file which includes the original #cgi illustrations4 ,see #bjhdf-;h4htm or #bjhdf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/h_/a_/bjhdf_/bjhdf-;h_/#bjhdf-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ j_/h_/a_/bjhdf_/bjhdf-;h4zip7 ,,handwork ,,in ,,wood by ,,william ,,noyes1 ,m4,a4 ,assistant ,professor1 ,department of ,industrial ,arts4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university ,new ,york ,city ,illustration ,the ,manual ,arts ,press ,peoria1 ,illinois ,copyright ,william ,noyes #aiaj ,to my students past present and future a token of gratitude for help and inspiration ,,foreword ,this book is intended primarily for teachers of woodwork1 but the author hopes that there will also be other workers in wood1 professional and amateur1 who will find in it matter of interest and profit4 ,the successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the untiring assistance of my wife1 ,anna ,gausmann ,noyes1 who has made almost all of the drawings1 corrected the text1 read the proof1 and attended to numberless details4 ,acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and suggestions in the text made by the following persons3 ,mr4 ,chas4 ,w4 ,weick of ,teachers ,college1 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,vroom of ,public ,school ,no4 #e1 of ,new ,york ,city1 for revision of ,chapters ,,iv and ,v on tools and fastenings4 ,mr4 ,clinton ,s4 ,van,deusen of ,bradley ,polytechnic ,institute1 for revision of ,chapter ,x on wood finishing4 ,the ,forest ,service1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 for the originals of ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #ca1 #cc1 and #ed4 ,the ,new ,york ,state ,forest ,fish and ,game ,commission for the originals of ,figs4 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 and #dg4 ,t4 ,h4 ,mc,allister of ,new ,york for the originals of ,figs4 #af and #bj4 ,the ,detroit ,publishing ,company for the original of ,fig4 #f4 ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,sturtevant ,company1 ,hyde ,park1 ,mass41 for the original of ,fig4 #eg4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 for the original of ,fig4 #cj4 ,mr4 ,louis ,a4 ,bacon1 ,indianapolis4 ,ind41 for the clamping device shown in ,fig4 #bee4 ,sargent ,company1 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 ,w4 ,c4 ,toles ,company1 ,chicago1 ,ill41 ,the ,berlin ,machine ,works1 ,beloit1 ,wis41 ,a4 ,a4 ,loetscher1 ,dubuque1 ,iowa1 and the ,stanley ,rule and ,level ,co41 ,new ,britain1 ,conn41 for electrotypes4 ,allis ,chalmers ,company1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 ,clark ,brothers1 ,belmont1 ,n4 ,y41 ,the ,m4 ,garland ,company1 ,bay ,city1 ,mich41 ,the ,prescott ,company1 ,menominee1 ,mich41 for illustrations of sawmilling machinery4 ,and most of all1 ,i wish to acknowledge my obligation to the numerous writers of whose books and articles ,i have made free use1 to which references are made in the appropriate places4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,general ,bibliography #d ,i ,logging #g ,,ii ,sawmilling #cj ,,iii ,the ,seasoning and ,measuring of ,wood #de ,,iv ,wood ,hand ,tools #ea ,v ,wood ,fastenings #abc ,,vi ,equipment and ,care of the ,shop #acf ,,vii ,the ,common ,joints #aea ,,viii ,types of ,wooden ,structures #ahc ,,ix ,principles of ,joinery #bjc ,x ,wood ,finishing #bji ,index #bbd ,,general ,,bibliography ,adams1 ,henry1 ,joints in ,wood-,work4 ,london3 #fj ,queen ,victoria ,st4 #ahid4 ,alexander1 ,jerome1 ,the ,grading and ,use of ,glue4 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #afh1 ,sep4 '#jf4 ,bailey1 ,charles ,h41 ,a ,study of ,manual ,training ,equipments4 ,manual ,training ,magazine1 #f3 #hb4 ,jan4 '#je4 ,barnard1 ,charles1 ,tools and ,machines4 ,n4 ,y43 ,silver1 ,burdett and ,co4 #aijc4 ,barter1 ,s4 ,m41 ,woodwork4 ,london3 ,whittaker and ,co4 #ahib4 ,benson1 ,w4 ,a4 ,s41 ,elements of ,handicraft and ,design4 ,london3 ,macmillan and ,co4 #ahic4 ,brannt1 ,w4 ,t41 ,painter1 ,gilder and ,varnisher4 ,philadelphia3 ,h4 ,c4 ,baird ,co4 #ahic4 ,bruncken1 ,ernest1 ,north ,american ,forests and ,forestry4 ,n4 ,y43 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 #ahii4 ,clark1 ,r4 ,i41 ,varnish and ,fossil ,remains4 ,london3 ,chas4 ,letts ,co4 ,no date4 ,compton1 ,a4 ,g41 ,first ,lessons in ,woodworking4 ,n4 ,y43 ,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor and ,co4 #ahhh4 ,crawshaw1 ,fred ,d41 ,problems in ,furniture ,making4 ,peoria4 ,ill43 ,the ,manual ,arts ,press4 #aijf4 ,disston1 ,henry1 and ,sons1 ,handbook for ,lumbermen4 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,dunlap1 ,frederick4 ,kiln-drying ,hardwood ,lumber4 ,wood ,craft1 #f3 #acc1 ,feb4 '#jg4 ,ellis1 ,george1 ,modern ,practical ,joinery4 ,london3 ,b4 ,t4 ,batsford1 #dhf pp41 #aijb1 '#jc1 '#jd and '#jg4 ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 ,lac1 ,varnish4 ,n4 ,y43 ,scribner's4 #ahgh4 ,foster1 ,edwin ,w41 ,elementary ,woodworking4 ,boston3 ,ginn and ,co4 ,goss1 ,w4 ,f4 ,m41 ,bench ,work in ,wood4 ,boston3 ,ginn and ,co4 #ahhg and #aije4 ,griffith1 ,ira ,s41 ,essentials of ,woodworking4 ,peoria ,ill43 ,manual ,arts ,press4 #aijh4 ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer ,co41 ,tools4 ,catalog ,no4 #cee4 ,n4 ,y4 #aijh4 ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer ,co41 ,cabinet ,hardware4 ,catalog ,no4 #aea4 ,n4 ,y4 #aijd4 ,hodgson1 ,fred ,t41 ,the ,up-to-date ,hardwood ,finisher4 ,chicago3 ,fred ,j4 ,drake and ,co4 #aijd4 ,hodgson1 ,fred ,t41 ,the ,carpenter's ,steel ,square and ,its ,uses4 ,n4 ,y43 ,industrial ,publishing ,co4 #ahhj4 ,hovey-,king1 ,alvin1 ,the ,lumber ,industry of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,review of ,reviews1 #bg3 #cag1 ,mr41 '#jc4 ,hulbert1 ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,lumber ,jack and ,his ,job4 ,outlook1 #gf3 #hja1 ,ap4 #b1 '#jd4 ,international ,correspondence ,school1 ,the ,building ,trades ,pocketbook4 ,scranton1 ,pa4 ,international ,textbook ,co4 #bnd edition4 #aije4 ,international ,encyclopedia1 ,lac-,insect ,varnish4 ,n4 ,y43 ,dodd1 ,mead and ,co4 #aijb-aijd4 ,jones1 ,j4 ,e41 ,lumbering in the ,northwest4 ,cosmopolitan1 #ae3 #fc1 ,may #ahic4 ,larsson1 ,gustaf1 ,elementary ,sloyd and ,whittling4 ,n4 ,y43 ,silver1 ,burdett ,co4 #aijf4 ,maire1 ,f41 ,the ,modern ,wood ,finisher4 ,chicago3 ,press of the ,western ,painter4 ,munn1 ,m4 ,j41 ,great ,industries of the ,u4 ,s4--,lumber4 ,cosmopolitan1 #cg3 #dda1 ,aug4 '#jd4 ,murray1 ,m4 ,w41 ,problems in ,wood-working4 ,peoria1 ,ill43 ,manual ,arts ,press4 #aije4 ,murray1 ,m4 ,w41 ,the ,manual ,training ,room and ,its ,equipment4 ,year ,book of the ,council of ,supervisors for- #aijf1 pp4 #fi-hf4 ,park1 ,joseph ,c4 ,educational ,woodworking for ,school and ,home4 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijh4 ,pichot1 ,gifford1 ,a ,primer of ,forestry4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agric4 ,for4 ,serv4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bd4 #ahii and #aije4 ,purfield1 ,h4 ,t41 ,the ,length of ,nails4 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #aha1 ,sp4 '#jf4 ,rivingston1 see ,south ,kensington ,council on ,education4 ,rouillion1 ,louis1 ,economies of ,manual ,training4 ,n4 ,y43 ,the ,derry ,collard ,company4 #aije4 ,roth1 ,filibert1 ,a ,first ,book of ,forestry4 ,boston3 ,ginn ,co4 #aijb4 ,sargent ,co41 ,standard ,steel ,squares4 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,seaton1 ,geo4 ,a41 ,a ,clamp for ,use at the ,grindstone4 ,woodcraft1 #f3 #if4 ,jan41 '#jg4 ,selden1 ,f4 ,h41 ,elementary ,woodwork4 ,n4 ,y43 ,rand1 ,mc,nally ,co4 #aijf4 ,sickels1 ,ivin1 ,exercises in ,woodworking4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhi4 ,smith1 ,k41 ,lumbering by ,machinery4 ,world's ,work1 #g3 #ddce4 ,feb4 '#jd4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,h41 ,cutting ,tools4 ,london3 ,cassell ,co4 #ahhd4 ,south ,kensington ,council on ,education1 ,notes on ,building ,construction4 #c vols4 ,london3 ,rivington4 #ahhc-ahhi4 ,standage1 ,h4 ,c41 ,glues and ,cements for the ,use of ,woodworkers4 ,wood ,craft1 #g3 #dh1 ,may1 '#jg4 ,tate1 ,james ,m41 ,training in ,wood ,work4 ,minneapolis3 ,north ,western ,school ,supply ,co4 ,about #aije4 ,trout1 ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,modern ,saw ,mill4 ,cassier's ,magazine1 #aa3 #hc-ie4 #ahd-aie1 ,dec4 '#if and ,jan4 '#ig4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,forest ,service ,classified ,list of ,publications4 ,forest ,service ,bulletins3 ,no4 #aj4 ,filibert1 ,roth4 ,timber4 #ahie4 ,no4 #cd4 ,wm4 ,f4 ,fox1 ,a ,history of the ,lumber ,industry in the ,state of ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,no4 #da4 ,hermann von ,schrenk1 ,seasoning of ,timber4 #aijc4 ,van ,deusen1 ,clinton ,s41 ,methods of ,wood ,finishing4 ,manual ,training ,magazine1 #f3 #ic4 ,jan4 '#je4 ,van ,deusen1 ,clinton ,s41 ,logging in the ,south4 ,manual ,training ,magazine1 #a3 #ic4 ,jan4 '#jj4 ,wheeler1 ,c4 ,g41 ,woodworking for ,beginners4 ,n4 ,y43 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 #ahii4 ,white1 ,stewart ,edward1 ,the ,blazed ,trail4 ,n4 ,y43 ,mc,clure1 ,phillips ,co4 #aijd4 ,white1 ,stewart ,edward1 ,from ,forest to ,saw ,mill4 ,junior ,munsey1 #aj3 #cfb1 ,je4 '#ja4 ,anonymous4 ,nails4 ,wood ,craft4 #e3 #ajc1 ,jl4 '#jf4 ,a ,dry-,kiln of ,progressive ,style4 ,wood ,craft1 #f3 #ca4 ,nov4 '#jf4 ,lumbering in ,louisiana4 ,wood ,craft1 #d3 #ee1 ,nov4 '#je4 ,the ,lac ,industry of ,assam4 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts4 #di3 #aib4 ,feb #h '#ja4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,logging4 ,the rough and ready methods common in ,american logging operations are the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply1 partly of the fear of fire and the avoidance of taxes1 partly of an eagerness to get rich quick4 ,most of the logging has been done on privately owned land or on shamelessly stolen public land1 and the lumberman had no further interest in the forest than to lumber it expeditiously4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,making a ,valuation ,survey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,blazes on ,trees4 ,preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps4 ,first of all is landlooking4 ,this includes the survey of the forest land for the purpose of locating good timber4 ,fig4 #a4 ,most of the woodland has previously been roughly surveyed by the government and maps made indicating which parts are private land and which are still held by the government4 ,the boundaries of townships1 sections1 quarter sections1 eighties1 forties1 etc41 are indicated by blazes on trees1 ,fig4 #b1 so that the cruiser or looker as he goes thru the woods can identify them with those on his oil paper map4 ,the cruiser also studies the kinds and character of the trees1 the contour of the ground1 the proximity to streams1--all with the view to marketing the product4 ,acting on the information thus gained by the cruiser1 the lumberman purchases his sections at the proper land office1 or if he is less scrupulous1 buys only enough to serve as a basis for operations4 ,enormous fortunes have been made by timber thieves1 now respectable members of the community4 ,as a further preliminary step to lumbering itself1 the tote road and camp are built4 ,the tote road is a rough road on which supplies for crew and cattle can be taken to camp from civilization4 ,it is barely passable for a team and a wagon1 but it serves its purpose1 and over it come more men and horses4 ,lumber for the floors and roofs of the shanties and for the rude pieces of furniture that will be needed1 tarred paper to make the roofs tight1 a few glazed window sashes1 a huge range and a number of box stoves1 dishes and kitchen utensils1 a little stock of goods for the van1 blankets by the dozen and score1 and countless boxes and barrels and bags of provisions4#a ,footnote #a3 ,hulbert3 ,the ,lumber ,jack2 ,outlook1 #gf3 #hja1 ,april #b1 '#jd4 ,the camp itself1 ,fig4 #c1 is built of logs1 roofed with plank1 covered with heavy tar paper1 and dimly lighted4 ,there are usually five buildings1--the men's camp1 the cook camp1 the office1 the barn1 and the blacksmith's shop4 ,many camps accommodate from eighty to one hundred men4 ,the men's camp is filled with bunks and is heated by a stove and in general roughly furnished4 ,cooking and eating are done in the cook camp1 where the cook and his assistant1 the cookee1 sleep4 ,the office is occupied by the foreman1 log-sealers and clerks4 ,here the books and accounts are kept1 and here is the van1 stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate needs of the lumber jacks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,winter ,logging ,camp4 ,itasco ,county1 ,minnesota4 ,before winter sets in the main road is built1 ,fig4 #ae1 p4 #ag1 very carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway siding1 or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated4 ,this road has to be as wide as a city street1 #be feet4 ,the route is carefully chosen1 and the grade is made as easy as possible4 ,much labor is spent upon it1 clearing away stumps and rocks1 leveling up with corduroy1 building bridges strong enough to carry enormous loads1 and otherwise making it as passable as can be2 for when needed later1 its good condition is of first importance4 ,this main road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road4 ,at intervals alongside the main road1 small squares called skidways are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks1 skids1 are laid at right angles to the road4 ,on these the logs1 when cut later1 are to be piled4 ,back from the skidways1 into the woods the swampers cut rough1 narrow roads called dray roads or travoy roads1--mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of horses to pull a log thru4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,tools used in ,logging4 ,all these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees4 ,the tools commonly used in logging are shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,when everything is ready for felling1 the fitter goes ahead marking each tree to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a notch on that side4 ,then come the sawyers in pairs1 ,fig4 #e4 ,first they chop a deep gash on the side of the tree toward which it is to fall1 and then from the opposite side begin cutting with a long1 ,tuttle-tooth1 crosscut-saw4 ,the saw is a long1 flexible ribbon of steel1 with handles so affixed to each end that they can be removed easily4 ,the cut is made on the pulling stroke1 and hence the kerf can be very narrow4 ,as soon as the saw is well within the trunk1 the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kerf behind it1 partly to keep the weight of the trunk from binding the saw1 and partly to direct its fall4 ,then the saw is pulled back and forth1 and the wedges driven in farther and farther1 until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree4 ,just as the tree is ready to go over1 the saw handle at one end is unhooked and the saw pulled out at the other side4 ,timber61 the men cry out as a warning to any working near by1 for the tree has begun to lean slightly4 ,then with a hastening rush the top whistles thru the air1 and tears thru the branches of other trees1 and the trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground4 ,even hardened loggers can hardly keep from shouting1 so impressive is the sight of a falling giant tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,felling ,red ,spruce with a ,saw4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,sawing ,logs into ,lengths4 ,all this seems simple enough in outline1 but the actual execution requires considerable skill4 ,trees seldom stand quite vertical1 there is danger of lodging in some other tree in thick woods1 and it is therefore necessary to throw trees quite exactly4 ,some men become so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul4 ,on the other hand1 serious accidents often happen in falling trees4 ,most of them come from side winders1 i4 e41 the falling of smaller trees struck by the felled trees4 ,after falling a tree1 the sawyers mark off and saw the trunk into log lengths1 ,fig4 #f1 paying due attention to the necessity of avoiding knots1 forks1 and rotten places1 so that some of the logs are eighteen feet1 some sixteen feet1 some fourteen feet1 and some only twelve feet in length4 ,meanwhile the swampers trim off the branches1 ,fig4 #g1 a job requiring no little skill1 in order that the trunk may be shaved close but not gashed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,trimming off ,branches of ,spruce4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,hauling ,spruce ,logs to the ,skidway4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,this finishes the second group of operations1 the felling4 ,next the logs are dragged out to the dray roads1 ,fig4 #h4 ,a heavy pair of tongs1 like ice-tongs1 is attached to one end1 and the log is snaked out by horses to the skidway4 ,if the log is very heavy1 one end is put on a dray4 ,by one way or another the log is dragged out and across the two parallel skids1 on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to the end of skids toward the road way4 ,if other logs already occupy the skids1 each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier4 ,as the pile grows higher1 each log is decked1 that is1 rolled up parallel poles laid slanting up the face of the pile1 by means of a chain passed under and over the log and back over the pile1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a horse hitched to the end of the chain hauls up the log1 which is guided by the send-up men with their cant-hooks4 ,once piled the logs are scaled1 that is measured in order to compute the number of board feet in them1 ,fig4 #i4 ,the scaler generally has an assistant1 for logs in large piles must be measured at both ends in order to determine which is the top1 the body of the log being out of sight4 ,when measured each end of the log is stamped with a hammer with the owner's mark1 by which it can afterward be identified4 ,here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue until deep snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,scaling ,logs on the ,skids4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,making an ,ice ,road by ,flooding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,decking ,logs on ,skidway4 ,for this the main road is especially prepared4 ,first the road is carefully plowed with an immense ,v plow1 weighted down by logs4 ,to the plow are attached fans4 ,only an inch or two of snow is left on the ground by this plow1 which is followed by another special plow to gouge the ruts1 and by a gang of road monkeys who clear the road thoroly4 ,then follows an immense tank set on runners and holding perhaps seventy-five barrels of water1 and so arranged as to flood the road from holes in the bottom of the tank1 a sort of rough road sprinkler1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the sprinkler goes over the road again and again until the road is covered by a clear1 solid sheet of ice often two feet thick1 extending from the skidways to the banking grounds4 ,this ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging4 ,once finished1 these roads are beautiful pieces of construction with deep1 clear ruts4 ,they have to be constantly watched and repaired1 and this is the work of the road monkeys4 ,if possible the road has been made entirely with down grades but some of these are so steep that a man must be prepared with sand or hay to check too headlong a descent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,loading a ,sled from a ,skidway4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a ,load of ,logs4 ,flathead ,county1 ,montana4 ,when all is ready the sleigh haul begins4 ,piling on the sleighs or bobs1 ,fig4 #ab1 is similar to piling on the skidways1 but more difficult1 for the load has to be carefully balanced1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,chains bind the loads but the piling is only too apt to be defective1 and the whole load squash out with a rush4 ,it is a time of feverish activity4 ,the sprinklers are at work till after midnight1 the loaders are out long before daylight4 ,the blacksmith is busy with repairs1 the road monkeys work overtime1 and the cook works all the time4 ,everybody works4 ,the haul itself is full of excitement4 ,the ponderous load of logs1 weighing anywhere from eight to thirty-five tons has to be conducted largely by its own momentum down this glassy road4 ,if a horse fall nothing can save its life4 ,if the runners get out of the ruts1 the whole load1 driver and all1 is likely to be upset4 ,it is an extremely hazardous job1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,as each load comes down to the banking grounds1 ,fig4 #ad1 or log dump1 it is stopped opposite long parallel skids4 ,the wrapping chains are unhooked and the lower log on the skid side is worked out with cant-hooks till the whole load flattens out4 ,the logs are then decked on immense piles1 sometimes a mile long and filling the whole river from bank to bank4 ,a decking chain #cjj feet long is sometimes required to roll the logs to their proper places4 ,here the logs rest till the spring freshets come4 ,this completes the transportation by land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,banking ,grounds4 ,with the coming of the spring thaw1 the river bed is filled with a freshet of water which seizes and carries the logs down stream4 ,many on the banks1 however1 have to be started on their way1 and this is called breaking out the roll ways4 ,they often start on their water journey with a great crash4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the ,sleigh ,haul4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,sacking the ,rear4 ,now comes the drive1 an arduous and often perilous task4 ,some of the men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from lodging or floating into bays or setbacks4 ,some stand at the heads of bars or islands1 where with pike poles they shove off the logs that might stop there and form a jam2 others follow sacking the rear to clean out such logs as may have become stranded4 ,this sacking the rear takes most of the time1 ,fig4 #af4 ,while on the drive men often work fourteen hours a day1 a good part of the time up to their waists in ice water4 ,their boots are shod with caulks1 or spikes1 to keep them from slipping on the logs1 and they carry either pike poles or peaveys1 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the latter are similar to cant-hooks1 except that they have sharp pikes at their ends4 ,so armed1 they have to ride any kind of a log in any water1 to propel a log by jumping on it1 by rolling it squirrel fashion with the feet1 by punting it as one would a canoe2 to be skilful in pushing1 prying1 and poling other logs from the quarter deck of the same cranky craft4 ,altho the logs are carried by the river1 they have to be driven with amazing skill and bravery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,log ,driving on the ,ausable ,river4 ,the climax of hardship and courage is reached when a jam is formed1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,sometimes one or two logs are caught in such a way as to be locked or jammed and then soon other logs begin to accumulate behind them1 till the whole river is full of a seemingly inextricable mass4 ,sometimes these jams can be loosened by being pulled apart1 one log at a time4 ,a hundred men can pull out an amazing number of logs in a day4 ,the problem always is to set free or cut out certain key logs1 which lock the whole mass4 ,following is a description by ,stewart ,edward ,white of the breaking of such a jam3 ,the crew were working desperately4 ,down on the heap somewhere1 two logs were crossed in such a manner as to lock the whole4 ,they sought those logs4 ,thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys into the soft pine2 jerking1 pulling1 lifting1 sliding the great logs from their places4 ,thirty feet below1 under the threatening face1 six other men coolly picked out and set adrift one by one1 the timbers not inextricably imbedded4 ,from time to time the mass creaked1 settled1 perhaps even moved a foot or two2 but always the practised rivermen1 after a glance1 bent more eagerly to their work4 99 99 99 ,suddenly the six men below the jam scattered4 99 99 99 holding their peaveys across their bodies1 they jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore4 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,log ,jam4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,in the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself from one particle to another thru the center of the jam4 99 99 99 ,the crew redoubled its exertion1 clamping its peaveys here and there1 apparently at random1 but in reality with the most definite of purposes4 ,a sharp crack exploded immediately underneath4 ,there could no longer exist any doubt as to the motion1 altho it was as yet sluggish1 glacial4 ,then in silence a log shifted--in silence and slowly--but with irresistible force 99 99 99 other logs in all directions up-ended4 99 99 99 ,then all at once down by the face something crashed1 the entire stream became alive4 ,it hissed and roared1 it shrieked1 groaned1 and grumbled4 ,at first slowly1 then more rapidly1 the very fore-front of the center melted inward and forward and downward1 until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and shot out from under the jam4 ,far up-stream1 bristling and formidable1 the tons of logs1 grinding savagely together1 swept forward4 99 99 99 ,then in a manner wonderful to behold1 thru the smother of foam and spray1 thru the crash and yell of timbers1 protesting the flood's hurrying1 thru the leap of destruction1 the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore4 ,sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm1 and special rigging devised to let the men down to their dangerous task and more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,splash-,dam4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,logs in ,boom4 ,glens ,falls1 ,new ,york4 ,in case such efforts are unavailing1 it is necessary to shoot the jam with dynamite4 ,another device resorted to where the supply of water is insufficient is the splash-dam1 ,fig4 #bj4 ,the object is to make the operator independent of freshets1 by accumulating a head of water and then1 by lifting the gates1 creating an artificial freshet1 sufficient to float the timber down stream4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a ,sorting ,jack4 ,thus by one means and another1 the logs are driven along until caught by a boom1 ,fig4 #ba1 which consists of a chain of logs stretched across the river1 usually at a mill4 ,since the river is a common carrier1 the drives of a number of logging companies may float into the mill pond together4 ,but each log is stamped on both ends1 so that it can be sorted out1 ,fig4 #bb1 and sent into the boom of its owner4 ,,mechanical ,,methods ,,in ,,lumbering4 ,the operations described above are those common in the lumber regions of the northeast and the ,lake ,states4 ,but special conditions produce special methods4 ,a very effective device where streams are small is the flume1 ,fig4 #bc4 ,this is a long wooden trough thru which water is led1 and the logs floated end on4 ,it is sometimes many miles long2 in one case in ,california twenty-five miles4 ,in the ,south where there is no snow1 logs are largely brought out to the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled trucks1 called slip-tongue carts1 drawn by mules1 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the wheels are nearly eight feet in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,six ,mile ,flume4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,some kinds of wood are so heavy that they will not float at all1 and some sink so readily that it does not pay to transport them by river4 ,in such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,hauling ,logs by ,mules4 ,oscilla1 ,georgia4 ,on the ,pacific coast1 where the forests are dense1 the trees of enormous size1 and no ice road is possible1 still other special methods have been devised4 ,on so great a scale are the operations conducted that they may properly be called engineering feats4 ,consider for a moment the size of the trees3 red fir ranges from five to fifteen feet in diameter1 is commonly two hundred fifty feet high1 and sometimes three hundred twenty-five feet high4 ,the logs are commonly cut twenty-five feet long1 and such logs often weigh thirty to forty tons each1 and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred fifty tons4 ,the logging of such trees requires special appliances4 ,until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transportation1 the felling still being done by hand with very long saws1 ,fig4 #be1 but now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly done by machinery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,a ,twenty-,five ,foot ,saw used for ,crosscutting ,big ,logs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,hauling ,big ,logs by ,donkey ,engine4 ,to work the saw1 power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine mounted upon a truck which can be taken readily from place to place4 ,as the maximum power required is not over ten-horse-power1 the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily4 ,the saw can be adjusted to cut horizontally1 vertically1 or obliquely1 and hence is used for sawing into lengths as well as for felling4 ,falling beds4 ,since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is such that if the impact of its fall be not gradually checked the force with which it strikes the ground may split the trunk1 a bed for its fall is prepared by the swampers4 ,usually piles of brush are placed as buffers along the falling line so that the trunk will strike these4 ,if the tree stands on the hill side1 it is thrown up hill1 in order to shorten the fall4 ,after the felling comes the trimming of branches and knots and rossing of bark1 to lessen the friction in sliding along the skidway4 ,the skidway4 ,by the skidway in the ,puget ,sound region is meant a corduroy road4 ,this is constructed of trunks of trees ranging from a foot to two feet in diameter4 ,these are rossed1 that is1 stripped of their bark and laid across the road1 where they are held in place by pegs driven into the ground1 and by strips spiked upon the tops of the logs4 ,if possible they are laid in swampy places to keep the surface damp and slippery4 ,at turns in the road1 pulleys are hung1 thru which the hauling cables pass4 ,the skidway runs to the railway siding or water's edge4 ,over these skidways the logs are hauled out by various means4 ,formerly strings of oxen or ,percheron horses were used1 but they are now largely superseded by some form of donkey engine1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,these are placed at the center of a yard4 ,yarding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by means of these donkey engines4 ,attached to the donkey engine are two drums1 one for the direct cable1 three-fourths to one inch in diameter and often half a mile long1 to haul in the logs1 the other for the smaller return cable1 twice as long as the direct cable and used to haul back the direct cable4 ,at the upper end of the skidway1 when the logs are ready to be taken to the railway or boomed1 they are fastened together1 end to end1 in turns of four or more4 ,the direct cable is attached to the front of the turn1 and the return cable to the rear end4 ,by winding the direct cable on its drum1 the turn is hauled in4 ,the return cable is used to haul back the end of the direct cable1 and also1 in case of a jam1 to pull back and straighten out the turn4 ,instead of a return cable a horse is often used to haul out the direct cable4 ,signaling from the upper end of the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the donkey's whistle1 by an electric bell1 or by telephone4 ,sometimes these donkey engines are in relays1 one engine hauling a turn of logs to within reach of the next one1 which passes it on to the next until the siding is reached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,steam ,skidder at ,work4 ,grant ,county1 ,arkansas4 ,where there are steep canons to be crossed1 a wire trolley may be stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it4 ,in the ,south a complicated machine called a steam skidder1 ,fig4 #bg1 equipped with drums1 booms1 etc41 is much used both for skidding in the logs and then for loading them on the cars4 ,it is itself mounted on a flat car4 ,an improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely used both on the ,pacific coast and of late in the ,lake ,superior region4 ,it is a combined locomotive1 skidder and loader4 ,its most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow flat cars to run underneath it4 ,this feat is accomplished thus3 ,a device1 which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of coal wagons1 lifts the engine several feet above the rails4 ,then steel legs1 which are curved outwardly1 are lowered until the shoes which are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties4 ,the truck of the locomotive is then folded up under it out of the way and cars can run under it1 the curved legs giving plenty of clearance4 ,the derrick attached is of the breast type1 the two legs being firmly fastened4 ,when anchored the engine can be used either for skidding or loading4 ,for skidding1 there are two cables1 one being run out while the other is being wound on its drum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,log ,train1 ,humboldt ,county1 ,california4 ,in loading1 the machine is located so that the empty car will be directly in front of it1 and then the logs are lifted up and placed on the car by the derrick4 ,when the car is loaded the machine can either move on to the next car1 or pull it under itself into place4 ,with the help of four men it can load from #abe1jjj to #aej1jjj feet of timber in a day4 ,by means of the cable it can make up a train1 and then by lowering the truck and raising the legs out of the way1 it is converted into a locomotive and hauls the train away to the mill or railway station at the rate of three or four miles at hour4 ,as forests are cut away along the water courses1 railways have to be resorted to more and more1 ,fig4 #bh4 ,this has had a stimulative effect on the logging business1 for now the logger is independent of the snow4 ,on account of the steep grades and sharp curves often necessary in logging railways1 a geared locomotive is sometimes used1 ,fig4 #bi4 ,it can haul a train of twenty loaded cars up a twelve per cent grade4 ,the geared engine has also been used as a substitute for cable power1 in yarding operations4 ,the turns of logs are drawn over the ground between the rails1 being fastened to the rear of the engine by hook and cable4 ,this has proved to be a very economical use of power and plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,donkey ,engine ,yarding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,giant ,raft4 ,in the background is a completed raft2 in the foreground a cradle in which a raft is being built4 ,another method of traction where the woodland is open enough is with a traction engine4 ,the ones employed have sixty to one hundred horse power4 ,the great logs may be placed on wood rollers1 as a house is when moved1 or the logs may be hauled in on a low truck with broad wheels4 ,the tractor hauls the log direct to the railway if the distance is not too great4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,snow ,locomotive4 ,takes the place of #ab teamsters and #ab horses4 ,minnesota4 ,in ,northern ,michigan a snow locomotive1 ,fig4 #ca1 is coming into use1 which has tremendous tractive power1 hauling one hundred to one hundred fifty tons of lumber over snow or ice4 ,it moves on runners1 but there is between them a large cylinder armed with teeth4 ,this cylinder can be raised or lowered by the operator as it moves over the surface of the ground4 ,the teeth catch in the snow or ice1 and since the cylinder is heated by the exhaust steam1 it melts and packs the snow for the trucks following it4 ,the drum is six feet in diameter1 with walls an inch and a half thick1 and it weighs seven tons4 ,it is used in all sorts of places where horses cannot go1 as in swamps1 and by substituting wheels for runners it has even been used on sand4 ,in the ,canadian lakes there has been devised a queer creature called an alligator1 a small and heavily equipped vessel for hauling the logs thru the lakes4 ,when its operations in one lake are finished1 a wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe anchorage1 the capstan on its forward deck is revolved by steam and the alligator hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next lake and begins work there4 ,the greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant raft1 ,fig4 #cj4 ,when such a raft is made up1 logs of uniform length are placed together1 the width of the raft being from sixty to one hundred feet and its length1 one thousand feet or more4 ,it may contain a million board feet of timber4 ,the different sections are placed end to end1 and long boom sticks1 i4 e41 logs sixty to seventy feet long1 are placed around them to bind the different sections together1 and finally the whole mass is heavily chained4 ,such a raft has been towed across the ,pacific4 ,,logging4 ,,references993 ,river ,lumbering4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,,ii1 pp4 #dj-ec4 ,white1 ,blazed ,trail1 pp4 #e-ae1 #be1 #ch-ci1 #eb-ec1 #fc-fe1 #gb-he1 #ia-ii1 #aac-abe1 #acd1 #aha-aif1 #baf-bbi1 #beg1 #bfh1 #cbj-cdc1 #cee1 #cfe ff4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #cd1 pp4 #cc-da1 ,fox4 ,white1 ,jun4 ,mun41 #aj3 #cfb4 ,hulbert1 ,outl41 #gf2 #hja4 ,wood ,craft1 #d3 #ee4 ,smith1 ,k41 ,world's ,work1 #g3 #ddce4 ,mechanical ,methods4 ,world's ,work1 #g3 #ddce4 ,outl41 #gf3 #hab4 ,bruncken1 p4 #hf4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #gf-hg4 ,munn1 ,cosmop41 #cg3 #dda4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #acc-agd4 ,hovey-,king1 ,rev4 of ,rev41 #bg3 #cag4 ,jones1 ,cosmop41 #ae3 #fc4 ,price1 ,world's ,work1 #e3 #cbjg4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #fa4 ,cassier1 #bi3 #ddc1 ,april1 '#jf4 ,cosmop41 #cg3 #dde4 ,rev4 of ,rev41 #bh3 #cai4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see page #d4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sawmilling4 ,the principal saws in a mill are of three kinds1 the circular1 ,fig4 #cb1 the gang1 ,fig4 #cc1 and the band1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,the circular-saw1 tho very rapid1 is the most wasteful because of the wide kerf1 and of course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf4 ,the waste in sawdust is about one-fifth of the log4 ,in order to lessen this amount two smaller saws1 one hung directly above the other1 have been used4 ,one saws the lower half of the log and the other the upper half4 ,in this way1 it is possible to cut very large logs with the circular-saw and with less waste4 ,the circular-saw is not a perfectly flat disc1 but when at rest is slightly convex on one side and concave on the other4 ,this fullness can be pushed back and forth as can the bottom of an oil-can4 ,when moving at a high rate of speed1 however1 the saw flattens itself by centrifugal force4 ,this enables it to cut straight with great accuracy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,double ,circular-,saw and ,carriage4 ,a gang-saw is simply a series of straight saw-blades set in a vertical frame4 ,this has a reciprocating motion1 enabling it to cut a log into a number of boards at one time4 ,it has this drawback1 that it must cut the size of lumber for which it is set2 that is1 the sawyer has no choice in cutting the thickness1 but it is very economical1 wasting only one-eighth of the log in sawdust4 ,a special form is the flooring gang4 ,it consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart4 ,thick planks are run thru it to saw up flooring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,gang-,saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,band-,saw4 ,the band-saw is fast displacing the other two1 wherever it can be used4 ,it cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow4 ,when first used it could not be depended upon to cut straight1 but by utilizing the same principle that is used in the circular-saw1 of putting the cutting edge under great tension by making it slightly shorter than the middle of the saw1 it now cuts with great accuracy4 ,band-saws are now made up to #ab inches wide1 #ej feet long1 and run at the rate of #aj1jjj feet a minute4 ,they are even made with the cutting teeth on both edges1 so that the log can be sawed both going and coming4 ,this idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the telescopic band-mill1 ,fig4 #ce4 ,in this the entire mechanism carrying the wheels on which the band-saw revolves can be moved up and down1 so as to bring the point where the saw leaves the upper wheel as close to the top of the different sized logs as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,double-,carrying ,telescopic ,band-,mill4 ,mill in raised position for large log4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,jack-,ladder1 with ,endless ,chain4 ,the usual modern mill is a two story building1 ,fig4 #cg1 built at a convenient locality both for receiving the logs and for shipping the lumber4 ,whether the logs arrive by water or by rail1 they are1 if possible1 stored in a mill-pond until used in order to prevent checking1 discoloration1 decay1 and worm attack4 ,from the pond they are hauled up out of the water on to a jack-ladder1 by means of an endless chain1 provided with saddles or spurs which engage the logs and draw them up into the second story on to the log slip1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,two-,story ,mill at ,virginia1 ,minnesota1 ,showing ,jack-,ladders and ,consumer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,log-,flipper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,log-,stop and ,loader4 ,by letting steam into the cylinder1 the projecting arm revolves1 rolling one log over onto the carriage and holding the next one till wanted4 ,after the logs have entered the mill1 they are inspected for stones lodged in the bark1 and for spikes left by the river men1 and then measured4 ,under the log-slip is the steam flipper or kicker1 ,fig4 #ch1 by means of which the scaler or his assistant1 throwing a lever1 causes the log to be kicked over to one side or the other1 on to the log-deck1 an inclined floor sloping toward the saw-carriage4 ,down this the log rolls until stopped by a log-stop1 or log-loader1 ,fig4 #ci1 a double-aimed projection1 which prevents it from rolling on the carriage till wanted4 ,this stop is also worked by steam4 ,by letting the steam into the cylinder which controls it1 one log is rolled over on the carriage and the next one held4 ,the log on the carriage is at once dogged1 that is1 clamped tight by iron dogs1 the carriage is set for the proper cut1 and moves forward to the saw which cuts off the first slab4 ,the carriage is then gigged or reversed4 ,this operation offsets the carriage one-eighth of an inch so that the log returns entirely clear of the saw4 ,in the same way two or three #a boards are taken off1 the dogs are then knocked out1 and the log canted over half a revolution4 ,this is done by means of the steam nigger1 ,fig4 #dj1 a long1 perpendicular toothed bar which comes up thru the floor1 engages the log1 and turns it over till the sawn side comes up against the knees of the carriage4 ,the log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards are taken off4 ,the log or stock as it is now called1 is #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 or #af thick2 the nigger then gives it a quarter-turn1 leaving it lying on a sawn side4 ,it is dogged again1 and all sawn up except enough to make a few boards4 ,this last piece is given a half-turn1 bringing the sawn side against the knees1 and it is sawn up4 ,each board as it is sawn off is thrown by the board-flipper or cant-flipper1#b ,fig4 #da1 on to the live rollers1 which take it to the next process4 ,another log comes on the carriage and the process is repeated4 ,footnote #b3 ,a cant is a squared or partly squared log4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the ,steam ,nigger4 ,the toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,steam ,cant-,flipper4 ,this machine is used to move cants1 timber1 or lumber from live rollers to gangs1 band resaw mills1 or elsewhere4 ,the timber is discharged upon skid rollers1 as shown1 or upon transfer chains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,log-,carriage1 holding quartered log in position to saw4 ,the saw-carriage1 ,fig4 #db1 is propelled forward and back by a piston running in a long cylinder1 into either end of which steam can be turned by the operator4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,double ,gang ,edger4 ,this machine trims off the rough edges of the waney boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,automatic ,steam ,transfer for ,timber1 ,lumber and ,slabs4 ,the boards are carried along by the cylinders1 ,,ccc1 until they hit the bumper1 ,b4 ,this movement admits steam to the cylinder1 ,,cy1 which raises the revolving chains or skids1 which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required4 ,as the sawn boards fall off the log1 they land on live1 that is1 revolving rollers1 which carry them along at the rate of #bjj to #bej feet a minute4 ,stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever wanted1 as at the edger1 ,fig4 #dc1 or the slasher4 ,from the live rollers the boards are transferred automatically1 ,fig4 #dd1 by chains running at right angles to the rollers and brought within reach of the edger man4 ,about one-third of the boards of a log have rough edges1 and are called waney4 ,these must go thru the edger to make their edges parallel4 ,the edger man works with great speed4 ,he sees at once what can be made out of a board1 places it in position and runs it thru4 ,from the edger the boards are carried to the trimmer1 which cuts the length4 ,the lumberman's rule is to cut so that you can cut again4 ,the so-called #af' logs are really #af' #f4 ,the trimmer1 ,fig4 #de1 now trims these boards to #af' #a1 so that if desired they can still be cut again4 ,the trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length according to the specifications4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,automatic ,gang ,lumber-,trimmer4 ,it may be set to cut automatically to any desired length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,lumber ,sorting ,shed4 ,virginia1 ,minnesota4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,the boards are now graded as to quality into ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 etc41 ,fig4 #df1 and run out of the mill1 to be stacked up in piles1 ,fig4 #dg4 ,big timbers go directly from the saw on the rolls to the back end of the mill1 where the first end is trimmed by a butting-saw or cut-off-saw which swings1 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the timber is then shoved along on dead rolls and the last end trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as specified1 and shoved out4 ,one of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its speed4 ,from the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes racing out of the mill1 hardly more than a minute may have elapsed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,cut-off-,saw4 ,this saw trims the ends of timbers4 ,a large part of the problem of