,,on ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,species4 ,illustration ,,on ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,species4 ,,by ,,st4 ,,george ,,mivart1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 #ahga4 ,the ,right of ,translation and ,reproduction is reserved4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,to ,,sir ,,henry ,,holland1 ,,bart41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir ,,henry1 ,in giving myself the pleasure to dedicate1 as ,i now do1 this work to you1 it is not my intention to identify you with any views of my own advocated in it4 ,i simply avail myself of an opportunity of paying a tribute of esteem and regard to my earliest scientific friend--the first to encourage me in pursuing the study of nature4 ,i remain1 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir ,,henry1 ,ever faithfully yours1 ,,st4 ,,george ,,mivart4 #g1 ,,north ,,bank1 ,,regent',s ,,park1 ,december #h1 #ahgj4 vii 99 99 99 99 99 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,the problem of the genesis of species stated4--,nature of its probable solution4--,importance of the question4--,position here defended4--,statement of the ,,darwinian ,,theory4--,its applicability to details of geographical distribution2 to rudimentary structures2 to homology2 to mimicry1 c4--,consequent utility of the theory4--,its wide acceptance4--,reasons for this other than1 and in addition to1 its scientific value4 ,its simplicity4--,its bearing on religious questions4--,odium theologicum and odium antitheologicum4--,the antagonism supposed by many to exist between it and theology neither necessary nor universal4--,christian authorities in favour of evolution4--,mr4 ,darwin's ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication4--,difficulties of the ,darwinian theory enumerated 444 ,page #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,incompetency ,,of ,,natural ,,selection ,,to ,,account ,,for ,,the ,,incipient ,,stages ,,of ,,useful ,,structures4 ,mr4 ,darwin supposes that ,natural-,selection acts by slight variations4--,these must be useful at once4--,difficulties as to the giraffe2 as to mimicry2 as to the heads of flat-fishes2 as to the origin and constancy of the vertebrate1 limbs2 as to whalebone2 as to the young kangaroo2 as to sea-urchins2 as to certain processes of viii metamorphosis2 as to the mammary gland2 as to certain ape characters2 as to the rattlesnake and cobra2 as to the process of formation of the eye and ear2 as to the fully developed condition of the eye and ear2 as to the voice2 as to shell-fish2 as to orchids2 as to ants4--,the necessity for the simultaneous modification of many individuals4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #bc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,co-,,existence ,,of ,,closely ,,similar ,,structures ,,of ,,diverse ,,origin4 ,chances against concordant variations4--,examples of discordant ones4--,concordant variations not unlikely on a non-,darwinian evolutionary hypothesis4--,placental and implacental mammals4--,birds and reptiles4--,independent origins of similar sense organs4--,the ear4--,the eye4--,other coincidences4--,causes besides ,natural ,selection produce concordant variations in certain geographical regions4--,causes besides ,natural ,selection produce concordant variations in certain zoological and botanical groups4--,there are homologous parts not genetically related4--,harmony in respect of the organic and inorganic worlds4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #fc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,minute ,,and ,,gradual ,,modifications4 ,there are difficulties as to minute modifications1 even if not fortuitous4--,examples of sudden and considerable modifications of different kinds4--,professor ,owen's view4--,mr4 ,wallace4--,professor ,huxley4--,objections to sudden changes4--,labyrinthodont4--,potto4--,ce tacea4--,as to origin of bird's wing4--,tendrils of climbing plants4--,animals once supposed to be connecting links4--,early specialization of structure4--,macrauchenia4--,glyptodon4- -,sabre-toothed tiger4--,conclusion 444 ,page #ig ix ,,chapter ,v4 ,,as ,,to ,,specific ,,stability4 ,what is meant by the phrase specific stability2 such stability to be expected a priori1 or else considerable changes at once4--,rapidly increasing difficulty of intensifying race characters2 alleged causes of this phenomenon2 probably an internal cause co-operates4--,a certain definiteness in variations4--,mr4 ,darwin admits the principle of specific stability in certain cases of unequal variability4--,the goose4--,the peacock4--,the guinea fowl4--,exceptional causes of variation under domestication4--,alleged tendency to reversion4--,instances4--,sterility of hybrids4--,prepotency of pollen of same species1 but of different race4--,mortality in young gallinaceous hybrids4--,a bar to intermixture exists somewhere4--,guinea-pigs4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #aac ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,species ,,and ,,time4 ,two relations of species to time4--,no evidence of past existence of minutely intermediate forms when such might be expected a priori4--,bats1 ,pterodactyles1 ,dinosauria1 and ,birds4--,ichthyosauria1 ,chelonia1 and ,anoura4--,horse ancestry4--,labyrinthodonts and ,trilobites4--,two subdivisions of the second relation of species to time4--,sir ,william ,thomson's views4--,probable period required for ultimate specific evolution from primitive ancestral forms4---,geometrical increase of time required for rapidly multiplying increase of structural differences4--,proboscis monkey4--,time required for deposition of strata necessary for ,darwinian evolution4--,high organization of ,silurian forms of life4--,absence of fossils in oldest rocks4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #abh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,species ,,and ,,space4 ,the geographical distribution of animals presents difficulties4--,these not insurmountable in themselves2 harmonize with other difficulties4--,fresh-water fishes4--,forms common to ,africa and ,india2 to ,africa and ,south ,america2 to ,china and ,australia2 to ,north ,america and x ,china2 to ,new ,zealand and ,south ,america2 to ,south ,america and ,tasmania2 to ,south ,america and ,australia4--,pleurodont lizards4--,insectivorous mammals4--,similarity of ,european and ,south ,american frogs4--,analogy between ,european salmon and fishes of ,new ,zealand1 c4--,an ancient ,antarctic continent probable4--,other modes of accounting for facts of distribution4--,independent origin of closely similar forms4--,conclusion 444 ,page #add ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,homologies4 ,animals made up of parts mutually related in various ways4--,what homology is4--,its various kinds4--,serial homology4--,lateral homology4--,vertical homology4--,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's explanations4--,an internal power necessary1 as shown by facts of comparative anatomy4---,of teratology4--,m4 ,st4 ,hilaire4--,professor ,burt ,wilder4--,foot-wings4--,facts of pathology4--,mr4 ,james ,paget4--,dr4 ,william ,budd4--,the existence of such an internal power of individual development diminishes the improbability of an analogous law of specific origination 444 ,page #aee ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,ethics4 ,the origin of morals an inquiry not foreign to the subject of this book4--,modern utilitarian view as to that origin4--,mr4 ,darwin's speculation as to the origin of the abhorrence of incest4--,cause assigned by him insufficient4--,care of the aged and infirm opposed by ,natural ,selection2 also self-abnegation and asceticism4--,distinctness of the ideas right and useful4--,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill4--,insufficiency of ,natural ,selection to account for the origin of the distinction between duty and profit4--,distinction of moral acts into material and formal4--,no groundxi for believing that formal morality exists in brutes4--,evidence that it does exist in savages4--,facility with which savages may be misunderstood4--,objections as to diversity of customs4--,mr4 ,button's review of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4--,anticipatory character of morals4--,sir ,john ,lubbock's explanation4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #ahh ,,chapter ,x4 ,,pangenesis4 ,a provisional hypothesis supplementing ,natural ,selection4--,statement of the hypothesis4--,difficulty as to multitude of gemmules4--,as to certain modes of reproduction4--,as to formations without the requisite gemmules4--,mr4 ,lewes and ,professor ,delpino4--,difficulty as to developmental force of gemmules4--,as to their spontaneous fission4--,pangenesis and ,vitalism4--,paradoxical reality4--,pangenesis scarcely superior to anterior hypotheses4--,buffon4--,owen4--,herbert ,spencer4--,gemmules as mysterious as physiological units4--,conclusion 444 ,page #bjh ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,specific ,,genesis4 ,review of the statements and arguments of preceding chapters4--,cumulative argument against predominant action of ,natural ,selection4--,whether anything positive as well as negative can be enunciated4--,constancy of laws of nature does not necessarily imply constancy of specific evolution4--,possible exceptional stability of existing epoch4--,probability that an internal cause of change exists4--,innate powers somewhere must be accepted4--,symbolism of molecular action under vibrating impulses4 ,professor ,owen's statement4--,statement of the ,author's view4--,it avoids the difficulties which oppose ,natural ,selection4--,it harmonizes apparently conflicting conceptions4--,summary and conclusion 444 ,page #bbj ,page xii ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,theology ,,and ,,evolution4 ,prejudiced opinions on the subject4--,creation sometimes denied from prejudice4--,the unknowable4--,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's objections to theism2 to creation4--,meanings of term creation4--,confusion from not distinguishing between primary and derivative creation4--,mr4 ,darwin's objections4--,bearing of ,christianity on evolution4--,supposed opposition1 the result of a misconception4--,theological authority not opposed to evolution4--,st4 ,augustin4--,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas4--,certain consequences of want of flexibility of mind4--,reason and imagination4--,the first cause and demonstration4--,parallel between ,christianity and natural theology4--,what evolution of species is4--,professor ,agassiz4--,innate powers must be recognized4--,bearing of evolution on religious belief4--,professor ,huxley4--,professor ,owen4--,mr4 ,wallace4--,mr4 ,darwin4--,a priori conception of ,divine action4--,origin of man4--,absolute creation and dogma4--,mr4 ,wallace's view4--,a supernatural origin for man's body not necessary4--,two orders of being in man4--,two modes of origin4--,harmony of the physical1 hyperphysical1 and supernatural4--,reconciliation of science and religion as regards evolution4--,conclusion 444 ,page #bdc ,,index 444 ,page #bhi xiii ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,leaf ,butterfly in flight and repose 7from ,mr4 ,a4 ,wallace's ,malay ,archipelago7 444 #ca ,walking-,leaf ,insect 444 #ce ,pleuronectid1 with the peculiarly placed eye in different positions 7from ,dr4 ,traquair's paper in ,linn4 ,soc4 ,trans41 #ahfe7 444 #cg1 #aff ,mouth of ,whale 7from ,professor ,owen's ,odontography7 444 #dj ,four plates of ,baleen seen obliquely from within 7from ,professor ,owen's ,odontography7 444 #da ,dugong 444 #da1 #age ,echinus or ,sea ,urchin 444 #dc1 #afg ,pedicellari of ,echinus very much enlarged 444 #dd ,rattlesnake 444 #di ,cobra 7from ,sir ,andrew ,smith's ,southern ,africa7 444 #ej ,wingbones of ,pterodactyle1 ,bat1 and ,bird 7from ,mr4 ,andrew ,murray's ,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals7 444 #fd1 #acj1 #aeg ,skeleton of ,flying-,dragon 444 #fe1 #aeh ,centipede 7from a specimen in the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons7 444 #ff1 #aei ,teeth of ,urotrichus and ,perameles 444 #fh ,the ,archeopteryx 7from ,professor ,owen's ,anatomy of ,vertebrata7 444 #gc1 #acb xiv ,cuttle-,fish 444 #ge1 #ada ,skeleton of ,ichthyosaurus 444 #gh1 #ajg1 #acb1 #agg ,cytheridea ,torosa 7from ,messrs4 ,brady and ,robertson's paper in ,ann4 and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 #ahgj7 444 #gi ,a ,polyzoon1 with ,bird's-head processes 444 #hj ,bird's-head processes greatly enlarged 444 #ha ,antechimis ,minutissimus and ,mus ,delicatulus 7from ,mr4 ,andrew ,murray's ,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals7 444 #hb ,outlines of ,wings of ,butterflies of ,celebes compared with those of allied species elsewhere 444 #hf ,great ,shielded ,grasshopper 444 #hi ,the ,six-shafted ,bird of ,paradise 444 #ij ,the ,long-tailed ,bird of ,paradise 444 #ia ,the ,red ,bird of ,paradise 444 #ib ,horned ,flies 444 #ic ,the ,magnificent ,bird of ,paradise 444 #ic 7,the above seven figures are from ,mr4 ,a4 ,wallace's ,malay ,archipelago7 ,much enlarged horizontal ,section of the ,tooth of a ,labyrinthodon 7from ,professor ,owen's ,odontography7 444 #ajd ,hand of the ,potto 7from life7 444 #aje ,skeleton of ,plesiosaurus 444 #ajf1 #acc ,the ,aye-,aye 7from ,trans1 of ,zool4 ,soc47 444 #ajh ,dentition of ,sabre-toothed ,tiger 7from ,professor ,owen's ,odontography7 444 #aaj ,trilobite 444 #ace1 #aga ,inner side of ,lower ,jaw of ,pleurodont ,lizard 7from ,professor ,owen's ,odontography7 444 #adh ,solenodon 7from ,berlin ,trans47 444 #adi ,tarsal ,bones of ,galago and ,cheirogaleus 7from ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc47 444 #aei ,squilla 444 #afj ,parts of the ,skeleton of the ,lobster 444 #afa ,page xv ,spine of ,galago ,allenii 7from ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc47 444 #afb ,vertebrae of ,axolotl 7from ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc47 444 #afe ,annelid undergoing spontaneous fission 444 #afi1 #baa ,aard-,vark 7,orycteropus capensis7 444 #agd ,pangolin 7,manis7 444 #age ,skeleton of ,manus and ,pes of a ,tailed ,batrachian 7from ,professor ,gegenbaur's ,tarsus and ,carpus7 444 #agh ,flexor ,muscles of ,hand of ,nycticetus 7from ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc47 444 #ahj ,the ,fibres of ,corti 444 #bgi #a 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,species4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,the problem of the genesis of species stated4--,nature of its probable solution4--,importance of the question4--,position here defended4--,statement of the ,,darwinian ,,theory4--,its applicability to details of geographical distribution2 to rudimentary structures2 to homology2 to mimicry1 c4--,consequent utility of the theory4--,its wide acceptance4--,reasons for this1 other than1 and in addition to1 its scientific value4--,its simplicity4--,its bearing on religious questions4--,odium theologicum and odium antitheologicum4--,the antagonism supposed by many to exist between it and theology neither necessary nor universal4--,christian authorities in favour of evolution4--,mr4 ,darwin's ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication4--,difficulties of the ,darwinian theory enumerated4 ,the great problem which has so long exercised the minds of naturalists1 namely1 that concerning the origin of different kinds of animals and plants1 seems at last to be fairly on the road to receive--perhaps at no very distant future--as satisfactory a solution as it can well have4 ,but the problem presents peculiar difficulties4 ,the birth of a species has often been compared with that of an individual4 ,the origin1 however1 of even an individual animal or plant 7that which determines an embryo to evolve itself1--as1 e4g41 a spider rather than a beetle1 a rose-plant #b rather than a pear7 is shrouded in obscurity4 ,a fortiori must this be the case with the origin of a species4 ,moreover1 the analogy between a species and an individual is a very incomplete one4 ,the word individual denotes a concrete whole with a real1 separate1 and distinct existence4 ,the word species1 on the other hand1 denotes a peculiar congeries of characters1 innate powers and qualities1 and a certain nature realized indeed in individuals1 but having no separate existence1 except ideally as a thought in some mind4 ,thus the birth of a species can only be compared metaphorically1 and very imperfectly1 with that of an individual4 ,individuals as individuals1 actually and directly produce and bring forth other individuals2 but no congeries of characters no common nature as such1 can directly bring forth another common nature1 because1 per se1 it has no existence 7other than ideal7 apart from the individuals in which it is manifested4 ,the problem then is1 by what combination of natural laws does a new 'common nature' appear upon the scene of realized existence8 i4e4 how is an individual embodying such new characters produced8 ,for the approximation we have of late made towards the solution of this problem1 we are mainly indebted to the invaluable labours and active brains of ,charles ,darwin and ,alfred ,wallace4 ,nevertheless1 important as has been the impulse and direction given by those writers to both our observations and speculations1 the solution will not 7if the views here advocated are correct7 ultimately present that aspect and character with which it has issued from the hands of those writers4 ,neither1 most certainly1 will that solution agree in appearance or substance with the more or less crude conceptions which have been put forth by most of the opponents of ,messrs4 ,darwin and ,wallace4 ,page #c ,rather1 judging from the more recent manifestations of thought on opposite sides1 we may expect the development of some tertium quid--the resultant of forces coming from different quarters1 and not coinciding in direction with any one of them4 ,as error is almost always partial truth1 and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity by the suppression of another which qualifies and modifies the former1 we may hope1 by the synthesis of the truths contended for by various advocates1 to arrive at the one conciliating reality4 ,signs of this conciliation are not wanting3 opposite scientific views1 opposite philosophical conceptions1 and opposite religious beliefs1 are rapidly tending by their vigorous conflict to evolve such a systematic and comprehensive view of the genesis of species as will completely harmonize with the teachings of science1 philosophy1 and religion4 ,to endeavour to add one stone to this temple of concord1 to try and remove a few of the misconceptions and mutual misunderstandings which oppose harmonious action1 is the aim and endeavour of the present work4 ,this aim it is hoped to attain1 not by shirking difficulties1 but analysing them1 and by endeavouring to dig down to the common root which supports and unites diverging stems of truth4 ,it cannot but be a gain when the labourers in the three fields above mentioned1 namely1 science1 philosophy1 and religion1 shall fully recognize this harmony4 ,then the energy too often spent in futile controversy1 or withheld through prejudice1 may be profitably and reciprocally exercised for the mutual benefit of all4 ,remarkable is the rapidity with which an interest in the question of specific origination has spread4 ,but a few years ago it scarcely occupied the minds of any but naturalists4 ,then the crude theory put forth by ,lamarck1 and by his ,english interpreter the author of the ,vestiges of ,creation1 had rather discredited than helped on a belief in organic evolution--a belief1 that is1 in new kinds being produced from older #d ones by the ordinary and constant operation of natural laws4 ,now1 however1 this belief is widely diffused4 ,indeed1 there are few drawing-rooms where it is not the subject of occasional discussion1 and artisans and schoolboys have their views as to the permanence of organic forms4 ,moreover1 the reception of this doctrine tends actually1 though by no means necessarily1 to be accompanied by certain beliefs with regard to quite distinct and very momentous subject-matter4 ,so that the question of the ,genesis of ,species is not only one of great interest1 but also of much importance4 ,but though the calm and thorough consideration of this matter is at the present moment exceedingly desirable1 yet the actual importance of the question itself as to its consequences in the domain of theology has been strangely exaggerated by many1 both of its opponents and supporters4 ,this is especially the case with that form of the evolution theory which is associated with the name of ,mr4 ,darwin2 and yet neither the refutation nor the demonstration of that doctrine would be necessarily accompanied by the results which are hoped for by one party and dreaded by another4 ,the general theory of evolution has indeed for some time past steadily gained ground1 and it may be safely predicted that the number of facts which can be brought forward in its support will1 in a few years1 be vastly augmented4 ,but the prevalence of this theory need alarm no one1 for it is1 without any doubt1 perfectly consistent with strictest and most orthodox ,christian theology4 ,moreover1 it is not altogether without obscurities1 and cannot yet be considered as fully demonstrated4 ,the special ,darwinian hypothesis1 however1 is beset with certain scientific difficulties1 which must by no means be ignored1 and some of which1 ,i venture to think1 are absolutely insuperable4 ,what ,darwinism or ,natural ,selection is1 will be shortly explained2 but before doing so1 ,i think #e it well to state the object of this book1 and the view taken up and defended in it4 ,it is its object to maintain the position that ,natural ,selection acts1 and indeed must act1 but that still1 in order that we may be able to account for the production of known kinds of animals and plants1 it requires to be supplemented by the action of some other natural law or laws as yet undiscovered4#a ,also1 that the consequences which have been drawn from ,evolution1 whether exclusively ,darwinian or not1 to the prejudice of religion1 by no means follow from it1 and are in fact illegitimate4 ,the ,darwinian theory of ,natural ,selection may be shortly stated thus3#b-- ,every kind of animal and plant tends to increase in numbers in a geometrical progression4 ,every kind of animal and plant transmits a general likeness1 with individual differences1 to its offspring4 ,every individual may present minute variations of any kind and in any direction4 ,past time has been practically infinite4 ,every individual has to endure a very severe struggle for existence1 owing to the tendency to geometrical increase of all kinds of animals and plants1 while the total animal and vegetable population 7man and his agency excepted7 remains almost stationary4 ,thus1 every variation of a kind tending to save the life of the individual possessing it1 or to enable it more surely to propagate its kind1 will in the long run be preserved1 and will transmit its favourable peculiarity to some of its offspring1 which peculiarity will thus become intensified #f till it reaches the maximum degree of utility4 ,on the other hand1 individuals presenting unfavourable peculiarities will be ruthlessly destroyed4 ,the action of this law of ,natural ,selection may thus be well represented by the convenient expression survival of the fittest4#c ,now this conception of ,mr4 ,darwin's is perhaps the most interesting theory1 in relation to natural science1 which has been promulgated during the present century4 ,remarkable1 indeed1 is the way in which it groups together such a vast and varied series of biological#d facts1 and even paradoxes1 which it appears more or less clearly to explain1 as the following instances will show4 ,by this theory of ,natural ,selection1 light is thrown on the more singular facts relating to the geographical distribution of animals and plants2 for example1 on the resemblance between the past and present inhabitants of different parts of the earth's surface4 ,thus in ,australia remains have been found of creatures closely allied to kangaroos and other kinds of pouched beasts1 which in the present day exist nowhere but in the ,australian region4 ,similarly in ,south ,america1 and nowhere else1 are found sloths and armadillos1 and in that same part of the world have been discovered bones of animals different indeed from existing sloths and armadillos1 but yet much more nearly related to them than to any other kinds whatever4 ,such coincidences between the existing and antecedent geographical distribution of forms are numerous4 ,again1 ,natural ,selection serves to explain the circumstance that often in adjacent islands we find animals closely resembling1 and appearing to represent1 each other2 while if certain of these islands show signs 7by depth of surrounding sea or what not7 of more ancient separation1 the animals inhabiting them exhibit a #g corresponding divergence4#e ,the explanation consists in representing the forms inhabiting the islands as being the modified descendants of a common stock1 the modification being greatest where the separation has been the most prolonged4 ,rudimentary structures also receive an explanation by means of this theory4 ,these structures are parts which are apparently functionless and useless where they occur1 but which represent similar parts of large size and functional importance in other animals4 ,examples of such rudimentary structures are the foetal teeth of whales1 and of the front part of the jaw of ruminating quadrupeds4 ,these foetal structures are minute in size1 and never cut the gum1 but are reabsorbed without ever coming into use1 while no other teeth succeed them or represent them in the adult condition of those animals4 ,the mammary glands of all male beasts constitute another example1 as also does the wing of the apteryx--a ,new ,zealand bird utterly incapable of flight1 and with the wing in a quite rudimentary condition 7whence the name of the animal74 ,yet this rudimentary wing contains bones which are miniature representatives of the ordinary wing-bones of birds of flight4 ,now1 the presence of these useless bones and teeth is explained if they may be considered as actually being the inherited diminished representatives of parts of large size and functional importance in the remote ancestors of these various animals4 ,again1 the singular facts of homology are capable of a similar explanation4 ,homology is the name applied to the investigation of those profound resemblances which have so often been found to underlie superficial differences between animals of very different form and habit4 ,thus man1 the horse1 the whale1 and the bat1 all have the pectoral limb1 whether it be the arm1 or fore-leg1 or paddle1 or wing1 formed on essentially the same type1 though the number and proportion of parts may#h more or less differ4 ,again1 the butterfly and the shrimp1 different as they are in appearance and mode of life1 are yet constructed on the same common plan1 of which they constitute diverging manifestations4 ,no a priori reason is conceivable why such similarities should be necessary1 but they are readily explicable on the assumption of a genetic relationship and affinity between the animals in question1 assuming1 that is1 that they are the modified descendants of some ancient form--their common ancestor4 ,that remarkable series of changes which animals undergo before they attain their adult condition1 which is called their process of development1 and during which they more or less closely resemble other animals during the early stages of the same process1 has also great light thrown on it from the same source4 ,the question as to the singularly complex resemblances borne by every adult animal and plant to a certain number of other animals and plants--resemblances by means of which the adopted zoological and botanical systems of classification have been possible--finds its solution in a similar manner1 classification becoming the expression of a genealogical relationship4 ,finally1 by this theory--and as yet by this alone--can any explanation be given of that extraordinary phenomenon which is metaphorically termed mimicry4 ,mimicry is a close and striking1 yet superficial resemblance borne by some animal or plant to some other1 perhaps very different1 animal or plant4 ,the walking leaf 7an insect belonging to the grasshopper and cricket order7 is a well-known and conspicuous instance of the assumption by an animal of the appearance of a vegetable structure 7see illustration on p4 #ce72 and the bee1 fly1 and spider orchids are familiar examples of a converse resemblance4 ,birds1 butterflies1 reptiles1 and even fish1 seem to bear in certain instances a similarly striking resemblance to other birds1 butterflies1 reptiles1 and fish1 of altogether distinct kinds4 ,the explanation of this matter which ,natural ,selection offers1 as to animals1 is that certain varieties of #i one kind have found exemption from persecution in consequence of an accidental resemblance which such varieties have exhibited to animals of another kind1 or to plants2 and that they were thus preserved1 and the degree of resemblance was continually augmented in their descendants4 ,as to plants1 the explanation offered by this theory might perhaps be that varieties of plants which presented a certain superficial resemblance in their flowers to insects1 have thereby been helped to propagate their kind1 the visit of certain insects being useful or indispensable to the fertilization of many flowers4 ,we have thus a whole series of important facts which ,natural ,selection helps us to understand and co-ordinate4 ,and not only are all these diverse facts strung together1 as it were1 by the theory in question2 not only does it explain the development of the complex instincts of the beaver1 the cuckoo1 the bee1 and the ant1 as also the dazzling brilliancy of the humming-bird1 the glowing tail and neck of the peacock1 and the melody of the nightingale2 the perfume of the rose and the violet1 the brilliancy of the tulip and the sweetness of the nectar of flowers2 not only does it help us to understand all these1 but serves as a basis of future research and of inference from the known to the unknown1 and it guides the investigator to the discovery of new facts which1 when ascertained1 it seems also able to co-ordinate4#f ,nay1 ,natural ,selection seems capable of application not only to the building up of the smallest and most insignificant organisms1 but even of extension beyond the biological domain altogether1 so as possibly to have relation to the stable equilibrium of the solar system#aj itself1 and even of the whole sidereal universe4 ,thus1 whether this theory be true or false1 all lovers of natural science should acknowledge a deep debt of gratitude to ,messrs4 ,darwin and ,wallace1 on account of its practical utility4 ,but the utility of a theory by no means implies its truth4 ,what do we not owe1 for example1 to the labours of the ,alchemists8 ,the emission theory of light1 again1 has been pregnant with valuable results1 as still is the ,atomic theory1 and others which will readily suggest themselves4 ,with regard to ,mr4 ,darwin 7with whose name1 on account of the noble self-abnegation of ,mr4 ,wallace1 the theory is in general exclusively associated71 his friends may heartily congratulate him on the fact that he is one of the few exceptions to the rule respecting the non-appreciation of a prophet in his own country4 ,it would be difficult to name another living labourer in the field of physical science who has excited an interest so widespread1 and given rise to so much praise1 gathering round him1 as he has done1 a chorus of more or less completely acquiescing disciples1 themselves masters in science1 and each the representative of a crowd of enthusiastic followers4 ,such is the ,darwinian theory of ,natural ,selection1 such are the more remarkable facts which it is potent to explain1 and such is the reception it has met with in the world4 ,a few words now as to the reasons for the very widespread interest it has awakened1 and the keenness with which the theory has been both advocated and combated4 ,the important bearing it has on such an extensive range of scientific facts1 its utility1 and the vast knowledge and great ingenuity of its promulgator1 are enough to account for the heartiness of its reception by those learned in natural history4 ,but quite other causes have concurred to produce the general and higher degree of interest felt in the theory beside the readiness with which it harmonizes with biological facts4 ,these latter could only be appreciated by physiologists1 zoologists1 and botanists2 whereas the ,darwinian theory1 so novel and so startling1 has found a #aa cloud of advocates and opponents beyond and outside the world of physical science4 ,in the first place1 it was inevitable that a great crowd of half-educated men and shallow thinkers should accept with eagerness the theory of ,natural ,selection1 or rather what they think to be such 7for few things are more remarkable than the way in which it has been misunderstood71 on account of a certain characteristic it has in common with other theories2 which should not be mentioned in the same breath with it1 except1 as now1 with the accompaniment of protest and apology4 ,we refer to its remarkable simplicity1 and the ready way in which phenomena the most complex appear explicable by a cause for the comprehension of which laborious and persevering efforts are not required1 but which may be represented by the simple phrase survival of the fittest4 ,with nothing more than this1 can1 on the ,darwinian theory1 all the most intricate facts of distribution and affinity1 form1 and colour1 be accounted for2 as well the most complex instincts and the most admirable adjustments1 such as those of the human eye and ear4 ,it is in great measure then1 owing to this supposed simplicity1 and to a belief in its being yet easier and more simple than it is1 that ,darwinism1 however imperfectly understood1 has become a subject for general conversation1 and has been able thus widely to increase a certain knowledge of biological matters2 and this excitation of interest in quarters where otherwise it would have been entirely wanting1 is an additional motive for gratitude on the part of naturalists to the authors of the new theory4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that a similar simplicity--the apparently easy explanation of complex phenomena--also constitutes the charm of such matters as hydropathy and phrenology1 in the eyes of the unlearned or half-educated public4 ,it is indeed the charm of all those seeming short cuts to knowledge1 by which the labour of mastering scientific details is spared to those who yet believe that #ab without such labour they can attain all the most valuable results of scientific research4 ,it is not1 of course1 for a moment meant to imply that its simplicity tells at all against ,natural ,selection1 but only that the actual or supposed possession of that quality is a strong reason for the wide and somewhat hasty acceptance of the theory1 whether it be true or not4 ,in the second place1 it was inevitable that a theory appearing to have very grave relations with questions of the last importance and interest to man1 that is1 with questions of religious belief1 should call up an army of assailants and defenders4 ,nor have the supporters of the theory much reason1 in many cases1 to blame the more or less unskilful and hasty attacks of adversaries1 seeing that those attacks have been in great part due to the unskilful and perverse advocacy of the cause on the part of some of its adherents4 ,if the odium theologicum has inspired some of its opponents1 it is undeniable that the odium antitheologicum has possessed not a few of its supporters4 ,it is true 7and in appreciating some of ,mr4 ,darwin's expressions it should never be forgotten7 that the theory has been both at its first promulgation and since vehemently attacked and denounced as unchristian1 nay1 as necessarily atheistic2 but it is not less true that it has been made use of as a weapon of offence by irreligious writers1 and has been again and again1 especially in continental ,europe1 thrown1 as it were1 in the face of believers1 with sneers and contumely4 ,when we recollect the warmth with which what he thought was ,darwinism was advocated by such a writer as ,professor ,vogt1 one cause of his zeal was not far to seek--a zeal1 by the way1 certainly not according to knowledge2 for few conceptions could have been more conflicting with true ,darwinism than the theory he formerly maintained1 but has since abandoned1 viz4 that the men of the ,old ,world were descended from ,african and ,asiatic apes1 while1 similarly1 the ,american apes were the progenitors of the human beings of the ,new ,world4 ,the cause of this palpable error in a too eager disciple#ac one might hope was not anxiety to snatch up all or any arms available against ,christianity1 were it not for the tone unhappily adopted by this author4 ,but it is unfortunately quite impossible to mistake his meaning and intention1 for he is a writer whose offensiveness is gross1 while it is sometimes almost surpassed by an amazing shallowness4 ,of course1 as might fully be expected1 he adopts and reproduces the absurdly trivial objections to absolute morality drawn from differences in national customs4#g ,and he seems to have as little conception of the distinction between formally moral actions and those which are only materially moral1 as of that between the verbum mentale and the verbum oris4 ,as an example of his onesidedness1 it may be remarked that he compares the skulls of the ,american monkeys 7,cebus apella and ,c4 albifrons7 with the intention of showing that man is of several distinct species1 because skulls of different men are less alike than are those of these two monkeys2 and he does this regardless of how the skulls of domestic animals 7with which it is far more legitimate to compare races of men than with wild kinds71 e4g4 of different dogs or pigeons1 tell precisely in the opposite direction4 ,regardless also of the fact that perhaps no genus of monkeys is in a more unsatisfactory state as to the determination of its different kinds than the genus chosen by him for illustration4 ,this is so much the case that ,j4 ,a4 ,wagner 7in his supplement to ,schreber's great work on ,beasts7 at first included all the kinds in a single species4 ,as to the strength of his prejudice and his regretable coarseness1 one quotation will be enough to display both4 ,speaking of certain early ,christian missionaries1 he says1#h ,it is not so very improbable that the new religion1 before which the flourishing ,roman civilization relapsed into a state of barbarism1 should have been introduced by people in whose #ad skulls the anatomist finds simious characters so well developed1 and in which the phrenologist finds the organ of veneration so much enlarged4 ,i shall1 in the meanwhile1 call these simious narrow skulls of ,switzerland ',apostle skulls1' as ,i imagine that in life they must have resembled the type of ,peter1 the ,apostle1 as represented in ,byzantine-,nazarene art4 ,in face of such a spirit1 can it be wondered at that disputants have grown warm8 ,moreover1 in estimating the vehemence of the opposition which has been offered1 it should be borne in mind that the views defended by religious writers are1 or should be1 all-important in their eyes4 ,they could not be expected to view with equanimity the destruction in many minds of theology1 natural and revealed1 psychology1 and metaphysics2 nor to weigh with calm and frigid impartiality arguments which seemed to them to be fraught with results of the highest moment to mankind1 and1 therefore1 imposing on their consciences strenuous opposition as a first duty4 ,cool judicial impartiality in them would have been a sign perhaps of intellectual gifts1 but also of a more important deficiency of generous emotion4 ,it is easy to complain of the onesidedness of many of those who oppose ,darwinism in the interest of orthodoxy2 but not at all less patent is the intolerance and narrow-mindedness of some of those who advocate it1 avowedly or covertly1 in the interest of heterodoxy4 ,this hastiness of rejection or acceptance1 determined by ulterior consequences believed to attach to ,natural ,selection1 is unfortunately in part to be accounted for by some expressions and a certain tone to be found in ,mr4 ,darwin's writings4 ,that his expressions1 however1 are not always to be construed literally is manifest4 ,his frequent use metaphorically of the expressions1 contrivance1 for example1 and purpose1 has elicited1 from the ,duke of ,argyll and others1 criticisms which fail to tell against their #ae opponent1 because such expressions are1 in ,mr4 ,darwin's writings1 merely figurative--metaphors1 and nothing more4 ,it may be hoped1 then1 that a similar looseness of expression will account for passages of a directly opposite tendency to that of his theistic metaphors4 ,moreover1 it must not be forgotten that he frequently uses that absolutely theological term1 the ,creator1 and that he has retained in all the editions of his ,origin of ,species an expression which has been much criticised4 ,he speaks of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms1 or into one4#i ,this is merely mentioned in justice to ,mr4 ,darwin1 and by no means because it is a position which this book is intended to support4 ,for1 from ,mr4 ,darwin's usual mode of speaking1 it appears that by such divine action he means a supernatural intervention1 whereas it is here contended that throughout the whole process of physical evolution--the first manifestation of life included--supernatural action is assuredly not to be looked for4 ,again1 in justice to ,mr4 ,darwin1 it may be observed that he is addressing the general public1 and opposing the ordinary and common objections of popular religionists1 who have inveighed against ,evolution and ,natural ,selection as atheistic1 impious1 and directly conflicting with the dogma of creation4 ,still1 in so important a matter1 it is to be regretted that he did not take the trouble to distinguish between such merely popular views and those which repose upon some more venerable authority4 ,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill has replied to similar critics1 and shown that the assertion that his philosophy is irreconcilable with theism is unfounded2 and it would have been better if ,mr4 ,darwin had dealt in the same manner with some of his assailants1 and shown the futility of certain of their objections when #af viewed from a more elevated religious standpoint4 ,instead of so doing1 he seems to adopt the narrowest notions of his opponents1 and1 far from endeavouring to expand them1 appears to wish to endorse them1 and to lend to them the weight of his authority4 ,it is thus that ,mr4 ,darwin seems to admit and assume that the idea of creation necessitates a belief in an interference with1 or dispensation of1 natural laws1 and that creation must be accompanied by arbitrary and unorderly phenomena4 ,none but the crudest conceptions are placed by him to the credit of supporters of the dogma of creation1 and it is constantly asserted that they1 to be consistent1 must offer creative fiats as explanations of physical phenomena1 and be guilty of numerous other such absurdities4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 to acquit ,mr4 ,darwin of at least a certain carelessness in this matter2 and the result is1 he has the appearance of opposing ideas which he gives no clear evidence of having ever fully appreciated4 ,he is far from being alone in this1 and perhaps merely takes up and reiterates1 without much consideration1 assertions previously assumed by others4 ,nothing could be further from ,mr4 ,darwin's mind than any1 however small1 intentional misrepresentation2 and it is therefore the more unfortunate that he should not have shown any appreciation of a position opposed to his own other than that gross and crude one which he combats so superfluously--that he should appear1 even for a moment1 to be one of those1 of whom there are far too many1 who first misrepresent their adversary's view1 and then elaborately refute it2 who1 in fact1 erect a doll utterly incapable of self-defence and then1 with a flourish of trumpets and many vigorous strokes1 overthrow the helpless dummy they had previously raised4 ,this is what many do who more or less distinctly oppose theism in the interests1 as they believe1 of physical science2 and they often represent1 amongst other things1 a gross and narrow anthropomorphism as the necessary consequence of views opposed to those which they themselves advocate4 #ag ,mr4 ,darwin and others may perhaps be excused if they have not devoted much time to the study of ,christian philosophy2 but they have no right to assume or accept1 without careful examination1 as an unquestioned fact1 that in that philosophy there is a necessary antagonism between the two ideas1 creation and evolution1 as applied to organic forms4 ,it is notorious and patent to all who choose to seek1 that many distinguished ,christian thinkers have accepted and do accept both ideas1 i4e4 both creation and evolution4 ,as much as ten years ago1 an eminently ,christian writer observed3 ,the creationist theory does not necessitate the perpetual search after manifestations of miraculous powers and perpetual 'catastrophes4' ,creation is not a miraculous interference with the laws of nature1 but the very institution of those laws4 ,law and regularity1 not arbitrary intervention1 was the patristic ideal of creation4 ,with this notion1 they admitted without difficulty the most surprising origin of living creatures1 provided it took place by law4 ,they held that when ,god said1 ',let the waters produce1' ',let the earth produce1' ,he conferred forces on the elements of earth and water1 which enabled them naturally to produce the various species of organic beings4 ,this power1 they thought1 remains attached to the elements throughout all time4#aj ,the same writer quotes ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 to the effect that1 in the institution of nature we do not look for miracles1 but for the laws of nature4#aa ,and1 again1 ,st4 ,basil1#ab speaks of the continued operation of natural laws in the production of all organisms4 ,page #ah ,so much for writers of early and medival times4 ,as to the present day1 the ,author can confidently affirm that there are many as well versed in theology as ,mr4 ,darwin is in his own department of natural knowledge1 who would not be disturbed by the thorough demonstration of his theory4 ,nay1 they would not even be in the least painfully affected at witnessing the generation of animals of complex organization by the skilful artificial arrangement of natural forces1 and the production1 in the future1 of a fish1 by means analogous to those by which we now produce urea4 ,and this because they know that the possibility of such phenomena1 though by no means actually foreseen1 has yet been fully provided for in the old philosophy centuries before ,darwin1 or even before ,bacon1 and that their place in the system can be at once assigned them without even disturbing its order or marring its harmony4 ,moreover1 the old tradition in this respect has never been abandoned1 however much it may have been ignored or neglected by some modern writers4 ,in proof of this it may be observed that perhaps no post-medival theologian has a wider reception amongst ,christians throughout the world than ,suarez1 who has a separate section#ac in opposition to those who maintain the distinct creation of the various kinds--or substantial forms--of organic life4 ,but the consideration of this matter must be deferred for the present1 and the question of evolution1 whether ,darwinian or other1 be first gone into4 ,it is proposed1 after that has been done1 to return to this subject 7here merely alluded to71 and to consider at some length the bearing of ,evolution1 whether ,darwinian or non-,darwinian1 upon ,creation and ,theism4 ,now we will revert simply to the consideration of the theory of ,natural ,selection itself4 #ai ,whatever may have hitherto been the amount of acceptance that this theory has met with1 all1 ,i think1 anticipated that the appearance of ,mr4 ,darwin's large and careful work on ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication could but further increase that acceptance4 ,it is1 however1 somewhat problematical how far such anticipations will be realized4 ,the newer book seems to add after all but little in support of the theory1 and to leave most1 if not all1 its difficulties exactly where they were4 ,it is a question1 also1 whether the hypothesis of ,pangenesis#ad may not be found rather to encumber than to support the theory it was intended to subserve4 ,however1 the work in question treats only of domestic animals1 and probably the next instalment will address itself more vigorously and directly to the difficulties which seem to us yet to bar the way to a complete acceptance of the doctrine4 ,if the theory of ,natural ,selection can be shown to be quite insufficient to explain any considerable number of important phenomena connected with the origin of species1 that theory1 as the explanation1 must be considered as provisionally discredited4 ,if other causes than ,natural 7including sexual7 ,selection can be proved to have acted--if variation can in any cases be proved to be subject to certain determinations in special directions by other means than ,natural ,selection1 it then becomes probable a priori that it is so in others1 and that ,natural ,selection depends upon1 and only supplements1 such means1 #bj which conception is opposed to the pure ,darwinian position4 ,now it is certain1 a priori1 that variation is obedient to some law and therefore that ,natural ,selection itself must be capable of being subsumed into some higher law2 and it is evident1 ,i believe1 a posteriori1 that ,natural ,selection is1 at the very least1 aided and supplemented by some other agency4 ,admitting1 then1 organic and other evolution1 and that new forms of animals and plants 7new species1 genera1 c47 have from time to time been evolved from preceding animals and plants1 it follows1 if the views here advocated are true1 that this evolution has not taken place by the action of ,natural ,selection alone1 but through it 7amongst other influences7 aided by the concurrent action of some other natural law or laws1 at present undiscovered2 and probably that the genesis of species takes place partly1 perhaps mainly1 through laws which may be most conveniently spoken of as special powers and tendencies existing in each organism2 and partly through influences exerted on each by surrounding conditions and agencies organic and inorganic1 terrestrial and cosmical1 among which the survival of the fittest plays a certain but subordinate part4 ,the theory of ,natural ,selection may 7though it need not7 be taken in such a way as to lead men to regard the present organic world as formed1 so to speak1 accidentally1 beautiful and wonderful as is confessedly the hap-hazard result4 ,the same may perhaps be said with regard to the system advocated by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 who1 however1 also relegates ,natural ,selection to a subordinate rle4 ,the view here advocated1 on the other hand1 regards the whole organic world as arising and going forward in one harmonious development similar to that which displays itself in the growth and action of each separate individual organism4 ,it also regards each such separate organism as the expression of powers and tendencies not to be #ba accounted for by ,natural ,selection alone1 or even by that together with merely the direct influence of surrounding conditions4 ,the difficulties which appear to oppose themselves to the reception of ,natural ,selection or the survival of the fittest1 as the one explanation of the origin of species1 have no doubt been already considered by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,nevertheless1 it may be worth while to enumerate them1 and to state the considerations which appear to give them weight2 and there is no doubt but that a naturalist so candid and careful as the author of the theory in question1 will feel obliged1 rather than the reverse1 by the suggestion of all the doubts and difficulties which can be brought against it4 ,what is to be brought forward may be summed up as follows3-- ,that ,natural ,selection is incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful structures4 ,that it does not harmonize with the co-existence of closely similar structures of diverse origin4 ,that there are grounds for thinking that specific differences may be developed suddenly instead of gradually4 ,that the opinion that species have definite though very different limits to their variability is still tenable4 ,that certain fossil transitional forms are absent1 which might have been expected to be present4 ,that some facts of geographical distribution supplement other difficulties4 ,that the objection drawn from the physiological difference between species and races still exists unrefuted4 ,that there are many remarkable phenomena in organic forms upon which ,natural ,selection throws no light whatever1 but the explanations of which1 if they could be attained1 might throw light upon specific origination4 ,page #bb ,besides these objections to the sufficiency of ,natural ,selection1 others may be brought against the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 which1 professing as it does to explain great difficulties1 seems to do so by presenting others not less great--almost to be the explanation of obscurum per #bc obscurius4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,incompetency ,,of ,,natural ,,selection ,,to ,,account ,,for ,,the ,,incipient ,,stages ,,of ,,useful ,,structures4 ,mr4 ,darwin supposes that natural selection acts by slight variations4--,these must be useful at once4--,difficulties as to the giraffe2 as to mimicry2 as to the heads of flat-fishes2 as to the origin and constancy of the vertebrate limbs2 as to whalebone2 as to the young kangaroo2 as to sea-urchins2 as to certain processes of metamorphosis2 as to the mammary gland2 as to certain ape characters2 as to the rattlesnake and cobra2 as to the process of formation of the eye and ear2 as to the fully developed condition of the eye and ear2 as to the voice2 as to shell-fish2 as to orchids2 as to ants4--,the necessity for the simultaneous modification of many individuals4--,summary and conclusion4 ,natural ,selection1 simply and by itself1 is potent to explain the maintenance or the further extension and development of favourable variations1 which are at once sufficiently considerable to be useful from the first to the individual possessing them4 ,but ,natural ,selection utterly fails to account for the conservation and development of the minute and rudimentary beginnings1 the slight and infinitesimal commencements of structures1 however useful those structures may afterwards become4 ,now1 it is distinctly enunciated by ,mr4 ,darwin1 that the spontaneous variations upon which his theory depends are individually slight1 minute1 and insensible4 ,he says1#ae ,slight individual differences1 however1 #bd suffice for the work1 and are probably the sole differences which are effective in the production of new species4 ,and again1 after mentioning the frequent sudden appearances of domestic varieties1 he speaks of the false belief as to the similarity of natural species in this respect4#af ,in his work on the ,origin of ,species1 he also observes1 ,natural ,selection acts only by the preservation and accumulation of small inherited modifications4#ag ,and ,natural ,selection1 if it be a true principle1 will banish the belief 444 of any great and sudden modification in their structure4#ah ,finally1 he adds1 ,if it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed1 which could not possibly have been formed by numerous1 successive1 slight modifications1 my theory would absolutely break down4#ai ,now the conservation of minute variations in many instances is1 of course1 plain and intelligible enough2 such1 e4g41 as those which tend to promote the destructive faculties of beasts of prey on the one hand1 or to facilitate the flight or concealment of the animals pursued on the other2 provided always that these minute beginnings are of such a kind as really to have a certain efficiency1 however small1 in favour of the conservation of the individual possessing them2 and also provided that no unfavourable peculiarity in any other direction accompanies and neutralizes1 in the struggle for life1 the minute favourable variation4 ,but some of the cases which have been brought forward1 and which have met with very general acceptance1 seem less satisfactory when carefully analysed than they at first appear to be4 ,amongst these we may mention the neck of the giraffe4 ,at first sight it would seem as though a better example in support of ,natural ,selection could hardly have been chosen4 ,let the fact of the #be occurrence of occasional1 severe droughts in the country which that animal has inhabited be granted4 ,in that case1 when the ground vegetation has been consumed1 and the trees alone remain1 it is plain that at such times only those individuals 7of what we assume to be the nascent giraffe species7 which were able to reach high up would be preserved1 and would become the parents of the following generation1 some individuals of which would1 of course1 inherit that high-reaching power which alone preserved their parents4 ,only the high-reaching issue of these high-reaching individuals would again1 cteris paribus1 be preserved at the next drought1 and would again transmit to their offspring their still loftier stature2 and so on1 from period to period1 through ons of time1 all the individuals tending to revert to the ancient shorter type of body1 being ruthlessly destroyed at the occurrence of each drought4 7#a47 ,but against this it may be said1 in the first place1 that the argument proves too much2 for1 on this supposition1 many species must have tended to undergo a similar modification1 and we ought to have at least several forms1 similar to the giraffe1 developed from different ,ungulata4#bj ,a careful observer of animal life1 who has long resided in ,south ,africa1 explored the interior1 and lived in the giraffe country1 has assured the ,author that the giraffe has powers of locomotion and endurance fully equal to those possessed by any of the other ,ungulata of that continent4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that some of these other ,ungulates ought to have developed in a similar manner as to the neck1 under pain of being starved1 when the long neck of the giraffe was in its incipient stage4 ,to this criticism it has been objected that different kinds of animals are preserved1 in the struggle for life1 in very different ways1 and even #bf that high reaching may be attained in more modes than one--as1 for example1 by the trunk of the elephant4 ,this is1 indeed1 true1 but then none of the ,african ,ungulata#ba have1 nor do they appear ever to have had1 any proboscis whatsoever2 nor have they acquired such a development as to allow them to rise on their hind limbs and graze on trees in a kangaroo-attitude1 nor a power of climbing1 nor1 as far as known1 any other modification tending to compensate for the comparative shortness of the neck4 ,again1 it may perhaps be said that leaf-eating forms are exceptional1 and that therefore the struggle to attain high branches would not affect many ,ungulates4 ,but surely1 when these severe droughts necessary for the theory occur1 the ground vegetation is supposed to be exhausted2 and1 indeed1 the giraffe is quite capable of feeding from off the ground4 ,so that1 in these cases1 the other ,ungulata must have taken to leaf eating or have starved1 and thus must have had any accidental long-necked varieties favoured and preserved exactly as the long-necked varieties of the giraffe are supposed to have been favoured and preserved4 ,the argument as to the different modes of preservation has been very well put by ,mr4 ,wallace1#bb in reply to the objection that colour1 being dangerous1 should not exist in nature4 ,this objection appears similar to mine2 as ,i say that a giraffe neck1 being needful1 there should be many animals with it1 while the objector noticed by ,mr4 ,wallace says1 a dull colour being needful1 all animals should be so coloured4 ,and ,mr4 ,wallace shows in reply how porcupines1 tortoises and mussels1 very hard-coated bombadier beetles1 stinging insects and nauseous-tasted caterpillars1 can afford to be brilliant by the various means of active defence or passive protection they possess1 other than obscure colouration4 ,he says the #bg attitudes of some insects may also protect them1 as the habit of turning up the tail by the harmless rove-beetles 7,staphylinid7 no doubt leads other animals1 besides children1 to the belief that they can sting4 ,the curious attitude assumed by sphinx caterpillars is probably a safeguard1 as well as the blood-red tentacles which can suddenly be thrown out from the neck by the caterpillars of all the true swallow-tailed butterflies4 ,but1 because many different kinds of animals can elude the observation or defy the attack of enemies in a great variety of ways1 it by no means follows that there are any similar number and variety of ways for attaining vegetable food in a country where all such food1 other than the lofty branches of trees1 has been for a time destroyed4 ,in such a country we have a number of vegetable-feeding ,ungulates1 all of which present minute variations as to the length of the neck4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,darwin contends1 the natural selection of these favourable variations has alone lengthened the neck of the giraffe by preserving it during droughts2 similar variations1 in similarly-feeding forms1 at the same times1 ought similarly to have been preserved and so lengthened the neck of some other ,ungulates by similarly preserving them during the same droughts4 7#b47 ,it may be also objected1 that the power of reaching upwards1 acquired by the lengthening of the neck and legs1 must have necessitated a considerable increase in the entire size and mass of the body 7larger bones requiring stronger and more voluminous muscles and tendons1 and these again necessitating larger nerves1 more capacious blood-vessels1 c471 and it is very problematical whether the disadvantages thence arising would not1 in times of scarcity1 more than counterbalance the advantages4 ,for a considerable increase in the supply of food would be requisite on account of this increase in size and mass1 while at the same time there would be a certain decrease in strength2 for1 as ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer #bh says1#bc ,it is demonstrable that the excess of absorbed over expended nutriment must1 other things equal1 become less as the size of an animal becomes greater4 ,in similarly-shaped bodies1 the masses vary as the cubes of the dimensions2 whereas the strengths vary as the squares of the dimensions44444 ,supposing a creature which a year ago was one foot high1 has now become two feet high1 while it is unchanged in proportions and structure--what are the necessary concomitant changes that have taken place in it8 ,it is eight times as heavy2 that is to say1 it has to resist eight times the strain which gravitation puts on its structure2 and in producing1 as well as in arresting1 every one of its movements1 it has to overcome eight times the inertia4 ,meanwhile1 the muscles and bones have severally increased their contractile and resisting powers1 in proportion to the areas of their transverse sections2 and hence are severally but four times as strong as they were4 ,thus1 while the creature has doubled in height1 and while its ability to overcome forces has quadrupled1 the forces it has to overcome have grown eight times as great4 ,hence1 to raise its body through a given space1 its muscles have to be contracted with twice the intensity1 at a double cost of matter expended4 ,again1 as to the cost at which nutriment is distributed through the body1 and effete matters removed from it1 ,each increment of growth being added at the periphery of an organism1 the force expended in the transfer of matter must increase in a rapid progression--a progression more rapid than that of the mass4 ,there is yet another point4 ,vast as may have been the time during which the process of evolution has continued1 it is nevertheless not infinite4 ,yet1 as every kind1 on the ,darwinian hypothesis1 varies slightly but indefinitely in every organ and every part of every organ1 how very generally must favourable variations as to the length of the neck have #bi been accompanied by some unfavourable variation in some other part1 neutralizing the action of the favourable one1 the latter1 moreover1 only taking effect during these periods of drought6 ,how often must not individuals1 favoured by a slightly increased length of neck1 have failed to enjoy the elevated foliage which they had not strength or endurance to attain2 while other individuals1 exceptionally robust1 could struggle on yet further till they arrived at vegetation within their reach4 ,however1 allowing this example to pass1 many other instances will be found to present great difficulties4 ,let us take the cases of mimicry amongst lepidoptera and other insects4 ,of this subject ,mr4 ,wallace has given a most interesting and complete account1#bd showing in how many and strange instances this superficial resemblance by one creature to some other quite distinct creature acts as a safeguard to the first4 ,one or two instances must here suffice4 ,in ,south ,america there is a family of butterflies1 termed ,heliconid1 which are very conspicuously coloured and slow in flight1 and yet the individuals abound in prodigious numbers1 and take no precautions to conceal themselves1 even when at rest1 during the night4 ,mr4 ,bates 7the author of the very interesting work ,the ,naturalist on the ,river ,amazons1 and the discoverer of ,mimicry7 found that these conspicuous butterflies had a very strong and disagreeable odour2 so much so that any one handling them and squeezing them1 as a collector must do1 has his fingers stained and so infected by the smell1 as to require time and much trouble to remove it4 ,it is suggested that this unpleasant quality is the cause of the abundance of the ,heliconid2 ,mr4 ,bates and other observers reporting that they have never seen them attacked by the birds1 reptiles1 or insects which prey upon other lepidoptera4 ,now it is a curious fact that very different ,south ,american butterflies#cj put on1 as it were1 the exact dress of these offensive beauties and mimic them even in their mode of flight4 ,in explaining the mode of action of this protecting resemblance ,mr4 ,wallace observes3#be ,tropical insectivorous birds very frequently sit on dead branches of a lofty tree1 or on those which overhang forest paths1 gazing intently around1 and darting off at intervals to seize an insect at a considerable distance1 with which they generally return to their station to devour4 ,if a bird began by capturing the slow-flying conspicuous ,heliconid1 and found them always so disagreeable that it could not eat them1 it would after a very few trials leave off catching them at all2 and their whole appearance1 form1 colouring1 and mode of flight is so peculiar1 that there can be little doubt birds would soon learn to distinguish them at a long distance1 and never waste any time in pursuit of them4 ,under these circumstances1 it is evident that any other butterfly of a group which birds were accustomed to devour1 would be almost equally well protected by closely resembling a ,heliconia externally1 as if it acquired also the disagreeable odour2 always supposing that there were only a few of them among a great number of ,heliconias4 ,the approach in colour and form to the ,heliconid1 however1 would be at the first a positive1 though perhaps a slight1 advantage2 for although at short distances this variety would be easily distinguished and devoured1 yet at a longer distance it might be mistaken for one of the uneatable group1 and so be passed by and gain another day's life1 which might in many cases be sufficient for it to lay a quantity of eggs and leave a numerous progeny1 many of which would inherit the peculiarity which had been the safeguard of their parent4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf ,,butterfly ,,in ,,flight ,,and ,,repose4 7,from ,mr4 ,wallace's ,malay ,archipelago47 ,as a complete example of mimicry ,mr4 ,wallace refers to a common ,indian butterfly4 ,he says3#bf ,but the most wonderful and undoubted case of protective