,this file is gratefully uploaded to the ,,pg collection in honor of ,distributed ,proofreaders having posted over #aj1jjj ebooks4 ,,agriculture ,,for ,,beginners ,,by ,,charles ,,william ,,burkett ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,agriculturist ,,formerly ,,director ,,of ,,agricultural ,,experiment ,,station ,,kansas ,,state ,,agricultural ,,college ,,frank ,,lincoln ,,stevens ,,professor ,,of ,,plant ,,pathology1 ,,university ,,of ,,illinois ,,formerly ,,teacher ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,high ,,school ,,columbus1 ,,ohio ,,and ,,daniel ,,harvey ,,hill ,,formerly ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,carolina ,,college ,,of ,,agriculture ,,and ,,mechanic ,,arts ,,revised ,,edition ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,boston 4 ,,new ,,york 4 ,,chicago 4 ,,london ,,atlanta 4 ,,dallas 4 ,,columbus 4 ,,san ,,francisco ,,copyright1 #aijc1 #aijd1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,charles ,,william ,,burkett1 ,,frank ,,lincoln ,,stevens ,,and ,,daniel ,,harvey ,,hill ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america #cbi4g ,the ,athenaeum ,press ,,ginn ,,and ,,company 4 ,,proprietors 4 ,,boston 4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,illustration3 ,,getting ,,ready ,,for ,,winter ,,preface ,since its first publication ,agriculture for ,beginners has found a welcome in thousands of schools and homes4 ,naturally many suggestions as to changes1 additions1 and other improvements have reached its authors4 ,naturally1 too1 the authors have busied themselves in devising methods to add to the effectiveness of the book4 ,some additions have been made almost every year since the book was published4 ,to embody all these changes and helpful suggestions into a strictly unified volume2 to add some further topics and sections2 to bring all farm practices up to the ideals of to-day2 to include the most recent teaching of scientific investigators--these were the objects sought in the thorough revision which has just been given the book4 ,the authors hope and think that the remaking of the book has added to its usefulness and attractiveness4 ,they believe now1 as they believed before1 that there is no line of separation between the science of agriculture and the practical art of agriculture4 ,they are assured by the success of this book that agriculture is eminently a teachable subject4 ,they see no difference between teaching the child the fundamental principles of farming and teaching the same child the fundamental truths of arithmetic1 geography1 or grammar4 ,they hold that a youth should be trained for the farm just as carefully as he is trained for any other occupation1 and that it is unreasonable to expect him to succeed without training4 ,if they are right in these views1 the training must begin in the public schools4 ,this is true for two reasons3 #a4 ,it is universally admitted that aptitudes are developed1 tastes acquired1 and life habits formed during the years that a child is in the public school4 ,hence1 during these important years every child intended for the farm should be taught to know and love nature1 should be led to form habits of observation1 and should be required to begin a study of those great laws upon which agriculture is based4 ,a training like this goes far toward making his life-work profitable and delightful4 #b4 ,most boys and girls reared on a farm get no educational training except that given in the public schools4 ,if1 then1 the truths that unlock the doors of nature are not taught in the public schools1 nature and nature's laws will always be hid in night to a majority of our bread-winners4 ,they must still in ignorance and hopeless drudgery tear their bread from a reluctant soil4 ,the authors return hearty thanks to ,professor ,thomas ,f4 ,hunt1 ,university of ,california2 ,professor ,augustine ,d4 ,selby1 ,ohio ,experiment ,station2 ,professor ,w4 ,f4 ,massey1 horticulturist and agricultural writer2 and ,professor ,franklin ,sherman1 ,jr41 ,state ,entomologist of ,north ,carolina1 for aid in proofreading and in the preparation of some of the material4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,soil ,,section ,,page ,i4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,soil #a ,,ii4 ,,tillage ,,of ,,the ,,soil #f ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moisture ,,of ,,the ,,soil #i ,,iv4 ,,how ,,the ,,water ,,rises ,,in ,,the ,,soil #ac ,v4 ,,draining ,,the ,,soil #ad ,,vi4 ,,improving ,,the ,,soil #ag ,,vii4 ,,manuring ,,the ,,soil #ba ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,the ,,plant ,,viii4 ,,roots #be ,,ix4 ,,how ,,the ,,plant ,,feeds ,,from ,,the ,,soil #bi ,x4 ,,root-,,tubercles #cj ,,xi4 ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops #cc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,plant ,,xii4 ,,how ,,the ,,plant ,,feeds ,,from ,,the ,,air #ci ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,sap ,,current #dj ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,flower ,,and ,,the ,,seed #db ,,xv4 ,,pollination #df ,,xvi4 ,,crosses1 ,,hybrids1 ,,and ,,cross-,,pollination #dh ,,xvii4 ,,propagation ,,by ,,buds #ea ,,xviii4 ,,plant ,,seeding #ei ,,xix4 ,,selecting ,,seed ,,corn #ff ,,xx4 ,,weeds #fi ,,xxi4 ,,seed ,,purity ,,and ,,vitality #gb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,a ,,fruit ,,tree ,,xxii4 ,,grafting #gh ,,xxiii4 ,,budding #ha ,,xxiv4 ,,planting ,,and ,,pruning #hc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,horticulture ,,xxv4 ,,market-,,gardening #hi ,,xxvi4 ,,flower-,,gardening #ajh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,plants ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,cause ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,plant ,,disease #abb ,,xxviii4 ,,yeast ,,and ,,bacteria #abg ,,xxix4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,plant ,,disease #abi ,,xxx4 ,,some ,,special ,,plant ,,diseases #acj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,orchard1 ,,garden1 ,,and ,,field ,,insects ,,xxxi4 ,,insects ,,in ,,general #add ,,xxxii4 ,,orchard ,,insects #aeb ,,xxxiii4 ,,garden ,,and ,,field ,,insects #afe ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil #agc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,farm ,,crops ,,xxxv4 ,,cotton #ahj ,,xxxvi4 ,,tobacco #ahi ,,xxxvii4 ,,wheat #aib ,,xxxviii4 ,,corn #aig ,,xxxix4 ,,peanuts #bjb ,,xl4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes #bjd ,,xli4 ,,white1 ,,or ,,irish1 ,,potatoes #bjf ,,xlii4 ,,oats #bji ,,xliii4 ,,rye #bac ,,xliv4 ,,barley #bae ,,xlv4 ,,sugar ,,plants #bag ,,xlvi4 ,,hemp ,,and ,,flax #bbf ,,xlvii4 ,,buckwheat #bbi ,,xlviii4 ,,rice #bca ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,timber ,,crop #bcb ,l4 ,,the ,,farm ,,garden #bce ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,feed ,,stuffs ,,li4 ,,grasses #bch ,,lii4 ,,legumes #bdd ,,chapter ,x4 ,,domestic ,,animals ,,liii4 ,,horses #bfb ,,liv4 ,,cattle #bgj ,,lv4 ,,sheep #bgf ,,lvi4 ,,swine #bgi ,,lvii4 ,,farm ,,poultry #bhb ,,lviii4 ,,bee ,,culture #bhf ,,lix4 ,,why ,,we ,,feed ,,animals #bij ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,farm ,,dairying ,,lx4 ,,the ,,dairy ,,cow #bic ,,lxi4 ,,milk1 ,,cream1 ,,churning1 ,,and ,,butter #big ,,lxii4 ,,how ,,milk ,,sours #cjb ,,lxiii4 ,,the ,,babcock ,,milk-,,tester #cjd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,lxiv4 ,,growing ,,feed ,,stuffs ,,on ,,the ,,farm #cji ,,lxv4 ,,farm ,,tools ,,and ,,machines #cac ,,lxvi4 ,,liming ,,the ,,land #cae ,,lxvii4 ,,birds #cah ,,lxviii4 ,,farming ,,on ,,dry ,,land #cbc ,,lxix4 ,,irrigation #cbf ,,lxx4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,country #ccj ,,appendix #cci ,,glossary #cdb ,,index #cea ,,to ,,the ,,teacher ,teachers sometimes shrink from undertaking the teaching of a simple textbook on agriculture because they are not familiar with all the processes of farming4 ,by the same reasoning they might hesitate to teach arithmetic because they do not know calculus or to teach a primary history of the ,united ,states because they are not versed in all history4 ,the art of farming is based on the sciences dealing with the growth of plants and animals4 ,this book presents in a simple way these fundamental scientific truths and suggests some practices drawn from them4 ,hence1 even though many teachers may not have plowed or sowed or harvested1 such teachers need not be embarrassed in mastering and heartily instructing a class in nature's primary laws4 ,if teachers realize how much the efficiency1 comfort1 and happiness of their pupils will be increased throughout their lives from being taught to cooeperate with nature and to take advantage of her wonderful laws1 they will eagerly begin this study4 ,they will find also that their pupils will be actively interested in these studies bearing on their daily lives1 and this interest will be carried over to other subjects4 ,whenever you can1 take the pupils into the field1 the garden1 the orchard1 and the dairy4 ,teach them to make experiments and to learn by the use of their own eyes and brains4 ,they will1 if properly led1 astonish you by their efforts and growth4 ,you will find in the practical exercises many suggestions as to experiments that you can make with your class or with individual members4 ,do not neglect this first-hand teaching4 ,it will be a delight to your pupils4 ,in many cases it will be best to finish the experiments or observational work first1 and later turn to the text to amplify the pupil's knowledge4 ,although the book is arranged in logical order1 the teacher ought to feel free to teach any topic in the season best suited to its study4 ,omit any chapter or section that does not bear on your crops or does not deal with conditions in your state4 ,the ,united ,states government and the different state experiment stations publish hundreds of bulletins on agricultural subjects4 ,these are sent without cost1 on application4 ,it will be very helpful to get such of these bulletins as bear on the different sections of the book4 ,these will be valuable additions to your school library4 ,the authors would like to give a list of these bulletins bearing on each chapter1 but it would soon be out of date1 for the bulletins get out of print and are supplanted by newer ones4 ,however1 the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture prints a monthly list of its publications1 and each state experiment station keeps a list of its bulletins4 ,a note to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 or to your own state experiment station will promptly bring you these lists1 and from them you can select what you need for your school4 ,,agriculture ,,for ,,beginners ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,soil ,,section ,i4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,the word soil occurs many times in this little book4 ,in agriculture this word is used to describe the thin layer of surface earth that1 like some great blanket1 is tucked around the wrinkled and age-beaten form of our globe4 ,the harder and colder earth under this surface layer is called the subsoil4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that in waterless and sun-dried regions there seems little difference between the soil and the subsoil4 ,plants1 insects1 birds1 beasts1 men1--all alike are fed on what grows in this thin layer of soil4 ,if some wild flood in sudden wrath could sweep into the ocean this earth-wrapping soil1 food would soon become as scarce as it was in ,samaria when mothers ate their sons4 ,the face of the earth as we now see it1 daintily robed in grass1 or uplifting waving acres of corn1 or even naked1 water-scarred1 and disfigured by man's neglect1 is very different from what it was in its earliest days4 ,how was it then8 ,how was the soil formed8 ,learned men think that at first the surface of the earth was solid rock4 ,how was this rock changed into workable soil8 ,occasionally a curious boy picks up a rotten stone1 squeezes it1 and finds his hands filled with dirt1 or soil4 ,now1 just as the boy crumbled with his fingers this single stone1 the great forces of nature with boundless patience crumbled1 or1 as it is called1 disintegrated1 the early rock mass4 ,the simple but giant-strong agents that beat the rocks into powder with a clublike force a millionfold more powerful than the club force of ,hercules were chiefly 7#a7 heat and cold2 7#b7 water1 frost1 and ice2 7#c7 a very low form of vegetable life2 and 7#d7 tiny animals--if such minute bodies can be called animals4 ,in some cases these forces acted singly2 in others1 all acted together to rend and crumble the unbroken stretch of rock4 ,let us glance at some of the methods used by these skilled soil-makers4 ,heat and cold are working partners4 ,you already know that most hot bodies shrink1 or contract1 on cooling4 ,the early rocks were hot4 ,as the outside shell of rock cooled from exposure to air and moisture it contracted4 ,this shrinkage of the rigid rim of course broke many of the rocks1 and here and there left cracks1 or fissures4 ,in these fissures water collected and froze4 ,as freezing water expands with irresistible power1 the expansion still further broke the rocks to pieces4 ,the smaller pieces again1 in the same way1 were acted on by frost and ice and again crumbled4 ,this process is still a means of soil-formation4 ,running water was another giant soil-former4 ,if you would understand its action1 observe some usually sparkling stream just after a washing rain4 ,the clear waters are discolored by mud washed in from the surrounding hills4 ,as though disliking their muddy burden1 the waters strive to throw it off4 ,here1 as low banks offer chance1 they run out into shallows and drop some of it4 ,here1 as they pass a quiet pool1 they deposit more4 ,at last they reach the still water at the mouth of the stream1 and there they leave behind the last of their mud load1 and often form of it little three-sided islands called deltas4 ,in the same way mighty rivers like the ,amazon1 the ,mississippi1 and the ,hudson1 when they are swollen by rain1 bear great quantities of soil in their sweep to the seas4 ,some of the soil they scatter over the lowlands as they whirl seaward2 the rest they deposit in deltas at their mouths4 ,it is estimated that the ,mississippi carries to the ocean each year enough soil to cover a square mile of surface to a depth of two hundred and sixty-eight feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,rock ,,marked ,,by ,,the ,,scraping ,,of ,a ,,glacier ,,over ,,it ,the early brooks and rivers1 instead of bearing mud1 ran oceanward either bearing ground stone that they themselves had worn from the rocks by ceaseless fretting1 or bearing stones that other forces had already dislodged4 ,the large pieces were whirled from side to side and beaten against one another or against bedrock until they were ground into smaller and smaller pieces4 ,the rivers distributed this rock soil just as the later rivers distribute muddy soil4 ,for ages the moving waters ground against the rocks4 ,vast were the waters2 vast the number of years2 vast the results4 ,glaciers were another soil-producing agent4 ,glaciers are streams frozen and moving slowly but irresistibly onwards1 down well-defined valleys1 grinding and pulverizing the rock masses detached by the force and weight of their attack4 ,where and how were these glaciers formed8 ,once a great part of upper ,north ,america was a vast sheet of ice4 ,whatever moisture fell from the sky fell as snow4 ,no one knows what made this long winter of snow1 but we do know that snows piled on snows until mountains of white were built up4 ,the lower snow was by the pressure of that above it packed into ice masses4 ,by and by some change of climate caused the masses of ice to break up somewhat and to move south and west4 ,these moving masses1 carrying rock and frozen earth1 ground them to powder4 ,king thus describes the stately movement of these snow mountains3 ,beneath the bottom of this slowly moving sheet of ice1 which with more or less difficulty kept itself conformable with the face of the land over which it was riding1 the sharper outstanding points were cut away and the deeper river canons filled in4 ,desolate and rugged rocky wastes were thrown down and spread over with rich soil4 ,the joint action of air1 moisture1 and frost was still another agent of soil-making4 ,this action is called weathering4 ,whenever you have noticed the outside stones of a spring-house1 you have noticed that tiny bits are crumbling from the face of the stones1 and adding little by little to the soil4 ,this is a slow way of making additions to the soil4 ,it is estimated that it would take #gbh1jjj years to wear away limestone rock to a depth of thirty-nine inches4 ,but when you recall the countless years through which the weather has striven against the rocks1 you can readily understand that its never-wearying activity has added immensely to the soil4 ,in the rock soil formed in these various ways1 and indeed on the rocks themselves1 tiny plants that live on food taken from the air began to grow4 ,they grew just as you now see mosses and lichens grow on the surface of rocks4 ,the decay of these plants added some fertility to the newly formed soil4 ,the life and death of each succeeding generation of these lowly plants added to the soil matter accumulating on the rocks4 ,slowly but unceasingly the soil increased in depth until higher vegetable forms could flourish and add their dead bodies to it4 ,this vegetable addition to the soil is generally known as humus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,ground ,,rock ,,at ,,end ,,of ,a ,,glacier ,in due course of time low forms of animal life came to live on these plants1 and in turn by their work and their death to aid in making a soil fit for the plowman4 ,thus with a deliberation that fills man with awe1 the powerful forces of nature splintered the rocks1 crumbled them1 filled them with plant food1 and turned their flinty grains into a soft1 snug home for vegetable life4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,tillage ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,a good many years ago a man by the name of ,jethro ,tull lived in ,england4 ,he was a farmer and a most successful man in every way4 ,he first taught the ,english people and the world the value of thorough tillage of the soil4 ,before and during his time farmers did not till the soil very intelligently4 ,they simply prepared the seed-bed in a careless manner1 as a great many farmers do to-day1 and when the crops were gathered the yields were not large4 ,jethro ,tull centered attention on the important fact that careful and thorough tillage increases the available plant food in the soil4 ,he did not know why his crops were better when the ground was frequently and thoroughly tilled1 but he knew that such tillage did increase his yield4 ,he explained the fact by saying1 ,tillage is manure4 ,we have since learned the reason for the truth that ,tull taught1 and1 while his explanation was incorrect1 the practice that he was following was excellent4 ,the stirring of the soil enables the air to circulate through it freely1 and permits a breaking down of the compounds that contain the elements necessary to plant growth4 ,you have seen how the air helps to crumble the stone and brick in old buildings4 ,it does the same with soil if permitted to circulate freely through it4 ,the agent of the air that chiefly performs this work is called carbonic acid gas1 and this gas is one of the greatest helpers the farmer has in carrying on his work4 ,we must not forget that in soil preparation the air is just as important as any of the tools and implements used in cultivation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,slope ,,to ,,water ,,shows ,,soil ,,weathered ,,from ,,face ,,of ,,cliff ,if the soil is fertile and if deep plowing has always been done1 good crops will result1 other conditions being favorable4 ,if1 however1 the tillage is poor1 scanty harvests will always result4 ,for most soils a two-horse plow is necessary to break up and pulverize the land4 ,a shallow soil can always be improved by properly deepening it4 ,the principle of greatest importance in soil-preparation is the gradual deepening of the soil in order that plant-roots may have more comfortable homes4 ,if the farmer has been accustomed to plow but four inches deep1 he should adjust the plow so as to turn five inches at the next plowing1 then six1 and so on until the seed-bed is nine or ten inches deep4 ,this gradual deepening will not injure the soil but will put it quickly in good condition4 ,if to good tillage rotation of crops be added1 the soil will become more fertile with each succeeding year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,mixed ,,grasses ,,grown ,,for ,,forage ,the plow1 harrow1 and roller are all necessary to good tillage and to a proper preparation of the seed-bed4 ,the soil must be made compact and clods of all sizes must be crushed4 ,then the air circulates freely1 and paying crops are the rule and not the exception4 ,tillage does these things3 it increases the plant-food supply1 destroys weeds1 and influences the moisture content of the soil4 ,,exercise #a4 ,what tools are used in tillage8 #b4 ,how should a poor and shallow soil be treated8 #c4 ,why should a poor and shallow soil be well compacted before sowing the crop8 #d4 ,explain the value of a circulation of air in the soil4 #e4 ,what causes iron to rust8 #f4 ,why is a two-horse turning-plow better than a one-horse plow8 #g4 ,where will clods do the least harm--on top of the soil or below the surface8 #h4 ,do plant roots penetrate clods8 #i4 ,are earthworms a benefit or an injury to the soil8 #aj4 ,name three things that tillage does4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moisture ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,did any one ever explain to you how important water is to the soil1 or tell you why it is so important8 ,often1 as you know1 crops entirely fail because there is not enough water in the soil for the plants to drink4 ,how necessary is it1 then1 that the soil be kept in the best possible condition to catch and hold enough water to carry the plant through dry1 hot spells6 ,perhaps you are ready to ask1 ,how does the mouthless plant drink its stored-up water8 ,the plant gets all its water through its roots4 ,you have seen the tiny threadlike roots of a plant spreading all about in fine soil2 they are down in the ground taking up plant food and water for the stalk and leaves above4 ,the water1 carrying plant food with it1 rises in a simple but peculiar way through the roots and stems4 ,the plants use the food for building new tissue1 that is1 for growth4 ,the water passes out through the leaves into the air4 ,when the summers are dry and hot and there is but little water in the soil1 the leaves shrink up4 ,this is simply a method they have of keeping the water from passing too rapidly off into the air4 ,i am sure you have seen the corn blades all shriveled on very hot days4 ,this shrinkage is nature's way of diminishing the current of water that is steadily passing through the plant4 ,a thrifty farmer will try to keep his soil in such good condition that it will have a supply of water in it for growing crops when dry and hot weather comes4 ,he can do this by deep plowing1 by subsoiling1 by adding any kind of decaying vegetable matter to the soil1 and by growing crops that can be tilled frequently4 ,the soil is a great storehouse for moisture4 ,after the clouds have emptied their waters into this storehouse1 the water of the soil comes to the surface1 where it is evaporated into the air4 ,the water comes to the surface in just the same way that oil rises in a lamp-wick4 ,this rising of the water is called capillarity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,an ,,enlarged ,,view ,,of ,a ,,section ,,of ,,moist ,,soil1 ,,showing ,,air ,,spaces ,,and ,,soil ,,particles ,it is necessary to understand what is meant by this big word4 ,if into a pan of water you dip a glass tube1 the water inside the tube rises above the level of the water in the pan4 ,the smaller the tube the higher will the water rise4 ,the greater rise inside is perhaps due to the fact that the glass attracts the particles of water more than the particles of water attract one another4 ,now apply this principle to the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,the ,,right ,,way ,,to ,,plow ,the soil particles have small spaces between them1 and the spaces act just as the tube does4 ,when the water at the surface is carried away by drying winds and warmth1 the water deeper in the soil rises through the soil spaces4 ,in this way water is brought from its soil storehouse as plants need it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,testing ,,the ,,holding ,,of ,,water ,,by ,,different ,,soils ,of course when the underground water reaches the surface it evaporates4 ,if we want to keep it for our crops1 we must prepare a trap to hold it4 ,nature has shown us how this can be done4 ,pick up a plank as it lies on the ground4 ,under the plank the soil is wet1 while the soil not covered by the plank is dry4 ,why8 ,capillarity brought the water to the surface1 and the plank1 by keeping away wind and warmth1 acted as a trap to hold the moisture4 ,now of course a farmer cannot set a trap of planks over his fields1 but he can make a trap of dry earth1 and that will do just as well4 ,when a crop like corn or cotton or potatoes is cultivated1 the fine1 loose dirt stirred by the cultivating-plow will make a mulch that serves to keep water in the soil in the same way that the plank kept moisture under it4 ,the mulch also helps to absorb the rains and prevents the water from running off the surface4 ,frequent cultivation1 then1 is one of the best possible ways of saving moisture4 ,hence the farmer who most frequently stirs his soil in the growing season1 and especially in seasons of drought1 reaps1 other things being equal1 a more abundant harvest than if tillage were neglected4 ,,exercise #a4 ,why is the soil wet under a board or under straw8 #b4 ,will a soil that is fine and compact produce better crops than one that is loose and cloddy8 ,why8 #c4 ,since the water which a plant uses comes through the roots1 can the morning dew afford any assistance8 #d4 ,why are weeds objectionable in a growing crop8 #e4 ,why does the farmer cultivate growing corn and cotton8 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,how ,,the ,,water ,,rises ,,in ,,the ,,soil ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,using ,,lamp-,,chimneys ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,soil ,when the hot1 dry days of summer come1 the soil depends upon the subsoil1 or undersoil1 for the moisture that it must furnish its growing plants4 ,the water was stored in the soil during the fall1 winter1 and spring months when there was plenty of rain4 ,if you dig down into the soil when everything is dry and hot1 you will soon reach a cool1 moist undersoil4 ,the moisture increases as you dig deeper into the soil4 ,now the roots of plants go down into the soil for this moisture1 because they need the water to carry the plant food up into the stems and leaves4 ,you can see how the water rises in the soil by performing a simple experiment4 ,,experiment ,take a lamp-chimney and fill it with fine1 dry dirt4 ,the dirt from a road or a field will do4 ,tie over the smaller end of the lamp-chimney a piece of cloth or a pocket handkerchief1 and place this end in a shallow pan of water4 ,if the soil in the lamp-chimney is clay and well packed1 the water will quickly rise to the top4 ,by filling three or four lamp-chimneys with as many different soils1 the pupil will see that the water rises more slowly in some than in others4 ,now take the water pan away1 and the water in the lamp-chimneys will gradually evaporate4 ,study for a few days the effect of evaporation on the several soils4 ,,section ,v4 ,,draining ,,the ,,soil ,a wise man was once asked1 ,what is the most valuable improvement ever made in agriculture8 ,he answered1 ,drainage4 ,often soils unfit for crop-production because they contain too much water are by drainage rendered the most valuable of farming lands4 ,drainage benefits land in the following ways3 #a4 ,it deepens the subsoil by removing unnecessary water from the spaces between the soil particles4 ,this admits air4 ,then the oxygen which is in the air1 by aiding decay1 prepares plant food for vegetation4 #b4 ,it makes the surface soil1 or topsoil1 deeper4 ,it stands to reason that the deeper the soil the more plant food becomes available for plant use4 #c4 ,it improves the texture of the soil4 ,wet soil is sticky4 ,drainage makes this sticky soil crumble and fall apart4 #d4 ,it prevents washing4 #e4 ,it increases the porosity of soils and permits roots to go deeper into the soil for food and moisture4 #f4 ,it increases the warmth of the soil4 #g4 ,it permits earlier working in spring and after rains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,laying ,a ,,tile ,,drain #h4 ,it favors the growth of germs which change the unavailable nitrogen of the soil into nitrates2 that is1 into the form of nitrogen most useful to plants4 #i4 ,it enables plants to resist drought better because the roots go into the ground deeper early in the season4 ,a soil that is hard and wet will not grow good crops4 ,the nitrogen-gathering crops will store the greatest quantity of nitrogen in the soil when the soil is open to the free circulation of the air4 ,these valuable crops cannot do this when the soil is wet and cold4 ,sandy soils with sandy subsoils do not often need drainage2 such soils are naturally drained4 ,with clay soils it is different4 ,it is very important to remove the stagnant water in them and to let the air in4 ,when land has been properly drained the other steps in improvement are easily taken4 ,after soil has been dried and mellowed by proper drainage1 then commercial fertilizers1 barnyard manure1 cowpeas1 and clover can most readily do their great work of improving the texture of the soil and of making it fitter for plant growth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a ,,tile ,,in ,,position ,tile ,drains4 ,tile drains are the best and cheapest that can be used4 ,it would not be too strong to say that draining by tiles is the most perfect drainage4 ,thousands of practical tests in this country have proved the superiority of tile draining for the following reasons3 #a4 ,good tile drains properly laid last for years and do not fill up4 #b4 ,they furnish the cheapest possible means of removing too much water from the soil4 #c4 ,they are out of reach of all cultivating tools4 #d4 ,surface water in filtering through the tiles leaves its nutritious elements for plant growth4 ,,experiments ,to show the ,effect of ,drainage4 ,take two tomato cans and fill both with the same kind of soil4 ,punch several holes in the bottom of one to drain the soil above and to admit air circulation4 ,leave the other unpunctured4 ,plant seeds of any kind in both cans and keep in a warm place4 ,add every third day equal quantities of water4 ,let seeds grow in both cans and observe the difference in growth for two or three weeks4 ,to show the ,effect of ,air in ,soils4 ,take two tomato cans2 fill one with soil that is loose and warm1 and the other with wet clay or muck from a swampy field4 ,plant a few seeds of the same kind in each and observe how much better the dry1 warm1 open soil is for growing farm crops4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,improving ,,the ,,soil ,we hear a great deal about the exhaustion or wearing out of the soil4 ,many uncomfortable people are always declaring that our lands will no longer produce profitable crops1 and hence that farming will no longer pay4 ,now it is true1 unfortunately1 that much land has been robbed of its fertility1 and1 because this is true1 we should be most deeply interested in everything that leads to the improvement of our soils4 ,when our country was first discovered and trees were growing everywhere1 we had virgin soils1 or new soils that were rich and productive because they were filled with vegetable matter and plant food4 ,there are not many virgin soils now because the trees have been cut from the best lands1 and these lands have been farmed so carelessly that the vegetable matter and available plant food have been largely used up4 ,now that fresh land is scarce it is very necessary to restore fertility to these exhausted lands4 ,what are some of the ways in which this can be done8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,clover ,,is ,a ,,soil-,,improver ,there are several things to be done in trying to reclaim worn-out land4 ,one of the first of these is to till the land well4 ,many of you may have heard the story of the dying father who called his sons about him and whispered feebly1 ,there is great treasure hidden in the garden4 ,the sons could hardly wait to bury their dead father before1 thud1 thud1 thud1 their picks were going in the garden4 ,day after day they dug2 they dug deep2 they dug wide4 ,not a foot of the crop-worn garden escaped the probing of the pick as the sons feverishly searched for the expected treasure4 ,but no treasure was found4 ,their work seemed entirely useless4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,increasing ,,the ,,productive ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,second crop of cowpeas on old1 abandoned land ,let us not lose every whit of our labor2 let us plant this pick-scarred garden1 said the eldest4 ,so the garden was planted4 ,in the fall the hitherto neglected garden yielded a harvest so bountiful1 so unexpected1 that the meaning of their father's words dawned upon them4 ,truly1 they said1 a treasure was hidden there4 ,let us seek it in all our fields4 ,the story applies as well to-day as it did when it was first told4 ,thorough culture of the soil1 frequent and intelligent tillage--these are the foundations of soil-restoration4 ,along with good tillage must go crop-rotation and good drainage4 ,a supply of organic matter will prevent heavy rains from washing the soil and carrying away plant food4 ,drainage will aid good tillage in allowing air to circulate between the soil particles and in arranging plant food so that plants can use it4 ,but we must add humus1 or vegetable matter1 to the soil4 ,you remember that the virgin soils contained a great deal of vegetable matter and plant food1 but by the continuous growing of crops like wheat1 corn1 and cotton1 and by constant shallow tillage1 both humus and plant food have been used up4 ,consequently much of our cultivated soil to-day is hard and dead4 ,there are three ways of adding humus and plant food to this lifeless land3 the first way is to apply barnyard manure 7to adopt this method means that livestock raising must be a part of all farming72 the second way is to adopt rotation of crops1 and frequently to plow under crops like clover and cowpeas2 the third way is to apply commercial fertilizers4 ,to summarize3 if we want to make our soil better year by year1 we must cultivate well1 drain well1 and in the most economical way add humus and plant food4 ,,experiment ,select a small area of ground at your home and divide it into four sections1 as shown in the following sketch3 ,on ,section ,a apply barnyard manure2 on ,section ,b apply commercial fertilizers2 on ,section ,c apply nothing1 but till well2 on ,section ,d apply nothing1 and till very poorly4 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c should all be thoroughly plowed and harrowed4 ,then add barnyard manure to ,a1 commercial fertilizers to ,b1 and harrow ,a1 ,b1 and ,c at least four times until the soil is mellow and fine4 ,d will most likely be cloddy1 like many fields that we often see4 ,now plant on each plat some crop like cotton1 corn1 or wheat4 ,when the plats are ready to harvest1 measure the yield of each and determine whether the increased yield of the best plats has paid for the outlay for tillage and manure4 ,the pupil will be much interested in the results obtained from the first crop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,now follow a system of crop-rotation on the plats4 ,clover can follow corn or cotton or wheat2 and cowpeas1 wheat4 ,then determine the yield of each plat for the second crop4 ,by following these plats for several years1 and increasing the number1 the pupils will learn many things of greatest value4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,manuring ,,the ,,soil ,in the early days of our history1 when the soil was new and rich1 we were not compelled to use large amounts of manures and fertilizers4 ,yet our histories speak of an ,indian named ,squanto who came into one of the ,new ,england colonies and showed the first settlers how1 by putting a fish in each hill of corn1 they could obtain larger yields4 ,if people in those days1 with new and fertile soils1 could use manures profitably1 how much more ought we to use them in our time1 when soils have lost their virgin fertility1 and when the plant food in the soil has been exhausted by years and years of cropping6 ,to sell year after year all the produce grown on land is a sure way to ruin it4 ,if1 for example1 the richest land is planted every year in corn1 and no stable or farmyard manure or other fertilizer returned to the soil1 the land so treated will of course soon become too poor to grow any crop4 ,if1 on the other hand1 clover or alfalfa or corn or cotton-seed meal is fed to stock1 and the manure from the stock returned to the soil1 the land will be kept rich4 ,hence those farmers who do not sell such raw products as cotton1 corn1 wheat1 oats1 and clover1 but who market articles made from these raw products1 find it easier to keep their land fertile4 ,for illustration3 if instead of selling hay1 farmers feed it to sheep and sell meat and wool2 if instead of selling cotton seed1 they feed its meal to cows1 and sell milk and butter2 if instead of selling stover1 they feed it to beef cattle1 they get a good price for products and in addition have all the manure needed to keep their land productive and increase its value each year4 ,illustration3,,fig4 #ad4 ,,relation ,,of ,,humus ,,to ,,growth ,,of ,,corn #a1 clay subsoil2 #b1 same1 with fertilizer2 #c1 same1 with humus ,if we wish to keep up the fertility of our lands we should not allow anything to be lost from our farms4 ,all the manures1 straw1 roots1 stubble1 healthy vines--in fact everything decomposable--should be plowed under or used as a top-dressing4 ,especial care should be taken in storing manure4 ,it should be watchfully protected from sun and rain4 ,if a farmer has no shed under which to keep his manure1 he should scatter it on his fields as fast as it is made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,the ,,cotton ,,plant ,,with ,,and ,,without ,,food ,in left top pot1 no plant food2 in left bottom pot1 plant food scanty2 in both right pots1 all elements of plant food present ,he should understand also that liquid manure is of more value than solid1 because that important plant food1 nitrogen1 is found almost wholly in the liquid portion4 ,some of the phosphoric acid and considerable amounts of the potash are also found in the liquid manure4 ,hence economy requires that none of this escape either by leakage or by fermentation4 ,sometimes one can detect the smell of ammonia in the stable4 ,this ammonia is formed by the decomposition of the liquid manure1 and its loss should be checked by sprinkling some floats1 acid phosphate1 or muck over the stable floor4 ,many farmers find it desirable to buy fertilizers to use with the manure made on the farm4 ,in this case it is helpful to understand the composition1 source1 and availability of the various substances composing commercial fertilizers4 ,the three most valuable things in commercial fertilizers are nitrogen1 potash1 and phosphoric acid4 ,the nitrogen is obtained from 7#a7 nitrate of soda mined in ,chile1 7#b7 ammonium sulphate1 a by-product of the gas works1 7#c7 dried blood and other by-products of the slaughter-houses1 and 7#d7 cotton-seed meal4 ,nitrate of soda is soluble in water and may therefore be washed away before being used by plants4 ,for this reason it should be applied in small quantities and at intervals of a few weeks4 ,potash is obtained in ,germany1 where it is found in several forms4 ,it is put on the market as muriate of potash1 sulphate of potash1 kainite1 which contains salt as an impurity1 and in other impure forms4 ,potash is found also in unleached wood ashes4 ,phosphoric acid is found in various rocks of ,tennessee1 ,florida1 and ,south ,carolina1 and also to a large extent in bones4 ,the rocks or bones are usually treated with sulphuric acid4 ,this treatment changes the phosphoric acid into a form ready for plant use4 ,these three kinds of plant food are ordinarily all that we need to supply4 ,in some cases1 however1 lime has to be added4 ,besides being a plant food itself1 lime helps most soils by improving the structure of the grains2 by sweetening the soil1 thereby aiding the little living germs called bacteria2 by hastening the decay of organic matter2 and by setting free the potash that is locked up in the soil4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,the ,,plant ,,section ,,viii4 ,,roots ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,root-,,hairs ,,on ,a ,,radish ,you have perhaps observed the regularity of arrangement in the twigs and branches of trees4 ,now pull up the roots of a plant1 as1 for example1 sheep sorrel1 ,jimson weed1 or some other plant4 ,note the branching of the roots4 ,in these there is no such regularity as is seen in the twig4 ,trace the rootlets to their finest tips4 ,how small1 slender1 and delicate they are6 ,still we do not see the finest of them1 for in taking the plant from the ground we tore the most delicate away4 ,in order to see the real construction of a root we must grow one so that we may examine it uninjured4 ,to do this1 sprout some oats in a germinator or in any box in which one glass side has been arranged and allow the oats to grow till they are two or more inches high4 ,now examine the roots and you will see very fine hairs1 similar to those shown in the accompanying figure1 forming a fuzz over the surface of the roots near the tips4 ,this fuzz is made of small hairs standing so close together that there are often as many as #ch1bjj on a single square inch4 ,fig4 #ag shows how a root looks when it has been cut crosswise into what is known as a cross section4 ,the figure is much increased in size4 ,you can see how the root-hairs extend from the root in every direction4 ,fig4 #ah shows a single root-hair very greatly enlarged1 with particles of sand sticking to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,a ,,slice ,,of ,a ,,root ,highly magnified ,these hairs are the feeding-organs of the roots1 and they are formed only near the tips of the finest roots4 ,you see that the large1 coarse roots that you are familiar with have nothing to do with absorbing plant food from the soil4 ,they serve merely to conduct the sap and nourishment from the root-hairs to the tree4 ,when you apply manure or other fertilizer to a tree1 remember that it is far better to supply the fertilizer to the roots that are at some distance from the trunk1 for such roots are the real feeders4 ,the plant food in the manure soaks into the soil and immediately reaches the root-hairs4 ,you can understand this better by studying the distribution of the roots of an orchard tree1 shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,there you can see that the fine tips are found at a long distance from the main trunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,a ,,root-,,hair ,,with ,,particles ,,of ,,soil ,,sticking ,,to ,,it ,you can now readily see why it is that plants usually wilt when they are transplanted4 ,the fine1 delicate root-hairs are then broken off1 and the plant can but poorly keep up its food and water supply until new hairs have been formed4 ,while these are forming1 water has been evaporating from the leaves1 and consequently the plant does not get enough moisture and therefore droops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,apple-,,tree ,,roots ,would you not conclude that it is very poor farming to till deeply any crop after the roots have extended between the rows far enough to be cut by the plow or cultivator8 ,in cultivating between corn rows1 for example1 if you find that you are disturbing fine roots1 you may be sure that you are breaking off millions of root-hairs from each plant and hence are doing harm rather than good4 ,fig4 #bj shows how the roots from one corn row intertangle with those of another4 ,you see at a glance how many of these roots would be destroyed by deep cultivation4 ,stirring the upper inch of soil when the plants are well grown is sufficient tillage and does no injury to the roots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,corn ,,roots ,,reach ,,from ,,row ,,to ,,row ,a deep soil is much better than a shallow soil1 as its depth makes it just so much easier for the roots to seek deep food4 ,fig4 #ba illustrates well how far down into the soil the alfalfa roots go4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,,alfalfa ,,root ,,exercise ,dig up the roots of several cultivated plants and weeds and compare them4 ,do you find some that are fine or fibrous8 some fleshy like the carrot8 ,the dandelion is a good example of a tap-root4 ,tap-roots are deep feeders4 ,examine very carefully the roots of a medium-sized corn plant4 ,sift the dirt away gently so as to loosen as few roots as possible4 ,how do the roots compare in area with the part above the ground8 ,try to trace a single root of the corn plant from the stalk to its very tip4 ,how long are the roots of mature plants8 ,are they deep or shallow feeders8 ,germinate some oats or beans in a glass-sided box1 as suggested1 and observe the root-hairs4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,how ,,the ,,plant ,,feeds ,,from ,,the ,,soil ,plants receive their nourishment from two sources--from the air and from the soil4 ,the soil food1 or mineral food1 dissolved in water1 must reach the plant through the root-hairs with which all plants are provided in great numbers4 ,each of these hairs may be compared to a finger reaching among the particles of earth for food and water4 ,if we examine the root-hairs ever so closely1 we find no holes1 or openings1 in them4 ,it is evident1 then1 that no solid particles can enter the root-hairs1 but that all food must pass into the root in solution4 ,an experiment just here will help us to understand how a root feeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,experiment ,,to ,,show ,,how ,,roots ,,take ,,up ,,food ,,experiment ,secure a narrow glass tube like the one in ,fig4 #bb4 ,if you cannot get a tube1 a narrow1 straight lamp-chimney will1 with a little care1 do nearly as well4 ,from a bladder made soft by soaking1 cut a piece large enough to cover the end of the tube or chimney and to hang over a little all around4 ,make the piece of bladder secure to the end of the tube by wrapping tightly with a waxed thread1 as at ,b4 ,partly fill the tube with molasses 7or it may be easier in case you use a narrow tube to fill it before attaching the bladder74 ,put the tube into a jar or bottle of water so placed that the level of the molasses inside and the water outside will be the same4 ,fasten the tube in this position and observe it frequently for three or four hours4 ,at the end of the time you should find that the molasses in the tube has risen above the level of the liquid outside4 ,it may even overflow at the top4 ,if you use the lamp-chimney the rise will not be so clearly seen1 since a greater volume is required to fill the space in the chimney4 ,this increase in the contents of the tube is due to the entrance of water from the outside4 ,the water has passed through the thin bladder1 or membrane1 and has come to occupy space in the tube4 ,there is also a passage the other way1 but the molasses can pass through the bladder membrane so slowly that the passage is scarcely noticeable4 ,there are no holes1 or openings1 in the membrane1 but still there is a free passage of liquids in both directions1 although the more heavily laden solution must move more slowly4 ,a root-hair acts in much the same way as the tube in our experiment1 with the exception that it is so made as to allow certain substances to pass in only one direction1 that is1 toward the inside4 ,the outside of the root-hair is bathed in solutions rich in nourishment4 ,the nourishment passes from the outside to the inside through the delicate membrane of the root-hair4 ,thus does food enter the plant-root4 ,from the root-hairs1 foods are carried to the inside of the root4 ,from this you can see how important it is for a plant to have fine1 loose soil for its root-hairs2 also how necessary is the water in the soil1 since the food can be used only when it is dissolved in water4 ,this passage of liquids from one side of a membrane to another is called osmosis4 ,it has many uses in the plant kingdom4 ,we say a root takes nourishment by osmosis4 ,,section ,x4 ,,root-,,tubercles ,tubercle is a big word1 but you ought to know how to pronounce it and what is meant by root-tubercles4 ,we are going to tell you what a root-tubercle is and something about its importance to agriculture4 ,when you have learned this1 we are sure you will want to examine some plants for yourself in order that you may see just what tubercles look like on a real root4 ,root-tubercles do not form on all kinds of plants that farmers grow4 ,they are formed only on those kinds that botanists call legumes4 ,the clovers1 cowpeas1 vetches1 soy beans1 and alfalfa are all legumes4 ,the tubercles are little knotty1 wart-like growths on the roots of the plants just named4 ,these tubercles are caused by tiny forms of life called1 as you perhaps already know1 bacteria1 or germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,tubercles ,,on ,,clover ,,roots ,the specimen at the right was grown in soil inoculated with soil from an old clover field4 ,the one at the left was grown in soil not inoculated ,instead of living in nests in trees like birds or in the ground like moles and worms1 these tiny germs1 less than one twenty-five thousandth of an inch long1 make their homes on the roots of legumes4 ,nestling snugly together1 they live1 grow1 and multiply in their sunless homes4 ,through their activity the soil is enriched by the addition of much nitrogen from the air4 ,they are the good fairies of the farmer1 and no magician's wand ever blessed a land so much as these invisible folk bless the land that they live in4 ,just as bees gather honey from the flowers and carry it to the hives1 where they prepare it for their own future use and for the use of others1 so do these root-tubercles gather nitrogen from the air and fix it in their root homes1 where it can be used by other crops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,soy ,,beans ,,and ,,cowpeas1 ,,two ,,great ,,soil-,,improvers ,in the earlier pages of this book you were told something about the food of plants4 ,one of the main elements of plant food1 perhaps you remember1 is nitrogen4 ,just as soon as the roots of the leguminous plants begin to push down into the soil1 the bacteria1 or germs that make the tubercles1 begin to build their homes on the roots1 and in so doing they add nitrogen to the soil4 ,you now see the importance of growing such crops as peas and clover on your land1 for by their tubercles you can constantly add plant food to the soil4 ,now this much-needed nitrogen is the most costly part of the fertilizers that farmers buy every year4 ,if every farmer1 then1 would grow these tubercle-bearing crops1 he would rapidly add to the richness of his land and at the same time escape the necessity of buying so much expensive fertilizer4 ,,experiment ,take a spade or shovel and dig carefully around the roots of a cowpea and a clover plant2 loosen the earth thoroughly and then pull the plants up1 being careful not to break off any of the roots4 ,now wash the roots1 and after they become dry count the nodules1 or tubercles1 on them4 ,observe the difference in size4 ,how are they arranged8 ,do all leguminous plants have equal numbers of nodules8 ,how do these nodules help the farmer8 ,,section ,,xi4 ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,doubtless you know what is meant by rotation1 for your teacher has explained to you already how the earth rotates1 or turns1 on its axis and revolves around the sun4 ,when we speak of crop-rotation we mean not only that the same crop should not be planted on the same land for two successive years but that crops should follow one another in a regular order4 ,many farmers do not follow a system of farming that involves a change of crops4 ,in some parts of the country the same fields are planted to corn or wheat or cotton year after year4 ,this is not a good practice and sooner or later will wear out the soil completely1 because the soil-elements that furnish the food of that constant crop are soon exhausted and good crop-production is no longer possible4 ,why is crop-rotation so necessary8 ,there are different kinds of plant food in the soil4 ,if any one of these is used up1 the soil of course loses its power to feed plants properly4 ,now each crop uses more of some of the different kinds of foods than others do1 just as you like some kinds of food better than others4 ,but the crop cannot1 as you can1 learn to use the kinds of food it does not like2 it must use the kind that nature fitted it to use4 ,not only do different crops feed upon different soil foods1 but they use different quantities of these foods4 ,now if a farmer plant the same crop in the same field each year1 that crop soon uses up all of the available plant food that it likes4 ,hence the soil can no longer properly nourish the crop that has been year by year robbing it4 ,if that crop is to be successfully grown again on the land1 the exhausted element must be restored4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,grass ,,following ,,corn ,this can be done in two ways3 first1 by finding out what element has here been exhausted1 and then restoring this element by means either of commercial fertilizers or manure2 second1 by planting on the land crops that feed on different food and that will allow or assist kind ,mother ,nature to repair her waste places4 ,an illustration may help you to remember this fact4 ,nitrogen is1 as already explained1 one of the commonest plant foods4 ,it may almost be called plant bread4 ,the wheat crop uses up a good deal of nitrogen4 ,suppose a field were planted in wheat year after year4 ,most of the available nitrogen would be taken out of the soil after a while1 and a new wheat crop1 if planted on the field1 would not get enough of its proper food to yield a paying harvest4 ,this same land1 however1 that could not grow wheat could produce other crops that do not require so much nitrogen4 ,for example1 it could grow cowpeas4 ,cowpeas1 aided by their root-tubercles1 are able to gather from the air a great part of the nitrogen needed for their growth4 ,thus a good crop of peas can be obtained even if there is little available nitrogen in the soil4 ,on the other hand wheat and corn and cotton cannot use the free nitrogen of the air1 and they suffer if there is an insufficient quantity present in the soil2 hence the necessity of growing legumes to supply what is lacking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,cowpeas ,,and ,,corn--,,august ,let us now see how easily plant food may be saved by the rotation of crops4 ,if you sow wheat in the autumn it is ready to be harvested in time for planting cowpeas4 ,plow or disk the wheat stubble1 and sow the same field to cowpeas4 ,if the wheat crop has exhausted the greater part of the nitrogen of the soil1 it makes no difference to the cowpea2 for the cowpea will get its nitrogen from the air and not only provide for its own growth but will leave quantities of nitrogen in the queer nodules of its roots for the crops coming after it in the rotation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,cowpeas ,,and ,,corn--,,october ,if corn be planted1 there should be a rotation in just the same way4 ,the corn plant1 a summer grower1 of course uses a certain portion of the plant food stored in the soil4 ,in order that the crop following the corn may feed on what the corn did not use1 this crop should be one that requires a somewhat different food4 ,moreover1 it should be one that fits in well with corn so as to make a winter crop4 ,we find just such a plant in clover or wheat4 ,like the cowpea1 all the varieties of clover have on their roots tubercles that add the important element1 nitrogen1 to the soil4 ,from these facts is it not clear that if you wish to improve your land quickly and keep it always fruitful you must practice crop-rotation8 ,,an ,,illustration ,,of ,,crop-,,rotation ,here are two systems of crop-rotation as practiced at one or more agricultural experiment stations4 ,each furnishes an ideal plan for keeping up land4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,first ,,year ,,second ,,year ,,third ,,year ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,summer ,winter ,summer ,winter ,summer ,winter ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,corn ,crimson ,cotton ,wheat ,cowpeas ,rye for clover pasture ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- or ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,summer ,winter ,summer ,winter ,summer ,winter ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,corn ,wheat ,clover ,clover ,grass ,grass for and grass and grass pasture or meadow ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,in these rotations the cowpeas and clovers are nitrogen-gathering crops4 ,they not only furnish hay but they enrich the soil4 ,the wheat1 corn1 and cotton are money crops1 but in addition they are cultivated crops2 hence they improve the physical condition of the soil and give opportunity to kill weeds4 ,the grasses and clovers are of course used for pasturage and hay4 ,this is only a suggested rotation4 ,work out one that will meet your home need4 ,,exercise ,let the pupils each present a system of rotation that includes the crops raised at home4 ,the system presented should as nearly as possible meet the following requirements3 #a4 ,legumes for gathering nitrogen4 #b4 ,money crops for cash income4 #c4 ,cultivated crops for tillage and weed-destruction4 #d4 ,food crops for feeding live stock4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,plant ,,section ,,xii4 ,,how ,a ,,plant ,,feeds ,,from ,,the ,,air ,if you partly burn a match you will see that it becomes black4 ,this black substance into which the match changes is called carbon4 ,examine a fresh stick of charcoal1 which is1 as you no doubt know1 burnt wood4 ,you see in the charcoal every fiber that you saw in the wood itself4 ,this means that every part of the plant contains carbon4 ,how important1 then1 is this substance to the plant6 ,you will be surprised to know that the total amount of carbon in plants comes from the air4 ,all the carbon that a plant gets is taken in by the leaves of the plant2 not a particle is gathered by the roots4 ,a large tree1 weighing perhaps #aa1jjj pounds1 requires in its growth carbon from #af1jjj1jjj cubic yards of air4 ,perhaps1 after these statements1 you may think there is danger that the carbon of the air may sometime become exhausted4 ,the air of the whole world contains about #a1gfj1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds of carbon4 ,moreover1 this is continually being added to by our fires and by the breath of animals4 ,when wood or coal is used for fuel the carbon of the burning substance is returned to the air in the form of gas4 ,some large factories burn great quantities of coal and thus turn much carbon back to the air4 ,a single factory in ,germany is estimated to give back to the air daily about #e1bhj1jjj pounds of carbon4 ,you see1 then1 that carbon is constantly being put back into the air to replace that which is used by growing plants4 ,the carbon of the air can be used by none but green plants1 and by them only in the sunlight4 ,we may compare the green coloring matter of the leaf to a machine1 and the sunlight to the power1 or energy1 which keeps the machine in motion4 ,by means1 then1 of sunlight and the green coloring matter of the leaves1 the plant secures carbon4 ,the carbon passes into the plant and is there made into two foods very necessary to the plant2 namely1 starch and sugar4 ,sometimes the plant uses the starch and sugar immediately4 ,at other times it stores both away1 as it does in the ,irish and the sweet potato and in beets1 cabbage1 peas1 and beans4 ,these plants are used as food by man because they contain so much nourishment2 that is1 starch and sugar which were stored away by the plant for its own future use4 ,,exercise ,examine some charcoal4 ,can you see the rings of growth8 ,slightly char paper1 cloth1 meat1 sugar1 starch1 etc4 ,what does the turning black prove8 ,what per cent of these substances do you think is pure carbon8 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,sap ,,current ,the root-hairs take nourishment from the soil4 ,the leaves manufacture starch and sugar4 ,these manufactured foods must be carried to all parts of the plant4 ,there are two currents to carry them4 ,one passes from the roots through the young wood to the leaves1 and one1 a downward current1 passes through the bark1 carrying needed food to the roots 7see ,fig4 #bh74 ,if you should injure the roots1 the water supply to the leaves would be cut off and the leaves would immediately wither4 ,on the other hand1 if you remove the bark1 that is1 girdle the tree1 you in no way interfere with the water supply and the leaves do not wither4 ,girdling does1 however1 interfere with the downward food current through the bark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,sap ,,current ,if the tree be girdled the roots sooner or later suffer from lack of food supply from the leaves4 ,owing to this food stoppage the roots will cease to grow and will soon be unable to take in sufficient water1 and then the leaves will begin to droop4 ,this1 however1 may not happen until several months after the girdling4 ,sometimes a partly girdled branch grows much in thickness just above the girdle1 as is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,this extra growth seems to be due to a stoppage of the rich supply of food which was on its way to the roots through the bark4 ,it could go no farther and was therefore used by the tree to make an unnatural growth at this point4 ,you will now understand how and why trees die when they are girdled to clear new ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,a ,,thickening ,,above ,,the ,,wire ,,that ,,caused ,,the ,,girdling ,it is1 then1 the general law of sap-movement that the upward current from the roots passes through the woody portion of the trunk1 and that the current bearing the food made by the leaves passes downward through the bark4 ,,exercise ,let the teacher see that these and all other experiments are performed by the pupils4 ,do not allow them to guess1 but make them see4 ,girdle valueless trees or saplings of several kinds1 cutting the bark away in a complete circle around the tree4 ,do not cut into the wood4 ,how long before the tree shows signs of injury8 ,girdle a single small limb on a tree4 ,what happens8 ,explain4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,flower ,,and ,,the ,,seed ,some people think that the flowers by the wayside are for the purpose of beautifying the world and increasing man's enjoyment4 ,do you think this is true8 ,undoubtedly a flower is beautiful1 and to be beautiful is one of the uses of many flowers2 but it is not the chief use of a flower4 ,you know that when peach or apple blossoms are nipped by the spring frost the fruit crop is in danger4 ,the fruit of the plant bears the seed1 and the flower produces the fruit4 ,that is its chief duty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,pistil ,do you know any plant that produces seed without flowers8 ,some one answers1 ,the corn1 the elm1 and the maple all produce seed1 but have no flower4 ,no1 that is not correct4 ,if you look closely you will find in the spring very small flowers on the elm and on the maple1 while the ear and the tassel are really the blossoms of the corn plant4 ,every plant that produces seed has flowers1 although they may sometimes seem very curious flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,a ,,buttercup ,let us see what a flower really is4 ,take1 for example1 a buttercup1 cotton1 tobacco1 or plum blossom 7see ,figs4 #ca and #cb74 ,you will find on the outside a row of green leaves inclosing the flower when it is still a bud4 ,these leaves are the sepals4 ,next on the inside is a row of colored leaves1 or petals4 ,arranged inside of the petals are some threadlike parts1 each with a knob on the end4 ,these are the stamens4 ,examine one stamen closely 7,fig4 #cc74 ,on the knob at its tip you should find1 if the flower is fully open1 some fine grains1 or powder4 ,in the lily this powder is so abundant that in smelling the flower you often brush a quantity of it off on your nose4 ,this substance is called pollen1 and the knob on the end of the stamen1 on which the pollen is borne1 is the anther4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,a ,,plum ,,blossom ,the pollen is of very great importance to the flower4 ,without it there could be no seeds4 ,the stamens as pollen-bearers1 then1 are very important4 ,but there is another part to each flower that is of equal value4 ,this part you will find in the center of the flower1 inside the circle of stamens4 ,it is called the pistil 7,fig4 #cb74 ,the swollen tip of the pistil is the stigma4 ,the swollen base of the pistil forms the ovary4 ,if you carefully cut open this ovary you will find in it very small immature seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,stamens a1 anther2 f1 filament ,some plants bear all these parts in the same flower2 that is1 each blossom has stamens1 pistil1 petals1 and sepals4 ,the pear blossom and the tomato blossom represent such flowers4 ,other plants bear their stamens and pistils in separate blossoms4 ,stamens and pistils may even occur in separate plants1 and some blossoms have no sepals or petals at all4 ,look at the corn plant4 ,here the tassel is a cluster of many flowers1 each of which bears only stamens4 ,the ear is likewise a cluster of many flowers1 each of which bears only a pistil4 ,the dust that you see falling from the tassel is the pollen1 and the long silky threads of the ear are the stigmas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,a ,,tomato ,,blossom ,now no plant can bear seeds unless the pollen of the stamen falls on the stigma4 ,corn cannot therefore form seed unless the dust of the tassel falls upon the silk4 ,did you ever notice how poorly the cob is filled on a single cornstalk standing alone in a field8 ,do you see why8 ,it is because when a plant stands alone the wind blows the pollen away from the tassel1 and little or none is received on the stigmas below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,cucumber ,,blossoms ,in the corn plant the stamens and pistils are separate2 that is1 they do not occur on the same flower1 although they are on the same plant4 ,this is also true of the cucumber 7see ,fig4 #ce74 ,in many plants1 however1 such as the hemp1 hop1 sassafras1 willow1 and others1 the staminate parts are on one plant and the pistillate parts are on another4 ,this is also true in several other cultivated plants4 ,for example1 in some strawberries the stamens are absent or useless2 that is1 they bear no good pollen4 ,in such cases the grower must see to it that near by are strawberry plants that bear stamens1 in order that those plants which do not bear pollen may become pollinated2 that is1 may have pollen carried to them4 ,after the stigma has been supplied with pollen1 a single pollen grain sends a threadlike sprout down through the stigma into the ovary4 ,this process1 if successfully completed1 is called fertilization4 ,,exercise ,examine several flowers and identify the parts named in the last section4 ,try in the proper season to find the pollen on the maple1 willow1 alder1 and pine1 and on wheat1 cotton1 and the morning-glory4 ,how fast does the ovary of the apple blossom enlarge8 ,measure one and watch it closely from day to day4 ,can you find any plants that have their stamens and ovaries on separate individuals8 ,,section ,,xv4 ,,pollination ,nature has several interesting ways of bringing about pollination4 ,in the corn1 willow1 and pine the pollen is picked up by the wind and carried away4 ,much of it is lost1 but some reaches the stigmas1 or receptive parts1 of other corn1 willow1 or pine flowers4 ,this is a very wasteful method1 and all plants using it must provide much pollen4 ,many plants employ a much better method4 ,they have learned how to make insects bear their pollen4 ,in plants of this type the parts of the blossom are so shaped and so placed as to deposit pollen from the stamen on the insect and to receive pollen from the insect on the stigmas4 ,when you see the clumsy bumblebee clambering over and pushing his way into a clover blossom1 you may be sure that he is getting well dusted with pollen and that the next blossom which he visits will secure a full share on its stigmas4 ,when flowers fit themselves to be pollinated by insects they can no longer use the wind and are helpless if insects do not visit them4 ,they therefore cunningly plan two ways to invite the visits of insects4 ,first1 they provide a sweet nectar as a repast for the insect visitor4 ,the nectar is a sugary solution found in the bottom of the flower and is used by the visitor as food or to make honey4 ,second1 flowers advertise to let each insect know that they have something for it4 ,the advertising is done either by showy colors or by perfume4 ,insects have wonderful powers of smell4 ,when you see showy flowers or smell fragrant ones1 you will know that such flowers are advertising the presence either of nectar or of pollen 7to make beebread7 and that such flowers depend on insects for pollination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,bees ,,carrying ,,pollen ,a season of heavy1 cold rains during blossoming-time may often injure the fruit crop by preventing insects from carrying pollen from flower to flower4 ,you now also understand why plants often fail to produce seeds indoors4 ,since they are shut in1 they cannot receive proper insect visits4 ,plants such as tomatoes or other garden fruits dependent upon insect pollination must1 if raised in the greenhouse where insects cannot visit them1 be pollinated by hand4 ,,exercise ,exclude insect visitors from some flower or flower cluster1 for example1 clover1 by covering with a paper bag1 and see whether the flower can produce seeds that are capable of growing4 ,compare as to number and vitality the seeds of such a flower with those of an uncovered flower4 ,observe insects closely4 ,do you ever find pollen on them8 ,what kinds of insects visit the clover8 the cowpea8 the sourwood8 the flax8 ,is wheat pollinated by insects or by the wind or by some other means8 ,do bees fly in rainy weather8 ,how will a long rainy season at blossoming-time affect the apple crop8 ,why8 ,should bees be kept in an orchard8 ,why8 ,,section ,,xvi4 ,,crosses1 ,,hybrids1 ,,and ,,cross-,,pollination ,in our study of flowers and their pollination we have seen that the seed is usually the descendant of two parents1 or at least of two organs--one the ovary1 producing the seed2 the other the pollen1 which is necessary to fertilize the ovary4 ,it happens that sometimes the pollen of one blossom fertilizes the ovary of its own flower1 but more often the pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovary of another plant4 ,this latter method is called cross-pollination4 ,as a rule cross-pollination makes seed that will produce a better plant than simple pollination would4 ,cross-pollination by hand is often used by plant-breeders when1 for purposes of seed-selection1 a specially strong plant is desired4 ,the steps in hand pollination are as follows3 7#a7 remove the anthers before they open1 to prevent them from pollinating the stigma 7the steps in this process are illustrated in ,figs4 #cg1 #ch-ci72 7#b7 cover the flower thus treated with a paper bag to prevent stray pollen from getting on it 7see ,fig4 #dj72 7#c7 when the ovary is sufficiently developed1 carry pollen to the stigma by hand from the anthers of another plant which you have selected to furnish it1 and rebag to keep out any stray pollen which might accidentally get in2 7#d7 collect the seeds when they are mature and label them properly4 ,hand pollination has this advantage--you know both parents of your seed4 ,if pollination occur naturally you know the maternal but have no means of judging the paternal parent4 ,you can readily see1 therefore1 how hand pollination enables you to secure seed derived from two well-behaved parents4 ,sometimes we can breed one kind of plant on another4 ,the result of such cross-breeding is known as a hybrid4 ,in the animal kingdom the mule is a common example of this cross-breeding4 ,plant hybrids were formerly called mules also1 but this suggestive term is almost out of use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg ,the bud on right at top is in proper condition for removal of anthers2 the anthers have been removed from the buds below ,it is only when plants of two distinct kinds are crossed that the result is called a hybrid2 for example1 a blackjack oak on a white oak1 an apple on a pear4 ,if the parent plants are closely related1 for example1 two kinds of apples1 the resulting plant is known simply as a cross4 ,hybrids and crosses are valuable in that they usually differ from both parents and yet combine some qualities of each4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,orange ,,blossom ,,prepared ,,for ,,crossing ,first1 bud2 second1 anthers unremoved2 third1 anthers removed ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,tomato ,,blossom ,,ready ,,to ,,cross ,first1 bud2 second1 anthers unremoved2 third1 anthers removed ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,first1 blossom bagged to keep out stray pollen2 second1 fruit bagged for protection ,they often leave off some of the qualities of the parent plants and at other times have such qualities more markedly than did their parents4 ,thus they often produce an interesting new kind of plant4 ,sometimes we are able by hybridization to combine in one plant the good qualities of two other plants and thus make a great advance in agriculture4 ,the new forms brought about by hybridization may be fixed1 or made permanent1 by such selection as is mentioned in ,section ,,xviii4 ,hybridization is of great aid in originating new plants4 ,it often happens that a plant will be more fruitful when pollinated by one variety than by some other variety4 ,this is well illustrated in ,fig4 #da4 ,a fruit-grower or farmer should know much about these subjects before selecting varieties for his orchard1 vineyard1 etc4 ,,exercise ,with the help of your teacher try to cross some plants4 ,such an experiment will take time1 but will be most interesting4 ,you must remember that many crosses must be attempted in order to gain success with even a few4 ,,section ,,xvii4 ,,propagation ,,by ,,buds ,it is the business of the farmer to make plants grow1 or1 as it is generally called1 to propagate plants4 ,this he does in one of two ways3 by buds 7that is1 by small pieces cut from parent plants71 or by seeds4 ,the chief aim in both methods should be to secure in the most convenient manner the best-paying plants4 ,many plants are most easily and quickly propagated by buds2 for example1 the grape1 red raspberry1 fig1 and many others that we cultivate for the flower only1 such as the carnation1 geranium1 rose1 and begonia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,brighton pollinated by #a1 ,salem2 #b1 ,creveling2 #c1 ,lindley2 #d1 ,brighton2 #e1 ,self-pollinated2 #f1 ,nectar2 #g1 ,jefferson2 #h1 ,niagara ,in growing plants from cuttings1 a piece is taken from the kind of plant that one wishes to grow4 ,the greatest care must be exercised in order to get a healthy cutting4 ,if we take a cutting from a poor plant1 what can we expect but to grow a poor plant like the one from which our cutting was taken8 ,on the other hand1 if a fine1 strong1 vigorous1 fruitful plant be selected1 we shall expect to grow just such a fine1 healthy1 fruitful plant4 ,we expect the cutting to make exactly the same variety of plant as the parent stock4 ,we must therefore decide on the variety of berry1 grape1 fig1 carnation1 or rose that we wish to propagate1 and then look for the strongest and most promising plants of this variety within our reach4 ,the utmost care will not produce a fine plant if we start from poor stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,geranium ,,cutting ,dotted line shows depth to which cutting should be planted ,what qualities are most desirable in a plant from which cuttings are to be taken8 ,first1 it should be productive1 hardy1 and suited to your climate and your needs2 second1 it should be healthy4 ,do not take cuttings from a diseased plant1 since the cutting may carry the disease4 ,cuttings may be taken from various parts of the plant1 sometimes even from parts of the leaf1 as in the begonia 7,fig4 #df74 ,more often1 however1 they are drawn from parts of the stem 7,figs4 #dc-de74 ,as to the age of the twig from which the cutting is to be taken1 ,professor ,bailey says3 ,for most plants the proper age or maturity of wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend2 if it snaps and hangs by the bark1 it is in proper condition4 ,if it bends without breaking1 it is too young and soft or too old4 ,if it splinters1 it is too old and woody4 ,some plants1 as the geranium 7,fig4 #db71 succeed best if the cuttings from which they are grown are taken from soft1 young parts of the plant2 others1 for example1 the grape or rose1 do better when the cutting is made from more mature wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc ,,grape ,,cutting ,showing depth to which cutting should be planted ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,carnation ,,cutting ,cuttings may vary in size and may include one or more buds4 ,after a hardy1 vigorous cutting is made1 insert it about one half or one third of its length in soil4 ,a soil free from organic matter is much the best1 since in such soil the cuttings are much less liable to disease4 ,a fine1 clean sand is commonly used by professional gardeners4 ,when cuttings have rooted well--this may require a month or more--they may be transplanted to larger pots4 ,sometimes1 instead of cutting off a piece and rooting it1 portions of branches are made to root before they are separated from the parent plant4 ,this method is often followed1 and is known as layering4 ,it is a simple process4 ,just bend the tip of a bough down and bury it in the earth 7see ,fig4 #dg74 ,the black raspberry forms layers naturally1 but gardeners often aid it by burying the over-hanging tips in the earth1 so that more tips may easily take root4 ,strawberries develop runners that root themselves in a similar fashion4 ,grafts and buds are really cuttings which1 instead of being buried in sand to produce roots of their own1 are set on the roots of other plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,,rose ,,cutting ,grafting and budding are practiced when these methods are more convenient than cuttings or when the gardener thinks there is danger of failure to get plants to take root as cuttings4 ,neither grafting nor budding is1 however1 necessary for the raspberry or the grape1 for these propagate most readily from cuttings4 ,it is often the case that a budded or grafted plant is more fruitful than a plant on its own roots4 ,in cases of this kind1 of course1 grafts or buds are used4 ,the white1 or ,irish1 potato is usually propagated from pieces of the potato itself4 ,each piece used for planting bears one eye or more4 ,the potato itself is really an underground stem and the eyes are buds4 ,this method of propagation is therefore really a peculiar kind of cutting4 ,since the eye is a bud and our potato plant for next year is to develop from this bud1 it is of much importance1 as we have seen1 to know exactly what kind of plant our potato comes from4 ,if the potato is taken from a small plant that had but a few poor potatoes in the hill1 we may expect the bud to produce a similar plant and a correspondingly poor crop4 ,we must see to it1 then1 that our seed potatoes are drawn from vines that were good producers1 because new potato plants are like the plants from which they were grown4 ,of course when our potatoes are in the bin we cannot tell from what kind of plants they came4 ,we must therefore select our seed potatoes in the field4 ,seed potatoes should always be selected from those hills that produce most bountifully4 ,be assured that the increased yield will richly repay this care in selecting4 ,it matters not so much whether the seed potato be large or small2 it must1 however1 come from a hill bearing a large yield of fine potatoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,begonia-,,leaf ,,cutting ,sweet-potato plants are produced from shoots1 or growing buds1 taken from the potato itself1 so that in their case too the piece that we use in propagating is a part of the original plant1 and will therefore be like it under similar conditions4 ,just as with the ,irish potato1 it is important to know how good a yielder you are planting4 ,you should watch during harvest and select for propagation for the next year only such plants as yield best4 ,we should exercise fully as much care in selecting proper individuals from which to make a cutting or a layer as we do in selecting a proper animal to breed from4 ,just as we select the finest ,jersey in the herd for breeding purposes1 so we should choose first the variety of plant we desire and then the finest individual plant of that variety4 ,if the variety of the potato that we desire to raise be ,early ,rose1 it is not enough to select any ,early ,rose plants1 but the very best ,early ,rose plants1 to furnish our seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,layering ,it is not enough to select large1 fine potatoes for cuttings4 ,a large potato may not produce a bountifully yielding plant4 ,it will produce a plant like the one that produced it4 ,it may be that this one large potato was the only one produced by the original plant4 ,if so1 the plant that grows from it will tend to be similarly unproductive4 ,thus you see the importance of selecting in the field a plant that has exactly the qualities desired in the new plant4 ,one of the main reasons why gardeners raise plants from buds instead of from seeds is that the seed of many plants will not produce plants like the parent4 ,this failure to come true1 as it is called1 is sometimes of value1 for it occasionally leads to improvement4 ,for example1 suppose that a thousand apple or other fruit or flower seeds from plants usually propagated by cuttings be planted2 it may be that one out of a thousand or a million will be a very valuable plant4 ,if a valuable plant be so produced1 it should be most carefully guarded1 multiplied by cuttings or grafts1 and introduced far and wide4 ,it is in this way that new varieties of fruits and flowers are produced from time to time4 ,sometimes1 too1 a single bud on a tree will differ from the other buds and will produce a branch different from the other branches4 ,this is known as bud variation4 ,when there is thus developed a branch which happens to be of a superior kind1 it should be propagated by cuttings just as you would propagate it if it had originated from a seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,currant ,,cutting ,mr4 ,gideon of ,minnesota planted many apple seeds1 and from them all raised one tree that was very fruitful1 finely flavored1 and able to withstand the cold ,minnesota winter4 ,this tree he multiplied by grafts and named the ,wealthy apple4 ,it is said that in giving this one apple to the world he benefited mankind to the value of more than one million dollars4 ,it will be well to watch for any valuable bud or seed variant and never let a promising one be lost4 ,plants grown in this way from seeds are usually spoken of as seedlings4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,luscious ,,and ,,easily ,,grown ,,berry ,,plants ,,to ,,be ,,propagated ,,from ,,buds ,the following list gives the names and methods by which our common garden fruits and flowers are propagated3 ,figs3 use cuttings #h to #aj inches long or layer4 ,grapes3 use long cuttings1 layer1 or graft upon old vines4 ,apples3 graft upon seedlings1 usually crab seedlings one year old4 ,pears3 bud upon pear seedlings4 ,cherries3 bud upon cherry stock4 ,plums3 bud upon peach stock4 ,peaches3 bud upon peach or plum seedlings4 ,quinces3 use cuttings or layer4 ,blackberries3 propagate by suckers2 cut from parent stem4 ,black raspberries3 layer2 remove old stem4 ,red raspberries3 propagate by root-cuttings or suckers4 ,strawberries3 propagate by runners4 ,currants and gooseberries3 use long cuttings 7these plants grow well only in cool climates2 if attempted in warm climates1 set in cold exposure74 ,carnations1 geraniums1 roses1 begonias1 etc43 propagate by cuttings rooted in sand and then transplanted to small pots4 ,,exercise ,propagate fruits 7grape1 fig1 strawberry7 of various kinds2 also ornamental plants4 ,how long does it take them to root8 ,geraniums rooted in the spring will bloom in the fall4 ,do you know any one who selects seed potatoes properly8 ,make a careful selection of seed at the next harvest-time4 ,,section ,,xviii4 ,,plant ,,seeding ,in propagating by seed1 as in reproducing by buds1 we select a portion of the parent plant--for a seed is surely a part of the parent plant--and place it in the ground4 ,there is1 however1 one great difference between a seed and a bud4 ,the bud is really a piece of the parent plant1 but a piece of one plant only1 while a seed comes from the parts of two plants4 ,you will understand this fully if you read carefully ,sections ,,xiv-,,xvi4 ,since the seed is made of two plants1 the plant that springs from a seed is much more likely to differ from its mother plant1 that is1 from the plant that produces the seed1 than is a plant produced merely by buds4 ,in some cases plants come true to seed very accurately4 ,in others they vary greatly4 ,for example1 when we plant the seed of wheat1 turnips1 rye1 onions1 tomatoes1 tobacco1 or cotton1 we get plants that are in most respects like the parent plant4 ,on the other hand the seed of a ,crawford peach or a ,baldwin apple or a ,bartlett pear will not produce plants like its parent1 but will rather resemble its wild forefathers4 ,these seedlings1 thus taking after their ancestors1 are always far inferior to our present cultivated forms4 ,in such cases seeding is not practicable1 and we must resort to bud propagation of one sort or another4 ,while in a few plants like those just mentioned the seed does not come true1 most plants1 for example1 cotton1 tobacco1 and others1 do come true4 ,when we plant ,king cotton we may expect to raise ,king cotton4 ,there will be1 however1 as every one knows1 some or even considerable variation in the field4 ,some plants1 even in exactly the same soil1 will be better than the average1 and some will be poorer4 ,now we see this variation in the plants of our field1 and we believe that the plant will be in the main like its parent4 ,what should we learn from this8 ,surely that if we wish to produce sturdy1 healthy1 productive plants we must go into our fields and pick out just such plants to secure seed from as we wish to produce another year4 ,if we wait until the seed is separated from the plant that produced it before we select our cotton seed1 we shall be planting seed from poor as well as from good plants1 and must be content with a crop of just such stock as we have planted4 ,by selecting seed from the most productive plants in the field and by repeating the selection each year1 you can continually improve the breed of the plant you are raising4 ,in selecting seed for cotton you may follow the plan suggested below for wheat4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #di ,,and #ej4 ,,chrysanthemums ,,and ,,asparagus ,the difference that you see between the wild and the cultivated chrysanthemums and between the samples of asparagus shown in ,figs4 #di and #ej was brought about by just such continuous seed-selection from the kind of plant wanted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,two ,,varieties ,,of ,,flax ,,from ,,one ,,parent ,,stock ,by the careful selection of seed from the longest flax plants the increase in length shown in the accompanying figure was gained4 ,the selection of seed from those plants bearing the most seed1 regardless of the height of the plant1 has produced flax like that to the right in the illustration4 ,these two kinds of flax are from the same parent stock1 but slight differences have been emphasized by continued seed-selection1 until we now have really two varieties of flax1 one a heavy seed-bearer1 the other producing a long fiber4 ,you can in a similar way improve your cotton or any other seed crop4 ,sugar beets have been made by seed-selection to produce about double the percentage of sugar that they did a few years ago4 ,preparing and tilling land costs too much in money and work to allow the land to be planted with poor seed4 ,when you are trying by seed-selection to increase the yield of cotton1 there are two principles that should be borne in mind3 first1 seed should be chosen only from plants that bear many well-filled bolls of long-staple cotton2 second1 seed should be taken from no plant that does not by its healthy condition show hardihood in resisting disease and drouth4 ,the plan of choosing seeds from selected plants may be applied to wheat2 but it would of course be too time-consuming to select enough single wheat plants to furnish all of the seed wheat for the next year4 ,in this case adopt the following plan3 ,in ,fig4 #eb let ,a represent the total size of your wheat field and let ,b represent a plat large enough to furnish seed for the whole field4 ,at harvest-time go into section ,a and select the best plants you can find4 ,pick the heads of these and thresh them by hand4 ,the seed so obtained must be carefully saved for your next sowing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,in the fall sow these selected seeds in area ,b4 ,this area should produce the best wheat4 ,at the next harvest cull not from the whole field but from the finest plants of plat ,b1 and again save these as seed for plat ,b4 ,use the unculled seed from plat ,b to sow your crop4 ,by following this plan continuously you will every year have seed from several generations of choice plants1 and each year you will improve your seed4 ,it is of course advisable to move your seed plat ,b every year or two4 ,for the new plat select land that has recently been planted in legumes4 ,always give this plat unwearying care4 ,in the selection of plants from which to get seed1 you must know what kind of plants are really the best seed plants4 ,first1 you must not regard single heads or grains1 but must select seed from the most perfect plant1 looking at the plant as a whole and not at any single part of it4 ,a first consideration is yield4 ,select the plants that yield best and are at the same time resistant to drouth1 resistant to rust and to winter1 early to ripen1 plump of grain1 and nonshattering4 ,what a fine thing it would be to find even one plant free from rust in the midst of a rusted field6 ,it would mean a rust-resistant plant4 ,its offspring also would probably be rust-resistant4 ,if you should ever find such a plant1 be sure to save its seed and plant it in a plat by itself4 ,the next year again save seed from those plants least rusted4 ,possibly you can develop a rust-proof race of wheat6 ,keep your eyes open4 ,in ,england the average yield of wheat is thirty bushels an acre1 in the ,united ,states it is less than fifteen bushels6 ,in some states the yield is even less than nine bushels an acre4 ,let us select our seed with care1 as the ,english people do1 and then we can increase our yield4 ,by careful seed-selection a plant-breeder in ,minnesota increased the yield of his wheat by one fourth4 ,think what it would mean if twenty-five per cent were added to the world's supply of wheat at comparatively no cost2 that is1 at the mere cost of careful seed-selection4 ,this would mean an addition to the world's income of about #ejj1jjj1jjj each year4 ,the ,united ,states would get about one fifth of this profit4 ,it often happens that a single plant in a crop of corn1 cotton1 or wheat will be far superior to all others in the field4 ,such a plant deserves special care4 ,do not use it merely as a seed plant1 but carefully plant its seeds apart and tend carefully4 ,the following season select the best of its offspring as favorites again4 ,repeat this selection and culture for several years until you fix the variety4 ,this is the way new varieties are originated from plants propagated by seed4 ,in #ahfb ,mr4 ,abraham ,fultz of ,pennsylvania1 while passing through a field of bearded wheat1 found three heads of beardless1 or bald1 wheat4 ,these he sowed by themselves that year1 and as they turned out specially productive he continued to sow this new variety4 ,soon he had enough seed to distribute over the country4 ,it became known as the ,fultz wheat and is to-day one of the best varieties in the ,united ,states and in a number of foreign countries4 ,think how many bushels of wheat have been added to the world's annual supply by a few moments of intelligent observation and action on the part of this one man6 ,he saw his opportunity and used it4 ,how many similar opportunities do you think are lost8 ,how much does your state or country lose thereby8 ,,exercise ,select one hundred seeds from a good1 and one hundred from a poor1 plant of the same variety4 ,sow them in two plats far enough apart to avoid cross-pollination1 yet try to have soil conditions about the same4 ,give each the same care and compare the yield4 ,try this with corn1 cotton1 and wheat4 ,select seeds from the best plant in your good plat and from the poorest in your poor plat and repeat the experiment4 ,this will require but a few feet of ground1 and the good plat will pay for itself in yield1 while the poor plat will more than pay in the lesson that it will teach you4 ,write to the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 and to your state experiment station for bulletins concerning seed-selection and methods of plant-improvement4 ,,section ,,xix4 ,,selecting ,,seed ,,corn ,if a farmer would raise good crops he must1 as already stated1 select good seed4 ,many of the farmer's disappointments in the quantity and quality of his crops--disappointments often thought to come from other causes--are the result of planting poor seed4 ,seeds not fully ripened1 if they grow at all1 produce imperfect plants4 ,good seed1 therefore1 is the first thing necessary for a good crop4 ,the seed of perfect plants only should be saved4 ,by wise and persistent selection1 made in the field before the crop is fully matured1 corn can be improved in size and made to mature earlier4 ,gather ears only from the most productive plants and save only the largest and best kernels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,the ,,kind ,,of ,,ear ,,to ,,select ,you have no doubt seen the common ,american blackbirds that usually migrate and feed in such large numbers4 ,they all look alike in every way4 ,now1 has it ever occurred to you to ask why all blackbirds are black8 ,the blackbirds are black simply because their parents are black4 ,now in the same way that the young blackbirds resemble their parents1 corn will resemble its parent stock4 ,how many ears of corn do you find on a stalk8 ,one1 two1 sometimes three or four4 ,you find two ears of corn on a stalk because it is the nature of that particular stalk to produce two ears4 ,in the same way the nature of some stalks is to produce but one ear1 while it is the nature of others sometimes to produce two or more4 ,this resemblance of offspring to parent is known to scientists as heredity1 or as like producing like4 ,some ,southern corn-breeders take advantage of this law to improve their corn crop4 ,if a stalk can be made to produce two ears of corn just as large as the single ear that most stalks bear1 we shall get twice as much corn from a field in which the two-eared variety is planted4 ,in the ,north and ,west the best varieties of corn have been selected to make but one ear to the stalk4 ,it is generally believed that this is the best practice for the shorter growing seasons of the colder states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,,select ,,seed ,,from ,a ,,stalk ,,like ,,that ,,on ,,left ,these facts ought to be very helpful to us next year when our fathers are planting corn4 ,we should get them to plant seed secured only from stalks that produced the most corn1 whether the stalk had two or more ears or only one4 ,if we follow this plan year by year1 each acre of land will be made to produce more kernels and hence a larger crop of corn1 and yet no more work will be required to raise the crop4 ,in addition to enlarging the yield of corn1 you can1 by proper selection of the best and most productive plants in the field1 grow a new variety of seed corn4 ,to do this you need only take the largest and best kernels from stalks bearing two ears2 plant these1 and at the next harvest again save the best kernels from stalks bearing the best ears4 ,if you keep up this practice with great care for several years1 you will get a vigorous1 fruitful variety that will command a high price for seed4 ,,experiment ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,corn ,,by ,,selection ,boone ,county white corn on left1 and original type1 from which it was developed by selection1 on right ,every school boy and girl can make this experiment at leisure4 ,from your own field get two ears of corn1 one from a stalk bearing only one ear and the other from a stalk bearing two well-grown ears4 ,plant the grains from one ear in one plat1 and the grains from the other in a plat of equal size4 ,use for both the same soil and the same fertilizer4 ,cultivate both plats in the same way4 ,when the crop is ready to harvest1 husk the corn1 count the ears1 and weigh the corn4 ,then write a short essay on your work and on the results and get your teacher to correct the story for your home paper4 ,,section ,,xx4 ,,weeds ,have you ever noticed that some weeds are killed by one particular method1 but that this same method may entirely fail to kill other kinds of weeds8 ,if we wish to free our fields of weeds with the greatest ease1 we must know the nature of each kind of weed and then attack it in the way in which we can most readily destroy it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,,pigweed ,the ordinary pigweed 7,fig4 #ef7 differs from many other weeds in that it lives for only one year4 ,when winter comes1 it must die4 ,each plant1 however1 bears a great number of seeds4 ,if we can prevent the plant from bearing seed in its first year1 there will not be many seeds to come up the next season4 ,in fact1 only those seeds that were too deeply buried in the soil to come up the previous spring will be left1 and of these two-year-old seeds many will not germinate4 ,during the next season some old seeds will produce plants1 but the number will be very much diminished4 ,if care be exercised to prevent the pigweed from seeding again1 and the same watchfulness be continued for a few seasons1 this weed will be almost entirely driven from our fields4 ,a plant like the pigweed1 which lives only one year1 is called an annual and is one of the easiest weeds to destroy4 ,mustard1 plantain1 chess1 dodder1 cockle1 crab grass1 and ,jimson weed are a few of our most disagreeable annual weeds4 ,the best time to kill any weed is when it is very small2 therefore the ground in early spring should be constantly stirred in order to kill the young weeds before they grow to be strong and hardy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,,wild ,,carrot ,the wild carrot differs from an annual in this way3 it lives throughout one whole year without producing seeds4 ,during its first year it accumulates a quantity of nourishment in the root1 then rests in the winter4 ,throughout the following summer it uses this nourishment rapidly to produce its flowers and seeds4 ,then the plant dies4 ,plants that live through two seasons in this way are called biennials4 ,weeds of this kind may be destroyed by cutting the roots below the leaves with a grubbing-hoe or spud4 ,a spud may be described as a chisel on a long handle 7see ,fig4 #eh74 ,if biennials are not cut low enough they will branch out anew and make many seeds4 ,among the most common biennials are the thistle1 moth mullein1 wild carrot1 wild parsnip1 and burdock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,a ,,spud ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,,hound',s ,,tongue ,a third group of weeds consists of those that live for more than two years4 ,these weeds are usually most difficult to kill4 ,they propagate by means of running rootstocks as well as by seeds4 ,plants that live more than two seasons are known as perennials and include1 for example1 many grasses1 dock1 ,canada thistle1 poison ivy1 passion flower1 horse nettle1 etc4 ,there are many methods of destroying perennial weeds4 ,they may be dug entirely out and removed4 ,sometimes in small areas they may be killed by crude sulphuric acid or may be starved by covering them with boards or a straw stack or in some other convenient way4 ,a method that is very effective is to smother the weeds by a dense growth of some other plant1 for example1 cowpeas or buckwheat4 ,cowpeas are to be preferred1 since they also enrich the soil by the nitrogen that the root-tubercles gather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,,canada ,,thistle ,weeds do injury in numerous ways2 they shade the crop1 steal its nourishment1 and waste its moisture4 ,perhaps their only service is to make lazy people till their crops4 ,,exercise ,you should learn to know by name the twenty worst weeds of your vicinity and to recognize their seeds4 ,if there are any weeds you are not able to recognize1 send a sample of each to your state experiment station4 ,make a collection1 properly labeled1 of weeds and weed seeds for your school4 ,,section ,,xxi4 ,,seed ,,purity ,,and ,,vitality ,seeds produce plants4 ,the difference between a large and a small yield may depend upon the kind of plants we raise1 and the kind of plant in turn is dependent upon the seeds that we sow4 ,two things are important in the selection of seeds--purity and vitality4 ,seeds should be pure2 that is1 when sown they should produce no other plant than the one that we wish to raise4 ,they should be able to grow4 ,the ability of a seed to grow is termed its vitality4 ,good seed should be nearly or quite pure and should possess high vitality4 ,the vitality of seeds is expressed as a per cent2 for example1 if #ig seeds out of #ajj germinate1 or sprout1 the vitality is said to be #ig4 ,the older the seed the less is its vitality1 except in a few rare instances in which seeds cannot germinate under two or three years4 ,cucumber seeds may show #ij per cent vitality when they are one year old1 #ge per cent when two years old1 and #gj per cent when three years old--the per cent of vitality diminishing with increase of years4 ,the average length of life of the seeds of cultivated plants is short3 for example1 the tomato lives four years2 corn1 two years2 the onion1 two years2 the radish1 five years4 ,the cucumber seed may retain life after ten years2 but the seeds of this plant too lose their vitality with an increase in years4 ,it is important when buying seeds to test them for purity and vitality4 ,dealers who are not honest often sell old seeds1 although they know that seeds decrease in value with age4 ,sometimes1 however1 to cloak dishonesty they mix some new seeds with the old1 or bleach old and yellow seeds in order to make them resemble fresh ones4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that all seeds bought of dealers should be thoroughly examined and tested2 for if they do not grow1 we not only pay for that which is useless but we are also in great danger of producing so few plants in our fields that we shall not get full use of the land1 and thus we may suffer a more serious loss than merely paying for a few dead seeds4 ,it will therefore be both interesting and profitable to learn how to test the vitality of seeds4 ,to test vitality plant one hundred seeds in a pot of earth or in damp sand1 or place them between moist pieces of flannel1 and take care to keep them moist and warm4 ,count those that germinate and thus determine the percentage of vitality4 ,germinating between flannel is much quicker than planting in earth4 ,care should be used to keep mice away from germinating seeds4 7,see ,fig4 #fa47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,a ,,seed-,,germinator ,consisting of two soup plates1 some sand1 and a piece of cloth ,sometimes the appearance of a package will show whether the seed has been kept in stock a long time4 ,it is1 however1 much more difficult to find out whether the seeds are pure4 ,you can of course easily distinguish seeds that differ much from those you wish to plant1 but often certain weed seeds are so nearly like certain crop seeds as not to be easily recognized by the eye4 ,thus the dodder or love vine1 which so often ruins the clover crop1 has seeds closely resembling clover seeds4 ,the chess1 or cheat1 has seeds so nearly like oats that only a close observer can tell them apart4 ,however1 if you watch the seeds that you buy1 and study the appearance of crop seeds1 you may become expert in recognizing those that have no place in your planting4 ,one case is reported in which a seed-dealer intentionally allowed an impurity of #cj per cent to remain in the crop seeds1 and this impurity was mainly of weed seeds4 ,there were #dej1jjj of one kind and #bhh1jjj of another in each pound of seed4 ,think of planting weeds at that rate6 ,sometimes three fourths of the seeds you buy are weed seeds4 ,in purchasing seeds the only safe plan is to buy of dealers whose reputation can be relied upon4 ,it not seldom happens that seeds1 like corn1 are stored in open cribs or barns before the moisture is entirely dried out of the seeds4 ,such seeds are liable to be frozen during a severe winter1 and of course if this happens they will not sprout the following spring4 ,the only way to tell whether such seeds have been killed is to test samples of them for vitality4 ,testing is easy2 replanting is costly and often results in a short crop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,impurities ,,in ,,seeds ,tube #a represents one pound of redtop grass as bought2 ,tube #b1 amount of pure redtop grass seeds in ,tube #a2 ,tube #c1 amount of chaff and dirt in ,tube #a2 ,tube #d1 amount of weed seeds in ,tube #a2 ,tube #e1 amount of total waste in ,tube #a2 ,tube #f1 amount of pure germinable seeds in ,tube #a ,,exercise ,examine seeds both for vitality and purity4 ,write for farmers' bulletins on both these subjects4 ,what would be the loss to a farmer who planted a ten-acre clover field with seeds that were #hj per cent bad8 ,can you recognize the seeds of the principal cultivated plants8 ,germinate some beet seeds4 ,what per cent comes up8 ,can you explain8 ,collect for your school as many kinds of wild and cultivated seeds as you can4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,a ,,fruit ,,tree ,let each pupil grow an apple tree this year and attempt to make it the best in his neighborhood4 ,in your attempt suppose you try the following plan4 ,in the fall take the seed of an apple--a crab-apple is good--and keep it in a cool place during the winter4 ,the simplest way to do this is to bury it in damp sand4 ,in the spring plant it in a rich1 loose soil4 ,great care must be taken of the young shoot as soon as it appears above the ground4 ,you want to make it grow as tall and as straight as possible during this first year of its life1 hence you should give it rich soil and protect it from animals4 ,before the ground freezes in the fall take up the young tree with the soil that was around it and keep it all winter in a cool1 damp place4 ,now when spring comes it will not do to set out the carefully tended tree1 for an apple tree from seed will not be a tree like its parent1 but will tend to resemble a more distant ancestor4 ,the distant ancestor that the young apple tree is most likely to take after is the wild apple1 which is small1 sour1 and otherwise far inferior to the fruit we wish to grow4 ,it makes little difference1 therefore1 what kind of apple seed we plant1 since in any event we cannot be sure that the tree grown from it will bear fruit worth having unless we force it to do so4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,a ,,young ,,fruit-,,grower ,,section ,,xxii4 ,,grafting ,by a process known as grafting you can force your tree to produce whatever variety of apple you desire4 ,many people raise fruit trees directly from seed without grafting4 ,thus they often produce really worthless trees4 ,by grafting they would make sure not only of having good trees rather than poor ones but also of having the particular kind of fruit that they wish4 ,hence you must now graft your tree4 ,first you must decide what variety of apple you want to grow on the tree4 ,the ,magnum ,bonum is a great favorite as a fall apple4 ,the ,winesap is a good winter apple1 while the ,red ,astrachan is a profitable early apple1 especially in the lowland of the coast region4 ,the ,northern ,spy1 ,a,esop1 and ,spitzenburg are also admirable kinds4 ,possibly some other apple that you know may suit your taste and needs better than any of these varieties4 ,if you have decided to raise an ,a,esop or a ,magnum ,bonum or a ,winesap1 you must now cut a twig from the tree of your choice and graft it upon the little tree that you have raised4 ,choose a twig that is about the thickness of the young tree at the point where you wish to graft4 ,be careful to take the shoot from a vigorous1 healthy part of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,,tongue ,,grafting ,there are many ways in which you may join the chosen shoot or twig upon the young tree1 but perhaps the best one for you to use is known as tongue grafting4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #fd4 ,the upper part1 b1 which is the shoot or twig that you cut from the tree1 is known as the scion2 the lower part1 a1 which is the original tree1 is called the stock4 ,cut the scion and stock as shown in ,fig4 #fd4 ,join the cut end of the scion to the cut end of the stock4 ,when you join them1 notice that under the bark of each there is a thin layer of soft1 juicy tissue4 ,this is called the cambium4 ,to make a successful graft the cambium in the scion must exactly join the cambium in the stock4 ,be careful1 then1 to see that cambium meets cambium4 ,you now see why grafting can be more successfully done if you select a scion and stock of nearly the same size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,a ,,completed ,,graft ,showing scion and stock from which it was made ,after fitting the parts closely together1 bind them with cotton yarn 7see ,fig4 #fe7 that has been coated with grafting wax4 ,this wax is made of equal parts of tallow1 beeswax1 and linseed oil4 ,smear the wax thoroughly over the whole joint1 and make sure that the joint is completely air-tight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,to make a root graft1 cut along the slanting line ,the best time to make this graft is when scion and stock are dormant1 that is1 when they are not in leaf4 ,during the winter1 say in ,february1 is the best time to graft the tree4 ,set the grafted tree away again in damp sand until spring1 then plant it in loose1 rich soil4 ,since all parts growing above the graft will be of the same kind as the scion1 while all branches below it will be like the stock1 it is well to graft low on the stock or even upon the root itself4 ,the slanting double line in ,fig4 #ff shows the proper place to cut off for such grafting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,a ,,completed ,,root ,,graft ,if you like you may sometime make the interesting and valuable experiment of grafting scions from various kinds of apple trees on the branches of one stock4 ,in this way you can secure a tree bearing a number of kinds of fruit4 ,you may thus raise the ,bonum1 ,red ,astrachan1 ,winesap1 and as many other varieties of apples as you wish1 upon one tree4 ,for this experiment1 however1 you will find it better to resort to cleft grafting1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #fh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,,cleft ,,grafting ,luther ,burbank1 the originator of the ,burbank potato1 in attempting to find a variety of apple suited to the climate of ,california1 grafted more than five hundred kinds of apple scions on one tree1 so that he might watch them side by side and find out which kind was best suited to that state4 ,,section ,,xxiii4 ,,budding ,if1 instead of an apple tree1 you were raising a plum or a peach tree1 a form of propagation known as budding would be better than grafting4 ,occasionally budding is also employed for apples1 pears1 cherries1 oranges1 and lemons4 ,budding is done in the following manner4 ,a single bud is cut from the scion and is then inserted under the bark of a one-year-old peach seedling1 so that the cambium of the bud and stock may grow together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,a ,,bud ,,from ,a ,,scion ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,,the ,,steps ,,in ,,budding ,cut scions of the kind of fruit tree you desire from a one-year-old twig of the same variety4 ,wrap them in a clean1 moist cloth until you are ready to use them4 ,just before using cut the bud from the scion1 as shown in ,fig4 #fi4 ,this bud is now ready to be inserted on the north side of the stock1 just two or three inches above the ground4 ,the north side is selected to avoid the sun4 ,now1 as shown at a in ,fig4 #gj1 make a cross and an up-and-down incision1 or cut1 on the stock2 pull the bark back carefully1 as shown in ,b2 insert the bud ,c1 as shown in ,d2 then fold the bark back and wrap with yarn or raffia1 as shown in ,e4 ,as soon as the bud and branches have united1 remove the wrapping to prevent its cutting the bark and cut the tree back close to the bud1 as in ,fig4 #ga1 so as to force nourishment into the inserted bud4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,sloping line shows where to cut tree ,budding is done in the field without disturbing the tree as it stands in the ground4 ,the best time to do budding is during the summer or fall months1 when the bark is loose enough to allow the buds to be easily inserted4 ,trees may be budded or grafted on one another only when they are nearly related4 ,thus the apple1 crab-apple1 hawthorn1 and quince are all related closely enough to graft or bud on one another2 the pear grows on some hawthorns1 but not well on an apple2 some chestnuts will unite with some kinds of oaks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,lines show where to trim ,by using any of these methods you can succeed in getting with certainty the kind of tree that you desire4 ,illustration3 ,,both ,,busy ,,storing ,,apples ,,section ,,xxiv4 ,,planting ,,and ,,pruning ,the apple tree that you grafted should be set out in the spring4 ,dig a hole three or four feet in diameter where you wish the tree to grow4 ,place the tree in the hole and be very careful to preserve all the fine roots4 ,spread the roots out fully1 water them1 and pack fine1 rich soil firmly about them4 ,place stakes about the young tree to protect it from injury4 ,if the spot selected is in a windy location1 incline the tree slightly toward the prevailing wind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,present shape comes from pruning ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,correct shape ,you must prune the tree as it grows4 ,the object of pruning is to give the tree proper shape and to promote fruit-bearing4 ,if the bud at the end of the main shoot grows1 you will have a tall1 cone-shaped tree4 ,if1 however1 the end of the young tree be cut or headed back to the lines shown in ,fig4 #gb1 the buds below this point will be forced to grow and make a tree like that shown in ,fig4 #gc4 ,the proper height of heading for different fruits varies4 ,for the apple tree a height of two or three feet is best4 ,cutting an end bud of a shoot or branch always sends the nourishment and growth into the side buds4 ,trimming or pinching off the side buds throws the growth into the end bud4 ,you can therefore cause your tree to take almost any shape you desire4 ,the difference between the trees shown in ,figs4 #gc and #gd is entirely the result of pruning4 ,fig4 #gd illustrates in general a correctly shaped tree4 ,it is evenly balanced1 admits light freely1 and yet has enough foliage to prevent sun-scald4 ,figs4 #ge and #gf show the effect of wisely thinning the branches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,unthinned ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,properly thinned ,the best time to prune is either in the winter or before the buds start in the spring4 ,winter pruning tends to favor wood-production1 while summer pruning lessens wood-production and induces fruitage4 ,each particular kind of fruit requires special pruning2 for example1 the peach should be made to assume the shape illustrated in ,fig4 #gg4 ,this is done by successive trimmings1 following the plan illustrated in ,figs4 #ga1 #gh1 #gi4 ,you will gain several advantages from these trimmings4 ,first1 nourishment will be forced into the peach bud that you set on your stock4 ,this will secure a vigorous growth of the scion4 ,by a second trimming take off the heel 7,fig4 #gh1 h7 close to the tree1 and thus prevent decay at this point4 ,one year after budding you should reduce the tree to a whip1 as in ,fig4 #gi1 by trimming at the dotted line in ,fig4 #gh4 ,this establishes the head of the tree1 which in the case of the peach should be very low1--about sixteen inches from the ground1--in order that a low foliage may lessen the danger of sun-scald to the main trunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,,the ,,customary ,,way ,,of ,,pruning ,a ,,peach ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,two-,,year-,,old ,,tree ,cut off heel1 h ,in pruning never leave a stump such as is shown in ,fig4 #gh1 h4 ,such a stump1 having no source of nourishment1 will heal very slowly and with great danger of decay4 ,if this heel is cleanly cut on the line ch 7,fig4 #gh71 the wound will heal rapidly and with little danger of decay4 ,leaving such a stump endangers the soundness of the whole tree4 ,fig4 #hj shows the results of good and poor pruning on a large tree4 ,when large limbs are removed it is best to paint the cut surface4 ,the paint will ward off fungous disease and thus keep the tree from rotting where it was cut4 ,pruning that leaves large limbs branching1 as in ,fig4 #gd1 a1 is not to be recommended1 since the limbs when loaded with fruit or when beaten by heavy winds are liable to break4 ,decay is apt to set in at the point of breakage4 ,the entrance of decay-fungi through some such wound or through a tiny crevice at such a crotch is the beginning of the end of many a fruitful tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,,three-,,year-,,old ,,tree ,,cut ,,back ,sometimes a tree will go too much to wood and too little to fruit4 ,this often happens in rich soil and may be remedied by another kind of pruning known as root-pruning4 ,this consists in cutting off a few of the roots in order to limit the food supply of the plant4 ,you ought to learn more about root-pruning1 however1 before you attempt it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,refuses to ,heal--,heals promptly ,how is a peach tree made8 ,first1 the blossom appears4 ,then pollination and fertilization occur4 ,the fruit ripens4 ,the pit1 or seed1 is saved4 ,in the spring of the next year the seed is planted4 ,the young tree1 known as the stock1 comes up quickly4 ,in ,august of that year a bud of the variety which is wanted is inserted in the little stock1 near the ground4 ,one year later1 in the spring1 the stock is cut off just above the bud4 ,the bud throws out a shoot1 which grows to a height of about six feet1 and in the fall this little peach tree is sold as a one-year-old tree4 ,however1 as is seen1 the root is two years old4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,ready ,,to ,,bear ,how is an apple tree made8 ,the seeds are saved in the fall of one year and planted the following year4 ,the seedlings of the apple do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach4 ,at the end of the year they are taken up and sorted1 and in the following spring they are planted4 ,in ,july or ,august they are budded4 ,in the spring of the next year the stock is cut off above the bud1 and the bud-shoot grows three or four feet4 ,one year later the shoot branches and the top begins to form2 and in the fall of the following year the tree may be sold as a two-year-old1 although most persons prefer to buy it a year later as a three-year-old4 ,in some parts of the country1 particularly in the ,west1 the little seedling is grafted in the second winter1 in a grafting room1 and the young grafts are set in the nursery row in the spring to complete their growth4 ,the planting in the orchard of the young peach and the young apple tree is done in practically the same way4 ,after the hole for the tree has been dug and after proper soil has been provided1 the roots should be spread and the soil carefully packed around them4 ,,exercise ,do you know any trees in your neighborhood that bear both wild and budded or grafted fruit8 ,what are the chief varieties of apples grown in your neighborhood8 grapes8 currants8 plums8 cherries8 figs8 ,what is a good apple tree worth8 ,is there any land near by that could support a tree and is not now doing so8 ,examine several orchards and see whether the trees have the proper shape4 ,do you see any evidence of poor pruning8 ,do you find any heels8 ,can you see any place where heels have resulted in rotten or hollow trees8 ,how could you have prevented this8 ,has the removal of branches ever resulted in serious decay8 ,how is this to be prevented8 ,if your home is not well stocked with all the principal kinds of fruit1 do you not want to propagate and attend to some of each kind8 ,you will be surprised to find how quickly trees will bear and how soon you will be eating fruit from your own planting4 ,growing your own trees will make you feel proud of your skill4 ,,chapter ,v ,,horticulture ,,section ,,xxv4 ,,market-,,gardening ,the word horticulture is one of those broad words under which much is grouped4 ,it includes the cultivation of orchard fruits1 such as apples and plums2 of small fruits1 such as strawberries and raspberries2 of garden vegetables for the table2 of flowers of all sorts1 including shrubbery and ornamental trees and their arrangement into beautiful landscape effects around our homes4 ,horticulture then is a name for an art that is both far-reaching and important4 ,the word gardening is generally given to that part of horticulture which has for its chief aim the raising of vegetables for our tables4 ,flower-gardening1 or the cultivation of plants valued for their bloom in making ornamental beds and borders and furnishing flowers for the decoration of the home1 is generally called floriculture4 ,landscape-gardening is the art of so arranging flower-beds1 grass1 shrubbery1 and trees as to produce pleasing effects in the grounds surrounding our homes and in great public parks and pleasure grounds4 ,landscape-gardening1 like architecture1 has developed intoll as the artist makes them on canvas1 but uses natural objects in his pictures instead of paint and canvas4 ,market-,gardening4 ,formerly market-gardening was done on small tracts of land in the immediate vicinity of large cities1 where supplies of stable manure could be used from the city stables4 ,but with the great increase in the population of the cities1 these small areas could no longer supply the demand1 and the introduction of commercial fertilizers and the building of railroads enabled gardeners at great distances from city markets to grow and ship their products4 ,hence the markets1 even in winter1 are now supplied with fresh vegetables from regions where there is no frost4 ,then1 as spring opens1 fruits and vegetables are shipped from more temperate regions4 ,later vegetables and fruits come from the sections nearer the great cities4 ,this gradual nearing of the supply fields continues until the gardens near the cities can furnish what is needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,,strawberry-,,growing ,,is ,,an ,,art ,the market-gardeners around the great ,northern cities1 finding that winter products were coming from the ,south and from warmer regions1 began to build hothouses and by means of steam and hot-water pipes to make warm climates in these glass houses4 ,many acres of land in the colder sections of the country are covered with heated glass houses1 and in them during the winter are produced fine crops of tomatoes1 lettuce1 radishes1 cauliflowers1 eggplants1 and other vegetables4 ,the degree of perfection which these attain in spite of having such artificial culture1 and their freshness as compared to the products brought from a great distance1 have made winter gardening under glass a very profitable business4 ,but it is a business that calls for the highest skill and the closest attention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,,setting ,,plants ,,in ,a ,,cold-,,frame ,no garden1 even for home use1 is complete without some glass sashes1 and the garden will be all the more successful if there is a small heated greenhouse for starting plants that are afterwards to be set in the garden4 ,hotbeds4 ,if there is no greenhouse1 a hotbed is an important help in the garden4 ,the bed is made by digging a pit two feet deep1 seven feet wide1 and as long as necessary4 ,the material for the hotbed is fresh horse manure mixed with leaves4 ,this is thrown into a heap to heat4 ,as soon as steam is seen coming from the heap the manure is turned over and piled again so that the outer part is thrown inside4 ,when the whole is uniformly heated and has been turned two or three times1 it is packed firmly into the pit already dug4 ,a frame six feet wide1 twelve inches high on the north side and eight inches on the south side and as long as the bed is to be1 is now made of plank4 ,this is set upon the heated manure1 thus leaving six inches on each side outside the frame4 ,more manure is then banked all around it1 and three or four inches of fine light and rich soil are placed inside the frame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,,the ,,gladiolus ,the frame is then covered with hotbed sashes six feet long and three feet wide4 ,these slide up and down on strips of wood let into the sides of the frame4 ,a thermometer is stuck into the soil and closely watched1 for there will be too much heat at first for sowing seed4 ,when the heat in the early morning is about #he deg41 seeds may be sowed4 ,the hotbed is used for starting tomato plants1 eggplants1 cabbage plants1 and other vegetables that cannot stand exposure4 ,it should be made about eight or ten weeks before the tender plants can be set out in the locality4 ,in the ,south and ,southwest it should be started earlier than in the ,north4 ,for growing the best tomato plants1 and for such hardy plants as lettuce and cabbage1 it will be better to have cold-frames in addition to the hotbed2 these need not be more than two or three sashes4 ,cold-,frames4 ,a cold-frame is like the frame used for a hotbed1 but it is placed on well-manured soil in a sheltered spot4 ,it is covered with the same kind of sashes and is used for hardening the plants sowed in the hotbed4 ,the frame must be well banked with earth on the outside1 and the glass must be covered on cold nights with straw1 mats1 or old carpets to keep out frost4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,frame ,,to ,,carry ,,the ,,sash ,,of ,a ,,hotbed ,,or ,,cold-,,frame ,care of ,hotbed and ,cold-,frame4 ,if the sun be allowed to shine brightly on the glass of a cold-frame or hotbed1 it will soon raise the temperature in the hotbed to a point that will destroy the plants4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to pay close attention to the bed and1 when the sun shines1 to slip the sashes down or raise them and place a block under the upper end to allow the steam to pass off4 ,the cold-frame also must be aired when the sun shines1 and the sashes must be gradually slipped down in mild weather4 ,finally1 they may be removed entirely on sunshiny days1 so as to accustom the plants to the open air1 but they must be replaced at night4 ,for a while before setting the plants in the open gardens1 leave the sashes off night and day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,,greenhouse ,,and ,,cold-,,frames ,while the hotbed may be used for starting plants1 it is much better and more convenient to have a little greenhouse with fire heat for this purpose4 ,a little house with but four sashes on each side will be enough to start a great many plants1 and will also give room for some flowers in pots4 ,with such a house a student can learn to manage a more extensive structure if he gives close attention to airing1 watering1 and keeping out insects4 ,sowing4 ,the time for sowing the different kinds of seeds is an important matter4 ,seeds vary greatly in their requirements4 ,all need three conditions--a proper degree of heat1 moisture1 and air4 ,some seeds1 like ,english peas1 parsnips1 beets1 and radishes1 will germinate and grow when the soil is still cool in the early spring1 and peas will stand quite a frost after they are up4 ,therefore we plant ,english peas as early as the ground can be worked4 ,but if we should plant seeds like corn1 string 7or snap7 beans1 squashes1 and other tender plants before the ground is warm enough1 they would decay4 ,seeds cannot germinate in soil that is perfectly dry1 for there must be moisture to swell them and to start growth4 ,the oxygen of the air is also necessary1 and if seeds are buried so deeply that the air cannot reach them1 they will not grow1 even if they are warm and moist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,,gathering ,,and ,,shipping ,,celery ,the depth of planting must vary with the character and size of the seed4 ,english peas may be covered six inches deep and will be all the better for such covering1 but if corn be covered so deep1 it hardly gets above the ground4 ,in planting small seeds like those of the radish1 cabbage1 turnip1 lettuce1 etc41 a good rule is to cover them three times the thickness of the seed4 ,in sowing seeds when the ground is rather dry1 it is a good plan1 after covering them1 to tramp on the row so as to press the soil closely to the seeds and to help it to retain moisture for germination1 but do not pack the soil if it is damp4 ,in spring never dig or plow the garden while it is still wet1 but always wait until the soil is dry enough to crumble freely4 ,what ,crops to grow4 ,the crops to be raised will of course depend upon each gardener's climate1 surroundings1 and markets4 ,sometimes it may pay a grower1 if his soil and climate are particularly suited to one crop1 to expend most of his time and energy on this crop2 for example1 in some sections of ,new ,york1 on potatoes2 in parts of ,michigan1 on celery2 in ,georgia1 on watermelons2 in western ,north ,carolina1 on cabbage4 ,if circumstances allow this sort of gardening1 it has many advantages1 for of course it is much easier to acquire skill in growing one crop than in growing many4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,a ,,large ,,yield ,,of ,,cabbages ,on the other hand1 it often happens that a gardener's situation requires him to grow most of the crops known to gardening4 ,each gardener then must be guided in his selection of crops by his surroundings4 ,care of ,crops4 ,the gardener who wishes to attain the greatest success in his art must do four things3 ,first1 he must make his land rich and keep it rich4 ,much of his success depends on getting his crops on the market ahead of other growers4 ,to do this1 his crops must grow rapidly1 and crops grow rapidly only in rich soil4 ,then1 too1 land conveniently situated for market-gardening is nearly always costly4 ,hence the successful market-gardener must plan to secure the largest possible yield from as small an area as is practicable4 ,the largest yield can of course be secured from the richest land4 ,second1 the gardener must cultivate his rich land most carefully and economically4 ,he crowds his land with products that must grow apace4 ,therefore he1 least of all growers1 can afford to have any of his soil go to feed weeds1 to have his land wash1 or to have his growing crops suffer for lack of timely and wise cultivation4 ,to cultivate his land economically the gardener must use the best tools and machines and the best methods of soil management4 ,third1 to get the best results he must grow perfect vegetables4 ,to do this1 he must add to good tillage a knowledge of the common plant diseases and of the ways of insects and bacterial pests2 he must know how and when to spray1 how and when to treat his seed1 how and when to poison1 how and when to trap his insect foes and to destroy their hiding-places4 ,fourth1 not only must the gardener grow perfect vegetables1 but he must put them on the market in perfect condition and in attractive shape4 ,who cares to buy wilted1 bruised1 spoiling vegetables8 ,gathering1 bundling1 crating1 and shipping are all to be watched carefully4 ,baskets should be neat and attractive1 crates clean and snug1 barrels well packed and well headed4 ,careful attention to all these details brings a rich return4 ,among the gardener's important crops are the following3 ,asparagus4 ,this is a hardy plant4 ,its seed may be sowed either early in the spring or late in the fall4 ,the seeds should be planted in rows4 ,if the plants are well cultivated during the spring and summer1 they will make vigorous roots for transplanting in the autumn4 ,in the fall prepare a piece of land by breaking it unusually deep and by manuring it heavily4 ,after the land is thoroughly prepared1 make in it furrows for the asparagus roots4 ,these furrows should be six inches deep and three feet apart4 ,then remove the roots from the rows in which they have been growing during the summer1 and set them two feet apart in the prepared furrows4 ,cover carefully at once4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,a ,,crate ,,of ,,asparagus ,in the following spring the young shoots must be well cultivated4 ,in order to economize space1 beets or lettuce may be grown between the asparagus rows during this first season4 ,with the coming of cold weather the asparagus must again be freely manured and all dead tops cut off4 ,some plants will be ready for market the second spring4 ,if the bed is kept free from weeds and well manured1 it will increase in productiveness from year to year4 ,beans4 ,the most generally planted beans are those known as string1 or snap1 beans4 ,of the many varieties1 all are sensitive to cold and hence must not be planted until frost is over4 ,another widely grown kind of bean is the lima1 or butter1 bean4 ,there are two varieties of the lima bean4 ,one is large and generally grows on poles4 ,this kind does best in the ,northern states4 ,the other is a small bean and may be grown without poles4 ,this kind is best suited to the warmer climates of the ,southern states4 ,cabbage4 ,in comparatively warm climates the first crop of cabbage is generally grown in the following way4 ,the seeds are sowed in beds in ,september1 and the plants grown from this sowing are in ,november transplanted to ground laid off in sharp ridges4 ,the young plants are set on the south side of the ridges in order that they may be somewhat protected from the cold of winter4 ,as spring comes on1 the ridge is partly cut down at each working until the field is leveled1 and thereafter the cultivation should be level4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,,cabbage ,,ready ,,for ,,shipment ,early cabbages need heavy applications of manure4 ,in the spring1 nitrate of soda applied in the rows is very helpful4 ,seeds for the crop following this early crop should be sowed in ,march4 ,of course these seeds should be of a later variety than the first used4 ,the young plants should be transplanted as soon as they are large enough4 ,early cabbages are set in rows three feet apart1 the plants eighteen inches apart in the row4 ,as the later varieties grow larger than the earlier ones1 the plants should be set two feet apart in the row4 ,in growing late fall and winter cabbage the time of sowing varies with the climate4 ,for the ,northern and middle states1 seeding should be done during the last of ,march and in ,april4 ,south of a line passing west from ,virginia it is hard to carry cabbages through the heat of summer and get them to head in the fall4 ,however1 if the seeds are sowed about the first of ,august in rich and moist soil and the plants set in the same sort of soil in ,september1 large heads can be secured for the ,december market4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,,celery ,,trimmed1 ,,washed1 ,,and ,,bunched ,celery4 ,in the extreme northern part of our country1 celery seeds are often sowed in a greenhouse or hotbed4 ,this is done in order to secure plants early enough for summer blanching4 ,this plan1 however1 suits only very cool climates4 ,in the middle states the seeds are usually sowed in a well-prepared bed about ,april4 ,the young plants are moved to other beds as soon as they need room4 ,generally they are transplanted in ,july to rows prepared for them4 ,these should be four feet apart1 and the plants should be set six inches apart in the row4 ,the celery bed should be carefully cultivated during the summer4 ,in the fall1 hill the stalks up enough to keep them erect4 ,after the growing season is over dig them and set them in trenches4 ,the trenches should be as deep as the celery is tall1 and after the celery is put in them they should be covered with boards and straw4 ,in the more southern states1 celery is usually grown in beds4 ,the beds are generally made six feet wide1 and rows a foot apart are run crosswise4 ,the plants are set six inches apart1 in ,september1 and the whole bed is earthed up as the season advances4 ,finally1 when winter comes the beds are covered with leaves or straw to prevent the plants from freezing4 ,the celery is dug and bunched for market at any time during the winter4 ,by means of cold-frames a profitable crop of spring celery may be raised4 ,have the plants ready to go into the cold-frames late in ,october or early in ,november4 ,the soil in the frame should be made very deep4 ,the plants should make only a moderately rapid growth during the winter4 ,in the early spring they will grow rapidly and so crowd one another as to blanch well4 ,as celery grown in this way comes on the market at a time when no other celery can be had1 it commands a good price4 ,in climates as warm as that of ,florida1 beds of celery can be raised in this way without the protection of cold-frames4 ,a slight freeze does not hurt celery1 but a long-continued freezing spell will destroy it4 ,some kinds of celery seem to turn white naturally4 ,these are called self-blanching kinds4 ,other kinds need to be banked with earth in order to make the stalks whiten4 ,this kind usually gives the best and crispest stalks4 ,cucumbers and ,cantaloupes4 ,although cucumbers and cantaloupes are very different plants1 they are grown in precisely the same way4 ,some gardeners plant them in hills4 ,however1 this is perhaps not the best plan4 ,it is better to lay the land off in furrows six feet apart4 ,after filling these with well-rotted stable manure1 throw soil over them4 ,then make the top flat and plant the seeds4 ,after the plants are up thin them out1 leaving them a foot or more apart in the rows4 ,cultivate regularly and carefully until the vines cover the entire ground4 ,it is a good plan to sow cowpeas at the last working of cantaloupes1 in order to furnish some shade for the melons4 ,as both cucumbers and cantaloupes are easily hurt by cold1 they should not be planted until the soil is warm and all danger of frost is past4 ,cucumbers are always cut while they are green4 ,they should never be pulled from the vine1 but should always be cut with a piece of the stem attached4 ,cantaloupes should be gathered before they turn yellow and should be ripened in the house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,,striped ,,cucumber ,,beetle ,,and ,,larva ,all magnified ,in some sections of the country the little striped cucumber-beetle attacks the melons and cucumbers as soon as they come up4 ,these beetles are very active1 and if their attacks are not prevented they will destroy the tender plants4 ,bone dust and tobacco dust applied just as the plants appear above the ground will prevent these attacks4 ,this treatment not only keeps off the beetle1 but also helps the growth of the plants4 ,eggplants4 ,eggplants are so tender that they cannot be transplanted like tomatoes to cold-frames and gradually hardened to stand the cold spring air4 ,these plants1 started in a warm place1 must be kept there until the soil to which they are to be transplanted is well warmed by the advance of spring4 ,after the warm weather has fully set in1 transplant them to rich soil1 setting them three feet apart each way4 ,this plant needs much manure4 ,if large1 perfect fruit is expected1 the ground can hardly be made too rich4 ,eggplants are subject to the same bacterial blight that is so destructive to tomatoes4 ,the only way to prevent this disease is to plant in ground not lately used for tomatoes or potatoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,,an ,,onion ,,harvest ,onions4 ,the method of growing onions varies with the use to which it is intended to put them4 ,to make the early sorts1 which are eaten green in the spring1 little onions called sets are planted4 ,these are grown from seeds sowed late in the spring4 ,the seeds are sowed thickly in rows in rather poor land4 ,the object of selecting poor land is that the growth of the sets may be slow4 ,when the sets have reached the size of small marbles1 they are ready for the fall planting4 ,in the ,south the sets may be planted in ,september4 ,plant them in rows in rich and well-fertilized soil4 ,they will be ready for market in ,march or ,april4 ,in the more northerly states the sets are to be planted as early as possible in the spring4 ,to grow ripe onions the seeds must be sowed as early in the spring as the ground can be worked4 ,the plants are thinned to a stand of three inches in the rows4 ,as they grow1 the soil is drawn away from them so that the onions sit on top of the soil with only their roots in the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,,hotbed ,,for ,,starting ,,tomato ,,plants ,as soon as the tops ripen pull the onions and let them lie in the sun until the tops are dry4 ,then put them under shelter4 ,as onions keep best with their tops attached1 do not remove these until it is time for marketing4 ,peas4 ,the ,english pea is about the first vegetable of the season to be planted4 ,it may be planted as soon as the ground is in workable condition4 ,peas are planted in rows1 and it is a good plan to stretch wire netting for them to climb on4 ,however1 where peas are extensively cultivated they are allowed to fall on the ground4 ,there are many sorts of peas1 differing both in quality and in time of production4 ,the first to be planted are the extra-early varieties4 ,these are not so fine as the later1 wrinkled sorts1 but the seeds are less apt to rot in cold ground4 ,following these1 some of the fine1 wrinkled sorts are to be planted in regular succession4 ,peas do not need much manure and do best in a light1 warm soil4 ,tomatoes4 ,there is no vegetable grown that is more widely used than the tomato4 ,whether fresh or canned it is a staple article of food that can be served in many ways4 ,by careful selection and breeding1 the fruit of the tomato has in recent years been much improved4 ,there are now many varieties that produce perfectly smooth and solid fruit1 and the grower can hardly go amiss in his selection of seeds if he bears his climate and his particular needs in mind4 ,early tomatoes are started in the greenhouse or in the hotbed about ten weeks before the time for setting the plants in the open ground4 ,they are transplanted to cold-frames as soon as they are large enough to handle4 ,this is done to harden the plants and to give them room to grow strong before the final transplanting4 ,in kitchen gardens tomatoes are planted in rows four feet apart with the plants two feet apart in the rows4 ,they are generally trained to stakes with but one stalk to a stake4 ,when there is plenty of space1 however1 the plants are allowed to grow at will and to tumble on the ground4 ,in this way they bear large crops4 ,during the winter the markets are supplied with tomatoes either from tropical sections or from hothouses4 ,as those grown in the hothouses are superior in flavor to those shipped from ,florida and from the ,west ,indies1 and as they command good prices1 great quantities are grown in this way4 ,in the ,south the bacterial blight which attacks the plants of this family is a serious drawback to tomato culture4 ,the only way to escape this disease is to avoid planting tomatoes on land in which eggplants1 tomatoes1 or potatoes have been blighted4 ,lime spread around the plants seems to prevent the blight for one season on some soils4 ,at the approach of frost in the fall1 green tomatoes can easily be preserved by wrapping them in paper4 ,gather them carefully and wrap each separately4 ,pack them in boxes and store in a cellar that is close enough to prevent the freezing of the fruit4 ,a few days before the tomatoes are wanted for the table unpack as many as are needed1 remove the paper1 and allow them to ripen in a warm room4 ,tomatoes require a rich soil4 ,scattering a small quantity of nitrate of soda around their roots promotes rapid growth4 ,watermelons4 ,as watermelons need more room than can usually be spared in a garden1 they are commonly grown as a field crop4 ,a very light1 sandy soil suits watermelons best4 ,they can be grown on very poor soil if a good supply of compost be placed in each hill4 ,the land for the melons should be laid off in about ten-foot checks2 that is1 the furrows should cross one another at right angles about every ten feet4 ,a wide hole should be dug where the furrows cross1 and into this composted manure should be put4 ,the best manure for watermelons is a compost of stable manure and wood-mold from the forest4 ,pile the manure and wood-mold in alternate layers for some time before the planting season4 ,during the winter cut through the pile several times until the two are thoroughly mixed and finely pulverized4 ,be sure to keep the compost heap under shelter4 ,compost will lose in value if it is exposed to rains4 ,at planting-time1 put two or three shovelfuls of this compost into each of the prepared holes1 and over the top of the manure scatter a handful of any high-grade complete fertilizer4 ,then cover fertilizer and manure with soil1 and plant the seeds in this soil4 ,in cultivating1 plow both ways of the checked rows and throw the earth toward the plants4 ,some growers pinch off the vines when they have grown about three feet long4 ,this is done to make them branch more freely1 but the pinching is not necessary4 ,a serious disease1 the watermelon wilt1 is rapidly spreading through melon-growing sections4 ,this disease is caused by germs in the soil1 and the germs are hard to kill4 ,if the wilt should appear in your neighborhood1 do not allow any stable manure to be used on your melon land1 for the germs are easily scattered by means of stable manure4 ,the germs also cling to the seeds of diseased melons1 and these seeds bear the disease to other fields4 ,if you treat melon seeds as you are directed on page #ace to treat oat seeds1 the germs on the seeds will be destroyed4 ,by crossing the watermelon on the citron melon1 a watermelon that is resistant to wilt has recently been developed and successfully grown in soils in which wilt is present4 ,the new melon1 inferior in flavor at first1 is being improved from season to season and bids fair to rival other melons in flavor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,,dewberries ,,section ,,xxvi4 ,,flower ,,gardening ,the comforts and joys of life depend largely upon small things4 ,of these small things perhaps none holds a position of greater importance in country life than the adornment of the home1 indoors and outdoors1 with flowers tastefully arranged4 ,their selection and planting furnish pleasant recreation2 their care is a pleasing employment2 and each little plant1 as it sprouts and grows and develops1 may become as much a pet as creatures of the sister animal kingdom4 ,a beautiful1 well-kept yard adds greatly to the pleasure and attractiveness of a country home4 ,if a beautiful yard and home give joy to the mere passer-by1 how much more must their beauty appeal to the owners4 ,the decorating of the home shows ambition1 pride1 and energy--important elements in a successful life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,,an ,,easy ,,way ,,to ,,beautify ,,the ,,home ,plant trees and shrubs in your yard and border your masses of shrubbery with flower-beds4 ,do not disfigure a lawn by placing a bed of flowers in it4 ,use the flowers rather to decorate the shrubbery1 and for borders along walks1 and in the corners near steps1 or against foundations4 ,if you wish to raise flowers for the sake of flowers1 not as decorations1 make the flower-beds in the back yard or at the side of the house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,a ,,back ,,yard ,,to ,,refine ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,family ,plants may be grown from seeds or from bulbs or from cuttings4 ,the rooting of cuttings is an interesting task to all who are fond of flowers4 ,those who have no greenhouse and who wish to root cuttings of geraniums1 roses1 and other plants may do so in the following way4 ,take a shallow pan1 an old-fashioned milk pan for instance1 fill it nearly full of clean sand1 and then wet the sand thoroughly4 ,stick the cuttings thickly into this wet sand1 set the pan in a warm1 sunny window1 and keep the sand in the same water-soaked condition4 ,most cuttings will root well in a few weeks and may then be set into small flower-pots4 ,cuttings of tea roses should have two or three joints and be taken from a stem that has just made a flower4 ,allow one of the rose leaves to remain at the top of the cutting4 ,stick this cutting into the sand and it will root in about four weeks4 ,cuttings of ,cape jasmine may be rooted in the same way4 ,some geraniums1 the rose geranium for example1 may be grown from cuttings of the roots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,,repotting ,bulbs are simply the lower ends of the leaves of a plant wrapped tightly around one another and inclosing the bud that makes the future flower-stalk4 ,the hyacinth1 the narcissus1 and the common garden onion are examples of bulbous plants4 ,the flat part at the bottom of the bulb is the stem of the plant reduced to a flat disk1 and between each two adjacent leaves on this flat stem there is a bud1 just as above-ground there is a bud at the base of a leaf4 ,these buds on the stem of the bulb rarely grow1 however1 unless forced to do so artificially4 ,the number of bulbs may be greatly increased by making these buds grow and form other bulbs4 ,in increasing hyacinths the matured bulbs are dug in the spring1 and the under part of the flat stem is carefully scraped away to expose the base of the buds4 ,the bulbs are then put in heaps and covered with sand4 ,in a few weeks each bud has formed a little bulb4 ,the gardener plants the whole together to grow one season1 after which the little bulbs are separated and grown into full-sized bulbs for sale4 ,other bulbs1 like the narcissus or the daffodil1 form new bulbs that separate without being scraped4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,a ,,clematis ,there are some other plants which have underground parts that are commonly called bulbs but which are not bulbs at all2 for example1 the gladiolus and the caladium1 or elephant's ear4 ,their underground parts are bulblike in shape1 but are really solid flattened stems with eyes like the underground stem of the ,irish potato4 ,these parts are called corms4 ,they may be cut into pieces like the potato and each part will grow4 ,the dahlia makes a mass of roots that look greatly like sweet potatoes1 but there are no eyes on them as there are on the sweet potato4 ,the only eyes are on the base of the stem to which they are joined4 ,they may be sprouted like sweet potatoes and then soft cuttings made of the green shoots1 after which they may be rooted in the greenhouse and later planted in pots4 ,there are many perennial plants that will bloom the first season when grown from the seed1 though such seedlings are seldom so good as the plants from which they came4 ,they are generally used to originate new varieties4 ,seeds of the dahlia1 for instance1 can be sowed in a box in a warm room in early ,march1 potted as soon as the plants are large enough to handle1 and finally planted in the garden when the weather is warm4 ,they will bloom nearly as soon as plants grown by dividing the roots or from cuttings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,,outdoor-,,grown ,,chrysanthemums ,in growing annual plants from seed1 there is little difficulty if the grower has a greenhouse or a hotbed with a glass sash4 ,even without these the plants may be grown in shallow boxes in a warm room4 ,the best boxes are about four inches deep with bottoms made of slats nailed a quarter of an inch apart to give proper drainage4 ,some moss is laid over the bottom to prevent the soil from sifting through4 ,the boxes should then be filled with light1 rich soil4 ,fine black forest mold1 thoroughly mixed with one fourth its bulk of well-rotted manure1 makes the best soil for filling the seed-boxes4 ,if this soil be placed in an oven and heated very hot1 the heat will destroy many weeds that would otherwise give trouble4 ,after the soil is put in the boxes it should be well packed by pressing it with a flat wooden block4 ,sow the seeds in straight rows1 and at the ends of the rows put little wooden labels with the names of the flowers on them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,,the ,,carnation 7,,eldorado7 ,seeds sowed in the same box should be of the same general size in order that they may be properly covered1 for seeds need to be covered according to their size4 ,after sowing the seed1 sift the fine soil over the surface of the box4 ,the best soil for covering small seeds is made by rubbing dry moss and leaf-mold through a sieve together4 ,this makes a light cover that will not bake and will retain moisture4 ,after covering the seeds1 press the soil firm and smooth with a wooden block4 ,now sprinkle the covering soil lightly with a watering-pot until it is fairly moistened4 ,lay some panes of glass over the box to retain the moisture1 and avoid further watering until moisture becomes absolutely necessary4 ,too much watering makes the soil too compact and rots the seed4 ,as soon as the seedlings have made a second pair of leaves1 take them up with the point of a knife and transplant them into other boxes filled in the same way4 ,they should be set two inches apart so as to give them room to grow strong4 ,they may be transplanted from the boxes to the flower-garden by taking an old knife-blade and cutting the earth into squares1 and then lifting the entire square with the plant and setting it where it is wanted4 ,there are many flower-seeds which are so small that they must not be covered at all4 ,in this class we find begonias1 petunias1 and ,chinese primroses4 ,to sow these prepare boxes as for the other seeds1 and press the earth smooth4 ,then scatter some fine1 dry moss thinly over the surface of the soil4 ,sprinkle this with water until it is well moistened1 and at once scatter the seeds thinly over the surface and cover the boxes with panes of glass until the seeds germinate4 ,transplant as soon as the young plants can be lifted out separately on the blade of a penknife4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,,the ,,poet',s ,,narcissus ,many kinds of flower-seeds may be sowed directly in the open ground where they are to remain4 ,the sweet pea is one of the most popular flowers grown in this way4 ,the seeds should be sowed rather thickly in rows and covered fully four inches deep4 ,the sowing should be varied in time according to the climate4 ,from ,north ,carolina southward1 sweet peas may be sowed in the fall or in ,january1 as they are very hardy and should be forced to bloom before the weather becomes hot4 ,late spring sowing will not give fine flowers in the ,south4 ,from ,north ,carolina northward the seeds should be sowed just as early in the spring as the ground can be easily worked4 ,when the plants appear1 stakes should be set along the rows and a strip of woven-wire fence stretched for the plants to climb on4 ,morning-glory seeds are also sowed where they are to grow4 ,the seeds of the moonflower are large and hard and will fail to grow unless they are slightly cut4 ,to start their growth make a slight cut just through the hard outer coat of the seed so as to expose the white inside4 ,in this way they will grow very readily4 ,the seeds of the canna1 or ,indian-shot plant1 are treated in a similar way to start them growing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,a ,,cyclamen ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,a ,,modern ,,sweet ,,pea ,the canna makes large fleshy roots which in the ,north are taken up1 covered with damp moss1 and stored under the benches of the greenhouse or in a cellar4 ,if allowed to get too dry1 they will wither4 ,from central ,north ,carolina south it is best to cover them up thickly with dead leaves and let them stay in the ground where they grew4 ,in the early spring take them up and divide for replanting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,,dahlias ,perennial plants1 such as our flowering shrubs1 are grown from cuttings of the ripe wood after the leaves have fallen in autumn4 ,from ,north ,carolina southward these cuttings should be set in rows in the fall4 ,cuttings ten inches long are set so that the tops are just even with the ground4 ,a light cover of pine leaves will prevent damage from frost4 ,farther north the cuttings should be tied in bundles and well buried in the ground with earth heaped over them4 ,in the spring set them in rows for rooting4 ,in the ,south all the hardy hybrid perpetual roses can be grown in this way1 and in any section the cuttings of most of the spring-flowering shrubs will grow in the same manner4 ,the ,japanese quince1 which makes such a show of its scarlet flowers in early spring1 can be best grown from three-inch cuttings made of the roots and planted in rows in the fall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,,four-,o',,clocks ,,set ,,in ,a ,,good ,,place ,many of our ornamental evergreen trees1 such as the arbor vitae1 can be grown in the spring from seeds sowed in a frame4 ,cotton cloth should be stretched over the trees while they are young1 to prevent the sun from scorching them4 ,when a year old they may be set in nursery rows to develop until they are large enough to plant4 ,arbor vitae may also be grown from cuttings made by setting young tips in boxes of sand in the fall and keeping them warm and moist through the winter4 ,most of them will be rooted by spring4 ,the kinds of flowers that you can grow are almost countless4 ,you can hardly make a mistake in selecting1 as all are interesting4 ,start this year with a few and gradually increase the number under your care year by year1 and aim always to make your plants the choicest of their kind4 ,of annuals there are over four hundred kinds cultivated4 ,you may select from the following list3 phlox1 petunias1 ,china asters1 ,california poppies1 sweet peas1 pinks1 double and single sunflowers1 hibiscus1 candytuft1 balsams1 morning-glories1 stocks1 nasturtiums1 verbenas1 mignonette4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,a ,,window ,,box ,of perennials select bleeding-hearts1 pinks1 bluebells1 hollyhocks1 perennial phlox1 perennial hibiscus1 wild asters1 and goldenrods4 ,from bulbs choose crocus1 tulip1 daffodil1 narcissus1 lily of the valley1 and lily4 ,some climbers are cobaea1 honeysuckle1 ,virginia creeper1 ,english ivy1 ,boston ivy1 cypress vine1 hyacinth bean1 climbing nasturtiums1 and roses4 ,to make your plants do best1 cultivate them carefully4 ,allow no weeds to grow among them and do not let the surface of the soil dry into a hard crust4 ,beware1 however1 of stirring the soil too deep4 ,loosening the soil about the roots interrupts the feeding of the plant and does harm4 ,climbing plants may be trained to advantage on low woven-wire fences4 ,these are especially serviceable for sweet peas and climbing nasturtiums4 ,do not let the plants go to seed1 since seeding is a heavy drain on nourishment4 ,moreover1 the plant has served its end when it seeds and is ready then to stop blossoming4 ,you should therefore pick off the old flowers to prevent their developing seeds4 ,this will cause many plants which would otherwise soon stop blossoming to continue bearing flowers for a longer period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,a ,,window-,,garden ,window-,gardening4 ,growing plants indoors in the window possesses many of the attractions of outdoor flower-gardening1 and is a means of beautifying the room at very small expense4 ,especially do window-gardens give delight during the barren winter time4 ,they are a source of culture and pleasure to thousands who cannot afford extended and expensive ornamentation4 ,the window-garden may vary in size from an eggshell holding a minute plant to boxes filling all the available space about the window4 ,the soil may be in pots for individual plants or groups of plants or in boxes for collections of plants4 ,you may raise your flowers inside of the window on shelves or stands1 or you may have a set of shelves built outside of the window and inclosed in glazed sashes4 ,the illustration on page #aai gives an idea of such an external window-garden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,,an ,,inside ,,window ,,box ,,in ,,its ,,full ,,glory ,the soil must be rich and loose4 ,the best contains some undecayed organic matter such as leaf-mold or partly decayed sods and some sand4 ,raise your plants from bulbs1 cuttings1 or seed1 just as in outdoor gardens4 ,some plants do better in cool rooms1 others in a warmer temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,,making ,,the ,,outside ,,of ,a ,,window ,,bloom ,if the temperature ranges from #ce deg4 to #gj deg41 averaging about #ee deg41 azaleas1 daisies1 carnations1 candytuft1 alyssum1 dusty miller1 chrysanthemums1 cinerarias1 camellias1 daphnes1 geraniums1 petunias1 violets1 primroses1 and verbenas make especially good growths4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,beautiful ,,window ,,flower ,if the temperature is from #ej deg4 to #ij deg41 averaging #gj deg41 try abutilon1 begonia1 bouvardia1 caladium1 canna1 ,cape jasmine1 coleus1 fuchsia1 gloxinia1 heliotrope1 lantana1 lobelia1 roses1 and smilax4 ,if your box or window is shaded a good part of the time1 raise begonias1 camellias1 ferns1 and ,asparagus ,sprengeri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,,ferns ,,for ,,both ,,indoors ,,and ,,outdoors ,when the soil is dry1 water it2 then apply no more water until it again becomes dry4 ,beware of too much water4 ,the plants should be washed occasionally with soapsuds and then rinsed4 ,if red spiders are present1 sponge them off with water as hot as can be borne comfortably by the hand4 ,newspapers afford a good means of keeping off the cold4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,plants ,,section ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,cause ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,plant ,,disease ,plants have diseases just as animals do2 not the same diseases1 to be sure1 but just as serious for the plant4 ,some of them are so dangerous that they kill the plant2 others partly or wholly destroy its usefulness or its beauty4 ,some diseases are found oftenest on very young plants1 others prey on the middle-aged tree1 while still others attack merely the fruit4 ,whenever a farmer or fruit-grower has disease on his plants1 he is sure to lose much profit4 ,you have all seen rotten fruit4 ,this is diseased fruit4 ,fruit rot is a plant disease4 ,it costs farmers millions of dollars annually4 ,a fruit-grower recently lost sixty carloads of peaches in a single year through rot which could have been largely prevented if he had known how4 ,many of the yellowish or discolored spots on leaves are the result of disease1 as is also the smut of wheat1 corn1 and oats1 the blight of the pear1 and the wilt of cotton4 ,many of these diseases are contagious1 or1 as we often hear said of measles1 catching4 ,this is true1 among others1 of the apple and peach rots4 ,a healthy apple can catch this disease from a sick apple4 ,you often see evidence of this in the apple bin4 ,so1 too1 many of the diseases found in the field or garden are contagious4 ,sometimes when the skin of a rotten apple has been broken you will find in the broken place a blue mold4 ,it was this that caused the apple to decay4 ,this mold is a living plant2 very small1 certainly1 but nevertheless a plant4 ,let us learn a little about molds1 in order that we may better understand our apple and