sawmilling is the disposal of the waste4 ,the first of these is the sawdust4 ,in all first class mills1 this together with shavings 7if a planing-mill is combined7 is burned for fuel4 ,it is sucked up from the machines and carried in large tubes to the boiler-room and there is mechanically supplied to the fires4 ,the slabs1 once considered as waste1 contain much material that is now utilized4 ,from the live rolls1 on which all the material falls from the main band-saw1 the slabs are carried off by transfer chains1 and by another set of five rollers to the slasher1 ,fig4 #ej1 which consists of a line of circular-saws placed #d' #a apart4 ,this slasher cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets4 ,fig4 #di4 ,or they can be resawn into #af lengths for shingles or fire-wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,ten ,saw ,gang ,lath ,bolter4 ,this machine cuts up material lengthwise into laths4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,slab-,slasher4 ,this machine cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets4 ,from the slasher the #d' #a lengths are carried on by traveling platforms1 chains1 etc41 to the lath-machines1 ,fig4 #ea1 where they are sawn up1 counted as sawn1 bound in bundles of #ajj1 trimmed to exactly #d' in length and sent off to be stored4 ,the shingle bolts are picked off the moving platforms by men or boys1 and sent to the shingle-machine1 ,fig4 #eb1 where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to be packed4 ,shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise imperfect logs4 ,of what is left1 a good part goes into the grinder or hog1 ,fig4 #ec1 which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for fuel to supplement the sawdust if necessary4 ,band-saws make so little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,combination ,lath-,binder and ,trimmer4 ,with this machine the operator can trim the bundles of lath simply by tilting the packing frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between the saws1 thereby trimming both ends at one movement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,hand ,shingle-,machine4 ,this machine is used in ,sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimmings by sawing shingles therefrom1 or to saw shingles from prepared bolts4 ,if there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the scrap-pile1 ,fig4 #ed1 or to the consumer1 the tall stack shown in ,fig4 #cg1 see p4 #cc4 ,boards ordinarily sawn from logs are slash-sawn1 i4 e41 they are tangential or bastard1 each cut parallel to the previous one4 ,by this process1 only the central boards would be radial or rift boards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,edging grinder or ,hog4 ,it cuts any kind of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain conveyor or blower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,scrap-,pile4 ,oscilla4 ,georgia4 ,but1 for a number of reasons1 radial boards are better4 ,they warp less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly4 ,yellow pine flooring that is rift-sawn is more valuable than slash-sawn1 because the edge of the annual rings makes a more even grain1 ,fig4 #ee4 ,where slash-grained flooring is used1 the boards should be laid so that the outside of each board will be up in order that the inner rings may not shell out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,slash-,grain and ,comb-,grain ,flooring4 ,in sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim1 the log is first quartered and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is desired4 ,there are various methods of cutting quartered logs1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,methods of ,sawing ,quartered ,logs4 ,in making staves for water-tight barrels1 it is essential that they be cut radially in the log1 in order that the staves be as non-permeable to water as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,lumber-,kiln4 ,,sawmilling4 ,,references399 ,trout1 ,cassier #aa3 #hc1 #ahd4 ,woodcraft #e3 #ef1 ,may '#jf4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,seasoning4 ,the seasoning of wood is important for several reasons4 ,it reduces weight1 it increases strength1 it prevents changes in volume after it is worked into shape1 and it prevents checking and decay4 ,decay can also be prevented by submergence and burying1 if by so doing logs are kept from fungal attacks4 ,the piles of the ,swiss ,lake dwellings1 which are in a state of good preservation1 are of prehistoric age4 ,wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron under water4 ,but for almost all purposes wood has to be dried in order to be preserved4 ,the wood is cut up1 when green1 to as thin pieces as will be convenient for its use later1 for the rate of drying depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece1 an inch board drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank1 and more than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber4 ,there are various methods of seasoning3 7#a7 ,natural or air-seasoning is the most common1 and in some respects the best4 ,in this method1 the wood is carefully and regularly piled in the seasoning-yard1 so as to be protected as far as possible from sun and rain1 but with air circulating freely on all sides of the boards1 ,fig4 #dg1 see p4 #ch4 ,to accomplish this1 sticking is employed1 i4 e41 strips of wood are placed crosswise close to the ends and at intervals between the boards4 ,in this way the weight of the superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warping4 ,the pile is skidded a foot or two off the ground and is protected above by a roof made of boards so laid that the rain will drain off4 ,fire-wood is best dried rapidly so that it will check1 making air spaces which facilitate ignition1 but lumber needs to be slowly dried in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the change of form and the wood check as little as possible4 ,good air-drying consumes from two to six years1 the longer the better4 7#b7 ,kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid process than air-seasoning and is now in common use1 ,fig4 #eg4 ,the drying is also more complete1 for while air-dried wood retains from #aj to #bj of moisture1 kiln-dried wood may have no more than #e as it comes from the kiln4 ,it will1 however1 reabsorb some moisture from the air1 when exposed to it4 ,the wood of conifers1 with its very regular structure1 dries and shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad-leaved trees1 and hence is often put into the kiln without previous air-drying1 and dried in a week or even less time4 ,oak is the most difficult wood to dry properly4 ,when it and other hardwoods are rapidly dried without sufficient surrounding moisture1 the wood case-hardens1 that is1 the outer part dries and shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same1 and this forms a shell or case of shrunken1 and often checked wood around the interior which also checks later4 ,this interior checking is called honeycombing4 ,hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two to six months1 before being kiln-dried4 ,for the sake of economy in time1 the tendency is to eliminate yard-drying1 and substitute kiln-drying4 ,kiln-drying of one inch oak1 takes one or two weeks1 quarter-sawn boards taking one and a half times as long as plain-sawn4 ,the best method of drying is that which gradually raises the temperature of both the wood and of the water which it contains to the point at which the drying is to take place4 ,care is therefore taken not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture is heated4 ,this is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized about the wood1 by means of wet steam4 ,when the surface is made permeable to moisture1 drying may take place rapidly4 ,curtains of canvas are hung all around the lumber on the same principle that windows in newly plastered buildings are hung with muslin4 ,the moisture is absorbed on the inner surface of the curtain and evaporates from the outer surface4 ,improvements in kiln-drying are along the line of moist air operation4 ,in common practice1 however1 the moist air principle is often neglected4 ,there are two methods in operation1 the progressive method and the charge method4 ,in the progressive1 the process is continuous1 the loads going in at one end of the kiln1 and out at the other1 the temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln1 that in passing from the green to the dry end1 a load of lumber is first moistened1 then heated1 and finally dried out4 ,in the charge system1 the process is intermittent1 one charge being removed before a new one is admitted4 ,this gives the best results with high grade lumber for special uses4 ,a modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel4 7#c7 ,small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being boiled in water and then dried4 ,the process seems to consist of dissolving out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evaporation4 ,its effect is probably weakening4 7#d7 ,soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation for air-seasoning4 ,previous soaking hastens seasoning4 ,river men insist that timber is improved by rafting4 ,it is a common practice to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months before they are mined out4 ,they are eagerly sought after by joiners and carpenters1 because their tendency to warp is lessened4 ,ebony is water-soaked in the island of ,mauritius as soon as cut4 ,salt water renders wood harder1 heavier1 and more durable and is sometimes applied to ship timbers1 but cannot be used with timbers intended for ordinary purposes1 as the presence of salt tends to absorb atmospheric moisture4 7#e7 ,boiling in oil is resorted to for special purposes1 both for preservation and to give strength4 ,for example1 the best handscrews are so treated4 ,the oil also prevents glue from sticking1 the most frequent cause of injury to handscrews4 7#f7 ,there are a number of impregnation methods of preserving timber1 and their practice is spreading rapidly4 ,of the various preservative processes1 those using coal tar creosote and zinc chloride have proved most efficient4 ,the purpose is to force the preservative into the pores of the wood1 either by painting1 soaking1 or putting under pressure4 ,such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway ties4 ,it is now being used with great success to preserve electric wire poles1 mine-props1 piling1 fence-posts1 etc4 ,wood preservation has three great advantages1 it prolongs the life of timbers in use1 reduces their cost1 and makes possible the use of species that once were considered worthless4 ,for example1 the cheap and abundant loblolly pine can be made1 by preservative methods1 to take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes4 ,,practical ,,suggestions ,,for ,,storing ,,lumber4 ,under the hasty methods prevalent in the mill1 very little wood comes to the shop well seasoned1 and it should therefore be carefully stored before using1 so as to have the fullest possible air circulation around it4 ,where the boards are large enough1 sticking is the best method of storage1 i4 e41 narrow strips of wood are placed at short intervals between the pieces which are piled flat4 ,the weight of the boards themselves helps to prevent warping4 ,boards set upright or on edge are likely to be distorted soon4 ,it is often wise to press together with weights or to clamp together with handscrews boards that show a tendency to warp1 putting the two concave sides together4 ,then the convex side is exposed and the board may straighten thus3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,by wrapping up small boards in paper or cloth in the intervals between work on them1 they may be kept straight until they are assembled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,clamping up ,boards to ,prevent ,warping4 ,another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a board if either is planed1 especially if the board has been exposed to air-drying for some time4 ,,wood ,,measurements4 ,lumber is a general term for all kinds of sawn wood4 ,logs may be sawn into timber1 that is1 beams and joists1 into planks1 which are #b to #d thick1 or into boards which are from #a_/d to #a-c_/d thick4 ,these may be resawn into special sizes4 ,lumber is measured by the superficial foot1 which is a board #a thick1 #ab wide1 and #ab long1 so that a board #a thick1 7or #g_/h dressed7 #f wide and #ab' #j long1 measures #f' ,b4 ,m4 7board measure74 ,boards #a or more thick are sold by the board foot which is equivalent to #ab square and #a thick4 ,boards less than #a thick are sold by the square foot1 face measure4 ,dressed lumber comes in sizes #a_/h less than sawn lumber4 ,regular sizes are3 #e_/h dressed to #a_/b #c_/d dressed to #e_/h #a dressed to #g_/h #a-a_/d dressed to #a-a_/h #a-a_/b dressed to #a-c_/h #b dressed to #a-g_/h ,any of these may be dressed down to thinner boards1 or resawn on a special band-saw4 ,in ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted1 in the order of thickness1 width1 and length1 because that is the order in which dimensions are gotten out4 ,e4 g43 #f pcs4 quar4 oak1 #g_/h #f #c'j #b pcs4 quar4 oak1 #c_/d #g-a_/b #ae ,if a piece wanted is short the way the grain goes1 the order would be the same1 thus3 #c_/d #aa 7wide7 #f 7long74 ,that is1 long means the way the grain runs4 ,it is always safe to specify in such a case4 ,it is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter to the cost for waste4 ,in large lots lumber is ordered thus3 #hjj' 7,b4 ,m47 whitewood1 dressed #b sides to #g_/h1 #aj and up4 ,this means that the width of any piece must not be less than #aj4 ,prices are usually given per ,m1 i4 e41 per #ajjj ft43 e4 g43 basswood may be quoted at #dj4jj per ,m4 ,when thin boards are desired it is often economical to buy inch stuff and have it resawn4 ,some lumber is also ordered by the running or lineal foot1 especially moldings1 etc41 or by the piece1 if there is a standard size as in fence-posts1 studs1 etc4 ,laths and shingles are ordered by the bundle to cover a certain area4 #ajjj #d shingles 7#d bundles7 cover #aaj sq4 ft4 with #d weather exposure4 #ajj laths 7#a bundle7 each #a_/d #a-a_/b #d'j cover about #aej sq4 ft4 ,there are several methods of measuring lumber4 ,the general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by #ab1 thus3 #a #f #ae' #ab #g-a_/b feet4 ,the use of the ,essex board-measure and the ,lumberman's board-measure are described in ,chapter #d1 pp4 #aji and #aaa4 ,,the ,,seasoning ,,and ,,measuring ,,of ,,wood4 ,,references399 ,,seasoning4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no1 #da1 pp4 #e-ab1 von ,schrenk4 ,dunlap1 ,wood ,craft1 #f3 #acc1 ,feb4 '#jg4 ,for4 ,circ4 ,no4 #dj1 pp4 #aj-af1 ,herty4 ,barter1 pp4 #ci-ec4 ,boulger1 pp4 #ff-gj1 #hj-hh4 ,wood ,craft1 #f3 #ca1 ,nov4 '#jf4 ,for4 ,circ4 ,no4 #aci4 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aije1 pp4 #dee-dfd4 ,,measuring ,sickels1 pp4 #bb1 #bi4 ,goss1 p4 #ab4 ,building ,trades ,pocketbook1 pp4 #cce1 #cdi1 #ceg4 ,tate1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,wood ,,hand ,,tools4 ,the hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may1 for convenience1 be divided into the following classes3 #a1 ,cutting2 #b1 ,boring2 #c1 ,chopping2 #d1 ,scraping2 #e1 ,pounding2 #f1 ,holding2 #g1 ,measuring and ,marking2 #h1 ,sharpening2 #i1 ,cleaning4 #a4 ,,cutting ,,tools4 ,the most primitive as well as the simplest of all tools for the dividing of wood into parts1 is the wedge4 ,the wedge does not even cut the wood1 but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow its main body to split the wood apart4 ,as soon as the split has begun1 the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose1 but the sides bear against the split surfaces of the wood4 ,the split runs ahead of the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided4 ,it was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs of wood1 and the great change from primitive to civilized methods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for splitting1 of edge tools for the wedge4 ,the wedge follows the grain of the wood1 but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the worker4 ,the edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural grain of the wood4 ,in general1 it may be said that the function of all cutting tools is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite path4 ,all such tools act1 first1 by the keen edge dividing the material into two parts2 second1 by the wedge or the blade forcing these two portions apart4 ,if a true continuous cut is to be made1 both of these actions must occur together4 ,the edge must be sharp enough to enter between the small particles of material1 cutting without bruising them1 and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue4 ,the action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut1 for only the second process is taking place1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,the split which opens in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the surfaces of the opening are rough and torn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,wedge ,action4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,edge ,action4 ,when a knife or chisel is pressed into a piece of wood at right angles to the grain1 and at some distance from the end of the wood1 as in ,fig4 #fj1 a continuous cutting action is prevented1 because soon the blade cannot force apart the sides of the cut made by the advancing edge1 and the knife is brought to rest4 ,in this case1 it is practically only the first action which has taken place4 ,both the actions1 the cutting and the splitting1 must take place together to produce a true continuous cut4 ,the edge must always be in contact with the solid material1 and the blade must always be pushing aside the portions which have been cut4 ,this can happen only when the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and weak enough to be readily bent out of the way without opening a split in front of the cutting edge4 ,this cutting action may take place either along the grain1 ,fig4 #fa1 or across it1 ,fig4 #fb4 ,the bending aside of the shaving will require less force the smaller the taper of the wedge4 ,on the other hand1 the wedge must be strong enough to sustain the bending resistance and also to support the cutting edge4 ,in other words1 the more acute the cutting edge1 the easier the work1 and hence the wedge is made as thin as is consistent with strength4 ,this varies all the way from hollow ground razors to cold-chisels4 ,for soft wood1 the cutting angle 7or bevel1 or bezel7 of chisels1 gouges and plane-irons1 is small1 even as low as #bj2 for hard wood1 it must be greater4 ,for metals1 it varies from #ed for wrought iron to #ff for gun metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,edge and ,wedge ,action ,with the ,grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,edge and ,wedge ,action ,across the ,grain4 ,ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut desired1 sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the actual edge4 ,there are two methods of using edge tools3 one1 the chisel or straight cut1 by direct pressure2 the other1 the knife or sliding cut4 ,the straight cut1 ,fig4 #fc1 takes place when the tool is moved into the material at right angles to the cutting edge4 ,examples are3 the action of metalworking tools and planing machines1 rip-sawing1 turning1 planing 7when the plane is held parallel to the edge of the board being planed71 and chiseling1 when the chisel is pushed directly in line with its length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,straight ,cut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,sliding ,cut4 ,the knife or sliding cut1 ,fig4 #fd1 takes place when the tool is moved forward obliquely to its cutting edge1 either along or across the grain4 ,it is well illustrated in cutting soft materials1 such as bread1 meat1 rubber1 cork1 etc4 ,it is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging4 ,that this sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved with a penknife on thin wood1 or by planing with the plane held at an angle to1 rather than in line with1 the direction of the planing motion4 ,the edge of the cutter then slides into the material4 ,the reason why the sliding cut is easier1 is partly because the angle of the bevel with the wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely1 and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts like a saw4 ,in an auger-bit1 both methods of cutting take place at once4 ,the scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut1 while the cutting lip is thrust directly into the wood4 ,the chisel and the knife1 one with the edge on the end1 and the other with the edge on the side1 are the original forms of all modern cutting tools4 ,the chisel was at first only a chipped stone1 then it came to be a ground stone1 later it was made of bronze1 and still later of iron1 and now it is made of steel4 ,in its early form it is known by paleontologists as a celt1 and at first had no handle1 but later developed into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing1 and the chisel for cuts made by driving and paring4 ,it is quite likely that the celt itself was simply a development of the wedge4 ,in the modern chisel1 all the grinding is done on one side4 ,this constitutes the essential feature of the chisel1 namely1 that the back of the blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel4 ,blades vary in width from #a_/af inch to #b inches4 ,next to the blade on the end of which is the cutting edge1 is the shank1 ,fig4 #fe4 ,next1 as in socketed chisels1 there is the socket to receive the handle1 or1 in tanged chisels1 a shoulder and four-sided tang which is driven into the handle1 which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule4 ,the handle is usually made of apple wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,firmer-,chisel4 ,the most familiar form is the firmer-chisel1 ,fig4 #fe1 which is said to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the paring-chisel4 7,see below47 ,the firmer-chisel is a general utility tool1 being suited for hand pressure or mallet pounding1 for paring or for light mortising4 ,different varieties of chisels are named2 7#a7 according to their uses2 as paring-chisels1 framing-chisels1 mortise-chisels1 carving-chisels1 turning-chisels1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,paring-,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,framing-,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,mortise-,chisel4 ,the paring-chisel1 ,fig4 #ff1 has a handle specially shaped to give control over its movements1 and a long thin blade1 which in the best form is beveled on the two edges to facilitate grooving4 ,it is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use with a mallet4 ,the framing-chisel1 ,fig4 #fg1 is thick and heavy and was formerly much used in house framing4 ,it is usually made with the handle fitting into a socket on the shank1 in order to withstand the shock of heavy blows from the mallet4 ,the mortise-chisel1 ,fig4 #fh1 is made abnormally thick to give the stiffness necessary for levering the waste out of mortises4 7#b7 ,chisels are also named according to their shapes3 as1 skew-chisels1 corner-chisels1 round-nosed chisels1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,paring with a ,chisel4 ,the angle of the bevel of a chisel is determined by the kind of wood for which it is most used1 hard wood requiring a wider angle than soft wood1 in order to support the edge4 ,for ordinary work1 the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about #bj4 ,the chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint4 ,it may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his preference for the chisel4 ,indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker is3 ,when in doubt1 use a chisel4 ,in general1 there are two uses for the chisel 7#a71 when it is driven by a push with the hand1 as in paring1 and 7#b71 when it is driven by blows of a mallet1 as in digging mortises4 ,in relation to the grain of the wood1 it is used in three directions3 7#a7 longitudinally1 that is with the grain1 called paring2 7#b7 laterally1 across the surface1 called cutting sidewise2 7#c7 transversely1 that is across the end1 called cutting end-wood4 #a4 ,paring4 ,to remove shavings rapidly1 the chisel is held flat side up1 the handle grasped by the right hand1 with the thumb pointing toward the shank1 and the blade held in the left hand1 as in ,fig4 #fi4 ,held in this way great control can be exerted and much force applied4 ,for paring the surface as flat and smooth as possible1 the chisel should be reversed1 that is1 held so that the flat side will act as a guide4 ,held in this way the chisel has no equal for paring except the plane4 ,paring with the chisel is the method used in cutting stop chamfers4 7,see p4 #ahe1 ,chapter ,,viii47 ,by holding the cutting edge obliquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut1 the effective sliding cut is obtained1 ,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,chiseling ,out a ,dado4 7,first ,step74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,chiseling ,out a ,dado4 7,second ,step74 #b4 ,in sidewise chiseling the chisel is held in the same manner as in paring4 ,a typical form of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out of a dado1 ,fig4 #gj4 ,the work may be placed on the bench-hook or held in the vise with the side up from which the groove is to be cut4 ,the chisel is pushed directly across the grain1 the blade being somewhat inclined to the upper surface so as to cut off a corner next the saw kerf4 ,after a few cuts thus made with the chisel inclined alternately both ways1 the ridge thus formed is taken off1 ,fig4 #ga4 ,in this way the surface is lowered to the required depth4 ,if more force be required1 the palm of the hand may be used as a mallet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,perpendicular ,chiseling4 #c4 ,in chiseling end-wood1 it is well1 if possible1 to rest the piece to be trimmed flat on the cutting board or on a piece of waste wood4 ,work done in this way is often called perpendicular chiseling1 ,fig4 #gb4 ,the handle is grasped in the right hand1 thumb up1 while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and first finger of the left hand1 the back of which rests on the work and holds it in place4 ,as the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion4 ,when chiseling it is well to stand so as to look along the line being cut4 ,incline the chisel toward you1 and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther corner for cutting1 pushing the handle both down and forward at the same time1 ,fig4 #gc4 ,or1 by pushing the chisel sidewise with the thumb of the left hand at the same time that the right hand pushes it downward1 the effective sliding cut is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,chiseling ,end ,wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,paring a ,corner ,round4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,right and ,wrong ,ways of ,perpendicular ,chiseling4 ,end chiseling requires considerable force and therefore only thin shavings should be cut off at a time4 ,or the mallet may be used with caution4 ,in order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very sharp4 ,even then the lower arris 7corner7 is likely to be splintered off4 ,this can be prevented by clamping the work down tight with a handscrew to a perfectly smooth cutting board4 ,it is often advisable however1 to set the piece upright in the vise and pare off thin shavings horizontally1 ,fig4 #gd4 ,in rounding a corner1 both this and perpendicular chiseling are common methods4 ,in both cases care should be taken to cut from the side toward the end and not into the grain1 lest the piece split1 ,fig4 #ge4 ,in horizontal end paring1 ,fig4 #gd1 in order to prevent splintering1 it is well to trim down the arrises diagonally to the line and then to reduce the rest of the end surface4 ,in all hand chiseling1 it is a wise precaution not to try to cut out much material at each stroke but to work back gradually to the line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,mallet ,chiseling4 ,the ,piece is ,clamped ,down on the ,bench ,with the ,bench ,hook4 ,a typical form of mallet chiseling is the digging of a mortise1 ,fig4 #gf4 7,see also p4 #ef47 ,the chisel is held perpendicular in the left hand1 while the right hand drives blows with the mallet4 ,the hammer should never be used4 7,see mallet1 p4 #if47 ,by rocking the chisel and at the same time giving it a twisting motion while the edge is kept on the wood1 the edge can be stepped to the exact place desired4 ,care should be taken to work back to the lines gradually1 to cut only part way thru from each side 7in the case of a thru mortise-and-tenon71 and to keep the cut faces perpendicular to the surfaces4 ,in sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the back be kept perfectly flat4 ,the bevel is first ground on the grindstone to an angle of about #bj and great care should be taken to keep the edge straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,whetting a ,plane-,bit4 ,after grinding it is necessary to whet the chisel and other edged tools4 7,see also under oilstones1 p4 #aba47 ,first see that there is plenty of oil on the stone4 ,if an iron box be used1 ,fig4 #gg1 the oil is obtained simply by turning the stone over1 for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene4 ,place the beveled edge flat on the stone1 feeling to see if it does lie flat1 then tip up the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more obtuse than that which it was ground1 ,fig4 #gh4 ,the more nearly the chisel can be whetted at the angle at which it was ground the better4 ,in rubbing1 use as much of the stone as possible1 so as to wear it down evenly4 ,the motion may be back and forth or spiral1 but in either case it should be steady and not rocking4 ,this whetting turns a light wire edge over on the flat side4 ,in order to remove this wire edge1 the back of the chisel1 that is1 the straight1 unbeveled side1 is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and rubbed1 then it is turned over and the bevel rubbed again on the stone4 ,it is necessary to reverse the chisel in this way a number of times1 in order to remove the wire edge1 but the chisel should never be tipped so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side4 ,finally1 the edge is touched up 7stropped7 by being drawn over a piece of leather a few times1 first on one side1 then on the other1 still continuing to hold the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,grinding ,angle1 #bj4 ,whetting ,angle1 #be4 ,to test the sharpness of a whetted edge1 draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly along it1 ,fig4 #gi4 ,if the edge be dull1 it will feel smooth3 if it be sharp1 and if care be taken1 it will score the skin a little1 not enough to cut thru1 but just enough to be felt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,testing the ,sharpness of a ,chisel4 ,the gouge is a form of chisel1 the blade of which is concave1 and hence the edge curved4 ,when the bevel is on the outside1 the common form1 it is called an outside bevel gouge or simply a gouge1 ,fig4 #hj2 if the bevel is on the inside1 it is called an inside bevel1 or inside ground1 or scribing-gouge1 or paring-gouge1 ,fig4 #ha4c ,footnote #c3 ,another confusing nomenclature 7,goss7 gives the name inside gouges to those with the cutting edge on the inside1 and outside gouges to those with the cutting edge on the outside4 ,carving tools are1 properly speaking1 all chisels1 and are of different shapes for facility in carving4 ,for ordinary gouging1 ,fig4 #hb1 the blade is gripped firmly by the left hand with the knuckles up1 so that a strong control can be exerted over it4 ,the gouge is manipulated in much the same way as the chisel1 and like the chisel it is used longitudinally1 laterally1 and transversely4 ,in working with the grain1 by twisting the blade on its axis as it moves forward1 delicate paring cuts may be made4 ,this is particularly necessary in working cross-grained wood1 and is a good illustration of the advantage of the sliding cut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,firmer-,gouge ,outside ,bevel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,inside ,bevel ,gouge4 ,in gouging out broad surfaces like trays or saddle seats it will be found of great advantage to work laterally1 that is across the surface1 especially in even grained woods as sweet gum4 ,the tool is not so likely to slip off and run in as when working with the grain4 ,the gouge that is commonly used for cutting concave outlines on end grain1 is the inside bevel gouge4 ,like the chisel in cutting convex outlines1 it is pushed or driven perpendicularly thru the wood laid flat on a cutting board on the bench1 as in perpendicular chiseling4 ,fig4 #gb1 p4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,gouging4 ,in sharpening an outside bevel gouge1 the main bevel is obtained on the grindstone1 care being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its axis1 so as to get an even curve4 ,it is then whetted on the flat side of a slipstone1 ,fig4 #hc1 the bevel already obtained on the grindstone being made slightly more obtuse at the edge4 ,a good method is to rock the gouge on its axis with the left hand1 while the slipstone held in the right hand is rubbed back and forth on the edge4 ,then the concave side is rubbed on the round edge of the slipstone1 care being taken to avoid putting a bevel on it4 ,inside bevel gouges need to be ground on a carborundum or other revolving stone having a round edge4 ,the outfit of the agacite grinder1 7,fig4 #bbd1 p4 #abj71 contains one of these stones4 ,the whetting1 of course1 is the reverse of that on the outside bevel gouge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,whetting a ,gouge4 ,the knife differs from the chisel in two respects1 7#a7 the edge is along the side instead of the end1 and 7#b7 it has a two-beveled edge4 ,knives are sometimes made with one side flat for certain kinds of paring work1 but these are uncommon4 ,the two-beveled edge is an advantage to the worker in enabling him to cut into the wood at any angle1 but it is a disadvantage in that it is incapable of making flat surfaces4 ,the knife is particularly valuable in woodwork for scoring and for certain emergencies4 ,the sloyd knife1 ,fig4 #hd1 is a tool likely to be misused in the hands of small children1 but when sharp and in strong hands1 has many valuable uses4 ,a convenient size has a #b-a_/b inch blade4 ,when grinding and whetting a knife1 the fact that both sides are beveled alike should be kept in mind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,sloyd ,knife4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,draw-,knife4 ,the draw-knife1 ,fig4 #he1 is ground like a chisel1 with the bevel only on one side1 but the edge is along the side like a knife4 ,instead of being pushed into the wood1 like a chisel1 it is drawn into it by the handles which project in advance of the cutting edge4 ,the handles are sometimes made to fold over the edge1 and thus protect it when not in use4 ,the size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge4 ,it is particularly useful in reducing narrow surfaces and in slicing off large pieces1 but it is liable to split rather than cut the wood4 ,,saws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,hand ,saw4 ,the object of the saw is to cut thru a piece of material along a determined line4 ,its efficiency depends upon 7#a7 the narrowness of the saw cut or kerf1 and 7#b7 upon the force required to drive it thru the material4 ,the thinner the blade1 the less material will be cut out and wasted1 and the less force will have to be applied4 ,in order to have the saw as thin as possible1 almost all the people of the world1 except the ,anglo ,saxons1 have saws that cut when they are pulled toward the worker4 ,the blade is in tension while cutting and in compression only when being returned for a new cut4 ,german carpenters use a saw like our turning-saw4 ,english and ,americans have developed the saw on the opposite principle1 namely1 that it should cut on the pushing stroke4 ,as a matter of fact1 the crosscut-saw cuts somewhat on the back stroke4 ,the pushing stroke necessitates a thickening of the blade sufficient to prevent buckling1--a not uncommon occurrence in the bands of a novice1 in spite of this thickening4 ,but tho this requires more force1 and involves more waste1 there are the compensations that the arm can exert more pressure in pushing than in pulling1 especially when the worker stands upright or stoops over his work1 and the stiffer wide blade acts as a guide to the sawyer4 ,each method has its advantages4 ,whatever may be true of hand-saws1 in machine-saws the tension method1 as illustrated by the gang-saw and the band-saw1 is steadily displacing the compression method utilized in the circular-saw4 ,many kinds of work1 however1 can be done only on the circular-saw4 ,in order to diminish the disadvantages of the thrusting stroke1 the modern hand-saw1 ,fig4 #hf1 has been gradually improved as the result of much experience and thought4 ,the outline of the blade is tapered in width from handle to point2 it is thicker also at the heel 7the handle end7 than at the point2 its thickness also tapers from the teeth to the back4 ,all these tapers gives stiffness where it is most needed4 ,it is made wide for the sake of giving steadiness in sawing4 ,the fact that it is thinner at the back than along the teeth gives it clearance in passing back and forth in the kerf1 but the friction is still great1 especially in sawing soft or damp wood4 ,to avoid this binding still further1 the teeth are set alternately one to one side and the next to the other1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,rip ,saw ,teeth3 ,a-edge view1 ,b-side view1 ,c cross-section4 ,crosscut-,saw ,teeth3 ,a'-edge view1 ,b'-side view1 ,c'-cross-section4 ,the size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches4 ,the coarseness of the tooth is indicated by the number of points to the inch4 ,points should not be confused with teeth as there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth4 ,for example1 a five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four full teeth1 ,fig4 #hg4 ,rip-saws run from #d to #g points per inch2 crosscut-saws from #f to #ab points per inch4 ,in general1 saws are of two kinds1 rip-saws and crosscut-saws4 ,the rip-saw1 ,fig4 #hg1 may be thought of as a series of chisels set in two parallel rows which overlap each other1 for each tooth is filed to a sharp edge which1 at each stroke1 chisels off a small particle from the end of the wood fibers4 ,the shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a number of factors3 as1 strength of the individual tooth1 the acuteness of the cutting angle1 and the ease of sharpening4 ,the steel of a saw is softer than that of a chisel1 in order that it may be filed and set4 ,hence it is weaker and the edge cannot be so acute4 ,a typical form of tooth is shown in ,fig4 #hg1 in which ,a is an edge view1 ,b the side view1 and ,c a cross section4 ,the angle of each tooth covers #fj1 one side1 the face1 being at right angles to the line of the teeth4 ,the cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade4 ,this arrangement works with entire success along the grain1 but if a rip-saw is used to cut across the grain1 since there is no provision for cutting thru the fibers1 each tooth catches in them and tears them out1 thus leaving a rough and jagged surface4 ,in the crosscut-saw1 therefore1 the teeth are filed to points1 and the cutting edge is on the forward side of each alternate tooth4 ,in ,fig4 #hg4 ,a' is the edge view1 ,b' is the side view and ,c' is a cross-section4 ,in a properly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide between these two rows of teeth from one end of the saw to the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,rip-,sawing on a ,horse4 ,in action the points1 especially their forward edges1 cut or score the fibres of wood1 and then the triangular elevation of wood left between the two rows of points is crumbled off by friction as the saw passes through4 ,thus it drops farther and farther into the cut4 ,a crosscut-saw may be thought of as a series of knife points1 arranged in two parallel rows4 ,ordinarily the angle of the face of each tooth with the line of the teeth is about #fe1 and slightly steeper than the back of the tooth4 ,the angle of the cutting edge of each tooth may be filed more acute when the saw is to be used for soft wood only4 ,a crosscut-saw when used to rip a board1 works slowly1 for there is no chisel action to cut out the fibres between the points1 but the cut1 tho slow1 is smooth4 ,in cutting diagonally across a piece of wood1 especially soft wood1 a rip-saw cuts faster1 but a crosscut1 smoother4 ,in ripping a board1 allowance should always be made for planing to the line afterward4 ,in starting a cut with the rip-saw1 the weight of the saw should be borne by the right hand so that the teeth may pass over the edge of the wood as lightly as possible4 ,the left thumb acts as a guide4 ,if the saw be handled thus1 and the angle with the board be quite acute1 it is not necessary to start with a back stroke4 ,when the kerf is well started1 the whole weight of the saw may be applied4 ,an easy light stroke is better than a furious one4 ,the line should be followed carefully1 but if the saw runs from the line it may be brought back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw and twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction4 ,if the saw binds and buckles because of the springing together of the wood1 the kerf may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a bit of waste wood4 ,a drop of oil rubbed across each side of the saw will make it work more easily4 ,care should be taken in finishing a cut to hold up firmly the part of the wood which is being sawn off so that it will not split off or splinter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,rip-sawing with ,wood ,held in ,bench-,vise4 ,sawing may be done either on a saw-horse1 ,fig4 #hh1 or at a bench4 ,for big1 rough work1 the former is the common way1 the worker holding the material in place with one knee1 because this method enables him to exert his greatest strength4 ,a convenient way for rip-sawing a small piece of wood is to insert it in the vise1 ,fig4 #hi1 with the broad side of the board parallel to the vise screw1 and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright4 ,the start is easy1 the sawdust does not cover the line1 and the board is not in danger of splitting4 ,the board1 however1 has to be reversed after it is sawn part way thru1 in order to finish the saw cut4 ,the back-saw or tenon-saw1 ,fig4 #ij1 is a fine crosscut-saw1 with a rib of steel along the back1 which gives to it its name4 ,since it is intended for small accurate work1 the teeth have little or no set4 ,in sawing1 the wood may be held either in the vise or on the bench-hook4 ,to help start the saw and at the same time to keep the edges of the cut sharp1 it is well to make a little groove with the knife1 on the waste side of the line to be followed1 cutting the side of the groove next to the line at right angles to the surface4 ,the saw drops directly into this groove1 ,fig4 #ia4 ,in starting the saw cut1 the saw should be guided by holding the thumb of the left hand against the side of the saw just above the teeth4 ,until the kerf is well started1 the saw should be held so that the teeth just touch the wood4 ,it is better not to attempt to start the saw level1 i4e41 with the teeth resting clear across the wood1 but the handle should be raised so that the start is made only at the farther edge of the wood4 ,then as the saw is gradually lowered1 the kerf will extend quite across the wood4 ,fig4 #ib4 ,when the back-saw is used for ripping1 the wood is held in the vise1 end up4 ,begin sawing as in crosscutting1 that is1 at the farther corner with the handle end of the saw up1 and gradually drop the handle4 ,watch the lines on both the front and back sides1 and if necessary1 reverse the piece to follow them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,using the ,back-,saw with ,bench-,hook4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,starting a ,saw ,cut in a ,trough ,cut ,with ,knife4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,direction of the ,back-,saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,dovetail-saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,compass-,saw4 ,the dovetail-saw1 ,fig4 #ic1 is a small back-saw for delicate work4 ,the compass-saw1 ,fig4 #id1 is narrow1 pointed1 thick1 to prevent buckling1 and with a wide set to the teeth1 to help in following the curves4 ,the teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth4 ,it is used in sawing curves4 ,the turning-saw1 ,fig4 #ie1 is a narrow saw1 set in a frame1 which stretches the saw tight1 so that it works as a tension saw 7cf4 p4 #fb74 ,the best frames are made so that the handles which hold the blade can revolve in the frame4 ,the turning-saw is used chiefly for cutting curves4 ,a #ad inch blade1 #c_/af of an inch wide is a good size for ordinary use4 ,the teeth are like those of a rip-saw1 so that they are quite likely to tear the wood in cutting across the grain4 ,allowance should be made for this and the surplus removed with a spokeshave4 ,the turning-saw may be used to cut on either the pulling or the pushing stroke1 with the teeth pointed either toward or away from the worker4 ,the pulling cut is generally better1 as it puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut4 ,both hands should grasp the frame as near the end of the blade as possible1 ,fig4 #ie4 ,turns are made by revolving the frame on the blade as an axis1 which should always be kept at right angles to the surface of the board4 ,care should be taken not to twist the blade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,using a ,turning ,saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,saw-,vise4 ,to file and set a saw1 the saw is first fastened in the saw-vise1 ,fig4 #if1 with the teeth up4 ,it is then top-jointed by running a flat file or a saw-jointer1 ,fig4 #ig1 back and forth lengthwise along the tops of the teeth to bring them to a level4 ,after jointing the saw should be set4 ,for this purpose a saw-set1 ,fig4 #ih1 is necessary4 ,every alternate tooth is bent in the direction of its set by the plunger in the instrument pushing against the anvil1 which is an adjustable eccentric disc4 ,after the saw is set1 it is filed4 ,this is done with a triangular file1 ,fig4 #add1 p4 #ij1 which is held in the right hand and its point in the thumb and fingers of the left4 ,pressure is applied only on the forward stroke1 which should be long and even1 the file being raised above the tooth on the return stroke4 ,the file should cut in the direction of the set1 that is1 the teeth having the set away from the worker are filed first4 ,every alternate tooth1 #ast4 #c;d1 #eth1 etc41 is filed1 and then the saw is reversed and the other set1 the #bnd1 #dth1 #fth1 etc41 is filed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,a ,saw-,jointer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,saw-,set4 ,in filing a rip-saw the file should move exactly perpendicularly to the plane of the saw blade1 that is1 directly across the teeth4 ,the filing is done on the back of the teeth1 the file just touching the face of the next one4 ,the filing is continued1 with one1 two1 or three strokes1 for each tooth1 as the case may require1 or just