resemblance in a butterfly1 which ,i have ever seen1 is that #ca of the common ,indian ,kallima inachis1 and its ,malayan ally1 ,kallima paralekta4 ,the upper surface of these is very striking and showy1 as they are of a large size1 and are adorned with a broad band of rich orange #cb on a deep bluish ground4 ,the under side is very variable in colour1 so that out of fifty specimens no two can be found exactly alike1 but every one of them will be of some shade of ash1 or brown1 or ochre1 such as are found among dead1 dry1 or decaying leaves4 ,the apex of the upper wings is produced into an acute point1 a very common form in the leaves of tropical shrubs and trees1 and the lower wings are also produced into a short narrow tail4 ,between these two points runs a dark curved line exactly representing the midrib of a leaf1 and from this radiate on each side a few oblique lines1 which serve to indicate the lateral veins of a leaf4 ,these marks are more clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings1 and on the inner side towards the middle and apex1 and it is very curious to observe how the usual marginal and transverse stri of the group are here modified and strengthened so as to become adapted for an imitation of the venation of a leaf4 444 ,but this resemblance1 close as it is1 would be of little use if the habits of the insect did not accord with it4 ,if the butterfly sat upon leaves or upon flowers1 or opened its wings so as to expose the upper surface1 or exposed and moved its head and antenn as many other butterflies do1 its disguise would be of little avail4 ,we might be sure1 however1 from the analogy of many other cases1 that the habits of the insect are such as still further to aid its deceptive garb2 but we are not obliged to make any such supposition1 since ,i myself had the good fortune to observe scores of ,kallima paralekta1 in ,sumatra1 and to capture many of them1 and can vouch for the accuracy of the following details4 ,these butterflies frequent dry forests1 and fly very swiftly4 ,they were seen to settle on a flower or a green leaf1 but were many times lost sight of in a bush or tree of dead leaves4 ,on such occasions they were generally searched for in vain1 for while gazing intently at the very spot where one had disappeared1 it would often suddenly dart out1 and again vanish twenty or fifty yards further on4 ,on one or two occasions the insect was detected#cc reposing1 and it could then be seen how completely it assimilates itself to the surrounding leaves4 ,it sits on a nearly upright twig1 the wings fitting closely back to back1 concealing the antenn and head1 which are drawn up between their bases4 ,the little tails of the hind wing touch the branch1 and form a perfect stalk to the leaf1 which is supported in its place by the claws of the middle pair of feet1 which are slender and inconspicuous4 ,the irregular outline of the wings gives exactly the perspective effect of a shrivelled leaf4 ,we thus have size1 colour1 form1 markings1 and habits1 all combining together to produce a disguise which may be said to be absolutely perfect2 and the protection which it affords is sufficiently indicated by the abundance of the individuals that possess it4 ,beetles also imitate bees and wasps1 as do some ,lepidoptera2 and objects the most bizarre and unexpected are simulated1 such as dung and drops of dew4 ,some insects1 called bamboo and walking-stick insects1 have a most remarkable resemblance to pieces of bamboo1 to twigs and branches4 ,of these latter insects ,mr4 ,wallace says3#bg ,some of these are a foot long and as thick as one's finger1 and their whole colouring1 form1 rugosity1 and the arrangement of the head1 legs1 and antenn1 are such as to render them absolutely identical in appearance with dry sticks4 ,they hang loosely about shrubs in the forest1 and have the extraordinary habit of stretching out their legs unsymmetrically1 so as to render the deception more complete4 ,now let us suppose that the ancestors of these various animals were all destitute of the very special protections they at present possess1 as on the ,darwinian hypothesis we must do4 ,let it also be conceded that small deviations from the antecedent colouring or form would tend to make some of their ancestors escape destruction by causing them more or less frequently to be passed over1 or mistaken by their persecutors4 ,yet the deviation #cd must1 as the event has shown1 in each case be in some definite direction1 whether it be towards some other animal or plant1 or towards some dead or inorganic matter4 ,but as1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin's theory1 there is a constant tendency to indefinite variation1 and as the minute incipient variations will be in all directions1 they must tend to neutralize each other1 and at first to form such unstable modifications that it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to see how such indefinite oscillations of infinitesimal beginnings can ever build up a sufficiently appreciable resemblance to a leaf1 bamboo1 or other object1 for ,natural ,selection to seize upon and perpetuate4 ,this difficulty is augmented when we consider--a point to be dwelt upon hereafter--how necessary it is that many individuals should be similarly modified simultaneously4 ,this has been insisted on in an able article in the ,north ,british ,review for ,june #ahfg1 p4 #bhf1 and the consideration of the article has occasioned ,mr4 ,darwin to make an important modification in his views4#bh ,in these cases of mimicry it seems difficult indeed to imagine a reason why variations tending in an infinitesimal degree in any special direction should be preserved4 ,all variations would be preserved which tended to obscure the perception of an animal by its enemies1 whatever direction those variations might take1 and the common preservation of conflicting tendencies would greatly favour their mutual neutralization and obliteration if we may rely on the many cases recently brought forward by ,mr4 ,darwin with regard to domestic animals4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,walking-,,leaf ,,insect4 ,mr4 ,darwin explains the imitation of some species by others more or less nearly allied to it1 by the common origin of both the mimic and the mimicked species1 and the consequent possession by both 7according to the theory of ,pangenesis7 of gemmules tending to reproduce ancestral characters1 which characters the mimic must be assumed first to have #ce lost and then to have recovered4 ,mr4 ,darwin says1#bi ,varieties of one species frequently mimic distinct species1 a fact in perfect harmony with the foregoing cases1 and explicable only on the theory of descent4 ,but this at the best is but a partial and very incomplete explanation4 ,it is one1 moreover1 which ,mr4 ,wallace does not accept4#cj ,it is very incomplete1 because it has no bearing on some of the most striking cases1 and of course ,mr4 ,darwin does not pretend that it has4 ,we should have to go back far indeed to reach the common ancestor of the mimicking #cf walking-leaf insect and the real leaf it mimics1 or the original progenitor of both the bamboo insect and the bamboo itself4 ,as these last most remarkable cases have certainly nothing to do with heredity1#ca it is unwarrantable to make use of that explanation for other protective resemblances1 seeing that its inapplicability1 in certain instances1 is so manifest4 ,again1 at the other end of the process it is as difficult to account for the last touches of perfection in the mimicry4 ,some insects which imitate leaves extend the imitation even to the very injuries on those leaves made by the attacks of insects or of fungi4 ,thus1 speaking of one of the walking-stick insects1 ,mr4 ,wallace says3#cb ,one of these creatures obtained by myself in ,borneo 7,ceroxylus laceratus7 was covered over with foliaceous excrescences of a clear olive-green colour1 so as exactly to resemble a stick grown over by a creeping moss or jungermannia4 ,the ,dyak who brought it me assured me it was grown over with moss although alive1 and it was only after a most minute examination that ,i could convince myself it was not so4 ,again1 as to the leaf butterfly1 he says3#cc ,we come to a still more extraordinary part of the imitation1 for we find representations of leaves in every stage of decay1 variously blotched1 and mildewed1 and pierced with holes1 and in many cases irregularly covered with powdery black dots1 gathered into patches and spots1 so closely resembling the various kinds of minute fungi that grow on dead leaves1 that it is impossible to avoid thinking at first sight that the butterflies themselves have been attacked by real fungi4 ,here imitation has attained a development which seems utterly beyond the power of the mere survival of the fittest to produce4 ,how this double mimicry can importantly aid in the struggle for life seems puzzling indeed1 but much more so how the first faint beginnings of the imitation of #cg such injuries in the leaf can be developed in the animal into such a complete representation of them--a fortiori how simultaneous and similar first beginnings of imitations of such injuries could ever have been developed in several individuals1 out of utterly indifferent and indeterminate infinitesimal variations in all conceivable directions4 ,illustration3 ,,pleuronectid1 ,,with ,,the ,,peculiarly ,,placed ,,eye ,,in ,,different ,,positions4 7,from ,dr4 ,traquair's paper in the ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society1 #ahfe47 ,another instance which may be cited is the asymmetrical condition of the heads of the flat-fishes 7,pleuronectid71 such as the sole1 the flounder1 the brill1 the turbot1 c4 ,in all these fishes the two eyes1 which in the young are situated as usual one on each side1 come to be placed1 in the adult1 both on the same side of the head4 ,if this condition had appeared at once1 if in the hypothetically fortunate common ancestor of these fishes an eye had suddenly become thus transferred1 then the perpetuation of such a transformation by the action of ,natural ,selection is conceivable enough4 ,such sudden changes1 however1 are not those favoured by the ,darwinian theory1 and indeed the accidental occurrence of such a spontaneous transformation is hardly conceivable4 ,but if this is not so1 if the transit was gradual1 then how such transit of one eye a minute fraction of the #ch journey towards the other side of the head could benefit the individual is indeed far from clear4 ,it seems1 even1 that such an incipient transformation must rather have been injurious4 ,another point with regard to these flat-fishes is that they appear to be in all probability of recent origin--i4e4 geologically speaking4 ,there is1 of course1 no great stress to be laid on the mere absence of their remains from the secondary strata1 nevertheless that absence is noteworthy1 seeing that existing fish families1 e4g4 sharks 7,squalid71 have been found abundantly even down so far as the carboniferous rocks1 and traces of them in the ,upper ,silurian4 ,another difficulty seems to be the first formation of the limbs of the higher animals4 ,the lowest ,vertebrata#cd are perfectly limbless1 and if1 as most ,darwinians would probably assume1 the primeval vertebrate creature was also apodal1 how are the preservation and development of the first rudiments of limbs to be accounted for--such rudiments being1 on the hypothesis in question1 infinitesimal and functionless8 ,in reply to this it has been suggested that a mere flattening of the end of the body has been useful1 such1 e4g41 as we see in sea-snakes1#ce which may be the rudiment of a tail formed strictly to aid in swimming4 ,also that a mere roughness of the skin might be useful to a swimming animal by holding the water better1 that thus minute processes might be selected and preserved1 and that1 in the same way1 these might be gradually increased into limbs4 ,but it is1 to say the least1 very questionable whether a roughness of the skin1 or minute processes1 would be useful to a #ci swimming animal2 the motion of which they would as much impede as aid1 unless they were at once capable of a suitable and appropriate action1 which is against the hypothesis4 ,again1 the change from mere indefinite and accidental processes to two regular pairs of symmetrical limbs1 as the result of merely fortuitous1 favouring variations1 is a step the feasibility of which hardly commends itself to the reason1 seeing the very different positions assumed by the ventral fins in different fishes4 ,if the above suggestion made in opposition to the views here asserted be true1 then the general constancy of position of the limbs of vertebrata may be considered as due to the position assumed by the primitive rugosities from which those limbs were generated4 ,clearly only two pairs of rugosities were so preserved and developed1 and all limbs 7on this view7 are descendants of the same two pairs1 as all have so similar a fundamental structure4 ,yet we find in many fishes the pair of fins1 which correspond to the hinder limbs of other animals1 placed so far forwards as to be either on the same level with1 or actually in front of1 the normally anterior pair of limbs2 and such fishes are from this circumstance called thoracic1 or jugular fishes respectively1 as the weaver fishes and the cod4 ,this is a wonderful contrast to the fixity of position of vertebrate limbs generally4 ,if then such a change can have taken place in the comparatively short time occupied by the evolution of these special fish forms1 we might certainly expect other and far more bizarre structures would 7did not some law forbid7 have been developed1 from other rugosities1 in the manifold exigencies of the multitudinous organisms which must 7on the ,darwinian hypothesis7 have been gradually evolved during the enormous period intervening between the first appearance of vertebrate life and the present day4 ,yet1 with these exceptions1 the position of the limbs is constant from the lower fishes up to man1 there being always an anterior pectoral pair placed in front of a posterior or pelvic pair when both are present1 and in no single #dj instance are there more than these two pairs4 ,illustration3 ,,mouth ,,of ,a ,,whale4 ,the development of whalebone 7baleen7 in the mouth of the whale is another difficulty4 ,a whale's mouth is furnished with very numerous horny plates1 which hang down from the palate along each side of the mouth4 ,they thus form two longitudinal series1 each plate of which is placed transversely to the long axis of the body1 and all are very close together4 ,on depressing the lower lip the free outer edges of these plates come into view4 ,their inner edges are furnished with numerous coarse hair-like processes1 consisting of some of the constituent fibres of the horny plates--which1 as it were1 fray out--and the mouth is thus lined1 except below1 by a network of countless fibres formed by the inner edges of the two series of plates4 ,this network acts as a sort of sieve4 ,when the whale feeds it takes #da into its mouth a great gulp of water1 which it drives out again through the intervals of the horny plates of baleen1 the fluid thus traversing the sieve of horny fibres1 which retains the minute creatures on which these marine monsters subsist4 ,now it is obvious1 that if this baleen had once attained such a size and development as to be at all useful1 then its preservation and augmentation within serviceable limits1 would be promoted by ,natural ,selection alone4 ,but how to obtain the beginning of such useful development8 ,there are indeed certain animals of exclusively aquatic habits 7the dugong and manatee7 which also possess more or less horn on the palate1 and at first sight this might be taken as a mitigation of the difficulty2 but it is not so1 and the fact does not help us one step further along the road3 for1 in the first place1 these latter animals differ so importantly in structure from whales and porpoises that they form an altogether distinct order1 and cannot be thought to approximate to the whale's progenitors4 ,they are vegetarians1 the whales feed on animals2 the former never have the ribs articulated in the mode in which they are in some of the latter2 the former have pectoral mamm1 and the latter are #db provided with two inguinal mammary glands1 and have the nostrils enlarged into blowers1 which the former have not4 ,the former thus constitute the order ,sirenia1 while the latter belong to the ,cetacea4 ,in the second place1 the horny matter on the palates of the dugong and manatee has not1 even initially1 that strainer action1 which is the characteristic function of the ,cetacean baleen4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,plates ,,of ,,baleen ,,seen ,,obliquely ,,from ,,within4 ,illustration3 ,,dugong4 ,there is another very curious structure1 the origin or the disappearance of which it seems impossible to account for on the hypothesis of minute indefinite variations4 ,it is that of the mouth of the young kangaroo4 ,in all mammals1 as in ourselves1 the air-passage from the lungs opens in the floor of the mouth behind the tongue1 and in front of the opening of the gullet1 so that each particle of food as it is swallowed passes over the opening1 but is prevented from falling into it 7and thus causing death from choking7 by the action of a small cartilaginous shield 7the epiglottis71 which at the right moment bends back and protects the orifice4 ,now the kangaroo is born in such an exceedingly imperfect and undeveloped condition1 that it is quite unable to suck4 ,the mother therefore places the minute blind and naked young upon the nipple1 and then injects milk into it by means of a special muscular envelope of the mammary gland4 ,did no special provision exist1 the young one must infallibly be choked by the intrusion of the milk into the windpipe4 ,but there is a special provision4 ,the larynx is so elongated that it rises up into the posterior end of the nasal passage1 and is thus enabled to give free entrance to the air for the lungs1 while the milk passes harmlessly on each side of this elongated larynx1 and so safely attains the gullet behind it4 ,now1 on the ,darwinian hypothesis1 either all mammals descended from marsupial progenitors1 or else the marsupials1 sprung from animals having in most respects the ordinary mammalian structure4 ,page #dc ,on the first alternative1 how did ,natural ,selection remove this 7at least perfectly innocent and harmless7 structure in almost all other mammals1 and1 having done so1 again reproduce it in precisely those forms which alone require it1 namely1 the ,cetacea8 ,that such a harmless structure need not be removed any ,darwinian must confess1 since a structure exists in both the crocodiles and gavials1 which enables the former to breathe themselves while drowning the prey which they hold in their mouths4 ,on ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis it could only have been developed where useful1 therefore not in the gavials767 which feed on fish1 but which yet retain1 as we might expect1 this1 in them superfluous but harmless formation4 ,on the second alternative1 how did the elongated larynx itself arise1 seeing that if its development lagged behind that of the maternal structure1 the young primeval kangaroo must be choked3 while without the injecting power in the mother1 it must be starved8 ,the struggle by the sole action of which such a form was developed must indeed have been severe6 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,echinus1 ,,or ,,sea-,,urchin 7,the spines removed from one-half47 ,the sea-urchins 7,echinus7 present us also with structures the origin of which it seems impossible to explain by the action of ,natural #dd ,selection only4 ,these lowly animals belong to that group of the star-fish class 7,echinodermata71 the species of which possess generally spheroidal bodies1 built up of multitudinous calcareous plates1 and constitute the order ,echinoidea4 ,they are also popularly known as sea-eggs4 ,utterly devoid of limbs1 the locomotion of these creatures is effected by means of rows of small tubular suckers 7which protrude through pores in the calcareous plates7 and by moveable spines scattered over the body4 ,illustration3 ,,pedicellari4 7,immensely enlarged47 ,besides these spines and suckers there are certain very peculiar structures1 termed ,pedicellari4 ,each of these consists of a long slender stalk1 ending in three short limbs--or rather jaws--the whole supported by a delicate internal skeleton4 ,the three limbs 7or jaws71 which start from a common point at the end of the stalk1 are in the constant habit of opening and closing together again with a snapping action1 while the stalk itself sways about4 ,the utility of these appendages is1 even now1 problematical4 ,it may be that they remove from the surface of the animal's body foreign substances which would be prejudicial to it1 and which it cannot otherwise get rid of4 ,but granting this1 what would be the utility of the first rudimentary beginnings of such structures1 and how could such incipient buddings have ever preserved the life of a single ,echinus8 ,it is true that on ,darwinian principles the ancestral form from which the sea-urchin developed was different1 and must not be conceived merely as an ,echinus devoid of pedicellari2 but this makes the difficulty none the less4 ,it is equally hard to imagine that the first rudiments of such structures could have been useful to any animal from which the ,echinus might have been#de derived4 ,moreover1 not even the sudden development of the snapping action could have been beneficial without the freely moveable stalk1 nor could the latter have been efficient without the snapping jaws1 yet no minute merely indefinite variations could simultaneously evolve these complex co-ordinations of structure2 to deny this seems to do no less than to affirm a startling paradox4 ,mr4 ,darwin explains the appearance of some structures1 the utility of which is not apparent1 by the existence of certain laws of correlation4 ,by these he means that certain parts or organs of the body are so related to other organs or parts1 that when the first are modified by the action of ,natural ,selection1 or what not1 the second are simultaneously affected1 and increase proportionally or possibly so decrease4 ,examples of such are the hair and teeth in the naked ,turkish dog1 the general deafness of white cats with blue eyes1 the relation between the presence of more or less down on young birds when first hatched1 and the future colour of their plumage1#cf with many others4 ,but the idea that the modification of any internal or external part of the body of an ,echinus carries with it the effect of producing elongated1 flexible1 triradiate1 snapping processes1 is1 to say the very least1 fully as obscure and mysterious as what is here contended for1 viz4 the efficient presence of an unknown internal natural law or laws conditioning the evolution of new specific forms from preceding ones1 modified by the action of surrounding conditions1 by ,natural ,selection and by other controlling influences4 ,the same difficulty seems to present itself in other examples of exceptional structure and action4 ,in the same ,echinus1 as in many allied forms1 and also in some more or less remote ones1 a very peculiar mode of development exists4 ,the adult is not formed from the egg directly1 but #df the egg gives rise to a creature which swims freely about1 feeds1 and is even somewhat complexly organized4 ,soon a small lump appears on one side of its stomach2 this enlarges1 and1 having established a communication with the exterior1 envelopes and appropriates the creature's stomach1 with which it swims away and develops into the complete adult form1 while the dispossessed individual perishes4 ,again1 certain flies present a mode of development equally bizarre1 though quite different4 ,in these flies1 the grub is1 as usual1 produced from the ovum1 but this grub1 instead of growing up into the adult in the ordinary way1 undergoes a sort of liquefaction of a great part of its body1 while certain patches of formative tissue1 which are attached to the ramifying air tubes1 or trache 7and which patches bear the name of imaginal disks71 give rise to the legs1 wings1 eyes1 c41 respectively2 and these severally formed parts grow together1 and build up the head and body by their mutual approximation4 ,such a process is unknown outside the class of insects1 and inside that class it is only known in a few of the two-winged flies4 ,now1 how ,natural ,selection1 or any laws of correlation1 can account for the gradual development of such an exceptional process of development--so extremely divergent from that of other insects--seems nothing less than inconceivable4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself#cg gives an account of a very peculiar and abnormal mode of development of a certain beetle1 the sitaris1 as described by ,m4 ,fabre4 ,this insect1 instead of at first appearing in its grub stage1 and then1 after a time1 putting on the adult form1 is at first active and furnished with six legs1 two long antenn1 and four eyes4 ,hatched in the nests of bees1 it at first attaches itself to one of the males1 and then crawls1 when the opportunity offers1 upon a female bee4 ,when the female bee lays her eggs1 the young sitaris springs upon them and devours them4 ,then1 losing its eyes1 legs1 and antenn1 and #dg becoming rudimentary1 it sinks into an ordinary grub-like form1 and feeds on honey1 ultimately undergoing another transformation1 re-acquiring its legs1 c41 and emerging a perfect beetle6 ,that such a process should have arisen by the accumulation of minute accidental variations in structure and habit1 appears to many minds1 quite competent to form an opinion on the subject1 absolutely incredible4 ,it may be objected1 perhaps1 that these difficulties are difficulties of ignorance--that we cannot explain them because we do not know enough of the animals4 ,but it is here contended that this is not the case2 it is not that we merely fail to see how ,natural ,selection acted1 but that there is a positive incompatibility between the cause assigned and the results4 ,it will be stated shortly what wonderful instances of co-ordination and of unexpected utility ,mr4 ,darwin has discovered in orchids4 ,the discoveries are not disputed or undervalued1 but the explanation of their origin is deemed thoroughly unsatisfactory--utterly insufficient to explain the incipient1 infinitesimal beginnings of structures which are of utility only when they are considerably developed4 ,let us consider the mammary gland1 or breast4 ,is it conceivable that the young of any animal was ever saved from destruction by accidentally sucking a drop of scarcely nutritious fluid from an accidentally hypertrophied cutaneous gland of its mother8 ,and even if one was so1 what chance was there of the perpetuation of such a variation8 ,on the hypothesis of ,natural ,selection itself1 we must assume that up to that time the race had been well adapted to the surrounding conditions2 the temporary and accidental trial and change of conditions1 which caused the so-sucking young one to be the fittest to survive under the supposed circumstances1 would soon cease to act1 and then the progeny of the mother1 with the accidentally hypertrophied1 sebaceous glands1 would have no tendency to survive the #dh far outnumbering descendants of the normal ancestral form4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we assume the change of conditions not to have been temporary but permanent1 and also assume that this permanent change of conditions was accidentally synchronous with the change of structure1 we have a coincidence of very remote probability indeed4 ,but if1 again1 we accept the presence of some harmonizing law simultaneously determining the two changes1 or connecting the second with the first by causation1 then1 of course1 we remove the accidental character of the coincidence4 ,again1 how explain the external position of the male sexual glands in certain mammals8 ,the utility of the modification1 when accomplished1 is problematical enough1 and no less so the incipient stages of the descent4 ,as was said in the first chapter1 ,mr4 ,darwin explains the brilliant plumage of the peacock or the humming-bird by the action of sexual selection3 the more and more brilliant males being selected by the females 7which are thus attracted7 to become the fathers of the next generation1 to which generation they tend to communicate their own bright nuptial vesture4 ,but there are peculiarities of colour and of form which it is exceedingly difficult to account for by any such action4 ,thus1 amongst apes1 the female is notoriously weaker1 and is armed with much less powerful canine tusks than the male4 ,when we consider what is known of the emotional nature of these animals1 and the periodicity of its intensification1 it is hardly credible that a female would often risk life or limb through her admiration of a trifling shade of colour1 or an infinitesimally greater though irresistibly fascinating degree of wartiness4#ch #di ,illustration3 ,,rattlesnake4 ,yet the males of some kinds of ape are adorned with quite exceptionally brilliant local decoration1 and the male orang is provided with remarkable1 projecting1 warty lumps of skin upon the cheeks4 ,as we have said1 the weaker female can hardly be supposed to have developed these by persevering and long-continued selection1 nor can they be thought to tend to the preservation of the individual4 ,on the contrary1 the presence of this enlarged appendage must occasion a slight increase in the need of nutriment1 and in so far must be a detriment1 although its detrimental effect would not be worth speaking of except in relation to ,darwinism1 according to which1 selection has acted through unimaginable ages1 #ej and has ever tended to suppress any useless development by the struggle for life4#ci ,illustration3 ,,cobra4 7,copied1 by permission1 from ,sir ,andrew ,smith's ,reptiles of ,south ,africa47 ,in poisonous serpents1 also1 we have structures which1 at all events at first sight1 seem positively hurtful to those reptiles4 ,such are the rattle of the rattlesnake1 and the expanding neck of the cobra1 the former seeming to warn the ear of the intended victim1 as the latter warns the eye4 ,it is true we cannot perhaps demonstrate that the victims are alarmed and warned1 but1 on ,darwinian principles1 they certainly ought to be so4 ,for the #ea rashest and most incautious of the animals preyed on would always tend to fall victims1 and the existing individuals being the long-descended progeny of the timid and cautious1 ought to have an inherited tendency to distrust1 amongst other things1 both rattling and expanding snakes4 ,as to any power of fascination exercised by means of these actions1 the most distinguished naturalists1 certainly the most distinguished erpetologists1 entirely deny it1 and it is opposed to the careful observations of those known to us4#dj ,the mode of formation of both the eye and the ear of the highest animals is such that1 if it is 7as most ,darwinians assert processes of development to be7 a record of the actual steps by which such structures were first evolved in antecedent forms1 it almost amounts to a demonstration that those steps were never produced by ,natural ,selection4 ,the eye is formed by a simultaneous and corresponding ingrowth of one part and outgrowth of another4 ,the skin in front of the future eye becomes depressed1 the depression increases and assumes the form of a sac1 which changes into the aqueous humour and lens4 ,an outgrowth of brain substance1 on the other hand1 forms the retina1 while a third process is a lateral ingrowth of connective tissue1 which afterwards changes into the vitreous humour of the eye4 ,the internal ear is formed by an involution of the integument1 and not by an outgrowth of the brain4 ,but tissue1 in connexion with it1 becomes in part changed1 thus forming the auditory nerve1 which places the tegumentary sac in direct communication with the brain itself4 #eb ,now1 these complex and simultaneous co-ordinations could never have been produced by infinitesimal beginnings1 since1 until so far developed as to effect the requisite junctions1 they are useless4 ,but the eye and ear when fully developed present conditions which are hopelessly difficult to reconcile with the mere action of ,natural ,selection4 ,the difficulties with regard to the eye have been well put by ,mr4 ,murphy1 especially that of the concordant result of visual development springing from different starting-points and continued on by independent roads4 ,he says1#da speaking of the beautiful structure of the perfect eye1 ,the higher the organization1 whether of an entire organism or of a single organ1 the greater is the number of the parts that co-operate1 and the more perfect is their co-operation2 and consequently1 the more necessity there is for corresponding variations to take place in all the co-operating parts at once1 and the more useless will be any variation whatever unless it is accompanied by corresponding variations in the co-operating parts2 while it is obvious that the greater the number of variations which are needed in order to effect an improvement1 the less will be the probability of their all occurring at once4 ,it is no reply to this to say1 what is no doubt abstractedly true1 that whatever is possible becomes probable1 if only time enough be allowed4 ,there are improbabilities so great that the common sense of mankind treats them as impossibilities4 ,it is not1 for instance1 in the strictest sense of the word1 impossible that a poem and a mathematical proposition should be obtained by the process of shaking letters out of a box2 but it is improbable to a degree that cannot be distinguished from impossibility2 and the improbability of obtaining an improvement in an organ by means of several spontaneous variations1 all occurring together1 is an improbability of the same kind4 ,if we suppose that any single variation occurs on the average once in m times1 the probability of #ec that variation occurring in any individual will be #a_/m2 and suppose that x variations must concur in order to make an improvement1 then the probability of the necessary variations all occurring together will be #a_/mx4 ,now suppose1 what ,i think a moderate proposition1 that the value of m is #a1jjj1 and the value of x is #aj1 then #a_/mx #a_/ajjjaj #a_/ajcj4 ,a number about ten thousand times as great as the number of waves of light that have fallen on the earth since historical time began4 ,and it is to be further observed1 that no improvement will give its possessor a certainty of surviving and leaving offspring1 but only an extra chance1 the value of which it is quite impossible to estimate4 ,this difficulty is1 as ,mr4 ,murphy points out1 greatly intensified by the undoubted fact that the wonderfully complex structure has been arrived at quite independently in beasts on the one hand and in cuttle-fishes on the other2 while creatures of the insect and crab division present us with a third and quite separately developed complexity4 ,as to the ear1 it would take up too much space to describe its internal structure2#db it must suffice to say that in its interior there is an immense series of minute rod-like bodies1 termed fibres of ,corti1 having the appearance of a key-board1 and each fibre being connected with a filament of the auditory nerve1 these nerves being like strings to be struck by the keys1 i4e4 by the fibres of ,corti4 ,moreover1 this apparatus is supposed to be a key-board in function as well as in appearance1 the#ed vibration of each one fibre giving rise1 it is believed1 to the sensation of one particular tone1 and combinations of such vibrations producing chords4 ,it is by the action of this complex organ then1 that all the wonderful intricacy and beauty of ,beethoven and ,mozart come1 most probably1 to be perceived and appreciated4 ,now it can hardly be contended that the preservation of any race of men in the struggle for life ever depended on such an extreme delicacy and refinement of the internal ear1--a perfection only exercised in the enjoyment and appreciation of the most perfect musical performances4 ,how1 then1 could either the minute incipient stages1 or the final perfecting touches of this admirable structure1 have been brought about by vague1 aimless1 and indefinite variations in all conceivable directions of an organ1 suitable to enable the rudest savage to minister to his necessities1 but no more8 ,mr4 ,wallace#dc makes an analogous remark with regard to the organ of voice in man--the human larynx4 ,he says of singing3 ,the habits of savages give no indication of how this faculty could have been developed by ,natural ,selection1 because it is never required or used by them4 ,the singing of savages is a more or less monotonous howling1 and the females seldom sing at all4 ,savages certainly never choose their wives for fine voices1 but for rude health1 and strength1 and physical beauty4 ,sexual selection could not therefore have developed this wonderful power1 which only comes into play among civilized people4 ,reverting once more to beauty of form and colour1 there is one manifestation of it for which no one can pretend that sexual selection can possibly account4 ,the instance referred to is that presented by bivalve shell-fish4#dd ,here we meet with charming tints and elegant forms and markings of no direct use to their possessors#de in the struggle for #ee life1 and of no indirect utility as regards sexual selection1 for fertilization takes place by the mere action of currents of water1 and the least beautiful individual has fully as good a chance of becoming a parent as has the one which is the most favoured in beauty of form and colour4 ,again1 the peculiar outline and coloration of certain orchids--notably of our own bee1 fly1 and spider orchids--seem hardly explicable by any action of ,natural ,selection4 ,mr4 ,darwin says very little on this singular resemblance of flowers to insects1 and what he does say seems hardly to be what an advocate of ,natural ,selection would require4 ,surely1 for minute accidental indefinite variations to have built up such a striking resemblance to insects1 we ought to find that the preservation of the plant1 or the perpetuation of its race1 depends almost constantly on relations between bees1 spiders1 and flies respectively and the bee1 spider1 and fly orchids4#df ,this process must have continued for ages constantly and perseveringly1 and yet what is the fact8 ,mr4 ,darwin tells us1 in his work on the ,fertilization of ,orchids1 that neither the spider nor the fly orchids are much visited by insects1 while1 with regard to the bee orchid1 he says1 ,i have never seen an insect visit these flowers4 ,and he shows how this species is even wonderfully and specially modified to effect self-fertilization4 ,in the work just referred to ,mr4 ,darwin gives a series of the most wonderful and minute contrivances by which the visits of insects are utilized for the fertilization of orchids1--structures so wonderful #ef that nothing could well be more so1 except the attribution of their origin to minute1 fortuitous1 and indefinite variation4 ,the instances are too numerous and too long to quote1 but in his ,origin of ,species#dg he describes two which must not be passed over4 ,in one 7,coryanthes7 the orchid has its lower lip enlarged into a bucket1 above which stand two water-secreting horns4 ,these latter replenish the bucket from which1 when half-filled1 the water overflows by a spout on one side4 ,bees visiting the flower fall into the bucket and crawl out at the spout4 ,by the peculiar arrangement of the parts of the flower1 the first bee which does so carries away the pollen-mass glued to his back1 and then when he has his next involuntary bath in another flower1 as he crawls out the pollen-mass attached to him comes in contact with the stigma of that second flower and fertilizes it4 ,in the other example 7,catasetum71 when a bee gnaws a certain part of the flower1 he inevitably touches a long delicate projection1 which ,mr4 ,darwin calls the antenna4 ,this antenna transmits a vibration to a certain membrane1 which is instantly ruptured2 this sets free a spring by which the pollen-mass is shot forth like an arrow in the right direction1 and adheres by its viscid extremity to the back of the bee6 ,another difficulty1 and one of some importance1 is presented by those communities of ants which have not only a population of sterile females1 or workers1 but two distinct and very different castes of such4 ,mr4 ,darwin believes that he has got over this difficulty by having found individuals intermediate in form and structure#dh between the two working castes2 others may think that we have in this belief of ,mr4 ,darwin1 an example #eg of the unconscious action of volition upon credence4 ,a vast number of difficulties similar to those which have been mentioned might easily be cited--those given1 however1 may suffice4 ,there remains1 however1 to be noticed a very important consideration1 which was brought forward in the ,north ,british ,review for ,june #ahfg1 p4 #bhf1 namely1 the necessity for the simultaneous modification of many individuals4 ,this consideration seems to have escaped ,mr4 ,darwin1 for at p4 #ajd of his last 7fifth7 edition of ,natural ,selection1 he admits1 with great candour1 that until reading this article he did not appreciate how rarely single variations1 whether slight or strongly marked1 could be perpetuated4 ,the ,north ,british ,review 7speaking of the supposition that a species is changed by the survival of a few individuals in a century through a similar and favourable variation7 says3 ,it is very difficult to see how this can be accomplished1 even when the variation is eminently favourable indeed2 and still more difficult when the advantage gained is very slight1 as must generally be the case4 ,the advantage1 whatever it may be1 is utterly outbalanced by numerical inferiority4 ,a million creatures are born2 ten thousand survive to produce offspring4 ,one of the million has twice as good a chance as any other of surviving2 but the chances are fifty to one against the gifted individuals being one of the hundred survivors4 ,no doubt the chances are twice as great against any one other individual1 but this does not prevent their being enormously in favour of some average individual4 ,however slight the advantage may be1 if it is shared by half the individuals produced1 it will probably be present in at least fifty-one of the survivors1 and in a larger proportion of their offspring2 but the chances are against the preservation of any one 'sport' 7i4e4 sudden1 marked variation7 in a numerous tribe4 ,the vague use of an imperfectly understood doctrine of chance has led ,darwinian supporters1 first1 to confuse the two cases above distinguished2 and1 secondly1 to imagine #eh that a very slight balance in favour of some individual sport must lead to its perpetuation4 ,all that can be said is that in the above example the favoured sport would be preserved once in fifty times4 ,let us consider what will be its influence on the main stock when preserved4 ,it will breed and have a progeny of say #ajj2 now this progeny will1 on the whole1 be intermediate between the average individual and the sport4 ,the odds in favour of one of this generation of the new breed will be1 say one and a half to one1 as compared with the average individual2 the odds in their favour will1 therefore1 be less than that of their parents2 but owing to their greater number1 the chances are that about one and a half of them would survive4 ,unless these breed together1 a most improbable event1 their progeny would again approach the average individual2 there would be #aej of them1 and their superiority would be1 say in the ratio of one and a quarter to one2 the probability would now be that nearly two of them would survive1 and have #bjj children1 with an eighth superiority4 ,rather more than two of these would survive2 but the superiority would again dwindle1 until after a few generations it would no longer be observed1 and would count for no more in the struggle for life than any of the hundred trifling advantages which occur in the ordinary organs4 ,an illustration will bring this conception home4 ,suppose a white man to have been wrecked on an island inhabited by negroes1 and to have established himself in friendly relations with a powerful tribe1 whose customs he has learnt4 ,suppose him to possess the physical strength1 energy1 and ability of a dominant white race1 and let the food and climate of the island suit his constitution2 grant him every advantage which we can conceive a white to possess over the native2 concede that in the struggle for existence his chance of a long life will be much superior to that of the native chiefs2 yet from all these admissions1 there does not follow the conclusion that1 after a limited or unlimited #ei number of generations1 the inhabitants of the island will be white4 ,our shipwrecked hero would probably become king2 he would kill a great many blacks in the struggle for existence2 he would have a great many wives and children4 444 ,in the first generation there will be some dozens of intelligent young mulattoes1 much superior in average intelligence to the negroes4 ,we might expect the throne for some generations to be occupied by a more or less yellow king2 but can any one believe that the whole island will gradually acquire a white1 or even a yellow1 population8 ,darwin says that in the struggle for life a grain may turn the balance in favour of a given structure1 which will then be preserved4 ,but one of the weights in the scale of nature is due to the number of a given tribe4 ,let there be #gjjj ,a's and #gjjj ,b's1 representing two varieties of a given animal1 and let all the ,b's1 in virtue of a slight difference of structure1 have the better chance of life by #a_/gjjj part4 ,we must allow that there is a slight probability that the descendants of ,b will supplant the descendants of ,a2 but let there be only #gjja ,a's against #gjjj ,b's at first1 and the chances are once more equal1 while if there be #gjjb ,a's to start1 the odds would be laid on the ,a's4 ,true1 they stand a greater chance of being killed2 but then they can better afford to be killed4 ,the grain will only turn the scales when these are very nicely balanced1 and an advantage in numbers counts for weight1 even as an advantage in structure4 ,as the numbers of the favoured variety diminish1 so must its relative advantages increase1 if the chance of its existence is to surpass the chance of its extinction1 until hardly any conceivable advantage would enable the descendants of a single pair to exterminate the descendants of many thousands if they and their descendants are supposed to breed freely with the inferior variety1 and so gradually lose their ascendency4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself says of the article quoted3 ,the justice of these remarks cannot1 ,i think1 be disputed4 ,if1 for instance1 a bird of some #fj kind could procure its food more easily by having its beak curved1 and if one were born with its beak strongly curved1 and which consequently flourished1 nevertheless there would be a very poor chance of this one individual perpetuating its kind to the exclusion of the common form4 ,this admission seems almost to amount to a change of front in the face of the enemy6 ,these remarks have been quoted at length because they so greatly intensify the difficulties brought forward in this chapter4 ,if the most favourable variations have to contend with such difficulties1 what must be thought as to the chance of preservation of the slightly displaced eye in a sole or of the incipient development of baleen in a whale8 ,,summary ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,it has been here contended that a certain few facts1 out of many which might have been brought forward1 are inconsistent with the origination of species by ,natural ,selection only or mainly4 ,mr4 ,darwin's theory requires minute1 indefinite1 fortuitous variations of all parts in all directions1 and he insists that the sole operation of ,natural ,selection upon such is sufficient to account for the great majority of organic forms1 with their most complicated structures1 intricate mutual adaptations and delicate adjustments4 ,to this conception has been opposed the difficulties presented by such a structure as the form of the giraffe1 which ought not to have been the solitary structure it is2 also the minute beginnings and the last refinements of protective mimicry equally difficult or rather impossible to account for by ,natural ,selection4 ,again the difficulty as to the heads of flat-fishes has been insisted on1 as also the origin1 and at the same time the constancy1 of the limbs of the highest animals4 ,reference has also been made to the whalebone of whales1 and to the impossibility of #fa understanding its origin through ,natural ,selection only2 the same as regards the infant kangaroo1 with its singular deficiency of power compensated for by maternal structures on the one hand1 to which its own breathing organs bear direct relation on the other4 ,again1 the delicate and complex pedicellari of ,echinoderms1 with a certain process of development 7through a secondary larva7 found in that class1 together with certain other exceptional modes of development1 have been brought forward4 ,the development of colour in certain apes1 the hood of the cobra1 and the rattle of the rattlesnake have also been cited4 ,again1 difficulties as to the process of formation of the eye and ear1 and as to the fully developed condition of those complex organs1 as well as of the voice1 have been considered4 ,the beauty of certain shell-fish2 the wonderful adaptations of structure1 and variety of form and resemblance1 found in orchids2 together with the complex habits and social conditions of certain ants1 have been hastily passed in review4 ,when all these complications are duly weighed and considered1 and when it is borne in mind how necessary it is for the permanence of a new variety that many individuals in each case should be simultaneously modified1 the cumulative argument seems irresistible4 ,the ,author of this book can say that though by no means disposed originally to dissent from the theory of ,natural ,selection1 if only its difficulties could be solved1 he has found each successive year that deeper consideration and more careful examination have more and more brought home to him the inadequacy of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory to account for the preservation and intensification of incipient1 specific1 and generic characters4 ,that minute1 fortuitous1 and indefinite variations could have brought about such special forms and modifications as have been enumerated in this chapter1 seems to contradict not imagination1 but reason4 ,page #fb ,that either many individuals amongst a species of butterfly should be simultaneously preserved through a similar accidental and minute variation in one definite direction1 when variations in many other directions would also preserve2 or that one or two so varying should succeed in supplanting the progeny of thousands of other individuals1 and that this should by no other cause be carried so far as to produce the appearance 7as we have before stated7 of spots of fungi1 c4--are alternatives of an improbability so extreme as to be practically equal to impossibility4 ,in spite of all the resources of a fertile imagination1 the ,darwinian1 pure and simple1 is reduced to the assertion of a paradox as great as any he opposes4 ,in the place of a mere assertion of our ignorance as to the way these phenomena have been produced1 he brings forward1 as their explanation1 a cause which it is contended in this work is demonstrably insufficient4 ,of course in this matter1 as elsewhere throughout nature1 we have to do with the operation of fixed and constant natural laws1 and the knowledge of these may before long be obtained by human patience or human genius2 but there is1 it is believed1 already enough evidence to show that these as yet unknown natural laws or law will never be resolved into the action of ,natural ,selection1 but will constitute or exemplify a mode and condition of organic action of which the ,darwinian theory takes no account whatsoever4 ,page #fc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,co-,,existence ,,of ,,closely ,,similar ,,structures ,,of ,,diverse ,,origin4 ,chances against concordant variations4--,examples of discordant ones4--,concordant variations not unlikely on a non-,darwinian evolutionary hypothesis4--,placental and implacental mammals4--,birds and reptiles4--,independent origins of similar sense organs4--,the ear4--,the eye4--,other coincidences4--,causes besides ,natural ,selection produce concordant variations in certain geographical regions4--,causes besides ,natural ,selection produce concordant variations in certain zoological and botanical groups4--,there are homologous parts not genetically related4--,harmony in respect of the organic and inorganic worlds4--,summary and conclusion4 ,the theory of ,natural ,selection supposes that the varied forms and structure of animals and plants have been built up merely by indefinite1 fortuitous1#di minute variations in every part and in all directions--those variations only being preserved which are directly or indirectly useful to the individual possessing them1 or necessarily correlated with such useful variations4 ,illustration3 ,,wingbones ,,of ,,pterodactyle1 ,,bat1 ,,and ,,bird4 7,copied1 by permission1 from ,mr4 ,andrew ,murray's ,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals47 ,on this theory the chances are almost infinitely great against the independent1 accidental occurrence and preservation of two similar series of minute variations resulting in the independent development of two closely similar forms4 ,in all cases1 no doubt 7on this same theory71 some adaptation to habit or need would gradually be evolved1 but that #fd adaptation would surely be arrived at by different roads4 ,the organic world supplies us with multitudes of examples of similar functional results being attained by the most diverse means4 ,thus the body is sustained in the air by birds and by bats4 ,in the first case it is so sustained by a limb in which the bones of the hand are excessively reduced1 but which is provided with immense outgrowths from the skin--namely1 the feathers of the wing4 ,in the second case1 however1 the body is sustained in the air by a limb in which the bones of the hand are enormously increased in length1 and so sustain a great expanse of naked skin1 which is the flying membrane of the bat's wing4 ,certain fishes and certain reptiles can also flit and take very prolonged jumps in the air4 ,the flying-fish1 however1 takes these by means of a great elongation of the rays of the pectoral fins--parts which cannot be said to be of the same nature as the constituents of the wing of either the bat or the bird4 ,the little lizard1 which enjoys the formidable name of flying-dragon1 flits by means of a structure altogether peculiar--namely1 by the liberation and great elongation of some of the ribs which support a fold of skin4 ,in the extinct pterodactyles--which were truly flying #fe reptiles--we meet with an approximation to the structure of the bat1 but in the pterodactyle we have only one finger elongated in each hand3 a striking example of how the very same function may be provided for by a modification similar in principle1 yet surely manifesting the independence of its origin4 ,when we go to lower animals1 we find flight produced by organs1 as the wings of insects1 which are not even modified limbs at all2 or we find even the function sometimes subserved by quite artificial means1 as in the arial spiders1 which use their own threads to float with in the air4 ,in the vegetable kingdom the atmosphere is often made use of for the scattering of seeds1 by their being furnished with special structures of very different kinds4 ,the diverse modes by which such seeds are dispersed are well expressed by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,he says3#ej ,seeds are disseminated #ff by their minuteness1--by their capsule being converted into a light balloon-like envelope1--by being embedded in pulp or flesh1 formed of the most diverse parts1 and rendered nutritious1 as well as conspicuously coloured1 so as to attract and be devoured by birds1--by having hooks and grapnels of many kinds and serrated awns1 so as to adhere to the fur of quadrupeds1--and by being furnished with wings and plumes1 as different in shape as elegant in structure1 so as to be wafted by every breeze4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,flying-,,dragon4 7,showing the elongated ribs which support the flitting organ47 ,again1 if we consider the poisoning apparatus possessed by different animals1 we find in serpents a perforated--or rather very deeply channelled--tooth4 ,in wasps and bees the sting is formed of modified parts1 accessory in reproduction4 ,in the scorpion1 we have the median terminal process of the body specially organized4 ,in the spider1 we have a specially constructed antenna2 and finally in the centipede a pair of modified thoracic limbs4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,centipede4 ,it would be easy to produce a multitude of such instances of similar ends being attained by dissimilar means1 and it is here contended that by the action of ,natural ,selection only it is so improbable as to be practically impossible for two exactly similar structures to have ever been independently developed4 ,it is so because the number of possible #fg variations is indefinitely great1 and it is therefore an indefinitely great number to one against a similar series of variations occurring and being similarly preserved in any two independent instances4 ,the difficulty here asserted applies1 however1 only to pure ,darwinism1 which makes use only of indirect modifications through the survival of the fittest4 ,other theories 7for example1 that of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer7 admit the direct action of conditions upon animals and plants--in ways not yet fully understood--there being conceived to be at the same time a certain peculiar but limited power of response and adaptation in each animal and plant so acted on4 ,such theories have not to contend against the difficulty proposed1 and it is here urged that even very complex extremely similar structures have again and again been developed quite independently one of the other1 and this because the process has taken place not by merely haphazard1 indefinite variations in all directions1 but by the concurrence of some other and internal natural law or laws co-operating with external influences and with ,natural ,selection in the evolution of organic forms4 ,it must never be forgotten that to admit any such constant operation of any such unknown natural cause is to deny the purely ,darwinian theory1 which relies upon the survival of the fittest by means of minute fortuitous indefinite variations4 ,amongst many other obligations which the ,author has to acknowledge to ,professor ,huxley1 are the pointing out of this very difficulty1 and the calling his attention to the striking resemblance between certain teeth of the dog and of the thylacine as one instance1 and certain ornithic peculiarities of pterodactyles as another4 ,mammals#ea are divisible into one great group1 which comprises the #fh immense majority of kinds termed1 from their mode of reproduction1 placental ,mammals1 and into another very much smaller group comprising the pouched-beasts or marsupials 7which are the kangaroos1 bandicoots1 phalangers1 c41 of ,australia71 and the true opossums of ,america1 called implacental ,mammals4 ,now the placental mammals are subdivided into various orders1 amongst which are the flesh-eaters 7,carnivora1 i4e4 cats1 dogs1 otters1 weasels1 c471 and the insect-eaters 7,insectivora1 i4e4 moles1 hedgehogs1 shrew-mice1 c474 ,the marsupial mammals also present a variety of forms 7some of which are carnivorous beasts1 whilst others are insectivorous71 so marked that it has been even proposed to divide them into orders parallel to the orders of placental beasts4 ,the resemblance1 indeed1 is so striking as1 on ,darwinian principles1 to suggest the probability of genetic affinity2 and it even led ,professor ,huxley1 in his ,hunterian ,lectures1 in #ahff1 to promulgate the notion that a vast and widely-diffused marsupial fauna may have existed anteriorly to the development of the ordinary placental1 non-pouched beasts1 and that the carnivorous1 insectivorous1 and herbivorous placentals may have respectively descended from the carnivorous1 insectivorous1 and herbivorous marsupials4 ,illustration3 ,,teeth ,,of ,,urotrichus ,,and ,,perameles4 ,amongst other points ,professor ,huxley called attention to the resemblance between the anterior molars of the placental dog with those of the marsupial thylacine4 ,these1 indeed1 are strikingly similar1 but there are better examples still of this sort of coincidence4 ,thus it has often #fi been remarked that the insectivorous marsupials1 e4g4 ,perameles1 wonderfully correspond1 as to the form of certain of the grinding teeth1 with certain insectivorous placentals1 e4g4 ,urotrichus4 ,again1 the saltatory insectivores of ,africa 7,macroscelides7 not only resemble the kangaroo family 7,macropodid7 in their jumping habits and long hind legs1 but also in the structure of their molar teeth1 and even further1 as ,i have elsewhere#eb pointed out1 in a certain similarity of the upper cutting teeth1 or incisors4 ,now these correspondences are the more striking when we bear in mind that a similar dentition is often put to very different uses4 ,the food of different kinds of apes is very different1 yet how uniform is their dental structure6 ,again1 who1 looking at the teeth of different kinds of bears1 would ever suspect that one kind was frugivorous1 and another a devourer exclusively of animal food8 ,the suggestion made by ,professor ,huxley was therefore one which had much to recommend it to ,darwinians1 though it has not met with any notable acceptance1 and though he seems himself to have returned to the older notion1 namely1 that the pouched-beasts1 or marsupials1 are a special ancient offshoot from the great mammalian class4 ,but whichever view may be the correct one1 we have in either case a number of forms similarly modified in harmony with surrounding conditions1 and eloquently proclaiming some natural plastic power1 other than mere fortuitous variation with survival of the fittest4 ,if1 however1 the ,reader thinks that teeth are parts peculiarly qualified for rapid variation 7in which view the ,author cannot concur71 he is requested to suspend his judgment till he has considered the question of the independent evolution of the highest organs of sense4 ,if this seems to establish the #gj existence of some other law than that of ,natural ,selection1 then the operation of that other law may surely be also traced in the harmonious co-ordinations of dental form4 ,the other difficulty1 kindly suggested to me by the learned ,professor1 refers to the structure of birds1 and of extinct reptiles more or less related to them4 ,the class of birds is one which is remarkably uniform in its organization4 ,so much is this the case1 that the best mode of subdividing the class is a problem of the greatest difficulty4 ,existing birds1 however1 present forms which1 though closely resembling in the greater part of their structure1 yet differ importantly the one from the other4 ,one form is exemplified by the ostrich1 rhea1 emeu1 cassowary1 apteryx1 dinornis1 c4 ,these are the struthious birds4 ,all other existing birds belong to the second division1 and are called 7from the keel on the breast-bone7 carinate birds4 ,now birds and reptiles have such and so many points in common1 that ,darwinians must regard the former as modified descendants of ancient reptilian forms4 ,but on ,darwinian principles it is impossible that the class of birds so uniform and homogeneous should have had a double reptilian origin4 ,if one set of birds sprang from one set of reptiles1 and another set of birds from another set of reptiles1 the two sets could never1 by ,natural ,selection only1 have grown into such a perfect similarity4 ,to admit such a phenomenon would be equivalent to abandoning the theory of ,natural ,selection as the sole origin of species4 ,now1 until recently it has generally been supposed by evolutionists that those ancient flying reptiles1 the pterodactyles1 or forms allied to them1 were the progenitors of the class of birds2 and certain parts of their structure especially support this view4 ,allusion is here made to the bladebone 7scapula71 and the bone which passes down from the shoulder-joint to the breast-bone 7viz4 the coracoid74 ,these bones are such remarkable anticipations of the same parts in ordinary 7i4e4 carinate7 birds #ga that it is hardly possible for a ,darwinian not to regard the resemblance as due to community of origin4 ,this resemblance was carefully pointed out by ,professor ,huxley in his ,hunterian ,course for #ahfg1 when attention was called to the existence in ,dimorphodon macronyx of even that small process which in birds gives attachment to the upper end of the merrythought4 ,also ,mr4 ,seeley#ec has shown that in pterodactyles1 as in birds1 the optic lobes of the brain were placed low down on each side--lateral and depressed4 ,nevertheless1 the view has been put forward and ably maintained by the same ,professor1#ed as also by ,professor ,cope in the ,united ,states1 that the line of descent from reptiles to birds has not been from ordinary reptiles1 through pterodactyle-like forms1 to ordinary birds1 but to the struthious ones from certain extinct reptiles termed ,dinosauria2 one of the most familiarly known of which is the ,iguanodon of the ,wealden formation4 ,in these ,dinosauria we find skeletal characters unlike those of ordinary 7i4e4 carinate7 birds1 but closely resembling in certain points the osseous structure of the struthious birds4 ,thus a difficulty presents itself as to the explanation of the three following relationships3--7#a7 ,that of the ,pterodactyles with carinate birds2 7#b7 that of the ,dinosauria with struthious birds2 7#c7 that of the carinate and struthious birds with each other4 ,either birds must have had two distinct origins whence they grew to their present conformity1 or the very same skeletal1 and probably cerebral characters must have spontaneously and independently arisen4 ,here is a dilemma1 either horn of which bears a threatening aspect to the exclusive supporter of ,natural ,selection1 and between which it seems somewhat #gb difficult to choose4 ,it has been suggested to me that this difficulty may be evaded by considering pterodactyles and carinate birds as independent branches from one side of an ancient common trunk1 while similarly the ,dinosauria and struthious birds are taken to be independent branches from the other side of the same common trunk2 the two kinds of birds resembling each other so much on account of their later development from that trunk as compared with the development of the reptilian forms4 ,but to this it may be replied that the ancient common stock could not have had at one and the same time a shoulder structure of both kinds4 ,it must have been that of the struthious birds or that of the carinate birds1 or something different from both4 ,if it was that of the struthious birds1 how did the pterodactyles and carinate birds independently arrive at the very same divergent structure8 ,if it was that of the carinate birds1 how did the struthious birds and ,dinosauria independently agree to differ8 ,finally1 if it was something different from either1 how did the carinate birds and pterodactyles take on independently one special common structure when disagreeing in so many2 while the struthious birds1 agreeing in many points with the ,dinosauria1 agree yet more with the carinate birds8 ,indeed by no arrangement of branches from a stem can the difficulty be evaded4 ,professor ,huxley seems inclined#ee to cut the ,gordian knot by considering the shoulder structure of the pterodactyle as independently educed1 and having relation to physiology only4 ,this conception is one which harmonizes completely with the views here advocated1 and with those of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 who also calls in direct modification to the aid of ,natural ,selection4 ,that merely minute1 indefinite variations in all directions should unaided have independently built up the shoulder structure of #gc the pterodactyles and carinate birds1 and have laterally depressed their optic lobes1 at a time so far back as the deposition of the ,oolite strata1#ef is a coincidence of the highest improbability2 but that an innate power and evolutionary law1 