file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text4 ,for a complete list1 please see the end of this document4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apple ,,growing ,,apple ,,growing ,,by ,m4,c4 ,,burritt ,,new ,,york ,,outing ,,publishing ,,company ,,mcmxii ,,copyright1 #aiab1 ,,by ,,outing ,,publishing ,,company4 ,all rights reserved4 ,,preface ,in the preparation of this book ,i have tried to keep constantly before me the conditions of the average farm in the ,northeastern ,states with its small apple orchard4 ,it has been my aim to set down only such facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to state these facts in the plain language of experience4 ,this book is in no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject1 and if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied4 ,the facts herein set down were first learned in the school of practical experience on the writer's own farm in ,western ,new ,york4 ,they were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 the ,new ,england ,states and other contiguous territory4 ,these facts were first put together in something like their present form in the winter of #aiji-aj1 when the writer gave a series of lectures on ,commercial ,fruit ,growing to the ,short ,courses in ,horticulture at ,cornell ,university4 ,these lectures were revised and repeated in #aiaj-aa and are now put in their present form4 ,the author's sincere thanks are due to ,professor ,c4,s4 ,wilson1 of the ,department of ,pomology at ,cornell ,university1 for many valuable facts and suggestions used in this book1 and for a careful reading of the manuscript4 ,he is also under obligations to ,mr4 ,roy ,d4 ,anthony of the same ,department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on ,insects and ,diseases and on ,spraying4 ,m4,c4 ,,burritt4 ,hilton1 ,n4,y4 ,february1 #aiab4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,apples #aa ,,ii4 ,,planning ,,for ,,the ,,orchard #ah ,,iii4 ,,planting ,,and ,,growing ,,the ,,orchard #cj ,,iv4 ,,pruning ,,the ,,trees #dh ,v4 ,,cultivation ,,and ,,cover ,,cropping #fb ,,vi4 ,,manuring ,,and ,,fertilizing #gh ,,vii4 ,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,,affecting ,,the ,,apple #ib ,,viii4 ,,the ,,principles ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,spraying #ajh ,,ix4 ,,harvesting ,,and ,,storing #abg ,x4 ,,markets ,,and ,,marketing #adb ,,xi4 ,,some ,,hints ,,on ,,renovating ,,old ,,orchards #aec ,,xii4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,growing ,,apples #afd ,,apple ,,growing ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,apples ,the apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits1 but the last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use4 ,this is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its value and to the development of new methods of preparation for consumption4 ,few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the apple4 ,in addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand and of the fresh1 sweet juice as cider1 this ,king of ,fruits can be cooked1 baked1 dried1 canned1 and made into jellies and other appetizing dishes1 to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a list pages long4 ,few who have tasted once want to be without their apple sauce and apple pies in season1 not to mention the crisp1 juicy specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter evenings4 ,apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us1 but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple1 especially as a dessert fruit1 been fully realized4 ,it is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability1 together with its long season1 which have brought the apple into so great demand of late4 ,it is possible to have apples on the table in some form the year round4 ,the first summer apples are almost always with us before the bottom of the ,russet barrel is reached4 ,or1 should the fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether1 the housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost as good4 ,the tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly upward during the last decade4 ,many people are greatly surprised when the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their attention4 ,the increase in consumption1 due to the greater variety of ways of preparing the apple for use1 has undoubtedly been an important factor in this higher price4 ,but at least an equally important factor is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit4 ,to those who are not familiar with the facts1 the great falling off in production which the figures show will be no less than startling4 ,,production ,,of ,,apples ,,in ,,barrels ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,from #ahif ,,to #aiaj #ahif #fi1jgj1jjj #ahig #da1ecj1jjj #ahih #bh1egj1jjj #ahii #cg1dfj1jjj #aijj #ef1hbj1jjj ----------- ,total crop for five years #bcc1dej1jjj ,average crop for five years #df1fij1jjj #aija #bf1igj1jjj #aijb #df1fbe1jjj #aijc #db1fbf1jjj #aijd #de1cfj1jjj #aije #bd1caj1jjj ------------ ,total crop for five years #ahe1hia1jjj ,average crop for five years #cg1agh1bjj #aijf #ch1bhj1jjj #aijg #bi1edj1jjj #aijh #be1hej1jjj #aiji #be1dae1jjj #aiaj #bc1hbe1jjj ,total crop for five years #adb1iaj1jjj ------------ ,average crop for five years #bh1ehb1jjj ,estimates of #ahif1 #ahig1 and #ahih from ,better ,fruit1 ,vol4 #e1 ,no4 #e4 ,all other years from the estimates of the ,american ,agriculturist4 ,it will thus be seen that the apple crop of #aiaj was #de1bde1jjj barrels less than that of #ahif1 and that during the whole period of fifteen years the decline has been regular4 ,the average annual crop of the five year period ending with #aije was #i1eaa1hjj barrels less than the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with #aijj1 and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years1 ending with #aiaj1 was #h1eif1bjj barrels less than that of the second five year period4 ,comparing the first and the last five year periods1 we find that the crop of the last was #ah1ajh1jjj barrels less than that of the first4 ,these facts alone are enough to explain the higher price of this fruit during the last ten years4 ,,heavy ,,plantings4--,moreover1 it should be further noted that this falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest plantings ever known in this country4 ,during the last ten years old fruit growing regions like western ,new ,york have practically doubled their orchard plantings4 ,careful figures gathered by the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,college in an orchard survey of ,monroe ,county show that #d1igb more trees 7#ba1bhi in all7 were planted in one representative township during the five year period from #aijd to #aijh inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its history4 ,new fruit regions like the ,northwestern ,states and a large part of the ,shenandoah valley of ,virginia have been developed by heavy plantings4 ,these three are all great commercial sections4 ,to them we might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the ,northern and ,eastern ,states1 from ,michigan to ,maine and from ,maine to north ,georgia4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if these scattered plantings have made good the older trees which have died out4 ,scarcely a season passes that hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly broken4 ,every wind takes its toll4 ,after one of these windstorms in ,southern ,new ,york the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly broken4 ,in the commercial regions only a small