1 ventilated warehouses for periods of three to six months#i4 ,high-grade flour becomes drier and whiter and produces bread of slightly better quality when properly cured by storage4 ,if the flour is in any way unsound1 it deteriorates during storage1 due to the action of ferment bodies4 ,wheat also1 when properly cleaned and stored1 improves in milling and bread-making value4 ,certain enzymic changes appear to take place which are beneficial4 ,wheats differ materially from year to year in bread-making value1 and those produced in seasons when all the conditions for crop growth are normal do not seem to be so much improved by storing and aging1 either of the wheat or the flour1 as when the growing season has been unfavorable4 ,when wheat is stored1 specific changes occur in both the germ and the cells of the kernel2 these changes are akin to the ripening process1 and appear to be greater if1 for any reason1 the wheat has failed to fully mature or is abnormal in composition4 ,the flour yield of wheat is in general proportional to the weight per bushel of the grain1 well-filled1 heavy grain producing more flour than light grain4#fa ,the quality of the flour1 however1 is not necessarily proportional to the weight of the grain4 ,it is often necessary to blend different grades and types of wheat in order to secure good flour4 #afj4 ,macaroni ,flour is made from durum wheat1 according to ,saunders a variety of hard1 spring wheat4 ,it is best grown in regions of restricted rainfall4 ,durum and other varieties of hard spring wheat grown under similar conditions1 differ but little in general chemical composition1 except that the gluten of durum appears to have a different percentage of gliadin and glutenin1 and the flour has a more decided yellow color4 ,durum wheats are not generally considered as valuable for bread making as other hard wheat4 ,they differ widely in bread-making value1 some being very poor1 while others produce bread of fair quality4#fh #afa4 ,color4--,the highest grades of flour are white in color1 or of a slight creamy tinge4 ,dark-colored1 slaty1 and gray flours are of inferior quality1 indicating a poor grade of wheat1 poor milling1 or a poor quality of gluten4 ,flours1 after being on the market for a time1 bleach a little and improve to a slight degree in color4 ,color is one of the characteristics by which the commercial value of flour is determined2 the whiter the flour1 the better the grade1 provided other properties are equal#i4 ,the color1 however1 should be a pure or cream white4 ,some flours have what is called a dead white color1 and1 while not objectionable as far as color is concerned1 they are not as valuable for bread-making and general commercial purposes4 ,one of the principal trade requirements of a flour is that it possess a certain degree of whiteness and none of the objectionable shades mentioned4 ,to determine the color of a flour1 it is compared with a standard4 ,if it is a winter wheat flour1 one of the best high-grade winter patents to be found on the market is selected1 and the sample in question is compared with this2 if it is a spring wheat patent flour1 one of the best spring wheat patent grades is taken as the standard4 ,in making the comparison1 the flours should be placed side by side on a glass plate and smoothed with the flour trier1 the comparison being made preferably by a north window4 ,much experience and practice are necessary in order to determine with accuracy the color value of a flour4 #afb4 ,granulation4--,the best patent grades of flour contain an appreciable amount of granular middlings1 which have a characteristic feel similar to fine1 sharp sand4 ,a flour which has no granular feeling is not usually considered of the highest grade1 but is generally a soft wheat flour of poor gluten4 ,however1 a flour should not be too coarsely granulated4 ,the percentage amounts of the different grades of stock in a flour can be approximately determined by means of sieves and different sized bolting cloths4 ,to test a flour1 ten grams are placed in a sieve containing a ,no4 #aj bolting cloth2 with a camel's-hair brush and proper manipulation1 the flour is sieved1 and that which passes through is weighed4 ,the percentage amount remaining on the ,no4 #aj cloth is coarser middlings4 ,nearly all high-grade flours leave no residue on the ,no4 #aj cloth4 ,the sifted flour from the ,no4 #aj cloth is also passed through ,nos4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad cloths#fc4 ,in this way the approximate granulation of any grade of flour may be determined1 and the granulation of an unknown sample be compared with that of a standard flour4 ,in determining the granulation of a flour1 if there are any coarse or discolored particles of bran or dust1 they should be noted1 as it is an indication of poor milling4 ,when the flour is smoothed with a trier1 there should be no channels formed on the surface of the flour1 due to fibrous impurities caught under the edge of the trier4 ,a hand magnifying glass is useful for detecting the presence of abnormal amounts of dirt or fibrous matter in the flour4 #afc4 ,capacity of ,flour to absorb ,water4--,the capacity of a flour to absorb water is determined by adding water from a burette to a weighed amount of flour until a dough of standard consistency is obtained4 ,low absorption is due to low gluten content4 ,a good flour should absorb from #fj to #fe per cent of its weight of water4 ,in making the test1 it is advisable to determine the absorption of a flour of known baking value at the same time that an unknown flour is being tested4 ,flours of low absorption do not make breads of the best quality2 also there are a smaller number of loaves per barrel1 and the bread dries out more readily4 #afd4 ,physical ,properties of ,gluten4--,the percentages of wet and dry gluten in a flour are determined as outlined in ,experiment ,no4 #bg4 ,flours of good character should show at least #cj per cent moist gluten and from #aj to #ab per cent dry gluten4 ,the quality of a flour is not necessarily proportional to its gluten content1 although a flour with less than #aj-a_/b per cent of dry gluten will not make the best quality of bread1 and flours with excessive amounts are sometimes poor bread makers4 ,the color of the gluten is also important2 it should be white or creamy4 ,the statements made in regard to color of flour apply also to color of the gluten4 ,a dark1 stringy1 or putty-like gluten is of little value for bread-making purposes4#fd ,in making the gluten test1 it is advisable to compare the gluten with that from a flour of known bread-making value4 ,soft wheat flours have a gluten of different character from hard wheat flours4 #afe4 ,gluten as a ,factor in ,bread ,making4--,the bread-making value of a flour is dependent upon the character of the wheat and the method of milling4 ,it is not necessarily dependent upon the amount of gluten1 as the largest volume and best quality of bread are often made from flour of average rather than maximum gluten content4 ,but flours with low gluten do not produce high-grade breads4 ,when a flour contains more than #ab or #ac per cent of proteids1 any increase does not necessarily mean added bread-making value4 ,the quality of the gluten1 equally with the amount1 determines the value for bread-making purposes4 #aff4 ,unsoundness4--,a flour with more than #ad per cent of moisture is liable to become unsound4 ,high acidity also is an indication of unsoundness or of poor keeping qualities4 ,the odor of a sample of flour should always be carefully noted1 for any suggestion of fermentation sufficient to affect the odor renders the flour unsuited for making the best bread4 ,any abnormal odor in flour is objectionable1 as it is due to contamination of some sort1 and most frequently to fermentation changes4 ,a musty odor is always an indication of unsoundness4 ,some flours which have but a slight suggestion of mustiness will1 when baked into bread1 have it more pronounced2 on the other hand1 some odors are removed during bread making4 ,flours may absorb odors because of being stored in contaminated places or being shipped in cars in which oil or other ill-smelling products with strong odors have previously been shipped4 ,unsoundness is often due to faulty methods in handling1 as well as to poor wheat1 or to lack of proper cleaning of the wheat or flour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,,fungous ,,growth ,,in ,,unsound ,,flour4 #afg4 ,comparative ,baking ,tests4--,to determine the bread-making value of a flour1 comparative baking tests1 as outlined in ,experiment ,no4 #bi1 are made2 the flour in question is thus compared as to bread-making value with a flour of known baking quality4 ,in making the baking tests1 the absorption of the flour1 the way in which it responds in the doughing process1 and the general properties of the dough1 are noted4 ,the details should be carried out with care1 the comparison always being made with a similar flour of known baking value1 and the bread should be baked at the same time and under the same conditions as the standard4 ,the color of the bread1 the size and weight of the loaf1 and its texture and odor1 are the principal characteristics to be noted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,comparative ,,baking ,,tests4 ,the quality of flour for bread-making purposes is not strictly dependent upon any one factor1 but appears to be the aggregate of a number of desirable characteristics4 ,the commercial grade of a flour can be accurately determined from the color1 granulation1 absorption1 gluten and ash content1 and the quality of the bread4 ,technical flour testing requires much experience and a high degree of skill4 #afh4 ,bleaching4--,in the process of manufacture1 flours are often subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas1 generated by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air4 ,this whitens and improves the color of the flour4 ,bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive value from unbleached flours1 except that bleached flours contain a small amount 7about one part to one million parts of flour7 of nitrite reacting material1 which is removed during the process of bread making4 ,the amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than is normally present in the saliva1 or is found naturally in many vegetable foods1 or in smoked or cured meats1 or in bread made from unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced from combustion of the gas4 ,the bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as in any way injurious to health or as adulteration1 and a bleached flour which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely satisfactory4 ,it is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours so they will resemble the high grades1 because the bran impurities of the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent4 ,alway1 of the ,nebraska ,experiment ,station1 has shown that there is no danger to apprehend from over-bleaching1 for when excess of the bleaching reagent is used1 flours become yellow in color#fe4 ,similar results have been obtained at the ,minnesota ,experiment ,station4 ,as bleaching is not injurious to health1 and as it is not possible through bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades1 bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of flour the consumer desires4 ,pending the settlement of the status of bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,wheat ,,hairs ,,and ,d,,bris ,,in ,,low ,,grade ,,flours4 #afi4 ,adulteration of ,flour4--,flour is not easily adulterated1 as the addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected4 ,the mixing of other cereals1 as corn flour1 with wheat flour has been attempted at various times when wheat commanded a high price1 but this also is readily detected1 by microscopic examination1 as the corn starch and wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure4 ,such flours are required to be labeled1 in accord with the congressional act of #ahih1 when ,congress passed1 in advance of the general pure food bill1 an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours4 ,various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour with minerals1 as chalk and barytes1 but such adulteration does not appear to be at all general4 #agj4 ,nutritive ,value of ,flour4--,from a nutritive point of view1 wheat flour and wheat bread have a high value4#ff ,a larger amount of nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour than of any other food material except corn meal4 ,according to statistics1 the average per capita consumption of wheat in the ,united ,states is about #d-a_/b bushels1 or1 approximately1 one barrel per year1 and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour used in the dietary is on the increase4 ,according to the ,bureau of ,labor1 flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all other foods combined1 although he secures from it a proportionally larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,bread ,,and ,,bread ,,making #aga4 ,leavened and ,unleavened ,bread4--,to make unleavened bread the flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough1 which is then rolled thin1 cut into various shapes1 and baked1 forming a brittle biscuit or cracker4 ,the process of making raised or leavened bread consists1 in brief1 of mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough1 together with some salt for seasoning1 and yeast 7or other agent7 for leavening4 ,the moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid1 elastic1 tenacious mass1 which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast4 ,the dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow1 or work1 causing alcoholic fermentation1 with the production of carbon dioxid gas1 which expands the dough1 or causes it to rise1 thus rendering it porous4 ,after the yeast has grown sufficiently1 the dough is baked in a hot oven1 where further fermentation is stopped because of destruction of the yeast by the heat1 which also causes the gas to expand the loaf and1 in addition1 generates steam4 ,the gas and steam inflate the tenacious dough and finally escape into the oven4 ,at the same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat1 and the mass remains porous and light1 while the outer surface is darkened and formed into a crust4 ,when the flour is of good quality1 the dough well prepared1 and the bread properly baked1 the loaf has certain definite characteristics4 ,it should be well raised and have a thin1 flinty crust1 which is not too dark in color nor too tough1 but which cracks when broken2 the crumb1 as the interior of the loaf is called1 should be porous1 elastic1 and of uniform texture1 without large holes1 and should have good flavor1 odor1 and color4 ,meal or flour from any of the cereals may be used for unleavened bread1 but leavened bread can be made only from those that contain gluten1 a mixture of vegetable proteids which when moistened with water becomes viscid1 and is tenacious enough to confine the gas produced in the dough4 ,most cereals1 as barley1 rice1 oats1 and corn1 some of which are very frequently made into forms of unleavened bread1 are deficient or wholly lacking in gluten1 and hence cannot be used alone for making leavened bread4 ,for the leavened bread1 wheat and rye1 which contain an abundance of gluten1 are best fitted1 wheat being in this country by far the more commonly used4 #agb4 ,changes during ,bread ,making4--,in bread making complex physical1 chemical1 and biological changes occur4 ,each chemical compound of the flour undergoes some change during the process4 ,the most important changes are as follows#fd3 #a4 ,production of carbon dioxid gas1 alcohol1 and soluble carbohydrates as the result of ferment action4 #b4 ,partial rupturing of the starch grains and formation of a small amount of soluble carbohydrates due to the action of heat4 #c4 ,production of lactic and other organic acids4 #d4 ,formation of volatile carbon compounds1 other than alcohol and carbon dioxid4 #e4 ,change in the solubility of the gluten proteins1 due to the action of the organic acids and fermentation4 #f4 ,changes in the solubility of the proteids due to the action of heat1 as coagulation of the albumin and globulin4 #g4 ,formation and liberation of a small amount of volatile1 nitrogenous compounds1 as ammonia and amids4 #h4 ,partial oxidation of the fat4 #agc4 ,loss of ,dry ,matter during ,bread ,making4--,as many of the compounds formed during bread making are gases resulting from fermentation action1 and as these are volatile at the temperature of baking1 appreciable losses necessarily take place4 ,experiments show about #b per cent of loss of dry matter under ordinary conditions4 ,these losses are not confined to the carbohydrates alone1 but also extend to the proteids and other compounds4 ,when #ajj pounds of flour containing #aj per cent of water and #ij per cent of dry matter are made into bread1 the bread contains about #hh pounds of dry matter4 ,in exceptional cases1 where there has been prolonged fermentation1 the losses exceed #b per cent#fd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,brewers' ,,yeast4 #agd4 ,action of ,yeast4--,yeast is a monocellular plant requiring sugar and other food materials for its nourishment4 ,under favorable conditions it rapidly increases by budding1 and as a result produces the well-known alcoholic fermentation4 ,it requires mineral food1 as do plants of a higher order1 and oftentimes the fermentation process is checked for want of sufficient soluble mineral food4 ,the yeast plant causes a number of chemical changes to take place1 as conversion of starch to a soluble form and alcoholic fermentation4 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #b ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #b ,,co#b4 ,alcoholic fermentation cannot occur until the starch has been converted into dextrose sugar4 ,the yeast plant is destroyed at a temperature of #aca ,f4 ,it is most active from #gj to #ij ,f4 ,at a low temperature it is less active1 and when it freezes the cells are ruptured4 ,a number of different kinds of fermentation are associated with the growth of the yeast plant1 and there are many varieties of yeast1 some of which are more active than others4 ,for bread making an active yeast is desirable to prevent the formation of acid bodies4 ,if the work proceeds quickly1 the rising process is completed before the acid fermentation is far advanced4 ,if fermentation is too prolonged1 some of the products of the yeast plant impart an undesirable taste and odor to the bread1 and hinder the development of the gluten and expansion of the loaf4 #age4 ,compressed ,yeast4--,the yeast most commonly used in bread making is compressed yeast1 a product of distilleries4 ,the yeast floating on the surface of the wort is skimmed off and that remaining is allowed to settle to the bottom1 and is obtained by running the wort into shallow tanks or settling trays4 ,it is then washed with cold water1 and the impurities are removed either by sieving through silk or wire sieves1 or1 during the washing1 by fractional precipitation4 ,the yeast is then pressed1 cut into cakes1 and wrapped in tinfoil4 ,when fresh1 it is of uniform creamy color1 moist1 and of a firm1 even texture#ah4 ,it should be kept cold1 as it readily decomposes4 #agf4 ,dry ,yeast is made by mixing starch or meal with fresh yeast until a stiff dough is formed4 ,this is then dried1 either in the sun or at a moderate temperature1 and cut into cakes4 ,by drying1 many of the yeast cells are rendered temporarily inactive1 and so it is a slower acting leaven than the compressed yeast4 ,a dry yeast will keep indefinitely4 #agg4 ,production of ,carbon ,dioxid ,gas and ,alcohol4--,carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced in the largest amounts of any of the compounds formed during bread making4 ,when the alcoholic ferments secreted by the yeast plant act upon the invert sugars and produce alcoholic fermentation1 carbon dioxid is one of the products formed4 ,ordinarily about #a per cent of carbon dioxid gas is generated and lost during bread making4 ,about equal weights of carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced during the fermentation4 ,in baking1 the alcohol is vaporized and aids the carbon dioxid in expanding the dough and making the bread porous4 ,if all of the moisture given off during bread making be collected it will be found that from a pound loaf of bread there are about #dj cubic centimeters of liquid2 when this is submitted to chemical analysis1 small amounts of alcohol are obtained4 ,alcoholic fermentation sometimes fails to take place readily1 because there are not sufficient soluble carbohydrates to undergo inversion1 or other food for the yeast plant4 ,starch cannot be converted directly into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas2 it must first be changed into dextrose sugars1 and these undergo alcoholic fermentation4 ,bread gives no appreciable reaction for alcohol even when fresh4#fd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,wheat ,,starch ,,granules ,,after ,,fermentation ,,with ,,yeast1 ,,as ,,in ,,bread ,,making4 ,if the gluten is of poor quality1 or deficient in either gliadin or glutenin1 the dough mass fails to properly expand because the gas is not all retained4 ,the amount of gas formed is dependent upon temperature1 rapidity of the ferment action1 and quality of the yeast and flour4 ,if the yeast is inactive1 other forms of fermentation than the alcoholic may take place and1 as a result1 the dough does not expand4 ,poor yeast is a frequent cause of poor bread4 ,the temperature reached in bread making is not sufficient to destroy all the ferment bodies associated with the yeast1 as1 for example1 bread sometimes becomes soft and stringy1 due to fermentation changes after the bread has been baked and stored4 ,both bread and flour are subject to many bacterial diseases1 and one of the objects of thorough cleaning of the wheat and removal of the bran and dbris particles during the process of flour manufacture is to completely eliminate all ferment bodies mechanically associated with the exterior of the wheat kernel1 which1 if retained in the flour1 would cause it readily to become unsound4 #agh4 ,production of ,soluble ,carbohydrates4--,flour contains naturally a small amount of soluble carbohydrates1 which are readily acted upon by the alcoholic ferments4 ,the yeast plant secretes soluble ferments1 which act upon the starch1 forming soluble carbohydrates1 and the heat during baking brings about similar changes4 ,in fact1 soluble carbohydrates are both consumed and produced by ferment action during the bread-making process4 ,flour contains1 on an average1 #fe per cent of starch1 and during bread making about #aj per cent is changed to soluble forms4 ,bread1 on a dry matter basis1 contains approximately #f per cent of soluble carbohydrates1 including dextrine1 dextrose1 and sucrose sugars4#fd ,the physical changes which the starch grains undergo are also noticeable4 ,wheat starch has the structure shown in illustration ,no4 #cc4 ,the starch grains are circular bodies1 concave1 with slight markings in the form of concentric rings4 ,when the proteid matter of bread is extracted with alcohol and the starch grains are examined1 it will1 be seen that some of them are partially ruptured1 like those in popped corn1 while others have been slightly acted upon or eaten away by the organized ferments1 the surface of the starch grains being pitted1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the joint action of heat and ferments on the starch grains changes them physically so they may more readily undergo digestion4 ,the brown coating or crust formed upon the surface of bread is mainly dextrine1 produced by the action of heat on the starch4 ,dextrine is a soluble carbohydrate1 having the same general composition as starch1 but differing from it in physical properties and ease of digestion4 #agi4 ,production of ,acids in ,bread ,making4--,wheat bread made with yeast gives an acid reaction4 ,the acid is produced from the carbohydrates by ferment action4 ,flour contains about one tenth of #a per cent of acid2 the dough contains from #j4c to #j4e per cent1 while the baked bread contains from #j4ad to #j4c per cent1 but after two or three days slightly more acid is developed4#fd ,during the process of bread making1 a small portion of the acid is volatilized1 but the larger part enters into chemical combination with the gliadin1 forming an acid proteid4 ,when the alcoholic fermentation of bread making becomes less active1 acid fermentations begin1 and sour dough results4 ,it is not definitely known what specific organic acids are developed in bread making4 ,lactic and butyric acids are known to be formed1 and for purposes of calculation1 the total acidity is expressed in terms of lactic acid4 ,the acidity is determined by weighing #bj grams of flour into a flask1 adding #bjj cubic centimeters of distilled water1 shaking vigorously1 and leaving the flour in contact with the water for an hour2 #ej cubic centimeters of the filtered solution are then titrated with a tenth normal solution of potassium hydroxid4 ,phenolphthalein is used as the indicator4 ,it cannot be said that all of the alkali is used for neutralizing the acid1 as a portion enters into chemical combination with the proteids4 ,if the method for determining the acid be varied1 constant results are not secured4 ,unsound or musty flours usually show a high per cent of acidity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,study ,,of ,,losses ,,in ,,bread ,,making4 #ahj4 ,volatile ,compounds produced during ,bread ,making4--,in addition to carbon dioxid and alcohol1 there is lost during bread making a small amount of carbon in other forms1 as volatile acids and hydrocarbon products equivalent to about one tenth of one per cent of carbon dioxid4 ,the aroma of freshly baked bread is due to these compounds4 ,both the odor and flavor of bread are caused in part by the volatile acids and hydrocarbons4 ,the amount and kind of volatile products formed can be somewhat regulated through the fermentation process by the use of special flours and the addition of materials that produce specific fermentation changes and desirable aromatic compounds4 ,some of the ferment bodies left in flour from the imperfect removal of the dirt adhering to the exterior of the wheat kernels impart characteristic flavors to the bread4 ,the so-called nutty flavor of some bread is due to the action of these ferment bodies and1 when intensified1 it becomes objectionable4 ,fungous growths in unsound flour and bread result in the liberation of volatile products1 which impart a musty odor4 ,good odor and flavor are very desirable in both flour and bread4 #aha4 ,behavior of ,wheat ,proteids in ,bread ,making4--,gluten is an ingredient of the flour on which its bread-making properties largely depend4 ,the important thing1 however1 is not entirely the quantity of gluten1 but more particularly its character4 ,two flours containing the same amounts of carbohydrates and proteid compounds1 when converted into bread by exactly the same process1 may produce bread of entirely different physical characteristics because of differences in the nature of the gluten of the two samples4 ,gluten is composed of two bodies called gliadin and glutenin4 ,the gliadin1 a sort of plant gelatin1 is the material which binds the flour particles together to form the dough1 thus giving it tenacity and adhesiveness2 and the glutenin is the material to which the gliadin adheres4 ,if there is an excess of gliadin1 the dough is soft and sticky1 while if there is a deficiency1 it lacks expansive power4 ,many flours containing a large amount of gluten and total proteid material and possessing a high nutritive value1 do not yield bread of the best quality1 because of an imperfect blending of the gliadin and glutenin4 ,this question is of much importance in the milling of wheats1 especially in the blending of the different types of wheat4 ,an abnormally large amount of gluten does not yield a correspondingly large loaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,bread ,,from ,,normal ,,flour 7#a72 ,,gliadin ,,extracted ,,flour 7#b72 ,,and ,,from ,,flour ,,after ,,extraction ,,of ,,sugar ,,and ,,soluble ,,proteids 7#c74 ,experiments were made at the ,minnesota ,experiment ,station to determine the relation between the nature of the gluten and the character of the bread4 ,this was done by comparing bread from normal flour with that from other flour of the same lot1 but having part or all of its gliadin extracted4#fd ,dough made from the latter was not sticky1 but felt like putty1 and broke in the same way4 ,the yeast caused the mass to expand a little when first placed in the oven2 then the loaf broke apart at the top and decreased in size4 ,when baked it was less than half the size of that from the same weight of normal flour1 and decidedly inferior in other respects4 ,the removal of part of the gliadin produced nearly the same effect as the extraction of the whole of it1 and even when an equal quantity of normal flour was mixed with that from which part of the gliadin had been extracted1 the bread was only slightly improved4 ,in flour of the highest bread-making properties the two constituents1 gliadin and glutenin1 are present in such proportions as to form a well-balanced gluten4 ,the proteids of wheat flour are mainly in an insoluble form1 although there are small amounts of albumins and globulins2 these are coagulated by the action of heat during the bread-making process1 and rendered insoluble4 ,a portion of the acid that is developed unites with the gliadin and glutenin1 forming acid proteids1 which change the physical properties of the dough4 ,both gliadin and glutenin take important parts in bread making4 ,the removal of gliadin from flour causes complete loss of bread-making properties4 ,ordinarily from #de to #fe per cent of the total nitrogen of the flour is present in alcohol soluble or gliadin form4 ,proteids also undergo hydration during mixing1 some water being chemically united with them1 changing their physical properties4 ,this hydration change is necessary for the full development of the physical properties of the gluten4 ,the water and salt soluble proteids appear to take no important part in the bread-making process1 as their removal in no way affects the size of the loaf or general character of the bread4 ,because of the action of the acids upon the gliadin1 bread contains a larger amount of alcohol soluble nitrogen or gliadin than the flour from which the bread was made4 ,it is believed that this action changes the molecular structure of the protein so that it is more readily separated into its component parts when it undergoes digestion and assimilation4 #ahb4 ,production of ,volatile ,nitrogenous ,compounds4--,when fermentation is unnecessarily prolonged1 an appreciable amount of nitrogen is volatilized in the form of ammonia and allied bodies1 as amids4 ,during the process of bread making1 the yeast appears to act upon the protein1 as well as upon the carbohydrates1 and1 as previously stated1 losses of dry matter fall alike upon these two classes of compounds1 nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous4 ,analyses of the flours and materials used in bread making1 and of the bread1 show that ordinarily about #a4e per cent of the total nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas during the bread-making process1 and analyses of the gases dispelled in baking show approximately the same per cent of nitrogen4 ,when bread is dried1 as in a drying oven1 a small amount of volatile nitrogen appears to be given off1--probably as ammonium compounds formed during fermentation4 ,the nitrogen lost in bread making under ordinary conditions is not sufficient to affect the nutritive value of the product4 ,the losses of both nitrogen and carbon are more than offset by the increased solubility of the proteids and carbohydrates1 the preliminary changes they have undergone making them more digestible and valuable for food purposes4 ,the nitrogen volatilized in bread making appears to be mainly that present in the flour in amid forms or liberated as the result of fermentation processes4 ,the more stable proteids undergo only limited changes in solubility and are not volatilized4 #ahc4 ,oxidation of ,fat4--,flour contains about #a4be per cent of fat mechanically mixed with a small amount of yellow coloring matter4 ,during the process of bread making the fat undergoes slight oxidation1 accompanied by changes in both physical and chemical properties4 ,the fat from bread1 when no lard or shortening has been added1 is darker in color1 more viscous1 less soluble in ether1 and has a lower iodine number1 than fat from flour4 ,the change in solubility of the fat is not1 however1 such as to affect food value1 because the fat is not volatilized1 and is only changed by the addition of a small amount of oxygen from the air4 ,when wheat fat and other vegetable and animal fats are exposed to the air1 they undergo changes known as aging1 similar to the slight oxidation changes in bread making4#fd #ahd4 ,influence of the ,addition of ,wheat ,starch and ,gluten to ,flour4--,ten per cent or more of starch may be added to normal flour containing a well-balanced gluten1 without decreasing the size of the loaf4 ,when moist gluten was added to flour1 thus increasing the total amount of gluten1 the size of the loaf was not increased#fg4 ,,influence ,,of ,,addition ,,of ,,starch ,,and ,,gluten ,,to ,,flour ,,size ,,of ,,loaf ,,weight ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,wheat flour1 #ad ounces #bb-a_/b #ag-a_/b #ah4ge ,wheat flour1 #aj wheat starch #bc-a_/b #ag #ah4be ,wheat flour1 #ab4b wheat starch #ba-a_/b #ag #ah4jj ,wheat flour1 #baj grams1 about #h ounces #ab-c_/d #i #ab4jj ,wheat flour1 #aj gluten added1 #baj grams #ab-a_/b #i #ab4ge ,wheat flour1 #bj gluten added #ab #h-c_/d #ac4jj ,so long as the quality of the gluten is not destroyed1 the addition of a small amount of either starch or gluten to flour does not affect the size of the loaf1 but removal of the gluten affects the moisture content and physical properties of the bread4 ,the addition of starch to flour has the same effect upon the bread as the use of low gluten flour1--lessening the capacity of the flour to absorb water and producing a dryer bread of poorer quality4 #ahe4 ,composition of ,bread4--,the composition of bread depends primarily upon that of the flour from which it was made4 ,if milk and butter 7or lard7 are used in making the dough1 as is commonly the case1 their nutrients are1 of course1 added to those of the flour2 but when only water and flour are used1 the nutrients of the bread are simply those of the flour4 ,in either case the amount of nutrients in the bread is smaller than in the same weight of flour1 because a considerable part of the water or milk used in making the dough is present in the bread after baking2 that is1 a pound of bread contains less of any of the nutrients than a pound of the flour from which the bread was made1 because the proportion of water in the bread is greater4 ,the following table shows how the composition of flour compares with that of bread1 the different kinds of bread all having been made from the flour with which they are compared3 ,,composition ,,of ,,flour1 ,,and ,,bread ,,made ,,from ,,it ,,in ,,different ,,ways ,,material ,,water ,,protein ,,fat ,c4,h4 ,,ash ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,flour #aj4aa #ab4dg #j4hfgf4ji #j4dg ,bread from flour and water #cf4ab #i4df #j4djec4gj #j4cb ,bread from flour1 water1 and lard #cg4gj #i4bg #a4jbea4gj #j4ca ,bread from flour and skim milk #cf4jb #aj4eg #j4dheb4fc #j4cj ,thus it may be seen that the proportion of water is larger and of each nutrient smaller in bread than in flour1 and that the nutrients of the flour are increased by those in the materials added in making the bread4 ,it is apparent that two breads of the same lot of flour may differ1 according to the method used in making1 and also that two loaves of bread made by exactly the same process but from different lots of flour1 even when of the same grade or brand1 do not necessarily have the same composition1 because of possible variation in the flours4 ,in bread made from flour of low gluten content1 the per cent of protein is correspondingly low4 #ahf4 ,use of ,skim ,milk and ,lard in ,bread ,making4--,when flours low in gluten are used1 skim milk may be employed advantageously in making the bread1 to increase the protein content4 ,tests show that such bread contains about #a per cent more protein than that made with water4 ,ordinarily there is no gain from a nutritive point of view in adding an excessive amount of lard or other shortening1 as it tends to widen the nutritive ratio4 #ahg4 ,influence of ,warm and ,cold ,flours on ,bread ,making4--,when flour is stored in a cold closet or storeroom1 it is not in condition to produce a good quality of bread until it has been warmed to a temperature of about #gj ,f4 ,cold flour checks the fermentation process1 and is occasionally the cause of poor bread4 ,on the other hand1 when flour is too warm 7#ih ,f47 the influence upon fermentation is unfavorable4 ,heating of flour does not affect the bread-making value1 provided the flour is not heated above #aeh ,f4 and is subsequently cooled to a temperature of #gj ,f4 ,wheat flour contains naturally a number of ferment substances1 some of which are destroyed by the action of heat4 ,the natural ferments1 or enzymes1 of flour appear to take a part in bread making1 imparting characteristic odors and flavors to the product4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4-;,,bread ,,from 7#a7 ,,graham1 7#b7 ,,entire ,,wheat1 ,,and 7#c7 ,,white ,,flour4 ,the same amounts of flour were used in making all of the breads4 #ahh4 ,variations in the ,process of ,bread ,making4--,since flours differ so in chemical composition1 and the yeast plant acts upon all the compounds of flour1 it naturally follows that bread making is not a simple but a complex operation1 resulting in a number of intricate chemical reactions1 which it is necessary to control and many of which are only imperfectly understood4 ,bread of the best physical quality and commercial value is made of flour from fully matured1 hard wheats1 containing a low per cent of acid1 no foreign ferment materials or their products1 and at least #ab-a_/b per cent of proteids1 of which the larger portion is in the form of gliadin4 ,it is believed that a better quality of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or modifications in the process of bread making4 ,it cannot be expected that the same process will give the best results alike with all types and kinds of flour4 ,the kind of fermentation process that will produce the best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by experimentation4 ,poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on