aided by the corrective action of ,natural ,selection1 should have furnished like needs with like aids1 is not at all improbable4 ,the difficulty does not tell against the theory of evolution1 but only against the specially ,darwinian form of it4 ,now this form has never been expressly adopted by ,professor ,huxley2 so far from it1 in his lecture on this subject at the ,royal ,institution before referred to1 he observes1#eg ,i can testify1 from personal experience1 it is possible to have a complete faith in the general doctrine of evolution1 and yet to hesitate in accepting the ,nebular1 or the ,uniformitarian1 or the ,darwinian hypotheses in all their integrity and fulness4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,archeopteryx 7of the ,oolite strata74 ,it is quite consistent1 then1 in the ,professor to explain the #gd difficulty as he does2 but it would not be similarly so with an absolute and pure ,darwinian4 ,yet stronger arguments of an analogous kind are1 however1 to be derived from the highest organs of sense4 ,in the most perfectly organized animals--those namely which1 like ourselves1 possess a spinal column--the internal organs of hearing consist of two more or less complex membranous sacs 7containing calcareous particles--otoliths71 which are primitively or permanently lodged in two chambers1 one on each side of the cartilaginous skull4 ,the primitive cartilaginous cranium supports and protects the base of the brain1 and the auditory nerves pass from that brain into the cartilaginous chambers to reach the auditory sacs4 ,these complex arrangements of parts could not have been evolved by ,natural ,selection1 i4e4 by minute accidental variations1 except by the action of such through a vast period of time2 nevertheless1 it was fully evolved at the time of the deposition of the upper ,silurian rocks4 ,cuttle-fishes 7,cephalopoda7 are animals belonging to the molluscous primary division of the animal kingdom1 which division contains animals formed upon a type of structure utterly remote from that on which the animals of the higher division provided with a spinal column are constructed4 ,and indeed no transitional form 7tending even to bridge over the chasm between these two groups7 has ever yet been discovered1 either living or in a fossilized condition4#eh ,nevertheless1 in the two-gilled ,cephalopods 7,dibranchiata7 we find the brain supported and protected by a cartilaginous cranium4 ,in the base of this cranium are two cartilaginous chambers4 ,in each chamber is a membranous sac containing an otolith1 and the auditory nerves pass from the cerebral ganglia into the cartilaginous chambers to reach the auditory sacs4 ,moreover1 it has been suggested by ,professor ,owen that #ge sinuosities between processes projecting from the inner wall of each chamber seem to be the first rudiments of those which1 in the higher classes 7i4e4 in animals with a spinal column71 are extended in the form of canals and spiral chambers1 within the substance of the dense nidus of the labyrinth4#ei ,illustration3 ,,cuttle-,,fish4 ,a4 ,ventral aspect4 ,b4 ,dorsal aspect4 ,here1 then1 we have a wonderful coincidence indeed2 two highly complex auditory organs1 marvellously similar in structure1 but which must nevertheless have been developed in entire and complete independence one of the other6 ,it would be difficult to calculate the odds against the independent occurrence and conservation of two such complex series of merely accidental and minute haphazard variations4 ,and it can never be #gf maintained that the sense of hearing could not be efficiently subserved otherwise than by such sacs1 in cranial cartilaginous capsules so situated in relation to the brain1 c4 ,our wonder1 moreover1 may be increased when we recollect that the two-gilled cephalopods have not yet been found below the lias1 where they at once abound2 whereas the four-gilled cephalopods are ,silurian forms4 ,moreover1 the absence is in this case significant in spite of the imperfection of the geological record1 because when we consider how many individuals of various kinds of four-gilled cephalopods have been found1 it is fair to infer that at the least a certain small percentage of dibranchs would also have left traces of their presence had they existed4 ,thus it is probable that some four-gilled form was the progenitor of the dibranch cephalopods4 ,now the four-gilled kinds 7judging from the only existing form1 the nautilus7 had the auditory organ in a very inferior condition of development to what we find in the dibranch2 thus we have not only evidence of the independent high development of the organ in the former1 but also evidence pointing towards a certain degree of comparative rapidity in its development4 ,such being the case with regard to the organ of hearing1 we have another yet stronger argument with regard to the organ of sight1 as has been well pointed out by ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy4#fj ,he calls attention to the fact that the eye must have been perfected in at least three distinct lines of descent1 alluding not only to the molluscous division of the animal kingdom1 and the division provided with a spinal column1 but also to a third primary division1 namely1 that which includes all insects1 spiders1 crabs1 c41 which are spoken of as ,annulosa1 and the type of whose structure is as distinct from that of the molluscous type on the one hand1 as it is from that of the type with a spinal column 7i4e4 the vertebrate type7 on the other4 #gg ,in the cuttle-fishes we find an eye even more completely constructed on the vertebrate type than is the ear4 ,sclerotic1 retina1 choroid1 vitreous humour1 lens1 aqueous humour1 all are present4 ,the correspondence is wonderfully complete1 and there can hardly be any hesitation in saying that for such an exact1 prolonged1 and correlated series of similar structures to have been brought about in two independent instances by merely indefinite and minute accidental variations1 is an improbability which amounts practically to impossibility4 ,moreover1 we have here again the same imperfection of the four-gilled cephalopod1 as compared with the two-gilled1 and therefore 7if the latter proceeded from the former7 a similar indication of a certain comparative rapidity of development4 ,finally1 and this is perhaps one of the most curious circumstances1 the process of formation appears to have been1 at least in some respects1 the same in the eyes of these molluscous animals as in the eyes of vertebrates4 ,for in these latter the cornea is at first perforated1 while different degrees of perforation of the same part are presented by different adult cuttle-fishes--large in the calamaries1 smaller in the octopods1 and reduced to a minute foramen in the true cuttle-fish sepia4 ,some may be disposed to object that the conditions requisite for effecting vision are so rigid that similar results in all cases must be independently arrived at4 ,but to this objection it may well be replied that ,nature herself has demonstrated that there is no such necessity as to the details of the process4 ,for in the higher ,annulosa1 such as the dragon-fly1 we meet with an eye of an unquestionably very high degree of efficiency1 but formed on a type of structure only remotely comparable with that of the fish or the cephalopod4 ,the last-named animal might have had an eye as efficient as that of a vertebrate1 but formed on a distinct type1 instead of being another edition1 as it were1 of the very same structure4 ,in the beginning of this chapter examples have been given of the very #gh diverse mode in which similar results have in many instances been arrived at2 on the other hand1 we have in the fish and the cephalopod not only the eye1 but at one and the same time the ear also similarly evolved1 yet with complete independence4 ,thus it is here contended that the similar and complex structures of both the highest organs of sense1 as developed in the vertebrates on the one hand1 and in the mollusks on the other1 present us with residuary phenomena for which ,natural ,selection alone is quite incompetent to account4 ,and that these same phenomena must therefore be considered as conclusive evidence for the action of some other natural law or laws conditioning the simultaneous and independent evolution of these harmonious and concordant adaptations4 ,provided with this evidence1 it may be now profitable to enumerate other correspondences1 which are not perhaps in themselves inexplicable by ,natural ,selection1 but which are more readily to be explained by the action of the unknown law or laws referred to--which action1 as its necessity has been demonstrated in one case1 becomes a priori probable in the others4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,thus the great oceanic ,mammalia--the whales--show striking resemblances to those prodigious1 extinct1 marine reptiles1 the ,ichthyosauria1 and this not only in structures readily referable to similarity of habit1 but in such matters as greatly elongated premaxillary bones1 together with the concealment of certain bones of the skull by other cranial bones4 ,page #gi ,again1 the arial mammals1 the bats1 resemble those flying reptiles of the secondary epoch1 the pterodactyles2 not only to a certain extent in the breast-bone and mode of supporting the flying membrane1 but also in the proportions of different parts of the spinal column and the hinder 7pelvic7 limbs4 ,also bivalve shell-fish 7i4e4 creatures of the mussel1 cockle1 and oyster class1 which receive their name from the body being protected by a double shell1 one valve of which is placed on each side7 have their two shells united by one or two powerful muscles1 which pass directly across from one shell to the other1 and which are termed adductor muscles because by their contraction they bring together the valves and so close the shell4 ,illustration3 ,,cytheridea ,,torosa4 ,an ostracod 7,crustacean71 externally like a bivalve shell-fish 7,lamellibranch74 ,now there are certain animals which belong to the crab and lobster class 7,crustacea7--a class constructed on an utterly different type from that on which the bivalve shell-fish are constructed--which present a very curious approximation to both the form and1 in a certain respect1 the structure of true bivalves4 ,allusion is here made to certain small ,crustacea--certain phyllopods and ostracods--which have the hard outer coat of their thorax so modified as to look wonderfully like a bivalve shell1 although its #hj nature and composition are quite different4 ,but this is by no means all1--not only is there this external resemblance between the thoracic armour of the crustacean and the bivalve shell1 but the two sides of the ostracod and phyllopod thorax are connected together also by an adductor muscle6 ,illustration3 ,a ,,polyzoon ,,with ,,bird',s-,,head ,,processes4 #ha ,the pedicellari of the echinus have been already spoken of1 and the difficulty as to their origin from minute1 fortuitous1 indefinite variations has been stated4 ,but structures essentially similar 7called avicularia1 or bird's-head processes7 are developed from the surface of the compound masses of certain of the highest of the polyp-like animals 7viz4 the ,polyzoa or1 as they are sometimes called1 the ,bryozoa74 ,these compound animals have scattered over the surface of their bodies minute processes1 each of which is like the head of a bird1 with an upper and lower beak1 the whole supported on a slender neck4 ,the beak opens and shuts at intervals1 like the jaws of the pedicellari of the echinus1 and there is altogether1 in general principle1 a remarkable similarity between the structures4 ,yet the echinus can have1 at the best1 none but the most distant genetic relationship with the ,polyzoa4 ,we have here again therefore complex and similar organs of diverse and independent origin4 ,illustration3 ,,bird',s-,,head ,,processes ,,very ,,greatly ,,enlarged4 ,in the highest class of animals 7the ,mammalia7 we have almost always a placental mode of reproduction1 i4e4 the blood of the foetus is placed in nutritive relation with the blood of the mother by means of vascular prominences4 ,no trace of such a structure exists in any bird or in any reptile1 and yet it crops out again in certain sharks4 ,there indeed it might well be supposed to end1 but1 marvellous as it seems1 it reappears in very lowly creatures2 namely1 in certain of the ascidians1 sometimes called tunicaries or sea-squirts4 ,page #hb ,now1 if we were to concede that the ascidians were the common ancestors#fa of both these sharks and of the higher mammals1 we should be little1 if any1 nearer to an explanation of the phenomenon by means of ,natural ,selection1 for in the sharks in question the vascular prominences are developed from one foetal structure 7the umbilical vesicle71 while in the higher mammals they are developed from quite another part1 viz4 the allantois4 ,illustration3 ,upper ,figure--,,antechinus ,,minutissimus 7implacental74 ,lower ,figure--,,mus ,,delicatulus 7placental74 ,so great1 however1 is the number of similar1 but apparently independent1 structures1 that we suffer from a perfect embarras de richesses4 ,thus1 for example1 we have the convoluted windpipe of the sloth1 reminding us#hc of the condition of the windpipe in birds2 and in another mammal1 allied to the sloth1 namely the great ant-eater 7,myrmecophaga71 we have again an ornithic character in its horny gizzard-like stomach4 ,in man and the highest apes the ccum has a vermiform appendix1 as it has also in the wombat6 ,also the similar forms presented by the crowns of the teeth in some seals1 in certain sharks1 and in some extinct ,cetacea may be referred to2 as also the similarity of the beak in birds1 some reptiles1 in the tadpole1 and cuttle-fishes4 ,as to entire external form1 may be adduced the wonderful similarity between a true mouse 7,mus delicatulus7 and a small marsupial1 pointed out by ,mr4 ,andrew ,murray in his work on the ,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals1 p4 #ec1 and represented in the frontispiece by figures copied from ,gould's ,mammals of ,australia2 but instances enough for the present purpose have been already quoted4 ,additional reasons for believing that similarity of structure is produced by other causes than merely by ,natural ,selection are furnished by certain facts of zoological geography1 and by a similarity in the mode of variation being sometimes extended to several species of a genus1 or even to widely different groups2 while the restriction and the limitation of such similarity are often not less remarkable4 ,thus ,mr4 ,wallace says1#fb as to local influence3 ,larger or smaller districts1 or even single islands1 give a special character to the majority of their ,papilionid4 ,for instance3--#a4 ,the species of the ,indian region 7,sumatra1 ,java1 and ,borneo7 are almost invariably smaller than the allied species inhabiting ,celebes and the ,moluccas4 #b4 ,the species of ,new ,guinea and ,australia are also1 though in a less degree1 smaller than the nearest species or varieties of the ,moluccas4 #c4 ,in the ,moluccas themselves the species of ,amboyna are the largest4 #d4 ,the species of ,celebes equal or even surpass in size those of ,amboyna4 #hd #e4 ,the species and varieties of ,celebes possess a striking character in the form of the anterior wings1 different from that of the allied species and varieties of all the surrounding islands4 #f4 ,tailed species in ,india or the ,indian region become tailless as they spread eastward through the ,archipelago4 #g4 ,in ,amboyna and ,ceram the females of several species are dull-coloured1 while in the adjacent islands they are more brilliant4 ,again3#fc ,in ,amboyna and ,ceram the female of the large and handsome ,ornithoptera ,helena has the large patch on the hind wings constantly of a pale dull ochre or buff colour2 while in the scarcely distinguishable varieties from the adjacent islands1 of ,bouru and ,new ,guinea1 it is of a golden yellow1 hardly inferior in brilliancy to its colour in the male sex4 ,the female of ,ornithoptera ,priamus 7inhabiting ,amboyna and ,ceram exclusively7 is of a pale dusky brown tint1 while in all the allied species the same sex is nearly black1 with contracted white markings4 ,as a third example1 the female of ,papilio ,ulysses has the blue colour obscured by dull and dusky tints1 while in the closely allied species from the surrounding islands1 the females are of almost as brilliant an azure blue as the males4 ,a parallel case to this is the occurrence1 in the small islands of ,goram1 ,matabello1 ,k1 and ,aru1 of several distinct species of ,euploea and ,diadema1 having broad bands or patches of white1 which do not exist in any of the allied species from the larger islands4 ,these facts seem to indicate some local influence in modifying colour1 as unintelligible and almost as remarkable as that which has resulted in the modifications of form previously described4 ,after endeavouring to explain some of the facts in a way to be noticed directly1 ,mr4 ,wallace adds3#fd ,but even the conjectural explanation now given fails us in the other cases of local modification4 ,why the species of the ,western ,islands should be smaller than those further east2 why those of ,amboyna should exceed in size those of ,gilolo and ,new ,guinea2 why the #he tailed species of ,india should begin to lose that appendage in the islands1 and retain no trace of it on the borders of the ,pacific2 and why1 in three separate cases1 the females of ,amboyna species should be less gaily attired than the corresponding females of the surrounding islands1 are questions which we cannot at present attempt to answer4 ,that they depend1 however1 on some general principle is certain1 because analogous facts have been observed in other parts of the world4 ,mr4 ,bates informs me that1 in three distinct groups1 ,papilios1 which1 on the ,upper ,amazon1 and in most other parts of ,south ,america1 have spotless upper wings1 obtain pale or white spots at ,par and on the ,lower ,amazon1 and also that the neas group of ,papilios never have tails in the equatorial regions and the ,amazon valley1 but gradually acquire tails in many cases as they range towards the northern or southern tropic4 ,even in ,europe we have somewhat similar facts1 for the species and varieties of butterflies peculiar to the ,island of ,sardinia are generally smaller and more deeply coloured than those of the mainland1 and the same has been recently shown to be the case with the common tortoiseshell butterfly in the ,isle of ,man2 while ,papilio ,hospiton1 peculiar to the former island1 has lost the tail1 which is a prominent feature of the closely allied ,p4 ,machaon4 ,facts of a similar nature to those now brought forward would no doubt be found to occur in other groups of insects1 were local faunas carefully studied in relation to those of the surrounding countries2 and they seem to indicate that climate and other physical causes have1 in some cases1 a very powerful effect in modifying specific form and colour1 and thus directly aid in producing the endless variety of nature4 ,illustration3 ,,outlines ,,of ,,wings ,,of ,,butterflies ,,of ,,celebes ,,compared ,,with ,,those ,,of ,,allied ,,species ,,elsewhere4 ,outer outline1 ,papilio gigon1 of ,celebes4 ,inner outline1 ,p4 demolion1 of ,singapore and ,java4--#b4 ,outer outline1 ,p4 miletus1 of ,celebes4 ,inner outline1 ,p4 sarpedon1 ,india4--#c4 ,outer outline1 ,tachyris zarinda1 ,celebes4 ,inner outline1 ,t4 nero4 ,with regard to butterflies of ,celebes belonging to different families1 they present a peculiarity of outline which distinguishes them at a glance from those of any other part of the world3#fe it is that the upper wings #hf are generally more elongated and the anterior margin more curved4 ,moreover1 there is1 in most instances1 near the base an abrupt bend or elbow1 which in some species is very conspicuous4 ,mr4 ,wallace endeavours to explain #hg this phenomenon by the supposed presence at some time of special persecutors of the modified forms1 supporting the opinion by the remark that small1 obscure1 very rapidly flying and mimicked kinds have not had the wing modified4 ,such an enemy occasioning increased powers of flight1 or rapidity in turning1 he adds1 one would naturally suppose to be an insectivorous bird2 but it is a remarkable fact that most of the genera of fly-catchers of ,borneo and ,java on the one side1 and of the ,moluccas on the other1 are almost entirely absent from ,celebes4 ,their place seems to be supplied by the caterpillar-catchers1 of which six or seven species are known from ,celebes1 and are very numerous in individuals4 ,we have no positive evidence that these birds pursue butterflies on the wing1 but it is highly probable that they do so when other food is scarce4 ,mr4 ,bates suggested to me that the larger dragon-flies prey upon butterflies1 but ,i did not notice that they were more abundant in ,celebes than elsewhere4#ff ,now1 every opinion or conjecture of ,mr4 ,wallace is worthy of respectful and attentive consideration1 but the explanation suggested and before referred to hardly seems a satisfactory one4 ,what the past fauna of ,celebes may have been is as yet conjectural4 ,mr4 ,wallace tells us that now there is a remarkable scarcity of fly-catchers1 and that their place is supplied by birds of which it can only be said that it is highly probable that they chase butterflies when other food is scarce4 ,the quick eye of ,mr4 ,wallace failed to detect them in the act1 as also to note any unusual abundance of other insectivorous forms1 which therefore1 considering ,mr4 ,wallace's zeal and powers of observation1 we may conclude do not exist4 ,moreover1 even if there ever has been an abundance of such1 it is by no means certain that they would have succeeded in producing the conformation in question1 for the effect of this peculiar curvature on flight is by no means clear4 ,we have here1 then1 a structure hypothetically explained by an uncertain #hh property induced by a cause the presence of which is only conjectural4 ,surely it is not unreasonable to class this instance with the others before given1 in which a common modification of form or colour coexists with a certain geographical distribution quite independently of the destructive agencies of animals4 ,if physical causes connected with locality can abbreviate or annihilate the tails of certain butterflies1 why may not similar causes produce an elbow-like prominence on the wings of other butterflies8 ,there are many such instances of simultaneous modification4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself#fg quotes ,mr4 ,gould as believing that birds of the same species are more brightly coloured under a clear atmosphere1 than when living on islands or near the coast4 ,mr4 ,darwin also informs us that ,wollaston is convinced that residence near the sea affects the colour of insects2 and finally1 that ,moquin-,tandon gives a list of plants which1 when growing near the sea-shore1 have their leaves in some degree fleshy1 though not so elsewhere4 ,in his work on ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1#fh ,mr4 ,darwin refers to ,m4 ,costa as having 7in ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat4 tome viii4 p4 #cea7 stated that young shells taken from the shores of ,england and placed in the ,mediterranean at once altered their manner of growth1 and formed prominent diverging rays like those on the shells of the proper ,mediterranean oyster2 also to ,mr4 ,meehan1 as stating 7,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sc4 of ,philadelphia1 ,jan4 #bh1 #ahfb7 that twenty-nine kinds of ,american trees all differ from their nearest ,european allies in a similar manner1 leaves less toothed1 buds and seeds smaller1 fewer branchlets1 c4 ,these are striking examples indeed6 ,but cases of simultaneous and similar modifications abound on all sides4 ,even as regards our own species there is a very generally admitted opinion that a new type has been developed in the ,united ,states1 and this in about a couple of centuries only1 and in a vast multitude of individuals of #hi diverse ancestry4 ,the instances here given1 however1 must suffice1 though more could easily be added4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,shielded ,,grasshopper4 ,it may be well now to turn to groups presenting similar variations1 not through1 but independently of1 geographical distribution1 and1 as far as we know1 independently of conditions other than some peculiar nature and tendency 7as yet unexplained7 common to members of such groups1 which nature and tendency seem to induce them to vary in certain definite lines or directions which are different in different groups4 ,thus with regard to the group of insects1 of which the walking leaf is a member1 ,mr4 ,wallace observes3#fi ,the whole family#gj of the ,phasmid1 or spectres1 to which this insect belongs1 is more or less imitative1 and a great number of the species are called 'walking-stick insects1' from their singular #ij resemblance to twigs and branches4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,six-,,shafted ,,bird ,,of ,,paradise4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,wallace#ga tells us of no less than four kinds of orioles1 which birds mimic1 more or less1 four species of a genus of honey-suckers1 the weak orioles finding their profit in being mistaken by certain birds of prey for the strong1 active1 and gregarious honey-suckers4 ,now1 many other birds would be benefited by similar mimicry1 which is none the less confined1 in this part of the world1 to the oriole genus4 ,it is true that the absence of mimicry in other forms may be explained by their possessing some other 7as yet unobserved7 means of preservation4 ,but it is nevertheless remarkable1 not so much that one species should mimic1 as that no less than four should do so in different ways and degrees1 all these#ia four belonging to one and the same genus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,long-,,tailed ,,bird ,,of ,,paradise4 ,in other cases1 however1 there is not even the help of protective action to account for the phenomenon4 ,thus we have the wonderful birds of ,paradise1#gb which agree in developing plumage unequalled in beauty1 but a beauty which1 as to details1 is of different kinds1 and produced in different ways in different species4 ,to develop beauty and singularity of plumage is a character of the group1 but not of any one definite kind1 to be explained merely by inheritance4 #ib ,illustration ,again1 we have the very curious horned flies1#gc which agree indeed in a common peculiarity1 but in one singularly different in detail1 in different species and not known to have any protecting effect4 ,amongst plants1 also1 we meet with the same peculiarity4 ,the great group of ,orchids presents a number of species which offer strange and bizarre #ic approximations to different animal forms1 and which have often the appearance of cases of mimicry1 as it were in an incipient stage4 ,illustration3 ,,horned ,,flies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,magnificent ,,bird ,,of ,,paradise4 ,the number of similar instances which could be brought forward from amongst animals and plants is very great1 but the examples given are1 it is #id hoped1 amply sufficient to point towards the conclusion which other facts will1 it is thought1 establish1 viz4 that there are causes operating 7in the evocation of these harmonious diverging resemblances7 other than ,natural ,selection1 or heredity1 and other even than merely geographical1 climatal1 or any simply external conditions4 ,many cases have been adduced of striking likenesses between different animals1 not due to inheritance2 but this should be the less surprising1 in that the very same individual presents us with likenesses between different parts of its body 7e4g41 between the several joints of the backbone71 which are certainly not so explicable4 ,this1 however1 leads to a rather large subject1 which will be spoken of in the eighth chapter of the present work4 ,here it will be enough to affirm 7leaving the proof of the assertion till later7 that parts are often homologous which have no direct genetic relationship1--a fact which harmonizes well with the other facts here given1 but which ,natural ,selection1 pure and simple1 seems unable to explain4 ,but surely the independent appearance of similar organic forms is what we might expect1 a priori1 from the independent appearance of similar inorganic ones4 ,as ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes well observes1#gd ,we do not suppose the carbonates and phosphates found in various parts of the globe--we do not suppose that the families of alkaloids and salts have any nearer kinship than that which consists in the similarity of their elements1 and the conditions of their combination4 ,hence1 in organisms1 as in salts1 morphological identity may be due to a community of causal connexion1 rather than community of descent4 ,mr4 ,darwin justly holds it to be incredible that individuals identically the same should have been produced through ,natural ,selection from parents specifically distinct1 but he will not deny that identical forms may issue from parents genetically distinct1 when these parent forms and #ie the conditions of production are identical4 ,to deny this would be to deny the law of causation4 ,professor ,huxley has1 however1 suggested#ge that such mineral identity may be explained by applying also to minerals a law of descent2 that is1 by considering such similar forms as the descendants of atoms which inhabited one special part of the primitive nebular cosmos1 each considerable space of which may be supposed to have been under the influence of somewhat different conditions4 ,surely1 however1 there can be no real parity between the relationship of existing minerals to nebular atoms1 and the relationship of existing animals and plants to the earliest organisms4 ,in the first place1 the latter have produced others by generative multiplication1 which mineral atoms never did4 ,in the second1 existing animals and plants spring from the living tissues of preceding animals and plants1 while existing minerals spring from the chemical affinity of separate elements4 ,carbonate of soda is not formed1 by a process of reproduction1 from other carbonate of soda1 but directly by the suitable juxtaposition of carbon1 oxygen1 and sodium4 ,instead of approximating animals and minerals in the mode suggested1 it may be that they are to be approximated in quite a contrary fashion2 namely1 by attributing to mineral species an internal innate power4 ,for1 as we must attribute to each elementary atom an innate power and tendency to form 7under the requisite external conditions7 certain unions with other atoms1 so we may attribute to certain mineral species--as crystals--an innate power and tendency to exhibit 7the proper conditions being supplied7 a definite and symmetrical external form4 ,the distinction between animals and vegetables on the one hand1 and minerals on the other1 is that1 while in the organic world close similarity is the result sometimes of inheritance1 sometimes of direct production independently of parental action1 in the#if inorganic world the latter is the constant and only mode in which such similarity is produced4 ,when we come to consider the relations of species to space--in other words1 the geographical distribution of organisms--it will be necessary to return somewhat to the subject of the independent origin of closely similar forms1 in regard to which some additional remarks will be found towards the end of the seventh chapter4 ,in this third chapter an effort has been made to show that while on the ,darwinian theory concordant variations are extremely improbable1 yet ,nature presents us with abundant examples of such2 the most striking of which are1 perhaps1 the higher organs of sense4 ,also that an important influence is exercised by conditions connected with geographical distribution1 but that a deeper-seated influence is at work1 which is hinted at by those special tendencies in definite directions1 which are the properties of certain groups4 ,finally1 that these facts1 when taken together1 afford strong evidence that ,natural ,selection has not been the exclusive or predominant cause of the various organic structural peculiarities4 ,this conclusion has also been re-enforced by the consideration of phenomena presented to us by the inorganic world4 ,page #ig 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,minute ,,and ,,gradual ,,modifications4 ,there are difficulties as to minute modifications1 even if not fortuitous4--,examples of sudden and considerable modifications of different kinds4--,professor ,owen's view4--,mr4 ,wallace4--,professor ,huxley4--,objections to sudden changes4--,labyrinthodont4--,potto4--,ce tacea4--,as to origin of bird's wing4--,tendrils of climbing plants4--,animals once supposed to be connecting links4--,early specialization of structure4--,macrauchenia4--,glyptodon4- -,sabre-toothed tiger4--,conclusion4 ,not only are there good reasons against the acceptance of the exclusive operation of ,natural ,selection as the one means of specific origination1 but there are difficulties in the way of accounting for such origination by the sole action of modifications which are infinitesimal and minute1 whether fortuitous or not4 ,arguments may yet be advanced in favour of the view that new species have from time to time manifested themselves with suddenness1 and by modifications appearing at once 7as great in degree as are those which separate ,hipparion from ,equus71 the species remaining stable in the intervals of such modifications3 by stable being meant that their variations only extend for a certain degree in various directions1 like oscillations in a stable equilibrium4 ,this is the conception of ,mr4 ,galton1#gf who compares the development of species with a many #ih facetted spheroid tumbling over from one facet1 or stable equilibrium1 to another4 ,the existence of internal conditions in animals corresponding with such facets is denied by pure ,darwinians1 but it is contended in this work1 though not in this chapter1 that something may also be said for their existence4 ,the considerations brought forward in the last two chapters1 namely1 the difficulties with regard to incipient and closely similar structures respectively1 together with palontological considerations to be noticed later1 appear to point strongly in the direction of sudden and considerable changes4 ,this is notably the case as regards the young oysters already mentioned1 which were taken from the shores of ,england and placed in the ,mediterranean1 and at once altered their mode of growth and formed prominent diverging rays1 like those of the proper ,mediterranean oyster2 as also the twenty-nine kinds of ,american trees1 all differing from their nearest ,european allies similarly--leaves less toothed1 buds and seeds smaller1 fewer branchlets1 c4 ,to these may be added other facts given by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,thus he says1 that climate1 to a certain extent1 directly modifies the form of dogs4#gg ,the ,rev4 ,r4 ,everett found that setters at ,delhi1 though most carefully paired1 yet had young with nostrils more contracted1 noses more pointed1 size inferior1 and limbs more slender4 ,again1 cats at ,mombas1 on the coast of ,africa1 have short stiff hairs instead of fur1 and a cat at ,algoa ,bay1 when left only eight weeks at ,mombas1 underwent a complete metamorphosis1 having parted with its sandy-coloured fur4#gh ,the conditions of life seem to produce a considerable effect on horses1 and instances are given by ,mr4 ,darwin of pony breeds#gi having independently arisen in different parts of the world1 possessing a certain similarity in their physical #ii conditions4 ,also changes due to climate may be brought about at once in a second generation1 though no appreciable modification is shown by the first4 ,thus ,sir ,charles ,lyell mentions that some ,englishmen1 engaged in conducting the operations of the ,real del ,monte ,company in ,mexico1 carried out with them some greyhounds of the best breed to hunt the hares which abound in that country4 ,it was found that the greyhounds could not support the fatigues of a long chase in this attenuated atmosphere1 and before they could come up with their prey they lay down gasping for breath2 but these same animals have produced whelps1 which have grown up1 and are not in the least degree incommoded by the want of density in the air1 but run down the hares with as much ease as do the fleetest of their race in this country4#hj ,we have here no action of ,natural ,selection2 it was not that certain puppies happened accidentally to be capable of enduring more rarefied air1 and so survived1 but the offspring were directly modified by the action of surrounding conditions4 ,neither was the change elaborated by minute modifications in many successive generations1 but appeared at once in the second4 ,with regard once more to sudden alterations of form1 ,nathusius is said to state positively as to pigs1#ha that the result of common experience and of his experiments was that rich and abundant food1 given during youth1 tends by some direct action to make the head broader and shorter4 ,curious jaw appendages often characterize ,normandy pigs1 according to ,m4 ,eudes ,deslongchamps4 ,richardson figures these appendages on the old ,irish greyhound pig1 and they are said by ,nathusius to appear occasionally in all the long-eared races4 ,mr4 ,darwin observes1#hb ,as no wild pigs are known to have analogous appendages1 we have at present no reason to #ajj suppose that their appearance is due to reversion2 and if this be so1 we are forced to admit that somewhat complex1 though apparently useless structures may be suddenly developed without the aid of selection4 ,again1 ,climate directly affects the thickness of the skin and hair of cattle4#hc ,in the ,english climate an individual ,porto ,santo rabbit#hd recovered the proper colour of its fur in rather less than four years4 ,the effect of the climate of ,india on the turkey is considerable4 ,mr4 ,blyth#he describes it as being much degenerated in size1 utterly incapable of rising on the wing1 of a black colour1 and with long pendulous appendages over the beak enormously developed4 ,mr4 ,darwin again tells us that there has suddenly appeared in a bed of common broccoli a peculiar variety1 faithfully transmitting its newly acquired and remarkable characters2#hf also that there have been a rapid transformation and transplantation of ,american varieties of maize with a ,european variety2#hg that certainly the ,ancon and ,manchamp breeds of sheep1 and that 7all but certainly7 ,niata cattle1 turnspit and pug dogs1 jumper and frizzled fowls1 short-faced tumbler pigeons1 hook-billed ducks1 c41 and a multitude of vegetable varieties1 have suddenly appeared in nearly the same state as we now see them4#hh ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,darwin tells us1 that there has been an occasional development 7in five distinct cases7 in ,england of the japanned or black-shouldered peacock 7,pavo nigripennis71 a distinct species1 according to ,dr4 ,sclater1#hi yet arising in ,sir ,j4 ,trevelyan's flock composed entirely of the common kind1 and increasing1 to the extinction of the previously existing breed4#ij ,mr4 ,darwin's only explanation of the phenomena 7on the supposition of the species being distinct7 is by#aja reversion1 owing to a supposed ancestral cross4 ,but he candidly admits1 ,i have heard of no other such case in the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,on the supposition of its being only a variety1 he observes1 ,the case is the most remarkable ever recorded of the abrupt appearance of a new form1 which so closely resembles a true species1 that it has deceived one of the most experienced of living ornithologists4 ,as to plants1 ,m4 ,c4 ,naudin#ia has given the following instances of the sudden origination of apparently permanent forms4 ,the first case mentioned is that of a poppy1 which took on a remarkable variation in its fruit--a crown of secondary capsules being added to the normal central capsule4 ,a field of such poppies was grown1 and ,m4 ,gppert1 with seed from this field1 obtained still this monstrous form in great quantity4 ,deformities of ferns are sometimes sought after by fern-growers4 ,they are now always obtained by taking spores from the abnormal parts of the monstrous fern2 from which spores ferns presenting the same peculiarities invariably grow4444 ,the most remarkable case is that observed by ,dr4 ,godron1 of ,nancy4 ,in #ahfa that botanist observed1 amongst a sowing of ,datura tatula1 the fruits of which are very spinous1 a single individual of which the capsule was perfectly smooth4 ,the seeds taken from this plant all furnished plants having the character of this individual4 ,the fifth and sixth generations are now growing without exhibiting the least tendency to revert to the spinous form4 ,more remarkable still1 when crossed with the normal ,datura tatula1 hybrids were produced1 which1 in the second generation1 reverted to the original types1 as true hybrids do4 ,there are1 then1 abundant instances to prove that considerable #ajb modifications may suddenly develop themselves1 either due to external conditions or to obscure internal causes in the organisms which exhibit them4 ,moreover1 these modifications1 from whatever cause arising1 are capable of reproduction--the modified individuals breeding true4 ,the question is whether new species have been developed by non-fortuitous variations which are insignificant and minute1 or whether such variations have been comparatively sudden1 and of appreciable size and importance8 ,either hypothesis will suit the views here maintained equally well 7those views being opposed only to fortuitous1 indefinite variations71 but the latter is the more remote from the ,darwinian conception1 and yet has much to be said in its favour4 ,professor ,owen considers1 with regard to specific origination1 that natural history teaches that the change would be sudden and considerable3 it opposes the idea that species are transmitted by minute and slow degrees4#ib ,an innate tendency to deviate from parental type1 operating through periods of adequate duration1 being the most probable nature1 or way of operation of the secondary law1 whereby species have been derived one from the other4#ic ,now1 considering the number of instances adduced of sudden modifications in domestic animals1 it is somewhat startling to meet with ,mr4 ,darwin's dogmatic assertion that it is a false belief that natural species have often originated in the same abrupt manner4 ,the belief may be false1 but it is difficult to see how its falsehood can be positively asserted4 ,it is demonstrated by ,mr4 ,darwin's careful weighings and measurements1 that1 though little used parts in domestic animals get reduced in weight and somewhat in size1 yet that they show no inclination to become truly rudimentary structures4 ,accordingly he asserts#id that such #ajc rudimentary parts are formed suddenly1 by arrest of development in domesticated animals1 but in wild animals slowly4 ,the latter assertion1 however1 is a mere assertion2 necessary1 perhaps1 for the theory of ,natural ,selection1 but as yet unproved by facts4 ,but why should not these changes take place suddenly in a state of nature8 ,as ,mr4 ,murphy says1#ie ,it may be true that we have no evidence of the origin of wild species in this way4 ,but this is not a case in which negative evidence proves anything4 ,we have never witnessed the origin of a wild species by any process whatever2 and if a species were to come suddenly into being in the wild state1 as the ,ancon ,sheep did under domestication1 how could you ascertain the fact8 ,if the first of a newly-begotten species were found1 the fact of its discovery would tell nothing about its origin4 ,naturalists would register it as a very rare species1 having been only once met with1 but they would have no means of knowing whether it were the first or the last of its race4 ,to this ,mr4 ,wallace has replied 7in his review of ,mr4 ,murphy's work in ,nature#if71 by objecting that sudden changes could very rarely be useful1 because each kind of animal is a nicely balanced and adjusted whole1 any one sudden modification of which would in most cases be hurtful unless accompanied by other simultaneous and harmonious modifications4 ,if1 however1 it is not unlikely that there is an innate tendency to deviate at certain times1 and under certain conditions1 it is no more unlikely that that innate tendency should be an harmonious one1 calculated to simultaneously adjust the various parts of the organism to their new relations4 ,the objection as to the sudden abortion of rudimentary organs may be similarly met4 ,professor ,huxley seems now disposed to accept the1 at least #ajd occasional1 intervention of sudden and considerable variations4 ,in his review of ,professor ,klliker's#ig criticisms1 he himself says1#ih ,we greatly suspect that she 7i4e4 ,nature7 does make considerable jumps in the way of variation now and then1 and that these saltations give rise to some of the gaps which appear to exist in the series of known forms4 ,illustration3 ,,much ,,enlarged ,,horizontal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,tooth ,,of ,a ,,labyrinthodon4 ,in addition to the instances brought forward in the second chapter against the minute action of ,natural ,selection1 may be mentioned such #aje structures as the wonderfully folded teeth of the labyrinthodonts4 ,the marvellously complex structure of these organs is not merely unaccountable as due to ,natural ,selection1 but its production by insignificant increments of complexity is hardly less difficult to comprehend4 ,similarly the aborted index of the ,potto 7,perodicticus7 is a structure not likely to have been induced by minute changes2 while1 as to ,natural ,selection1 the reduction of the fore-finger to a mere rudiment is inexplicable indeed6 ,how this mutilation can have aided in the struggle for life1 we must confess1 baffles our conjectures on the subject2 for that any very appreciable gain to the individual can have resulted from the slightly lessened degree of required nourishment thence resulting 7i4e4 from the suppression71 seems to us to be an almost absurd proposition4#ii ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,of ,,the ,,potto 7,,perodicticus71 ,,from ,,life4 ,again1 to anticipate somewhat1 the great group of whales 7,cetacea7 was fully developed at the deposition of the ,eocene strata4 ,on the other hand1 we may pretty safely conclude that these animals were absent as late as the latest secondary rocks1 so that their development could not have been so very slow1 unless geological time is 7although we shall presently see there are grounds to believe it is not7 practically infinite4 ,it is quite true that it is1 in general1 very unsafe to infer the absence of any animal forms during a certain geological period1 because no remains of them #ajf have as yet been found in the strata then deposited3 but in the case of the ,cetacea it is safe to do so2 for1 as ,sir ,charles ,lyell remarks1#ajj they are animals1 the remains of which are singularly likely to have been preserved had they existed1 in the same way that the remains were preserved of the ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri1 which appear to have represented the ,cetacea during the secondary geological period4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,plesiosaurus4 ,as another example1 let us take the origin of wings1 such as exist in birds4 ,here we find an arm1 the bones of the hand of which are atrophied and reduced in number1 as compared with those of most other ,vertebrates4 ,now1 if the wing arose from a terrestrial or subarial organ1 this abortion of the bones could hardly have been serviceable--hardly have preserved individuals in the struggle for life4 ,if it arose from an aquatic organ1 like the wing of the penguin1 we have then a singular divergence from the ordinary vertebrate fin-limb4 ,in the ichthyosaurus1 in the plesiosaurus1 in the whales1 in the porpoises1 in the seals1 and in others1 we have shortening of the bones1 but no reduction in the number either of the fingers or of their joints1 which are1 on the contrary1 multiplied in ,cetacea and the ichthyosaurus4 ,and even in the turtles we have eight carpal bones and five digits1 while no finger has less than two phalanges4 ,it#ajg is difficult1 then1 to believe that the ,avian limb was developed in any other way than by a comparatively sudden modification of a marked and important kind4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,how1 once more1 can we conceive the peculiar actions of the tendrils of some climbing plants to have been produced by minute modifications8 ,these1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1#aja oscillate till they touch an object1 and then embrace it4 ,it is stated by that observer1 that a thread weighing no more than the thirty-second of a grain1 if placed on the tendril of the ,passiflora gracilis1 will cause it to bend2 and merely to touch the tendril with a twig causes it to bend2 but if the twig is at once removed1 the tendril soon straightens itself4 ,but the contact of other tendrils of the plant1 or of the falling of drops of rain1 do not produce these effects4#ajb ,but some of the zoological and anatomical discoveries of late years tend rather to diminish than to augment the evidence in favour of minute and gradual modification4 ,thus all naturalists now admit that certain animals1 which were at one time supposed to be connecting links between groups1 belong altogether to one group1 and not at all to the other4 ,for example1 the aye-aye#ajc 7,chiromys ,madagascariensis74 #ajh was till lately considered to be allied to the squirrels1 and was often classed with them in the rodent order1 principally on account of its dentition2 at the same time that its affinities to the lemurs and apes were admitted4 ,the thorough investigation into its anatomy that has now been made1 demonstrates that it has no more essential affinity to rodents than any other lemurine creature has4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aye-,,aye4 ,bats were1 by the earliest observers1 naturally supposed to have a close relationship to birds1 and cetaceans to fishes4 ,it is almost superfluous to observe that all now agree that these mammals make not even an approach to either one or other of the two inferior classes4 #aji ,in the same way it has been recently supposed that those extinct flying saurians1 the pterodactyles1 had an affinity with birds more marked than any other known animals4 ,now1 however1 as has been said earlier1 it is contended that not only had they no such close affinity1 but that other extinct reptiles had a far closer one4 ,the amphibia 7i4e4 frogs1 toads1 and efts7 were long considered 7and are so still by some7 to be reptiles1 showing an affinity to fishes4 ,it now appears that they form with the latter one great group--the ichthyopsida of ,professor ,huxley--which differs widely from reptiles2 while its two component classes 7fishes and amphibians7 are difficult to separate from each other in a thoroughly satisfactory manner4 ,if we admit the hypothesis of gradual and minute modification1 the succession of organisms on this planet must have been a progress from the more general to the more special1 and no doubt this has been the case in the majority of instances4 ,yet it cannot be denied that some of the most recently formed fossils show a structure singularly more generalized than any exhibited by older forms2 while others are more specialized than are any allied creatures of the existing creation4 ,a notable example of the former circumstance is offered by macrauchenia--a hoofed animal1 which was at first supposed to be a kind of great llama 7whence its name7--the llama being a ruminant1 which1 like all the rest1 has two toes to each foot4 ,now hoofed animals are divisible into two very distinct series1 according as the number of functional toes on each hind foot is odd or even4 ,and many other characters are found to go with this obvious one4 ,even the very earliest ,ungulata show this distinction1 which is completely developed and marked even in the ,eocene palotherium and anoplotherium found in ,paris by ,cuvier4 ,the former of these has the toes odd 7perissodactyle71 the other has them even 7artiodactyle74 ,now1 the macrauchenia1 from the first relics of it which were found1 #aaj was thought to belong1 as has been said1 to the even-toed division4 ,subsequent discoveries1 however1 seemed to give it an equal claim to rank amongst the perissodactyle forms4 ,others again inclined the balance of probability towards the artiodactyle4 ,finally1 it appears that this very recently extinct beast presents a highly generalized type of structure1 uniting in one organic form both artiodactyle and perissodactyle characters1 and that in a manner not similarly found in any other known creature living1 or fossil4 ,at the same time the differentiation of artiodactyle and perissodactyle forms existed as long ago as in the period of the ,eocene ungulata1 and that in a marked degree1 as has been before observed4 ,again1 no armadillo now living presents nearly so remarkable a speciality of structure as was possessed by the extinct glyptodon4 ,in that singular animal the spinal column had most of its joints fused together1 forming a rigid cylindrical rod1 a modification1 as far as yet known1 absolutely peculiar to it4 ,illustration3 ,,dentition ,,of ,,the ,,sabre-,,toothed ,,tiger 7,,machairodus74 ,in a similar way the extinct machairodus1 or sabre-toothed tiger1 is characterized by a more highly differentiated and specially carnivorous dentition than is shown by any predacious beast of the present day4 #aaa ,the specialization is of this kind4 ,the grinding teeth 7or molars7 of beasts are divided into premolars and true molars4 ,the premolars are molars which have deciduous vertical predecessors 7or milk teeth71 and any which are in front of such1 i4e4 between such and the canine tooth4 ,the true molars are those placed behind the molars having deciduous vertical predecessors4 ,now1 as a dentition becomes more distinctly carnivorous1 so the hindmost molars and the foremost premolars disappear4 ,in the existing cats this process is carried so far that in the upper jaw only one true molar is left on each side4 ,in the machairodus there is no upper true molar at all1 while the premolars are reduced to two1 there being only these two teeth above1 on each side1 behind the canine4 ,now1 with regard to these instances of early specialization1 as also with regard to the changed estimate of the degrees of affinity between forms1 it is not pretended for a moment that such facts are irreconcilable with ,natural ,selection4 ,nevertheless1 they point in an opposite direction4 ,of course not only is it conceivable that certain antique types arrived at a high degree of specialization and then disappeared2 but it is manifest they did do so4 ,still the fact of this early degree of excessive specialization tells to a certain1 however small1 extent against a progress through excessively minute steps1 whether fortuitous or not2 as also does the distinctness of forms formerly supposed to constitute connecting links4 ,for1 it must not be forgotten1 that if species have manifested themselves generally by gradual and minute modifications1 then the absence1 not in one but in all cases1 of such connecting links1 is a phenomenon which remains to be accounted for4 ,it appears then that1 apart from fortuitous changes1 there are certain difficulties in the way of accepting extremely minute modifications of any kind1 although these difficulties may not be insuperable4 ,something1 at all events1 is to be said in favour of the opinion that sudden and #aab appreciable changes have from time to time occurred1 however they may have been induced4 ,marked races have undoubtedly so arisen 7some striking instances having been here recorded71 and it is at least conceivable that such may be the mode of specific manifestation generally1 the possible conditions as to which will be considered in a later chapter4 ,page #aac 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,as ,,to ,,specific ,,stability4 ,what is meant by the phrase specific stability2 such stability to be expected a priori1 or else considerable changes at once4--,rapidly increasing difficulty of intensifying race characters2 alleged causes of this phenomenon2 probably an internal cause co-operates4--,a certain definiteness in variations4--,mr4 ,darwin admits the principle of specific stability in certain cases of unequal variability4--,the goose4--,the peacock4--,the guinea fowl4--,exceptional causes of variation under domestication4--,alleged tendency to reversion4--,instances4--,sterility of hybrids4--,prepotency of pollen of same species1 but of different race4--,mortality in young gallinaceous hybrids4--,a bar to intermixture exists somewhere4--,guinea-pigs4--,summary and conclusion4 ,as was observed in the preceding chapters1 arguments may yet be advanced in favour of the opinion that species are stable 7at least in the intervals of their comparatively sudden successive manifestations72 that the organic world consists1 according to ,mr4 ,galton's before-mentioned conception1 of many facetted spheroids1 each of which can repose upon any one facet1 but1 when too much disturbed1 rolls over till it finds repose in stable equilibrium upon another and distinct facet4 ,something1 it is here contended1 may be urged1 in favour of the existence of such facets--of such intermitting conditions of stable equilibrium4 ,a view as to the stability of species1 in the intervals of change1 has been well expressed in an able article1 before quoted from1 as follows3#ajd--;,a given animal or plant appears to be contained1 as it were1 within a #aad sphere of variation3 one individual lies near one portion of the surface2 another individual1 of the same species1 near another part of the surface2 the average animal at the centre4 ,any individual may produce descendants varying in any direction1 but is more likely to produce descendants varying towards the centre of the sphere1 and the variations in that direction will be greater in amount than the variations towards the surface4 ,this might be taken as the representation of the normal condition of species 7i4e4 during the periods of repose of the several facets of the spheroids71 on that view which1 as before said1 may yet be defended4 ,judging the organic world from the inorganic1 we might expect1 a priori1 that each species of the former1 like crystallized species1 would have an approximate limit of form1 and even of size1 and at the same time that the organic1 like the inorganic forms1 would present modifications in correspondence with surrounding conditions2 but that these modifications would be1 not minute and insignificant1 but definite and appreciable1 equivalent to the shifting of the spheroid on to another facet for support4 ,mr4 ,murphy says1#aje ,crystalline formation is also dependent in a very remarkable way on the medium in which it takes place4 ,beudant has found that common salt crystallizing from pure water forms cubes1 but if the water contains a little boracic acid1 the angles of the cubes are truncated4 ,and the ,rev4 ,e4 ,craig has found that carbonate of copper1 crystallizing from a solution containing sulphuric acid1 forms hexagonal tubular prisms2 but if a little ammonia is added1 the form changes to that of a long rectangular prism1 with secondary planes in the angles4 ,if a little more ammonia is added1 several varieties of rhombic octahedra appear2 if a little nitric acid is added1 the rectangular prism appears again4 ,the changes take place not by the addition of new crystals1 but by changing the growth of the original ones4 ,these1 however1 may be said#aae to be the same species1 after all2 but recent researches by ,dr4 ,h4 ,charlton-,bastian seem to show that modifications in the conditions may result in the evolution of forms so diverse as to constitute different organic species4 ,mr4 ,murphy observes#ajf that it is scarcely possible to doubt that the various forms of fungi which are characteristic of particular situations are not really distinct species1 but that the same germ will develop into different forms1 according to the soil on which it falls2 but it is possible to interpret the facts differently1 and it may be that these are the manifestations of really different and distinct species1 developed according to the different and distinct circumstances in which each is placed4 ,mr4 ,murphy quotes ,dr4 ,carpenter#ajg to the effect that ,no ,puccinia but the ,puccinia ros is found upon rose bushes1 and this is seen nowhere else2 ,omygena exigua is said to be never seen but on the hoof of a dead horse2 and ,isaria felina has only been observed upon the dung of cats1 deposited in humid and obscure situations4 ,he adds1 ,we can scarcely believe that the air is full of the germs of distinct species of fungi1 of which one never vegetates until it falls on the hoof of a dead horse1 and another till it falls on cat's dung in a damp and dark place4 ,this is true1 but it does not quite follow that they are necessarily the same species if1 as ,dr4 ,bastian seems to show1 thoroughly different and distinct organic forms#ajh can be evolved one from another by modifying the conditions4 ,this observer has brought forward arguments and facts from which it would appear that such definite1 sudden1 and considerable transformations may take place in the lowest organisms4 ,if such is really the case1 we might expect1 a priori1 to find in the highest organisms a tendency 7much more impeded and rare in its manifestations7 to #aaf similarly appreciable and sudden changes1 under certain stimuli2 but a tendency to continued stability1 under normal and ordinary conditions4 ,the proposition that species have1 under ordinary circumstances1 a definite limit to their variability1 is largely supported by facts brought forward by the zealous industry of ,mr4 ,darwin himself4 ,it is unquestionable that the degrees of variation which have been arrived at in domestic animals have been obtained more or less readily in a moderate amount of time1 but that further development in certain desired directions is in some a matter of extreme difficulty1 and in others appears to be all but1 if not quite1 an impossibility4 ,it is also unquestionable that the degree of divergence which has been attained in one domestic species is no criterion of the amount of divergence which has been attained in another4 ,it is contended on the other side that we have no evidence of any limits to variation other than those imposed by physical conditions1 such1 e4g41 as those which determine the greatest degree of speed possible to any animal 7of a given size7 moving over the earth's surface2 also it is said that the differences in degree of change shown by different domestic animals depend in great measure upon the abundance or scarcity of individuals subjected to man's selection1 together with the varying direction and amount of his attention in different cases2 finally1 it is said that the changes found in nature are within the limits to which the variation of domestic animals extends1--it being the case that when changes of a certain amount have occurred to a species under nature1 it becomes another species1 or sometimes two or more other species by divergent variations1 each of these species being able again to vary and diverge in any useful direction4 ,but the fact of the rapidly increasing difficulty found in producing by ever such careful selection1 any further extreme in some charge already carried very far 7such as the tail of the fan-tailed pigeon or the crop of the pouter71 is certainly1 so far as it goes1 on the side of the #aag existence of definite limits to variability4 ,it is asserted in reply1 that physiological conditions of health and life may bar any such further development4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,wallace says#aji of these developments3 ,variation seems to have reached its limits in these birds4 ,but so it has in nature4 ,the fantail has not only more tail-feathers than any of the three hundred and forty existing species of pigeons1 but more than any of the eight thousand known species of birds4 ,there is1 of course1 some limit to the number of feathers of which a tail useful for flight can consist1 and in the fantail we have probably reached that limit4 ,many birds have the oesophagus or the skin of the neck more or less dilatable1 but in no known bird is it so dilatable as in the pouter pigeon4 ,here again the possible limit1 compatible with a healthy existence1 has probably been reached4 ,in like manner1 the differences in the size and form of the beak in the various breeds of the domestic pigeon1 is greater than that between the extreme forms of beak in the various genera and sub-families of the whole pigeon tribe4 ,from these facts1 and many others of the same nature1 we may fairly infer1 that if rigid selection were applied to any organ1 we could in a comparatively short time produce a much greater amount of change than that which occurs between species and species in a state of nature1 since the differences which we do produce are often comparable with those which exist between distinct genera or distinct families4 ,but in a domestic bird like the fantail where ,natural ,selection does not come into play1 the tail-feathers could hardly be limited by utility for flight1 yet two more tail-feathers could certainly exist in a fancy breed if utility for flight were the only obstacle4 ,it seems probable that the real barrier is an internal one in the nature of the organism1 and the existence of such is just what is contended for in this chapter4 ,as to#aah the differences between domestic races being greater than those between species or even genera1 that is not enough for the argument4 ,for upon the theory of ,natural ,selection all birds have a common origin1 from which they diverged by infinitesimal changes1 so that we ought to meet with sufficient changes to warrant the belief that a hornbill could be produced from a humming-bird1 proportionate time being allowed4 ,but not only does it appear that there are barriers which oppose change in certain directions1 but that there are positive tendencies to development along certain special lines4 ,in a bird which has been kept and studied like the pigeon1 it is difficult to believe that any remarkable spontaneous variations would pass unnoticed by breeders1 or that they would fail to be attended to and developed by some one fancier or other4 ,on the hypothesis of indefinite variability1 it is then hard to say why pigeons with bills like toucans1 or with certain feathers lengthened like those of trogans1 or those of birds of paradise1 have never been produced4 ,this1 however1 is a question which may be settled by experiment4 ,let a pigeon be bred with a bill like a toucan's1 and with the two middle tail-feathers lengthened like those of the king bird of paradise1 or even let individuals be produced which exhibit any marked tendency of the kind1 and indefinite variability shall be at once conceded4 ,as yet all the changes which have taken place in pigeons are of a few definite kinds only1 such as may be well conceived to be compatible with a species possessed of a certain inherent capacity for considerable yet definite variation1 a capacity for the ready production of certain degrees of abnormality1 which then cannot be further increased4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself has already acquiesced in the proposition here maintained1 inasmuch as he distinctly affirms the existence of a marked internal barrier to change in certain cases4 ,and if this is admitted in one case1 the principle is conceded1 and it immediately becomes probable that such internal barriers exist in all1 although enclosing a much larger #aai field for variation in some cases than in others4 ,mr4 ,darwin abundantly demonstrates the variability of dogs1 horses1 fowls1 and pigeons1 but he none the less shows clearly the very small extent to which the goose1 the peacock1 and the guinea-fowl have varied4#aaj ,mr4 ,darwin attempts to explain this fact as regards the goose by the animal being valued only for food and feathers1 and from no pleasure having been felt in it on other accounts4 ,he adds1 however1 at the end the striking remark1#aaa which concedes the whole position1 but the goose seems to have a singularly inflexible organization4 ,this is not the only place in which such expressions are used4 ,he elsewhere makes use of phrases which quite harmonize with the conception of a normal specific constancy1 but varying greatly and suddenly at intervals4 ,thus he speaks#aab of a whole organization seeming to have become plastic1 and tending to depart