until each tooth is sharp4 ,in filing a crosscut-saw1 the file is held pointing upward and toward the point of the saw4 ,the file should cut in the direction of the set4 ,the angle of the cutting edge is determined by the horizontal inclination of the file to the blade2 the angle of the point is determined by the perpendicular inclination of the file to the blade4 ,finally the sides of the teeth are rubbed lightly with a slipstone to remove the wire edge4 ,it should always be remembered that a saw is an edge tool1 and its edges are as liable to injury as any edges4 ,,planes4 ,the plane is a modified chisel4 ,the chief difference in action between a chisel and a plane in paring is this3 the back of the chisel lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut1 and acts as a guide2 whereas1 in the plane1 the cutter is elevated at an angle away from the surface of the wood1 and only its cutting edge touches the wood1 and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane mechanism4 ,in other words1 a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which raises the cutter at an angle from the work1 regulates the depth of the cut1 and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action4 ,an illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable chisel-gage1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,adjustable ,chisel-,gage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,wooden ,bench-,plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,section of ,jack ,plane4 ,the plane has developed as follows3 it was first a chisel held in a block of wood4 ,this is all that oriental planes are now1 simply a sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood4 ,when the hole works too loose1 the ,japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten it1 or he makes a new block4 ,the first improvement was the addition of a wooden wedge to hold in place the plane-iron1 as the cutter was formerly called4 ,in this form1 the cutter or plane-iron1 tho still wedge-shaped1 was reversed1 being made heavier at the cutting edge in order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means of the wooden wedge4 ,then a handle was added for convenience4 ,then came the cap1 the object of which is to break back the shaving and thus weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut4 ,until a few years ago1 this was all that there was in a plane1 and such planes are still common1 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,finally there appeared the iron plane1 ,fig4 #aja1 with it various mechanical adjustments4 ,the following are the parts of the ,bailey iron plane3#d #a4 ,cutter1 or bit1 or blade1 or plane-iron4 #b4 ,cap1 or plane-iron cap1 or curling iron4 #c4 ,cutter screw1 or plane-iron ,screw4 #d4 ,clamp1 or lever cap1 or wedge4 #e4 ,clamp screw1 or cap screw4 #f4 ,frog4 #g4 ,y ,adjustment4 #h4 ,brass set screw1 or brass adjusting nut4 #i4 ,lever 7for lateral adjustment74 #aj4 ,frog screw4 #aa4 ,handle4 #ab4 ,knob4 #ac4 ,handle bolt and nut4 #ad4 ,knob screw1 or ,knob bolt and nut4 #ae4 ,handle screw4 #af4 ,bottom1 or sole4 #ag4 ,toe4 #ah4 ,heel4 #ai4 ,throat4 #bj4 ,thumb piece1 or clamp lever1 or cam4 ,footnote #d3 ,the numbers and names in italics are those given in ,stanley's ,catalog1 ,no4 #cd4 ,some of these names1 as plane-iron1 are survivals from the days of the wooden plane and are obviously unsuitable now4 ,there are various principles involved in the action of the plane4 ,the effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter4 ,if the surface be uneven1 the cutter will not cut at all1 or but little1 in passing over low places1 since the toe and heel of the sole will then be resting on higher places2 but when the cutter reaches a high place a shaving will be taken off4 ,hence it follows that the longer the plane1 the straighter will be the surface produced4 ,the length of the plane used is determined by the length of the wood to be planed1 and the degree of straightness desired4 ,the part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly down on the wood and so prevents the shaving from splitting far in advance of the edge4 ,it follows that the narrowness of the mouth in a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth surfaces4 ,this can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane1 and by moving the frog in the jack- and smooth-planes4 ,a recent improvement in jack-1 smooth-1 and fore-planes consists of an adjustable frog1 by means of which the throat can be narrowed or widened at will by means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog without removing the clamp and cutter4 ,it is made by ,sargent and ,company4 ,the ,stanley ,bed ,rock plane has a similar but less convenient device4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,sighting ,along the ,sole of ,jack-,plane4 ,the splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented by the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or its cap4 ,hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly breaking the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut4 ,this shows why the cap is set close to the edge of the cutter4 ,another reason is that it thereby stiffens the cutter and prevents chattering4 ,if a thick shaving be desired the cap has to be set farther back4 ,in a smooth-plane #a_/cb inch is enough1 in a jack-plane #a_/h inch is often desirable4 ,the following are the planes in common use3 ,the jack-plane1 ,fig4 #ajb1 #ad to #ae long1 is the one used where a considerable amount of material is to be taken off to bring a piece of wood to size1 and therefore the outline of the cutting edge instead of being straight is slightly curved or crowned so that in planing the surface of a board it makes a series of shallow grooves1 the ridges of which must afterward be smoothed off by another plane4 ,also for beginners whose hands are not strong it is sometimes wise to grind the cutter with some crown1 in order to take off narrow shavings1 which require less strength4 ,for school use1 where the jack-plane is used for all purposes1 the cutter is usually ground almost straight and only the corners rounded as in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane4#e ,footnote #e3 ,in whetting a plane-bit1 a slight crown may be given it by rubbing a bit harder at the ends of the edge than in the middle4 ,strop in the same way as a chisel 7p4 #ei74 ,the fore-plane1 #bb to #bf long1 and the jointer1 #bh to #cj long1 are large planes1 similar to the jack-plane1 except that the cutting edge is straight4 ,they are used for straightening and smoothing long pieces4 ,the smooth-plane1 #e-a_/b to #aj long1 is a short plane1 similar to the jack-plane1 except that the cutting edge is straight4 ,it is used for smoothing4 ,these four planes1 the jack-plane1 the fore-plane1 the jointer1 and the smooth-plane1 are essentially alike1 and directions for the use of one apply to all4 ,there are two chief adjustments in the ,bailey iron plane3 the brass set-screw1 see #h in ,fig4 #aja1 which regulates the depth of the cut1 and the lever1 #i1 which moves the cutter sidewise so that it may be made to cut evenly4 ,the skilful worker keeps constant watch of these adjustments4 ,it is well to form the habit of always sighting along the sole before beginning to plane1 in order to see that the cutter projects properly1 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,it is a common mistake among beginners to let the cutter project too far4 ,it is important to know what is the best order of procedure in planing up a board4 ,there are often reasons for omitting the planing up of one or more surfaces1 but it is wise to form the habit of following a regular order1 and the following is suggested as a good one3 #a4 ,working face4 ,plane one broad side flat and smooth4 ,finish with the plane set to cut line shavings4 ,test with try-square4 ,mark this face with a distinct pencil mark1 ,a1 ,fig4 #ajc4 #b4 ,working edge4 ,plane one narrow side straight and square with the working face4 ,test with try-square1 pressing the block of the try-square against the working face4 ,mark the working edge with two distinct pencil marks1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ajc4 #c4 ,end4 ,first mark the width on the working face with the marking-gage1 ,c1 #a-b1 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,chisel off the corner1 a1 of the piece outside this gaged line4 ,true and smooth this end with the plane1 making it square with both working face and working edge1 ,d1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,fig4 #ajc4 #d4 ,length4 ,measure the length from the finished end1 ,d1 #b-c-d1 score across the working face1 ,d1 #e-f1 and working edge1 ,d1 #f-g1 using a sharp knife point and the try-square4 ,saw just outside this line1 ,d1 #e-f-g1 with the back-saw1 cut off the narrow corner1 ,d1 b1 beyond the gaged line and plane true1 ,e1 ,fig4 #ajc4 #e4 ,width4 ,plane to the center of the gaged line1 ,e1 #a-b4 ,test this edge from the working face1 ,f1 ,fig4 #ajc4 #f4 ,thickness4 ,mark the thickness with the marking-gage all around the piece1 ,f1 #h-i-aj4 ,plane to the center of the gaged line1 ,g1 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,test this face for flatness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,the ,order of ,planing a ,board4 ,in a word1 the order to be followed is graphically represented in ,h1 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,the surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are to be planed4 ,the advantages of this order are these3 by planing the working face first1 a broad surface is secured to which the others may be made true4 ,by planing the ends before the width is planed1 the danger of splitting off fragments can be avoided by chiseling the corner of the unfinished edges1 ,c1 a1 and ,d1 b1 ,fig4 #ajc1 into a buttress4 ,by planing the ends and the width before the thickness is planed1 a dressed face is secured all around for gaging the thickness4 ,in following this order all measurements and markings are made on a dressed face4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,sighting for ,wind4 ,if there be any wind or twist in the board1 this should be discovered first of all4 ,this may be done roughly by sighting across the broad side of the board1 ,fig4 #ajd1 and more accurately by the use of winding sticks1 see ,fig4 #bje1 p4 #aac4 ,or the surface may be tested with the plane itself by tilting the plane on its long corner edge1 and resting it on the board1 while the worker looks between the board and the plane toward the light4 ,it is evident that the plane must be turned in various directions to test for wind1 and that a board only as long or as wide as the plane is long can be tested in this way4 ,the try-square or any straight edge may be used for the same purpose1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,if there be any wind in the board1 this should at once be taken out of one face by planing down the high corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,testing from ,edge to ,edge4 ,in starting to plane1 the worker should bear down on the knob at the front end of the plane4 ,when the plane is well on the board1 he should bear down equally on both knob and handle1 and as the plane begins to pass off the board he should put all the pressure on the handle end1 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,by taking pains thus1 a convex surface will be avoided1 the making of which is a common error of beginners4 ,on the return stroke1 the plane should be lifted or tilted so that the cutting edge will not be dulled by rubbing on the wood4 ,this is especially important on rough and dirty boards1 as it saves the cutting edge1 and in fine work1 as it saves the work4 ,if the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth1 as it should1 it is because the planing is against the grain4 ,this can often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before beginning to plane4 ,but even if it be not noted beforehand1 a stroke or two will show the roughness4 ,in such a case1 it is necessary simply to turn the wood around4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,planing an ,edge4 ,the accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be tested1 and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy1 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,as each surface is trued1 it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set to cut fine shavings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,sighting an ,edge4 ,in planing a very cross-grained piece of wood1 there are several methods to use for securing a smooth surface4 ,the frog of the plane should be moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter is a mere slit4 ,in the ordinary plane it is necessary to remove the cutter in order to reset the frog1 but in the ,sargent plane and the ,stanley bed rock plane1 it can be set by a set-screw at the rear of the frog4 ,next1 the cap should be set so that the cutter projects but very little beyond it1 or1 in technical language1 the cutter should be set fine4 ,a sliding cut1 see p4 #ec1 should be taken with the plane1 and sometimes it may be necessary to move the plane nearly at right angles to the general direction of the grain4 ,by these means even refractory pieces of wood can be well smoothed4 ,see also scrapers1 p4 #ia4 ,the choking of a plane is the stoppage of the throat by shavings4 ,it may be due simply to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it projects too far below the sole of the plane4 ,in a wooden plane choking is sometimes due to the crowding of shavings under some part of the wedge4 ,when the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly placed choking may result4 ,the frog should be far enough forward so that the cutter rests squarely upon it4 ,choking may1 and most commonly does1 take place because the cap does not fit down tight on the cutter4 ,this happens if the cap be nicked or uneven4 ,in consequence1 minute shavings are driven between these two irons and choking soon results4 ,the remedy is to sharpen the cap1 so that its edge makes a close fit with the cutter4 ,the fit may be made still tighter by rubbing with a screwdriver the edge of the cap down on the cutter after it is screwed in place4 ,in no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in the plane4 ,to remove the cutter1 in order to sharpen it1 first loosen the clamp lever and remove the clamp4 ,carefully remove the cap and cutter taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane1 then using the clamp as a screwdriver1 loosen the cap-screw and slide the cap back along the slot in the cutter1 where it can be held fast by a turn of the cap-screw4 ,the edge is now free and can readily be whetted4 ,when the cap needs to be entirely removed1 for instance1 for grinding1 after it has been slid along the cutter slot1 as before1 it is turned at right angles to the cutter1 and then slid down the slot until the cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter4 ,the object in sliding the cap up the slot before turning it1 is to prevent the danger of injuring the edge4 ,some caps are now made with the buttonhole at the upper end of the slot4 ,after sharpening1 7see under sharpening1 p4 #aag47 the order is reversed for replacing the cutter4 ,the cap is set at right angles to the cutter1 the cap-screw dropped into the slot1 the cap is slid up the slot1 and turned into line with the cutter1 and then slid down the slot till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter4 ,then the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap screw is turned tight4 ,in replacing the cutter and cap in the plane1 care should be taken not to injure the edge and to see that the ,y adjustment lever fits into the little slot in the cap2 then finally the lever is thrown down tight4 ,then1 by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down it1 the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment lever are made4 ,when the plane is not being used1 it should rest either on a pillow 7a little strip of wood in the bench trough71 or on its side4 ,in no case should it be dropped sole down flat on the bench4 ,the block-plane1 ,fig4 #ajh1 gets its name from the fact that it was first made for planing off the ends of clap-boards1 a process called blocking in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,section of ,block-,plane4 ,the names of the parts of the ,bailey block-plane are#f3 #a4 ,cutter or bit or plane-iron4 #b4 ,clamp or lever cup4 #c4 ,cap-screw4 #d4 ,adjusting lever4 #e4 ,adjusting nut4 #f4 ,lateral adjustment4 #g4 ,bottom4 #h4 ,mouth piece4 #i4 ,eccentric plate4 #aj4 ,knob4 ,footnote #f3 ,see footnote p4 #gj ,the block-plane was devised for use with one hand1 as when it is used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in planing with a bench-hook4 ,hence it is made small1 #c-a_/b to #h long1 the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle1 and the cutter is lowered to an angle of about #bj to make the plane easy to grasp4 ,the lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the upper side4 ,otherwise1 to give clearance1 the bevel would have to be made so long and so thin as to be weak4 ,by putting the bevel up1 the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically as in the smooth-plane4 ,since the block-plane is intended chiefly for use on end grain1 no cap is needed to break the shavings4 ,the adjustable throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving4 ,to facilitate the cutting action1 several forms of block-planes with a very low angle are now made4 ,where both hands are free to hold the plane1 the block-plane has no advantage over a smooth-plane1 even on end grain4 ,moreover1 the cutter cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane1 so that it requires constant adjustment4 ,hence it is not an easy tool for amateurs to handle4 ,there is considerable lost motion in the adjusting nut1 and the set-screw1 which acts as a knob1 is likely to work loose and be lost4 ,it is hardly to be recommended as a part of the equipment of the individual bench in school shops4 ,the piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either in the vise1 end up1 or on a bench-hook1 ,fig4 #aji4 ,in end planing in the vise1 in order to avoid splintering the precaution should be taken to trim off a corner on the undressed edge1 as directed on page #gc1 or else the planing must be done from both edges toward the center4 ,the sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut1 and hence there is a constant temptation to turn the plane at an angle perhaps at an expense of the flat surface desired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,using the ,block-,plane and ,bench-,hook4 ,in using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed with the working edge against the block1 with the end to be planed to the right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook1 in which position it is held with the left hand4 ,the block-plane1 held in the right hand1 is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work4 ,in planing1 the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the bench-hook1 pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane4 ,the right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses it to the left against the bench-hook and work4 ,held in this position the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed4 ,considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well4 ,the scrub-plane is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter1 ,fig4 #aaj1 is quite curved4 ,it is used to reduce surfaces rapidly4 ,the scratch-plane1 ,fig4 #aaa1 has a toothed cutter which scratches fine lines along its course4 ,it is used to roughen surfaces of hard wood which are to be glued together1 for otherwise the glue would not adhere well4 ,some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces can be reduced only by a scratch-plane4 ,it is also useful in preparing the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed without chipping4 ,by first scratching it carefully in all directions1 it can then be scraped smooth4 ,it is also called a scraper-plane1 because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle4 ,this plane-stock prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the surface4 ,see also veneer-scraper1 p4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,cutter of ,scrub-,plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,scratch-,plane and ,scraper-,plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,rabbet-,plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,molding-,plane4 ,the rabbeting- or rebating-plane1 ,fig4 #aab1 is designed for use in cutting out a rectangular recess1 such as the rabbet on the back of the picture-frames4 ,in line with the right hand corner of the cutter is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which follows may be cut out clean and not torn out4 ,with the addition of a guiding fence it is called a filletster4 ,this may be used on either the right or left side4 ,in the form shown in ,fig4 #aab1 there is also a depth gage4 ,in using this plane see that the corner of the cutter is in line with the sole1 and that both it and the spur are sharp4 ,set the fence and the stop at the desired width and depth of the rabbet4 ,at the first stroke the spur will score the width4 ,this and every stroke should be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were the only one4 ,in the effort to keep the fence pressed close to the side of the wood1 the tendency is to tilt the plane over4 ,this causes the very opposite effect from that desired1 for the spur runs off diagonally1 as in ,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,result of ,careless use of ,rabbet-,plane4 ,if this happens stop planing at once1 clean out the recess properly with a chisel and then proceed4 ,the dado-plane is much like the rabbeting-plane1 except that it is provided with two spurs1 one at each side of the cutting edge1 to score the wood before cutting4 ,the molding-plane1 ,fig4 #aac1 as it name indicates1 is for making moldings of various forms2 as1 quarter-round1 half-round1 ogee1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,tonguing-and-,grooving ,plane4 ,the tonguing-and-grooving-plane1 ,fig4 #aae1 is for matching boards1 i4e4 making a tongue in one to fit into a groove in another4 ,see ,fig4 #bfi1 ,no4 #gb1 p4 #ahb4 ,the circular-plane1 ,fig4 #aaf1 has a flexible steel face which can be adjusted to any required arc1 convex or concave1 so that curved surfaces may be planed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,circular-,plane4 ,the universal plane1 ,fig4 #aag1 is a combination of various molding-1 rabbeting-1 matching- and other planes4 ,it is capable of many adjustments and applications4 ,the principal parts of this plane are3 a main stock1 ,a1 with two sets of transverse sliding arms1 a depth-gage1 ,f1 adjusted by a screw1 and a slitting cutter with stop1 a sliding section1 ,b1 with a vertically adjustable bottom1 the auxiliary center bottom1 ,c1 to be placed when needed in front of the cutter as an extra support or stop4 ,this bottom is adjustable both vertically and laterally4 ,fences1 ,d and ,e4 ,for fine work1 fence ,d has a lateral adjustment by means of a thumb-screw4 ,the fences can be used on either side of the plane1 and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any desired angle up to #de1 by loosening the screws on the face4 ,fence ,e can be reversed for center-beading wide boards4 ,for work thinner than the depth of the fence1 the work may overhang the edge of the bench and fence ,e be removed4 ,an adjustable stop1 to be used in beading the edges of matched boards1 is inserted on the left side of the sliding section ,b4 ,a great variety of cutters are supplied1 such as3 molding1 matching1 sash1 beading1 reeding1 fluting1 hollow1 round1 plow1 rabbet1 and filletster4 ,special shapes can be obtained by order4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,universal ,plane4 ,the ,use of the ,universal ,plane4 ,insert the proper cutter1 adjusting it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock1 ,a1 will project below the sole the proper distance for cutting4 ,adjust the bottom of the sliding section1 ,b1 so that the lowest portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cutting4 ,tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and then tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms4 ,the sliding section is not always necessary1 as in a narrow rabbet or bead4 ,when an additional support is needed for the cutter1 the auxiliary center bottom1 ,c1 may be adjusted in front of it4 ,this may also be used as a stop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,iron ,spokeshave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,pattern-maker's ,spokeshave4 ,adjust one or both of the fences1 ,d and ,e1 and fasten with the thumb-screws4 ,adjust the depth-gage1 ,f1 at the proper depth4 ,for a dado remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the edges of the cutter4 ,insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand of the sliding section4 ,for slitting1 insert the cutter and stop on the right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide4 ,for a chamfer1 insert the desired cutter1 and tilt the rosewood guides on the fences to the required angle4 ,for chamfer beading use in the same manner1 and gradually feed the cutter down by means of the adjusting thumb-nut4 ,there are also a number of planelike tools such as the following3 ,the spoke-shave1 ,fig4 #aah1 works on the same principle as a plane1 except that the guiding surface is very short4 ,this adapts it to work with curved outlines4 ,it is a sort of regulated draw-shave4 ,it is sometimes made of iron with an adjustable mouth1 which is a convenient form for beginners to use1 and is easy to sharpen4 ,the pattern-makers spokeshave1 ,fig4 #aai1 which has a wooden frame1 is better suited to more careful work4 ,the method of using the spokeshave is shown in ,fig4 #abj4 7,see p4 #ajj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,using a ,spokeshave4 ,the router-plane1 ,figs4 #aba and #abb1 is used to lower a certain part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part1 and it is particularly useful in cutting panels1 dadoes1 and grooves4 ,the cutter has to be adjusted for each successive cut4 ,where there are a number of dadoes to be cut of the same depth1 it is wise not to finish them one at a time1 but to carry on the cutting of all together1 lowering the cutter after each round4 ,in this way all the dadoes will be finished at exactly the same depth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,router-,plane4 ,the dowel-pointer1 ,fig4 #abc1 is a convenient tool for removing the sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins4 ,it is held in a brace4 ,the cutter is adjustable and is removable for sharpening4 ,the cornering tool1 ,fig4 #abd1 is a simple device for rounding sharp corners4 ,a cutter at each end cuts both ways so that it can be used with the grain without changing the position of the work4 ,the depth of the cut is fixed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,using a ,router-,plane4 #b4 ,,boring ,,tools4 ,some boring tools1 like awls1 force the material apart1 and some1 like augers1 remove material4 ,the brad-awl1 ,fig4 #abe1 is wedge-shaped1 and hence care needs to be taken in using it to keep the edge across the grain so as to avoid splitting the wood1 especially thin wood4 ,the size is indicated by the length of the blade when new1--a stupid method4 ,the awl is useful for making small holes in soft wood1 and it can readily be sharpened by grinding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,dowel-,pointer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,cornering ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,brad-,awl4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,twist-,drill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,twist-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,german ,gimlet-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,bit-,point ,drill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,auger-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,plug-,cutter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,center-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,foerstner ,auger-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,expansive-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,reamer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,rose ,countersink4 ,gimlets and drills are alike in that they cut away material1 but unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side1 while the cutting edge of the drill is on the end4 ,twist-drills1 ,fig4 #abf1 are very hard and may be used in drilling metal4 ,they are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting nails1 as in repair work4 ,their sizes are indicated by a special drill gage1 ,fig4 #bbj1 p4 #aag4 ,twist-bits1 ,fig4 #abg1 are like twist-drills except that they are not hard enough to use for metal4 ,their sizes are indicated on the tang in #cbnds of an inch4 ,both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood4 ,twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone1 care being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance4 ,german gimlet-bits1 ,fig4 #abh1 have the advantage of centering well4 ,the size is indicated on the tang in #cbnds of an inch4 ,they are useful in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes4 ,they cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced4 ,bit-point drills1 ,fig4 #abi1 are useful for accurate work1 but are expensive4 ,auger-bits1 ,fig4 #acj1 have several important features4 ,the spur centers the bit in its motion1 and since it is in the form of a pointed screw draws the auger into the wood4 ,two sharp nibs on either side score the circle1 out of which the lips cut the shavings1 which are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool4 ,the size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in #afths of an inch4 ,thus #i means a diameter of #i_/af4 ,there are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits4 7#a7 ,one is to bore perpendicularly to the surface4 ,a good way to do this is to lay the work flat1 either on the bench or in the vise1 and sight first from the front and then from the side of the work1 to see that the bit is perpendicular both ways4 ,the test may also be made with the try-square1 ,fig4 #acg1 or with a plumb-line1 either by the worker1 or in difficult pieces1 by a fellow worker4 ,the sense of perpendicularity1 however1 should constantly be cultivated4 7#b7 ,another precaution is that1 in thru boring1 the holes should not be bored quite thru from one side1 lest the wood be splintered off on the back4 ,when the spur pricks thru1 the bit should be removed1 the piece turned over1 and the boring finished1 putting the spur in the hole which is pricked thru in boring from the first side4 ,it is seldom necessary to press against the knob of the brace in boring1 as the thread on the spur will pull the bit thru1 especially in soft wood4 ,indeed1 as the bit reaches nearly thru the board1 if the knob is gently pulled back1 then when the spur pricks thru the bit will be pulled out of its hole4 ,this avoids the necessity of constantly watching the back of the board to see if the spur is thru4 7#c7 ,in stop boring1 as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise1 care should be taken not to bore thru the piece4 ,for this purpose an auger-bit-gage1 ,fig4 #bai1 p4 #aaf1 may be used1 or a block of wood of the proper length thru which a hole has been bored1 may be slipped over the bit1 or the length of bit may be noted before boring1 and then the length of the projecting portion deducted1 or the number of turns needed to reach the required depth may be counted on a trial piece4 ,tying a string around a bit1 or making a chalk mark on it is folly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,using a ,try-,square as a ,guide in ,boring4 ,auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file1 ,fig4 #adb1 p4 #ij1 a small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide safe edges at the other4 ,the nibs should be filed on the inside so that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body of the bit4 ,the cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward the spur1 care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to give clearance4 ,if sharpened from the upper side1 that is1 the side toward the shank1 the nibs will tend to become shorter4 ,the plug-cutter1 ,fig4 #aca1 is useful for cutting plugs with which to cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk4 ,center-bits1 ,fig4 #acb1 work on the same principle as auger-bits1 except that the spurs have no screw1 and hence have to be pushed forcibly into the wood4 ,sizes are given in #afths of an inch4 ,they are useful for soft wood1 and in boring large holes in thin material which is likely to split4 ,they are sharpened in the same way as auger-bits4 ,foerstner bits1 ,fig4 #acc1 are peculiar in having no spur1 but are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference4 ,the size is indicated on the tang1 in #afths of an inch4 ,they are useful in boring into end grain1 and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru4 ,they can be sharpened only with special appliances4 ,expansive-bits1 ,fig4 #acd1 are so made as to bore holes of different sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter4 ,there are two sizes1 the small one with two cutters1 boring from #a_/b to #a-a_/b and the large one with three cutters boring from #g_/h to #d4 ,they are very useful on particular occasions1 but have to be used with care4 ,reamers1 ,fig4 #ace1 are used for enlarging holes already made4 ,they are made square1 half-round and six cornered in shape4 ,countersinks1 ,fig4 #acf1 are reamers in the shape of a flat cone1 and are used to make holes for the heads of screws4 ,the rose countersink is the most satisfactory form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,washer-,cutter4 ,the washer-cutter1 ,fig4 #ach1 is useful not only for cutting out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood4 ,the size is adjustable4 #c4 ,,chopping ,,tools4 ,the primitive celt1 which was hardly more than a wedge1 has been differentiated into three modern hand tools1 the chisel1 see above1 p4 #ec1 the ax1 ,fig4 #aci1 and the adze1 ,fig4 #ada4 ,the ax has also been differentiated into the hatchet1 with a short handle1 for use with one hand1 while the ax-handle is long1 for use with two hands4 ,its shape is an adaption to its manner of use4 ,it is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade4 ,the curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left hand at the moment of striking the blow1 and the knob keeps it from slipping thru the hand4 ,in both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled edge4 ,this is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at any angle4 ,there are two principal forms1 the common ax and the two bitted ax1 the latter used chiefly in lumbering4 ,there is also a wedge-shaped ax for splitting wood4 ,as among all tools1 there is among axes a great variety for special uses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,ax4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,shingling ,hatchet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,carpenter's ,adze4 ,the hatchet has1 beside the cutting edge1 a head for driving nails1 and a notch for drawing them1 thus combining three tools in one4 ,the shingling hatchet1 ,fig4 #adj1 is a type of this4 ,the adze1 the carpenter's house adze1 ,fig4 #ada1 is flat on the lower side1 since its use is for straightening surfaces4 ,,wood ,,hand ,,tools4 ,,references399 7#a7 ,cutting4 ,goss1 p4 #bb4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,h41 pp4 #a-h4 ,chisel4 ,barnard1 pp4 #ei-gc4 ,selden1 pp4 #dd-ej1 #ade-adg4 ,barter1 pp4 #ic-if4 ,griffith1 pp4 #ec-fd4 ,goss1 pp4 #bj-bf4 ,sickels1 pp4 #fd-fg4 ,wheeler1 #ceg1 #dba1 #ddb4 ,knife4 ,barnard1 pp4 #dh-eh4 ,selden1 pp4 #bf-bh1 #aeh4 ,saw4 ,griffith1 pp4 #bj-bg4 ,barnard1 pp4 #aad-abd4 ,selden1 pp4 #da-dc1 #agi-ahb4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dff-dgc4 ,hammacher1 pp4 #cji-cff4 ,goss1 pp4 #bf-da4 ,sickels1 pp4 #gf-gi1 #hd4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,h41 #dc-ee4 ,diston1 pp4 #abi-ach4 ,plane4 ,barnard1 pp4 #gd-hj4 ,selden1 pp4 #aa-bf1 #afe-age4 ,sickels pp4 #gb-ge1 #aaf4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dde-deh4 ,hammacher1 pp4 #cgg-djj4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,h41 #af-ca4 ,larsson1 p4 #ai4 ,goss1 pp4 #da-eb4 ,barter1 pp4 #if-aji4 ,griffith1 pp4 #bh-de4 7#b7 ,boring ,tools4 ,barnard1 pp4 #abe-ace4 ,goss1 pp4 #ec-ei4 ,griffith1 pp4 #dg-eb4 ,seldon1 pp4 #ch-dj1 #ada-add4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #cec-cef4 7#c7 ,chopping ,tools4 ,barnard1 pp4 #hj-hh4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iv1 ,,continued4 ,,wood ,,hand ,,tools4 #d4 ,,scraping ,,tools4 ,scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or smooth surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,auger-,bit-,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,single-,cut ,blunt1 ,flat1 ,bastard ,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,three-,square ,single-,cut ,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,open ,cut1 ,taper1 ,half-,round ,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,double-,cut ,file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,cabinet ,wood-,rasp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,file-,card4 ,files4 ,figs4 #adb-adf1 are formed with a series of cutting edges or teeth4 ,these teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and then the tool is hardened4 ,there are in use at least three thousand varieties of files1 each of which is adapted to its particular purpose4 ,lengths are measured from point to heel exclusive of the tang4 ,they are classified3 7#a7 according to their outlines into blunt1 7i4 e41 having a uniform cross section thruout71 and taper2 7#b7 according to the shape of their cross-section1 into flat1 square1 three-square or triangular1 knife1 round or rat-tail1 half-round1 etc42 7#c7 according to the manner of their serrations1 into single cut or float 7having single1 unbroken1 parallel1 chisel cuts across the surface71 double-cut1 7having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each other obliquely17 open cut1 7having series of parallel cuts1 slightly staggered17 and safe edge1 7or side17 having one or more uncut surfaces2 and 7#d7 according to the fineness of the cut1 as rough1 bastard1 second cut1 smooth1 and dead smooth4 ,the mill file1 a very common form1 is a flat1 tapered1 single-cut file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 a4 ,diagram of a ,rasp ,tooth4 b4 ,cross-,section of a ,single-,cut ,file4 ,rasps1 ,fig4 #adg1 differ from files in that instead of having cutting teeth made by lines1 coarse projections are made by making indentations with a triangular point when the iron is soft4 ,the difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in ,fig4 #adi4 ,it is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort1 when no cutting tool will serve4 ,great care must be taken to file flat1 not letting the tool rock4 ,it is better to file only on the forward stroke1 for that is the way the teeth are made to cut1 and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained4 ,both files and rasps can be cleaned with a file-card1 ,fig4 #adh4 ,they are sometimes sharpened with a sandblast1 but ordinarily when dull are discarded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,molding-,scrapers4 ,scrapers are thin1 flat pieces of steel4 ,they may be rectangular1 or some of the edges may be curved4 ,for scraping hollow surfaces curved scrapers of various shapes are necessary4 ,convenient shapes are shown in ,fig4 #aej4 ,the cutting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges4 ,when properly sharpened they take off not dust but fine shavings4 ,scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood1 and in cleaning off glue1 old varnish1 etc4 ,there are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles1 such as the scraper-plane1 ,fig4 #aaa1 p4 #gi1 the veneer-scraper1 and box-scrapers4 ,the veneer-scraper1 ,fig4 #aea1 has the advantage that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in the middle of the back1 just as an ordinary scraper is when held in the hands4 ,in use1 ,fig4 #aeb1 the scraper may be either pushed or pulled4 ,when pushed1 the scraper is held firmly in both hands1 the fingers on the forward and the thumbs on the back side4 ,it is tilted forward1 away from the operator1 far enough so that it will not chatter and is bowed back slightly1 by pressure of the thumbs1 so that there is no risk of the corners digging in4 ,when pulled the position is reversed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,using a ,veneer-,scraper4 ,one method of sharpening the scraper is as follows3 the scraper is first brought to the desired shape1 straight or curved4 ,this may be done either by grinding on the grindstone or by filing with a smooth1 flat file1 the scraper1 while held in a vise4 ,the edge is then carefully draw-filed1 i4 e41 the file1 a smooth one1 is held 7one hand at each end7 directly at right angles to the edge of the scraper1 ,fig4 #aec1 and moved sidewise from end to end of the scraper1 until the edge is quite square with the sides4 ,then the scraper is laid flat on the oilstone and rubbed1 first on one side and then on the other till the sides are bright and smooth along the edge1 ,fig4 #aed4 ,then it is set on edge on the stone and rubbed till there are two sharp square corners all along the edge1 ,fig4 #aee4 ,then it is put in the vise again and by means of a burnisher1 or scraper steel1 both of these corners are carefully turned or bent over so as to form a fine burr4 ,this is done by tipping the scraper steel at a slight angle with the edge and rubbing it firmly along the sharp corner1 ,fig4 #aef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,using a ,cabinet-,scraper4 ,to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every time1 but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with slightly more bevel4 ,instead of using the oilstone an easier1 tho less perfect1 way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper flat on the bench near the edge4 ,the scraper steel is then passed rapidly to and fro on the flat side of the scraper1 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,after that the edge should be turned as before4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,sharpening a ,cabinet-,scraper3 #ast ,step1 ,drawfiling4 ,sandpaper4 ,the sand is crushed quartz and is very hard and sharp4 ,other materials on paper or cloth are also used1 as carborundum1 emery1 and so on4 ,sandpaper comes in various grades of coarseness from ,no4 #jj 7the finest7 to ,no4 #c1 indicated on the back of each sheet4 ,for ordinary purposes ,no4 #jj and ,no4 #a are sufficient4 ,sandpaper sheets may readily be torn by placing the sanded side down1 one-half of the sheet projecting over the square edge of the bench4 ,with a quick downward motion the projecting portion easily parts4 ,or it may be torn straight by laying the sandpaper on a bench1 sand side down1 holding the teeth of a back-saw along the line to be torn4 ,in this case1 the smooth surface of the sandpaper would be against the saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,sharpening a ,cabinet-,scraper3 #bnd ,step1 ,whetting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,sharpening a ,cabinet-,scraper3 #crd ,step1 ,removing the ,wire-,edge4 ,sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into shape1 but only to obtain an extra smoothness4 ,nor ordinarily should it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools is done1 for the fine particles of sand remaining in the wood dull the edge of the tool4 ,sometimes in a piece of cross-grained wood rough places will be discovered by sandpapering4 ,the surface should then be wiped free of sand and scraped before using a cutting tool again4 ,in order to avoid cross scratches1 work should be sanded with the grain1 even if this takes much trouble4 ,for flat surfaces1 and to touch off edges1 it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular block of wood1 of which the corners are slightly rounded1 or it may be fitted over special shapes of wood for specially shaped surfaces4 ,the objection to using the thumb or fingers instead of a block1 is that the soft portions of the wood are cut down faster than the hard portions1 whereas the use of a block tends to keep the surface even4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,sharpening a ,cabinet-,scraper3 #dth ,step1 ,turning the ,edge4 ,steel wool is made by turning off fine shavings from the edges of a number of thin discs of steel1 held together in a lathe4 ,there are various grades of coarseness1 from ,no4 #jj to ,no4 #c4 ,its uses are manifold3 as a substitute for sandpaper1 especially on curved surfaces1 to clean up paint1 and to rub down shellac to an egg-shell finish4 ,like sandpaper it should not be used till all the work with cutting tools is done4 ,it can be manipulated until utterly worn out4 #e4 ,,pounding ,,tools4 ,the hammer consists of two distinct parts1 the head and the handle4 ,the head is made of steel1 so hard that it will not be indented by hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets1 punches1 etc41 which are comparatively soft4 ,it can easily be injured tho1 by being driven against steel harder than itself4 ,the handle is of hickory and of an oval shape to prevent its twisting in the hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,resharpening a ,cabinet-,scraper3 ,flattening the ,edge4 ,hammers may be classified as follows3 7#a7 hammers for striking blows only2 as1 the blacksmith's hammer and the stone-mason's hammer1 and 7#b7 compound hammers1 which consist of two tools combined1 the face for striking1 and the peen which may be a claw1 pick1 wedge1 shovel1 chisel1 awl or round head for other uses4 ,there are altogether about fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer1 weighing twenty pounds or more4 ,they are named mostly according to their uses2 as1 the riveting-hammer1 ,fig4 #aei1 the upholsterer's hammer1 ,fig4 #afj1 the veneering-hammer1 ,fig4 #afb1 etc4 ,magnetized hammers1 ,fig4 #afa1 are used in many trades for driving brads and tacks1 where it is hard to hold them in place with the fingers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,claw-,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,riveting-,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,upholster's ,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,magnetized ,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,veneering-,hammer4 ,in the bell-faced hammer1 the face is slightly convex1 in order that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the surface4 ,it is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with a plain-faced hammer4 ,for ordinary woodwork the plain-faced1 that is1 flat-faced claw-hammer1 ,fig4 #aeh1 is best4 ,it is commonly used in carpenter work4 ,it is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the nail4 ,hammers should be used to hit iron only2 for hitting wood1 mallets are used4 ,in striking with the hammer1 the wrist1 the elbow and the shoulder are one or all brought into play1 according to the hardness of the blow4 ,the essential precautions are that the handle be grasped at the end1 that the blow be square and quick1 and that the wood be not injured4 ,at the last blow the