potato rots1 as well as other plant diseases4 ,if you cut a lemon and let it stand for a day or two1 there will probably appear a blue mold like that you have seen on the surface of canned fruit4 ,bread also sometimes has this blue mold2 at other times bread has a black mold1 and yet again a pink or a yellow mold4 ,these and all other molds are tiny living plants4 ,instead of seeds they produce many very small bodies that serve the purpose of seeds and reproduce the mold4 ,these are called spores4 ,fig4 #aab shows how they are borne on the parent plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,,tangled ,,threads ,,of ,,blue ,,mold ,the single stalk on the left shows how spores are borne ,it is also of great importance to decide whether by keeping the spores away we may prevent mold4 ,possibly this experiment will help us4 ,moisten a piece of bread1 then dip a match or a pin into the blue mold on a lemon1 and draw the match across the moist bread4 ,you will thus plant the spores in a row1 though they are so small that perhaps you may not see any of them4 ,place the bread in a damp place for a few days and watch it4 ,does the mold grow where you planted it8 ,does it grow elsewhere8 ,this experiment should prove to you that molds are living things and can be planted4 ,if you find spots elsewhere1 you must bear in mind that these spores are very small and light and that some of them were probably blown about when you made your sowing4 ,when you touch the moldy portion of a dry lemon1 you see a cloud of dust rise4 ,this dust is made of millions of spores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,,magnified ,,rose ,,mildew ,if you plant many other kinds of mold you will find that the molds come true to the kind that is planted2 that like produces like even among molds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,a ,,mildewed ,,rose ,you can prove1 also1 that the mold is caused only by other mold4 ,to do this1 put some wet bread in a wide-mouthed bottle and plug the mouth of the bottle with cotton4 ,kill all the spores that may be in this bottle by steaming it an hour in a cooking-steamer4 ,this bread will not mold until you allow live mold from the outside to enter4 ,if1 however1 at any time you open the bottle and allow spores to enter1 or if you plant spores therein1 and if there be moisture enough1 mold will immediately set in4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,a ,,highly ,,magnified ,,section ,,of ,,diseased ,,pear ,,leaf ,showing how spores are borne ,the little plants which make up these molds are called fungi4 ,some fungi1 such as the toadstools1 puffballs1 and devil's snuff-box1 are quite large2 others1 namely the molds1 are very small2 and others are even smaller than the molds4 ,fungi never have the green color of ordinary plants1 always reproduce by spores1 and feed on living matter or matter that was once alive4 ,puffballs1 for example1 are found on rotting wood or dead twigs or roots4 ,some fungi grow on living plants1 and these produce plant disease by taking their nourishment from the plant on which they grow2 the latter plant is called the host4 ,the same blue mold that grows on bread often attacks apples that have been slightly bruised2 it cannot pierce healthy apple skin4 ,you can plant the mold in the bruised apple just as you did on bread and watch its rapid spread through the apple4 ,you learn from this the need of preventing bruised or decayed apples from coming in contact with healthy fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,,spores ,,of ,,the ,,pear ,,scab ,the spores are borne on stalks ,just as the fungus studied above lives in the apple or bread1 so other varieties live on leaves1 bark1 etc4 ,fig4 #aac represents the surface of a mildewed rose leaf greatly magnified4 ,this mildew is a fungus4 ,you can see its creeping stems1 its upright stalk1 and numerous spores ready to fall off and spread the disease with the first breath of wind4 ,you must remember that this figure is greatly magnified1 and that the whole portion shown in the figure is only about one tenth of an inch across4 ,fig4 #aad shows the general appearance of a twig affected by this disease4 ,mildew on the rose or on any other plant may be killed by spraying the leaves with a solution of liver of sulphur2 to make this solution1 use one ounce of the liver of sulphur to two gallons of water4 ,the fungus that causes the pear-leaf spots has its spores in little pits 7,fig4 #aae74 ,the spores of some fungi also grow on stalks1 as shown in ,fig4 #aaf4 ,this figure represents an enlarged view of the pear scab1 which causes so much destruction4 ,you see1 then1 that fungi are living plants that grow at the expense of other plants and cause disease4 ,now if you can cover the leaf with a poison that will kill the spore when it comes1 you can prevent the disease4 ,one such poison is the ,bordeaux 7bor-do'7 mixture1 which has proved of great value to farmers4 ,since the fungus in most cases lives within the leaves1 the poison on the outside does no good after the fungus is established4 ,the treatment can be used only to prevent attack1 not to cure1 except in the case of a few mildews that live on the outside of the leaf1 as does the rose mildew4 ,,exercise ,why do things mold more readily in damp places8 ,do you now understand why fruit is heated before it is canned8 ,try to grow several kinds of mold4 ,do you know any fungi which may be eaten8 ,transfer disease from a rotten apple to a healthy one and note the rapidity of decay4 ,how many really healthy leaves can you find on a strawberry plant8 ,do you find any spots with reddish borders and white centers8 ,do you know that this is a serious disease of the strawberry8 ,what damage does fruit mold do to peaches1 plums1 or strawberries8 ,write to your experiment station for bulletins on plant diseases and methods for making and using spraying mixtures4 ,,section ,,xxviii4 ,,yeast ,,and ,,bacteria ,can you imagine a plant so small that it would take one hundred plants lying side by side to equal the thickness of a sheet of writing-paper8 ,there are plants that are so small4 ,moreover1 these same plants are of the utmost importance to man4 ,some of them do him great injury1 while others aid him very much4 ,you will see their importance when you are told that certain of them in their habits of life cause great change in the substances in which they live4 ,for example1 when living in a sugary substance they change the sugar into a gas and an alcohol4 ,do you remember the bright bubbles of gas you have seen rising in sweet cider or in wine as it soured8 ,these bubbles are caused by one of these small plants--the yeast plant4 ,as the yeast plant grows in the sweet fruit juice1 alcohol is made and a gas is given off at the same time1 and this gas makes the bubbles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,,yeast ,,plants ,a1 a single plant2 ,b1 group of two budding cells2 ,c1 group of several cells ,later1 other kinds of plants equally small will grow and change the alcohol into an acid which you will recognize as vinegar by its sour taste and peculiar odor4 ,thus vinegar is made by the action of two different kinds of little living plants in the cider4 ,that these are living beings you can prove by heating the cider and keeping it tightly sealed so that nothing can enter it4 ,you will find that because the living germs have been killed by the heat1 the cider will not ferment or sour as it did before4 ,the germs could of course be killed by poisons1 but then the cider would be unfit for use4 ,it is this same little yeast plant that causes bread to rise4 ,when you see any decaying matter you may know that in it minute plants much like the yeast plant are at work4 ,since decay is due to them1 we take advantage of the fact that they cannot grow in strong brine or smoke2 and we prepare meat for keeping by salting it or by smoking it or by both of these methods4 ,you see that some of the yeast plants and bacteria1 as many of these forms are called1 are very friendly to us1 while others do us great harm4 ,some bacteria grow within the bodies of men and other animals or in plants4 ,when they do so they may produce disease4 ,typhoid fever1 diphtheria1 consumption1 and many other serious diseases are caused by bacteria4 ,fig4 #aah1 e1 shows the bacterium that causes typhoid fever4 ,in the picture1 of course1 it is very greatly magnified4 ,in reality these bacteria are so small that about twenty-five thousand of them side by side would extend only one inch4 ,these small beings produce their great effects by very rapid multiplication and by giving off powerful poisons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,,forms ,,of ,,bacteria a1 grippe2 b1 bubonic plague2 c1 diphtheria2 d1 tuberculosis2 e1 typhoid fever ,bacteria are so small that they are readily borne on the dust particles of the air and are often taken into the body through the breath and also through water or milk4 ,you can therefore see how careful you should be to prevent germs from getting into the air or into water or milk when there is disease about your home4 ,you should heed carefully all instructions of your physician on this point1 so that you may not spread disease4 ,,section ,,xxix4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,plant ,,disease ,in the last two sections you have learned something of the nature of those fungi and bacteria that cause disease in animals and plants4 ,now let us see how we can use this knowledge to lessen the diseases of our crops4 ,farmers lose through plant diseases much that could be saved by proper precaution4 ,first1 you must remember that every diseased fruit1 twig1 or leaf bears millions of spores4 ,these must be destroyed by burning4 ,they must not be allowed to lie about and spread the disease in the spring4 ,see that decayed fruit in the bin or on the trees is destroyed in the same manner4 ,never throw decayed fruit into the garden or orchard1 as it may cause disease the following year4 ,second1 you can often kill spores on seeds before they are planted and thus prevent the development of the fungus 7see pp4 #acd-acg74 ,third1 often the foliage of the plant can be sprayed with a poison that will prevent the germination of the spores 7see pp4 #ach-adj74 ,fourth1 some varieties of plants resist disease much more stoutly than others4 ,we may often select the resistant form to great advantage 7see ,fig4 #aai74 ,fifth1 after big limbs are pruned off1 decay often sets in at the wound4 ,this decay may be prevented by coating the cut surface with paint1 tar1 or some other substance that will not allow spores to enter the wound or to germinate there4 ,sixth1 it frequently happens that the spore or fungus remains in the soil4 ,this is true in the cotton wilt1 and the remedy is so to rotate crops that the diseased land is not used again for this crop until the spores or fungi have died4 ,,section ,,xxx4 ,,some ,,special ,,plant ,,diseases ,fire-,blight of the ,pear and ,apple4 ,you have perhaps heard your father speak of the fire-blight of pear and apple trees4 ,this is one of the most injurious and most widely known of fruit diseases4 ,do you want to know the cause of this disease and how to prevent it8 ,first1 how will you recognize this disease8 ,if the diseased bough at which you are looking has true fire-blight1 you will see a blackened twig with withered1 blackened leaves4 ,during winter the leaves do not fall from blighted twigs as they do from healthy ones4 ,the leaves wither because of the diseased twig1 not because they are themselves diseased4 ,only rarely does the blight really enter the leaf4 ,sometimes a sharp line separates the blighted from the healthy part of the twig4 ,this disease is caused by bacteria1 of which you have read in another section4 ,the fire-blight bacteria grow in the juicy part of the stem1 between the wood and the bark4 ,this tender1 fresh layer 7as explained on page #gi7 is called the cambium1 and is the part that breaks away and allows you to slip the bark off when you make your bark whistle in the spring4 ,the growth of new wood takes place in the cambium1 and this part of the twig is therefore full of nourishment4 ,if this nourishment is stolen the plant of course soon suffers4 ,the bacteria causing fire-blight are readily carried from flower to flower and from twig to twig by insects2 therefore to keep these and other bacteria away from your trees you must see to it that all the trees in the neighborhood of your orchard are kept free from mischievous enemies4 ,if harmful bacteria exist in near-by trees1 insects will carry them to your orchard4 ,you must therefore watch all the relatives of the pear2 namely1 the apple1 hawthorn1 crab1 quince1 and mountain ash1 for any of these trees may harbor the germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,a ,,resistant ,,variety ,,of ,,sea ,,island ,,cotton ,all the other plants in this field died4 ,this one row lived because it could resist the cotton wilt ,when any tree shows blight1 every diseased twig on it must be cut off and burned in order to kill the germs1 and you must cut low enough on the twig to get all the bacteria4 ,it is best to cut a foot below the blackened portion4 ,if by chance your knife should cut into wood containing the living germs1 and then you should cut into healthy wood with the same knife1 you yourself would spread the disease4 ,it is therefore best after each cutting to dip your knife into a solution of carbolic acid4 ,this will kill all bacteria clinging to the knife-blade4 ,the surest time to do complete trimming is after the leaves fall in the autumn1 as diseased twigs are most easily recognized at that time1 but the orchard should be carefully watched in the spring also4 ,if a large limb shows the blight1 it is perhaps best to cut the tree entirely down4 ,there is little hope for such a tree4 ,a large pear-grower once said that no man with a sharp knife need fear the fire-blight4 ,yet our country loses greatly by this disease each year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,,fire-,,blight ,,bacteria ,magnified ,it may be added that winter pruning tends to make the tree form much new wood and thus favors the disease4 ,rich soil and fertilizers make it much easier in a similar way for the tree to become a prey to blight4 ,,exercise ,ask your teacher to show you a case of fire-blight on a pear or apple tree4 ,can you distinguish between healthy and diseased wood8 ,cut the twig open lengthwise and see how deep into the wood and how far down the stem the disease extends4 ,can you tell surely from the outside how far the twig is diseased8 ,can you find any twig that does not show a distinct line of separation between diseased and healthy wood8 ,if so1 the bacteria are still living in the cambium4 ,cut out a small bit of the diseased portion and insert it under the bark of a healthy1 juicy twig within a few inches of its tip and watch it from day to day4 ,does the tree catch the disease8 ,this experiment may prove to you how easily the disease spreads4 ,if you should see any drops like dew hanging from diseased twigs1 touch a little of this moisture to a healthy flower and watch for results4 ,cut and burn all diseased twigs that you can find4 ,estimate the damage done by fire-blight4 ,farmers' bulletins on orchard enemies are published by the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 and can be had by writing for them4 ,they will help your father much in treating fire-blight4 ,oat ,smuts4 ,let us go out into a near-by oat field and look for all the blackened heads of grain that we can find4 ,how many are there8 ,to count accurately let us select an area one foot square4 ,we must look carefully1 for many of these blackened heads are so low that we shall not see them at the first glance4 ,you will be surprised to find as many as thirty or forty heads in every hundred so blackened4 ,these blackened heads are due to a plant disease called smut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,,loose ,,smut ,,of ,,oats ,the glumes at a more nearly destroyed than the glumes at b ,when threshing-time comes you will notice a great quantity of black dust coming from the grain as it passes through the machine4 ,the air is full of it4 ,this black dust consists of the spores of a tiny fungous plant4 ,the fungous smut plant grows upon the oat plant1 ripens its spores in the head1 and is ready to be thoroughly scattered among the grains of the oats as they come from the threshing-machine4 ,these spores cling to the grain and at the next planting are ready to attack the sprouting plantlet4 ,a curious thing about the smut is that it can gain a foothold only on very young oat plants2 that is1 on plants about an inch long or of the age shown in ,fig4 #aba4 ,when grain covered with smut spores is planted1 the spores develop with the sprouting seeds and are ready to attack the young plant as it breaks through the seed-coat4 ,you see1 then1 how important it is to have seed grain free from smut4 ,a substance has been found that will1 without injuring the seeds1 kill all the smut spores clinging to the grain4 ,this substance is called formalin4 ,enough seed to plant a whole acre can be treated with formalin at a cost of only a few cents4 ,such treatment insures a full crop and clean seed for future planting4 ,try it if you have any smut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,a ,,crop ,,from ,,oats ,,treated ,,with ,,formalin ,fig4 #abb illustrates what may be gained by using seeds treated to prevent smut4 ,the annual loss to the farmers of the ,united ,states from smut on oats amounts to several millions of dollars4 ,all that is needed to prevent this loss is a little care in the treatment of seed and a proper rotation of crops4 ,,exercise ,count the smutted heads on a patch three feet square and estimate the percentage of smut in all the wheat and oat fields near your home4 ,on which is it most abundant8 ,do you know of any fields that have been treated for smut8 ,if so1 look for smut in these fields4 ,ask how they were treated4 ,do you know of any one who uses bluestone for wheat smut8 ,can oats be treated with bluestone8 ,at planting time get an ounce of formalin at your drug store or from the state experiment station4 ,mix this with three gallons of water4 ,this amount will treat three bushels of seeds4 ,spread the seeds thinly on the barn floor and sprinkle them with the mixture1 being careful that all the seeds are thoroughly moistened4 ,cover closely with blankets for a few hours and plant very soon after treatment4 ,try this and estimate the per cent of smut at next harvest-time4 ,write to your experiment station for a bulletin on smut treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,a ,,scabby ,,seed ,,potato ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,a ,,healthy ,,seed ,,potato ,potato ,scab4 ,the scab of the white1 or ,irish1 potato is one of the commonest and at the same time most easily prevented of plant diseases4 ,yet this disease diminishes the profits of the potato-grower very materially4 ,fig4 #abc shows a very scabby potato1 while ,fig4 #abd represents a healthy one4 ,this scab is caused by a fungous growth on the surface of the potato4 ,of course it lessens the selling-price of the potatoes4 ,if seed potatoes be treated to a bath of formalin just before they are planted1 the formalin will kill the fungi on the potatoes and greatly diminish the amount of scab at the next harvest4 ,therefore before they are planted1 seed potatoes should be soaked in a weak solution of formalin for about two hours4 ,one-half pint of formalin to fifteen gallons of water makes a proper solution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe ,from a scabby potato1 like the one in ,fig4 #abc1 this yield was obtained ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf ,from a healthy potato1 like the one in ,fig4 #abd1 this yield was obtained ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,,effect ,,of ,,spraying ,sprayed potatoes on left2 unsprayed on right ,one pint of formalin1 or enough for thirty gallons of water1 will cost but thirty-five cents4 ,since this solution can be used repeatedly1 it will do for many bushels of seed potatoes4 ,late ,potato ,blight4 ,the blight is another serious disease of the potato4 ,this is quite a different disease from the scab and so requires different treatment4 ,the blight is caused by another fungus1 which attacks the foliage of the potato plant4 ,when the blight seriously attacks a crop1 it generally destroys the crop completely4 ,in the year #ahde a potato famine extending over all the ,united ,states and ,europe was caused by this disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,,yield ,,from ,,two ,,fields ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,size ,the one at the top was sprayed2 the one at the bottom was unsprayed ,spraying is the remedy for potato blight4 ,fig4 #abh shows the effect of spraying upon the yield4 ,in this case the sprayed field yielded three hundred and twenty-four bushels an acre1 while the unsprayed yielded only one hundred bushels to an acre4 ,fig4 #abg shows the result of three applications of the spraying mixture on the diseased field4 ,figs4 #abi and #acj show how the spraying is done4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,,spraying ,,machine ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,,spraying ,,machine ,,exercise ,watch the potatoes at the next harvest and estimate the number that is damaged by scab4 ,you will remember that formalin is the substance used to prevent grain smuts4 ,write to your state experiment station for a bulletin telling how to use formalin1 as well as for information regarding other potato diseases4 ,give the treatment a fair trial in a portion of your field this year and watch carefully for results4 ,make an estimate of the cost of treatment and of the profits4 ,how does the scab injure the value of the potato8 ,the late blight can often be recognized by its odor4 ,did you ever smell it as you passed an affected field8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,,club ,,root ,club ,root4 ,club root is a disease of the cabbage1 turnip1 cauliflower1 etc4 ,its general effect is shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #aca74 ,sometimes this disease does great damage4 ,it can be prevented by using from eighty to ninety bushels of lime to an acre4 ,black ,knot4 ,black knot is a serious disease of the plum and of the cherry tree4 ,it attacks the branches of the tree2 it is well illustrated in ,fig4 #acb4 ,since it is a contagious disease1 great care should be exercised to destroy all diseased branches of either wild or cultivated plums or cherries4 ,in many states its destruction is enforced by law4 ,all black knot should be cut out and burned some time before ,february of each year4 ,this will cost little and save much4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,,black ,,knot ,peach ,leaf ,curl4 ,peach leaf curl does damage amounting to about #c1jjj1jjj yearly in the ,united ,states4 ,it can be almost entirely prevented by spraying the tree with ,bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur wash before the buds open in the spring4 ,it is not safe to use strong ,bordeaux mixture on peach trees when they are in leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,,moldy ,,peaches ,cotton ,wilt4 ,cotton wilt when it once establishes itself in the soil completely destroys the crop4 ,the fungus remains in the soil1 and no amount of spraying will kill it4 ,the only known remedy is to cultivate a resistant variety of cotton or to rotate the crop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,,peach ,,mummies ,fruit ,mold4 ,fruit mold1 or brown rot1 often attacks the unripe fruit on the tree1 and turns it soft and brown and finally fuzzy with a coat of mildew4 ,fig4 #acc shows some peaches thus attacked4 ,often the fruits do not fall from the trees but shrivel up and become mummies 7,fig4 #acd74 ,this rot is one of the most serious diseases of plums and peaches4 ,it probably diminishes the value of the peach harvest from #ej to #ge per cent4 ,spraying according to the directions in the ,appendix will kill the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,,half ,,of ,,tree ,,sprayed ,,to ,,prevent ,,peach ,,curl ,note the difference in foliage and fruit on the sprayed and unsprayed halves of the tree1 and the difference in yield shown below ,,chapter ,,vii ,,orchard1 ,,garden1 ,,and ,,field ,,insects ,,section ,,xxxi4 ,,insects ,,in ,,general ,the farmer who has fought bugs on crop after crop needs no argument to convince him that insects are serious enemies to agriculture4 ,yet even he may be surprised to learn that the damage done by them1 as estimated by good authority1 amounts to millions and millions of dollars yearly in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,,ants ,every one thinks he knows what an insect is4 ,if1 however1 we are willing in this matter to make our notion agree with that of the people who have studied insects most and know them best1 we must include among the true insects only such air-breathing animals as have six legs1 no more1 and have the body divided into three parts--head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,these parts are clearly shown in ,fig4 #acf1 which represents the ant1 a true insect4 ,all insects do not show the divisions of the body so clearly as this figure shows them1 but on careful examination you can usually make them out4 ,the head bears one pair of feelers1 and these in many insects serve also as organs of smell and sometimes of hearing4 ,less prominent feelers are to be found in the region of the mouth4 ,these serve as organs of taste4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,,parts ,,of ,,an ,,insect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,,compound ,,eye ,,of ,,dragon ,,fly ,the eyes of insects are especially noticeable4 ,close examination shows them to be made up of a thousand or more simple eyes4 ,such an eye is called a compound eye4 ,an enlarged view of one of these is shown in ,fig4 #ach4 ,attached to the thorax are the legs and also the wings1 if the insect has wings4 ,the rear portion is the abdomen1 and this1 like the other parts1 is composed of parts known as segments4 ,the insect breathes through openings in the abdomen and thorax called spiracles 7see ,fig4 #acg74 ,an examination of spiders1 mites1 and ticks shows eight legs2 therefore these do not belong to the true insects1 nor do the thousand-legged worms and their relatives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,,the ,,house ,,fly a1 egg2 b1 larva1 or maggot2 c1 pupa2 d1 adult male4 7,all enlarged7 ,the chief classes of insects are as follows3 the flies1 with two wings only2 the bees1 wasps1 and ants1 with four delicate wings2 the beetles1 with four wings--two hard1 horny ones covering the two more delicate ones4 ,when the beetle is at rest its two hard wings meet in a straight line down the back4 ,this peculiarity distinguishes it from the true bug1 which has four wings4 ,the two outer wings are partly horny1 and in folding lap over each other4 ,butterflies and moths are much alike in appearance but differ in habit4 ,the butterfly works by day and the moth by night4 ,note the knob on the end of the butterfly's feeler 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the moth has no such knob4 ,it is important to know how insects take their food1 for by knowing this we are often able to destroy insect pests4 ,some are provided with mouth parts for chewing their food2 others have a long tube with which they pierce plants or animals and1 like the mosquito1 suck their food from the inside4 ,insects of this latter class cannot of course be harmed by poison on the surface of the leaves on which they feed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,a ,,typical ,,bug a1 adult2 b1 side view of sucking mouth-part ,both a and b are much enlarged ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,,beetle a1 larva2 b1 pupa2 c1 adult2 d1 burrow ,many insects change their form from youth to old age so much that you can scarcely recognize them as the same creatures4 ,first comes the egg4 ,the egg hatches into a worm-like animal known as a grub1 maggot1 or caterpillar1 or1 as scientists call it1 a larva4 ,this creature feeds and grows until finally it settles down and spins a home of silk1 called a cocoon 7,fig4 #ade74 ,if we open the cocoon we shall find that the animal is now covered with a hard outside skeleton1 that it cannot move freely1 and that it cannot eat at all4 ,the animal in this state is known as the pupa 7,figs4 #ade and #adf74 ,sometimes1 however1 the pupa is not covered by a cocoon1 sometimes it is soft1 and sometimes it has some power of motion 7,fig4 #ada74 ,after a rest in the pupa stage the animal comes out a mature insect 7,figs4 #adb and #adc74 ,from this you can see that it is especially important to know all you can about the life of injurious insects1 since it is often easier to kill these pests at one stage of their life than at another4 ,often it is better to aim at destroying the seemingly harmless beetle or butterfly than to try to destroy the larvae that hatch from its eggs1 although1 as you must remember1 it is generally the larvae that do the most harm4 ,larvae grow very rapidly2 therefore the food supply must be great to meet the needs of the insect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,,moth ,,and ,,cocoon ,some insects1 the grasshopper for example1 do not completely change their form4 ,fig4 #adg represents some young grasshoppers1 which very closely resemble their parents4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,,butterfly ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,caterpillar ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,,moth ,,pupa ,,in ,,cocoon ,insects lay many eggs and reproduce with remarkable rapidity4 ,their number therefore makes them a foe to be much dreaded4 ,the queen honeybee often lays as many as #djjj eggs in twenty-four hours4 ,a single house fly lays between #ajj and #aej eggs in one day4 ,the mosquito lays eggs in quantities of from #bjj to #djj4 ,the white ant often lays #hj1jjj in a day1 and so continues for two years1 probably laying no less than #dj1jjj1jjj eggs4 ,in one summer the bluebottle fly could have #ejj1jjj1jjj descendants if they all lived4 ,the plant louse1 at the end of the fifth brood1 has laid in a single year enough eggs to produce #cjj1jjj1jjj young4 ,of course every one knows that1 owing to enemies and diseases 7for the insects have enemies which prey on them just as they prey on plants7 comparatively few of the insects hatched from these eggs live till they are grown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,a ,,butterfly ,,pupa ,note outline of the butterfly ,the number of insects which are hurtful to crops1 gardens1 flowers1 and forests seems to be increasing each season4 ,therefore farm boys and girls should learn to recognize these harmful insects and to know how they live and how they may be destroyed4 ,those who know the forms and habits of these enemies of plants and trees are far better prepared to fight them than are those who strike in the dark4 ,moreover such knowledge is always a source of interest and pleasure4 ,if you begin to study insects1 you will soon find your love for the study growing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,a ,,grasshopper ,,exercise ,collect cocoons and pupae of insects and hatch them in a breeding-cage similar to the one illustrated in ,fig4 #adi4 ,make several cages of this kind4 ,collect larvae of several kinds2 supply them with food from plants upon which you found them4 ,find out the time it takes them to change into another stage4 ,write a description of this process4 ,the plant louse could produce in its twelfth brood #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj offspring4 ,each louse is about one tenth of an inch long4 ,if all should live and be arranged in single file1 how many miles long would such a procession be8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,,plant ,,lice ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,,cage ,,in ,,which ,,to ,,breed ,,insects ,flower-pot1 lamp-chimney1 and cloth ,,section ,,xxxii4 ,,orchard ,,insects ,the ,san ,jose ,scale4 ,the ,san ,jose scale is one of the most dreaded enemies of fruit trees4 ,it is in fact an outlaw in many states4 ,it is an unlawful act to sell fruit trees affected by it4 ,fig4 #aej shows a view of a branch nearly covered with this pest4 ,although this scale is a very minute animal1 yet so rapidly does it multiply that it is very dangerous to the tree4 ,never allow new trees to be brought into your orchard until you feel certain that they are free from the ,san ,jose scale4 ,if1 however1 it should in any way gain access to your orchard1 you can prevent its spreading by thorough spraying with what is known as the lime-sulphur mixture4 ,this mixture has long been used on the ,pacific coast as a remedy for various scale insects4 ,when it was first tried in other parts of the ,united ,states the results were not satisfactory and its use was abandoned4 ,however1 later experiments with it have proved that the mixture is thoroughly effective in killing this scale and that it is perfectly harmless to the trees4 ,until the lime-sulphur mixture proved to be successful the ,san ,jose scale was a most dreaded nursery and orchard foe4 ,it was even thought necessary to destroy infected trees4 ,the lime-sulphur mixture and some other sulphur washes not only kill the ,san ,jose scale but are also useful in reducing fungous injury4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej ,,san ,,jose ,,scale ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,,single ,,san ,,jose ,,scale ,magnified ,there are several ways of making the lime-sulphur mixture4 ,it is generally best to buy a prepared mixture from some trustworthy dealer4 ,if you find the scale on your trees1 write to your state experiment station for directions for combating it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,,the ,,codling ,,moth a1 burrow of worm in apple2 b1 place where worm enters2 c1 place where worm leaves2 e1 the larva2 d1 the pupa2 i1 the cocoon2 f and g1 moths2 h1 magnified head of larva ,the ,codling ,moth4 ,the codling moth attacks the apple and often causes a loss of from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent of the crop4 ,in the state of ,new ,york this insect is causing an annual loss of about three million dollars4 ,the effect it has on the fruit is most clearly seen in ,fig4 #aeb4 ,the moth lays its egg upon the young leaves just after the falling of the blossom4 ,she flies on from apple to apple1 depositing an egg each time until from fifty to seventy-five eggs are deposited4 ,the larva1 or worm1 soon hatches and eats its way into the apple4 ,many affected apples ripen too soon and drop as windfalls4 ,others remain on the tree and become the common wormy apples so familiar to growers4 ,the larva that emerges from the windfalls moves generally to a tree1 crawls up the trunk1 and spins its cocoon under a ridge in the bark4 ,from the cocoon the moth comes ready to start a new generation4 ,the last generation of the larvae spends the winter in the cocoon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,,spraying ,,the ,,orchard ,,brings ,,luscious ,,fruit ,the picture in the corner at the top shows the right time to spray for codling moth ,treatment4 ,destroy orchard trash which may serve as a winter home4 ,scrape all loose bark from the tree4 ,spray the tree with arsenate of lead as soon as the flowers fall4 ,a former method of fighting this pest was as follows3 bands of burlap four inches wide tied around the tree furnished a hiding-place for larvae that came from windfalls or crawled from wormy apples on the tree4 ,the larvae caught under the bands were killed every five or six days4 ,we know now1 however1 that a thorough spraying just after the blossoms fall kills the worms and renders the bands unnecessary4 ,furthermore1 spraying prevents wormy apples1 while banding does not4 ,follow the first spraying by a second two weeks later4 ,it is best to use lime-sulphur mixture or the ,bordeaux mixture with arsenate of lead for a spray4 ,thus one spraying serves against both fungi and insects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,,plum ,,curculio ,larva1 pupa1 adult1 and mark on the fruit4 7,enlarged7 ,the ,plum ,curculio4 ,the plum curculio1 sometimes called the plum weevil1 is a little creature about one fifth of an inch long4 ,in spite of its small size the curculio does1 if neglected1 great damage to our fruit crop4 ,it injures peaches1 plums1 and cherries by stinging the fruit as soon as it is formed4 ,the word stinging when applied to insects--- and this case is no exception--means piercing the object with the egg-layer 7ovipositor7 and depositing the egg4 ,some insects occasionally use the ovipositor merely for defense4 ,the curculio has an especially interesting method of laying her egg4 ,first she digs a hole1 in which she places the egg and pushes it well down4 ,then with her snout she makes a crescent-shaped cut in the skin of the plum1 around the egg4 ,this mark is shown in ,fig4 #aed4 ,as this peculiar cut is followed by a flow of gum1 you will always be able to recognize the work of the curculio4 ,having finished with one plum1 this industrious worker makes her way to other plums until her eggs are all laid4 ,the maggotlike larva soon hatches1 burrows through the fruit1 and causes it to drop before ripening4 ,the larva then enters the ground to a depth of several inches4 ,there it becomes a pupa1 and later1 as a mature beetle1 emerges and winters in cracks and crevices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,,leaf ,,galls ,,of ,,phylloxera ,,on ,,clinton ,,grape ,,leaf ,treatment4 ,burn orchard trash which may serve as winter quarters4 ,spraying with arsenate of lead1 using two pounds of the mixture to fifty gallons of water1 is the only successful treatment for the curculio4 ,for plums and peaches1 spray first when the fruit is free from the calyx caps1 or dried flower-buds4 ,repeat the spraying two weeks later4 ,for late peaches spray a third time two weeks after the second spraying4 ,this poisonous spray will kill the beetles while they are feeding or cutting holes in which to lay their eggs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,,the ,,cankerworm ,fowls in the orchard do good by capturing the larvae before they can burrow1 while hogs will destroy the fallen fruit before the larvae can escape4 ,the ,grape ,phylloxera4 ,the grape phylloxera is a serious pest4 ,you have no doubt seen its galls upon the grape leaf4 ,these galls are caused by a small louse1 the phylloxera4 ,each gall contains a female1 which soon fills the gall with eggs4 ,these hatch into more females1 which emerge and form new galls1 and so the phylloxera spreads 7see ,fig4 #aee74 ,treatment4 ,the ,clinton grape is most liable to injury from this pest4 ,hence it is better to grow other more resistant kinds4 ,sometimes the lice attack the roots of the grape vines4 ,in many sections where irrigation is practiced the grape rows are flooded when the lice are thickest4 ,the water drowns the lice and does no harm to the vines4 ,the ,cankerworm4 ,the cankerworm is the larva of a moth4 ,because of its peculiar mode of crawling1 by looping its body1 it is often called the looping worm or measuring worm 7,fig4 #aeg1 c74 ,these worms are such greedy eaters that in a short time they can so cut the leaves of an orchard as to give it a scorched appearance4 ,such an attack practically destroys the crop and does lasting injury to the tree4 ,the worms are green or brown and are striped lengthwise4 ,if the tree is jarred1 the worm has a peculiar habit of dropping toward the ground on a silken thread of its own making 7,fig4 #aef74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,,the ,,spring ,,cankerworm a1 egg mass2 b1 egg1 magnified2 c1 larva2 d1 female moth2 e1 male moth ,in early summer the larvae burrow within the earth and pupate there2 later they emerge as adults 7,fig4 #aeg1 d and e74 ,you observe the peculiar difference between the wingless female1 d1 and the winged male1 e4 ,it is the habit of this wingless female to crawl up the trunk of some near-by tree in order to deposit her eggs upon the twigs4 ,these eggs 7shown at a and b7 hatch into the greedy larvae that do so much damage to our orchards4 ,nearly all the common birds feed freely upon the cankerworm1 and benefit the orchard in so doing4 ,the chickadee is perhaps the most useful4 ,a recent writer is very positive that each chickadee will devour on an average thirty female cankerworm moths a day2 and that if the average number of eggs laid by each female is one hundred and eighty-five1 one chickadee would thus destroy in one day five thousand five hundred and fifty eggs1 and1 in the twenty-five days in which the cankerworm moths crawl up the tree1 would rid the orchard of one hundred and thirty-eight thousand seven hundred and fifty4 ,these birds also eat immense numbers of cankerworm eggs before they hatch into worms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,,eggs ,,of ,,the ,,fall ,,cankerworm ,treatment4 ,the inability of the female to fly gives us an easy way to prevent the larval offspring from getting to the foliage of our trees1 for we know that the only highway open to her or her larvae leads up the trunk4 ,we must obstruct this highway so that no crawling creature may pass4 ,this is readily done by smoothing the bark and fitting close to it a band of paper1 and making sure that it is tight enough to prevent anything from crawling underneath4 ,then smear over the paper something so sticky that any moth or larva that attempts to pass will be entangled4 ,printer's ink will do very well1 or you can buy either dendrolene or tanglefoot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,,apple-,,tree ,,tent ,,caterpillar a1 eggs2 b1 cocoon2 c1 caterpillar ,encourage the chickadee and all other birds1 except the ,english sparrow1 to stay in your orchard4 ,this is easily done by feeding and protecting them in their times of need4 ,the ,apple-,tree ,tent ,caterpillar4 ,the apple-tree tent caterpillar is a larva so well known that you only need to be told how to guard against it4 ,the mother of this caterpillar is a reddish moth4 ,this insect passes the winter in the egg state securely fastened on the twigs as shown in ,fig4 #aei1 a4 ,treatment4 ,there are three principal methods1 7#a7 ,destroy the eggs4 ,the egg masses are readily seen in winter and may easily be collected and burned by boys4 ,the chickadee eats great quantities of these eggs4 7#b7 ,with torches burn the nests at dusk when all the worms are within4 ,you must be very careful in burning or you will harm the young branches with their tender bark4 7#c7 ,encourage the residence of birds4 ,urge your neighbors to make war on the larvae1 too1 since the pest spreads rapidly from farm to farm4 ,regularly sprayed orchards are rarely troubled by this pest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,,the ,,twig ,,girdler ,,at ,,its ,,destructive ,,work a1 the girdler2 b1 the egg-hole2 c1 the groove cut by girdler2 e1 the egg ,the ,twig ,girdler4 ,the twig girdler lays her eggs in the twigs of pear1 pecan1 apple1 and other trees4 ,it is necessary that the larvae develop in dead wood4 ,this the mother provides by girdling the twig so deeply that it will die and fall to the ground4 ,treatment4 ,since the larvae spend the winter in the dead twigs1 burn these twigs in autumn or early spring and thus destroy the pest4 ,the ,peach-,tree ,borer4 ,in ,fig4 #afa you see the effect of the peach-tree borer's activity4 ,these borers often girdle and thereby kill a tree4 ,fig4 #afb shows the adult state of the insect4 ,the eggs are laid on peach or plum trees near the ground4 ,as soon as the larva emerges1 it bores into the bark and remains there for months1 passing through the pupa stage before it comes out to lay eggs for another generation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,,borer ,,signs ,,around ,,base ,,of ,,peach ,,tree ,treatment4 ,if there are only a few trees in the orchard1 digging the worms out with a knife is the best way of destroying them4 ,you can know of the borer's presence by the exuding gum often seen on the tree-trunk4 ,if you pile earth around the roots early in the spring and remove it in the late fall1 the winter freezing and thawing will kill many of the larvae4 ,,exercise ,how many apples per hundred do you find injured by the codling moth8 ,collect some cocoons from a pear or an apple tree in winter1 place in a breeding-cage1 and watch for the moths that come out4 ,do you ever see the woodpecker hunting for these same cocoons8 ,can you find cocoons that have been emptied by this bird8 ,estimate how many he considers a day's ration4 ,how many apples does he thus save8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,,peach-,,tree ,,borers1 ,,male ,,and ,,female ,female with broad yellow band across abdomen ,watch the curculio lay her eggs in the plums1 peaches1 or cherries4 ,what per cent of fruit is thus injured8 ,estimate the damage4 ,let the school offer a prize for the greatest number of tent-caterpillar eggs4 ,watch such trees as the apple1 the wild and the cultivated cherry1 the oak1 and many others4 ,make a collection of insects injurious to orchard fruits1 showing in each case the whole life history of the insect1 that is1 eggs1 larva1 pupa1 and the mature insects4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,troublesome ,,chinch ,,bug 7,,enlarged7 #a1 bugs on plant2 #b1 eggs2 #c1 young bug2 #d and #e1 older bugs2 #f1 long-winged bug2 #g and #h1 short-winged bug ,,section ,,xxxiii4 ,,garden ,,and ,,field ,,insects ,the ,cabbage ,worm4 ,the cabbage worm of the early spring garden is a familiar object1 but you may not know that the innocent-looking little white butterflies hovering about the cabbage patch are laying eggs which are soon to hatch and make the dreaded cabbage worms4 ,in ,fig4 #afd a and b show the common cabbage butterfly1 c shows several examples of the caterpillar1 and d shows the pupa case4 ,in the pupa stage the insects pass the winter among the remains of old plants or in near-by fences or in weeds or bushes4 ,cleaning up and burning all trash will destroy many pupae and thus prevent many cabbage worms4 ,in ,fig4 #afd e and f show the moth and zebra caterpillar2 g represents a moth which is the parent of the small green worm shown at h4 ,this worm is a common foe of the cabbage plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,,the ,,dreaded ,,chinch ,,bug ,treatment4 ,birds aid in the destruction of this pest4 ,paris green mixed with air-slaked lime will also kill many larvae4 ,after the cabbage has headed1 it is very difficult to destroy the worm1 but pyrethrum insect powder used freely is helpful4 ,the ,chinch ,bug4 ,the chinch bug1 attacking as it does such important crops as wheat1 corn1 and grasses1 is a well-known pest4 ,it probably causes more money loss than any other garden or field enemy4 ,in ,orange county1 ,north ,carolina1 farmers were once obliged to suspend wheat-growing for two years on account of the chinch bug4 ,in one year in the state of ,illinois this bug caused a loss of four million dollars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,,cabbage ,,worms ,,and ,,butterflies ,treatment4 ,unfortunately we cannot prevent all of the damage done by chinch bugs1 but we can diminish it somewhat by good clean agriculture4 ,destroy the winter homes of the insect by burning dry grass1 leaves1 and rubbish in fields and fence rows4 ,although the insect has wings1 it seldom or never uses them1 usually traveling on foot2 therefore a deep furrow around the field to be protected will hinder or stop the progress of an invasion4 ,the bugs fall into the bottom of the furrow1 and may there be killed by dragging a log up and down the furrow4 ,write to the ,division of ,entomology1 ,washington1 for bulletins on the chinch bug4 ,other methods of prevention are to be found in these bulletins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,a ,,plant ,,louse ,,colony ,the ,plant ,louse4 ,the plant louse is very small1 but it multiplies with very great rapidity4 ,during the summer the young are born alive1 and it is only toward fall that eggs are laid4 ,the individuals that hatch from eggs are generally wingless females1 and their young1 born alive1 are both winged and wingless4 ,the winged forms fly to other plants and start new colonies4 ,plant lice mature in from eight to fourteen days4 ,the plant louse gives off a sweetish fluid of which some ants are very fond4 ,you may often see the ants stroking these lice to induce them to give off a freer flow of the honey dew4 ,this is really a method of milking4 ,however friendly and useful these cows may be to the ant1 they are enemies to man in destroying so many of his plants4 ,treatment4 ,these are sucking insects4 ,poisons therefore do not avail4 ,they may be killed by spraying with kerosene emulsion or a strong soap solution or with tobacco water4 ,lice on cabbages are easily killed by a mixture of one pound of lye soap in four gallons of warm water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,a ,,cheap ,,spraying ,,outfit ,the ,squash ,bug4 ,the squash bug does its greatest damage to young plants4 ,to such its attack is often fatal4 ,on larger plants single leaves may die4 ,this insect is a serious enemy to a crop and is particularly difficult to get rid of1 since it belongs to the class of sucking insects1 not to the biting insects4 ,for this reason poisons are useless4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,a ,,squash ,,bug ,treatment4 ,about the only practicable remedy is to pick these insects by hand4 ,we can1 however1 protect our young plants by small nettings and thus tide them over the most dangerous period of their lives4 ,these bugs greatly prefer the squash as food4 ,you can therefore diminish their attack on your melons1 cucumbers1 etc4 by planting among the melons an occasional squash plant as a trap plant4 ,hand picking will be easier on a few trap plants than over the whole field4 ,a small board or large leaf laid beside the young plant often furnishes night shelter for the bugs4 ,the bugs collected under the board may easily be killed every morning4 ,the ,flea-,beetle4 ,the flea-beetle inflicts much damage on the potato1 tomato1 eggplant1 and other garden plants4 ,the accompanying figure shows the common striped flea-beetle which lives on the tomato4 ,the larva of this beetle lives inside of the leaves1 mining its way through the leaf in a real tunnel4 ,any substance disagreeable to the beetle1 such as plaster1 soot1 ashes1 or tobacco1 will repel its attacks on the garden crops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,,flea-,,beetle ,,and ,,larva a1 larva2 b1 adult4 ,lines on sides show real length of insects ,the ,weevil4 ,the weevil is commonly found among seeds4 ,its attacks are serious1 but the insect may easily be destroyed4 ,treatment4 ,put the infected seeds in an air-tight box or bin1 placing on the top of the pile a dish containing carbon disulphide1 a tablespoonful to a bushel of seeds4 ,the fumes of this substance are heavy and will pass through the mass of seeds below and kill all the weevils and other animals there4 ,the bin should be closely covered with canvas or heavy cloth to prevent the fumes from being carried away by the air4 ,let the seeds remain thus from two to five days4 ,repeat the treatment if any weevils are found alive4 ,fumigate when the temperature is #gj deg4 ,fahrenheit or above4 ,in cold weather or in a loose bin the treatment is not successful4 ,caution3 ,do not approach the bin with a light1 since the fumes of the chemical used are highly inflammable4 ,the ,hessian ,fly4 ,the ,hessian fly does more damage to the wheat crop than all other insects combined1 and probably ranks next to the chinch bug as the second worst insect enemy of the farmer4 ,it was probably introduced into this country by the ,hessian troops in the ,war of the ,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,,the ,,hessian ,,fly ,in autumn the insect lays its eggs in the leaves of the wheat4 ,these hatch into the larvae1 which move down into the crown of the plant1 where they pass the winter4 ,there they cause on the plant a slight gall formation1 which injures or kills the plant4 ,in the spring adult flies emerge and lay eggs4 ,the larvae that hatch feed in the lower joints of the growing wheat and prevent its proper growth4 ,these larvae pupate and remain as pupae in the wheat stubble during the summer4 ,the fall brood of flies appears shortly before the first heavy frost4 ,treatment4 ,burn all stubble and trash during ,july and ,august4 ,if the fly is very bad1 it is well to leave the stubble unusually high to insure a rapid spread of the fire4 ,burn refuse from the threshing-machine1 since this often harbors many larvae or pupae4 ,follow the burning by deep plowing1 because the burning cannot reach the insects that are in the base of the plants4 ,delay the fall planting until time for heavy frosts4 ,the ,potato ,beetle2 ,tobacco ,worm4 ,the potato beetle1 tobacco worm1 etc41 are too well known to need description4 ,suffice it to say that no good farmer will neglect to protect his crop from any pest that threatens it4 ,the increase1 owing to various causes1 of insects1 of fungi1 of bacterial diseases1 makes a study of these pests1 of their origin1 and of their prevention a necessary part of a successful farmer's training4 ,tillage alone will no longer render orchard1 vineyard1 and garden fruitful4 ,protection from every form of plant enemies must be added to tillage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,,spraying ,,the ,,orchard ,one way of increasing the yield of fruit ,in dealing with plants1 as with human beings1 the great object should be not the cure but the prevention of disease4 ,if disease can be prevented1 it is far too costly to wait for it to develop and then to attempt its cure4 ,men of science are studying the new forms of diseases and new insects as fast as they appear4 ,these men are finding ways of fighting old and new enemies4 ,young people who expect to farm should early learn to follow their advice4 ,,exercise ,how does the squash bug resemble the plant louse8 ,is this a true bug8 ,gather some eggs and watch the development of the insects in a breeding-cage4 ,estimate the damage done to some crops by the flea-beetle4 ,what is the best method of prevention8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,,an ,,apple ,,tree ,,showing ,,proper ,,care ,do you know the large moth that is the mother of the tobacco worm8 ,you may often see her visiting the blossoms of the ,jimson weed4 ,some tobacco-growers cultivate a few of these weeds in a tobacco field4 ,in the blossom they place a little cobalt or fly-stone and sirup4 ,when the tobacco-worm moth visits this flower and sips the poisoned nectar1 she will of course lay no more troublesome eggs4 ,,section ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,so far as known1 the cotton-boll weevil1 an insect which is a native of the tropics1 crossed the ,rio ,grande ,river into ,texas in #ahia and #ahib4 ,it settled in the cotton fields around ,brownsville4 ,since then it has widened its destructive area until now it has invaded the whole territory shown by the map on page #agg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,adult ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,enlarged ,this weevil is a small gray or