from the parental type4 ,that different organisms should have different degrees of variability1 is only what might have been expected a priori from the existence of parallel differences in inorganic species1 some of these having but a single form1 and others being polymorphic4 ,to return to the goose1 however1 it may be remarked that it is at least as probable that its fixity of character is the cause of the neglect1 as the reverse4 ,it is by no means unfair to assume that had the goose shown a tendency to vary similar in degree to the tendency to variation of the fowl or pigeon1 it would have received attention at once on that account4 ,as to the peacock it is excused on the pleas 7#a71 that the individuals maintained are so few in number1 and 7#b7 that its beauty is so great it can hardly be improved4 ,but the individuals maintained have not been too few for the independent origin of the black-shouldered form1 or for the supplanting of the commoner one by it4 ,as to any neglect in selection1#abj it can hardly be imagined that with regard to this bird 7kept as it is all but exclusively for its beauty71 any spontaneous beautiful variation in colour or form would have been neglected4 ,on the contrary1 it would have been seized upon with avidity and preserved with anxious care4 ,yet apart from the black-shouldered and white varieties1 no tendency to change has been known to show itself4 ,as to its being too beautiful for improvement1 that is a proposition which can hardly be maintained4 ,many consider the ,javan bird as much handsomer than the common peacock1 and it would be easy to suggest a score of improvements as regards either species4 ,the guinea-fowl is excused1 as being no general favourite1 and scarcely more common than the peacock2 but ,mr4 ,darwin himself shows and admits that it is a noteworthy instance of constancy under very varied conditions4 ,these instances alone 7and there are yet others7 seem sufficient to establish the assertion1 that degree of change is different in different domestic animals4 ,it is1 then1 somewhat unwarrantable in any ,darwinian to assume that all wild animals have a capacity for change similar to that existing in some of the domestic ones4 ,it seems more reasonable to assert the opposite1 namely1 that if1 as ,mr4 ,darwin says1 the capacity for change is different in different domestic animals1 it must surely be limited in those which have it least1 and a fortiori limited in wild animals4 ,indeed1 it cannot be reasonably maintained that wild species certainly vary as much as do domestic races2 it is possible that they may do so1 but at least this has not been yet shown4 ,indeed1 the much greater degree of variation amongst domestic animals than amongst wild ones is asserted over and over again by ,mr4 ,darwin1 and his assertions are supported by an overwhelming mass of facts and instances4 ,of course1 it may be asserted that a tendency to indefinite change exists in all cases1 and that it is only the circumstances and conditions of #aba life which modify the effects of this tendency to change so as to produce such different results in different cases4 ,but assertion is not proof1 and this assertion has not been proved4 ,indeed1 it may be equally asserted 7and the statement is more consonant with some of the facts given71 that domestication in certain animals induces and occasions a capacity for change which is wanting in wild animals--the introduction of new causes occasioning new effects4 ,for1 though a certain degree of variability 7normally1 in all probability1 only oscillation7 exists in all organisms1 yet domestic ones are exposed to new and different causes of variability1 resulting in such striking divergencies as have been observed4 ,not even in this latter case1 however1 is it necessary to believe that the variability is indefinite1 but only that the small oscillations become in certain instances intensified into large and conspicuous ones4 ,moreover1 it is possible that some of our domestic animals have been in part chosen and domesticated through possessing variability in an eminent degree4 ,that each species exhibits certain oscillations of structure is admitted on all hands4 ,mr4 ,darwin asserts that this is the exhibition of a tendency to vary which is absolutely indefinite4 ,if this indefinite variability does exist1 of course no more need be said4 ,but we have seen that there are arguments a priori and a posteriori against it1 while the occurrence of variations in certain domestic animals greater in degree than the differences between many wild species1 is no argument in favour of its existence1 until it can be shown that the causes of variability in the one case are the same as in the other4 ,an argument against it1 however1 may be drawn from the fact1 that certain animals1 though placed under the influence of those exceptional causes of variation to which domestic animals are subject1 have yet never been known to vary1 even in a degree equal to that in which certain wild kinds have been ascertained to vary4 ,in addition to this immutability of character in some animals1 it is #abb undeniable1 that domestic varieties have little stability1 and much tendency to reversion1 whatever be the true explanation of such phenomena4 ,in controverting the generally received opinion as to reversion1 ,mr4 ,darwin has shown that it is not all breeds which in a few years revert to the original form2 but he has shown no more4 ,thus1 the feral rabbits of ,porto ,santo1 ,jamaica1 and the ,falkland ,islands1 have not yet so reverted in those several localities4#aac ,nevertheless1 a ,porto ,santo rabbit brought to ,england reverted in a manner the most striking1 recovering the proper colour of its fur in rather less than four years4#aad ,again1 the white silk fowl1 in our climate1 reverts to the ordinary colour of the common fowl in its skin and bones1 due care having been taken to prevent any cross4#aae ,this reversion taking place in spite of careful selection1 is very remarkable4 ,numerous other instances of reversion are given by ,mr4 ,darwin1 both as regards plants and animals2 amongst others1 the singular fact of bud reversion4#aaf ,the curiously recurring development of black sheep1 in spite of the most careful breeding1 may also be mentioned1 though1 perhaps1 reversion has no part in the phenomenon4 ,these facts seem certainly to tell in favour of limited variability1 while the cases of non-reversion do not contradict it1 as it is not contended that all species have the same tendency to revert1 but rather that their capacities in this respect1 as well as for change1 are different in different kinds1 so that often reversion may only show itself at the end of very long periods indeed4 ,yet some of the instances given as probable or possible causes of reversion by ,mr4 ,darwin1 can hardly be such4 ,he cites1 for example1 the occasional presence of supernumerary digits in man4#aag ,for this notion1 however1 he is not responsible1 as he rests his remark on the authority of a #abc passage published by ,professor ,owen4 ,again1 he refers#aah to the greater frequency of a monster proboscis in the pig than in any other animal4 ,but with the exception of the peculiar muzzle of the ,saiga 7or ,european antelope71 the only known proboscidian ,ungulates are the elephants and tapirs1 and to neither of these has the pig any close affinity4 ,it is rather in the horse than in the pig that we might look for the appearance of a reversionary proboscis1 as both the elephants and the tapirs have the toes of the hind foot of an odd number4 ,it is true that the elephants are generally considered to form a group apart from both the odd and the even-toed ,ungulata4 ,but of the two1 their affinities with the odd-toed division are more marked4#aai ,another argument in favour of the1 at least intermitting1 constancy of specific forms and of sudden modification1 may be drawn from the absence of minute transitional forms1 but this will be considered in the next chapter4 ,it remains now to notice in favour of specific stability1 that the objection drawn from physiological difference between species and races still exists unrefuted4 ,mr4 ,darwin freely admits difficulties regarding the sterility of different species when crossed1 and shows satisfactorily that it could never have arisen from the action of ,natural ,selection4 ,he remarks#abj also3 ,with some few exceptions1 in the case of plants1 domesticated varieties1 such as those of the dog1 fowl1 pigeon1 several fruit trees1 and culinary vegetables1 which differ from each other in external characters more than many species1 are perfectly fertile when crossed1 or even fertile in #abd excess1 whilst closely allied species are almost invariably in some degree sterile4 ,again1 after speaking of the general law of good being1 derived from the intercrossing of distinct individuals of the same species1 and the evidence that the pollen of a distinct variety or race is prepotent over a flower's own pollen1 adds the very significant remark1#aba ,when distinct species are crossed1 the case is directly the reverse1 for a plant's own pollen is almost always prepotent over foreign pollen4 ,again he adds3#abb ,i believe from observations communicated to me by ,mr4 ,hewitt1 who has had great experience in hybridizing pheasants and fowls1 that the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses4 ,mr4 ,salter has recently given the results of an examination of about #ejj eggs produced from various crosses between three species of ,gallus and their hybrids4 ,the majority of these eggs had been fertilized1 and in the majority of the fertilized eggs the embryos either had been partially developed and had then aborted1 or had become nearly mature1 but the young chickens had been unable to break through the shell4 ,of the chickens which were born1 more than four-fifths died within the first few days1 or at latest weeks1 'without any obvious cause1 apparently from mere inability to live1' so that from #ejj eggs only twelve chickens were reared4 ,the early death of hybrid embryos probably occurs in like manner with plants1 at least it is known that hybrids raised from very distinct species are sometimes weak and dwarfed1 and perish at an early age1 of which fact ,max ,wichura has recently given some striking cases with hybrid willows4 ,mr4 ,darwin objects to the notion that there is any special sterility imposed to check specific intermixture and change1 saying1#abc ,to grant to species the special power of producing hybrids1 and then to stop #abe their further propagation by different degrees of sterility1 not strictly related to the facility of the first union between their parents1 seems a strange arrangement4 ,but this only amounts to saying that the author himself would not have so acted had he been the ,creator4 ,a strange arrangement must be admitted anyhow1 and all who acknowledge teleology at all1 must admit that the strange arrangement was designed4 ,mr4 ,darwin says1 as to the sterility of species1 that the cause lies exclusively in their sexual constitution2 but all that need be affirmed is that sterility is brought about somehow1 and it is undeniable that crossing is checked4 ,all that is contended for is that there is a bar to the intermixture of species1 but not of breeds2 and if the conditions of the generative products are that bar1 it is enough for the argument1 no special kind of barring action being contended for4 ,he1 however1 attempts to account for the modification of the sexual products of species as compared with those of varieties1 by the exposure of the former to more uniform conditions during longer periods of time than those to which varieties are exposed1 and that as wild animals1 when captured1 are often rendered sterile by captivity1 so the influence of union with another species may produce a similar effect4 ,it seems to the author an unwarrantable assumption that a cross with what1 on the ,darwinian theory1 can only be a slightly diverging descendant of a common parent1 should produce an effect equal to that of captivity1 and consequent change of habit1 as well as considerable modification of food4 ,no clear case has been given by ,mr4 ,darwin in which mongrel animals1 descended from the same undoubted species1 have been persistently infertile inter se2 nor any clear case in which hybrids between animals1 generally admitted to be distinct species1 have been continuously fertile inter se4 ,it is true that facts are brought forward tending to establish the probability of the doctrine of ,pallas1 that species may sometimes be #abf rendered fertile by domestication4 ,but even if this were true1 it would be no approximation towards proving the converse1 i4e4 that races and varieties may become sterile when wild4 ,and whatever may be the preference occasionally shown by certain breeds to mate with their own variety1 no sterility is recorded as resulting from unions with other varieties4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks1#abd ,with respect to sterility from the crossing of domestic races1 ,i know of no well-ascertained case with animals4 ,this fact 7seeing the great difference in structure between some breeds of pigeons1 fowls1 pigs1 dogs1 c47 is extraordinary when contrasted with the sterility1 of many closely-allied natural species when crossed4 ,it has been alleged that the domestic and wild guinea-pig do not breed together1 but the specific identity of these forms is very problematical4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,bartlett1 superintendent of the ,zoological ,gardens1 whose experience is so great1 and observation so quick1 believes them to be decidedly distinct species4 ,thus1 then1 it seems that a certain normal specific stability in species1 accompanied by occasional sudden and considerable modifications1 might be expected a priori from what we know of crystalline inorganic forms and from what we may anticipate with regard to the lowest organic ones4 ,this presumption is strengthened by the knowledge of the increasing difficulties which beset any attempt to indefinitely intensify any race characteristics4 ,the obstacles to this indefinite intensification1 as well as to certain lines of variation in certain cases1 appear to be not only external1 but to depend on internal causes or an internal cause4 ,we have seen that ,mr4 ,darwin himself implicitly admits the principle of specific stability in asserting the singular inflexibility of the organization of the goose4 ,we have also seen that it is not fair to conclude that all wild races can vary as much as the most variable domestic ones4 ,it has also been shown #abg that there are grounds for believing in a tendency to reversion generally1 as it is distinctly present in certain instances4 ,also that specific stability is confirmed by the physiological obstacles which oppose themselves to any considerable or continued intermixture of species1 while no such barriers oppose themselves to the blending of varieties4 ,all these considerations taken together may fairly be considered as strengthening the belief that specific manifestations are relatively stable4 ,at the same time the view advocated in this book does not depend upon1 and is not identified with1 any such stability4 ,all that the ,author contends for is that specific manifestation takes place along certain lines1 and according to law1 and not in an exceedingly minute1 indefinite1 and fortuitous manner4 ,finally1 he cannot but feel justified1 from all that has been brought forward1 in reiterating the opening assertion of this chapter that something is still to be said for the view which maintains that species are stable1 at least in the intervals of their comparatively rapid successive #abh manifestations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,species ,,and ,,time4 ,two relations of species to time4--,no evidence of past existence of minutely intermediate forms when such might be expected a priori4--,bats1 ,pterodactyles1 ,dinosauria1 and ,birds4--,ichthyosauria1 ,chelonia1 and ,anoura4--,horse ancestry4--,labyrinthodonts and ,trilobites4--,two subdivisions of the second relation of species to time4--,sir ,william ,thomson's views4---,probable period required for ultimate specific evolution from primitive ancestral forms4--,geometrical increase of time required for rapidly multiplying increase of structural differences4--,proboscis monkey4--,time required for deposition of strata necessary for ,darwinian evolution4--,high organization of ,silurian forms of life4--,absence of fossils in oldest rocks4--,summary and conclusion4 ,two considerations present themselves with regard to the necessary relation of species to time if the theory of ,natural ,selection is valid and sufficient4 ,the first is with regard to the evidences of the past existence of intermediate form1 their duration and succession4 ,the second is with regard to the total amount of time required for the evolution of all organic forms from a few original ones1 and the bearing of other sciences on this question of time4 ,as to the first consideration1 evidence is as yet against the modification of species by ,natural ,selection alone1 because not only are minutely transitional forms generally absent1 but they are absent in cases where we might certainly a priori have expected them to be present4 ,page #abi ,now it has been said3#abe ,if ,mr4 ,darwin's theory be true1 the number of varieties differing one from another a very little must have been indefinitely great1 so great indeed as probably far to exceed the number of individuals which have existed of any one variety4 ,if this be true1 it would be more probable that no two specimens preserved as fossils should be of one variety than that we should find a great many specimens collected from a very few varieties1 provided1 of course1 the chances of preservation are equal for all individuals4 ,it is really strange that vast numbers of perfectly similar specimens should be found1 the chances against their perpetuation as fossils are so great2 but it is also very strange that the specimens should be so exactly alike as they are1 if1 in fact1 they came and vanished by a gradual change4 ,mr4 ,darwin attempts#abf to show cause why we should believe a priori that intermediate varieties would exist in lesser numbers than the more extreme forms2 but though they would doubtless do so sometimes1 it seems too much to assert that they would do so generally1 still less universally4 ,now little less than universal and very marked inferiority in numbers would account for the absence of certain series of minutely intermediate fossil specimens4 ,the mass of palontological evidence is indeed overwhelmingly against minute and gradual modification4 ,it is true that when once an animal has obtained powers of flight its means of diffusion are indefinitely increased1 and we might expect to find many relics of an arial form and few of its antecedent state--with nascent wings just commencing their suspensory power4 ,yet had such a slow mode of origin1 as ,darwinians contend for1 operated exclusively in all cases1 it is absolutely incredible that birds1 bats1 and pterodactyles should have left the remains they have1 and yet not a single relic be preserved in any one instance#acj of any of these different forms of wing in their incipient and relatively imperfect functional condition6 ,illustration3 ,,wing-,,bones ,,of ,,pterodactyle1 ,,bat1 ,,and ,,bird4 ,whenever the remains of bats have been found they have presented the exact type of existing forms1 and there is as yet no indication of the conditions of an incipient elevation from the ground4 ,the pterodactyles1 again1 though a numerous group1 are all true and perfect pterodactyles1 though surely some of the many incipient forms1 which on the ,darwinian theory have existed1 must have had a good chance of preservation4 ,as to birds1 the only notable instance in which discoveries recently made appear to fill up an important hiatus1 is the interpretation given by ,professor ,huxley#abg to the remains of ,dinosaurian reptiles1 and which were noticed in the third chapter of this work4 ,the learned ,professor has 7as also has ,professor ,cope in ,america7 shown that in very important #aca and significant points the skeletons of the ,iguanodon and of its allies approach very closely to that existing in the ostrich1 emeu1 rhea1 c4 ,he has given weighty reasons for thinking that the line of affinity between birds and reptiles passes to the birds last named from the ,dinosauria rather than from the ,pterodactyles1 through ,archeopteryx-like forms to the ordinary birds4 ,finally1 he has thrown out the suggestion that the celebrated footsteps left by some extinct three-toed creatures on the very ancient sandstone of ,connecticut were made1 not1 as hitherto supposed1 by true birds1 but by more or less ornithic reptiles4 ,but even supposing all that is asserted or inferred on this subject to be fully proved1 it would not approach to a demonstration of specific origin by minute modification4 ,and though it harmonizes well with ,natural ,selection1 it is equally consistent with the rapid and sudden development of new specific forms of life4 ,indeed1 ,professor ,huxley1 with a laudable caution and moderation too little observed by some ,teutonic ,darwinians1 guarded himself carefully from any imputation of asserting dogmatically the theory of ,natural ,selection1 while upholding fully the doctrine of evolution4 ,but1 after all1 it is by no means certain1 though very probable1 that the ,connecticut footsteps were made by very ornithic reptiles1 or extremely sauroid birds4 ,and it must not be forgotten that a completely carinate#abh bird 7the ,archeopteryx7 existed at a time1 when1 as yet1 we have no evidence of some of the ,dinosauria having come into being4 ,moreover1 if the remarkable and minute similarity of the coracoid of a pterodactyle to that of a bird be merely the result of function and no sign of genetic affinity1 it is not inconceivable that pelvic and leg resemblances of ,dinosauria to birds may be functional likewise1 though such an explanation is1 of #acb course1 by no means necessary to support the view maintained in this book4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,archeopteryx 7,,of ,,the ,,oolite ,,strata74 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,but the number of forms represented by many individuals1 yet by no transitional ones1 is so great that only two or three can be selected as examples4 ,thus those remarkable fossil reptiles1 the ,ichthyosauria and ,plesiosauria1 extended1 through the secondary period1 probably over the greater part of the globe4 ,yet no single transitional form has yet been met with in spite of the multitudinous individuals preserved4 ,again1 with their modern representatives the ,cetacea1 one or two aberrant forms alone #acc have been found1 but no series of transitional ones indicating minutely the line of descent4 ,this group1 the whales1 is a very marked one1 and it is curious1 on ,darwinian principles1 that so few instances tending to indicate its mode of origin should have presented themselves4 ,here1 as in the bats1 we might surely expect that some relics of unquestionably incipient stages of its development would have been left4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,plesiosaurus4 ,the singular order ,chelonia1 including the tortoises1 turtles1 and terrapins 7or fresh-water tortoises71 is another instance of an extreme form without any1 as yet known1 transitional stages4 ,another group may be finally mentioned1 viz4 the frogs and toads1 anourous ,batrachians1 of which we have at present no relic of any kind linking them on to the ,eft group on the one hand1 or to reptiles on the other4 ,the only instance in which an approach towards a series of nearly related forms has been obtained is the existing horse1 its predecessor ,hipparion and other extinct forms4 ,but even here there is no proof whatever of modification by minute and infinitesimal steps2 a fortiori no approach to a proof of modification by ,natural ,selection1 acting upon indefinite fortuitous variations4 ,on the contrary1 the series is an admirable example of successive modification in one special direction along one beneficial line1 and the teleologist must here be allowed to consider that one #acd motive of this modification 7among probably an indefinite number of motives inconceivable to us7 was the relationship in which the horse was to stand to the human inhabitants of this planet4 ,these extinct forms1 as ,professor ,owen1 remarks1#abi differ from each other in a greater degree than do the horse1 zebra1 and ass1 which are not only good zoological species as to form1 but are species physiologically1 i4e4 they cannot produce a race of hybrids fertile inter se4 ,as to the mere action of surrounding conditions1 the same ,professor remarks3#acj ,any modification affecting the density of the soil might so far relate to the changes of limb-structure1 as that a foot with a pair of small hoofs dangling by the sides of the large one1 like those behind the cloven hoof of the ox1 would cause the foot of ,hipparion1 e4g41 and a fortiori the broader based three-hoofed foot of the ,palothere1 to sink less deeply into swampy soil1 and be more easily withdrawn than the more concentratively simplified and specialized foot of the horse4 ,rhinoceroses and zebras1 however1 tread together the arid plains of ,africa in the present day2 and the horse has multiplied in that half of ,america where two or more kinds of tapir still exist4 ,that the continents of the ,eocene or ,miocene periods were less diversified in respect of swamp and sward1 pampas or desert1 than those of the ,pliocene period1 has no support from observation or analogy4 ,not only1 however1 do we fail to find any traces of the incipient stages of numerous very peculiar groups of animals1 but it is undeniable that there are instances which appeared at first to indicate a gradual transition1 yet which instances have been shown by further investigation and discovery not to indicate truly anything of the kind4 ,thus at one time the remains of ,labyrinthodonts1 which up till then had been discovered1 seemed to justify the opinion that as time went on1 forms had successively appeared with#ace more and more complete segmentation and ossification of the backbone1 which in the earliest forms was 7as it is in the lowest fishes now7 a soft continuous rod or notochord4 ,now1 however1 it is considered probable that the soft back-boned ,labyrinthodont ,archegosaurus1 was an immature or larval form1#aca while ,labyrinthodonts with completely developed vertebr have been found to exist amongst the very earliest forms yet discovered4 ,the same may be said regarding the eyes of the trilobites1 some of the oldest forms having been found as well furnished in that respect as the very last of the group which has left its remains accessible to observation4 ,illustration3 ,,trilobite4 ,such instances1 however1 as well as the way in which marked and special forms 7as the ,pterodactyles1 c41 before referred to7 appear at once in and similarly disappear from the geological record1 are of course explicable on the ,darwinian theory1 provided a sufficiently enormous amount of past time be allowed4 ,the alleged extreme1 and probably great1 imperfection of that record may indeed be pleaded in excuse4 ,but it is an excuse4#acb #acf ,nor is it possible to deny the a priori probability of the preservation of at least a few minutely transitional forms in some instances if every species without exception has arisen exclusively by such minute and gradual transitions4 ,it remains1 then1 to turn to the other considerations with regard to the relation of species to time3 namely 7#a7 as to the total amount of time allowable by other sciences for organic evolution2 and 7#b7 the proportion existing1 on ,darwinian principles1 between the time anterior to the earlier fossils1 and the time since2 as evidenced by the proportion between the amount of evolutionary change during the latter epoch and that which must have occurred anteriorly4 ,sir ,william ,thomson has lately#acc advanced arguments from three distinct lines of inquiry1 and agreeing in one approximate result4 ,the three lines of inquiry were--#a4 ,the action of the tides upon the earth's rotation4 #b4 ,the probable length of time during which the sun has illuminated this planet2 and #c4 ,the temperature of the interior of the earth4 ,the result arrived at by these investigations is a conclusion that the existing state of things on the earth1 life on the earth1 all geological history showing continuity of life1 must be limited within some such period of past time as one hundred million years4 ,the first question which suggests itself1 supposing ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's views to be correct1 is1 ,is this period anything like enough for the evolution of all organic forms by ,natural ,selection8 ,the second is1 ,is this period anything like enough for the deposition of the strata which must have been deposited if all organic forms have been evolved by minute steps1 according to the ,darwinian theory8 ,in the first place1 as to ,sir ,william ,thomson's views1 the ,author of this book cannot presume to advance any opinion2 but the fact that they have not been refuted1 pleads strongly in their favour when we consider how #acg much they tell against the theory of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,the last-named author only remarks that many of the elements in the calculation are more or less doubtful1#acd and ,professor ,huxley#ace does not attempt to refute ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's arguments1 but only to show cause for suspense of judgment1 inasmuch as the facts may be capable of other explanations4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 on the other hand1#acf seems more disposed to accept them1 and1 after considering ,sir ,william's objections and those of ,mr4 ,croll1 puts the probable date of the beginning of the ,cambrian deposits#acg at only twenty-four million years ago4 ,on the other hand1 he seems to consider that specific change has been more rapid than generally supposed1 and exceptionally stable during the last score or so of thousand years4 ,now1 first1 with regard to the time required for the evolution of all organic forms by merely accidental1 minute1 and fortuitous variations1 the useful ones of which have been preserved3 ,mr4 ,murphy#ach is distinctly of opinion that there has not been time enough4 ,he says1 ,i am inclined to think that geological time is too short for the evolution of the higher forms of life out of the lower by that accumulation of imperceptibly slow variations1 to which alone ,darwin ascribes the whole process4 ,darwin justly mentions the greyhound as being equal to any natural species in the perfect co-ordination of its parts1 'all adapted for extreme fleetness and for running down weak prey4' ,yet it is an artificial species 7and not physiologically a species at all71 formed by long-continued selection under domestication2 and there is no reason to suppose that any of the variations which have been selected to form it have been other than gradual and almost imperceptible4 ,suppose that it has #ach taken five hundred years to form the greyhound out of his wolf-like ancestor4 ,this is a mere guess1 but it gives the order of the magnitude4 ,now1 if so1 how long would it take to obtain an elephant from a protozoon1 or even from a tadpole-like fish8 ,ought it not to take much more than a million times as long8#aci ,mr4 ,darwin#adj would compare with the natural origin of a species unconscious selection1 that is1 the preservation of the most useful or beautiful animals1 with no intention of modifying the breed4 ,he adds3 ,but by this process of unconscious selection1 various breeds have been sensibly changed in the course of two or three centuries4 ,sensibly changed6 but not formed into new species4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 of course1 could not mean that species generally change so rapidly1 which would be strangely at variance with the abundant evidence we have of the stability of animal forms as represented on ,egyptian monuments and as shown by recent deposits4 ,indeed1 he goes on to say1--,species1 however1 probably change much more slowly1 and within the same country only a few change at the same time4 ,this slowness follows from all the inhabitants of the same country being already so well adapted to each other1 that places in the polity of nature do not occur until after long intervals1 when changes of some kind in the physical conditions1 or through immigration1 have occurred1 and individual differences and variations of the right nature1 by which some of the inhabitants might be better fitted to their new places under altered circumstances1 might not at once occur4 ,this is true1 and not only will these changes occur at distant intervals1 but it must be borne in mind that in tracing back an animal to a remote ancestry1 we pass through modifications of such rapidly increasing number and importance that a geometrical progression can alone indicate the increase of periods #aci which such profound alterations would require for their evolution through ,natural ,selection only4 ,thus let us take for an example the proboscis monkey of ,borneo 7,semnopithecus nasalis74 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin's own opinion1 this form might have been sensibly changed in the course of two or three centuries4 ,according to this1 to evolve it as a true and perfect species one thousand years would be a very moderate period4 ,let ten thousand years be taken to represent approximately the period of substantially constant conditions during which no considerable change would be brought about4 ,now1 if one thousand years may represent the period required for the evolution of the species ,s4 nasalis1 and of the other species of the genus ,semnopithecus2 ten times that period should1 ,i think1 be allowed for the differentiation of that genus1 the ,african ,cercopithecus and the other genera of the family ,simiid--the differences between the genera being certainly more than tenfold greater than those between the species of the same genus4 ,again we may perhaps interpose a period of ten thousand years' comparative repose4 ,for the differentiation of the families ,simiid and ,cebid--so very much more distinct and different than any two genera of either family--a period ten times greater should1 ,i believe1 be allowed than that required for the evolution of the subordinate groups4 ,a similarly increasing ratio should be granted for the successive developments of the difference between the ,lemuroid and the higher forms of primates2 for those between the original primate and other root-forms of placental mammals2 for those between primary placental and implacental mammals1 and perhaps also for the divergence of the most ancient stock of these and of the monotremes1 for in all these cases modifications of structure appear to increase in complexity in at least that ratio4 ,finally1 a vast period must be granted for the development of the lowest mammalian type from the primitive stock of the whole vertebrate sub-kingdom4 ,supposing this primitive stock to have #adj arisen directly from a very lowly organized animal indeed 7such as a nematoid worm1 or an ascidian1 or a jelly-fish71 yet it is not easy to believe that less than two thousand million years would be required for the totality of animal development by no other means than minute1 fortuitous1 occasional1 and intermitting variations in all conceivable directions4 ,if this be even an approximation to the truth1 then there seem to be strong reasons for believing that geological time is not sufficient for such a process4 ,the second question is1 whether there has been time enough for the deposition of the strata which must have been deposited1 if all organic forms have been evolved according to the ,darwinian theory8 ,now this may at first seem a question for geologists only1 but1 in fact1 in this matter geology must in some respects rather take its time from zoology than the reverse2 for if ,mr4 ,darwin's theory be true1 past time down to the deposition of the ,upper ,silurian strata can have been but a very small fraction of that during which strata have been deposited4 ,for when those ,upper ,silurian strata were formed1 organic evolution had already run a great part of its course1 perhaps the longest1 slowest1 and most difficult part of that course4 ,at that ancient epoch not only were the vertebrate1 molluscous1 and arthropod types distinctly and clearly differentiated1 but highly developed forms had been produced in each of these sub-kingdoms4 ,thus in the ,vertebrata there were fishes not belonging to the lowest but to the very highest groups which are known to have ever been developed1 namely1 the ,elasmobranchs 7the highly organized sharks and rays7 and the ,ganoids1 a group now poorly represented1 but for which the sturgeon may stand as a type1 and which in many important respects more nearly resemble higher ,vertebrata than do the ordinary or osseous fishes4 ,fishes in which the ventral fins are placed in front of the pectoral ones 7i4e4 jugular fishes7 have been generally considered to be comparatively modern forms4 ,but ,professor ,huxley has kindly informed me that he has discovered a #ada jugular fish in the ,permian deposits4 ,amongst the molluscous animals we have members of the very highest known class1 namely1 the ,cephalopods1 or cuttle-fish class2 and amongst articulated animals we find ,trilobites and ,eurypterida1 which do not belong to any incipient worm-like group1 but are distinctly differentiated ,crustacea of no low form4 ,illustration3 ,,cuttle-,,fish4 ,a4 ,ventral aspect4 ,b4 ,dorsal aspect4 ,we have in all these animal types nervous systems differentiated on distinctly different patterns1 fully formed organs of circulation1 digestion1 excretion1 and generation1 complexly constructed eyes and other sense organs2 in fact1 all the most elaborate and complete animal structures built up1 and not only once1 for in the fishes and mollusca we have 7as described in the third chapter of this work7 the coincidence of the independently developed organs of sense attaining a nearly similar complexity in two quite distinct forms4 ,if1 then1 so small an advance #adb has been made in fishes1 molluscs1 and arthropods since the ,upper ,silurian deposits1 it will probably be within the mark to consider that the period before those deposits 7during which all these organs would1 on the ,darwinian theory1 have slowly built up their different perfections and complexities7 occupied time at least a hundredfold greater4 ,now it will be a moderate computation to allow #be1jjj1jjj years for the deposition of the strata down to and including the ,upper ,silurian4 ,if1 then1 the evolutionary work done during this deposition1 only represents a hundredth part of the sum total1 we shall require #b1ejj1jjj1jjj 7two thousand five hundred million7 years for the complete development of the whole animal kingdom to its present state4 ,even one quarter of this1 however1 would far exceed the time which physics and astronomy seem able to allow for the completion of the process4 ,finally1 a difficulty exists as to the reason of the absence of rich fossiliferous deposits in the oldest strata--if life was then as abundant and varied as1 on the ,darwinian theory1 it must have been4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself admits#ada the case at present must remain inexplicable2 and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the views entertained in his book4 ,thus1 then1 we find a wonderful 7and on ,darwinian principles an all but inexplicable7 absence of minutely transitional forms4 ,all the most marked groups1 bats1 pterodactyles1 chelonians1 ichthyosauria1 anoura1 c41 appear at once upon the scene4 ,even the horse1 the animal whose pedigree has been probably best preserved1 affords no conclusive evidence of specific origin by infinitesimal1 fortuitous variations2 while some forms1 as the labyrinthodonts and trilobites1 which seemed to exhibit gradual change1 are shown by further investigation to do nothing of the sort4 ,as regards the time required for evolution 7whether estimated by the probably minimum#adc period required for organic change or for the deposition of strata which accompanied that change71 reasons have been suggested why it is likely that the past history of the earth does not supply us with enough4 ,first1 because of the prodigious increase in the importance and number of differences and modifications which we meet with as we traverse successively greater and more primary zoological groups2 and1 secondly1 because of the vast series of strata necessarily deposited if the period since the ,lower ,silurian marks but a small fraction of the period of organic evolution4 ,finally1 the absence or rarity of fossils in the oldest rocks is a point at present inexplicable1 and not to be forgotten or neglected4 ,now all these difficulties are avoided if we admit that new forms of animal life of all degrees of complexity appear from time to time with comparative suddenness1 being evolved according to laws in part depending on surrounding conditions1 in part internal--similar to the way in which crystals 7and1 perhaps from recent researches1 the lowest forms of life7 build themselves up according to the internal laws of their component substance1 and in harmony and correspondence with all environing influences and conditions4 ,page #add 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,species ,,and ,,space4 ,the geographical distribution of animals presents difficulties4--,these not insurmountable in themselves2 harmonize with other difficulties4--,fresh-water fishes4--,forms common to ,africa and ,india2 to ,africa and ,south ,america2 to ,china and ,australia2 to ,north ,america and ,china2 to ,new ,zealand and ,south ,america2 to ,south ,america and ,tasmania2 to ,south ,america and ,australia4--,pleurodont lizards4--,insectivorous mammals4--,similarity of ,european and ,south ,american frogs--,analogy between ,european salmon and fishes of ,new ,zealand1 c4 ,an ancient ,antarctic continent probable4--,other modes of accounting for facts of distribution4--,independent origin of closely similar forms4--,conclusion4 ,the study of the distribution of animals over the earth's surface presents us with many facts having certain not unimportant bearings on the question of specific origin4 ,amongst these are instances which1 at least at first sight1 appear to conflict with the ,darwinian theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,it is not1 however1 here contended that such facts do by any means constitute by themselves obstacles which cannot be got over4 ,indeed it would be difficult to imagine any obstacles of the kind which could not be surmounted by an indefinite number of terrestrial modifications of surface--submergences and emergences--junctions and separations of continents in all directions and combinations of any desired degree of frequency4 ,all this being supplemented by the intercalation of armies of enemies1 multitudes of ancestors of all kinds1 and myriads of connecting forms1 whose raison d'tre may be simply their utility or necessity #ade for the support of the theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,nevertheless1 when brought in merely to supplement and accentuate considerations and arguments derived from other sources1 in that case difficulties connected with the geographical distribution of animals are not without significance1 and are worthy of mention even though1 by themselves1 they constitute but feeble and more or less easily explicable puzzles which could not alone suffice either to sustain or to defeat any theory of specific origination4 ,many facts as to the present distribution of animal life over the world are very readily explicable by the hypothesis of slight elevations and depressions of larger and smaller parts of its surface1 but there are others the existence of which it is much more difficult so to explain4 ,the distribution either of animals possessing the power of flight1 or of inhabitants of the ocean1 is1 of course1 easily to be accounted for2 the difficulty1 if there is really any1 must mainly be with strictly terrestrial animals of moderate or small powers of locomotion and with inhabitants of fresh water4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself observes1#adb ,in regard to fish1 ,i believe that the same species never occur in the fresh waters of distant continents4 ,now1 the ,author is enabled1 by the labours and through the kindness of ,dr4 ,gnther1 to show that this belief cannot be maintained2 he having been so obliging as to call attention to the following facts with regard to fish-distribution4 ,these facts show that though only one species which is absolutely and exclusively an inhabitant of fresh water is as yet known to be found in distant continents1 yet that in several other instances the same species is found in the fresh water of distant continents1 and that very often the same genus is so distributed4 ,the genus ,mastacembelus belongs to a family of fresh-water ,indian #adf fishes4 ,eight species of this genus are described by ,dr4 ,gnther in his catalogue4#adc ,these forms extend from ,java and ,borneo on the one hand1 to ,aleppo on the other4 ,nevertheless1 a new species 7,m4 cryptacanthus7 has been described by the same author1#add which is an inhabitant of the ,camaroon country of ,western ,africa4 ,he observes1 ,the occurrence of ,indian forms on the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 such as ,periophthalmus1 ,psettus1 ,mastacembelus1 is of the highest interest1 and an almost new fact in our knowledge of the geographical distribution of fishes4 ,ophiocephalus1 again1 is a truly ,indian genus1 there being no less than twenty-five species1#ade all from the fresh waters of the ,east ,indies4 ,yet ,dr4 ,gnther informs me that there is a species in the ,upper ,nile and in ,west ,africa4 ,the acanthopterygian family 7,labyrinthici7 contains nine freshwater genera1 and these are distributed between the ,east ,indies and ,south and ,central ,africa4 ,the ,carp fishes 7,cyprinoids7 are found in ,india1 ,africa1 and ,madagascar1 but there are none in ,south ,america4 ,thus existing fresh-water fishes point to an immediate connexion between ,africa and ,india1 harmonizing with what we learn from ,miocene mammalian remains4 ,on the other hand1 the ,characinid 7a family of the physostomous fishes7 are found in ,africa and ,south ,america1 and not in ,india1 and even its component groups are so distributed1--namely1 the ,tetragonopterina#adf and the ,hydrocyonina4#adg ,again1 we have similar phenomena in that almost exclusively fresh-water group the ,siluroids4 ,thus the genera ,clarias#adh and ,heterobranchus#adi are found #adg both in ,africa and the ,east ,indies4 ,plotosus is found in ,africa1 ,india1 and ,australia1 and the species ,p4 anguillaris#aej has been brought from both ,china and ,moreton ,bay4 ,here1 therefore1 we have the same species in two distinct geographical regions4 ,it is however a coast fish1 which1 though entering rivers1 yet lives in the sea4 ,eutropius#aea is an ,african genus1 but ,e4 obtusirostris comes from ,india4 ,on the other hand1 ,amiurus is a ,north ,american form2 but one species1 ,a4 cantonensis1#aeb comes from ,china4 ,the genus ,galaxias#aec has at least one species common to ,new ,zealand and ,south ,america1 and one common to ,south ,america and ,tasmania4 ,in this genus we thus have an absolutely and completely fresh-water form of the very same species distributed between different and distinct geographical regions4 ,of the lower fishes1 a lamprey1 ,mordacia mordax1#aed is common to ,south ,australia and ,chile2 while another form of the same family1 namely1 ,geotria chilensis1#aee is found not only in ,south ,america and ,australia1 but in ,new ,zealand also4 ,these fishes1 however1 probably pass part of their lives in the sea4 ,we thus certainly have several species which are common to the fresh waters of distant continents1 although it cannot be certainly affirmed that they are exclusively and entirely fresh-water fishes throughout all their lives except in the case of ,galaxias4 ,existing forms point to a close union between ,south ,america and ,africa on the one hand1 and between ,south ,america1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand on the other2 but these unions were not synchronous any more than the unions indicated between ,india and ,australia1 ,china and ,australia1 ,china and ,north ,america1 and ,india and ,africa4 ,pleurodont lizards are such as have the teeth attached by their sides #adh to the inner surface of the jaw1 in contradistinction to acrodont lizards1 which have the bases of their teeth anchylosed to the summit of the margin of the jaw4 ,now pleurodont iguanian lizards abound in the ,south ,american region2 but nowhere else1 and are not as yet known to inhabit any part of the present continent of ,africa4 ,yet pleurodont lizards1 strange to say1 are found in ,madagascar4 ,this is the more remarkable1 inasmuch as we have no evidence yet of the existence in ,madagascar of fresh-water fishes common to ,africa and ,south ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,inner ,,side ,,of ,,lower ,,jaw ,,of ,,pleurodont ,,lizard4 7,showing the teeth attached to the inner surface of its side47 ,again1 that remarkable island ,madagascar is the home of very singular and special insectivorous beasts of the genera ,centetes1 ,ericulus1 and ,echinops2 while the only other member of the group to which they belong is ,solenodon1 which is a resident in the ,west ,indian ,islands1 ,cuba and ,hayti4 ,the connexion1 however1 between the ,west ,indies and ,madagascar must surely have been at a time when the great lemurine group was absent2 for it is difficult to understand the spread of such a form as ,solenodon1 and at the same time the non-extension of the active lemurs1 or their utter extirpation1 in such a congenial locality as the ,west ,indian ,archipelago4 ,the close connexion of ,south ,america and ,australia is demonstrated 7on the ,darwinian theory71 not only from the marsupial fauna of both1 but also from the frogs and toads which respectively inhabit those regions4 ,a truly remarkable similarity and parallelism exist1 however1 between certain of the same animals inhabiting ,south ,western ,america and ,europe4 ,thus ,dr4#adi ,gnther has described#aef a frog from ,chile by the name of cacotus1 which singularly resembles the ,european bombinator4 ,illustration3 ,,solenodon4 ,again of the salmons1 two genera from ,south ,america1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,australia1 are analogous to ,european salmons4 ,in addition to this may be mentioned a quotation from ,professor ,dana1 given by ,mr4 ,darwin1#aeg to the effect that it is certainly a wonderful fact that ,new ,zealand should have a closer resemblance in its crustacea to ,great ,britain1 its antipode1 than to any other part of the world3 and ,mr4 ,darwin adds ,sir ,j4 ,richardson also speaks of the reappearance on the shores of ,new ,zealand1 ,tasmania1 c4 of northern forms of fish4 ,dr4 ,hooker informs me that twenty-five species of alg are common to ,new ,zealand and to #aej ,europe1 but have not been found in the intermediate tropical seas4 ,many more examples of the kind could easily be brought1 but these must suffice4 ,as to the last-mentioned cases ,mr4 ,darwin explains them by the influence of the glacial epoch1 which he would extend actually across the equator1 and thus account1 amongst other things1 for the appearance in ,chile of frogs having close genetic relations with ,european forms4 ,but it is difficult to understand the persistence and preservation of such exceptional forms with the extirpation of all the others which probably accompanied them1 if so great a migration of northern kinds had been occasioned by the glacial epoch4 ,mr4 ,darwin candidly says1#aeh ,i am far from supposing that all difficulties in regard to the distribution and affinities of the identical and allied species1 which now live so widely separated in the north and south1 and sometimes on the intermediate mountain-ranges1 are removed4 444 ,we cannot say why certain species and not others have migrated2 why certain species have been modified and have given rise to new forms1 whilst others have remained unaltered4 ,again he adds1 ,various difficulties also remain to be solved2 for instance1 the occurrence1 as shown by ,dr4 ,hooker1 of the same plants at points so enormously remote as ,kerguelen ,land1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,fuegia2 but icebergs1 as suggested by ,lyell1 may have been concerned in their dispersal4 ,the existence1 at these and other distant points of the southern hemisphere1 of species which1 though distinct1 belong to genera exclusively confined to the south1 is a more remarkable case4 ,some of these species are so distinct that we cannot suppose that there has been time since the commencement of the last glacial period for their migration and subsequent modification to the necessary degree4 ,mr4 ,darwin goes on to account for these facts by the probable existence of a rich antarctic flora in a warm period anterior to the last glacial #aea epoch4 ,there are indeed many reasons for thinking that a southern continent1 rich in living forms1 once existed4 ,one such reason is the way in which struthious birds are1 or have been1 distributed around the antarctic region3 as the ostrich in ,africa1 the rhea in ,south ,america1 the emeu in ,australia1 the apteryx1 dinornis1 c4 in ,new ,zealand1 the epiornis in ,madagascar4 ,still the existence of such a land would not alone explain the various geographical cross relations which have been given above4 ,it would not1 for example1 account for the resemblance between the crustacea or fishes of ,new ,zealand and of ,england4 ,it would1 however1 go far to explain the identity 7specific or generic7 between fresh water and other forms now simultaneously existing in ,australia and ,south ,america1 or in either or both of these1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,again1 mutations of elevation small and gradual 7but frequent and intermitting71 through enormous periods of time--waves1 as it were1 of land rolling many times in many directions--might be made to explain many difficulties as to geographical distribution1 and any cases that remained would probably be capable of explanation1 as being isolated but allied animal forms1 now separated indeed1 but being merely remnants of extensive groups which1 at an earlier period1 were spread over the surface of the earth4 ,thus none of the facts here given are any serious difficulty to the doctrine of evolution1 but it is contended in this book that if other considerations render it improbable that the manifestation of the successive forms of life has been brought about by minute1 indefinite1 and fortuitous variations1 then these facts as to geographical distribution intensify that improbability1 and are so far worthy of attention4 ,all geographical difficulties of the kind would be evaded if we could concede the probability of the independent origin1 in different localities1 of the same organic forms in animals high in the scale of nature4 #aeb ,similar causes must produce similar results1 and new reasons have been lately adduced for believing1 as regards the lowest organisms1 that the same forms can arise and manifest themselves independently4 ,the difficulty as to higher animals is1 however1 much greater1 as 7on the theory of evolution7 one acting force must always be the ancestral history in each case1 and this force must always tend to go on acting in the same groove and direction in the future as it has in the past4 ,so that it is difficult to conceive that individuals1 the ancestral history of which is very different1 can be acted upon by all influences1 external and internal1 in such diverse ways and proportions that the results 7unequals being added to unequals7 shall be equal and similar4 ,still1 though highly improbable1 this cannot be said to be impossible2 and if there is an innate law of any kind helping to determine specific evolution1 this may more or less1 or entirely1 neutralize or even reverse the effect of ancestral habit4 ,thus1 it is quite conceivable that a pleurodont lizard might have arisen in ,madagascar in perfect independence of the similarly-formed ,american lacertilia3 just as certain teeth of carnivorous and insectivorous marsupial animals have been seen most closely to resemble those of carnivorous and insectivorous placental beasts2 just as1 again1 the paddles of the ,cetacea resemble1 in the fact of a multiplication in the number of the phalanges1 the many-jointed feet of extinct marine reptiles1 and as the beak of the cuttle-fish or of the tadpole resembles that of birds4 ,we have already seen 7in ,chapter ,,iii47 that it is impossible1 upon any hypothesis1 to escape admitting the independent origins of closely similar forms1 ,it may be that they are both more frequent and more important than is generally thought4 ,that closely similar structures may arise without a genetic relationship has been lately well urged by ,mr4 ,ray ,lankester4#aei ,he has brought #aec this notion forward even as regards the bones of the skull in osseous fishes and in mammals4 ,he has done so on the ground that the probable common ancestor of mammals and of osseous fishes was a vertebrate animal of so low a type that it could not be supposed to have possessed a skull differentiated into distinct bony elements--even if it was bony at all4 ,if this was so1 then the cranial bones must have had an independent origin in each class1 and in this case we have the most strikingly harmonious and parallel results from independent actions4 ,for the bones of the skull in an osseous fish are so closely conformed to those of a mammal1 that both types of skull exhibit many bones in common1 though in each type some of these bones acquire special arrangements and very different magnitudes4#afj ,and no investigator of homologies doubts that a considerable number of the bones which form the skull of any osseous fish are distinctly homologous with the cranial bones of man4 ,the occipital1 the parietal1 and frontal1 the bones which surround the internal ear1 the vomer1 the premaxilla1 and the quadrate bones1 may be given as examples4 ,now1 if such close relations of homology can be brought about independently of any but the most remote genetic affinity1 it would be rash to affirm dogmatically that there is any impossibility in the independent origin of such forms as centetes and solenodon1 or of genetically distinct batrachians1 as similar to each other as are some of the frogs of ,south ,america and of ,europe4 ,at the same time such phenomena must at present be considered as very improbable1 from the action of ancestral habit1 as before stated4 ,we have seen1 then1 that the geographical distribution of animals presents difficulties1 though not insuperable ones1 for the ,darwinian hypothesis4 ,if1 however1 other reasons against it appear of any weight--if1 especially1 there is reason to believe that geological time has not been #aed sufficient for it1 then it will be well to bear in mind the facts here enumerated4 ,these facts1 however1 are not opposed to the doctrine of evolution2 and if it could be established that closely similar forms had really arisen in complete independence one of the other1 they would rather tend to strengthen and to support that theory4 ,page #aee 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,homologies4 ,animals made-up of parts mutually related in various ways4--,what homology is4--,its various kinds4--,serial homology4--,lateral homology4--,vertical homology4--,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's explanations4--,an internal power necessary1 as shown by facts of comparative anatomy4--,of teratology4--,m4 ,st4 ,hilaire4--,professor ,burt ,wilder4--,foot-wings4--,facts of pathology4--,mr4 ,james ,paget4--,dr4 ,william ,budd4--,the existence of such an internal power of individual development diminishes the improbability of an analogous law of specific origination4 ,that concrete whole which is spoken of as an individual 7such1 e4g41 as a bird or a lobster7 is formed of a more or less complex aggregation of parts which are actually 7from whatever cause or causes7 grouped1 together in a harmonious interdependency1 and which have a multitude of complex relations amongst themselves4 ,the mind detects a certain number of these relations as it contemplates the various component parts of an individual in one or other direction--as it follows up different lines of thought4 ,these perceived relations1 though subjective1 as relations1 have nevertheless an objective foundation as real parts1 or conditions of parts1 of real wholes2 they are1 therefore1 true relations1 such1 e4g41 as those between the right and left hand1 between the hand and the foot1 c4 ,the component parts of each concrete whole have also a relation of resemblance to the parts of other concrete wholes1 whether of the same#aef or of different kinds1 as the resemblance between the hands of two men1 or that between the hand of a man and the fore-paw of a cat4 ,now1 it is here contended that the relationships borne one to another by various component parts1 imply the existence of some innate1 internal condition1 conveniently spoken of as a power or tendency1 which is quite as mysterious as is any innate condition1 power1 or tendency1 resulting in the orderly evolution of successive specific manifestations4 ,these relationships1 as also this developmental power1 will doubtless1 in a certain sense1 be somewhat further explained as science advances4 ,but the result will be merely a shifting of the inexplicability a point backwards1 by the intercalation of another step between the action of the internal condition or power and its external result4 ,in the meantime1 even if by ,natural ,selection we could eliminate the puzzles of the origin of species1 yet other phenomena1 not less remarkable 7namely1 those noticed in this chapter71 would still remain unexplained and as yet inexplicable4 ,it is not improbable that1 could we arrive at the causes conditioning all the complex inter-relations between the several parts of one animal1 we should at the same time obtain the key to unlock the secrets of specific origination4 ,it is desirable1 then1 to see what facts there are in animal organization which point to innate conditions 7powers and tendencies71 as yet unexplained1 and upon which the theory of ,natural ,selection is unable to throw any explanatory light4 ,the facts to be considered are the phenomena of homology1 and especially of serial1 bilateral1 and vertical homology4 ,the word homology indicates such a relation between two parts that they may be said in some sense to be the same1 or at least of similar nature4 ,this similarity1 however1 does not relate to the use to which parts are put1 but only to their relative position with regard to other parts1 or to their mode of origin4 ,there are many kinds of #aeg homology1#afa but it is only necessary to consider the three kinds above enumerated4 ,illustration3 ,,wingbones ,,of ,,pterodactyle1 ,,bat1 ,,and ,,bird4 ,the term homologous may be applied to parts in two individual animals of different kinds1 or to different parts of the same individual4 ,thus the right and left hands1 or joints of the backbone1 or the teeth of the two jaws1 are homologous parts of the same individual4 ,but the arm of a man1 the fore-leg of the horse1 the paddle of the whale1 and the wing of the bat and the bird are all also homologous parts1 yet of another kind1 i4e4 they are the same parts existing in animals of different species4 ,on the other hand1 the wing of the humming-bird and the wing of the humming-bird moth are not homologous at all1 or in any sense2 for the resemblance between them consists solely in the use to which they are put1 and is therefore only a relation of analogy4 ,there is no relation of homology between them1 because they have no common resemblance as to their relations to surrounding parts1 or as to their mode of origin4 ,similarly1 there is no homology between the wing of the bat and that #aeh of the flying-dragon1 for the latter is formed of certain ribs1 and not of limb bones4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,flying ,,dragon4 7,showing the elongated ribs which support the flitting organ47 ,homology may be further distinguished into 7#a7 a relationship which1 on evolutionary principles1 would be due to descent from a common ancestor1 as the homological relation between the arm-bone of the horse and that of the ox1 or between the singular ankle bones of the two lemurine genera1 cheirogaleus and galago1 and which relation has been termed by ,mr4 ,ray ,lankester homogeny2#afb and 7#b7 a relationship induced1 not derived--such as exists between parts closely similar in relative position1 but with no genetic affinity1 or only a remote one1 as the homological relation between the chambers of the heart of a bat and those of a #aei bird1 or the similar teeth of the thylacine and the dog before spoken of4 ,for this relationship ,mr4 ,bay ,lankester has proposed the term homoplasy4 ,illustration3 ,,tarsal ,,bones ,,of ,,different ,,lemuroids4 7,right tarsus of ,galago2 left tarsus of ,cheirogaleus47 ,illustration3 ,a ,,centipede4 ,serial homology is a relation of resemblance existing between two or more parts placed in series one behind the other in the same individual4 ,examples of such homologues are the ribs1 or joints of the backbone of#afj a horse1 or the limbs of a centipede4 ,the latter animal is a striking example of serial homology4 ,the body 7except at its two ends7 consists of a longitudinal series of similar segments4 ,each segment supports a pair of limbs1 and the appendages of all the segments 7except as before7 are completely alike4 ,illustration3 ,,squilla4 ,a less complete case of serial homology is presented by ,crustacea 7animals of the crab class71 notably by the squilla and by the common lobster4 ,in the latter animal we have a six-jointed abdomen 7the so-called tail71 #afa in front of which is a large solid mass 7the cephalo-thorax71 terminated anteriorly by a jointed process 7the rostrum74 ,on the under surface of the body we find a quantity of moveable appendages4 ,such are1 e4g41 feelers 7,fig4 #i71 jaws 7,figs4 #f1 #g1 and #h71 foot-jaws 7,fig4 #e71 claws and legs 7,figs4 #c and #d71 beneath the cephalo-thorax2 and flat processes 7,fig4 #b71 called swimmerets1 beneath the so-called tail or abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,lobster4 ,now1 these various appendages are distinct and different enough as we #afb see them in the adult1 but they all appear in the embryo as buds of similar form and size1 and the thoracic limbs at first consist each of two members1 as the swimmerets always do4 ,this shows what great differences may exist in size1 in form1 and in function1 between parts which are developmentally the same1 for all these appendages are modifications of one common kind of structure1 which becomes differently modified in different situations2 in other words1 they are serial homologues4 ,the segments of the body1 as they follow one behind the other1 are also serially alike1 as is plainly seen in the abdomen or tail4 ,in the cephalo-thorax of the lobster1 however1 this is disguised4 ,it is therefore very interesting to find that in the other crustacean before mentioned1 the squilla1 the segmentation of the body is more completely preserved1 and even the first three segments1 which go to compose the head1 remain permanently distinct4 ,illustration3 ,,spine ,,of ,,galago ,,allenii4 ,such an obvious and unmistakeable serial repetition of parts does not obtain in the highest1 or backboned animals1 the ,vertebrata4 ,thus in man and other mammals1 nothing of the kind is externally visible1 and we have to penetrate to his skeleton to find such a series of homologous parts4 ,there1 indeed1 we discover a number of pairs of bones1 each pair so obviously resembling the others1 that they all receive a common name--the ribs4 ,there also 7i4e4 in the skeleton7 we find a still more remarkable series of similar parts1 the joints of the spine or backbone 7vertebr71 which are admitted by all to possess a certain community of structure4#afc ,it is in their limbs1 however1 that the ,vertebrata present the most obvious and striking serial homology--almost the only serial homology noticeable externally4 ,the facts of serial homology seem hardly to have excited the amount of interest they certainly merit4 ,very many writers1 indeed1 have occupied themselves with investigations and speculations as to what portions of the leg and foot answer to what parts of the arm and hand1 a question which has only recently received a more or less satisfactory solution through the successive concordant