hammer should not follow the nail1 but should be brought back with a quick rebound4 ,to send the nail below the surface1 a nailset is used4 7,see below47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,drawing a ,nail with ,claw-,hammer4 ,the claw is used for extracting nails4 ,to protect the wood in withdrawing a nail a block may be put under the hammer-head4 ,when a nail is partly drawn1 the leverage can be greatly increased by continuing to block up in this way1 ,fig4 #afc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,mallets4 ,the mallet1 ,fig4 #afd1 differs from the hammer in having a wooden instead of a steel head4 ,a maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet4 ,the effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of a hammer1 in that the force is exerted more gradually2 whereas the effect of the hammer blow is direct1 immediate1 and local1 and is taken up at once4 ,but a mallet continues to act after the first impulse1 pushing1 as it were4 ,this is because of the elasticity of the head4 ,a chisel1 therefore1 should always be driven with a mallet1 for the chisel handle would soon go to pieces under the blows of a hammer1 because of their suddenness2 whereas the mallet blow which is slower will not only drive the blade deeper with the same force1 but will not injure the handle so rapidly4 ,mallet-heads are made square1 cylindrical1 and barrel-shaped4 ,carver's mallets are often turned from one piece1 hammer and head on one axis4 ,nailsets1 ,fig4 #afe1 are made with hardened points1 but softer butts1 so that the hammer will not be injured4 ,they were formerly made square when nail heads were square1 but now round ones are common4 ,to obviate slipping1 some have cup points1 that is1 with a concave tip1 and some spur points4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,using a ,nailset4 ,to keep the nailset in its place on the nail-head it may be held closely against the third finger of the left hand1 which rests on the wood close to the nail4 ,when a nailset is lacking1 the head of a brad1 held nearly flat1 may be used4 ,but care is necessary to avoid bruising the wood4 #f4 ,,holding ,,tools4 ,a4 ,tools for ,holding ,work4 ,the advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by the facilities for holding materials or other tools4 ,the primitive man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet4 ,the ,japanese1 who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners1 still largely use their fingers and toes4 ,on the other hand1 ,anglo-,saxons have developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,bench made with ,pinned ,mortise-and-,tenon ,joints1 ,low ,back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,woodworking ,bench used at ,pratt ,institute1 ,showing ,self-,adjusting ,upright ,vise4 ,benches4 ,the essential features of a work-bench are a firm1 steady table with a vise and places for tools4 ,the joints are either pinned or wedged mortise-and-tenon1 or draw-bolt joints4 ,the best benches are made of maple1 the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved together4 ,it is common also to have a trough at the back of the top of the bench1 i4 e41 a space #f or #h wide1 set lower than the upper surface1 in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off4 ,a low pillow1 fastened at the left hand end of the trough1 on which to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured1 is an advantage4 ,the tool-rack is of capital importance4 ,it has been common in school benches to affix it to a board1 which rises considerably above the top of the bench1 ,fig4 #afi1 but a better plan is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top1 ,fig4 #aff4 ,then the light on the bench is not obscured1 and when a flat top is needed for large work it can readily be had by removing the tools4 ,elaborate benches with lock drawers are also much used in the shops of large city schools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,a ,rapid-,acting ,vise4 ,vises for holding wood are of three general styles1 7#a7 those with an upright wooden jaw1 ,fig4 #afg1 which holds wide pieces of work well4 ,they are now made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw and the face of the bench are kept parallel2 7#b7 wooden vises with a horizontal jaw1 guided by parallel runners1 ,fig4 #aff1 and1 7#c7 metal rapid-acting vises1 ,fig4 #afh4 ,the latter are the most durable and in most respects more convenient4 ,special vises are also made for wood-carvers1 for saw-filing1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,holding a ,large ,board in ,vise for ,planing4 ,the best woodworking benches are equipped with both side- and tail-vises4 ,the tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for holding pieces of different lengths4 ,in planing the side of a board it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops4 ,a board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise when it is to be planed1 lest it be bent out of shape4 ,in planing the edge of a board it is ordinarily held in the side-vise4 ,a long board1 one end of which is in the vise1 may also need to be supported at the other end4 ,this may be done by clamping to it a handscrew1 the jaw of which rests on the top of the bench1 ,fig4 #afi4 ,when the vise is likely to be twisted out of square by the insertion of a piece of wood at one end of it1 it is well to insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise to keep it square1 as in ,fig4 #abj1 p4 #hb4 ,in this case1 7,fig4 #abj17 the extra piece also supports the piece being worked upon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,saw-,horse4 ,the vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes1 but a good workman does not use it to the exclusion of the saw-horse and bench-hook4 ,horses are of great use both for the rough sawing of material and in supporting large pieces during the process of construction4 ,the common form is shown in ,fig4 #agj1 but a more convenient form for sawing has an open top1 as in ,fig4 #aga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,saw-,horse4 ,the picture-frame-vise1 ,fig4 #agb1 is a very convenient tool for making mitered joints1 as in picture-frames4 ,the vise holds two sides firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together or a spline inserted in a saw cut previously made4 ,see ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #ee1 p4 #aha4 ,if the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite match1 a kerf may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces1 which can then be drawn close together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,picture-,frame-,vise4 ,handscrews1 ,fig4 #agc1 consist of four parts1 the shoulder jaw and the screw jaw1 made of maple1 and the end spindle and the middle spindle1 made of hickory4 ,the parts when broken can be bought separately4 ,handscrews vary in size from those with jaws four inches long to those with jaws twenty-two inches long4 ,the best kind are oiled so that glue will not adhere to them4 ,in adjusting the jaws1 if the handle of the middle spindle is held in one hand1 and the handle of the end spindle in the other hand1 and both are revolved together1 the jaws may be closed or opened evenly1 ,fig4 #agd4 ,in use care must be taken to keep the jaws parallel1 in order to obtain the greatest pressure and to prevent the spindles from being broken4 ,it is always important to have the jaws press on the work evenly4 ,to secure this1 the middle spindle should be tightened first1 and then the end spindle4 ,handscrews are convenient for a great variety of uses1 as clamping up glued pieces1 holding pieces together temporarily for boring1 ,fig4 #bdg1 p4 #aec1 holding work at any desired angle in the vise1 as for chamfering or beveling1 ,fig4 #age1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,handscrew4 ,clamps are made of both wood and iron1 the most satisfactory for speed1 strength1 and durability are steel-bar carpenter clamps1 ,fig4 #agf4 ,they vary in length from #a-a_/b ft4 to #h ft4 ,the separate parts are the steel bar ,a1 the cast-iron frame ,b1 the tip ,c into which fits the screw ,d1 on the other end of which is the crank ,e1 and the slide ,f with its dog ,g1 which engages in the notches on the bar4 ,any part1 if broken1 can be replaced separately4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,adjusting ,handscrew4 ,iron ,handscrews1 also called ,c clamps and carriage-makers' clamps4 ,fig4 #agg1 are useful in certain kinds of work1 as in gluing in special places and in wood-carving4 ,all iron clamps need blocks of soft wood to be placed between them and the finished work4 ,pinch-dogs1 ,fig4 #agh1 are a convenient device for drawing together two pieces of wood1 when injury to the surfaces in which they are driven does not matter4 ,they vary in size from #c_/d to #b-c_/d4 ,for ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient4 ,for especially fine work1 double-pointed tacks1 properly filed1 are convenient4 ,the bench-hook1 ,fig4 #agi1 is a simple device for holding firmly small pieces of work when they are being sawn1 chisled1 etc4 ,it also saves the bench from being marred4 ,the angles should be kept exactly square4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,using a ,handscrew to hold a ,board at an ,angle4 ,the miter-box1 ,fig4 #ahj1 is a similar device with the addition of a guide for the saw4 ,the iron miter-box1 ,fig4 #aha1 with the saw adjustable to various angles1 insures accurate work4 ,such tools as pliers1 ,fig4 #ahb1 pincers1 ,fig4 #ahc1 and nippers1 ,fig4 #ahd1 made for gripping iron1 are often useful in the woodworking shop4 ,so are various sorts of wrenches2 as fixed1 socketed1 adjustable1 monkey- and pipe-wrenches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,steel-,bar ,carpenter's ,clamp4 a4 ,steel ,bar4 b4 ,frame4 c4 ,tip4 d4 ,screw4 e4 ,crank4 f4 ,slide4 g4 ,dog4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,iron ,handscrew1 7,carriage-,maker's ,clamp74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,pinch-,dog4 ,b4 ,tools for holding other tools4 ,the brace or bit-stock1 ,fig4 #ahe1 holds all sorts of boring tools as well as screwdrivers1 dowel-pointers1 etc4 ,the simple brace or bit-stock consists of a chuck1 a handle1 and a knob1 and is sufficient for ordinary use2 but the ratchet-brace enables the user to bore near to surfaces or corners where a complete sweep cannot be made4 ,it is also useful where sufficient power can be applied only at one part of the sweep4 ,by means of pawls which engage in the ratchet-wheel1 the bit can be turned in either direction at the will of the user4 ,the size of the brace is indicated by the sweep1 that is1 the diameter of the circle thru which the swinging handle turns4 ,to insert a bit or other tool1 ,fig4 #ahf1 grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve of the chuck pointing it upward1 and revolve the handle with the other hand1 unscrewing the sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit4 ,then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place4 ,various hand-1 breast-1 bench-1 bow-drills and automatic drills are of use in doing quick work and for boring small holes1 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,bench-,hook4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,miter-,box4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,iron ,miter-,box4 ,the screwdriver1 ,fig4 #ahh1 is a sort of holding tool for turning1 and so driving screws4 ,various devices have been tried to prevent the twisting in the handle4 ,this is now practically assured in various makes4 ,the other important matter in a screwdriver is that the point be of the right temper1 so as neither to bend nor to break4 ,if the corners break they can be reground1 but care should be taken not to make the angle too obtuse or the driver will slip out of the slot in the screw-head4 ,the bevel should have a long taper4 ,a shop should be equipped with different sizes of screwdrivers to fit the different sizes of screws4 ,screwdrivers vary in size1 the shank ranging in length from #b-a_/b to #ah4 ,a long screwdriver is more powerful than a short one1 for the screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw1 but the handle revolves in a circle4 ,this means an increased leverage1 so that the longer the screwdriver1 the greater the leverage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,pliers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,pincers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,nippers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,ratchet-,brace4 ,for heavy work1 screwdriver-bits1 ,fig4 #ahi1 in a bit-stock are useful1 and for quick work1 the spiral screwdriver1 ,fig4 #aij1 and for small work1 the ratchet-screwdriver4 #g4 ,,measuring ,,and ,,marking ,,tools4 ,it is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width of the thumb1 and one foot meant the length of the foot1 to the measuring of distances and of angles which vary almost infinitesimally4 ,no such accuracy is necessary in measuring wood as in measuring metal1 but still there is a considerable variety of tools for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,inserting a ,bit in ,stock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,hand-,drill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,screwdriver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,screwdriver-,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,spiral ,screwdriver4 ,for measuring distances1 the rule1 ,fig4 #aia1 is the one in most common use4 ,it is usually made of boxwood4 ,for convenience it is hinged so as to fold4 ,a rule is called two-fold when it is made of two pieces1 four-fold when made of four pieces1 etc4 ,when measuring or marking from it1 it can be used more accurately by turning it on edge1 so that the lines of the graduations may come directly against the work4 ,the one in most common use in school shops1 is a two-foot1 two-fold rule4 ,some instructors prefer to have pupils use a four-fold rule1 because that is the form commonly used in the woodworking trades4 ,steel bench-rules1 ,fig4 #aib1 are satisfactory in school work because unbreakable and because they do not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules4 ,they need to be burnished occasionally4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,two-,foot ,rule4 ,two ,fold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,steel ,bench-,rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,back of ,steel ,square1 ,brace ,measure4 ,the steel square1 ,figs4 #aic1 #aid1 #aif1 #aig1 is useful1 not only as a straight-edge and try-square1 but also for a number of graduations and tables which are stamped on it4 ,there are various forms1 but the one in most common use consists of a blade or body #bdb and a tongue1 #afa-a_/b1 at right angles to each other4 ,sargent's trade number for this form is #ajj4 ,it includes graduations in hundredths1 thirty-seconds1 sixteenths1 twelfths1 tenths1 and eighths of an inch1 also a brace-measure1 an eight-square measure1 and the ,essex board-measure4 ,another style1 instead of an ,essex board-measure1 and the hundredths graduation has a rafter-table4 ,the side upon which the name of the maker is stamped1 is called the face1 and the reverse side the back4 ,the brace-measure is to be found along the center of the back of the tongue1 ,fig4 #aic4 ,it is used thus3 the two equal numbers set one above the other represent the sides of a square1 and the single number to their right1 represents in inches and decimals1 the diagonal of that square4 ,e4 g41 #ed_/ed #gf4cg means that a square the sides of which are #ed would have a diagonal of #gf4cg4 ,for determining the length of the long side 7hypothenuse7 of a right angle triangle1 when the other two given sides are not equal1 the foot rule1 or another steel square may be laid diagonally across the blade and arm1 and applied directly to the proper graduations thereon1 and the distance between them measured on the rule4 ,if the distance to be measured is in feet1 use the #a_/ab graduations on the back of the square4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,face of ,steel ,square1 ,octagon1 ,eight-,square1 ,scale4 ,to use the octagonal 7or #h-square7 scale1 ,fig4 #aid1 which is along the center of the face of the tongue1 with the dividers1 take the number of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the piece of wood is square1 and lay this distance off from the center point1 on each edge of the board4 ,connect the points thus obtained1 diagonally across the corners1 and a nearly exact octagon will be had4 ,e4g41 on a board #ab square1 ,fig4 #aie1 find ,a4,b4,c4,d41 the centers of each edge4 ,now with the dividers take #ab spaces from the #h-square scale4 ,lay off this distance on each side as ,a' ,a from ,a1 ,b' ,b from ,b1 etc4 ,now connect ,a with ,b'1 ,b with ,c'1 ,c with ,d'1 ,d with ,a'1 and the octagon is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,method of ,using the ,eight-,square ,scale on the ,steel-,square4 ,in making a square piece of timber octagonal1 the same method is used on the butt1 sawed true4 ,when the distance from one center is laid off1 the marking-gage may be set to the distance from the point thus obtained to the corner of the timber1 and the piece gaged from all four corners both ways4 ,cutting off the outside arrises to the gaged lines leaves an octagonal stick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,back of ,steel ,square1 ,essex ,board ,measure4 ,the board-measure is stamped on the back of the blade of the square1 ,fig4 #aif4 ,the figure #ab on the outer edge of the blade is the starting point for all calculations4 ,it represents a #a board1 #ab wide1 and the smaller figures under it indicate the length of boards in feet4 ,thus a board #ab wide1 and #h' long measures #h square feet and so on down the column4 ,to use it1 for boards other than #ab wide3--find the length of the board in feet1 under the #ab marked on the outer edge of the blade1 then run right or left along that line to the width of the board in inches4 ,the number under the width in inches on the line showing the length in feet1 gives the board feet for lumber #a thick4 ,for example1 to measure a board #ad' long1 and #aa wide1--under the figure #ab1 find #ad 7length of the board72 to the left of this1 under #aa is the number #ab4aj2 #ab' #aj is the board-measure of the board in question4 ,since a board #ab' long would have as many board feet in it as it is inches wide1 the ,b4 ,m4 is omitted for #ab' boards4 ,likewise a board #f' long would have #a_/b the number of board feet that it is inches wide4 ,if the board is shorter than the lowest figure given 7#h7 it can be found by dividing its double by #b42 e4 g41 to measure a board #e' long and #i wide1 take #aj under the #ab1 run to the left of the number under #i1 which is #g' #f3 #a_/b of this would be #c' #i1 the number of board feet in the board4 ,if the board to be measured is longer than any figure given1 divide the length into two parts and add the result of the two parts obtained separately4 ,for example1 for a board #bc' long and #ac wide1--take #ab'ac #ac'2 add to it1 #aa'ac #aa' #aa2 total1 #bd'aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,steel ,square with ,rafter ,table4 ,a good general rule is to think first whether or not the problem can be done in one's head without the assistance of the square4 ,the table is made1 as its name1 ,board-,measure 7,b4 ,m47 implies1 for measuring boards1 which are commonly #a thick4 ,for materials more than #a thick1 multiply the ,b4 ,m4 of one surface by the number of inches thick the piece measures4 ,the rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square1 ,fig4 #aig4 ,auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations1 on the outside edges1 which may represent either feet or inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,the ,run and ,rise of a ,rafter4 ,by the run of the rafter is meant the horizontal distance when it is set in place from the end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge end1 i4 e41 one half the length of the building1 ,fig4 #aih4 ,by the rise of the rafter is meant the perpendicular distance from the ridge end to the level of the foot of the rafter4 ,by the pitch is meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run1 i4 e41 to the total width of the building4 ,in a #a_/b pitch1 the rise equals the run1 or #a_/b the width of the building2 in a #a_/c pitch the rise is #a_/c the width of the building2 in a #c_/d pitch the rise is #c_/d the width of the building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,lumberman's ,board ,rule4 ,to find the length of a rafter by the use of the table1 first find the required pitch1 at the left end of the table4 ,opposite this and under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet1 will be found the length of the rafter2 e4g41 a rafter having a run of #ab' with a #a_/d pitch1 is #ac' #e long1 one with a run of #aa' and a #a_/c pitch1 is #ac' #b-h_/ab1 one with a run of #g' and a #e_/h pitch1 is #aa' #b-f_/ab long1 etc4 ,when the run is in inches1 the readings are for #a_/ab of the run in feet3 e4g41 a rafter with a run of #ab and a #a_/d pitch is #ac-e_/ab1 one with a run of #aa and a #a_/c pitch1 is #ac-c_/ab4 ,where the run is in both feet and inches1 find the feet and the inches separately2 and add together2 e4g41 a rafter with a run of #aa' #f1 and a #a_/b pitch1 is #ae' #f-h_/ab #h-f_/ab #af' #c-b_/ab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,try-,square4 ,fig4 #bja4 ,miter-,square4 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,sliding-,t ,bevel4 ,the lumberman's board-rule1 ,fig4 #aii4 ,to measure wood by it1 note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure4 ,the dot nearest the width 7measured in inches7 gives the ,b4 ,m4 for lumber #a thick4 ,the try-square1 ,fig4 #bjj1 which is most commonly used for measuring the accuracy of right angles1 is also convenient for testing the width of a board at various places along its length1 for making short measurements1 and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or knife at right angles to a surface or edge4 ,the sizes are various and are indicated by the length of the blade4 ,a convenient size for the individual bench and for ordinary use has a blade #f long4 ,it is also well to have in the shop one large one with a #ab blade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,using the ,try-,square4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,scribing with ,knife by ,try-,square4 ,in testing the squareness of work with the try-square1 care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from which the test is made1 and then slipped down till the blade touches the edge being tested1 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,the edge should be tested at a number of places in the same way3 that is1 it should not be slid along the piece4 ,the try-square is also of great use in scribing lines across boards1 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,a good method is to put the point of the knife at the beginning of the desired line1 slide the square1 along until it touches the knife-edge2 then1 resting the head of the square firmly against the edge1 draw the knife along1 pressing it lightly against the blade1 holding it perpendicularly4 ,to prevent the knife from running away from the blade of the try-square1 turn its edge slightly towards the blade4 ,the miter-square1 ,fig4 #bja1 is a try-square fixed at an angle of #de4 ,the sliding ,t bevel1 ,fig4 #bjb1 has a blade adjustable to any angle4 ,it may be set either from a sample line1 drawn on the wood1 from a given line on a protractor1 from drawing triangles1 from the graduations on a framing square1 or in other ways4 ,it is used similarly to the ,t-square4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,winding-,sticks1 #ab inches ,long4 ,winding-sticks1 ,fig4 #bje1 consist of a pair of straight strips of exactly the same width thruout4 ,they are used to find out whether there is any twist or wind in a board4 ,this is done by placing them parallel to each other1 one at one end of the board1 and the other at the other end4 ,by sighting across them1 one can readily see whether the board be twisted or not1 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,the blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,method of ,using the ,winding-,sticks4 ,compasses or dividers1 ,fig4 #bjg1 consist of two legs turning on a joint1 and having sharpened points4 ,a convenient form is the wing divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws4 ,a pencil can be substituted for the removable point4 ,they are used for describing circles and arcs1 for spacing1 for measuring1 for subdividing distances1 and for scribing4 ,in scribing a line parallel with a given outline1 one leg follows the given edge1 or outline1 and the point of the other1 marks the desired line4 ,used in this way they are very convenient for marking out chamfers1 especially on curved edges1 a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point4 ,the beam-compass1 ,fig4 #bjh1 consists of two trammel-points running on a beam which may be made of any convenient length4 ,it is used for describing large circles4 ,a pencil may be attached to one point4 ,calipers1 outside and inside1 ,figs4 #bji1 #baj1 are necessary for the accurate gaging of diameters1 as in wood-turning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,winged ,dividers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,beam-,compass or ,trammel ,points4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,outside ,calipers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,inside ,calipers4 ,the marking-gage1 ,fig4 #baa1 consists of a head or block sliding on a beam or bar1 to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw4 ,on the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing4 ,projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point1 which should be filed to a flat1 sharp edge1 a little rounded and sharpened on the edge toward which the gage is to be moved1 ,fig4 #bab4 ,it should project about #a_/h from the beam4 ,if the spur be at all out of place1 as it is likely to be1 the graduations on a beam will be unreliable4 ,hence it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always to measure with the rule from the head to the spur1 ,fig4 #bac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,marking-,gage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,spur of ,marking-,gage4 ,in use the beam should be tilted forward1 so as to slide on its corner1 ,fig4 #bad4 ,in this way the depth of the gage line can be regulated4 ,ordinarily1 the finer the line the better4 ,the head must always be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump away from its desired course4 ,care should also be taken1 except in rough pieces1 to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work4 ,to secure accuracy1 all gaging on the surface of wood1 should be done from the working face or working edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,setting a ,marking-,gage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,using the ,marking-,gage4 ,it is sometimes advisable1 as in laying out chamfers1 not to mark their edges with a marking-gage1 because the marks will show after the chamfer is planed off4 ,a pencil mark should be made instead4 ,for this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a marking-gage1 and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub with a blunt point1 or a small notch may be cut in the back end of the beam1 in which a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as usual except that its position is reversed4 ,for work requiring less care1 the pencil may be held in the manner usual in writing1 the middle finger serving as a guide1 or a pair of pencil compasses may be used1 one leg serving as a guide4 ,a special gage is made for gaging curved lines1 ,fig4 #bae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,marking-,gage for ,curves4 ,the cutting-gage1 ,fig4 #baf1 is similar to a marking-gage1 except that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur4 ,it is very useful in cutting up soft1 thin wood even as thick as #a_/d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,cutting-,gage4 ,the slitting-gage is used in a similar way1 but is larger and has a handle4 ,the mortise-gage1 ,fig4 #bag1 is a marking-gage with two spurs1 with which two parallel lines can be drawn at once1 as in laying out mortises4 ,one form is made entirely of steel having1 instead of spurs1 discs with sharpened edges4 ,the scratch-awl1 ,fig4 #bah1 has a long1 slender point which is useful not only for marking lines1 but for centering4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,roller ,mortise-,gage4 ,the auger-bit-gage1 ,fig4 #bai1 is a convenient tool for measuring the depth of holes bored1 but for ordinary purposes a block of wood sawn to the proper length thru which a hole is bored1 is a satisfactory substitute4 ,screw- and wire-gages1 ,fig4 #bbj1 are useful in measuring the lengths and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering4 ,the spirit-level1 and the plumb-line which it has largely replaced1 are in constant use in carpentering1 but are rarely needed in shopwork4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,scratch-,awl4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,auger-,bit-,gage4 ,blackboard compasses1 triangles1 etc41 are convenient accessories in a woodworking classroom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,screw- and ,wire-,gages4 a4 ,screw-,gage4 b4 ,wire-,gage4 c4 ,twist-,drill-,gage4 #h4 ,,sharpening ,,tools4 ,the grindstone for woodworking tools is best when rather fine and soft4 ,the grinding surface should be straight and never concave4 ,the stone should run as true as possible4 ,it can be made true by using a piece of #a gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone when run dry4 ,power grindstones usually have truing devices attached to them1 ,fig4 #bba4 ,a common form is a hardened steel screw1 the thread of which1 in working across the face of the grindstone1 as they both revolve1 shears off the face of the stone4 ,the surface should always be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone and steel1 and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone1 and to keep the tool cool1 as otherwise1 its temper would be drawn1 which would show by its turning blue4 ,but a grindstone should never stand in water or it would rot4 ,it is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a cisternlike box under it1 ,fig4 #bba4 ,in this box the sediment will settle while the water overflows from it into the drain4 ,without such a box1 the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain4 ,the box is to be emptied occasionally1 before the sediment overflows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,power ,grindstone4 ,in order that the tool may be ground accurately1 there are various devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone4 ,a good one is shown in ,figs4 #bba and #bbb4 ,this device is constructed as follows3 ,a board ,a is made #b thick1 #f wide1 and long enough when in position to reach from the floor to a point above the level of the top of the stone4 ,it is beveled at the lower end so as to rest snugly against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor4 ,the board is held in place by a loop of iron1 ,b1 which hooks into the holes in the trough of the grindstone4 ,in the board a series of holes 7say #a in diameter7 are bored4 ,these run parallel to the floor when the board is in place1 and receive the end of the tool-holder4 ,the tool-holder consists of four parts3 7#a7 a strip ,c1 #a-a_/b thick1 and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground4 ,the forward end is beveled on one side2 the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the main board ,a4 ,its length is determined by the distance from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole in ,a1 into which the rear end is to be inserted4 ,it is better to use as high a hole as convenient1 so that as the grindstone wears down1 the stick will still be serviceable2 7#b7 a strip1 ,d1 of the same width as ,a and #g_/h thick1 and #ae to #ah long2 7#c7 a cleat1 ,e1 #e_/hc_/d1 nailed across ,d2 7#d7 a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass1 ,f1 which passes around the farther end of the two strips1 ,c and ,d1 and is fastened loosely to ,d by staples or screws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,grinding ,device4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,holder for ,grinding ,chisels or ,plane-,bits4 ,the tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip ,c1 and is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of ,d1 which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum ,e4 ,any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened1 by choosing the proper hole in ,a for the back end of ,c or by adjusting the tool forward or backward in the clamp4 ,as much pressure may be put on the tool as the driving belt will stand without slipping off4 ,a still simpler holder for the plane-bit only1 is a strip of wood #a-a_/b thick and #b wide1 cut in the shape ,g shown in ,fig4 #bbc4 ,the plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf ,k1 and in grinding is easily held firmly in place by the hand4 ,by inserting the rear end of the stick ,g into a higher or lower hole in the board ,a1 any desired angle may be obtained4 ,g is shown in position in ,fig4 #bba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,agacite ,grinder4 ,all such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone4 ,the essential features are1 to have a rigid support against which the tool may be pushed by the revolving stone1 to hold the tool at a fixed angle which may be adjusted1 and to press the tool against the stone with considerable pressure4 ,the wheel should revolve toward the edge which is being ground1 for two reasons4 ,it is easier to hold the tool steadily thus1 and the danger of producing a wire edge is lessened4 ,the edge as it becomes thin1 tends to spring away from the stone and this tendency is aggravated if the stone revolves away from the edge4 ,if the stone does not run true and there is a consequent danger of digging into the stone with the tool which is being sharpened1 the stone would better revolve away from the edge4 ,the grinding should continue until the ground surface reaches the cutting edge and there is no bright line left along the edge4 ,if the grinding is continued beyond this point1 nothing is gained1 and a heavy wire edge will be formed4 ,a very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool1 ,fig4 #bbd1 sold as the ,agacite grinder1#g has a number of different shaped grinding stones made chiefly of carborundum4 ,the oilstone4 ,after grinding1 edge tools need whetting4 ,this is done on the whetstone1 or oilstone4 ,the best natural stones are found near ,hot ,springs1 ,arkansas4 ,the fine white ones are called ,arkansas stones1 and the coarser ones ,washita stones4 ,the latter are better for ordinary woodworking tools4 ,the ,india oilstone1 an artificial stone1 ,fig4 #gg1 p4 #eh1 cuts even more quickly than the natural stones4 ,it is made in several grades of coarseness4 ,the medium grade is recommended for ordinary shop use4 ,oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose as water on a grindstone4 ,when an oilstone becomes hollow or uneven by use1 it may be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered with sharp sand1 or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,slipstone4 ,slipstones1 ,fig4 #bbe1 are small oilstones1 made into various shapes in order to fit different tools1 as gouges1 the bits of molding-planes1 etc4 ,files are used for sharpening saws1 augers1 scrapers1 etc4 ,see above1 p4 #ij4 #i4 ,,cleaning ,,tools4 ,the bench duster4 ,one may be noted hanging on the bench shown in ,fig4 #aff1 p4 #ih4 ,bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are essential if the shop is to be kept tidy4 ,buffer4 ,wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is available1 a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very valuable for polishing tools4 ,the addition of a little tripoli greatly facilitates the cleaning4 ,footnote #g3 ,made by the ,empire ,implement ,co41 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,wood ,,hand ,,tools4--,continued4 ,,references399 7#d7 ,scraping ,tools4 ,barnard1 pp4 #acf-adb4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dfe1 #dgc4 ,griffith1 pp4 #ga-ge4 ,selden1 pp4 #adi1 #agg1 #ahb4 ,hodgson1 ,i1 pp4 #fa-gd4 7#e7 ,pounding ,tools4 ,barnard1 pp4 #bd-dg4 ,sickels1 p4 #gj4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dad1 #dbh-dcb4 ,selden1 pp4 #ca1 #aaa1 #aef4 ,goss1 p4 #fj4 ,barter1 p4 #abh4 7#f7 ,punching ,tools4 ,barnard1 p4 #bi4 ,wheeler1 p4 #dcc4 ,selden1 p4 #afa4 7#g7 ,gripping ,tools4 ,for holding work3 ,goss1 p4 #fc4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #fe-ge1 #dge4 ,selden1 pp4 #adj1 #adg1 #ahf1 #aid4 ,hammacher1 pp4 #bhf-bia4 ,for holding other tools3 ,goss1 pp4 #ef-ei4 ,selden1 p4 #adc4 7#h7 ,measuring and ,marking ,tools4 ,goss1 pp4 #i-bj4 ,griffith1 pp4 #i-ai4 ,hodgson1 ,the ,steel ,square4 ,wheeler1 p4 #dfe4 ,tate1 pp4 #ba-be4 ,building ,trades ,pocketbook1 pp4 #bcd-bcg4 ,selden1 pp4 #adi1 #aej-aeb1 #age4 ,sargent's ,steel ,squares4 7#i7 ,sharpening ,tools4 ,barnard1 pp4 #acf-adb4 ,sickels1 pp4 #hj-he4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dhj-dhh4 ,selden1 pp4 #aec1 #afb1 #agb1 #ahj4 ,goss1 pp4 #ci1 #fd-fi4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,wood ,,fastenings4 ,the following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are fastened together3 nails1 screws1 bolts1 plates1 dowels1 glue1 hinges1 and locks4 ,,nails ,nails1 ,fig4 #bbf1 may be classified according to the material of which they are made2 as1 steel1 iron1 copper1 and brass4 ,iron nails may be galvanized to protect them from rust4 ,copper and brass nails are used where they are subject to much danger of corrosion1 as in boats4 ,nails may also be classified according to the process of manufacture2 as1 cut nails1 wrought nails1 and wire nails4 ,cut nails are cut from a plate of metal in such a way that the width of the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate1 and the length of the nail to the width of the plate4 ,in the third dimension1 the nail is wedge-shaped1 thin at the point and thick at the head4 ,unless properly driven1 such nails are likely to split the wood1 but if properly driven they are very firm4 ,in driving1 the wedge should spread with and not across the grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 a4 ,cut nail1 common4 b4 ,flat-head wire nail1 ,no4 #a1 common4 c4 ,finishing nail1 or brad4 ,wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel1 and have little or no temper1 so that they can be bent over without breaking1 as when clinched4 ,horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort4 ,they are of the same shape as cut nails4 ,wire nails are made from drawn steel wire1 and are pointed1 headed1 and roughened by machinery4 ,they are comparatively cheap1 hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails1 which they have largely displaced1 can be bent without breaking1 and can be clinched4 ,nails are also classified according to the shape of their heads2 as1 common or flat-heads1 and brads or finishing nails4 ,flat-heads are used in ordinary work1 where the heads are not to be sunk in the wood or set4 ,some nails get their names from their special uses2 as1 shingle-nails1 trunk-nails1 boat-nails1 lath-nails1 picture-nails1 barrel-nails1 etc4 ,the size of nails is indicated by the length in inches1 and by the size of the wire for wire nails4 ,the old nomenclature for cut nails also survives1 in which certain numbers are prefixed to penny4 ,for example1 a threepenny nail is #a-a_/d long1 a fourpenny nail is #a-a_/b long1 a fivepenny nail is #a-c_/d long1 a sixpenny nail is #b long4 ,in other words1 from threepenny to tenpenny #a_/d is added for each penny1 but a twelvepenny nail is #c-a_/d long1 a sixteenpenny nail is #c-a_/b long1 a twentypenny nail is #d long4 ,this is explained as meaning that tenpenny nails1 for example1 cost tenpence a hundred4 ,another explanation is that originally #ajjj of such nails weighed a pound4 ,the size of cut nails is usually still so indicated4 ,nails are sold by the pound4 ,the advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily applied1 they are strong and cheap1 and the work can be separated1 tho with difficulty4 ,the disadvantages are the appearance and1 in some cases1 the insecurity4 ,the holding power of nails may be increased by driving them into the wood at other than a right angle1 especially where several nails unite two pieces of wood4 ,by driving some at one inclination and some at another1 they bind the pieces of wood together with much greater force than when driven in straight4 ,the term brads was once confined to small finishing nails1 but is now used for all finishing nails1 in distinction from common or flat-headed nails4 ,the heads are made round instead of flat so that they may be set easily with a nailset and the hole filled with a plug1 or1 where the wood is to be painted1 with putty4 ,they are used for interior finishing and other nice work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,tack4 ,tacks1 ,fig4 #bbg1 vary in size and shape according to their use2 as1 flat-headed1 gimp1 round-headed1 and double-pointed or matting tacks1 a sort of small staple4 ,their size is indicated by the word ounce4 ,for example1 a two-ounce tack is #a_/d long1 a three-ounce tack is #c_/h long1 a four-ounce tack is #g_/af long1 a six-ounce tack is #a_/b long1 etc4 ,this term once meant the number of ounces of iron required to make #ajjj tacks4 ,tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material1 such as veneers1 textiles1 leather1 matting1 tin1 etc4 ,tinner's tacks1 which are used for clinching1 are commonly called clinch-nails4 ,wire tacks1 altho made1 are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point1 which is essential4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,corrugated ,fastener4 ,corrugated fasteners1 ,fig4 #bbh1 or fluted nails1 are used to fasten together two pieces of wood by driving the fastener so that one-half of it will be on each side of the joint4 ,their size is indicated by the length and the number of corrugations1 as #a_/b1 four4 ,they are often useful where nails are impracticable4 ,glaziers' points are small1 triangular pieces of zinc1 used to fasten glass into sashes4 ,,screws 7a7 ,wood-screws1 ,fig4 #bbi1 may be classified by the material of which they are made2 as1 steel or brass4 ,steel screws may be either bright1--the common finish1--blued by heat or acid to hinder rusting1 tinned1 or bronzed4 ,brass screws are essential wherever rust would be detrimental1 as in boats4 7b7 ,screws are also classified by shape2 as1 flat-headed1 round-headed1 fillister-headed1 oval-countersunk-headed1 and square-headed screws4 ,flat-heads are most commonly used4 ,there are also special shapes for particular purposes4 ,round-heads may be used either for decoration or where great drawing power is desirable4 ,in the latter case1 washers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them from sinking into the wood4 ,oval-heads are used decoratively1 the head filling the countersunk hole1 as with flat-heads1 and projecting a trifle besides4 ,they are much used in the interior finish of railway cars4 ,they are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest4 ,the thread of the screw begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily where no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood4 ,the thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screw4 ,any longer thread would only weaken the screw where it most needs strength1 near the head1 and it does not need friction with the piece thru which it passes4 ,the size of screws is indicated by their length in inches1 and by the diameter of the wire from which they are made1 using the standard screw-gage1 ,fig4 #bbj1 p4 #aag4 ,they vary in size from ,no4 #j 7less than #a_/af7 to ,no4 #cj 7more than #g_/af7 in diameter1 and in length from #a_/d to #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 a4 ,flat-head ,wood-screw4 b4 ,round-head ,wood-screw4 c4 ,fillister-head ,wood-screw4 d4 ,oval-countersunk-head ,wood-screw4 e4 ,drive-screw4 f4 ,square-head 7lag- or coach-7 ,screw4 ,the following is a good general rule for the use of screws3 make the hole in the piece thru which the screw passes1 large enough for the screw to slip thru easily4 ,countersink this hole enough to allow the head to sink flush with the surface4 ,make the hole in the piece into which the screw goes small enough for the thread of the screw to catch tight4 ,then all the strength exerted in driving1 goes toward drawing the pieces together1 not in overcoming friction4 ,the hole must be deep enough1 especially in hard wood and for brass screws1 to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking the screw4 ,soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving of screws4 ,where it is desirable that the heads do not show1 a hole may first be bored with an auger-bit large enough to receive the head and deep enough to insert a plug of wood1 which is cut out with a plug-cutter1 ,fig4 #aca1 p4 #hd1 and glued in place4 ,if pains are taken to match the grain1 the scar thus formed is inconspicuous4 ,in rough work1 the screw may be driven into place with a hammer thru most of its length1 and then a few final turns be given with a screwdriver1 but this breaks the fibers of the wood and weakens their hold4 ,in drive-screws1 ,fig4 #bbi1 e1 the slot is not cut all the way across the head1 in order that the blows of the hammer may not close the slot4 ,the advantages of screws are1 that they are very strong and that the work can easily be taken apart4 ,if they loosen they can be retightened4 ,the disadvantages are1 that they are expensive1 that they take time to insert1 that they show very plainly1 and that they do not hold well in end grain4 ,,bolts ,bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired4 ,there are three chief varieties1 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 a4 ,stove-bolt4 b4 ,carriage-bolt4 c4 ,machine-bolt4 ,stove-bolts are cheaply made 7cast7 bolts having either flat or round heads with a slot for the screwdriver1 like ordinary screws4 ,carriage-bolts are distinguished by having the part of the shank which is near the head1 square4 ,machine-bolts have square1 hexagonal1 or button heads4 ,machine-screws1 ,fig4 #bca1 are similar to stove-bolts1 but are accurately cut and are measured with a screw-gage4 ,the varieties are1 a1 flat-head1 b1 round-head1 c1 fillister-head1 d1 oval-countersunk-head1 all with slots for screwdriver4 ,plates1 ,fig4 #bcb1 include corner-irons1 straight plates and panel-irons4 ,these are made of either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor1 in stiffening joints1 affixing tops1 etc4 ,dowel-rods4 ,dowel-rods are cylindrical rods1 from #c_/af to #a in diameter1 and #cf1 #db1 and #dh long4 ,they are commonly made of birch or maple1 but maple is more satisfactory as it shrinks less and is stronger than birch4 ,dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge1 and as a substitute for mortise-and-tenon joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,machine-screws4 a4 ,flat-head4 b4 ,round-head4 c4 ,fillister-head4 d4 ,oval-countersunk-head4 ,there is1 to be sure1 a prejudice against dowels on the part of cabinet-makers due1 possibly1 to the willingness to have it appear that doweling is a device of inferior mechanics4 ,but doweling is