the part of the bread maker1 and to poor yeast1 as it is to poor quality of flour4 ,frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to other factors4 ,lack of control of the fermentation process1 and the consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the activity of the alcoholic ferments1 is a frequent cause of poor bread4 #ahi4 ,digestibility of ,bread4--,extensive experiments have been made by the ,office of ,experiment ,stations of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 at the ,minnesota and ,maine ,experiment ,stations1 to determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread4 ,different kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three flours3 graham1 entire wheat1 and standard patent4 ,the flours were made into bread1 and the bread fed to workingmen1 and its digestibility determined4 ,the experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an exceedingly digestible food1 nearly #ih per cent of the starch or carbohydrate nutrients and about #hh per cent of the gluten or proteid constituents being assimilated by the body4 ,in the case of the graham and entire wheat flours1 although they contained a larger total amount of protein1 the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as were those of the white flour4 ,the body secured a larger amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour1 the digestibility of the three types being as follows3 standard patent flour1 protein #hh4f per cent and carbohydrates #ig4g per cent2 entire wheat flour1 protein #hb percent and carbohydrates #ic4e per cent2 graham flour1 protein #gd4i per cent and carbohydrates #hi4b per cent4 ,the low digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is supposed to be due to the coarser granulation2 the proteins1 being embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue1 escape the action of the digestive fluids4 ,microscopic examination of the feces showed that often entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and consequently had failed to undergo digestion4#fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #hf #aij4 ,use of ,graham and ,entire ,wheat in the ,dietary4--,entire wheat and graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons1 as they are often valuable because of their physiological action1 the branny particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging peristaltic action4 ,in the diet of the overfed1 they are valuable for the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain4 ,also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise4 ,for the laboring man1 where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of available nutrients1 bread from white flour should be supplied2 in the dietary of the sedentary1 graham and entire wheat flours can1 if found beneficial1 be made to form an essential part4 ,the kind of bread that it is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon experience4 ,when we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white and whole-meal bread1 we are on ground that has been the scene of many a controversy4 ,it is often contended that whole-meal is preferable to white bread1 because it is richer in proteid and mineral matter1 and so makes a better balanced diet4 ,but our examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has shown that as regards proteid at least1 this is not always true1 and even were it the case1 the lesser absorption of whole-meal bread1 which we have seen to occur1 would tend to annul the advantage4444 ,on the whole1 we may fairly regard the vexed question of whole-meal versus white bread as finally settled and settled in favor of the latter4#bh ,the higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more nutritious than the finer4 ,we have already seen that the more branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage of mineral matter4 ,and1 further1 it is in the bran that the largest proportion of fatty matter--the non-nitrogenous substance of higher respiratory capacity which the wheat contains--is found4 ,it is1 however1 we think1 very questionable whether upon such data alone a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same grain4 ,again1 it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably increase the peristaltic action1 and hence the alimentary canal is cleared much more rapidly of its contents4 ,it is also well known that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread1 and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality 7navvies1 for example7 it is distinctly stated that their preference for the whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through them too rapidly2 consequently1 before their systems have extracted from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them4444 ,in fact1 all experience tends to show that the state as well as the chemical composition of our food must be considered2 in other words1 that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not less important qualities than its ultimate composition4 ,but to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is1 as has generally been assumed1 weight for weight more nutritious than ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical text-book dicta1 not only entirely unsupported by experience1 but inconsistent with it4 ,in fact1 it is just the poorer fed and the harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared1 and it is the overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread4 ,lastly1 if the whole grain were finely ground1 it is by no means certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters would be higher than in ordinary bread flour1 and it is quite a question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be injurious4--,,lawes ,,and ,,gilbert4#fh 99 99 99 99 99 ,according to the chemical analysis of graham1 entire wheat1 and standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard ,scotch ,fife spring wheat1 the graham flour contained the highest and the patent flour the lowest percentage of total protein4 ,but according to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or the graham flour4 ,the lower digestibility of the protein of the latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles 7bran71 and so resists the action of the digestive juices and escapes digestion4 ,thus while there actually may be more protein in a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same weight of patent flour from the same wheat1 the body obtains less of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from the fine1 because1 although the including of the bran and germ increases the percentage of protein1 it decreases its digestibility4 ,by digestibility is meant the difference between the amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted in the feces4 ,the digestibility of first and second patent flours was not appreciably different from that of standard patent flour4 ,the degree of digestibility of all these flours is high1 due largely to their mechanical condition2 that is1 to the fact that they are finely ground4--,,snyder4#fb ,for a more extended discussion of the subject1 the student is referred to ,bulletins #fg1 #aja1 and #abf1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 #aia4 ,mineral ,content of ,white ,bread4--,average flour contains from #j4d to #j4e of #a per cent of ash or mineral matter1 the larger portion being lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium4 ,it is argued by some that graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their larger mineral content and their greater richness in phosphates4 ,in a mixed dietary1 however1 in which bread forms an essential part1 there is always an excess of phosphates1 and there is nothing to be gained by increasing the amount1 as it only requires additional work of the kidneys for its removal4 ,few experiments have been made to determine the phosphorus requirements of the human body1 but these indicate that it is unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet4 ,it is estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to meet all of the needs of the body1 and in an average mixed ration there are present from three to five grams and more4 ,a large portion of the phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations1 as lecithin and nucleated proteids1 which are the most available forms1 and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates4 ,in the case of graham and entire wheat flours1 a proportionally smaller amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the finer grades of flour4 #aib4 ,comparative ,digestibility of ,new and ,old ,bread4--,with healthy persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of digestibility of old and new bread2 one appears to be as thoroughly absorbed as the other4 ,in the case of some individuals with impaired digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which the two kinds of bread are digested1 but this is due mainly to individuality and does not apply generally4 ,the change which bread undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the continued ferment action4 #aic4 ,different ,kinds of ,bread4--,according to variations in method of preparation1 there are different types and varieties of bread1 as the flat bread of ,scandinavian countries1 unleavened bread1 ,vienna bread1 salt rising bread1 etc4 ,bread made with baking powder differs in no essential way from that made with yeast1 except in the presence of the residue from the baking powder1 discussed in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,biscuits1 wheat cakes1 crackers1 and other food materials made principally from flour1 have practically the same food value as bread4 ,it makes but little difference in what way flour is prepared as food1 for in its various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive value4 #aid4 ,toast4--,when bread is toasted there is no change in the percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis4 ,the change is in solubility and form1 and not in amount of nutrients available4 ,some of the starch becomes dextrine1 which is more soluble and digestible4#e ,proteids1 on the other hand1 are rendered less soluble1 which appears to slightly lower the digestion coefficient4 ,they are somewhat more readily but not quite so completely digested as those of bread4 ,digestion experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and other ferments than does wheat bread4 ,toasting brings about ease of digestion rather than increased completeness of the process4 ,toast is a sterile food1 while bread often contains various ferments which have not been destroyed by baking4 ,these undergo incubation during the process of digestion1 particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the digestive tract4 ,with normal digestion1 however1 these ferment bodies do not develop to any appreciable extent1 as the digestive tract disinfects itself4 ,when the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have been removed1 a flour of higher sanitary value is secured4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,baking ,,powders #aie4 ,general ,composition4--,all baking powders contain at least two materials2 one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition1 the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas4 ,the material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium bicarbonate1 ,na,h,c,o#c1 commonly known as soda or saleratus4 ,ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent1 but is very seldom used at the present time4 ,the acid constituent may be one of several materials1 the most common being cream of tartar1 tartaric acid1 calcium phosphate1 or alum4 ,these may be used separately or in combination4 ,the various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent1 as cream of tartar1 phosphate1 and alum powders4 ,all of them liberate carbon dioxid gas1 but the products left in the food differ widely in nature and amount#fi4 ,baking powder is a chemical preparation which1 when brought in contact with water1 liberates carbon dioxid gas4 ,the baking powder is mixed dry with flour1 and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is liberated expands the dough4 ,the action is similar to that of yeast except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly and no residue is left in the bread4 ,when baking powder is used1 there is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the powder4 ,it is the nature and amount of this residue that is important and makes one baking powder more desirable than another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,,ingredients ,,of ,a ,,baking ,,powder4 #a1 baking powder2 #b1 cream of tartar2 #c1 baking soda2 #d1 starch4 #aif4 ,cream of ,tartar ,powders4--,the acid ingredient of the cream of tartar powders is tartaric acid1 ,h#b;,c#d;,h#d,o#f4 ,cream of tartar is potassium acid tartrate1 ,,khc#d;,h#d,o#f2 it contains one atom of replaceable hydrogen1 which imparts the acid properties1 and it is prepared from crude argol1 a deposit of grape juice when wine is made4 ,the residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate1 ,na,k,c#d;,h#d,o#f1 commonly known as ,rochelle salt4 ,this is the active ingredient of ,seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken into the body4 ,the dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce4 ,a loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains about #afj grains of ,rochelle salt1 which is #de grains more than is found in a ,seidlitz powder1 but the amount actually eaten at any one time is small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded4 ,when a cream of tartar baking powder is used1 the reaction takes place according to the following equation3 #ahh #hd #baj #dd #ah ,,hkh#d;,c#d,o#f ,na,h,c,o#c ,k,na,c#d;,h#d,o#f ,,co#b ,h#b,o4 ,the crystallized ,rochelle salt contains four molecules of water1 so that1 even allowing for some starch filler1 there is very nearly as much weight of material 7,rochelle salt7 left in the food as there was of the original powder4 ,if free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium acid tartrate1 the reaction would be as follows3 #aej #afh #bcj #hh ,h#b;,c#d;,h#d,o#f #b,na,h,c,o#c ,na#b;,c#b;,h#d,o#f4b ,h#b,o #b;,,co#b4 ,but the residue1 sodium tartrate1 is less in proportion4 ,it has physiological properties very similar to ,rochelle salt4 ,tartaric acid is seldom used alone1 but very often in combination with cream of tartar4 ,it is more expensive than cream of tartar2 but not so much is required1 and it is more rapid in action4 #aig4 ,phosphate ,baking ,powders4--,here the acid ingredient is phosphoric acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate1 ,ca,h#d7,,po-#d7b4 ,this is made by the action of sulphuric acid on ground bone 7,ca#c7,,po#d7b #b ,h#b,,so#d ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b #b ,ca,s,o#d71 and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate formed at the same time2 hence such powders contain more or less of this inert material4 ,the reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as follows3 #bcd #afh #acf ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b #b ,na,h,c,o#c ,ca,h,p,o#d #hh #cf #adb #b ,,co#b #b ,h#b,o ,na#b;,,hpo#d4 ,sodium phosphate1 according to the ,united ,states ,dispensatory1 is mildly purgative in doses of from #a to #b ounces4 ,the claim is made by the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and calcium1 products left after the baking1 restore the phosphates which have been lost from the flour in the bran4 ,this baking powder residue does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts--nearly tenfold4 ,however1 the residue from these powders is probably less objectionable than that from alum powders4 ,the chief drawback to the phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities4 #aih4 ,alum ,baking ,powders4--,sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of these powders4 ,the alums are double sulphates of aluminium and an alkali metal1 and have the general formula x,al7,,so#d7b in which x may be ,k1 ,na1 or ,,nh#d1 producing respectively a potash1 soda1 or ammonia alum4 ,potash alum is most commonly used1 soda and ammonia alums to a less extent4 ,the reaction takes place as follows3 #dge #ejd #aeg #b ,,nh#d;,al7,,so#d7b #f ,na,h,c,o#c ,al#b7,,oh7#f #dbf #acb #bfd #c ,na#b,,so#d 7,,nh#d7b,,so#d #f ,,co#b4 ,if it is a potash or soda alum1 simply substitute ,k or ,na for ,,nh#d throughout the equation4 ,the best authorities regard alum baking powders as the most objectionable4 ,ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form1 since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect on animal tissue4 ,sulphates of sodium and potassium are also objectionable4 ,aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue1 hindering digestion in a way similar to the alum itself4 ,many of the alum powders contain also mono-calcium phosphate2 the reaction is as follows3 #dge #bcd #ccf #b ,,nh#d;,al7,,so#d7b ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b #d ,na,h,c,o#c #bde #acf #acb ,al#b7,,po#d7b ,ca,s,o#d 7,,nh#d7b,,so#d #bhd #agf #gb #b ,na#b,,so#d #d ,,co#b #d ,h#b,o4 ,these are probably less injurious than the straight alum powders1 although the residues are1 in general1 open to the same objection4 #aii4 ,inspection of ,baking ,powders4--,many of the states have enacted laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders4 ,some of these laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact that alum is one of the ingredients2 others require the baking powder packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder4 #bjj4 ,fillers4--,all baking powders contain a filler of starch4 ,this is necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used4 ,the amount of filler varies from #ae to #ej per cent2 the least is found in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders4 ,the amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value2 it should give off at least #a_/h of its weight4 #bja4 ,home-made ,baking ,powders4--,baking powders can be made at home for about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal satisfaction4 ,the following will make a long-keeping powder3 cream of tartar1 #h ounces2 baking soda1 #d ounces2 corn starch1 #c ounces4 ,for a quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch4 ,the materials should be thoroughly dry4 ,mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass or tin can4 ,add the cream of tartar last and shake again4 ,thorough mixing is essential to good results4 ,cream of tartar is often adulterated1 but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist4 ,to insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry1 they should always be kept in glass or tin cans1 never in paper4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,vinegar1 ,,spices1 ,,and ,,condiments #bjb4 ,vinegar4--,vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by fermentation1 and contains1 in addition to acetic acid1 small amounts of other materials in solution1 as mineral matter and malic acid1 according to the material from which the vinegar was made4 ,unless otherwise designated1 vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made from apples4 ,other substances1 however1 are used1 as vinegar can be manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials1 as molasses1 glucose1 malt1 wine1 and alcoholic beverages in general4 ,the chemical changes which take place in the production of vinegars are3 7#a7 inversion of the sugar1 7#b7 conversion of the invert sugars into alcohol1 and 7#c7 change of alcohol into acetic acid4 ,all these chemical changes are the result of ferment action4 ,the various invert ferments change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars2 then the alcoholic ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars1 and finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the alcohol into acetic acid4 ,the chemical changes which take place in these different steps are3 sucrose dextrose levulose 7#a7 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f2 dextrose alcohol 7#b7 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #b ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #b ,,co#b2 alcohol acid 7#c7 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #b ,o ,,hc#b;,h#c,o#b ,h#b,o4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,acetic ,,acid ,,ferments4 7,after ,k,,nig47 ,the acetic acid organism1 ,mycoderma aceti1 can work only in the presence of oxygen4 ,it is one of the aerobic ferments1 and is present in what is known as the mother of vinegar and is secreted by it4 ,when vinegar is made in quantity1 the process is hastened by allowing the alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings containing some of the ferment material1 and at the same time air is admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen4 ,when vinegar is made by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the fermentation process is completed1 a long time is required--the length of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting fermentation4 ,in some countries malt vinegar is common4 ,this is produced by allowing a wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation1 without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of spirit vinegar4 ,in various ,european countries wine vinegar is in general use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes4 ,sometimes spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt4 ,alcoholic fermentation takes place1 the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains1 which is acetified in the ordinary way4 ,such a vinegar can be produced very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider vinegar4 ,vinegar1 when properly made1 should remain clear1 and should not form a heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth1 commonly called the mother of vinegar4 ,in order to prevent the vinegar from becoming cloudy and forming deposits1 it should be strained and stored in clean jugs and protected from the air4 ,so long as air is excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of mother of vinegar cannot take place4 ,when the vinegar is properly made and the fermentation process has been completed1 the acid already produced prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments4 ,when vinegar becomes cloudy and produces deposits1 it is an indication that the acetic fermentation has not been completed4 ,the national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less than #d grams acetic acid1 #a4f grams of apple solids1 and #j4be grams of apple ash per #ajj cubic centimeters1 along with other characteristics1 as acidity1 sugar1 and phosphoric acid content4 ,many states have special laws regarding the sale of vinegar4 #bjc4 ,adulteration of ,vinegar4--,vinegar is frequently adulterated by the addition of water1 or by coloring spirit vinegar1 thus causing it to resemble cider vinegar4 ,formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by the use of mineral acids1 as hydrochloric or sulphuric1 but since acetic acid can be produced so cheaply1 this form of adulteration has almost entirely disappeared4 ,colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the weight of the solids4 ,occasionally1 however1 glucose and other materials are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar1 but such a vinegar contains only a trace of ash#ah4 ,attempts have also been made to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give the colored spirit vinegar the necessary amount of ash4 ,malt1 white wine1 glucose1 and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and unadulterated are not objectionable1 but too frequently they are made to resemble and sell as cider vinegar4 ,this is a fraud which affects the pocketbook rather than the health4 ,for home use apple cider vinegar is highly desirable4 ,there is no food material or food adjunct1 unless possibly ground coffee and spices1 so extensively adulterated as vinegar4 ,vinegar has no food value whatever1 and is valuable only for giving flavor and palatability to other foods1 and to some extent for the preservation of foods4 ,it is useful in the household in other ways1 as it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking operations for liberating gas from soda1 and also when a dilute acid solution is required for various cleaning purposes4 ,vinegar should never be kept in tin pails1 or any metallic vessel1 because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper1 tin1 iron1 and the ordinary metals1 producing poisonous solutions4 ,earthenware jugs1 porcelain dishes1 glassware1 or wooden casks are all serviceable for storing vinegar4 #bjd4 ,characteristics of ,spices4#gj--,spices are aromatic vegetable substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material4 ,they are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all plant bodies4 ,since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used for flavoring purposes1 no appreciable nutrients are added to the food4 ,some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties4 ,occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural flavors of foods1 and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor quality4 ,for the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to ,winton1 ,microscopy of ,vegetable ,foods1 and ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis4 #bje4 ,pepper4--,black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant 7,piper nigrum71 a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 the greatest production being in ,sumatra4 ,for the black pepper1 the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe2 for the white pepper1 it is allowed to mature4 ,white pepper has the black pericarp or hull removed4 ,pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid1 piperine1 and to a volatile oil4 ,in the black pepper berries there is present ash to the extent of about #d4e per cent1 it ought not to be above #f4e per cent2 ether extract1 including piperine and resin1 not less than #f4e per cent2 crude fiber not more than #af per cent2 also some starch and nitrogenous material4 ,the white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the black pepper4 ,ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated2 common adulterants being3 cracker crumbs1 roasted nut shells and fruit stones1 charcoal1 corn meal1 pepper hulls1 mustard hulls1 and buckwheat middlings4 ,the pepper berries wrinkle in drying1 and this makes it difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them4 ,an excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration4 ,adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope4 ,the ,united ,states standard for pepper is3 not more than #g per cent total ash1 #ae per cent fiber1 and not less than #be per cent starch and #f per cent non-volatile ether extract4#ga #bjf4 ,cayenne4--,cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant1 capsicum1 of which there are several varieties1--the small-fruited kind1 used to make cayenne or red pepper2 and the tabasco sort1 forming the basis of tabasco sauce4 ,it is grown mainly in the tropics1 and was used there as a condiment before the landing of ,columbus1 who took specimens back to ,europe4 ,cayenne pepper contains #be per cent of oil1 about #g per cent of ash1 and a liberal amount of starch4 ,the adulterants are usually of a starchy nature1 as rice or corn meal1 and the product is often colored with some red dye4 #bjg4 ,mustard4--,mustard is the seed of the mustard plant1 and is most often found in commerce in the ground form4 ,the black or brown mustard has a very small seed and the most aroma4 ,white mustard is much larger and is frequently used unground4 ,for the ground mustard1 only the interior of the seed is used1 the husk being removed in the bolting4 ,mustard contains a large amount of oil1 part of which is usually expressed before grinding1 and this is the form in which spice grinders buy it4 ,in mustard flour there is3 ash from #d to #f per cent1 volatile oil from #j4e to #b per cent1 fixed oil from #ae to #be per cent1 crude fiber from #b to #e per cent1 albuminoids from #ce to #de per cent1 and a little starch4 ,the principal adulterants are wheat1 corn1 and rice flour4 ,when these are used1 the product is frequently colored with turmeric1 a harmless vegetable coloring material4 #bjh4 ,ginger4--,ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant 7,zingiber officinale71 native in tropical ,asia1 chiefly ,india4 ,it is cultivated in nearly all tropical countries4 ,when unground it usually occurs in two forms3 dried with the epidermis1 or with the epidermis removed1 when it is called scraped ginger4 ,very frequently a coating of chalk is given1 as a protection against the drug store beetle4 ,jamaica ginger is the best and most expensive4 ,cochin1 scraped1 ,african1 and ,calcutta ginger range in price in the order given4 ,ginger contains from #c4f to #g4e per cent of ash1 from #a4e to #c per cent of volatile oil1 and from #c to #e4e per cent of fixed oil4 ,there is a large amount of starch4 ,the chief adulterants are rice1 wheat1 and potato starch1 mustard hulls1 exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories1 sawdust and ground peanut-shells1 and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the product4 ,the ,united ,states standard for ginger is not more than #db per cent starch1 #h per cent fiber1 and #f per cent total ash4#ga #bji4 ,cinnamon and ,cassia4--,the bark of several species of plants growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices4 ,true cinnamon is a native of ,ceylon1 while the cassias are from ,bengal and ,china4 ,in this country there is more cassia used than cinnamon--cinnamon being rarely found except in drug stores4 ,cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon bark4 ,the ground spice contains about #a4e per cent volatile oil and the same amount of fixed oil1 #d per cent of ash1 and some fiber1 nitrogenous matter1 and starch4 ,cereals1 cedar sawdust1 ground nutshells1 oil meal1 and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants4 #baj4 ,cloves4--,cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that grows in the tropics4 ,these are picked by hand and dried in the sun4 ,in the order of value1 ,penang1 ,sumatra1 ,amboyna1 and ,zanzibar furnish the chief varieties4 ,cloves rarely contain more than #h per cent ash1 or less than #aj per cent volatile oil and #d per cent fixed oil1 and #af to #bj per cent of tannin-yielding bodies4 ,no starch is present4 ,the chief adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves1 allspice1 and ground nutshells4 ,clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a microscopical examination1 since they contain many thick-walled cells and much fibrous tissue4 #baa4 ,allspice4--,allspice1 or pimento1 is the fruit of an evergreen tree common in the ,west ,indies4 ,it is a small1 dry1 globular berry1 two-celled1 each cell having a single seed4 ,allspice contains about #b4e per cent volatile oil1 #d per cent fixed oil1 and #d4e per cent ash4 ,because of its cheapness1 it is not generally adulterated1 cereal starches being the most common adulterants4 #bab4 ,nutmeg4--,nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree growing in the ,east ,indies4 ,the fruit resembles a small pear4 ,a fleshy mantle of crimson color1 which is mace1 envelopes the seed4 ,nutmeg contains about #b4b per cent ash1 #b4e to #e per cent volatile oil1 and #be to #ce per cent fixed oil4 ,mace has practically the same composition4 ,extensive adulteration is seldom practiced4 ,the white coating on the surface of the nutmeg is lime1 used to prevent sprouting of the germ4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,chocolate1 ,,and ,,cocoa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,tea ,,leaf4 7,after ,,winton47 #bac4 ,tea is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree cultivated chiefly in ,china and ,japan4 ,there are two varieties of plants4 ,the ,assamese1 which requires a very moist1 hot climate1 yields in ,india and ,ceylon about #djj pounds per acre1 and may produce as high as #ajjj pounds4 ,from this plant a number of flushes or pickings are secured in a year4 ,the ,chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a smaller1 tougher1 and darker leaf1 which is more delicate than that of the ,assamese and is usually made into green tea4 ,the ,chinese tea plant yields only four or five flushes a year4 ,about #dj per cent of the tea used in this country comes from ,japan and #ej per cent from ,china4 ,the tea industry of ,india and ,ceylon has developed rapidly in late years1 and is now second only to that of ,china4 ,tea has been raised upon a small scale in the ,united ,states4 ,the quality or grade of the tea depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing4 #bad4 ,composition of ,tea4--,black and green teas are produced from the same species of plant1 but owe their difference in color as well as flavor and odor to methods of preparation4 ,the same plant may yield several grades of both green and black tea4 ,to produce black tea1 the leaves are bruised to liberate the juices1 allowed to ferment a short time1 which develops the color1 and then dried4#gc ,for green tea the fresh leaves are roasted or steamed1 then rolled and dried as quickly as possible to prevent fermentation4 ,the smaller leaves and the first picking produce the finest quality of tea4 ,the characteristic flavor and odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil1 although the odor is sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange flowers1 jessamine1 or the fragrant olive4 ,there are also present in tea an alkaloid1 theine1 which gives the peculiar physiological properties1 and tannin1 upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion4 ,the composition of tea is as follows3 ,,original ,,green ,,black ,,tea ,,tea ,,tea ---------------------------------------- --- ,tannin1 per cent #ab4ia #aj4fd #d4hi ,theine1 per cent #c4cj #c4bj #c4cj ,ash1 per cent #d4ig #d4ib #d4ic ,fiber1 per cent #aj4dd #aj4jf #aj4jg ,protein1 per cent #cg4cc #cg4dc #ch4ij 7all insoluble7 ,it will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black tea2 during the fermentation which the black tea undergoes1 some of the tannin is decomposed4 ,there is a large amount of protein in tea1 but it is of no food value1 because of its insolubility4 ,about half of the ash is soluble4 ,the tannin is readily soluble1 and for this reason green tea especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled4 ,tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion of the protein compounds1 because it coagulates the albumin and peptones after they have become soluble1 and thus makes additional work for the digestive organs4 #bae4 ,judging ,teas4--,teas are judged according to3 7#a7 the tea as it appears prepared for market1 7#b7 the infusion1 and 7#c7 the out-turn after infusion4 ,the color should be uniform2 if a black tea1 it should be grayish black1 not a dead black4 ,the leaves should be uniform in size or grade4 ,the quality and grade are dependent upon flavor1 and1 with the strength of the infusion1 are determined by tasting4 ,this work is rapidly done by the trained tea taster4 ,the out-turn should be of one color2 no bright green leaves should be present2 evenness of make is judged by the out-turn4 ,the flavor of a tea is largely a matter of personal judgment1 but from a physiological point of view black teas are given the preference4 #baf4 ,adulteration of ,tea4--,a few years ago tea was quite extensively adulterated1 but the strict regulation of the government regarding imported tea has greatly lessened adulteration4 ,the most common form was the use of spent leaves1 i4e4 leaves which had been infused4 ,leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used1 as well as large quantities of tea stems4 ,facing or coloring is also an adulteration1 since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter appearance4 ,facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture or which from age are inferior1 with a mixture containing ,prussian blue1 turmeric1 indigo1 or plumbago to impart color or gloss1 and with a fraudulent intent4 ,there is no evidence that the facing agents are deleterious to health in the small quantities used1 but as they are used for purposes of deception1 they should be discouraged4#gc ,facing and the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present4 #bag4 ,food ,value and ,physiological ,properties of ,tea4--,tea infusion does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a food4 ,it is with some persons a stimulant4 ,the caffein or theine in tea is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties4 ,in doses of from three to five grains1 according to the ,united ,states ,dispensatory1 it produces peculiar wakefulness4 ,larger doses produce intense physical restlessness1 mental anxiety1 and obstinate sleeplessness4 ,it has no effect upon the motor nerves1 but is believed to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves4 7,united ,states ,dispensatory47 ,experiments with animals show that it causes elevation of the arterial pressure4 ,it is used as a cardiac stimulant4 ,the quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about #d_/e of a grain1 or #a_/d of a medicinal dose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,coffee ,,berries4 #a1 ,mocha2 #b1 ,java2 #c1 ,rio4 #bah4 ,composition of ,coffee4--,the coffee tree is an evergreen cultivated in the tropics4 ,it grows to a height of #cj feet1 but when cultivated is kept pruned to from #f to #aj feet4 ,the fruit1 which resembles a small cherry1 with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in the pulp1 is dried and the seeds removed1 cleaned1 and graded4 ,coffee has an entirely different composition from tea2 it is characterized by a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates1 and also contains an essential oil and caffein1 an alkaloid identical with theine4 ,tannic acid1 not as free acid1 is combined with caffein as a tannate4 ,,raw ,,coffee,,roasted ,,coffee -------------------------------------- ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,water #aa4bc #a4ae ,ash #c4ib #d4ge ,fat #ab4bg #ad4dh ,sugar1 etc4 #j4ff #h4ee ,protein #ab4jg #ac4ih ,caffein #a4ba #a4bd ,the high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous compounds4 ,coffee cannot be considered a food1 because only a comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available4 ,it is a mildly stimulating beverage4 ,with some individuals it appears to promote the digestive process1 while with others its effect is not beneficial4 ,coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea1 and is subject to greater adulteration4 ,it is adulterated by facing and glazing2 i4e4 coloring the berries to resemble different grades and coating them with caramel and