efforts of ,professor ,humphry1#afc ,professor ,huxley1#afd the ,author of this work1#afe and ,professor ,flower4#aff ,very few writers1 however1 have devoted much time or thought to the question of serial homology in general4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 indeed1 in his very interesting ,first ,principles of ,biology1 has given forth ideas on this subject1 which are well worthy careful perusal and consideration1 and some of which apply also to the other kinds of homology mentioned above4 ,he would explain the serial homologies of such creatures as the lobster and centipede thus3 ,animals of a very low grade propagate themselves by spontaneous fission4 ,if certain creatures found benefit from this process of division remaining incomplete1 such creatures 7on the theory of ,natural ,selection7 would transmit their selected tendency to such incomplete division to their posterity4 ,in this way1 it is conceivable1 that animals might arise in the form of long chains of similar segments1 each of which chains would consist of a number of imperfectly separated individuals1 and be equivalent to a series of separate individuals belonging to kinds in which the fission was complete4 ,in other words1 ,mr4 ,spencer would explain it as the coalescence of #afd organisms of a lower degree of aggregation in one longitudinal series1 through survival of the fittest aggregations4 ,this may be so4 ,it is certainly an ingenious speculation1 but facts have not yet been brought forward which demonstrate it4 ,had they been so1 this kind of serial homology might be termed homogenetic4 ,the other kind of serial repetitions1 namely1 those of the vertebral column1 are explained by ,mr4 ,spencer as the results of alternate strains and compressions acting on a primitively homogeneous cylinder4 ,the serial homology of the fore and hind limbs is explained by the same writer as the result of a similarity in the influences and conditions to which they are exposed4 ,serial homologues so formed might be called1 as ,mr4 ,ray ,lankester has proposed1 homoplastic4 ,but there are1 it is here contended1 abundant reasons for thinking that the predominant agent in the production of the homologies of the limbs is an internal force or tendency4 ,and if such a power can be shown to be necessary in this instance1 it may also be legitimately used to explain such serial homologies as those of the centipede's segments and of the joints of the backbone4 ,at the same time it is not1 of course1 pretended that external conditions do not contribute their own effects in addition4 ,the presence of this internal power will be rendered more probable if valid arguments can be brought forward against the explanations which ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer has offered4 ,lateral homology 7or bilateral symmetry7 is the resemblance between the right and left sides of an animal1 or of part of an animal2 as1 e4g41 between our right hand and our left4 ,it exists more or less at one or other time of life in all animals1 except some very lowly organized creatures4 ,in the highest animals this symmetry is laid down at the very dawn of life1 the first trace of the future creature being a longitudinal streak--the embryonic primitive groove4 ,this kind of homology is explained by ,mr4 ,spencer as the result of the similar way in which conditions affect #afe the right and left sides respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,vertebr ,,of ,,axolotl4 ,vertical homology 7or vertical symmetry7 is the resemblance existing between parts which are placed one above the other beneath4 ,it is much less general and marked than serial1 or lateral homology4 ,nevertheless1 it is plainly to be seen in the tail region of most fishes1 and in the far-extending dorsal 7back7 and ventral 7belly7 fins of such kinds as the sole and the flounder4 ,it is also strikingly shown in the bones of the tail of certain efts1 as in ,chioglossa1 where the complexity of the upper 7neural7 arch is closely repeated by the inferior one4 ,again1 in ,spelerpes rubra1 where almost vertically ascending articular processes above are repeated by almost vertically descending articular processes below4 ,also in the axolotl1 where there are douple pits1 placed side by side1 not only superiorly but at the same time inferiorly4#afg ,this kind of homology is also explained by ,mr4 ,spencer as the result of the similarity of conditions affecting the two parts4 ,thus he explains the very general absence of symmetry between the dorsal and ventral surfaces of animals by the different conditions to which these two surfaces are respectively exposed1 and in the same way he explains the asymmetry of the flat-fishes 7,pleuronectid71 of snails1 c4 ,now1 first1 as regards ,mr4 ,spencer's explanation of animal forms by means of the influence of external conditions1 the following observations may be made4 ,abundant instances are brought forward by him of admirable adaptation of structure to circumstances1 but as to the immense majority of these it is very difficult1 if not impossible1 to see how external conditions#aff can have produced1 or even tended to have produced them4 ,for example1 we may take the migration of one eye of the sole to the other side of its head4 ,what is there here either in the darkness1 or the friction1 or in any other conceivable external cause1 to have produced the first beginning of such an unprecedented displacement of the eye8 ,mr4 ,spencer has beautifully illustrated that correlation which all must admit to exist between the forms of organisms and their surrounding external conditions1 but by no means proved that the latter are the cause of the former4 ,illustration3 ,,pleuronectid1 ,,with ,,the ,,peculiarly ,,placed ,,eye ,,in ,,different ,,positions4 ,some internal conditions 7or in ordinary language some internal power and force7 must be conceded to living organisms1 otherwise incident forces must act upon them and upon non-living aggregations of matter in the same way and with similar effects4 ,if the mere presence of these incident forces produces so ready a response in animals and plants1 it must be that there are1 in their case1 conditions disposing and enabling them so to respond1 according to the old maxim1 ,quicquid recipitur1 recipitur ad modum recipientis1 as the same rays of light which bleach a piece of silk1 blacken nitrate of silver4 ,if1 therefore1 we attribute the forms of organisms to the action of #afg external conditions1 i4e4 of incident forces on their modifiable structure1 we give but a partial account of the matter1 removing a step back1 as it were1 the action of the internal condition1 power1 or force which must be conceived as occasioning such ready modifiability4 ,but indeed it is not at all easy to see how the influence of the surface of the ground or any conceivable condition or force can produce the difference which exists between the ventral and dorsal shields of the carapace of a tortoise1 or by what differences of merely external causes the ovaries of the two sides of the body can be made equal in a bat and unequal in a bird4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,echinus1 ,,or ,,sea-,,urchin4 7,the spines removed from one-half47 ,there is1 on the other hand1 an a priori reason why we should expect to find that the symmetrical forms of all animals are due to internal causes4 ,this reason is the fact that the symmetrical forms of minerals are undoubtedly due to such causes4 ,it is unnecessary here to do more than allude to the beautiful and complex forms presented by inorganic structures4 ,with regard to organisms1 however1 the wonderful ,acanthometr and the ,polycystina may be mentioned as presenting complexities of form which can hardly be thought to be due to other than internal causes4 ,the same may be said of the great group of ,echinoderms1 with their amazing#afh variety of component parts4 ,if then internal forces can so build up the most varied structures1 they are surely capable of producing the serial1 lateral1 and vertical symmetries which higher animal forms exhibit4 ,mr4 ,spencer is the more bound to admit this1 inasmuch as in his doctrine of physiological units he maintains that these organic atoms of his have an innate power of building up and evolving the whole and perfect animal from which they were in each case derived4 ,to build up and evolve the various symmetries here spoken of is not one whit more mysterious4 ,directly to refute ,mr4 ,spencer's assertion1 however1 would require the bringing forward of examples of organisms which are ill-adapted to their positions1 and out of harmony with their surroundings--a difficult task indeed4#afh ,secondly1 as regards the last-mentioned author's explanation of such serial homology as exists in the centipede and its allies1 the very groundwork is open to objection4 ,multiplication by spontaneous fission seems from some recent researches to be much less frequent than has been supposed1 and more evidence is required as to the fact of the habitual propagation of any planari in this fashion4#afi ,but even if this were as asserted1 #afi nevertheless it fails to explain the peculiar condition presented by ,syllis and some other annelids1 where a new head is formed at intervals in certain segments of the body4 ,here there is evidently an innate tendency to the development at intervals of a complex whole4 ,it is not the budding out or spontaneous fission of certain segments1 but the transformation in a definite and very peculiar manner of parts which already exist into other and more complex parts4 ,again1 the processes of development presented by some of these creatures do not by any means point to an origin through#agj the linear coalescence of primitively distinct animals by means of imperfect segmentation4 ,thus in certain ,diptera 7two winged flies7 the legs1 wings1 eyes1 c41 are derived from masses of formative tissue 7termed imaginal disks71 which by their mutual approximation together build up parts of the head and body1#agj recalling to mind the development of ,echinoderms4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,annelid ,,dividing ,,spontaneously4 7,a new head having been formed towards the hinder end of the body of the parent47 ,again1 ,nicholas ,wagner found in certain other ,diptera1 the ,hessian flies1 that the larva gives rise to secondary larv within it1 which develop and burst the body of the primary larva4 ,the secondary larv give rise1 similarly1 to another set within them1 and these again to another#aga set4 ,again1 the fact that in ,tnia echinococcus one egg produces numerous individuals1 tends to invalidate the argument that the increase of segments during development is a relic of specific genesis4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer seems to deny serial homology to the mollusca1 but it is difficult to see why the shell segments of chiton are not such homologues because the segmentation is superficial4 ,similarly the external processes of eolis1 doris1 c41 are good examples of serial homology1 as also are plainly the successive chambers of the orthoceratid4 ,nor are parts of a series less serial1 because arranged spirally1 as in most gasteropods4 ,mr4 ,spencer observes of the molluscous as of the vertebrate animal1 ,you cannot cut it into transverse slices1 each of which contains a digestive organ1 a respiratory organ1 a reproductive organ1 c4#agb ,but the same may be said of every single arthropod and annelid if it be meant that all these organs are not contained in every possible slice4 ,while if it be meant that parts of all such organs are contained in certain slices1 then some of the mollusca may also be included4 ,another objection to ,mr4 ,spencer's speculation is derived from considerations which have already been stated1 as to past time4 ,for if#aga the annulose animals have been formed by aggregation1 we ought to find this process much less perfect in the oldest form4 ,but a complete development1 such as already obtains in the lobster1 c41 was reached by the ,eurypterida and ,trilobites of the palozoic strata2 and annelids1 probably formed mainly like those of the present day1 abounded during the deposition of the oldest fossiliferous rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,trilobite4 ,thirdly1 and lastly1 as regards such serial homology as is exemplified by the backbone of man1 there are also several objections to ,mr4 ,spencer's mechanical explanation4 ,on the theory of evolution most in favour1 the first ,vertebrata were aquatic4 ,now1 as natation is generally effected by repeated and vigorous lateral flexions of the body1 we ought to find the segmentation much more complete laterally than on the dorsal and ventral aspects of the spinal column4 ,nevertheless1 in those species which1 taken together1 constitute a series of more and more distinctly segmented forms1 the segmentation gradually increases all round the central part of the spinal column4 ,mr4 ,spencer#agc thinks it probable that the sturgeon has retained the notochordal 7that is1 the primitive1 unsegmented7 structure because it#agb is sluggish4 ,but ,dr4 ,gnther informs me that the sluggishness of the common tope 7,galeus vulgaris7 is much like that of the sturgeon1 and yet the bodies of its vertebr are distinct and well-ossified4 ,moreover1 the great salamander of ,japan is much more inert and sluggish than either1 and yet it has a well-developed1 bony spine4 ,i can learn nothing of the habits of the sharks ,hexanchus1 ,heptanchus1 and ,echinorhinus1 but ,mller describes them as possessing a persistent chorda dorsalis4#agd ,it may be they have the habits of the tope1 but other sharks are amongst the very swiftest and most active of fishes4 ,in the bony pike 7lepidosteus71 the rigidity of the bony scales by which it is completely enclosed must prevent any excessive flexion of the body1 and yet its vertebral column presents a degree of ossification and vertebral completeness greater than that found in any other fish whatever4 ,mr4 ,spencer supports his argument by the non-segmentation of the anterior end of the skeletal axis1 i4e4 by the non-segmentation of the skull4 ,but in fact the skull is segmented1 and1 according to the quasi-vertebral theory of the skull put forward by ,professor ,huxley1#age is probably formed of a number of coalesced segments1 of some of which the trabecul cranii and the mandibular and hyoidean arches are indications4 ,what is1 perhaps1 most remarkable however is1 that the segmentation of the skull--its separation into the three occipital1 parietal1 and frontal elements--is most complete and distinct in the highest class1 and this can have nothing1 however remotely1 to do with the cause suggested by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,thus1 then1 there is something to be said in opposition to both the aggregational and the mechanical explanations of serial homology4 ,the explanations suggested are very ingenious1 yet repose upon a very #agc small basis of fact4 ,not but that the process of vertebral segmentation may have been sometimes assisted by the mechanical action suggested4 ,it remains now to consider what are the evidences in support of the existence of an internal power1 by the action of which these homological manifestations are evolved4 ,it is here contended that there is good evidence of the existence of some such special internal power1 and that not only from facts of comparative anatomy1 but also from those of teratology#agf and pathology4 ,these facts appear to show1 not only that there are homological internal relations1 but that they are so strong and energetic as to re-assert and re-exhibit themselves in creatures which1 on the ,darwinian theory1 are the descendants of others in which they were much less marked4 ,they are1 in fact1 sometimes even more plain and distinct in animals of the highest types than in inferior forms1 and1 moreover1 this deep-seated tendency acts even in diseased and abnormal conditions4 ,mr4 ,darwin recognizes#agg these homological relations1 and does not doubt that they may be mastered more or less completely by ,natural ,selection4 ,he does not1 however1 give any explanation of these phenomena other than the imposition on them of the name laws of correlation2 and indeed he says1 ,the nature of the bond of correlation is frequently quite obscure4 ,now1 it is surely more desirable to make use1 if possible1 of one conception than to imagine a number of1 to all appearance1 separate and independent laws of correlation between different parts of each animal4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aard-,,vark 7,,orycteropus74 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pangolin 7,,manis74 ,but even some of these alleged laws hardly appear well founded4 ,thus ,mr4 ,darwin1 in support of such a law of concomitant variation as regards hair and teeth1 brings forward the case of ,julia ,pastrana1#agh and a man #agd of the ,burmese ,court1 and adds1#agi ,these cases and those of the hairless dogs forcibly call to mind the fact that the two orders of mammals1 namely1 the ,edentata and ,cetacea1 which are the most abnormal in their dermal covering1 are likewise the most abnormal either by deficiency or redundancy of teeth4 ,the assertion with regard to these orders is certainly true1 but it should be borne in mind at the same time that the armadillos1 which are much more abnormal than are the ,american anteaters as regards their dermal covering1 in their dentition are less so4 ,the ,cape ant-eater1 on the other hand1 the ,aard-vark 7,orycteropus71 has teeth formed on a type quite different from that existing in any other mammal2 yet its hairy coat is not known to exhibit any such strange peculiarity4 ,again1 those remarkable scaly ant-eaters of the ,old ,world--the pangolins 7,manis7--stand alone amongst mammals as regards their dermal covering2 having been classed #age with lizards by early naturalists on account of their clothing of scales1 yet their mouth is like that of the hairy ant-eaters of the ,new ,world4 ,on the other hand1 the duck-billed platypus of ,australia 7,ornithorhynchus7 is the only mammal which has teeth formed of horn1 yet its furry coat is normal and ordinary4 ,again1 the ,dugong and ,manatee are dermally alike1 yet extremely different as regards the structure and number of their teeth4 ,the porcupine also1 in spite of its enormous armature of quills1 is furnished with as good a supply of teeth as are the hairy members of the same family1 but not with a better one2 and in spite of the deficiency of teeth in the hairless dogs1 no converse redundancy of teeth has1 it is believed1 been remarked in ,angora cats and rabbits4 ,to say the least1 then1 this law #agf of correlation presents numerous and remarkable exceptions4 ,illustration3 ,,dugong4 ,to return1 however1 to the subject of homological relations3 it is surely inconceivable that indefinite variation with survival of the fittest can ever have built up these serial1 bilateral1 and vertical homologies1 without the action of some special innate power or tendency so to build up1 possessed by the organism itself in each case4 ,by special tendency is meant one the laws and conditions of which are as yet unknown1 but which is analogous to the innate power and tendency possessed by crystals similarly1 to build up certain peculiar and very definite forms4 ,first1 with regard to comparative anatomy4 ,the correspondence between the thoracic and pelvic limbs is notorious4 ,professor ,gegenbaur has lately endeavoured#ahj to explain this resemblance by the derivation of each limb from a primitive form of fin4 ,this fin is supposed to have had a marginal external 7radial7 series of cartilages1 each of which supported a series of secondary cartilages1 starting from the inner 7ulnar7 side of the distal part of the supporting marginal piece4 ,the root marginal piece would become the humerus or femur1 as the case might be3 the second marginal piece1 with the piece attached to the inner side of the distal end of the root marginal piece1 would together form either the radius and ulna or the tibia and fibula1 and so on4 ,now there is little doubt 7from a priori considerations7 but that the special differentiation of the limb bones of the higher ,vertebrates has been evolved from anterior conditions existing in some fish-like form or other4 ,but the particular view advocated by the learned ,professor is open to criticism4 ,thus1 it may be objected against this view1 first1 that it takes no account of the radial ossicle which becomes so enormous in the mole2 secondly1 that it does not explain the extra series of ossicles #agg which are formed on the outer 7radial or marginal7 side of the paddle in the ,ichthyosaurus2 and thirdly1 and most importantly1 that even if this had been the way in which the limbs had been differentiated1 it would not be at all inconsistent with the possession of an innate power of producing1 and an innate tendency to produce similar and symmetrical homological resemblances4 ,it would not be so because resemblances of the kind are found to exist1 which1 on the ,darwinian theory1 must be subsequent and secondary1 not primitive and ancestral4 ,thus we find in animals of the eft kind 7certain amphibians71 in which the tarsus is cartilaginous1 that the carpus is cartilaginous likewise4 ,and we shall see in cases of disease and of malformation what a tendency there is to a similar affection of homologous parts4 ,in efts1 as ,professor ,gegenbaur himself has pointed out1#aha there is a striking correspondence between the bones or cartilages supporting the arm1 wrist1 and fingers1 and those sustaining the leg1 ankle1 and toes1 with the exception that the toes exceed the fingers in number by one4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,anterior ,,extremity ,,of ,,an ,,eft4 ,b4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,posterior ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,same4 ,yet these animals are far from being the root-forms from which all the ,vertebrata have diverged1 as is evidenced from the degree of specialization which their structure presents4 ,if they have descended from such #agh primitive forms as ,professor ,gegenbaur imagines1 then they have built up a secondary serial homology--a repetition of similar modifications--fully as remarkable as if it were primary4 ,the ,plesiosauria--those extinct marine reptiles of the ,secondary period1 with long necks1 small heads1 and paddle-like limbs--are of yet higher organization than are the efts and other ,amphibia4 ,nevertheless they present us with a similarity of structure between the fore and hind limb1 which is so great as almost to be #agi identity4 ,but the ,amphibia and ,plesiosauria1 though not themselves primitive vertebrate types1 may be thought by some to have derived their limb-structure by direct descent from such4 ,tortoises1 however1 must be admitted to be not only highly differentiated organisms1 but to be far indeed removed from primeval vertebrate structure4 ,yet certain tortoises#ahb 7notably ,chelydra ,temminckii7 exhibit such a remarkable uniformity in fore and hind limb structure 7extending even up to the proximal ends of the humerus and femur7 that it is impossible to doubt its independent development in these forms4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,plesiosaurus4 ,again in the ,potto 7,perodicticus7 there is an extra bone in the foot1 situated in the transverse ligament enclosing the flexor tendons4 ,it is noteworthy that in the hand of the same animal a serially homologous structure should also be developed4#ahc ,in the allied form called the slow lemur 7,nycticebus7 we have certain arrangements of the muscles and tendons of the hand which reproduce in great measure those of the foot and vice vers4#ahd ,and in the ,hyrax another myological resemblance appears4#ahe ,it is1 however1 needless to multiply instances which can easily be produced in large numbers if required4 ,secondly1 with regard to teratology1 it is notorious that similar abnormalities are often found to co-exist in both the pelvic and thoracic limbs4 ,m4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire remarks1#ahf ,l'anomalie se rpte d'un membre thoracique au membre abdominal du mme ct4 ,and he afterwards quotes from ,weitbrecht1#ahg who had observ dans un cas l'absence simultane aux deux mains et aux deux pieds1 de quelques doigts1 de #ahj quelques metacarpiens et metatarsiens1 enfin de quelques os du carpe et du tarse4 ,illustration3 ,,long ,,flexor ,,muscles ,,and ,,tendons ,,of ,,the ,,hand4 ,p4t4 ,pronator teres4 ,f4s4 ,flexor sublimis digitorum4 ,f4p4 ,flexor profundus digitorum4 ,f4l4p4 ,flexor longus pollicis4 ,professor ,burt ,g4 ,wilder1 in his paper on extra digits1#ahh has #aha recorded no less than twenty-four cases where such excess coexisted in both little fingers2 also one case in which the right little finger and little toe were so affected2 six in which it was both the little fingers and both the little toes2 and twenty-two other cases more or less the same1 but in which the details were not accurately to be obtained4 ,mr4 ,darwin cites#ahi a remarkable instance of what he is inclined to regard as the development in the foot of birds of a sort of representation of the wing-feathers of the hand4 ,he says3 ,in several distinct breeds of the pigeon and fowl the legs and the two outer toes are heavily feathered1 so that1 in the trumpeter pigeon1 they appear like little wings4 ,in the feather-legged bantam1 the 'boots1' or feathers1 which grow from the outside of the leg1 and generally from the two outer toes1 have1 according to the excellent authority of ,mr4 ,hewitt1 been seen to exceed the wing-feathers in length1 and in one case were actually nine and a half inches in length6 ,as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked to me1 these leg-feathers resemble the primary wing-feathers1 and are totally unlike the fine down which naturally grows on the legs of some birds1 such as grouse and owls4 ,hence it may be suspected that excess of food has first given redundancy to the plumage1 and then that the law of homologous variation has led to the development of feathers on the legs1 in a position corresponding with those on the wing1 namely1 on the outside of the tarsi and toes4 ,i am strengthened in this belief by the following curious case of correlation1 which for a long time seemed to me utterly inexplicable1--namely1 that in pigeons of any breed1 if the legs are feathered1 the two outer toes are partially connected by skin4 ,these two outer toes correspond with our third and fourth toes4 ,now1 in the wing of the pigeon1 or any other bird1 the first and fifth digits are wholly aborted2 the second is rudimentary1 and carries the so-called 'bastard wing2' whilst the third and fourth #ahb digits are completely united and enclosed by skin1 together forming the extremity of the wing4 ,so that in feather-footed pigeons not only does the exterior surface support a row of long feathers like wing-feathers1 but the very same digits which in the wing are completely united by skin become partially united by skin in the feet2 and thus1 by the law of the correlated variation of homologous parts1 we can understand the curious connexion of feathered legs and membrane between the outer toes4 ,irregularities in the circulating system are far from uncommon1 and sometimes illustrate this homological tendency4 ,my friend and colleague ,mr4 ,george ,g4 ,gascoyen1 assistant surgeon at ,st4 ,mary's ,hospital1 has supplied me with two instances of symmetrical affections which have come under his observation4 ,in the first of these the brachial artery bifurcated almost at its origin1 the two halves re-uniting at the elbow-joint1 and then dividing into the radial and ulnar arteries in the usual manner4 ,in the second case an aberrant artery was given off from the radial side of the brachial artery1 again almost at its origin4 ,this aberrant artery anastomosed below the elbow-joint with the radial side of the radial artery4 ,in each of these cases the right and left sides varied in precisely the same manner4 ,thirdly1 as to pathology4 ,mr4 ,james ,paget1#aij speaking of symmetrical diseases1 says3 ,a certain morbid change of structure on one side of the body is repeated in the exactly corresponding part of the other side4 ,he then quotes and figures a diseased lion's pelvis from the ,college of ,surgeons ,museum1 and says of it3 ,multiform as the pattern is in which the new bone1 the product of some disease comparable with a human rheumatism1 is deposited--a pattern more complex and irregular than the spots upon a map--there is not one spot or line on one side which is not represented1 as exactly as it would be in a mirror1 on the other4 ,the likeness has more than daguerreotype exactness4 ,he goes on to observe3 ,i need not #ahc describe many examples of such diseases4 ,any out-patients' room will furnish abundant instances of exact symmetry in the eruptions of eczema1 lepra1 and psoriasis2 in the deformities of chronic rheumatism1 the paralyses from lead2 in the eruptions excited by iodide of potassium or copaiba4 ,and any large museum will contain examples of equal symmetry in syphilitic ulcerations of the skull2 in rheumatic and syphilitic deposits on the tibi and other bones2 in all the effects of chronic rheumatic arthritis1 whether in the bones1 the ligaments1 or the cartilages2 in the fatty and earthy deposits in the coats of arteries4#aia ,he also considered it to be proved that1 ,next to the parts which are symmetrically placed1 none are so nearly identical in composition as those which are homologous4 ,for example1 the backs of the hands and of the feet1 or the palms and soles1 are often not only symmetrically1 but similarly1 affected with psoriasis4 ,so are the elbows and the knees2 and similar portions of the thighs and the arms may be found affected with ichthyosis4 ,sometimes also specimens of fatty and earthy deposits in the arteries occur1 in which exact similarity is shown in the plan1 though not in the degree1 with which the disease affects severally the humeral and femoral1 the radial and peroneal1 the ulnar and posterior tibial arteries4 ,dr4 ,william ,budd#aib gives numerous instances of symmetry in disease1 both lateral and serial4 ,thus1 amongst others1 we have one case 7,william ,godfrey71 in which the hands and feet were distorted4 ,the distortion of the right hand is greater than that of the left1 of the right foot greater than that of the left foot4 ,in another 7,elizabeth ,alford7 lepra affected the extensor surfaces of the thoracic and pelvic limbs4 ,again1 in the case of skin disease illustrated in ,plate ,,iii41 ,the analogy between the #ahd elbows and knees is clearly expressed in the fact that these were the only parts affected with the disease4#aic ,professor ,burt ,wilder1#aid in his paper on ,pathological ,polarities1 strongly supports the philosophical importance of these peculiar relations1 adding arguments in favour of antero-posterior homologies1 which it is here unnecessary to discuss1 enough having been said1 it is believed1 to thoroughly demonstrate the existence of these deep internal relations which are named lateral and serial homologies4 ,what explanation can be offered of these phenomena8 ,to say that they exhibit a nutritional relation brought about by a balancing of forces is merely to give a new denomination to the unexplained fact4 ,the changes are1 of course1 brought about by a nutritional process1 and the symmetry is undoubtedly the result of a balance of forces1 but to say so is a truism4 ,the question is1 what is the cause of this nutritional balancing8 ,it is here contended that it must be due to an internal cause which at present science is utterly incompetent to explain4 ,it is an internal property possessed by each living organic whole as well as by each non-living crystalline mass1 and that there is such internal power or tendency1 which may be spoken of as a polarity1 seems to be demonstrated by the instances above given1 which can easily be multiplied indefinitely4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer#aie 7speaking of the reproduction1 by budding1 of a ,begonia-leaf7 recognizes a power of the kind4 ,he says1 ,we have1 therefore1 no alternative but to say that the living particles composing one of these fragments have an innate tendency to arrange themselves into the shape of the organism to which they belong4 ,we must infer that a plant or animal of any species is made up of special units1 in all of which there dwells the intrinsic aptitude to aggregate into the form of that species2 just as#ahe in the atoms of a salt1 there dwells the intrinsic aptitude to crystallize in a particular way4 ,it seems difficult to conceive that this can be so2 but we see that it is so4 444 ,for this property there is no fit term4 ,if we accept the word polarity as a name for the force by which inorganic units are aggregated into a form peculiar to them1 we may apply this word to the analogous force displayed by organic limits4 ,dr4 ,jeffries ,wyman1#aif in his paper on the ,symmetry and ,homology of ,limbs1 has a distinct chapter on the ,analogy between ,symmetry and ,polarity1 illustrating it by the effects of magnets on particles in a polar condition4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy1 after noticing#aig the power which crystals have to repair injuries inflicted on them and the modifications they undergo through the influence of the medium in which they may be formed1 goes on to say3#aih ,it needs no proof that in the case of spheres and crystals the forms and the structures are the effect1 and not the cause1 of the formative principles4 ,attraction1 whether gravitative or capillary1 produces the spherical form2 the spherical form does not produce attraction4 ,and crystalline polarities produce crystalline structure and form2 crystalline structure and form do not produce crystalline polarities4 ,the same is not quite so evident of organic forms1 but it is equally true of them also4 444 ,it is not conceivable that the microscope should reveal peculiarities of structure corresponding to peculiarities of habitual tendency in the embryo1 which at its first formation has no structure whatever2#aii and he adds that there is something quite inscrutable and mysterious in the formation of a new individual from the germinal #ahf matter of the embryo4 ,in another place#bjj he says3 ,we know that in crystals1 notwithstanding the variability of form within the limits of the same species1 there are definite and very peculiar formative laws1 which cannot possibly depend on anything like organic functions1 because crystals have no such functions2 and it ought not to surprise us if there are similar formative or morphological laws among organisms1 which1 like the formative laws of crystallization1 cannot be referred to any relation of form or structure to function4 ,especially1 ,i think1 is this true of the lowest organisms1 many of which show great beauty of form1 of a kind that appears to be altogether due to symmetry of growth2 as the beautiful star-like rayed forms of the acanthometr1 which are low animal organisms not very different from the ,foraminifera4 ,their definiteness of form does not appear to be accompanied by any corresponding differentiation of function between different parts2 and1 so far as ,i can see1 the beautiful regularity and symmetry of their radiated forms are altogether due to unknown laws of symmetry of growth1 just like the equally beautiful and somewhat similar forms of the compound six-rayed1 star-shaped crystals of snow4 ,altogether1 then1 it appears that each organism has an innate tendency to develop in a symmetrical manner1 and that this tendency is controlled and subordinated by the action of external conditions1 and not that this symmetry is superinduced only ab externo4 ,in fact1 that each organism has its own internal and special laws of growth and development4 ,if1 then1 it is still necessary to conceive an internal law or substantial form1 moulding each organic being1#bja and directing its development#ahg as a crystal is built up1 only in an indefinitely more complex manner1 it is congruous to imagine the existence of some internal law accounting at the same time for specific divergence as well as for specific identity4 ,a principle regulating the successive evolution of different organic forms is not one whit more mysterious than is the mysterious power by which a particle of structureless sarcode develops successively into an egg1 a grub1 a chrysalis1 a butterfly1 when all the conditions1 cosmical1 physical1 chemical1 and vital1 are supplied1 which are the requisite accompaniments to determine such evolution4 ,page #ahh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,ethics4 ,the origin of morals an inquiry not foreign to the subject of this book4--,modern utilitarian view as to that origin4--,mr4 ,darwin's speculation as to the origin of the abhorrence of incest4--,cause assigned by him insufficient4--,care of the aged and infirm opposed by ,natural ,selection2 also self-abnegation and asceticism4--,distinctness of the ideas right and useful4--,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill4--,insufficiency of ,natural ,selection to account for the origin of the distinction between duty and profit4---,distinction of moral acts into material and formal4--,no ground for believing that formal morality exists in brutes4--,evidence that it does exist in savages4--,facility with which savages may be misunderstood4--,objections as to diversity of customs4--,mr4 ,hutton's review of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4--,anticipatory character of morals4--,sir ,john ,lubbock's explanation4--,summary and conclusion4 ,any inquiry into the origin of the notion of morality--the conception of right--may1 perhaps1 be considered as somewhat remote from the question of the ,genesis of ,species2 the more so1 since ,mr4 ,darwin1 at one time1 disclaimed any pretension to explain the origin of the higher psychical phenomena of man4 ,his disciples1 however1 were never equally reticent1 and indeed he himself is now not only about to produce a work on man 7in which this question must be considered71 but he has distinctly announced the extension of the application of his theory to the very phenomena in question4 ,he says3#bjb ,in the distant future ,i see open fields for #ahi far more important researches4 ,psychology will be based on a new foundation1 that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation4 ,light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history4 ,it may not be amiss then to glance slightly at the question1 so much disputed1 concerning the origin of ethical conceptions and its bearing on the theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,the followers of ,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 and apparently1 also1 of ,mr4 ,darwin1 assert that in spite of the great present difference between the ideas useful and right1 yet that they are1 nevertheless1 one in origin1 and that that origin consisted ultimately of pleasurable and painful sensations4 ,they say that ,natural ,selection has evolved moral conceptions from perceptions of what was useful1 i4e4 pleasurable1 by having through long ages preserved a predominating number of those individuals who have had a natural and spontaneous liking for practices and habits of mind useful to the race1 and that the same power has destroyed a predominating number of those individuals who possessed a marked tendency to contrary practices4 ,the descendants of individuals so preserved have1 they say1 come to inherit such a liking and such useful habits of mind1 and that at last 7finding this inherited tendency thus existing in themselves1 distinct from their tendency to conscious self-gratification7 they have become apt to regard it as fundamentally distinct1 innate1 and independent of all experience4 ,in fact1 according to this school1 the idea of right is only the result of the gradual accretion of useful predilections which1 from time to time1 arose in a series of ancestors naturally selected4 ,in this way1 morality is1 as it were1 the congealed past experience of the race1 and virtue becomes no more than a sort of retrieving1 which the thus improved human animal practises by a perfected and inherited habit1 regardless of self-gratification1 just as the brute animal has acquired the habit of seeking prey and bringing it to his master1 instead of devouring it #aij himself4 ,though ,mr4 ,darwin has not as yet expressly advocated this view1 yet some remarks made by him appear to show his disposition to sympathise with it4 ,thus1 in his work on ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1#bjc he asserts that the savages of ,australia and ,south ,america hold the crime of incest in abhorrence2 but he considers that this abhorrence has probably arisen by ,natural ,selection1 the ill effects of close interbreeding causing the less numerous and less healthy offspring of incestuous unions to disappear by degrees1 in favour of the descendants 7greater both in number and strength7 of individuals who naturally1 from some cause or other1 as he suggests1 preferred to mate with strangers rather than with close blood-relations2 this preference being transmitted and becoming thus instinctive1 or habitual1 in remote descendants4 ,but on ,mr4 ,darwin's own ground1 it maybe objected that this notion fails to account for abhorrence1 and moral reprobation2 for1 as no stream can rise higher than its source1 the original slight feeling which was useful would have been perpetuated1 but would never have been augmented beyond the degree requisite to ensure this beneficial preference1 and therefore would not certainly have become magnified into abhorrence4 ,it will not do to assume that the union of males and females1 each possessing the required slight feeling1 must give rise to offspring with an intensified feeling of the same kind2 for1 apart from reversion1 ,mr4 ,darwin has called attention to the unexpected modifications which sometimes result from the union of similarly constituted parents4 ,thus1 for example1 he tells us3#bjd ,if two top-knotted canaries are matched1 the young1 instead of having very fine top-knots1 are generally bald4 ,from examples of this kind1 it is fair1 on ,darwinian principles1 to infer that the union of #aia parents who possessed a similar inherited aversion might result in phenomena quite other than the augmentation of such aversion1 even if the two aversions should be altogether similar2 while1 very probably1 they might be so different in their nature as to tend to neutralize each other4 ,besides1 the union of parents so similarly emotional would be rare indeed amongst savages1 where marriages would be owing to almost anything rather than to congeniality of mind between the spouses4 ,mr4 ,wallace tells us1#bje that they choose their wives for rude health and physical beauty1 and this is just what might be naturally supposed4 ,again1 we must bear in mind the necessity there is that many individuals should be similarly and simultaneously affected with this aversion from consanguineous unions2 as we have seen in the second chapter1 how infallibly variations presented by only a few individuals1 tend to be eliminated by mere force of numbers4 ,mr4 ,darwin indeed would throw back this aversion1 if possible1 to a pre-human period2 since he speculates as to whether the gorillas or orang-utans1 in effecting their matrimonial relations1 show any tendency to respect the prohibited degrees of affinity4#bjf ,no tittle of evidence1 however1 has yet been adduced pointing in any such direction1 though surely if it were of such importance and efficiency as to result 7through the aid of ,natural ,selection alone7 in that abhorrence before spoken of1 we might expect to be able to detect unmistakeable evidence of its incipient stages4 ,on the contrary1 as regards the ordinary apes 7for with regard to the highest there is no evidence of the kind7 as we see them in confinement1 it would be difficult to name any animals less restricted1 by even a generic bar1 in the gratification of the sexual instinct4 ,and although the conditions under which they have been observed are abnormal1 yet these are hardly the animals to present us in a state of nature1 with an extraordinary and exceptional sensitiveness in such matters4 ,page #aib ,to take an altogether different case4 ,care of1 and tenderness towards1 the aged and infirm are actions on all hands admitted to be right2 but it is difficult to see how such actions could ever have been so useful to a community as to have been seized on and developed by the exclusive action of the law of the survival of the fittest4 ,on the contrary1 it seems probable that on strict utilitarian principles the rigid political economy of ,tierra del ,fuego would have been eminently favoured and diffused by the impartial action of ,natural ,selection alone4 ,by the rigid political economy referred to1 is meant that destruction and utilization of useless mouths which ,mr4 ,darwin himself describes in his highly interesting ,journal of ,researches4#bjg ,he says3 ,it is certainly true1 that when pressed in winter by hunger1 they kill and devour their old women before they kill their dogs4 ,the boy being asked why they did this1 answered1 ',doggies catch otters1 old women no4' ,they often run away into the mountains1 but they are pursued by the men and brought back to the slaughter-house at their own firesides4 ,mr4 ,edward ,bartlett1 who has recently returned from the ,amazons1 reports that at one ,indian village where the cholera made its appearance1 the whole population immediately dispersed into the woods1 leaving the sick to perish uncared for and alone4 ,now1 had the ,indians remained1 undoubtedly far more would have died2 as doubtless1 in ,tierra del ,fuego1 the destruction of the comparatively useless old women has often been the means of preserving the healthy and reproductive young4 ,such acts surely must be greatly favoured by the stern and unrelenting action of exclusive ,natural ,selection4 ,in the same way that admiration which all feel for acts of self-denial done for the good of others1 and tending even towards the destruction of the actor1 could hardly be accounted for on ,darwinian principles alone2 for self-immolators must but rarely leave direct descendants1 while the community they benefit must by their destruction tend1 so far1 to #aic morally deteriorate4 ,but devotion to others of the same community is by no means all that has to be accounted for4 ,devotion to the whole human race1 and devotion to ,god--in the form of asceticism--have been and are very generally recognized as good2 and the ,author contends that it is simply impossible to conceive that such ideas and sanctions should have been developed by ,natural ,selection alone1 from only that degree of unselfishness necessary for the preservation of brutally barbarous communities in the struggle for life4 ,that degree of unselfishness once attained1 further improvement would be checked by the mutual opposition of diverging moral tendencies and spontaneous variations in all directions4 ,added to which1 we have the principle of reversion and atavism1 tending powerfully to restore and reproduce that more degraded anterior condition whence the later and better state painfully emerged4 ,very few1 however1 dispute the complete distinctness1 here and now1 of the ideas of duty and interest whatever may have been the origin of those ideas4 ,no one pretends that ingratitude may1 in any past abyss of time1 have been a virtue1 or that it may be such now in ,arcturus or the ,pleiades4 ,indeed1 a certain eminent writer of the utilitarian school of ethics has amusingly and very instructively shown how radically distinct even in his own mind are the two ideas which he nevertheless endeavours to identify4 ,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 in his examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 says1#bjh if ,i am informed that the world is ruled by a being whose attributes are infinite1 but what they are we cannot learn1 nor what the principles of his government1 except that 'the highest human morality which we are capable of conceiving' does not sanction them2 convince me of it1 and ,i will bear my fate as ,i may4 ,but when ,i am told that ,i must believe this1 and at the same time call this being by the #aid names which express and affirm the highest human morality1 ,i say in plain terms that ,i will not4 ,whatever power such a being may have over me1 there is one thing which he shall not do3 he shall not compel me to worship him4 ,i will call no being good1 who is not what ,i mean when ,i apply that epithet to my fellow-creatures2 and if such a being can sentence me to hell for not so calling him1 to hell ,i will go4 ,this is unquestionably an admirable sentiment on the part of ,mr4 ,mill 7with which every absolute moralist will agree71 but it contains a complete refutation of his own position1 and is a capital instance#bji of the vigorous life of moral intuition in one who professes to have eliminated any fundamental distinction between the right and the expedient4 ,for if an action is morally good1 and to be done1 merely in proportion to the amount of pleasure it secures1 and morally bad and to be avoided as tending to misery1 and if it could be proved that by calling ,god good--whether ,he is so or not1 in our sense of the term1--we could secure a maximum of pleasure1 and by refusing to do so we should incur endless torment1 clearly1 on utilitarian principles1 the flattery would be good4 ,mr4 ,mill1 of course1 must also mean that1 in the matter in question1 all men would do well to act with him4 ,therefore1 he must mean that it would be well for all to accept 7on the hypothesis above given7 infinite and final misery for all as the result of the pursuit of happiness as the only end4 ,it must be recollected that in consenting to worship this unholy ,god1 ,mr4 ,mill is not asked to do harm to his neighbour1 so that his refusal reposes simply on his perception of the immorality of the requisition4 ,it is also noteworthy that an omnipotent ,deity is supposed incapable of altering ,mr4 ,mill's mind and moral perceptions4 ,mr4 ,mill's decision is right1 but it is difficult indeed to see how1 #aie without the recognition of an absolute morality1 he can justify so utter and final an abandonment of all utility in favour of a clear and distinct moral perception4 ,these two ideas1 the right and the useful1 being so distinct here and now1 a greater difficulty meets us with regard to their origin from some common source1 than met us before when considering the first beginnings of certain bodily structures4 ,for the distinction between the right and the useful is so fundamental and essential that not only does the idea of benefit not enter into the idea of duty1 but we see that the very fact of an act not being beneficial to us makes it the more praiseworthy1 while gain tends to diminish the merit of an action4 ,yet this idea1 right1 thus excluding1 as it does1 all reference to utility or pleasure1 has nevertheless to be constructed and evolved from utility and pleasure1 and ultimately from pleasurable sensations1 if we are to accept pure ,darwinianism3 if we are to accept1 that is1 the evolution of man's psychical nature and highest powers1 by the exclusive action of ,natural ,selection1 from such faculties as are possessed by brutes2 in other words1 if we are to believe that the conceptions of the highest human morality arose through minute and fortuitous variations of brutal desires and appetites in all conceivable directions4 ,it is here contended1 on the other hand1 that no conservation of any such variations could ever have given rise to the faintest beginning of any such moral perceptions2 that by ,natural ,selection alone the maxim fiat justitia1 ruat coelum could never have been excogitated1 still less have found a widespread acceptance2 that it is impotent to suggest even an approach towards an explanation of the first beginning of the idea of right4 ,it need hardly be remarked that acts may be distinguished not only as pleasurable1 useful1 or beautiful1 but also as good in two different senses3 7#a7 materially moral acts1 and 7#b7 acts which are formally moral4 ,the first are acts good in themselves1 as acts1 apart from any intention of the agent which may or may not have been directed towards#aif right4 ,the second are acts which are good not only in themselves1 as acts1 but also in the deliberate intention of the agent who recognizes his actions as being right4 ,thus acts may be materially moral or immoral1 in a very high degree1 without being in the least formally so4 ,for example1 a person may tend and minister to a sick man with scrupulous care and exactness1 having in view all the time nothing but the future reception of a good legacy4 ,another may1 in the dark1 shoot his own father1 taking him to be an assassin1 and so commit what is materially an act of parricide1 though formally it is only an act of self-defence of more or less culpable rashness4 ,a woman may innocently1 because ignorantly1 marry a married man1 and so commit a material act of adultery4 ,she may discover the facts1 and persist1 and so make her act formal also4 ,actions of brutes1 such as those of the bee1 the ant1 or the beaver1 however materially good as regards their relation to the community to which such animals belong1 are absolutely destitute of the most incipient degree of real1 i4e4 formal goodness1 because unaccompanied by mental acts of conscious will directed towards the fulfilment of duty4 ,apology is due for thus stating so elementary a distinction1 but the statement is not superfluous1 for confusion of thought1 resulting from confounding together these very distinct things1 is unfortunately far from uncommon4 ,thus some ,darwinians assert that the germs of morality exist in brutes1 and we have seen that ,mr4 ,darwin himself speculates on the subject as regards the highest apes4 ,it may safely be affirmed1 however1 that there is no trace in brutes of any actions simulating morality which are not explicable by the fear of punishment1 by the hope of pleasure1 or by personal affection4 ,no sign of moral reprobation is given by any brute1 and yet had such existed in germ through ,darwinian abysses of past time1 some evidence of its existence must surely have been rendered perceptible through survival of the fittest in other forms besides man1 if that #aig survival has alone and exclusively produced it in him4 ,abundant examples may1 indeed1 be brought forward of useful acts which simulate morality1 such as parental care of the young1 c4 ,but did the most undeviating habits guide all brutes in such matters1 were even aged and infirm members of a community of insects or birds carefully tended by young which benefited by their experience1 such acts would not indicate even the faintest rudiment of real1 i4e4 formal1 morality4 ,natural ,selection would1 of course1 often lead to the prevalence of acts beneficial to a community1 and to acts materially good2 but unless they can be shown to be formally so1 they are not in the least to the point1 they do not offer any explanation of the origin of an altogether new and fundamentally different motive and conception4 ,it is interesting1 on the other hand1 to note ,mr4 ,darwin's statement as to the existence of a distinct moral feeling1 even in1 perhaps1 the very lowest and most degraded of all the human races known to us4 ,thus in the same ,journal of ,researches#baj before quoted1 bearing witness to the existence of moral reprobation on the part of the ,fuegians1 he says3 ,the nearest approach to religious feeling which ,i heard of was shown by ,york ,minster 7a ,fuegian so named71 who1 when ,mr4 ,bynoe shot some very young ducklings as specimens1 declared in the most solemn manner1 ',oh1 ,mr4 ,bynoe1 much rain1 snow1 blow much4' ,this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food4 ,mr4 ,wallace gives the most interesting testimony1 in his ,malay ,archipelago1 to the existence of a very distinct1 and in some instances highly developed moral sense in the natives with whom he came in contact4 ,in one case1#baa a ,papuan who had been paid in advance for bird-skins and who had not been able to fulfil his contract before ,mr4 ,wallace was on#aih the point of starting1 came running down after us holding up a bird1 and saying with great satisfaction1 ',now ,i owe you nothing6' ,and this though he could have withheld payment with complete impunity4 ,mr4 ,wallace's observations and opinions on this head seem hardly to meet with due appreciation in ,sir ,john ,lubbock's recent work on ,primitive ,man4#bab ,but considering the acute powers of observation and the industry of ,mr4 ,wallace1 and especially considering the years he passed in familiar and uninterrupted intercourse with natives1 his opinion and testimony should surely carry with it great weight4 ,he has informed the ,author that he found a strongly marked and widely diffused modesty1 in sexual matters1 amongst all the tribes with which he came in contact4 ,in the same way ,mr4 ,bonwick1 in his work on the ,tasmanians1 testifies to the modesty exhibited by the naked females of that race1 who by the decorum of their postures gave evidence of the possession in germ of what under circumstances would become the highest chastity and refinement4 ,hasty and incomplete observations and inductions are prejudicial enough to physical science1 but when their effect is to degrade untruthfully our common humanity1 there is an additional motive to regret them4 ,a hurried visit to a tribe1 whose language1 traditions and customs are unknown1 is sometimes deemed sufficient for smart remarks as to ape characters1 c41 which are as untrue as irrelevant4 ,it should not be forgotten how extremely difficult it is to enter into the ideas and feelings of an alien race4 ,if in the nineteenth century a ,french theatrical audience can witness with acquiescent approval1 as a type of ,english manners and ideas1 the representation of a marquis who sells his wife at ,smithfield1 c4 c41 it is surely no wonder if the ideas of a tribe of newly visited savages #aii should be more or less misunderstood4 ,to enter into such ideas requires long and familiar intimacy1 like that experienced by the explorer of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,from him1 and others1 we have abundant evidence that moral ideas exist1 at least in germ1 in savage races of men1 while they sometimes attain even a highly developed state4 ,no amount of evidence as to acts of moral depravity is to the point1 as the object here aimed at is to establish that moral intuitions exist in savages1 not that their actions are good4 ,objections1 however1 are sometimes drawn from the different notions as to the moral value of certain acts1 entertained by men of various countries or of different epochs2 also from the difficulty of knowing what particular actions in certain cases are the right ones1 and from the effects which prejudice1 interest1 passion1 habit1 or even1 indirectly1 physical conditions1 may have upon our moral perceptions4 ,thus ,sir ,john ,lubbock speaks#bac of certain ,feejeeans1 who1 according to the testimony of ,mr4 ,hunt1#bad have the custom of piously choking their parents under certain circumstances1 in order to insure their happiness in a future life4 ,should any one take such facts as telling against the belief in an absolute morality1 he would show a complete misapprehension of the point in dispute2 for such facts tell in favour of it4 ,were it asserted that man possesses a distinct innate power and faculty by which he is made intuitively aware what acts considered in and by themselves are right and what wrong1--an infallible and universal internal code1--the illustration would be to the point4 ,but all that need be contended for is that the intellect perceives not only truth1 but also a quality of higher which ought to be followed1 and of lower which ought to be avoided2 when two lines of conduct are presented to the will for choice1 the intellect so acting being the conscience4 #bjj ,this has been well put by ,mr4 ,james ,martineau in his excellent essay on ,whewell's ,morality4 ,he says1#bae ,if moral good were a quality resident in each action1 as whiteness in snow1 or sweetness in fruits2 and if the moral faculty was our appointed instrument for detecting its presence2 many consequences would ensue which are at variance with fact4 ,the wide range of differences observable in the ethical judgments of men would not exist2 and even if they did1 could no more be reduced and modified by discussion than constitutional differences of hearing or of vision4 ,and1 as the quality of moral good either must or must not exist in every important operation of the will1 we should discern its presence or absence separately in each2 and even though we never had the conception of more than one insulated action1 we should be able to pronounce upon its character4 ,this1 however1 we have plainly no power to do4 ,every moral judgment is relative1 and involves a comparison of two terms4 ,when we praise what has been done1 it is with the coexistent conception of something else that might have been done2 and when we resolve on a course as right1 it is to the exclusion of some other that is wrong4 ,this fact1 that every ethical decision is in truth a preference1 an election of one act as higher than another1 appears of fundamental importance in the analysis of the moral sentiments4 ,from this point of view it is plain how trifling are arguments drawn from the acts of a savage1 since an action highly immoral in us might be one exceedingly virtuous in him--being the highest presented to his choice in his degraded intellectual condition and peculiar circumstances4 ,it need only be contended1 then1 that there is a perception of right incapable of further analysis2 not that there is any infallible internal guide as to all the complex actions which present themselves for #bja choice4 ,the principle is given in our nature1 the application of the principle is the result of a thousand educational influences4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that1 in complex cases of conscience1 it is sometimes a matter of exceeding difficulty to determine which of two courses of action is the less objectionable4 ,this no more invalidates the truth of moral principles than does the difficulty of a mathematical problem cast doubt on mathematical principles4 ,habit1 education1 and intellectual gifts facilitate the correct application of both4 ,again1 if our moral insight is intensified or blunted by our habitual wishes or1 indirectly1 by our physical condition1 the same may be said of our perception of the true relations of physical facts one to another4 ,an eager wish for marriage has led many a man to exaggerate the powers of a limited income1 and a fit of dyspepsia has given an unreasonably gloomy aspect to more than one balance-sheet4 ,considering that moral intuitions have to do with insensible matters1 they cannot be expected to be more clear than the perception of physical facts4 ,and if the latter perceptions may be influenced by volition1 desire1 or health1 our moral views may also be expected to be so influenced1 and this in a higher degree because they so often run counter to our desires4 ,a bottle or two of wine may make a sensible object appear double2 what wonder1 then1 if our moral perceptions are sometimes warped and distorted by such powerful agencies as an evil education or an habitual absence of self-restraint4 ,in neither case does occasional distortion invalidate the accuracy of normal and habitual perception4 ,the distinctness here and now of the ideas of right and useful is however1 as before said1 fully conceded by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 although he contends that these conceptions are one in root and origin4 ,his utilitarian ,genesis of ,morals1 however1 has been recently combated#bjb by ,mr4 ,richard ,holt ,hutton in a paper which appeared in ,macmillan's ,magazine4#baf ,this writer aptly objects an argumentum ad hominem1 applying to morals the same argument that has been applied in this work to our sense of musical harmony1 and by ,mr4 ,wallace to the vocal organs of man4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's notions on the subject are thus expressed by himself3 ,to make my position fully understood1 it seems needful to add that1 corresponding to the fundamental propositions of a developed moral science1 there have been1 and still are developing in the race certain fundamental moral intuitions2 and that1 though these moral intuitions are the result of accumulated experiences of utility gradually organized and inherited1 they have come to be quite independent of conscious experience4 ,just in the same way that ,i believe the intuition of space possessed by any living individual to have arisen from organized and consolidated experiences of all antecedent individuals1 who bequeathed to him their slowly developed nervous organizations2 just as ,i believe that this intuition1 requiring only to be made definite and complete by personal experiences1 has practically become a form of thought quite independent of experience2--so do ,i believe that the experiences of utility1 organized and consolidated through all past generations of the human race1 have been producing corresponding nervous modifications which1 by continued transmissions and accumulation1 have become in us certain faculties of moral intuition1 active emotions responding to right and wrong conduct1 which have no apparent basis in the individual experiences of utility4 ,i also hold that1 just as the space intuition responds to the exact demonstrations of geometry1 and has its rough conclusions interpreted and verified by them1 so will moral intuitions respond to the demonstrations of moral science1 and will have their rough conclusions interpreted and verified by them4 #bjc ,against this view of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,hutton objects--#a4 ,that even as regards ,mr4 ,spencer's illustration from geometrical intuitions1 his process would be totally inadequate1 since you could not deduce the necessary space intuition of which he speaks from any possible accumulations of familiarity with space relations4444 ,we cannot inherit more than our fathers had3 no amount of experience of facts1 however universal1 can give rise to that particular characteristic of intuitions and a priori ideas1 which compels us to deny the possibility that in any other world1 however otherwise different1 our experience 7as to space relations7 could be otherwise4 #b4 ,that the case of moral intuitions is very much stronger4 #c4 ,that if ,mr4 ,spencer's theory accounts for anything1 it accounts not for the deepening of a sense of utility and inutility into right and wrong1 but for the drying up of the sense of utility and inutility into mere inherent tendencies1 which would exercise over us not more authority but less1 than a rational sense of utilitarian issues4 #d4 ,that ,mr4 ,spencer's theory could not account for the intuitional sacredness now attached to individual moral rules and principles1 without accounting a fortiori for the general claim of the greatest happiness principle over us as the final moral intuition---which is conspicuously contrary to the fact1 as not even the utilitarians themselves plead any instinctive or intuitive sanction for their great principle4 #e4 ,that there is no trace of positive evidence of any single instance of the transformation of a utilitarian rule of right into an intuition1 since we find no utilitarian principle of the most ancient times which is now an accepted moral intuition1 nor any moral intuition1 however sacred1 which has not been promulgated thousands of years ago1 and which has not constantly had to stop the tide of utilitarian objections to its authority--and this age after age1 in our own day quite as much as in days gone by4444 ,surely1 if anything is remarkable in the history of #bjd morality1 it is the anticipatory character1 if ,i may use the expression1 of moral principles--the intensity and absoluteness with which they are laid down ages before the world has approximated to the ideal thus asserted4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 in his work on ,primitive ,man before referred to1 abandons ,mr4 ,spencer's explanation of the genesis of morals while referring to ,mr4 ,hutton's criticisms on the subject4 ,sir ,john proposes to substitute deference to authority instead of sense of interest as the origin of our conception of duty1 saying that what has been found to be beneficial has been traditionally inculcated on the young1 and thus has become to be dissociated from interest in the mind1 though the inculcation itself originally sprung from that source4 ,this1 however1 when analysed1 turns out to be a distinction without a difference4 ,it is nothing but utilitarianism1 pure and simple1 after all4 ,for it can never be intended that authority is obeyed because