reddish-brown snout-beetle hardly over a quarter of an inch in length4 ,in proportion to its length it has a long beak4 ,it belongs to a family of beetles which breed in pods1 in seeds1 and in stalks of plants4 ,it is a greedy eater1 but feeds only on the cotton plant4 ,the grown weevils try to outlive the cold of winter by hiding snugly away under grass clumps1 cotton-stalks1 rubbish1 or under the bark of trees4 ,sometimes they go down into holes in the ground4 ,a comfortable shelter is often found in the forests near the cotton fields1 especially in the moss on the trees4 ,the weevils can stand a good deal of cold1 but fortunately many are killed by winter weather4 ,moreover birds destroy many2 hence by spring the last year's crop is very greatly diminished4 ,in the spring1 generally about the time cotton begins to form squares1 the weevils shake off their long winter sleep and enter the cotton fields with appetites as sharp as razors4 ,then shortly the females begin to lay eggs4 ,at first these eggs are laid only in the squares1 and generally only one to the square4 ,the young grub hatches from these eggs in two or three days4 ,the newly hatched grub eats the inside of the square1 and the square soon falls to the ground4 ,entire fields may at times be seen without a single square on the plants4 ,of course no fruit can be formed without squares4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,,eggs ,,among ,,the ,,anthers ,,of ,a ,,square ,,at ,,the ,,point ,,indicated ,,by ,,the ,,arrow ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,,cross ,,section ,,showing ,,anthers ,,of ,a ,,square ,,with ,,egg ,,of ,,weevil1 ,,and ,,showing ,,the ,,hole ,,where ,,the ,,egg ,,was ,,deposited ,greatly enlarged ,in from one to two weeks the grub or larva becomes fully grown and1 without changing its home1 is transformed into the pupa state4 ,then in about a week more the pupae come out as adult weevils and attack the bolls4 ,they puncture them with their snouts and lay their eggs in the bolls4 ,the young grubs1 this time hatching out in the boll1 remain there until grown1 when they emerge through holes that they make4 ,these holes allow dampness to enter and destroy the bolls4 ,this life-round continues until cold weather drives the insects to their winter quarters4 ,by that time they have increased so rapidly that there is often one for every boll in the field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,,the ,,larva ,,of ,,the ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,,injuring ,a ,,square ,this weevil is proving very hard to destroy4 ,at present there seem but few ways to fight it4 ,one is to grow cotton that will mature too early for the weevils to do it much harm4 ,a second is to kill as many weevils as possible by burning the homes that shelter them in winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,,pupa ,,of ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,,from ,,above ,,and ,,below ,greatly enlarged ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,,the ,,pupa ,,of ,,the ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,,in ,a ,,square ,the places best adapted for a winter home for the weevil are trash piles1 rubbish1 driftwood1 rotten wood1 weeds1 moss on trees1 etc4 ,a further help1 therefore1 in destroying the weevil is to cut down and burn all cotton-stalks as soon as the cotton is harvested4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,a ,,cotton ,,boll ,,with ,,feeding-,,holes ,,of ,,weevil1 ,,and ,,bearing ,,three ,,specimens ,,of ,,the ,,insect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,,the ,,mexican ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil1 ,,showing ,,structure ,this destroys countless numbers of larvae and pupae in the bolls and greatly reduces the number of weevils4 ,in addition1 all cornstalks1 all trash1 all large clumps of grass in neighboring fields1 should be burned1 so as to destroy these winter homes of the weevil4 ,also avoid planting cotton near trees4 ,the bark1 moss1 and fallen leaves of the tree furnish a winter shelter for the weevils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,a ,,series ,,of ,,full ,,grown ,,weevils1 ,,showing ,,variations ,,in ,,size ,a third help in destroying the weevil is to rotate crops4 ,if cotton does not follow cotton1 the weevil has nothing on which to feed the second year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,,map ,,showing ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,cotton-,,boll ,,weevil ,,in #aiac ,in adopting the first method mentioned the cotton growers have found that by the careful selection of seed1 by early planting1 by a free use of fertilizers containing phosphoric acid1 and by frequent plowing1 they can mature a crop about thirty days earlier than they usually do4 ,in this way a good crop can be harvested before the weevils are ready to be most destructive4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,farm ,,crops ,every crop of the farm has been changed and improved in many ways since its forefathers were wild plants4 ,those plants that best serve the needs of the farmer and of farm animals have undergone the most changes and have received also the greatest care and attention in their production and improvement4 ,while we have many different kinds of farm crops1 the cultivated soil of the world is occupied by a very few4 ,in our country the crop that is most valuable and that occupies the greatest land area is generally known as the grass crop4 ,included in the general term grass crop are the grasses and clovers that are used for pasturage as well as for hay4 ,next to grass in value come the great cereal1 corn1 and the most important fiber crop1 cotton1 closely followed by the great bread crop1 wheat4 ,oats rank fifth in value1 potatoes sixth1 and tobacco seventh4 7,these figures are for #aiac47 ,success in growing any crop is largely due to the suitableness of soil and climate to that crop4 ,when the planter selects both the most suitable soil and the most suitable climate for each crop1 he gets not only the most bountiful yield from the crop but1 in addition1 he gets the most desirable quality of product4 ,a little careful observation and study soon teach what kinds of soil produce crops of the highest excellence4 ,this learned1 the planter is able to grow in each field the several crops best adapted to that special type of soil4 ,thus we have tobacco soils1 trucking soils1 wheat and corn soils4 ,dairying can be most profitably followed in sections where crops like cowpeas1 clover1 alfalfa1 and corn are peculiarly at home4 ,no one should try to grow a new crop in his section until he has found out whether the crop which he wants to grow is adapted to his soil and his climate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,,alfalfa ,,in ,,the ,,stack ,this is the second cutting of the season ,the figures below give the average amount of money made annually an acre on our chief crops3 ,flowers and plants1 #aiaa2 nursery products1 #bfa2 onions1 #adj2 sugar cane1 #ee2 small fruits1 #aaj2 hops1 #age2 vegetables1 #gh2 tobacco1 #hj2 sweet potatoes1 #ee2 hemp1 #ec2 potatoes1 #gh2 sugar beets1 #ed2 sorghum cane1 #bb2 cotton1 #bb2 orchard fruits1 #aaj2 peanuts1 #ba2 flax-seed1 #ad2 cereals1 #ad2 hay and forage1 #aa2 castor beans1 #f 7,united ,states ,census ,report74 ,,section ,,xxxv4 ,,cotton ,although cotton was cultivated on the ,eastern continent before ,america was discovered1 this crop owes its present kingly place in the business world to the zeal and intelligence of its ,american growers4 ,so great an influence does it wield in modern industrial life that it is often called ,king ,cotton4 ,thousands upon thousands of people scan the newspapers each day to see what price its staple is bringing4 ,from its bounty a vast army of toilers1 who plant its seed1 who pick its bolls1 who gin its staple1 who spin and weave its lint1 who grind its seed1 who refine its oil1 draw daily bread4 ,does not its proper production deserve the best thought that can be given it8 ,in the cotton belt almost any well-drained soil will produce cotton4 ,the following kinds of soil are admirably suited to this plant3 red and gray loams with good clay subsoil2 sandy soils over clay and sandstone and limestone2 rich1 well-drained bottom-lands4 ,the safest soils are medium loams4 ,cotton land must always be well drained4 ,cotton was originally a tropical plant1 but1 strange to say1 it seems to thrive best in temperate zones4 ,the cotton plant does best1 according to ,newman1 in climates which have 7#a7 six months of freedom from frost2 7#b7 a moderate1 well-distributed rainfall during the plant's growing period2 and 7#c7 abundant sunshine and little rain during the plant's maturing period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,,growth ,,of ,,cotton ,,from ,,day ,,to ,,day ,in ,america the ,southern states from ,virginia to ,texas have these climatic qualities1 and it is in these states that the cotton industry has been developed until it is one of the giant industries of the world4 ,this development has been very rapid4 ,as late as #agcf the cotton plant was grown as an ornamental flowering plant in many front yards2 in #aiaa1 #af1bej1bgf bales of cotton were grown in the ,south4 ,in recent years the soil and climate of lower ,california and parts of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico have been found well adapted to cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,,cotton ,,in ,,the ,,growing ,,season ,there are a great many varieties of cotton4 ,two types are mainly grown by the practical ,american farmer4 ,these are the short-stapled1 upland variety most commonly grown in all the ,southern states1 and the beautiful1 long-stapled1 black-seeded sea-island type that grows upon the islands and a portion of the mainland of ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,florida4 ,the air of the coast seems necessary for the production of this latter variety4 ,the seeds of the sea-island cotton are small1 smooth1 and black4 ,they are so smooth and stick so loosely to the lint that they are separated from it by roller-gins instead of by saw-gins4 ,when these seeds are planted away from the soil and air of their ocean home1 the plant does not thrive4 ,many attempts have been made and are still being made to increase the length of the staple of the upland types4 ,the methods used are as follows3 selection of seed having a long fiber2 special cultivation and fertilization2 crossing the short-stapled cotton on the long-stapled cotton4 ,this last process1 as already explained1 is called hybridizing4 ,many of these attempts have succeeded1 and there are now a large number of varieties which excel the older varieties in profitable yield4 ,the new varieties are each year being more widely grown4 ,every farmer should study the new types and select the one that will best suit his land4 ,the new types have been developed under the best tillage4 ,therefore if a farmer would keep the new type as good as it was when he began to grow it1 he must give it the same good tillage1 and practice seed-selection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,,cotton ,,ready ,,for ,,picking ,the cotton plant is nourished by a tap-root that will seek food as deeply as loose earth will permit the root to penetrate2 hence1 in preparing land for this crop the first plowing should be done at least with a two-horse plow and should be deep and thorough4 ,this deep plowing not only allows the tap-root to penetrate1 but it also admits a circulation of air4 ,on some cotton farms it is the practice to break the land in winter or early spring and then let it lie naked until planting-time4 ,this is not a good practice4 ,the winter rains wash more plant food out of unprotected soil than a single crop would use4 ,it would be better1 in the late summer or fall1 to plant crimson clover or some other protective and enriching crop on land that is to be planted in cotton in the spring4 ,this crop1 in addition to keeping the land from being injuriously washed1 would greatly help the coming cotton crop by leaving the soil full of vegetable matter4 ,in preparing for cotton-planting1 first disk the land thoroughly1 then break with a heavy plow and harrow until a fine and mellow seed-bed is formed4 ,do not spare the harrow at this time4 ,it destroys many a weed that1 if allowed to grow1 would have to be cut by costly hoeing4 ,thorough work before planting saves much expensive work in the later days of the crop4 ,moreover1 no man can afford to allow his plant food and moisture to go to nourish weeds1 even for a short time4 ,the rows should be from three to four feet apart4 ,the width depends upon the richness of the soil4 ,on rich land the rows should be at least four feet apart4 ,this width allows the luxuriant plant to branch and fruit well4 ,on poorer lands the distance of the rows should not be so great4 ,the distribution of the seed in the row is of course most cheaply done by the planter4 ,as a rule it is best not to ridge the land for the seed4 ,flat culture saves moisture and often prevents damage to the roots4 ,in some sections1 however1 where the land is flat and full of water1 ridging seems necessary if the land cannot be drained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,,picking ,,cotton ,the cheapest way of cultivating a crop is to prevent grass and weeds from rooting1 not to wait to destroy them after they are well rooted4 ,to do this1 it is well to run the two-horse smoothing-harrow over the land1 across the rows1 a few days after the young plants are up4 ,repeat the harrowing in six or eight days4 ,in addition to destroying the young grass and weeds1 this harrowing also removes many of the young cotton plants and thereby saves much hoeing at chopping-out time4 ,when the plants are about two inches high they are chopped out to secure an evenly distributed stand4 ,it has been the custom to leave two stalks to a hill1 but many growers are now leaving only one4 ,the number of times the crop has to be worked depends on the soil and the season4 ,if the soil is dry and porous1 cultivate as often as possible1 especially after each rain4 ,never allow a crust to form after a rain2 the roots of plants must have air4 ,cultivation after each rain forms a dry mulch on the top of the soil and thus prevents rapid evaporation of moisture4 ,if the fiber 7the lint7 only is removed from the land on which cotton is grown1 cotton is the least exhaustive of the great crops grown in the ,united ,states4 ,according to some recent experiments an average crop of cotton removes in the lint only #b4ge pounds of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash1 lime1 and magnesia per acre1 while a crop of ten bushels of wheat per acre removes #cb4cf pounds of the same elements of plant food4 ,inasmuch as this crop takes so little plant food from the soil1 the cotton-farmer has no excuse for allowing his land to decrease in productiveness4 ,two things will keep his land in bounteous harvest condition3 first1 let him return the seeds in some form to the land1 or1 what is better1 feed the ground seeds to cattle1 make a profit from the cattle1 and return manure to the land in place of the seeds2 second1 at the last working1 let him sow some crop like crimson clover or rye in the cotton rows to protect the soil during the winter and to leave humus in the ground for the spring4 ,the stable manure1 if that is used1 should be broadcasted over the fields at the rate of six to ten tons an acre4 ,if commercial fertilizers are used1 it may be best to make two applications4 ,to give the young plants a good start1 apply a portion of the fertilizer in the drill just before planting4 ,then when the first blooms appear1 put the remainder of the fertilizer in drills near the plants but not too close4 ,many good cotton-growers1 however1 apply all the fertilizer at one time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,,weighing ,a ,,day',s ,,picking ,,of ,,cotton ,relation of ,stock to the ,cotton ,crop4 ,on many farms much of the money for which the cotton is sold in the fall has to go to pay for the commercial fertilizer used in growing the crop4 ,should not this fact suggest efforts to raise just as good crops without having to buy so much fertilizer8 ,is there any way by which this can be done8 ,the following suggestions may be helpful4 ,raise enough stock to use all the cotton seed grown on the farm4 ,to go with the food made from the cotton seed1 grow on the farm pea-vine hay1 clover1 alfalfa1 and other such nitrogen-gathering crops4 ,this can be done at small cost4 ,what will be the result8 ,first1 to say nothing of the money made from the cattle1 the large quantity of stable manure saved will largely reduce the amount of commercial fertilizer needed4 ,the cotton-farmer cannot afford to neglect cattle-raising4 ,the cattle sections of the country are likely to make the greatest progress in agriculture1 because they have manure always on hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,,modern ,,cotton ,,bales ,second1 the nitrogen-gathering crops1 while helping to feed the stock1 also reduce the fertilizer bills by supplying one of the costly elements of the fertilizer4 ,the ordinary cotton fertilizer consists principally of nitrogen1 of potash1 and of phosphoric acid4 ,of these three1 by far the most costly is nitrogen4 ,now peas1 beans1 clover1 and peanuts will leave enough nitrogen in the soil for cotton1 so that if they are raised1 it is necessary to buy only phosphoric acid and sometimes potash4 ,,section ,,xxxvi4 ,,tobacco ,the tobacco plant connects ,indian agriculture with our own4 ,it has always been a source of great profit to our people4 ,in the early colonial days tobacco was almost the only money crop4 ,many rich men came to ,america in those days merely to raise tobacco4 ,although tobacco will grow in almost any climate1 the leaves1 which1 as most of you know1 are the salable part of the plant1 get their desirable or undesirable qualities very largely from the soil and from the climate in which they grow4 ,the soil in which tobacco thrives best is one which has the following qualities3 dryness1 warmth1 richness1 depth1 and sandiness4 ,commercial fertilizers also are almost a necessity2 for1 as tobacco land is limited in area1 the same land must be often planted in tobacco4 ,hence even a fresh1 rich soil that did not at first require fertilizing soon becomes exhausted1 and1 after the land has been robbed of its plant food by crop after crop of tobacco1 frequent application of fertilizers and other manures becomes necessary4 ,however1 even tobacco growers should rotate their crops as much as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,a ,,leaf ,,of ,,tobacco ,deep plowing--from nine to thirteen inches--is also a necessity in preparing the land1 for tobacco roots go deep into the soil4 ,after this deep plowing1 harrow until the soil is thoroughly pulverized and is as fine and mellow as that of the flower-garden4 ,unlike most other farm crops the tobacco plant must be started first in a seed-bed4 ,to prepare a tobacco bed the almost universal custom has been to proceed as follows4 ,carefully select a protected spot4 ,over this spot pile brushwood and then burn it4 ,the soil will be left dry1 and all the weed seeds will be killed4 ,the bed is then carefully raked and smoothed and planted4 ,some farmers are now preparing their beds without burning4 ,a tablespoonful of seed will sow a patch twenty-five feet square4 ,a cheap cloth cover is put over the bed4 ,if the seeds come up well1 a patch of this size ought to furnish transplants for five or six acres4 ,in sowing1 it is not wise to cover the seed deeply4 ,a light raking in or an even rolling of the ground is all that is needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,a ,,promising ,,crop ,,of ,,tobacco ,the time required for sprouting is from two to three weeks4 ,the plants ought to be ready for transplanting in from four to six weeks4 ,weeds and grass should of course be kept out of the seed-bed4 ,the plants1 when ready1 are transplanted in very much the same way as cabbages and tomatoes4 ,the transplanting was formerly done by hand1 but an effective machine is now widely used4 ,the rows should be from three to three and a half feet apart1 and the plants in the rows about two or three feet apart4 ,if the plants are set so that the plow and cultivator can be run with the rows and also across the rows1 they can be more economically worked4 ,tobacco1 like corn1 requires shallow cultivation4 ,of course the plants should be worked often enough to give clean culture and to provide a soil mulch for saving moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,,topping ,,tobacco ,in tobacco culture it is necessary to pinch off the buttons and to cut off the tops of the main stalk1 else much nourishment that should go to the leaves will be given to the seeds4 ,the suckers must also be cut off for the same reason4 ,the proper time for harvesting is not easily fixed2 one becomes skillful in this work only through experience in the field4 ,briefly1 we may say that tobacco is ready to be cut when the leaves on being held up to the sun show a light or golden color1 when they are sticky to the touch1 and when they break easily on being bent4 ,plants that are overripe are inferior to those that are cut early4 ,the operations included in cutting1 housing1 drying1 shipping1 sweating1 and packing require skill and practice4 ,,section ,,xxxvii4 ,,wheat ,wheat has been cultivated from earliest times4 ,it was a chief crop in ,egypt and ,palestine1 and still holds its importance in the temperate portions of ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,a ,,hand ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,,wheat ,,heads ,this crop ranks third in value in the ,united ,states4 ,it grows in cool1 in temperate1 and in warm climates1 and in many kinds of soil4 ,it does best in clay loam1 and worst in sandy soils4 ,clogged and water-soaked land will not grow wheat with profit to the farmer2 for this reason1 where good wheat-production is desired the soil must be well drained and in good physical condition--that is1 the soil must be open1 crumbly1 and mellow4 ,clay soils that are hard and lifeless can be made valuable for wheat-production by covering the surface with manure1 by good tillage1 and by a thorough system of crop-rotation4 ,cowpeas and other legumes make a most valuable crop to precede wheat1 for in growing they add atmospheric nitrogen to the soil1 and their roots loosen the root-bed1 thereby admitting a free circulation of air and adding humus to the soil4 ,moreover1 the legumes leave the soil with its grains fairly close packed1 and this is a help in wheat growing4 ,one may secure a good seed-bed after cotton and corn as well as after cowpeas and other legumes4 ,they are summer-cultivated crops1 and the clean culture that has been given them renders the surface soil mellow and the undersoil firm and compact4 ,they are not so good1 however1 as cowpeas1 since they add no atmospheric nitrogen to the soil1 as all leguminous crops do4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,,roots ,,of ,a ,,single ,,wheat ,,plant ,from one to two inches is the most satisfactory depth for planting wheat4 ,the largest number of seeds comes up when planted at this depth4 ,a mellow soil is very helpful to good coming up and provides a most comfortable home for the roots of the plant4 ,a compact soil below makes a moist undersoil2 and this is desirable1 for the soil water is needed to dissolve plant food and to carry it up through the plant1 where it is used in building tissue4 ,there are a great many varieties of wheat3 some are bearded1 others are smooth2 some are winter and others are spring varieties4 ,the smooth-headed varieties are most agreeable to handle during harvest and at threshing-time4 ,some of the bearded varieties1 however1 do so well in some soils and climates that it is desirable to continue growing them1 though they are less agreeable to handle4 ,no matter what variety you are accustomed to raise1 it may be improved by careful seed-selection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,,selecting ,,wheat ,,seed ,the seed-drill is the best implement for planting wheat4 ,it distributes the grains evenly over the whole field and leaves the mellow soil in a condition to catch what snow may fall and secure what protection it affords4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,,adjoining ,,wheat ,,fields ,the yield of the lower field1 forty-five bushels per acre1 is due to intelligent farming ,in many parts of the country1 because not enough live stock is raised1 there is often too little manure to apply to the wheat land4 ,where this is the case commercial fertilizers must be used4 ,since soils differ greatly1 it is impossible to suggest a fertilizer adapted to all soils4 ,the elements usually lacking in wheat soils are nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ,the land may be lacking in one of these plant foods or in all2 in either case a maximum crop cannot possibly be raised4 ,the section on manuring the soil will be helpful to the wheat-grower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,a ,,bountiful ,,crop ,,of ,,wheat ,it should be remembered always in buying fertilizers for wheat that whenever wheat follows cowpeas or clover or other legumes there is seldom need of using nitrogen in the fertilizer2 the tubercles on the pea or clover roots will furnish that4 ,hence1 as a rule1 only potash and phosphoric acid will have to be purchased as plant food4 ,the farmer is assisted always by a study of his crop and by a knowledge of how it grows4 ,if he find the straw inferior and short1 it means that the soil is deficient in nitrogen2 but on the other hand1 if the straw be luxuriant and the heads small and poorly filled1 he may be sure that his soil contains too little phosphoric acid and potash4 ,,exercise ,let the pupils secure several heads of wheat and thresh each separately by hand4 ,the grains should then be counted and their plumpness and size observed4 ,the practical importance of this is obvious1 for the larger the heads and the greater the number of grains1 the larger the yield per acre4 ,let them plant some of the large and some of the small grains4 ,a single test of this kind will show the importance of careful seed-selection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih ,a ,,widely ,,grown ,,crop ,,section ,,xxxviii4 ,,corn ,when the white man came to this country he found the ,indians using corn2 for this reason1 in addition to its name maize1 it is called ,indian corn4 ,before that time the civilized world did not know that there was such a crop4 ,the increase in the yield and the extension of the acres planted in this strictly ,american crop have kept pace with the rapid and wonderful growth of our country4 ,corn is king of the cereals and the most important crop of ,american agriculture4 ,it grows in almost every section of ,america4 ,there is hardly any limit to the uses to which its grain and its stalks are now put4 ,animals of many kinds are fed on rations into which it enters4 ,its grains in some form furnish food to more people than does any other crop except possibly rice4 ,its stalk and its cob are manufactured into many different and useful articles4 ,a soil rich in either decaying animal or vegetable matter1 loose1 warm1 and moist but not wet1 will produce a better crop of corn than any other4 ,corn soil should always be well tilled and cultivated4 ,the proper time to begin the cultivation of corn is before it is planted4 ,plow well4 ,a shallow1 worn-out soil should not be used for corn1 but for cowpeas or rye4 ,after thorough plowing1 the harrow--either the disk or spring-tooth--should be used to destroy all clods and leave the surface mellow and fine4 ,the best results will be obtained by turning under a clover sod that has been manured from the savings of the barnyard4 ,when manure is not available1 commercial fertilizers will often prove profitable on poor lands4 ,careful trials will best determine how much fertilizer to an acre is necessary1 and what kinds are to be used4 ,a little study and experimenting on the farmer's part will soon enable him to find out both the kind and the amount of fertilizer that is best suited to his land4 ,the seed for this crop should be selected according to the plan suggested in ,section ,,xix4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,,corn ,,shocked ,,for ,,the ,,shredder ,the most economical method of planting is by means of the horse planter1 which1 according to its adjustment1 plants regularly in hills or in drills4 ,a few days after planting1 the cornfield should be harrowed with a fine-tooth harrow to loosen the top soil and to kill the grass and the weed seeds that are germinating at the surface4 ,when the corn plants are from a half inch to an inch high1 the harrow may again be used4 ,a little work before the weeds sprout will save many days of labor during the rest of the season1 and increase the yield4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,,the ,,difference ,,is ,,due ,,to ,,tillage ,corn is a crop that needs constant cultivation1 and during the growing season the soil should be stirred at least four times4 ,this cultivation is for three reasons3 #a4 ,to destroy weeds that would take plant food and water4 #b4 ,to provide a mulch of dry soil so as to prevent the evaporation of moisture4 ,the action of this mulch has already been explained4 #c4 ,because tillage is manure4 ,constant stirring of the soil allows the air to circulate in it1 provides a more effective mulch1 and helps to change unavailable plant food into the form that plants use4 ,deep culture of corn is not advisable4 ,the roots in their early stages of growth are shallow feeders and spread widely only a few inches below the surface4 ,the cultivation that destroys or disturbs the roots injures the plants and lessens the yield4 ,we cultivate because of the three reasons given above1 and not to stir the soil about the roots or to loosen it there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,in many parts of the country the cornstalks are left standing in the fields or are burned4 ,this is a great mistake1 for the stalks are worth a good deal for feeding horses1 cattle1 and sheep4 ,these stalks may always be saved by the use of the husker and shredder4 ,corn after being matured and cut can be put in shocks and left thus until dry enough to run through the husker and shredder4 ,this machine separates the corn from the stalk and husks it4 ,at the same time it shreds tops1 leaves1 and butts into a food that is both nutritious and palatable to stock4 ,for the amount that animals will eat1 almost as much feeding value is obtained from corn stover treated in this way as from timothy hay4 ,the practice of not using the stalks is wasteful and is fast being abandoned4 ,the only reason that so much good food is being left to decay in the field is because so many people have not fully learned the feeding value of the stover4 ,,exercise ,to show the effect of cultivation on the yield of corn1 let the pupils lay off five plats in some convenient field4 ,each plat need consist of only two rows about twenty feet long4 ,treat each plat as follows3 ,plat #a4 ,no cultivation3 let weeds grow4 ,plat #b4 ,mulch with straw4 ,plat #c4 ,shallow cultivation3 not deeper than two inches and at least five times during the growing season4 ,plat #d4 ,deep cultivation3 at least four inches deep1 so as to injure and tear out some of the roots 7this is a common method74 ,plat #e4 ,root-pruning3 ten inches from the stalk and six inches deep1 prune the roots with a long knife4 ,cultivate five times during the season4 ,observe plats during the summer1 and at husking-time note results4 ,,section ,,xxxix4 ,,peanuts ,this plant is rich in names1 being known locally as ground pea1 goober1 earthnut1 and pindar1 as well as generally by the name of peanut4 ,the peanut is a true legume1 and1 like other legumes1 bears nitrogen-gathering tubercles upon its roots4 ,the fruit is not a real nut but rather a kind of pea or bean1 and develops from the blossom4 ,after the fall of the blossom the spike1 or flower-stalk1 pushes its way into the ground1 where the nut develops4 ,if unable to penetrate the soil the nut dies4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,virginia1 and ,tennessee have the most favorable climates for peanut culture4 ,suitable climate and soil1 however1 may be found from ,new ,jersey to the ,mississippi valley4 ,a high1 porous1 sandy loam is the most suitable4 ,stiffer soils1 which may in some cases yield larger crops than the loams1 are yet not so profitable1 for stiff soils injure the color of the nut4 ,lime is a necessity and must be supplied if the soil is deficient4 ,phosphoric acid and potash are needed4 ,greater care than is usually bestowed should be given to the selection of the peanut seed4 ,in addition to following the principles given in ,section ,,xviii1 all musty1 defective seeds must be avoided and all frosted kernels must be rejected4 ,before it dries1 the peanut seed is easily injured by frost4 ,the slightest frost on the vines1 either before or after the plants are dug1 does much harm to the tender seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,a ,,peanut ,,plant ,in growing peanuts1 thorough preparation of the soil is much better than later cultivation4 ,destroy the crop of young weeds1 but do not disturb the peanut crop by late cultivation4 ,harvest before frost1 and shock high to keep the vines from the ground4 ,the average yield of peanuts in the ,united ,states is twenty-two bushels an acre4 ,in ,tennessee the yield is twenty-nine bushels an acre1 and in ,north ,carolina and ,virginia it reaches thirty bushels an acre4 ,,section ,,xl4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes ,the roots of sweet potatoes are put on the market in various forms4 ,aside from the form in which they are ordinarily sold1 some potatoes are dried and then ground into flour1 some are canned1 some are used to make starch1 some furnish a kind of sugar called glucose1 and some are even used to make alcohol4 ,the fact that there are over eighty varieties of potatoes shows the popularity of the plant4 ,now it is evident that all of these varieties cannot be equally desirable4 ,hence the wise grower will select his varieties with prudent forethought4 ,he should study his market1 his soil1 and his seed 7see ,section ,,xviii74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes ,four months of mild weather1 months free from frost and cold winds1 are necessary for the growing of sweet potatoes4 ,in a mild climate almost any loose1 well-drained soil will produce them4 ,a light1 sandy loam1 however1 gives a cleaner potato and one1 therefore1 that sells better4 ,the sweet potato draws potash1 nitrogen1 and phosphoric acid from the soil1 but in applying these as fertilizers the grower must study and know his own soil4 ,if he does not he may waste both money and plant food by the addition of elements already present in sufficient quantity in the soil4 ,the only way to come to reliable conclusions as to the needs of the soil is to try two or three different kinds of fertilizers on plats of the same soil1 during the same season1 and notice the resulting crop of potatoes4 ,sweet potatoes will do well after almost any of the usual field crops4 ,this caution1 however1 should be borne in mind4 ,potatoes should not follow a sod4 ,this is because sods are often thick with cutworms1 one of the serious enemies of the potato4 ,it is needless to say that the ground must be kept clean by thorough cultivation until the vines take full possession of the field4 ,in harvesting1 extreme care should be used to avoid cutting and bruising the potato1 since bruises are as dangerous to a sweet potato as to an apple1 and render decay almost a certainty4 ,lay aside all bruised potatoes for immediate use4 ,for shipment the potatoes should be graded and packed with care4 ,an extra outlay of fifty cents a barrel often brings a return of a dollar a barrel in the market4 ,one fact often neglected by ,southern growers who raise potatoes for a ,northern market is that the ,northern markets demand a potato that will cook dry and mealy1 and that they will not accept the juicy1 sugary potato so popular in the ,south4 ,the storage of sweet potatoes presents difficulties owing to their great tendency to decay under the influence of the ever-present fungi and bacteria4 ,this tendency can be met by preventing bruises and by keeping the bin free from rotting potatoes4 ,the potatoes should be cleaned1 and after the moisture has been dried off they should be stored in a dry1 warm place4 ,the sweet-potato vine makes a fair quality of hay and with proper precaution may be used for ensilage4 ,small1 defective1 unsalable potatoes are rich in sugar and starch and are therefore good stock food4 ,since they contain so much water they must be used only as an aid to other diet4 ,,section ,,xli4 ,,white1 ,,or ,,irish1 ,,potatoes ,maize1 or ,indian corn1 and potatoes are the two greatest gifts in the way of food that ,america has bestowed on the other nations4 ,since their adoption in the sixteenth century as a new food from recently discovered ,america1 white potatoes have become one of the world's most important crops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,,cultivating ,,and ,,ridging ,,potatoes ,no grower will harvest large crops of potatoes unless he chooses soil that suits the plant1 selects his seed carefully1 cultivates thoroughly1 feeds his land sufficiently1 and sprays regularly4 ,the soil should be free from potato scab4 ,this disease remains in land for several years4 ,hence if land is known to have any form of scab in it1 do not plant potatoes in such land4 ,select for this crop a deep and moderately light1 sandy loam which has an open subsoil and which is rich in humus4 ,the soil must be light enough for the potatoes1 or tubers1 to enlarge easily and dry enough to prevent rot or blight or other diseases4 ,potato soil should be so close-grained that it will hold moisture during a dry spell and yet so well-drained that the tubers will not be hurt by too much moisture in wet weather4 ,if the land selected for potatoes is lacking in humus1 fine compost or well-rotted manure will greatly increase the yield4 ,however1 it should be remembered that green manure makes a good home for the growth of scab germs4 ,hence it is safest to apply this sort of manure in the fall1 or1 better still1 use a heavy dressing of manure on the crop which the potatoes are to follow4 ,leguminous crops supply both humus and nitrogen and1 at the same time1 improve the subsoil4 ,therefore such crops are excellent to go immediately before potatoes4 ,if land is well supplied with humus1 commercial fertilizers are perhaps safer than manure1 for when these fertilizers are used the amount of plant food is more easily regulated4 ,select a fertilizer that is rich in potash4 ,for gardens unleached wood ashes make a valuable fertilizer because they supply potash4 ,early potatoes need more fertilization than do late ones4 ,while potatoes do best on rich land1 they should not be overfed1 for a too heavy growth of foliage is likely to cause blight4 ,be careful to select seed from sound potatoes which are entirely free from scab4 ,get the kinds that thrive best in the section in which they are to be planted and which suit best the markets in which they are to be sold4 ,seed potatoes should be kept in a cool place so that they will not sprout before planting-time4 ,as a rule consumers prefer a smooth1 regularly shaped1 shallow-eyed white or flesh-colored potato which is mealy when cooked4 ,therefore1 select seed tubers with these qualities4 ,it seems proved that when whole potatoes are used for seed the yield is larger than when sliced potatoes are planted4 ,it is of course too costly to plant whole potatoes1 but it is a good practice to cause the plants to thrive by planting large seed pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,,gathering ,,potatoes ,like other crops1 potatoes need a thoroughly prepared seed-bed and intelligent cultivation4 ,break the land deep4 ,then go over it with an ordinary harrow until all clods are broken and the soil is fine and well closed4 ,the rows should be at least three feet from one another and the seeds placed from twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row1 and covered to a depth of three or four inches4 ,a late crop should be planted deeper than an early one4 ,before the plants come up it is well to go over the field once or twice with a harrow so as to kill all weeds4 ,do not fail to save moisture by frequent cultivation4 ,after the plants start to grow1 all cultivation should be shallow1 for the roots feed near the surface and should not be broken4 ,cultivate as often as needed to keep down weeds and grass and to keep the ground fine4 ,allow potatoes to dry thoroughly before they are stored1 but never allow them to remain long in the sunshine4 ,never dig them in damp weather1 for the moisture clinging to them will cause them to rot4 ,after the tubers are dry1 store them in barrels or bins in a dry1 cool1 and dark place4 ,never allow them to freeze4 ,among the common diseases and insect pests that attack the leaves and stems of potato vines are early blight1 late blight1 brown rot1 the flea-beetle1 and the potato beetle1 or potato bug4 ,spraying with ,bordeaux mixture to which a small portion of ,paris green has been added will control both the diseases and the pests4 ,the spraying should begin when the plants are five or six inches high and should not cease until the foliage begins to die4 ,scab is a disease of the tubers4 ,it may be prevented 7#a7 by using seed potatoes that are free from scab2 7#b7 by planting land in which there is no scab2 and 7#c7 by soaking the seed in formalin 7see page #ace74 ,,section ,,xlii4 ,,oats ,the oat plant belongs to the grass family4 ,it is a hardy plant and1 under good conditions1 a vigorous grower4 ,it stands cold and wet better than any other cereal except possibly rye4 ,oats like a cool1 moist climate4 ,in warm climates1 oats do best when they are sowed in the fall4 ,in cooler sections1 spring seeding is more generally practiced4 ,there are a great many varieties of oats4 ,no one variety is best adapted to all sections1 but many varieties make fine crops in many sections4 ,any variety is desirable which has these qualities3 power to resist disease and insect enemies1 heavy grains1 thin hulls1 good color1 and suitability to local surroundings4 ,as oats and rye make a better yield on poor land than any other cereals1 some farmers usually plant these crops on their poorest lands4 ,however1 no land is too good to be used for so valuable a crop as oats4 ,oats require a great deal of moisture2 hence light1 sandy soils are not so well adapted to this crop as are the sandy loams and fine clay loams with their closer and heavier texture4 ,if oats are to be planted in the spring1 the ground should be broken in the fall1 winter1 or early spring so that no delay may occur at seeding-time4 ,but to have a thoroughly settled1 compact seed-bed the breaking of the land should be done at least a month before the seeding1 and it will help greatly to run over the land with a disk harrow immediately after the breaking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,,oats ,common oats at left2 side oats at right ,oats may be planted by scattering them broadcast or by means of a drill4 ,the drill is better1 because the grains are more uniformly distributed and the depth of planting is better regulated4 ,the seeds should be covered from one and a half to two inches deep4 ,in a very dry season three inches may not be too deep4 ,the amount of seed needed to the acre varies considerably1 but generally the seeding is from two to three bushels an acre4 ,on poor lands two bushels will be a fair average seeding2 on good lands as much as three bushels should be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,,harvesting ,,oats ,this crop fits in well1 over wide areas1 with various rotations4 ,as the purpose of all rotation is to keep the soil productive1 oats should alternate every few years with one of the nitrogen-gathering crops4 ,in the ,south1 cowpeas1 soy beans1 clovers1 and vetches may be used in this rotation4 ,in the ,north and ,west the clovers mixed with timothy hay make a useful combination for this purpose4 ,spring-sowed oats1 since they have a short growing season1 need their nitrogenous plant food in a form which can be quickly used4 ,to supply this nitrogen a top-dressing of nitrate of soda or sulphate of lime is helpful4 ,the plant can gather its food quickly from either of these two4 ,as fall-sowed oats have of course a longer growing season1 the nitrogen can be supplied by well-rotted manure1 blood1 tankage1 or fish-scrap4 ,use barnyard manure carefully4 ,do not apply too much just before seeding1 and use only thoroughly rotted manure4 ,it is always desirable to have a bountiful supply of humus in land on which oats are to be planted4 ,the time of harvesting will vary with the use which is to be made of the oats4 ,if the crop is to be threshed1 the harvesting should be done when the kernels have passed out of the milk into the hard dough state4 ,the lower leaves of the stalks will at this time have turned yellow1 and the kernels will be plump and full4 ,do not1 however1 wait too long1 for if you do the grain will shatter and the straw lose in feeding value4 ,on the other hand1 if the oats are to be cut for hay it is best to cut them while the grains are still in the milk stage4 ,at this stage the leaves are still green and the plants are rich in protein4 ,oats should be cured quickly4 ,it is very important that threshed oats should be dry before they are stored4 ,should they on being stored still contain moisture1 they will be likely to heat and to discolor4 ,any discoloring will reduce their value4 ,nor should oats ever be allowed to remain long in the fields1 no matter how well they may seem to be shocked4 ,the dew and the rain will injure their value by discoloring them more or less4 ,oats are muscle-builders rather than fat-formers4 ,hence they are a valuable ration for work animals1 dairy cows1 and breeding-stock4 ,,section ,,xliii4 ,,rye ,rye has the power of gathering its food from a wider area than most other plants4 ,of course1 then1 it is a fine crop for poor land1 and farmers often plant it only on worn land4 ,however1 it is too good a cereal to be treated in so ungenerous a fashion4 ,as a cover-crop for poor land it adds much humus to the soil and makes capital grazing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,,rye ,,ready ,,for ,,cutting ,there are two types of rye--the winter and the spring4 ,the winter type is chiefly grown in this country4 ,rye seeds should be bought as near home as possible1 for this plant thrives best when the new crop grows under the same conditions as the seed crop4 ,rye will grow on almost any soil that is drained4 ,soils that are too sandy for wheat will generally yield good crops of rye4 ,clay soils1 however1 are not adapted to the plant nor to the grazing for which the plant is generally sowed4 ,for winter rye the land should be broken from four to six inches4 ,harrows should follow the plows until the land is well pulverized4 ,in some cold prairie lands1 however1 rye is put in with a grain-drill before a plow removes the stubble from the land4 ,the purpose of planting in this way is to let the stubble protect the young plants from cold1 driving winds4 ,rye should go into the ground earlier than wheat4 ,in cold1 bleak climates1 as well as on poor land1 the seeding should be early4 ,the young plant needs to get rooted and topped before cold weather sets in4 ,the only danger in very early planting is that leaf-rust sometimes attacks the forward crop4 ,of course the earlier the rye is ready for fall and winter pasturage1 the better4 ,if a drill is used for planting1 a seeding of from three to four pecks to the acre should give a good stand4 ,in case the seeds are to be sowed broadcast1 a bushel or a bushel and a half for every acre is needed4 ,the seed should be covered as wheat seed is and the ground rolled4 ,rye is generally used as a grazing or as a soiling crop4 ,therefore its value will depend largely on its vigorous growth in stems and leaves4 ,to get this growth1 liberal amounts of nitrogenous fertilizer will have to be applied unless the land is very rich4 ,put barnyard manure on the land just after the first breaking and disk the manure into the soil4 ,acid phosphate and kainite added to the manure may pay handsomely4 ,a spring top-dressing of nitrate of soda is usually helpful4 ,rye has a stiff straw and does not fall1 or lodge1 so badly as some of the other cereals4 ,as soon as rye that is meant for threshing is cut1 it should be put up in shocks until it is thoroughly dry4 ,begin the cutting when the kernels are in a tough dough state4 ,the grain should never stand long in the shocks4 ,,section ,,xliv4 ,,barley ,barley is one of the oldest crops known to man4 ,the old historian ,pliny says that barley was the first food of mankind4 ,modern man however prefers wheat and corn and potatoes to barley1 and as a food this ancient crop is in ,america turned over to the lower animals4 ,brewers use barley extensively in making malt liquors4 ,barley grows in nearly all sections of our country1 but a few states--namely1 ,minnesota1 ,california1 ,wisconsin1 ,iowa1 and ,north and ,south ,dakota--are seeding large areas to this crop4 ,for malting purposes the barley raised on rather light1 friable1 porous soil is best4 ,soils of this kind are likely to produce a medium yield of bright grain4 ,fertile loamy and clay soils make generally a heavier yield of barley1 but the grain is dark and fit only to be fed to stock4 ,barley is a shallow feeder1 and can reach only such plant food as is found in the top soil1 so its food should always be put within reach by a thorough breaking1 harrowing1 and mellowing of the soil1 and by fertilizing if the soil is poor4 ,barley has been successfully raised both by irrigation and by dry-farming methods4 ,it requires a better-prepared soil than the other grain crops2 it makes fine yields when it follows some crop that has received a heavy dressing of manure4 ,capital yields are produced after alfalfa or after root crops4 ,this crop usually matures within a hundred days from its seeding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,,barley ,when the crop is to be sold to the brewers1 a grain rich in starch should be secured4 ,barley intended for malting should be fertilized to this end4 ,many experiments have shown that a fertilizer which contains much potash will produce starchy barley4 ,if the barley be intended for stock1 you should breed so as to get protein in the grain and in the stalk4 ,hence barley which is to be fed should be fertilized with mixtures containing nitrogen and phosphoric acid4 ,young barley plants are more likely to be hurt by cold than either wheat or oats4 ,hence barley ought not to be seeded until all danger from frost is over4 ,the seeds should be covered deeper than the seeds of wheat or of oats4 ,four inches is perhaps an average depth for covering4 ,but the covering will vary with the time of planting1 with the kind of ground1 with the climate1 and with the nature of the season4 ,fewer seeds will be needed if the barley is planted by means of a drill4 ,like other cereals1 barley should not be grown continuously on the same land4 ,it should take its place in a well-planned rotation4 ,it may profitably follow potatoes or other hoed crops1 but it should not come first after wheat1 oats1 or rye4 ,barley should be harvested as soon as most of its kernels have reached the hard dough state4 ,it is more likely to shatter its grain than are other cereals1 and it should therefore be handled with care4 ,it must also be watched to prevent its sprouting in the shocks4 ,be sure to put few bundles in the shock and to cap the shock securely enough to keep out dew and rain4 ,if possible the barley should be threshed directly from the shock1 as much handling will occasion a serious loss from shattering4 ,,section ,,xlv4 ,,sugar ,,plants ,in the ,united ,states there are three sources from which sugar is obtained2 namely1 the sugar-maple1 the sugar-beet1 and the sugar-cane4 ,in the early days of our country considerable quantities of maple sirup and maple sugar were made4 ,this was the first source of sugar4 ,then sugar-cane began to be grown4 ,later the sugar-beet was introduced4 ,maple ,products4 ,in many states sirup and sugar are still made from maple sap4 ,in the spring when the sap is flowing freely maple trees are tapped and spouts are inserted4 ,through these spouts the sap flows into vessels set to catch it4 ,the sap is boiled in evaporating-pans1 and made into either sirup or sugar4 ,four gallons of sap yield about one pound of sugar4 ,a single tree yields from two to six pounds of sugar in a season4 ,the sap cannot be kept long after it is collected4 ,practice and skill are needed to produce an attractive and palatable grade of sirup or of sugar4 ,sugar-,beets4 ,the sugar-beet is a comparatively new root crop in ,america4 ,the amount of sugar that can be obtained from beets varies from twelve to twenty per cent4 ,the richness in sugar depends somewhat on the variety grown and on the soil and the climate4 ,so far most of our sugar-beet seeds have been brought over from ,europe4 ,some of our planters are now1 however1 gaining the skill and the knowledge needed to grow these seeds4 ,it is of course important to grow seeds that will produce beets containing much sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,,catching ,,maple ,,sap ,these beets do well in a great variety of soils if the land is rich1 well prepared1 and well drained1 and has a porous subsoil4 ,beets cannot grow to a large size in hard land4 ,hence deep plowing is very necessary for this crop4 ,the soil should be loose enough for the whole body of the beet to remain underground4 ,some growers prefer spring plowing and some fall plowing1 but all agree that the land should not be turned less than eight or ten inches4 ,the subsoil1 however1 should not be turned up too much at the first deep plowing4 ,too much care cannot be taken to make the seed-bed firm and mellow and to have it free from clods4 ,if the soil is dry at planting-time and there is likelihood of high winds1 the seed-bed may be rolled with profit4 ,experienced growers use from ten to twelve pounds of seeds to an acre4 ,it is better to use too many rather than too few seeds1 for it is easy to thin out the plants1 but rather difficult to transplant them4 ,the seeds are usually drilled in rows about twenty inches apart4 ,of course1 if the soil is rather warm and moist at planting-time1 fewer seeds will be needed than when germination is likely to be slow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,sugar-,,beet ,a good rotation should always be planned for this beet4 ,a very successful one is as follows3 for the first year1 corn heavily fertilized with stable manure2 for the second year1 sugar-beets2 for the third year1 oats or barley2 for the fourth year1 clover2 then go back again to corn4 ,in addition to keeping the soil fertile1 there are two gains from this rotation3 first1 the clean cultivation of the corn crop just ahead of the beets destroys many of the weed seeds2 second1 the beets must be protected from too much nitrogen in the soil1 for an excess of nitrogen makes a beet too large to be rich in sugar4 ,the manure1 heavily applied to