cheaper and quicker than tenoning1 and there are many places in wood construction where it is just as satisfactory and1 if properly done1 just as strong4 ,certain parts of even the best furniture are so put together4 ,shoe pegs serve well as small dowels4 ,they are dipped in glue and driven into brad-awl holes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 a4 ,corner-iron4 b4 ,straight plate4 c4 ,panel-iron4 ,wedges are commonly used in door construction between the edges of tenons and the insides of mortises which are slightly beveled1 ,no4 #cd1 ,fig4 #bff1 p4 #agi4 ,or the end of a tenon may be split to receive the wedges1 ,no4 #ce1 ,fig4 #bff4 ,the blind wedge is used in the fox-tail joint1 ,no4 #cf1 ,fig4 #bff4 ,,glue ,glue is an inferior kind of gelatin1 and is of two kinds1--animal glue and fish glue4 ,animal glue is made of bones and trimmings1 cuttings and fleshings from hides and skins of animals4 ,sinews1 feet1 tails1 snouts1 ears1 and horn pith are also largely used4 ,cattle1 calves1 goats1 pigs1 horses1 and rabbits1 all yield characteristic glues4 ,the best glue is made from hides of oxen1 which are soaked in lime water until fatty or partly decayed matter is eaten out and only the glue is left4 ,the product is cleaned1 boiled down and dried4 ,the best and clearest bone glues are obtained by leaching the bones with dilute acid which dissolves out the lime salts and leaves the gelatinous matters4 ,such leached bone is sold as a glue stock1 under the name of osseine4 ,this material together with hides1 sinews1 etc41 has the gelatin or glue extracted by boiling again and again1 just as soup stock might be boiled several times4 ,each extraction is called a run4 ,sometimes as many as ten or fifteen runs are taken from the same kettle of stock1 and each may be finished alone or mixed with other runs from other stock1 resulting in a great variety of commercial glues4 ,manufacturers use many tests for glue1 such as the viscosity or running test1 the odor1 the presence of grease or of foam1 rate of set1 the melting-point1 keeping properties1 jelly strength 7tested between the finger tips71 water absorption 7some glues absorb only once their weight1 others ten or twelve times71 and binding or adhesive tests4 ,this latter varies so much with different materials that what may be good glue for one material is poor for another4 ,putting all these things together1 glues are classified from grade #aj to #afj1 #aj being the poorest4 ,the higher standards from #fj and upwards are neutral hide glues1 clear1 clean1 free from odor1 foam1 and grease4 ,the lower standards are chiefly bone glues1 used for sizing straw hats1 etc4 ,they are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues4 ,for wood joints the grade should be #gj or over4 ,for leather1 nothing less than #ajj should be used1 and special cements are better still4 ,the best glue is transparent1 hard in the cake1 free from spots1 of an amber color1 and has little or no smell4 ,a good practical test for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like4 ,the more it swells without dissolving the better the quality4 ,poor glue dissolves4 ,glue is sometimes bleached1 becoming brownish white in color1 but it is somewhat weakened thereby4 ,fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of fish4 ,isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of certain fish1 as cod and sturgeon4 ,liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue4 ,the ,le,page liquid glue is made in ,gloucester1 ,mass41 one of the greatest fish markets in the country4 ,liquid glue is very convenient because always ready1 but is not so strong as hot glue1 and has an offensive odor4 ,liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-gelatinizing1 which can be done by several means2 as1 for instance1 by the addition of oxalic1 nitric1 or hydrochloric acid to the glue solution4 ,to prepare hot glue1 break it into small pieces1 soak it in enough cold water to cover it well1 until it is soft1 say twelve hours1 and heat in a glue-pot or double boiler1 ,fig4 #bdc1 p4 #adh4 ,the fresher the glue is1 the better1 as too many heatings weaken it4 ,when used it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream1 so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip4 ,two surfaces to be glued together should be as close as possible1 not separated by a mass of glue4 ,it is essential that the glue be hot and the wood warm1 so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the surfaces are forced together4 ,glue holds best on side grain4 ,end grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the pores4 ,pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary way1 but such joints are seldom good4 ,surfaces of hard wood that are to be glued should first be scratched with a scratch-plane1 ,fig4 #aaa1 ,p4 #gi4 ,to make waterproof glue1 add one part of potassium bichromate to fifty parts of glue4 ,it will harden when exposed to the air and light and be an insoluble liquid4#h ,footnote #h3 ,for recipes for this and other glues1 see ,woodcraft1 ,may '#jg1 p4 #di4 ,general directions for gluing4#i ,before applying glue to the parts to be fastened together1 it is a good plan to assemble them temporarily without glue1 to see that all the parts fit4 ,when it is desirable that a certain part1 as the panel1 in panel construction1 should not be glued in place1 it is a wise precaution to apply wax1 soap1 or oil to its edges before insertion4 ,since hot glue sets quickly1 it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as soon as possible4 ,one must learn to work fast but to keep cool4 ,to expedite matters1 everything should be quite ready before the process is begun1 clamps1 protecting blocks of wood1 paper to protect the blocks from sticking to the wood1 braces to straighten angles1 mallet1 try-square1 and all other appliances likely to be required4 ,footnote #i3 ,for special directions1 for particular joints1 see under the various joints1 7,chap4 ,,vii47 ,whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps1 each step can be taken with more deliberation4 ,for example1 in assembling framed pieces that are doweled1 it is well to glue the dowels into one set of holes beforehand1 making tenons of them1 as it were4 ,time is thus saved for the final assembling when haste is imperative4 ,the superfluous glue around the dowels should be carefully wiped off4 ,likewise in gluing up framed pieces1 sections may be put together separately3 as1 the ends of a table1 and when they are dry then the whole may be assembled4 ,when the pieces are together the joints should be tested to see that they are true1 and that there are no twists4 ,a good way to insure squareness1 is to insert a diagonal brace on the inside1 corner to corner1 as in ,fig4 #bid1 p4 #aie4 ,such a brace should be provided when the trial assembly is made4 ,another good way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally opposite posts1 and then by twisting the rope1 to draw these corners toward each other until the frame is square4 ,the superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp cloth1 but not with enough water to wet the wood4 ,or by waiting a few minutes until the glue thickens1 much of it can readily be peeled off with an edge tool4 ,either of these ways makes the cleaning easier than to let the superfluous glue harden4 ,the work when glued should remain at least six hours in the clamps to harden4 ,,hinges ,hinges1 ,fig4 #bcc1 are made in several forms4 ,the most common are the butt-hinge or butt1 the two leaves of which are rectangular1 as in a door-hinge2 the strap-hinge1 the leaves of which are long and strap-shaped2 the ,tee-hinge1 one leaf of which is a butt1 and the other strap-shaped2 the chest-hinge1 one leaf of which is bent at a right angle1 used for chest covers2 the table-hinge used for folding table tops with a rule joint2 the piano-hinge1 as long as the joint2 the blank hinge or screen-hinge which opens both ways2 the stop-hinge1 which opens only #ij2 and the hook-and-eye or gate hinge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 a4 ,butt-hinge4 b4 ,tee-hinge4 c4 ,chest-hinge4 d4 ,table-hinge4 e4 ,blank or ,screen-hinge4 ,the knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the two leaves1 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,the acorn is the head of the pintle or pin that passes thru the knuckle4 ,sizes of butts are indicated in inches for length1 and as narrow1 middle1 broad and desk for width4 ,the pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in box-hinges or removable as in door-butts4 ,sometimes1 as in blind-hinges1 the pintle is fastened into one knuckle1 but turns freely in the other4 ,a butt-hinge may be set in one of three positions1 ,fig4 #bce3 7#a7 ,where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible1 as in a door4 ,here the knuckle is set well out from the wood4 7#b7 ,where it is desired to have the hinged portion open flat and no more4 ,here the center of the pin is in line with the outside surface of the wood4 ,this is less likely to rack the hinge than the other two positions4 7#c7 ,where it is desired to have the knuckle project as little as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,parts of a butt-hinge4 #a4a4 ,leaves4 #b4b4b4 ,knuckle4 #c4 ,pintle4 #d4 ,acorn4 ,,hinging ,in setting the hinges of a box cover1 first see that the cover fits the box exactly all the way around4 ,in the case of a door1 see that it fits its frame1 evenly all the way around1 but with a little play4 ,to insure a tighter fit at the swinging edge this edge should be slightly beveled inwards4 ,in attaching a butt-hinge1 the essential thing is to sink the hinge into the wood1 exactly the thickness of the knuckle4 ,the gains may be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together4 ,with these matters determined proceed as follows3 ,in the case of a box cover1 the hinges should be set about as far from the ends of the box as the hinge is long4 ,in the case of an upright door1 locate the hinges respectively above and below the lower and upper rails of the door4 ,mark with the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge1 and square across approximately the width of the gain to receive it4 ,do this for both hinges4 ,between these lines gage the proper width of the gains4 ,set another gage to one half the thickness of the knuckle and gage on the door face the depth of the gains4 ,chisel out the gains1 set the hinges in place1 bore the holes1 and drive the screws4 ,place the door in position again to test the fit4 ,if all is well1 mark the position of the hinges on the frame1 gage and cut the gains1 and fasten in the hinges4 ,where the hinge is gained its full thickness into the door1 no gain1 of course1 is cut in the frame4 ,if the hinges are set too shallow1 it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a little deeper4 ,if they are set too deep the screws may be loosened and a piece of paper or a shaving inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain4 ,,locks ,the chief parts of a lock are3 the bolt1 its essential feature1 the selvage1 the plate which appears at the edge of the door or drawer1 the box1 which contains the mechanism including the tumbler1 ward1 spring1 etc41 the key-pin1 into or around which the key is inserted1 the strike1 the plate attached opposite the selvage1 7often left out as in drawer-locks1 but essential in hook-bolt locks1 and self-locking locks17 and the escutcheon1 the plate around the keyhole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,three ,positions of ,hinges4 ,locks may be classified3 7#a7 ,according to their uses1 of which there are two types4 7a71 ,fig4 #bcf1 ,for drawers1 cupboards1 tills1 wardrobes1 and doors4 ,in these the bolt simply projects at right angles to the selvage into the strike1 and resists pressure sidewise of the lock4 7b71 ,fig4 #bcg1 ,for desks1 roll-top desks1 chests1 boxes and sliding doors4 ,in these1 the bolt includes a hook device of some kind to resist pressure perpendicular to the selvage4 ,in some locks1 the hook or hooks project sidewise from the bolt1 in others the bolt engages in hooks or eyes attached to the strike4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,rim-lock1 for ,drawer4 #a4 ,bolt4 #b4 ,selvage4 #c4 ,box4 #d4 ,key-pin4 7#b7 ,according to the method of application1 as rim locks1 which are fastened on the surface1 and mortise locks which are mortised into the edge of a door or drawer or box4 ,,inserting ,,locks ,to insert a rim-lock1 measure the distance from the selvage to the key-pin1 locate this as the center of the keyhole1 and bore the hole4 ,if the lock has a selvage1 gain out the edge of the door or drawer to receive it4 ,if the lock box has to be gained in1 do that next1 taking care that the bolt has room to slide4 ,cut the keyhole to the proper shape with a keyhole-saw or small chisel4 ,fasten the lock in place1 and if there is a strike or face-plate1 mark its place and mortise it in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,mortise-lock1 for ,box4 ,to insert a mortise-lock1 locate and bore the keyhole1 mortise in the box and the selvage1 finish the keyhole1 fasten in the lock1 add the escutcheon1 locate and mortise in the strike1 and screw it in place4 ,,wood ,,fastenings ,,references399 ,hammacher ,schlemmer4 ,catalog ,no4 #aea4 ,nails4 ,goss1 p4 #aec4 ,purfield1 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #aha4 ,park1 pp4 #abi-ace4 ,griffith1 pp4 #ge-gh4 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #ajc4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dbh-dcc4 ,tacks4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #dbi-dcc4 ,sickels1 p4 #gj4 ,goss1 p4 #aee4 ,barter1 pp4 #hd-hf4 ,screws4 ,goss1 p4 #aee4 ,wheeler1 p4 #dgf4 ,barter1 p4 #hf4 ,griffith1 pp4 #gh-hj4 ,park1 pp4 #acf-adj4 ,dowels4 ,goss1 p4 #aec4 ,wheeler1 p4 #cgd4 ,sickels1 p4 #ajd4 ,griffith1 p4 #ib4 ,wedges4 ,goss1 p4 #aea4 ,glue4 ,goss1 p4 #aef4 ,rivington1 ,,iii1 p4 #dcb4 ,barter1 p4 #hb4 ,standage1 ,wood ,craft1 #g3 #dh4 ,park1 pp4 #ada-adf4 ,sickels1 p4 #ajf4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #cia-cif4 ,alexander1 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #afh4 ,griffith1 pp4 #hj-hc4 ,hinges4 ,sickels1 p4 #aah4 ,wheeler1 p4 #djb4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,equipment ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,shop4 ,tool equipment4 ,the choice of tools in any particular shop best comes out of long experience4 ,some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods1 others lay stress on different ones4 ,the following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty-four students4 ,one bench and its tools may be added for the teacher4 ,the prices given are quoted from ,discount ,sheet ,no4 #a for ,catalogue of ,tools1 ,no4 #cee issued by ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer ,co41 ,fourth ,avenue and #acth ,street1 ,new ,york ,city1 dated #aijh1 and are correct at the present date 7#aiaj74 ,aggregate orders1 however1 are always subject to special concessions1 and it is suggested that before ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for which special figures will be quoted4 ,there are good benches1 vises1 and tools of other makes on the market1 but those specified below are typical good ones4 ,following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils1 one severely economical to cost approximately #djj1 and the other more elaborate to cost approximately #gej4 #djj ,,tool ,,equipment4 ,,individual ,,tools4 #bd ,manual ,training ,school ,benches1 ,h4 ,s4 ,l1 #h4ej4 #bjd4jj #bd ,stanley ,jack-,planes1 ,no4 #e1 #ad1 #a4gd each4 #da4gf #bd ,disston's ,back-,saws1 ,no4 #d1 #aj1 #ic;c each4 #bb4cb #ab ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 ,no4 #b1 #a_/d1 handled and sharpened4 #b4ba #ab ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 ,no4 #b1 #a_/b1 handled and sharpened4 #b4fh #bd ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 ,no4 #b1 #a1 handled and sharpened4 #g4ca #bd ,sloyd ,knives1 ,no4 #g1 #b-a_/b4 #f4ej #ab ,hammond's ,adze-eye ,claw-,hammer1 ,no4 #c1 #g oz4 #d4ij #bd ,try-squares1 ,no4 #e-a_/b1 #f4 #e4cb #bd ,beech ,marking-,gages1 ,no4 #fd-a_/b4 #d4hf #bd ,boxwood ,rules1 ,no4 #c1 #ab long4 #a4hj #ab ,faber's ,measuring ,compass1 ,no4 #ageb4 #a4ej #ab ,bench-,hooks4 #b4jj #ab ,bench-,dusters1 ,no4 #aj4 #b4gj ------- ,total for individual tools4 #cji4hf ,,general ,,tools #f ,disston's ,crosscut-,saws1 ,no4 #g1 #bb1 #aj points4 #f4ge #f ,disston's ,rip-,saws1 ,no4 #g1 #bb1 #h points4 #f4ge #b ,turning-,saws in frames1 #ad1 ,m4 ,f4 ,co4 #a4gd #a ,dozen ,turning-,saw ,blades1 #ad1 ,h4 ,s4 ,co4 #a4jf #a ,hack-,saw ,frame1 ,no4 #ej4 4#de #a ,disston's ,dovetail-,saw1 #f1 iron back4 4#dh #a ,stanley ,miter-,box1 ,no4 #bdj4 #h4bj #b ,stanley ,block-,planes1 ,no4 #fe-a_/b4 #a4ef #a ,stanley ,fore-,plane1 ,no4 #f4 #b4bb #a ,stanley ,rabbet-,plane and ,filletster1 ,no4 #gh4 #a4aj #a ,stanley ,bed ,rock ,plane1 ,no4 #fjc4 #a4eh #f ,iron ,spokeshaves1 ,no4 #ed4 #a4db #a ,veneer-,scraper1 ,no4 #hj4 4#gj #f ,each ,molding-,scrapers1 ,no4 #b and ,no4 #g4 4#ij #a ,scraper ,steel1 ,richardson's4 4#aj #c ,flat ,bastard ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#de #c ,half-,round ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#ee #c ,rat-tail ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#cc #d ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #f1 slim taper4 4#cf #a ,auger-,bit-,file4 4#ac #a ,file-,card1 ,no4 #a4 4#ad #a ,empire ,tool-,grinder4 #b4hj #a ,grindstone1 ,no4 #aa1 with stone4 #ae4jj #a ,india ,oilstone1 ,no4 #j1 in box4 4#ie #a ,soft ,arkansas ,oil ,slipstone1 ,no4 #f4 4#ah #a ,copperized ,steel ,oiler1 ,no4 #ad;,a1 #a_/b pint4 4#bc #b ,disston's ,sliding ,t ,bevel1 ,no4 #c1 #f4 4#df #a ,stanley ,miter-,square1 ,no4 #af1 #aj4 4#fj #a ,sargent ,steel ,square1 ,no4 #b4 4#fi #a ,pair ,starrett's ,winged ,dividers1 ,no4 #ib1 #h4 4#ge #a ,chisel1 ,no4 #b1 #a_/h1 handled4 4#bj #c ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,gouges1 ,no4 #h1 #a4 #a4bi #a ,buck ,brothers' ,gouge1 ,no4 #aj1 inside bevel1 regular sweep1 #c_/d4 4#dc #d ,barber's ,braces1 ,no4 #ad1 #f sweep4 #c4eb #a ,barber's ,ratchet-,brace1 ,no4 #ca1 #ab sweep4 #a4fb #e ,gimlet-,bits1 #a each of #b_/cb1 #c_/cb1 #d_/cb1 #e_/cb1 #f_/cb4 4#dj #a ,set ,auger-,bits1 ,r4 ,jennings'4 #d4df #a ,clark's ,expansive-,bit1 small4 4#eg #b ,screwdriver-,bits1 #a_/b1 round blade1 ,no4 #aj1 #d4 4#cb #c ,rose ,countersinks1 ,no4 #aj1 #e_/h4 4#fh #f ,brad-,awls1 assorted #a-a-a_/b4 4#cj #a ,hand-,drill1 ,no4 #e-a_/b4 #b4de ,extra ,drills1 #b each of ,no4 #ajg1 size1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj1 #be1 #cj1 #ce1 #dj1 #de1 #ej1 #ee1 #fj4 #a4db #f ,new ,century ,screwdrivers1 #d4 4#if #a ,new ,century ,screwdriver1 #ab4 4#ed #f ,o4 ,k4 ,nailsets1 assorted4 4#db #f ,carpenter's ,steel ,bar ,clamps1 #c ft4 #i4fj #ab ,aldrich's ,oiled ,handscrews1 ,no4 #af1 #aj4 #d4gi #ab ,aldrich's ,oiled ,handscrews1 ,no4 #ag-a_/b1 #f4 #c4db #d ,carriage-,maker's ,clamps1 #f4 #a4cb #a ,automatic ,miter-,clamp4 #a4hj #a ,pair ,pliers1 ,no4 #bjj1 #e4 4#ba #a ,coe's ,monkey-,wrench1 #aj4 4#fj #a ,glue-,pot1 ,no4 #c4 4#hb #a ,parker's ,wood-working ,vise1 ,no4 #bgf4 #h4jg #a ,gas ,stove1 #ii;,a4 4#ee #a ,pair ,end-,cutting ,nippers1 ,no4 #aed1 #e4 4#hh #a ,glass-,cutter1 ,no4 #aj4 4#bg #c ,flat ,varnish ,brushes1 ,no4 #ed1 #a-a_/b1 hard-rubber-bound 7for shellac74 4#if #f ,cheap ,brushes1 #a1 tin-bound 7for stains71 ,,ee4 4#ij #f ,extra ,jack-,plane ,cutters 7,no4 #e74 #a4hj #f ,enamel ,cups1 #a_/b pint4 4#fj #a ,maple ,yard-,stick1 ,no4 #da4 4#ag ------- ,total for general tools4 #aad4ig ,total for individual tools4 #cji4hf ------- #dbd4hc ,discount for schools1 #aj per cent4 #db4dh ------- #chb4ce ,lockers for individual work4 #aej4jj #gej ,,tool ,,equipment ,,including #a ,,bench ,,and ,,set ,,of ,,tools ,,for ,,instructor ,,and ,,individual ,,tools #be ,manual ,training ,school ,benches1 ,hammacher1 ,schlemmer ,co4's ,j with ,toles' quick-acting ,vise on side1 #bj4 #ejj4jj #be ,stanley ,jack-,planes1 ,no4 #e1 #ad1 #a4gd each4 #dc4ej #be ,disston's ,back-,saws1 ,no4 #d1 #aj1 #ic;c each4 #bc4be #be ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 #a_/d1 handled and sharpened1 #b4ba doz4 #d4fa #be ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 #a_/b1 handled and sharpened1 #b4fh doz4 #e4eh #be ,buck ,brothers' ,firmer-,chisels1 #a1 handled and sharpened1 #c4fe #g4fa #cj ,sloyd ,knives1 ,no4 #g1 #b-a_/b blade 7#f extra7 #c4be doz4 #h4ab #be ,hammond's ,adze-eye ,hammers1 ,no4 #c1 #g oz41 #d4ij doz4 #aj4ba #be ,round ,hickory ,mallets1 ,no4 #d1 #a4dj doz4 #b4ia #be ,hardened ,blade ,try-,squares1 ,no4 #e-a_/b1 #f1 #b4ff doz4 #e4eg #be ,beech ,marking-,gages1 ,no4 #fd-a_/b1 #h1 #b4dc doz4 #e4jg #be ,steel ,bench-,rules1 ,no4 #cjj;,d1 #d4hj doz4 #aj4jj #cf ,faber's ,measuring ,compass1 ,no4 #ageb 7#ab extra74 #d4ej #be ,maple ,bench-,hooks1 #b4jj doz4 #d4ah #be ,bench-,dusters1 ,no4 #aj1 #b4gj doz4 #e4fc ------- ,total for individual tools4 #fdj4gd ,,general ,,tools #f ,disston's ,crosscut-,saws1 ,no4 #g1 #bb1 #aj points4 #f4ge #f ,disston's ,rip-,saws1 ,no4 #g1 #bb1 #h points4 #f4ge #d ,turning-,saws in frames1 #ad4 #c4dh #a ,doz4 ,turning-,saw ,blades1 #ad4 #a4jf #a ,compass-,saw1 ,disston's ,no4 #b1 #aj4 4#bg #a ,stanley ,miter-,box1 ,no4 #bdj4 #h4bj #a ,disston's ,dovetail-,saw1 #f1 iron back4 4#dh #b ,coping-,saws1 ,no4 #aaj4 4#dj #a ,gross ,coping-,saw ,blades1 #f4 #a4jj #f ,stanley ,block-,planes1 ,no4 #fe-a_/b4 #d4fh #a ,stanley ,fore-,plane1 ,no4 #f4 #b4bb #a ,stanley ,rabbet-,plane and ,filletster1 ,no4 #gh4 #a4aj #b ,stanley's ,bed ,rock ,smooth-,planes1 ,no4 #fjc or #c4af ,sargent's ,adjustable-,frog ,smooth-,plane4 #ab ,extra ,jack-,plane ,cutters 7,no4 #e71 #b4 #c4fj #a ,stanley ,beading ,rabbet1 and ,matching ,plane1 ,no4 #de4 #e4he #a ,stanley ,router-,plane1 ,no4 #ga4 #a4cg #f ,iron ,spokeshaves1 ,no4 #ed4 #a4db #f ,pattern-,makers' ,spokeshaves1 applewood1 small1 #a-a_/b4 #a4eb #b ,drawing-,knives1 ,white's ,no4 #ca1 #f4 #a4fj #a ,stanley ,adjustable ,scraper-,plane1 ,no4 #aab1 with toothing cutter4 #a4dc #a ,veneer-,scraper1 ,no4 #hj4 4#gj #c ,each ,molding-,scrapers1 ,no4 #b1 ,no4 #g4 4#de #b ,dowel-,pointers1 ,no4 #a4 4#fj #a ,dowel-,plate4 4#cj #a ,scraper ,steel1 ,richardson's4 4#aj #a ,iron ,screw-,box1 ,french1 #c_/h4 #a4hj #d ,flat ,bastard ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#fj #d ,half-,round ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#gb #d ,rat-tail ,files1 ,k4 ,f41 #h1 handled4 4#dd #d ,files1 #f1 slim taper4 4#cf #b ,auger-,bit-,files4 4#be #a ,file-,card1 ,no4 #a4 4#ad #a ,empire ,tool-,grinder4 #b4hj #a ,grindstone1 ,no4 #aa1 7iron frame and stone74 #ae4jj #b ,india ,oilstones1 ,no4 #bi 7medium71 in iron box4 #a4cd #a ,soft ,arkansas ,oil ,slipstone1 ,no4 #f4 4#ah #b ,copperized ,steel ,oilers1 #ad;,a1 #a_/b pint4 4#df #f ,disston's ,sliding ,t ,bevels1 ,no4 #c1 #f4 #a4ch #a ,stanley ,miter-,square1 ,no4 #af1 #aj4 4#fj #a ,sargent ,steel ,square1 ,no4 #b4 4#fj #b ,pairs ,dividers1 ,starrett's winged1 ,no4 #ib1 #h4 #a4ej #c ,scratch-,awls1 ,collier's1 #d4 4#cc #a ,pair ,trammel-,points1 ,no4 #a4 4#gd #a ,try-,square1 ,no4 #e-a_/b1 #ab1 hardened blade4 4#eb #a ,mortise-,gage1 ,no4 #gg4 4#ee #a ,cutting-,gage1 ,no4 #gj4 4#ag #c ,each ,firmer-,chisels1 ,buck ,bros4' ,no4 #b1 handled and sharpened2 #a_/af1 #a_/h1 #c_/af1 #c_/h1 #c_/d1 #a-a_/b4 #d4db #c ,each outside-,bevel ,gouges1 ,buck ,bros4' ,firmer1 ,no4 #h handled and sharpened3 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #c_/d1 #a4 #c4ee #c ,addis' ,carving-,tools1 round maple handles1 ,no4 #aa1 #e_/cb4 4#if #c ,addis' ,veining-,tools1 round maple handles1 ,no4 #aa1 #a_/af4 4#if #c ,inside-,bevel ,gouges1 regular sweep1 ,no4 #aj1 #c_/d4 #a4bi #f ,barber's ,nickel-,plated ,braces1 ,no4 #ad1 #f sweep4 #e4be #a ,barber's ,ratchet-,brace1 ,no4 #ca1 #ab sweep4 #a4fb #c ,each ,german ,gimlet-,bits1 #b_/cb1 #c_/cb1 #d_/cb1 #e_/cb1 #f_/cb4 #a4jj #c ,each ,russell ,jennings' ,auger-,bits1 #c_/af1 #d_/af1 #e_/af1 #f_/af1 #g_/af1 #h_/af4 #d4ah #b ,each ,russell ,jennings' ,auger-,bits1 genuine1 #aj_/af1 #aa_/af1 #ab_/af1 #ac_/af1 #ad_/af1 #ae_/af1 #af_/af4 #f4ai #a ,each ,foerstner's ,auger-,bits1 #a_/d1 #c_/h1 #a_/b4 #a4gi #a ,clark's ,expansive-,bit1 #a_/b to #a-a_/b4 4#eg #c ,buck ,bros4' ,rose ,countersinks1 ,no4 #aj1 #e_/h4 4#gh #a ,washer-,cutter1 ,no4 #cej4 4#fe #a ,plug-,cutter1 #c_/h4 4#cb #b ,screwdriver-,bits1 #a_/b1 round blade1 #d long4 4#cb #d ,each ,brad-,awls1 handled1 #a1 #a-a_/d1 #a-a_/b4 4#fj #f ,new ,century ,screwdrivers1 #d4 4#if #a ,new ,century ,screwdriver1 #ab4 4#ed #a ,new ,century ,screwdriver1 #h4 4#cf #a ,new ,century ,screwdriver1 #c-a_/b1 slim4 4#af #a ,dowel-,plate1 cast steel4 4#cj #f ,o4,k4 ,nailsets1 assorted #a_/af1 #c_/cb1 #a_/h4 4#db #f ,carpenter ,steel ,bar ,clamps1 #c ft4 #i4fj #b ,carpenter ,steel ,bar ,clamps1 #e ft4 #c4fj #ab ,aldrich's ,oiled ,handscrews1 ,no4 #af1 #aj4 #d4gi #ab ,aldrich's ,oiled ,handscrews1 ,no4 #ag-a_/b1 #f4 #c4db #d ,carriage-,makers' ,clamps1 #f4 #a4cb #a ,automatic ,miter-,clamp4 #a4hj #b ,doz4 ,acme ,pinch-,dogs1 #c_/d4 4#cj #a ,glue-,pot1 ,no4 #c4 4#hb #a ,gas ,stove1 ,no4 #ii;,a4 4#ee #a ,coe's ,monkey-,wrench1 #aj4 4#fj #a ,glass-,cutter1 ,no4 #aj4 4#bg #f ,flat ,varnish ,brushes ,no4 #ed4 #a-a_/b1 hard-rubber-bound 7for shellac74 #a4eh #ab ,cheap ,brushes1 tin-bound1 7for stains71 ,,ee1 #a4 #a4hj #f ,enameled ,cups1 #a_/b pint4 4#fj #a ,maple ,yard-,stick1 ,no4 #da4 4#ag #a ,pair ,blackboard ,compasses or ,dividers4 #a4ej #a ,blackboard ,triangle1 #de4 4#ej #a ,blackboard ,triangle1 #cjfj4 4#ej ------- ,total for general tools4 #ahi4hc ,,metal ,,working ,,tools #a ,bench1 ,no4 #a1 without vises4 #h4jj #a ,parker's ,wood-working ,vise1 ,no4 #bgf4 #h4jg #a ,hand-,vise1 ,no4 #abcj-a_/b1 #d4 4#ed #a ,hay-,budden ,anvil1 #aj lb4 #c4jg #a ,riveting-,hammer1 ,atha1 #d oz4 4#cb #a ,rivet-,set1 ,no4 #d4 4#bg #a ,cold-,chisel1 #c_/h cutting edge4 4#aa #a ,cold-,chisel1 #e_/h cutting edge4 4#ae #a ,cape-,chisel1 #c_/h cutting edge4 4#ac #a ,round-nosed ,chisel1 #c_/h4 4#ac #a ,pair ,end-,cutting ,nippers1 ,no4 #aed1 #e4 4#hh #a ,pair ,compton's ,metal ,snips1 ,no4 #ab1 #b4 4#fc #b ,pair ,flat-nose ,pliers1 ,no4 #ahjf-a_/b1 #e4 4#eh #a ,die-,holder1 ,no4 #aa4 4#cb #a ,die1 #e_/ha_/d1 #f_/cb4 4#bg #a ,hand-,drill1 ,no4 #e-a_/b4 #b4de ,extra ,drills1 ,morse's ,no4 #ajg1 #b each1 ,nos4 #aj1 #ae1 #bj1 #be1 #cj1 #ce1 #dj1 #de1 #ej1 #ee1 #fj4 #a4db #a ,metal ,countersink1 ,no4 #ae1 #e_/h4 4#ah #a ,hack-,saw ,frame1 ,no4 #ej4 4#de #f ,hack-,saw ,blades1 #h1 ,h4 ,s4 ,co4 4#be #a ,melting ,ladle1 #c4 4#ai #a ,soldering ,copper1 #a lb4 4#ca #a ,mill ,bastard ,file1 #h1 #a safe edge1 handled4 #a ,mill ,smooth ,file1 #f1 handled4 #a ,square ,bastard ,file1 #h1 handled4 #a ,half-round ,bastard ,file1 #h1 handled4 #a ,slim ,taper ,saw-,file1 #f1 handled4 #a ,round ,bastard ,file1 #d1 handled4 4#he #a ,atha ,machinist's ,hammer1 ,ball-peen1 #f oz4 4#ch ------ ,total for metal working tools4 #bi4ie ,glue and ,stain ,bench4 #ae4jj ,lockers for individual work for #cfj pupils4 #cfj4jj ,nail and ,screw ,cabinet4 #ce4jj ------- #daj4jj ,individual ,tools4 #fdj4gd ,general ,tools4 #ahi4hc ------- #hcj4eg ,discount for schools1 #aj per cent4 #hc4jf ------- #gdg4ea ,cabinets1 lockers1 etc4 #daj4jj --------- #a1aeg4ea ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,woodworking ,,shop ,the general arrangement of the room4 ,the important factors are the source or sources of light1 and the lines of travel4 ,the common arrangement of benches where two sides of the room are lighted1 is shown in a1 ,fig4 #bch4 ,by this arrangement1 as each worker faces his bench1 he also faces one set of windows and has another set of windows at his left4 ,the advantage of this arrangement is that it is easy to test one's work with the try-square by lifting it up to the light4 ,another arrangement1 shown in b1 ,fig4 #bch1 has this advantage1 that there are no shadows on the work when it is lying on the bench and the worker is holding his rule or try-square on it with his left hand4 ,when all the windows are on one side of the room the latter is the more advantageous arrangement4 ,in determining the position of the benches1 especially with reference to their distance from each other1 thought should be given to the general lines of travel1 from the individual benches to the general tool-rack1 to the finishing-table1 to the lockers1 etc4 ,even if all the aisles cannot be wide enough both for passage and for work1 one wider one thru the center of the room may solve the difficulty4 ,where rooms are crowded1 space may be economized by placing the benches in pairs1 back to back1 c and d1 ,fig4 #bch4 ,in any case1 room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats1 facing the teacher's bench1 for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and to think4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,four ,different ,arrangements of ,benches in a ,shop4 ,the ,tools4 ,every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement of tools1 but there are two principles always worth observing4 7#a7 ,it is an old saying that there should be a place for everything and everything in its place4 ,this is eminently true of a well-ordered woodworking shop1 and there is another principle just as important4 7#b7 ,things of the same sort should be arranged together1 and arranged by sizes1 whether they be general tools or individual tools4 ,in arranging the rack for general tools1 a few suggestions are offered4 ,in the first place1 arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another4 ,where the rack must needs be high1 all the tools can be brought within reach1 by placing long tools1 like files1 screwdrivers1 etc41 at the top4 ,such an arrangement is shown in ,fig4 #bci4 ,as to the individual benches1 those without high backs are to be preferred1 not only because of their convenience when it is desired to work on large pieces1 like table tops1 and because the backs do not interfere with the light1 but because it is easier for the teacher to look over the room to see that everything is in order4 ,if the equipment is kept complete1 it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,general ,tool rack in a ,school ,shop4 ,in general1 there are two methods of keeping guard over tools1 the open and the closed4 ,in the open method1 everything is kept in sight so that empty places can be discovered readily4 ,this method is a convenient one1 and1 besides1 the tools are always easily accessible4 ,in the closed method1 the tools are kept in drawers and cases where they can be locked up4 ,this method is suitable where pupils are equipped with individual sets of cutting tools4 ,in such a case1 the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual pupils' tools in separate drawers4 ,this method has the disadvantage that things are out of sight1 and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediately4 ,on the other hand1 where the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked1 the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum4 ,sometimes a combination of both methods is tried1 the tools being kept in unlocked drawers4 ,this method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,nail and ,screw ,cabinet4 ,even when tools are well arranged1 one of the most serious difficulties in the way of shop order1 is to keep tools in their places4 ,pupils who are in a hurry1 slip in the tools wherever they will fit1 not where they belong4 ,labels at the places of the different sets may help somewhat2 a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs4 ,pupils will see that1 when they will not stop to read a label4 ,in spite of all precautions1 some tools will disappear4 ,a plan to cover the cost of these1 which works well in some schools1 is to require a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses4 ,then at the end of the year1 after deducting the cost of losses1 the balance is returned pro rata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,an ,inexpensive ,locker for ,unfinished ,work4 ,there is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches4 ,some tools1 like the plane and chisel1 and try-square1 are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand4 ,as to others1 the demand must determine the supply4 ,one other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools1 the use of which is to be encouraged1 should be kept as accessible as possible1 and those whose use is to be discouraged1 should be kept remote4 ,some tools1 like files1 it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,a ,more ,expensive ,locker for ,unfinished ,work4 ,a cabinet of drawers1 such as that shown in ,fig4 #bdj1 for holding nails1 screws1 and other fastenings1 is both a convenience and a material aid in preserving the order of the shop4 ,as for the care of tools during vacation1 they should be smeared with vaseline1 which is cheap1 and put away out of the dampness4 ,the planes should be taken apart and each part smeared4 ,to clean them again for use1 then becomes an easy matter4 ,the best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli4 ,they may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli4 ,the ,lockers4 ,in order to maintain good order in the shop1 an almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding the unfinished work of pupils4 ,an inexpensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves1 say #e apart1 #ab deep1 and #ah long1 ,fig4 #bda4 ,ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of shelves to conceal and protect the contents4 ,such a case should cost at the rate of about #dj;c4 for each compartment4 ,a more substantial and more convenient case1 shown in ,fig4 #bdb1 consists of compartments each #i-a_/b high1 #f wide1 and #ah deep4 ,these proportions may be changed to suit varying conditions4 ,in front of each tier of #ab compartments is a flap door opening downward4 ,such a case built of yellow pine 7paneled7 may cost at the rate of #a4jj per compartment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,gluing and ,staining ,bench ,covered with ,zinc4 ,there should1 of course1 be a separate compartment for each pupil using the shop4 ,where possible1 there should be a special table for staining and gluing4 ,where strict economy must be practiced1 a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose4 ,a better equipment would include a well-built bench1 such as that shown in ,fig4 #bdc1 the top and back of which are covered with zinc4 ,where no staining-table is possible1 temporary coverings of oilcloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,shellac ,utensils4 ,care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood4 ,shellac should be kept in glass or pottery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin1 which darkens it4 ,a good plan is to have a bottle for fresh1 untouched shellac1 a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used1 and an enameled cup for use4 ,there should also be a special brush1 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,at the time of using1 first see that the brush is soft and pliable4 ,if it is stiff1 it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup4 ,this alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking4 ,then pour out a little from the jar into the cup1 and if it is too thin1 thicken with some fresh shellac4 ,after using1 pour back the residue into the jar1 carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar2 and if it is not to be used again for some time1 rinse it in a little alcohol1 which may also be poured into the jar1 which should then be covered4 ,what little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cup until required4 ,the important things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only1 7indeed1 it is a good plan to label them ,,shellac ,,only17 and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate4 ,in a pattern-making shop1 where the shellac cup is to be frequently used1 it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang1 like the brush in a mucilage jar4 ,varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using4 ,if they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty4 ,brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with water and then laying them flat in a box4 ,cups in which the water stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water4 ,brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good condition1 by being hung in a brush-keeper1 ,fig4 #bde1 7sold by ,devoe ,reynolds1 #aja ,fulton ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,c47 partly filled with turpentine4 ,the same brushes may also be used for fillers4 ,oil stains should be poured back into their respective bottles1 and the cups wiped out with cotton waste4 ,when they get in bad condition1 they can be cleaned readily after a preliminary soaking in a strong solution of potash4 ,the same treatment may be given to brushes1 but if they are left soaking too long in the solution1 the bristles will be eaten off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,brush-keeper4 ,,equipment ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,shop ,,references399 ,murray1 ,year ,book #aijf1 p4 #fi4 ,bailey1 ,m4 ,t4 ,mag41 #i3 #ach4 ,dec4 '#jg4 ,robillion1 pp4 #dh-ij4 ,hammacher and ,schlemmer1 passim4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,common ,,joints4 ,wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we have what is properly called joinery4 ,in common usage the term indicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships1 but it is also used to include cabinet-making1 which is the art of constructing furniture1 and even the trades of the wheelwright1 carriage-maker1 and cooper4 ,since joinery involves the constant use of joints1 a reference list of them1 with illustrations1 definitions1 uses1 and directions for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers in wood4 ,,heading ,,joints ,no4 #a4 ,a lapped and strapped joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 p4 #agg1 is made by laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which they may be tightened4 ,it is a very strong joint and is used where the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and flag poles4 ,no4 #b4 ,a fished joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by butting the squared ends of two timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron1 called fish-plates1 over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking the whole firmly together4 ,it is used for joining timbers in the direction of their length1 as in boat construction4 ,no4 #c4 ,in a fished joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 keys are often inserted between the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to tension4 ,in wide pieces and for extra strength1 as in bridge work1 the bolts may be staggered4 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f and #g4 ,a scarf or spliced joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such a way as to enable them to resist compression1 as in ,no4 #d2 tension1 as in ,no4 #e2 both1 as in ,no4 #f1 where the scarf is tabled2 or cross strain as in ,no4 #g4 ,no4 #d is used in house sills and in splicing out short posts1 ,nos4 #e and #f in open frame work4 ,no4 #g with or without the fish-plate1 is used in boats and canoes1 and is sometimes called a boat-builder's joint1 to distinguish it from ,no4 #d1 a carpenter's joint4 ,a joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction of the strain than across it4 ,no4 #g is the plan1 not elevation1 of a joint to receive vertical cross strain4 ,,butt ,,joints ,no4 #h4 ,a doweled butt-joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by inserting1 with glue1 dowel-pins into holes bored into the two members4 ,the end of one member is butted against the face or edge of the other4 ,it is used in cabinet-making where the presence of nails would be unseemly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,lay-out by ,thru ,dowling4 ,in a doweled butt-joint the dowels may go clear thru the outside member1 and be finished as buttons on the outside1 where they show4 ,to lay out this joint mark near the ends of the edges of the abutting member1 ,x1 ,fig4 #bdf1 center-lines ,a ,b4 ,draw on the other member ,y1 a sharp pencil-line to which when the lines ,,ab on ,x are fitted1 ,x will be in its proper place4 ,carry the line around to the other side of ,y and locate on it the proper centers for the dowel-holes ,e and ,f4 ,then fasten on the end of ,x a handscrew in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end4 ,with another handscrew1 clamp this handscrew to ,y in such a way that the marks on the two pieces match1 ,a to ,c and ,b to ,d1 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,bore at the proper places1 ,e and ,f1 holes directly thru ,y into ,x4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,thru ,boring for a ,butt ,joint4 ,fig4 #bdh illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in which the joints are made in this way4 ,the cross-lap joints of the stretchers are first glued together1 then the other joints are assembled without glue1 to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite sides are glued at a time4 ,pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,gluing-,up a ,four-,legged ,stand4 ,in case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate the holes properly4 ,one method of procedure is as follows3 ,to dowel the end of one member against the face of the other as a stringer into a rail or a rail into a table leg1 first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member1 ,x1 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,gage a center-line1 ,a ,b1 across this end lengthwise1 locate the centers of the dowel-holes1 and square across with a knife point1 as ,,cd and ,,ef4 ,gage a line on the other member to correspond with the line ,,ab4 ,on the face so gaged1 lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies along this gaged line and prick off the points ,d and ,f1 to get the centers of the dowel-holes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,laying out a ,dowel ,joint4 ,if1 as is usual1 there are a number of similar joints to be made1 a device like that shown in ,fig4 #bdi will expedite matters4 #a and #b are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood1 which has been notched out1 and are as far apart as the dowels4 ,a-#a is the distance from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel4 ,the same measure can be used from the end of the leg4 ,when the centers are all marked1 bore the holes4 ,insert the dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly4 ,if any rail is twisted from its proper plane1 note carefully where the error is1 take apart1 glue a dowel into the hole1 that is wrong1 pare it off flush with the surface1 and re-bore in such a place that the parts1 when assembled will come up true4 ,when everything fits1 glue and clamp together4 ,no4 #i4 ,a toe-nailed joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by driving nails diagonally thru the corners of one member into the other4 ,it is used in fastening the studding to the sill in balloon framing4 ,no4 #aj4 ,a draw-bolt joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by inserting an iron bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut inserted from the side of the second member4 ,it is very strong and is used in bench construction1 wooden machinery1 etc4 ,no4 #aa4 ,a plain butt-joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is one in which the members join endwise or edgewise without overlapping4 ,it is used on returns as in ordinary boxes and cases4 ,no4 #ab4 ,a glued and blocked joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is made by gluing and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which are butted and glued together4 ,it is used in stair-work and cabinet-work1 as in the corners of bureaus4 ,no4 #ac4 ,a hopper-joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is a butt-joint1 but is peculiar in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on account of the pitch of the sides4 ,it is used in hoppers1 bins1 chutes1 etc4 ,the difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper angle for the edges of the pieces4 ,this may be done as follows3 ,after the pieces are planed to the correct thickness1 plane the upper and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by the pitch of the sides4 ,lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper on the outside of the end pieces4 ,from the ends of these lines1 on the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with the knife and try-square4 ,connect these lines on what will be the inside of the hopper4 ,saw off the surplus wood and plane to the lines thus scored4 ,the side pieces may be finished in the same way1 and the parts are then ready to be assembled4 ,,halving-,,joints ,a halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the notch in the other1 so that the upper and under surfaces of the members are flush4 ,no4 #ad4 ,a cross-lap joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 is a halved joint in which both members project both ways from the joint4 ,this is a very common joint used in both carpentry and joinery1 as where stringers cross each other in the same plane4 ,the two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size1 either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts1 see ,chap4 ,,ix1 p4 #bjd4 ,lay one member1 called ,x1 across the other in the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly their upper faces1 which will be flush when the piece is finished4 ,locate the middle of the length of the lower piece1 called ,y1 on one arris1 and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the upper piece1 ,x4 ,from this point square across ,y with the knife and try-square4 ,lay ,x again in its place1 exactly along the line just scored4 ,then mark with the knife on ,y the width of ,x1 which may then be removed and the second line squared across ,y4 ,from these two lines square across both edges of ,y to approximately one-half the thickness4 ,now turn ,x face down1 lay ,y on it1 and mark it in the same way as ,y4 ,set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces1 and gage between the lines on the edges1 taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces4 ,then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep1 the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less1 and the joint will fit4 ,cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks1 ,fig4 #ia1 p4 #ff1 saw accurately to the gaged lines1 and chisel out the waste as in a dado1 see ,figs4 #gj and #ga1 p4 #ef4 ,the bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford surface for gluing4 ,when well made1 a cross-lap joint does not need to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands4 ,no4 #ae4 ,a middle-lap joint or halved tee1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint1 but one member projects from the joint in only one direction1 it is used to join stretchers to rails as in floor timbers4 ,no4 #af4 ,an end-lap joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint except that the joint is at the end of both members4 ,it is used at the corners of sills and plates1 also sometimes in chair-seats4 ,to make an end-lap joint1 place the members in their relative positions1 faces up1 and mark plainly4 ,mark carefully on each member the inside corner1 allowing the end of each member slightly 7#a_/af7 to overlap the other4 ,square across at these points with a sharp knife point1 on the under side of the upper member1 and on the upper side of the lower member4 ,now proceed as in the cross-lap joint1 except that the gaged line runs around the end and the cutting must be done exactly to this line4 ,no4 #ag4 ,in an end-lap joint on rabbeted pieces1 ,fig4 #bfe1 the joint