of an intuition that it should be deferred to1 for that would be to admit the very principle of absolute morality which ,sir ,john combats4 ,it must be meant1 then1 that authority is obeyed through fear of the consequences of disobedience1 or through pleasure felt in obeying the authority which commands4 ,in the latter case we have pleasure as the end and no rudiment of the conception duty4 ,in the former we have fear of punishment1 which appeals directly to the sense of utility to the individual1 and no amount of such a sense will produce the least germ of ought which is a conception different in kind1 and in which the notion of punishment has no place4 ,thus1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock's explanation only concerns a mode in which the sense of duty may be stimulated or appealed to1 and makes no approximation to an explanation of its origin4 ,could the views of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 of ,mr4 ,mill1 or of ,mr4 ,darwin on this subject be maintained1 or should they come to be generally accepted1 the consequences would be disastrous indeed6 ,were it really the case that virtue was a mere kind of retrieving1 then certainly we should #bje have to view with apprehension the spread of intellectual cultivation1 which would lead the human retrievers to regard from a new point of view their fetching and carrying4 ,we should be logically compelled to acquiesce in the vociferations of some continental utilitarians1 who would banish altogether the senseless words duty and merit2 and then1 one important influence which has aided human progress being withdrawn1 we should be reduced to hope that in this case the maxim cessante causa cessat ipse effectus might through some incalculable accident fail to apply4 ,it is true that ,mr4 ,spencer tries to erect a safeguard against such moral disruption1 by asserting that for every immoral act1 word1 or thought1 each man during this life receives minute and exact retribution1 and that thus a regard for individual self-interest will effectually prevent any moral catastrophe4 ,but by what means will he enforce the acceptance of a dogma which is not only incapable of proof1 but is opposed to the commonly received opinion of mankind in all ages8 ,ancient literature1 sacred and profane1 teems with protests against the successful evil-doer1 and certainly1 as ,mr4 ,hutton observes1#bag ,honesty must have been associated by our ancestors with many unhappy as well as many happy consequences1 and we know that in ancient ,greece dishonesty was openly and actually associated with happy consequences4444 ,when the concentrated experience of previous generations was held1 not indeed to justify1 but to excuse by utilitarian considerations1 craft1 dissimulation1 sensuality1 selfishness4 ,this dogma is opposed to the moral consciousness of many as to the events of their own lives2 and the ,author1 for one1 believes that it is absolutely contrary to fact4 ,history affords multitudes of instances1 but an example may be selected from one of the most critical periods of modern times4 ,let it be #bjf granted that ,lewis the ,sixteenth of ,france and his queen had all the defects attributed to them by the most hostile of serious historians2 let all the excuses possible be made for his predecessor1 ,lewis the ,fifteenth1 and also for ,madame de ,pompadour1 can it be pretended that there are grounds for affirming that the vices of the two former so far exceeded those of the latter1 that their respective fates were plainly and evidently just8 that while the two former died in their beds1 after a life of the most extreme luxury1 the others merited to stand forth through coming time as examples of the most appalling and calamitous tragedy8 ,this theme1 however1 is too foreign to the immediate matter in hand to be further pursued1 tempting as it is4 ,but a passing protest against a superstitious and deluding dogma may stand1--a dogma which may1 like any other dogma1 be vehemently asserted and maintained1 but which is remarkable for being destitute1 at one and the same time1 of both authoritative sanction and the support of reason and observation4 ,to return to the bearing of moral conceptions on ,natural ,selection1 it seems that1 from the reasons given in this chapter1 we may safely affirm--#a4 ,that ,natural ,selection could not have produced1 from the sensations of pleasure and pain experienced by brutes1 a higher degree of morality than was useful2 therefore it could have produced any amount of beneficial habits1 but not abhorrence of certain acts as impure and sinful4 #b4 ,that it could not have developed that high esteem for acts of care and tenderness to the aged and infirm which actually exists1 but would rather have perpetuated certain low social conditions which obtain in some savage localities4 #c4 ,that it could not have evolved from ape sensations the noble virtue of a ,marcus ,aurelius1 or the loving but manly devotion of a ,st4 ,lewis4 #d4 ,that1 alone1 it could not have given rise to the maxim fiat justitia1 ruat coelum4 ,page #bjg #e4 ,that the interval between material and formal morality is one altogether beyond its power to traverse4 ,also1 that the anticipatory character of moral principles is a fatal bar to that explanation of their origin which is offered to us by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,and1 finally1 that the solution of that origin proposed recently by ,sir ,john ,lubbock is a mere version of simple utilitarianism1 appealing to the pleasure or safety of the individual1 and therefore utterly incapable of solving the riddle it attacks4 ,such appearing to be the case as to the power of ,natural ,selection1 we1 nevertheless1 find moral conceptions--formally moral ideas--not only spread over the civilized world1 but manifesting themselves unmistakeably 7in however rudimentary a condition1 and however misapplied7 amongst the lowest and most degraded of savages4 ,if from amongst these1 individuals can be brought forward who seem to be destitute of any moral conception1 similar cases also may easily be found in highly civilized communities4 ,such cases tell no more against moral intuitions than do cases of colour-blindness or idiotism tell against sight and reason4 ,we have thus a most important and conspicuous fact1 the existence of which is fatal to the theory of ,natural ,selection1 as put forward of late by ,mr4 ,darwin and his most ardent followers4 ,it must be remarked1 however1 that whatever force this fact may have against a belief in the origination of man from brutes by minute1 fortuitous variations1 it has no force whatever against the conception of the orderly evolution and successive manifestation of specific forms by ordinary natural law--even if we include amongst such the upright frame1 the ready hand and massive brain of man himself4 ,page #bjh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,pangenesis4 ,a provisional hypothesis supplementing ,natural ,selection4--,statement of the hypothesis4--,difficulty as to multitude of gemmules4--,as to certain modes of reproduction4--,as to formations without the requisite gemmules4--,mr4 ,lewes and ,professor ,delpino4--,difficulty as to developmental force of gemmules4--,as to their spontaneous fission4--,pangenesis and ,vitalism4--,paradoxical reality4--,pangenesis scarcely superior to anterior hypotheses4--,buffon4--,owen4--,herbert ,spencer4--,gemmules as mysterious as physiological units4--,conclusion4 ,in addition to the theory of ,natural ,selection1 by which it has been attempted to account for the origin of species1 ,mr4 ,darwin has also put forward what he modestly terms a provisional hypothesis 7that of ,pangenesis71 by which to account for the origin of each and every individual form4 ,now1 though the hypothesis of ,pangenesis is no necessary part of ,natural ,selection1 still any treatise on specific origination would be incomplete if it did not take into consideration this last speculation of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,the hypothesis in question may be stated as follows3 ,that each living organism is ultimately made up of an almost infinite number of minute particles1 or organic atoms1 termed gemmules1 each of which has the power of reproducing its kind4 ,moreover1 that these particles circulate freely about the organism which is made up of them1 and are derived from all the parts of all the organs of the less remote ancestors of each such #bji organism during all the states and stages of such several ancestors' existence2 and therefore of the several states of each of such ancestors' organs4 ,that such a complete collection of gemmules is aggregated in each ovum and spermatozoon in most animals1 and in each part capable of reproducing by gemmation 7budding7 in the lowest animals and in plants4 ,therefore in many of such lower organisms such a congeries of ancestral gemmules must exist in every part of their bodies1 since in them every part is capable of reproducing by gemmation4 ,mr4 ,darwin must evidently admit this1 since he says3 ,it has often been said by naturalists that each cell of a plant has the actual or potential capacity of reproducing the whole plant2 but it has this power only in virtue of containing gemmules derived from every part4#bah ,moreover1 these gemmules are supposed to tend to aggregate themselves1 and to reproduce in certain definite relations to other gemmules4 ,thus1 when the foot of an eft is cut off1 its reproduction is explained by ,mr4 ,darwin as resulting from the aggregation of those floating gemmules which come next in order to those of the cut surface1 and the successive aggregations of the other kinds of gemmules which come after in regular order4 ,also1 the most ordinary processes of repair are similarly accounted for1 and the successive development of similar parts and organs in creatures in which such complex evolutions occur is explained in the same way1 by the independent action of separate gemmules4 ,in order that each living creature may be thus furnished1 the number of such gemmules in each must be inconceivably great4 ,mr4 ,darwin says3#bai ,in a highly organized and complex animal1 the gemmules thrown off from each different cell or unit throughout the body must be inconceivably numerous and minute4 ,each unit of each part1 as it changes during development--and we know that some insects undergo at least twenty #baj metamorphoses--must throw off its gemmules4 ,all organic beings1 moreover1 include many dormant gemmules derived from their grandparents and more remote progenitors1 but not from all their progenitors4 ,these almost infinitely numerous and minute gemmules must be included in each bud1 ovule1 spermatozoon1 and pollen grain4 ,we have seen also that in certain cases a similar multitude of gemmules must be included also in every considerable part of the whole body of each organism1 but where are we to stop8 ,there must be gemmules not only from every organ1 but from every component part of such organ1 from every subdivision of such component part1 and from every cell1 thread1 or fibre entering into the composition of such subdivision4 ,moreover1 not only from all these1 but from each and every successive stage of the evolution and development of such successively more and more elementary parts4 ,at the first glance this new atomic theory has charms from its apparent simplicity1 but the attempt thus to follow it out into its ultimate limits and extreme consequences seems to indicate that it is at once insufficient and cumbrous4 ,mr4 ,darwin himself is1 of course1 fully aware that there must be some limit to this aggregation of gemmules4 ,he says3#bbj ,excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be1 an infinite number derived1 during a long course of modification and descent1 from each cell of each progenitor1 could not be supported and nourished by the organism4 ,but apart from these matters1 which will be more fully considered further on1 the hypothesis not only does not appear to account for certain phenomena which1 in order to be a valid theory1 it ought to account for2 but it seems absolutely to conflict with patent and notorious facts4 ,how1 for example1 does it explain the peculiar reproduction which is #baa found to take place in certain marine worms--certain annelids8 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,annelid ,,dividing ,,spontaneously4 7,a new head having been formed towards the hinder end of the body of the parent47 ,in such creatures we see that1 from time to time1 one of the segments of the body gradually becomes modified till it assumes the condition of a head1 and this remarkable phenomenon is repeated again and again1 the body of the worm thus multiplying serially into new individuals which successively detach themselves from the older portion4 ,the development of such a mode of reproduction by ,natural ,selection seems not less inexplicable than does its continued performance through the aid of #bab pangenesis4 ,for how can gemmules attach themselves to others to which they do not normally or generally succeed8 ,scarcely less difficult to understand is the process of the stomach-carrying-off mode of metamorphosis before spoken of as existing in the ,echinoderms4 ,next1 as to certain patent and notorious facts3 ,on the hypothesis of pangenesis1 no creature can develop an organ unless it possesses the component gemmules which serve for its formation4 ,no creature can possess such gemmules unless it inherits them from its parents1 grandparents1 or its less remote ancestors4 ,now1 the ,jews are remarkably scrupulous as to marriage1 and rarely contract such a union with individuals not of their own race4 ,this practice has gone on for thousands of years1 and similarly also for thousands of years the rite of circumcision has been unfailingly and carefully performed4 ,if then the hypothesis of pangenesis is well founded1 that rite ought to be now absolutely or nearly superfluous from the necessarily continuous absence of certain gemmules through so many centuries and so many generations4 ,yet it is not at all so1 and this fact seems to amount almost to an experimental demonstration that the hypothesis of pangenesis is an insufficient explanation of individual evolution4 ,two exceedingly good criticisms of ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis have appeared4 ,one of these is by ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1#bba the other by ,professor ,delpino of ,florence4#bbb ,the latter gentleman gives a report of an observation made by him upon a certain plant1 which observation adds force to what has just been said about the ,jewish race4 ,he says3#bbc ,if we examine and compare the numerous species of the genus ,salvia1 commencing with ,salvia officinalis1 which may pass as the main state of the genus1 and #bac concluding with ,salvia verticillata1 which may be taken as the most highly developed form1 and as the most distant from the type1 we observe a singular phenomenon4 ,the lower cell of each of the two fertile anthers1 which is much reduced and different from the superior even in ,salvia officinalis1 is transmuted in other salvi into an organ 7nectarotheca7 having a very different form and function1 and finally disappears entirely in ,salvia verticillata4 ,now1 on one occasion1 in a flower belonging to an individual of ,salvia verticillata1 and only on the left stamen1 ,i observed a perfectly developed and pollinigerous lower cell1 perfectly homologous with that which is normally developed in ,salvia officinalis4 ,this case of atavism is truly singular4 ,according to the theory of ,pangenesis1 it is necessary to assume that all the gemmules of this anomalous formation1 and therefore the mother-gemmule of the cell1 and the daughter-gemmules of the special epidermic tissue1 and of the very singular subjacent tissue of the endothecium1 have been perpetuated1 and transmitted from parent to offspring in a dormant state1 and through a number of generations1 such as startles the imagination1 and leads it to refuse its consent to the theory of ,pangenesis1 however seductive it may be4 ,this seems a strong confirmation of what has been here advanced4 ,the main objection raised against ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis is that it 7,pangenesis7 requires so many subordinate hypotheses for its support1 and that some of these are not tenable4 ,professor ,delpino considers#bbd that as many as eight of these subordinate hypotheses are required1 namely1 that-- #a4 ,the emission of the gemmules takes place1 or may take place in all states of the cell4 #b4 ,the quantity of gemmules emitted from every cell is very great4 #c4 ,the minuteness of the gemmules is extreme4 #bad #d4 ,the gemmules possess two sorts of affinity1 one of which might be called propagative1 and the other germinative affinity4 #e4 ,by means of the propagative affinity all the gemmules emitted by all the cells of the individual flow together and become condensed in the cells which compose the sexual organs1 whether male or female 7embryonal vesicle1 cells of the embryo1 pollen grains1 fovilla1 antherozoids1 spermatozoids71 and likewise flow together and become condensed in the cells which constitute the organs of a sexual or agamic reproduction 7buds1 spores1 bulbilli1 portions of the body separated by scission1 c474 #f4 ,by means of the germinative affinity1 every gemmule 7except in cases of anomalies or monstrosities7 can be developed only in cells homologous with the mother-cells of the cell from which they originated4 ,in other words1 the gemmules from any cell can only be developed in unison with the cell preceding it in due order of succession1 and whilst in a nascent state4 #g4 ,of each kind of gernmule a great number perishes2 a great number remains in a dormant state through many generations in the bodies of descendants2 the remainder germinate and reproduce the mother-cell4 #h4 ,every gemmule may multiply itself by a process of scission into any number of equivalent gemmules4 ,mr4 ,darwin has published a short notice in reply to ,professor ,delpino1 in ,scientific ,opinion of ,october #bj1 #ahfi1 p4 #dbf4 ,in this reply he admits the justice of ,professor ,delpino's attack1 but objects to the alleged necessity of the first subordinate hypothesis1 namely1 that the emission of gemmules takes place in all states of the cell4 ,but if this is not the case1 then a great part of the utility and distinction of pangenesis is destroyed1 or as ,mr4 ,lewes justly says1#bbe ,if gemmules produce whole cells1 we have the very power which was pronounced mysterious in larger organisms4 #bae ,mr4 ,darwin also does not see the force of the objection to the power of self-division which must be asserted of the gemmules themselves if ,pangenesis be true4 ,the objection1 however1 appears to many to be formidable4 ,to admit the power of spontaneous division and multiplication in such rudimentary structures1 seems a complete contradiction4 ,the gemmules1 by the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 are the ultimate organized components of the body1 the absolute organic atoms of which each body is composed2 how then can they be divisible8 ,any part of a gemmule would be an impossible 7because a less than possible7 quantity4 ,if it is divisible into still smaller organic wholes1 as a germ-cell is1 it must be made up as the germ-cell is1 of subordinate component atoms1 which are then the true gemmules4 ,this process may be repeated ad infinitum1 unless we get to true organic atoms1 the true gemmules1 whatever they may be1 and they necessarily will be incapable of any process of spontaneous fission4 ,it is remarkable that ,mr4 ,darwin brings forward in support of gemmule fission1 the observation that ,thuret has seen the zoospore of an alga divide itself1 and both halves germinate4 ,yet on the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 the zoospore of an alga must contain gemmules from all the cells of the parent alg1 and from all the parts of all their less remote ancestors in all their stages of existence4 ,what wonder then that such an excessively complex body should divide and multiply2 and what parity is there between such a body and a gemmule8 ,a steam-engine and a steel-filing might equally well be compared together4 ,professor ,delpino makes a further objection which1 however1 will only be of weight in the eyes of ,vitalists4 ,he says1#bbf ,pangenesis is not to be received because it leads directly to the negation of a specific vital principle1 co-ordinating and regulating all the movements1 acts1 and functions of the individuals in which it is incarnated4 ,for ,pangenesis of the individual is a term without meaning4 ,if1 in contemplating an #baf animal of high organization1 we regard it purely as an aggregation of developed gemmules1 although these gemmules have been evolved successively one after the other1 and one within the other1 notwithstanding they elude the conception of the real and true individual1 these problematical and invisible gemmules must be regarded as so many individuals4 ,now1 that real1 true1 living individuals exist in nature1 is a truth which is persistently attested to us by our consciousness4 ,but how1 then1 can we explain that a great quantity of dissimilar elements1 like the atoms of matter1 can unite to form those perfect unities which we call individuals1 if we do not suppose the existence of a specific principle1 proper to the individual but foreign to the component atoms1 which aggregates these said atoms1 groups them into molecules1 and then moulds the molecules into cells1 the cells into tissues1 the tissues into organs1 and the organs into apparatus8 ,but1 it may be urged in opposition by the ,pangenesists1 your vital principle is an unknown and irresolute x4 ,this is true2 but1 on the other hand1 let us see whether ,pangenesis produces a clearer formula1 and one free from unknown elements4 ,the existence of the gemmules is a first unknown element2 the propagative affinity of the gemmules is a second2 their germinative affinity is a third2 their multiplication by fission is a fourth--and what an unknown element6 ,thus1 in ,pangenesis1 everything proceeds by force of unknown elements1 and we may ask whether it is more logical to prefer a system which assumes a multitude of unknown elements to a system which assumes only a single one8 ,mr4 ,darwin appears1 by ,natural ,selection1 to destroy the reality of species1 and by ,pangenesis that of the individual4 ,mr4 ,lewes observes#bbg of the individual that ,this whole is only a subjective conception which summarizes the parts1 and that in point of fact it is the parts which #bag are reproduced4 ,but the parts are also1 from the same point of view1 merely subjective until we come to the absolute organic atoms4 ,these atoms1 on the other hand1 are utterly invisible1 intangible2 indeed1 in the words of ,mr4 ,darwin1 inconceivable4 ,thus1 then1 it results from the theories in question1 that the organic world is reduced to utter unreality as regards all that can be perceived by the senses or distinctly imagined by the mind2 while the only reality consists of the invisible1 the insensible1 the inconceivable2 in other words1 nothing is known that really is1 and only the nonexistent can be known4 ,a somewhat paradoxical outcome of the speculations of those who profess to rely exclusively on the testimony of sense4 ,les extrmes se touchent1 and extreme sensationalism shakes hands with the das seyn ist das nichts of ,hegel4 ,altogether the hypothesis of ,pangenesis seems to be little1 if at all1 superior to anterior hypotheses of a more or less similar nature4 ,apart from the atoms of ,democritus1 and apart also from the speculations of medival writers1 the molecules of ,bonnet and of ,buffon almost anticipated the hypothesis of ,pangenesis4 ,according to the last-named author1#bbh organic particles from every part of the body assemble in the sexual secretions1 and by their union build up the embryo1 each particle taking its due place1 and occupying in the offspring a similar position to that which it occupied in the parents4 ,in #ahdi ,professor ,owen1 in his treatise on ,parthenogenesis1 put forward another conception4 ,according to this1 the cells resulting from the subdivision of the germ-cell preserve their developmental force1 unless employed in building up definite organic structures4 ,in certain creatures1 and in certain parts of other creatures1 germ-cells unused are stored up1 and by their agency lost limbs and #bah other mutilations are repaired4 ,such unused products of the germ-cell are also supposed to become located in the generative products4 ,according to ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in his ,principles of ,biology1 each living organism consists of certain so-called physiological units4 ,each of these units has an innate power and capacity1 by which it tends to build up and reproduce the entire organism of which it forms a part1 unless in the meantime its force is exhausted by its taking part in the production of some distinct and definite tissue--a condition somewhat similar to that conceived by ,professor ,owen4 ,now1 at first sight1 ,mr4 ,darwin's atomic theory appears to be more simple than any of the others4 ,it has been objected that while ,mr4 ,spencer's theory requires the assumption of an innate power and tendency in each physiological unit1 ,mr4 ,darwin's1 on the other hand1 requires nothing of the kind1 but explains the evolution of each individual by purely mechanical conceptions4 ,in fact1 however1 it is not so4 ,each gemmule1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 is really the seat of powers1 elective affinities1 and special tendencies as marked and mysterious as those possessed by the physiological unit of ,mr4 ,spencer1 with the single exception that the former has no tendency to build up the whole living1 complex organism of which it forms a part4 ,some may think this an important distinction1 but it can hardly be so1 for ,mr4 ,darwin considers that his gemmule has the innate power and tendency to build up and transform itself into the whole living1 complex cell of which it forms a part2 and the one tendency is1 in principle1 fully as difficult to understand1 fully as mysterious1 as is the other4 ,the difference is but one of degree1 not of kind4 ,moreover1 the one mystery in the case of the physiological unit explains all1 while with regard to the gemmule1 as we have seen1 it has to be supplemented by other powers and tendencies1 each distinct1 and each in itself inexplicable and profoundly mysterious4 ,page #bai ,that there should be physiological units possessed of the power attributed to them1 harmonizes with what has recently been put forward by ,dr4 ,h4 ,charlton ,bastian2 who maintains that under fit conditions the simplest organisms develop themselves into relatively large and complex ones4 ,this is not supposed by him to be due to any inheritance of ancestral gemmules1 but to direct growth and transformation of the most minute and the simplest organisms1 which themselves1 by all reason and analogy1 owe their existence to immediate transformation from the inorganic world4 ,thus1 then1 there are grave difficulties in the way of the reception of the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 which moreover1 if established1 would leave the evolution of individual organisms1 when thoroughly analysed1 little if at all less mysterious or really explicable than it is at present4 ,as was said at the beginning of this chapter1 ,pangenesis and ,natural ,selection are quite separable and distinct hypotheses4 ,the fall of one of these by no means necessarily includes that of the other4 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,darwin has associated them closely together1 and1 therefore1 the refutation of ,pangenesis may render it advisable for those who have hitherto accepted ,natural ,selection to reconsider that theory4 ,page #bbj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,specific ,,genesis4 ,review of the statements and arguments of preceding chapters4--,cumulative argument against predominant action of ,natural ,selection4--,whether anything positive as well as negative can be enunciated4--,constancy of laws of nature does not necessarily imply constancy of specific evolution4--,possible exceptional stability of existing epoch4--,probability that an internal cause of change exists4--,innate powers must be conceived as existing somewhere or other4--,symbolism of molecular action under vibrating impulses4--,professor ,owen's statement4--,statement of the ,author's view4--,it avoids the difficulties which oppose ,natural ,selection4--,it harmonizes apparently conflicting conceptions4--,summary and conclusion4 ,having now severally reviewed the principal biological facts which bear upon specific manifestation1 it remains to sum up the results1 and to endeavour to ascertain what1 if anything1 can be said positively1 as well as negatively1 on this deeply interesting question4 ,in the preceding chapters it has been contended1 in the first place1 that no mere survival of the fittest accidental and minute variations can account for the incipient stages of useful structures1 such as1 e4g41 the heads of flat-fishes1 the baleen of whales1 vertebrate limbs1 the laryngeal structures of the newborn kangaroo1 the pedicellari of ,echinoderms1 or for many of the facts of mimicry1 and especially those last touches of mimetic perfection1 where an insect not only mimics a leaf1 but one worm-eaten and attacked by fungi4 ,page #bba ,also1 that structures like the hood of the cobra and the rattle of the rattlesnake seem to require another explanation4 ,again1 it has been contended that instances of colour1 as in some apes2 of beauty1 as in some shell-fish2 and of utility1 as in many orchids1 are examples of conditions which are quite beyond the power of ,natural ,selection to originate and develop4 ,next1 the peculiar mode of origin of the eye 7by the simultaneous and concurrent modification of distinct parts71 with the wonderful refinement of the human ear and voice1 have been insisted on2 as also1 that the importance of all these facts is intensified through the necessity 7admitted by ,mr4 ,darwin7 that many individuals should be similarly and simultaneously modified in order that slightly favourable variations may hold their own in the struggle for life1 against the overwhelming force and influence of mere number4 ,again1 we have considered1 in the third chapter1 the great improbability that from minute variations in all directions alone and unaided1 save by the survival of the fittest1 closely similar structures should independently arise2 though1 on a non-,darwinian evolutionary hypothesis1 their development might be expected a priori4 ,we have seen1 however1 that there are many instances of wonderfully close similarity which are not due to genetic affinity2 the most notable instance1 perhaps1 being that brought forward by ,mr4 ,murphy1 namely1 the appearance of the same eye-structure in the vertebrate and molluscous sub-kingdoms4 ,a curious resemblance1 though less in degree1 has also been seen to exist between the auditory organs of fishes and of ,cephalopods4 ,remarkable similarities between certain placental and implacental mammals1 between the bird's-head processes of ,polyzoa and the pedicellari of ,echinoderms1 between ,ichthyosauria and ,cetacea1 with very many other similar coincidences1 have also been pointed out4 ,evidence has also been brought forward to show that similarity is sometimes directly induced by very obscure conditions1 at present quite #bbb inexplicable1 e4g4 by causes immediately connected with geographical distribution2 as in the loss of the tail in certain forms of ,lepidoptera and in simultaneous modifications of colour in others1 and in the direct modification of young ,english oysters1 when transported to the shore of the ,mediterranean4 ,again1 it has been asserted that certain groups of organic forms seem to have an innate tendency to remarkable developments of some particular kind1 as beauty and singularity of plumage in the group of birds of paradise4 ,it has also been contended that there is something to be said in favour of sudden1 as opposed to exceedingly minute and gradual1 modifications1 even if the latter are not fortuitous4 ,cases were brought forward1 in ,chapter ,,iv41 such as the bivalve just mentioned1 twenty-seven kinds of ,american trees simultaneously and similarly modified1 also the independent production of pony breeds1 and the case of the ,english greyhounds in ,mexico1 the offspring of which produced directly acclimated progeny4 ,besides these1 the case of the ,normandy pigs1 of ,datura tatula1 and also of the black-shouldered peacock1 have been spoken of4 ,the teeth of the labyrinthodon1 the hand of the potto1 the whalebone of whales1 the wings of birds1 the climbing tendrils of some plants1 c4 have also been adduced as instances of structures1 the origin and production of which are probably due rather to considerable modifications than to minute increments4 ,it has also been shown that certain forms which were once supposed to be especially transitional and intermediate 7as1 e4g41 the aye-aye7 are really by no means so2 while the general rule1 that the progress of forms has been from the more general to the more special1 has been shown to present remarkable exceptions1 as1 e4g41 ,macrauchenia1 the ,glyptodon1 and the sabre-toothed tiger 7,machairodus74 ,next1 as to specific stability1 it has been seen that there may be a #bbc certain limit to normal variability1 and that if changes take place they may be expected a priori to be marked and considerable ones1 from the facts of the inorganic world1 and perhaps also of the lowest forms of the organic world4 ,it has also been seen that with regard to minute spontaneous variations in races1 there is a rapidly increasing difficulty in intensifying them1 in any one direction1 by ever such careful breeding4 ,moreover1 it has appeared that different species show a tendency to variability in special directions1 and probably in different degrees1 and that at any rate ,mr4 ,darwin himself concedes the existence of an internal barrier to change when he credits the goose with a singularly inflexible organization2 also1 that he admits the presence of an internal proclivity to change when he speaks of a whole organization seeming to have become plastic1 and tending to depart from the parental type4 ,we have seen also that a marked tendency to reversion does exist1 inasmuch as it sometimes takes place in a striking manner1 as exemplified in the white silk fowl in ,england1 in spite of careful selection in breeding4 ,again1 we have seen that a tendency exists in nature to eliminate hybrid races1 by whatever means that elimination is effected1 while no similar tendency bars the way to an indefinite blending of varieties4 ,this has also been enforced by statements as to the prepotency of certain pollen of identical species1 but of distinct races4 ,to all the preceding considerations have been added others derived from the relations of species to past time4 ,it has been contended that we have as yet no evidence of minutely intermediate forms connecting uninterruptedly together undoubtedly distinct species4 ,that while even horse ancestry fails to supply such a desideratum1 in very strongly marked and exceptional kinds 7such as the ,ichthyosauria1 ,chelonia1 and ,anoura71 the absence of links is very important and significant4 ,for if every species1 without#bbd exception1 has arisen by minute modifications1 it seems incredible that a small percentage of such transitional forms should not have been preserved4 ,this1 of course1 is especially the case as regards the marine ,ichthyosauria and ,plesiosauria1 of which such numbers of remains have been discovered4 ,sir ,william ,thomson's great authority has been seen to oppose itself to ,natural ,selection1 by limiting1 on astronomical and physical grounds1 the duration of life on this planet to about one hundred million years4 ,this period1 it has been contended1 is not nearly enough on the one hand for the evolution of all organic forms by the exclusive action of mere minute1 fortuitous variations2 on the other hand1 for the deposition of all the strata which must have been deposited1 if minute fortuitous variation was the manner of successive specific manifestation4 ,again1 the geographical distribution of existing animals has been seen to present difficulties which1 though not themselves insurmountable1 yet have a certain weight when taken in conjunction with all the other objections4 ,the facts of homology1 serial1 bilateral and vertical1 have also been passed in review4 ,such facts1 it has been contended1 are not explicable without admitting the action of what may most conveniently be spoken of as an internal power1 the existence of which is supported by facts not only of comparative anatomy but of teratology and pathology also4 ,natural ,selection also has been shown to be impotent to explain these phenomena1 while the existence of such an internal power of homologous evolution diminishes the a priori improbability of an analogous law of specific origination4 ,all these various considerations have been supplemented by an endeavour to show the utter inadequacy of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory with regard to the higher psychical phenomena of man 7especially the evolution of moral conceptions71 and with regard to the evolution of individual organisms by the action#bbe of ,pangenesis4 ,and it was implied that if ,mr4 ,darwin's latter hypothesis can be shown to be untenable1 an antecedent doubt is thus thrown upon his other conception1 namely1 the theory of ,natural ,selection4 ,a cumulative argument thus arises against the prevalent action of ,natural ,selection1 which1 to the mind of the ,author1 is conclusive4 ,as before observed1 he was not originally disposed to reject ,mr4 ,darwin's fascinating theory4 ,reiterate endeavours to solve its difficulties have1 however1 had the effect of convincing him that that theory as the one or as the leading explanation of the successive evolution and manifestation of specific forms1 is untenable4 ,at the same time he admits fully that ,natural ,selection acts and must act1 and that it plays in the organic world a certain though a secondary and subordinate part4 ,the one modus operandi yet suggested having been found insufficient1 the question arises1 ,can another be substituted in its place8 ,if not1 can anything that is positive1 and if anything1 what1 be said as to the question of specific origination8 ,now1 in the first place1 it is of course axiomatic that the laws which conditioned the evolution of extinct and of existing species are of as much efficacy at this moment as at any preceding period1 that they tend to the manifestation of new forms as much now as ever before4 ,it by no means necessarily follows1 however1 that this tendency is actually being carried into effect1 and that new species of the higher animals and plants are actually now produced4 ,they may be so or they may not1 according as existing circumstances favour1 or conflict with1 the action of those laws4 ,it is possible that lowly organized creatures may be continually evolved at the present day1 the requisite conditions being more or less easily supplied4 ,there is1 however1 no similar evidence at present as to higher forms2 while1 as we have seen in ,chapter ,,vii41 there are a priori considerations which militate against their being similarly evolved4 #bbf ,the presence of wild varieties and the difficulty which often exists in the determination of species are sometimes adduced as arguments that high forms are now in process of evolution4 ,these facts1 however1 do not necessarily prove more than that some species possess a greater variability than others1 and 7what is indeed unquestionable7 that species have often been unduly multiplied by geologists and botanists4 ,it may be1 for example1 that ,wagner was right1 and that all the ,american monkeys of the genus cebus may be reduced to a single species or to two4 ,with regard to the lower organisms1 and supposing views recently advanced to become fully established1 there is no reason to think that the forms said to be evolved were new species1 but rather reappearances of definite kinds which had appeared before and will appear again under the same conditions4 ,in the same way1 with higher forms similar conditions must educe similar results1 but here practically similar conditions can rarely obtain because of the large part which descent and inheritance always play in such highly organized forms4 ,still it is conceivable that different combinations at different times may have occasionally the same outcome just as the multiplications of different numbers may have severally the same result4 ,there are reasons1 however1 for thinking it possible that the human race is a witness of an exceptionally unchanging and stable condition of things1 if the calculations of ,mr4 ,croll are valid as to how far variations in the eccentricity in the earth's orbit together with the precession of the equinoxes have produced changes in climate4 ,mr4 ,wallace has pointed out#bbi that the last #fj1jjj years having been exceptionally unchanging as regards these conditions1 specific evolution may have been #bbg exceptionally rare4 ,it becomes then possible to suppose that for a similar period stimuli to change in the manifestation of animal forms may have been exceptionally few and feeble1--that is1 if the conditions of the earth's orbit have been as exceptional as stated4 ,however1 even if new species are actually now being evolved as actively as ever1 or if they have been so quite recently1 no conflict thence necessarily arises with the view here advocated4 ,for it by no means follows that if some examples of new species have recently been suddenly produced from individuals of antecedent species1 we ought to be able to put our fingers on such cases2 as ,mr4 ,murphy well observes#bcj in a passage before quoted1 ,if a species were to come suddenly into being in the wild state1 as the ,ancon sheep did under domestication1 how could we ascertain the fact8 ,if the first of a newly-born species were found1 the fact of its discovery would tell nothing about its origin4 ,naturalists would register it as a very rare species1 having been only once met with1 but they would have no means of knowing whether it were the first or the last of its race4 ,but are there any grounds for thinking that in the genesis of species an internal force or tendency interferes1 co-operates with and controls the action of external conditions8 ,it is here contended that there are such grounds1 and that though inheritance1 reversion1 atavism1 ,natural ,selection1 c41 play a part not unimportant1 yet that such an internal power is a great1 perhaps the main1 determining agent4 ,it will1 however1 be replied that such an entity is no vera causa2 that if the conception is accepted1 it is no real explanation2 and that it is merely a roundabout way of saying that the facts are as they are1 while the cause remains unknown4 ,to this it may be rejoined that for all who believe in the existence of the abstraction force at all1 other than will1 #bbh this conception of an internal force must be accepted and located somewhere--cannot be eliminated altogether2 and that therefore it may as reasonably be accepted in this mode as in any other4 ,it was urged at the end of the third chapter that it is congruous to credit mineral species with an internal power or force4 ,by such a power it may be conceived that crystals not only assume their external symmetry1 but even repair it when injured4 ,ultimate chemical elements must also be conceived as possessing an innate tendency to form certain unions1 and to cohere in stable aggregations4 ,this was considered towards the end of ,chapter ,,viii4 ,turning to the organic world1 even on the hypothesis of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer or that of ,mr4 ,darwin1 it is impossible to escape the conception of innate internal forces4 ,with regard to the physiological units of the former1 ,mr4 ,spencer himself1 as we have seen1 distinctly attributes to them an innate tendency to evolve the parent form from which they sprang4 ,with regard to the gemmules of ,mr4 ,darwin1 we have seen1 in ,chapter ,x41 with how many innate powers1 tendencies1 and capabilities they must each be severally endowed1 to reproduce their kind1 to evolve complex organisms or cells1 to exercise germinative affinity1 c4 ,if then 7as was before said at the end of ,chapter ,,viii47 such innate powers must be attributed to chemical atoms1 to mineral species1 to gemmules1 and to physiological units1 it is only reasonable to attribute such to each individual organism4 ,the conception of such internal and latent capabilities is somewhat like that of ,mr4 ,galton1 before mentioned1 according to which the organic world consists of entities1 each of which is1 as it were1 a spheroid with many facets on its surface1 upon one of which it reposes in stable equilibrium4 ,when by the accumulated action of incident forces this equilibrium is #bbi disturbed1 the spheroid is supposed to turn over until it settles on an adjacent facet once more in stable equilibrium4 ,the internal tendency of an organism to certain considerable and definite changes would correspond to the facets on the surface of the spheroid4 ,it may be objected that we have no knowledge as to how terrestrial1 cosmical and other forces can affect organisms so as to stimulate and evolve these latent1 merely potential forms4 ,but we have had evidence that such mysterious agencies do affect organisms in ways as yet inexplicable1 in the very remarkable effects of geographical conditions which were detailed in the third chapter4 ,it is quite conceivable that the material organic world may be so constituted that the simultaneous action upon it of all known forces1 mechanical1 physical1 chemical1 magnetic1 terrestrial1 and cosmical1 together with other as yet unknown forces which probably exist1 may result in changes which are harmonious and symmetrical1 just as the internal nature of vibrating plates causes particles of sand scattered over them to assume definite and symmetrical figures when made to oscillate in different ways by the bow of a violin being drawn along their edges4 ,the results of these combined internal powers and external influences might be represented under the symbol of complex series of vibrations 7analogous to those of sound or light7 forming a most complex harmony or a display of most varied colours4 ,in such a way the reparation of local injuries might be symbolized as a filling up and completion of an interrupted rhythm4 ,thus also monstrous aberrations from typical structure might correspond to a discord1 and sterility from crossing be compared with the darkness resulting from the interference of waves of light4 ,such symbolism will harmonize with the peculiar reproduction1 before mentioned1 of heads in the body of certain annelids1 with the facts of serial homology1 as well as those of bilateral and vertical symmetry4 #bcj ,also1 as the atoms of a resonant body may be made to give out sound by the juxtaposition of a vibrating tuning-fork1 so it is conceivable that the physiological units of a living organism may be so influenced by surrounding conditions 7organic and other7 that the accumulation of these conditions may upset the previous rhythm of such units1 producing modifications in them--a fresh chord in the harmony of nature--a new species6 ,but it may be again objected that to say that species arise by the help of an innate power possessed by organisms is no explanation1 but is a reproduction of the absurdity1 l'opium endormit parcequ'il a une vertu soporifique4 ,it is contended1 however1 that this objection does not apply1 even if it be conceded that there is that force in ,molire's ridicule which is generally attributed to it4#bca ,much1 however1 might be said in opposition to more than one of that brilliant dramatist's smart philosophical epigrams1 just as to the theological ones of ,voltaire1 or to the biological one of that other ,frenchman who for a time discredited a cranial skeletal theory by the phrase ,vertbre pensante4#bcb ,in fact1 however1 it is a real explanation of how a man lives to say that he lives independently1 on his own income1 instead of being supported by his relatives and friends4 ,in the same way1 there is fully as real a distinction between the production of new specific manifestations entirely ab externo1 and by the production of the same through an innate force and tendency1 the determination of which into action is occasioned by #bca external circumstances4 ,to say that organisms possess this innate power1 and that by it new species are from time to time produced1 is by no means a mere assertion that they are produced1 and in an unknown mode4 ,it is the negation of that view which deems external forces alone sufficient1 and at the same time the assertion of something positive1 to be arrived at by the process of reductio ad absurdum4 ,all physical explanations result ultimately in such conceptions of innate power1 or else in that of will force4 ,the far-famed explanation of the celestial motions ends in the conception that every particle of matter has the innate power of attracting every other particle directly as the mass1 and inversely as the square of the distance4 ,we are logically driven to this positive conception if we do not accept the view that there is no force but volition1 and that all phenomena whatever are the immediate results of the action of intelligent and self-conscious will4 ,we have seen that the notion of sudden changes--saltatory actions in nature--has received countenance from ,professor ,huxley4#bcc ,we must conceive that these jumps are orderly1 and according to law1 inasmuch as the whole cosmos is such4 ,such orderly evolution harmonizes with a teleology derived1 not indeed from external nature directly1 but from the mind of man4 ,on this point1 however1 more will be said in the next chapter4 ,but1 once more1 if new species are not manifested by the action of external conditions upon minute indefinite individual differences1 in what precise way may we conceive that manifestation to have taken place8 ,are new species now evolving1 as they have been from time to time evolved8 ,if so1 in what way and by what conceivable means8 #bcb ,in the first place1 they must be produced by natural action in pre-existing material1 or by supernatural action4 ,for reasons to be given in the next chapter1 the second hypothesis need not be considered4 ,if1 then1 new species are and have been evolved from pre-existing material1 must that material have been organic or inorganic8 ,as before said1 additional arguments have lately been brought forward to show that individual organisms do arise from a basis of in-organic material only4 ,as1 however1 this at the most appears to be the case1 if at all1 only with the lowest and most minute organisms exclusively1 the process cannot be observed1 though it may perhaps be fairly inferred4 ,we may therefore1 if for no other reason1 dismiss the notion that highly organized animals and plants can be suddenly or gradually built up by any combination of physical forces and natural powers acting externally and internally upon and in merely inorganic material as a base4 ,but the question is1 how have the highest kinds of animals and plants arisen8 ,it seems impossible that they can have appeared otherwise than by the agency of antecedent organisms not greatly different from them4 ,a multitude of facts1 ever increasing in number and importance1 all point to such a mode of specific manifestation4 ,one very good example has been adduced by ,professor ,flower in the introductory lecture of his first ,hunterian ,course4#bcd ,it is the reduction in size1 to a greater or less degree1 of the second and third digits of the foot in ,australian marsupials1 and this1 in spite of the very different form and function of the foot in different groups of those animals4 ,a similarly significant evidence of relationship is afforded by processes of the zygomatic region of the skull in certain edentates existing and extinct4 #bcc ,again1 the relation between existing and recent faunas of the different regions of the world1 and the predominating 7though by no means exclusive7 march of organization1 from the more general to the more special1 point in the same direction4 ,almost all the facts brought forward by the patient industry of ,mr4 ,darwin in support of his theory of ,natural ,selection1 are of course available as evidence in favour of the agency of pre-existing and similar animals in specific evolution4 ,now the new forms must be produced by changes taking place in organisms in1 after or before their birth1 either in their embryonic1 or towards or in their adult1 condition4 ,examples of strange births are sufficiently common1 and they may arise either from direct embryonic modifications or apparently from some obscure change in the parental action4 ,to the former category belong the hosts of instances of malformation through arrest of development1 and perhaps generally monstrosities of some sort are the result of such affections of the embryo4 ,to the second category belong all cases of hybridism1 of cross breed1 and in all probability the new varieties and forms1 such as the memorable one of the black-shouldered peacock4 ,in all these cases we do not have abortions or monstrosities1 but more or less harmonious forms often of great functional activity1 endowed with marked viability and generative prepotency1 except in the case of hybrids1 when we often find even a more marked generative impotency4 ,it seems probable therefore that new species may arise from some constitutional affection of parental forms--an affection mainly1 if not exclusively1 of their generative system4 ,mr4 ,darwin has carefully collected#bce numerous instances to show how excessively sensitive to various influences this system is4 ,he says3#bcf ,sterility is independent of general health1 and is often accompanied by excess of size1 or #bcd great luxuriance1 and1 ,no one can tell1 till he tries2 whether any particular animal will breed under confinement1 or any exotic plant seed freely under culture4 ,again1 ,when a new character arises1 whatever its nature may be1 it generally tends to be inherited1 at least in a temporary and sometimes in a most persistent manner4#bcg ,yet the obscure action of conditions will alter characters long inherited1 as the grandchildren of ,aylesbury ducks1 removed to a distant part of ,england1 completely lost their early habit of incubation1 and hatched their eggs at the same time with the common ducks of the same place4#bch ,mr4 ,darwin quotes ,mr4 ,bartlett as saying3 ,it is remarkable that lions breed more freely in travelling collections than in the zoological gardens2 probably the constant excitement and irritation produced by moving from place to place1 or change of air1 may have considerable influence in the matter4#bci ,mr4 ,darwin also says3 ,there is reason to believe that insects are affected by confinement like the higher animals1 and he gives examples4#bdj ,again1 he gives examples of change of plumage in the linnet1 bunting1 oriole1 and other birds1 and of the temporary modification of the horns of a male deer during a voyage4#bda ,finally1 he adds that these changes cannot be attributed to loss of health or vigour1 when we reflect how healthy1 long-lived1 and vigorous many animals are under captivity1 such as parrots1 and hawks when used for hawking1 chetahs when used for hunting1 and elephants4 ,the reproductive organs themselves are not diseased2 and the diseases from which animals in menageries usually perish1 are not those which in any way affect their fertility4 ,no domestic animal is more subject to disease than the sheep1 yet it is remarkably prolific4444 ,it would appear that any change in #bce the habits of life1 whatever these habits may be1 if great enough1 tends to affect in an inexplicable manner the powers of reproduction4 ,such1 then1 is the singular sensitiveness of the generative system4 ,as to the means by which that system is affected1 we see that a variety of conditions affect it2 but as to the modes in which they act upon it1 we have as yet little if any clue4 ,we have also seen the singular effects 7in tailed ,lepidoptera1 c47 of causes connected with geographical distribution1 the mode of action of which is as yet quite inexplicable2 and we have also seen the innate tendency which there appears to be in certain groups 7birds of paradise1 c47 to develop peculiarities of a special kind4 ,it is1 to say the least1 probable that other influences exist1 terrestrial and cosmical1 as yet un-noted4 ,the gradually accumulating or diversely combining actions of all these on highly sensitive structures1 which are themselves possessed of internal responsive powers and tendencies1 may well result in occasional repeated productions of forms harmonious and vigorous1 and differing from the parental forms in proportion to the result of the combining or conflicting action of all external and internal influences4 ,if1 in the past history of this planet1 more causes ever intervened1 or intervened more energetically than at present1 we might a priori expect a richer and more various evolution of forms more radically differing than any which could be produced under conditions of more perfect equilibrium4 ,at the same time1 if it be true that the last few thousand years have been a period of remarkable and exceptional uniformity as regards this planet's astronomical relations1 there are then some grounds for thinking that organic evolution may have been exceptionally depressed during the same epoch4 ,now1 as to the fact that sudden changes and sudden developments have #bcf occurred1 and as to the probability that such changes are likely to occur1 evidence was given in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,in ,chapter ,v4 we also saw that minerals become modified suddenly and considerably by the action of incident forces--as1 e4g41 the production of hexagonal tabular crystals of carbonate of copper by sulphuric acid1 and of long rectangular prisms by ammonia1 c4 ,we have thus a certain antecedent probability that if changes are produced in specific manifestation through incident forces1 these changes will be sensible and considerable1 not minute and infinitesimal4 ,consequently1 it is probable that new species have appeared from time to time with comparative suddenness1 and that they still continue so to arise if all the conditions necessary for specific evolution now obtain4 ,this probability will be increased if the observations of ,dr4 ,bastian are confirmed by future investigation4 ,according to his report1 when the requisite conditions were supplied1 the transformations which appeared to take place 7from very low to higher organisms7 were sudden1 definite1 and complete4 ,therefore1 if this is so1 there must probably exist in higher forms a similar tendency to such change4 ,that tendency may indeed be long suppressed1 and ultimately modified by the action of heredity--an action which would increase in force with the increase in the perfection and complexity of the organism affected4 ,still we might expect that such changes as do take place would be also sudden1 definite1 and complete4 ,moreover1 as the same causes produce the same effects1 several individual parent forms must often have been similarly and simultaneously affected4 ,that they should be so affected--at least that several similarly modified individuals should simultaneously arise--has been seen to be a generally necessary circumstance for the permanent duration of such new modifications4 ,it is also conceivable that such new forms may be endowed with #bcg excessive constitutional strength and viability1 and with generative prepotency1 as was the case with the black-shouldered peacock in ,sir ,j4 ,trevelyan's flock4 ,this flock was entirely composed of the common kind1 and yet the new form rapidly developed itself to the extinction of the previously existing breed4#bdb ,indeed1 the notion accepted by both ,mr4 ,darwin and ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 and which is plainly the fact 7namely1 that changes of conditions and incident forces1 within limits1 augment the viability and fertility of individuals71 harmonizes well with the suggested possibility as to an augmented viability and prepotency in new organic forms evolved by peculiar consentaneous actions of conditions and forces1 both external and internal4 ,the remarkable series of changes noted by ,dr4 ,bastian were certainly not produced by external incident forces only1 but by these acting on a peculiar materia1 having special properties and powers4 ,therefore1 the changes were induced by the consentaneous action of internal and external forces4#bdc ,in the same way then1 we may expect changes in higher forms to be evolved by similar united action of internal and external forces4 ,one other point may here be alluded to4 ,when the remarkable way in which structure and function simultaneously change1 is borne in mind2 when those numerous instances in which nature has supplied similar wants by similar means1 as detailed in ,chapter ,,iii41 are remembered2 when also all the wonderful contrivances of orchids1 of mimicry1 and the strange complexity of certain instinctive actions are considered3 then the conviction forces itself on many minds that the organic world is the expression of an intelligence of some kind4 ,this view has been well advocated by ,mr4 ,joseph ,john ,murphy1 in his recent work so often here referred to4 #bch ,this intelligence1 however1 is evidently not altogether such as ours1 or else has other ends in view than those most obvious to us4 ,for the end is often attained in singularly roundabout ways1 or with a prodigality of means which seems out of all proportion with the result3 not with the simple action directed to one end which generally marks human activity4 ,organic nature then speaks clearly to many minds of the action of an intelligence resulting1 on the whole and in the main1 in order1 harmony1 and beauty1 yet of an intelligence the ways of which are not such as ours4 ,this view of evolution harmonizes well with ,theistic conceptions2 not1 of course1 that this harmony is brought forward as an argument in its favour generally1 but it will have weight with those who are convinced that ,theism reposes upon solid grounds of reason as the rational view of the universe4 ,to such it may be observed that1 thus conceived1 the ,divine action has that slight amount of resemblance to1 and that wide amount of divergence from what human action would be1 which might be expected a priori--might be expected1 that is1 from a ,being whose nature and aims are utterly beyond our power to imagine1 however faintly1 but whose truth and goodness are the fountain and source of our own perceptions of such qualities4 ,the view of evolution maintained in this work1 though arrived at in complete independence1 yet seems to agree in many respects with the views advocated by ,professor ,owen in the last volume of his ,anatomy of ,vertebrates1 under the term derivation4 ,he says3#bdd ,derivation holds that every species changes in time1 by virtue of inherent tendencies thereto4 ',natural ,selection' holds that no such change can take place without the influence of altered external circumstances4#bde #bci ',derivation' sees among the effects of the innate tendency to change irrespective of altered circumstances1 a manifestation of creative power in the variety and beauty of the results2 and1 in the ultimate forthcoming of a being susceptible of appreciating such beauty1 evidence of the pre-ordaining of such relation of power to the appreciation4 ',natural ,selection' acknowledges that if ornament or beauty1 in itself1 should be a purpose in creation1 it would be absolutely fatal to it as a hypothesis4 ',natural ,selection' sees grandeur in the view of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms or into one4 ',derivation' sees therein a narrow invocation of a special miracle and an unworthy limitation of creative power1 the grandeur of which is manifested daily1 hourly1 in calling into life many forms1 by conversion of physical and chemical into vital modes of force1 under as many diversified conditions of the requisite elements to be so combined4 ,the view propounded in this work allows1 however1 a greater and more important part to the share of external influences1 it being believed by the ,author1 however1 that these external influences equally with the internal ones are the results of one harmonious action underlying the whole of nature1 organic and inorganic1 cosmical1 physical1 chemical1 terrestrial1 vital1 and social4 ,according to this view1 an internal law presides over the actions of every part of every individual1 and of every organism as a unit1 and of the entire organic world as a whole4 ,it is believed that this conception of an internal innate force will ever remain necessary1 however much its subordinate processes and actions may become explicable3 ,that by such a force1 from time to time1 new species are manifested by ordinary generation just as ,pavo nigripennis appeared suddenly1 these new forms not being monstrosities but harmonious self-consistent wholes4 ,that thus1 as specific distinctness is manifested by obscure sexual #bdj conditions1 so in obscure sexual modifications specific distinctions arise4 ,that these jumps are considerable in comparison with the minute variations of ,natural ,selection--are in fact sensible steps1 such as discriminate species from species4 ,that the latent tendency which exists to these sudden evolutions is determined to action by the stimulus of external conditions4 ,that ,natural ,selection rigorously destroys monstrosities1 and abortive and feeble attempts at the performance of the evolutionary process4 ,that ,natural ,selection removes the antecedent species rapidly when the new one evolved is more in harmony with surrounding conditions4 ,that ,natural ,selection favours and develops useful variations1 though it is impotent to originate them or to erect the physiological barrier which seems to exist between species4 ,by some such conception as this1 the difficulties here enumerated1 which beset the theory of ,natural ,selection pure and simple1 are to be got over4 ,thus1 for example1 the difficulties discussed in the first chapter--namely1 those as to the origins and first beginnings of certain structures--are completely evaded4 ,again1 as to the independent origin of closely similar structures1 such as the eyes of the ,vertebrata and cuttle-fishes1 the difficulty is removed if we may adopt the conception of an innate force similarly directed in each case1 and assisted by favourable external conditions4 ,specific stability1 limitation to variability1 and the facts of reversion1 all harmonize with the view here put forward4 ,the same may be said with regard to the significant facts of homology1 and of organic symmetry2 and our consideration of the hypothesis of ,pangenesis in ,chapter ,x41 has seemed to result in a view as to innate powers which accords well with what is here advocated4 ,page #bda ,the evolutionary hypothesis here advocated also serves to explain all those remarkable facts which were stated in the first chapter to be explicable by the theory of ,natural ,selection1 namely1 the relation of existing to recent faunas and floras2 the phenomena of homology and of rudimentary structures2 also the processes gone through in development2 and lastly1 the wonderful facts of mimicry4 ,finally1 the view adopted is the synthesis of many distinct and1 at first sight1 conflicting conceptions1 each of which contains elements of truth1 and all of which it appears to be able more or less to harmonize4 ,thus it has been seen that ,natural ,selection is accepted4 ,it acts and must act1 though alone it does not appear capable of fulfilling the task assigned to it by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,pangenesis has probably also much truth in it1 and has certainly afforded valuable and pregnant suggestions1 but unaided and alone it seems inadequate to explain the evolution of the individual organism4 ,those three conceptions of the organic world which may be spoken of as the teleological1 the typical1 and the transmutationist1 have often been regarded as mutually antagonistic and conflicting4 ,the genesis of species as here conceived1 however1 accepts1 locates1 and harmonizes all the three4 ,teleology concerns the ends for which organisms were designed4 ,the recognition1 therefore1 that their formation took place by an evolution not fortuitous1 in no way invalidates the acknowledgment of their final causes if on other grounds there are reasons for believing that such final causes exist4 ,conformity to type1 or the creation of species according to certain divine ideas1 is in no way interfered with by such a process of evolution as is here