the corn1 will leave enough nitrogen and other plant food in the soil to make a good crop of beets and avoid any danger of an excess4 ,when the outside leaves of the beet take on a yellow tinge and drop to the ground1 the beets are ripe4 ,the mature beets are richer in sugar than the immature1 therefore they should not be harvested too soon4 ,they may remain in the ground without injury for some time after they are ripe4 ,cold weather does not injure the roots unless it is accompanied by freezing and thawing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,,sugar-,,beets ,,on ,,the ,,way ,,to ,a ,,factory ,the beets are harvested by sugar-beet pullers or by hand4 ,if the roots are to be gathered by hand they are usually loosened by plowing on each side of them4 ,if the roots are stored they should be put in long1 narrow piles and covered with straw and earth to protect them from frost4 ,a ventilator placed at the top of the pile will enable the heat and moisture to escape4 ,if the beets get too warm they will ferment and some of their sugar will be lost4 ,sugar-,cane4 ,sugar-cane is grown along the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,south ,atlantic coast4 ,in ,mississippi1 in ,alabama1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 northern ,louisiana1 and in northern ,texas it is generally made into sirup4 ,in southern ,louisiana and southern ,texas the cane is usually crushed for sugar or for molasses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,,stalk ,,of ,,sugar-,,cane ,a-,b1 joints of cane showing roots2 ,b-,c1 stem2 ,c-,d1 leaves ,the sugar-cane is a huge grass4 ,the stalk1 which is round1 is from one to two inches in thickness4 ,the stalks vary in color4 ,some are white1 some yellow1 some green1 some red1 some purple1 and some black1 while others are a mixture of two or three of these colors4 ,as shown in ,fig4 #bad the stalk has joints at distances of from two to six inches4 ,these joints are called nodes1 and the sections between the nodes are known as internodes4 ,the internodes ripen from the roots upward1 and as each ripens it casts its leaves4 ,the stalk1 when ready for harvesting1 has only a few leaves on the top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,,stick ,,of ,,sugar-,,cane ,a1 buds1 or eyes2 ,c1 nodes2 ,d1 internodes2 ,x1 semi-transparent dots in rows ,under each leaf and on alternate sides of the cane a bud1 or eye1 forms4 ,from this eye the cane is usually propagated2 for1 while in tropical countries the cane forms seeds1 yet these seeds are rarely fertile4 ,when the cane is ripe it is stripped of leaves1 topped1 and cut at the ground with a knife4 ,the sugar is contained in solution in the pith of the cane4 ,cane requires an enormous amount of water for its best growth1 and where the rainfall is not great enough1 the plants are irrigated4 ,it requires from seventy-five to one hundred gallons of water to make a pound of sugar4 ,cane does best where there is a rainfall of two inches a week4 ,at the same time a well-drained soil is necessary to make vigorous canes4 ,the soils suited to this plant are those which contain large amounts of fertilizing material and which can hold much water4 ,in southern ,louisiana alluvial loams and loamy clay soils are cultivated4 ,in ,georgia1 ,alabama1 and ,florida light1 sandy soils1 when properly fertilized and worked1 make good crops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,,planting ,,sugar-,,cane ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,,loading ,,sugar-,,cane ,cane is usually planted in rows from five to six feet apart4 ,a trench is opened in the center of the row with a plow and in this open furrow is placed a continuous line of stalks which are carefully covered with plow1 cultivator1 or hoe4 ,from one to three continuous lines of stalks are placed in the furrow4 ,from two to six tons of seed cane are needed for an acre4 ,in favorable weather the cane soon sprouts and cultivation begins4 ,cane should be cultivated at short intervals until the plants are large enough to shade the soil4 ,in ,louisiana one planting of cane usually gives two crops4 ,the first is called plant cane2 the second is known as first-year stubble1 or ratoon4 ,sometimes second-year stubble is grown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,a ,,common ,,type ,,of ,,sirup ,,factory ,in ,louisiana large quantities of tankage1 cotton-seed meal1 and acid phosphate are used to fertilize cane-fields4 ,each country has its own time for planting and harvesting4 ,in ,louisiana1 for example1 canes are planted from ,october to ,april4 ,in the ,united ,states cane is harvested each year because of frost1 but in tropical countries the stalks are permitted to grow from fifteen to twenty-four months4 ,on many farms a small mill1 the rollers of which are turned by horses1 is used for crushing the juice out of the cane4 ,the juice is then evaporated in a kettle or pan4 ,this equipment is very cheap and can easily be operated by a small family4 ,while these mills rarely extract more than one half of the juice in the cane1 the sirup made by them is very palatable and usually commands a good price4 ,costly machinery which saves most of the juice is used in the large commercial sugar houses4 ,,section ,,xlvi4 ,,hemp ,,and ,,flax ,in the early ages of the world1 mankind is supposed to have worn very little or no clothing4 ,then leaves and the inner bark of trees were fashioned into a protection from the weather4 ,these flimsy garments were later replaced by skins and furs4 ,as man advanced in knowledge1 he learned how to twist wool and hairs into threads and to weave these into durable garments4 ,still later1 perhaps1 he discovered that some plants conceal under their outer bark soft1 tough fibers that can be changed into excellent cloth4 ,flax and hemp were doubtless among the first plants to furnish this fiber4 ,flax4 ,among the fiber crops of the world1 flax ranks next to cotton4 ,it is the material from which is woven the linen for sheets1 towels1 tablecloths1 shirts1 collars1 dresses1 and a host of other articles4 ,fortunately for man1 flax will thrive in many countries and in many climates4 ,the fiber from which these useful articles are made1 unlike cotton fiber1 does not come from the fruit1 but from the stem4 ,it is the soft1 silky lining of the bark which lies between the woody outside and the pith cells of the stem4 ,the ,old ,world engages largely in flax culture and flax manufacture1 but in our country flax is grown principally for its seed4 ,from the seeds we make linseed oil1 linseed-oil cake1 and linseed meal4 ,flax grows best on deep1 loamy soils1 but also makes a profitable growth on clay soils4 ,with sufficient fertilizing material it can be grown on sandy lands4 ,nitrogen is especially needed by this plant and should be liberally supplied4 ,to meet this demand for nitrogen1 it pays to plant a leguminous crop immediately before flax4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,,flax ,after a mellow seed-bed has been made ready and after the weather is fairly warm1 sow1 if a seed crop is desired1 at the rate of from two to three pecks an acre4 ,a good seed crop will not be harvested if the plants are too thick4 ,on the other hand1 if a fiber crop is to be raised1 it is desirable to plant more thickly1 so that the stalks may not branch1 but run up into a single stem4 ,from a bushel to two bushels of seed is in this case used to an acre4 ,flax requires care and work from start to finish4 ,when the seeds are full and plump the flax is ready for harvesting4 ,in ,america a binder is generally used for cutting the stalks4 ,our average yield of flax is from eight to fifteen bushels an acre4 ,hemp4 ,like flax1 hemp adapts itself wonderfully to many countries and many climates4 ,however1 in ,america most of our hemp is grown in ,kentucky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,,cutting ,,hemp ,hemp needs soil rich enough to give the young plants a very rapid growth in their early days so that they may form long fibers4 ,to give this crop abundant nitrogen without great cost1 it should be grown in a rotation which includes one of the legumes4 ,rich1 well-drained bottom-lands produce the largest yields of hemp1 but uplands which have been heavily manured make profitable yields4 ,the ground for hemp is prepared as for other grain crops4 ,the seed is generally broadcasted for a fiber crop and then harrowed in4 ,no cultivation is required after seeding4 ,if hemp is grown for seed1 it is best to plant with a drill so that the crop may be cultivated4 ,the stalks after being cut are put in shocks until they are dry4 ,then the seeds are threshed4 ,large amounts of hemp seed are sold for caged birds and for poultry2 it is also used for paint-oils4 ,,section ,,xlvii4 ,,buckwheat ,buckwheat shares with rye and cowpeas the power to make a fairly good crop on poor land4 ,at the same time1 of course1 a full crop can be expected only from fertile land4 ,the three varieties most grown in ,america are the common gray1 the silver-hull1 and the ,japanese4 ,the seeds of the common gray are larger than the silver-hull1 but not so large as the ,japanese4 ,the seeds from the gray variety are generally regarded as inferior to the other two4 ,this crop is grown to best advantage in climates where the nights are cool and moist4 ,it matures more quickly than any other grain crop and is remarkably free from disease4 ,the yield varies from ten to forty bushels an acre4 ,buckwheat does not seem to draw plant food heavily from the soil and can be grown on the same land from year to year4 ,in fertilizing buckwheat land1 green manures and rich nitrogenous fertilizers should be avoided4 ,these cause such a luxuriant growth that the stalks lodge badly4 ,the time of seeding will have to be settled by the height of the land and by the climate4 ,in northern climates and in high altitudes the seeding is generally done in ,may or ,june4 ,in southern climates and in low altitudes the planting may wait until ,july or ,august4 ,the plant usually matures in about seventy days4 ,it cannot stand warm weather at blooming-time1 and must always be planted so that it may escape warm weather in its blooming period and cold weather in its maturing season4 ,the seeds are commonly broadcasted at an average rate of four pecks to the acre4 ,if the land is loose and pulverized1 it should be rolled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,,buckwheat ,,in ,,shock ,buckwheat ripens unevenly and will continue to bloom until frost4 ,harvesting usually begins just after the first crop of seeds have matured4 ,to keep the grains from shattering1 the harvesting is best done during damp or cloudy days or early in the morning while the dew is still on the grain4 ,the grain should be threshed as soon as it is dry enough to go through the thresher4 ,buckwheat is grown largely for table use4 ,the grain is crushed into a dark flour that makes most palatable breakfast cakes4 ,the grain1 especially when mixed with corn1 is becoming popular for poultry food4 ,the middlings1 which are rich in fats and protein1 are prized for dairy cows4 ,,section ,,xlviii4 ,,rice ,the ,united ,states produces only about one half of the rice that it consumes4 ,there is no satisfactory reason for our not raising more of this staple crop1 for five great states along the ,gulf of ,mexico are well adapted to its culture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,,threshing ,,rice ,there are two distinct kinds of rice1 upland rice and lowland rice4 ,upland rice demands in general the same methods of culture that are required by other cereals1 for example1 oats or wheat4 ,the growing of lowland rice is considerably more difficult and includes the necessity of flooding the fields with water at proper times4 ,a stiff1 half-clay soil with some loam is best suited to this crop4 ,the soil should have a clay subsoil to retain water and to give stiffness enough to allow the use of harvesting-machinery4 ,some good rice soils are so stiff that they must be flooded to soften them enough to admit of plowing4 ,plow deeply to give the roots ample feeding-space4 ,good tillage1 which is too often neglected1 is valuable4 ,careful seed-selection is perhaps even more needed for rice than for any other crop4 ,consumers want kernels of the same size4 ,be sure that your seed is free from red rice and other weeds4 ,drilling is much better than broadcasting1 as it secures a more even distribution of the seed4 ,the notion generally prevails that flooding returns to the soil the needed fertility4 ,this may be true if the flooding-water deposits much silt1 but if the water be clear it is untrue1 and fertilizers or leguminous crops are needed to keep up fertility4 ,cowpeas replace the lost soil-elements and keep down weeds1 grasses1 and red rice4 ,red rice is a weed close kin to rice1 but the seed of one will not produce the other4 ,do not allow it to get mixed and sowed with your rice seed or to go to seed in your field4 ,,section ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,timber ,,crop ,forest trees are not usually regarded as a crop1 but they are certainly one of the most important crops4 ,we should accustom ourselves to look on our trees as needing and as deserving the same care and thought that we give to our other field crops4 ,the total number of acres given to the growth of forest trees is still enormous1 but we should each year add to this acreage4 ,unfortunately very few forests are so managed as to add yearly to their value and to preserve a model stand of trees4 ,axmen generally fell the great trees without thought of the young trees that should at once begin to fill the places left vacant by the fallen giants4 ,owners rarely study their woodlands to be sure that the trees are thick enough1 or to find out whether the saplings are ruinously crowding one another4 ,disease is often allowed to slip in unchecked4 ,old trees stand long after they have outlived their usefulness4 ,the farm wood-lot1 too1 is often neglected4 ,as forests are being swept away1 fuel is of course becoming scarcer and more costly4 ,every farmer ought to plant trees enough on his waste land to make sure of a constant supply of fuel4 ,the land saved for the wood-lot should be selected from land unfit for cultivation4 ,steep hillsides1 rocky slopes1 ravines1 banks of streams--these can1 without much expense or labor1 be set in trees and insure a never-ending fuel supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,,wood ,,lot ,before proper treatment ,the most common enemies of the forest crop are3 ,first1 forest fires4 ,the waste from forest fires in the ,united ,states is most startling4 ,many of these fires are the result of carelessness or ignorance4 ,most of the states have made or are now making laws to prevent and to control such fires4 ,second1 fungous diseases4 ,the timber loss from these diseases is exceedingly great4 ,third1 insects of many kinds prey on the trees4 ,some strip all the leaves from the branches4 ,others bore into the roots1 trunk1 or branches4 ,some lead to a slow death2 others are more quickly fatal4 ,fourth1 improper grazing4 ,turning animals into young woods may lead to serious loss4 ,the animals frequently ruin young trees by eating all the foliage4 ,hogs often unearth and consume most of the seeds needed for a good growth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,,wood ,,lot ,after proper treatment ,the handling of forests is a business just as the growing of corn is a business4 ,in old forests1 dead and dying trees should be cut4 ,trees that occupy space and yet have little commercial value should give way to more valuable trees4 ,a quick-growing tree1 if it is equally desirable1 should be preferred to a slow grower4 ,an even distribution of the trees should be secured4 ,in all there are about five hundred species of trees which are natives of the ,united ,states4 ,probably not over seventy of these are desirable for forests4 ,in selecting trees to plant or to allow to grow from their own seeding1 pick those that make a quick growth1 that have a steady market value1 and that suit the soil1 the place of growth1 and the climate4 ,,section ,l4 ,,the ,,farm ,,garden ,every farmer needs a garden in which to grow not only vegetables but small fruits for the home table4 ,the garden should always be within convenient distance of the farmhouse4 ,if possible1 the spot selected should have a soil of mixed loam and clay4 ,every foot of soil in the garden should be made rich and mellow by manure and cultivation4 ,the worst soils for the home garden are light1 sandy soils1 or stiff1 clayey soils2 but any soil1 by judicious and intelligent culture1 can be made suitable4 ,in laying out the garden we should bear in mind that hand labor is the most expensive kind of labor4 ,hence we should not1 as is commonly done1 lay off the garden spot in the form of a square1 but we should mark off for our purpose a long1 narrow piece of land1 so that the cultivating tools may all be conveniently drawn by a horse or a mule4 ,the use of the plow and the horse cultivator enables the cultivation of the garden to be done quickly1 easily1 and cheaply4 ,each vegetable or fruit should be planted in rows1 and not in little patches4 ,beginning with one side of the garden the following plan of arrangement is simple and complete3 two rows to corn for table use2 two to cabbages1 beets1 radishes1 and eggplants2 two to onions1 peas1 and beans2 two to oyster-plants1 okra1 parsley1 and turnips2 two to tomatoes2 then four on the other side can be used for strawberries1 blackberries1 raspberries1 currants1 and gooseberries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,,where ,,delicious ,,garden ,,vegetables ,,grow ,the garden1 when so arranged1 can be tilled in the spring and tended throughout the growing season with little labor and little loss of time4 ,in return for this odd-hour work1 the farmer's family will have throughout the year an abundance of fresh1 palatable1 and health-giving vegetables and small fruits4 ,the keynote of successful gardening is to stir the soil4 ,stir it often with four objects in view3 #a4 ,to destroy weeds4 #b4 ,to let air enter the soil4 #c4 ,to enrich the soil by the action of the air4 #d4 ,to retain the moisture by preventing its evaporation4 corn corn cabbage beets radishes cabbage beets eggplants onions peas beans onions peas beans oyster-plants okra parsley parsnips oyster-plants okra parsley parsnips tomatoes tomatoes strawberries currants raspberries blackberries strawberries currants raspberries blackberries strawberries currants raspberries blackberries strawberries currants raspberries blackberries ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,,how ,,to ,,lay ,,out ,,the ,,garden#a ,this illustration shows that practically every garden vegetable and all the small fruits can be included in the farm garden1 and all the work be done by horse-drawn tools4 ,footnote #a3 ,the number of rows and arrangement of the vegetables in the outline above are merely suggestive4 ,they should be changed to meet the needs and the tastes of each particular family4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,feed ,,stuffs ,,section ,,li4 ,,grasses ,under usual conditions no farmer expects to grow live stock successfully and economically without setting apart a large part of his land for the growth of mowing and pasture crops4 ,therefore to the grower of stock the management of grass crops is all-important4 ,in planting either for a meadow or for a pasture1 the farmer should mix different varieties of grass seeds4 ,nature mixes them when she plants1 and ,nature is always a trustworthy teacher4 ,in planting for a pasture the aim should be to sow such seeds as will give green grass from early spring to latest fall4 ,in seeding for a meadow such varieties should be sowed together as ripen about the same time4 ,even in those sections of the country where it grows sparingly and where it is easily crowded out1 clover should be mixed with all grasses sowed1 for it leaves in the soil a wealth of plant food for the grasses coming after it to feed on4 ,nearly every part of our country has some clover that experience shows to be exactly suited to its soil and climate4 ,study these clovers carefully and mix them with your grass seed4 ,the reason for mixing clover and grass is at once seen4 ,the true grasses1 so far as science now shows1 get all their nitrogen from the soil2 hence they more or less exhaust the soil4 ,but1 as several times explained in this book1 the clovers are legumes1 and all legumes are able by means of the bacteria that live on their roots to use the free nitrogen of the air4 ,hence without cost to the farmer these clovers help the soil to feed their neighbors1 the true grasses4 ,for this reason some light perennial legume should always be added to grass seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,,single ,,plant ,,of ,,giant ,,millet ,it is not possible for grasses to do well in a soil that is full of weeds4 ,for this reason it is always best to sow grass in fields from which cultivated crops have just been taken4 ,soil which is to have grass sowed in it should have its particles pressed together4 ,the small grass seeds cannot take root and grow well in land that has just been plowed and which1 consequently1 has its particles loose and comparatively far apart4 ,on the other hand1 land from which a crop of corn or cotton has just been harvested is in a compact condition4 ,the soil particles are pressed well together4 ,such land when mellowed by harrowing makes a splendid bed for grass seeds4 ,a firm soil draws moisture up to the seeds1 while a mellow soil acts as a blanket to keep moisture from wasting into the air1 and at the same time allows the heated air to circulate in the soil4 ,in case land has to be plowed for grass-seeding1 the plowing should be done as far as possible in advance of the seeding4 ,then the plowed land should be harrowed several times to get the land in a soft1 mellow condition4 ,if the seed-bed be carefully prepared1 little work on the ground is necessary after the seeds are sowed4 ,one light harrowing is sufficient to cover the broadcast seeds4 ,this harrowing should always be done as soon as the seeds are scattered1 for if there be moisture in the soil the tiny seeds will soon sprout1 and if the harrowing be done after germination is somewhat advanced1 the tender grass plants will be injured4 ,there are many kinds of pasture and meadow grasses4 ,in ,new ,england1 timothy1 red clover1 and redtop are generally used for the mowing crop4 ,for permanent pasture1 in addition to those mentioned1 there should be added white clover and either ,kentucky or ,canadian blue grass4 ,in the ,southern states a good meadow or pasture can be made of orchard grass1 red clover1 and redtop4 ,for a permanent pasture in the ,south1 ,japan clover1 ,bermuda1 and such other local grasses as have been found to adapt themselves readily to the climate should be added4 ,in the ,middle ,states temporary meadows and pastures are generally made of timothy and red clover1 while for permanent pastures white clover and blue grass thrive well4 ,in the more western states the grasses previously suggested are readily at home4 ,alfalfa is proving its adaptability to nearly all sections and climates1 and is in many respects the most promising grass crop of ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,,bermuda ,it hardly ever pays to pasture meadows1 except slightly1 the first season1 and then only when the soil is dry4 ,it is also poor policy to pasture any kind of grass land early in the spring when the soil is wet1 because the tramping of animals crushes and destroys the crowns of the plants4 ,after the first year the sward becomes thicker and tougher1 and the grass is not at all injured if it is grazed wisely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,,alfalfa ,,the ,,wonderful ,the first crop of the season is being cut and stored for winter ,the state of maturity at which grass should be harvested to make hay of the best quality varies somewhat with the different grasses and with the use which is to be made of the hay4 ,generally speaking1 it is a good rule to cut grass for hay just as it is beginning to bloom or just after the bloom has fallen4 ,all grasses become less palatable to stock as they mature and form seed4 ,if grass be allowed to go to seed1 most of the nutrition in the stalk is used to form the seed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,,harvesting ,,alfalfa ,hence a good deal of food is lost by waiting to cut hay until the seeds are formed4 ,pasture lands and meadow lands are often greatly improved by replowing and harrowing in order to break up the turf that forms and to admit air more freely into the soil4 ,the plant-roots that are destroyed by the plowing or harrowing make quickly available plant food by their decay1 and the physical improvement of the soil leads to a thicker and better stand4 ,in the older sections of the country commercial fertilizer can be used to advantage in producing hay and pasturage4 ,if1 however1 clover has just been grown on grass land or if it is growing well with the grass1 there is no need to add nitrogen4 ,if the grass seems to lack sufficient nourishment1 add phosphoric acid and potash4 ,however1 grass not grown in company with clover often needs dried blood1 nitrate of soda1 or some other nitrogen-supplying agent4 ,of course it is understood that no better fertilizer can be applied to grass than barnyard manure4 ,,section ,,lii4 ,,legumes ,often land which was once thought excellent is left to grow up in weeds4 ,the owner says that the land is worn out1 and that it will not pay to plant it4 ,what does worn out mean8 ,simply that constant cropping has used up the plant food in the land4 ,therefore1 plants on worn-out land are too nearly starved to yield bountifully4 ,such wearing out is so easily prevented that no owner ought ever to allow his land to become poverty-stricken4 ,but in case this misfortune has happened1 how can the land be again made fertile8 ,on page #bd you learned that phosphoric acid1 potash1 and nitrogen are the foods most needed by plants4 ,worn out1 then1 to put it in another way1 usually means that a soil has been robbed of one of these plant necessities1 or of two or of all three4 ,to make the land once more fruitful it is necessary to restore the missing food or foods4 ,how can this be done8 ,two of these plant foods1 namely1 phosphoric acid and potash1 are minerals4 ,if either of these is lacking1 it can be supplied only by putting on the land some fertilizer containing the missing food4 ,fortunately1 however1 nitrogen1 the most costly of the plant foods1 can be readily and cheaply returned to poor land4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,,alfalfa ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,third ,,cutting ,as explained on page #cb the leguminous crops have the power of drawing nitrogen from the air and1 by means of their root-tubercles1 of storing it in the soil4 ,hence by growing these crops on poor land the expensive nitrogen is quickly restored to the soil1 and only the two cheaper plant foods need be bought4 ,how important it is then to grow these leguminous plants6 ,every farmer should so rotate his planting that at least once every two or three years a crop of legumes may add to the fruitfulness of his fields4 ,moreover these crops help land in another way4 ,they send a multitude of roots deep into the ground4 ,these roots loosen and pulverize the soil1 and their decay1 at the end of the growing season1 leaves much humus in the soil4 ,land will rarely become worn out if legumes are regularly and wisely grown4 ,from the fact that they do well in so many different sections and in so many different climates1 the following are the most useful legumes3 alfalfa1 clovers1 cowpeas1 vetches1 and soy beans4 ,alfalfa4 ,alfalfa is primarily a hay crop4 ,it thrives in the ,far ,west1 in the ,middle ,west1 in the ,north1 and in the ,south4 ,in fact1 it will do well wherever the soil is rich1 moist1 deep1 and underlaid by an open subsoil4 ,the vast areas given to this valuable crop are yearly increasing in every section of the ,united ,states4 ,alfalfa1 however1 unlike the cowpea1 does not take to poor land4 ,for its cultivation1 therefore1 good fertile land that is moist but not water-soaked should be selected4 ,good farmers are partial to alfalfa for three reasons4 ,first1 it yields a heavy crop of forage or hay4 ,second1 being a legume1 it improves the soil4 ,third1 one seeding lasts a long time4 ,this length of life may1 however1 be destroyed by pasturing or abusing the alfalfa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,,sheep ,,fattening ,,on ,,alfalfa ,,stubble ,alfalfa is different from most plants in this respect3 the soil in which it grows must have certain kinds of bacteria in it4 ,these cause the growth of tubercles on the roots4 ,these bacteria1 however1 are not always present in land that has not been planted in alfalfa4 ,hence if this plant is to be grown successfully these helpful bacteria must sometimes be supplied artificially4 ,there are two very easy ways of supplying the germs4 ,first1 fine soil from an alfalfa field may be scattered broadcast over the fields to be seeded4 ,second1 a small mass of alfalfa tubercle germs may be put into a liquid containing proper food to make these germs multiply and grow2 then the seeds to be planted are soaked in this liquid in order that the germs may fasten on the seeds4 ,before the seeds are sowed the soil should be mellowed4 ,over this well-prepared land about twenty pounds of seed to the acre should be scattered4 ,the seed may be scattered by hand or by a seed-sower4 ,cover with a light harrow4 ,the time of planting varies somewhat with the climate4 ,except where the winters are too severe the seed may be sowed either in the spring or in the fall4 ,in the ,south sow only in the fall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,,herd ,,of ,,dairy ,,cattle ,,grazing ,,on ,,alfalfa ,,stubble ,during the first season one mowing1 perhaps more1 is necessary to insure a good stand and also to keep down the weeds4 ,when the first blossoms appear in the early summer1 it is time to start the mower4 ,after this the alfalfa should be cut every two1 three1 or four weeks4 ,the number of times depends on the rapidity of growth4 ,this crop rarely makes a good yield the first year1 but if a good stand be secured1 the yield steadily increases4 ,after a good stand has been secured1 a top-dressing of either commercial fertilizer or stable manure will be very helpful4 ,an occasional cutting-up of the sod with a disk harrow does much good4 ,clovers4 ,the different kinds of clovers will sometimes grow on hard or poor soil1 but they do far better if the soil is enriched and properly prepared before the seed is sowed4 ,in many parts of our country it has been the practice for generations to sow clover seed with some of the grain crops4 ,barley1 wheat1 oats1 and rye are the crops with which clover is usually planted1 but many good farmers now prefer to sow the seed only with other grass seed4 ,circumstances must largely determine the manner of seeding4 ,crimson clover1 which is a winter legume1 usually does best when seeded alone1 although rye or some other grain often seems helpful to it4 ,this kind of clover is an excellent crop with which to follow cotton or corn4 ,it is most conveniently sowed at the last cultivation of these crops4 ,common red clover1 which is the standard clover over most of the country1 is usually seeded with timothy or with orchard grass or with some other of the grasses4 ,in sowing both crimson and red clover1 about ten to fifteen pounds of seed for each acre are generally used4 ,to make good pastures1 white and ,japan clover are favorites4 ,white clover does well in most parts of ,america1 and ,japan clover is especially valuable in warm ,southern climates4 ,both will do well even when the soil is partly shaded1 but they do best in land fully open to the sun4 ,careful attention is required to cure clover hay well4 ,the clover should always be cut before it forms seed4 ,the best time to cut is when the plants are in full bloom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,,crimson ,,clover ,let the mower be started in the morning4 ,then a few hours later run over the field with the tedder4 ,this will loosen the hay and let in air and sunshine4 ,if the weather be fair let the hay lie until the next day1 and then rake it into rows for further drying4 ,after being raked1 the hay may either be left in the rows for final curing or it may be put in cocks4 ,if the weather be unsettled1 it is best to cock the hay4 ,many farmers have cloth covers to protect the cocks and these often aid greatly in saving the hay crop in a rainy season4 ,in case the hay is put in cocks1 it should be opened for a final drying before it is housed4 ,cowpeas4 ,the cowpea is an excellent soil-enricher4 ,it supplies more fertilizing material to turn into the soil1 in a short time and at small cost1 than any other crop4 ,moreover1 by good tillage and by the use of a very small amount of fertilizer1 the cowpea can be grown on land too poor to produce any other crop4 ,its roots go deep into the soil4 ,hence they gather plant food and moisture that shallow-rooted plants fail to reach4 ,these qualities make it an invaluable help in bringing worn-out lands back to fertility4 ,the cowpea is a warm-weather legume4 ,in the ,united ,states it succeeds best in the south and southwest4 ,it has1 however1 in recent years been grown as far north as ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 and ,minnesota1 but in these cold climates other legumes are more useful4 ,cowpeas should never be planted until all danger of frost is past4 ,some varieties make their full growth in two months2 others need four months4 ,there are about two hundred varieties of cowpeas4 ,these varieties differ in form1 in the size of seed and of pod1 in the color of seed and of pod1 and in the time of ripening4 ,they differ1 too1 in the manner of growth4 ,some grow erect2 others sprawl on the ground4 ,in selecting varieties it is well to choose those that grow straight up1 those that are hardy1 those that fruit early and abundantly1 and those that hold their leaves4 ,the variety selected for seed should also suit the land and the climate4 ,the cowpea will grow in almost any soil4 ,it thrives best and yields most bountifully on well-drained sandy loams4 ,the plant also does well on clay soils4 ,on light1 sandy soils a fairly good crop may be made1 but on such soils1 wilt and root-knot are dangerous foes4 ,a warm1 moist1 well-pulverized seed-bed should always be provided4 ,few plants equal the cowpea in repaying careful preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,,cowpeas ,if this crop is grown for hay1 the method of seeding and cultivating will differ somewhat from the method used when a seed crop is desired4 ,when cowpeas are planted for hay the seeds should be drilled or broadcasted4 ,if the seeds are small and the land somewhat rich1 about four pecks should be sowed on each acre4 ,if the seeds are comparatively large and the soil not so fertile1 about six pecks should be sowed to the acre4 ,it is safer to disk in the seeds when they are sowed broadcast than it is to rely on a harrow to cover them4 ,in sowing merely for a hay crop1 it is a good practice to mix sorghum1 corn1 soy beans1 or millet with the cowpeas4 ,the mixed hay is more easily harvested and more easily cured than unmixed cowpea hay4 ,shortly after seeding1 it pays to run over the land lightly with a harrow or a weeder in order to break any crust that may form4 ,mowing should begin as soon as the stalks and the pods have finished growing and some of the lower leaves have begun to turn yellow4 ,an ordinary mower is perhaps the best machine for cutting the vines4 ,if possible1 select only a bright day for mowing and do not start the machine until the dew on the vines is dried4 ,allow the vines to remain as they fell from the mower till they are wilted2 then rake them into windrows4 ,the vines should generally stay in the windrows for two or three days and be turned on the last day4 ,they should then be put in small1 airy piles or piled around a stake that has crosspieces nailed to it4 ,the drying vines should never be packed2 air must circulate freely if good hay is to be made4 ,as piling the vines around stakes is somewhat laborious1 some growers watch the curing carefully and succeed in getting the vines dry enough to haul directly from the windrows to the barns4 ,never allow the vines to stay exposed to too much sunshine when they are first cut4 ,if the sun strikes them too strongly1 the leaves will become brittle and shatter when they are moved4 ,when cowpeas are grown for their pods to ripen1 the seeds should be planted in rows about a yard apart4 ,from two to three pecks of seeds to an acre should be sufficient4 ,the growing plants should be cultivated two or three times with a good cultivator4 ,cowpeas were formerly gathered by hand1 but such a method is of course slow and expensive4 ,pickers are now commonly used4 ,some farmers use the cowpea crop only as a soil-enricher4 ,hence they neither gather the seeds nor cut the hay1 but plow the whole crop into the soil4 ,there is an average of about forty-seven pounds of nitrogen in each ton of cowpea vines4 ,most of this valuable nitrogen is drawn by the plants from the air4 ,this amount of nitrogen is equal to that contained in #iejj pounds of stable manure4 ,in addition each ton of cowpea vines contains ten pounds of phosphoric acid and twenty-nine pounds of potash4 ,there is danger in plowing into the soil at one time any bountiful green crop like cowpeas4 ,as already explained on page #aj1 a process called capillarity enables moisture to rise in the soil as plants need it4 ,now if a heavy cowpea crop or any other similar crop be at one plowing turned into the soil1 the soil particles will be so separated as to destroy capillarity4 ,too much vegetation turned under at once may also1 if the weather be warm1 cause fermentation to set in and sour the land4 ,both of these troubles may be avoided by cutting up the vines with a disk harrow or other implement before covering them4 ,the custom of planting cowpeas between the rows at the last working of corn is a good one1 and wherever the climate permits this custom should be followed4 ,vetches4 ,the vetches have been rapidly growing in favor for some years4 ,stock eat vetch hay greedily1 and this hay increases the flow of milk in dairy animals and helps to keep animals fat and sleek4 ,only two species of vetch are widely grown4 ,these are the tare1 or spring vetch1 and the winter1 or hairy1 vetch4 ,spring vetch is grown in comparatively few sections of our country4 ,it is1 however1 grown widely in ,england and northern continental ,europe4 ,what we say here will be confined to hairy vetch4 ,after a soil has been supplied with the germs needed by this plant1 the hairy vetch is productive on many different kinds of soil4 ,the plant is most vigorous on fertile loams4 ,by good tillage and proper fertilization it may be forced to grow rather bountifully on poor sandy and clay loams4 ,acid or wet soils are not suited to vetch4 ,lands that are too poor to produce clovers will frequently yield fair crops of vetch4 ,if this is borne in mind1 many poor soils may be wonderfully improved by growing on them this valuable legume4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,,vetch ,vetch needs a fine well-compacted seed-bed1 but it is often sowed with good results on stubble lands and between cotton and corn rows1 where it is covered by a cultivator or a weeder4 ,the seeds of the vetch are costly and are brought chiefly from ,germany1 where this crop is much prized4 ,the pods ripen so irregularly that they have to be picked by hand4 ,in northern climates early spring sowing is found most satisfactory4 ,in southern climates the seeding is best done in the late summer or early fall4 ,as the vetch vines have a tendency to trail on the ground1 it is wisest to plant with the vetch some crop like oats1 barley1 rye1 or wheat4 ,these plants will support the vetch and keep its vines from being injured by falling on the ground4 ,do not use rye with vetch in the ,south4 ,it ripens too early to be of much assistance4 ,if sowed with oats the seeding should be at the rate of about twenty or thirty pounds of vetch and about one and a half or two bushels of oats to the acre4 ,vetch is covered in the same way as wheat and rye4 ,few crops enrich soil more rapidly than vetch if the whole plant is turned in4 ,it of course adds nitrogen to the soil and at the same time supplies the soil with a large amount of organic matter to decay and change to humus4 ,as the crop grows during the winter1 it makes an excellent cover to prevent washing4 ,many orchard-growers of the ,northwest find vetch the best winter crop for the orchards as well as for the fields4 ,soy1 or ,soja1 ,bean4 ,in ,china and ,japan the soy bean is grown largely as food for man4 ,in the ,united ,states it is used as a forage plant and as a soil-improver4 ,it bids fair to become one of the most popular of the legumes4 ,like the cowpea1 this bean is at home only in a warm climate4 ,some of the early-ripening varieties have1 however1 been planted with fair success in cold climates4 ,while there are a large number of varieties of the soy bean1 only about a dozen are commonly grown4 ,they differ mainly in the color1 size1 and shape of the seeds1 and in the time needed for ripening4 ,some of the varieties are more hairy than others4 ,soy beans may take many places in good crop-rotations1 but they are unusually valuable in short rotations with small grains4 ,the grains can be cut in time for the beans to follow them1 and in turn the beans can be harvested in the early fall and make way for another grain crop4 ,it should always be remembered that soy beans will not thrive unless the land on which they are to grow is already supplied1 or is supplied at the time of sowing1 with bean bacteria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,,chinese ,,soy ,,beans ,the plant will grow on many different kinds of soil1 but it needs a richer soil than the cowpea does4 ,as the crop can gather most of its own nitrogen1 it generally requires only the addition of phosphoric acid and potash for its growth on poor land4 ,when the first crop is seeded1 apply to each acre four hundred pounds of a fertilizing mixture which contains about ten per cent of phosphoric acid1 four per cent of potash1 and from one to two per cent of nitrogen4 ,if the crop is planted for hay or for grazing1 mellow the ground well1 and then broadcast or drill in closely about one and a half bushels of seed to each acre4 ,cover from one to two inches deep1 but never allow a crust to form over the seed1 for the plant cannot break through a crust well4 ,when the beans are planted for seeds1 a half bushel of seed to the acre is usually sufficient4 ,the plants should stand in the rows from four to six inches apart1 and the rows should be from thirty to forty inches from one another4 ,never plant until the sun has thoroughly warmed the land4 ,the bean may be sowed1 however1 earlier than cowpeas4 ,a most convenient time is just after corn is planted4 ,the rows should be cultivated often enough to keep out weeds and grass and to keep a good dust mulch1 but the cultivation must be shallow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,,soy ,,beans ,as soy beans are grown for hay and also for seed1 the harvesting will1 as with the other legumes1 be controlled by the purpose for which the crop was planted4 ,in harvesting for a hay crop it is desirable to cut the beans after the pods are well formed but before they are fully grown4 ,if the cutting is delayed until the pods are ripe1 the fruit will shatter badly4 ,there is a loss1 too1 in the food value of the stems if the cutting is late4 ,the ordinary mowing-machine with a rake attached is generally the machine used for cutting the stalks4 ,the leaves should be most carefully preserved1 for they contain much nourishment for stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,,soy ,,beans ,,in ,,corn ,whenever the beans are grown for seeds1 harvesting should begin when three fourths of the leaves have fallen and most of the pods are ripe4 ,do not wait1 however1 until the pods are so dry that they have begun to split and drop their seeds4 ,a slight amount of dampness on the plants aids the cutting4 ,the threshing may be done with a flail1 with pea-hullers1 or with a grain-threshing machine4 ,the beans produce more seed to the acre than cowpeas do4 ,forty bushels is a high yield4 ,the average yield is between twenty and thirty bushels4 ,,descriptive ,,table ,,adaptation ,,as ,crop ,,food ,,for ,,animals ,,life ,,remarks ,alfalfa ,hay ,perennial ,all animals like it2 hogs eat it even when it is dry4 ,red clover ,hay and pasture ,perennial ,best of the clovers for hay4 ,alsike clover ,hay and pasture ,perennial ,seeds itself for twenty years4 ,this clover is a great favorite with bees4 ,mammoth clover ,hay and pasture ,perennial ,best for green manure4 ,white clover ,pasture ,perennial ,excellent for lawns and bees4 ,japan clover ,pasture ,perennial ,excellent for forest and old soils4 ,cowpea ,hay and grain ,annual ,used for hay1 green manure1 and pastures4 ,soy bean ,hay and grain ,annual ,often put in silo with corn4 ,vetches ,hay and soiling ,annual ,pasture for sheep and swine4 ,with cereals it makes excellent hay and soiling-food4 ,,chapter ,x ,,domestic ,,animals ,the progress that a nation is making can with reasonable accuracy be measured by the kind of live stock it raises4 ,the general rule is1 poor stock1 poor people4 ,all the prosperous nations of the globe1 especially the grain-growing nations1 get a large share of their wealth from raising improved stock4 ,the stock bred by these nations is now1 however1 very different from the stock raised by the same nations years ago4 ,as soon as man began to progress in the art of agriculture he became dissatisfied with inferior stock4 ,he therefore bent his energies to raise the standard of excellence in domestic animals4 ,by slow stages of animal improvement the ugly1 thin-flanked wild boar of early times has been transformed into the sleek ,berkshire or the well-rounded ,poland-,china4 ,in the same manner the wild sheep of the ,old ,world have been developed into wool and mutton breeds of the finest excellence4 ,by constant care1 attention1 and selection the thin1 long-legged wild ox has been bred into the bounteous milk-producing ,jerseys and ,holsteins or into the ,shorthorn mountains of flesh4 ,from the small1 bony1 coarse1 and shaggy horse of ancient times have descended the heavy ,norman1 or ,percheron1 draft horse and the fleet ,arab courser4 ,the matter of meat-production is one of vital importance to the human race1 for animal food must always supply a large part of man's ration4 ,live stock of various kinds consume the coarser foods1 like the grasses1 hays1 and grains1 which man cannot use4 ,as a result of this consumption they store in their bodies the exact substances required for building up the tissues of man's body4 ,when the animal is used by man for food1 one class of foods stored away in the animal's body produces muscle2 another produces fat1 heat1 and energy4 ,the food furnished by the slaughter of animals seems necessary to the full development of man4 ,it is true that the flesh of an animal will not support human life so long as would the grain that the animal ate while growing1 but it is also true that animal food does not require so much of man's force to digest it4 ,hence the use of meat forces a part of man's life-struggle on the lower animal4 ,when men feed grain to stock1 the animals receive in return power and food in their most available forms4 ,men strengthen the animal that they themselves may be strengthened4 ,one of the great questions1 then1 for the stock-grower's consideration is how to make the least amount of food fed to animals produce the most power and flesh4 ,,section ,,liii4 ,,horses ,while we have a great many kinds of horses in ,america1 horses are not natives of this country4 ,just where wild horses were first tamed and used is not certainly known4 ,it is believed that in early ages the horse was a much smaller animal than it now is1 and that it gradually attained its present size4 ,where food was abundant and nutritious and the climate mild and healthful1 the early horses developed large frames and heavy limbs and muscles2 on the other hand1 where food was scarce and the climate cold and bleak1 the animals remained as dwarfed as the ponies of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,,the ,,family ,,pet ,one of the first records concerning the horse is found in ,genesis xlix1 #ag1 where ,jacob speaks of an adder that biteth the horse heels4 ,pharaoh took six hundred chosen chariots and with all the horses and chariots pursued the ,israelites4 ,the ,greeks at first drove the horse fastened to a rude chariot2 later they rode on its back1 learning to manage the animal with voice or switch and without either saddle or bridle4 ,this thinking people soon invented the snaffle bit1 and both rode and drove with its aid4 ,the curb bit was a ,roman invention4 ,shoeing was not practiced by either ,greeks or ,romans4 ,saddles and harnesses were at first made of skins and sometimes of cloth4 ,among the ,tartars of middle and northern ,asia and also among some other nations1 mare's milk and the flesh of the horse are used for food4 ,old and otherwise worthless horses are regularly fattened for the meat markets of ,france and ,germany4 ,various uses are made of the different parts of a horse's body4 ,the mane and tail are used in the manufacture of mattresses1 and also furnish a haircloth for upholstering2 the skin is tanned into leather2 the hoofs are used for glue1 and the bones for making fertilizer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,,percheron ,,horse 7,a ,,draft ,,type7 ,climate1 food1 and natural surroundings have all aided in producing changes in the horse's form1 size1 and appearance4 ,the varying circumstances under which horses have been raised have given rise to the different breeds4 ,in addition1 the masters' needs had much to do in developing the type of horses wanted4 ,some masters desired work horses1 and kept the heavy1 muscular1 stout-limbed animals2 others desired riding and driving horses1 so they saved for their use the light-limbed1 angular horses that had endurance and mettle4 ,the following table gives some of the different breeds and the places of their development3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,diagram shows the proper shape of the fore and hind legs of a horse4 ,when the straight lines divide the legs equally1 the leg action is straight and regular ,i4 ,draft1 or ,heavy1 ,breeds #a4 ,percheron1 from the province of ,perche1 ,france4 #b4 ,french ,draft1 developed in ,france4 #c4 ,belgian ,draft1 developed by ,belgian farmers4 #d4 ,clydesdale1 the draft horse of ,scotland4 #e4 ,suffolk ,punch1 from the eastern part of ,england4 #f4 ,english ,shire1 also from the eastern part of ,england4 ,,ii4 ,carriage1 or ,coach1 ,breeds #a4 ,cleveland ,bay1 developed in ,england4 #b4 ,french ,coach1 the gentleman's horse of ,france4 #c4 ,german ,coach1 from ,germany4 #d4 ,oldenburg ,coach1 ,oldenburg1 ,germany4 #e4 ,hackney1 the ,english high-stepper4 ,,iii4 ,light1 or ,roadster1 ,breeds #a4 ,american ,trotter1 developed in ,america4 #b4 ,thoroughbred1 the ,english running horse4 #c4 ,american ,saddle ,horse1 from ,kentucky and ,virginia4 ,there is a marked difference in the form and type of these horses1 and on this difference their usefulness depends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,,wide ,,hock ,this horse stands great strains and is not fatigued easily ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 ,,narrow ,,hock ,this horse becomes exhausted very easily ,the draft breeds have short legs1 and hence their bodies are comparatively close to the ground4 ,the depth of the body should be about the same as the length of leg4 ,all draft horses should have upright shoulders1 so as to provide an easy support for the collar4 ,the hock should be wide1 so that the animal shall have great leverage of muscle for pulling4 ,a horse having a narrow hock is not able to draw a heavy load and is easily exhausted and liable to curb-diseases 7see ,figs4 #bdb and #bdc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,,the ,,roadster ,,type ,the legs of all kinds of horses should be straight2 a line dropped from the point of the shoulder to the ground should divide the knees1 canon1 fetlock1 and foot into two equal parts4 ,when the animal is formed in this way the feet have room to be straight and square1 with just the breadth of a hoof between them 7,fig4 #bda74 ,roadsters are lighter in bone and less heavily muscled2 their legs are longer than those of the draft horses and1 as horsemen say1 more daylight can be seen under the body4 ,the neck is long and thin1 but fits nicely into the shoulders4 ,the shoulders are sloping and long and give the roadster ability to reach well out in his stride4 ,the head is set gracefully on the neck and should be carried with ease and erectness4 ,every man who is to deal with horses ought to become1 by observation and study1 an expert judge of forms1 qualities1 types1 defects1 and excellences4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,legs ,the diagram shows how the straight lines ought to cross the legs of a properly shaped horse ,the horse's foot makes an interesting study4 ,the horny outside protects the foot from mud1 ice1 and stones4 ,inside the hoof are the bones and gristle that serve as cushions to diminish the shock received while walking or running on hard roads or streets4 ,when shoeing the horse the frog should not be touched with the knife4 ,it is very seldom that any cutting need be done4 ,many blacksmiths do not know this and often greatly injure the foot4 ,since the horse has but a small stomach1 the food given should not be too bulky4 ,in proportion to the horse's size1 its grain ration should be larger than that of other animals4 ,draft horses and mules1 however1 can be fed a more bulky ration than other horses1 because they have larger stomachs and consequently have more room to store food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,,how ,,to ,,measure ,a ,,horse ,the horse should be groomed every day4 ,this keeps the pores of the skin open and the hair bright and glossy4 ,when horses are working hard1 the harness should be removed during the noon hour4 ,during the cool seasons of the year1 whenever a horse is wet with sweat1 it should on stopping work1 or when standing for awhile1 be blanketed1 for the animal is as liable as man to get cold in a draft or from moisture evaporating rapidly from its skin4 ,,exercise ,if the pupil will take an ordinary tape measure1 he can make some measurements of the horse that will be very interesting as well as profitable4 ,let him measure3 #a4 ,the height of the horse at the withers1 #a to #a4 #b4 ,the height of the horse at croup1 #b to #b4 #c4 ,length of shoulder1 #a to #c4 #d4 ,length of back1 #d4 #e4 ,length of head1 #e4 #f4 ,depth of body1 #f to #f4 #g4 ,daylight under body1 #g to #g4 #h4 ,distance from point of shoulder to quarter1 #c to #c4 #i4 ,width of forehead4 #aj4 ,width between hips4 ,,note4 ,many interesting comparisons can be made 7#a7 by measuring several horses2 7#b7 by studying the proportion between parts of the same horse4 ,,proportions ,,of ,a ,,horse #a4 ,how many times longer is the body than the head8 ,do you get the same result from different horses8 #b4 ,how does the height at the withers compare with the height at the croup8 #c4 ,how do these compare with the distance from quarter to shoulder8 #d4 ,how does the length of the head compare with the thickness of the body and with the open space1 or daylight1 under the body8 ,,section ,,liv4 ,,cattle ,all farm animals were once called cattle2 now this term applies only to beef and dairy animals--neat cattle4 ,our improved breeds are descended from the wild ox of ,europe and ,asia1 and have attained their size and usefulness by care1 food1 and selection4 ,the uses of cattle are so familiar that we need scarcely mention them4 ,their flesh is a part of man's daily food2 their milk1 cream1 butter1 and cheese are on most tables2 their hides go to make leather1 and their hair for plaster2 their hoofs are used for glue1 and their bones for fertilizers1 ornaments1 buttons1 and many other purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,a ,,prize-,,winner ,there are two main classes of cattle--beef breeds and dairy breeds4 ,the principal breeds of each class are as follows3 ,i4 ,beef ,breeds #a4 ,aberdeen-,angus1 bred in ,scotland1 and often called doddies4 #b4 ,galloway1 from ,scotland4 #c4 ,shorthorn1 an ,english breed of cattle4 #d4 ,hereford1 also an ,english breed4 #e4 ,sussex1 from the county of ,sussex1 ,england4 ,,ii4 ,dairy ,breeds #a4 ,jersey1 from the ,isle of ,jersey4 #b4 ,guernsey1 from the ,isle of ,guernsey4 #c4 ,ayrshire1 from ,scotland4 #d4 ,holstein-,frisian1 from ,holland and ,denmark4 #e4 ,brown ,swiss1 from ,switzerland4 ,other breeds of cattle are ,devon1 ,dutch ,belted1 ,red-,polled1 ,kerry1 and ,west ,highland4 ,in general structure there is a marked difference between the beef and dairy breeds4 ,this is shown in ,figs4 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,the beef cow is square1 full over the back and loins1 and straight in the back4 ,the hips are covered evenly with flesh1 the legs full and thick1 the under line1 or stomach line1 parallel to the back line1 and the neck full and short4 ,the eye should be bright1 the face short1 the bones of fine texture1 and the skin soft and pliable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,,aberdeen-,,angus ,,cow 7,a ,,beef ,,type7 ,the dairy cow is widely different from the beef cow4 ,she shows a decided wedge shape when you look at her from front1 side1 or rear4 ,the back line is crooked1 the hip bones and tail bone are prominent1 the thighs thin and poorly fleshed2 there is no breadth to the back1 as in the beef cow1 and little flesh covers the shoulders2 the neck is long and thin4 ,the udder of the dairy cow is most important4 ,it should be full but not fleshy1 be well attached behind1 and extend well forward4 ,the larger the udder the more milk will be given4 ,the skin of the dairy cow1 like that of the beef breeds1 should be soft and pliable and the bones fine-textured4 ,the ,dairy ,type4 ,because of lack of flesh on the back1 loins1 and thighs1 the cow of the dairy type is not profitably raised for beef1 nor is the beef so good as that of the beef types4 ,this is because in the dairy-animal food goes to produce milk rather than beef4 ,in the same way the beef cow gives little milk1 since her food goes rather to fat than to milk4 ,for the same reasons that you do not expect a plow horse to win on the race track1 you do not expect a cow of the beef type to win premiums as a milker4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,,jersey ,,cow 7,a ,,dairy ,,type7 ,scrub cattle are not profitable4 ,they mature slowly and consequently consume much food before they are able to give any return for it4 ,even when fattened1 the fat and lean portions are not evenly distributed1 and choice cuts are few and small4 ,by far the cheapest method of securing a healthy and profitable herd of dairy or beef cattle is to save only the calves whose sires are pure-bred animals and whose mothers are native cows4 ,in this way farmers of even little means can soon build up an excellent herd4 ,improving ,cattle4 ,the fact that it is not possible for every farmer to possess pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not improve the stock he has4 ,he can do this by using pure-bred sires that possess the qualities most to be desired4 ,scrub stock can be quickly improved by the continuous use of good sires4 ,it is never wise to use grade1 or cross-bred1 sires1 since the best qualities are not fixed in them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4 ,,head ,,of ,a ,,galloway ,,cow ,moreover1 it is possible for every farmer to determine exactly the producing-power of his dairy cows4 ,when the cows are milked1 the milk should be weighed and a record kept4 ,if this be done1 it will be found that some cows produce as much as five hundred1 and some as much as ten hundred1 gallons a year1 while others produce not more than two or three hundred gallons4 ,if a farmer kills or sells his poor cows and keeps his best ones1 he will soon have a herd of only heavy milkers4 ,ask your father to try this plan4 ,read everything you can find about taking care of cows and improving them1 and then start a herd of your own4 ,conclusions4 7#a7 ,a cow with a tendency to get fat is not profitable for the dairy4 7#b7 ,a thin1 open1 angular cow will make expensive beef4 7#c7 ,the sire is half the herd4 ,this means that a good sire is necessary to improve a herd of cattle4 ,the improvement from scrubs upward is as follows3 the first generation is one-half pure2 the second is three-fourths pure2 the third is seven-eighths pure2 the fourth is fifteen-sixteenths pure1 etc4 7#d7 ,by keeping a record of the quantity and quality of milk each cow gives you can tell which are profitable to raise from and which are not4 7#e7 ,good food1 clean water1 kindness1 and care are necessary to successful cattle-raising4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea4 ,,holstein ,,cow ,the ownership of a well-bred animal usually arouses so much pride in the owner that the animal receives all the care that it merits4 ,the watchful care given to such an animal leads to more thought of the other animals on the farm1 and often brings about the upbuilding of an entire herd4 ,,section ,,lv4 ,,sheep ,the sheep was perhaps the first animal domesticated by man1 and to-day the domesticated sheep is found wherever man lives4 ,it is found domesticated or wild in almost every climate1 and finds means to thrive where other animals can scarcely live2 it provides man with meat and clothing1 and is one of the most profitable and most easily cared-for of animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4 ,a ,,young ,,shepherd ,sheep increase so rapidly1 mature at such an early age1 and have flesh so wholesome for food that nearly every farm should have its flock4 ,another consideration that may be urged in favor of sheep-raising is that sheep improve the land on which they are pastured4 ,sheep are docile and easily handled1 and they live on a greater diversity of food and require less grain than any other kind of live stock4 ,in mixed farming there is enough food wasted on most farms to maintain a small flock of sheep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4 ,,sheep ,,have ,,long ,,been ,,called ,,the ,,golden-,,hoofed ,,animals ,sheep may be divided into three classes3 ,i4 ,fine-,wooled ,breeds #a4 ,american ,merino4 #b4 ,delaine ,merino4 #c4 ,rambouillets4 #d4 ,hampshire ,down4 #e4 ,oxford ,down4 #f4 ,cheviot4 ,,ii4 ,medium-,wooled ,breeds #a4 ,southdown4 #b4 ,shropshire4 #c4 ,horned ,dorset4 ,,iii4 ,long-,wooled ,breeds #a4 ,leicester4 #b4 ,lincoln4 #c4 ,cotswold4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4 ,,in ,,the ,,pasture ,the first group is grown principally for wool1 and mutton is secondary2 in the second group1 mutton comes first and wool second2 in the third group both are important considerations4 ,wool is nature's protection for the sheep4 ,have you ever opened the fleece and observed the clean skin in which the fibers grow8 ,these fibers1 or hairs1 are so roughened that they push all dirt away from the skin toward the outside of the fleece4 ,wool is valuable in proportion to the length and evenness of the fiber and the density of the fleece4 ,,exercise #a4 ,how many pounds ought a fleece of wool to weigh8 #b4 ,which makes the better clothing1 coarse or fine wool8 #c4 ,why are sheep washed before being sheared8 #d4 ,does cold weather trouble sheep8 wet weather8 ,,section ,,lvi4 ,,swine ,the wild boar is a native of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,the wild hogs are the parents from which all our domestic breeds have sprung4 ,in many parts of the world the wild boar is still found4 ,these animals are active and powerful1 and as they grow older are fierce and dangerous4 ,in their wild state they seek moist1 sandy1 and well-wooded places1 close to streams of water4 ,their favorite foods are fruits1 grass1 and roots1 but when pressed by hunger they will eat snakes1 worms1 and even higher animals1 like birds1 fowls1 and fish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4 ,,which ,,will ,,you ,,raise8 ,man captured some of these wild animals1 fed them abundant and nutritious food1 accustomed them to domestic life1 selected the best of them to raise from1 and in the course of generations developed our present breeds of hogs4 ,the main changes brought about in hogs were these3 the legs became shorter1 the snout and neck likewise shortened1 the shoulders and hams increased their power to take on flesh1 and the frame was strengthened to carry the added burden of flesh4 ,as the animal grew heavier it roamed less widely1 and as it grew accustomed to man its temper became less fierce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4 ,a ,,pair ,,of ,,porkers ,meat can be more cheaply obtained from hogs than from any other animal4 ,when a hog is properly fed and cared for it will make the farmer more money in proportion to cost than any other animal on the farm4 ,the most profitable type of hog has short legs1 small bones1 straight back and under line1 heavy hams1 small well-dished head1 and heavy shoulders4 ,the scrub and razorback hogs are very unprofitable1 and require an undue amount of food to produce a pound of gain4 ,it requires two years to get the scrub to weigh what a well-bred pig will weigh when nine months old4 ,scrub hogs can be quickly changed in form and type by the use of a pure-bred sire4 ,a boy whose parents were too poor to send him to college once decided to make his own money and get an education4 ,he bought a sow and began to raise pigs4 ,he earned the food for the mother and her pigs4 ,his hogs increased so rapidly that he had to work hard to keep them in food4 ,by saving the money he received from the sale of his hogs he had enough to keep him two years in college4 ,suppose you try his plan1 and let the hog show you how fast it can make money4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4 ,a ,,good ,,type ,we have several breeds of swine4 ,the important ones are3 ,i4 ,large ,breeds #a4 ,chester ,white4 #b4 ,improved ,yorkshire4 #c4 ,tamworth4 ,,ii4 ,medium ,breeds #a4 ,berkshire4 #b4 ,poland-,china4 #c4 ,duroc-,jersey4 #d4 ,cheshire4 ,,iii4 ,small ,breeds #a4 ,victoria4 #b4 ,suffolk4 #c4 ,essex4 #d4 ,small ,yorkshire4 ,hogs will be most successfully raised when kept as little as possible in pens4 ,they like the fields and the pasture grass1 the open air and the sunshine4 ,almost any kind of food can be given them4 ,unlike other stock1 they will devour greedily and tirelessly the richest feeding-stuffs4 ,the most desirable hog to raise is one that will produce a more or less even mixture of fat and lean4 ,where only corn is fed1 the body becomes very fat and is not so desirable for food as when middlings1 tankage1 cowpeas1 or soy beans are added as a part of the ration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4 ,,dinner ,,is ,,over ,when hogs are kept in pens1 cleanliness is most important1 for only by cleanliness can disease be avoided4 ,,section ,,lvii4 ,,farm ,,poultry ,our geese1 ducks1 turkeys1 and domestic hens are all descendants of wild fowls1 and are more or less similar to them in appearance4 ,the earliest recorded uses of fowls were for food1 for fighting1 and for sacrifice4 ,to-day the domestic fowl has four well-defined uses--egg-production1 meat-production1 feather-production1 and pest-destruction4 ,illustration3 ,,standard-,,bred ,,fowls ,barred ,plymouth ,rocks1 male and female2 ,white ,wyandottes1 female and male ,hens of course produce most of our eggs4 ,some duck eggs are sold for table use4 ,goose and duck body-feathers bring good prices4 ,as pest-destroyers turkeys and chickens are most useful4 ,they eat large numbers of bugs and worms that are harmful to crops4 ,a little proper attention would very largely increase the already handsome sum derived from our fowls4 ,they need dry1 warm1 well-lighted1 and tidily kept houses4 ,they must have1 if we want the best returns1 an abundant supply of pure water and a variety of nutritious foods4 ,in cold1 rainy1 or snowy weather they should have a sheltered yard1 and in good weather should be allowed a range wide enough to give them exercise4 ,their bodies and their nests must be protected from every form of vermin4 ,for eggs1 the ,leghorn varieties are popular4 ,some hens of this breed have been known to lay more than two hundred eggs in a year4 ,specially cared-for flocks have averaged eleven or even twelve dozen eggs a year4 ,farm flocks of ordinary breeds average less than eight dozen4 ,other excellent egg breeds are the ,spanish1 ,andalusian1 and ,minorca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4 ,,cock ,the principal so-called meat breeds are the ,brahma1 ,cochin1 and ,langshan4 ,these are very large1 but rather slow-growing fowls1 and are not noted as layers4 ,they are far less popular in ,america1 even as meat-producers1 than the general-purpose breeds4 ,the ,plymouth ,rock1 ,wyandotte1 ,rhode ,island ,red1 and ,orpington are the leading general-purpose breeds4 ,they are favorites because they are at once good-sized1 good layers1 tame1 and good mothers4 ,the chicks of these breeds are hardy and thrifty4 ,in addition to these breeds1 there are many so-called fancy breeds that are prized for their looks rather than for their value4 ,among these are the ,hamburg1 ,polish1 ,sultan1 ,silkie1 and the many ,bantam breeds4 ,the leading duck breeds are the ,pekin1 ,aylesbury1 ,indian ,runner1 ,muscovy1 ,rouen1 and ,cayuga4 ,the principal varieties of geese are the ,toulouse1 ,emden1 ,chinese1 and ,african4 ,among the best breeds of turkeys are the ,bronze1 ,white ,holland1 ,narragansett1 ,bourbon1 ,slate1 and ,buff4 ,geese1 ducks1 and turkeys are not so generally raised as hens1 but there is a constant demand at good prices for these fowls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,,brooder ,the varieties of the domestic hen are as follows3 ,i4 ,egg ,breeds #a4 ,leghorn4 #b4 ,minorca4 #c4 ,spanish4 #d4 ,blue ,andalusian4 #e4 ,anconas4 ,,ii4 ,meat ,breeds #a4 ,brahma4 #b4 ,cochin4 #c4 ,langshan4 #d4 ,dorking4 #e4 ,cornish4 ,,iii4 ,general-,purpose ,breeds #a4 ,plymouth ,rock4 #b4 ,wyandotte4 #c4 ,rhode ,island ,red4 #d4 ,orpington4 ,,iv4 ,fancy ,breeds #a4 ,polish4 #b4 ,game4 #c4 ,sultan4 #d4 ,bantam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4 ,,breeding ,,yards ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4 ,,incubator ,as the price of both eggs and fowls is steadily advancing1 a great many people are now raising fowls by means of an incubator for hatching1 and a brooder as a substitute for the mother hen4 ,the use of the incubator is extending each year and is now almost universal where any considerable number of chicks are to be hatched4 ,doubtless it will continue to be used wherever poultry-production is engaged in on a large scale4 ,the brooder is employed to take care of the chickens as soon as they leave the incubator4 ,,section ,,lviii4 ,,bee ,,culture ,stock-raisers select breeds that are best adapted to their needs4 ,plant-growers exercise great care in their choice of plants1 selecting for each planting those best suited to the conditions under which they are to be grown4 ,undoubtedly a larger yield of honey could be had each year if similar care were exercised in the selection of the breed of bees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,a ,,carniolan ,,worker ,to prove this1 one has only to compare the yield of two different kinds4 ,the common ,east ,indian honey bee rarely produces more than ten or twelve pounds to a hive1 while the ,cyprian bee1 which is a most industrious worker1 has a record of one thousand pounds in one season from a single colony4 ,this bee1 besides being industrious when honey material is plentiful1 is also very persevering when such material is hard to find4 ,the ,cyprians have two other very desirable qualities4 ,they stand the cold of winter well and stoutly defend their hives against robber bees and other enemies4 ,the ,italian is another good bee4 ,this variety was brought into the ,united ,states in #ahfj4 ,while the yield from the ,italian is somewhat less than from the ,cyprian1 the ,italian bees produce a whiter comb and are a trifle more easily managed4 ,the common black or brown bee is found wild and domesticated throughout the country4 ,when honey material is abundant1 these bees equal the ,italians in honey-production1 but when the season is poor1 they fall far short in the amount of honey produced4 ,the purchase of a good ,cyprian or ,italian hive will richly repay the buyer4 ,such a colony will cost more at the outset than an ordinary colony1 but will soon pay for its higher cost by greater production4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,a ,,carniolan ,,drone ,a beehive in the spring contains one queen1 several hundred drones1 and from thirty-five to forty thousand workers4 ,the duty of the queen is to lay all the eggs that are to hatch the future bees4 ,this she does with untiring industry1 often laying as many as four thousand in twenty-four hours4 ,the worker bees do all the work4 ,some of them visit the flowers1 take up the nectar into the honey-sac1 located in their abdomens1 and carry it to the hive4 ,they also gather pollen in basketlike cavities in their hind legs4 ,pollen and nectar are needed to prepare food for the young bees4 ,in the hive other workers create a breeze by buzzing with their wings and produce heat by their activity--all to cause the water to evaporate from the nectar and to convert it into honey before it is sealed up in the comb4 ,after a successful day's gathering you may often hear these tireless workers buzzing till late into the night or even all through the night4 ,you know that the bees get nectar from the flowers of various plants4 ,some of the chief honey plants are alfalfa1 buckwheat1 horsemint1 sourwood1 white sage1 wild pennyroyal1 black gum1 holly1 chestnut1 magnolia1 and the tulip tree4 ,the yield of honey may often be increased by providing special pasturage for the bees4 ,the linden tree1 for example1 besides being ornamental and valuable for timber1 produces a most bee-inviting flower4 ,vetch1 clover1 and most of the legumes and mints are valuable plants to furnish pasture for bees4 ,catnip may be cultivated for the bees and sold as an herb as well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,a ,,carniolan ,,queen ,in spraying fruit trees to prevent disease you should always avoid spraying when the trees are in bloom1 since the poison of the spray seriously endangers the lives of bees4 ,the eggs laid by the queen1 if they are to produce workers1 require about twenty-one days to bring forth the perfect bee4 ,the newly hatched bee commences life as a nurse4 ,when about ten days old it begins to try its wings in short flights1 and a few days later it begins active work4 ,the life of a worker bee in the busy season is only about six weeks4 ,you may distinguish young exercising bees from real workers by the fact that they do not fly directly away on emerging from the hive1 but circle around a bit in order to make sure that they can recognize home again1 since they would receive no cordial welcome if they should attempt to enter another hive4 ,they hesitate upon returning from even these short flights1 to make sure that they are in front of their own door4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4 ,,good ,,form ,,of ,,hive ,there are several kinds of enemies of the bee which all beekeepers should know4 ,one of these is the robber bee1 that is1 a bee from another colony attempting to steal honey from the rightful owners1 an attempt often resulting in frightful slaughter4 ,much robbery can be avoided by clean handling2 that is1 by leaving no honey about to cultivate a taste for stolen sweets4 ,the bee moth is another serious enemy4 ,the larva of the moth feeds on the wax4 ,keep the colonies of bees strong so that they may be able to overcome this moth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,,anti-,,robbing ,,entrance st1 stationary piece2 s1 slide2 p1 pin1 or stop ,queenless or otherwise weak colonies should be protected by a narrow entrance that admits only one bee at a time1 for such a pass may be easily guarded4 ,fig4 #bfg shows a good anti-robbery entrance which may be readily provided for every weak colony4 ,mice may be kept out by tin-lined entrances4 ,the widespread fear of the kingbird seems unfounded4 ,he rarely eats anything but drones1 and few of them4 ,this is also true of the swallow4 ,toads1 lizards1 and spiders are1 however1 true enemies of the honeybee4 ,,exercise ,can you recognize drones1 workers1 and queens8 ,do bees usually limit their visits to one kind of blossom on any one trip8 ,what effect has the kind of flower on the flavor of the honey produced8 ,what kinds of flowers should the beekeeper provide for his bees8 ,is the kingbird really an enemy to the bee8 ,,section ,,lix4 ,,why ,,we ,,feed ,,animals ,in the first place1 we give various kinds of feed stuffs to our animals that they may live4 ,the heart beats all the time1 the lungs contract and expand1 digestion is taking place1 the blood circulates through the body--something must supply force for these acts or the animal dies4 ,this force is derived from food4 ,in the next place1 food is required to keep the body warm4 ,food in this respect is fuel1 and acts in the same way that wood or coal does in the stove4 ,our bodies are warm all the time1 and they are kept warm by the food we eat at mealtime4 ,then1 in the third place1 food is required to enable the body to enlarge--to grow4 ,if you feed a colt just enough to keep it alive and warm1 there will be no material present to enable it to grow2 hence you must add enough food to form bone and flesh and muscle and hair and fat4 ,in the fourth place1 we feed to produce strength for work4 ,an animal poorly fed cannot do so much work at the plow or on the road as one that receives all the food needed4 ,both food and the force produced by it result from the activity of plants4 ,by means of sunlight and moisture a sprouting seed1 taking out of the air and soil different elements1 grows into a plant4 ,then1 just as the plant feeds on the air and soil to get its growth1 so the animal feeds on the plant1 to get its growth4 ,hence1 since our animals feed upon plants1 we must find out what is in plants in order to know what animal food consists of4 ,plants contain protein1 carbohydrates1 fat1 mineral matter1 water1 and vitamins4 ,you have seen protein compounds like the white of an egg1 lean meat1 or the gluten of wheat4 ,the bodies of plants do not contain very much protein4 ,on the other hand1 all plant seeds contain a good deal of this substance4 ,animals make use of protein to form new blood1 muscles1 and organs4 ,because of the quality of protein1 milk is the best food for children and young animals4 ,the protein in some foods is of poor quality4 ,to insure a well-balanced supply of protein a variety in foods is desirable4 ,do not rely on a single kind of mill feed1 but combine several kinds1 such as cotton-seed meal1 linseed meal1 wheat bran and middlings1 gluten1 and similar grain by-products4 ,tankage for young pigs and meat scraps for chickens are high-grade proteins and are of animal origin4 ,it is no less important to get the necessary vitamins--those mysterious substances that keep the body healthy and promote growth and well-being4 ,scientists claim that many diseases are food-deficiency diseases--the body gets out of order because these peculiar vitamins are lacking in the food4 ,children require about one or two quarts of milk a day1 fresh fruits1 cereal breakfast foods1 leafy vegetables as salads1 and cooked vegetables4 ,farm animals require the vitamins also4 ,the legume pasture or hay1 milk1 grain concentrates when supplied in variety1 pasture grass1 and green forage crops are basic foods for farm animals4 ,very young animals should have milk also4 ,let us next consider the carbohydrates4 ,sometimes the words starchy foods are used to describe the carbohydrates4 ,you have long known forms of these in the white material of corn and of potatoes4 ,the carbohydrates are formed of three elements--carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen4 ,the use of these carbohydrates is to furnish to animal bodies either heat or energy or to enable them to store fat4 ,in the next place1 let us look at the fat in plant food4 ,this consists of the oil stored up in the seeds and other parts of the plant4 ,the grains contain most of the oil4 ,fat is used by the animal to make heat and energy or to be stored away in the body4 ,the next animal food in the plant that we are to think about is the mineral matter4 ,the ashes of a burnt plant furnish a common example of this mineral matter4 ,the animal uses this material of the plant to make bone1 teeth1 and tissue4 ,the last thing that the plant furnishes the animal is water--just common water4 ,young plants contain comparatively large quantities of water4 ,this is one reason why they are soft1 juicy1 and palatable4 ,but1 since animals get their water chiefly in another way1 the water in feed stuffs is not important4 ,,what ,,these ,,compounds ,,do ,,in ,,the ,,body ,protein #a4 ,forms flesh1 bone1 blood1 internal organs1 hair1 and milk4 #b4 ,may be used to make fat4 #c4 ,may be used for heat4 #d4 ,may be used to produce energy4 ,carbohydrates #a4 ,furnish body heat4 #b4 ,furnish energy4 #c4 ,make fat4 ,fat #a4 ,furnishes body heat4 #b4 ,furnishes energy4 #c4 ,furnishes body fat4 ,mineral ,matter ,furnishes mineral matter for the bones in the body4 ,water ,supplies water in the body4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,farm ,,dairying ,,section ,,lx4 ,,the ,,dairy ,,cow ,success in dairy farming depends largely upon the proper feeding of stock4 ,there are two questions that the dairy farmer should always ask himself3 ,am ,i feeding as cheaply as ,i can8 and1 ,am ,i feeding the best rations for milk and butter production8 ,of course cows can be kept alive and in fairly good milk flow on many different kinds of food1 but in feeding1 as in everything else1 there is an ideal to be sought4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,,milking-,,time ,what1 then1 is an ideal ration for a dairy cow8 ,before trying to answer this question the word ration needs to be explained4 ,by ration is meant a sufficient quantity of food to support properly an animal for one day4 ,if the animal is to have a proper ration1 we must bear in mind what the animal needs in order to be best nourished4 ,to get material for muscle1 for blood1 for milk1 and for some other things1 the animal needs1 in the first place1 food that contains protein4 ,to keep warm and fat1 the animal must1 in the second place1 have food containing carbohydrates and fats4 ,these foods must be mixed in right proportions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4 ,a ,,dairy ,with these facts in mind we are prepared for an answer to the question1 ,what is an ideal ration8 ,first1 it is a ration that1 without waste1 furnishes both in weight and bulk of dry matter a sufficient amount of digestible1 nutritious food4 ,second1 it is a ration that is comparatively cheap4 ,third1 it is a ration in which the milk-forming food 7protein7 is rightly proportioned to the heat-making and fat-making food 7carbohydrates and fat74 ,any ration in which this proportion is neglected is badly balanced4 ,now test one or two commonly used rations by these rules4 ,would a ration of cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls be a model ration8 ,no4 ,such a ration1 since the seeds are grown at home1 would be cheap enough4 ,however1 it is badly balanced1 for it is too rich in protein2 hence it is a wasteful ration4 ,would a ration of corn meal and corn stover be a desirable ration8 ,this1 too1 since the corn is home-grown1 would be cheap for the farmer2 but1 like the other1 it is badly balanced1 for it contains too much carbohydrate food and is therefore a wasteful ration4 ,a badly balanced ration does harm in two ways3 first1 the milk flow of the cow is lessened by such a ration2 second1 the cow does not profitably use the food that she eats4 ,the following table gives an excellent dairy ration for the farmer who has a silo4 ,if he does not have a silo1 some other food can be used in place of the ensilage4 ,the table also shows what each food contains4 ,as you grow older1 it will pay you to study such tables most carefully4 ,,digestible ,,matter ---------------------------------- ,,feed ,,stuffs ,dry ,protein,carbohydrates ,fat matter ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,cowpea hay #ae pounds#a #ac4ej #a4fb #e4gi 4#af ,corn stover #aj pounds #e4ie 4#ag #c4bd 4#jg ,corn ensilage #cj pounds #f4bg 4#bg #c4ci 4#ba ,cotton-seed meal #b pounds #a4hc 4#gd 4#cc 4#bd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #eg pounds #bg4ee #b4hj #ab4ge 4#fh ,footnote #a3 ,alfalfa or clover hay may take the place of cowpea hay4 ,care of the ,cow4 ,as the cow is one of the best money-makers on the farm1 she should1 for this reason1 if for no other1 be comfortably housed1 well fed and watered1 and most kindly treated4 ,in your thoughts for her well-being1 bear the following directions in mind3 #a4 ,if you are not following a balanced ration1 feed each day several different kinds of food4 ,in this way you will be least likely to waste food4 #b4 ,feed at regular hours4 ,cows1 like people1 thrive best when their lives are orderly4 #c4 ,milk at regular hours4 #d4 ,brush the udder carefully with a moist cloth before you begin to milk4 ,cleanliness in handling makes the milk keep longer4 #e4 ,always milk in buckets or cups that have been scalded since the last using4 ,the hot water kills the bacteria that collect in the dents or cracks of the utensil4 #f4 ,never let the milk pail remain in the stable4 ,milk rapidly absorbs impurities4 ,these spoil the flavor and cause the milk to sour4 #g4 ,never scold or strike the cow4 ,she is a nervous animal1 and rough usage checks the milk flow4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,three ,,generations ,,of ,,high-,,bred ,,cows ,,section ,,lxi4 ,,milk1 ,,cream1 ,,churning1 ,,and ,,butter ,milk4 ,milk is1 as you know1 nature's first food for mammals4 ,this is because milk is a model food--it contains water to slake thirst1 ash to make bone1 protein to make flesh and muscle1 and fat and sugar to keep the body warm and to furnish energy4 ,the ,different ,kinds of ,milk4 ,whole1 or unskimmed1 milk1 skimmed milk1 and buttermilk are too familiar to need description4 ,when a cow is just fresh1 her milk is called colostrum4 ,colostrum is rich in the very food that the baby calf needs4 ,after the calf is a few days old1 colostrum changes to what is commonly known as milk4 ,the following table shows the composition of each of the different forms of milk3 ,,digestible ,,matter ,,in #ajj ,,pounds ---------------------------------- ,,composition ,,of ,,milk ,dry ,protein,carbohydrates ,fat matter ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,colostrum #be4d #ag4f #b4g #c4f ,milk 7unskimmed7 #ab4h #c4f #d4i #c4g ,skimmed milk #i4d #b4i #e4b #a4c ,buttermilk #i4i #c4i #d4j #a4a ,a noticeable fact in this table is that skimmed milk differs from unskimmed mainly in the withdrawal of the fat4 ,hence1 if calves are fed on skimmed milk1 they should have in addition some food like corn meal to take the place of the fat withdrawn4 ,a calf cannot thrive on skimmed milk alone4 ,the amount of nourishing fat that a calf gets out of enough milk to make a pound of butter can be bought1 in the form of linseed or corn meal1 for a very small amount1 while the butter-fat costs1 for table use1 a much larger sum4 ,of course1 then1 it is not economical to allow calves to use unskimmed milk4 ,some people undervalue skimmed milk2 with the addition of some fatty food it makes an excellent ration for calves1 pigs1 and fowls4 ,along with its dry matter1 its protein1 its carbohydrates1 and its fats1 milk and its products possess another most important property4 ,this property is hard to describe1 for its elements and its powers are not yet fully understood4 ,we do1 however1 know certainly this much3 milk and the foods made from it have power to promote health and favor growth in a more marked degree than any other foods4 ,it is generally agreed that this is due to the health-promoting and health-preserving substances which are called vitamines4 ,men of science are working with much care to try to add to our knowledge of these vitamines1 which have so marvelous an influence on the health of all animals4 ,unless food1 no matter how good otherwise1 contains these vitamines1 it does not nourish the body nor preserve bodily health as it should4 ,a complete lack of vitamines in our food would cause death4 ,since1 then1 milk and its products--butter1 cheese1 curds--are rich in vitamines1 these health-giving and health-preserving foods should form a regular part of each person's diet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4 ,,airing ,,the ,,cans ,cream4 ,cream is simply a mixture of butter-fat and milk4 ,the butter-fat floats in the milk in little globe-shaped bodies1 or globules4 ,since these globules are lighter than milk1 they rise to the surface4 ,skimming the milk is a mere gathering together of these butter-fat globules4 ,as most of the butter-fat is contained in the cream1 pains should be taken to get all the cream from the milk at skimming time4 ,after the cream has been collected1 it must be allowed to ripen or to sour in order that it may be more easily churned4 ,churning is only a second step to collect in a compact shape the fat globules4 ,it often happens that at churning-time the cream is too warm for successful separation of the globules4 ,whenever this is the case the cream must be cooled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4 ,a ,,hand ,,separator ,the ,churn4 ,revolving churns without inside fixtures are best4 ,hence1 in buying1 select a barrel or a square box churn4 ,this kind of churn brings the butter by the falling of the cream from side to side as the churn is revolved4 ,never fill the churn more than one-third or one-half full of cream4 ,a small churn is always to be avoided4 ,churning4 ,the proper temperature for churning ranges from #eh deg4 to #fb deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,test the cream when it is put into the churn4 ,if it be too cold1 add warm water until the proper temperature is reached2 if too warm1 add cold water or ice until the temperature is brought down to #fb deg44 ,do not churn too long1 for this spoils butter4 ,as soon as the granules of butter are somewhat smaller than grains of wheat1 stop the churn4 ,then draw off the buttermilk and at a temperature as low as #ej deg4 wash the butter in the churn4 ,this washing with cold water so hardens the granules that they do not mass too solidly and thus destroy the grain4 ,butter4 ,the butter so churned is now ready to be salted4 ,use good fine dairy salt4 ,coarse barrel salt is not fit for butter4 ,the salt can be added while the butter is still in the churn or after it is put upon the butter-worker4 ,never work by hand4 ,the object of working is to get the salt evenly distributed and to drive out some of the brine4 ,it is usually best to work butter twice4 ,the two workings bring about a more even mixture of the salt with the butter and drive off more water4 ,but one cannot be too particular not to overwork butter4 ,delicate coloring1 attractive stamping with the dairy owner's special stamp1 and proper covering with paper cost little and of course add to the ready and profitable sale of butter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4 ,a ,,power ,,churn ,,dairy ,,rules ,stable and ,cows #a4 ,whitewash the stable once or twice each year2 use land plaster1 muck1 or loam daily in the manure-gutters4 #b4 ,on their way to pasture or milking-place1 do not allow the cows to be driven at a faster gait than a comfortable walk4 #c4 ,give abundance of pure water4 #d4 ,do not change feed suddenly4 #e4 ,keep salt always within reach of each cow4 ,milking #a4 ,milk with dry hands4 #b4 ,never allow the milk to touch the milker's hands4 #c4 ,require the milker to be clean in person and dress4 #d4 ,milk quietly1 quickly1 thoroughly4 ,never leave a drop of milk in the cow's udder4 #e4 ,do not allow cats1 dogs1 or other animals around at milking-time4 ,utensils #a4 ,use only tin or metal cans and pails4 #b4 ,see that all utensils are thoroughly clean and free from rust4 #c4 ,require all cans and pails to be scalded immediately after they are used4 #d4 ,after milking1 keep the utensils inverted in pure air1 and sun them1 if possible1 until they are wanted for use4 #e4 ,always sterilize the churn with steam or boiling water before and after churning4 ,this prevents any odors or bad flavors from affecting the butter4 ,all cans1 pails1 and bottles should also be sterilized daily4 ,illustration ,,section ,,lxii4 ,,how ,,milk ,,sours ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4 ,,microscopic ,,appearance ,,of ,,pure ,,and ,,impure ,,milk ,at the left1 pure milk2 at the right1 milk after standing in a warm room for a few hours in a dirty dish1 showing1 besides the fat-globules1 many forms of bacteria ,on another page you have been told how the yeast plant grows in cider and causes it to sour1 and how bacteria sometimes cause disease in animals and plants4 ,now you must learn what these same living forms have to do with the souring of milk1 and maybe you will not forget how you can prevent your milk from souring4 ,in the first place1 milk sours because bacteria from the air fall into the milk1 begin to grow1 and very shortly change the sugar of the milk to an acid4 ,when this acid becomes abundant1 the milk begins to curdle4 ,as you know1 the bacteria are in air1 in water1 and in barn dust2 they stick on bits of hay and stick to the cow4 ,they are most plentiful1 however1 in milk that has soured2 hence1 if we pour a little sour milk into a pail of fresh milk1 the fresh milk will sour very quickly1 because we have1 so to speak1 seeded or planted the fresh milk with the souring germs4 ,no one1 of course1 ever does this purposely in the dairy1 yet people sometimes do what amounts to the same thing--that is1 put fresh milk into poorly cleaned pails or pans1 the cracks and corners of which are cozy homes for millions of germs left from the last sour milk contained in the vessel4 ,it follows1 then1 that all utensils used in the dairy should be thoroughly scalded so as to kill all germs present1 and particular care should be taken to clean the cracks and crevices1 for in them the germs lurk4 ,in addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water1 we should be careful never to stir up the dust of the barn just before milking4 ,such dusty work as pitching hay or stover or arranging bedding should be done either after or long before milking-time1 for more germs fall into the milk if the air be full of dust4 ,to further avoid germs the milker should wear clean overalls1 should have clean hands1 and1 above all1 should never wet his hands with milk4 ,this last habit1 in addition to being filthy1 lessens the keeping power of the milk4 ,the milker should also moisten the parts of the cow which are nearest him1 so that dust from the cow's sides may not fall into the milker's pail4 ,for greater cleanliness and safety many milkmen curry their cows4 ,the first few streams from each teat should be thrown away1 because the teat at its mouth is filled with milk which1 having been exposed to the air1 is full of germs1 and will do much toward souring the other milk in the pail4 ,barely a gill will be lost by throwing the first drawings away1 and this of the poorest milk too4 ,the increase in the keeping quality of the milk will much more than repay the small loss4 ,if these precautions are taken1 the milk will keep several hours or even several days longer than milk carelessly handled4 ,by taking these steps to prevent germs from falling into the milk1 a can of milk was once kept sweet for thirty-one days4 ,the work of the germ in the dairy is not1 however1 confined to souring the milk4 ,certain kinds of germs give to the different sorts of cheeses their marked flavors and to butter its flavor4 ,if the right germ is present1 cheese or butter gets a proper flavor4 ,sometimes undesirable germs gain entrance and give flavors that we do not like4 ,such germs produce cheese or butter diseases4 ,bitter butter is one of these diseases4 ,to keep out all unpleasant meddlers1 thoroughly cleanse and scald every utensil4 ,,exercise ,what causes milk to sour8 ,why do unclean utensils affect the milk8 ,how should milk be cared for to prevent its souring8 ,prepare two samples1 one carefully1 the other carelessly4 ,place them side by side4 ,which keeps longer8 ,why8 ,,section ,,lxiii4 ,,the ,,babcock ,,milk-,,tester ,it is not sufficient for a farmer or a dairyman to know how much milk each of his cows yields4 ,he should also know how rich the milk is in butter-fat4 ,wide-awake makers of butter and cheese now buy milk1 not by the pound or by the gallon1 but by the amount of butter-fat contained in each pound or gallon of milk4 ,a gallon of milk containing four and a half per cent of fat will consequently be worth more than a gallon containing only three per cent of fat4 ,so it may happen that a cow giving only two gallons of milk may pay a butter-maker more than a cow giving three gallons of milk4 ,of course it is easy to weigh or measure the quantity of milk given by a cow1 and most milkers keep this record2 but until recent years there was no way to find out the amount of fat in a cow's milk except by a slow and costly chemical test4 ,dairymen could only guess at the richness of milk4 ,in #ahij ,dr4 ,s4 ,m4 ,babcock of the ,wisconsin ,experiment ,station invented a wonderful little machine that quickly and cheaply measures the fat in milk4 ,few machines are more useful4 ,so desirous was ,dr4 ,babcock of helping the farmers that he would not add to the cost of his machine by taking out a patent on his invention4 ,his only reward has been the fame won by the invention of the machine1 which bears his name4 ,this most useful tester is now made in various sizes so that every handler of milk may buy one suited to his needs and do his own testing at very little cost4 ,the operation of the machine is very simple4 ,suppose that the members of the class studying this book have been asked to take a ,babcock machine and test the milk of a small herd of cows4 ,they can readily do so by following these directions3 ,while the milk is still warm from the first cow to be tested1 mix it thoroughly by pouring it at least four times from one vessel to another4 ,a few ounces of this mixed milk is then taken for a sample1 and carefully marked with the name of the cow4 ,a number is also put on the sample1 and both the cow's name and the number entered in a notebook4 ,a small glass instrument1 called a pipette1 comes with each machine4 ,put one end of the pipette into the milk sample and the other end into the mouth4 ,suck milk into the pipette until the milk comes up to the mark on the side of the pipette4 ,as soon as the mark is reached1 withdraw the pipette from the mouth and quickly press the forefinger on the mouth end4 ,the pressure of the finger will keep the milk from running out4 ,then put the lower end of the pipette into one of the small long-necked bottles of the machine1 and1 lifting the finger1 allow the milk to flow gently into the bottle4 ,expel all the milk by blowing through the pipette4 ,the next step is to add a strong1 biting acid known as sulphuric acid to the test-bottle into which you have just put the milk4 ,a glass marked to show just how much acid to use also comes with the machine4 ,fill this glass measure to the mark4 ,then pour the acid carefully into the test-bottle4 ,be sure not to drop any of the acid on your hands or your clothes4 ,as the acid is heavier than the milk1 it will sink to the bottom of the bottle4 ,with a gentle whirling motion1 shake the bottle until the two fluids are thoroughly mixed4 ,the mixture will turn a dark brown and become very warm4 ,now fill the other bottles in the same way with samples drawn from different cows4 ,treat all the samples precisely as you did the first4 ,do not forget to put on each sample the name of the cow giving the milk and on each test-bottle a number corresponding to the name of the cow4 ,you are now ready to put the test-bottles in the sockets of the machine4 ,arrange the bottles in the sockets so that the whirling frame of the machine will be balanced4 ,fit the cover on the machine and turn the handle slowly4 ,gradually gain in speed until the machine is whirled rapidly4 ,continue the turning for about seven minutes at the speed stated in the book of directions4 ,after this first turning is finished1 pour enough hot water into each test-bottle to cause the fat to rise to the neck of the bottle4 ,re-cover the machine and turn for one minute4 ,again add hot water to each bottle until all the fat rises into the neck of the bottle and again turn one minute4 ,there remains now only the reading of the record4 ,on the neck of each bottle there are marks to measure the amount of fat4 ,if the fat inside the tube reaches only from the lowest mark to the second mark1 then there is only one per cent of fat in this cow's milk4 ,this means that the owner of the cow gets only one pound of butter-fat from each hundred pounds of her milk4 ,such a cow would not be at all profitable to a butter-seller4 ,if the fat in another test-bottle reaches from the lowest mark to the fourth mark1 then you put in your record-book that this cow's milk contains four per cent of butter-fat4 ,this record shows that the second cow's milk yields four pounds of fat to every hundred pounds of milk4 ,this cow is three times more valuable to a butter-maker than the first cow4 ,in the same way add one more per cent for each higher mark reached by the fat4 ,four and one-half per cent is a good record for a cow to make4 ,some cows yield as high as five or six per cent but they do not generally keep up this record all the year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4 ,,babcock ,,tester ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,the tester1 acid1 acid measure1 test-bottle1 and thermometer at bottom2 filling the pipette on right2 adding the acid and measuring the fat at top ,the ,babcock tester shows only the amount of pure butter-fat in the milk4 ,it does not tell the exact amount of finished butter which is made from #ajj pounds of milk4 ,this is because butter contains a few other things in addition to pure butter-fat4 ,finished and salted butter weighs on an average about one sixth more than the fat shown by the tester4 ,hence to get the exact amount of butter in every #ajj pounds of milk1 you will have to add one sixth to the record shown by the tester4 ,suppose1 for example1 you took one sample from #fjj pounds of milk and that your test showed #d per cent of fat in every #ajj pounds of milk4 ,then1 as you had #fjj pounds of milk1 you would have #bd pounds of butter-fat4 ,this fat1 after it has been salted and after it has absorbed moisture as butter does1 will gain one sixth in weight4 ,as one sixth of #bd is #d1 this new #d pounds must be added to the weight of the butter-fat4 ,hence the #fjj pounds of milk would produce about #bh pounds of butter4 ,,exercise #a4 ,find the number of pounds of butter in #abjj pounds of milk that tests #c per cent of butter-fat4 #b4 ,a cow yields #dhjj pounds of milk in a year4 ,her milk tests #d per cent of butter-fat4 ,find the total amount of butter-fat she yields4 ,find also the total amount of butter4 #c4 ,the milk of two cows was tested3 one yielded in a year #fjjj pounds of milk that tested #c per cent of fat2 the other yielded #ejjj pounds that tested #d per cent4 ,which cow yielded the more butter-fat8 ,what was the money value of the butter produced by each if butter-fat is worth twenty-five cents a pound8 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,miscellaneous ,,section ,,lxiv4 ,,growing ,,feed ,,stuffs ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,economy in raising live stock demands the production of all roughness or roughage materials on the farm4 ,by roughness1 or roughage1 of course you understand that bulky food1 like hay1 grass1 clover1 stover1 etc41 is meant4 ,it is possible to purchase all roughage materials and yet make a financial success of growing farm animals1 but this certainly is not the surest way to succeed4 ,every farm should raise all its feed stuffs4 ,in deciding what forage and grain crops to grow we should decide3 #a4 ,the crops best suited to our soil and climate4 #b4 ,the crops best suited to our line of business4 #c4 ,the crops that will give us the most protein4 #d4 ,the crops that produce the most4 #e4 ,the crops that will keep our soil in the best condition4 #a4 ,the crops best suited to our soil and climate4 ,farm crops1 as every child of the farm knows1 are not equally adapted to all soils and climates4 ,cotton cannot be produced where the climate is cool and the seasons short4 ,timothy and blue grass are most productive on cool1 limestone soils4 ,cowpeas demand warm1 dry soils4 ,but in spite of climatic limitations1 ,nature has been generous in the wide variety of forage she has given us4 ,our aim should be to make the best use of what we have1 to improve by selection and care those kinds best adapted to our soil and climate1 and to secure1 by better methods of growing and curing1 the greatest yields at the least possible cost4 #b4 ,the crops best suited to our line of business4 ,a farmer necessarily becomes more or less of a specialist2 he gathers those kinds of live stock about him which he likes best and which he finds the most profitable4 ,he should1 on his farm1 select for his main crops those that he can grow with the greatest pleasure and with the greatest profit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4 ,,filling ,,the ,,barn ,,with ,,roughage ,,from ,,the ,,farm ,the successful railroad manager determines by practical experience what distances his engines and crews ought to run in a day1 what coal is most economical for his engines1 what schedules best suit the needs of his road1 what trains pay him best4 ,these and a thousand and one other matters are settled by the special needs of his road4 ,ought the man who wants to make his farm pay be less prudent and less far-sighted8 ,should not his past failures and his past triumphs decide his future8 ,if he be a dairy farmer1 ought he not by practical tests to settle for himself not only what crops are most at home on his land but also what crops in his circumstances yield him the largest returns in milk and butter8 ,if swine-raising be his business1 how long ought he to guess what crop on his land yields him the greatest amount of hog food8 ,should a colt be fed on one kind of forage when the land that produced that forage would produce twice as much equally good forage of another kind8 ,all these questions the prudent farmer should answer promptly and in the light of wise experiments4 #c4 ,the crops that will give us the most protein4 ,it is the farmer's business to grow all the grass and forage that his farm animals need4 ,he ought never to be obliged to purchase a bale of forage4 ,moreover1 he should grow mainly those crops that are rich in protein materials1 for example1 cowpeas1 alfalfa1 and clover4 ,if such crops are produced on the farm1 there will be little need of buying so much cotton-seed meal1 corn1 and bran for feeding purposes4 #d4 ,the crops that produce the most4 ,we often call a crop a crop without considering how much it yields4 ,this is a mistake4 ,we ought to grow1 when we have choice of two crops1 the one that is the best and the most productive on the farm4 ,average corn1 for instance1 yields on an acre at least twice the quantity of feeding-material that timothy does4 #e4 ,the crops that will keep our soil in the best condition4 ,a good farmer should always be thinking of how to improve his soil4 ,he wants his land to support him and to maintain his children after he is dead4 ,since cowpeas1 clover1 and alfalfa add atmospheric nitrogen to the soil and at the same time are the best feeding-materials1 it follows that these crops should hold an important place in every system of crop-rotation4 ,by proper rotating1 by proper terracing1 and by proper drainage1 land may be made to retain its fertility for generations4 ,,exercise #a4 ,why are cowpeas1 clover1 and alfalfa so important to the farmer8 #b4 ,what is meant by the protein of a food8 #c4 ,why is it better to feed the farm crops to animals on the farm rather than to sell these crops8 ,,section ,,lxv4 ,,farm ,,tools ,,and ,,machines ,the drudgery of farm life is being lessened from year to year by the invention or improvement of farm tools and machines4 ,perhaps some of you know how tiresome was the old up-and-down churn dasher that has now generally given place to the quick-coming churns4 ,the toothed1 horse-drawn cultivator has nearly displaced the man with the hoe1 while the scythe1 slow and back-breaking1 is everywhere getting out of the way of the mowing-machine and the horserake4 ,the old heavy1 sweat-drawing grain-cradle is slinking into the backwoods1 and in its place we have the horse-drawn or steam-drawn harvester that cuts and binds the grain1 and even threshes and measures it at one operation4 ,instead of the plowman's wearily making one furrow at a time1 the gang-plows of the plains cut many furrows at one time1 and instead of walking the plowman rides4 ,the shredder and husker turns the hitherto useless cornstalk into food1 and at the same time husks1 or shucks1 the corn4 ,the farmer of the future must know three things well3 first1 what machines he can profitably use2 second1 how to manage these machines2 third1 how to care for these machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4 ,,properly ,,protected ,,tools ,,and ,,machines ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4 ,,unprotected ,,tools ,,and ,,machines ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4 ,,the ,,harvester ,,at ,,work ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4 ,,in ,,need ,,of ,,improvement ,the machinery that makes farming so much more economical and that makes the farmer's life so much easier and more comfortable is too complicated to be put into the hands of bunglers who will soon destroy it1 and it is too costly to be left in the fields or under trees to rust and rot4 ,if it is not convenient for