must be adapted to the rabbet4 ,the rabbet should therefore be plowed before the joint is made4 ,the rabbet at the end of the piece ,x is cut not the entire width of the piece ,y1 but only the width of the lap1--c-fa-e4 ,this joint is used occasionally in picture-frames4 ,no4 #ah4 ,a dovetail halving or lap-dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is a middle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape1 and is thus better able to resist tension4 ,it is used for strong tee joints4 ,no4 #ai4 ,a beveled halving1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so that the adjoining cheeks are beveled4 ,it is very strong when loaded above4 ,it was formerly used in house framing4 ,,modified ,,halving ,,joints ,no4 #bj4 ,a notched joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made by cutting out a portion of one timber4 ,it is used where it is desired to reduce the height occupied by the upper timber4 ,joists are notched on to wall plates4 ,no4 #ba4 ,a checked joint or double notch1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made by cutting out notches from both the timbers so as to engage each other4 ,it is used where a single notch would weaken one member too much4 ,no4 #bb4 ,a cogged or corked or caulked joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower piece1 leaving a cog uncut4 ,from the upper piece a notch is cut only wide enough to receive the cog4 ,a cogged joint is stronger than a notched because the upper beam is not weakened at its point of support4 ,it is used in heavy framing4 ,no4 #bc4 ,a forked tenon joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is made by cutting a fork in the end of one member1 and notching the other member to fit into the fork1 so that neither piece can slip4 ,it is used in knock-down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail1 where it is desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be continuous4 ,no4 #bd4 ,a rabbet or rebate or ledge joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting out a portion of the side or end of a board or timber ,x to receive the end or side of another1 ,y4 ,it may then be nailed from either the side or end or from both4 ,the neatest way in small boxes is from the end1 or better still it may be only glued4 ,no4 #be4 ,a dado or grooved joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other member fits4 ,properly speaking a groove runs with the grain1 a dado across it1 so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado4 ,where the whole of the end of one member is let into the other1 such a dado is also called a housed dado4 ,treads of stairs are housed into string boards4 ,to lay out a dado joint3 ,after carefully dressing up both pieces to be joined1 locate accurately with a knife point1 on the member to be dadoed1 called ,x1 one side of the dado1 and square across the piece with a try-square and knife4 ,then locate the other side of the dado by placing1 if possible1 the proper part of the other member1 called ,y1 close to the line drawn4 ,if this method of superposition is not possible1 locate by measurement4 ,mark1 with a knife point1 on ,x1 the thickness thus obtained4 ,square both these lines as far across the edges of ,x as ,y is to be inserted4 ,gage to the required depth on both edges with the marking-gage4 ,to cut the joint3 ,first make with the knife a triangular groove on the waste side of each line1 as indicated in ,fig4 #ia1 p4 #ff1 and starting in the grooves thus made1 saw with the back-saw to the gaged lines on both edges4 ,the waste may now be taken out either with a chisel or with a router1 ,fig4 #abb1 p4 #hc4 ,the second member1 ,y1 should just fit into a dado thus made1 but if the joint is too tight1 the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel4 ,in delicate work it is often wise not to saw at all1 but to use only the knife and chisel4 ,no4 #bf4 ,a dado and rabbet1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting a dado in one member1 ,x1 and a rabbet on the other1 ,y1 in such a way that the projecting parts of both members will fit tight in the returns of the other member4 ,it is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface for gluing4 ,no4 #bg4 ,a dado1 tongue and rabbet1 ,fig4 #bff1 is a compound joint1 made by cutting a rabbet on one member1 ,y1 and then a dado in this rabbet1 into which fits a tongue of the other member1 ,x4 ,it is used in machine-made drawers4 ,no4 #bh4 ,a dovetail dado or gain1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting one or both of the sides of the infitting member1 ,y1 on an angle so that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise4 ,it is used in book-cases and similar work1 in which the shelves are fixed4 ,to make this joint1 first lay out the dovetail on the member to be inserted1 called ,y1 thus3 ,across one end square a line 7,a ,b1 ,no4 #bh71 at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in4 ,set the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail1 ,fig4 #bej4 ,score this angle on the edges of the member1 as at ,c ,d4 ,cut a groove with a knife on the waste side of ,a ,b4 ,saw to the depth ,a ,c1 and chisel out the interior angle ,a ,c ,d4 ,then lay out the other member1 ,x1 thus3 mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of ,y1 square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado4 ,lay out the thickness of ,y on the face of ,x by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges1 not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point4 ,gage the required depth on the edges4 ,now with the bevel-square as already set1 lay out the angle ,a ,c ,d on the edges of ,x1 and across the face at ,c score a line with knife and try-square4 ,cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado1 and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle4 ,chisel or rout out the waste and when complete1 fit the pieces together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,laying ,out a ,dovetail ,joint4 ,no4 #bi4 ,a gain joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 is a dado which runs only partly across one member1 ,x4 ,in order to make the edges of both members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain1 the corner of the other member1 ,y1 is correspondingly notched out4 ,in book shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado4 ,a gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado1 except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of ,x1 and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth4 ,knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado4 ,before sawing1 the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth4 ,to avoid sawing too deep at the blind end1 the sawing and chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately1 a little at a time1 till the required depth is reached4 ,it is easy to measure the depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper amount from a trial stick1 ,fig4 #bea4 ,the use of the router1 ,fig4 #abb1 p4 #hc1 facilitates the cutting1 and insures an even depth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,depth-gage for ,dado4 ,,mortise-,,and-,,tenon ,,joints ,the tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the part left in the middle4 ,the mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is made slightly deeper than the tenon is long4 ,the sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called cheeks and the shoulders of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece4 ,no4 #cj4 ,a stub mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting only two sides of the tenon beam4 ,it was formerly used for lower ends of studding or other upright pieces to prevent lateral motion4 ,no4 #ca4 ,a thru mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 is made by cutting the mortise clear thru one member and by cutting the depth of the tenon equal to or more than the thickness of the mortised member4 ,the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides4 ,it is used in window sashes4 ,a thru mortise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a blind mortise-and-tenon 7see below71 except that the mortise is laid out on the two opposite surfaces1 and the boring and cutting are done from both1 cutting first from one side and then from the other4 ,no4 #cb4 ,a blind mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 is similar to the simple mortise-and-tenon described in #cj4 ,the tenon does not extend thru the mortised member and the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides4 ,to make a blind mortise-and-tenon1 first make the tenon thus3 ,locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and square entirely around the piece4 ,on the working edge near the end mark the thickness of the tenon4 ,set the marking-gage at the proper distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines4 ,reset the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same way from the working face4 ,then mark and gage the width of the tenon in the same way4 ,whenever there are several tenons of the same size to be cut1 they should all be laid out together1 that is the marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all back cheeks4 ,if a mortise-gage is available1 use that4 ,always mark from the working face or working edge4 ,cut out a triangular groove on the waste side of the knife lines 7at the shoulders7 as in cutting a dado1 ,fig4 #ia1 p4 #ff4 ,in cutting the tenon1 first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines1 then crosscut at the shoulder lines4 ,do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting4 ,if the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts4 ,it is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise4 ,locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished piece4 ,then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon1 already determined1 and gage between the cross lines4 ,as in the case of like tenons1 if there are a number of mortises all alike1 set the gage only twice for them all4 ,in cutting the mortice1 first fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench4 ,this may be done either in a tail vise or by a handscrew1 or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece4 ,then tap the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held tightly down on the bench4 ,see ,fig4 #gf1 p4 #eh4 ,it is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise4 ,take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface1 see ,fig4 #acg1 p4 #hf1 and no deeper than necessary4 ,dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices1 back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines1 taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise perpendicular to the face4 ,this may be tested by placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a try-square with its head resting on the surface4 ,finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it pinches1 if anywhere1 and trim carefully4 ,the tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member1 the stronger will be the joint4 ,many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes4 ,for this purpose a mortise-chisel1 ,fig4 #fh1 p4 #ed1 is desirable4 ,the method is to begin at the middle of the mortise1 placing the chisel--which should be as wide as the mortise--at right angles to the grain of the wood4 ,chisel out a ,v shaped opening about as deep as the mortise1 and then from this hole work back to each end1 occasionally prying out the chips4 ,work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise4 ,no4 #cc4 ,in a mortise-and-tenon joint on rabbeted pieces1 ,fig4 #bff1 the tenon is as much shorter on one side than the other as the rabbet is wide4 ,in ,fig4 #cc1 abcd4 ,no4 #cd4 ,a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 is a thru joint in which after the tenon is driven home1 wedges are driven in between the tenon and the sides of the mortise4 ,the wedges are dipped in glue or white lead before being inserted4 ,the sides of the mortise may be slightly dovetailed4 ,it is used to keep a tenon tightly fixed as in wheel spokes4 ,no4 #ce4 ,a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 may also be made by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in ,no4 #cd4 ,it is used in ornamental joints as well as in carpentry4 ,no4 #cf4 ,a fox-tail tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 is a blind mortise-and-tenon in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the width of the tenon4 ,wedges are driven into saw kerfs in the tenon before inserting into the mortise2 then when it is driven home the wedges spread out the tenon and make it fill out the mortise4 ,it is used in strong doors and also where the mortised member is already in place so that a wedged mortise-and-tenon is impossible4 ,no4 #cg4 ,a dovetail mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 is a thru mortise-and-tenon beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail4 ,the corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide enough so that when the tenon is pressed well up against its beveled side a wedge may be driven into the space left on the straight side4 ,it is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is fixed against a wall4 ,it is also used in machinery frames which are made of wood4 ,no4 #ch4 ,a pinned mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which a pin is driven thru holes bored thru the mortised beam and thru the tenon to keep them from drawing apart4 ,it is used in heavy framing as in bridges1 in wagon-making1 in window-sash1 etc4 ,no4 #ci4 ,a keyed mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which the tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member4 ,it is used in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases and in other mission furniture4 ,the keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and-tenon1 except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges should be laid out thus3 measuring from the shoulder of the tenon1 locate by superposition or measurement the outside of the mortised member4 ,deduct from this #a_/af and square a fine pencil-line across the face and opposite side4 ,this line will be the inside of the hole for the wedge1 and the #a_/af is deducted to make sure that the key wedges against the mortised member4 ,on the upper surface of the tenon1 lay off toward the end the width of the wedge at this point1 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #beb1 and square across4 ,on the under surface1 lay off the width of the wedge at this point1 ,c ,d1 and square across4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,keyed ,mortise-and-,tenon ,joint4 ,gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower surfaces of the tenon4 ,after cutting the mortise and tenon1 bore and chisel out the hole for the wedge1 taking care to cut the side toward the end on a bevel to fit the wedge4 ,no4 #dj4 ,a tusk tenon or shoulder tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder called a tusk4 ,the upper shoulder is beveled4 ,the object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at the same time to increase the strength of the tenon4 ,it is used in joining tail beams to headers in floor framing4 ,no4 #da4 ,a double mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 consists of two tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mortises4 ,it is used in joinery1 as in door-frames1 but not in carpentry4 ,no4 #db4 ,a haunched mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is made by cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much shorter than the rest4 ,the haunch gives the tenon great lateral strength and saves cutting so large a mortise hole4 ,it is used in panel construction1 as where the rails are joined to the stiles of doors4 ,first plow the groove in all the members4 ,this should be of the same width as the thickness of the tenons1 which is ordinarily one-third of the thickness of the frame4 ,the groove is approximately as deep as it is wide4 ,lay out and cut the tenon the width of the entire piece1 minus1 of course1 the depth of the groove4 ,the mortise should not come too near the end1 or the portion of wood outside it will shear out4 ,hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to insure strength in the mortised piece4 ,the rule is that the tenon should be one-half the width of the rail1 minus the groove4 ,but enough of the tenon is left full width to fill up the groove at the outer end of the mortised piece4 ,this is called the haunch4 ,the width of the mortise is equal to the width of the groove1 its length to the width of the tenon4 ,before assembling the panel frame1 put soap or tallow on the corners of the panel to prevent its being glued to the frame4 ,no4 #dc4 ,table or taper haunching1 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,sometimes1 as in table construction1 for the sake of stiffening the rail1 or in places where it is desirable that the haunch does not show1 the haunch is beveled from the tenon to the edge of the rail4 ,no4 #dd4 ,a bare-faced tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which a cheek is cut from only one side4 ,it is used where the rail is thinner than the stile and it is desirable to keep the mortise near the middle of the stile4 ,no4 #de4 ,a housed mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which the whole of the end of one member is let in for a short distance or housed into the other4 ,it is common in grill work and in railings4 ,no4 #df4 ,a slip-joint or end or open mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is what would remain if a mortised member were sawn off along one side of the tenoned member4 ,window screens and other light frames such as those for slates and for printing photographs have this joint4 ,this joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes1 and is then called corner locking4 ,,dovetail ,,joints ,dovetail refers to the shape of the projections of one member1 when looked at broadside4 ,these projections are called dovetails1 or merely tails4 ,the projections on the other member are called tenons or pins1 and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets4 ,no4 #dg4 ,a thru single dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is similar to a slip-joint except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail4 ,it is used in window-sashes4 ,no4 #dh4 ,a thru-multiple dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 consists of a series of alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely4 ,it is used in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes4 ,to make a thru multiple dovetail joint1 first square lines with a sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends of the dovetails and the pins1 d e on ,x1 ,fig4 #bej1 and l m on ,y4 ,the distance of this line from the ends of each member may1 if desired1 be slightly 7#a_/cb7 greater than the thickness of the other member4 ,divide this line1 d e1 on the member to be dovetailed1 ,x1 into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails 7dovetails74 ,from the division points of these spaces1 a b c1 to the right and left lay off one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out1 and also the same distance from d and from e1 as at f f f f and g g g g4 ,the strongest arrangement of dovetails is to make them equal in width to the spaces between them1 as in ,no4 #dh1 p4 #bfg4 ,for the sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as the spaces1 but ordinarily should not be wider than #a-c_/d4 ,set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #bej1 p4 #aei1 in a right angle triangle1 the long side of which is #c and the short side #e_/h4 ,this is approximately an angle of #hj or a little more than one to five4 ,from the points f f f f and g g g g lay off this angle to the end of the piece4 ,carry these lines across the end at right angles to the surface1 h i1 ,fig4 #bej1 and repeat the dovetail angles on the other surface4 ,mark plainly the parts to be cut out 7the mortises71 as on ,x in ,fig4 #bej4 ,score with a knife point the inner ends of the mortises1 d to f1 g to f1 etc41 and across the edge at d and at e4 ,with a dovetail-saw1 ,fig4 #ic1 p4 #ff1 cut on the mortise side of each line down to the cross line1 d-e1 and also along the cross line from d to f and e to g4 ,chisel out the mortises taking care to keep the line d-e straight and square4 ,the ends 7not the sides7 of the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit4 ,fasten the other member1 ,y1 upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will be flush with the top of the bench1 and with the working face toward the bench4 ,place on it the working face of ,x1 7the member already dovetailed17 taking care that the inner ends of the mortises are in line with the working face of ,y1 and that the edges of the two members are in the same plane1 as ,x on ,y in ,fig4 #bej4 ,scribe with a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of ,y 7f'-j' and g'-h'74 ,remove ,y from the vise and square down these lines to the cross line l-m 7j'-n and h'-o74 ,score with the knife point the inner ends of the mortises of ,y 7n-o74 ,saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines1 chisel out the mortises and fit the parts together4 ,when glued together1 the joints should be dressed off4 ,where there are several parts to be made alike1 it is necessary to lay out the dovetails on only one ,x member4 ,this may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn separately4 ,or all the ,x members may be clamped carefully together1 with one ,x already laid out1 rights and lefts in pairs1 and edges and ends flush1 the depth mark gaged all around1 and then all sawn at once4 ,the dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins1 and then superposing this on the piece to be dovetailed1 and scribing around the pins4 ,no4 #di4 ,a lap or half blind dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is a dovetail joint in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the thickness of the other member4 ,it is used in joining the sides to the fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen4 ,if the joint is to be used for a drawer front1 the groove for the drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the joint4 ,see also drawers1 p4 #aij1 and ,fig4 #bhg1 p4 #aia4 ,on the end of the drawer front1 gage the depth of the joint4 ,gage the same distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides1 marking from the front ends4 ,lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint1 taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within the lower tail4 ,take care also to make the sides1 one right and one left1 not both alike1 so that the groove will come inside4 ,lay out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side1 ,x1 on the end of the front1 ,y1 as in a thru dovetail4 ,saw and chisel out the mortises and fit together4 ,no4 #ej4 ,a stopped lap dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is one in which neither the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members4 ,hence the joint is concealed4 ,the lap may be rounded4 ,it is used in fine boxes1 trays1 etc4 ,no4 #ea4 ,the blind miter or secret dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 is a joint in which only part1 say one-half1 of both boards is dovetailed1 the outer portion being mitered4 ,the edges of the boards are also mitered right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are invisible4 ,it is used in highly finished boxes4 ,,beveled ,,joints ,a beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet4 ,this is called the miter and may be #de degrees or any other angle4 ,it is a neat but weak joint unless reinforced by a spline1 nails1 or in some other way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,gluing ,together a ,picture-,frame 7,see also ,fig4 #bed47 ,no4 #eb4 ,a plain miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is a joint where the beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed together4 ,it is commonly used in picture-frames1 inside trim1 columns1 boxes1 and taborets1 four or more sided4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,picture-,frame-,clamp4 ,for gluing mitered frames1 the most convenient way is with the aid of the picture-frame-vise1 ,fig4 #agb1 p4 #aja4 ,nails are driven or splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued4 ,where this vise is not available1 an ordinary metalworking vise may be used1 as follows3 ,fasten one member1 ,x1 face side up1 firmly in the vise4 ,bore holes in the other member1 ,y1 at the proper places for the nails4 ,insert nails in the holes1 apply the glue to both mitered surfaces1 place the glued surfaces together1 letting ,y project about #a_/h beyond ,x4 ,a convenient way to hold ,y in place is in the left hand1 palm up1 while the left forearm rests upon ,x4 ,drive one of the nails home1 and continue driving until the parts exactly fit4 ,then drive home the other nail4 ,now fasten together in the same way the other two members of the picture-frame1 and then1 one at a time1 the third and fourth joint4 ,this is the method used in picture-frame factories1 and when once learned is very simple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,picture-,frame-,clamp4 7,see also ,fig4 #bed47 ,for gluing together at once all the members of a mitered frame1 the device shown in ,fig4 #bec is convenient and is easily made4 ,out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end pieces of the frame1 gains are cut of the exact length of the ends1 as shown in the illustration4 ,by applying two clamps lengthwise on the frame1 all four joints may be glued together at once4 ,if the frame does not come up square1 it may be squared by means of a temporary brace1 ,a1 in ,fig4 #bec4 ,the device shown in ,figs4 #bed and #bee1 is also an easily made and efficient tool4 ,at least the small pieces1 which receive the corners of the frame1 should be made of hard wood such as maple4 ,it is self-adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow frame by over pressure4 ,it is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to prevent their being glued to the frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,gluing up a ,column ,joint4 7,pinch-,dogs at ,top of ,joints47 ,in gluing together long mitered joints1 in six or eight sided taborets or columns1 in which the members meet edgewise1 one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure1 ,fig4 #bef4 ,another method is to wrap a stout rope1 such as is used for window weights1 around all the pieces1 properly set up1 then to tighten it by twisting it with a stick thru a loop1 ,fig4 #beg4 ,a still more effective way is by means of the ,noxall ,column ,clamp1 a powerful device1 used chiefly for gluing up such pieces as the pillar of a centrally supported table1 ,fig4 #bei4 ,care must be taken with all these devices to protect the corners1 unless they are to be rounded off afterward4 ,a good way to protect them is with pieces fastened together in the shape shown in ,fig4 #beh1 b1 and ,fig4 #beg1 the interior angle being equal to the exterior angle of the piece to be glued4 ,in the case of a taboret with slender legs1 care must be taken to insert blocks between the separate legs as well1 to brace them apart and to keep them from bending under the pressure4 ,these methods have the advantage that they are speedy1 since all the pieces go together at once2 but unless the pieces fit exactly the joints will not close4 ,another method is to glue and clamp the pieces of the taboret together two by two1 using blocks as shown in ,fig4 #beh1 a4 ,care should be taken to put the pressure of the handscrews as far out as possible so as to be sure that the outside of the joint closes4 ,this method has the advantage that1 as only one joint is glued at a time1 the work can be done more deliberately4 ,moreover1 if when three pairs of a six-sided taboret are together1 the other three joints do not fit exactly1 they can then be refitted4 ,another method is to glue pieces of soft wood on the exterior of each pieces as shown in ,fig4 #beh1 c4 ,these blocks should be of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel4 ,when the glue is dry1 they are used as corners on which to clamp the handscrews4 ,this method has the disadvantage that the blocks may break loose at a critical moment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,one ,method of ,gluing up a ,six-,sided ,taboret4 ,in addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints1 to make sure that the ends of the joints close tight1 pinch-dogs1 ,fig4 #agh1 p4 #ajc1 may be driven into the end grain1 and corrugated fasteners1 ,fig4 #bbh1 p4 #abe1 also driven into the ends1 make the joint quite secure4 ,no4 #ec4 ,a doweled miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one in which one or more dowels are inserted and glued into holes bored into the beveled edges4 ,it may be used instead of nails1 as in large picture frames4 ,no4 #ed4 ,a spline or tongue miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one which has a spline or tongue inserted at right angles to the joint4 ,since it furnishes more gluing surface1 it is stronger than a plain miter4 ,no4 #ee4 ,a slip-feather or slip-key miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one which is strengthened by a slip of hardwood glued into a saw kerf cut across the mitered angle4 ,it is used in picture-frames and in boxes4 ,no4 #ef4 ,a slip-dovetail miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one in which a trapezoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter4 ,when dressed off1 it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face4 ,it is used for the same purpose as a spline miter4 ,no4 #eg4 ,a double dovetail keyed miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one in which a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the joint4 ,this is a favorite joint with ,oriental joiners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4 ,devices for ,gluing ,beveled ,edges4 ,no4 #eh4 ,a ledge and miter or lipped miter joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is made by rabbeting and mitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a miter4 ,it is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed4 ,it is used for fine boxes4 ,no4 #ei4 ,a stopped miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is useful for joining pieces of different widths1 when both sides can be seen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,column-,clamp4 ,no4 #fj4 ,a double-tongue miter1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other4 ,it is used in high class joinery1 on members that join lengthwise of the grain4 ,no4 #fa4 ,a stretcher joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered4 ,it is used in frames for stretching canvass for paintings by driving wedges from the inside4 ,two forms are shown in #fa;a and #fa;b4 ,no4 #fb4 ,a strut joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is a form of miter joint used in making trusses4 ,no4 #fc and #fd4 ,a thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 is one in which two beams meet at an oblique angle1 one receiving the thrust of the other4 ,the toe may be either square as in #fc1 or oblique as in #fd4 ,the pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron4 ,it is used for the batter braces of bridges4 ,no4 #fe4 ,a plain brace joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is one in which the brace is simply mitered and nailed into place4 ,it is used for bracket supports4 ,no4 #ff4 ,a housed brace joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is a joint in which the brace is housed into the rectangular members except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diagonally to receive the brace which is cut to correspond4 ,it is much stronger than #fe4 ,no4 #fg4 ,an oblique mortise-and-tenon or bevel-shoulder joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is one in which the shoulders of the tenoned beam are cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles4 ,the cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk4 ,by these means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against the abutment4 ,thus a much larger bearing surface is obtained4 ,the whole is bolted or strapped together4 ,it is used in heavy truss work4 ,no4 #fh4 ,a bridle joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is an oblique joint in which a bridle or tongue is left in an oblique notch cut out of one beam4 ,over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut obliquely in the other beam4 ,it is used in truss construction4 ,no4 #fi4 ,a bird's mouth joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is an angular notch cut in a timber to allow it to fit snugly over the member on which it rests4 ,it is used in rafters where they fit over the plate4 ,no4 #gj4 ,a plain or rubbed or squeezed or glue joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is one in which the edges of two boards are glued and rubbed together tight4 ,it is used in table-tops1 drawing-boards1 etc4 ,to make this joint1 first the boards are all laid down flat1 side by side1 and arranged in the proper order4 ,three considerations determine what this order is to be3 7#a71 if the grain is of prime importance1 as in quartered oak1 then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain4 7#b71 if possible1 the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjacent ones4 ,for this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direction with the annual rings of the next1 ,fig4 #bhj1 a1 p4 #ahh4 7#c71 if possible1 the boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can all be planed smooth in the same direction4 ,when the above requirements have been met so far as possible1 this order should be marked on adjoining edges for later identification4 ,the edges of the boards to be joined should be finished with a jointer4 ,there are two principal methods of gluing edge-to-edge joints1 rubbing and squeezing4 ,in a rubbed joint1 the surfaces to be joined should be planed so as to meet thruout exactly4 ,after properly planing one edge of each board1 keep one board in the vise1 jointed edge up1 and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it4 ,then use these four tests for an exact fit4 7#a7 ,sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane4 7#b7 ,examine the crack from both sides4 ,be sure that both ends touch4 ,test this by pulling down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in contact4 ,if the other end opens1 swing the upper board horizontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it4 7#c7 ,see if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board by feeling gently to see if it rocks1 or by rapping lightly the lower board4 7#d7 ,slide the top board slowly on the lower one to see if it adheres or sucks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,applying ,glue for an ,edge-to-,edge ,joint4 ,after the pieces have been warmed1 which should be done if possible1 the glue is spread on them1 ,fig4 #bfj1 and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain1 pressure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the joint in the least4 ,as the glue sets1 the rubbing becomes more difficult4 ,it should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions4 ,in rubbing together the edges of two boards1 handscrews may be fastened to one in such a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between1 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,rubbing a ,glued ,joint4 ,another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and projecting above the lower board4 ,this spare board acts as a guide against which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth4 ,the rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards4 ,in joining long boards1 a squeezed joint is common4 ,in this case1 the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end4 ,the object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle4 ,the pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle1 and1 especially if dowels are inserted1 as in ,no4 #ge1 the joint will be strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards4 ,when the fit is good1 warm the wood if possible1 prepare the clamps1 put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together1 apply the clamps rapidly1 keeping the faces flush1 and set away to dry for at least six hours4 ,then another piece may be added in the same manner4 ,if the boards are thin and wide1 and therefore likely to buckle1 they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to prevent their buckling4 ,the cross-strips are1 of course1 slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint4 ,no4 #ga4 ,a rebated1 rabbeted or fillistered joint1 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,rebating is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood4 ,the re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabbet4 ,a rebated joint1 then1 is one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap4 ,it is used in flooring and siding4 ,a board is rebated and filleted when two adjoining rebates are filled with a fillet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,edge-to-,edge ,joint1 ,doweled4 ,no4 #gb4 ,a matched or tongue-and-groove joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is made by making a projection or tongue in the center of the edge of one board1 and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match together4 ,when used for flooring1 the lower side of the grooved board is slightly rebated so that the upper edges will surely touch4 ,this sort of flooring can be blind-nailed4 ,no4 #gc4 ,a beaded joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes4 ,no4 #gd4 ,a spline-joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is made by plowing corresponding grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip-feather4 ,it is used in plank flooring4 ,no4 #ge4 ,a doweled joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 is made by jointing the two edges carefully1 boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together4 ,it is used in table tops1 etc4 ,where the boards are thick enough to allow it1 a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels4 ,the essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface4 ,the following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge1 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush4 ,determine approximately where the dowels are to be inserted4 ,with the gage1 mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge1 gaging from the outside faces4 ,across these lines score accurately with a try-square and knife4 ,then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines1 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,if this is carefully done1 the holes will be directly opposite one another1 and equidistant from the faces of both boards4 ,all the holes should be of equal depth1 say #a1 in order that the dowel-pins1 which should also be cut of equal lengths1 may be interchangeable4 ,after boring1 the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place4 ,the latter result may also be obtained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel-pointer1 ,fig4 #abc1 p4 #hc4 ,it is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole4 ,the dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is applied to the joint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,boring for ,dowels in an ,edge-to-,edge ,joint4 ,,the ,,common ,,joints ,,references399 ,rivington1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eg-gg1 #ace-acg1 #bch-bdb2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bia-bie4 ,adams1 pp4 #a-cj4 ,sickels1 pp4 #hf-abd4 ,goss1 pp4 #abh-aeb4 ,ellis1 pp4 #ace-aea4 ,barter1 pp4 #baa-bge4 ,selden1 pp4 #ef-acj4 ,building ,trades ,pocketbook1 pp4 #bag-bba1 #bcg4 ,griffith1 pp4 #hf-ajd1 #afd-agj4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 #a ,lapped and ,strapped #b ,fished #c ,fished and keyed #d ,spliced for compression #e ,spliced for tension #f ,spliced and ,tabled #g ,spliced for cross strain #h ,dowelled butt #i ,toe-nailed #aj ,draw-bolt #aa ,plain butt #ab ,glued and blocked #ac ,hopper #ad ,cross lap ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 #ae ,middle lap #af ,end lap #ag ,end lap with rabbet #ah ,dovetail halving #ai ,beveled halving #bj ,notched #ba ,checked #bb ,cogged #bc ,forked ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4 #bd ,rabbet #be ,dado #bf ,dado and rabbet #bg ,dado tongue and rabbet #bh ,dovetail dado #bi ,gain #cj ,stub mortise and tenon #ca ,thru mortise and tenon #cb ,blind mortise and tenon #cc ,mortise and tenon with rabbet #cd ,wedged mortise and tenon #ce ,wedged mortise and tenon #cf ,fox tail tenon #cg ,dovetail mortise and tenon ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 #ch ,pinned mortise and tenon #ci ,keyed mortise and tenon #dj ,tusk tenon #da ,double mortise and tenon #db ,haunched mortise and tenon #dc ,table haunching #dd ,bare faced tenon #de ,housed mortise and tenon #df ,slip #dg ,thru single dovetail #dh ,thru multiple dovetail #di ,lap dovetail #ej ,stopped lap dovetail #ea ,blind dovetail ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 #eb ,miter #ec ,doweled miter #ed ,spline miter #ee ,slip feather miter #ef ,slip dovetail miter #eg ,double dovetail keyed #eh ,ledge and miter #ei ,stopped miter #fj ,double tongue miter #fa ,stretcher #fb ,strut #fc ,square thrust #fd ,oblique thrust ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 #fe ,brace #ff ,housed brace #fg ,oblique mortise and tenon #fh ,bridle #fi ,bird's mouth #gj ,glue #ga ,rabbeted #gb ,matched #gc ,beaded #gd ,spline #ge ,doweled ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,types ,,of ,,wooden ,,structures4 ,the articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes3 7#a7 ,unjoined pieces2 7#b7 board structures2 7#c7 panel structures2 7#d7 framed structures4 ,a few illustrations of each class are given below4 7#a7 ,,simple ,,or ,,unjoined ,,pieces ,of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learning of tool processes2 at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design1 and when finished are of use4 ,examples are3 key-boards1 chiseling-boards1 bread-boards1 sleeve-boards1 ironing-boards1 coat- and skirt-hangers1 and gouged trays4 ,some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing1 directions for which are given above1 p4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,pen-,tray4 ,where there is more than one process involved1 the order of procedure is of importance4 ,in general1 a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square1 or1 in technical language1 to true it up4 ,at least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the lay out4 ,where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true2 where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first4 ,for example1 in making a gouged tray with curved outline1 ,fig4 #bgj1 the working face1 the working edge1 and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out4 ,then1 after the outline is drawn1 the trough may be gouged1 the outline cut with turning-saw1 chisel1 and spokeshave1 and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel4 ,if there is incised decoration it should be cut before the molding is cut1 so that while being incised1 the piece will lie flat without tipping4 ,these simple pieces1 as well as others1 are often embellished by chamfering4 ,a chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an arris4 ,it differs from a bevel in that a bevel inclines all the way to the next arris1 while a chamfer makes a new arris1 ,fig4 #bga4 ,a thru chamfer extends the whole length or width of a piece1 while a stop chamfer extends only part way4 ,for the laying out of a chamfer see p4 #aae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,difference ,between ,chamfer and ,bevel4 ,thru chamfering is best done with a plane1 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,for this purpose the piece may be held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped to the proper angle1 or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in turn is held in the vise as in ,fig4 #age1 p4 #ajb4 ,the chamfers with the grain should be planed before those across the grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,thru ,chamfering4 ,in chamfering a four-square stick into an eight-square1 the piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally1 ,fig4 #bgc1 or it may be held in a trough made of two strips of wood from each of which an arris has been chamfered and then the two nailed together1 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,a dowel or nail may be inserted in the trough for a stop4 ,stop chamfers are pared best with a chisel1 ,fig4 #bge1 held according to convenience either flat side or bevel side up4 ,see under chisel1 p4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,piece ,held in ,vise to ,chamfer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,trough for ,planing ,chamfers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,stop ,chamfering4 7#b7 ,,board ,,structures4 ,these include such pieces as wall brackets1 sets of shelves1 book-racks1 plate-racks1 drawing-boards1 foot-stools1 taborets1 and boxes4 ,the advantage of this form of construction is that it is comparatively easy to make2 the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide1 they are sure to shrink and swell4 ,it is wise in all such work to true and smooth up all the pieces at once1 and if the wood is not thoroly seasoned1 to keep the boards under pressure till they are assembled4 ,in the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece1 they should be glued together before the surfaces are smoothed4 ,suggestions regarding a few typical pieces follow3 ,wall ,brackets4 7#a7 ,there are three essential parts1 the shelf1 the support or supports1 and the back3 the shelf to hold the articles1 the support to hold up the shelf1 and the back to hold all together1 ,fig4 #bgf1 a4 ,the grain of the wood in the shelf should run left and right1 not forward and back1 because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break easily1 and it also acts as a stiffener for the back4 ,in case the back extends above the shelf1 as in ,fig4 #bgf1 a1 the shelf can be secured firmly to the back1 since there is side grain in which to drive nails or screws4 ,as to the direction of the grain of the support and the back1 this should run in the direction of the largest dimension of each4 ,where the back is long horizontally1 for security in hanging1 it is better to have two supports4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,see the ,school ,arts ,book for ,nov41 #aijf1 ,design in the ,woodworking ,class1 by ,anna and ,william ,noyes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,wall ,brackets1 ,double-,hung3 a4 ,single ,support4 b4 ,double ,support4 ,wall book-shelves1 ,fig4 #bgg1 plate-racks1 etc41 are simply compound brackets4 ,the shelf is the essential piece1 the sides take the place of the supports1 and the back is often reduced to strips merely wide enough to give rigidity4 ,the shelves may be either gained into the supports1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bh or ,no4 #bi1 p4 #agi1 or a keyed mortise-and-tenon may be used1 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,in the latter case the back strip may have a short barefaced blind tenon which is mortised into the upright1 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,it also fits into a rabbet on the upper back side of the shelf4 ,made in this way the shelves can be knocked down easily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,wall ,book-,case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,construction of a ,knock-,down ,book-,shelf ,seen ,from the ,back4 ,foot ,stool or ,cricket1 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,the grain of the supports should run up and down1 because pieces with the grain horizontal would be likely to break under pressure4 ,braces or a rail give additional support4 ,the top should not be larger than the base of the legs2 otherwise a person standing carelessly on the stool is in danger of being upset4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,cricket4 ,a ,drawing-,board is made up of narrow boards1 with glued joints1 with the boards so laid that the annual rings will alternate in direction1 ,fig4 #bhj1 a4 ,it must be made so that it can shrink and swell and yet remain flat4 ,for the purpose of giving lateral stiffness cleats are added4 ,they may simply be screwed on the underside1 the screw holes being large enough to allow for shrinkage1 or they may be dadoed in with a dovetail dado1 ,fig4 #bhj1 b1 or they may be grooved to admit a tongue on the end of a board1 ,fig4 #bhj1 c4 ,in this case screws passing thru large holes in the cleats hold them in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,drawing-,board ,construction3 a4 ,with ,cleats ,screwed on ,beneath2 b4 ,with ,cleats ,dovetail-,dadoed in2 c4 ,with ,cleats ,matched on ,ends4 ,taborets4 ,the term taboret originally meant a little tabor or drum1 and was therefore used to designate a small stool1 the seat of which consisted of a piece of stretched leather4 ,the term now includes small1 tablelike structures for holding flowerpots1 vases1 etc4 ,it might more properly be called a table-ette4 ,when made up with boards having their long edges mitered1 it has from four to eight sides4 ,a six-sided one is shown in ,fig4 #bha4 ,in making1 it is best to fit the joints exactly first1 while the board is stiff1 and then to cut out the pattern of the legs4 ,directions for gluing are given on p4 #afi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,taboret4 ,scrap-boxes1 ,fig4 #bhb1 and flower-pot boxes may be made with the same construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,scrap-,box4 ,rectangular ,boxes4 ,there are various methods of joining their sides4 ,the butt joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,no4 #aa1 p4 #agg1 is plain1 simple1 and good for coarse work4 ,this joint may be reinforced as in packing boxes1 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,reinforced ,butt ,joint in ,box4 ,mitered joints1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eb1 p4 #aha1 are neat but weak1 unless reinforced by a spline1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #ed4 ,the rabbet or ledge joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bd1 p4 #agi1 is both strong and neat4 ,it can be glued and also nailed if desired4 ,the rabbet and dado joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bf1 can be glued without nails and is good for small boxes4 ,the housed dado1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #be1 is good for water-tight boxes4 ,the mitered ledge1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eh1 makes a very neat1 strong joint which can be nailed or glued1 but is more difficult to fit than a simpler joint4 ,the dovetail joint1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dh1 is very strong and honest1 but the joint is prominent from the outside and it takes much time and labor to make4 ,it is glued4 ,the blind dovetail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #ea1 is very neat and strong1 and the joint is entirely concealed when done1 but is very difficult to make4 ,the ,bottoms of ,boxes4 ,the plain or full bottom1 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,a1 is likely to shrink 7see dotted line71 and it is held in place only by the friction of the nails4 ,the extended bottom1 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,b1 overcomes the objection to shrinkage and adds a decorative feature4 ,the bottom may be set in1 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,c4 ,this is stronger than the plain bottom1 but the nail holes show4 ,the bottom may be rabbeted in1 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,d4 ,this is better than the set-in bottom so far as the showing of the nail holes goes1 for the nails may be driven in from below1 and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous4 ,it is practicable1 if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides1 but if the side pieces are butted or dadoed1 the rabbet for the bottom shows4 ,this may be cleverly concealed by an insert1 but that is patchwork1 and not first-rate construction4 ,reinforced bottom1 ,fig4 #bhd1 ,e4 ,a plain or full bottom is sometimes covered by a base or cover strip to hide the joint and secure the bottom1 as in tool chests4 ,this strip may be mitered at the corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,methods of ,attaching ,box ,bottoms4 ,the ,lids of ,boxes4 ,the simplest form is a full flat cover1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,a1 which may be nailed or screwed to the box1 as in packing cases4 ,the cover may slide into a groove1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,b1 along the sides and into one end1 the other end being lowered to admit it4 ,the cover may have cleats on its underside1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,c1 which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place4 ,the cleats also prevent the top from warping4 ,this is a common ,japanese construction1 even in fine boxes4 ,the ,japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon4 ,the lid may be boxed1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,d1 that is1 portions of the sides may be affixed to the top4 ,these extra pieces are a help to stiffen the top and to keep it from warping4 ,a boxed top may have the top board flush with the sides1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,e4 ,the disadvantage of this is that the top may shrink and part from the sides and give a bad appearance4 ,the overlapping top1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,f1 obviates this trouble of shrinkage and adds a decorative element4 ,in this case the top may be glued on or screwed from below thru the side strips4 ,the top may be mitered into the sides1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,g4 ,the shrinkage trouble still obtains here4 ,otherwise the appearance is excellent4 ,the top may be paneled into the sides1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,h4 ,this has a good appearance if the sides are mitered and ledged but not if the sides are butted or dadoed1 because then the groove for the top shows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,forms of ,box ,construction4 ,any of these lids may be made removable or hinged1 except the sliding top4 ,for methods of hinging see p4 #acb4 ,in gluing boxes together1 it is a good plan to glue the ends and sides together first and to let these joints dry before gluing on the bottom and1 in the case of a boxed top1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,d1 the top4 ,care must be taken to see that the sides do not bow under the pressure4 ,to prevent this1 one or more false1 temporary partitions as ,a1 ,b1 in ,fig4 #bhf1 of exactly the length to keep the sides straight1 may be inserted4 ,in gluing together boxes with rabbeted joints1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,h1 pressure should be applied in both directions4 ,in gluing on the bottom of a box that is also to be nailed1 the nails should be driven into the bottom first1 so that the points just come thru4 ,these points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom from slipping when pressure is applied4 ,it is often undesirable to have nail heads show1 as in a top4 ,in such a case1 and also to prevent the top from slipping under pressure1 a couple of small brads may be driven part way into the upper edges of the sides1 the heads bitten off with the nippers1 and points filed on the projecting portion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,glueing ,together a ,box4 ,drawers4 ,in the best form1 the sides are dovetailed to the front for strength1 ,fig4 #bhg1 for whenever the drawer is opened the front tends to pull away from the sides4 ,this dovetail is half blind1 so that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut4 ,in order that the drawer may always run freely and yet the front fit the opening as close as possible1 it is common practice to cut a shallow rabbet on the ends of the front1 so that the body of the drawer is a little narrower than the front is long1 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,or the front may be attached to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bg1 p4 #agi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,dovetailed ,drawer ,construction4 ,the bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play for shrinkage4 ,the back is dadoed into the sides1 with either a straight dado1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #be1 p4 #agi1 or dovetail dado1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bh1 and rests on the bottom4 ,the extension of the bottom beyond the back allows ample room for shrinkage4 ,the best machine-made drawers are now made with the bottom paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot slip out4 ,the back1 as well as the front1 is dovetailed4 ,directions for ,making a ,table ,drawer4 ,dress the front and sides to size4 ,fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet1 leaving a little play all around it4 ,plow the groove in the front and sides for the drawer bottom4 ,for ordinary drawers1 a groove #a_/d wide is proper4 ,if the ends of the front are to be rabbeted 7see above71 do this next4 ,the sides are best joined to the front with the half-blind dovetail joint4 7,for directions see p4 #aff74 ,after fitting these1 lay out and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer4 ,prepare the bottom of the drawer thus3 the grain should run right and left1 never front and back4 ,if the drawer is so long as to require it1 glue-joint the bottom1 and fit it snugly to place4 ,there need be no play right and left1 and the bottom should extend as far back as the sides4 ,if necessary1 bevel the under side to fit the grooves4 ,assemble all the parts to see that they fit1 take them apart1 glue the sides to the front and back1 slip the bottom into place1 apply the clamps1 and see to it that all joints are square1 using a diagonal brace if necessary1 ,fig4 #bid4 ,fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom and the back side of the front4 ,when dry1 clean up the drawer and fit it to its place4 7#c7 ,,panel ,,structures ,these include doors and cabinets of all sorts4 ,the principle of panel or cabinet construction is that there shall be a frame composed of narrow members whose grain follows the principal dimensions4 ,in the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together and within this frame there is set a thin board or panel which is free to shrink or swell but is prevented from warping by the stiffer frame4 ,the object is to cover an extended surface in such a way that the general dimensions and good appearance will not be affected by whatever shrinkage there is4 ,since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces1 there is but little shrinkage in them4 ,that shrinkage is all that affects the size of the whole structure1 because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable extent4 ,the shrinking or swelling of the panel does not affect the general size4 ,the cross construction of the frame also prevents warping1 since1 in the best construction every joint is mortised and tenoned4 ,the panel may simply be fastened on the back of the frame1 but a better construction is to insert it in a groove made in the inside of the frame in which the panel is to lie and have free play4 ,the panel may be made of one board or of matched boards1 may be plain or have raised or carved surfaces1 or be of glass2 and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in1 but the principle is the same in all cases4 ,the frame of a door1 ,fig4 #bhh1 illustrates the panel construction4 ,the upright1 outside pieces are called the stiles1 the horizontal pieces the rails4 ,there are also the top-rail1 the bottom-rail1 the lock-rail 7where the door-knob and lock are inserted71 and sometimes the frieze-rail between the lock rail and the top rail4 ,the muntin is the upright between the two stiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,door1 ,illustrating ,panel ,construction3 ,s4 ,stile2 ,t4 ,r4 ,top ,rail2 ,l4 ,r4 ,lock ,rail2 ,b4 ,r4 ,bottom ,rail2 ,m4 ,muntin2 ,p4 ,panel2 ,a4 ,double ,mortise-and-,tenon2 ,f4 ,fillet2 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,forms of ,panels4 ,the joint commonly used is the haunched or relished mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #db1 p4 #ahj2 7,see p4 #afc for directions for making74 ,the tenon is sometimes doubled1 ,fig4 #bhh1 and a fillet 7f7 may be inserted to cover the ends of the tenons1 or the joint may be a blind mortise-and-tenon1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #cb1 or in cheap construction1 dowels may be used4 ,the best doors are now made with cores of pine covered on the visible sides with heavy veneer4 ,large surfaces are covered by increasing the number of parts rather than their size1 as in wainscoting4 ,picture-frames also belong in this class of structures1 the glass taking the place of the panel4 ,they are made with mortise-and-tenon joints1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #cc1 slip joints1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #df1 dowelled butt joints1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,no4 #h1 end lap joints1 ,fig4 #bfe1 ,no4 #ag1 and1 far more commonly1 mitered joints1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eb4 ,mitered joints are the easiest to make1 for the joints can be cut in a miter-box1 ,fig4 #aha1 p4 #ajd1 and glued in a picture-frame-vise1 ,fig4 #agb1 p4 #aja4 ,this joint needs reinforcement by nails1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eb1 by dowels1 ,no4 #ec1 or by splines1 ,no4 #ee4 ,if the sides are of different widths1 the fitting of the joint is more difficult4 ,mitered joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames4 ,the rabbets are cut out with a rabbeting-plane before mitering and assembling4 ,the principle disadvantage of a mitered joint is that1 if the wood shrinks at all1 it opens at the inside corners1 as in ,fig4 #bhi1 because wood shrinks sidewise but not lengthwise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,the ,way a ,mitered ,joint ,opens on ,account of ,shrinkage4 ,in window sashes1 the dovetail joint1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dg1 is the common one at the upper end of the lower sash and the lower end of the upper sash1 and the mortise-and-tenon joint modified is used at the lower end of the lower and upper end of the upper sash4 ,the glass takes the place of the panel4 ,in blind sashes1 the pinned mortise-and-tenon joint1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #ch1 is commonly used4 ,when panels are joined together to enclose a space1 then we have what is properly called cabinet construction4 ,illustrations are cabinets1 bureaus1 desks1 lockers1 chests1 etc4 ,in all these cases1 the constructed panels may be treated as separate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework1 tho the corners are often reinforced by cleats or blocks glued into them4 ,sometimes1 however1 as in chests1 ,fig4 #bij1 posts are used instead of stiles1 and rails are mortised or doweled into them and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails4 ,in this case the bottom is raised from the floor1 and may be dadoed into the bottom rails1 or dowelled into them or even supported by strips attached along their lower inside edges4 ,the chest really is a union of both paneled and framed structures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,chest ,construction4 7#d7 ,,framed ,,structures ,the principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage without harm to construction and also to economize materials4 ,common examples are tables1 chairs1 work-benches1 and frame houses4 ,the ,making of a ,table4 ,the standard height of a table is #cj4 ,there should be #be clearance under the rails4 ,this leaves approximately #d for the width of the rails4 ,assuming that the table is to be of a simple straight line type with one drawer1 the following method of procedure is suggested3 ,cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick1 7see p4 #dg7 and clamp them1 so as to season them as well as possible before jointing4 ,dress to size the legs and rails4 ,stand the legs in their proper positions relative to each other1 and mark them ,f ,r 7front right71 ,f ,l 7front left71 ,b ,r 7back right71 and ,b ,l 7back left74 ,plow out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top1 ,fig4 #big1 ,d1 if they are to be used4 ,lay out and cut the tenons and mortises for the end rails and back rail4 ,the proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above it so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out4 ,the rails should be set near the outside of the leg so that the tenon may be as long as possible and the portion of the leg inside it as strong as possible4 ,a haunched mortise-and-tenon joint1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dc is sometimes used1 giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail4 ,the proper proportions are shown in ,fig4 #bia4 ,when cut1 these parts should be temporarily assembled to see if they fit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4 ,a4 ,cross-,section ,thru ,back ,left ,leg and ,adjoining ,rails of ,table4 7,plan74 ,b4 ,elevation1 ,showing ,wide ,shoulder on ,tenon of ,rail4 ,inasmuch as a drawer takes the place of a front rail1 the front legs must be tied together in some other way4 ,for this purpose two stringers or drawer rails may be used1 their front edges being as far from the face of the legs as are the rails from the side and back4 ,the upper drawer rail may be dovetailed at both ends into the tops of the legs1 as shown in ,fig4 #bib4 ,if this takes more room than can well be spared from the depth of the drawer1 it may be omitted1 but it adds greatly to the stiffness of the table and is an excellent means of fastening on the top by the use of screws passing thru it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,table ,construction3 ,upper ,drawer ,rail of ,table ,dovetailed into ,left ,front ,leg4 ,the drawer rail1 also called the fore edge1 is long enough to partly overlap the side rails1 into the lower edges of which it is gained so as to be flush with them1 and may be fastened to them with screws1 ,fig4 #bic4 ,the construction may be further strengthened by also doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs4 ,if there are two drawers1 the partition between them may be doweled or gained into these upper and lower stretchers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,the ,fixing of a ,drawer ,rail1 ,seen ,from ,below4 ,if the legs are to be tapered or otherwise shaped1 that should be done next4 ,then glue and assemble the end rails with their proper legs1 taking care to see not only that the joints come up square1 but that the legs are in the same plane4 ,finally assemble the whole1 inserting1 if necessary1 a temporary diagonal brace to insure squareness1 ,fig4 #bid4 ,when dry1 clean up the joints4 ,for the making of a table drawer1 see above1 p4 #aia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,brace to ,insure ,right ,angles in ,assembling a ,framed structure4 ,to fit the drawer to its place1 runners and guides1 ,fig4 #bie1 must first be fastened in4 ,the runners are in line with the drawer rail1 and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the back of the lower stringer and the back posts4 ,on top of them and in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between the front and back posts4 ,or the runner and guide may be made of one piece properly rabbeted out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,drawer ,mechanism4 ,if there are two drawers1 a double runner lies between1 and is gained into the middles of the back rail and the stringer1 and on it is a guide for both drawers1 equal in width to the partition between the drawers4 ,the drawers should run easily in their proper places4 ,in order to insure this1 the drawer should be slightly narrower than the opening which receives it4 ,a little ,french chalk1 rubbed on the sides and runners1 makes the running smoother4 ,sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of the front rail1 as in ,fig4 #bif4 ,in this case the drawer runners are supported between the front and back rails1 into which they may be gained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,opening for ,drawer ,cut ,out of ,front ,rail of ,table4 ,for the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint1 p4 #agb4 ,dress up the top to size1 taking special pains with the upper surface4 ,if the grain is crossed1 use the veneer-scraper1 ,fig4 #aea1 p4 #ib1 then sand1 first with ,no4 #a1 then with ,no4 #jj sandpaper1 finish the edges carefully1 and attach to the frame4 ,for fastening the top to the table rails1 several methods are used4 ,the top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up1 ,fig4 #big1 ,a1 or diagonally from the inside1 ,b1 or thru blocks or angle irons1 ,c1 which are screwed to the inside of the rails1 or thru buttons1 or panel irons1 ,d1 which are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail4 ,the last method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and swelling of the top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,methods of attaching ,table ,top to ,rails4 ,chairs may be so simplified in form as to be possible for the amateur to construct4 ,the two front legs and the rail and stretcher between them offer little difficulty because the angles are square4 ,the two back legs1 may1 for the purpose of simplification1 be kept parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between them1 as in ,fig4 #bih1 ,a1 and not at an angle as in ,b4 ,the joining of the back will then offer little difficulty4 ,the principal difficulties lie in the facts that for comfort and appearance the back of the chair should incline backward both above and below the seat1 and that the back of the seat should be narrower than the front4 ,by keeping at right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which receives the seat rail1 the side seat rails will meet the back legs at a right angle in a side view1 ,fig4 #bih4 ,the back legs should be slightly shorter than the front legs1 as shown in ,d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,chair ,construction4 ,the second difficulty involves the making of inclined mortise-and-tenon joints1 ,a1 where the side rails fit into the legs4 ,the making of these can be facilitated by laying out a plan of the full size and taking the desired angles directly from that4 ,it is common to reinforce these joints with corner blocks glued and screwed in place as shown in ,a4 ,if there are additional rails below the seat rails1 the easiest way to fit them in place is first to fit and clamp together the chair with the seat rails only1 taking pains to have all angles perfectly true1 and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair4 ,the same method may be used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails4 ,if it is desired to bow the rails of the back1 which are above the seat rail1 this can be done by boiling them in water for #cj minutes and then clamping them over a form of the proper shape1 with a piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside1 as in ,fig4 #bii4 ,they should be thoroly dried in a warm place4 ,then the tenons may be laid out on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side4 ,the chair bottom may be made of solid wood1 either flat or modeled into a saddle seat2 it may be covered with cane or rush1 or it may be upholstered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,bending ,boards into ,shape after ,boiling ,them4 ,to upholster a chair seat1 a frame should first be made of the shape shown in ,fig4 #bih1 ,c4 ,the strips are about #b wide and #a_/b thick with their ends half-lapped4 ,the seat rails are rabbeted #a_/b deep and #a_/b wide to receive this frame1 which should be #a_/h smaller all around than the place to receive it4 ,the returns at the corners fit around the legs at #a_/h distance from them4 ,this #a_/h provides space for the coverings4 ,after the frame is fitted1 it is covered with #c webbing tacked firmly to the upper side4 ,the webbing which goes back and forth is interwoven with that which goes from right to left4 ,over this is stretched and tacked 7also to the upper side7 a piece of unbleached muslin4 ,a second piece of muslin is tacked to the back edge and part way along the side edges1 leaving for the time the corners unfinished4 ,in the pocket thus formed horsehair or other stuffing is pushed1 care being taken to distribute it evenly and not too thick4 ,when the pocket is filled1 the muslin is tacked farther along the sides and more hair put in1 until the front is reached1 when the muslin is tacked to the front edge4 ,the corners are now drawn in tight1 a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so as to lie in well4 ,the partings may be turned down and tacked on the under side of the frame4 ,finally the leather or other covering is stretched over the whole as evenly as possible4 ,the corners should be left to the last1 then clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn down and tacked1 as was the muslin4 ,the superfluous leather may then be trimmed off1 and the seat should fit in its place4 ,or the seat frame may be omitted1 and the coverings tacked directly to the chair rails4 ,the balloon-frame house is a typical form of framed construction1 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,the essential parts of a balloon-frame are3 #a4 ,,sill1 #dh1 which rests on the foundation4 #b4 ,,beams1 #dh1 which rest on the cellar posts1 #ff4 7,not shown in illustration47 #c4 ,,floor ,,joists1 #bh1 which rest on the sill and beams4 #d4 ,,corner ,,posts1 #df1 with #bd studs nailed to them4 #e4 ,,studding1 #bd1 which stand #af between centers4 #f4 ,,wall ,,ribbon1 or girt1 #ah1 which supports the upper story joists4 #g4 ,,plates1 two #bd nailed together1 resting on studs4 #h4 ,,rafters1 #bf1 which support the roof4 #i4 ,,tie-,,beams1 #bf1 which prevent the roof from spreading the walls4 7,not shown in illustration47 #aj4 ,,ridge-,,pole1 #bh1 against which the rafters butt4 #aa4 ,,bridging1 #bb1 which stiffens the floor joists4 #ab4 ,,sheathing1 7#a thick71 put on diagonally to brace the building4 ,the rest is covering4 #ac4 ,,flooring1 7,see also ,fig4 #cja47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,house ,construction4 ,in flooring1 ,fig4 #cja1 the boards are made narrow so as to reduce the size of openings at the joints when they shrink1 and also to reduce the tendency to warp4 ,they may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors1 or matched to close the joint4 ,for difference between slash- and comb-grain flooring1 see ,fig4 #ee1 p4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,siding1 ,ceiling1 ,flooring4 #ad4 ,,building ,,paper4 #ae4 ,,siding ,,or ,,clapboards1 7,see ,fig4 #cja47 may either overlap without a joint or be rabbeted to fit4 ,the best siding is rabbeted4 #af4 ,,water-,,table4 #ag4 ,,corner-,,board4 #ah4 ,,furring4 #ai4 ,,shingles4 #bj4 ,,lathing4 #ba4 ,,ceiling1 ,fig4 #cja1 consists of matched boards having a bead to disguise the joint and give a decorative effect4 ,,types ,,of ,,wooden ,,structures ,,references399 ,simple ,joined ,structures4 ,benson1 pp4 #cb-cg4 ,goss1 pp4 #ia-if4 ,noyes1 ,school ,arts ,book1 #f3 #hi1 #agi4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #hf1 #bai-bbg1 #cgf4 ,sickels1 p4 #abj4 ,griffith1 pp4 #hd-ajd4 ,panel and ,cabinet ,construction4 ,goss1 pp4 #aag-aah1 #adh-aea4 ,compton1 pp4 #adf-aea4 ,sickels1 p4 #acd4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #cff-cgb4 ,framed ,structures4 ,crawshaw4 ,wheeler1 pp4 #bjc-bjf1 #bch-big4 ,sickels1 p4 #abd4 ,building ,trades ,pocketbook1 pp4 #bba1 #bcj4 ,coverings4 ,sickels1 pp4 #abh-aca4 ,goss1 pp4 #ada-add4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,principles ,,of ,,joinery4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,professor ,rankine's ,five ,principles3 #a4 ,to cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the pieces of timber they connect as little as possible4 #b4 ,to place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit4 #c4 ,to proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has to bear so that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice1 and to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly4 #d4 ,to proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength with the pieces which they connect4 #e4 ,to place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way thru the timber4 #a4 ,avoid multiplication of errors by making all measurements 7as far as possible7 from a common starting point1 and laying off all angles from the same line or surface4 ,illustrations of this principle are as follows3 ,before proceeding with other processes1 a working face and working edge and as many other surfaces as will finally appear in the finished piece1 should be trued up4 ,at least the working face and working edge are essential to the proper lay-out of the piece1 whenever measurements are made from an edge4 ,in laying out a series of measurements1 it is important1 when possible1 that the rule be laid down once for all1 and the additions be made on that1 rather than that the rule should be moved along for each new member of the series4 ,in scoring around a board with knife and try-square1 the head of the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring both edges1 and against the working edge in scoring both faces1 and not passed from one surface to another in succession4 ,in the laying out of a halved joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 ,nos4 #ae-ai1 p4 #agh1 the gaging is all done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of the joined pieces4 ,then1 if the gaged line should be slightly more or less than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint would not be affected4 #b4 ,when possible1 in laying out a joint1 use the method of superposition4 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,by this is meant the method by which the lay-out of one member is obtained directly from the other by laying 7superposing7 the latter on the former and marking or scribing the needed dimensions directly1 instead of by measurement4 ,it has the advantages of simplicity1 speed1 and greater probability of fit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,marking by ,superposition4 ,familiar illustrations are in the making of halved joints1 ,fig4 #bfe1 ,nos4 #ae-ai1 p4 #agh1 dovetail joints1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,nos4 #db-de1 p4 #ahj1 and scarfed or spliced joints1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,nos4 #d-g1 p4 #agg4 #c4 ,work systematically4 ,in case the same process is to be repeated on a number of parts1 complete this process in all before taking up another process4 ,this is the principle of the division of labor applied to the individual workman4 ,in laying out duplicate or multiple parts1 the proper cross measurements should be carefully laid out on one piece and then transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately beside it4 ,so when a number of like pieces are to be gaged1 all the parts requiring the same setting should be gaged before the gage is reset for another gaging4 ,this is a great saving of time and insures accuracy4 ,in making a number of like parts1 if they are not too large much of the work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up4 ,for example1 to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood1 the piece may first be brought to such dimensions that the length will be correct for the finished pieces and the thickness of the piece be equal to the width of the slats1 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,the face may then be gaged with a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required thickness of each slat1 and the alternate spaces be just sufficient for the saw kerf and dressing4 ,the slats may then be ripped apart and dressed to size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,making a ,number of ,like ,pieces from a ,given ,piece4 ,or a long strip may be planed to thickness and width and then be sawn up and finished to the proper lengths4 ,for example1 in a mitered picture-frame it may be convenient to plane up two pieces1 each one long enough to make one long side and one short side4 ,in fitting up framed structures each part when fitted should be distinctly marked1 so that there may be no confusion in assembling4 #d4 ,where practicable secure the same conditions of grain in different elements of joined structures4 ,illustrations of this are as follows3 ,the grain of the sides of a box should run continuously around the box1 or1 in the case of a tall1 slim box1 the grain of all the sides should run up and down4 ,in either case1 the grain in the different sides is parallel4 ,in a rubbed joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 ,no4 #gj1 p4 #ahb1 to be planed down afterward1 in case the grain is not straight1 much trouble in planing may be saved if the different pieces are laid so that they can all be planed smooth in the same direction4 ,this may not be possible where the boards are joined so as to match the grain1 as in quartered oak1 or where the annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as to lessen warping1 ,fig4 #bhj1 p4 #ahh4 #e4 ,where possible1 allow for shrinkage without prejudice to construction4 ,the most obvious illustration of this principle is panel construction4 ,in a panel1 the frame1 which is comparatively narrow1 follows the principal dimensions1 and hence does not seriously shrink or swell itself4 ,but the panel1 which is grooved into the frame can shrink or swell without harm to the general structure4 ,in a gained joint1 as in a case of shelves1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bi1 p4 #agi1 the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the shelves1 and there is a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end of the shelf1 so that if the shelf and support shrink unevenly1 no gap will be apparent4 ,a drawing-board1 ,fig4 #bhj1 p4 #ahh1 is so made that it can shrink or swell without losing its flatness4 ,shingles when properly laid1 can shrink or swell without the roof leaking4 #f4 ,where feasible1 undercut joined surfaces so as to give clearance on the inside and insure a tight appearance4 ,but glued surfaces should be made to meet flat4 ,illustrations of this principle are as follows3 ,the inner end of the socket in a dovetail joint1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #ahj1 may be undercut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place4 ,the shoulder of any tenon may be undercut so as to allow the edges of the tenoned piece to close up tight against the mortised piece4 ,in an end-lap halved joint1 ,fig4 #bfe1 ,no4 #ag1 p4 #agh1 the edges should meet all around2 if they are to be glued together1 they should not be undercut or they will not glue well4 ,in matched flooring1 the underside of the boards is slightly narrower than the upper side so that the joint may close on the upper side without fail1 ,fig4 #cja1 p4 #aii4 ,the ends of flooring boards are also slightly beveled so as to make a tight fit on the upper side4 #g4 ,select the simplest form of joint and use the smallest number of abutments 7bearing surfaces7 possible1 because the more complicated the joint or the greater the number of bearing surfaces1 the less likelihood there is of a sound and inexpensive construction4 ,illustrations of this principle are as follows3 ,usually a single mortise-and-tenon joint is better than a double one because of simplicity1 strength and ease of making4 ,where much surface is required for gluing1 a double one may be better4 ,in a dovetail dado1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #bh1 p4 #agi1 it is usually sufficient to make the dovetail on one side only4 ,many very elaborately spliced joints have been devised1 which have no practical advantage over the simple ones1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,nos4 #d-g1 p4 #agg4 ,a butt joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,no4 #aa1 is stronger than a mitered joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eb1 in a box1 for the latter is almost sure to shrink apart4 ,where appearance is important1 a ledge and miter joint has the advantage of both1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #eh4 #h4 ,keep a due proportion of strength between the fastenings 7joints7 and the pieces fastened3 i4 e41 the construction should neither be frail on the one hand1 because the pieces of wood are weakened by too much cutting1 nor clumsy1 on the other hand1 because then the fastenings would be inordinately strong4 ,in other words1 the different parts should be equally strong4 ,illustrations of this principle are as follows3 ,in a fished joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,no4 #b1 the plate should be attached so as to reinforce the splice at the weakest point4 ,in a scarf joint1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,nos4 #e and #g1 the angle should be oblique enough to give the greatest leverage4 ,in a tusk tenon1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dj1 the tenon is made but one-sixth the thickness of the timber1 whereas the tusk is made much larger4 ,where a mortise is to be cut in a timber bearing weight1 it should be cut in the neutral axis1 where the cutting of fibres will weaken it least4 ,in the mortise-and-tenon of a table-rail1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,no4 #dc1 there should be a wide shoulder above the tenon of the rail so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out4 ,the mortise should be as near the outside of the leg as possible so that the inner corner of the leg may remain strong4 ,the tenon should be strong enough to share the strain with the shoulders4 ,a dado joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #be1 should not be so deep as to weaken the supporting board4 ,a tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised piece4 ,pins or other fastenings1 ,fig4 #bfg1 ,nos4 #ch and #ci1 may weaken rather than strengthen a joint if they are so placed or are so large as to shear or crush their way thru the timber4 #i4 ,place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit4 ,illustrations of this principle are as follows3 the angle in a strut joint1 ,fig4 #bff1 ,no4 #fb1 should be equally divided between the two beams4 ,the thrust joint1 ,fig4 #bfh1 ,no4 #fc1 in a bridge truss1 is exactly at right angles to the pressure4 ,it is on account of this principle that a spliced joint for compression1 ,fig4 #bfd1 ,no4 #d1 is different from a spliced joint for tension1 ,no4 #e2 and that a housed braced joint1 ,fig4 #bfi1 ,no4 #ff1 is better than a plain braced joint1 ,no4 #fe4 ,a joint to resist vertical cross strain is stronger when scarfed vertically than horizontally4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,joinery ,,references399 ,goss1 p4 #acb4 ,adams1 p4 #ab4 ,rivington1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,wood ,,finishing4 ,,stains4 ,the function of stains is to change the color1 and to enchance the grain and texture of the wood4 ,stains may be divided into four general classes1 which are not1 however1 entirely distinct4 7#a7 ,oil stains1 7#b7 ,water stains1 7a7 made from anilines1 7b7 made from dyes other than anilines1 7#c7 ,spirit stains1 7#d7 ,stains due to chemical changes4 7#a7 ,oil stains4 ,advantages3 they are easily prepared1 are easy to apply evenly1 and they do not raise the grain4 ,disadvantages3 they cover the grain somewhat1 are apt to give a muddy effect1 they do not penetrate very deeply into the wood1 and it is impossible to stain hard wood dark with them and at the same time keep the grain and texture of the wood clear4 ,a convenient form in which to handle these pigments is ,devoe's coach colors1 ground in japan4 ,to prevent evaporation from cans once opened1 it is well to keep them partly filled with water and the water covered with a little oil4 ,for use1 the pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine1 in the proportion of one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine4 ,benzine is much cheaper than turpentine1 but evaporates more quickly4 ,the addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain1 so that when the wood is well rubbed down a soft lustre can be had without any further finish4 ,the stain should be applied with a brush to the wood1 which may then be rubbed clean with cotton waste4 ,oil stains penetrate hard woods better when the wood has first been fumed in ammonia4 7,see below1 p4 #baa74 ,or1 the addition of a little ammonia to the stain just before applying aids it in penetrating the wood4 ,the pigments most used for oil stains are3 burnt and raw umber1 burnt and raw sienna1 ,vandyke brown1 drop black1 and medium chrome yellow4 ,these colors may be varied by mixing4 ,for example1 for a green stain1 take two parts of drop black and one part of medium chrome yellow1 and dissolve in turpentine or benzine4 ,the addition of a little vermilion gives a grayer green4 ,the green may be made bluer by the addition of ,prussian blue1 but the blue already contained in the black gives a soft1 pleasant green4 ,for antique oak1 add a trifle of burnt umber and black to raw sienna thinned to the right consistency4 ,for a reddish brown1 thin burnt umber to the right consistency4 ,this may be grayed by the addition of a little green4 ,a walnut stain may be had by adding a little ,venetian red to asphaltum1 thinned with turpentine or benzine4 ,aniline oil stains4 ,advantages3 the colors are clear and easily obtainable4 ,disadvantages3 the colors are likely to be crude and too bright1 and unless great care is taken the tones are metallic and not soft enough to suit wood4 ,it is necessary to purchase colors soluble in oil4 ,these can be had of ,william ,zinnser and ,company1 #aig ,william ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,four colors are necessary to get the desired shades1 ,bismarck brown1 dark yellow1 dark blue1 and black4 ,bismarck brown comes in powdered form at #b4dj per lb41 dark yellow comes in powdered form at #b4dj per lb41 dark blue comes in lumps at #c4bj per lb41 black comes in lumps at #b4dj per lb4 ,these may be dissolved in three ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled oil1 to one teaspoonful of color1 a process that will take place much faster if the mixture is heated4 ,great care must be taken1 however1 not to set fire to the turpentine4 ,when cool1 thin with turpentine to the proper consistency1 apply to the wood with a brush and rub clean with cotton waste4 7#b7 ,water ,stains4 ,advantages3 they are cheap and clear and do not obscure the grain as oil stains are likely to do1 and they penetrate deeply into the wood1 especially when applied hot4 ,they may be made of any coloring matter that is soluble in water1 and are particularly good for hard woods and for use in large quantities4 ,it is possible to stain wood much darker with them than with oil stains4 ,moreover1 the brushes used with them are easily taken care of4 ,disadvantages3 they are difficult to prepare and they raise the grain of the wood4 ,the former disadvantage may be overcome by buying them all prepared4 ,the difficulty of the raising of the grain is to be obviated either by washing the wood in water and1 when dry1 rubbing down with sandpaper before applying the stain1 or rubbing down after staining and re-staining when necessary4 a4 ,water stains made from anilines4 ,aniline stains are likely to fade1 but the addition of a little vinegar is said to hinder fading4 ,for ,mahogany1 dissolve #a oz4 ,bismarck brown in #c quarts of boiling water4 ,use when cool4 b4 ,water stains made from dyes other than anilines4 ,the number of these is legion2 some of the simpler are given4 ,reddish ,brown4 ,dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in #a_/b cup 7#d oz47 of hot water4 ,apply hot to wood repeatedly until desired color is obtained4 ,black4 ,dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in #a_/b cup 7#d oz47 of boiling water4 ,add a teaspoonful of alum4 ,apply repeatedly until the wood is dark brown4 ,prepare acetate of iron according to directions for making dark brown1 on next page4 ,apply this to wood already browned with logwood4 ,if the grain is raised1 sandpaper lightly1 or rub with steel wool and then with boiled oil4 7#c7 ,spirit ,stains4 ,these are expensive and hence little used4 ,a few illustrations are given4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,for detailed directions for treatment of different woods1 see ,hodgson1 pp4 #aab-aec4 ,black4 ,aniline black1 cut in alcohol1 gives a bluish effect but if the wood thus stained is rubbed with raw linseed oil1 it becomes black4 ,another ,black4 ,dissolve extract of logwood in wood alcohol4 ,develop the color by going over the work with tincture of muriate of iron4 ,golden ,oak4 ,dissolve asphaltum in naphtha until it is as thin as water and makes a yellowish stain2 or to equal parts of asphaltum1 varnish1 and gold size japan1 add enough turpentine to thin to proper consistency4 ,mahogany4 ,dissolve ,bismarck ,brown in alcohol4 ,aniline stains may be cut in alcohol and mixed with equal parts of white shellac and banana oil 7amyl acetate7 and all applied in one coat4 7#d7 ,stains due to chemical changes4 ,certain substances like ammonia1 potassium bichromate1 and acetate of iron1 give chemical reactions on certain woods and make very effective and inexpensive stains4 ,moreover the artistic effect of some of them is unexcelled4 ,when applied in solution they are likely to raise the grain4 ,the effect of ammonia1 either the liquid or fumes1 is much the same as the effect produced by aging or weathering4 ,ammonia also cuts the pith rays of oak and makes it possible for other stains to take hold4 ,for this reason it is much used as a preliminary treatment for oak finishes4 ,the color effect is to lessen the yellow and increase the gray4 ,the method of application is simply to expose the wood for a day or more to the fumes of strong ammonia 7#bh7 in a tightly closed box4 ,if the surface of the wood is moistened with water just before exposure1 it turns darker than if exposed dry4 ,the stain penetrates so deeply that it may be sandpapered after the exposure without harm4 ,after fuming and sandpapering the surface should be oiled to prevent finger marks4 ,dark brown for chestnut1 or oak1 or mahogany4 ,this is obtained with a solution of acetate of iron1 made as follows3 digest one part by measure of iron dust in #h parts of glacial acetic acid4 ,after the chemical action is well started1 add several times as much water to keep the mixture liquid4 ,when the chemical action has ceased1 the stain is ready for use4 ,if a lighter shade is desired it may be still further diluted4 ,to darken mahogany4 ,make a saturate solution of bichromate of potash4 ,dilute a portion of it with water #a_/b1 or #a_/c1 or #a_/d1 or in any proportion according to the darkness required4 ,one part of the solution to two or three parts of water gives a good color4 ,apply the solution