advocated4 ,such divine ideas must be accepted or declined upon quite other grounds than the mode of their realization1 and of their manifestation in the world of sensible phenomena4 ,page #bdb ,transmutationism 7an old name for the evolutionary hypothesis71 which was conceived at one time to be the very antithesis to the two preceding conceptions1 harmonizes well with them if the evolution be conceived to be orderly and designed4 ,it will in the next chapter be shown to be completely in harmony with conceptions1 upon the acceptance of which final causes and divine ideal archetypes alike depend4 ,thus then1 if the cumulative argument put forward in this book is valid1 we must admit the insufficiency of ,natural ,selection both on account of the residuary phenomena it fails to explain1 and on account of certain other phenomena which seem actually to conflict with that theory4 ,we have seen that though the laws of nature are constant1 yet some of the conditions which determine specific change may be exceptionally absent at the present epoch of the world's history2 also that it is not only possible1 but highly probable1 that an internal power or tendency is an important if not the main agent in evoking the manifestation of new species on the scene of realized existence1 and that in any case1 from the facts of homology1 innate internal powers to the full as mysterious must anyhow be accepted1 whether they act in specific origination or not4 ,besides all this1 we have seen that it is probable that the action of this innate power is stimulated1 evoked1 and determined by external conditions1 and also that the same external conditions1 in the shape of ,natural ,selection1 play an important part in the evolutionary process3 and finally1 it has been affirmed that the view here advocated1 while it is supported by the facts on which ,darwinism rests1 is not open to the objections and difficulties which oppose themselves to the reception of ,natural ,selection1 as the exclusive or even as the main agent in the successive and orderly evolution of organic forms in the genesis of species4 ,page #bdc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,theology ,,and ,,evolution4 ,prejudiced opinions on the subject4--,creation sometimes denied from prejudice4---,the unknowable4--,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's objections to theism2 to creation4--,meanings of term creation4--,confusion from not distinguishing between primary and derivative creation4--,mr4 ,darwin's objections4--,bearing of ,christianity on the theory of evolution4--,supposed opposition1 the result of a misconception4--,theological authority not opposed to evolution4--,st4 ,augustin4--,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas4--,certain consequences of want of flexibility of mind4--,reason and imagination4--,the first cause and demonstration4--,parallel between ,christianity and natural theology4--,what evolution of species is4--,professor ,agassiz4--,innate powers must be recognized4--,bearing of evolution on religious belief4--,professor ,huxley4--,professor ,owen4--,mr4 ,wallace4--,mr4 ,darwin4--,a priori conception of ,divine action4--,origin of man4--,absolute creation and dogma4--,mr4 ,wallace's view4--,a supernatural origin for man's body not necessary4--,two orders of being in man4--,two modes of origin4--,harmony of the physical1 hyperphysical1 and supernatural4--,reconciliation of science and religion as regards evolution4--,conclusion4 ,the special ,darwinian ,theory and that of an evolutionary process neither excessively minute nor fortuitous1 having now been considered1 it is time to turn to the important question1 whether both or either of these conceptions may have any bearing1 and if any1 what1 upon ,christian belief8 ,some readers will consider such an inquiry to be a work of supererogation4 ,seeing clearly themselves the absurdity of prevalent popular views1 and the shallowness of popular objections1 they may be impatient of any discussion1 on the subject4 ,but it is submitted that there are many minds worthy #bdd of the highest esteem and of every consideration1 which have regarded the subject hitherto almost exclusively from one point of view2 that there are some persons who are opposed to the progress 7in their own minds or in that of their children or dependents7 of physical scientific truth--the natural revelation--through a mistaken estimate of its religious bearings1 while there are others who are zealous in its promotion from a precisely similar error4 ,for the sake of both these then the ,author may perhaps be pardoned for entering slightly on very elementary matters relating to the question1 whether evolution or ,darwinism have any1 and if any1 what1 bearing on theology8 ,there are at least two classes of men who will certainly assert that they have a very important and highly significant bearing upon it4 ,one of these classes consists of persons zealous for religion indeed1 but who identify orthodoxy with their own private interpretation of ,scripture or with narrow opinions in which they have been brought up--opinions doubtless widely spread1 but at the same time destitute of any distinct and authoritative sanction on the part of the ,christian ,church4 ,the other class is made up of men hostile to religion1 and who are glad to make use of any and every argument which they think may possibly be available against it4 ,some individuals within this latter class may not believe in the existence of ,god1 but may yet abstain from publicly avowing this absence of belief1 contenting themselves with denials of creation and design1 though these denials are really consequences of their attitude of mind respecting the most important and fundamental of all beliefs4 ,without a distinct belief in a personal ,god it is impossible to have any religion worthy of the name1 and no one can at the same time accept the ,christian religion and deny the dogma of creation4 ,page #bde ,i believe in ,god1 the ,creator of ,heaven and ,earth1 the very first clauses of the ,apostles' ,creed1 formally commit those who accept them to the assertion of this belief4 ,if1 therefore1 any theory of physical science really conflicts with such an authoritative statement1 its importance to ,christians is unquestionable4 ,as1 however1 creation forms a part of revelation1 and as revelation appeals for its acceptance to reason which has to prepare a basis for it by an intelligent acceptance of theism on purely rational grounds1 it is necessary to start with a few words as to the reasonableness of belief in ,god1 which indeed are less superfluous than some readers may perhaps imagine2 a few words1 because this is not the place where the argument can be drawn out1 but only one or two hints given in reply to certain modern objections4 ,no better example perhaps can be taken1 as a type of these objections1 than a passage in ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's ,first ,principles4#bdf ,this author constantly speaks of the ultimate cause of things as the ,unknowable1 a term singularly unfortunate1 and as ,mr4 ,james ,martineau has pointed out1#bdg even self-contradictory3 for that entity1 the knowledge of #bdf the existence of which presses itself ever more and more upon the cultivated intellect1 cannot be the unknown1 still less the unknowable1 because we certainly know it1 in that we know for certain that it exists4 ,nay more1 to predicate incognoscibility of it1 is even a certain knowledge of the mode of its existence4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer says3#bdh ,the consciousness of an ,inscrutable ,power manifested to us through all phenomena has been growing ever clearer2 and must eventually be freed from its imperfections4 ,the certainty that on the one hand such a ,power exists1 while on the other hand its nature transcends intuition1 and is beyond imagination1 is the certainty towards which intelligence has from the first been progressing4 ,one would think then that the familiar and accepted word the ,inscrutable 7which is in this passage actually employed1 and to which no theologian would object7 would be an indefinitely better term than the unknowable4 ,the above extract has1 however1 such a theistic aspect that some readers may think the opposition here offered superfluous2 it may be well1 therefore1 to quote two other sentences4 ,in another place he observes1#bdi ,passing over the consideration of credibility1 and confining ourselves to that of conceivability1 we see that atheism1 pantheism1 and theism1 when rigorously analysed1 severally prove to be absolutely unthinkable2 and speaking of every form of religion1 he adds1#bej ,the analysis of every possible hypothesis proves1 not simply that no hypothesis is sufficient but that no hypothesis is even thinkable4 ,the unknowable is admitted to be a power which cannot be regarded as having sympathy with us1 but as one to which no emotion whatever can be ascribed1 and we are expressly #bdg forbidden by duty1 to affirm personality of ,god as much as to deny it of ,him4 ,how such a being can be presented as an object on which to exercise religious emotion it is difficult indeed to understand4#bea ,aspiration1 love1 devotion to be poured forth upon what we can never know1 upon what we can never affirm to know1 or care for1 us1 our thoughts or actions1 or to possess the attributes of wisdom and goodness6 ,the worship offered in such a religion must be1 as ,professor ,huxley says1#beb for the most part of the silent sort--silent not only as to the spoken word1 but silent as to the mental conception also4 ,it will be difficult to distinguish the follower of this religion from the follower of none1 and the man who declines either to assert or to deny the existence of ,god1 is practically in the position of an atheist4 ,for theism enjoins the cultivation of sentiments of love and devotion to ,god1 and the practice of their external expression4 ,atheism forbids both1 while the simply non-theist abstains in conformity with the prohibition of the atheist and thus practically sides with him4 ,moreover1 since man cannot imagine that of which he has no experience in any way whatever1 and since he has experience only of human perfections and of the powers and properties of inferior existences2 if he be required to deny human perfections and to abstain from making use of such conceptions1 he is thereby necessarily reduced to others of an inferior order4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer says1#bec ,those who espouse this #bdh alternative position1 make the erroneous assumption that the choice is between personality and something lower than personality2 whereas the choice is rather between personality and something higher4 ,is it not just possible that there is a mode of being as much transcending intelligence and will1 as these transcend mechanical motion8 ,it is true we are totally unable to conceive any such higher mode of being4 ,but this is not a reason for questioning its existence2 it is rather the reverse4 ,may we not therefore rightly refrain from assigning to the 'ultimate cause' any attributes whatever1 on the ground that such attributes1 derived as they must be from our own natures1 are not elevations but degradations8 ,the way however to arrive at the object aimed at 7i4e4 to obtain the best attainable conception of the ,first ,cause7 is not to refrain from the only conceptions possible to us1 but to seek the very highest of these1 and then declare their utter inadequacy2 and this is precisely the course which has been pursued by theologians4 ,it is to be regretted that before writing on this matter ,mr4 ,spencer did not more thoroughly acquaint himself with the ordinary doctrine on the subject4 ,it is always taught in the ,church schools of divinity1 that nothing1 not even existence1 is to be predicated univocally of ,god and creatures2 that after exhausting ingenuity to arrive at the loftiest possible conceptions1 we must declare them to be utterly inadequate2 that1 after all1 they are but accommodations to human infirmity2 that they are in a sense objectively false 7because of their inadequacy71 though subjectively and very practically true4 ,but the difference between this mode of treatment and that adopted by ,mr4 ,spencer is wide indeed2 for the practical result of the mode inculcated by the ,church is that each one may freely affirm and act upon the highest human conceptions he can attain of the#bdi power1 wisdom1 and goodness of ,god1 ,his watchful care1 ,his loving providence for every man1 at every moment and in every need2 for the ,christian knows that the falseness of his conceptions lies only in their inadequacy2 he may therefore strengthen and refresh himself1 may rejoice and revel in conceptions of the goodness of ,god1 drawn from the tenderest human images of fatherly care and love1 or he may chasten and abase himself by consideration of the awful holiness and unapproachable majesty of the ,divinity derived from analogous sources1 knowing that no thought of man can ever be true enough1 can ever attain the incomprehensible reality1 which nevertheless really is all that can be conceived1 plus an inconceivable infinity beyond4 ,a good illustration of what is here meant1 and of the difference between the theistic position and ,mr4 ,spencer's1 may be supplied by an example he has himself proposed4 ,thus1#bed he imagines an intelligent watch speculating as to its maker1 and conceiving of him in terms of watch-being1 and figuring him as furnished with springs1 escapements1 cogged wheels1 c41 his motions facilitated by oil--in a word1 like himself4 ,it is assumed by ,mr4 ,spencer that this necessary watch conception would be completely false1 and the illustration is made use of to show the presumption of theologians--the absurdity and unreasonableness of those men who figure the incomprehensible cause of all phenomena as a ,being in some way comparable with man4 ,now1 putting aside for the moment all other considerations1 and accepting the illustration1 surely the example demonstrates rather the unreasonableness of the objector himself6 ,it is true1 indeed1 that a man is an organism indefinitely more complex and perfect than any watch2 but if the watch could only conceive of its maker in watch terms1 or else in terms altogether inferior1 the watch would plainly be right in speaking of its maker as a1 to it1 inconceivably #bej perfect kind of watch1 acknowledging at the same time1 that this1 its conception of him1 was utterly inadequate1 although the best its inferior nature allowed it to form4 ,for if1 instead of so conceiving of its maker1 it refused to make use of these relative perfections as a makeshift1 and so necessarily thought of him as amorphous metal1 or mere oil1 or by the help of any other inferior conception which a watch might be imagined capable of entertaining1 that watch would he wrong indeed4 ,for man can much more properly be compared with1 and has much more affinity to1 a perfect watch in full activity than to a mere piece of metal1 or drop of oil4 ,but the watch is even more in the right still1 for its maker1 man1 virtually has the cogged wheels1 springs1 escapements1 oil1 c41 which the watch's conception has been supposed to attribute to him2 inasmuch as all these parts must have existed as distinct ideas in the human watchmaker's mind before he could actually construct the clock formed by him4 ,nor is even this all1 for1 by the hypothesis1 the watch thinks4 ,it must1 therefore1 think of its maker as a thinking being1 and in this it is absolutely and completely right4#bee ,either1 therefore1 the hypothesis is absurd or it actually demonstrates the very position it was chosen to refute4 ,unquestionably1 then1 on the mere ground taken by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer himself1 if we are compelled to think of the ,first ,cause either in human terms 7but with human imperfections abstracted and human perfections carried to the highest conceivable degree71 or1 on the other hand1 in terms decidedly inferior1 such as those are driven to who think of ,him1 but decline to accept as a help the term personality2 there can be no question but that the first conception is immeasurably nearer the truth than the second4 ,yet the latter is the one put forward and advocated by that author in spite of its unreasonableness1 and in spite also of its#bea conflicting with the whole moral nature of man and all his noblest aspirations4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer objects to the conception of ,god as first cause1 on the ground that when our symbolic conceptions are such that no cumulative or indirect processes of thought can enable us to ascertain that there are corresponding actualities1 nor any predictions be made whose fulfilment can prove this1 then they are altogether vicious and illusive1 and in no way distinguishable from pure fictions4#bef ,now1 it is quite true that symbolic conceptions1 which are not to be justified either 7#a7 by presentations of sense1 or 7#b7 by intuitions1 are invalid as representations of real truth4 ,yet the conception of ,god referred to is justified by our primary intuitions1 and we can assure ourselves that it does stand for an actuality by comparing it with 7#a7 our intuitions of free-will and causation1 and 7#b7 our intuitions of morality and responsibility4 ,that we have these intuitions is a point on which the ,author joins issue with ,mr4 ,spencer1 and confidently affirms that they cannot logically be denied without at the same time complete and absolute scepticism resulting from such denial--scepticism wherein vanishes any certainty as to the existence both of ,mr4 ,spencer and his critic1 and by which it is equally impossible to have a thought free from doubt1 or to go so far as to affirm the existence of that very doubt or of the doubter who doubts it4 ,it may not be amiss here to protest against the intolerable assumption of a certain school1 who are continually talking in lofty terms of science1 but who actually speak of primary religious conceptions as unscientific1 and habitually employ the word science1 when they should limit it by the prefix physical4 ,this is the more amazing as not a few of this school adopt the idealist philosophy1 and affirm that matter and force are but names for certain modes of consciousness4 ,it might be expected of them at least to admit that opinions which repose on primary and fundamental #beb intuitions1 are especially and par excellence scientific4 ,such are some of the objections to the ,christian conception of ,god4 ,we may now turn to those which are directed against ,god as the ,creator1 i4e4 as the absolute originator of the universe1 without the employment of any pre-existing means or material4 ,this is again considered by ,mr4 ,spencer as a thoroughly illegitimate symbolic conception1 as much so as the atheistic one--the difficulty as to a self-existent ,creator being in his opinion equal to that of a self-existent universe4 ,to this it may be replied that both are of course equally unimaginable1 but that it is not a question of facility of conception--not which is easiest to conceive1 but which best accounts for1 and accords with1 psychological facts2 namely1 with the above-mentioned intuitions4 ,it is contended that we have these primary intuitions1 and that with these the conception of a self-existent ,creator is perfectly harmonious4 ,on the other hand1 the notion of a self-existent universe--that there is no real distinction between the finite and the infinite--that the universe and ourselves are one and the same things with the infinite and the self-existent2 these assertions1 in addition to being unimaginable1 contradict our primary intuitions4 ,mr4 ,darwin's objections to ,creation are of quite a different kind1 and1 before entering upon them1 it will be well to endeavour clearly to understand what we mean by ,creation1 in the various senses in which the term may be used4 ,in the strictest and highest sense ,creation is the absolute origination of anything by ,god without pre-existing means or material1 and is a supernatural act4#beg ,in the secondary and lower sense1 ,creation is the formation of anything by ,god derivatively2 that is1 that the preceding matter has been created with the potentiality to evolve from it1 under suitable conditions1 #bec all the various forms it subsequently assumes4 ,and this power having been conferred by ,god in the first instance1 and those laws and powers having been instituted by ,him1 through the action of which the suitable conditions are supplied1 ,he is said in this lower sense to create such various subsequent forms4 ,this is the natural action of ,god in the physical world1 as distinguished from ,his direct1 or1 as it may be here called1 supernatural action4 ,in yet a third sense1 the word ,creation may be more or less improperly applied to the construction of any complex formation or state by a voluntary self-conscious being who makes use of the powers and laws which ,god has imposed1 as when a man is spoken of as the creator of a museum1 or of his own fortune1 c4 ,such action of a created conscious intelligence is purely natural1 but more than physical1 and may be conveniently spoken of as hyperphysical4 ,we have thus 7#a7 direct or supernatural action2 7#b7 physical action2 and 7#c7 hyperphysical action---the two latter both belonging to the order of nature4#beh ,neither the physical nor the hyperphysical actions1 however1 exclude the idea of the ,divine concurrence1 and with every consistent theist that idea is necessarily included4 ,dr4 ,asa ,gray has given expression to this4#bei ,he says1 ,agreeing that plants and animals were produced by ,omnipotent fiat1 does not exclude the idea of natural order and what we call secondary causes4 ,the record of the fiat--',let the earth bring forth grass1 the herb yielding seed1' c41 'let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind'--seems even to imply them1 and leads to the conclusion that the various kinds were produced through natural agencies4 #bed ,now1 much confusion has arisen from not keeping clearly in view this distinction between absolute creation and derivative creation4 ,with the first1 physical science has plainly nothing whatever to do1 and is impotent to prove or to refute it4 ,the second is also safe from any attack on the part of physical science1 for it is primarily derived from psychical not physical phenomena4 ,the greater part of the apparent force possessed by objectors to creation1 like ,mr4 ,darwin1 lies in their treating the assertion of derivative creation as if it was an assertion of absolute creation1 or at least of supernatural action4 ,thus1 he asks whether some of his opponents believe that at innumerable periods in the earth's history1 certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash into living tissues4#bfj ,certain of ,mr4 ,darwin's objections1 however1 are not physical1 but metaphysical1 and really attack the dogma of secondary or derivative creation1 though to some perhaps they may appear to be directed against absolute creation only4 ,thus he uses1 as an illustration1 the conception of a man who builds an edifice from fragments of rock at the base of a precipice1 by selecting for the construction of the various parts of the building the pieces which are the most suitable owing to the shape they happen to have broken into4 ,afterwards1 alluding to this illustration1 he says1#bfa ,the shape of the fragments of stone at the base of our precipice may be called accidental1 but this is not strictly correct1 for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events1 all obeying natural laws1 on the nature of the rock1 on the lines of stratification or cleavage1 on the form of the mountain which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation1 and lastly1 on the storm and earthquake which threw down the fragments4 ,but in regard to the use to which the fragments may be put1 their shape may strictly be said to be#bee accidental4 ,and here we are led to face a great difficulty1 in alluding to which ,i am aware that ,i am travelling beyond my proper province4 ,an omniscient ,creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by ,him2 but can it be reasonably maintained that the ,creator intentionally ordered1 if we use the words in any ordinary sense1 that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes1 so that the builder might erect his edifice8 ,if the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder's sake1 can it with any greater probability be maintained that ,he specially ordained1 for the sake of the breeder1 each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants--many of these variations being of no service to man1 and not beneficial1 far more often injurious1 to the creatures themselves8 ,did ,he ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary1 in order that the fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fantail breeds8 ,did ,he cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary1 in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity1 with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man's brutal sport8 ,but1 if we give up the principle in one case---if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided1 in order that the greyhound1 for instance1 that perfect image of symmetry and vigour1 might be formed1--no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that the variations1 alike in nature1 and the result of the same general laws1 which have been the groundwork through ,natural ,selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world1 man included1 were intentionally and specially guided4 ,however much we may wish it1 we can hardly follow ,professor ,asa ,gray in his belief that 'variation has been led along certain beneficial lines1' like a stream 'along definite and useful lines of irrigation4' ,if we assume that each particular variation was from the beginning of#bef all time pre-ordained1 the plasticity of the organization1 which leads to many injurious deviations of structure1 as well as that redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence1 and1 as a consequence1 to the ,natural ,selection and survival of the fittest1 must appear to us superfluous laws of nature4 ,on the other hand1 an omnipotent and omniscient ,creator ordains everything and foresees everything4 ,thus we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of freewill and predestination4 ,before proceeding to reply to this remarkable passage1 it may be well to remind some readers that belief in the existence of ,god1 in ,his primary creation of the universe1 and in ,his derivative creation of all kinds of being1 inorganic and organic1 do not repose upon physical phenomena1 but1 as has been said1 on primary intuitions4 ,to deny or ridicule any of these beliefs on physical grounds is to commit the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi4 ,it is to commit an absurdity analogous to that of saying a blind child could not recognize his father because he could not see him1 forgetting that he could hear and feel him4 ,yet there are some who appear to find it unreasonable and absurd that men should regard phenomena in a light not furnished by or deducible from the very phenomena themselves1 although the men so regarding them avow that the light in which they do view them comes from quite another source4 ,it is as if a man1 ,a1 coming into ,b's room and finding there a butterfly1 should insist that ,b had no right to believe that the butterfly had not flown in at the open window1 inasmuch as there was nothing about the room or insect to lead to any other belief2 while ,b can well sustain his right so to believe1 he having met ,c1 who told him he brought in the chrysalis and1 having seen the insect emerge1 took away the skin4 ,by a similarly narrow and incomplete view the assertion that human conceptions1 such as the vertebrate idea1 c41 are ideas in the mind of ,god1 is sometimes ridiculed2 as if the assertors either on the one #beg hand pretended to some prodigious acuteness of mind--a far-reaching genius not possessed by most naturalists--or1 on the other hand1 as if they detected in the very phenomena furnishing such special conception evidences of ,divine imaginings4 ,but let the idea of ,god1 according to the highest conceptions of ,christianity1 be once accepted1 and then it becomes simply a truism to say that the mind of the ,deity contains all that is good and positive in the mind of man1 plus1 of course1 an absolutely inconceivable infinity beyond4 ,that thus such human conceptions may1 nay must1 be asserted to be at the same time ideas in the ,divine mind also1 as every real and separate individual that has been1 is1 or shall be1 is present to the same mind4 ,nay1 more1 that such human conceptions are but faint and obscure adumbrations of corresponding ideas which exist in the mind of ,god in perfection and fulness4#bfb ,the theist1 having arrived at his theistic convictions from quite other sources than a consideration of zoological or botanical phenomena1 #beh returns to the consideration of such phenomena and views them in a theistic light without of course asserting or implying that such light has been derived from them1 or that there is an obligation of reason so to view them on the part of others who refuse to enter upon or to accept those other sources whence have been derived the theistic convictions of the theist4 ,but ,mr4 ,darwin is not guilty of arguing against metaphysical ideas on physical grounds only1 for he employs very distinctly metaphysical ones2 namely1 his conceptions of the nature and attributes of the ,first ,cause4 ,but what conceptions does he offer us8 ,nothing but that low anthropomorphism which1 unfortunately1 he so often seems to treat as the necessary result of ,theism4 ,it is again the dummy1 helpless and deformed1 set up merely for the purpose of being knocked down4 ,it must once more be insisted on1 that though man is indeed compelled to conceive of ,god in human terms1 and to speak of ,him by epithets objectively false1 from their hopeless inadequacy1 yet nevertheless the ,christian thinker declares that inadequacy in the strongest manner1 and vehemently rejects from his idea of ,god all terms distinctly implying infirmity or limitation4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,darwin speaks as if all who believe in the ,almighty were compelled to accept as really applicable to the ,deity conceptions which affirm limits and imperfections4 ,thus he says3 ,can it be reasonably maintained that the ,creator intentionally ordered that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes1 so that the builder might erect his edifice8 ,why1 surely every theist must maintain that in the first foundation of the universe--the primary and absolute creation--,god saw and knew every purpose which every atom and particle of matter should ever subserve in all suns and systems1 and throughout all coming ons of time4 ,it is almost incredible1 but nevertheless it seems necessary to think that the difficulty thus proposed rests on a sort of notion that amidst the boundless profusion of nature there is too much for ,god to superintend2 that the number of objects is too great for an infinite and #bei omnipresent being to attend singly to each and all in their due proportions and needs6 ,in the same way ,mr4 ,darwin asks whether ,god can have ordered the race variations referred to in the passage last quoted1 for the considerations therein mentioned4 ,to this it may be at once replied that even man often has several distinct intentions and motives for a single action1 and the theist has no difficulty in supposing that1 out of an infinite number of motives1 the motive mentioned in each case may have been an exceedingly subordinate one4 ,the theist1 though properly attributing to ,god what1 for want of a better term1 he calls purpose and design1 yet affirms that the limitations of human purposes and motives are by no means applicable to the ,divine purposes4 ,out of many1 say a thousand million1 reasons for the institution of the laws of the physical universe1 some few are to a certain extent conceivable by us2 and amongst these the benefits1 material and moral1 accruing from them to men1 and to each individual man in every circumstance of his life1 play a certain1 perhaps a very subordinate1 part4#bfc ,as ,baden ,powell observes1 ,how can we #bfj undertake to affirm1 amid all the possibilities of things of which we confessedly know so little1 that a thousand ends and purposes may not be answered1 because we can trace none1 or even imagine none1 which seem to our short-sighted faculties to be answered in these particular arrangements8#bfd ,the objection to the bull-dog's ferocity in connexion with man's brutal sport opens up the familiar but vast question of the existence of evil1 a problem the discussion of which would be out of place here4 ,considering1 however1 the very great stress which is laid in the present day on the subject of animal suffering by so many amiable and excellent people1 one or two remarks on that matter may not be superfluous4 ,to those who accept the belief in ,god1 the soul and moral responsibility2 and recognize the full results of that acceptance--to such1 physical suffering and moral evil are simply incommensurable4 ,to them the placing of non-moral beings in the same scale with moral agents will be utterly unendurable4 ,but even considering physical pain only1 all must admit that this depends greatly on the mental condition of the sufferer4 ,only during consciousness does it exist1 and only in the most highly-organized men does it reach its acme4 ,the ,author has been assured that lower races of men appear less keenly sensitive to physical pain than do more cultivated and refined human beings4 ,thus only in man can there really be any intense degree of suffering1 because only in him is there that intellectual recollection of past moments and that anticipation of future ones1 which constitute in great part the bitterness of suffering4#bfe ,the momentary pang1 the present pain1 which beasts endure1 though real enough1 is yet1 doubtless1 not to be compared as #bfa to its intensity with the suffering which is produced in man through his high prerogative of self-consciousness4#bff ,as to the beneficial lines 7of ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 before referred to71 some of the facts noticed in the preceding chapters seem to point very decidedly in that direction1 but all must admit that the actual existing outcome is far more beneficial than the reverse4 ,the natural universe has resulted in the development of an unmistakable harmony and beauty1 and in a decided preponderance of good and of happiness over their opposites4 ,even if laws of nature did appear1 on the theistic hypothesis1 to be superfluous 7which it is by no means intended here to admit71 it would be nothing less than puerile to prefer rejecting the hypothesis to conceiving that the appearance of superfluity was probably due to human ignorance2 and this especially might be expected from naturalists to whom the interdependence of nature and the harmony and utility of obscure phenomena are becoming continually more clear1 as1 e4g41 the structure of orchids to their illustrious expositor4 ,having now cleared the ground somewhat1 we may turn to the question what bearing ,christian dogma has upon evolution1 and whether ,christians1 as such1 need take up any definite attitude concerning it4 ,as has been said1 it is plain that physical science and evolution can have nothing whatever to do with absolute or primary creation4 ,the ,rev4 ,baden ,powell well expresses this1 saying3 ,science demonstrates incessant past changes1 and dimly points to yet earlier links in a more vast series of development of material existence2 but the idea of a beginning1 or of creation1 in the sense of the original operation of the ,divine volition to constitute nature and matter1 is beyond the province of physical #bfb philosophy4#bfg ,with secondary or derivative creation1 physical science is also incapable of conflict2 for the objections drawn by some writers seemingly from physical science1 are1 as has been already argued1 rather metaphysical than physical4 ,derivative creation is not a supernatural act1 but is simply the ,divine action by and through natural laws4 ,to recognize such action in such laws is a religious mode of regarding phenomena1 which a consistent theist must necessarily accept1 and which an atheistic believer must similarly reject4 ,but this conception1 if deemed superfluous by any naturalist1 can never be shown to be false by any investigations concerning natural laws1 the constant action of which it presupposes4 ,the conflict has arisen through a misunderstanding4 ,some have supposed that by creation was necessarily meant either primary1 that is1 absolute creation1 or1 at least1 some supernatural action2 they have therefore opposed the dogma of creation in the imagined interest of physical science4 ,others have supposed that by evolution was necessarily meant a denial of ,divine action1 a negation of the providence of ,god4 ,they have therefore combated the theory of evolution in the imagined interest of religion4 ,it appears plain then that ,christian thinkers are perfectly free to accept the general evolution theory4 ,but are there any theological authorities to justify this view of the matter8 ,now1 considering how extremely recent are these biological speculations1 it might hardly be expected a priori that writers of earlier ages should have given expression to doctrines harmonizing in any degree with such very modern views1#bfh nevertheless such most certainly is the case1 and #bfc it would be easy to give numerous examples4 ,it will be better1 however1 only to cite one or two authorities of weight4 ,now1 perhaps no writer #bfd of the earlier ,christian ages could be quoted whose authority is more generally recognized than that of ,st4 ,augustin4 ,the same may be said of the medival period1 for ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas2 and1 since the movement of ,luther1 ,suarez may be taken as a writer widely venerated as an authority and one whose orthodoxy has never been questioned4 ,it must be borne in mind that for a considerable time after even the last of these writers no one had disputed the generally received view as to the small age of the world or at least of the kinds of animals and plants inhabiting it4 ,it becomes therefore much more striking if views formed under such a condition of opinion are found to harmonize with modern ideas regarding ,creation and organic life4 ,now ,st4 ,augustin insists in a very remarkable manner on the merely derivative sense in which ,god's creation of organic forms is to be understood2 that is1 that ,god created them by conferring on the material world the power to evolve them under suitable conditions4 ,he says in his book on ,genesis3#bfi ,terrestria animalia1 tanquam ex ultimo elemento mundi ultima2 nihilominus potentialiter1 quorum numeros tempus postea visibiliter explicaret4 ,again he says3-- ,sicut autem in ipso grano invisibiliter erant omnia simul1 qu per tempora in arborem surgerent2 ita ipse mundus cogitandus est1 cum ,deus simul omnia creavit1 habuisse simul omnia qu in illo et cum illo facta sunt quando factus est dies2 non solum coelum cum sole et lun et sideribus 444 2 sed etiam illa qu aqua et terra produxit potentialiter atque causaliter1 priusquam per temporum moras ita exorirentur1 quomodo nobis jam nota sunt in eis operibus1 qu ,deus usque nunc operatur4#bgj ,omnium quippe rerum qu corporaliter visibiliterque nascuntur1 #bfe occulta qudam semina in istis corporeis mundi hujus elementis latent4#bga ,and again3 ,ista quippe originaliter ac primordialiter in quadam textura elementorum cuncta jam creata sunt2 sed acceptis opportunitatibus prodeunt4#bgb ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 as was said in the first chapter1 quotes with approval the saying of ,st4 ,augustin that in the first institution of nature we do not look for ,miracles1 but for the laws of ,nature3 ,in prima institutione natur non quritur miraculum1 sed quid natura rerum habeat1 ut ,augustinus dicit4#bgc ,again1 he quotes with approval ,st4 ,augustin's assertion that the kinds were created only derivatively1 potentialiter tantum4#bgd ,also he says1 ,in prima autem rerum institutione fuit principium activum verbum ,dei1 quod de materia elementari produxit animalia1 vel in actu vel virtute1 secundum ,aug4 lib4 #e de ,gen4 ad lit4 c4 #e4bge ,speaking of kinds 7in scholastic phraseology substantial forms7 latent in matter1 he says3 ,quas quidam posuerunt non incipere per actionem natur sed prius in materia exstitisse1 ponentes latitationem formarum4 ,et hoc accidit eis ex ignorantia materi1 quia nesciebant distinguere inter potentiam et actum4 ,quia enim form prexistunt eas simpliciter prexistere4#bgf ,also ,cornelius ,lapide#bgg contends that at least certain animals were not absolutely1 but only derivatively created1 saying of them1 ,non fuerunt creata formaliter1 sed potentialiter4 ,as to ,suarez1 it will be enough to refer to ,disp4 xv41 #b1 n4 #i1 p4 #ejh1 t4 i4 ,edition ,vives1 ,paris2 also ,nos4 #ac--ae1 and many other references#bff to the same effect could easily be given1 but these may suffice4 ,it is then evident that ancient and most venerable theological authorities distinctly assert derivative creation1 and thus harmonize with all that modern science can possibly require4 ,it may indeed truly be said with ,roger ,bacon1 ,the saints never condemned many an opinion which the moderns think ought to be condemned4#bgh ,the various extracts given show clearly how far evolution is from any necessary opposition to the most orthodox theology4 ,the same may be said of spontaneous generation4 ,the most recent form of it1 lately advocated by ,dr4 ,h4 ,charlton ,bastian1#bgi teaches that matter exists in two different forms1 the crystalline 7or statical7 and the colloidal 7or dynamical7 conditions4 ,it also teaches that colloidal matter1 when exposed to certain conditions1 presents the phenomena of life1 and that it can be formed from crystalline matter1 and thus that the prima materia of which these are diverse forms contains potentially all the multitudinous kinds of animal and vegetable existence4 ,this theory moreover harmonizes well with the views here advocated1 for just as crystalline matter builds itself1 under suitable conditions1 along certain definite lines1 so analogously colloidal matter has its definite lines and directions of development4 ,it is not collected in haphazard1 accidental aggregations1 but evolves according to its proper laws and special properties4 ,the perfect orthodoxy of these views is unquestionable4 ,nothing is plainer from the venerable writers quoted1 as well as from a mass of other #bfg authorities1 than that the supernatural is not to be looked for or expected in the sphere of mere nature4 ,for this statement there is a general consensus of theological authority4 ,the teaching which the ,author has received is1 that ,god is indeed inscrutable and incomprehensible to us from the infinity of ,his attributes1 so that our minds can1 as it were1 only take in1 in a most fragmentary and indistinct manner 7as through a glass darkly71 dim conceptions of infinitesimal portions of ,his inconceivable perfection4 ,in this way the partial glimpses obtained by us in different modes differ from each other2 not that ,god is anything but the most perfect unity1 but that apparently conflicting views arise from our inability to apprehend ,him1 except in this imperfect manner1 i4e4 by successive slight approximations along different lines of approach4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton has said1#bhj ,nature conceals ,god1 and man reveals ,him4 ,it is not1 according to the teaching spoken of1 exactly thus2 but rather that physical nature reveals to us one side1 one aspect of the ,deity1 while the moral and religious worlds bring us in contact with another1 and at first1 to our apprehension1 a very different one4 ,the difference and discrepancy1 however1 which is at first felt1 is soon seen to proceed not from the reason but from a want of flexibility in the imagination4 ,this want is far from surprising4 ,not only may a man naturally be expected to be an adept in his own art1 but at the same time to show an incapacity for a very different mode of activity4#bha ,we rarely find an artist who takes much interest in jurisprudence1 or #bfh a prizefighter who is an acute metaphysician4 ,nay1 more than this1 a positive distaste may grow up1 which1 in the intellectual order1 may amount to a spontaneous and unreasoning disbelief in that which appears to be in opposition to the more familiar concept1 and this at all times4 ,it is often and truly said1 that past ages were pre-eminently credulous as compared with our own1 yet the difference is not so much in the amount of the credulity1 as in the direction which it takes4#bhb ,dr4 ,newman observes3 ,any one study1 of whatever kind1 exclusively pursued1 deadens in the mind the interest1 nay the perception of any other4 ,thus ,cicero says1 that ,plato and ,demosthenes1 ,aristotle and ,isocrates1 might have respectively excelled in each other's province1 but that each was absorbed in his own4 ,specimens of this peculiarity occur every day4 ,you can hardly persuade some men to talk about anything but their own pursuit2 they refer the whole world to their own centre1 and measure all matters by their own rule1 like the fisherman in the drama1 whose eulogy on his deceased lord was 'he was so fond of fish4'#bhc ,the same author further says3#bhd ,when anything1 which comes before us1 is very unlike what we commonly experience1 we consider it on that account untrue2 not because it really shocks our reason as improbable1 but because it startles our imagination as strange4 ,now1 revelation presents to us a perfectly different aspect of the universe from that presented by the sciences4 ,the two informations are like the distinct subjects represented by the lines of the same drawing1 which1 accordingly as they are read #bfi on their concave or convex side1 exhibit to us now a group of trees with branches and leaves1 and now human faces4 444 ,while then reason and revelation are consistent in fact1 they often are inconsistent in appearance2 and this seeming discordance acts most keenly on the imagination1 and may suddenly expose a man to the temptation1 and even hurry him on to the commission of definite acts of unbelief1 in which reason itself really does not come into exercise at all4#bhe ,thus we find in fact just that distinctness between the ideas derived from physical science on the one hand and from religion on the other1 which we might a priori expect if there exists that distinctness between the natural and the miraculous which theological authorities lay down4 ,assuming1 for argument's sake1 the truth of ,christianity1 it evidently has not been the intention of its ,author to make the evidence for it so plain that its rejection would be the mark of intellectual incapacity4 ,conviction is not forced upon men in the way that the knowledge that the government of ,england is constitutional1 or that ,paris is the capital of ,france1 is forced upon all who choose to inquire into those subjects4 ,the ,christian system is one which puts on the strain1 as it were1 every faculty of man's nature1 and the intellect is not 7any more than we should a priori expect it to be7 exempted from taking part in the probationary trial4 ,a moral element enters into the acceptance of that system4 ,and so with natural religion--with those ideas of the supernatural1 viz4 ,god1 ,creation1 and ,morality1 which are anterior to revelation and repose upon reason4 ,here again it evidently has not been the intention of the ,creator to make the evidence of ,his existence so plain that its non-recognition would be the mark of intellectual incapacity4 #bgj ,conviction1 as to theism1 is not forced upon men as is the conviction of the existence of the sun at noon-day4#bhf ,a moral element enters also here1 and the analogy there is in this respect between ,christianity and theism speaks eloquently of their primary derivation from one common author4 ,thus we might expect that it would be a vain task to seek anywhere in nature for evidence of ,divine action1 such that no one could sanely deny it4 ,god will not allow ,himself to be caught at the bottom of any man's crucible1 or yield ,himself to the experiments of gross-minded and irreverent inquirers4 ,the natural1 like the supernatural1 revelation appeals to the whole of man's mental nature and not to the reason alone4#bhg ,none1 therefore1 need feel disappointed that evidence of the direct action of the first cause in merely natural phenomena ever eludes our grasp2 for assuredly those same phenomena will ever remain fundamentally inexplicable by physical science alone4 ,there being then nothing in either authority or reason which makes evolution repugnant to ,christianity1 is there anything in the ,christian doctrine of ,creation which is repugnant to the theory of evolution8 ,enough has been said as to the distinction between absolute and derivative creation4 ,it remains to consider the successive evolution 7,darwinian and other7 of specific forms1 in a theological light4 ,as to what evolution is1 we cannot of course hope to explain it completely1 but it may be enough to define it as the manifestation to the intellect1 by means of sensible impressions1 of some ideal entity 7power1 principle1 nature1 or activity7 which before that manifestation was in#bga a latent1 unrealized1 and merely potential state--a state that is capable of becoming realized1 actual1 or manifest1 the requisite conditions being supplied4 ,specific forms1 kinds or species1 are 7as was said in the introductory chapter7 peculiar congeries of characters or attributes1 innate powers and qualities1 and a certain nature realized in individuals4 ,thus1 then1 the evolution of specific forms means the actual manifestation of special powers1 or natures1 which before were latent1 in such a successive manner that there is in some way a genetic relation between posterior manifestations and those which preceded them4 ,on the special ,darwinian hypothesis the manifestation of these forms is determined simply by the survival of the fittest of many indefinite variations4 ,on the hypothesis here advocated the manifestation is controlled and helped by such survival1 but depends on some unknown internal law or laws which determine variation at special times and in special directions4 ,professor ,agassiz objects to the evolution theory1 on the ground that species1 genera1 families1 c41 exist as thoughts1 individuals as facts1#bhh and he offers the dilemma1 ,if species do not exist at all1 as the supporters of the transmutation theory maintain1 how can they vary8 and if individuals alone exist1 how can the differences which may be observed among them prove the variability of species8 ,but the supporter of evolution need only maintain that the several kinds become manifested gradually by slight differences among the various individual embodiments of one specific idea4 ,he might reply to the dilemma by saying1 species do not exist as species in the sense in which they are said to vary 7variation applying only to the concrete embodiments of #bgb the specific idea71 and the evolution of species is demonstrated not by individuals as individuals1 but as embodiments of different specific ideas4 ,some persons seem to object to the term creation being applied to evolution1 because evolution is an exceedingly slow and gradual process4 ,now even if it were demonstrated that such is really the case1 it may be asked1 what is slow and gradual8 ,the terms are simply relative1 and the evolution of a specific form in ten thousand years would be instantaneous to a being whose days were as hundreds of millions of years4 ,there are others again who are inclined absolutely to deny the existence of species altogether1 on the ground that their evolution is so gradual that if we could see all the stages it would be impossible to say when the manifestation of the old specific form ceased and that of the new one began4 ,but surely it is no approach to a reason against the existence of a thing that we cannot determine the exact moment of its first manifestation4 ,when watching dissolving views1 who can tell1 whilst closely observing the gradual changes1 exactly at what moment a new picture1 say ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 can be said to have commenced its manifestation1 or have begun to dominate a preceding representation of ,dotheboys' ,hall8 ,that1 however1 is no reason for denying the complete difference between the two pictures and the ideas they respectively embody4 ,the notion of a special nature1 a peculiar innate power and activity--what the scholastics called a substantial form--will be distasteful to many4 ,the objection to the notion seems1 however1 to be a futile one1 for it is absolutely impossible to altogether avoid such a conception and such an assumption4 ,if we refuse it to the individuals which embody the species1 we must admit it as regards their component parts--nay1 even if we accept the hypothesis of pangenesis1 we are nevertheless compelled to attribute to each gemmule that peculiar power of reproducing its own nature 7its own substantial form71 with its special activity1 and that remarkable #bgc power of annexing itself to certain other well-defined gemmules whose nature it is also to plant themselves in a certain definite vicinity4 ,so that in each individual1 instead of one such peculiar power and activity dominating and controlling all the parts1 you have an infinity of separate powers and activities limited to the several minute component gemmules4 ,it is possible that in some minds1 the notion may lurk that such powers are simpler and easier to understand1 because the bodies they affect are so minute6 ,this absurdity hardly bears stating4 ,we can easily conceive a being so small1 that a gemmule would be to it as large as ,st4 ,paul's would be to us4 ,admitting then the existence of species1 and of their successive evolution1 is there anything in these ideas hostile to ,christian belief8 ,writers such as ,vogt and ,buchner will of course contend that there is2 but naturalists1 generally1 assume that ,god acts in and by the various laws of nature4 ,and this is equivalent to admitting the doctrine of derivative creation4 ,with very few exceptions1 none deny such ,divine concurrence4 ,even design and purpose are recognized as quite compatible with evolution1 and even with the special nebular and ,darwinian forms of it4 ,professor ,huxley well says1#bhi ,it is necessary to remark that there is a wider teleology1 which is not touched by the doctrine of evolution1 but is actually based upon the fundamental proposition of evolution4 444 ,the teleological and the mechanical views of nature are not necessarily mutually exclusive2 on the contrary1 the more purely a mechanist the speculator is1 the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement1 of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences2 and the more completely thereby is he at the mercy of the teleologist1 who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial #bgd molecular arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe4#bij ,professor ,owen says1 that natural evolution1 through secondary causes1 by means of slow physical and organic operations through long ages1 is not the less clearly recognizable as the act of all adaptive mind1 because we have abandoned the old error of supposing it to be the result#bia of a primary1 direct1 and sudden act of creational construction4 444 ,the succession of species by continuously operating law1 is not necessarily a 'blind operation4' ,such law1 however discerned in the properties and successions of natural objects1 intimates1 nevertheless1 a preconceived progress4 ,organisms may be evolved in orderly succession1 stage after stage1 towards a foreseen goal1 and the broad features of the course may still show the unmistakable impress of ,divine volition4 ,mr4 ,wallace#bib declares that the opponents of evolution present a less elevated view of the ,almighty4 ,he says3 ,why should we suppose the machine too complicated to have been designed by the ,creator so complete that it would necessarily work out harmonious results8 ,the theory of 'continual interference' is a limitation of the ,creator's power4 ,it assumes that ,he could not work by pure law in the organic1 as ,he has done in the inorganic world4 ,thus1 then1 there is not only no necessary antagonism between the general theory of evolution and a ,divine action1 but the compatibility between the two is recognized by naturalists who cannot be suspected of any strong theological bias4 #bge ,the very same may be said as to the special ,darwinian form of the theory of evolution4 ,it is true ,mr4 ,darwin writes sometimes as if he thought that his theory militated against even derivative creation4#bic ,this1 however1 there is no doubt1 was not really meant2 and indeed1 in the passage before quoted and criticised1 the possibility of the ,divine ordination of each variation is spoken of as a tenable view4 ,he says 7,origin of ,species1 p4 #efi71 ,i see no good reason why the views given in this volume should shock the religious feelings of anyone2 and he speaks of life having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms or into one1 which is more than the dogma of creation actually requires4 ,we find then that no incompatibility is asserted 7by any scientific writers worthy of mention7 between evolution and the co-operation of the ,divine will2 while the same evolution has been shown to be thoroughly acceptable to the most orthodox theologians who repudiate the intrusion of the supernatural into the domain of nature4 ,a more complete harmony could scarcely be desired4 ,but if we may never hope to find1 in physical nature1 evidence of supernatural action1 what sort of action might we expect to find there1 looking at it from a theistic point of view8 ,surely an action the results of which harmonize with man's reason1#bid which is orderly1 which #bgf disaccords with the action of blind chance and with the fortuitous concourse of atoms of ,democritus2 but at the same time an action which1 as to its modes1 ever1 in parts1 and in ultimate analysis1 eludes our grasp1 and the modes of which are different from those by which we should have attempted to accomplish such ends4 ,now1 this is just what we do find4 ,the harmony1 the beauty1 and the order of the physical universe are the themes of continual panegyrics on the part of naturalists1 and ,mr4 ,darwin1 as the ,duke of ,argyll remarks1#bie exhausts every form of words and of illustration by which intention or mental purpose can be described#bif when speaking of the wonderfully complex adjustments to secure the fertilization of orchids4 ,also1 we find co-existing with this harmony a mode of proceeding so different from that of man as 7the direct supernatural action eluding us7 to form a stumbling-block to many in the way of their recognition of ,divine action at all3 although nothing can be more inconsistent than to speak of the first cause as utterly inscrutable and incomprehensible1 and at the same time to expect to find traces of a mode of action exactly similar to our own4 ,it is surely enough if the results harmonize on the whole and preponderatingly with the rational1 moral1 and sthetic instincts of man4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy#big has brought strongly forward the evidence of intelligence throughout organic nature4 ,he believes that there is something in organic progress which mere ,natural ,selection among spontaneous variations will not account for1 and that this something is that organizing intelligence which guides the action of the inorganic forces1 and forms structures which neither ,natural ,selection nor any other unintelligent agency could form4 #bgg ,this intelligence1 however1 ,mr4 ,murphy considers may be unconscious1 a conception which it is exceedingly difficult to understand1 and which to many minds appears to be little less than a contradiction in terms2 the very first condition of an intelligence being that1 if it knows anything1 it should at least know its own existence4 ,surely the evidence from physical facts agrees well with the overruling1 concurrent action of ,god in the order of nature2 which is no miraculous action1 but the operation of laws which owe their foundation1 institution1 and maintenance to an omniscient ,creator of whose intelligence our own is a feeble adumbration1 inasmuch as it is created in the image and likeness of its ,maker4 ,this leads to the final consideration1 a difficulty by no means to be passed over in silence1 namely the ,,origin ,,of ,,man4 ,to the general theory of ,evolution1 and to the special ,darwinian form of it1 no exception1 it has been shown1 need be taken on the ground of orthodoxy4 ,but in saying this1 it has not been meant to include the soul of man4 ,it is a generally received doctrine that the soul of every individual man is absolutely created in the strict and primary sense of the word1 that it is produced by a direct or supernatural#bih act1 and1 of course1 that by such an act the soul of the first man was similarly created4 ,it is therefore important to inquire whether evolution conflicts with this doctrine4 ,now the two beliefs are in fact perfectly compatible1 and that either on the hypothesis--#a4 ,that man's body was created in a manner different in kind from that by which the bodies of other animals were created2 or #b4 ,that it was created in a similar manner to theirs4 ,one of the authors of the ,darwinian theory1 indeed1 contends that even#bgh as regards man's body1 an action took place different from that by which brute forms were evolved4 ,mr4 ,wallace#bii considers that ,natural ,selection alone could not have produced so large a brain in the savage1 in possessing which he is furnished with an organ beyond his needs4 ,also that it could not have produced that peculiar distribution of hair1 especially the nakedness of the back1 which is common to all races of men1 nor the peculiar construction of the feet and hands4 ,he says1#cjj after speaking of the prehensile foot1 common without a single exception to all the apes and lemurs1 ,it is difficult to see why the prehensile power should have been taken away by the mere operation of ,natural ,selection4 ,it must certainly have been useful in climbing1 and the case of the baboons shows that it is quite compatible with terrestrial locomotion4 ,it may not be compatible with perfectly easy erect locomotion2 but1 then1 how can we conceive that early man1 as an animal1 gained anything by purely erect locomotion8 ,again1 the hand of man contains latent capacities and powers which are unused by savages1 and must have been even less used by palolithic man and his still ruder predecessors4 ,it has all the appearance of an organ prepared for the use of civilized man1 and one which was required to render civilization possible4 ,again speaking of the wonderful power1 range1 flexibility1 and sweetness of the musical sounds producible by the human larynx1 he adds1 ,the habits of savages give no indication of how this faculty could have been developed by ,natural ,selection2 because it is never required or used by them4 ,the singing of savages is a more or less monotonous howling1 and the females seldom sing at all4 ,savages certainly never choose their wives for fine voices1 but for rude health1 and strength and physical beauty4 ,sexual selection could not therefore have developed this wonderful power1 which only comes into play among civilized people4 ,it seems as if the organ had been prepared in anticipation of the future #bgi progress of man1 since it contains latent capacities which are useless to him in his earlier condition4 ,the delicate correlations of structure that give it such marvellous powers1 could not therefore have been acquired by means of ,natural ,selection4 ,illustration3 ,,fibres ,,of ,,corti4 ,to this may be added the no less wonderful faculty in the ear of appreciating delicate musical tones1 and the harmony of chords4 ,it matters not what part of the organ subserves this function1 but it has been supposed that it is ministered to by the fibres of ,corti4#cja ,now it can hardly be contended that the preservation of any race of men in the struggle for life could have depended on such an extreme delicacy and refinement of the internal ear1#cjb--;a perfection only fully exercised in the enjoyment and appreciation of the most exquisite musical performances4 ,here1 surely1 we have an instance of an organ preformed1 ready beforehand for such action as could never by itself have been the cause of its development1--the action having only been subsequent1 not anterior4 ,the ,author is not aware what may be the minute structure of the internal ear in the highest apes1 but if 7as from analogy is probable7 it is much as in man1 then a fortiori we have an instance of anticipatory development of a most marked and unmistakable kind4 ,and this is not all4 ,there is no #bhj reason to suppose that any animal besides man appreciates musical harmony4 ,it is certain that no other one produces it4 ,mr4 ,wallace also urges objections drawn from the origin of some of man's mental faculties1 such as the capacity to form ideal conceptions of space and time1 of eternity and infinity--the capacity for intense artistic feelings of pleasure1 in form1 colour and composition--and for those abstract notions of form and number which render geometry and arithmetic possible1 also from the origin of the moral sense4#cjc ,the validity of these objections is fully conceded by the ,author of this book1 but he would push it much further1 and contend 7as has been now repeatedly said71 that another law1 or other laws1 than ,natural ,selection have determined the evolution of all organic forms1 and of inorganic forms also4 ,and it must be contended that ,mr4 ,wallace1 in order to be quite self-consistent1 should arrive at the very same conclusion1 inasmuch as he is inclined to trace all phenomena to the action of superhuman ,,will4 ,he says3#cjd ,if therefore we have traced one force1 however minute1 to an origin in our own ,,will1 while we have no knowledge of any other primary cause of force1 it does not seem an improbable conclusion that all force may be will-force2 and thus1 that the whole universe is not merely dependent on1 but actually is1 the ,,will of higher intelligences1 or of one ,supreme ,intelligence4 ,if there is really evidence1 as ,mr4 ,wallace believes1 of the action of an overruling intelligence in the evolution of the human form divine2 if we may go so far as this1 then surely an analogous action may well be traced in the production of the horse1 the camel1 or the dog1 so largely identified with human wants and requirements4 ,and if from other than physical considerations we may believe that such action1 though undemonstrable1 has been and is2 then 7reflecting on sensible #bha phenomena the theistic light derived from psychical facts7 we may1 in the language of ,mr4 ,wallace1 see indications of that power in facts which1 by themselves1 would not serve to prove its existence4#cje ,mr4 ,murphy1 as has been said before1 finds it necessary to accept the wide-spread action of intelligence as the agent by which all organic forms have been called forth from the inorganic4 ,but all science tends to unity1 and this tendency makes it reasonable to extend to all physical existences a mode of formation which we may have evidence for in any one of them4 ,it therefore makes it reasonable to extend1 if possible1 the very same agency which we find operating in the field of biology1 also to the inorganic world4 ,if on the grounds brought forward the action of intelligence may be affirmed in the production of man's bodily structure1 it becomes probable a priori that it may also be predicated of the formative action by which has been produced the animals which minister to him1 and all organic life whatsoever4 ,nay more1 it is then congruous to expect analogous action in the development of crystalline and colloidal structures1 and in that of all chemical compositions1 in geological evolutions1 and the formation not only of this earth1 but of the solar system and whole sidereal universe4 ,if such really be the direction in which physical science1 philosophically considered1 points2 if intelligence may thus be seen to preside over the evolution of each system of worlds and the unfolding of every blade of grass--this grand result harmonizes indeed with the teachings of faith that ,god acts and concurs1 in the natural order1 with those laws of the material universe which were not only instituted by ,his will1 but are sustained by ,his concurrence2 and we are thus enabled to discern in the natural order1 however darkly1 the ,divine ,author of nature--,him in whom we live1 and move1 