every farmer to have a separate tool-house1 he should at least set apart a room in his barn1 or a shed for storing his tools and machines4 ,as soon as a plow1 harrow1 cultivator--indeed any tool or machine--has finished its share of work for the season1 it should receive whatever attention it needs to prevent rusting1 and should be carefully housed4 ,such care1 which is neither costly nor burdensome1 will add many years to the life of a machine4 ,,section ,,lxvi4 ,,liming ,,the ,,land ,occasionally1 when a cook puts too much vinegar in a salad1 the dish becomes so sour that it is unfit to eat4 ,the vinegar which the cook uses belongs to a large group of compounds known as acids4 ,the acids are common in nature4 ,they have the power not only of making salads sour but also of making land sour4 ,frequently land becomes so sour from acids forming in it that it will not bear its usual crops4 ,the acids must then be removed or the land will become useless4 ,the land may be soured in several ways4 ,whenever a large amount of vegetable matter decays in land1 acids are formed1 and at times sourness of the soil results4 ,often soils sour because they are not well drained or because1 from lack of proper tillage1 air cannot make its way into the soil4 ,sometimes all these causes may combine to produce sourness4 ,since most crops cannot thrive on very sour soil1 the farmer must find some method of making his land sweet again4 ,so far as we now know1 liming the land is the cheapest and surest way of overcoming the sourness4 ,in addition to sweetening the soil by overcoming the acids1 lime aids the land in other ways3 it quickens the growth of helpful bacteria2 it loosens stiff1 heavy clay soils and thereby fits them for easier tillage2 it indirectly sets free the potash and phosphoric acid so much needed by plants2 and it increases the capillarity of soils4 ,however1 too much must not be expected of lime4 ,often a farmer's yield is so increased after he has scattered lime over his fields that he thinks that lime alone will keep his land fertile4 ,this belief explains the saying1 ,lime enriches the father but beggars the son4 ,the continued use of lime without other fertilization will indeed leave poor land for the son4 ,lime is just as necessary to plant growth as the potash and nitrogen and phosphoric acid about which we hear so much1 but it cannot take the place of these plant foods4 ,its duty is to aid1 not to displace them4 ,we can tell by the taste when salads are too sour2 it is more difficult to find out whether land is sour4 ,there are1 however1 some methods that will help to determine the sourness of the soil4 ,in the first place1 if land is unusually sour1 you can determine this fact by a simple test4 ,buy a pennyworth of blue litmus paper from a drug store4 ,mix some of the suspected soil with a little water and bury the litmus paper in the mixture4 ,if the paper turns red the soil is sour4 ,in the second place1 the leguminous crops are fond of lime4 ,clover and vetch remove so much lime from the soil that they are often called lime plants4 ,if clover and vetch refuse to grow on land on which they formerly flourished1 it is generally1 though not always1 a sign that the land needs lime4 ,in the third place1 when water grasses and certain weeds spring up on land1 that land is usually acid1 and lime will be helpful4 ,moreover1 fields adjoining land on which cranberries1 raspberries1 blackberries1 or gallberries are growing wild1 may always be suspected of more or less sourness4 ,four forms of lime are used on land4 ,these1 each called by different names1 are as follows3 ,first1 quicklime1 which is also called burnt lime1 caustic lime1 builders' lime1 rock lime1 and unslaked lime4 ,second1 air-slaked lime1 which is also known as carbonate of lime1 agricultural lime1 marl1 and limestone4 ,third1 water-slaked1 or hydrated1 lime4 ,fourth1 land plaster1 or gypsum4 ,this form of lime is known to the chemists as sulphate of lime4 ,do not forget that this last form is never to be used on sour lands4 ,we shall therefore not consider it further4 ,air-slaked lime is simply quicklime which has taken from the air a gas called carbon dioxide4 ,this is the same gas that you breathe out from your lungs4 ,water-slaked lime is quicklime to which water has been added4 ,in other words1 both of these are merely weakened forms of quicklime4 ,one hundred pounds of quicklime is equal in richness to #acb pounds of water-slaked lime and to #agh pounds of air-slaked lime4 ,these figures should be remembered by a farmer when he is buying lime4 ,if he can buy a fair grade of quicklime delivered at his railway station for #e4jj a ton1 he cannot afford to pay more than #c4ge a ton for water-slaked lime1 nor more than #b4ge for air-slaked lime of equal grade4 ,quicklime should always be slaked before it is applied to the soil4 ,as a rule lime should be spread broadcast and then harrowed or disked thoroughly into the soil4 ,this is best done after the ground has been plowed4 ,for pastures or meadows air-slaked lime is used as a top-dressing4 ,when air-slaked lime is used it may be spread broadcast in the spring2 the other forms should be applied in the fall or in the early winter4 ,,section ,,lxvii4 ,,birds ,what do birds do in the world8 is an important question for us to think about4 ,first1 we must gain by observation and by personal acquaintance with the living birds a knowledge of their work and their way of doing it4 ,in getting this knowledge1 let us also consider what we can do for our birds to render their work as complete and effective as possible4 ,think of what the birds are doing on every farm1 in every garden1 and about every home in the land4 ,think of the millions of beautiful wings1 of the graceful and attractive figures1 of the cunning nests1 and of the singing throats6 ,do you think that the whole service of the birds is to be beautiful1 to sing charmingly1 and to rear their little ones8 ,by no means is this their chief service to man4 ,aside from these services the greatest work of birds is to destroy insects4 ,it is one of the wise provisions of nature that many of the most brilliantly winged and most enchanting songsters are our most practical friends4 ,not all birds feed on insects and animals2 but even those that eat but a small amount of insect food may still destroy insects that would have damaged fruit and crops much more than the birds themselves do4 ,as to their food1 birds are divided into three general classes4 ,first1 those that live wholly or almost wholly on insects4 ,these are called insectivorous birds4 ,chief among these are the warblers1 cuckoos1 swallows1 martins1 flycatchers1 nighthawks1 whippoorwills1 swifts1 and humming-birds4 ,we cannot have too many of these birds4 ,they should be encouraged and protected4 ,they should be supplied with shelter and water4 ,birds of the second class feed by preference on fruits1 nuts1 and grain4 ,the bluebird1 robin1 wood thrush1 mocking-bird1 catbird1 chickadee1 cedar-bird1 meadow lark1 oriole1 jay1 crow1 and woodpecker belong to this group4 ,these birds never fail to perform a service for us by devouring many weed seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4 ,a ,,kingbird ,the third class is known as the hard-billed birds4 ,it includes those birds which live principally on seeds and grain--the canary1 goldfinch1 sparrow1 and some others4 ,birds that come early1 like the bluebird1 robin1 and redwing1 are of special service in destroying insects before the insects lay their eggs for the season4 ,the robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and cutworms4 ,the chipping sparrow and the wren in the shrubbery look out for all kinds of insects4 ,they watch over the orchard and feed freely on the enemies of the apple and other fruit trees4 ,the trunks of these trees are often attacked by borers1 which gnaw holes in the bark and wood1 and often cause the death of the trees4 ,the woodpeckers hunt for these appetizing borers and by means of their barbed tongues bring them from their hiding-places4 ,on the outside of the bark of the trunk and branches the bark lice work4 ,these are devoured by the nuthatches1 creepers1 and chickadees4 ,during the winter the bark is the hiding-place for hibernating insects1 which1 like plant lice1 feed in summer on the leaves4 ,throughout the winter a single chickadee will destroy great numbers of the eggs of the cankerworm moth and of the plant louse4 ,the blackbirds1 meadow larks1 crows1 quail1 and sparrows are the great protectors of the meadow and field crops4 ,these birds feed on the army worms and cutworms that do so much injury to the young shoots2 they also destroy the chinch bug and the grasshopper1 both of which feed on cultivated plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4 ,a ,,warbler ,a count of all the different kinds of animals shows that insects make up nine tenths of them4 ,hence it is easy to see that if something did not check their increase they would soon almost overrun the earth4 ,our forests and orchards furnish homes and breeding-places for most of these insects4 ,suppose the injurious insects were allowed to multiply unchecked in the forests1 their numbers would so increase that they would invade our fields and create as much terror among the farmers as they did in ,pharaoh's ,egypt4 ,the birds are the only direct friends man has to destroy these harmful insects4 ,what benefactors1 then1 these little feathered neighbors are6 ,it has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty insects daily4 ,even in a widely extended forest region a very few birds to the acre1 if they kept up this rate1 would daily destroy many bushels of insects that would play havoc with the neighboring orchards and fields4 ,do not imagine1 however1 that to destroy insects is the only use of birds4 ,the day is far more delightful when the birds sing1 and when we see them flit in and out1 giving us a glimpse now and then of their pretty coats and quaint ways4 ,by giving them a home we can surround ourselves with many birds1 sweet of song and brilliant of plumage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4 ,,the ,,hairy ,,woodpecker ,if the birds felt that man were a friend and not a foe1 they would often turn to him for protection4 ,during times of severe storm1 extreme drought1 or scarcity of food1 if the birds were sufficiently tamed to come to man as their friend1 as they do in rare cases now1 a little food and shelter might tide them over the hard time and their service afterwards would repay the outlay a thousandfold4 ,if the boys in your families would build bird-houses about the house and barn and in shade trees1 they might save yearly a great number of birds4 ,in building these places of shelter and comfort1 due care must be taken to keep them clear of ,english sparrows and out of the reach of cats and bird-dogs4 ,whatever we do to attract the birds to make homes on the premises must be done at the right time and in the right way4 ,think out carefully what materials to provide for them4 ,bits of string1 linen1 cotton1 yarn1 tow and other waste material1 all help to induce a pair to build in the garden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4 ,,protecting ,,our ,,friends ,it is an interesting study--the preparation of homes for the birds4 ,trees may be pruned to make inviting crotches4 ,a tangled1 overgrown corner in the garden will invite some birds to nest4 ,wrens1 bluebirds1 chickadees1 martins1 and some other varieties are all glad to set up housekeeping in man-made houses4 ,the proper size for a bird-room is easily remembered4 ,give each room six square inches of floor space and make it eight inches high4 ,old1 weathered boards should be used2 or1 if paint is employed1 a dull color to resemble an old tree-trunk will be most inviting4 ,a single opening near the top should be made two inches in diameter for the larger birds2 but if the house is to be headquarters for the wren1 a one-inch opening is quite large enough1 and the small door serves all the better to keep out ,english sparrows4 ,the barn attic should be turned over to the swallows4 ,small holes may be cut high up in the gables and left open during the time that the swallows remain with us4 ,they will more than pay for shelter by the good work they do in ridding the barn of flies1 gnats1 and mosquitoes4 ,,section ,,lxviii4 ,,farming ,,on ,,dry ,,lands ,almost in the center of the western half of our continent there is a vast area in which very little rain falls4 ,this section includes nearly three hundred million acres of land4 ,it stretches from ,canada on the north into ,texas on the south1 and from the ,missouri ,river 7including the ,dakotas and western ,minnesota7 on the east to the ,rocky ,mountains on the west4 ,in this great area farming has to be done with little water4 ,this sort of farming is therefore called dry-farming4 ,the soil in this section is as a rule very fertile4 ,therefore the difference between farming in this dry belt and farming in most of the other sections of our country is a difference mainly due to a lack of moisture4 ,as water is so scarce in this region two things are of the utmost importance3 first1 to save all the rain as it falls2 second1 to save all the water after it has fallen4 ,to save the falling rain it is necessary for the ground to be in such a condition that none of the much-needed rain may run off4 ,every drop should go into the soil4 ,hence the farmer should never allow his top soil to harden into a crust4 ,such a crust will keep the rain from sinking into the thirsty soil4 ,moreover the soil should be deeply plowed4 ,the deeper the soil the more water it can hold4 ,the land should also be kept as porous as possible1 for water enters a porous soil freely4 ,the addition of humus in the form of vegetable manures will keep the soil in the porous condition needed4 ,second1 after the water has entered the soil it is important to hold it there so that it may supply the growing crops4 ,if the land is allowed to remain untilled after a rain or during a hot spell1 the water in it will evaporate too rapidly and thus the soil1 like a well1 will go dry too soon4 ,to prevent this the top soil should be stirred frequently with a disk or smoothing harrow4 ,this stirring will form a mulch of dry soil on the surface1 and this will hold the water4 ,other forms of mulch have been suggested1 but the soil mulch is the only practical one4 ,it must be borne in mind that this surface cultivation must be regularly kept up if the moisture is to be retained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4 ,,the ,,disk ,,harrow ,some experiments in wheat-growing have shown how readily water might be saved if plowing were done at the right time4 ,wheat sowed on land that was plowed as soon as the summer crops were taken off yielded a very much larger return than wheat sowed on land that remained untilled for some time after the summer crops were gathered4 ,this difference in yield on lands of the same fertility was due to the fact that the early plowing enabled the land to take up a sufficient quantity of moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4 ,,red ,,kafir ,,corn ,,in ,,shock ,in addition to a vigilant catching and saving of water1 the farmer in these dry climates must give his land the same careful attention that lands in other regions need4 ,the seed-bed should be most carefully prepared4 ,it should be deep1 porous1 and excellent in tilth4 ,during the growing season all crops should be frequently cultivated4 ,the harrow1 the cultivator1 and the plow should be kept busy4 ,the soil should be kept abundantly supplied with humus4 ,some crops need a little different management in dry-farming4 ,corn1 for example1 does best when it is listed2 that is1 planted so that it will come up three or four inches beneath the surface4 ,if planted in this way1 it roots better1 stands up better1 and requires less work4 ,just as breeders study what animals are best for their climates1 so farmers in the dry belt should study what crops are best suited to their lands4 ,some crops1 like the sorghums and ,kafir corn1 are peculiarly at home in scantily watered lands4 ,others do not thrive4 ,experience is the only sure guide to the proper selection4 ,to sum up1 then1 farmers can grow good crops in these lands only when four things are done3 first1 the land must be thoroughly tilled so that water can freely enter the soil2 second1 the land must be frequently cultivated so that the water will be kept in the soil2 third1 the crops must be properly rotated so as to use to best advantage the food and water supply2 fourth1 humus must be freely supplied so as to keep the soil in the best possible condition4 ,,section ,,lxix4 ,,irrigation ,irrigation is the name given to the plan of supplying water in large quantities to growing crops4 ,since the dawn of history this practice has been more or less followed in ,asia1 in ,africa1 and in ,europe4 ,the ,spanish settlers in the southwestern part of ,america were probably the first to introduce this custom into our country4 ,in ,new ,mexico there is an irrigating trench that has been in constant use for three hundred years4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4 ,,pumping ,,water ,,for ,,irrigation ,the most common source of water for irrigating purposes is a river or a smaller stream4 ,artesian wells are used in some parts of the country4 ,windmills are sometimes used when only a small supply of water is needed4 ,engines1 hydraulic rams1 and water-wheels are also employed4 ,the water-wheel is one of the oldest and one of the most useful methods of raising water from streams4 ,there are thousands of these in use in the dry regions of the ,west4 ,small buckets are fastened to a large wheel1 which is turned by the current of a stream4 ,as the wheel turns1 the buckets are filled1 raised1 and then emptied into a trough called a flume4 ,the water flows through the flume into the irrigating ditches1 which distribute it as it is needed in the fields4 ,in some parts of ,california and other comparatively dry sections1 wells are sunk in or near the beds of underground streams1 and then the water is pumped into ditches which convey it to the fields to be irrigated4 ,engines are often used for pumping water from streams and transferring it to ditches or canals4 ,the canals distribute the water over the land or over the growing crops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4 ,,the ,,main ,,ditch ,,of ,,an ,,irrigation ,,plant ,none of these methods1 however1 can be used for watering very large areas of land4 ,hence1 as the value of farm lands increased other methods were sought4 ,shrewd men began to turn longing eyes on the wide stretches of barren land in the ,west4 ,they knew that these waste lands1 seemingly so unfertile1 would become most fruitful as soon as water was turned on them4 ,could water enough be found8 ,new plans to pen up floods of water were prepared1 and immense sums were spent in carrying out these plans4 ,enormous dams of cemented stone were thrown across the gorges in the foothills of the mountains4 ,behind these solid dams the water from the rains and the melting snow of the mountains was backed for miles1 and was at once ready to change barrenness into fruitfulness4 ,the stored water is led by means of main canals and cross ditches wherever it is needed1 and countless acres have been brought under cultivation4 ,water is generally applied either by making furrows for its passage through the fields or by flooding the land4 ,the latter plan is the cheaper1 but it can be used only on level lands4 ,where the land is somewhat irregular a checking system1 as it is called1 is used to distribute the water4 ,it is taken from check to check until the entire field has been irrigated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,irrigating ,,corn ,the furrow method is usually employed for fruits and for farm and garden crops4 ,in many places the grass and grain crops are now supplied with water by furrows instead of by flooding4 ,irrigated lands should be carefully and thoroughly tilled4 ,the water for irrigation is costly1 and should be made to go as far as possible4 ,good tillage saves the water4 ,moreover1 all cultivated crops like corn1 potatoes1 and orchard and truck crops ought to be cultivated frequently to save the moisture1 to keep the soil in fit condition1 and to aid the bacteria in the soil4 ,it was a wise farmer who said1 ,one does not need to grow crops many years in order to learn that nothing can take the place of stirring the soil4 ,,methods ,,of ,,irrigating ,,crops ,tree fruits4 ,water is conducted through very narrow furrows from three to five feet apart1 and allowed to sink about four feet deep1 and to spread under the ground4 ,then the supply is cut off4 ,the object is to wet the soil deeply1 and then by tillage to hold the moisture in the soil4 ,small fruits4 ,the common practice is to run water on each side of the row until the rows are soaked4 ,potatoes4 ,a thorough soaking is given the land before planting-time1 and then no more than is absolutely necessary until blossoming-time4 ,after the blossoms appear keep the soil moist until the crop ripens4 ,garden crops4 ,any method may be employed1 but the vital point is to cultivate the ground as early as it can be worked after it has been irrigated4 ,meadows and alfalfa4 ,flooding is the most common method in use4 ,the first irrigation comes early in the spring before growth has advanced much1 and the successive waterings after the harvesting of each crop4 ,,section ,,lxx4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,country ,as ours is a country in which the people rule1 every boy and every girl ought to be trained to take a wide-awake interest in public affairs4 ,this training cannot begin too early in life4 ,a wise old man once said1 ,in a republic you ought to begin to train a child for good citizenship on the day of its birth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4 ,,beauty ,,from ,,flowers ,,and ,,grass ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4 ,a ,,country ,,road ,,in ,,mecklenburg ,,county1 ,,north ,,carolina ,happy would it be for our nation if all the young people who live in the country could begin their training in good citizenship by becoming workers for these four things3 ,first1 attractive country homes4 ,second1 attractive country schoolhouses and school grounds4 ,third1 good country schools4 ,fourth1 good roads4 ,if the thousands on thousands of pupils in our schools would become active workers for these things and continue their work through life1 then1 in less than half a century1 life in the country would be an unending delight4 ,one of the problems of our day is how to keep bright1 thoughtful1 sociable1 ambitious boys and girls contented on the farm4 ,every step taken to make the country home more attractive1 to make the school and its grounds more enjoyable1 to make the way easy to the homes of neighbors1 to school1 to post-office1 and to church1 is a step taken toward keeping on the farm the very boys and girls who are most apt to succeed there4 ,not every man who lives in the country can have a showy or costly home1 but as long as grass and flowers and vines and trees grow1 any man who wishes can have an attractive house4 ,not every woman who is to spend a lifetime at the head of a rural home can have a luxuriously furnished home1 but any woman who is willing to take a little trouble can have a cozy1 tastefully furnished home--a home fitted with the conveniences that diminish household drudgery4 ,even in this day of cheap literature1 all parents cannot fill their children's home with papers1 magazines1 and books1 but by means of school and ,sunday-school libraries1 by means of circulating book clubs1 and by a little self-denial1 earnest parents can feed hungry minds just as they feed hungry bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,flowers ,,for ,,the ,,home ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4 ,,an ,,attractive ,,country ,,home ,agricultural papers that arouse the interest and quicken the thought of farm boys by discussing the best1 easiest1 and cheapest ways of farming2 journals full of dainty suggestions for household adornment and comfort2 illustrated papers and magazines that amuse and cheer every member of the family2 books that rest tired bodies and open and strengthen growing minds--all of these are so cheap that the money reserved from the sale of one hog will keep a family fairly supplied for a year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4 ,,an ,,unimproved ,,schoolhouse ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4 ,,an ,,improved ,,schoolhouse ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4 ,,the ,,same ,,road ,,after ,,and ,,before ,,improvement ,if the parents1 teachers1 and pupils of a school join hands1 an unsightly1 ill-furnished1 ill-lighted1 and ill-ventilated school-house can at small cost be changed into one of comfort and beauty4 ,in many places pupils have persuaded their parents to form clubs to beautify the school grounds4 ,each father sends a man or a man with a plow once or twice a year to work a day on the grounds4 ,stumps are removed1 trees trimmed1 drains put in1 grass sowed1 flowers1 shrubbery1 vines1 and trees planted1 and the grounds tastefully laid off4 ,thus at scarcely noticeable money cost a rough and unsightly school ground gives place to a charming school yard4 ,cannot the pupils in every school in which this book is studied get their parents to form such a club1 and make their school ground a silent teacher of neatness and beauty8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4 ,,washington',s ,,country ,,home ,life in the country will never be as attractive as it ought to be until all the roads are improved4 ,winter-washed roads1 penning young people in their own homes for many months each year and destroying so many of the innocent pleasures of youth1 build towns and cities out of the wreck of country homes4 ,can young people who love their country and their country homes engage in a nobler crusade than a crusade for improved highways8 ,,appendix ,,spraying ,,mixtures ,,for ,,biting ,,insects ,,dry ,,paris ,,green ,paris green #a lb4 ,lime or flour #d to #af lb4 ,,wet ,,paris ,,green ,paris green #a_/d to #b lb4 ,lime #a_/d to #a_/b lb4 ,water #ej gal4 ,,for ,,soft-,,bodied ,,sucking ,,insects ,,kerosene ,,emulsion ,hard soap 7in fine shavings7 #a_/b lb4 ,soft water #a gal4 ,kerosene #b gal4 ,dissolve soap in boiling water1 add kerosene to the hot water1 churn with spraying pump for at least ten minutes1 until the mixture changes to a creamy1 then to a soft1 butterlike1 mass4 ,this gives three gallons of #ff-per-cent oil emulsion1 which may be diluted to the strength desired4 ,to get #ae-per-cent oil emulsion add ten and one-half gallons of water4 ,,for ,,fungous ,,diseases ,,copper ,,sulphate ,copper sulphate #a lb4 ,water #ah to #be gal4 ,use only before foliage opens1 to kill wintering spores4 ,,bordeaux ,,mixture ,copper sulphate 7bluestone7 #d to #e lb4 ,lime 7good1 unslaked7 #e to #f lb4 ,water #ej gal4 ,dissolve the copper sulphate 7bluestone7 in twenty-five gallons of water4 ,slake the lime slowly so as to get a smooth1 thick cream4 ,never cover the lime with too much water4 ,after thorough slaking add twenty-five gallons of water4 ,when the lime and the bluestone have dissolved1 pour the two liquids into a third vessel4 ,be sure that each stream mixes with the other before either enters the vessel4 ,strain through a coarse cloth4 ,mix fresh for each time4 ,use for molds and fungi generally4 ,apply in fine spray with a good nozzle4 ,,bordeaux-,,paris-,,green ,,mixture ,ordinary ,bordeaux mixture #ej gal4 ,paris green #d oz4 to #b lb4 ,use for both fungi and insects on apple1 potato1 etc4 ,,bordeaux-,,arsenate-,,of-,,lead ,,mixture ,ordinary ,bordeaux mixture #ej gal4 ,arsenate of lead #b to #c lb4 ,used for fungous and insect enemies of the potato1 and of the apple when bitter rot is troublesome4 ,,commercial ,,lime-,,sulphur ,,arsenate ,,of ,,lead ,commercial lime-sulphur #a-a_/b gal4 ,arsenate of lead #b to #c lb4 ,water #ej gal4 ,use for spraying apples4 ,,ammoniacal ,,copper ,,carbonate ,copper carbonate #e oz4 ,ammonia 7#bf deg4 ,baume7 about #c pt4 ,water #ej gal4 ,dissolve the copper carbonate in the smallest possible amount of ammonia4 ,this solution may be kept in stock and diluted to the proper strength as needed4 ,use this instead of the ,bordeaux mixture after the fruit has reached half or two thirds of the mature size4 ,it leaves no spots as does the lime-sulphur wash or the ,bordeaux mixture4 ,,sprays ,,for ,,both ,,fungous ,,and ,,insect ,,pests ,,home-,,made ,,lime-,,sulphur ,,wash ,lime #bj lb4 ,sulphur #ae lb4 ,water #ej gal4 ,the lime1 the sulphur1 and about half of the water required are boiled together for forty-five minutes in a kettle over a fire1 or in a barrel or other suitable tank by steam1 strained1 and then diluted to #ej gallons4 ,this is the wash regularly used against the ,san ,jose scale4 ,it may be substituted for ,bordeaux mixture when spraying trees in the dormant state4 ,commercial lime-sulphur may also be used in place of this homemade wash4 ,use one gallon of the commercial lime-sulphur to nine gallons of water in the dormant season4 ,,self-,,boiled ,,lime-,,sulphur ,,wash ,the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash is a combination of lime and sulphur boiled only by the heat of the slaking lime1 and is used chiefly for summer spraying on peaches1 plums1 cherries1 etc4 as a substitute for the ,bordeaux mixture4 ,lime #h lb4 ,sulphur #f to #h lb4 ,water #ej gal4 ,the lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water poured on it to start it slaking and to keep the sulphur off the bottom of the barrel4 ,the sulphur1 which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps1 may then be added1 and1 finally1 enough water to slake the lime into a paste4 ,considerable stirring is necessary to prevent caking on the bottom4 ,after the violent boiling which accompanies the slaking of the lime is over1 the mixture should be diluted ready for use1 or at least enough cold water added to stop the cooking4 ,from five to fifteen minutes are required for the process4 ,if the hot mass is permitted to stand undiluted as a thick paste1 a liquid is produced that is injurious to peach foliage and1 in some cases1 to apple foliage4 ,the mixture should be strained through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch in order to remove the coarse particles of lime1 but all the sulphur should be worked through the strainer4 ,,glossary ,to enable young readers to understand the technical words necessarily used in the text only popular definitions are given4 ,abdomen3 the part of an insect lying behind the thorax4 ,acid3 a chemical name given to many sour substances4 ,vinegar and lemon juice owe their sour taste to the acid in them4 ,adult3 a person1 animal1 or plant grown to full size and strength4 ,ammonia 7ammonium73 a compound of nitrogen readily usable as a plant food4 ,it is one of the products of decay4 ,annual3 a plant that bears seed during the first year of its existence and then dies4 ,anther3 the part of a stamen that bears the pollen4 ,atmospheric nitrogen3 nitrogen in the air4 ,great quantities of this valuable plant food are in the air2 but1 strange to say1 most plants cannot use it directly from the air1 but must take it in other forms1 as nitrates1 etc4 ,the legumes are an exception1 as they can use atmospheric nitrogen4 ,available plant food3 food in such condition that plants can use it4 ,bacteria3 a name applied to a number of kinds of very small living beings1 some beneficial1 some harmful1 some disease-producing4 ,they average about one twenty-thousandth of an inch in length4 ,balanced ration3 a ration made up of the proper amounts of carbohydrates1 fats1 and protein1 as explained in text4 ,such a ration avoids all waste of food4 ,biennial3 a plant that produces seed during the second year of its existence and then dies4 ,blight3 a diseased condition in plants in which the whole or a part of a plant withers or dries up4 ,bluestone3 a chemical2 copper sulphate4 ,it is used to kill fungi1 etc4 ,bordeaux ,mixture3 a mixture invented in ,bordeaux1 ,france1 to destroy disease-producing fungi4 ,bud 7noun73 an undeveloped branch4 ,bud 7verb73 to insert a bud from the scion upon the stock to insure better fruit4 ,bud variation3 occasionally one bud on a plant will produce a branch differing in some ways from the rest of the branches2 this is bud variation4 ,the shoot that is produced by bud variation is called a sport4 ,calyx3 the outermost row of leaves in a flower4 ,cambium3 the growing layer lying between the wood and the bark4 ,canon3 the shank bone above the fetlock in the fore and hind legs of a horse4 ,carbohydrates3 carbohydrates are foods free from nitrogen4 ,they make up the largest part of all vegetables4 ,examples are sugar1 starch1 and cellulose4 ,carbolic acid3 a chemical often used to kill or prevent the growth of germs1 bacteria1 fungi1 etc4 ,carbon3 a chemical element4 ,charcoal is nearly pure carbon4 ,carbon disulphide3 a chemical used to kill insects4 ,carbonic acid gas3 a gas consisting of carbon and oxygen4 ,it is produced by breathing1 and whenever carbon is burned4 ,it is the source of the carbon in plants4 ,cereal3 the name given to grasses that are raised for the food contained in their seeds1 such as corn1 wheat1 rice4 ,cobalt3 a poisonous chemical used to kill insects4 ,cocoon3 the case made by an insect to contain its larva or pupa4 ,commercial fertilizer3 an enriching plant food bought to improve soil4 ,compact3 a soil is said to be compact when the particles are closely packed4 ,concentrated3 when applied to food the word means that it contains much feeding value in small bulk4 ,contagious3 a disease is said to be contagious when it can be spread or carried from one individual to another4 ,cross3 the result of breeding two varieties of plant together4 ,cross pollination3 the pollination of a flower by pollen brought from a flower on some other plant4 ,croup3 the top of the hips4 ,culture3 the art of preparing ground for seed and raising crops by tillage4 ,curb disease3 a swelling on the back part of the hind leg of a horse just behind the lowest part of the hock joint4 ,it generally causes lameness4 ,curculio3 a kind of beetle or weevil4 ,dendrolene3 a patented substance used for catching cankerworms4 ,digestion3 the act by which food is prepared by the juices of the body to be used by the blood4 ,dormant3 a word used to describe sleeping or resting bodies1--bodies not in a state of activity4 ,drainage3 the process by which an excess of water is removed from the land by ditches1 terraces1 or tiles4 ,element3 a substance that cannot be divided into simpler substances4 ,ensilage3 green foods preserved in a silo4 ,evaporate3 to pass off in vapor1 as a fluid often does2 to change from a solid or liquid state into vapor1 usually by heat4 ,exhaustion3 the state in which strength1 power1 and force have been lost4 ,when applied to land1 the word means that land has lost its power to produce well4 ,fermentation3 a chemical change produced by bacteria1 yeast1 etc4 ,a common example of fermentation is the change of cider into vinegar4 ,fertility3 the state of being fruitful4 ,land is said to be fertile when it produces well4 ,fertilization3 the act which follows pollination and enables a flower to produce seed4 ,fetlock3 the long-haired cushion on the back side of a horse's leg just above the hoof4 ,fiber3 any fine1 slender thread or threadlike substance1 as the rootlets of plants or the lint of cotton4 ,filter3 to purify a liquid1 as water1 by causing it to pass through some substance1 as paper1 cloth1 screens1 etc4 ,formalin3 a forty per cent solution of a chemical known as formaldehyde4 ,formalin is used to kill fungi1 bacteria1 etc4 ,formula3 a recipe for the making of a compound2 for example1 fertilizer or spraying compounds4 ,fungicide3 a substance used to kill or prevent the growth of fungi2 for example1 ,bordeaux ,mixture or copper sulphate4 ,fungous3 belonging to or caused by fungi4 ,fungus 7plural fungi73 a low kind of plant life lacking in green color4 ,molds and toadstools are examples4 ,germ3 that from which anything springs4 ,the term is often applied to any very small organism or living thing1 particularly if it causes great effects such as disease1 fermentation1 etc4 ,germinate3 to sprout4 ,a seed germinates when it begins to grow4 ,girdle3 to make a cut or groove around a limb or tree4 ,glacier3 an immense field or stream of ice formed in the region of constant snow and moving slowly down a slope or valley4 ,globule3 a small particle of matter shaped like a globe4 ,glucose3 a kind of sugar very common in plants4 ,the sugar from grapes1 honey1 etc4 is glucose4 ,that from the sugar cane is not4 ,gluten3 a vegetable form of protein found in cereals4 ,graft3 to place a living branch or stem on another living stem so that it may grow there4 ,it insures the growth of the desired kind of plant4 ,granule3 a little grain4 ,gypsum3 land plaster4 ,head back3 to cut or prune a tree so as to form its head1 that is1 the place where the main trunk first gives off its branches4 ,heredity3 the resemblance of offspring to parent4 ,hibernating3 to pass the winter in a torpid or inactive state in close quarters4 ,hock3 the joint in the hind leg of quadrupeds between the leg and the shank4 ,it corresponds to the ankle in man4 ,host3 the plant upon which a fungus or insect is preying4 ,humus3 the portion of the soil caused by the decay of animal or vegetable matter4 ,hybrid3 the result of breeding two different kinds of plants together4 ,hydrogen3 a chemical element4 ,it is present in water and in all living things4 ,individual3 a single person1 plant1 animal1 or thing of any kind4 ,inoculate3 to give a disease by inserting the germ that causes it in a healthy being4 ,insectivorous3 anything that eats insects4 ,kainit3 salts of potash used in making fertilizers4 ,kernel3 a single seed or grain1 as a kernel of corn4 ,kerosene emulsion3 see ,appendix4 ,larva 7plural larvae73 the young or immature form of an insect4 ,larval3 belonging to larva4 ,layer3 to propagate plants by a method similar to cutting1 but differing from cutting in that the young plant takes root before it is separated from the parent plant4 ,legume3 a plant belonging to the family of the pea1 clover1 and bean2 that is1 having a flower of similar structure4 ,lichen3 a kind of flowerless plant that grows on stones1 trees1 boards1 etc4 ,loam3 an earthy mixture of clay and sand with organic matter4 ,magnesia3 an earthy white substance somewhat similar to lime4 ,magnify3 to make a thing larger in fact or in appearance2 to enlarge the appearance of a thing so that the parts may be seen more easily4 ,membrane3 a thin layer or fold of animal or vegetable matter4 ,mildew3 a cobwebby growth of fungi on diseased or decaying things4 ,mold3 see mildew4 ,mulch3 a covering of straw1 leaves1 or like substances over the roots of plants to protect them from heat1 drought1 etc41 and to preserve moisture4 ,nectar3 a sweetish substance in blossoms of flowers from which bees make honey4 ,nitrate3 a readily usable form of nitrogen4 ,the most common nitrate is saltpeter4 ,nitrogen3 a chemical element1 one of the most important and most expensive plant foods4 ,it exists in fertilizers1 in ammonia1 in nitrates1 and in organic matter4 ,nodule3 a little knot or bump4 ,nutrient3 any substance which nourishes or promotes growth4 ,organic matter3 substances made through the growth of plants or animals4 ,ovary3 the particular part of the pistil that bears the immature seed4 ,ovipositor3 the organ with which an insect deposits its eggs4 ,oxygen3 a gas present in the air and necessary to breathing4 ,particle3 any very small part of a body4 ,perennial3 living through several years4 ,all trees are perennial4 ,petal3 a single leaf of the corolla4 ,phosphoric acid3 an important plant food occurring in bones and rock phosphates4 ,pistil3 the part of the blossom that contains the immature seeds4 ,pollen3 the powdery substance borne by the stamen of the flower4 ,it is necessary to seed production4 ,pollination3 the act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils4 ,it is usually done by the wind or by insects4 ,porosity3 the state of having small openings or passages between the particles of matter4 ,potash3 an important part of plant foods4 ,the chief source of potash is kainit1 muriate of potash1 sulphate of potash1 wood ashes1 and cotton-hull ashes4 ,propagate3 to cause plants or animals to increase in number4 ,protein3 the name of a group of substances containing nitrogen4 ,it is one of the most important of feeding stuffs4 ,pruning3 trimming or cutting parts that are not needed or that are injurious4 ,pulverize3 to reduce to a dustlike state4 ,pupa3 an insect in the stage of its life that comes just before the adult condition4 ,purity 7of seed73 seeds are pure when they contain only one kind of seed and no foreign matter4 ,ration3 a fixed daily allowance of food for an animal4 ,raupenleim3 a patented sticky substance used to catch the cankerworm4 ,resistant3 a plant is resistant to disease when it can ward off attacks of the disease2 for example1 some varieties of the grape are resistant to the phylloxera4 ,rotation 7of crops73 a well-arranged succession of different crops on the same land4 ,scion3 a shoot1 sprout1 or branch taken to graft or bud upon another plant4 ,seed bed3 the layer of earth in which seeds are sown4 ,seed selection3 the careful selection of seed from particular plants with the object of keeping or increasing some desirable quality4 ,seedling3 a young plant just from the seed4 ,sepal3 one of the leaves in the calyx4 ,set3 a young plant for propagation4 ,silo3 a house or pit for packing away green food for winter use so as to exclude air and moisture4 ,sire3 father4 ,smut3 a disease of plants1 particularly of cereals1 which causes the plant or some part of it to become a powdery mass4 ,spike3 a lengthened flower cluster with stalkless flowers4 ,spiracle3 an air opening in the body of an insect4 ,spore3 a small body formed by a fungus to reproduce the fungus4 ,it serves the same use as seeds do for flowering plants4 ,spray3 to apply a liquid in the form of a very fine mist by the aid of a spraying pump for the purpose of killing fungi or insects4 ,stamen3 the part of the flower that bears the pollen4 ,stamina3 endurance4 ,sterilize3 to destroy all the germs or spores in or on anything4 ,sterilizing is often done by heat or chemicals4 ,stigma3 the part of the pistil that receives the pollen4 ,stock3 the stem or main part of a tree or plant4 ,in grafting or budding the scion is inserted upon the stock4 ,stover3 as used in this book the word means the dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed4 ,subsoil3 the soil under the topsoil4 ,sulphur3 a yellowish chemical element2 brimstone4 ,taproot3 the main root of a plant1 which runs directly down into the earth to a considerable depth without dividing4 ,terrace3 a ridge of earth run on a level around a slope or hillside to keep the land from washing4 ,thorax3 the middle part of the body of an insect4 ,the thorax lies between the abdomen and the head4 ,thermometer3 an instrument for measuring heat4 ,tillage3 the act of preparing land for seed1 and keeping the ground in a proper state for the growth of crops4 ,transplant3 a plant grown in a bed with a view to being removed to other soil2 a technical term used by gardeners4 ,tubercle3 a small1 wart-like growth on the roots of legumes4 ,udder3 the milk vessel of a cow4 ,utensil3 a vessel used for household purposes4 ,variety3 a particular kind4 ,for example1 the ,winesap1 ,bonum1 ,a,esop1 etc41 are different varieties of apples4 ,ventilate3 to open to the free passage of air4 ,virgin soil3 a soil which has never been cultivated4 ,vitality 7of seed73 vitality is the ability to grow4 ,seed are of good vitality if a large per cent of them will sprout4 ,weathering3 the action of moisture1 air1 frost1 etc4 upon rocks4 ,weed3 a plant out of place4 ,a wheat plant in a rose bed or a rose in the wheat field would be regarded as a weed1 as would any plant growing in a place in which it is not wanted4 ,wilt 7of cotton73 a disease of cotton in which the whole plant droops or wilts4 ,withers3 the ridge between the shoulder bones of a horse1 at the base of the neck4 ,yeast3 a preparation containing the yeast plant used to make bread rise1 etc4 ,,index ,acid phosphate1 #bc1 #bad1 #bbe ,alfalfa1 #bh1 #agi1 #ahg1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf-bdh ,alfalfa root1 #bh ,animals1 domestic1 #bfa-bib why we feed1 #bij ,annual1 #fi1 #aab1 #aah1 #bfj ,ant1 #add1 #aej ,anther1 #dc ,apple1 #db1 #ei1 #gf1 #gh1 #hc-he1 #abc fire-blight of1 #acj ,apple-tree tent caterpillar1 #afa1 #afb ,arsenate of lead1 #aef1 #aeg ,ashes1 #bjg ,asparagus1 #ih ,babcock milk-tester1 #cjd ,bacteria1 #bd1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acc ,balanced ration1 #bid-bie ,barley1 #bae-bag ,beans1 #ie1 #ih ,bee1 #bhf-bij ,beehive1 anti-robbing entrance of1 #bhi ,beet1 #ie1 #if sugar-1 #bah-bba ,beet sugar1 #bah ,beetle1 #adf1 #adh cucumber1 #ajb potato1 #agj ,biennials1 #gj ,bird homes1 #cbb ,birds1 #cah-cbc ,black knot1 #adj ,blackberry1 #ei ,blight1 #ajf eggplant1 #ajc pear and apple1 #acj potato1 #ach1 #bji tomato1 #ajf ,bordeaux mixture1 #abg1 #ada1 #adb1 #aef1 #bji ,borer1 peach1 #afc1 #afd ,breeding-cage1 insect1 #aeb ,buckwheat1 #bbi-bcj ,bud variation1 #eh ,budding1 #ee1 #ha-hb ,buds1 #ea1 #ei ,bug1 #adg ,bulbs1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa ,burbank1 ,luther1 #hj ,butter1 #big1 #cjj ,butterfly1 #adf1 #adh1 #adi ,cabbage1 #ic1 #ie1 #if1 #ii ,cabbage worm1 #afe1 #aff ,caladium1 #aaa ,cambium1 #gi1 #aca ,cankerworm1 #aei1 #afj ,canna1 #aaf ,cantaloupes1 #aja ,cape jasmine1 #aaj ,capillarity1 #aj ,carbohydrates1 #bia1 #bib1 #bie ,carbon1 #ci1 #dj1 #bia ,carbon disulphide1 #afi ,carbonic acid gas1 #f1 #cag ,caterpillar1 #adg1 #adi1 #afa ,cattle1 #bgj-bge beef type of1 #bgb dairy type of1 #bgc improving of1 #bgd ,cauliflower1 #ia1 #adj ,celery1 #ajj1 #aja ,cherries1 #ei1 #ha1 #afd ,chinch bug1 #afe1 #afg ,churn1 the1 #big1 #bii1 #cjj ,churning1 #bii ,cleft grafting1 #hj ,clover1 #ahg1 #bdi-bea ,club root1 #adj ,cocoon1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea ,codling moth1 #aed1 #aef1 #afd ,cold-frame1 #ic-ig1 #aja ,colostrum1 #big ,consumption1 germ of1 #abi ,corms1 #aaa ,corn1 #aig-bjb blossom of1 #de freezing of seed1 #ge roots of1 #bg1 #bh selection of seed1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh ,cotton1 #ahj-ahh resistant variety of1 #acb ,sea ,island1 #acb1 #ahb short-stapled1 #ahb ,cotton wilt1 #adb ,cotton-boll weevil1 #agc ,cotton-seed meal1 #bd1 #bbe1 #bie ,cow ,aberdeen ,angus1 #bgb ,galloway1 #bgd ,holstein1 #bge ,jersey1 #bgc care of1 #bif the dairy1 #bic-bif ,cowpeas1 #bea-bed ,cream1 #big1 #bih ,crop-rotation1 #cc-cg ,crops1 #agh-bcg rotation of1 #bj1 #cc1 #ahi1 #baa1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbh value of1 per acre1 #agi ,cross section1 #bf ,crosses1 #di ,cross-pollination1 #dh ,cucumber1 #gc1 #aja ,cucumber beetle1 #ajb ,curculio1 plum1 #aef ,currant1 #ei ,cuttings1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #aji ,cyclamen1 #aae ,dahlia1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aaf ,dairy rules1 #cja ,dairying1 #big-cja ,dendrolene1 #afj ,diphtheria1 germ of1 #abi ,diseases of plants1 #abb-adc ,domestic animals1 #bfa-bib ,drainage1 benefits of1 #ae ,dry farming1 #cbc-cbf ,ducks1 #bhb ,eggplants1 #ajb1 #ajc ,ensilage1 #bie ,farm crops1 #agh-bcg ,farm garden1 #bce-bcg ,farm tools1 #cac-cae ,farming on dry lands1 #cbc-ccj ,fats1 #bia1 #bib1 #bie ,feed stuffs1 #bch-bfj digestible nutrients in1 #bij-bib growing1 on the farm1 #cji-cac ,feeding animals1 #bij reasons for1 #bij1 #bib ,fertilization1 #de ,fertilizers1 #bb-bd ,field insects1 #add-agg ,figs1 #ea1 #ei ,fire-blight1 #acj ,flax1 #bbf-bbi ,flea-beetle1 #afi1 #agb1 #bji ,floriculture1 #hi1 #ajh ,flower1 the1 #db1 #dc ,flower box1 #aab ,flower gardening1 #ajh-aba ,fly1 #adf1 #aej ,formalin1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach ,fowls1 #bhb-bhf ,fruit mold1 #abf1 #adb ,fruit rot1 #abb ,fruit tree1 how to raise a1 #gf-hg ,fultz1 ,abraham1 #fe ,fungi1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg ,garden1 #bce-bcg ,garden insects1 #afe-agg ,gardening1 market-1 #hi-ij ,geese1 #bhd ,geranium1 #eb1 #ed1 #aji1 #aaj ,germs1 #bd1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #ace2 see also ,bacteria ,girdler1 #afb ,girdling1 #da ,glacier1 #c1 #d1 #e ,gladiolus1 #ib1 #aaa ,gooseberries1 #ei ,grafting1 #ee1 #gh-ha cleft1 #hj root1 #gi time for1 #gi tongue1 #gi1 #hj ,grafting wax1 #gi ,grape1 #ea1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei ,grape cutting1 #ed ,grape phylloxera1 #aeg1 #aeh ,grape pollination1 #eb1 #ec ,grasses1 #bch-bdd ,grasshopper1 #adh1 #aea ,greenhouse1 #ia-id ,heading back1 #hc ,hemp1 #bbf-bbi ,hens1 #bhb-bhf ,heredity1 #fg ,hessian fly1 #agj ,homes1 country1 #ccj-ccg ,honey dew1 #afg ,horse1 #bfb-bgj diagrams by which to judge1 #bfe-bfi ,percheron1 #bfd proportions of1 #bgj roadster1 #bfg ,horticulture1 #hi-aba ,host1 #abf ,hotbed1 #ia-ig ,how to raise a fruit tree1 #gf-hg ,humus1 #e1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #aic1 #bjg ,husker and shredder1 #bja ,hybrids1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ahc ,insects1 cage for breeding1 #aeb classes of1 #adf eggs of1 #aej eyes of1 #ade field1 #add1 #afe garden1 #add-agg general1 #add how they feed1 #adf1 #adg orchard1 #add parts of1 #ade ,irish1 or white1 potato1 #bjf-bji propagation of1 #ef1 #eg ,irrigation1 #cbf-ccj method of1 #ccj ,kafir corn1 #cbe1 #cbf ,kainite1 #bad ,kerosene emulsion1 #afh ,land1 improvement of1 #ag1 #ba1 #ca1 #cd1 #bdd ,landscape-gardening1 #hi ,larva1 #adg1 #adh ,layering1 #ee1 #eg ,legumes1 #ca1 #bjg1 #bdd-bfj ,lettuce1 #ia1 #ic1 #ie ,life in the country1 #ccj-ccg ,lime1 #adj ,lime-sulphur wash1 #ada1 #adb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef ,liming land1 #cae-cah ,louse1 plant1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afg ,machines1 farm1 #cac-cae ,maize1 #aig ,manures1 #bj1 #ba-bd ,maple sugar1 #bag ,market-gardening1 #hi1 #ij ,meadows1 #bdj1 #bdb ,melons1 #aja1 #ajf ,mildew1 #abd how to prevent1 #abf ,milk1 #big sours1 how1 #cjb ,milk-tester1 ,babcock1 #cjd ,mineral matter1 #bia1 #bib ,moisture1 #i ,mold1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe ,moonflower1 #aae ,morning-glory1 #aae ,moth1 #adh codling1 #aed1 #aef1 #afd mosquito1 #aej ,mulch1 #ab ,narcissus1 #aad ,nectar1 #df1 #dg ,nitrate of soda1 #bd1 #ii1 #baa1 #bad ,nitrogen1 #ae1 #bc1 #bd1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ahh1 #bdf ,nitrogen-gathering crops1 #ae1 #ah1 #bdd-bfj ,nodules1 #cf ,oats1 #bji-bae ,oat smut1 #acd ,onion1 #ajc1 #ajd ,orchard insects1 #adc ,osmosis1 #cj ,ovary1 #dd ,ovipositor1 #aeg ,paris green1 #afe1 #bji ,parsnips1 #id ,pasture grasses1 #bch-bdd ,peach1 #db1 #ei1 #ha1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #ada1 #adb ,peach curl1 #ada1 #adc ,peach mold1 #adb ,peach mummies1 #adb ,peach tree1 how made1 #hf-hg ,peach-tree borer1 #afc1 #afd ,peanuts1 #bjb-bjc ,pear1 #dd1 #di1 #ei1 #ha1 #acj ,pear fire-blight1 #acj ,peas1 #ie1 #ajd1 #bea-bed ,perennials1 #ga1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aah1 #bfj ,petal1 #dc ,phosphoric acid1 #bc1 #bd1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aif1 #baf1 #bdd1 #bed ,phylloxera1 #aeg1 #aeh ,pipette1 #cje ,pistil1 #dc1 #dd ,plant1 the1 #be1 #ci ,plant disease1 cause of1 #abb nature of1 #abb prevention of1 #abb1 #abi ,plant food1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd from air1 #ci from soil1 #bi kinds of1 #cc ,plant louse1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afg1 #afh ,plant seeding1 #ei1 #aji ,planting a tree1 #gf-hg ,plant-propagation1 #ea-ei by buds1 #ea ,plants grown from seed1 #aji from bulbs1 #aji ,plow1 right way to1 #aa ,plum curculio1 #aef1 #aeg ,plums1 #dc1 #ei1 #ha1 #afd ,pollen1 #dc1 #dg1 #dh ,pollination1 #de-dh by hand1 #di cross-1 #di1 #ej grape1 #eb1 #ec ,potash1 #bc1 #bd1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aif1 #bjg1 #baf1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bed ,potato1 sweet1 #bjd1 #bje white1 or ,irish1 #ef1 #eg1 #bjf-bji ,potato beetle1 #agj1 #bji ,potato blight1 #ach1 #bji ,potato scab1 #acf1 #bje1 #bji ,potato seed1 #ef1 #eg ,poultry1 #bhb-bhf ,prevention of plant diseases1 #abi1 #acj ,propagation of plants by buds1 #eh by cuttings1 #eb ,protein1 #bab1 #bia1 #bid1 #bie1 #big ,pruning1 #hc1 #hd-hg root1 #he1 #hf ,pupa1 #adg1 #aej1 #aea ,purity of seed1 #gb-ge ,pyrethrum powder1 #afe ,quince1 #ei ,radish1 #ie ,raspberry1 #ei ,ration1 balanced1 #bid1 #bie ,ratoon1 #bbe ,red raspberry1 #ei ,rice1 #bca-bcb ,roads1 #ccb1 #ccg ,root-hairs1 #bd1 #be1 #bg1 #bi1 #cb ,root-pruning1 #hf ,roots1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh ,root-tubercles1 #cj1 #cg ,rose1 #aji1 #aba1 #abd ,rot of fruit1 #abb ,rotation of crops1 #h1 #bj1 #ba1 #cc-cg1 #ahi1 #baa1 #bag1 #bai1 #beh ,rye1 #bac-bae ,san ,jose scale1 #aeb1 #aec ,sap current1 the1 #dj ,scab1 #acf1 #bji ,schoolhouses1 #ccd ,scion1 #gi1 #ha1 #hb ,seed1 #db ,seed purity1 #gb-ge ,seed vitality1 #gb-ge ,seed-germination1 #gd ,seed-germinator1 #gd ,seeding1 #fj1 #aad ,seed-selection1 #ef1 #fb1 #fd1 #ff in the field1 #ef1 #fb1 #fh of corn1 #ff of cotton1 #fj1 #fa of potatoes1 #ef1 #eg of wheat1 #fd1 #fe ,seed-selection plat1 #fc1 #fd ,selection of seed4 ,see ,seed-selection ,sepal1 #dc ,sheep1 #bgf-bgi ,silo1 #bie ,smuts1 #acd1 #ace ,soil1 #a bacteria in1 #bd deepening of1 #h definition of1 #a drainage of1 #ad ,soil1 how formed1 #b1 #c how water rises in1 #ac improving1 #ag manuring of1 #ba moisture of1 #i origin of1 #a particles of1 magnified1 #aj and plant1 #be retention of water by1 #ab tillage of1 #f virgin1 #ag1 #ah ,sowing seed1 #id ,soy beans1 #bef-bfj ,spiders1 red1 #aba ,spiracles1 #ade ,spores1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #acj1 #ace prevention of1 #acj ,spraying1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #bji ,spraying outfit1 #ach1 #aee1 #afh1 #aga ,squanto1 #ba ,squash1 #de1 #ie ,squash bug1 #afh ,stamen1 #dc-dh ,starch1 #dj ,starchy food1 #bia ,stigma1 #dd-de ,stock1 #gi1 #hb ,strawberry1 #de1 #ee1 #ei1 #ij ,style1 #dc ,subsoil1 #a ,subsoiling1 #aj ,sugar1 #dj ,sugar plants1 #bag ,sugar-beet1 #bah-bba ,sugar-cane1 #bba ,sugar-maple1 #bag ,sulphate of ammonia1 #baa ,sun-scald1 #hd ,sweet pea1 #aad1 #aae ,sweet potato1 #ef1 #eg1 #aaa1 #bjd-bje ,swine1 #bgi-bhb ,tent caterpillar1 #afb ,tile drain1 #ae1 #af benefits of1 #ad ,tillage1 #f-i1 #ai1 #bh1 #bjj ,timber1 #bcb-bce enemies of1 #bcc ,tobacco1 #ahi-aib ,tobacco worm1 #agj1 #agb ,tomato1 #dj1 #aje ,tongue grafting1 #gi1 #hj ,tools1 #cac ,topping tobacco1 #aia ,trap plant1 #afh ,tree1 manuring of1 #bf ,truck crops1 #ih-ajg ,tubercle1 #cj1 #cb ,tull1 ,jethro1 #f ,turkeys1 #bhb ,turnip1 #ie ,twig girdler1 #afb ,typhoid fever1 germ of1 #abi ,vetches1 #bee-beg ,vitality of seed1 #gb-ge ,vitamines1 #bih ,wasp1 #adf ,water1 #aj absorption of1 by plants1 #aj retention of1 by soil1 #i rise of1 in soil1 #ac saved by plants1 #aj saved by soils1 #ab ,watermelons1 #ajf ,wax1 #gi ,weathering1 #d1 #g ,weeds1 #fi1 #gd annual1 #fi biennial1 #gj perennial1 #ga ,weevil1 #afi cotton-boll1 #agc-agg plum1 #aef ,wheat1 #aib-aig selection of seed1 #fc yield of1 #fd ,why feed animals1 #bij ,wilt cotton1 #adb watermelon1 #ajg ,window box1 #aah ,window-garden1 #aai-aba ,window-gardening1 #aai ,worn-out land1 reclaiming of1 #ai1 #bdd ,yeast1 #abg1 #abh