dextrine4 ,spent coffee grains and coffee that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants4 ,imitation berries made of rye1 corn1 or wheat paste1 molded1 colored with caramel1 and baked have been found mixed with genuine coffee berries4 ,roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate ground coffee4 ,chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant1 which belongs to the same family as the dandelion4 ,it is claimed by some that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee4 ,however1 when chicory is added to coffee1 it should be so stated on the label and the amount used given4 ,the dextrine and sugar used in glazing are browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the infusion1 making it appear better than it really is4 ,the glazing also makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off during roasting4 ,coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the berries generally float when thrown on water1 while the imitation berries sink4 ,chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown1 while the coffee remains floating for some time4 ,there are three kinds of coffee in general use3 ,java1 ,mocha1 and ,rio or ,brazil4 ,the ,brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by dealers as low or low middlings4 ,the ,java coffee berries are smaller and paler in color1 the better grades being brown4 ,mocha usually commands the highest price in commerce4 ,the seeds are small and dark yellow before roasting4 #bai4 ,cereal ,coffee ,substitutes4 ,a few of these preparations contain a little true coffee1 but for the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley1 wheat1 etc41 or of grain mixed with pea hulls1 ground corncobs1 or wheat middlings4 ,it is said that barley or wheat parched1 with a little molasses1 in an ordinary oven1 makes something indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the market4 ,if no coffee is used in the cereal preparations1 the claim that they are not stimulating is probably true4 ,as for the nutritive value1 parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of the carbohydrates soluble1 and a part of this soluble matter passes into the decoction1 but the nutritive value of the infusion is hardly worth considering in the dietary4#ef #bbj4 ,cocoa and ,chocolate ,preparations4--,cocoa and chocolate are manufactured from the cocoa bean1 the seed of a tree native to tropical ,america4 ,the beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow1 fleshy pod4 ,they are removed from the pulp1 allowed to undergo fermentation1 and dried by exposure to the air and light1 which hardens them and gives them a red color4 ,this method produces what is known as the fermented cocoa4 ,for the unfermented cocoa1 the beans are dried without undergoing fermentation4 ,fermentation removes much of the acidity and bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean1 and when properly regulated develops flavor4 ,the original bean contains about #ej per cent fat1 part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa4 ,this fat is sold as cocoa butter4 ,in the preparation of some brands of cocoa1 alkalies1 such as soda and potash1 are used to form a combination with the fat to prevent its separating in oily globules4 ,this treatment improves the appearance of the cocoa1 but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a food as the fat4 ,such preparations have a high per cent of ash4 ,there is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the fat separates in oily globules4 #bba4 ,composition of ,cocoa4--,the cocoa bean1 when dried or roasted and freed from its husk and ground1 is sold as cracked cocoa1 or cocoa nibs4 ,from cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made4 ,cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to which other ingredients are added4 ,an average cocoa contains about #bj per cent of proteids1 and #cj per cent fat1 also starch1 sugar1 gums1 fiber1 and ash1 as well as theobromine1 a material very similar to theine and caffein in tea and coffee1 but not such an active stimulant4 ,cocoa is not easily soluble1 but it may be ground so fine that a long time is required for its sedimentation2 or sugar or other soluble material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is attained without such fine grinding4 ,the first method is to be preferred4 ,cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage4 ,owing to the small amount used for a cup of cocoa1 independent of the milk it does not add much in the way of nutrients to the ration4 #bbb4 ,chocolate4--,plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ4 ,it differs in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less protein2 it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs4 ,it is officially defined as containing not more than #c per cent of ash insoluble in water1 #c-a_/b per cent of crude fiber and #i per cent of starch1 and less than #de per cent cocoa fat4#ga ,by the addition of sugar1 sweet chocolates are made4 ,they vary widely in composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during their preparation4 ,the average composition of cocoa nibs1 standard cocoa1 and plain chocolate is as follows3 ,,cocoa ,,composition ,,of ,,composition ,,of ,,nibs ,,standard ,,cocoa ,,plain ,,chocolate ---------------------------------------- ----- ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,water #c4jj -- #c4ji ,ash #c4ej #d4bj #c4jh ,theobromine #a4jj -- -- ,caffein #j4ej -- -- ,crude ,protein #ab4jj -- -- ,crude fiber #b4ej #e4jb #b4fc ,fat #ej4jj #cb4eb #di4ha ,starch and other non-nitrogenous matter #bg4ej -- -- #bbc4 ,adulteration of ,chocolate and ,cocoa4--,the various chocolate and cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication2 they are not1 however1 so extensively adulterated as before the enforcement of national and state pure food laws4 ,the most common adulterants are starch1 cocoa shells1 and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to give color1 also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the required plasticity for molding4 #bbd4 ,comparative ,composition of ,beverages4--,tea and coffee as beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the cream and sugar used in them4 ,the solid matter in tea and coffee infusions amounts to less than #a4b per cent4 ,when cocoa is made with milk1 it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk4 ,,composition ,,of ,,beverages#ef ,,fuel ,,kind ,,of ,,beverage ,,water ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbo- ,,value ,,hydrates ,,per ,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,calories ,commercial cereal coffee 7#j4e ounce to #a pint water7 #ih4b #j4b -- #a4d #cj ,parched corn coffee 7#a4f ounces to #a pint water7 #ii4e #j4b -- #j4e #ac ,oatmeal water 7#a ounce to #a pint water7 #ii4g #j4c -- #j4c #aa ,coffee 7#a ounce #a pint water7 #ih4i #j4b -- #j4g #af ,tea 7#j4e ounce to #a pint water7 #ii4e #j4b -- #j4f #ae ,cocoa 7#j4e ounce to #a pint milk7 #hd4e #c4h #d4g #f4j #cfe ,cocoa 7#j4e ounce to #a pint water7 #ig4a #j4f #j4i #a4a #fe ,skimmed milk #ij4e #c4d #j4c #e4a #agj ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,digestibility ,,of ,,foods #bbe4 ,digestibility1 ,how ,determined4--,the term digestibility1 as applied to foods1 is used in two ways3 7#a7 meaning the thoroughness of the process1 or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food are absorbed and used by the body1 and 7#b7 meaning the ease or comfort with which digestion is accomplished4 ,cheese is popularly termed indigestible1 and rice digestible1 when in reality the nutrients of cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of rice4 ,in this work1 unless otherwise stated1 digestibility is applied to the completeness of the digestion process4 ,the digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion experiments1 in which all of the food consumed for a certain period1 usually two to four days1 is weighed and analyzed1 and from the weight and composition is determined the amount1 in pounds or grams1 of each nutrient consumed4#gb ,in like manner the nutrients in the indigestible portion1 or feces1 are determined from the weight and composition of the feces4 ,the indigestible nutrients in the feces are deducted from the total nutrients of the food1 the difference being the amount digested1 or oxidized in the body4 ,when the food is digested1 the various nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation1 with the formation of carbon dioxid gas1 water1 urea 7,,ch#d,n#b,o71 and other compounds4 ,the feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion4 ,the various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same digestibility2 for example1 the starch of potatoes is #ib per cent digestible1 while the protein is only #gb per cent4 ,the percentage amount of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient4 ,in the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and milk was determined3 #ggc4e grams of bread and #bjjj grams of milk were consumed by the subject4 ,the dried feces weighed #ch4b grams4 ,the foods and feces when analyzed were found to have the following composition3#fb ,,composition ,,bread ,,milk ,,feces,a ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,water #dd4ac #hf4eb -- ,crude protein #g4ge #c4ae #be4hh ,ether extract #j4ij #d4fc #ah4bc ,ash #j4cb #j4gj #bf4ce ,carbohydrates #df4ij #e4jj #bi4ed ,calories per gram #b4dej #j4gi #e4jhc ,footnote ,a3 ,results on dry-matter basis4 ,,statement ,,of ,,results ,,of ,a ,,digestion ,,experiment ,,food ,,consumed ,,weight ,,protein ,,ether ,,carbo- ,,heat ,,of ,,of ,n #f4be ,,extract ,,hy- ,,ash ,,combus- ,,material ,,drates ,,tion ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,grams ,grams ,grams ,grams ,grams ,calories ,bread #ggc4e #fj4j #f4i #cfb4h #b4e #ahie ,milk #bjjj4j #fc4j #ib4f #ajj4j #ad4j #aehe ------- ------- ----------------------- ,total #ch4b #abc4j #ii4e #dfb4h #af4e #cdhj ,feces #i4i #g4j #aa4c #aj4a #aid ------- ------- ----------------------- ,total amount #aac4a #ib4e #dea4e #f4d #cbhf digested ,per cent digested or coefficients of digestibility #ib4j #ic4j #ig4e #ch4h #id4d ,available energy -- -- -- -- #ij4j ,in this experiment #ib per cent of the crude protein1 #ic per cent of the ether extract1 and #ig4e per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body4 ,in calculating the available energy1 correction is made for the unoxidized residue1 as urea and allied forms4 ,it is estimated that for each gram of protein in the ration there was an indigestible residue yielding #a4be calories4 #bbf4 ,available ,nutrients4--,a food may contain a comparatively large amount of a compound1 and yet1 on account of its low digestibility1 fail to supply much of it to the body in an available form4 ,hence it is that the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition1 but also on its digestibility4 ,the digestible or available nutrients of a food are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the food contains by its digestion coefficient4 ,for example1 a sample of wheat flour contains #ab per cent protein1 #hh per cent of which is digestible1 making #aj4ef per cent of available or digestible protein 7#ab #j4hh-aj4ef74 ,graham flour made from similar wheat contains #ac per cent total protein1 and only #ge per cent of the protein is digestible1 making #i4ge per cent available 7#ac #j4ge #i4ge74 ,thus one food may contain a larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another4 #bbg4 ,available ,energy4--,the available energy of a food or a ration is expressed in calories4 ,a ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work should yield about #cbjj calories4 ,the calory is the unit of heat1 and represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water #a ,c41 or four pounds of water #a ,f4 ,the caloric value of foods is determined by the calorimeter1 an apparatus which measures heat with great accuracy4 ,a pound of starch1 or allied carbohydrates1 yields #ahfj calories1 and a pound of fat #dbbe 7see ,section #ac74 ,while a gram of protein completely burned produces #g4h calories1 digested it yields only about #d4b calories1 because1 as explained in the preceding section1 not all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized4#ei ,the caloric value or available energy of a ration can be calculated from the digestible nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and carbohydrates by #ahfj1 the digestible fat by #dbbe1 and adding the results4 ,for determination of the available energy of foods under different experimental conditions1 and where great accuracy is desired1 a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised1 which is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter1 except it is large enough to admit a person1 and is provided with appliances for measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air4#gd ,the heat produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water surrounding the calorimeter chamber1 and this increase in temperature is determined by thermometers reading to #j4jje of a degree or less4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,calorimeter4 #bbh4 ,normal ,digestion and ,health4--,while the process of digestion has been extensively studied1 it is not perfectly understood4 ,between the initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large number of intermediate substances are formed1 and when digestion fails to take place in a normal way1 toxic or poisonous compounds are produced and various diseases result4 ,it is probable that more diseases are due to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause4 ,there is a very close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food4 ,the cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids containing substances known as soluble ferments1 or enzymes1 which act upon the various compounds of foods1 changing them chemically and physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body4 7,see ,section #ca47 ,some of the more important ferments are3 ptyolin of the saliva1 pepsin of the stomach1 and pancreatin and diastase of the intestines4 ,in order that these ferments may carry on their work in a normal way1 the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the digestive tract must be maintained4 ,the gastric juice contains from #j4a to #j4be per cent of hydrochloric acid1 imparting mildly antiseptic properties2 and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid solution1 the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution4 ,to secrete the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids1 the organs must be in a healthy condition4 ,many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering from impaired digestion1 and attempts are frequently made to apply to normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions4 #bbi4 ,digestibility of ,animal ,foods4--,the proteids and fats in animal foods1 as meats1 are more completely digested than the same class of nutrients in vegetables4 ,in general1 about #ie per cent of the proteids of meats is digestible1 while those in vegetables are often less than #he percent digestible4 ,the amount of indigestible residue from animal foods is small2 while from vegetables it is large1 for the cellulose prevents complete absorption of the nutrients and1 as a result1 there is much indigestible residue4 ,animal foods are concentrated1 in that they furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms4 ,there is less difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested than in their ease of digestion2 the proteins all have about the same digestion coefficients1 but vary with individuals as to ease of digestion and time required4 ,it is generally considered that the digestible proteins1 whether of animal or vegetable origin1 are equally valuable for food purposes4 ,this is an assumption1 however1 that has not been well established by experimental evidence4 ,in a mixed ration1 the proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value1 but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion1 they would not necessarily all have the same food value4 ,there is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as to completeness of digestion1--the slight difference being in favor of the proteins4 ,some physiologists claim that the fat1 which in some meats surrounds the bundles of fiber 7protein71 forming a protecting coat1 prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid4 ,very fat meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat4 ,it is also claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the mechanical character1 as toughness of the fiber4 #bcj4 ,digestibility of ,vegetable ,foods4--,vegetable foods vary in digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of cellulose or fiber4 ,in some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive fluids1 and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low4 ,the starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of the nutrients of vegetables2 in some instances they are from #ie to #ih per cent digestible4 ,some cellular tissue1 but not an excess1 is desirable in a ration1 as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon the organs of digestion1 encourages peristalsis1 and is an absorbent and dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion4 ,for example1 in the feeding of swine1 it has been found that corn and cob meal often gives better results than corn fed alone4 ,the cob contains but little in the way of nutrients1 but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon digestion4 ,occasionally too many bulky foods are combined1 containing scant amounts of nutrients1 so that the body receives insufficient protein4 ,this is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict vegetarian4 ,many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value1 due to the organic acids and essential oils1 as cited in the chapter on fruits and vegetables4 ,the value of such foods cannot always be determined from their content of digestible protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates4 ,this is particularly evident when they are omitted from the ration1 as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of animal foods4 ,many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which they contain1 which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount of available nutrients4 ,because of their bulk and fermentable nature1 resulting in the formation of gases1 a diet of coarse vegetables has a tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs4 ,the carbohydrates1 which are the chief constituents of vegetables1 are digested mainly in the intestines1 and require special mechanical preparation in the stomach1 hence the nutrients of vegetables are not1 as a rule1 as easily digested as those of animal foods4 #bca4 ,factors influencing ,digestion4--,there are a number of factors which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion1 as3 7#a7 combination of foods2 7#b7 amount of food2 7#c7 method of preparation2 7#d7 mechanical condition of the food2 7#e7 palatability2 7#f7 physiological properties2 7#g7 individuality of the consumer2 and 7#h7 psychological influences4 #bcb4 ,combination of ,foods4--,in a mixed ration the nutrients are generally more completely digested than when only one food is used4 ,for example1 milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a ration1 and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is combined1 but when used alone it is less digestible4#bg ,bread alone and milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined4 ,the same in a general way has been observed in the feeding of farm animals1--better results are secured from combining two or more foods than from the use of one alone4 ,the extent to which one food influences the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied4 ,in a mixed ration1 consisting of several articles of food of different mechanical structure1 the work of digestion is more evenly distributed among the various organs4 ,a food often requires special preparation on the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines1 and if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of different structure1 the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place4 ,the effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is largely mechanical4 #bcc4 ,amount of ,food4--,completeness as well as ease of digestion is influenced by the amount of food consumed4 ,in general1 excessive amounts are not as completely digested as moderate amounts4 ,in digestion experiments with oatmeal and milk1 it was found that when these foods were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as completely absorbed by the body as when less was used1 the protein being #g per cent and the fat #f per cent more digestible in the medium ration4 ,experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured from an excess of food4#e ,some individuals consume too much food1 and with them a restricted diet would be beneficial1 while others err in not consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body4 ,quite frequently it is those who need more food who practice dieting4 ,when there is trouble with digestion1 it is not always the amount or kind of food which is at fault1 but other habits may be such as to affect digestion4 ,the active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food1 because there is greater demand for nutrients1 and the food is more completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous waste products4 ,the amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight4 #bcd4 ,method of ,preparation of ,food4--,the extent to which methods of cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been extensively investigated4 ,as is well known1 they have great influence upon ease and comfort of digestion4 ,during cooking1 as discussed in ,chapter ,,ii1 extensive physical and chemical changes occur1 and these in turn affect digestibility4 ,when the cooking has not been sufficient to mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue1 the digestive fluids fail to act favorably upon the food4 ,cooking is also beneficial because it renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable microrganisms which1 if they remain in food1 readily undergo incubation in the digestive tract1 interfering with normal digestion4 ,prolonged heat causes some foods to become less digestible1 as milk1 which digestion experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when sterilized4 ,pasteurized milk1 which is not subjected to so high a temperature as sterilized milk1 is more completely digested4 ,see ,chapter ,,vii for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk4#ch ,the benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in foods are1 however1 greater than the losses attendant on lessened digestibility due to the action of heat4 ,the method of preparation of a food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical structure1 and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are present4#e #bce4 ,mechanical ,condition of ,foods4--,the mechanical condition of foods as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences digestibility to a great extent4 ,the mechanics of digestion is a subject that has not been extensively investigated1 and it is one of great importance1 as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the food is not in proper mechanical condition4 ,in general1 the finer the food particles1 the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the digestive fluids and absorbed by the body4 ,nevertheless1 the diet should not consist entirely of finely granulated foods4 ,some foods are valuable mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon digestion1 rather than for the nutrients they contain4#fb ,coarsely granulated breakfast foods1 whole wheat flour1 and many vegetables contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a mechanical rather than a chemical point of view4 ,the extent to which coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a question largely for the individual to determine4 ,experiments with pigs show that if large amounts of coarse1 granular foods are consumed1 the tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to exercise its normal functions4 ,coarsely granulated foods have a tendency to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are finely granulated1 due largely to increased peristaltic action1 and the result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow normal absorption to take place4 ,in the feeding of farm animals1 it has been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great influence upon its economic use4 ,rations that are either too bulky or too concentrated fail to give the best results4 ,in the human ration1 the mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical composition4 #bcf4 ,mastication is an important part of digestion1 and when foods are not thoroughly masticated1 additional work is required of the stomach1 which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the mouth as well4 ,although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of foods is of necessity done in the stomach1 some of it may advantageously be done in the mouth4 ,the stomach should not be required to perform the function of the gizzard of a fowl4 #bcg4 ,palatability of ,foods4--,many foods naturally contain essential oils and other substances which impart palatability4 ,these have but little in the way of nutritive value1 but they assist in rendering the nutrients with which they are associated more digestible4 ,palatability of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other digestive fluids1 and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared foods aid in digestion4 ,in the feeding of farm animals it has been found that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured than when unpalatable foods are fed4 ,to secure palatability the excessive use of condiments is unnecessary4 ,it is possible to a great extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors4 ,some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the cooking1 while in others pleasant flavors are developed4 ,palatability is an important factor in the digestibility of foods4 #bch4 ,physiological ,properties of ,food4--,some food materials1 particularly fruits and vegetables1 contain compounds which have definite physiological properties1 as tannin which is an astringent1 special oils which exert a cathartic action1 and the alkaloids which serve as irritants to nerve centers4 ,wheat germ oil is laxative1 and it is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat breads are due in some degree to the oil which they contain4#fg ,the use of fruits1 herbs1 and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal properties4 ,as a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of such substances1 and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by the advice of a physician4 ,the physiological properties of some foods are due to bacterial products4 ,see ,chapter ,,xx4 #bci4 ,individuality4--,material difference in digestive power is noticeable among individuals4 ,digestion experiments show that one person may digest #e per cent more of a nutrient than another4 ,this difference appears to be due to a number of factors1 as activity of the organs1 as affected by exercise and kind of labor performed2 abnormal composition of the digestive fluids2 or failure of the different parts of the digestive tract to act in harmony4 ,individuality is one of the most important factors in digestion4 ,persons become accustomed to certain foods through long usage1 and the digestive tract adapts itself to those foods1 rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous4 ,common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some individuals1 while with others they are consumed with benefit4 ,what is food to one may prove to be a poison to another1 and while general statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods1 individual differences must be recognized4 #bdj4 ,psychological ,factors4--,previously conceived ideas concerning foods influence digestibility4 ,foods must be consumed with a relish in order to secure the best results1 as flow of the digestive fluids and activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve centers4 ,if it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious1 even when the food is wholesome1 normal digestion fails to take place4 ,in experiments by the author1 in which the comparative digestibility of butter and oleomargarine was being studied1 it was found that when the subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine1 its digestibility was depressed #e per cent1 and when they were not told the nature of the material1 but assumed that butter was oleomargarine1 the digestibility of the butter was lowered about #f per cent4#ac ,preconceived notions in regard to foods1 not founded upon well-established facts1 but due to prejudice resulting from ignorance1 cause many valuable foods to be excluded from the dietary4 ,many persons1 like the foreign lady who1 visiting this country1 said she ate only acquaintances1 prefer foods that have a familiar taste and appearance1 and any unusual taste or appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological influence upon digestion4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,comparative ,,cost ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,foods #bda4 ,cost and ,nutrient ,content of ,foods4--,the market price and the nutritive value of foods are often at variance1 as those which cost the most frequently contain the least nutrients4#ge ,it is difficult to make absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different prices1 because they differ not only in the amounts1 but also in the kinds of nutrients4 ,while it is not possible to express definitely the value of one food in terms of another1 approximate comparisons may be made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum of money when foods are at different prices1 and tables have been prepared making such comparisons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,composition ,,of ,,foods4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin47 #bdb4 ,nutrients ,procurable for a ,given ,sum4#g--,to ascertain the nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in pounds that can be obtained1 say1 for ten cents1 and then multiply by the percentages of fat1 protein1 carbohydrates1 and calories in the food4 ,the results are the amounts1 in pounds1 of nutrients procurable for that sum of money4 ,for example3 if milk is #e cents per quart1 two quarts or approximately four pounds1 can be procured for #aj cents4 ,if the milk contains fat1 #d per cent1 protein1 #c4c per cent1 carbohydrates1 #e per cent1 and fuel value1 #caj calories per pound1 multiplying each of these by #d gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds1 or #aj cents worth of milk1 as follows3 ,protein #j4ac lb4 ,fat #j4af lb4 ,carbohydrates #j4b lb4 ,calories #abdj ,if it is desired to compare milk at #e cents per quart with round steak at #ae cents per pound1 #aj cents will procure #j4ff1 or two thirds of a pound of round steak containing on an average 7edible portion7 #ai per cent protein1 #ab4h per cent fat1 and yielding #hij calories per pound4 ,if #aj per cent is refuse1 there is edible about #j4f of a pound4 ,the amounts of nutrients in the #j4f of a pound of steak1 edible portion1 or #j4ff lb4 as purchased would be3 ,protein #j4aa lb4 ,fat #j4jh lb4 ,calories #ecd ,it is to be observed that from the #aj cents' worth of milk a little more protein1 #j4jh of a pound more fat1 and nearly two and one half times as many calories can be secured as from the #aj cents' worth of meat4 ,this is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat which the milk contains4 ,at these prices1 milk should be used liberally in the dietary1 as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat4 ,it would not be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration1 but milk at #e cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at #ae cents per pound4 ,in making comparisons1 preference cannot always be given to one food because of its containing more of any particular nutrient1 for often there are other factors that influence the value4 #bdc4 ,comparing ,foods as to ,nutritive ,value4--,in general1 preference should be given to foods which supply the most protein1 provided the differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large4 ,when the protein content of two foods is nearly the same1 but the fats and carbohydrates differ materially1 the preference may safely be given to the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients4 ,a pound of protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or carbohydrates1 although it is not possible to establish an absolute scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients1 because they serve different functional purposes in the body4 ,it is sometimes necessary to use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced ration2 excessive use of protein1 however1 is not economical1 as that which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates1 and they are less expensive nutrients4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,pecuniary ,,economy ,,of ,,food4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin47 ,,ten ,,cents ,,will ,,purchase3 7,from ,farmer's ,bulletin ,no4 #adb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agr47 ,,total ,,weight ,,kind ,,of ,,food ,,price ,,of ,,food ,,car- ,,material ,,per ,,mate- ,,protein ,,fat ,,bohy- ,,energy ,,pound ,,rial ,,drates ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,cents ,pounds ,pound ,pound ,pounds ,calories ,beef1 sirloin #be #j4dj #j4jf #j4jf -- #daj ,do4 #bj #j4ej #j4jh #j4jh -- #eae ,do4 #ae #j4fg #j4aj #j4aa -- #fhe ,beef1 round #af #j4fc #j4aa #j4jh -- #efj ,do4 #ad #j4ga #j4ac #j4ji -- #fcj ,do4 #ab #j4hc #j4ae #j4aj -- #gdj ,beef1 shoulder clod #ab #j4hc #j4ac #j4jh -- #eie ,do4 #i #a4aa #j4ah #j4aj -- #gie ,beef1 stew meat #e #b4jj #j4bi #j4bc -- #aecj ,beef1 dried1 chipped #be #j4dj #j4aj #j4jc -- #cae ,mutton chops1 loin #af #j4fc #j4jh #j4ag -- #hij ,mutton1 leg #bj #j4ej #j4jg #j4jg -- #dde ,do4 #af #j4fc #j4ji #j4ji -- #efj ,roast pork1 loin #ab #j4hc #j4aa #j4ai -- #ajce ,pork1 smoked ham #bb #j4de #j4jf #j4ad -- #gce ,do4 #ah #j4ef #j4jh #j4ah -- #iae ,pork1 fat salt #ab #j4hc #j4jb #j4fh -- #biej ,codfish1 dressed1 fresh #aj #a4jj #j4aa -- -- #bbj ,halibut1 fresh #ah #j4ef #j4jh #j4jb -- #bfe ,cod1 salt #g #a4dc #j4bb #j4ja -- #dfe ,mackerel1 salt1 dressed #aj #a4jj #j4ac #j4bj -- #aace ,salmon1 canned #ab #j4hc #j4ah #j4aj -- #gfj ,oysters1 solids1 #ej cents per quart #be #j4dj #j4jb -- #j4ja #ij #ce cents per quart #ah #j4ef #j4jc #j4ja #j4jb #abe ,lobster1 canned #ah #j4ef #j4aj #j4ja -- #bbe ,butter #bj #j4ej #j4ja #j4dj -- #agje ,do4 #be #j4dj -- #j4cb -- #acfe ,do4 #cj #j4cc -- #j4bg -- #aabe ,eggs1 #cf cents per dozen #bd #j4db #j4je #j4jd -- #bfj ,eggs1 #bd cents per dozen #af #j4fc #j4jg #j4jf -- #che ,eggs1 #ab cents per dozen #h #a4be #j4ad #j4aa -- #ggj ,cheese #af #j4fc #j4af #j4bj #j4jb #aahe ,milk1 #g cents per quart #c-a_/b #b4he #j4ji #j4aa #j4ad #hhe ,milk1 #f cents per quart #c #c4cc #j4aa #j4ac #j4ag #ajcj ,wheat flour #c #c4cc #j4cb #j4jc #b4de #eddj ,do4 #b-a_/b #d4jj #j4ci #j4jd #b4id #fedj ,corn meal1 granular #b-a_/b #d4jj #j4ca #j4jg #b4if #fedj ,wheat breakfast food #g-a_/b #a4cc #j4ac #j4jb #j4ih #bbce ,oat breakfast food #g-a_/b #a4cc #j4ai #j4ji #j4hf #bcie ,oatmeal #d #b4ej #j4cd #j4af #a4ff #dejj ,rice #h #a4be #j4jh -- #j4ig #bjbe ,wheat bread #f #a4fg #j4ac #j4jb #j4hg #bjjj ,do4 #e #b4jj #j4af #j4jb #a4jd #bdjj ,do4 #d #b4ej #j4bj #j4jc #a4cj #cjjj ,rye bread #e #b4jj #j4ae #j4ja #a4jd #bcdj ,beans1 white1 dried #e #b4jj #j4ce #j4jc #a4af #cjdj ,cabbage #b-a_/b #d4jj #j4je #j4ja #j4ah #dfj ,celery #e #b4jj #j4jb -- #j4je #acj ,corn1 canned #aj #a4jj #j4jb #j4ja #j4ah #dcj ,potatoes1 #ij cents per bushel #a-a_/b #f4fg #j4aj #j4ja #j4ic #aigj #fj cents per bushel #a #aj4jj #j4ae #j4ja #a4dj #biej #de cents per bushel #c_/d #ac4cc #j4bj #j4ja #a4hg #cice ,turnips #a #aj4jj #j4jh #j4ja #j4ed #abjj ,apples #a-a_/b #f4fg #j4jb #j4jb #j4fe #abgj ,bananas #g #a4dc #j4ja #j4ja #j4ah #cgj ,oranges #f #a4fg #j4ja -- #j4ac #bej ,strawberries #g #a4dc 4#ja #j4ja #j4ji #bae ,sugar #f #a4fg -- -- #a4fg #bibj ,it is to be noted in the table that1 ordinarily1 for the same amount of money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk1 cheese1 sugar1 and beans1 corn meal1 wheat flour1 oatmeal1 and cereals in bulk4 ,while meats supply protein liberally1 they fail to furnish carbohydrates as the vegetables4 ,as discussed in the chapter on ,dietary ,studies of ,families1 unnecessarily expensive foods are often used1 resulting either in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations4 ,,examples #a4 ,compute the calories and the amounts of protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates that can be procured for #be cents in cheese selling for #ah cents per pound2 how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at #bj cents per dozen8 #b4 ,which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients1 potatoes at #ej cents per bushel or flour at #f per barrel8 #c4 ,how do beans at #aj cents per quart compare in nutritive value with beef at #ae ,cents per pound8 #d4 ,how does salt codfish at #aj cents per pound compare in nutritive value with lamb chops at #ae cents per pound8 #e4 ,compare in nutritive value cream at #be cents per quart with butter at #cj cents per pound4 #f4 ,calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of sugar1 #h oz42 butter1 #d oz42 eggs1 #h oz42 flour1 #h oz42 and milk1 #d oz42 the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds4 ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,common ,,american ,,food ,,products 7,from ,farmer's ,bulletin1 ,no4 #adb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agr47 ,f h u p ,r ,p ,c y e e e ,w r a d l r f a o ,f r r ,a ,food ,material u t t a b a s v ,p 7as purchased7 s e e t o t h a o e r i - e l u n s u n e d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,calo- ,,animal ,,food ries ,beef1 fresh3 ,chuck ribs #af4c #eb4f #ae4e #ae4j -- #j4h #iaj ,flank #aj4b #ed4j #ag4j #ai4j -- #j4g #aaje ,loin #ac4c #eb4e #af4a #ag4e -- #j4i #ajbe ,porterhouse steak #ab4g #eb4d #ai4a #ag4i -- #j4h #aajj ,sirloin steak #ab4h #ed4j #af4e #af4a -- #j4i #ige ,neck #bg4f #de4i #ad4e #aa4i -- #j4g #aafe ,ribs #bj4h #dc4h #ac4i #ba4b -- #j4g #aace ,rib rolls -- #fc4i #ai4c #af4g -- #j4i #ajee ,round #g4b #fj4g #ai4j #ab4h -- #a4j #hij ,rump #bj4g #de4j #ac4h #bj4b -- #j4g #ajij ,shank1 fore #cf4i #db4i #ab4h #g4c -- #j4f #ede ,shoulder and clod #af4d #ef4h #af4d #i4h -- #j4i #gae ,fore quarter #ah4g #di4a #ad4e #ag4e -- #j4g #iie ,hind quarter #ae4g #ej4d #ae4d #ah4c -- #j4g #ajde ,beef1 corned1 canned1 pickled1 dried3 ,corned beef #h4d #di4b #ad4c #bc4h -- #d4f #abde ,tongue1 pickled #f4j #eh4i #aa4i #ai4b -- #d4c #ajaj ,dried1 salted1 and smoked #d4g #ec4g #bf4d #f4i -- #h4i #gij ,canned boiled beef -- #ea4h #be4e #bb4e -- #a4c #adaj ,canned corned beef -- #ea4h #bf4c #ah4g -- #d4j #abgj ,veal3 ,breast #ba4c #eb4j #ae4d #aa4j -- #j4h #gde ,leg #ad4b #fj4a #ae4e #g4i -- #j4i #fbe ,leg cutlets #c4d #fh4c #bj4a #g4e -- #a4j #fie ,fore quarter #bd4e #ed4b #ae4a #f4j -- #j4g #ece ,hind quarter #bj4g #ef4b #af4b #f4f -- #j4h #ehj ,mutton3 ,flank #i4i #ci4j #ac4h #cf4i -- #j4f #aggj ,leg1 hind #ah4d #ea4b #ae4a #ad4g -- #j4h #hij ,loin chops #af4j #db4j #ac4e #bh4c -- #j4g #adae ,fore quarter #ba4b #da4f #ab4c #bd4e -- #j4g #abce ,hind quarter1 without #ag4b #de4d #ac4h #bc4b -- #j4g #abaj tallow ,lamb3 ,breast #aj4a #de4e #ae4d #ai4a -- #j4h #ajge ,leg1 hind #ag4d #eb4i #ae4i #ac4f -- #j4i #hfj ,pork1 fresh3 ,ham #aj4g #dh4j #ac4e #be4i -- #j4h #acbj ,loin chops #ai4g #da4h #ac4d #bd4b -- #j4h #abde ,shoulder #ab4d #dd4i #ab4j #bi4h -- #j4g #adej ,tenderloin -- #ff4e #ah4i #ac4j -- #a4j #hie ,pork1 salted1 cured1 pickled3 ,ham1 smoked #ac4f #cd4h #ad4b #cc4d -- #d4b #afce ,shoulder1 smoked #ah4b #cf4h #ac4j #bf4f -- #e4e #acce ,salt pork -- #g4i #a4i #hf4b -- #c4i #ceee ,bacon1 smoked #g4g #ag4d #i4a #fb4b -- #d4a #bgae ,sausage3 ,bologna #c4c #ee4b #ah4b #ai4g -- #c4h #aaee ,pork -- #ci4h #ac4j #dd4b #a4a #b4b #bjge ,frankfort -- #eg4b #ai4f #ah4f #a4a #c4d #aaee ,soups3 ,celery1 cream of -- #hh4f #b4a #b4h #e4j #a4e #bce ,beef -- #ib4i #d4d #j4d #a4a #a4b #abj ,meat stew -- #hd4e #d4f #d4c #e4e #a4a #cfe ,tomato -- #ij4j #a4h #a4a #e4f #a4e #ahe ,poultry3 ,chicken1 broilers #da4f #dc4g #ab4h #a4d -- #j4g #cje ,fowls #be4i #dg4a #ac4g #ab4c -- #j4g #gfe ,goose #ag4f #ch4e #ac4d #bi4h -- #j4g #adge ,turkey #bb4g #db4d #af4a #ah4d -- #j4h #ajfj ,fish3 ,cod1 dressed #bi4i #eh4e #aa4a #j4b -- #j4h #bbj ,halibut1 steaks or sections #ag4g #fa4i #ae4c #d4d -- #j4i #dge ,mackerel1 whole #dd4g #dj4d #aj4b #d4b -- #j4g #cgj ,perch1 yellow dressed #ce4a #ej4g #ab4h #j4g -- #j4i #bge ,shad1 whole #ej4a #ce4b #i4d #d4h -- #j4g #chj ,shad1 roe -- #ga4b #bj4i #c4h #b4f #a4e #fjj ,fish1 preserved3 ,cod1 salt #bd4i #dj4b #af4j #j4d -- #ah4e #cbe ,herring1 smoked #dd4d #ai4b #bj4e #h4h -- #g4d #gee ,fish1 canned ,salmon -- #fc4e #ba4h #ab4a -- #b4f #iae ,sardines ,a#e4j #ec4f #bc4g #ab4a -- #e4c #iej ,shellfish3 ,clams -- #hj4h #aj4f #a4a #e4b #b4c #cdj ,crabs #eb4d #cf4g #g4i #j4i #j4f #a4e #bjj ,lobsters #fa4g #cj4g #e4i #j4g #j4b #j4h #ade ,eggs3 ,hen's eggs ,b#aa4b #fe4e #ac4a #i4c -- #j4i #fce ,dairy products1 etc43 ,butter -- #aa4j #a4j #he4j -- #c4j #cdaj ,whole milk -- #hg4j #c4c #d4j #e4j #j4g #caj ,skim milk -- #ij4e #c4d #j4c #e4a #j4g #afe ,buttermilk -- #ia4j #c4j #j4e #d4h #j4g #afj ,condensed milk -- #bf4i #h4h #h4c #ed4a #a4i #adcj ,cream -- #gd4j #b4e #ah4e #d4e #j4e #hfe ,cheese1 ,cheddar -- #bg4d #bg4g #cf4h #d4a #d4j #bjge ,cheese1 full cream -- #cd4b #be4i #cc4g #b4d #c4h #ahhe ,,vegetable ,,food ,flour1 meal1 etc43 ,entire wheat flour -- #aa4d #ac4h #a4i #ga4i #a4j #afej ,graham flour -- #aa4c #ac4c #b4b #ga4d #a4h #afde ,wheat flour1 patent roller process ,high-grade and medium -- #ab4j #aa4d #a4j #ge4a #j4e #afce ,low grade -- #ab4j #ad4j #a4i #ga4b #j4i #afdj ,macaroni1 vermicelli1 etc -- #aj4c #ac4d #j4i #gd4a #a4c #afde ,wheat breakfast food -- #i4f #ab4a #a4h #ge4b #a4c #afhj ,buckwheat flour -- #ac4f #f4d #a4b #gg4i #j4i #afje ,rye flour -- #ab4i #f4h #j4i #gh4g #j4g #afbj ,corn meal -- #ab4e #i4b #a4i #ge4d #a4j #afce ,oat breakfast food -- #g4g #af4g #g4c #ff4b #b4a #ahjj ,rice -- #ab4c #h4j #j4c #gi4j #j4d #afbj ,tapioca -- #aa4d #j4d #j4a #hh4j #j4a #afej ,starch -- -- -- -- #ij4j -- #afge ,bread1 pastry1 etc43 ,white bread -- #ce4c #i4b #a4c #ec4a #a4a #abjj ,brown bread -- #dc4f #e4d #a4h #dg4a #b4a #ajdj ,bread1 pastry1 etc43 ,graham bread -- #ce4g #h4i #a4h #eb4a #a4e #aaie ,whole wheat bread -- #ch4d #i4g4 #j4i #di4g #a4c #aacj ,rye bread -- #ce4g #i4j4 #j4f #ec4b #a4e #aagj ,cake -- #ai4i #f4c4 #i4j #fc4c #a4e #afcj ,cream crackers -- #f4h #i4g4 #ab4a #fi4g #a4g #aibe ,oyster crackers -- #d4h #aa4c4 #aj4e #gj4e #b4i #aiaj ,soda crackers -- #e4i #i4h4 #i4a #gc4a #b4a #ahge ,sugars1 etc43 ,molasses -- -- -- -- #gj4j -- #abbe ,candy,c -- -- -- -- #if4j -- #afhj ,honey -- -- -- -- #ha4j -- #adbj ,sugar1 granulated -- -- -- -- #ajj4j -- #agej ,maple sirup -- -- -- -- #ga4d -- #abej ,vegetables3,d ,beans1 dried -- #ab4f #bb4e4 #a4h #ei4f #c4e #aebj ,beans1 ,lima1 shelled -- #fh4e #g4a4 #j4g #bb4j #a4g #edj ,beans1 string #g4j #hc4j #b4a4 #j4c #f4i #j4g #agj ,beets #bj4j #gj4j #a4c4 #j4a #g4g #j4i #afj ,cabbage #ae4j #gg4g #a4d4 #j4b #d4h #j4i #aae ,celery #bj4j #ge4f #j4i4 #j4a #b4f #j4h #fe ,corn1 green 7sweet71 edible portion -- #ge4d #c4a #a4a #ai4g #j4g #ddj ,cucumbers #ae4j #ha4a #j4g4 #j4b #b4f #j4d #fe ,lettuce #ae4j #hj4e #a4j4 #j4b #b4e #j4h #fe ,mushrooms -- #hh4a #c4e #j4d #f4h #a4b #ahe ,onions #aj4j #gh4i #a4d4 #j4c #h4i #j4e #aij ,parsnips #bj4j #ff4d #a4c4 #j4d #aj4h #a4a #bcj ,peas 7,pisum sativum71 dried4 -- #i4e #bd4f #a4j #fb4j #b4i #aefe shelled -- #gd4f #g4j #j4e #af4i #a4j #ddj ,cowpeas1 dried -- #ac4j #ba4d4 #a4d #fj4h #c4d #aeje ,potatoes #bj4j #fb4f #a4h4 #j4a #ad4g #j4h #bie ,vegetables3 ,rhubarb #dj4j #ef4f #j4d #j4d #b4b #j4d #fj ,sweet potatoes #bj4j #ee4b #a4d #j4f #ba4i #j4i #ddj ,spinach -- #ib4c #b4a #j4c #c4b #b4a #ie ,squash #ej4j #dd4b #j4g #j4b #d4e #j4d #ajj ,tomatoes -- #id4c #j4i #j4d #c4i #j4e #ajj ,turnips #cj4j #fb4g #j4i #j4a #e4g #j4f #abj ,vegetables1 canned3 ,baked beans -- #fh4i #f4i #b4e #ai4f #b4a #eee ,peas 7,pisum sativum71 green -- #he4c #c4f #j4b #i4h #a4a #bce ,corn1 green -- #gf4a #b4h #a4b #ai4j #j4i #dcj ,succotash -- #ge4i #c4f #a4j #ah4f #j4i #dbe ,tomatoes -- #id4j #a4b #j4b #d4j #j4f #ie ,fruits1 berries1 etc41 fresh3 ,e ,apples #be4j #fc4c #j4c #j4c #aj4h #j4c #aij ,bananas #ce4j #dh4i #j4h #j4d #ad4c #j4f #bfj ,grapes #be4j #eh4j #a4j #a4b #ad4d #j4d #bie ,lemons #cj4j #fb4e #j4g #j4e #e4i #j4d #abe ,muskmelons #ej4j #dd4h #j4c -- #d4f #j4c #hj ,oranges #bg4j #fc4d #j4f #j4a #h4e #j4d #aej ,pears #aj4j #gf4j #j4e #j4d #ab4g #j4d #bcj ,persimmons1 edible portion -- #ff4a #j4h #j4g #ca4e #j4i #eej ,raspberries -- #he4h #a4j -- #ab4f #j4f #bbj ,strawberries #e4j #he4i #j4i #j4f #g4j #j4f #aej ,watermelons #ei4d #cg4e #j4b #j4a #b4g #j4a #ej ,fruits1 dried3 ,apples -- #bh4a #a4f #b4b #ff4a #b4j #aahe ,apricots -- #bi4d #d4g #a4j #fb4e #b4d #aabe ,dates #aj4j #ac4h #a4i #b4e #gj4f #a4b #abge ,fruits1 dried3 ,rhubarb #dj4j #ef4f #j4d #j4d #b4b #j4d #fj ,figs -- #ah4h #d4c #j4c #gd4b #b4d #abhj ,raisins #aj4j #ac4a #b4c #c4j #fh4e #c4a #abfe ,nuts3 ,almonds #de4j #b4g #aa4e #cj4b #i4e #a4a #aeae ,brazil nuts #di4f #b4f #h4f #cc4g #c4e #b4j #adhe ,butternuts #hf4d #j4f #c4h #h4c #j4e #j4d #che ,chestnuts1 fresh #af4j #cg4h #e4b #d4e #ce4d #a4a #iae ,chestnuts1 dried #bd4j #d4e #h4a #e4c #ef4d #a4g #ache ,cocoanuts ,f #dh4h #g4b #b4i #be4i #ad4c #j4i #abie ,cocoanut1 prepared -- #c4e #f4c #eg4d #ca4e #a4c #bhfe ,filberts #eb4a #a4h #g4e #ca4c #f4b #a4a #adcj ,hickory nuts #fb4b #a4d #e4h #be4e #d4c #j4h #aade ,pecans1 polished #ec4b #a4d #e4b #cc4c #f4b #j4g #adfe ,peanuts #bd4e #f4i #ai4e #bi4a #ah4e #a4e #agge ,pion 7,pinus edulis7 #dj4f #b4j #h4g #cf4h #aj4b #a4g #agcj ,walnuts1 black #gd4a #j4f #g4b #ad4f #c4j #j4e #gcj ,walnuts1 ,english #eh4a #a4j #f4i #bf4f #f4h #j4f #abej ,miscellaneous3 ,chocolate -- #e4i #ab4i #dh4g #cj4c #b4b #efbe ,cocoa1 powdered -- #d4f #ba4f #bh4i #cg4g #g4b #bafj ,cereal coffee1 infusion 7#a part boiled in #bj parts water7,g -- #ih4b #j4b -- #a4d #j4b #cj ,footnote ,a3 ,refuse1 oil4 ,footnote ,b3 ,refuse1 shell4 ,footnote ,c3 ,plain confectionery not containing nuts1 fruit1 or chocolate4 ,footnote ,d3 ,such vegetables as potatoes1 squash1 beets1 etc41 have a certain amount of inedible material1 skin1 seeds1 etc ,the amount varies with the method of preparing the vegetables1 and cannot be accurately estimated ,the figures given for refuse of vegetables1 fruits1 etc41 are assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods as ordinarily prepared4 ,footnote ,e3 ,fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials1 as skin1 seeds1 etc41 which are properly classed as refuse4 ,in some fruits1 as oranges and prunes1 the amount rejected in eating is practically the same as refuse4 ,in others1 as apples and pears1 more or less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and seeds and other inedible portions4 ,the edible material which is thus thrown away1 and should properly be classed with the waste1 is here classed with the refuse4 ,the figures for refuse here given represent1 as nearly as can be ascertained1 the quantities ordinarily rejected4 ,footnote ,f3 ,milk and shell4 ,footnote ,g3 ,the average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is3 ,water #f4b1 protein #ac4c1 fat #c4d1 carbohydrates #gb4f1 and ash #d4e per cent4 ,only a portion of the nutrients1 however1 enter into the infusion4 ,the average in the table represents the available nutrients in the beverage4 ,infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain practically no nutrients4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,dietary ,,studies #bdd4 ,object of ,dietary ,studies4--,the quantity of food which different families purchase varies between wide limits2 a portion being lost mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount in the refuse and non-edible parts4 ,if a record is made of all foods purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted1 the nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the weight of each food by the average composition4 ,if such calculations be made1 it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day of both protein and fat is consumed by adults1 while in other families less than half of this amount is used4 ,the object of dietary studies is to determine the source1 cost1 composition1 and nutritive value of the foods consumed by different families2 they also enable comparisons to be made of the amounts of nutrients purchased4 ,extensive dietary studies have been made by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 and the results have been published in various bulletins4#gf #bde4 ,wide and ,narrow ,rations4--,when the amount of carbohydrates in a ration is small in comparison with the protein1 it is called a narrow ration1 while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much in excess of the protein4 ,when a ration contains #j4dj of a pound of protein1 #j4dj of a pound of fat1 and #a pound of carbohydrates1 it has a nutritive ratio of #a to #d4h and is a narrow ration4 ,to calculate the nutritive ratio1 the fat is multiplied by #b-a_/d1 the product added to the carbohydrates1 and this sum divided by the protein4 ,it is not possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons1 because the needs of the body vary so with different individuals4 ,hard and fast rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be formulated1 as our knowledge of the subject is too limited4 ,it is known that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious4 ,while the appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety1 it alone cannot always be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of food to consume1 although the demands of appetite should not be disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not voicing the needs of nature4 ,there has been a tendency which perhaps was a survival of the ,puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant2 as examples might be cited the craving for water by fever patients1 and for sugar by growing children1 which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature4 #bdf4 ,dietary ,standards4--,as a result of a large number of dietary studies and digestion experiments1 dietary standards have been prepared4 ,atwater in this country and ,voit in ,germany have proposed such standards for men employed at different kinds of labor1 as follows3 ,protein ,fat,carbo- ,fuel ,nutritive hydrates ,value ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ lb4 lb4 lb4 ,calories ,ratio ,man with little physical exercise #j4bj #j4bj #j4ff #bdej #e4e ,man with light muscular work #j4bb #j4bb #j4gg #bhjj #e4g ,man with moderate muscular work #j4bh #j4bh #j4ii #cebj #e4h ,man with active muscular work #j4cc #j4cc #a4aj #djfj #e4f ,man with hard muscular work #j4ci #j4ee #a4dc #egjj #f4i ,in the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases with the labor to be performed4 ,in order to secure the necessary heat and energy1 rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work4 ,all dietary standards1 however1 should be regarded as tentative only4 ,opinions differ greatly on different points2 for example1 as to the amount of protein a ration should contain4 ,this is a matter that can be determined only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions1 and as yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards4 ,chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less protein than is called for in the standard ration4#gg ,the amount of protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and maintain a nitrogen equilibrium2 that is1 the income and outgo of nitrogen from the body should be practically equal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,,dietaries ,,and ,,dietary ,,standards4 7,from ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin47 ,while one freely admits that health and a large measure of muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of protein1 yet ,i think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what1 for want of a better word1 one can only describe as energy4 #bh ,on the other hand1 excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein are sometimes consumed1 adding greatly to the cost of the ration and necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its elimination4 #bdg4 ,number of ,meals per ,day4--,some persons advocate two meals per day rather than three1 but dietary studies show that the best results are secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals1 and with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount of food than when three meals are eaten4 ,it is not essential that the food be equally divided among the three meals4 ,any one of them may be lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the individual dictate4 ,if it is found necessary to reduce the total quantity of food consumed1 this may be done by a proportional reduction of each of the meals1 or of any one of them instead of decreasing the number of meals per day4 ,the occasional missing of a meal is sometimes beneficial1 in cases of digestion disorders1 but the ordinary requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are consumed1 as this insures an even supply of nutrients4 ,for persons of sedentary habits1 the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal experience4 ,in the matter of diet every man must1 in the last resort1 be a law unto himself2 but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently and apply it honestly1 giving due heed to the warnings which nature is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress4#bh ,if there is trouble in digesting the food1 it is well to study the other habits of life along with the food question1 for it may be the difficulty arises from some other cause1 and would be remedied by more exercise and fresh air1 avoiding rush immediately after meals1 more thorough mastication1 or less worry4 ,it is a serious matter to shut off the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who is working2 as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then expect a full amount of energy and heat4 ,but unlike the furnace1 when the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness or extreme nervous strain4 ,some persons live in such a way as to never have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they should be in their prime4 ,food is required for the production of nerve energy as well as physical energy4#gh #bdh4 ,mixed ,dietary ,desirable4--,experiments in the feeding of farm animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number of foods to form a mixed ration1 rather than from the use of one food alone1#gi for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly distributed1 and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods consumed4 ,the same is true in human feeding2 the best results are secured from a mixed diet4 ,ordinarily1 about two fifths of the nutrients of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable sources4 #bdi4 ,animal and ,vegetable ,foods2 ,economy of ,production4--,animal foods can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and vegetables1 as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal1 together with forage crops1 to make a pound of meat4 ,hence the returns in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as human food1 than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of the meat4 ,as the population of a country increases1 and foods necessarily become more expensive1 cereals are destined to replace animal foods to a great extent1 solely as a matter of economy4 #bej4 ,food ,habits4--,long-established dietary habits and customs are not easily changed1 and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods1 substitution of others1 although equally valuable1 may fail to give satisfactory results4 ,for example1 immigrants from southern ,europe demand foods with which they are familiar1 as macaroni1 olive oil1 and certain kinds of cheese1 foods which are generally imported and more expensive than the staples produced in this country1#hj and when they are compelled to live on other foods1 even though they have as many nutrients1 they complain of being underfed4 ,previously acquired food habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and assimilation4 ,sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm animals is attended with unsatisfactory results1 and whenever changes are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual rather than radical4 #bea4 ,underfed ,families4--,as the purchasing of food is often done by inexperienced persons1 palatability rather than nutritive value is made the basis of choice4 ,dietary studies show that because of lack of knowledge of the nutritive value of foods1 whole families are often underfed4 ,particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods are limited4 ,in dietary studies among poor families in ,new ,york ,city1#ha the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture notes3 ,it is quite evident that what is needed among these families more than anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go the farthest4 ,some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be underfed1 as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge them4 ,among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished as among the poor4 #beb4 ,cheap and ,expensive ,foods4--,among the more expensive items of a ration are meats1 butter1 and canned fruits4 ,the difference in composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small1 being largely physical1 and affecting taste and flavor rather than nutritive value4 ,expensive cuts of meat1 high-priced breakfast cereals1 tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors1 add little in the way of nutritive value to the ration1 but greatly enhance the cost of living4 ,ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal1 wheat flour and bread1 milk1 beans1 cheese1 sugar1 and potatoes4#g ,the amount of animal and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may be governed largely by personal preference or cost1 as there is little difference in nutritive value4 ,the selection of foods on the basis of cost and nutritive value is discussed in ,chapter ,,xvi4 #bec4 ,food ,notions4--,many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive value of foods1 and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated against because of prejudice4 ,skim milk is usually regarded as containing little if any nourishing material1 when in reality it has a high protein content1 and can be added to other foods to increase their nutritive value4 ,the less expensive cuts of meat contain more total nutrients than many of the more expensive ones4 ,beef extracts have been erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef1#ea and mushrooms to be equal in value of beefsteak2 chemical analyses fail to confirm either statement4 ,the banana also has been overestimated as to food value1 and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits1 it is not the equal of cereals1 as has been claimed4#hb ,cocoa1 although a valuable beverage1 adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration unless it is made with milk4 ,the value of a food should be based upon its composition as determined by chemical analysis1 its digestibility as founded upon digestion experiments1 and its palatability and mechanical structure4 ,food notions have1 in many instances1 been the cause of banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods1 of greatly increasing the cost of living1 as well as of promulgating incorrect ideas in regard to foods1 so that individuals and in some cases entire families have suffered from improper or insufficient food4 #bed4 ,dietary of ,two ,families ,compared4--,a dietary study often reveals ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts of food1 and sometimes at less expense4 ,the following dietaries of two families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as much in the purchase of foods as the other family1 and yet the one whose food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended for food4#ac ,,food ,,consumed1 ,,one ,,week ,,family ,no4 #a #bj loaves of bread #a4jj #aj to #ab lb4 loin steak1 or meat of similar cost #b4jj #bj to #be lb4 rib roast1 or similar meat #d4dj #d lb4 high-priced cereal breakfast food1 #bj ct4 #j4hj ,cake and pastry purchased #c4jj #h lb4 butter1 #cj ct4 #b4dj ,tea1 coffee1 spices1 etc #j4ge ,mushrooms #j4ge ,celery #a4jj ,oranges #b4jj ,potatoes #j4be ,miscellaneous canned goods #b4jj ,milk #j4ej ,miscellaneous foods #b4jj #c doz4 eggs #j4fj ------ #bc4de ,,family ,no4 #b #ae lb4 flour1 bread home-made 7skim milk used7 #j4de ,yeast1 shortening and skim milk #j4aj #aj lb4 steak 7round4 ,hamburger and some loin7 #a4ej #aj lb4 other meats1 boiling pieces1 rump roast1 etc4 #a4jj #e lb4 cheese1 #af cents #j4hj #e lb4 oatmeal 7bulk7 #j4ae #e lb4 beans #j4be ,home-made cake and pastry #a4jj #f lb4 butter1 #cj ct4 #a4hj #c lb4 home-made shortening #j4be ,tea1 coffee1 and spices #j4dj ,apples #j4ej ,prunes #j4be ,potatoes #j4be ,milk #a4jj ,miscellaneous foods #a4jj #c doz4 eggs #j4fj ------ #aa4cj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,cost ,,and ,,nutritive ,,value ,,of ,,rations4 ,in comparing the foods used by the two families1 it will be observed that family ,no4 #a purchased their bread at the bakery at a cost of #a4jj1 while the bread of family ,no4 #b was home-made1 skim milk being used in its preparation1 the flour1 milk1 yeast1 and shortening costing about #ee cents4 ,family ,no4 #a consumed #aj pounds of expensive steaks1 family ,no4 #b consumed the same number of pounds1 a portion being cheaper cuts4 ,instead of the #bj pounds of roast or similar beef used by family ,no4 #a1 only one half as much and cheaper cuts as boiling pieces1 stew1 rump roast1 etc41 were used by family ,no4 #b2 #e pounds of beans and #e pounds of cheese taking the place of some of the meat4 ,family ,no4 #a consumed #d pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods1 supposing they contained a larger amount of nutrients than were actually present4 ,in place of the #d pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods of family ,no4 #a1 family ,no4 #b used #e pounds of oatmeal purchased in bulk4 ,family ,no4 #a bought their cake and pastry for #c4jj1 while those of family ,no4 #b were home made and cost #a4jj4 ,family ,no4 #b used #b pounds less butter per week because of the preparation and use of home-made shortening from beef suet and milk4 ,they also purchased a smaller amount of tea1 coffee1 and spices than family ,no4 #a4 ,family ,no4 #b consumed a larger quantity of less expensive fruits and vegetables than family ,no4 #a1 who ate #ge cents' worth of mushrooms with the idea that they contained as much protein as meat1 but analyses show that mushrooms contain no more nutrients than potatoes and similar vegetables4 ,in place of the celery and oranges1 apples and prunes were used by family ,no4 #b4 ,the same amount of potatoes was used by each4 ,fifty cents was spent for milk by family ,no4 #a and #a4jj by family ,no4 #b4 ,the total amount expended for food by family ,no4 #a was #bc4de1 while family ,no4 #b purchased a greater variety of foods for #aa4cj1 as well as foods containing more nutrients4 ,the approximate amounts of nutrients in the foods purchased by the two families are given in the following table1 from which it will be observed that family ,no4 #b obtained a much larger amount of total nutrients and was better fed at considerably less expense than family ,no4 #a4 ,,nutrients ,,in ,,foods ,,consumed4--,,family ,,no4 #a ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbohydrates ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- --- #bj lb4 bread #a4ih #j4bh #aa4db #aj lb4 loin steak #a4ei #a4gf -- #bj lb4 rib roast #b4fh #d4bf -- #d lb4 cereals #j4db #j4jf #b4ge #h lb4 butter #j4jd #f4hj -- #be lb4 potatoes #j4de #j4jc #c4hc #bj lb4 milk #j4gj #j4hj #a4jj ------------------------- #g4hf #ac4ii #ai4jj ,,family ,,no4 #b ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbohydrates ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ae lb4 flour #a4hi #j4ab #aa4ae #e lb4 skim milk #j4af #j4ja #j4bf #aj lb4 round steak #a4ha #a4bf -- #aj lb4 beef #a4cb #b4jb -- #e lb4 cheese #a4dj #a4ge -- #e lb4 oatmeal #j4gh #j4cf #c4dj #f lb4 butter #j4jc #e4aj -- #c lb4 shortening -- #b4ee -- #c lb4 prunes #j4jc -- #j4fj #be lb4 apples #j4ab -- #b4ej #be lb4 potatoes #j4de #j4jc #c4hc #dj lb4 milk #a4dd #a4fj #a4ij #e lb4 beans #a4ab -- #c4jj ---------------------------------------- --------------- #aj4ee #ad4hj #bf4fd ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,difference in nutrients in favor of family ,no4 #b1 consuming the cheaper #b4fi #j4ha #g4fd combination of foods #bee4 ,food in its ,relation to ,mental and ,physical ,vigor4--,when the body is not properly supplied with food1 the best results in the form of productive work cannot be secured4 ,there is a close relationship between the nature of the food consumed and mental activity1 also ability to satisfactorily perform physical labor4 ,the productive power of the individual as well as of the nation depends doubtless upon many factors other than food1 such as race1 climate1 habit1 etc41 but there is no gainsaying the fact that diet has also a profound and direct influence upon it4#hc ,if the body is diseased1 it cannot make the right uses of the food1 and often the food is blamed when the trouble is due primarily to other causes4 ,the fact that a diseased digestive tract is unable to utilize some foods is no valid reason why these foods should be discarded in the dietary of persons in normal health1 particularly when the food is in no way responsible for the disease4 ,some diseases are most prevalent in the case of a restricted diet4 ,a change in the dietary of the ,japanese navy greatly improved the health of the sailors4 ,the prevalence of kakke or beriberi in the navy turned the attention of many medical specialists toward the problem of nutrition4444 ,it was generally believed that there was some very close connection between the disease and the rice diet4444 ,one outcome of these investigations was the passage of the food supply act of the navy in #ahhd4 ,the ration provided in accordance with this act was sufficient to furnish an abundance of protein and energy4444 ,following the change of ration in #ahhd1 the prevalence of the disease was very materially diminished1 and at the end of three years cases of kakke were practically unknown among the marines4#hc #bef4 ,dietary ,studies in ,public ,institutions4--,dietary studies in public institutions1 as prisons1 and asylums for the insane1 show that it is possible to secure greater variety of food containing a larger amount of nutrients1 and even at a reduction in cost4#hd ,in such institutions it is important that the food should be not only ample in amount1 but wholesome and nutritious1 as many of the inmates respond both physically and mentally to an improved diet4 ,for humanitarian as well as economic reasons institutional dietetics should more generally be placed under the supervision of skilled dietists4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,rational ,,feeding ,,of ,,man #beg4 ,object4--,rational feeding of man has for its object the regulation of the food supply in accord with the demands of the body4 ,it is based upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals2 in each1 the best results in the way of health1 amount of labor performed1 and economy are secured when the body receives nutrients sufficient for the production of heat and energy and for the repair of worn-out tissues4 ,rational feeding is simply regulation of the food1 both as to kind and amount1 to meet the needs of the body4#gb #beh4 ,standard ,rations4--,in human feeding1 as in animal feeding1 it is not possible to lay down hard and fast rules as to the quantity of nutrients required for a standard ration4#he ,as stated in the chapter on ,dietary ,studies1 such standards have been proposed1 but they are to be considered as tentative rather than absolute1 for the amount of food required by different persons must necessarily vary with the individuality4 ,while it is impossible to establish absolute standards1 any large variation from the provisional standards usually results in lessened ability to accomplish work1 ill health1 or increased expense4 #bei4 ,amounts of ,food ,consumed4--,the approximate amounts of some food articles consumed per day are as follows3 ,,range ,,approximate ,,amount ,,in ,,lbs4 ---------------------------------- ,bread #f to #ad oz4 #j4ej ,butter #b to #e oz4 #j4ab ,potatoes#h to #af oz4 #j4ge ,cheese #a to #d oz4 #j4ab ,beans #a to #d oz4 #j4ab ,milk #h to #cb oz4 -- ,sugar #b to #e oz4 #j4bj ,meats #d to #ab oz4 #j4be ,oatmeal #a to #d oz4 #j4ab ,in the calculation of rations it is desirable that the amount of any food article should not exceed that designated1 unless for some special reason it has been found the food can consistently be increased4 ,the amount of nutrients given in dietary standards is for one day1 and the nutrients may be divided among the three meals as desired4 ,it is to be noted that1 ordinarily1 the foods which supply carbohydrates are flour1 corn meal1 cereal products1 potatoes1 beans1 sugar1 and milk2 those which supply fat are milk1 butter1 lard1 and meats2 and those which supply protein in liberal amounts are beans1 cheese1 meats1 oatmeal1 cereals1 bread1 and milk4 #bfj4 ,average ,composition of ,foods4--,the amounts of nutrients in foods are determined from the average composition of the foods4 ,these figures for average composition are based upon analyses of a large number of samples of food materials4#g ,in individual cases it will be found that foods may vary from the standards given2 as for example1 milk may contain from #b4e to #e per cent of fat1 while the protein and fat of meats vary appreciably from the figures given for average composition4 ,with the cereals and vegetable foods1 variations from the standards are small4 ,in the table1 the composition of the food as purchased represents all of the nutrients in the food1 including those in the refuse1 trimmings1 or waste1 while the figures for the edible portion represent the nutrients in the food after deducting what is lost as refuse4 ,in making calculations1 the student should use the figures given for the foods as purchased1 unless the weights are of the edible portion only4 ,the figures in the table are on the basis of percentage amounts1 or nutrients in #ajj pounds of food4 ,by moving the decimal point two places to the left1 the figures will represent the nutrients in one pound1 and if this is multiplied by the number of pounds or fraction of a pound used1 the quantity of nutrients is secured4 ,for example1 suppose bread contains #i4e per cent of protein and #ef per cent of carbohydrates1 #a pound would contain #j4jie pound of protein1 #j4ef pound of carbohydrates2 and #j4e of a pound would contain approximately #j4je pound of protein and #j4bh pound of carbohydrates4 ,in calculating rations1 it is not necessary to carry the figures to the third decimal place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,food ,,articles ,,for ,a ,,human ,,ration4 #bfa4 ,example of a ,ration4--,suppose it is desired to calculate a ration for a man at light muscular work4 ,first1 note the requirements in the way of nutrients in the table ,dietary ,standards1 ,section #bdf4 ,such a ration should supply approximately #j4bb pound each of protein and fat1 and #j4gg pound of carbohydrates1 and should yield #bhjj calories4 ,a trial ration is made by combining the following3 ,pound ,bread #j4ej ,butter #j4ab ,potatoes #j4ge ,milk #a4jj ,sugar #j4ab ,beef #j4be ,ham #j4bj ,oatmeal #j4ab ,eggs #j4be ,the quantities of nutrients in these food materials are approximately as follows3 ,,ration ,,for ,,man ,,at ,,moderate ,,work ,,protein ,,fat ,c4,h4 ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ,,lb4 ,,calories ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bread #j4ej #j4je #j4ja #j4bi #fec ,butter #j4ab -- #j4aj -- #dcb ,potato #j4ge #j4ja -- #j4ab #bdd ,milk #a4jj #j4jd #j4jd #j4je #cbc ,sugar #j4ab -- -- #j4ab #aib ,beef 7round7 #j4be #j4je #j4jc -- #bah ,ham #j4bj #j4jc #j4jg -- #cca ,oatmeal #j4ab #j4jb #j4ja #j4jh #bbc ,eggs #j4be #j4jc #j4jc -- #afd ,squash #j4bj -- -- #j4ja #be ------------------------------------- #j4bc #j4bi #j4fg #bhje ,it is to be noted that this ration contains approximately the amount of protein called for in the standard ration1 while the fat is slightly more and the carbohydrates are less4 ,the food value of the ration is practically that called for in the standard4 ,this ration is sufficiently near the standard to supply the nutrient requirements of a man at light muscular work4 ,to supply palatability1 some fruit and vegetables should be added to the ration4 ,these will contribute but little to the nutrient content1 but are necessary in order to secure health and the best returns from the other foods1 and as previously stated1 they are not to be estimated entirely upon the basis of nutrient content4 ,a number of food articles could be substituted in this ration1 if desired1 either in the interests of economy1 palatability1 or personal preference4 #bfb4 ,requisites of a ,balanced ,ration4--,reasonable combinations of foods should be made to form balanced rations4#b ,a number of foods slow of digestion1 or which require a large amount of intestinal work1 should not be combined2 neither should foods which are easily digested and which leave but little indigestible residue4 ,after a ration has been calculated and found to contain the requisite amount of nutrients1 it should be critically examined to see whether or not it fulfills the following requirements3 #a4 ,economy and adaptability to the work required4 #b4 ,necessary bulk or volume4 #c4 ,desired physiological influence of the foods upon the digestive tract1 whether constipating or laxative in character4 #d4 ,ease of digestion4 #e4 ,effect upon health4 ,it is recognized that there are foods wholesome and nutritious1 that cannot be used by some persons1 while with others the same foods can be consumed with impunity4 ,as explained in the chapter on ,dietary ,studies1 the nutrients should be supplied from a number of foods rather than from a few1 because it is believed the various nutrients1 particularly the proteins1 are not absolutely identical from all sources1 or equal in nutritive value4 ,,examples #a4 ,calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise4 #b4 ,calculate a ration for a man at hard muscular labor1 and give the approximate cost of the ration4 #c4 ,calculate the amounts of food and the nutrient requirements for a family of seven for #aj days2 five of the family to consume #j4h as much as an adult4 ,calculate the cost of the food2 then calculate on the same basis the probable cost of food for one year1 adding #bj per cent for fluctuation in market price and additional foods not included in the list4 #d4 ,weigh out the food articles used in problem ,no4 #b1 and apportion them among three meals4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,water #bfc4 ,importance4--,water is one of the most essential food materials4 ,it enters into the composition of the body1 and without it the nutrients of foods would be unavailable1 and life could not be sustained4 ,water unites chemically with various elements to form plant tissue and supplies hydrogen and oxygen for the production of organic compounds within the leaves of plants4 ,in the animal economy it is not definitely known whether or not water furnishes any of the elements of which the tissues are composed1 as the food contains liberal amounts of hydrogen and oxygen2 it is necessary mainly as the vehicle for distributing nutrients in suspension and solution1 and as a medium in which chemical1 physical1 and physiological changes essential to life processes take place4 ,from a sanitary point of view1 the condition of the water supply is of great importance1 as impure water seriously affects the health of the consumer4#hg #bfd4 ,impurities in ,water4--,waters are impure because of3 7#a7 excessive amounts of alkaline salts and other mineral compounds2 7#b7 decaying animal and vegetable matters which act chemically as poisons and irritants1 and which may serve as food for the development of objectionable bacterial bodies2 and 7#c7 injurious bacteria4 ,the most common forms of impurities are excess of organic matter and bacterial contamination4 ,the sanitary condition of water is greatly influenced by the character of the soil through which it flows and the extent to which it has been polluted by surface drainage4#hh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,dirt ,,and ,,impurities ,,in ,a ,,surface ,,well ,,water4 #bfe4 ,mineral ,impurities4--- ,the mineral impurities of water are mainly soluble alkaline and similar compounds dissolved by the water in passing through various layers of soil and rock4 ,when water contains a large amount of sodium chloride1 sodium sulphate or carbonate1 or other alkaline salts1 it is termed an alkali water4 ,where water passes