and have our being4 ,but if this view is accepted1 then it is no longer absolutely #bhb necessary to suppose that any action different in kind took place in the production of man's body1 from that which took place in the production of the bodies of other animals1 and of the whole material universe4 ,of course1 if it can be demonstrated that that difference which ,mr4 ,wallace asserts really exists1 it is plain that we then have to do with facts not only harmonizing with religion1 but1 as it were1 preaching and proclaiming it4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary for ,christianity that any such view should prevail4 ,man1 according to the old scholastic definition1 is a rational animal 7animal rationale71 and his animality is distinct in nature from his rationality1 though inseparably joined1 during life1 in one common personality4 ,this animal body must have had a different source from that of the spiritual soul which informs it1 from the distinctness of the two orders to which those two existences severally belong4 ,scripture seems plainly to indicate this when it says that ,god made man from the dust of the earth1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life4 ,this is a plain and direct statement that man's body was not created in the primary and absolute sense of the word1 but was evolved from pre-existing material 7symbolized by the term dust of the earth71 and was therefore only derivatively created1 i4e4 by the operation of secondary laws4 ,his soul1 on the other hand1 was created in quite a different way1 not by any pre-existing means1 external to ,god himself1 but by the direct action of the ,almighty1 symbolized by the term breathing3 the very form adopted by ,christ1 when conferring the supernatural powers and graces of the ,christian dispensation1 and a form still daily used in the rites and ceremonies of the ,church4 ,that the first man should have had this double origin agrees with what we now experience4 ,for supposing each human soul to be directly and immediately created1 yet each human body is evolved by the ordinary operation of natural physical laws4 ,page #bhc ,professor ,flower in his ,introductory ,lecture#cjf 7p4 #bj7 to his course of ,hunterian ,lectures for #ahgj well observes3 ,whatever man's place may be1 either in or out of nature1 whatever hopes1 or fears or feelings about himself or his race he may have1 we all of us admit that these are quite uninfluenced by our knowledge of the fact that each individual man comes into the world by the ordinary processes of generation1 according to the same laws which apply to the development of all organic beings whatever1 that every part of him which can come under the scrutiny of the anatomist or naturalist1 has been evolved according to these regular laws from a simple minute ovum1 indistinguishable to our senses from that of any of the inferior animals4 ,if this be so--if man is what he is1 notwithstanding the corporeal mode of origin of the individual man1 so he will assuredly be neither less nor more than man1 whatever may be shown regarding the corporeal origin of the whole race1 whether this was from the dust of the earth1 or by the modification of some pre-existing animal form4 ,man is indeed compound1 in him two distinct orders of being impinge and mingle2 and with this an origin from two concurrent modes of action is congruous1 and might be expected a priori4 ,at the same time as the soul is the form of the body1 the former might be expected to modify the latter into a structure of harmony and beauty standing alone in the organic world of nature4 ,also that1 with the full perfection and beauty of that soul1 attained by the concurrent action of ,nature and ,grace1 a character would be formed like nothing else which is visible in this world1 and having a mode of action different1 inasmuch as complementary to all inferior modes of action4 ,something of this is evident even to those who approach the subject from the point of view of physical science only4 ,thus ,mr4 ,wallace observes1#cjg that on his view man is to be placed apart1 as not only the head and #bhd culminating point of the grand series of organic nature1 but as in some degree a new and distinct order of being4#cjh ,from those infinitely remote ages when the first rudiments of organic life appeared upon the earth1 every plant and every animal has been subject to one great law of physical change4 ,as the earth has gone through its grand cycles of geological1 climatal1 and organic progress1 every form of life has been subject to its irresistible action1 and has been continually but imperceptibly moulded into such new shapes as would preserve their harmony with the ever-changing universe4 ,no living thing could escape this law of its being2 none 7except1 perhaps1 the simplest and most rudimentary organisms7 could remain unchanged and live amid the universal change around it4 ,at length1 however1 there came into existence a being in whom that subtle force we term mind1 became of greater importance than his mere bodily structure4 ,though with a naked and unprotected body1 this gave him clothing against the varying inclemencies of the seasons4 ,though unable to compete with the deer in swiftness1 or with the wild bull in strength1 this gave him weapons with which to capture or overcome both4 ,though less capable than most other animals of living on the herbs and the fruits that unaided nature supplies1 this wonderful faculty taught him to govern and direct nature to his own benefit1 and make her produce food for him when and where he pleased4 ,from the moment when the first skin was used as a covering2 when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase2 when fire was first used to cook his food2 when the first seed was sown or shoot planted1 a grand revolution was effected in nature1 a revolution which in all the previous ages of the earth's history had had no parallel1 for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to change with the changing universe1 a being who was in some degree superior to nature1 inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action1 and could #bhe keep himself in harmony with her1 not by a change in body1 but by an advance in mind4 ,on this view of his special attributes1 we may admit 'that he is indeed a being apart4' ,man has not only escaped ',natural ,selection' himself1 but he is actually able to take away some of that power from nature which before his appearance she universally exercised4 ,we can anticipate the time when the earth will produce only cultivated plants and domestic animals2 when man's selection shall have supplanted ',natural ,selection2' and when the ocean will be the only domain in which that power can be exerted4 ,baden ,powell#cji observes on this subject3 ,the relation of the animal man to the intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual man1 resembles that of a crystal slumbering in its native quarry to the same crystal mounted in the polarizing apparatus of the philosopher4 ,the difference is not in physical nature1 but in investing that nature with a new and higher application4 ,its continuity with the material world remains the same1 but a new relation is developed in it1 and it claims kindred with ethereal matter and with celestial light4 ,this well expresses the distinction between the merely physical and the hyperphysical natures of man1 and the subsumption of the former into the latter which dominates it4 ,the same author in speaking of man's moral and spiritual nature says1#caj ,the assertion in its very nature and essence refers wholly to a ,,different ,,order ,,of ,,things1 apart from and transcending any material ideas whatsoever4 ,again#caa he adds1 ,in proportion as man's moral superiority is held to consist in attributes not of a material or corporeal kind or origin1 it can signify little how his physical nature may have originated4 ,now physical science1 as such1 has nothing to do with the soul of man which is hyperphysical4 ,that such an entity exists1 that the correlated #bhf physical forces go through their ,protean transformations1 have their persistent ebb and flow outside of the world of ,,will and ,,self-,,conscious ,,moral ,,being1 are propositions the proofs of which have no place in this work4 ,this at least may however be confidently affirmed1 that no reach of physical science in any coming century will ever approach to a demonstration that countless modes of being1 as different from each other as are the force of gravitation and conscious maternal love1 may not co-exist4 ,two such modes are made known to us by our natural faculties only3 the physical1 which includes the first of these examples2 the hyperphysical1 which embraces the other4 ,for those who accept revelation1 a third and a distinct mode of being and of action is also made known1 namely1 the direct and immediate or1 in the sense here given to the term1 the supernatural4 ,an analogous relationship runs through and connects all these modes of being and of action4 ,the higher mode in each case employs and makes use of the lower1 the action of which it occasionally suspends or alters1 as gravity is suspended by electro-magnetic action1 or the living energy of an organic being restrains the inter-actions of the chemical affinities belonging to its various constituents4 ,thus conscious will controls and directs the exercise of the vital functions according to desire1 and moral consciousness tends to control desire in obedience to higher dictates4#cab ,the action of living #bhg organisms depends upon and subsumes the laws of inorganic matter4 ,similarly the actions of animal life depend upon and subsume the laws of organic matter4 ,in the same way the actions of a self-conscious moral agent1 such as man1 depend upon and subsume the laws of animal life4 ,when a part or the whole series of these natural actions is altered or suspended by the intervention of action of a still higher order1 we have then a miracle4 ,in this way we find a perfect harmony in the double nature of man1 his rationality making use of and subsuming his animality2 his soul arising from direct and immediate creation1 and his body being formed at first 7as now in each separate individual7 by derivative or secondary creation1 through natural laws4 ,by such secondary creation1 i4e4 by natural laws1 for the most part as yet unknown but controlled by ,natural ,selection1 all the various kinds of animals and plants have been manifested on this planet4 ,that ,divine action has concurred and concurs in these laws we know by deductions from our primary intuitions2 and physical science1 if unable to demonstrate such action1 is at least as impotent to disprove it4 ,disjoined from these deductions1 the phenomena of the universe present an aspect devoid of all that appeals to the loftiest aspirations of man1 that which stimulates his efforts after goodness1 and presents consolations for unavoidable shortcomings4 ,conjoined with these same deductions1 all the harmony of physical nature and the constancy of its laws are preserved unimpaired1 while the reason1 the conscience1 and the sthetic instincts are alike gratified4 ,we have thus a true reconciliation of science and religion1 in which each gains and neither loses1 one being complementary to the other4 ,some apology is due to the reader for certain observations and arguments which have been here advanced1 and which have little in the shape of novelty to recommend them4 ,but after all1 novelty can hardly be predicated of the views here criticised and opposed4 ,some of these seem almost a #bhh return to the fortuitous concourse of atoms of ,democritus1 and even the very theory of ,natural ,selection itself--a survival of the fittest--was in part thought out not hundreds but thousands of years ago4 ,opponents of ,aristotle maintained that by the accidental occurrence of combinations1 organisms have been preserved and perpetuated such as final causes1 did they exist1 would have brought about1 disadvantageous combinations or variations being speedily exterminated4 ,for when the very same combinations happened to be produced which the law of final causes would have called into being1 those combinations which proved to be advantageous to the organism were preserved2 while those which were not advantageous perished1 and still perished like the minotaurs and sphinxes of ,empedocles4#cac ,in conclusion1 the ,author ventures to hope that this treatise may not be deemed useless1 but have contributed1 however slightly1 towards clearing the way for peace and conciliation and for a more ready perception1 of the harmony which exists between those deductions from our primary intuitions before alluded to1 and the teachings of physical science1 as far1 that is1 as concerns the evolution of organic forms--the genesis of species4 ,the aim has been to support the doctrine that these species have been evolved by ordinary natural laws 7for the most part unknown7 controlled by the subordinate action of ,natural ,selection1 and at the same time to remind some that there is and can be absolutely nothing in physical science which forbids them to regard those natural laws as acting with the ,divine concurrence and in obedience to a creative fiat originally imposed on the primeval ,cosmos1 in the beginning1 by its ,creator1 its ,upholder1 and its ,lord4 #bhi 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index4 ,a4 ,aard-,vark1 #agd4 ,absolute creation1 #beb4 ,acanthometr1 #ahf4 ,acrodont teeth1 #adh4 ,acts formally moral1 #aie4 ,acts materially moral1 #aie4 ,adductor muscles1 #gi4 ,agassiz1 ,professor1 #bga4 ,aged1 care of1 #aib4 ,aggregational theory1 #afc4 ,algoa ,bay1 cat of1 #ih4 ,allantois1 #hb4 ,amazons1 butterflies of1 #he4 ,amazons1 cholera in the1 #aib4 ,american butterflies1 #bi4 ,american maize1 #ajj4 ,american monkeys1 #bbf4 ,amiurus1 #adg4 ,amphibia1 #aji4 ,analogical relations1 #aeg4 ,ancon sheep1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #bbg4 ,andrew ,murray1 ,mr41 #hc4 ,angora cats1 #age4 ,animal's sufferings1 #bfj4 ,ankle bones1 #aeh4 ,annelids undergoing fission1 #afi1 #baa4 ,annulosa1 eye of1 #gf4 ,anoplotherium1 #aji4 ,anteater1 #hc4 ,antechinus1 #hb4 ,antenna1 of orchid1 #ef4 ,anthropomorphism1 #beh4 ,ape's sexual characters1 #di4 ,apostles' ,creed1 #bde4 ,appendages of lobster1 #afa4 ,appendages of ,normandy pigs1 #ii4 ,appendages of turkey1 #ajj4 ,appendix1 vermiform1 #hc4 ,appreciation of ,mr4 ,darwin1 #aj4 ,apteryx1 #g1 #gj4 ,aqueous humour1 #gf4 ,aquinas1 ,st4 ,thomas1 #ag1 #bfc1 #bfe4 ,archegosaurus1 #ace4 ,archeopteryx1 #gc4 ,arcturus1 #aic4 ,argyll1 ,duke of1 #ad1 #bgf4 ,aristotle1 #bhh4 ,armadillo1 extinct kind1 #aaj4 ,arthritis1 rheumatic1 #ahc4 ,artiodactyle foot1 #aji4 ,asa ,gray1 ,dr41 #bec1 #bee1 #bfa4 ,asceticism1 #aic4 ,ascidians1 placental structure1 #ha4 ,assumptions of ,mr4 ,darwin1 #af4 ,astronomical objections1 #acf4 ,auditory organ1 #gd4 ,augustin1 ,st41 #ag1 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 #bjf4 ,avian limb1 #ajf4 ,avicularia1 #hj4 ,axolotl1 #afe4 ,aye-,aye1 #ajg4 ,aylesbury ducks1 #bcd4 ,b4 ,backbone1 #ace1 #afb4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 #bff4 ,baleen1 #dj4 ,bamboo insect1 #cc4 ,bandicoot1 #fg4 ,bartlett1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,d41 #abf1 #bcd4 ,bartlett1 ,mr4 ,e41 #aib4 ,basil1 ,st41 #ag4 ,bastian1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,charlton1 #aae1 #bai1 #bcg1 #bff4 ,bat1 wing of1 #fd4 ,bates1 ,mr41 #bi1 #he1 #hg4 ,page #bij ,bats1 #ajh4 ,beaks1 #hc4 ,beasts1 sufferings of1 #bfj4 ,beauty of shell-fish1 #ed4 ,bee orchid1 #ee4 ,bird1 wings of1 #fd4 ,birds compared with reptiles1 #gj4 ,bird's-head processes1 #hj4 ,birds of ,paradise1 #ij4 ,birth of individual and species1 #b4 ,bivalves1 #gi4 ,black sheep1 #abb4 ,black-shouldered peacock1 #ajj4 ,bladebone1 #gj4 ,blood-vessels1 #ahb4 ,blyth1 ,mr41 #ajj1 #aha4 ,bones of skull1 #aec4 ,bonnet1 ,m41 #bag4 ,borwick1 ,mr41 #aih4 ,boots of pigeons1 #aha4 ,breathing1 modified power of1 #ii4 ,breeding of lions1 #bcd4 ,brill1 #cg4 ,broccoli1 variety of1 #ajj4 ,bryozoa1 #ha4 ,buchner1 ,dr41 #bgc4 ,budd1 ,dr4 ,w41 #ahc4 ,buffon1 #bag4 ,bull-dog's instinct1 #bfj4 ,burt1 ,prof4 ,wilder1 #ahj1 #ahd4 ,butterflies1 #bi4 ,butterflies1 ,amazonian1 #he4 ,butterflies1 ,american1 #bi4 ,butterflies of ,indian region1 #hc4 ,butterflies1 tails of1 #he4 ,butterfly1 ,leaf1 #ca4 ,c4 ,cacotus1 #adi4 ,ccum1 #hc4 ,calamaries1 #gg4 ,cambrian deposits1 #acg4 ,cape ant-eater1 #agd4 ,care of aged1 #aib4 ,carinate birds1 #gj4 ,carnivora1 #fh4 ,carnivorous dentition1 #aaj4 ,carp fishes1 #adf4 ,carpal bones1 #ajf1 #agh4 ,carpenter1 ,dr41 #aae4 ,carpus1 #agg1 #agh4 ,cases of conscience1 #bja4 ,cassowary1 #gj4 ,catasetum1 #ef4 ,causes of spread of ,darwinism1 #aj4 ,cebus1 #bbf4 ,celebes1 butterflies of1 #he4 ,centetes1 #adh4 ,centipede1 #ff1 #aei4 ,cephalopoda1 #gd4 ,ceroxylus laceratus1 #cf4 ,cetacea1 #db1 #hc1 #aje1 #ajh1 #agd4 ,chances against few individuals1 #eg4 ,characinid1 #adf4 ,cheirogaleus1 #aeh4 ,chetahs1 #bcd4 ,chickens1 mortality of hybrids1 #abd4 ,chioglossa1 #afe4 ,chiromys1 #ajg4 ,cholera1 #aib4 ,choroid1 #gf4 ,chronic rheumatism1 #ahc4 ,circumcision1 #bab4 ,clarias1 #adf4 ,climate1 effects of1 #ih4 ,climbing plants1 #ajg4 ,clock-thinking illustration1 #bdi4 ,cobra1 #ej4 ,cockle1 #gi4 ,cod1 #ci4 ,colloidal matter1 #bff4 ,conceptions1 symbolic1 #bea4 ,connecticut footsteps1 #aca4 ,connecting links1 supposed1 #ajg4 ,conscience1 cases of1 #bja4 ,conscientious ,papuan1 #aig4 ,cope1 ,professor1 #ga1 #acj4 ,coracoid1 of birds and reptiles1 #gj4 ,cornea1 #gg4 ,cornelius ,lapide1 #bfe4 ,correlation1 laws of1 #agc4 ,corti1 fibres of1 #ec1 #bgi4 ,coryanthes1 #ef4 ,costa1 ,m41 #hh4 ,cranial segments1 #agb4 ,creation1 #bde1 #beb4 ,creator1 #ae1 #beb4 ,creed1 ,apostles'1 #bde4 ,crocodile1 #dc4 ,croll1 ,mr41 #acg4 ,crustacea1 #gi1 #afj4 ,cryptacanthus1 #adf4 ,crystalline matter1 #bff4 ,crystals of snow1 #ahf4 ,cuttle-fishes1 #gd1 #ge4 ,cuvier1 #aji4 ,cyprinoids1 #adf4 ,cytheridea1 #gi4 ,page #bia ,d4 ,dana1 ,professor1 #adi4 ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,charles1 #b1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad-ba1 #bc1 #bg1 #cd1 #ce1 #dc1 #de1 #dg1 #dh1 #ee-eg1 #ei1 #fe1 #hh1 #id1 #ih-ajj1 #ajg1 #aah-abf1 #abi1 #ach1 #adb1 #ade1 #adi1 #aej1 #aha1 #ahh-aij1 #aif1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bad-baf1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #beb1 #bed1 #beh1 #bei1 #bge1 #bgf4 ,datura tatula1 #aja4 ,delhi1 days at1 #ih4 ,delpino1 ,signor1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae4 ,democritus1 #bag1 #bge1 #bhh4 ,density of air for breathing1 #ii4 ,dentition1 carnivorous1 #aaj4 ,derivation1 #bch4 ,derivative creation1 #beb1 #bhb4 ,design1 #bei4 ,devotion1 #aic4 ,dibranchiata1 #gd4 ,difficulties of problem of specific origin1 #a4 ,digits1 supernumerary1 #abb1 #aha4 ,digits1 turtle's1 #ajf4 ,dimorphodon1 #ga4 ,dinornis1 #gj4 ,dinosauria1 #ga4 ,diseased pelvis1 #ahb4 ,dissemination of seeds1 #fe4 ,doris1 #agj4 ,dotheboys' ,hall1 #bgb4 ,dragon1 the flying1 #fd1 #aeh4 ,dragon-fly1 #gg4 ,droughts1 #be4 ,duck-billed platypus1 #age4 ,dugong1 #da1 #age4 ,duke of ,argyll1 #ad1 #bgf4 ,dyspepsia1 #bja4 ,e4 ,ear1 #gd4 ,ear1 formation of1 #ea4 ,early specialization1 #aaa4 ,echinodermata1 #dd4 ,echinoidea1 #dd4 ,echinops1 #adh4 ,echinorhinus1 #agb4 ,echinus1 #dc4 ,economy1 ,fuegian political1 #aib4 ,eczema1 #ahc4 ,edentata1 #agd4 ,egyptian monuments1 #ach4 ,elasmobranchs1 #adj4 ,elbow and knee affections1 #ahc4 ,empedocles1 #bhh4 ,eocene ungulata1 #aaj4 ,eolis1 #agj4 ,equus1 #ig4 ,ericulus1 #adh4 ,ethics1 #ahh4 ,eudes ,deslongchamps1 #ii4 ,eurypterida1 #ada1 #aga4 ,eutropius1 #adg4 ,everett1 ,rev4 ,r41 #ih4 ,evolution requires geometrical increase of time1 #aci4 ,eye1 #gf4 ,eye1 formation of1 #ea4 ,eye of trilobites1 #ace4 ,f4 ,fabre1 ,m41 #df4 ,feather-legged breeds1 #aha4 ,feejeans1 #aii4 ,fertilization of orchids1 #ee4 ,fiat justitia1 ruat coelum1 #aie4 ,fibres of ,corti1 #ec1 #bgi4 ,final misery1 #aid4 ,finger of ,potto1 #aje4 ,fish1 flying1 #fd4 ,fishes1 fresh-water1 #ade4 ,fishes1 thoracic and jugular1 #ci1 #adj4 ,fixity of position of limbs1 #ci4 ,flat-fishes1 #cg1 #aff4 ,flexibility of bodily organization1 degrees of1 #aai4 ,flexibility of mind1 #bfg4 ,flies1 horned1 #ic4 ,flight of spiders1 #fe4 ,flounder1 #cg4 ,flower1 ,professor1 #afc1 #bcb1 #bhc4 ,fly1 orchid1 #ee4 ,flying-dragon1 #fd1 #aeh4 ,flying fish1 #fd4 ,foetal teeth of whales1 #g4 ,food1 effects on pigs1 #ii4 ,footsteps of ,connecticut1 #aca4 ,foraminifera1 #ahf4 ,formally moral acts1 #aie4 ,formation of eye and ear1 #ea4 ,forms1 substantial1 #ahf1 #bgb4 ,four-gilled ,cephalopods1 #gf4 ,fowls1 white silk1 #abb4 ,french theatrical audience1 #aih4 ,fresh-water fishes1 #ade4 ,frogs1 ,chilian and ,european1 #adi4 ,fuego1 ,terra del1 #aib4 ,page #bib ,g4 ,galago1 #aeh4 ,galaxias1 #adg4 ,galeus vulgaris1 #agb4 ,galton1 ,mr4 ,f41 #ig1 #aac1 #bbh4 ,gascoyen1 ,mr41 #ahb4 ,gavials1 #dc4 ,gegenbaur1 ,prof41 #agf-agh4 ,gemmules1 #bjh4 ,generative system1 its sensitiveness1 #bce4 ,genesis of morals1 #bja4 ,geographical distribution1 #add4 ,geographical distribution explained by ,natural ,selection1 #f4 ,geometrical increments of time1 #aci4 ,geotria1 #adg4 ,giraffe1 neck of1 #bd4 ,gizzard-like stomach1 #hc4 ,glacial epoch1 #aej4 ,glyptodon1 #aaj4 ,godron1 ,dr41 #aja4 ,goose1 its inflexibility1 #aai4 ,gppert1 ,mr41 #aja4 ,gould1 ,mr41 #hh4 ,grasshopper1 ,great ,shielded1 #hi4 ,gray1 ,dr4 ,asa1 #bec1 #bee1 #bfa4 ,great ,ant-eater1 #hc4 ,great ,salamander1 #agb4 ,great ,shielded ,grasshopper1 #hi4 ,greyhounds in ,mexico1 #ii4 ,greyhounds1 time for evolution of1 #ach4 ,guinea-fowl1 #abj4 ,guinea-pig1 #abf4 ,gnther1 ,dr41 #ade1 #adf1 #agb4 ,h4 ,hairless ,dogs1 #agd1 #age4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,wm41 #bfg4 ,harmony1 musical1 #ed1 #bgi4 ,heart in birds and reptiles1 #aeh4 ,hegel1 #bag4 ,heliconid1 #bi4 ,hell1 #aid4 ,heptanchus1 #agb4 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,mr41 #bj1 #bh1 #fg1 #gb1 #afc-aff1 #afh1 #agj-agb1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bah1 #bbh1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bea4 ,hessian flies1 #agj4 ,heterobranchus1 #adf4 ,hewitt1 ,mr41 #abd1 #aha4 ,hexanchus1 #agb4 ,hipparion1 #ig1 #acd4 ,homogeny1 #aeh4 ,homology1 bilateral or lateral1 #aef1 #afd4 ,homology1 meaning of term1 #g1 #aef4 ,homology1 serial1 #aei4 ,homology1 vertical1 #afe4 ,homoplasy1 #aei4 ,honey-suckers1 #ij4 ,hood of cobra1 #ej4 ,hook-billed ducks1 #ajj4 ,hooker1 ,dr41 #aej4 ,horned flies1 #ic4 ,horny plates1 #dj1 #db4 ,horny stomach1 #hc4 ,human larynx1 #ed1 #bgh4 ,humphry1 ,professor1 #afc4 ,hutton1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,holt1 #bjb1 #bjc4 ,huxley1 ,professor1 #fg-fi1 #ga1 #gb1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aji1 #acj1 #aca1 #acg1 #ada1 #afc1 #agb1 #agc1 #bca1 #bdg1 #bgc4 ,hybrids1 mortality of1 #abd4 ,hydrocyonina1 #adf4 ,hyperphysical action1 #bec4 ,hyrax1 #agi4 ,i4 ,ichthyopsida1 #aji4 ,ichthyosaurus1 #gh1 #ajf1 #acb1 #agg4 ,ichthyosis1 #ahc4 ,iguanodon1 #ga4 ,illegitimate symbolic conceptions1 #bea4 ,illustration by clock-thinking1 #bdi4 ,imaginal disks1 #df1 #agj4 ,implacental mammals1 #fg1 #fh4 ,independent origins1 #aeb4 ,indian butterfly1 #cj4 ,indian 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,poppy1 variety of1 #aja4 ,porcupine1 #age4 ,porto ,santo rabbit1 #ajj1 #abb4 ,potto1 #aje1 #agi4 ,pouched beasts1 #fg4 ,powell1 the ,rev4 ,baden1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bhe4 ,premolars1 #aaa4 ,prepotency1 #abd4 ,primary intuitions1 #bea4 ,primitive man1 #bjd4 ,problem of origin of kinds1 #a4 ,proboscis monkey1 #aci4 ,proboscis of ungulates1 #abc4 ,processes1 bird's-head1 #hj4 ,psettus1 #adf4 ,psoriasis1 #ahc4 ,pterodactyles1 compared with birds1 #gj4 ,pterodactyles1 wing of1 #fd4 ,puccinia1 #aae4 ,purpose1 #bei4 ,page #bie ,q4 ,quasi-vertebral theory of skull1 #agb4 ,r4 ,rabbit of ,porto ,santo1 #ajj1 #abb4 ,radial ossicle1 #agf4 ,rarefied air1 effect on dogs1 #ii4 ,rattlesnake1 #di1 #ej4 ,red bird of ,paradise1 #ib4 ,relations1 analogical1 #aeg4 ,relations1 homological1 #aef4 ,reptiles compared with birds1 #gj4 ,retina1 #gf4 ,retrieving1 virtue a kind of1 #ahi1 #bje4 ,reversion1 cases of1 #abb4 ,rhea1 #gj4 ,ribs of ,cetacea and ,sirenia1 #da4 ,ribs of flying-dragon1 #fd1 #aeh4 ,richardson's figures of pigs1 #ii4 ,roger ,bacon1 #bff4 ,rudimentary structures1 #g1 #ajb4 ,s4 ,sabre-toothed tiger1 #aaj4 ,st4 ,augustin1 #ag1 #bfc-bfe4 ,st4 ,basil1 #ag4 ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,m41 #agi4 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #ag1 #bfc1 #bfe4 ,salamander1 great1 #agb4 ,salter1 ,mr41 #abd4 ,salvia officinalis1 #bac4 ,salvia verticillata1 #bac4 ,scapula of birds and reptiles1 #gj4 ,schreber1 #ac4 ,sclerotic1 #gf4 ,scorpion1 sting of1 #ff4 ,seals1 #hc4 ,sea squirts1 #ha4 ,seeds1 dissemination of1 #fe4 ,seeley1 ,mr41 on pterodactyles1 #ga4 ,segmentation of skull1 #agb4 ,segmentation of spine1 #aga4 ,segments1 similar1 #afj4 ,self-existence1 #beb4 ,semnopithecus1 #aci4 ,sense1 organ of1 #ea1 #fi1 #gd1 #gf4 ,sensitiveness of generative system1 #bce4 ,sepia1 #gg4 ,serpents1 poisonous1 #ej4 ,sexual characters of apes1 #di4 ,sexual selection1 #dh4 ,sharks1 #hc4 ,shell-fish1 beauty of1 #ed4 ,shells of oysters1 #hh1 #ih4 ,shielded grasshopper1 #hi4 ,silurian strata1 #adj1 #adb4 ,simultaneous modifications1 #eg4 ,sirenia1 #db ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 #aih1 #bjd4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 #acf4 ,sitaris1 #df4 ,six-shafted bird of ,paradise1 #ij4 ,skull bones1 #aec4 ,skull segments1 #agb4 ,sloth1 windpipe of1 #hb4 ,smithfield1 wife-selling in1 #aih4 ,snow1 crystals of1 #ahf4 ,sole1 #cg4 ,solenodon1 #adh4 ,species1 meaning of word1 #b4 ,spelerpes1 #afe4 ,spencer1 see ,herbert ,spencer4 ,spider orchid1 #ee4 ,spiders1 flight of1 #fe4 ,spine of ,glyptodon1 #aaj4 ,spine1 segmentation of1 #agb4 ,squalid1 #ch4 ,squilla1 #afj4 ,sterility of hybrids1 #abe4 ,stings1 #ff4 ,straining action of baleen1 #da4 ,struthious birds1 #gj1 #aea4 ,sturgeon1 #aga4 ,suarez1 #ah1 #bfc4 ,substantial forms1 #ahf1 #bgb4 ,sufferings of beasts1 #bfj4 ,supernatural action1 #beb4 ,supernatural action not to be looked for in nature1 #ae4 ,supernumerary digits1 #abb1 #aha4 ,syllis1 #afi1 #baa4 ,symbolic conceptions1 #bea4 ,symmetrical diseases1 #ahb4 ,syphilitic deposits1 #ahc4 ,t4 ,tadpole's beak1 #hc4 ,tails of butterflies1 #he4 ,tapir1 #abc1 #acd4 ,tarsal bones1 #aei1 #aih4 ,teeth of ,cetacea1 #hc4 ,teeth of ,insectivora1 #fh4 ,teeth of kangaroo and ,macroscelides1 #fi4 ,teeth of seals1 #hc4 ,teeth of sharks1 #hc4 ,page #bif ,teleology and evolution compatible1 #bgc4 ,tendrils of climbing plants1 #ajg4 ,tenia echinococcus1 #agj4 ,teratology1 #agc4 ,tetragonopterina1 #adf4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,william1 #acf4 ,thoracic fishes1 #ci4 ,thorax of crustaceans1 #gi4 ,thylacine1 #fg4 ,tierra del ,fuego1 #aib4 ,tiger1 sabre-toothed1 #aaj4 ,time required for evolution1 #abh4 ,tope1 #agb4 ,trabecul cranii1 #agb4 ,transitional forms1 #abh4 ,transmutationism1 #bdb4 ,trevelyan1 ,sir ,j4 ,peacock1 #ajj4 ,trilobites1 #ace1 #ada1 #aga4 ,tunicaries1 #ha4 ,turbot1 #cg4 ,turkey1 effects of climate on1 #ajj4 ,turkish dog1 #de4 ,two-gilled cephalopods1 #gf4 ,type1 conformity to1 #bda4 ,u4 ,umbilical vesicle1 #hb4 ,ungulata1 #be1 #aji4 ,ungulata eocene1 #aaj4 ,units1 physiological1 #afh1 #bah4 ,unknowable1 the1 #bde4 ,upper ,silurian strata1 #adj1 #adb4 ,urotrichus1 #fh4 ,v4 ,variability1 different degrees of1 #aai4 ,vermiform appendix1 #hc4 ,vertebr of skull1 #agb4 ,vertebral column1 #afb1 #aga4 ,vertebrate limbs1 #ch1 #afc4 ,vertical homology1 #afe4 ,vesicle1 umbilical1 #hb4 ,vestiges of ,creation1 #c4 ,view here advocated1 #e4 ,vitreous humour1 #gf4 ,vogt1 ,professor1 #ab1 #bgc4 ,voice of man1 #ed4 ,voltaire1 #bcj4 ,w4 ,wagner1 ,j4 ,a41 #ac4 ,wagner1 ,nicholas1 #agj4 ,walking leaf1 #ce4 ,walking-stick insect1 #cc4 ,wallace1 ,mr4 ,alfred1 #b1 #aj1 #bf1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #ce1 #cf1 #ed1 #hc1 #hd1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ajc1 #aag1 #aia1 #aig1 #bbf1 #bgd1 #bha-bhc4 ,weaver fishes1 #ci4 ,weitbrecht1 #agi4 ,whale1 foetal teeth of1 #g4 ,whale1 mouth of1 #dj4 ,whalebone1 #dj4 ,whales1 #gh4 ,white silk fowls1 #abb4 ,wife selling1 #aih4 ,wild animals1 their variability1 #abj4 ,wilder1 ,professor ,burt1 #ahj1 #ahd4 ,windpipe1 #hb4 ,wings of bats1 birds1 and pterodactyles1 #fd1 #acj4 ,wings of birds1 origin of1 #ajf4 ,wings of butterflies1 outline of1 #hf4 ,wings of flying-dragon1 #fd1 #aeh4 ,wings of humming-bird1 #aeg4 ,wings of humming-bird hawk moth1 #aeg4 ,wings of insects1 #fe4 ,wombat1 #hc4 ,women1 old ,fuegian1 #aib4 ,worms undergoing fission1 #afi1 #baa4 ,wyman1 ,dr4 ,jeffries1 #ahe4 ,y4 ,york ,minster1 a ,fuegian1 #aig4 ,z4 ,zebras1 #acd4 ,zoological ,gardens1 ,superintendent of1 #abf4 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notes #a ,in the last edition of the ,origin of ,species 7#ahfi7 ,mr4 ,darwin himself admits that ,natural ,selection has not been the exclusive means of modification1 though he still contends it has been the most important one4 #b ,see ,mr4 ,wallace's recent work1 entitled ,contributions to the ,theory of ,natural ,selection1 where1 at p4 #cjb1 it is very well and shortly stated4 #c ,natural ,selection is happily so termed by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer in his ,principles of ,biology4 #d ,biology is the science of life4 ,it contains zoology1 or the science of animals1 and botany1 or that of plants4 #e ,for very interesting examples1 see ,mr4 ,wallace's ,malay ,archipelago4 #f ,see ,mller's work1 ,fr ,darwin1 lately translated into ,english by ,mr4 ,dallas4 ,mr4 ,wallace also predicts the discovery1 in ,madagascar1 of a hawk-moth with an enormously long proboscis1 and he does this on account of the discovery there of an orchid with a nectary from ten to fourteen inches in length4 ,see ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 ,october #ahfg1 and ,natural ,selection1 p4 #bge4 #g ,lectures on ,man1 translated by the ,anthropological ,society1 #ahfd1 p4 #bbi4 #h ,ibid4 p4 #cgh4 #i ,see ,fifth ,edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #egi4 #aj ,the ,rambler1 ,march #ahfj1 vol4 xii4 p4 #cgb4 #aa ,in prim institutione natur non quritur miraculum1 sed quid natura rerum habeat1 ut ,augustinus dicit1 lib4 ii4 sup4 ,gen4 ad lit4 c4 l4 7,st4 ,thomas1 ,sum4 ,i4 lxvii4 #d1 ad #c47 #ab ,hexaem4 ,hom4 ix4 p4 #ha4 #ac ,suarez1 ,metaphysica4 ,edition ,vivs4 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,disputatio xv4 #b4 #ad ,pangenesis is the name of the new theory proposed by ,mr4 ,darwin1 in order to account for various obscure physiological facts1 such1 e4g41 as the occasional reproduction1 by individuals1 of parts which they have lost2 the appearance in offspring of parental1 and sometimes of remote ancestral1 characters1 c4 ,it accounts for these phenomena by supposing that every creature possesses countless indefinitely-minute organic atoms1 termed gemmules1 which atoms are supposed to be generated in every part of every organ1 to be in constant circulation about the body1 and to have the power of reproduction4 ,moreover1 atoms from every part are supposed to be stored in the generative products4 #ae ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib4 #af ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dad4 #ag ,origin of ,species1 #eth edit41 #ahfi1 p4 #aaj4 #ah ,ibid4 p4 #aaa4 #ai ,ibid4 p4 #bbg4 #bj ,the order ,ungulata contains the hoofed beasts2 that is1 all oxen1 deer1 antelopes1 sheep1 goats1 camels1 hogs1 the hippopotamus1 the different kinds of rhinoceros1 the tapirs1 horses1 asses1 zebras1 quaggas1 c4 #ba ,the elephants of ,africa and ,india1 with their extinct allies1 constitute the order ,proboscidea1 and do not belong to the ,ungulata4 #bb ,see ,natural ,selection1 pp4 #fj-ge4 #bc ,principles of ,biology1 vol4 i4 p4 #abb4 #bd ,see ,natural ,selection1 chap4 iii4 p4 #de4 #be ,loc4 cit4 p4 #hj4 #bf ,ibid4 p4 #ei4 #bg ,loc4 cit4 p4 #fd4 #bh ,origin of ,species1 #eth edit4 p4 #ajd4 #bi ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cea4 #cj ,loc4 cit4 pp4 #aji1 #aaj4 #ca ,heredity is the term used to denote the tendency which there is in offspring to reproduce parental features4 #cb ,loc4 cit4 p4 #fd4 #cc ,loc4 cit4 p4 #fj4 #cd ,the term ,vertebrata denotes that large group of animals which are characterized by the possession of a spinal column1 commonly known as the backbone4 ,such animals are ourselves1 together with all beasts1 birds1 reptiles1 frogs1 toads1 and efts1 and also fishes4 #ce ,it is hardly necessary to observe that these sea-snakes have no relation to the often-talked-of sea-serpent4 ,they are small1 venomous reptiles1 which abound in the ,indian seas4 #cf ,origin of ,species1 #eth edit41 #ahfi1 p4 #agi4 #cg ,origin of ,species1 #eth edit41 p4 #ecb4 #ch ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,bartlett1 of the ,zoological ,society1 informs me that at these periods female apes admit with perfect readiness the access of any males of different species4 ,to be sure this is in confinement2 but the fact is1 ,i think1 quite conclusive against any such sexual selection in a state of nature as would account for the local coloration referred to4 #ci ,mr4 ,darwin1 in the last 7fifth7 edition of ,natural ,selection1 #ahfi1 p4 #ajb1 admits that all sexual differences are not to be attributed to the agency of sexual selection1 mentioning the wattle of carrier pigeons1 tuft of turkey-cock1 c4 ,these characters1 however1 seem less inexplicable by sexual selection than those given in the text4 #dj ,i am again indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,bartlett1 amongst others4 ,that gentleman informs me that1 so far from any mental emotion being produced in rabbits by the presence and movements of snakes1 that he has actually seen a male and female rabbit satisfy the sexual instinct in that presence1 a rabbit being seized by a snake when in coitu4 #da ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cai4 #db ,the reader may consult ,huxley's ,lessons in ,elementary ,physiology1 p4 #bjd4 #dc ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cej4 #dd ,bivalve shell-fish are creatures belonging to the oyster1 scallop1 and cockle group1 i4e4 to the class ,lamellibranchiata4 #de ,the attempt has been made to explain these facts as owing to manner and symmetry of growth1 and to colour being incidental on the chemical nature of the constituents of the shell4 ,but surely beauty depends on some such matters in all cases6 #df ,it has been suggested in opposition to what is here said1 that there is no real resemblance1 but that the likeness is fanciful6 ,the denial1 however1 of the fact of a resemblance which has struck so many observers1 reminds one of the ,french philosopher's estimate of facts hostile to his theory--,tant pis pour les faits6 #dg ,fifth ,edition1 p4 #bcf4 #dh ,mr4 ,smith1 of the ,entomological department of the ,british ,museum1 has kindly informed me that the individuals intermediate in structure are very few in number--not more than five per cent4--compared with the number of distinctly differentiated individuals4 ,besides1 in the ,brazilian kinds these intermediate forms are wanting4 #di ,by accidental variations ,mr4 ,darwin does not1 of course1 mean to imply variations really due to chance1 but to utterly indeterminate antecedents4 #ej ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #bce4 #ea ,i4e4 warm-blooded animals which suckle their young1 such as apes1 bats1 hoofed beasts1 lions1 dogs1 bears1 weasels1 rats1 squirrels1 armadillos1 sloths1 whales1 porpoises1 kangaroos1 opossums1 c4 #eb ,journal of ,anatomy and ,physiology 7#ahfh71 vol4 ii4 p4 #aci4 #ec ,see ,ann4 and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4 for ,august #ahgj1 p4 #adj4 #ed ,see ,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution1 vol4 v4 part iv4 p4 #bgh3 ,report of a ,lecture delivered ,february #g1 #ahfh4 ,also ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,february #ahgj3 ,contributions to the ,anatomy and ,taxonomy of the ,dinosauria4 #ee ,proceedings of ,geological ,society1 ,november #ahfi1 p4 #ch4 #ef ,the archeopteryx of the oolite has the true carinate shoulder structure4 #eg ,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution1 vol4 v4 p4 #bgi4 #eh ,this remark is made without prejudice to possible affinities in the direction of the ,ascidians1--an affinity which1 if real1 would be irrelevant to the question here discussed4 #ei ,lectures on the ,comp4 ,anat4 of the ,invertebrate ,animals1 #bnd edit4 #ahee1 p4 #fai2 and ,todd's ,cyclopdia of ,anatomy1 vol4 i4 p4 #eed4 #fj ,see ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cba4 #fa ,a view recently propounded by ,kowalewsky4 #fb ,natural ,selection1 p4 #afg4 #fc ,natural ,selection1 p4 #agc4 #fd ,ibid4 p4 #agg4 #fe ,malay ,archipelago1 vol4 i4 p4 #dci4 #ff ,natural ,selection1 p4 #agg4 #fg ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #aff4 #fh ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bhj4 #fi ,see ,natural ,selection1 p4 #fd4 #gj ,the italics are not ,mr4 ,wallace's4 #ga ,malay ,archipelago1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aej2 and ,natural ,selection1 p4 #ajd4 #gb ,see ,malay ,archipelago1 vol4 ii4 chap4 xxxviii4 #gc ,loc4 cit4 p4 #cad4 #gd ,fortnightly ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii 7,april #ahfh71 p4 #cgb4 #ge ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #cci4 #gf ,hereditary ,genius1 an ,inquiry into its ,laws1 c4 ,by ,francis ,galton1 ,f4,r4,s4 7,london3 ,macmillan47 #gg ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #cg4 #gh ,ibid4 p4 #dg4 #gi ,ibid4 p4 #eb4 #hj ,carpenter's ,comparative ,physiology1 p4 #ihg1 quoted by ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #aga4 #ha ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #gb4 #hb ,ibid4 p4 #gf4 #hc ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #ga4 #hd ,ibid4 p4 #aad4 #he ,quoted1 ,ibid4 p4 #bgd4 #hf ,ibid4 p4 #cbd4 #hg ,ibid4 p4 #cbb4 #hh ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dad4 #hi ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 of ,london1 ,april #bd1 #ahfj4 #ij ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #bia4 #ia ,extracted by ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aig1 from the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 of ,october #ahfg1 p4 #ebg4 #ib ,anatomy of ,vertebrates1 vol4 iii4 p4 #gie4 #ic ,ibid4 p4 #hjg4 #id ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4 #ie ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdd4 #if ,see ,dec4 #b1 #ahfi1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb4 #ig ber die ,darwin'sche ,schpfungstheorie3 ein ,vortrag1 von ,klliker2 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 #ih ,see ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #cdb4 #ii ,anatomy of the ,lemuroidea4 ,by ,james ,murie1 ,m4,d41 and ,st4 ,george ,mivart4 ,trans4 ,zool4 ,soc41 ,march #ahff1 p4 #ia4 #ajj ,principles of ,geology1 last edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #afc4 #aja ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 ,april #ahff1 pp4 #beg-h4 #ajb ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #agh4 #ajc ,this animal belongs to the order ,primates1 which includes man1 the apes1 and the lemurs4 ,the lemurs are the lower kinds of the order1 and differ much from the apes4 ,they have their head-quarters in the ,island of ,madagascar4 ,the aye-aye is a lemur1 but it differs singularly from all its congeners1 and still more from all apes4 ,in its dentition it strongly approximates to the rodent 7rat1 squirrel1 and guinea-pig7 order1 as it has two cutting teeth above1 and two below1 growing from permanent pulps1 and in the adult condition has no canines4 #ajd ,north ,british ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 vii41 ,march #ahfg1 p4 #bhb4 #aje ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #ge4 #ajf ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4 #ajg ,comparative ,physiology1 p4 #bad1 note4 #ajh ,see ,nature1 ,june and ,july #ahgj1 ,nos4 #ce1 #cf1 and #cg1 pp4 #agj1 #aic1 and #bai4 #aji ,natural ,selection1 p4 #bic4 #aaj ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhi-bie4 #aaa ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #de4 #aab ,ibid4 p4 #ac4 #aac ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 #aad ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #aad4 #aae ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 #aaf ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfa4 #aag ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #af4 #aah ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg4 #aai ,this has been shown by my late friend1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,n4 ,turner1 jun41 in an excellent paper by him in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society for #ahdi1 p4 #adg4 ,the untimely death1 through a dissecting wound1 of this most promising young naturalist1 was a very great loss to zoological science4 #abj ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahi4 #aba ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahci1 p4 #aae4 #abb ,ibid4 p4 #cbb4 #abc ,ibid4 p4 #cad4 #abd ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajd4 #abe ,north ,british ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 vii41 ,march #ahfg1 p4 #cag4 #abf ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #bab4 #abg ,see also the ,popular ,science ,review for ,july #ahfh4 #abh ,a bird with a keeled breast-bone1 such as almost all existing birds possess4 #abi ,anatomy of ,vertebrates1 vol4 iii4 p4 #gib4 #acj ,ibid4 p4 #gic4 #aca ,as a tadpole is the larval form of a frog4 #acb ,as ,professor ,huxley1 with his characteristic candour1 fully admitted in his lecture on the ,dinosauria before referred to4 #acc ,transactions of the ,geological ,society of ,glasgow1 vol4 iii4 #acd ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #ced4 #ace ,see his address to the ,geological ,society1 on ,february #ai1 #ahfi4 #acf ,see ,nature1 vol4 i4 p4 #cii1 ,february #ag1 #ahgj4 #acg ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #ded4 #ach ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdd4 #aci ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cde4 #adj ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #cec4 #ada ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #cha4 #adb ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #dfc4 #adc ,see his ,catalogue of ,acanthopterygian ,fishes in the ,british ,museum1 vol4 iii4 p4 #edj4 #add ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 #ahfg1 p4 #ajb1 and ,ann4 ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4 vol4 xx4 p4 #aaj4 #ade ,see ,catalogue1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dfi4 #adf ,ibid4 vol4 v4 p4 #caa4 #adg ,ibid4 p4 #cde4 #adh ,ibid4 p4 #ac4 #adi ,ibid4 p4 #ba4 #aej ,see ,catalogue1 vol4 v4 p4 #bd4 #aea ,ibid4 p4 #eb4 #aeb ,ibid4 p4 #aji4 #aec ,ibid4 vol4 vi4 #bjh4 #aed ,ibid4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ejg4 #aee ,ibid4 p4 #eji4 #aef ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 #ahfh1 p4 #dhb #aeg ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #ded4 #aeh ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #dei4 #aei ,see ,ann4 and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,july #ahgj1 p4 #cg4 #afj ,professor ,huxley's ,lectures on the ,elements of ,comp4 ,anat4 p4 #ahd4 #afa ,for an enumeration of the more obvious homological relationships see ,ann4 and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4 for ,august #ahgj1 p4 #aah4 #afb ,see ,ann4 and ,mag1 of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,july #ahgj4 #afc ,treatise on the ,human ,skeleton1 #aheh4 #afd ,hunterian ,lectures for #ahfd4 #afe ,linnan ,transactions1 vol4 xxv4 p4 #cie1 #ahff4 #aff ,hunterian ,lectures for #ahgj1 and ,journal of ,anat4 for ,may #ahgj4 #afg ,see a ,paper on the ,axial ,skeleton of the ,urodela1 in ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 #ahgj1 p4 #bff4 #afh ,just as ,button's superfluous lament over the unfortunate organization of the sloth has been shown1 by the increase of our knowledge1 to have been uncalled for and absurd1 so other supposed instances of non-adaptation will1 no doubt1 similarly disappear4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #bbj1 speaks of a woodpecker 7,colaptes campestris7 as having an organization quite at variance with its habits1 and as never climbing a tree1 though possessed of the special arboreal structure of other woodpeckers4 ,it now appears1 however1 from the observations of ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson1 ,c4,m4,z4,s41 that its habits are in harmony with its structure4 ,see ,mr4 ,hudson's third letter to the ,zoological ,society1 published in the ,proceedings of that ,society for ,march #bd1 #ahgj1 p4 #aei4 #afi ,dr4 ,cobbold has informed the ,author that he has never observed a planaria divide spontaneously1 and he is sceptical as to that process taking place at all4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,charlton ,bastian has also stated that1 in spite of much observation1 he has never seen the process in vorticella4 #agj ,professor ,huxley's ,hunterian ,lecture1 ,march #af1 #ahfh4 #aga ,ibid4 ,march #ah4 #agb ,principles of ,biology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aje4 #agc ,principles of ,biology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjc4 #agd ,quoted by ,h4 ,stannius in his ,handbuch der ,anatomie der ,wirbelthiere1 ,zweite ,auflage1 ,erstes ,buch1 #g1 p4 #ag4 #age ,in his last ,hunterian ,course of ,lectures1 #ahfi4 #agf ,the ,science of ,abnormal ,forms4 #agg ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbb2 and ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #agh4 #agh ,a remarkable woman exhibited in ,london a few years ago4 #agi ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbh4 #ahj ,ueber das ,gliedmaassenskelet der ,enaliosaurier1 ,jenaischen ,zeitschrift1 ,bd4 v4 ,heft #c1 ,taf4 xiii4 #aha ,in his work on the ,carpus and ,tarsus4 #ahb ,an excellent specimen displaying this resemblance is preserved in the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons4 #ahc ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahfg1 p4 #cec4 #ahd ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 #ahfe1 p4 #bee4 #ahe ,ibid4 p4 #cea4 #ahf ,hist4 ,gnrale des ,anomalies1 t4 i4 p4 #bbh4 ,bruxelles1 #ahcg4 #ahg ,nov4 ,comment4 ,petrop4 t4 ix4 p4 #bfi4 #ahh ,read on ,june #b1 #ahfh1 before the ,massachusetts ,medical ,society4 ,see vol4 ii4 ,no4 #c4 #ahi ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbb4 #aij ,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1 #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #ah4 #aia ,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1 #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 #aib ,see ,medico-,chirurgical ,transactions1 vol4 xxv4 7or vii4 of #bnd series71 #ahdb1 p4 #ajj1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #aic ,med4-,chirurg4 ,trans1 vol4 xxv4 7or vii4 of #bnd series71 #ahdb1 p4 #abb4 #aid ,see ,boston ,medical and ,surgical ,journal for ,april #e1 #ahff1 vol4 lxxiv4 p4 #ahi4 #aie ,principles of ,biology1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 #aif ,see the ,proceedings of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 vol4 xi4 ,june #e1 #ahfg4 #aig ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #ge4 #aih ,ibid4 p4 #aab4 #aii ,ibid4 p4 #agj4 #bjj ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbi4 #bja ,it is hardly necessary to say that the ,author does not mean that there is1 in addition to a real objective crystal1 another real1 objective separate thing beside it1 namely the force directing it4 ,all that is meant is that the action of the crystal in crystallizing must be ideally separated from the crystal itself1 not that it is really separate4 #bjb ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 #ahfi1 p4 #egg4 #bjc ,vol4 ii4 p4 #abb4 #bjd ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i p4 #bie4 #bje ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cej4 #bjf ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 #bjg ,see #bnd edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #bad4 #bjh ,page #ajc4 #bji ,i have not the merit of having noticed this inconsistency2 it was pointed out to me by my friend the ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,roberts4 #baj ,vol4 i4 p4 #bae4 #baa ,malay ,archipelago1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfe4 #bab ,the ,origin of ,civilization and the ,primitive ,condition of ,man1 p4 #bfa4 ,longmans1 #ahgj4 #bac ,primitive ,man1 p4 #bdh4 #bad ,fiji and the ,fijians1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc4 #bae ,essays1 ,second ,series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ac4 #baf ,see ,no4 #aag1 ,july #ahfi1 p4 #bgb4 #bag ,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,no4 #aag1 ,july #ahfi4 #bah ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djc4 #bai ,ibid4 p4 #cff4 #bbj ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djb4 #bba ,see ,fortnightly ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii4 ,april #ahfh1 p4 #ceb4 #bbb ,this appeared in the ,rivista ,contemporanea ,nazionale ,italiana1 and was translated and given to the ,english public in ,scientific ,opinion for ,september #bi1 ,october #f1 and ,october #ac1 #ahfi1 pp4 #cfe1 #cia1 and #djg4 #bbc ,see ,scientific ,opinion1 of ,october #ac1 #ahfi1 p4 #djg4 #bbd ,see ,scientific ,opinion of ,september #bi1 #ahfi1 p4 #cff4 #bbe ,fortnightly ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii4 ,april #ahfh1 p4 #ejh4 #bbf ,scientific ,opinion1 of ,october #ac1 #ahfi1 p4 #djh4 #bbg ,fortnightly ,review1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii4 ,april #ahfh1 p4 #eji4 #bbh ,histoire ,naturelle1 gnrale et particulire1 tome ii4 #agdi1 p4 #cbg4 ,ces liqueurs sminales sont toutes deux un extrait de toutes les parties du corps1 c4 #bbi ,see ,nature1 ,march #c1 #ahgj1 p4 #ded4 ,mr4 ,wallace says 7referring to ,mr4 ,croll's paper in the ,phil4 ,mag471 ,as we are now1 and have been for #fj1jjj years1 in a period of low eccentricity1 the rate of change of species during that time may be no measure of the rate that has generally obtained in past geological epochs4 #bcj ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdd4 #bca ,if anyone were to contend that beside the opium there existed a real distinct objective entity1 its soporific virtue1 he would be open to ridicule indeed4 ,but the constitution of our minds is such that we cannot but distinguish ideally a thing from its even essential attributes and qualities4 ,the joke is sufficiently amusing1 however1 regarded as the solemn enunciation of a mere truism4 #bcb ,noticed by ,professor ,owen in his ,archetype1 p4 #gf4 ,recently it has been attempted to discredit ,darwinism in ,france by speaking of it as de la science mousseuse6 #bcc ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #cdb4 #bcd ,introductory ,lecture of ,february #ad1 #ahgj1 pp4 #bd-cj1 ,figs4 #a-d4 7,churchill and ,sons47 #bce ,see especially ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 chap4 xviii4 #bcf ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 pp4 #cbc1 #cbd4 #bcg ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #b4 #bch ,ibid4 p4 #be4 #bci ,ibid4 p4 #aea4 #bdj ,ibid4 p4 #aeg4 #bda ,ibid4 p4 #aeh4 #bdb ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i4 p4 #bia4 #bdc ,though hardly necessary1 it may be well to remark that the views here advocated in no way depend upon the truth of the doctrine of ,spontaneous ,generation4 #bdd ,vol4 iii4 p4 #hjh4 #bde ,this is hardly an exact representation of ,mr4 ,darwin's view4 ,on his theory1 if a favourable variation happens to arise 7the external circumstances remaining the same71 it will yet be preserved4 #bdf ,see #bnd edition1 p4 #aac4 #bdg ,essays1 ,philosophical and ,theological1 ,trbner and ,co41 ,first ,series1 #ahff1 p4 #aij4 ,every relative disability may be read two ways4 ,a disqualification in the nature of thought for knowing x is1 from the other side1 a disqualification in the nature of x from being known4 ,to say then that the ,first ,cause is wholly removed from our apprehension is not simply a disclaimer of faculty on our part3 it is a charge of inability against the ,first ,cause too4 ,the dictum about it is this3 ',it is a ,being that may exist out of knowledge1 but that is precluded from entering within the sphere of knowledge4' ,we are told in one breath that this ,being must be in every sense 'perfect1 complete1 total--including in itself all power1 and transcending all law' 7p4 #ch72 and in another that this perfect and omnipotent ,one is totally incapable of revealing any one of an infinite store of attributes4 ,need we point out the contradictions which this position involves8 ,if you abide by it1 you deny the ,absolute and ,infinite in the very act of affirming it1 for1 in debarring the ,first ,cause from self-revelation1 you impose a limit on its nature4 ,and in the very act of declaring the ,first ,cause incognizable1 you do not permit it to remain unknown4 ,for that only is unknown1 of which you can neither affirm nor deny any predicate2 here you deny the power of self-disclosure to the ',absolute1' of which therefore something is known2--viz41 that nothing can be known6 #bdh ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ajh4 #bdi ,loc4 cit4 p4 #dc4 #bej ,loc4 cit4 p4 #df4 #bea ,mr4 ,j4 ,martineau1 in his ,essays1 vol4 i4 p4 #baa1 observes1 ,mr4 ,spencer's conditions of pious worship are hard to satisfy2 there must be between the ,divine and human no communion of thought1 relations of conscience1 or approach of affection4 444 ,but you cannot constitute a religion out of mystery alone1 any more than out of knowledge alone2 nor can you measure the relation of doctrines to humility and piety by the mere amount of conscious darkness which they leave4 ,all worship1 being directed to what is above us and transcends our comprehension1 stands in presence of a mystery4 ,but not all that stands before a mystery is worship4 #beb ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #bj4 #bec ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aji4 #bed ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aaa4 #bee ,in this criticism on ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 the ,author finds he has been anticipated by ,mr4 ,james ,martineau4 7,see ,essays1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjh47 #bef ,loc4 cit4 p4 #bi4 #beg ,the ,author means by this1 that it is directly and immediately the act of ,god1 the word supernatural being used in a sense convenient for the purposes of this work1 and not in its ordinary theological sense4 #beh ,the phrase order of nature is not here used in its theological sense as distinguished from the order of grace1 but as a term1 here convenient1 to denote actions not due to direct and immediate ,divine intervention4 #bei ,a ,free ,examination of ,darwin's ,treatise1 p4 #bi1 reprinted from the ,atlantic ,monthly for ,july1 ,august1 and ,october1 #ahfj4 #bfj ,origin of ,species1 #eth edition1 p4 #ega4 #bfa ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dca4 #bfb ,the ,rev4 ,baden ,powell says1 ,all sciences approach perfection as they approach to a unity of first principles1--in all cases recurring to or tending towards certain high elementary conceptions which are the representatives of the unity of the great archetypal ideas according to which the whole system is arranged4 ,inductive conceptions1 very partially and imperfectly realized and apprehended by human intellect1 are the exponents in our minds of these great principles in nature4 ,all science is but the partial reflexion in the reason of man1 of the great all-pervading reason of the universe4 ,and thus the unity of science is the reflexion of the unity of nature1 and of the unity of that supreme reason and intelligence which pervades and rules over nature1 and from whence all reason and all science is derived4 7,unity of ,worlds1 ,essay i41 ii42 ,unity of ,sciences1 pp4 #gi and #ha47 ,also he quotes from ,oersted's ,soul in ,nature 7pp4 #ab1 #af1 #ah1 #hg1 #ib1 and #cgg74 ,if the laws of reason did not exist in nature1 we should vainly attempt to force them upon her3 if the laws of nature did not exist in our reason1 we should not be able to comprehend them4 444 ,we find an agreement between our reason and works which our reason did not produce4 444 ,all existence is a dominion of reason4 ,the laws of nature are laws of reason1 and altogether form an endless unity of reason2 444 one and the same throughout the universe4 #bfc ,in the same way ,mr4 ,lewes1 in criticising the ,duke of ,argyll's ,reign of ,law 7,fortnightly ,review1 ,july #ahfg1 p4 #ajj71 asks whether we should consider that man wise who spilt a gallon of wine in order to fill a wineglass8 ,but1 because we should not do so1 it by no means follows that we can argue from such an action to the action of ,god in the visible universe4 ,for the man's object1 in the case supposed1 is simply to fill the wine-glass1 and the wine spilt is so much loss4 ,with ,god it may be entirely different in both respects4 ,all these objections are fully met by the principle thus laid down by ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas3 ,quod si aliqua causa particularis deficiat a suo effectu1 hoc est propter aliquam causam particularem impediantem qu continetur sub ordine caus universalis4 ,unde effectus ordinem caus universalis nullo modo potest exire4 444 ,sicut indigestio contingit prter ordinem virtutis nutritiv ex aliquo impedimento1 puta ex grossitie cibi1 quam necesse est reducere in aliam causam1 et sic usque ad causam primam universalem4 ,cum igitur ,deus sit prima causa universalis non unius generi tantum1 sed universaliter totius entis1 impossibile est quod aliquid contingat prter ordinem divin gubernationis2 sed ex hoc ipso quod aliquid ex un parte videtur exire ab ordine divin providenti1 quo consideratur secundam aliquam particularem causam1 necesse est quod in eundem ordinem relabatur secundum aliam causam4--,sum4 ,theol4 p4 i4 q4 #ai1 a4 #f1 and q4 #ajc1 a4 #g4 #bfd ,unity of ,worlds1 ,essay ii41 ii41 p4 #bfj4 #bfe ,see the exceedingly good passage on this subject by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,newman1 in his ,discourses for ,mixed ,congregations1 #ahej1 p4 #cde4 #bff ,see ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes's ,sea-,side ,studies1 for some excellent remarks1 beginning at p4 #cbi1 as to the small susceptibility of certain animals to pain4 #bfg ,philosophy of ,creation1 ,essay iii41 iv41 p4 #dhj4 #bfh ,it seems almost strange that modern ,english thought should so long hold aloof from familiar communion with ,christian writers of other ages and countries4 ,it is rarely indeed that acquaintance is shown with such authors1 though a bright example to the contrary was set by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell 7in his ,principles of ,geology1 #gth edition1 p4 #ce7 speaks with approval of the early ,italian geologists4 ,of ,vallisneri he says1 ,i return with pleasure to the geologists of ,italy who preceded1 as has been already shown1 the naturalists of other countries in their investigations into the ancient history of the earth1 and who still maintained a decided pre-eminence4 ,they refuted and ridiculed the physico-theological systems of ,burnet1 ,whiston1 and ,woodward2 while ,vallisneri1 in his comments on the ,woodwardian theory1 remarked how much the interests of religion1 as well as of those of sound philosophy1 had suffered by perpetually mixing up the sacred writings with questions of physical science4 ,again1 he quotes the ,carmelite friar ,generelli1 who1 illustrating ,moro before the ,academy of ,cremona in #agdi1 strongly opposed those who would introduce the supernatural into the domain of nature4 ,i hold in utter abomination1 most learned ,academicians6 those systems which are built with their foundations in the air1 and cannot be propped up without a miracle1 and ,i undertake1 with the assistance of ,moro1 to explain to you how these marine monsters were transported into the mountains by natural causes4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell notices with exemplary impartiality the spirit of intolerance on both sides4 ,how in ,france1 ,buffon1 on the one hand1 was influenced by the theological faculty of the ,sorbonne to recant his theory of the earth1 and how ,voltaire1 on the other1 allowed his prejudices to get the better1 if not of his judgment1 certainly of his expression of it4 ,thinking that fossil remains of shells1 c41 were evidence in favour of orthodox views1 ,voltaire1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell 7,principles1 p4 #ef7 tells us1 endeavoured to inculcate scepticism as to the real nature of such shells1 and to recall from contempt the exploded dogma of the sixteenth century1 that they were sports of nature4 ,he also pretended that vegetable impressions were not those of real plants4 444 ,he would sometimes1 in defiance of all consistency1 shift his ground when addressing the vulgar2 and1 admitting the true nature of the shells collected in the ,alps and other places1 pretend that they were ,eastern species1 which had fallen from the hats of pilgrims coming from ,syria4 ,the numerous essays written by him on geological subjects were all calculated to strengthen prejudices1 partly because he was ignorant of the real state of the science1 and partly from his bad faith4 ,as to the harmony between many early ,church writers of great authority and modern views as regards certain matters of geology1 see ,geology and ,revelation1 by the ,rev4 ,gerald ,molloy1 ,d4,d41 ,london1 #ahgj4 #bfi ,de ,genesi ad ,litt41 lib4 v41 cap4 v41 ,no4 #ad in ,ben4 ,edition1 voi4 iii4 p4 #ahf4 #bgj ,lib4 cit41 cap4 xxii41 ,no4 #dd4 #bga ,lib4 cit41 ,de ,trinitate1 lib4 iii41 cap4 viii1 ,no4 #ad4 #bgb ,lib4 cit41 cap4 ix41 ,no4 #af4 #bgc ,st4 ,thomas1 ,summa1 i41 quest4 #fg1 art4 #d1 ad #c4 #bgd ,prim ,partis1 vol4 ii41 quest4 #gd1 art4 #b4 #bge ,lib4 cit41 quest4 #ga1 art4 #a4 #bgf ,lib4 cit41 quest4 #de1 art4 #h4 #bgg ,vide ,in ,genesim ,comment1 cap4 i4 #bgh ,roger ,bacon1 ,opus tertium1 c4 ix4 p4 #bg1 quoted in the ,rambler for #ahei1 vol4 xii4 p4 #cge4 #bgi ,see ,nature1 ,june and ,july1 #ahgj4 ,those who1 like ,professors ,huxley and ,tyndall1 do not accept his conclusions1 none the less agree with him in principle1 though they limit the evolution of the organic world from the inorganic to a very remote period of the world's history4 7,see ,professor ,huxley's address to the ,british ,association at ,liverpool1 #ahgj1 p4 #ag47 #bhj ,lectures on ,metaphysics and ,logic1 vol4 i4 ,lecture ii41 p4 #dj4 #bha ,in the same way that an undue cultivation of any one kind of knowledge is prejudicial to philosophy4 ,mr4 ,james ,martineau well observes1 ,nothing is more common than to see maxims1 which are unexceptionable as the assumptions of particular sciences1 coerced into the service of a universal philosophy1 and so turned into instruments of mischief and distortion4 ,that we can know nothing but phenomena1--that causation is simply constant priority1--that men are governed invariably by their interests1 are examples of rules allowable as dominant hypotheses in physics or political economy1 but exercising a desolating tyranny when thrust on to the throne of universal empire4 ,he who seizes upon these and similar maxims1 and carries them in triumph on his banner1 may boast of his escape from the uncertainties of metaphysics1 but is himself all the while the unconscious victim of their very vulgarest deception4 7,essays1 ,second ,series1 ,a ,plea for ,philosophical ,studies1 p4 #dba47 #bhb ,lecky's ,history of ,rationalism1 vol4 i4 p4 #gc4 #bhc ,lectures on ,university ,subjects1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,newman1 ,d4,d41 p4 #cbb4 #bhd ,loc4 cit4 p4 #cbd4 #bhe ,thus ,professor ,tyndall1 in the ,pall ,mall ,gazette of ,june #ae1 #ahfh1 speaking of physical science1 observes1 ,the logical feebleness of science is not sufficiently borne in mind4 ,it keeps down the weed of superstition1 not by logic1 but by slowly rendering the mental soil unfit for its cultivation4 #bhf ,by this it is not1 of course1 meant to deny that the existence of ,god can be demonstrated so as to demand the assent of the intellect taken1 so to speak1 by itself4 #bhg ,see some excellent remarks in the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,newman's ,parochial ,sermons--the new edition 7#ahfi71 vol4 i4 p4 #baa4 #bhh ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,july #ahfj1 p4 #adc1 quoted in ,dr4 ,asa ,gray's pamphlet1 p4 #dg4 #bhi ,see ,the ,academy for ,october #ahfi1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ac4 #bij ,professor ,huxley goes on to say that the mechanist may1 in turn1 demand of the teleologist how the latter knows it was so intended4 ,to this it may be replied he knows it as a necessary truth of reason deduced from his own primary intuitions1 which intuitions cannot be questioned without absolute scepticism4 #bia ,the ,professor doubtless means the direct and immediate result4 7,see ,trans4 ,zool4 ,soc4 vol4 v4 p4 #ij47 #bib ,natural ,selection1 p4 #bhj4 #bic ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 e4g41 has thus understood ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,the ,doctor says in his pamphlet1 p4 #ch1 ,mr4 ,darwin uses expressions which imply that the natural forms which surround us1 because they have a history or natural sequence1 could have been only generally1 but not particularly designed1--a view at once superficial and contradictory2 whereas his true line should be1 that his hypothesis concerns the order and not the cause1 the how and not the why of the phenomena1 and so leaves the question of design just where it was before4 #bid ,all science is but the partial reflexion in the reason of man1 of the great all-pervading reason of the universe4 ,and the unity of science is the reflexion of the unity of nature and of the unity of that supreme reason and intelligence which pervades and rules over nature1 and from whence all reason and all science is derived4 7,rev4 ,baden ,powell1 ,unity of the ,sciences1 ,essay i4 ii4 p4 #ha47 #bie ,the ,reign of ,law1 p4 #dj4 #bif ,though ,mr4 ,darwin's epithets denoting design are metaphorical1 his admiration of the result is unequivocal1 nay1 enthusiastic6 #big ,see ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdh4 #bih ,the term1 as before said1 not being used in its ordinary theological sense1 but to denote an immediate ,divine action as distinguished from ,god's action through the powers conferred on the physical universe4 #bii ,see ,natural ,selection1 pp4 #ccb to #cfj4 #cjj ,loc4 cit41 p4 #cdi4 #cja ,see ,professor ,huxley's ,lessons in ,elementary ,physiology1 p4 #bah4 #cjb ,it may be objected1 perhaps1 that excessive delicacy of the ear might have been produced by having to guard against the approach of enemies1 some savages being remarkable for their keenness of hearing at great distances4 ,but the perceptions of intensity and quality of sound are very different4 ,some persons who have an extremely acute ear for delicate sounds1 and who are fond of music1 have yet an incapacity for detecting whether an instrument is slightly out of tune4 #cjc ,loc4 cit41 pp4 #cea1 #ceb4 #cjd ,loc4 cit41 p4 #cfh4 #cje ,loc4 cit41 p4 #cej4 #cjf ,published by ,john ,churchill4 #cjg ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cbd4 #cjh ,the italics are not ,mr4 ,wallace's4 #cji ,unity of ,worlds1 ,essay ii4 ii4 p4 #bdg4 #caj ,ibid4 ,essay i4 ii4 p4 #gf4 #caa ,ibid4 ,essay iii4 iv4 p4 #dff4 #cab ,a good exposition of how an inferior action has to yield to one higher is given by ,dr4 ,newman in his ,lectures on ,university ,subjects1 p4 #cgb4 ,what is true in one science1 is dictated to us indeed according to that science1 but not according to another science1 or in another department4 ,what is certain in the military art1 has force in the military art1 but not in statesmanship2 and if statesmanship be a higher department of action than war1 and enjoins the contrary1 it has no force on our reception and obedience at all4 ,and so what is true in medical science1 might in all cases be carried out1 were man a mere animal or brute without a soul2 but since he is a rational1 responsible being1 a thing may be ever so true in medicine1 yet may be unlawful in fact1 in consequence of the higher law of morals and religion coming to some different conclusion4 #cac ,quoted from the ,rambler of ,march #ahfj1 p4 #cfd3 ,greek3 ,hopou men oun hapanta suneb1 hsper kain ei heneka tou egineto1 tauta men esth apo tou automatou sustanta epitdeis hosa de m houts apleto kai apollutai1 kathapeo ,empedokls legei ta bougen kai androprra4--,,arist4 ,phys4 ii4 c4 #h4