to mahogany with a brush4 ,this solution alone is likely to be too brown4 ,the reddish tinge of the wood may be saved by mixing as follows3 #ajj solution of bichromate of potash #a part ,breinig's mahogany water stain #a part ,water #b parts ,apply with a brush and wipe off the surplus4 ,bichromate of potash on oak gives a rich brown4 ,bichromate of potash on ash gives a rich red4 ,bichromate of potash on black walnut gives a dark brown4 ,a decoction of logwood treated with tannin gives yellow red1 with sugar of lead gives gray brown1 with ferric nitrate gives black4 ,a decoction of fustic extract treated with dilute nitric acid gives brown1 etc4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,for other effects obtained by chemical changes1 see table on pp4 #ahe-ahi in ,brannt's ,painter1 ,gilder and ,varnisher1 and also ,woodcraft #i3 #ga1 ,june1 '#jh4 ,commercial ,stains4 ,some of the more noteworthy commercial stains1 suitable for school use1 are those of3 ,the ,bridgeport ,wood ,finishing ,company1 #ee ,fulton ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,among their water stains some of the best are3 ,flemish oak1 weathered oak1 walnut1 silver gray1 forest green1 and mahogany1 especially if the latter is modified with bichromate of potash4 ,other effects may be obtained by mixing these1 as forest green1 which is too bright alone1 mixed with walnut or some other reddish color gives a grayish green4 ,of the penetrating oil stains the golden oak and mahogany are very good4 ,the ,sherwin ,williams ,company1 of ,cleveland1 ,newark1 ,chicago1 etc41 produce a fine line of spirit stains4 ,the ,adams and ,elting ,company1 ,chicago1 have a stain called adelite1 in which banana oil appears to be the solvent4 ,it is very easy of application1 only one coat being needed4 ,it is applied with the brush4 ,berry ,brothers1 of ,detroit1 ,mich41 the famous varnish makers1 furnish a great variety of colors in their water stains and also a combined stain and finish under the trade name of ,lacklustre4 ,devoe and ,reynolds1 #aja ,fulton ,street1 ,new ,york1 make a variety of oil stains which can be applied either in one coat with a brush or rubbed in with cotton waste4 ,the ,chicago ,varnish ,company1 make a specialty of artistic1 chemical stains1 but unfortunately they are not yet 7#aiaj7 available in small quantities4 ,s4 ,c4 ,johnson and ,son1 ,racine1 ,wis41 furnish a variety of spirit stains called wood dyes4 ,the ,craftsman ,workshops1 ,eastwood1 ,n4 ,y41 furnish oil stains to be applied with a brush or waste4 ,these are deservedly famous for they give especially soft1 agreeable effects on fumed oak4 ,in general1 it should be remembered that oil stains are better for soft woods1 water stains for hard woods1 and the spirit stains are good for both4 ,but without a sense of color1 no number of recipes will avail4 ,,filling ,the object of filling is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering or other finish4 ,this can be done with shellac carefully rubbed down with fine oiled sandpaper1 but this method requires much toil and patience1 and has therefore been given up by furniture finishers4 ,the best fillers1 7such as ,wheeler's ,wood filler71#ad are made of silex in needle-shaped particles mixed with raw linseed oil1 japan and turpentine4 ,when applied to wood it should be thinned with turpentine or benzine1 and applied with a brush along the grain4 ,as it dries1 the color becomes grayish and it should then be rubbed off across the grain with fine shavings or cotton waste4 ,it is best to have fillers of several colors on hand1 such as light1 black1 mahogany1 and golden oak to be used according to the stain applied4 ,the filler should be applied after staining the wood and should be allowed to dry thoroly1 say forty-eight hours1 before it is covered with shellac or varnish4 ,its use is more necessary on open grained woods1 like oak1 chestnut1 and mahogany1 than on close grained woods1 like whitewood1 maple1 and pine1 but it is best to use it on all woods that are to be highly polished4 ,footnote #ad3 ,made by the ,bridgeport ,wood ,finishing ,co41 #aee ,fulton ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,cans should be kept tightly covered when not in use4 ,since oil darkens wood1 if wood is to be kept light1 a filler without oil1 as whiting and turpentine1 should be used4 ,,polishes ,there are three principal forms of wood polishes1 each of which has its virtues and defects4 ,they are3 7a7 oil1 7b7 wax1 7c7 the varnishes4 7a7 ,oil4 ,the great advantage of oil polishing is its permanence4 ,it will stand both wetting and warmth and gives a dull1 glossy finish4 ,in some woods1 as sweet gum and mahogany1 it brings up the figure4 ,process4 ,apply either raw or boiled linseed oil diluted with five parts of benzine or turpentine4 ,the advantages of dilution are that the mixture penetrates the wood better1 leaves a thinner film on the surface and is more economical4 ,then rub1 rub1 rub1 day after day4 ,little and often with unlimited friction1 is the best rule4 ,this makes a nice finish for well-fumed chestnut1 turning the color to a rich brown4 7b7 ,wax4 ,wax is an old ,english polish1 commonly used before ,french polish and varnish were introduced1 especially for hard woods like oak4 ,its advantages are that it is cheap1 easily prepared1 easily applied1 and easily repaired4 ,its disadvantages are that it will not stand wetting1 is easily marred1 requires constant care1 is not so hard and dry as varnish1 turns slightly sticky with warmth1 and is likely to turn white in crevices4 ,to prepare it4 ,to one part of melted beeswax add one part of turpentine4 ,mix and cool4 ,it can be bought prepared1 as1 ,bridgeport ,wood ,finishing ,company's ,old ,dutch ,finish1 ,butcher's ,wax1 ,johnson's ,wax1 and others4 ,process4 ,rub the wax evenly over the surface with a stiff brush or the fingers4 ,let it dry for some hours1 and then rub with a cloth3 flannel or a piece of felt is best4 ,put on several coats1 leaving the work over night between coats4 ,rub often with a warm cloth4 7c7 ,varnishes4 ,the function of varnishes is to cover wood with a hard1 transparent coating that is non-porous and impervious to moisture4 ,there is a great range among them1 from thin1 easily worn1 dull finishes to durable1 strong1 and highly polished coatings called rubbing varnishes4 ,the polished surface can be secured only by much labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good varnish1 carefully rubbed down4 ,varnish may be applied to wood1 stained1 painted1 or in its natural condition as well as to metal1 leather1 paper1 and various other substances4 ,a good varnish should be adhesive1 that is1 it should cling firmly to the surface to which it is applied2 it should be elastic1 so as not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the material to which it is applied2 it should dry in a reasonable time2 it should be limpid so as to flow easily in application2 it should be transparent and brilliant when polished2 and it should be durable4 ,the necessary conditions for all good varnishing are a perfectly smooth1 even1 filled surface of dry wood1 a temperature of about #gj and no dust in the air4 ,in general1 there are two classes of varnish1 based on the character of the solvent1 7#a7 ,spirit varnishes and 7#b7 ,oil varnishes4 7#a7 ,spirit varnishes are sometimes made with copal resins dissolved in some spirit1 as one of the alcohols1 benzine1 acetone1 etc4 ,they dry with great rapidity owing to the volatilization of the solvent spirit1 leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and brilliance1 but one which is likely to crack and scale when exposed4 ,they are not much used4 ,shellac is the most common and the most useful of the spirit varnishes4 ,its basis is resin lac1 a compound resinous substance exuded from an ,east ,india scale insect 7,carteria lacca7 found mostly in the province of ,assam4 ,the term lac is the same as lakh which means #ajj1jjj and is indicative of the countless hosts of insects which are the source from which this gum is obtained4 ,the larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of young shoots of certain lac-bearing trees1 varieties of ,ficus1 draw out the sap for nutriment1 and at once exude a resinous secretion which entirely covers their bodies and the twigs1 often to the thickness of one-half inch4 ,the females never escape and after impregnation their ovaries become filled with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye known as lac dye4 ,the encrusted twigs are gathered by the natives in the spring and again in the autumn1 before the young are hatched1 and in this condition the product is known as stick lac4 ,after being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from the coloring matter the product is known as seed lac4 ,it is then melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in a form called shell lac4 ,this is what is known as orange shellac in the market4 ,it may be bleached by boiling in caustic potash1 and passing chlorine thru it until the resin is precipitated4 ,it is further whitened by being pulled4 ,this is what is known in the market as white shellac4 ,it comes in lumps4 ,orange shellac is the stronger and is less likely to deteriorate1 but white is easier to apply because it sets less rapidly4 ,another advantage of the white is its colorlessness4 ,shellac is soluble in both grain alcohol 7ethyl alcohol7 and wood alcohol 7methyl alcohol71 but grain alcohol is preferable4 ,great care must be taken not to mix even a drop of water in it or it will curdle4 ,to make perfect the process of ordinary filling1 shellac may be used as a filler either by itself or preparatory to other processes4 ,since it dries quickly it can be rubbed down in six or eight hours either with ,no4 #jj sandpaper oiled1 or better1 with ,no4 #jj steel wool4 ,this process when repeated several times gives a good egg-shell finish4 ,it may be applied alone over stained wood or the shellac itself may be colored with aniline dyes cut in alcohol4 ,this1 for example1 is an easy way to get a black finish4 ,a good waterproof wood polish is made thus3 #a pint alcohol1 #b oz4 gum benzoin1 #a_/d oz4 gum sandarac1 #a_/d oz4 gum anime4 ,put in a bottle1 and put the bottle in a hot water bath until all solids are dissolved4 ,strain and add #a_/d gill clear poppy oil4 ,shake well and apply with cotton cloth4 ,a soft1 dull1 glossy finish may be obtained by applying two coats of a mixture of one part each of white shellac and banana oil 7amyl acetate74 ,when dry1 sandpaper lightly and wax4 ,french polishing4 ,the finest of shellac finishes is ,french polish4 ,it is a thin1 clear1 permanent finish1 but the process takes time and patience4 ,it is not much used in practical work1 because of the time expense1 but is often employed in school shops1 because only a few materials are necessary1 it dries quickly1 and gives a beautiful finish4 ,the polished surface is obtained by adding successive thin coats according to the following process3 7#a7 ,preparation4 ,the surface of the wood must be perfectly smooth and even1 sandpapered in the direction of the grain1 stained1 if desired1 filled1 rubbed smooth and quite dry4 7#b7 ,apply two or three thin coats of shellac4 ,after each coat when dry1 rub with ,no4 #jj oiled sandpaper or ,no4 #jj steel wool4 ,wipe thoroly4 7#c7 ,make three pads1 about the size of a walnut1 of clean1 white1 cotton waste1 enclosed in some fine old or washed cloth with no sizing or lint1--one pad for shellac1 one for oil1 and one for alcohol4 ,fill one pad with shellac of the consistency of milk1 enough in the pad so that when squeezed hard it will ooze out4 ,the common mistake is to put too much shellac into the pad4 ,rub with circular motion1 as indicated in ,fig4 #cjd1 never letting the pad stop on the surface4 7#d7 ,sprinkle a very little finely powdered pumicestone and put a little oil on the surface of the wood here and there with the tip of a finger4 ,rub with second pad until surface is dull4 ,wipe clean4 ,repeat 7#c7 and 7#d7 several times4 ,some use raw linseed oil to prevent sticking4 ,others use three or four cloth coverings on the shellac pad1 removing the outer one as it dries4 ,a simpler way is to keep the shellac in pad1 #a1 thin by moistening with a little alcohol4 7#e7 ,spiriting off 7,follows process #d47 ,dampen pad1 #c1 with very little alcohol and wipe quickly in the direction of the grain4 ,this should remove the circular marks4 ,too much alcohol in this third pad will burn a dull spot4 ,the rubbers are said to improve with use1 and may be preserved in closely stoppered jars to prevent evaporation4 ,the different kinds of pads should be kept separate4 ,or the cotton waste may be thrown away1 and the cloths washed in strong borax water4 ,in the process just described1 shellac alone1 dissolved in alcohol1 is used4 ,the shellac may be used with other ingredients3 for example1 #a pint grain alcohol1 #a_/d oz4 gum copal1 #a_/d oz4 gum arabic1 #a oz4 shellac4 ,strain through muslin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,direction of the ,pad in ,french ,polishing4 ,another recipe for finishing4 ,use #d drams grain alcohol1 #b drams orange shellac1 #e drams tincture of benzoin1 #a teaspoonful of olive oil4 ,dissolve and strain4 ,apply with pad in direction of grain4 ,oil or ,copal ,varnishes4 ,the old ,cremona varnish once used for violins is supposed to have had amber 7,greek1 electron7 as its base4 ,it was a fossilized coniferous resin found on the shore of the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the art of making it is said to be lost1 probably because of the difficulty and danger of melting it1 for this can be done only in oil on account of the danger of ignition4 ,hence its use has been abandoned4 ,perhaps the most beautiful of all varnishes is lacquer1 much used in ,china and ,japan4 ,it is made from the juice of the lacquer tree1 7,rhus vernicifera7 which is tapped during the summer months4 ,the juice is strained and evaporated and then mixed with various substances1 such as oil1 fine clay1 body pigment1 and metallic dust1 according to the ware for which it is intended4 ,the manufacturing secrets are carefully guarded4 ,the application of it is very difficult1 the sap of young trees being used for first coats1 and of old trees for the finishing coats4 ,it must be dried in a damp1 close atmosphere4 ,for the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rubbed down and polished4 ,even the presence of it is very poisonous to some people and all workers in it are more or less affected4 ,the solvent or vehicle of the modern copal varnishes consists principally of linseed oil with some turpentine4 ,their base is ,copal1 a fossil1 resinous substance of vegetable origin4 ,the gums of which they are made have been chemically altered by long exposure in the earth4 ,other gums1 as mastic1 dammar1 sandarac1 and even resin are sometimes mixed with copal to cheapen the product or to cause more rapid drying4 ,copal is a generic name given originally to all fossil resins4 ,copals1 as they are called1 come from ,new ,zealand1 ,mozambique1 ,zanzibar1 ,west ,africa1 ,brazil1 and the ,philippines4 ,the best of the ,copals is said to be the ,kauri gum1 originally exuded from the ,kauri pine tree of ,new ,zealand4 ,the tree is still existent and produces a soft1 spongy sap1 but the resin used in varnish is dug up from a few feet under ground in regions where there are now no trees4 ,a commercially important copal and one noted for its hardness is the ,zanzibar or ,east ,african ,copal4 ,it is found imbedded in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt of the mainland coast of ,zanzibar1 on tracts where not a single tree now grows4 ,it occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to pieces weighing four or five pounds4 ,the supply is said to be practically inexhaustible4 ,as to the manufacture of the ,copal varnishes3 first of all1 a high grade oil is boiled at a high temperature1 with different materials to oxidize it2 for instance1 red lead or oxide of manganese4 ,the heat throws off the oxygen from the red lead or manganese4 ,the oxygen is absorbed by the linseed oil1 which is then put away to settle and age4 ,when a batch of varnish is made1 the gums are melted in a large kettle and then the requisite amount of oil is added and these carefully boiled together4 ,this is removed from the fire and cooled down to a point1 where turpentine can be added without volatilizing4 ,these are thoroly mixed and then filtered under pressure and tanked and aged4 ,the different grades of varnish depend upon the treatment of the oil1 the proportion of oil and turpentine1 the qualities of the gums1 the aging1 etc4 ,some by rubbing give a very high polish1 some give a dull waxy finish1 some are for out-of-door use1 as ,spar varnish and carriage varnish1 some are for floors1 some for furniture1 some are high priced1 some are cheap4 ,process of ,varnishing4 ,the preliminary processes are the same as those for applying shellac1 i4 e41 the surface of the wood must be perfectly even and smooth1 and the staining1 filling1 and drying complete4 ,quick drying varnishes1 like shellac1 are applied1 with but little on the brush4 ,the heavy1 high lustre varnishes1 on the other hand1 are applied with the brush full so that the varnish may even drip off the work4 ,then proceed as follows3 ,wipe off from the work the extra varnish with the brush and clean the brush on the edge of the cup4 ,repeat till the varnish is flowed over the work evenly4 ,be particularly careful1 in that respect1 of edges and corners4 ,set to dry in a dustless place4 ,when dry and hard repeat the process from three to six times4 ,each coat must dry thoroly before the next coat is applied4 ,varnish polishing consists in rubbing off the varnish1 not in rubbing it on1 as in ,french polishing4 ,to polish varnish1 rub with a felt pad1 powdered pumice-stone and water4 ,rub till the surface is smooth1 unpitted and even1 being careful not to rub thru the edges4 ,wipe clean with a wet sponge and chamois skin4 ,this gives a dull or egg-shell finish4 ,for polishing varnish1 a simple method is to rub with a rotary motion1 using a mixture of #a_/b sweet oil or cottonseed oil1 and #a_/b alcohol4 ,a more laborious process is as follows3 ,after rubbing to a dull finish1 rub ground rotten stone and water with chamois skin in a circular motion4 ,let the rotten stone dry on the surface4 ,then wipe off with the naked hand1 rubbing in a circular direction and wiping the hand every time after passing over the work4 ,this looks simple1 but is really a fine art4 ,these processes have practically replaced ,french polishing in the trade4 ,,painting ,paints are used for the same purpose as other finishes1 with the additional one of giving an opaque colored covering4 ,the materials used are3 #a4 ,a body whose function is to give covering power4 ,this is usually white lead1 but it is often adulterated with zinc oxide2 #b4 ,pigments2 #c4 ,linseed oils1 raw and boiled1 which are used to give consistency1 adhesiveness and also elasticity to the coat when dry4 ,for outdoor work boiled oil is used and for indoor work1 raw oil2 #d4 ,turpentine1 which is used to thin out the paint and to make it dry more quickly4 ,the common method of painting is3 #a4 ,set any nails with nailset2 #b4 ,sandpaper2 #c4 ,shellac the knots2 #d4 ,prime with a thin coat of paint1 mostly white lead1 7that is1 little color17 boiled oil1 and turpentine 7the proportion of drying oil is greater than in ordinary paint72 #e4 ,putty up cracks1 nail holes1 etc42 #f4 ,sandpaper if a small nice job2 #g4 ,then paint two or three coats with paint thick enough so it will not run1 with long1 even strokes with the grain4 ,the order of painting a door is1 panels1 muntins1 rails1 and last1 stiles4 ,for inside work use half as much turpentine as oil4 ,this gives a dull finish4 ,for outside work1 where lustre is wanted1 little or no turpentine is used4 ,this is the old way1 and is still used for all common work4 ,but for fine painting1 as carriage work1 a filler is now used first1 because a priming to be durable should unite with the wood1 grasping the fibers and filling the pores1 so that after coats cannot sink in4 ,the object is to cement the surface4 ,priming is often called rough stuff4 ,the old way did not do this1 with the result that the oil separated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood4 ,the principal makers of paints now recommend a filler before any white lead is added4 ,,tools ,,and ,,materials ,,for ,,wood ,,finishing ,brushes4 ,it is well to have several varieties to help keep them distinct4 ,for varnish and shellac1 the best are those with the bristles set in hard rubber4 ,for ordinary purposes1 brushes one inch wide are satisfactory4 ,for stains1 cheap1 tin-bound brushes are good enough1 and are easily replaced4 ,cups4 ,half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap1 satisfactory1 and easily kept clean4 ,for the care of cups and brushes1 see ,chapter ,,vi1 ,the ,equipment and ,care of the ,shop4 ,steel wool4 ,this consists of shavings1 turned from thin steel discs set together in a lathe4 ,it comes in various grades1 ,no4 #jj to ,no4 #c4 ,the finest1 ,no4 #jj1 is coarse enough for ordinary purposes4 ,sandpaper4 ,use ,no4 #jj smeared with boiled oil4 ,pulverized pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone1 both very fine1 are used to rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish4 ,use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish4 ,horsehair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish4 ,french felt1 medium hard1 is used for rubbing down copal varnish with pumice stone4 ,cotton waste is the cheapest available material for wiping4 ,cheese cloth is better for some purposes1 but more expensive4 ,soft cloth without lint is necessary for ,french polishing4 ,berkeley muslin1 ,old ,glory1 and ,lilly ,white are trade names4 ,a fine quality is necessary4 ,the starch should be washed out and the cloth dried before using1 and then torn into little pieces1 say #d square4 ,fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil1 japan1 and turpentine4 ,their object is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering4 ,oils4 ,raw linseed oil is very fat and dries slowly4 ,it is used for interior work4 ,boiled oil is linseed oil boiled with litharge 7,pb,o7 and white vitriol1 which removes much of the fatty ingredient and gives it drying quality4 ,turpentine is a volatile oil from the sap of long-leaf pine4 ,it is mixed with oil in painting to give further drying qualities4 ,benzine is a cheap substitute for turpentine4 ,it is a highly inflammable product of coal tar and evaporates quickly4 ,drier is an oil in which resin has been dissolved4 ,it is mixed with varnishes and paint to make them dry quickly4 ,it is also sometimes used as a varnish itself4 ,japan is a varnish-like liquid made of shellac or other resin1 linseed oil1 metallic oxides1 and turpentine4 ,it is used as a medium in which to grind colors and as a drier4 ,,wood ,,finishing ,,references399 7#a7 ,stains4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #be-ei1 #aee-afd4 ,van ,deusen1 ,man4 ,tr4 ,mag41 #f3 #ic4 ,maire1 pp4 #df-fd4 7#b7 ,fillers4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #g-be4 ,maire1 #fe-gb4 7#c7 ,oil ,finish4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ii-ajc4 ,maire1 p4 #aag4 7#d7 ,wax4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ic-ii4 ,maire1 pp4 #aab-aaf4 7#e7 ,varnish4 ,shellac4 ,maire1 pp4 #gc-hj1 #aja-aaa4 ,journal1 ,soc4 ,arts1 #di3 #aib4 ,ency4 ,brit41 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,lac4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ff-ic4 ,inter4 ,encyc41 ,vol4 ,x1 ,lac4 ,oil ,varnish4 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ei-ff4 ,clark1 pp4 #a-fi4 ,maire1 pp4 #ha-ajj4 ,encyc4 ,brit41 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 ,varnish4 7#f7 ,paints4 ,brannt1 p4 #acd-aeb4 ,building ,trades ,pocketbook1 pp4 #ceg-cfj4 ,for detailed directions for the treatment of different woods1 see ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 pp4 #aab-aec1 ,maire1 pp4 #abd-ada4 ,footnote 993 ,for general bibliography see p4 #d4 ,,index4 ,acorn of hinge1 #aca4 ,adjustment of plane1 #gj1 #gb4 ,adze1 #hh4 ,agacite grinder1 #fa1 #abj1 #aba1 #acg4 ,alcohol3 ,grain 7,ethyl71 #baf4 ,wood 7,methyl71 #baf4 ,alligator1 #bh4 ,ammonia1 #bji1 #baa4 ,angle of bevel1 #eh1 #ei4 ,aniline stains3 ,alcohol1 #baa4 ,oil1 #baj4 ,water1 #baa4 ,antique oak1 #baj4 ,anvil1 #ada4 ,arrangement of shop1 #adb-add4 ,arris1 #eg1 #ahd4 ,asphaltum1 #baj4 ,auger-bit1 #ec1 #hd1 #he1 #acg1 #adj4 ,auger-bit-gage1 #aaf4 ,ax1 #aj1 #ea1 #hg4 ,back-saw1 #fe1 #acf1 #ach4 ,balloon frame1 #bja4 ,banana oil1 #bac1 #baf4 ,band-saw1 #ca4 ,banking grounds1 #af4 ,beam-compass1 #aad4 ,beams1 #bja4 ,bench1 #ig-ii1 #acf1 #ach1 #ada1 #adc4 ,glue and ,stain1 #adb1 #adi4 ,bench-hook1 #gh1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #acg1 #aci4 ,bending wood1 #aii4 ,benzine1 #bji1 #baj1 #bad1 #bbb4 ,bevel of cutting tools1 #eb1 #ee1 #abj4 ,bevel1 ,sliding ,t1 #aac1 #acg1 #adj4 ,bezel1 ,see ,bevel4 ,bill-hook1 #aj4 ,binding of saw1 #fc1 #fe4 ,bit1 ,plane1 #gj1 #gg4 ,bits1 #hd-hg1 #acg1 #adj4 ,bit1 ,twist1 #hd1 #he4 ,bit-point drill1 #hd1 #he4 ,bit-stock1 ,see ,brace4 ,black1 #bji1 #baa4 ,blank-hinge1 #aca4 ,blazes on trees1 #g1 #h4 ,blinds1 #aid4 ,block1 ,corner1 #aee ,no4 #ab1 #agg1 #aii4 ,block-plane1 ,see ,plane1 ,block4 ,blue1 ,prussian1 #baj4 ,board1 #dh4 ,board construction1 #ahd-aib4 ,board-dipper1 #ce1 #cf4 ,board foot1 #dh1 #aji4 ,board measure1 #dh1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,board structures1 #ahd-aib4 ,bolt of lock1 #acc4 ,bolts1 #abg4 ,book shelves1 #ahe4 ,boom1 ,log1 #bj1 #ba4 ,boring1 ,directions for1 #he4 ,boring tools1 #hc-hg4 ,box1 #ahg-aia4 ,bottoms1 #ahh4 ,lids1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,of lock1 #acc4 ,brace1 #ajc1 #aje1 #acg1 #adj4 ,brace1 ,ratchet1 #ajc1 #aje1 #acg4 ,brace-measure1 #ajg4 ,bracket1 #ahe4 ,brad-awl1 #hc1 #hd1 #ach1 #adj4 ,brads1 #abd4 ,breaking out the roll-ways1 #af4 ,bridging1 #bja4 ,brown1 ,bismarck1 #baj1 #baa4 ,dark1 #bab4 ,reddish1 #baj1 #baa4 ,vandyke1 #bji4 ,brush1 #ach1 #ada1 #adi1 #bji1 #baj1 #bba4 ,brush1 ,see also ,duster4 ,brush-,keeper1 #aej4 ,buckling of saw1 #fb1 #fe1 #fg4 ,buffer1 #aba1 #adg4 ,burn of shellac1 #bag4 ,butt-hinge1 #aca4 ,cabinet construction1 #aib-aie4 ,cabinet for nails and screws1 #adb1 #ade1 #adg4 ,calipers1 #aad4 ,camp1 logging1 #h1 #i4 ,cant1 #ce1 foot-note4 ,cant-flipper1 #ce1 #cf4 ,cant-hook1 #aj1 #ac4 ,cape-chisel1 #ada4 ,care of the shop1 #adb-aej4 ,carriage-bolts1 #abg4 ,carteria lacca1 #bae4 ,carving tools1 #fj1 #adj4 ,case-hardening1 #df4 ,c-,clamps4 ,see carriage-makers' clamps4 ,ceiling1 #bja4 ,center-bit1 #hd1 #hf4 ,chain1 #aj1 #ac1 #ae1 #af4 ,chair1 #aih-bja4 ,chalk1 ,french1 #aig4 ,chamfer1 #hb1 #aae1 #afa1 #ahd4 ,chatter1 #ga1 #ib4 ,cheek of joint1 #afj4 ,cheese-cloth1 #bba4 ,chest1 #aic1 #aie4 ,chest-hinge1 #aca4 ,chisel1 #eb-ei1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #ahc4 ,see also ,chiseling end-wood1 ,paring1 ,sidewise chiseling4 ,chisel1 ,cape1 #ada4 ,carving1 #ed4 ,cold1 #ada4 ,corner1 #ee4 ,firmer1 #ed1 #acf1 #aci4 ,framing1 #ee4 ,mortise1 #ed1 #ee1 #afa4 ,paring1 #ed4 ,round-nosed #ee1 #ada4 ,skew1 #ee4 ,turning1 #ed4 ,chisel-gage1 #fi4 ,chiseling1 end-wood1 #ef1 #eg1 #ahc4 ,sidewise1 #ef4 ,perpendicular1 #ef4 ,choking of ,plane1 #gf4 ,chopping tools1 #hg1 #hh4 ,clamp1 #aja1 #ach1 #ada1 #afi4 ,carriage-makers1 #ajb1 #ach1 #ada4 ,column1 #afi4 ,plane1 #gj1 #gg4 ,clapboards1 #bja4 ,claw hammer1 #if4 ,cleaning tools1 #aba4 ,cleats1 #ahf1 #ahh4 ,comb-grain1 #da1 #db4 ,compass1 #aac1 #aad1 #acg1 #aci4 ,blackboard1 #aag1 #ada4 ,compass-saw1 #ff1 #aci4 ,consumer1 #cc1 #da4 ,copal1 #bah4 ,coping-saw1 #aci4 ,copper1 ,soldering1 #ada4 ,corner-blocks1 #aee1 ,no4 #ab1 #agg1 #aii4 ,corner-board1 #bja4 ,cornering tool1 #hc4 ,corner-iron1 #abg1 #abh4 ,corner locking1 #afd4 ,corrugated fasteners1 #abe1 #agj4 ,cost of ,equipment1 #acf-adb4 ,countersink1 #hd1 #hg1 #abf1 #ach1 #adj1 #ada4 ,cricket1 #ahf4 ,crosscut-saw1 #aj1 #fd-ff1 #acg1 #aci4 ,cross-grained wood1 ,planing1 #ge4 ,crowbar1 #aj4 ,crown of ,plane-cutter1 #ga4 ,cruising1 #h4 ,cup1 #ach1 #ada1 #bba4 ,curling-iron1 #gj4 ,cutter1 ,plane1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1 #ach4 ,cutting-gage1 #aaf1 #adj4 ,cutting tools1 #ea-hc4 ,dado1 #ef1 #hj4 ,see also ,joint1 ,dado4 ,dado-plane1 #hj4 ,dam1 ,splash1 #bj1 #ba4 ,decay1 #cb1 #de4 ,decking logs1 #ac4 ,demonstration seats1 #adc4 ,derrick1 ,locomotive boom1 #be4 ,destructive lumbering1 causes of1 #g4 ,die1 #ada4 ,die-holder1 #ada4 ,dividers1 #aac1 #aad1 #acg1 #adj4 ,dogs1 log1 #cd4 ,donkey engine1 #bd4 ,door1 #aib1 #aic4 ,dovetail-saw1 #ff1 #acg1 #aci4 ,doweling1 #abg1 #acj1 #aeb1 #aed1 #age4 ,dowel-plate1 #aci1 #adj4 ,dowel-pointer1 #hc1 #aci1 #age4 ,dowel-rods1 #abg1 #age4 ,draw-bolt1 #aed4 ,draw-knife1 #fa1 #aci4 ,drawer1 #aff1 #aij-aib4 ,guide1 #aif4 ,rail1 #aif4 ,runner1 #aif4 ,drawing-board1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #bje4 ,dray-road1 #i1 #ac4 ,drier1 #bbb4 ,drill4 ,see ,hand ,drill4 ,twist1 #hd1 #he1 #ach1 #ada4 ,drive1 ,the log1 #af-ah4 ,duplicate parts1 #aee1 #bjd4 ,duster1 ,bench1 #aba1 #acg1 #aci4 ,dynamite1 #ba4 ,edge action1 #eb4 ,edged ,tools1 #ea ff4 ,edger1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg4 ,eight-square scale1 #ajh4 ,egg-shell finish1 #id1 #baf4 ,equipment1 ,chap4 ,,vi1 #acf-aej4 ,escutcheon of lock1 #acc4 ,expansive-bit1 #hd1 #hg1 #acg1 #adj4 ,falling beds1 #bd4 ,fastenings1 ,chap4 ,v1 #abc-ace4 ,felling trees1 #aj1 #aa1 #bc4 ,ferrule1 #ed4 ,file1 #ij1 #ia1 #acg1 #adj1 #adb1 #adg4 ,file-card1 #ia1 #acg1 #adj4 ,filing a saw1 #fg4 ,filletster1 #hj1 #acg1 #aci4 ,filler1 #bac1 #bba4 ,finishing1 ,wood1 ,chap4 ,x1 #bji-bbc4 ,firmer-chisel1 ,see under ,chisel4 ,firmer-gouge1 ,see under ,gouge4 ,fish glue1 #abi4 ,fitter1 #i4 ,flooring1 #cj1 #db1 #agd1 #bja1 #bjf4 ,flume1 #ba1 #bb4 ,foerstner ,auger-bit1 #hd1 #hg4 ,foot-stool1 #ahf4 ,fore-edge1 #aif4 ,fore-plane1 ,see under ,plane4 ,framed structures1 #aie-bja4 ,framing-chisel1 ,see under ,chisel4 ,frog1 ,plane1 #gj1 #ge4 ,fuming with ammonia1 #bab1 #bad4 ,furring1 #bja4 ,gages1 #aad-aaf4 ,chisel1 #fi4 ,cutting1 #aaf1 #adj4 ,marking1 #aad-aaf1 #acf1 #aci1 #bjc4 ,mortise1 #aaf1 #adj1 #afa4 ,pencil1 #aae4 ,screw1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abf4 ,slitting1 #aaf4 ,twist-drill1 #aag4 ,wire1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,gelatin1 #abh4 ,gimlet-bit1 #hd1 #he1 #acg1 #adj4 ,glass-cutter1 #ach1 #ada4 ,glaziers points1 #abe4 ,glue1 #abh-aca4 ,fish1 #abi4 ,liquid1 #abi4 ,preparation of1 #abi4 ,tests of1 #abi4 ,glue-pot1 #abi1 #ach1 #ada1 #adh4 ,gluing1 ,directions for1 #acj1 #aec1 #afg-agj1 #agc1 #ahi1 #aij4 ,golden ,oak1 #baa4 ,gouge1 #ei1 #fj1 #acg1 #adj1 #ahc4 ,grading of lumber1 #cf4 ,grain of wood1 #fj1 #ge1 #agb1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aib1 #bje1 #bji1 #baj4 ,green1 #bji4 ,grinder or ,hog1 #da4 ,grinder1 ,empire ,tool1 #fa1 #abj1 #aba1 #acg1 #adj4 ,grinding of tools4 ,see sharpening4 ,grindstone1 #aag-abj1 #acg1 #adj4 ,groove for drawer1 #aia4 ,groove for panel1 #afd4 ,groove1 ,triangular1 #ff1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa4 ,hack-saw1 #acg1 #ada4 ,hammer1 #eh1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #acf1 #aci4 ,ball-peen1 #adb4 ,bell-faced1 #ie4 ,riveting1 #ada4 ,hand-drill1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ach1 #ada4 ,handscrew1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ach1 #ada1 #agj1 #agc4 ,handscrew1 ,iron1 #ajb4 ,see also ,clamp1 carriage-makers4 ,hatchet1 #hh4 ,hauling logs1 #ac1 #ae1 #bb1 #bc4 ,hinges1 #aca-acc4 ,hinges1 sizes of1 #aca4 ,hinging1 ,directions for1 #acb4 ,hog1 #da4 ,holding tools1 #ig-aje4 ,honeycombing1 #df4 ,horse1 #fd1 #fe1 #ajj4 ,horsehair1 #bjj4 ,house construction1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,ice-road1 #ac1 #ad4 ,impregnation of timber1 #dg4 ,iron acetate1 #baa1 #bab4 ,iron1 ,soldering4 ,see copper4 ,jack-ladder1 #cb4 ,jack-plane4 ,see ,plane4 ,jam1 log1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba4 ,japan1 #bji1 #bbb4 ,japanese1 #fi1 #ig1 #ahi4 ,joinery1 #aea4 ,joint1 ,beaded1 #age1 ,no4 #gc1 #ahb4 ,bevel-shoulder1 #agb1 ,no4 #fg1 #ahb4 ,bird's mouth1 #agb1 ,no4 #fi1 #ahb4 ,boat-builders1 #aeb1 ,no4 #g1 #agg4 ,brace1 #aga1 ,no4 #fe1 #ahb4 ,brace1 ,housed1 #agb1 ,no4 #ff1 #ahb1 #bjg4 ,bridle1 #agb1 ,no4 #fh1 #ahb4 ,butt1 #aee1 ,no4 #aa1 #agg1 #ahg1 #bjf4 ,butt1 ,doweled1 #aeb1 ,no4 #h1 #aec1 #agg1 #aid4 ,caulked1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bb1 #agh4 ,checked1 #aeg1 ,no4 #ba1 #agh4 ,cogged1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bb1 #agh4 ,corked1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bb1 #agh4 ,column1 #afi1 ,no4 #eb1 #aha4 ,cross-lap1 #aee1 ,no4 #ad1 #agg4 ,dado1 #aeg1 ,no4 #be1 #agi1 #aia4 ,dado and rabbet1 #aeh1 ,no4 #bf1 #agi1 #ahg4 ,dado1 ,dovetail1 #aeh1 ,no4 #bh1 #agi1 #aia1 #bjf4 ,dado1 housed1 #aeg1 ,no4 #be1 #agi1 #ahg1 #bjg4 ,dado1 tongue1 and rabbet1 #aeh1 ,no4 #bg1 #agi1 #aia4 ,dovetail1 ,blind miter1 #afg1 ,no4 #ea1 #ahj1 #ahg4 ,half-blind1 #aff1 ,no4 #di1 #ahj4 ,lap1 #aff1 ,no4 #di1 #ahj4 ,secret1 #afg1 ,no4 #ea1 #ahj1 #ahg4 ,stopped lap1 #aff1 ,no4 #ej1 #ahj4 ,thru multiple1 #afe1 ,no4 #dh1 #ahj1 #ahg1 #bjf4 ,thru single1 #afe1 ,no4 #dg1 #ahj1 #aid4 ,doweled1 #age1 ,no4 #ge1 #ahb4 ,draw-bolt1 #aed1 ,no4 #aj1 #agg4 ,edge-to-edge1 #agb-agd4 ,end-lap1 #aef1 ,no4 #af1 #agh1 #aid1 #bjf4 ,fillistered1 #agd1 ,no4 #ga1 #ahb4 ,fished1 #aea1 ,no4 #b1 #agg1 #bjg4 ,forked tenon1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bc1 #agh4 ,gain1 #aei1 ,no4 #bi1 #agi1 #bje4 ,dovetail1 #aeh1 ,no4 #bh1 #agi4 ,glue1 #agb1 ,no4 #gj1 #ahb4 ,glued-and-blocked1 #aee1 ,no4 #ab1 #agg4 ,grooved1 #aeg1 ,no4 #be1 #agi4 ,halved ,tee1 #aef1 ,no4 #ae1 #agh4 ,halving1 ,dovetail1 #aeg1 ,no4 #ah1 #agh4 ,halving1 ,beveled1 #aeg1 ,no4 #ai1 #agh4 ,halving1 #aee-aeg4 ,see also ,joint1 ,cross-lap1 ,end-lap1 ,middle lap4 ,haunching1 ,table1 #afd1 ,no4 #dc1 #ahj4 ,taper1 #afd1 ,no4 #dc1 #ahj4 ,hopper1 #aee1 ,no4 #ac1 #agg4 ,lap-dovetail1 #aeg1 ,no4 #ah1 #agh4 ,lapped and strapped1 #aea1 ,no4 #a1 #agg4 ,ledge1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bd1 #agi1 #ahg4 ,ledge and miter1 #aga1 ,no4 #eh1 #aha1 #ahg1 #bjf4 ,matched1 #agd1 ,no4 #gb1 #ahb4 ,middle-lap1 #aef1 ,no4 #ae1 #agh4 ,miter1 #afg1 ,no4 #eb1 #aha1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjf4 ,double dovetail keyed1 #aga1 ,no4 #eg1 #aha4 ,double tongue1 #aga1 ,no4 #fj1 #aha4 ,doweled1 #agj1 ,no4 #ec1 #aha4 ,lipped1 #aga1 ,no4 #eh1 #aha4 ,slip dovetail1 #aga1 ,no4 #ef1 #aha4 ,slip-feather1 #agj1 ,no4 #ee1 #aha4 ,slip-key1 #agj1 ,no4 #ee1 #aha4 ,spline1 #agj1 ,no4 #ed1 #aha1 #ahg4 ,stopped1 #aga1 ,no4 #ei1 #aha4 ,tongue1 #agj1 ,no4 #ed1 #aha4 ,mortise-and-tenon1 #eh1 #abg1 #afj-afd1 #agb1 #aid4 ,bare-faced1 #afd1 ,no4 #dd1 #ahj1 #ahe4 ,blind1 #afj1 ,no4 #cb1 #agi1 #aic4 ,double1 #afc1 ,no4 #da1 #ahj4 ,dovetail1 #afb1 ,no4 #cg1 #agi4 ,end1 #afd1 ,no4 #df1 #ahj4 ,foxtail1 #afb1 ,no4 #cf1 #agi4 ,haunched1 #afc1 ,no4 #db1 #ahj1 #aic1 #aif1 #bjg4 ,housed1 #afd1 ,no4 #de1 #ahj4 ,keyed1 #afc1 ,no4 #ci1 #ahj1 #ahe4 ,oblique1 #agb1 ,no4 #fg1 #ahb4 ,open1 #afd1 ,no4 #df1 #ahj4 ,pinned1 #afb1 ,no4 #ch1 #ahj1 #aid1 #bjg4 ,shoulder1 #afc1 ,no4 #dj1 #ahj4 ,stub1 #afj1 ,no4 #cj1 #agi4 ,thru1 #afj1 ,no4 #ca1 #agi4 ,tusk1 #afc1 ,no4 #dj1 #ahj1 #bjg4 ,wedged1 #abh1 #afb1 ,nos4 #cd and #ce1 #agi4 ,notched1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bj1 #agh4 ,notch1 ,double1 #aeg1 ,no4 #ba1 #agh4 ,rabbet1 #aeg1 ,no4 #bd1 #agi1 #agd2 ,no4 #ga1 #ahb1 #ahg4 ,rebated1 ,see ,joint1 ,rabbet4 ,rubbed1 #agb1 ,no4 #gj1 #agc1 #ahb1 #bje4 ,scarf1 #aea1 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f and #g1 #agg1 #bjd1 #bjg4 ,slip1 #afd1 ,no4 #df1 #ahj1 #aid4 ,spliced1 #aea1 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #agg1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,spline1 #age1 ,no4 #gd1 #ahb4 ,squeezed1 #agb1 ,no4 #gj1 #agd1 #ahb4 ,stretcher1 #aga1 ,no4 #fa1 #aha4 ,strut1 #aga1 ,no4 #fb1 #aha1 #bjg4 ,thrust1 #aga1 ,nos4 #fc and #fd1 #aha1 #bjg4 ,tie1 #aga1 ,nos4 #fc and #fd1 #aha4 ,toe1 #aga1 ,nos4 #fc and #fd1 #aha4 ,toe-nailed1 #aed1 ,no4 #i1 #agg4 ,tongue-and-groove1 #agd1 ,no4 #gb1 #ahb4 ,jointer-plane1 #gb4 ,jointing a saw1 #fh4 ,joints1 ,chap4 ,,vii1 #aea-ahb4 ,beveled1 #afg-agb4 ,butt1 #aeb-aee4 ,dovetail1 #afd-afg1 #bjd4 ,halving1 #aee-afj1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,heading1 #aea-aeb4 ,mortise-and-tenon1 #eh1 #abg1 #afj-afd1 #agb4 ,joists1 #bja4 ,kerf1 #aj1 #cj1 #fb1 #fe4 ,key-pin of lock1 #acc4 ,kiln1 lumber1 #dd1 #df4 ,knife1 #fa1 #acf1 #aci4 ,knife1 ,sloyd1 #fa4 ,knob1 ,plane1 #gj4 ,knock-down furniture1 #afc4 ,knuckle of hinge1 #aca4 ,lac1 insect1 #bae4 ,seed1 #baf4 ,shell1 #baf4 ,stick1 #baf4 ,lacquer1 #bah4 ,ladle1 #ada4 ,landlooking1 #g4 ,lath-machines1 #ci1 #da4 ,laths1 #ci1 #di1 #bja4 ,lay-out1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afc1 #afe1 #ahc1 #aia1 #aie1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,leather1 #ei1 #bjj4 ,leaves of hinge1 #acb4 ,level1 ,spirit1 #aaf4 ,lever-cap1 #gj1 #gg4 ,lid of box1 #ahh4 ,lighting of shop1 #adb4 ,live rollers1 #ce4 ,loading logs1 #ae4 ,lock1 mortise1 #acd4 ,rim1 #acc1 #acd4 ,lockers1 #ach1 #adb1 #adf1 #adg4 ,locks1 #acc1 #acd4 ,locomotive1 ,geared1 #bf4 ,snow1 #bh4 ,boom-derrick1 #be4 ,log-boom1 #bj1 #ba4 ,log-carriage1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf4 ,log-flipper1 #cd4 ,logging1 ,chap4 ,i1 #g-bi4 ,log-kicker1 #cd4 ,log-slip1 #cd4 ,log-stop1 #cd4 ,logwood1 #baa1 #bab4 ,loss of tools1 #add-adf4 ,lumber1 #dh4 ,lumber yard1 #cf1 #ch4 ,lumberman's board rule1 #aaa4 ,lumber mill1 #cb1 #cc4 ,m 7#ajjj feet71 #dh1 #di4 ,machine-screws1 #abg4 ,mahogany1 #baa4 ,mallet1 #eh1 #if1 #aci4 ,marking-gage1 #aad-aaf1 #acf1 #aci1 #bjc4 ,marking tools1 #aac-aag4 ,matching-plane1 #hj1 #aci4 ,maul1 #aj4 ,measurements1 #bjc4 ,measuring-tools1 #aje-aag4 ,measuring wood1 #ac1 #dh1 #di1 #aje-aaf4 ,mill-pond1 #ba1 #cb4 ,miter-box1 #ajb1 #acg1 #aci1 #aid4 ,miter-clamp1 #ach1 #ada4 ,miter-square1 #aac1 #acg1 #adj4 ,molding-plane1 #hj4 ,monkey-wrench1 #ajc1 #ach1 #ada4 ,mortise1 #eh1 #afj4 ,mortise-and-tenon4 ,see ,joint1 ,mortise-and-tenon4 ,mortise-chisel1 #ed1 #ee1 #afa4 ,mortise-gage1 #aaf1 #adj1 #afa4 ,multiple parts1 #bjd4 ,muntin1 #aib1 #aic4 ,muslin1 #bjj1 #bba4 ,nails1 #abc1 #abd4 ,flat-head1 #abd4 ,size of1 #abd4 ,wire1 #abc4 ,wrought1 #abc4 ,nailset1 #ig1 #ach1 #ada4 ,nigger1 steam1 #cd1 #ce4 ,nippers1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ach1 #ada4 ,octagonal scale1 #ajh4 ,oil1 #fe1 #acj1 #bba4 ,banana1 #bac1 #baf4 ,boiled1 #bji1 #baj1 #bbb4 ,oiler1 #acg1 #adj4 ,oilstone1 #eh1 #aba1 #acg1 #adj4 ,ordering of lumber1 #di4 ,paint1 #bbj-bba4 ,panel construction1 #afd1 #aib-aie1 #bje4 ,panel-iron1 #abg1 #abh4 ,paper1 ,building1 #bja4 ,paring1 #ee1 #eg4 ,paring-chisel1 #ed4 ,peavey1 #ah4 ,peen of hammer1 #ie4 ,picture-frame1 #afg-afi1 #aid1 #bje4 ,clamp1 #afg1 #afh4 ,vise1 #ajj1 #aja1 #afg1 #aid4 ,pigments1 #bji4 ,pillow1 #gg4 ,pincers1 #ajc1 #aje4 ,pinch-dog1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ada1 #agj4 ,pintle of hinge1 #aca4 ,plane1 parts of1 #gj4 ,bed rock1 #ga1 #ge1 #acg1 #aci4 ,block1 #gg1 #acg1 #aci4 ,circular1 #hj4 ,fore1 #gb1 #acg1 #aci4 ,jack1 #ga1 #acf1 #ach4 ,jointer1 #gb4 ,matching1 #hj1 #aci4 ,molding1 #hj4 ,oriental1 #fi4 ,rabbet1 #gi1 #acg1 #aci1 #aid4 ,router1 #hc1 #aci1 #afj4 ,scraper1 #gi1 #aci4 ,scratch1 #gi1 #acj4 ,scrub1 #gh4 ,smooth1 #gb1 #ge1 #acg1 #aci4 ,tongue-and-groove1 #hj4 ,universal1 #ha1 #hb4 ,plane-iron1 #gj1 #gg4 ,planes1 #fi-hb4 ,planing1 ,directions for1 #gd-gf1 #gh4 ,order of1 #gb4 ,plate-rack1 #ahe4 ,plates1 metal1 #abg4 ,plate1 wall1 #bja4 ,pliers1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ach1 #ada4 ,plow1 ,snow1 #ac4 ,plug-cutter1 #hd1 #hf1 #abf1 #adj4 ,points in saw-teeth1 #fc4 ,polish1 ,french1 #bag-bah4 ,oil1 #bad4 ,varnish1 #bbj4 ,wax1 #bad4 ,polishes1 #bad-bbj4 ,position of benches1 #adb4 ,posts1 corner1 #bja4 ,potash1 #aej4 ,potassium bichromate1 #acj1 #baa1 #bab4 ,pounding tools1 #id-ig4 ,preservation of lumber1 #dg4 ,see also seasoning4 ,principles of joinery1 ,chap4 ,,ix1 #bjc-bjh4 ,pumice stone1 #bag4 ,quarter-sawing1 #db1 #dc4 ,rabbet-plane1 #gi1 #acg1 #aci1 #aid4 ,raft1 ,giant1 #bg1 #bi4 ,rafter-table1 #aaj4 ,rafters1 #bja4 ,rail1 #ahf1 #aic4 ,rail1 ,drawer1 #aif4 ,railways1 logging1 #bb1 #bf4 ,rasp1 #ia4 ,ratchet-brace1 #ajc1 #aje1 #acg4 ,reamer1 #hd1 #hg4 ,rebate4 ,see ,rabbet4 ,red1 ,venetian1 #baj4 ,ribbon1 ,wall1 #bja4 ,ridge-pole1 #bja4 ,rift-sawing1 #da4 ,rip-saw1 #fc1 #acg1 #aci4 ,rivet-set1 #ada4 ,road1 ,ice1 #ac1 #ad4 ,logging1 #i1 #ac1 #ad4 ,monkeys1 #ac1 #ae4 ,tote1 #h4 ,rollers1 ,dead1 #cf4 ,rollers1 ,live1 #ce4 ,roll-ways1 #af4 ,rossing of bark1 #bd4 ,router-plane1 #hc1 #aci1 #afj4 ,rule1 #aje1 #ajf1 #acg1 #aci1 #bjc4 ,running foot1 #di4 ,rust1 #abe4 ,on tools1 #adg4 ,sacking the rear1 #af4 ,saddle seat1 #fj1 #aii4 ,sandpaper1 #ic1 #bba4 ,saw1 #fb-fh4 ,selvage of lock1 #acc4 ,saw1 ,back1 #fe1 #acf1 #ach4 ,band1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb4 ,butting1 #cf4 ,circular1 #cj4 ,compass1 #ff1 #aci4 ,compression1 #fb4 ,coping1 #aci4 ,crosscut1 #aj1 #fd1 #acg1 #aci4 ,cut-off1 #cf1 #ci4 ,dovetail1 #ff1 #acg1 #aci4 ,gang1 #cj4 ,hack1 #acg1 #ada4 ,logging1 #aj1 #bc4 ,pulling1 #aj1 #fb1 #fg4 ,pushing1 #fb4 ,rip1 #fc1 #acg1 #aci4 ,tension1 #fb1 #fg4 ,turning1 #fg1 #acg1 #aci4 ,saw-carriage1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf4 ,sawdust1 #ci4 ,saw-filing and setting1 #fg4 ,saw-horse1 #fd1 #fe1 #ajj4 ,sawing1 ,directions for1 #fd1 #fe4 ,saw-jointer1 #fh4 ,sawmill1 #cb1 #cc4 ,sawmilling1 ,chap4 ,,ii1 #cj-dd4 ,saw-set1 #fh4 ,saw-vise1 #fg1 #fh4 ,sawing into lengths1 #aa1 #ab1 #bd4 ,scaling logs1 #ac4 ,scrap-box1 #ahg4 ,scraper1 #gf1 #ia1 #acg1 #aci4 ,scraper1 ,veneer1 #ia1 #ib1 #acg1 #aci4 ,scraper-plane1 #gi1 #aci4 ,scraper steel1 #ib1 #acg1 #aci4 ,scraping tools1 #ij-id4 ,scrap pile1 #da1 #db4 ,scratch-awl1 #aaf1 #adj4 ,scratch-plane1 #gi1 #acj4 ,screen-hinge1 #aca4 ,screw-box1 #aci4 ,screwdriver1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ach1 #adj4 ,bit1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ach1 #adj4 ,screw-gage1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abf4 ,screws1 #abe-abg4 ,rule for using1 #abf4 ,sizes of1 #abf4 ,scribing1 #aab4 ,scrub-plane1 #gh4 ,seasoning1 ,chap4 ,,iii1 #de-dh4 ,air1 #de4 ,hot-air1 #df4 ,kiln1 #df4 ,oil1 #dg4 ,water1 #dg4 ,set of saw1 #fc1 #fg4 ,shank1 #ed4 ,sharpening of tools1 ,the1 #ed1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fg1 #gf1 #he1 #hf1 #ib-ic1 #aag-aba4 ,sharpening-tools1 #aag-aba4 ,sheathing1 #bja4 ,shellac1 #adi1 #bae-bah4 ,orange1 #baf4 ,white1 #baf4 ,shelves1 #ahe1 #bje4 ,shingles1 #di1 #bja1 #bje4 ,shingle-machine1 #ci1 #da4 ,shoe-pegs1 #abh4 ,shoulder of joint1 #afj4 ,shrinkage1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib1 #aid1 #bje4 ,siding1 #bja4 ,sienna1 #bji4 ,sighting1 #ga1 #ge4 ,silex1 #bad4 ,sill1 #bja4 ,sizing1 #acj4 ,skidder1 steam1 #be4 ,skidway1 #i1 #ac1 #bd4 ,slab1 #cd1 #ce1 #ci4 ,slab-slasher1 #ci1 #dj4 ,slash-grain1 #da1 #db4 ,slash-sawing1 #da4 ,sleigh haul1 #ac1 #ae4 ,sliding cut1 #ec1 #ef1 #ge1 #gh4 ,sliding ,t bevel1 #aac4 ,slipstone1 #fj1 #aba1 #acg1 #adj4 ,slip-tongue carts1 #bb4 ,smooth-plane1 #gb1 #acg1 #aci4 ,snips1 #ada4 ,snow-locomotive1 #bh4 ,soap1 as a lubricant1 #abf4 ,to prevent gluing1 #acj4 ,sole of ,plane1 #gj4 ,sorting-jack1 #ba4 ,sorting-shed1 #ch4 ,spiriting off1 #bag4 ,splash-dam1 #bj1 #ba4 ,splitting tools1 #ea4 ,spokeshave1 #hb1 #acg1 #aci1 #ahc4 ,stains1 #bji-bac4 ,chemical1 #baa-bac4 ,oil1 #aej1 #bji1 #baj4 ,spirit1 #baa4 ,water1 #baj1 #baa4 ,steel square1 #ajg-aaa1 #acg1 #adj4 ,steel wool1 #id1 #baa1 #bag1 #bba4 ,sticking1 #de1 #dh4 ,stile1 #aic4 ,storing of lumber1 #dh4 ,stove1 ,gas1 #ach1 #ada1 #adh4 ,stove-bolts1 #abg4 ,straight cut1 #ec4 ,strength of joints1 #bjf4 ,strike of lock1 #acc4 ,stringer1 #aif4 ,stropping1 #ei4 ,studding1 #bja4 ,superposition1 ,method of1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afc1 #aff1 #bjd4 ,survey of forest land1 #g4 ,swamper1 #ab4 ,sweep of brace1 #ajc4 ,table-hinge1 #aca4 ,table construction1 #acj1 #afd1 #aie4 ,see also ,table ,top4 ,table top1 #agb1 #age1 #aig4 ,taboret1 #afi1 #agj1 #ahf4 ,tacks1 #abd4 ,tacks1 double-pointed1 #ajb1 #abd4 ,tang1 #ed4 ,tank1 #ad4 ,taper of cutting tools1 #eb4 ,tee-hinge1 #aca4 ,teeth of saw1 #fc4 ,tenon1 #afj1 #bjf4 ,see also ,mortise and tenon4 ,joint1 ,mortise and tenon4 ,tenon-saw1 #fe4 ,toe of ,plane1 #gj1 #ga4 ,throat of ,plane1 #gj4 ,tie-beams1 #bja4 ,timber1 #dh4 ,tonguing-and-grooving-plane1 #hj4 ,tool-grinder1 #fa1 #abj1 #aba1 #acg1 #adj4 ,tool-holder for grinding1 #aah-abj4 ,tool-rack1 #adc1 #add4 ,tools1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ea-abb4 ,tools1 logging1 #aj4 ,traction engine1 #bh4 ,tools1 ,loss of1 #add-adf4 ,tractor1 #bh4 ,trammel-points1 #aad1 #adj4 ,transfer1 ,lumber1 #cf1 #cg4 ,transportation of logs1 #ac1 #ae1 #af ff1 #bc4 ,travoy1 #i4 ,tray1 #fj1 #ahc4 ,triangle1 ,blackboard1 #ada4 ,trimmer1 #cf1 #ch4 ,trimming logs1 #ab4 ,tripoli1 #aba1 #adg4 ,trolley for logs1 #be4 ,try-square1 #aab1 #acf1 #aci1 #adj1 #bjc4 ,tumbler of lock1 #acc4 ,turning-saw1 #fg1 #acg1 #aci1 #ahc4 ,turpentine1 #bji1 #baj1 #bad1 #bbb4 ,tusk4 ,see ,joint1 mortise-and-tenon1 tusk4 ,twist-bit1 #hd1 #he4 ,twist-drill1 #hd1 #he1 #ach4 ,twist-drill-gage1 #aag4 ,umber1 #bji4 ,undercut1 #bjf4 ,universal plane1 #ha4 ,unjoined pieces1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,upholstering1 #aii-bja4 ,valuation survey1 #g4 ,van1 ,logging camp1 #i4 ,varnish1 #adi1 #bae-bbj4 ,copal1 #bah-bbj4 ,cremona1 #bah4 ,spirit1 #bae-bah4 ,varnishing1 ,process of1 #bai4 ,vaseline1 #adg4 ,veining tools1 #adj4 ,veneer-scraper1 #ia1 #ib1 #acg1 #aci4 ,vermilion1 #baj4 ,vise1 #ii1 #ach4 ,iron1 #ach1 #ada4 ,walnut1 #baj4 ,waney boards1 #cf4 ,warping1 #dh4 ,washer-cutter1 #hg1 #adj4 ,waste1 cotton1 #bji1 #bba4 ,waste1 sawmill1 #ci4 ,waterproof glue1 #acj4 ,water-stains1 #baj4 ,water-table1 #bja4 ,wax1 #bad4 ,webbing1 #bjj4 ,wedge1 ,plane1 #fi1 #gj4 ,wedge1 #aj1 #ea1 #eb1 #abh1 #afb4 ,action #ea1 #eb4 ,whetting tools1 #eh4 ,wind in board1 #gd4 ,winding sticks1 #gd1 #aac4 ,window-sash1 #aid4 ,wire edge1 #ei4 ,wire-gage1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,wooden structures1 types of1 ,chap4 ,,viii1 #ahc-bjb4 ,working edge1 #gb1 #aae4 ,working face1 #gb1 #aae4 ,wrench1 #ajc4 ,see also ,monkey-wrench4 ,yarding logs1 #bd1 #bf1 #bg4 ,yard-stick1 #ach1 #ada4 ,yellow1 ,chrome1 #bji4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,there is no ,fig4 #ai2 and ,fig4 #dg has no caption4 ,some of the illustrations were on numbered pages which contained no text4 ,illustrations have been moved to more relevant places1 and extraneous page numbers removed4 7sundry commas added to ,bibliograpy1 as needed for consistency47 ,,errata1 and sic ,page #ac3 'thoroly' sic period spelling for 'thououghly'4 ,page #af3 ',if a horse fall 444' sic ',if a horse 7should7 fall 444' ,page #dg3 'eargerly' corrected to 'eagerly'4 7,they are eagerly sought after44474 ,page #dg3 'chlorid' corrected to 'chloride'4 7zinc chloride74 ,page #eh3 'splinttering' corrected to 'splintering'4 ,page #fc3 'especally' corrected to 'especially'4 ,page #ij3 'varities' corrected to 'varieties'4 ,page #afj3 'shouders' corrected to 'shoulders'4 7,locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders44474 ,page #afb3 ,replaced two gaps in text with 'wedges' and ',no4 #cd'4 7,no4 #ce4 ,a wedged 444 by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in ,no4 #cd47 ,page #ahi3 ',fig4 #bhe1 ,e' corrected to ',fig4 #bhe1 ,c' 7,the cover may have cleats on its underside1 ,fig4 #bhe1 ,c1 which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place47 ,page #bai3 'funiture' corrected to 'furniture'4 7444some are for floors1 some for furniture14447