through soil that has been largely formed from the decay of rocks containing alkaline minerals1 the water dissolves some of these minerals and becomes alkaline4 ,the kind of alkali determines the character of the water2 in some cases it is sodium carbonate1 which is particularly objectionable4 ,the continued use of strong alkali water causes digestion disorders1 because of the irritating action upon the digestive tract4 ,hard waters are due to the presence of lime compounds4 ,in regions where limestone predominates1 the carbon dioxid in water acts as a solvent1 producing hard waters4 ,waters that are hard on account of the presence of calcium carbonate give a deposit when boiled1 due to liberation of the carbon dioxid which is the material that renders the lime soluble4 ,calcium sulphate1 or gypsum1 on the other hand1 imparts permanent hardness4 ,there is no deposit when such waters are boiled4 ,a large number of minerals are found in various waters1 often sufficient in amount to impart physiological properties4 ,water that is highly charged with mineral matter is difficult to improve sufficiently for household purposes4 ,about the only way is by distillation4#hi #bff4 ,organic ,impurities4--,water that flows over the surface of the ground comes in contact with animal and vegetable material in various stages of decay1 and as a result some is dissolved and some is mechanically carried along by the water4 ,after becoming soluble1 the organic matter undergoes further chemical changes1 as oxidation and nitrification caused by bacteria4 ,if the organic matter contain a large amount of nitrogenous material1 particularly of proteid origin1 a series of chemical changes induced by bacterial action takes place1 resulting in the production of nitrites4 ,the nitrifying organisms first produce nitrous acid products 7nitrites71 and in the further development of the nitrifying process these are changed to nitrates4 ,the ammonia formed as the result of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter readily undergoes nitrification changes4 ,nitrates and nitrites alone are not injurious in water1 but they are usually associated with objectionable bacteria and generally indicate previous contamination4#ij #bfg4 ,interpretation of a ,water ,analysis4--,total solid matter represents all the mineral1 vegetable1 and animal matter which a water contains4 ,it is the residue obtained by evaporating the water to dryness at a temperature of #bab ,f4 ,average drinking water contains from #bj to #ij grains per gallon of solid matter4 ,free ammonia is that formed as a result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter containing nitrogen4 ,water of high purity usually contains less than #j4jg parts per million of free ammonia4 ,albuminoid ammonia is derived from the partially decomposed animal or vegetable material in water4 ,the greater the amount of nitrogenous organic impurities1 the higher the albuminoid ammonia4 ,a good drinking water ought not to contain more than #j4aj part per million of albuminoid ammonia4 ,an abnormal quantity of chlorine indicates surface drainage or sewage contamination1 or an excess of alkaline matter1 as common salt4 ,nitrites should not be present1 as they are generally associated with matter not completely oxidized4 ,nitrites are usually considered more objectionable than nitrates2 both are innocuous unless associated with disease-producing nitrorganisms4 #bfh4 ,natural ,purification of ,water4--,river waters are sometimes dark colored because of large amounts of dissolved organic matter1 but in contact with the sun and air they gradually undergo natural purification and the organic matter is oxidized4 ,however1 absolute reliance cannot be placed upon natural purification of a bad water1 as the objectionable organisms often have great resistive power4 ,there is no perfectly pure water except that prepared in the chemical laboratory by distillation4 ,all natural waters come in contact with the soil and air1 and necessarily contain impurities proportional to the extent of their contamination4 #bfi4 ,water in ,relation to ,health4--,there are many diseases1 of which typhoid fever is a type1 that are distinctly water-born4 ,the typhoid bacilli1 present in countless numbers in the feces of persons suffering or convalescent from typhoid fever1 find their way into streams1 lakes1 and wells4#ia ,they retain their vitality1 and when they enter the digestive tract of an individual1 rapidly increase in numbers4 ,numerous disastrous outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced to contamination of water4 ,coupled with the sanitary improvement of a city's water supply1 there is diminution of typhoid fever cases1 and a noticeable lowering of the death rate4 ,many cities and villages are dependent for their water upon rivers and lakes into which surface drainage finds its way1 with all contaminating substances4 ,mechanical sedimentation and filtration greatly improve waters of this class1 but do not necessarily render them entirely pure4 ,compounds of iron and aluminium are sometimes added in small amounts1 under chemical supervision1 to such waters to precipitate the organic impurities4 ,spring waters are not entirely above suspicion1 as oftentimes the soil through which they flow is highly polluted4 ,all water of doubtful purity should be boiled1 and there are but few natural waters of undoubted purity4 ,there is no such thing as absolutely pure water in a state of nature4 ,the mountain streams perhaps approach nearest to it where there are no humans to pollute the banks2 but then there are always the beasts and birds1 and they1 too1 are subject to disease4 ,there are very few waters that at some time of the year and under some conditions are not contaminated with disease-producing organisms4 ,no matter how carefully guarded are the banks of lakes furnishing the water supply of cities1 more or less objectionable matter will get in4 ,in seasons of heavy rains1 large amounts of surface water enter the lakes1 carrying along the filth gathered from many acres of land drained by the streams entering the lakes4 ,some of the most serious outbreaks of typhoid fever have come from temporary contamination of ordinarily fairly good drinking water4 ,in general1 too little attention is given to the purity of drinking water4 ,it is just as important that water should be boiled as that food should be cooked4 ,one of the objects of cooking is to destroy the injurious bacteria1 and they are frequently more numerous in the drinking water than in the food4 ,the argument is sometimes advanced that the mineral matter present in water is needed for the construction of the bone and other tissues of the body1 and that distilled water fails to supply the necessary mineral matter4 ,this is an erroneous assumption1 as the mineral matter in the food is more than sufficient for this purpose4 ,when water is highly charged with mineral salts1 additional work for their elimination is called for on the part of the organs of excretion1 particularly the kidneys2 and furthermore1 water nearly saturated with minerals cannot exert its full solvent action4 ,in discussing the immediate benefits resulting from improvement of water1 ,fuertes says3#ib ,immediately after the change to the 'four mile intake' at ,chicago in #ahic1 there was a great reduction in typhoid4 ,lawrence1 ,mass41 showed a great improvement with the setting of the filters in operation in ,september1 #ahic2 fully half of the deaths in #ahid were among persons known to have used the unfiltered canal water4 ,the conclusion is warranted that for the efficient control of the death rate from typhoid fever it is necessary to have efficient sewerage and drainage1 proper methods of living1 and pure water4 ,the reason why our large cities1 which are all provided with sewerage1 have such high death rates is therefore without doubt their continuance of the filthy practice of supplying drinking water which carries in solution and suspension the washings from farms1 from the streets1 from privies1 from pigpens1 and the sewage of cities4444 ,and also we should recognize the importance of flies and other winged insects and birds which feed on offal as carriers of bacteria of specific diseases from points of infection to the watersheds1 and the consequent washing of newly infected matter into our drinking water by rains4 ,there is a very close relationship between the surface water and that of shallow wells4 ,a shallow well is simply a reservoir for surface water accumulations4 ,it is stated that1 when an improved system of drainage was introduced into a part of ,london1 many of the shallow wells became dry1 indicating the source from which they received their supply4 ,direct subterranean connection between cesspools and wells is often traced in the following way3 ,a small amount of lithium1 which gives a distinct flame reaction1 and a minute trace of which can be detected with the spectroscope1 is placed in the cesspool1 and after a short time a lithium reaction is secured from the well water4 ,rain water is relied upon in some localities for drinking purposes4 ,that collected in cities and in the vicinity of barns and dwellings contains appreciable amounts of organic impurities4 ,the brown color is due to the impurities1 ammonium carbonate being one of these4 ,there are also traces of nitrates and nitrites obtained from the air4 ,when used for drinking1 rain water should be boiled4 #bgj4 ,improvement of ,waters4--,waters are improved by3 7#a7 boiling1 which destroys the disease-producing organisms2 7#b7 filtration1 which removes the materials mechanically suspended in the water2 and 7#c7 distillation1 which eliminates the impurities in suspension and solution1 as well as destroys all germ life4 #bga4 ,boiling ,water4--,in order to destroy the bacteria that may be in drinking water1 it is not sufficient to heat the water or merely let it come to a boil4 ,it has been found that if water is only partially sterilized and then cooled in the open air1 the bacteria develop more rapidly than if the water had not been heated at all4 ,it should boil vigorously five to ten minutes2 cholera and typhoid bacteria succumb in five minutes or less4 ,care should be taken in cooling that the water is not exposed to dust particles from the air nor placed in open vessels in a dirty refrigerator4 ,it should be kept in perfectly clean1 tight-stoppered bottles4 ,these bottles should be frequently scalded4 ,great reliance may be placed upon this method of water purification when properly carried out4 #bgb4 ,filtration4--,among the most efficient forms of water filters are the ,berkefeld and ,pasteur4 ,the ,pasteur filter is made of unglazed porcelain1 and the ,berkefeld of fine infusorial earth 7finely divided ,si,o#b74 ,both are porous and allow a moderately rapid flow of water4 ,the flow from the ,berkefeld filter is more rapid than from the ,pasteur4 ,the mechanical impurities of the water are deposited upon the filtering surface1 due to the attraction which the material has for particles in suspension4 ,these particles usually are the sources of contamination and carry bacteria4 ,when first used1 filters are satisfactory1 but unless carefully looked after they soon lose their ability to remove germs from the water and may increase the impurity by accumulation4 ,small faucet filters are made of porous stone1 asbestos1 charcoal1 etc4 ,many of them are of no value whatever or are even worse than valueless4 ,filters should be frequently cleansed in boiling water or in steam under pressure4 ,unless this is done1 the filters may become incubators for bacteria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,pasteur ,,water ,,filters4 #bgc4 ,distillation4--,when an unquestionably pure water supply is desired1 distillation should be resorted to4 ,there are many forms of stills for domestic use which are easily manipulated and produce distilled water economically4#ic ,the mineral matter of water is in no way essential for any functional purpose1 and hence its removal through distillation is not detrimental4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,water ,,still4 #bgd4 ,chemical ,purification4--,purification of water by the use of chemicals should not be attempted in the household or by inexperienced persons4 ,when done under supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist1 it may be of great value to a community4 ,turneaure and ,russell1#id in discussing the purification of water by addition of chemicals1 state3 ,there are a considerable number of chemical substances that may be added to water in order to purify it by carrying down the suspended matter as well as bacteria1 by sedimentation4 ,such a process of purification is to be seen in the addition of alum1 sulphate of iron1 and calcium hydrate to water4 ,methods of this character are directly dependent upon the flocculating action of the chemical added1 and the removal of the bacteria is accomplished by subsidence4 #bge4 ,ice4--,the purity of the ice supply is also of much importance4 ,while freezing reduces the number of organisms and lessens their vitality1 it does not make an impure water absolutely wholesome4 ,the way1 too1 in which ice is often handled and stored subjects it to contamination1 and foods which are placed in direct contact with it mechanically absorb the impurities which it contains4 ,for cooling water1 ice should be placed around rather than in it4 ,diseases have frequently been traced to impure ice4 ,the only absolutely pure ice is that made from distilled water4 #bgf4 ,mineral ,waters4--,when water is charged with carbonic acid gas under pressure1 carbonated water results1 and when minerals1 as salts of sodium1 potassium1 or lithium1 are added1 artificial mineral waters are produced4 ,natural mineral waters are placed on the market to some extent1 but most mineral waters are artificial products and they are sometimes prepared from water of low sanitary character4 ,mineral waters should not be used extensively except under medical direction1 as many have pronounced medicinal properties4 ,some of the constituents are bicarbonates of sodium1 potassium1 and lithium2 sulphates of magnesium 7,epsom salts7 and calcium2 and chloride of sodium4 ,the sweetened mineral waters1 as lemonade1 orangeade1 ginger ale1 and beer1 contain sugar and organic acids1 as citric and tartaric1 and are flavored with natural or artificial products4 ,most of them are prepared without either fruit or ginger4 ,natural mineral waters used under the direction of a physician are often beneficial in cases of chronic digestion disorders or other diseases4 #bgg4 ,materials for ,softening ,water4--,the materials most commonly used for softening water are sodium carbonate 7washing soda71 borax1 ammonia1 ammonium carbonate1 potash1 and soda lye4 ,waters that are very hard with limestone should have a small amount of washing soda added to them4 ,two ounces for a large tub of water is the most that should be used1 and it should first be dissolved in a little water4 ,if too much soda is used1 it is injurious1 as only a certain amount can be utilized for softening the water1 and the excess simply injures the hands and fabric4 ,when hard limewater is boiled and a very little soda lye added1 a precipitate of carbonate of lime is formed1 and then if the water is strained1 it is greatly improved for washing purposes4 ,borax is valuable for making some hard waters soft4 ,it is not as strong in its action as is sodium carbonate4 ,for the hardest water #a_/d pound of borax to a large tubful may be used2 most waters1 however1 do not need so much4 ,ammonia is one of the most useful reagents for softening water4 ,it is better than washing soda and borax1 because the ammonia is volatile and does not leave any residue to act on the clothes1 thus causing injury4 ,for bathing purposes1 the water should be softened with ammonia1 in preference to any other material4 ,ammonia should not be poured directly into hot water2 it should be added to the water while cold1 or to a small quantity of cold water1 and then to the warm water1 as this prevents the ammonia from vaporizing too readily4 ,ammonia produces the same effect as potash or soda lye1 without leaving a residue in the garments washed4 ,it is especially valuable in washing woolen goods or materials liable to shrink4 ,waters which are hard with alum salts are greatly benefited by the addition of ammonia4 ,a little in such a water will cause a precipitate to form1 and when the water is strained it is in good condition for cleaning purposes4 ,ammonium carbonate is used to some extent as a softening and cleaning agent1 and is valuable1 as there is no injurious effect upon clothing1 because it readily volatilizes4 ,caustic potash and caustic soda are sometimes employed for softening water1 but they are very active and are not adapted to washing colored or delicate fabrics4 ,they may be used for very heavy and coarse articles that are greasy1--not more than a gram in a gallon of water4 ,bleaching powder is not generally a safe material for cleansing purposes1 as it weakens the texture of clothing4 ,after a contagious disease1 articles may be soaked in water containing a little bleaching powder and a few drops of carbolic acid1 followed by thorough rinsing and bleaching in the sun4 ,but as a rule formaline is preferable for disinfecting clothing4 ,it can be used at the rate of about one pound to #ajj gallons of water4 ,bleaching powder1 caustic potash or soda1 and strong soap are not suitable for cleaning woodwork1 because of the action of the alkali on paint and wood2 they roughen the surface and discolor the paint4 ,waters vary so in composition1 that a material suitable for softening one may not prove to be the best for softening another4 ,the special kind must be determined largely by trial1 and it should be the aim to use as little as possible4 ,when carbolic acid1 formaline1 bleaching powder1 and caustic soda are used1 the hands should be protected and the clothes should be well rinsed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,typhoid ,,bacilli4 #bgh4 ,economic ,value of a ,pure ,water ,supply4--,from a financial point of view1 the money spent in securing pure water is one of the best investments a community can make4 ,statisticians estimate the death of an adult results in a loss to the state of from #ajjj to #ejjj2 and to the losses sustained by death must be added those incurred by sickness and by lessened quality and quantity of work through impaired vitality1--all caused by using poor drinking water4 ,wherever plants have been installed for improving the sanitary condition of the water supply1 the death rate has been lowered and the returns to the community have been far greater than the cost of the plant4 ,impure water is the most expensive food that can be consumed4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,food ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,household ,,sanitation ,,and ,,storage #bgi4 ,injurious ,compounds in ,foods4--,an ordinary chemical analysis of a food determines only the nutrients1 as protein1 carbohydrates1 and fats2 and unless there is reason to believe the food contains injurious substances no special tests for these are made4 ,there are a number of poisonous compounds that foods may contain1 and many of them can but imperfectly be determined by chemical analysis4 ,numerous organic compounds are produced in foods as the result of the workings of microrganisms2 some of these are poisonous1 while others impart only special characteristics1 as taste and odor4 ,the poisonous bacteria finding their way into food produce organic compounds of a toxic character2 and hence it is that the sanitary condition of a food1 as influenced by preparation and storage1 is often of more vital importance than the nutrient content4#ie ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,tuberculosis ,,bacilli4 7,after ,,conn47 ,often present in dust particles and contaminated foods4 #bhj4 ,sources of ,contamination of ,food4--,as a rule1 too little attention is given to the sanitary handling and preparation of foods4 ,they are often exposed to impure air and to the dust and filth from unclean streets and surroundings1 and as a result they become inoculated with bacteria1 which are often the disease-producing kind4 ,gelatine plates exposed by bacteriologists under the same conditions as foods develop large numbers of injurious microrganisms4 ,in order to avoid contamination in the handling of food1 there must be3 7#a7 protection from impure air and dust2 7#b7 storage in clean1 sanitary1 and ventilated storerooms and warehouses2 7#c7 storage of perishable foods at a low temperature so as to retard fermentation changes2 and 7#d7 workmen free from contagious diseases in all occupations pertaining to the preparation of foods4 ,ordinarily1 foods should not be stored in the paper wrappers in which they are purchased1 as unclean paper is often a source of contamination4 #bha4 ,sanitary ,inspection of ,food4--,during recent years some state and city boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection of foods1 with a view of preventing contamination during manufacture and transportation1 and this has done much to improve the quality and wholesomeness4 ,putrid meats1 fish1 and vegetables are not allowed to be sold1 and foods are required to be handled and stored in a sanitary way4 ,next to a pure water supply1 there is no factor that so greatly influences for good the health of a community as the sanitary condition of the food4 ,while the cooking of foods destroys many organisms1 it often fails to render innocuous the poisons which they produce1 and furthermore the unsound foods when cooked are not entirely wholesome1 and they have poor keeping qualities4 ,often meats1 vegetables1 and other foods eaten uncooked1 as well as the numerous cooked foods1 are exposed in dirty market places1 and accumulate large amounts of filth1 and are inoculated with disease germs by flies4 ,protection of food from flies is a matter of vital importance1 as they are carriers of many diseases4 ,in the case of typhoid fever1 next to impure drinking water flies are credited with being the greatest distributors of the disease germs4#if ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,diphtheria ,,bacilli4 7,after ,,conn47 ,often present in dust particles and in food unprotected from dust4 #bhb4 ,infection from ,impure ,air4--,the dust particles of the air contain decayed animal and vegetable matter in which bacteria are present2 these find their way into the food when it is not carefully protected1 into the water supply1 and also into the lungs and other organs of the body4 ,when foods are protected from the mechanical impurities which gain access through the air1 and fermentation is delayed by storage at a low temperature1 digestion disorders are greatly lessened4 ,from a sanitary point of view1 the air of food storerooms and of living rooms should be of equally high purity4 ,when foods are kept in unventilated living rooms1 they become contaminated with the impurities thrown off from the lungs in respiration1 which include not only carbon dioxid1 but the more objectionable toxic organic materials4 ,vegetable foods need to be stored in well-ventilated places1 as the plant cells are still alive and carrying on life functions1 as the giving off of carbon dioxid1 which is akin to animal respiration2 in fact1 it is plant-cell respiration4 ,provision should be made for the removal of the carbon dioxid and other products1 as they contaminate the air4 ,when vegetable tissue ceases to produce carbon dioxid1 death and decay set in1 accompanied by fermentation changes4 #bhc4 ,storage of ,food in ,cellars4--,cellars are often in a very unsanitary condition1 damp1 poorly lighted1 unventilated1 and the air filled with floating particles from decaying vegetables4 ,the walls and shelves absorb the dust and germs from the foul air and are bacterially contaminated1 and whenever a sound food is stored in such a cellar1 it readily becomes inoculated with bacteria4 ,there is a much closer relationship existing between the atmosphere of the cellar and that of the house than is generally realized4 ,an unclean cellar means contaminated air throughout the house4 ,when careful attention is given to the sanitary condition of the cellar1 many of the more common diseases are greatly reduced4 ,cases of rheumatism have often been traced to a damp cellar4 ,in some localities where the cellars are unusually unsanitary1 there is in the season of spring rains1 when they are especially damp and contain the maximum of decayed vegetation1 a prevalence of what might be called cellaritis4 ,the symptoms differ and the trouble is variously attributed1 but the real cause is the same1 although overlooked1 for1 unfortunately1 doctors do not visit the cellar4 ,cellars should be frequently cleaned and disinfected1 using for the purpose some of the well-known disinfectants1 as formaline1 bleaching powder1 or a dilute solution of carbolic acid4 ,it has been found in large cities1 when the spread of such diseases as yellow fever was imminent1 that a general and thorough cleaning up of streets and cellars with the improved sanitary conditions resulting greatly lowered the usual death rate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,,dung ,,fungus4 7,after ,,butters47 ,often present on surface of unclean vegetables4 #bhd4 ,sunlight1 ,pure ,water1 and ,pure ,air as ,disinfectants4--,the most effectual and valuable disinfectants are sunlight1 pure water1 and pure air4 ,many kinds of microrganisms1 particularly those that are disease-producing1 are destroyed when exposed for a time to sunlight4 ,the chemical action of the sun's rays is destructive to the organic material which makes up the composition of many of these organisms1 while higher forms of organic life are stirred into activity by it4 ,the disinfecting power of sunlight should be made use of to the fullest extent1 not only in the house1 but plenty of sunlight should also be planned for in constructing barns and other buildings where milk-and meat-producing animals are kept4 ,pure water is also a disinfectant1 but when water becomes polluted it loses this power4 ,many disease-producing organisms are rendered inactive when placed in pure water4 ,water contains more dissolved oxygen than air1 and apparently a portion of the oxygen in water is in a more active condition than that in air4 ,pure air1 too1 is a disinfectant2 the ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxides of nitrogen1 which are present in traces1 exert a beneficial influence in oxidizing organic matter4 ,fresh air and sunlight1 acting jointly1 are nature's most effectual disinfectants4 ,sunshine1 fresh air1 and pure water are a health-producing trinity4 ,in discussing the importance of pure air1 water1 and sunlight1 ,ellen ,h4 ,richards#ig says3 ,the country dweller surrounds his house with evergreens or shade trees1 the city dweller is surrounded with high brick walls4 ,blinds1 shades1 or thick draperies shut out still more1 and prevent the beneficial sunlight from acting its role of germ prevention and germ destruction4 ,bright-colored carpets and pale-faced children are the opposite results which follow4 ,sunlight1 pure air1 and pure water are our common birthright which we often bargain away for so-called comforts4 ,and ,dr4 ,woods ,hutchinson says of sunlight3 ,it is a splendid and matchless servant in the promoting of healthfulness of the house1 for which no substitute has yet been discovered4 ,it is the foe alike of bacilli and the blues2 the best tonic ever yet invented for the liver and for the scalp1 and for everything between1 the only real complexion restorer1 and the deadliest foe of dirt and disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,dirt ,,and ,,manure ,,embedded ,,in ,,surface ,,of ,,celery4 #bhe4 ,utensils for ,storage of ,food4--,in order that dishes and household utensils may be kept in the best sanitary condition1 they should be free from seams1 cracks1 and crevices where dust and dirt particles can find lodgment4 ,from the seams of a milk pail that has not been well washed1 decaying milk solids can be removed with the aid of a pin or a toothpick4 ,this material acts as a starter or culture when pure1 fresh milk is placed in the pail1 contaminating it and causing it to become sour4 ,not only is this true of milk1 but also of other foods4 ,wooden utensils are not satisfactory for the handling1 storage1 or preparation of foods1 as it is difficult to keep wood in a sanitary condition4 ,uncleanliness of dishes in which foods are placed is too often caused by the use of foul dishcloths and failure to thoroughly wash and rinse the dishes4 ,it is always well to rinse dishes with scalding water1 as colds and skin diseases may be communicated from the edges of drinking glasses1 and from forks and spoons1 and1 unless the dish towels are kept scrupulously clean1 it is more sanitary to drain the dishes than to wipe them4 #bhf4 ,contamination from ,unclean ,dishcloths4--,when the dishcloth is foul1 the fat absorbed by the fibers becomes rancid1 the proteids undergo putrefaction changes with formation of ill-smelling gases containing nitrogen1 the carbohydrates ferment and are particularly attractive to flies1 and all the various disease germs collected on the surface of the dishcloth are1 along with the rancid fat and other putrifying materials1 distributed over the surface of the dishes with which the cloth comes in contact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,contamination ,,of ,,well ,,water ,,from ,,surface ,,drainage4 7,after ,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr47 #bhg4 ,refrigeration4--,at a low temperature the insoluble or unorganized ferments become inactive1 but the chemical ferments or enzymes are still capable of carrying on fermentation4 ,thus it is that a food1 when placed in a refrigerator or in cold storage1 continues to undergo chemical change4 ,an example of such enzymic action is the curing of beef and cheese in cold storage4 ,a small amount of ventilation is required when foods are refrigerated1 just sufficient to keep up a slight circulation of air4 ,it seems not to be generally understood that all fermentation changes do not cease when food is placed in refrigerators1 and this often leads to neglect in their care4 ,cleanliness is equally as essential1 or more so1 in the refrigeration of food as in its handling in other ways4 ,too often the refrigerator is neglected1 milk and other food is spilt1 filling the cracks1 and slow decomposition sets in4 ,a well-cared-for refrigerator is an important factor in the preservation of food1 but when it is neglected1 it becomes a source of contamination4 ,unclean vegetables and food receptacles1 impure ice and foul air1 are the most common forms of contamination4 ,the chemical changes which foods undergo during refrigeration are such as result in softening of the tissues4 #bhh4 ,soil4--,the soil about dwellings and places where foods are stored frequently becomes polluted with decaying animal and vegetable matter1 and in such soils disease-producing organisms readily find lodgment4 ,poorly drained soils containing an excess of vegetable matter furnish a medium in which the tapeworm and the germs of typhoid fever1 lockjaw1 and various diseases affecting the digestive tract1 may propagate4 ,the wind carries the dust particles from these contaminated places into unprotected food1 where they cause fermentation changes and the disease germs multiply4 ,in considering the sanitary condition of a locality1 the character of the soil is an important factor4 ,whenever there is reason to suspect that a soil is unsanitary1 it should be disinfected with lime or formaldehyde4 ,soils about dwellings need care and frequent disinfecting to keep them in a sanitary condition1 equally as much as do the rooms in the dwellings4#ii ,in the growing of garden vegetables1 frequently large quantities of fertilizers of unsanitary character are used1 and vegetables often retain mechanically on their surfaces particles of these4 ,to this dirt clinging to the vegetables have been traced diseases1 as typhoid fever and various digestion disorders4 #bhi4 ,disposal of ,kitchen ,refuse4--,refuse1 as vegetable parings1 bones1 and meat scraps1 unless they are used for food for animals or collected as garbage1 should preferably be burned2 then there is no danger of their furnishing propagating media for disease germs4 ,garbage cans should be kept clean1 and well covered to protect the contents from flies4 ,where the refuse cannot be burned1 it should be composted4 ,for this1 a well-drained place should be selected1 and the refuse should be kept covered with earth to keep off the flies and absorb the odors that arise from the fermenting material1 and to prevent its being carried away by the wind4 ,lime should be sprinkled about the compost heap1 and from time to time it should be drawn away and the place covered with clean earth4 ,it is very unsanitary to throw all of the kitchen refuse in the same place year after year without resorting to any means for keeping the soil in a sanitary condition4 ,although composting refuse is not as sanitary as burning1 it is far more sanitary than neglecting to care for it at all1 as is too frequently the case4 ,ground polluted with kitchen refuse containing large amounts of fatty material and soap becomes diseased1 so that the natural fermentation changes fail to take place1 and the soil becomes sewage sick and gets in such a condition that vegetation will not grow4 ,failure to properly dispose of kitchen refuse is frequently the cause of the spread of germ diseases1 through the dust and flies that are attracted by the material and carry the germs from the refuse pile to food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,plumbing ,,of ,,sink4 #a1 #a1 house side of trap1 filled with water2 #b1 vent pipe2 #c1 drain pipe connecting with sewer4 ,where there is no drainage system1 disposal of the liquid refuse is a serious problem4 ,drain basins and cesspools are often resorted to1 and these may become additional sources of contamination4 ,as stated in the chapter on well water1 direct communication is frequently established between such places and shallow wells4 ,where the only place for the disposal of waste water is the surface of the ground1 it should be thrown some distance from the house and where it will drain from and not toward the well4 ,the land should be well drained and open to the sunlight4 ,coarse sand and lime should be sprinkled over it frequently1 and occasionally the soil should be removed and replaced with fresh4 ,sunlight1 aration1 and disinfection of the soil and good drainage are necessary1 in order to keep in a sanitary condition the place where the dish water is thrown4 ,poor plumbing is often the cause of contaminated food4 ,the gases which escape from unclean traps may carry with them solid particles of organic matter in various stages of decay4 ,the house side of traps always ventilates into the rooms1 and hence it is important that they be kept scrupulously clean4 ,where the drip pipe from the refrigerator drains directly into the sewerage system1 there is always danger4 ,special attention should be given to the care of plumbing near places where foods are stored4 ,frequently there are leaky joints due to settling of the dwellings or to extreme changes in temperature1 and the plumbing should be occasionally inspected by one familiar with the subject4#ajj #bij4 ,general ,considerations4--,in order to keep food in the most wholesome condition1 special care should be taken that all of its surroundings are sanitary4 ,the air1 the dishes in which the food is placed1 the refrigerator1 cellar or closet where stored1 and the other food with which it comes in contact1 all influence the wholesomeness or cause contamination4 ,a food may contain sufficient nutrients to give it high value1 and yet1 on account of products formed during fermentation1 be poisonous4 ,foods are particularly susceptible to putrefaction changes1 and chemicals and preservatives added as preventives1 with a view of retarding these changes1 are objectionable1 besides failing to prevent all fermentation from taking place4 ,intelligent thought should be exercised in the care of food1 for the health of the consumer is largely dependent upon the purity and wholesomeness of the food supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,a ,,petri ,,dish1 ,,showing ,,colonies ,,of ,,bacteria ,,produced ,,by ,,allowing ,a ,,house ,,fly ,,to ,,crawl ,,over ,,surface4 7,from ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ic47 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,laboratory ,,practice ,object of ,laboratory ,practice1 ,laboratory ,note-book1 and ,suggestions for ,laboratory ,practice4--,the aim of the laboratory practice is to give the students an idea of the composition1 uses1 and values of food materials1 and the part which chemistry takes in sanitation and household affairs2 also to enable them by simple tests to detect some of the more common adulterants in foods4 ,before performing an experiment1 the student is advised to review those topics presented in the text which have a bearing upon the experiment1 so that a clear conception may be gained of the relationship between the laboratory work and that of the class room4 ,the student should endeavor to cultivate the power of observation and to grasp the principle involved in the work1 rather than do it in a merely mechanical and perfunctory way4 ,neatness is one of the essentials for success in laboratory practice1 and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this requisite to good work4 ,the student should learn to use his time in the laboratory profitably and economically4 ,he should obtain a clear idea of what he is to do1 and then do it to the best of his ability4 ,if the experiment is not a success1 repeat it4 ,while the work is in progress it should be given undivided attention4 ,care should be exercised to prevent anything getting into the sinks that will clog the plumbing2 soil1 matches1 broken glass1 and paper should be deposited in the waste jars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,laboratory ,,work4 ,see page #cja for names4 ,a careful record of the experiments should be kept by each student in a suitable note-book4 ,it is suggested that those students desiring more time in writing out the experiments than the laboratory period affords1 take notes as they make the various tests1 and then amplify and rearrange them in the evening study time4 ,the final writing up of the notes should1 however1 be done before the next laboratory period4 ,careful attention should be given to the spelling1 language1 and punctuation1 and the note-book should represent the student's individual work4 ,he who attempts to cheat by copying the results of others1 only cheats himself4 ,in recording the results of an experiment1 the student should state briefly and clearly the following3 #a4 ,number and title of experiment4 #b4 ,how the experiment is performed4 #c4 ,what was observed4 #d4 ,what the experiment proves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,balance ,,and ,,weights4 ,,list ,,of ,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,experiments #a ,crucible ,tongs #b ,evaporating ,dishes #a ,casserole #f ,beakers #ab ,test ,tubes #a ,wooden ,stand #a ,test ,tube ,stand #a ,sand ,bath #b ,funnels #a ,tripod #a ,stoddart ,test ,tube ,clamp #a ,test ,tube ,brush #a ,burner and ,tubing #b ,stirring ,rods #f ,watch ,glasses #b ,erlenmeyer ,flasks #a ,package ,filter ,paper #a ,box ,matches #a ,wire ,gauze #b ,burettes #a ,porcelain ,crucible #a ,aluminum ,dish ,directions for ,weighing4--,place the dish or material to be weighed in the left-hand pan of the balance4 ,with the forceps lay a weight from the weight box on the right-hand pan4 ,do not touch the weights with the hands4 ,if the weight selected is too heavy1 replace it with a lighter weight4 ,add weights until the pans are counterpoised2 this will be indicated by the needle swinging nearly as many divisions on one side of the scale as on the other4 ,the brass weights are the gram weights4 ,the other weights are fractions of a gm4 ,the #ejj1 #bjj1 #ajj mg4 7milligram7 weights are recorded as #j4e1 #j4b1 and #j4a gm4 ,the #ej1 #bj1 and #aj mg4 weights as #j4je1 #j4jb1 and #j4ja gm4 ,if the #aj1 and #b gm41 and the #bjj1 the #ajj1 and the #ej mg4 weights are used1 the resulting weight is #ab4ce gms4 ,no moist substances should ever come in contact with the scale pans4 ,the weights and forceps should always be replaced in the weight box4 ,too much care and neatness cannot be exercised in weighing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,pouring ,reagent from ,bottle4 ,directions for ,measuring4--,reagents are measured in graduated cylinders 7see ,fig4 #gd74 ,when the directions call for the addition of #e or #aj cc4 of a reagent1 unless so directed it is not absolutely necessary to measure the reagent in a measuring cylinder4 ,a large test tube holds about #cj cc4 of water4 ,measure out #e cc4 of water and transfer it to a large test tube4 ,note its volume4 ,add approximately #e cc4 of water directly to the test tube4 ,measure it4 ,repeat this operation until you can judge with a fair degree of accuracy the part of a test tube filled by #e cc4 ,in the experiments where a burette is used for measuring reagents1 the burette is first filled with the reagent by means of a funnel4 ,the tip of the burette is allowed to fill before the readings are made1 which are from the lowest point or meniscus4 ,when reagents are removed from bottles1 the stopper should be held between the first and second fingers of the right hand 7see ,fig4 #ge74 ,hold the test tube or receptacle that is to receive the reagent in the left hand4 ,pour the liquid slowly until the desired amount is secured4 ,before inserting the stopper1 touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the few drops on the edge1 thus preventing their streaking down the sides of the bottle on to the shelf4 ,replace the bottle in its proper place4 ,every precaution should be taken to prevent contamination of reagents4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,microscope ,,and ,,accessories4 #a1 eye-piece or ocular2 #b1 objective2 #c1 stage2 #d1 cover glass2 #e1 slide2 #f1 mirror4 ,use of the ,microscope4--,special directions in the use of the microscope will be given by the instructor4 ,the object or material to be examined is placed on a microscopical slide4 ,care should be exercised to secure a representative sample1 and to properly distribute the substance on the slide4 ,if a pulverized material is to be examined1 use but little and spread it in as thin a layer as possible4 ,if a liquid1 one or two drops placed on the slide will suffice4 ,the material on the slide is covered with a cover glass1 before it is placed on the stage of the microscope4 ,in focusing1 do not allow the object glass of the microscope to come in contact with the cover glass4 ,focus upward1 not downward4 ,special care should be exercised in focusing and in handling the eye-piece and objective4 ,a camel's-hair brush1 clean dry chamois skin1 or clean silk only should be used in polishing the lenses4 ,always put the microscope back in its case after using4 ,experiment ,no4 #a ,water in ,flour ,carefully weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish4 7,porcelain must be used if the ash is to be determined on the same sample47 ,place in it about #b gm4 of flour2 record the weight2 then place the dish in the water oven for at least #f hours4 ,after drying1 weigh again1 and from the loss of weight calculate the per cent of water in the flour4 7,weight of flour and dish before drying minus weight of flour and dish after drying equals weight of water lost4 ,weight of water divided by weight of flour taken1 multiplied by #ajj1 equals the per cent of water in the flour47 ,how does the amount of water you obtained compare with the amount given in the tables of analysis8 ,experiment ,no4 #b ,water in ,butter ,carefully weigh a clean1 dry aluminum dish1 place in it about #b gms4 of butter1 and weigh again4 ,record the weights4 ,place the dish containing butter in the water oven for #e or #f hours and then weigh4 ,the loss in weight represents the water in the butter4 ,calculate the per cent of water4 ,care must be taken to get a representative sample of the butter to be tested2 preferably small amounts should be taken with the butter trier from various parts of the package4 ,experiment ,no4 #c ,ash in ,flour ,place the porcelain dish containing flour from the preceding experiment in a muffle furnace and let it remain until the organic matter is completely volatilized4 ,cool1 weigh1 and determine the per cent of ash4 ,the flour should be burned at the lowest temperature necessary for complete combustion4 ,experiment ,no4 #d ,nitric ,acid ,test for ,nitrogenous ,organic ,matter ,to #c cc4 of egg albumin in a test tube add #b cc4 of ,,hno#c 7conc47 and heat4 ,when cool add ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,the nitric acid chemically reacts upon the albumin1 forming yellow xanthoprotein4 ,what change occurs in the appearance of the egg albumin when the ,,hno#c is added8 ,is this a physical or chemical change8 ,what is the name of the compound formed8 ,what change occurs on adding ,,nh#d,,oh8 ,experiment ,no4 #e ,acidity of ,lemons ,with a pipette measure into a small beaker #b cc4 of lemon juice4 ,add #be cc4 of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator4 ,from the burette run in ,n_/#aj ,,koh solution until a faint pink tinge remains permanently4 ,note the number of cubic centimeters of ,,koh solution required to neutralize the citric acid in the lemon juice4 ,calculate the per cent of citric acid4 7#a cc4 of ,n_/#aj ,,koh solution equals #j4jjfdb gm4 citric acid4 #a cc4 of ,h#b,o weighs #a gm4 ,because of sugar and other matter in solution #a cc4 of lemon juice weighs approximately #a4jc gm47 #a4 ,what is the characteristic acid of lemons8 #b4 ,what is the salt formed when the lemon juice is neutralized by the ,,koh solution8 #c4 ,describe briefly the process for determining the acidity of lemon juice4 #d4 ,what per cent of acidity did you obtain8 #e4 ,how does this compare with the acidity of vinegar8 ,experiment ,no4 #f ,influence of ,heat on ,potato ,starch ,grains ,with the point of a knife scrape slightly the surface of a raw potato and place a drop of the starchy juice upon the microscopical slide4 ,cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope4 ,in the evaporating dish cook a small piece of potato1 then place a very small portion upon the slide1 and examine with the microscope4 ,make drawings of the starch grains in raw and in cooked potatoes4 ,experiment ,no4 #g ,influence of ,yeast on ,starch ,grains ,moisten a small portion of the dough prepared with yeast and with the stirring rod place a drop of the starchy water upon the slide4 ,cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope4 ,repeat1 examining a drop of starchy water washed from flour4 ,make drawing of wheat starch grain in flour and in dough prepared with yeast4 ,experiment ,no4 #h ,mechanical ,composition of ,potatoes ,wash one potato4 ,weigh1 then peel1 making the peeling as thin as possible4 ,weigh the peeled potato and weigh the peeling or refuse4 ,calculate the per cent of potato that is edible and the per cent that is refuse4 ,experiment ,no4 #i ,pectose from ,apples ,reduce a small peeled apple to a pulp4 ,squeeze the pulp through a clean cloth into a beaker4 ,add #aj cc4 ,h#b,o and heat on a sand bath to coagulate the albumin4 ,filter1 adding a little hot water if necessary4 ,to the filtrate add #e cc4 alcohol4 ,the precipitate is the pectose material4 #a4 ,is the pectose from the apple soluble8 #b4 ,is it coagulated by heat8 #c4 ,is it soluble in alcohol8 ,experiment ,no4 #aj ,lemon ,extract ,to #e cc4 of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water4 ,a cloudy appearance indicates the presence of lemon oil4 ,if the solution remains clear after adding the water1 the extract does not contain lemon oil4 ,why does the extract containing lemon oil become cloudy on adding water8 ,experiment ,no4 #aa ,vanilla ,extract ,pour into a test tube #e cc4 of the extract to be tested4 ,evaporate to one third4 ,then add sufficient water to restore the original volume4 ,if a brown1 flocculent precipitate is formed1 the sample contains pure vanilla extract4 ,resin is present in vanilla beans and is extracted in the essence4 ,the resin is readily soluble in #ej per cent alcohol4 ,if the alcohol is removed from the extract1 the excess of resin is precipitated1 or if free from alkali1 it may be precipitated by diluting the original solution with twice its volume of water4 ,test the two samples and compare4 7,adapted from ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis47 #a4 ,describe the appearance of each sample after evaporating and adding water4 #b4 ,which sample contains pure vanilla extract8 #c4 ,state the principle underlying this test4 ,experiment ,no4 #ab ,testing ,olive ,oil for ,cotton ,seed ,oil ,pour into a test tube #e cc4 of the oil to be tested and #e cc4 of ,halphen's ,reagent4 ,mix thoroughly4 ,plug the test tube loosely with cotton1 and heat in a bath of boiling saturated brine for #ae minutes4 ,if cotton seed oil is present1 a deep red or orange color is produced4 ,test two samples and compare4 ,halphen's ,reagent4--,mix equal volumes of amyl alcohol and carbon disulphid containing about one per cent of sulphur in solution4 7,adapted from ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis47 ,experiment ,no4 #ac ,testing for ,coal ,tar ,dyes ,dilute #bj to #cj cc4 of the material to #ajj cc42 boil for #aj minutes with #aj cc4 of a #aj per cent solution of potassium bisulphate and a piece of white woolen cloth which has previously been boiled in a #j4a per cent solution of ,na,o,h and thoroughly washed in water4 ,remove the cloth from the solution1 wash in boiling water1 and dry between pieces of filter paper4 ,a bright red indicates coal tar dye4 ,if the coloring matter is entirely from fruit1 the woolen cloth will be either uncolored or will have a faint pink or brown color which is changed to green or yellow by ammonia and is not restored by washing4 ,this is the ,arata test4 7,adapted1 ,winston1 ,conn4 ,experiment ,station ,report47 #a4 ,describe ,arata's wool test for coal tar dyes4 #b4 ,what is the appearance of the woolen cloth when the coloring matter is entirely from fruit8 #c4 ,what effect has ,,nh#d,,oh upon the color8 #d4 ,why is ,na,o,h used8 #e4 ,why may not cotton cloth be used instead of woolen8 #f4 ,what can you say of the use of coal tar dyes in foods8 ,experiment ,no4 #ad ,determining the ,per ,cent of ,skin in ,beans ,place in an evaporating dish #aj gm4 of beans1 #ej cc4 of water1 and #a_/b gm4 of baking soda4 ,boil #aj minutes or until the skins are loosened1 then drain off the water4 ,add cold water and rub the beans together till the skins slip off4 ,collect the skins1 place on a watch glass and dry in the water oven for #a_/b hour4 ,weigh the dried skins and calculate the per cent of skin4 #a4 ,what does the soda do8 #b4 ,what effect would hard limewater have upon the skins8 #c4 ,how does removal of skins affect food value of beans and digestibility8 ,experiment ,no4 #ae ,extraction of ,fat from ,peanuts ,shell three or four peanuts and with the mortar and pestle break them into small pieces4 ,place in a test tube and pour over them about #aj cc4 of ether4 ,cork the test tube and allow it to stand #cj minutes1 shaking occasionally4 ,filter on to a watch glass and let stand until the ether evaporates1 and then observe the fat4 #a4 ,what is the appearance of the peanut fat8 #b4 ,what is the solvent of the fat8 #c4 ,what becomes of the ether8 #d4 ,why should the peanuts be broken into small pieces8 ,experiment ,no4 #af ,microscopic ,examination of ,milk ,place a drop of milk on a microscopical slide and cover with cover glass4 ,examine the milk to detect impurities1 as dust1 hair1 refuse1 etc4 ,make drawings of any foreign matter present4 ,experiment ,no4 #ag ,formaldehyde in ,cream or ,milk ,to #aj cc4 of milk in a casserole add #aj cc4 of the acid reagent4 ,heat slowly over the flame nearly to boiling1 holding the casserole in the hand and giving it a slight rotary movement while heating4 ,the presence of formaldehyde is indicated by a violet coloration varying in depth with the amount present4 ,in the absence of formaldehyde the solution slowly turns brown4 ,acid ,reagent4--,commercial hydrochloric acid 7sp4 gr4 #a4b7 containing #b cc4 per liter of #aj per cent ferric chlorid4 7,adapted from ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis47 #a4 ,how may the presence of formaldehyde in milk be detected8 #b4 ,why in this test is it necessary to use acid containing ferric chlorid8 #c4 ,describe the appearance of the two samples of milk after adding the acid reagent and heating4 #d4 ,which sample showed the presence of formaldehyde8 ,experiment ,no4 #ah ,gelatine in ,cream or ,milk ,to #bj cc4 of milk or cream in a beaker add #bj cc4 of acid mercuric nitrate and about #dj cc4 of ,h#b,o4 ,let stand for a few minutes and filter4 ,filtrate will be cloudy if gelatine is present4 ,add #a_/b cc4 of a dilute solution of picric acid--a heavy yellow precipitate indicates gelatine4 ,acid ,mercuric ,nitrate4--#a part by weight of ,hg1 #b parts ,,hno#c 7sp4 gr4 #a4db74 ,dilute #be times with water4 ,experiment ,no4 #ai ,testing for ,oleomargarine ,apply the following tests to two samples of the material3 ,boiling or ,spoon ,test4--,melt the sample to be tested--a piece about the size of a chestnut--in a large spoon1 hastening the process by stirring with a splinter4 ,then1 increasing the heat1 bring to as brisk a boil as possible and stir thoroughly1 not neglecting the outer edges4 ,oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily1 sputtering like a mixture of grease and water1 and produce no foam1 or but very little4 ,genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam4 ,waterhouse ,test4--,into a small beaker pour #ej cc4 of sweet milk4 ,heat nearly to boiling and add from #e to #aj gms4 of butter or oleomargarine4 ,stir with a glass rod until fat is melted4 ,then place the beaker in cold water and stir the milk until the temperature falls sufficiently for the fat to congeal4 ,at this point the fat1 if oleomargarine1 can easily be collected into one lump by means of the rod2 while if butter1 it will granulate and cannot be collected4 7,from ,farmers' ,bul4 #aca1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture47 #a4 ,name two simple tests for distinguishing butter and oleomargarine4 #b4 ,describe these tests4 #c4 ,why do butter and oleomargarine respond differently to these tests8 #d4 ,are these tests based upon chemical or physical properties of the fats8 ,experiment ,no4 #bj ,testing for ,watering or ,skimming of ,milk a4 ,fat ,content of ,milk by ,means of ,babcock ,test4--,measure with pipette into test bottle #ag4f cc4 of milk4 ,sample should be carefully taken and well mixed4 ,measure with cylinder #ag4e cc4 commercial ,h#b,,so#d and add to milk in test bottle4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 ,mix acid and milk by rotating the bottle4 ,then place test bottles in centrifugal machine and whirl #e minutes4 ,add sufficient hot water to test bottles to bring contents up to about the #hth mark on stem4 ,then whirl bottles #b minutes longer and read fat4 ,read from extreme lowest to highest point4 ,each large division as #a to #b represents a whole per cent1 each small division #j4b of a per cent4 b4 ,determining ,specific ,gravity by ,means of ,lactometer4--,pour #aej cc4 of milk into #bjj cc4 cylinder4 ,place lactometer in milk and note depth to which it sinks as indicated on stem4 ,note also temperature of milk4 ,for each #aj above #fj ,f4 add #a to the lactometer number1 in order to make the necessary correction for temperature4 ,for example1 if milk has sp4 gr4 of #a4jcb at temperature of #gj1 it will be equivalent to sp4 gr4 of #a4jcc at #fj4 ,ordinarily milk has a sp4 gr4 of #a4jbi to #a4jcd4 ,if milk has sp4 gr4 less than #a4jbi1 or contains less than #c per cent fat1 it may be considered watered milk4 ,if the milk has a high sp4 gr4 7above #a4jce7 and a low content of fat1 some of the fat has been removed4 7,for extended direction for milk testing see ,snyder's ,dairy ,chemistry47 ,experiment ,no4 #ba ,boric ,acid in ,meat ,cut into very small pieces #e gms1 of meat1 removing all the fat possible4 ,place in an evaporating dish with #bj to #be cc4 of water to which a few drops of ,h,cl have been added and warm slightly4 ,dip a piece of turmeric paper in the meat extract and dry4 ,a rose-red color of the turmeric paper after drying 7turned olive by a weak ammonia solution7 is indicative of boric acid4 #a4 ,how may meat be tested for boric acid8 #b4 ,why is ,h,cl added to the water8 #c4 ,why is the water containing the meat warmed slightly8 #d4 ,what is the appearance of the turmeric paper after being dipped in the meat extract and dried8 #e4 ,what change takes place when it is moistened with ammonia1 and why8 ,experiment ,no4 #bb ,microscopic ,examination of ,cereal ,starch ,grains ,make a microscopic examination and drawings of wheat1 corn1 rice1 and oat starch grains1 comparing them with the drawings of the different starch grains on the chart4 ,if the material is coarse1 pulverize in a mortar and filter through cloth4 ,place a drop or two of the starchy water on the slide1 cover with a cover glass1 and examine4 ,experiment ,no4 #bc ,identification of ,commercial ,cereals ,examine under the microscope two samples of cereal breakfast foods1 and by comparison with the wheat1 corn1 and oat starch grains previously examined tell of what grains the breakfast foods are made and their approximate food value4 ,experiment ,no4 #bd ,granulation and ,color of ,flour ,arrange on glass plate1 in order of color1 samples of all the different grades of flour4 ,note the differences in color4 ,how do these differences correspond with the grades of the flour8 ,examine the flour with a microscope1 noting any coarse or dark-colored particles of bran or dust4 ,rub some of the flour between the thumb and forefinger4 ,note if any granular particles can be detected4 ,experiment ,no4 #be ,capacity of ,flour to absorb ,water ,weigh out #ae gms4 of soft wheat flour into an evaporating dish2 then add from burette a measured quantity of water sufficient to make a stiff dough4 ,note the amount of water required for this purpose4 ,repeat the operation1 using hard wheat flour4 #a4 ,how may the absorptive power of a flour be determined8 #b4 ,to what is it due8 #c4 ,why do some flours absorb more water than others8 ,experiment ,no4 #bf ,acidity of ,flour ,weigh into a flask #bj gms4 of flour and add #bjj cc4 distilled water4 ,shake vigorously4 ,after letting stand #cj minutes1 filter and then titrate #ej cc4 of the filtrate against standard ,,koh solution1 using phenolphthalein as indicator1 #a cc4 of the alkali equals #j4jji gms4 lactic acid4 ,calculate the per cent of acid present4 #a4 ,how may the acidity of a flour be determined8 #b4 ,the acidity is expressed in percentage amounts of what acid8 #c4 ,what per cent of acidity is found in normal flours8 #d4 ,what does a high acidity of a flour indicate8 ,experiment ,no4 #bg ,moist and ,dry ,gluten ,weigh #cj gms4 of flour into a porcelain dish4 ,make the flour into a stiff dough4 ,after #cj minutes obtain the gluten by washing1 being careful to remove all the starch and prevent any losses4 ,squeeze the water from the gluten as thoroughly as possible4 ,weigh the moist gluten and calculate the per cent4 ,dry the gluten in the water oven and calculate the per cent of dry gluten4 ,experiment ,no4 #bh ,gliadin from ,flour ,place in a flask #aj gms4 of flour1 #cj cc4 of alcohol1 and #bj cc4 of water4 ,cork the flask and shake1 and after a few minutes shake again4 ,allow the alcohol to act on the flour for an hour1 or until the next day4 ,then filter off the alcohol solution and evaporate the filtrate to dryness over the water bath4 ,examine the residue2 to a portion add a little water2 burn a small portion and observe odor4 #a4 ,describe the appearance of the gliadin4 #b4 ,what was the result when water was added8 #c4 ,when burned1 what was the odor of the gliadin1 and what does this indicate8 #d4 ,what is gliadin8 ,experiment ,no4 #bi ,bread-making ,test ,make a sponge by mixing together3 #ab gm4 sugar1 #ab gm4 yeast 7compressed71 #d gm4 salt1 #age cc4 water 7temp4 #cb ,c474 ,let stand #a_/b hour at a temperature of #cj ,c4 ,in a large bowl1 mix with a knife or spatula #g4g gms4 of lard with #bdh4f gms4 of flour4 ,then add #afj cc4 of the sponge1 or as much as is needed to make a good stiff dough1 and mix thoroughly1 using the spatula4 ,with some flours as small a quantity as #aej cc4 of sponge may be used4 ,if more moisture is necessary1 add ,h#b,o4 ,keep at temperature of #cj ,c4 ,allow the dough to stand #ej minutes to first pulling1 #dj minutes to second pulling1 and #cj to #ej minutes to the pan4 ,let it rise to top of pan and then bake for #a_/b hour in an oven at a temperature of #ahj ,c4 ,one loaf of bread is made of patent flour of known quality as a standard for comparison1 and other loaves of the flours to be tested4 ,compare the loaves as to size 7cubic contents71 color1 porosity1 odor1 taste1 nature of crust1 and form of loaf4 ,experiment ,no4 #cj ,microscopic ,examination of ,yeast ,on a watch glass mix thoroughly a very small piece of yeast with about #e cc4 of water and then with the stirring rod place a drop of this solution on the microscopical slide1 adding a drop of very dilute methyl violet solution4 ,cover with the cover glass and examine under the microscope4 ,the living active cells appear colorless while the decayed and lifeless ones are stained4 ,yeast cells are circular or oval in shape4 7,see ,fig4 #df47 7,adapted from ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis47 ,experiment ,no4 #ca ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,alum ,place about #b gms4 of flour in a dish with #a_/b gm4 baking powder4 ,add enough water to make a dough and then #b or #c drops of tincture of logwood and #b or #c drops of ammonium carbonate solution4 ,mix well and observe2 a blue color indicates alum4 ,try the same test1 using flour only for comparison4 #a4 ,how do you test a baking powder for alum8 #b4 ,what difference in color did you observe in the test with the baking powder containing alum and in that with the flour only8 #c4 ,why is the 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c solution used8 ,experiment ,no4 #cb ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,phosphoric ,acid ,dissolve #a_/b gm4 of baking powder in #e cc4 of ,h#b,o and #c cc4 ,,hno#c4 ,filter and add #c cc4 ammonium molybdate4 ,heat gently4 ,a yellow precipitate indicates phosphoric acid4 #a4 ,how do you test a baking powder for phosphoric acid8 #b4 ,what is the yellow precipitate obtained in this test8 ,experiment ,no4 #cc ,testing ,baking ,powders for ,ammonia ,dissolve #a_/b gm4 of material in #aj cc4 water2 filter off any insoluble residue and to the filtrate add #b or #c cc4 ,na,o,h and apply heat4 ,test the gas given off with moistened turmeric paper4 ,if ,,nh#c is present1 the paper will be colored brown4 ,do not allow the paper to come in contact with the liquid or sides of the test tube4 7,perform the tests on two samples of baking powder47 #a4 ,how do you test a baking powder for ammonia8 #b4 ,why do you add ,na,o,h8 #c4 ,why must you be careful not to let the turmeric paper touch the sides of the test tube or the liquid8 ,experiment ,no4 #cd ,vinegar ,solids ,into a weighed aluminum or porcelain dish pour #aj cc4 of vinegar4 ,weigh and then evaporate over boiling water4 ,to drive off the last traces of moisture dry in the water oven for an hour4 ,cool and weigh4 ,calculate the per cent of solids4 ,observe the appearance of the solids4 ,test both samples and compare4 #a4 ,how may the per cent of solids in vinegar be determined8 #b4 ,describe the appearance of the solids from the good and from the poor sample of vinegar4 #c4 ,what is the legal standard for vinegar solids in your state8 ,experiment ,no4 #ce ,specific ,gravity of ,vinegar ,pour #agj cc4 vinegar into #bjj cc4 cylinder4 ,place a hydrometer for heavy liquids 7sp4 gr4 #a to #a4a7 in the cylinder4 ,note the depth to which it sinks and the point registered on the scale on the stem4 ,note temperature of vinegar4 ,record specific gravity of vinegar4 #a4 ,what effect would addition of water to vinegar have upon its specific gravity8 #b4 ,what effect would addition of such material as sugar have upon specific gravity8 #c4 ,why should the specific gravity of vinegar be fairly constant8 #d4 ,what would be the weight of #ajjj cc4 of vinegar calculated from the specific gravity8 ,experiment ,no4 #cf ,acidity of ,vinegar ,into a small beaker pour #f cc4 of vinegar and #aj cc4 of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator4 ,run in standard ,,koh solution from a burette until a faint pink tinge remains permanently4 ,note the number of cubic centimeters of ,,koh solution required to neutralize the acid4 ,divide this number by #aj1 which will give approximately the per cent of acetic acid4 #a4 ,how may the per cent of acidity of vinegar be determined8 #b4 ,why was phenolphthalein used8 #c4 ,why was ,,koh used8 #d4 ,what acids does vinegar contain8 #e4 ,what is the legal requirement in this state for acetic acid in vinegar8 #f4 ,how did the acidity you obtained compare with this legal requirement8 ,experiment ,no4 #cg ,deportment of ,vinegar with ,reagents ,to #aj cc4 of vinegar in a test tube add #h or #aj drops of lead sub-acetate and shake4 ,observe the precipitate4 ,lead sub-acetate precipitates mainly the malic acid which is always present in cider vinegar4 #a4 ,how may the presence of malic acid in a vinegar be detected8 #b4 ,describe the precipitate4 #c4 ,what does malic acid in a vinegar indicate8 ,experiment ,no4 #ch ,testing ,mustard for ,turmeric ,place #a gm4 of ground mustard on a small watch glass and moisten slightly with water4 ,add #b or #c drops of ,,nh#d,,oh1 stirring well with a glass rod4 ,a brown color indicates turmeric present in considerable quantity4 ,test a sample of good mustard and one adulterated with turmeric and compare the results4 ,experiment ,no4 #ci ,examination of ,tea ,leaves ,soak a small amount of tea and unroll #h or #aj of the leaves4 ,make a drawing of a tea leaf4 ,observe the proportion of stems in each of three samples of tea2 also the relative proportion of large and small leaves4 ,observe if the leaves are even as to size and of a uniform color4 ,experiment ,no4 #dj ,action of ,iron ,compounds upon ,tannic ,acid ,make an infusion of tea by placing #c gms4 of tea in #ajj cc4 of hot water and stirring well4 ,filter off some of the infusion and test #e cc4 with ferrous sulphate solution made by dissolving #a gm4 ,fe,s,o#d in #aj cc4 ,h#b,o and filtering4 ,note the result4 #a4 ,what change in color did you observe when the ferrous sulphate solution was added to the tea infusion8 #b4 ,what effect would waters containing iron have upon the tea infusion8 ,experiment ,no4 #da ,identification of ,coffee ,berries ,examine ,rio1 ,java1 and ,mocha coffee berries4 ,describe each4 ,note the characteristics of each kind of coffee berry4 ,experiment ,no4 #db ,detecting ,chicory in ,coffee ,fill a beaker with water and place about a teaspoonful of ground coffee on the surface4 ,if much of the ground material sinks and it imparts a dark brown color to the lower portion of the liquid1 it is an indication of the presence of chicory4 ,pure coffee floats on water4 ,chicory has a higher specific gravity than coffee4 #a4 ,how may the presence of chicory in ground coffee be detected8 #b4 ,why does coffee float on the water while chicory sinks8 #c4 ,what effect does chicory have upon the color of water8 ,experiment ,no4 #dc ,testing ,hard and ,soft ,waters ,partially fill a large cylinder with very hard water4 ,this may be prepared by dissolving #j4a to #j4b gm4 calcium chloride in #ejj cc4 of ordinary water4 ,add to this a measured quantity of soap solution4 ,mix well and notice how many cubic centimeters of soap solution must be used before a permanent lather is formed1 also notice the precipitate of lime soap4 ,repeat this experiment1 using either rain or distilled water1 and compare the cubic centimeters of soap solution used with that in former test4 ,repeat the test1 using tap water4 ,soap ,solution4--,scrape #aj gms4 of castile soap into fine shavings and dissolve in a liter of alcohol1 dilute with #a_/c water4 ,filter if not clear and keep in a tightly stoppered bottle4 #a4 ,why is more soap required to form a lather with hard water than with soft water8 #b4 ,what is meant by lime soap8 ,describe its appearance4 #c4 ,how may hard waters be softened for household purposes8 ,experiment ,no4 #dd ,solvent ,action of ,water on ,lead ,put #a gm4 of clean bright lead shavings into a test tube containing #aj cc4 of distilled water4 ,after #bd hours decant the clear liquid into a second test tube1 acidify slightly with ,,hcl1 and add a little hydrogen sulphid water4 ,a black or brownish coloration indicates lead in solution4 7,adapted from ,caldwell and ,breneman1 ,introductory ,chemical ,practice47 ,under what conditions may lead pipes be objectionable8 ,experiment ,no4 #de ,suspended ,matter in ,water ,place a drop of water on the microscopical slide1 cover with cover glass1 and examine with the microscope4 ,note the occurrence and appearance of any suspended matter in the water4 ,experiment ,no4 #df ,organic ,matter in ,water ,pour into the evaporating dish #ajj cc4 ,h#b,o and evaporate to dryness over the sand bath4 ,ignite the solids4 ,if the solids blacken when ignited1 the water contains organic matter4 ,experiment ,no4 #dg ,deposition of ,lime by ,boiling ,water ,boil for a few minutes about #bjj cc4 of water in a flask4 ,after the water is cool1 note any sediment of lime or turbidity of the water due to expelling the carbon dioxid4 #a4 ,what is meant by a hard water8 #b4 ,what do the terms temporary and permanent hardness of water mean8 #c4 ,what acts as a solvent of the lime in water8 #d4 ,why does boiling cause the lime to be deposited8 ,experiment ,no4 #dh ,qualitative ,tests for ,minerals in ,water ,test for ,chlorids4--,to #aj cc4 of ,h#b,o add a few drops of ,,hno#c and #b cc4 of ,ag,n,o#c4 ,a white precipitate indicates the presence of chlorids1 usually in the form of sodium chlorid4 ,test for ,sulphates4--,to #aj cc4 of water add #b cc4 of dilute ,h,cl and #b cc4 of ,ba,cl#b4 ,a cloudiness or the formation of a white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphates4 ,test for ,iron4--,if a brown sediment is formed in water exposed to the air for some time1 it is probably iron hydroxid4 ,to #aj cc4 of the water add a few drops of ,,hno#c1 heat1 and then add #a_/b cc4 of ,,nh#d;,,cns4 ,a red color indicates the presence of iron4 ,test for ,ca,o and ,mg,o4--,to #aj cc4 of ,h#b,o add #e cc4 ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,if a precipitate forms1 filter it off1 and to the filtrate add #c cc4 ,,nh#d;,cl and #e cc4 7,,nh#d7b;,c#b,o#d4 ,the precipitate is ,ca,c#b,o#d1 and the filtrate contains the magnesia4 ,filter and add #e cc4 ,na#c,,po#d to precipitate ,mg,n,h#d,,po#d4 #a4 ,how would you test a water to detect the presence of organic matter8 #b4 ,name some mineral impurities often found in water4 #c4 ,describe the test for chlorids2 for sulphates2 for iron2 for lime2 for magnesium4 #d4 ,of the two classes of impurities found in water1 which is the more harmful8 #e4 ,name three ways of purifying waters known to be impure1 and tell which is the most effectual4 ,experiment ,no4 #di ,testing for ,nitrites in ,water ,to #ej cc4 of water in a small beaker add with a pipette #b cc4 of naphthylamine hydrochloride and then #b cc4 of sulphanilic acid4 ,stir well and wait #bj minutes for color to develop4 ,a pink color indicates nitrites4 ,,reagents ,,used ,sulphanilic ,acid4--,dissolve #e gm4 in #aej cc4 of dilute acetic acid2 sp4 gr4 #a4jd4 ,naphthylamine ,hydrochloride4--,boil #j4a gm4 of solid ,greek3 a-amidonaphthaline 7naphthylamine7 in #bj cc4 of water1 filter the solution through a plug of absorbent cotton1 and mix the nitrate with #ahj cc4 of dilute acetic acid4 ,all water used must be free from nitrites1 and all vessels must be rinsed out with such water before tests are applied4 #a4 ,would a water showing the presence of nitrites be a safe drinking water8 ,why8 #b4 ,what are nitrites8 #c4 ,what does the presence of nitrites indicate8 #d4 ,are small amounts of nitrites1 when not associated with bacteria1 injurious8 ,,review ,,questions ,,chapter ,i ,,general ,,composition ,,of ,,foods #a4 ,to what extent is water present in foods8 #b4 ,what foods contain the most1 and what foods the least water8 #c4 ,how does the water content of some foods vary with the hydroscopicity of the air8 #d4 ,how may changes in water content of foods affect their weight8 #e4 ,why is it necessary to consider the water content of foods in assigning nutritive values8 #f4 ,how is the dry matter of a food determined8 #g4 ,why is the determination of the water in a food often a difficult process8 #h4 ,what is the ash or mineral matter of a food8 #i4 ,how is it obtained8 #aj4 ,what is its source8 #aa4 ,of what is the ash of plants composed8 #ab4 ,what part in plant life do these ash elements take8 #ac4 ,name the ash elements essential for plant growth4 #ad4 ,which of the mineral elements take the most essential part in animal nutrition8 #ae4 ,in what form are these elements usually considered most valuable8 #af4 ,why is sodium chloride or common salt necessary for animal life8 #ag4 ,how do food materials differ in ash content8 #ah4 ,define organic matter of foods4 #ai4 ,how is it obtained8 #bj4 ,of what is it composed8 #ba4 ,into what is the organic matter converted when it is burned8 #bb4 ,give the two large classes of organic compounds found in food materials4 #bc4 ,name the various subdivisions of the non-nitrogenous compounds4 #bd4 ,what are the carbohydrates8 #be4 ,give their general composition4 #bf4 ,what is cellulose8 #bg4 ,where is it found8 #bh4 ,what is its function in plants8 #bi4 ,what is its food value8 #cj4 ,in what way may cellulose be of value in a ration8 #ca4 ,in what way may it impart a negative value to a ration8 #cb4 ,what is starch8 #cc4 ,where is it mainly found in plants8 #cd4 ,give the mechanical structure of the starch grain4 #ce4 ,why is starch insoluble in cold water8 #cf4 ,how do starch grains from different sources differ in structure8 #cg4 ,what effect does heat have upon starch8 #ch4 ,define hydration of starch4 #ci4 ,under what conditions does this change take place8 #dj4 ,what value as a nutrient does starch possess8 #da4 ,what is sugar8 #db4 ,how does it resemble and how differ in composition from starch8 #dc4 ,what are the pectose substances8 #dd4 ,how are they affected by heat8 #de4 ,what food value do they possess8 #df4 ,what is nitrogen-free-extract8 #dg4 ,how is it obtained8 #dh4 ,how may the nitrogen-free-extract of one food differ from that of another8 #di4 ,what are the fats8 #ej4 ,how do they differ in composition from the starches8 #ea4 ,why does fat when burned or digested produce more heat than starch or sugar8 #eb4 ,name the separate fats of which animal and vegetable foods are composed4 #ec4 ,give some of the physical characteristics of fat4 #ed4 ,what is the iodine absorption number of a fat8 #ee4 ,how does the specific gravity of fat compare with that of water8 #ef4 ,into what two constituents may all fats be separated8 #eg4 ,what is ether extract8 #eh4 ,how does the ether extract in fats vary in composition and nutritive value8 #ei4 ,what are the organic acids8 #fj4 ,name those most commonly met with in foods4 #fa4 ,what nutritive value do they possess8 #fb4 ,what dietetic value8 #fc4 ,what value are they to the growing plant8 #fd4 ,what organic acids are found in animal foods8 #fe4 ,what are the essential oils8 #ff4 ,how do they differ from the fixed oils1 or fats8 #fg4 ,what property do the essential oils impart to foods8 #fh4 ,what food value do they possess8 #fi4 ,what dietetic value8 #gj4 ,what are the mixed compounds8 #ga4 ,how may a compound impart a negative value to a food8 #gb4 ,what is the nutritive value of the non-nitrogenous compounds1 taken as a class8 #gc4 ,why is it necessary that nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds be blended in a ration8 #gd4 ,what are the nitrogenous compounds8 #ge4 ,how do they differ from the non-nitrogenous compounds8 #gf4 ,name the four subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds4 #gg4 ,what is protein8 #gh4 ,what is characteristic as to its nitrogen content8 #gi4 ,what are some of the derivative products that can be obtained from the protein molecule8 #hj4 ,how does the protein content of animal bodies compare with that of plants8 #ha4 ,name the various subdivisions of the proteins4 #hb4 ,what is albumin1 and how may it be obtained from a food8 #hc4 ,what is globulin1 and how is it obtained from a food8 #hd4 ,give some examples of globulins4 #he4 ,what are the albuminates1 and how are they affected by the action of acids and alkalies8 #hf4 ,what are the peptones1 and how do they differ from the albumins8 #hg4 ,how are the peptones produced from other proteids8 #hh4 ,what are the insoluble proteids8 #hi4 ,give an example4 #ij4 ,which of the proteids are found to the greatest extent in foods8 #ia4 ,why may proteids from different sources vary in their nutritive value8 #ib4 ,what general change do the proteids undergo during digestion8 #ic4 ,what is crude protein8 #id4 ,how is the crude protein content of a food calculated8 #ie4 ,why is the nitrogen content of a food more absolute than the crude protein content8 #if4 ,what food value do the proteins possess8 #ig4 ,why may proteins serve so many functions in the body8 #ih4 ,why is protein necessary as a nutrient8 #ii4 ,what is the effect of an excess of protein in the ration8 #ajj4 ,what is the effect of a scant amount of protein in a ration8 #aja4 ,what are the albuminoids8 #ajb4 ,name borne materials that contain large amounts of albuminoids4 #ajc4 ,what food value do the albuminoids possess8 #ajd4 ,what are the amids8 #aje4 ,how are they formed in plants8 #ajf4 ,what is their source in animals8 #ajg4 ,what general changes does the element nitrogen undergo in plant and animal bodies8 #ajh4 ,what is the food value of the amids8 #aji4 ,what are the alkaloids8 #aaj4 ,what is their food value8 #aaa4 ,what effect do some alkaloids exert upon the animal body8 #aab4 ,how may they be produced in animal foods8 #aac4 ,what general relationship exists between the various nitrogenous compounds8 #aad4 ,why is it essential that the animal body be supplied with nitrogenous food in the form of proteids8 #aae4 ,name the cycle of changes through which the element nitrogen passes in plant and animal bodies4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,changes ,,in ,,composition ,,of ,,foods ,,during ,,cooking ,,and ,,preparation #aaf4 ,how do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition8 #aag4 ,in what ways are foods acted upon during cooking8 #aah4 ,what causes chemical changes to take place during cooking8 #aai4 ,what are the principal compounds that are changed during the process of cooking8 #abj4 ,how does cooking affect the cellulose of foods8 #aba4 ,what change does starch undergo during cooking8 #abb4 ,when foods containing starch are baked1 what change occurs8 #abc4 ,how are the sugars acted upon when foods are cooked8 #abd4 ,what effect does dry heat have upon sugar8 #abe4 ,what change occurs to the fats during cooking8 #abf4 ,how does this affect nutritive value8 #abg4 ,what changes do the proteids undergo during cooking8 #abh4 ,why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways8 #abi4 ,why are chemical changes1 as hydration1 often desirable in the cooking and preparation of foods8 #acj4 ,what physical changes do vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked8 #aca4 ,how do foods change in weight during cooking8 #acb4 ,why is a prolonged high temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking8 #acc4 ,to what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and chemical changes in foods during cooking8 #acd4 ,what effect does cooking have upon the bacterial flora of foods8 #ace4 ,in what ways do bacteria exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods8 #acf4 ,how may certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation of foods8 #acg4 ,what are the insoluble ferments8 #ach4 ,what are the soluble ferments8 #aci4 ,what part do they take in animal and plant nutrition8 #adj4 ,define aerobic ferments4 #ada4 ,define anarobic ferments4 #adb4 ,what general relationship exists between the chemical1 physical1 and bacteriological changes that take place in foods8 #adc4 ,why should foods also possess an esthetic value8 #add4 ,what kinds of colors should be used in the preparation of foods8 #ade4 ,what processes should be used for removal of coloring materials from foods8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,vegetable ,,foods #adf4 ,give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class4 #adg4 ,how do vegetable foods differ from animal foods8 #adh4 ,name some vegetables which contain the maximum1 and some which contain the minimum percentage of protein4 #adi4 ,give the general composition of potatoes4 #aej4 ,of what is the dry matter mainly composed8 #aea4 ,how much of the crude protein of potatoes is true protein8 #aeb4 ,what ratio exists between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato8 #aec4 ,give the chemical composition of the potato4 #aed4 ,what influence do different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of potatoes8 #aee4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and absorbed by the body8 #aef4 ,what value do potatoes impart to the ration8 #aeg4 ,how do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value from white potatoes8 #aeh4 ,how do carrots differ in composition from potatoes8 #aei4 ,what is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot8 #afj4 ,how do carrots and milk differ in composition8 #afa4 ,to what is the color of the carrot due8 #afb4 ,to what extent are the nutrients removed in the cooking of carrots8 #afc4 ,what is the value of carrots in a ration8 #afd4 ,give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips4 #afe4 ,how does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes8 #aff4 ,how does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes8 #afg4 ,how does the cabbage differ in general composition from many vegetables8 #afh4 ,to what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling of cabbage8 #afi4 ,give the nutritive value of cabbage4 #agj4 ,how does the cauliflower differ from cabbage8 #aga4 ,give the general composition of beets4 #agb4 ,give the general composition of cucumbers4 #agc4 ,what nutritive value has lettuce8 #agd4 ,give the composition and dietetic value of onions4 #age4 ,how does the ratio of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other vegetables8 #agf4 ,give the general composition and nutritive value of asparagus4 #agg4 ,how much nutritive material do melons contain8 #agh4 ,what are the principal compounds of tomatoes8 #agi4 ,what nutrients do they supply to the ration8 #ahj4 ,in the canning of tomatoes1 why is it desirable to conserve the juices8 #aha4 ,how does sweet corn differ in composition from fully matured corn8 #ahb4 ,what nutritive value does the egg plant possess8 #ahc4 ,what are the principal nutrients of squash8 #ahd4 ,what nutritive material does celery contain8 #ahe4 ,to what does celery owe its dietetic value8 #ahf4 ,why are vegetables necessary in a ration8 #ahg4 ,why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the basis of percentage of nutrients present8 #ahh4 ,name the miscellaneous compounds which many vegetables contain1 and the characteristics which these may impart4 #ahi4 ,why is it necessary to consider the sanitary conditions of vegetables8 #aij4 ,how do canned vegetables differ in composition and food value from fresh vegetables8 #aia4 ,what proportion of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts8 #aib4 ,why is it necessary to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,fruits #aic4 ,to what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter8 #aid4 ,give the general composition of fruits4 #aie4 ,what compounds impart taste and flavor8 #aif4 ,how much nutrients do fruits add to a ration8 #aig4 ,why is it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of nutrients8 #aih4 ,give the general composition of apples8 #aii4 ,what compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples8 #bjj4 ,how do apples differ in composition8 #bja4 ,give the general physical composition of oranges4 #bjb4 ,what nutrients are present to the greatest extent in oranges8 #bjc4 ,how do lemons differ in composition from oranges8 #bjd4 ,how does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical composition from oranges and lemons8 #bje4 ,what are the main compounds in strawberries8 #bjf4 ,in what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration8 #bjg4 ,of what is grape juice mainly composed8 #bjh4 ,what acid is in grapes1 and what is its commercial value8 #bji4 ,to what are the differences in flavor and taste due8 #baj4 ,how do ripe olives differ in composition from green olives8 #baa4 ,what is the food value of the olive8 #bab4 ,what physiological property does olive oil have8 #bac4 ,what is the principal nutrient in peaches8 #bad4 ,what compounds give flavor to peaches8 #bae4 ,of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist8 #baf4 ,how do plums differ in composition from many other fruits8 #bag4 ,what are prunes8 ,what is their food value8 #bah4 ,how do dried fruits differ in composition from fresh fruits8 #bai4 ,what should be the stage of ripeness of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning8 #bbj4 ,how do canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh fruits8 #bba4 ,to what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices8 #bbb4 ,why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality8 #bbc4 ,what preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned fruits8 #bbd4 ,what is the objection to their use8 #bbe4 ,why are fruits necessary in the ration8 #bbf4 ,what change does heat bring about in the pectose substances of fruits8 ,,chapter ,v ,,sugar1 ,,molasses1 ,,sirups1 ,,honey1 ,,and ,,confections #bbg4 ,what is sugar8 #bbh4 ,from what sources are sugars obtained8 #bbi4 ,name the two divisions into which sugars are divided4 #bcj4 ,how are sugars graded commercially8 #bca4 ,what per cent of purity has granulated sugar8 #bcb4 ,how is the coloring material of sugar removed8 #bcc4 ,how is sugar treated to make it whiter8 #bcd4 ,what value as a nutrient does sugar possess8 #bce4 ,why should sugar be combined with other nutrients8 #bcf4 ,what foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar8 #bcg4 ,why is an excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable8 #bch4 ,does sugar possess more than condimental value8 #bci4 ,what is the average quantity of sugar consumed in this country8 #bdj4 ,what is maple sugar8 #bda4 ,how does it differ in composition from other sugar8 #bdb4 ,how is adulterated maple sugar detected8 #bdc4 ,to what extent is granulated sugar adulterated8 #bdd4 ,why is it not easily adulterated8 #bde4 ,what are the dextrose sugars8 #bdf4 ,how do they differ chemically from sucrose8 #bdg4 ,what is the inversion of sugar8 #bdh4 ,in what way does acid act upon sugar8 #bdi4 ,how are the acid products removed8 #bej4 ,what is the food value of glucose8 #bea4 ,what is molasses8 #beb4 ,how is it obtained8 #bec4 ,of what is it composed8 #bed4 ,what gives taste and flavor to molasses8 #bee4 ,how may molasses act upon metalware8 #bef4 ,what is the food value of molasses8 #beg4 ,what is sirup8 #beh4 ,name three kinds of sirup1 and mention materials from which they are prepared4 #bei4 ,what is the polariscope1 and how is it employed in sugar work8 #bfj4 ,what is honey8 #bfa4 ,how does it differ in composition from sugar8 #bfb4 ,how is strained honey adulterated8 #bfc4 ,what materials are used in the preparation of confections8 #bfd4 ,what changes take place in their manufacture8 #bfe4 ,what materials are used for imparting color8 #bff4 ,what can you say in regard to the coal tar colors8 #bfg4 ,what should be the position of candy in the dietary8 #bfh4 ,what can you say of the comparative value of cane and beet sugar8 #bfi4 ,how do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to nutritive value8 #bgj4 ,what are some of the impurities in candy8 #bga4 ,what is saccharine8 #bgb4 ,what are its properties8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,legumes ,,and ,,nuts #bgc4 ,what nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large amounts8 #bgd4 ,how does the amount of this nutrient compare with that found in meats8 #bge4 ,why are legumes valuable crops in general farming and for the feeding of farm animals8 #bgf4 ,give the general composition of beans4 #bgg4 ,how do beans compare in protein content with cereals8 #bgh4 ,how does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food materials8 #bgi4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of beans digested8 #bhj4 ,what influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon digestibility8 #bha4 ,what influence does removal of skins have upon digestibility8 #bhb4 ,in what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly digested8 #bhc4 ,how does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with that of the nutrients in other foods8 #bhd4 ,how do string beans differ from green beans8 #bhe4 ,give the general composition1 digestibility1 and nutritive value of peas4 #bhf4 ,what can you say of the use of copper sulphate in the preparation of canned peas8 #bhg4 ,what nutrients do peanuts contain in large amounts8 #bhh4 ,give the general composition of nuts4 #bhi4 ,what are the characteristics of pistachio8 #bij4 ,give the general composition of the cocoanut4 #bia4 ,what is cocoanut butter8 #bib4 ,to what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration8 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,milk ,,and ,,dairy ,,products #bic4 ,what can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the dietary8 #bid4 ,give the general composition of milk4 #bie4 ,what compound in milk is most variable8 #bif4 ,to what extent are the nutrients in milk digestible8 #big4 ,what influence does milk have upon the digestibility of other foods8 #bih4 ,why is cheese cured in cold storage8 #bii4 ,how can the tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome8 #cjj4 ,why is it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk8 #cja4 ,what factors influence the sanitary condition of milk8 #cjb4 ,what is certified milk8 #cjc4 ,what is pasteurized milk8 #cjd4 ,how can milk be pasteurized for family use8 #cje4 ,what is tyrotoxicon8 #cjf4 ,what is its source in milk8 #cjg4 ,to what is the color of milk due8 #cjh4 ,to what extent is color associated with fat content8 #cji4 ,what causes souring of milk8 #caj4 ,what change occurs in the milk sugar8 #caa4 ,what are the most favorable conditions for the souring of milk8 #cab4 ,what are some of the preservatives used in milk4 #cac4 ,what objection is urged against their use8 #cad4 ,what is condensed milk8 #cae4 ,what is buttermilk1 and what dietetic value has it8 #caf4 ,how does goats' milk differ from cows' milk8 #cag4 ,what is koumiss1 and how is it prepared8 #cah4 ,what are the prepared milks8 #cai4 ,how does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk8 #cbj4 ,give the nutritive value of skim milk4 #cba4 ,what content of fat should cream contain8 #cbb4 ,in what ways is milk adulterated8 #cbc4 ,how are these adulterations detected8 #cbd4 ,give the general composition of butter4 #cbe4 ,what is the maximum amount of water that a butter may contain without being considered adulterated8 #cbf4 ,what can you say in regard to the digestibility of butter8 #cbg4 ,how is butter adulterated8 #cbh4 ,how does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with butter8 #cbi4 ,what is the food value of butter8 #ccj4 ,how does cheese differ in composition from butter8 #cca4 ,give the general composition of cheese4 #ccb4 ,to what are the flavor and odor of cheese due8 #ccc4 ,why is cheese ripened8 #ccd4 ,what chemical changes take place during ripening8 #cce4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested8 #ccf4 ,why is cheese sometimes considered indigestible8 #ccg4 ,to what extent do the nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility8 #cch4 ,how does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats8 #cci4 ,what is cottage cheese8 #cdj4 ,what is ,roquefort cheese8 #cda4 ,name four kinds of cheese1 and say to what each owes its individuality4 #cdb4 ,how is cheese adulterated8 #cdc4 ,why are dairy products in older agricultural regions generally cheaper than meats8 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,meats ,,and ,,animal ,,food ,,products #cdd4 ,give the general composition of meats4 #cde4 ,how do meats differ in chemical composition from vegetable foods8 #cdf4 ,what is the principal non-nitrogenous compound of meats1 and what of vegetables8 #cdg4 ,name the different classes of proteins in meats4 #cdh4 ,which class is present in largest amounts8 #cdi4 ,to what extent are amid compounds present in meats8 #cej4 ,what characteristics do amids impart to meats8 #cea4 ,how are alkaloids produced in meats8 #ceb4 ,in what ways does the lean meat of different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically8 #cec4 ,give the general composition of beef4 #ced4 ,what relationship exists between the fat and water content of beef8 #cee4 ,how much refuse have meats8 #cef4 ,in what forms are the ash elements 7mineral matter7 present in meats8 #ceg4 ,how does veal differ in composition from beef8 #ceh4 ,what general changes in composition occur as animals mature8 #cei4 ,how do these compare with the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced8 #cfj4 ,how does mutton vary in composition from beef8 #cfa4 ,how does it compare in food value with beef8 #cfb4 ,how do lamb and mutton differ in composition8 #cfc4 ,to what extent do the various cuts differ in composition8 #cfd4 ,how do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in nutritive value with the less expensive cuts8 #cfe4 ,how does pork differ in composition from other meats8 #cff4 ,give the general composition of ham4 #cfg4 ,give the composition and nutritive value of bacon4 #cfh4 ,how does bacon compare in food value with other meats8 #cfi4 ,how does the character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat8 #cgj4 ,what influences the texture or toughness of meats8 #cga4 ,how do cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats8 #cgb4 ,to what extent are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats8 #cgc4 ,what influence does the temperature of the water in which the meat is placed for cooking have upon the amount of nutrients extracted8 #cgd4 ,to what is the shrinking of meats in cooking due8 #cge4 ,of what does meat extract mainly consist8 #cgf4 ,to what do beef extracts owe their flavor8 #cgg4 ,what is their food value8 #cgh4 ,what is their dietetic value8 #cgi4 ,what is lard8 #chj4 ,how does it differ in composition from other fats8 #cha4 ,what is imparted to meats during the smoking process8 #chb4 ,why is saltpeter used in the preservation of meats8 #chc4 ,do vegetable foods contain nitrates and nitrites8 #chd4 ,how does poultry resemble and how differ in composition from other meat8 #che4 ,give the characteristics of sound poultry4 #chf4 ,give the general composition of fish4 #chg4 ,how does the flesh of different kinds of fish vary in composition8 #chh4 ,what influence does salting and preservation have upon composition8 #chi4 ,how do fish and meat compare in digestibility8 #cij4 ,how does the mineral matter and phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods8 #cia4 ,what are the main nutrients in oysters8 #cib4 ,give the general food value of oysters4 #cic4 ,what is meant by the fattening of oysters8 #cid4 ,what effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the sanitary value8 #cie4 ,give the general composition of the egg4 #cif4 ,how do different parts of the egg differ in composition8 #cig4 ,how does the egg differ in composition from the potato8 #cih4 ,is color an index to the composition of the egg8 #cii4 ,what effect does cooking have upon the composition of the egg8 #djj4 ,what factors influence the flavor of eggs8 #dja4 ,how do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility8 #djb4 ,under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary8 #djc4 ,why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight8 #djd4 ,how do canned meats differ in composition from fresh meats8 #dje4 ,how do the nutrients of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat8 #djf4 ,what are the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats8 #djg4 ,what are some of the materials used in the preservation of meats8 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cereals #djh4 ,how are the cereals milled8 #dji4 ,what are the cereals most commonly used for food purposes8 #daj4 ,give the general composition of cereals as a class4 #daa4 ,what are the main nutrients in corn preparations8 #dab4 ,what influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of corn have upon its digestibility8 #dac4 ,how does the cost of nutrients in corn compare with other foods8 #dad4 ,why is corn alone not suitable for bread-making purposes8 #dae4 ,why should corn be combined in a ration with foods mediumly rich in protein8 #daf4 ,what change takes place in corn meal from long storage8 #dag4 ,give the characteristics and composition of oat preparations4 #dah4 ,how does removal of the oat hull affect the composition of the product8 #dai4 ,to what extent do the various oat preparations on the market differ in composition and food value8 #dbj4 ,do oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle8 #dba4 ,why should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other foods8 #dbb4 ,to what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested8 #dbc4 ,how do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and oat preparations8 #dbd4 ,what influence upon the composition of the wheat breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran8 #dbe4 ,what is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value8 #dbf4 ,what are the special diabetic flours1 and how are they prepared8 #dbg4 ,what are the wheat middlings breakfast foods1 and how do they compare in digestibility and food value with bread8 #dbh4 ,how do they differ mechanically8 #dbi4 ,how does barley differ from wheat in general composition8 #dcj4 ,what is barley water1 and what nutritive material does it contain8 #dca4 ,what cereal does rice resemble in composition8 #dcb4 ,with what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced ration8 #dcc4 ,what can you say as to comparative ease and completeness of digestibility of rice8 #dcd4 ,why are cereals valuable in the ration8 #dce4 ,in what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion8 #dcf4 ,what are predigested breakfast foods8 #dcg4 ,how would you determine the general nutritive value of a breakfast food1 knowing the kind of cereal from which it was prepared8 #dch4 ,to what extent are cereals modified or changed in composition by cooking8 #dci4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body8 #ddj4 ,to what extent do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter8 #dda4 ,how does the phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk8 ,,chapter ,x ,,wheat ,,flour #ddb4 ,why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes8 #ddc4 ,to what extent may wheat vary in protein content8 #ddd4 ,what are spring wheats8 #dde4 ,what are winter wheats8 #ddf4 ,give the general characteristics of each4 #ddg4 ,what are glutinous wheats8 #ddh4 ,what are starchy wheats8 #ddi4 ,name the different proteids in wheat flour4 #dej4 ,about how much starch does wheat flour contain8 #dea4 ,what other carbohydrates are also present8 #deb4 ,what is the roller process of flour milling8 #dec4 ,what is meant by the first break8 #ded4 ,how are the different products of the wheat kernel separated8 #dee4 ,what is meant by middlings flour8 #def4 ,what is break flour8 #deg4 ,what is patent flour8 #deh4 ,name the high grade flours4 #dei4 ,name the low grade flours4 #dfj4 ,how are the impurities removed from wheat flour8 #dfa4 ,what per cent of the wheat kernel is returned as flour8 ,as offals8 #dfb4 ,what becomes of the wheat germ during milling8 #dfc4 ,what sized bolting cloths are used in milling8 #dfd4 ,what is graham flour8 #dfe4 ,how does it differ in mechanical and chemical composition from white flour8 #dff4 ,what is entire wheat flour8 #dfg4 ,how does it differ in physical and chemical composition from white flour8 #dfh4 ,what effect has the refining of flour upon the ash content8 #dfi4 ,how do low and high grade flours differ in chemical composition8 #dgj4 ,how do the wheat offals differ in composition from the flour8 #dga4 ,what are the factors which influence the composition of flours8 #dgb4 ,what effect does storage have upon the bread-making value of flour8 #dgc4 ,what change takes place when new wheat is stored in an elevator8 #dgd4 ,what is durum wheat flour1 and how does it differ from other flour8 #dge4 ,what gives flour its color8 #dgf4 ,why is color an index of grade8 #dgg4 ,how is the color of a flour determined8 #dgh4 ,how do flours differ in granulation8 #dgi4 ,how does the granulation affect the physical properties of flour8 #dhj4 ,how is the granulation of flour approximately determined8 #dha4 ,how is the absorptive capacity of a flour determined8 #dhb4 ,what factors cause a variation in the capacity of flours to absorb water8 #dhc4 ,give the characteristics of a good gluten4 #dhd4 ,what causes unsound flours8 #dhe4 ,how is the bread-making value of a flour determined8 #dhf4 ,how are flours bleached8 #dhg4 ,how does bleaching affect the chemical composition of flour8 #dhh4 ,what influence does bleaching have upon bread-making value8 #dhi4 ,traces of what compounds are formed during bleaching8 #dij4 ,are these compounds injurious to health8 #dia4 ,what effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and dbris particles in flour8 #dib4 ,is it possible to bleach low grade flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours8 #dic4 ,are flours usually adulterated8 #did4 ,why8 #die4 ,how would mineral adulterants be detected8 #dif4 ,how would the presence of other cereals be detected8 #dig4 ,how does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods8 #dih4 ,how does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods8 #dii4 ,what causes flours to vary so in bread-making value8 #ejj4 ,why may flours produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from year to year8 #eja4 ,what relationship exists between the nutritive and bread-making value of a flour8 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,bread ,,and ,,bread ,,making #ejb4 ,define leavened and unleavened bread4 #ejc4 ,why is yeast used in bread making8 #ejd4 ,give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread4 #eje4 ,why is flour used for bread making purposes8 #ejf4 ,name the eight chemical changes that take place during bread making4 #ejg4 ,to what extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making8 #ejh4 ,what compounds suffer losses during bread making8 #eji4 ,what is yeast8 #eaj4 ,what chemical changes does it produce8 #eaa4 ,what becomes of these products during bread making8 #eab4 ,how is compressed yeast made8 #eac4 ,what part does the alcohol take in bread making8 #ead4 ,what temperature is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making8 #eae4 ,through what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making8 #eaf4 ,to what extent are soluble carbohydrates formed8 #eag4 ,in what way is starch acted upon mechanically8 #eah4 ,explain the structure of the starch grains in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast ferments4 #eai4 ,to what extent are acids produced in bread making8 #ebj4 ,what becomes of the acids formed8 #eba4 ,how may the acids thus developed affect the properties of other chemical compounds8 #ebb4 ,to what extent are volatile carbon compounds1 other than carbon dioxid and alcohol1 liberated during bread making8 #ebc4 ,what changes occur to the various proteids during the process of bread making8 #ebd4 ,why do flours vary in quality of gluten8 #ebe4 ,to what extent do losses of nitrogen occur during bread making8 #ebf4 ,how much of the total nitrogen of flour is present as proteids8 #ebg4 ,how is the fat of flour affected during the process of bread making8 #ebh4 ,what effect does the addition of #aj per cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf8 #ebi4 ,what effect does the addition of #aj per cent of wheat gluten to flour have upon the size of the loaf8 #ecj4 ,what relationship exists between gluten content and capacity of a flour to absorb water8 #eca4 ,give the general composition of bread4 #ecb4 ,what factors influence its composition8 #ecc4 ,what effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon composition8 #ecd4 ,how does the temperature of the flour influence the bread-making process8 #ece4 ,why is it necessary to vary the process of bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of flour8 #ecf4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of bread digested8 #ecg4 ,how does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread8 #ech4 ,how do graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white bread8 #eci4 ,what value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the dietary8 #edj4 ,why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of the laboring man8 #eda4 ,how do graham and entire wheat flours compare in chemical composition with white flour8 #edb4 ,how do they compare in mechanical composition8 #edc4 ,to what is the difference in digestibility supposed to be due8 #edd4 ,are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in a ration as a source of mineral elements8 #ede4 ,what is the main difference in composition between old and new bread8 #edf4 ,how do different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition and nutritive value8 #ddg4 ,how does toast differ in composition from bread8 #edh4 ,what influence does toasting have upon digestibility8 #edi4 ,what is gained by toasting bread8 #eej4 ,how does bread compare in nutritive value with other cereal foods8 #eea4 ,how does bread compare in nutritive value with animal foods8 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,baking ,,powders #eeb4 ,what is a baking powder8 #eec4 ,what are the two kinds of materials which baking powders contain8 #eed4 ,name the different types of baking powders4 #eee4 ,how does baking powder differ in its action from yeast8 #eef4 ,what are the cream of tartar baking powders8 #eeg4 ,what is the nature of the residue which they leave8 #eeh4 ,what are the phosphate baking powders8 #eei4 ,what is the nature of the residue which they leave8 #efj4 ,why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable with that naturally present in foods8 #efa4 ,what are the alum baking powders8 #efb4 ,what residue is left from the alum powders8 #efc4 ,which of the three classes of baking powders is considered the least objectionable8 #efd4 ,why is a new baking powder preferable to one that has been kept a long time8 #efe4 ,why should baking powders be kept in tin cans1 and not in paper8 #eff4 ,why are fillers used in the manufacture of baking powders8 #efg4 ,how may a baking powder be prepared at home8 #efh4 ,how does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those purchased in the market8 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,vinegars1 ,,spices1 ,,and ,,condiments #efi4 ,what is vinegar8 #egj4 ,how is it made8 #ega4 ,give the three chemical changes that take place in its preparation4 #egb4 ,why is air necessary in the last stage of the process8 #egc4 ,what ferments take part in the production of vinegar8 #egd4 ,what is malt vinegar8 #ege4 ,what materials other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar8 #egf4 ,give the characteristics of a good vinegar4 #egg4 ,in what ways are vinegars adulterated8 #egh4 ,what food value has vinegar8 #egi4 ,why should vinegars not be stored in metalware8 #ehj4 ,what dietetic value has vinegar8 #eha4 ,to what materials do the spices owe their value8 #ehb4 ,what is pepper8 #ehc4 ,what is the difference between white and black pepper8 #ehd4 ,what compounds give pepper its characteristics8 #ehe4 ,how are peppers adulterated8 #ehf4 ,what is mustard8 #ehg4 ,give its general composition4 #ehh4 ,how is it adulterated8 #ehi4 ,what is ginger8 #eij4 ,how is it prepared for the market8 #eia4 ,give its general composition4 #eib4 ,what is cinnamon8 #eic4 ,what is cassia8 #eid4 ,what gives these their taste and flavor8 #eie4 ,what are cloves8 #eif4 ,how are they prepared8 #eig4 ,what is mace8 #eih4 ,what is nutmeg8 #eii4 ,do the spices have any food value8 #fjj4 ,what is their dietetic value8 #fja4 ,why is excessive use of some of the spices objectionable8 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,chocolate1 ,,and ,,cocoa #fjb4 ,what is tea8 ,name the two plants from which it is obtained1 the countries where each grows best1 and the number of flushes each yields4 #fjc4 ,upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend8 #fjd4 ,give differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas4 #fje4 ,the characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound8 #fjf4 ,to what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due8 #fjg4 ,what can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value8 #fjh4 ,why should tea--especially green tea--be infused for a very short time1 never boiled8 #fji4 ,what effect has tannin upon the digestion of proteids8 #faj4 ,what three points are considered in judging a tea8 #faa4 ,what is the most common form of tea adulteration8 #fab4 ,describe the coffee plant and fruit1 and its method of preparation for market4 #fac4 ,what is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee8 #fad4 ,name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee4 ,how does it compare with theme8 #fae4 ,why may coffee not be considered a food8 #faf4 ,tell different ways in which coffee may be adulterated4 #fag4 ,which is more commonly practiced1 tea or coffee adulteration8 ,why8 #fah4 ,how may real coffee be distinguished from chicory8 ,why8 #fai4 ,name the three kinds of coffee in general use4 ,give distinguishing features of each4 ,which is usually considered best8 #fbj4 ,from what are cocoa and chocolate obtained8 #fba4 ,give the two methods of preparing cocoa4 #fbb4 ,what alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present in cocoa and chocolate8 #fbc4 ,what is the difference in preparation of cocoa and chocolate8 #fbd4 ,what are cereal coffee-substitutes8 #fbe4 ,what nutritive value have they8 #fbf4 ,how do they differ in composition from coffee8 #fbg4 ,to what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a ration8 #fbh4 ,what is plain chocolate8 #fbi4 ,why do chocolate preparations vary so widely in composition8 #fcj4 ,what treatment is given to the cocoa bean in its preparation for commerce8 #fca4 ,what treatment is sometimes given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat8 #fcb4 ,in what ways may cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated8 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,digestibility ,,of ,,foods #fcc4 ,define the term nutrient4 #fcd4 ,do all the nutrients of food have the same degree of digestibility8 #fce4 ,what is a digestion coefficient8 #fcf4 ,how is the digestibility of a food determined8 #fcg4 ,what volatile products are formed during the digestion of food8 #fch4 ,define digestible protein2 digestible carbohydrates1 digestible fat4 #fci4 ,what is the available energy of a ration8 #fdj4 ,how is it determined8 #fda4 ,how do the nutrients1 protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates1 compare as to available energy8 #fdb4 ,why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration8 #fdc4 ,is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body as starch or fat8 #fdd4 ,what residue is left from the digestion of protein8 #fde4 ,what part do the soluble ferments take in digestion8 #fdf4 ,to what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested8 #fdg4 ,which nutrient1 protein or fat1 is the most completely digested8 #fdh4 ,how do vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods8 #fdi4 ,what effect does cellulose have upon digestibility8 #fej4 ,which of the nutrients of vegetables1 protein or carbohydrates1 is more completely digested8 #fea4 ,what mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration8 #feb4 ,why must bulk be considered in a ration1 as well as nutrient content8 #fec4 ,name the eight most important factors influencing the digestibility of foods4 #fed4 ,to what extent does the combination of foods affect the digestibility of the nutrients8 #fee4 ,why does a mixed ration give better results than when only a single food is used8 #fef4 ,how does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive process8 #feg4 ,to what extent does the method of preparing food affect digestibility8 #feh4 ,what is gained1 so far as digestibility is concerned1 by the cooking of foods8 #fei4 ,to what extent does the mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility8 #ffj4 ,why is it desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration8 #ffa4 ,why should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated foods8 #ffb4 ,why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer8 #ffc4 ,how does palatability affect the digestive process8 #ffd4 ,do psychological processes in any way affect digestion8 #ffe4 ,what physiological properties do some foods possess8 #fff4 ,to what are these physiological properties due8 #ffg4 ,to what extent is individuality a factor in digestion8 #ffh4 ,to what extent does digestibility differ with individuals8 #ffi4 ,why do some foods affect individuals in different ways8 #fgj4 ,why is it necessary that the quantity1 quality1 and character of the food should vary with different individuals8 #fga4 ,in what different ways is the expression digestibility of a food used8 #fgb4 ,why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food1 as well as its composition8 #fgc4 ,does the digestibility of a food necessarily indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body8 #fgd4 ,how is it possible for one food containing #aj per cent of digestible protein1 and other nutrients in like amounts1 to be more valuable than another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other nutrients8 #fge4 ,how is it possible for one food to contain less total protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive point of view8 #fgf4 ,why is it necessary to consider the mechanical condition of a food and its combination with other foods1 as well as its chemical composition8 #fgg4 ,what effect does lack of a good supply of air have upon the completeness of the digestion process8 #fgh4 ,in what ways does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel8 #fgi4 ,what is gained by a study of the digestibility of foods8 #fhj4 ,why may two foods of the same general character give different results when used for nutritive purposes8 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,comparative ,,cost ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,foods #fha4 ,to what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods vary8 #fhb4 ,how is the value of one food expressed in terms of another food8 #fhc4 ,how determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in a food for a given sum of money8 #fhd4 ,how compare the amounts of nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money8 #fhe4 ,how is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is cheaper1 when the price and composition of the foods are known8 #fhf4 ,to what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a food8 #fhg4 ,when the difference in this nutrient between two foods is small1 then the preference is given to what nutrients8 #fhh4 ,at ordinary prices1 what are the cheapest vegetable foods8 #fhi4 ,what are among the cheapest animal foods8 #fij4 ,why is it not possible to determine the value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility8 #fia4 ,why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical composition of foods8 #fib4 ,what proportion of the income of the laboring man is usually expended for food8 #fic4 ,what are the most expensive foods8 #fid4 ,what foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the least cost8 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,dietary ,,studies #fie4 ,what is a dietary study8 #fif4 ,how is a dietary study made8 #fig4 ,what is the value of the dietary study of a family8 #fih4 ,to what extent does the protein in the dietary range8 #fii4 ,why is a scant amount of protein in a ration undesirable8 #gjj4 ,why is an excess of protein in the ration undesirable8 #gja4 ,what are dietary standards8 #gjb4 ,how are such standards obtained8 #gjc4 ,why is it desirable in a ration to secure the protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods8 #gjd4 ,why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration8 #gje4 ,how is this determined8 #gjf4 ,what is a wide nutritive ratio8 #gjg4 ,what is a narrow nutritive ratio8 #gjh4 ,why should the amount of nutrients consumed vary with the work performed8 #gji4 ,how should the nutrients be apportioned among the meals8 #gaj4 ,what are some of the most common dietary errors8 #gaa4 ,what analogy exists between human and animal feeding8 #gab4 ,what is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and animals8 #gac4 ,what use can be made of the results of dietary studies for improvement of the dietary8 #gad4 ,why is it not possible for animal foods to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods8 #gae4 ,is a well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients necessarily an expensive ration8 #gaf4 ,show how it is possible for one family to spend less money for food than another family1 and yet secure more digestible nutrients and energy4 #gag4 ,what are some of the most erroneous ideas as to food values8 #gah4 ,why is it necessary to consider previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods8 #gai4 ,in general1 what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived from vegetable foods1 and what portion from meats8 #gbj4 ,to what extent may a ration vary from the dietary standards8 #gba4 ,why are some inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table8 #gbb4 ,what are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased without sacrificing nutritive value8 #gbc4 ,why do different nationalities acquire distinct food habits8 #gbd4 ,why is it not possible to make sudden and radical changes in the dietary8 #gbe4 ,why is it not possible for a dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be applied to another class with equal satisfaction8 #gbf4 ,what relationship exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development8 #gbg4 ,what relationship exists between dietary habits and mental development and vigor8 #gbh4 ,why is it unnecessary and undesirable to regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily ration8 #gbi4 ,what is the general tendency as to quantity of food and amount of nutrients consumed8 #gcj4 ,why do people of sedentary habits require a different dietary from those pursuing active1 out-of-door occupations8 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,rational ,,feeding ,,of ,,man #gca4 ,what is the object of the rational feeding of man8 #gcb4 ,on what is it based8 #gcc4 ,how does it compare with the rational feeding of animals8 #gcd4 ,what is a standard ration8 #gce4 ,how is it determined8 #gcf4 ,to what extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard8 #gcg4 ,how do you combine foods to form a balanced ration8 #gch4 ,what foods are valuable for supplying protein8 #gci4 ,what foods supply fats8 #gdj4 ,what foods are rich in carbohydrates8 #gda4 ,what other requisites should a ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients8 #gdb4 ,why is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration8 #gdc4 ,if a ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of protein1 how could it be improved8 #gdd4 ,how do you calculate the nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food8 #gde4 ,give the amounts of the common food materials1 as potatoes1 bread1 butter1 milk1 and cheese1 ordinarily combined to form a ration4 #gdf4 ,to what extent may foods differ in composition from the average analysis given8 #gdg4 ,what foods are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation8 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,water #gdh4 ,why is water regarded as a food8 #gdi4 ,does it enter chemically into the composition of plants8 ,of animals8 #gej4 ,in addition to serving as a food1 why is water necessary for life processes8 #gea4 ,in what ways may water be improved8 #geb4 ,what are the most common forms of impurities8 #gec4 ,what are the mineral impurities of water8 #ged4 ,what is their source8 #gee4 ,what effect do some of these minerals have upon the value of the water8 #gef4 ,what causes some waters to dissolve limestone8 #geg4 ,what are permanently hard waters8 #geh4 ,to what is temporary hardness in water due8 #gei4 ,what is the best way to remove mineral matter from water8 #gfj4 ,what are the organic impurities of water8 #gfa4 ,what are the sources of the organic impurities8 #gfb4 ,what change does the organic matter of water undergo8 #gfc4 ,what becomes of the nitrogen of the organic matter8 #gfd4 ,what does the presence of nitrates in water indicate8 ,nitrites8 #gfe4 ,what is the total solid matter of a water1 and how is it obtained8 #gff4 ,define the terms free ammonia2 albuminoid ammonia4 #gfg4 ,what does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water indicate8 #gfh4 ,explain natural purification of water4 #gfi4 ,can natural purification always be relied upon8 #ggj4 ,why does the character of the drinking water affect health8 #gga4 ,what diseases are mainly caused by impure drinking water8 #ggb4 ,with what materials in water are the disease-producing organisms associated8 #ggc4 ,why should a water of questionable purity be boiled8 #ggd4 ,state how the boiling should be done1 to be effective4 #gge4 ,why should boiled water receive further care in its storage8 #ggf4 ,what effect does improvement of the water supply of a city have upon the death rate8 #ggg4 ,how may connections between cesspools and surface well waters be traced8 #ggh4 ,what impurities do rain waters contain8 #ggi4 ,explain the workings of the ,pasteur and ,berkefeld water filters4 #ghj4 ,why must special attention be given to cleaning the water filter8 #gha4 ,explain the processes employed for the removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use of chemicals4 #ghb4 ,why should such purification be under the supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist8 #ghc4 ,what effect does freezing have upon the purity of water8 #ghd4 ,why are precautions necessary in the use of ice for refrigeration8 #ghe4 ,what are mineral waters8 #ghf4 ,how are artificial mineral waters prepared8 #ghg4 ,what are the more common materials used in their preparation8 #ghh4 ,why should mineral waters be extensively used only by the advice of a physician8 #ghi4 ,what are some of the materials used for softening water8 #gij4 ,which are the least objectionable of these materials8 #gia4 ,which are the most objectionable8 #gib4 ,what can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for softening waters8 #gic4 ,in washing clothing after contagious diseases1 what materials may be used for disinfecting8 #gid4 ,why1 in softening waters for household purposes1 must caustic soda1 potash1 and bleaching powder be used with caution8 #gie4 ,why is it necessary to determine by trial the material most suitable for softening water8 #gif4 ,what advantage1 from a pecuniary point of view1 results from the improvement of the water supply of a community8 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,food ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,household ,,sanitation ,,and ,,storage #gig4 ,what are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis8 #gih4 ,does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious compounds8 #gii4 ,what are the sources of the injurious organic compounds in foods8 #hjj4 ,why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as well as chemical composition8 #hja4 ,what are the sources of contamination of foods8 #hjb4 ,what is the object of the sanitary inspection of food8 #hjc4 ,how may flies carry germ diseases8 #hjd4 ,why should food be protected from impure air and dust particles8 #hje4 ,why should places where vegetables are stored be well ventilated8 #hjf4 ,how may the dirt adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases8 #hjg4 ,why should the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition8 #hjh4 ,what effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of cities have upon the death rate8 #hji4 ,name the three natural disinfectants1 and explain the action of each4 #haj4 ,why must dishes and utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned8 #haa4 ,explain the principle of refrigeration4 #hab4 ,what kind of ferment action may take place at a low temperature8 #hac4 ,why is some ventilation necessary in refrigeration8 #had4 ,what effect does refrigeration have upon the composition of food8 #hae4 ,what relationship exists between unsanitary condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food8 #haf4 ,why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of kitchen refuse8 #hag4 ,name the ways in which this can be accomplished4 #hah4 ,how may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing8 #hai4 ,mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary4 ,,references ,the following list of references is given for the use of the student in case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects discussed in this work4 ,the list is not intended as a complete bibliography of the subject of foods4 ,the advanced student will find extended references in the ,experiment ,station ,record and the various chemical1 physiological1 and bacteriological journals4 #a4 ,,snyder3 ,the ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life4 #b4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ed3 ,human ,food ,investigations4 #c4 ,,cross ,,and ,,bevans3 ,cellulose4 #d4 ,,wiley3 ,principles and ,practice of ,agricultural ,analysis1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #e4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #gd3 ,human ,food ,investigations4 #f4 ,,parry3 ,the ,chemistry of ,essential ,oils1 etc4 #g4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #adb3 ,principles of ,nutrition and ,nutritive ,value of ,food4 #h4 ,,mann3 ,chemistry of the ,proteids4 #i4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #he3 ,wheat and ,flour ,investigations4 #aj4 ,,armsby3 ,principles of ,animal ,nutrition4 #aa4 ,,sherman3 ,organic ,analysis4 #ab4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #dc3 ,digestion ,experiments with ,potatoes and ,eggs4 #ac4 ,unpublished results of author4 #ad4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry ,bulletin ,no4 #di3 ,cold ,curing of ,cheese4 #ae4 ,,wiley3 ,foods and ,their ,adulteration4 #af4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #fc3 ,miscellaneous ,analyses4 #ag4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #h3 ,canned ,vegetables4 #ah4 ,,leach3 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis4 #ai4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #bef3 ,preparation of ,vegetables for the ,table4 #bj4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aije3 ,fruit and its ,uses as ,food4 #ba4 ,handbook of ,experiment ,station ,work1 #ahic4 #bb4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #id3 ,studies on ,apples4 #bc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #fi3 ,fruits and ,fruit ,products4 #bd4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #bjc3 ,canned ,fruits1 ,preserves1 and ,jellies4 #be4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #bg3 ,sugar ,beet ,industry4 #bf4 ,,sadtler3 ,a ,handbook of ,industrial ,organic ,chemistry4 #bg4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #hf3 ,the ,food ,value of ,sugar4 ,the ,digestive ,action of ,milk4 #bh4 ,,hutchison3 ,food and ,principles of ,dietetics4 #bi4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no #ic3 ,sugar as ,food4 #cj4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #beb3 ,maple ,sugar and ,sirup4 #ca4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #f3 ,sugar1 ,molasses1 ,sirup1 and ,confections4 #cb4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #aba3 ,peas and ,beans as ,food4 #cc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #abb3 ,nuts as ,food4 #cd4 ,maine ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ed3 ,nuts as ,food4 #ce4 ,california ,experiment ,station ,bulletins ,nos4 #ajg and #acb3 ,investigations among ,fruitarians4 #cf4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #gd3 ,milk as ,food4 #cg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #fc3 ,care of ,milk on the ,farm4 #ch4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #adi3 ,digestibility of ,milk4 #ci4 ,,russell3 ,dairy ,bacteriology4 #dj4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac4 ,part #a3 ,dairy ,products4 #da4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #aca3 ,household ,tests for ,detection of ,oleomargarine and ,renovated ,butter4 #db4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry ,bulletin ,no #fa3 ,relation of ,bacteria to ,flavor of ,cheddar ,cheese4 #dc4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ib3 ,the ,digestibility and ,nutritive ,value of ,cottage ,cheese1 etc4 #dd4 ,,lawes ,,and ,,gilbert3 ,experiments with ,animals4 #de4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #cd3 ,meats1 ,composition and ,cooking4 #df4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #g3 ,lard and ,lard ,adulterants4 #dg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aic3 ,cooking of ,meats as ,affecting ,digestibility4 #dh4 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ada3 ,experiments on ,losses in ,cooking ,meats4 ,see also ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ajb3 ,losses in ,cooking ,meats4 #di4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ff3 ,physiological ,effect of ,creatin and ,creatinin4 #ej4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #afb3 ,the ,influence of ,cooking upon the ,nutritive ,value of ,meats4 #ea4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #aj3 ,preserved ,meats4 #eb4 ,,richardson1 ,w4 ,d41 ,journal of the ,american ,chemical ,society1 ,december1 #aijg3 ,the ,occurrence of ,nitrates in ,vegetable ,foods1 in ,cured ,meats1 and ,elsewhere4 #ec4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ahb3 ,poultry as ,food4 #ed4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #he3 ,fish as ,food4 #ee4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,experiment ,station ,work3 ,digestibility of ,fish and ,poultry4 #ef4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #bdi3 ,cereal ,breakfast ,foods4 #eg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ej3 ,composition of ,maize4 #eh4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #cje3 ,gluten ,flour and ,similar ,foods4 #ei4 ,,hammerston3 ,physiological ,chemistry4 #fj4 ,,edgar3 ,the ,wheat ,berry4 #fa4 ,minnesota ,experiment ,station ,bulletin ,no4 #ij3 ,composition and ,value of ,grains4 #fb4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aja3 ,bread and ,bread ,making4 #fc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aef3 ,digestibility and ,nutritive ,value of ,bread and ,macaroni ,flour4 #fd4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #fg3 ,bread and ,bread ,making4 #fe4 ,university of ,nebraska ,bulletin ,no4 #ajb3 ,the ,effect of ,bleaching upon the ,quality of ,wheat ,flour4 #ff4 ,,snyder3 ,wheat ,flour and ,bread4 #fg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #abf3 ,bread and ,bread ,making4 #fh4 ,,lawes ,,and ,,gilbert3 ,experiments on ,some ,points in the ,composition of the ,wheat ,grain1 of the ,product in the ,mill and ,bread4 #fi4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #e3 ,baking ,powders4 #gj4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #b3 ,spices and ,condiments4 #ga4 ,food ,standards3 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,see ,annual ,reports of the ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists4 #gb4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ba3 ,methods and ,results of ,investigations on the ,chemistry and ,economy of ,foods4 #gc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,chemistry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac1 ,part #g3 ,tea1 ,coffee1 and ,cocoa ,preparations4 #gd4 ,the ,respiration ,calorimeter3 ,year-book ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aijd4 #ge4 ,year ,book ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aijb3 ,cost of ,food as ,related to its ,nutritive ,value4 #gf4 ,see ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletins ,nos4 #hb1 #ga1 #abi1 #aaf1 #cg1 #ee1 #aej4 ,see also other bulletins of the ,office of ,experiment ,stations4 #gg4 ,,chittenden3 ,physiological ,economy in ,nutrition4 #gh4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #ih3 ,effect of ,severe and ,prolonged ,muscular ,work on ,food ,consumption4 #gi4 ,,henry3 ,feeds and ,feeding4 #hj4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations3 ,dietary ,studies in ,chicago ,bulletin ,no4 #ee4 #ha4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aaf3 ,dietary ,studies in ,new ,york ,city4 #hb4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #aai3 ,banana ,flour4 #hc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aei3 ,digest of ,japanese ,investigations on the ,nutrition of ,man4 #hd4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #aej3 ,dietary ,studies at the ,government ,hospital for the ,insane1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #he4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #adi3 ,studies on the ,food of ,maine ,lumbermen4 #hf4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,bulletin ,no4 #adc3 ,studies on the ,digestibility and ,nutritive ,value of ,bread at the ,maine ,experiment ,station4 #hg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,experiment ,station ,work1 ,vol4 ,,iii3 ,wells and ,pure ,water4 #hh4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #hh3 ,pure ,water on the ,farm4 #hi ,mineral ,impurities in ,water4 ,see various bulletins of the ,california and ,new ,mexico ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 #ij4 ,,mason3 ,examination of ,water4 #ia4 ,department of the ,interior1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey3 ,the ,quality of ,surface ,waters in ,minnesota4 #ib4 ,,fuertes3 ,water and ,public ,health4 #ic4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #abd3 ,distilled ,drinking ,water4 #id4 ,,turneaure ,,and ,,russell3 ,public ,water ,supplies4 #ie4 ,,vaughan ,,and ,,novy3 ,ptomains and ,lencomains4 #if4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,entomology1 ,circular ,no4 #ga3 ,house ,flies4 #ig4 ,,ellen ,h4 ,,richards ,,and ,s4 ,,maria ,,elliott3 ,the ,chemistry of ,cooking and ,cleaning4 #ih4 ,dr4 ,,woods ,,hutchinson1 ,saturday ,evening ,post1 #aijh3 ,the ,real ,angels of the ,house4 #ii4 ,,harrington3 ,practical ,hygiene4 #ajj4 ,,price3 ,handbook of ,sanitation4 ,,index ,air1 infection from impure1 #bhg4 pure1 disinfectant1 #bij4 ,albuminoids1 #bc4 ,alkaloids1 #bd4 ,allspice1 #bjb4 ,almonds1 #gg4 ,alum baking powder1 #ahh4 ,amids and ,amines1 #bc4 ,animal and vegetable foods1 economy of1 #bej4 ,animal foods1 digestibility of1 #bbj4 ,apparatus used in experiments1 #cja4 ,apples1 #di4 pectose from1 #cjg4 ,ash1 of foods1 #d4 elements of plants1 #e4 ,asparagus1 #dc4 ,available energy1 #bag4 nutrients1 #baf4 ,bacteria in food1 #cb4 ,baking powder1 composition of1 #ahf4 cream of tartar1 #ahg4 phosphates1 #ahi4 alum1 #ahi4 inspection of1 #aia4 fillers1 #aia4 home-made1 #aia4 testing for alum1 #cae4 testing for ammonia1 #caf4 testing for phosphoric acid1 #caf4 ,baking tests1 #aec-cad4 ,barley preparations1 #abh4 ,beans1 composition1 #ga4 digestibility1 #gb4 removal of skins1 #gb4 string1 #gc4 use of1 in dietary1 #gd4 ,beef1 #aja4 extracts1 #aaj4 ,beets1 #da4 ,beverages1 composition1 #bac4 ,bleaching of flour1 #aee4 ,bolting cloth1 #ach4 ,bread and bread making1 #aeh-ahe4 leavened and unleavened bread1 #aeh4 chemical changes during making1 #aei4 losses during bread making1 #afj4 production of carbon dioxide1 #afc4 production of alcohol1 #afc4 production of soluble carbohydrates1 #afe4 production of acids1 #aff4 production of volatile compounds1 #afg4 production of volatile nitrogenous compounds1 #agb4 wheat proteids1 part taken by1 #afi4 oxidation of fat1 #agc4 starch1 influence of1 addition of1 #agc4 composition of bread1 #agd4 temperature of flour1 #agf4 use of skim milk1 #agf4 process of bread making1 #agg4 digestibility of bread1 #agh4 graham bread1 use in the dietary1 #agi4 white and graham bread compared1 #ahj4 mineral content of1 #ahb4 new and old1 #ahc4 action of heat on1 #ahd4 different kinds of1 #ahd4 ,breakfast foods1 #aba-acb4 ,broth1 #aji4 ,butter1 composition1 #ia4 digestibility1 #ia4 adulteration1 #ib4 coloring1 #ib4 renovated1 #ib4 water in1 #cje4 ,buttermilk1 #hh4 ,cabbage1 #da4 ,candies1 #fi4 ,canned meats1 #aah4 vegetables1 #df4 peas1 #ge4 ,carbohydrates defined1 #h4 ,carrots1 #dj4 ,cauliflower1 #da4 ,cellars1 storage of food in1 #bhc4 ,cellulose and properties1 #h4 ,cereals1 #aba-acb4 preparation of1 #aba4 cost of1 #aba4 value of1 #aca4 use of1 in dietary1 #aca4 corn preparations1 #abb4 oat preparations1 #abd4 wheat preparations1 #abf4 barley preparations1 #abh4 rice preparations1 #abi4 predigested1 #acj4 phosphates in1 #aca4 mineral matters of1 #aca4 coffees1 #baj4 ,cesspools1 #bhi4 ,cheese1 #ib-if4 general composition1 #ib4 digestibility1 #ic4 use of1 in dietary1 #id4 cottage1 #ie4 different kinds of1 #ie4 adulteration1 #if4 ,chemical changes during cooking1 #bg-cj4 ,chemicals1 use of1 in preparation of foods permitted1 #cf4 ,chestnuts1 #gf4 ,chicory1 detection in coffee1 #cai4 ,chocolate1 #bab4 adulteration of1 #bac4 ,cinnamon and cassia1 #bja4 ,cloves1 #bja4 ,coal tar dyes1 testing for1 #cjh4 ,cocoa1 #baj4 ,cocoanuts1 #gg4 ,coffee1 composition of1 #bjg4 detection of chicory in1 #cai4 glazing of1 #bjh4 substitutes1 cereal1 #baj4 types of1 #bji4 ,combustion of foods1 #f4 ,cooking1 changes during1 #bg4 chemical1 #bg-cj4 physical1 #cj-cb4 bacteriological1 #cb4 ,corn1 sweet1 #da4 preparations1 #abb4 ,cream1 #hg4 ,cream of tartar1 #ahg4 ,crude fiber of foods1 #i4 ,crude protein1 #ba4 ,cucumbers1 #db4 ,dairy products1 #hj-ig4 use of1 in dietary1 #if4 ,dextrose1 #fd4 ,dietary standards1 #bde4 ,dietary studies1 #bdd-bfj4 object of1 #bdd4 mixed1 desirable1 #bej4 of families compared1 #bec4 in public institutions1 #bei4 ,digestibility of foods1 #bad4 of animal foods1 #bbj4 of vegetable foods1 #bbb4 ,digestion1 combination of foods1 #bbc4 factors influencing1 #bbc4 amount of food1 #bbd4 method of preparation of food1 #bbe4 mechanical condition of foods1 #bbf4 psychological factors1 #bcj4 individuality1 #bbi4 ,digestion and health1 #bai4 ,dishcloth1 unclean1 #bib4 ,disinfectants1 #bha1 #bhi1 #bie4 ,drying of foods1 #b4 ,dry matter1 #b4 ,egg plant1 #dd4 ,eggs1 #aad-aah4 composition1 #aad4 digestibility1 #aaf4 cooking of1 #aaf4 use of1 in dietary1 #aag4 ,elements in foods1 #g4 ,energy1 available1 #bag4 ,energy value of rations1 #bdf4 ,entire wheat1 #ade4 ,essential oils1 #ae4 occurrence1 #ae4 composition of1 #af4 food value1 #af4 ,esthetic value of foods1 #cf4 ,fat1 occurrence in food1 #ab4 composition1 #ac4 physical properties1 #ad4 food value1 #ad4 individual fats1 #ad4 oxidation of1 during bread making1 #agc4 ,ferments1 soluble1 #cd4 insoluble1 #cd4 ,figs1 #ed4 ,fish1 #aac4 ,flavoring extracts1 #ef4 ,flavors1 composition of1 #dh4 occurrence of1 #di4 food value1 #di4 ,flies1 contamination of food by1 #bhf1 #bie4 ,foods1 #bae4 digestibility of1 #bae4 mechanical condition of1 #bbf4 palatability of1 #bbh4 physiological properties of1 #bbh4 ash of1 #d4 predigested1 #acj4 sodium chloride in1 #d4 cost of1 #bca4 market price and nutritive value1 #bca-bcd4 composition of1 #bcd-bfc4 comparative nutritive value1 #bca4 economy of production1 #bej4 habits1 #bej4 notions1 #beb4 relation to mental and physical vigor1 #beh4 amount consumed1 #bfb4 injurious compounds in1 #bhd4 contamination of1 #bhd1 #bib4 sanitary inspection of1 #bhf4 storage in cellars1 #bhh4 infection from impure air1 #bhg4 utensils for storage1 #bia4 raw1 #bg4 cheap and expensive1 #beb4 ,fruits1 composition of1 #dh4 canned1 #ed4 dried1 #ed4 canned and adulterated1 #ee4 ,fruit extracts1 #ef4 ,fruit flavors1 #ee4 ,ginger1 #bjj4 ,gliadin1 #cad4 ,gluten1 addition of1 to flour1 #agc4 moist and dry1 #cad4 ,gluten properties of flour1 #aea4 ,graham bread1 #agi4 use in dietary1 #ahj4 ,graham flour1 #add4 ,grape fruit1 #ea4 ,grapes1 #ec4 ,heat1 action on foods1 #cj4 ,hickory nuts1 #gg4 ,honey1 #fh4 ,ice1 #bgi4 ,inspection of food1 #bhf4 ,inversion of sugar1 #fd4 ,kitchen refuse1 #bid4 ,koumiss1 #hh4 ,laboratory practice1 #bii4 ,lard1 #ajf4 substitutes1 #ajg4 ,legumes1 #ga-gf4 ,lemon extract1 testing1 #cjg4 ,lemons1 #ea4 acidity of1 #cje4 ,lettuce1 #db4 ,macaroni flour1 #adh4 ,mace1 #bjb4 ,malted foods1 #aba4 ,maple sugar1 #fb4 ,meals1 number of1 per day1 #bdh4 ,measuring1 directions for1 #cjb4 ,meat broth1 #aji4 ,meats1 #ih-abj4 general composition1 #ih4 proteids of1 #ii4 fat of1 #ajj4 water of1 #ih4 texture of1 #ajg4 cooking of1 influence of1 on composition1 #ajh4 extractive materials1 #aaj4 smoked1 #aaa4 boric acid in1 #cab4 saltpeter in1 #aaa4 canned1 #aah4 ,melons1 #dc4 ,microscope1 use of1 #cjd4 ,milk1 importance in dietary1 #hj4 general composition1 #hj4 souring of1 #hf4 condensed1 #hg4 digestibility1 #ha4 sanitary condition1 #hb4 certified milk1 #hd4 pasteurized1 #hd4 color of1 #he4 preservatives in1 #hf4 goat's1 #hh4 human1 #hi4 adulteration of1 #hi4 prepared1 #hh4 formaldehyde in1 #caj4 ,mineral matter1 #d4 in ration1 #e4 ,mineral waters1 #bgi4 ,miscellaneous compounds1 #af4 ,mixed nitrogenous compounds1 #be4 ,mixed non-nitrogenous compounds1 #af4 ,moisture content of foods1 variations in1 #a4 ,moisture in foods1 how determined1 #b4 ,molasses1 #fe4 ,mustard1 #aii4 testing for turmeric1 #cah4 ,mutton1 #ajc4 ,nitrates in foods1 #de4 ,nitrites in foods1 #aaa4 ,nitrogen free extract1 #aa4 defined1 #aa4 composition1 #ab4 how determined1 #ab4 variable character of1 #ab4 ,nitrogenous compounds1 #ag4 general composition1 #ag4 ,non-nitrogenous compounds1 classification of1 #g4 ,nutmeg1 #bjb4 ,nutrients1 available1 #baf4 ,nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds1 #af4 starch1 #i4 sugar1 #aa4 nitrogen free extract1 #aa4 fat1 #ab4 protein1 #ai4 amids1 #bc4 ,nuts1 #gf-gi4 use of1 in dietary1 #gh4 ,oat preparations1 #abd4 ,oleomargarine1 #ib4 detecting1 #caj4 ,olive oil1 testing1 #cjh4 ,olives1 #ed4 ,onions1 #db4 ,oranges1 #ej4 ,organic acids1 #ae4 occurrence in foods1 #ae4 influence on digestion1 #ae4 use in plant economy1 #ae4 production during germination1 #ae4 ,organic compounds1 classification of1 #g4 ,organic matter1 #f4 ,oysters1 #aad4 ,palatability of food1 #bbh4 ,parsnips1 #dj4 ,peaches1 #ec4 ,peanuts1 #gf4 fat from1 #cji4 ,peas1 #gd4 canned1 #ge4 ,pectose substances1 #aa4 ,pepper1 #aih4 ,phosphate baking powders1 #ahi4 ,physical changes during cooking1 #cj4 ,physiological properties of foods1 #bbh4 ,pistachio1 #gg4 ,plumbing1 sanitary1 #big4 ,plums1 #ec4 ,pork1 #ajd4 ,potatoes1 #cg4 composition1 #ci4 digestibility1 #ch4 nutritive value1 #ch4 sweet1 #ci4 ,poultry1 #aab4 ,predigested foods1 #acj4 ,protein1 composition of1 #ai4 properties of1 #ai4 combinations of1 #bj4 types of1 #bj4 crude1 #ba4 food value of1 #bb4 amount of1 in ration1 #bdf4 ,psychological factors in digestion1 #bcj4 ,pumpkins1 #de4 ,rational feeding of man1 #bfa-bfg4 ,rations1 wide and narrow1 #bde4 standard1 #bfa4 object of1 #bfa4 examples of1 #bfd4 requisites of1 #bff4 protein requirements of1 #bdf4 energy value of1 #bdf4 ,references1 #cej4 ,refrigeration1 #bib4 ,refuse1 disposal of1 #bid4 ,renovated butter1 #ib4 ,review questions1 #cbc4 ,rice preparations1 #abi4 ,saccharine1 #gj4 ,saltpeter in meats1 #aaa4 ,sanitary condition of vegetables1 #de4 ,sanitary inspection of food1 #bhf4 ,sausage1 #aaa4 ,sodium chloride in foods1 #e4 ,soil1 sanitary condition of1 #bid4 ,spices1 #bab4 ,spinach1 #db4 ,squash1 #de4 ,starch1 #i4 occurrence1 #i4 composition1 #i4 properties1 #aj4 food value1 #aj4 influence of heat on1 #aj4 ,strawberries1 #eb4 ,sugar1 defined1 #aa4 beet1 #eh4 cane1 #eh4 commercial grades1 #eh4 manufacture of1 #ei4 sulphur in1 #ei4 digestibility of1 #ei4 value of1 in dietary1 #fa4 adulteration of1 #fc4 maple1 #fb4 dextrose1 #fd4 ,sunlight as a disinfectant1 #bij4 ,sweet potatoes1 #ci4 ,syrups1 #ff4 sorghum1 #ff4 ,tea1 #bjc-bjf4 black1 #bjc4 green1 #bjd4 composition of1 #bad4 judging of1 #bje4 adulteration of1 #bjf4 physiological properties of1 #bjf4 examination of leaves1 #cah4 ,toast1 #ahd4 ,tomatoes1 #dc4 ,underfed families1 #bea4 ,vanilla extract1 testing1 #cjg4 ,veal1 #ajb4 ,vegetable foods1 #bbb4 ,vegetables1 #cg-dg4 edible portion1 #dg4 canned1 #df4 sanitary condition of1 #de4 digestibility of1 #bbb4 ,vinegar1 #aic-aig4 preparation of1 #aic4 different kinds of1 #aie4 adulteration of1 #aif4 solids1 #caf4 specific gravity1 #cag4 acidity1 #cag4 ,volatile matter1 #f4 ,water1 drinking1 #bfh-bhc4 importance1 #bfh4 impurities in1 #bfi4 mineral impurities1 #bgj4 organic impurities1 #bga4 purification of1 #bgb-bgh4 analysis1 #bga4 and typhoid fever1 #bgc4 improvement of1 #bgf4 boiling of1 #bgf4 filtration of1 #bgg4 distillation of1 #bgh4 materials for softening water1 #bhj4 testing purity of1 #cbj4 ,water in foods1 #a4 how determined1 #a4 ,water supply1 economic value1 #bhb4 ,waters1 mineral1 #bgi4 ,weighing1 directions for1 #cjb4 ,wheat cereal preparations1 #abf4 ,wheat flour1 #acc4 spring and winter wheat flour1 #acc4 starchy and glutenous1 #ace4 composition of1 #acf4 process of milling1 #acf-adj4 patent1 #adb4 grades of1 #adb4 composition of1 #adc4 ash content1 #ade4 graham1 #ade4 entire wheat1 #ade4 by-products1 #adf4 aging and curing1 #adg4 macaroni1 #adh4 color1 #adh4 granulation1 #adi4 capacity to absorb water1 #aej4 gluten1 properties of1 #aea4 unsoundness of1 #aeb4 baking tests1 #aec4 bleaching of1 #aee4 adulteration of1 #aef4 nutritive value of1 #aeg4 water in1 #cjd4 ash in1 #cje4 acidity of1 #cac4 moist and dry gluten1 #cad4 ,yeast1 action of1 #afa4 compressed1 #afb4 dry1 #afc4 ,,by ,,harry ,,snyder1 ,b4,s4 ,professor of ,agricultural ,chemistry1 ,university of ,minnesota1 and ,chemist of the ,minnesota ,agricultural ,experiment ,station ,the ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #djf pages4 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4ce ,the language is1 as it should be1 plain and simple1 free from all needless technicality1 and the story thus told is of absorbing interest to every one1 man or woman1 boy or girl1 who takes an intelligent interest in farm life4--,the ,new ,england ,farmer4 ,although the book is highly technical1 it is put in popular form and made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer2 it deals largely with those questions which arise in his experience1 and will prove an invaluable aid in countless directions4--,the ,farmer's ,voice4 ,dairy ,chemistry ,illustrated1 #aij pages1 #a4jj net2 by mail1 #a4aj ,the book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer1 or1 indeed1 any one handling stock1 may read with profit4--,rural ,new ,yorker4 ,soils and ,fertilizers ,third ,edition4 ,illustrated4 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4ch ,a book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the ,committee on ,methods of ,teaching ,agriculture4 ,it contains #cej pages1 with illustrations1 and treats of a great variety of subjects1 such as ,physical ,properties of ,soils2 ,geological ,formation1 etc42 ,nitrogen of the ,soil and ,air2 ,farm ,manures2 ,commercial ,fertilizers1 several chapters2 ,rotation of ,crops2 ,preparation of ,soil for ,crops1 etc4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,books ,,on ,,agriculture ,,on ,,selection ,,of ,,land1 ,etc4 ,thomas ,f4 ,hunt's ,how to ,choose a ,farm #a #ge net ,e4 ,w4 ,hilgard's ,soils3 ,their ,formation and ,relations to ,climate and ,plant ,growth #d #jj net ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts's ,the ,farmstead #a #ej net ,,on ,,tillage1 ,etc4 ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,the ,soil #a #ej net ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts's ,the ,fertility of the ,land #a #ej net ,elwood ,mead's ,irrigation ,institutions #a #be net ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,irrigation and ,drainage #a #ej net ,william ,e4 ,smythe's ,the ,conquest of ,arid ,america #a #ej net ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees's ,fertilizers #a #be net ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees's ,forage ,crops #a #ej net ,h4 ,snyder's ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life #a #be net ,h4 ,snyder's ,soil and ,fertilizers4 ,third edition #a #be net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,principles of ,agriculture #a #be net ,w4 ,c4 ,welborn's ,elements of ,agriculture1 ,southern and ,western #ge net ,j4 ,f4 ,duggar's ,agriculture for ,southern ,schools #ge net ,g4 ,f4 ,warren's ,elements of ,agriculture #a #aj net ,t4 ,l4 ,lyon and ,e4 ,o4 ,fippin's ,the ,principles of ,soil ,management #a #ge net ,hilgard ,osterhout's ,agriculture for ,schools on the ,pacific ,slope #a #jj net ,j4 ,a4 ,widtsoe's ,dry ,farming #a #ej net ,,on ,,garden-,,making ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,manual of ,gardening #b #jj net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,vegetable-,gardening #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,horticulturist's ,rule ,book #ge net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,forcing ,book #a #be net ,a4 ,french's ,how to ,grow ,vegetables #a #ge net ,,on ,,fruit-,,growing1 ,etc4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,nursery ,book #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,fruit-,growing #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,pruning ,book #a #ej net ,f4 ,w4 ,card's ,bush ,fruits #a #ej net ,j4 ,t4 ,bealby's ,fruit ,ranching in ,british ,columbia #a #ej net ,,on ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,live ,,stock ,d4 ,e4 ,lyon's ,how to ,keep ,bees for ,profit #a #ej net ,nelson ,s4 ,mayo's ,the ,diseases of ,animals #a #ej net ,w4 ,h4 ,jordan's ,the ,feeding of ,animals #a #ej net ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts's ,the ,horse #a #be net ,george ,c4 ,watson's ,farm ,poultry #a #be net ,c4 ,s4 ,valentine's ,how to ,keep ,hens for ,profit #a #ej net ,o4 ,kellner's ,the ,scientific ,feeding of ,animals 7trans47 #a #ij net ,m4 ,h4 ,reynolds's ,veterinary ,studies for ,agricultural ,students #a #ge net ,,on ,,dairy ,,work ,henry ,h4 ,wing's ,milk and its ,products #a #ej net ,c4 ,m4 ,aikman's ,milk #a #be net ,harry ,snyder's ,dairy ,chemistry #a #jj net ,w4 ,d4 ,frost's ,laboratory ,guide in ,elementary ,bacteriology #a #fj net ,i4 ,p4 ,sheldon's ,the ,farm and the ,dairy #a #jj net ,chr4 ,barthel's ,methods ,used in the ,examination of ,milk and ,dairy ,products #a #ij net ,,on ,,plant ,,diseases1 ,etc4 ,george ,massee's ,diseases of ,cultivated ,plants and ,trees #b #be net ,j4 ,g4 ,lipman's ,bacteria in ,relation to ,country ,life #a #ej net ,e4 ,c4 ,lodeman's ,the ,spraying of ,plants #a #be net ,h4 ,m4 ,ward's ,disease in ,plants 7,english7 #a #fj net ,a4 ,s4 ,packard's ,a ,text-book on ,entomology #d #ej net ,,on ,,production ,,of ,,new ,,plants ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,plant-,breeding #a #be net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,survival of the ,unlike #b #jj net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,evolution of ,our ,native ,fruits #b #jj net ,w4 ,s4 ,harwood's ,new ,creations in ,plant ,life #a #ge net ,,on ,,economics ,,and ,,organization ,j4 ,b4 ,green's ,law for the ,american ,farmer #a #ej net ,j4 ,mc,lennan's ,manual of ,practical ,farming #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,state and the ,farmer #a #be net ,henry ,c4 ,taylor's ,agricultural ,economics #a #be net ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts's ,the ,farmer's ,business ,handbook #a #be net ,george ,t4 ,fairchild's ,rural ,wealth and ,welfare #a #be net ,s4 ,e4 ,sparling's ,business ,organization #a #be net ,in the ,citizen's ,library4 ,includes a chapter on ,farming ,kate ,v4 ,st4 ,maur's ,a ,self-supporting ,home #a #ge net ,kate ,v4 ,st4 ,maur's ,the ,earth's ,bounty4 #a #ge net ,g4 ,f4 ,warren and ,k4 ,c4 ,livermore's ,exercises in ,farm ,management #hj net ,h4 ,n4 ,ogden's ,rural ,hygiene #a #ej net ,,on ,,everything ,,agricultural ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,cyclopedia of ,american ,agriculture3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,farms1 ,climates1 and ,soils4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,farm ,crops4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,farm ,animals4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,the ,farm and the ,community4 ,complete in four royal #hvo volumes1 with over #bjjj illustrations4 ,price of sets3 cloth1 #bj net2 half morocco1 #cb net4 ,for further information as to any of the above1 address the publishers4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,cyclopedia of ,american ,agriculture ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,of ,cornell ,university1 ,editor of ,cyclopedia of ,american ,horticulture1 ,author of ,plant ,breeding1 ,principles of ,agriculture1 etc4 ,,with #ajj ,,full-,,page ,,plates ,,and ,,more ,,than #bjjj ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text--,,four ,,volumes--,,the ,,set3 ,,cloth1 #bj ,,net--,,half ,,morocco1 #cb ,,net--,,carriage ,,extra ,volume ,i--,,farms ,the ,agricultural ,regions--,the ,projecting of a ,farm--,the ,soil ,environment--,the ,atmosphere ,environment4 ,volume ,,ii--,,crops ,the ,plant and ,its ,relations--,the ,manufacture of ,crop ,products--,north ,american ,field ,crops4 ,volume ,,iii--,,animals ,the ,animal and ,its ,relations--,the ,manufacture of ,animal ,products--,north ,american ,farm ,animals4 ,volume ,,iv--,,the ,,farm ,,and ,,the ,,community ,economics--,social ,questions--,organizations--,history--,l iterature1 etc4 ,indispensable to public and reference libraries 444 readily comprehensible to any person of average education4--,the ,nation4 ,the completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on modern agricultural methods4 ,it is safe to say that many years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness1 accuracy1 practical value1 and mechanical excellence4 ,it ought to be in every library in the country4--,record ,herald1 ,chicago4 ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york