part of the new plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not much more than make good the losses of old trees4 ,so that on the whole1 heavy as our plantings have been1 it is extremely doubtful if they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees throughout the country4 ,it is a fact worthy of note that this talk of over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years1 and while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting4 ,whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple1 it must be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use apples commonly1 and that no class of farmer in the ,northeastern ,states is more prosperous than the fruit growers4 ,the new plantings must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very slowly4 ,meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in bearing4 ,practically all of these old farm orchards which can present a fairly clean bill of health1 and in which the varieties are desirable1 can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time1 they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general farm4 ,now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm apple orchard4 ,,future ,,of ,,apple ,,growing4--,in the writer's opinion the future of apple growing in the ,united ,states is likely to shape itself largely in the great commercial regions4 ,as these become more and more developed and as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely growing apples as a side line1 except where he is delivering directly to a special or a local market1 will be crowded out4 ,here as elsewhere it will be a case of the survival of the fittest4 ,in the production of apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the most cheaply are bound to win out in the end4 ,it would1 therefore1 seem to be advisable for the general farmer to plant apples only under two conditions2 first1 when he has a very favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the enterprise a success1 and second1 when he can market his fruit directly in a local market4 ,it would appear that the immediate future of apple growing in the ,united ,states lies in the small farm orchard as well as in the commercial orchards1 but that the more distant future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions surround the farm4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,planning ,,for ,,the ,,orchard ,,location4--,having decided that under certain conditions the planting of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture1 and having ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm1 the next step will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard4 ,in choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management4 ,if the orchard is merely a source of home supply1 naturally it will not require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income4 ,if the relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain from an apple orchard is to be secured1 the best possible location is demanded4 ,contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past1 the orchard should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm4 ,the best orchards occupy the best soils1 although fairly good results are often obtained on poor or medium soils4 ,the relative importance which is attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of soil4 ,if apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the preference as to soil2 if not1 they may be given a place in accordance with what is expected of them4 ,,soils4--,in general1 the apple prefers a rather strong soil1 neither very heavy nor very light4 ,subsoil is rather more important than surface soil1 although the latter should be friable and easily worked4 ,the apple follows good timber successfully4 ,heavy clay soils are apt to be too cold1 compact1 and wet2 light sandy soils too loose and dry4 ,a medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam1 underlaid by a somewhat heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil for apples4 ,broadly considered1 medium loams are best4 ,the lighter the soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule1 and so1 also1 the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit4 ,in the same way light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy1 rich soils4 ,,varietal ,,soil ,,preferences are beginning to be recognized4 ,we cannot go into these in detail in this brief discussion4 ,a few suggestions regarding standard varieties must suffice4 ,medium to light loams or heavy sandy loams1 underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams1 are preferred by the ,baldwin1 which has a wider soil adaptation than practically any other variety4 ,baldwin soils should dry quickly after a rain4 ,rhode ,island ,greening requires a rather rich1 moist1 but well drained soil1 containing an abundance of organic matter4 ,a light to heavy silty loam1 underlaid by a silty clay loam1 is considered best4 ,northern ,spy is very exacting in its soil requirements4 ,a medium loam1 underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam1 is excellent4 ,heavy soils give the ,spy a greasy skin4 ,light soils cause the tree to grow upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor4 ,the ,king likes a soil slightly lighter than the best ,greening soils1 but retentive of moisture4 ,hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern variety1 preferring rich1 fine1 sandy loams4 ,the particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of convenience4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the apple requires much and constant attention1 therefore the orchard should be convenient of access4 ,the product is rather bulky1 so that the haul to the highway should be as short as possible4 ,other conditions being equally good there1 the common location near the buildings and highway is best4 ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,orchard is a more important matter4 ,two essentials should be kept in mind1 good air drainage and a considerable elevation4 ,although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought about1 cold air runs down hill the same as water4 ,being heavier1 it falls to the surface of the land1 flowing out through the water channels and settling in pockets and depressions4 ,warm air1 being lighter1 rises4 ,it is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur4 ,a free movement of air1 especially a draining away of cold air1 is best secured by an elevation4 ,fifty to one hundred feet1 or sometimes less1 is usually sufficient1 especially where there is good outlet below4 ,frosts occur in still1 clear air and these conditions occur most frequently in the lower areas4 ,aspect or slope requires less attention4 ,southern exposures are warm and hasten bud development and opening in spring4 ,northern exposures are cold and retard the blossoming period4 ,it is usually advisable to plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring until all danger of late frosts is past4 ,northeast exposures are best as a general rule4 ,choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if possible4 ,if this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a wind break of pine1 spruce1 or a quick1 thick growing native tree to protect the orchard from heavy winds4 ,a large body of water is an important modifier of climate4 ,warming up more slowly in the spring1 it retards vegetation by slowly giving up its cold4 ,vice versa1 cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its heat wards off the early frosts4 ,it is therefore desirable to locate near such bodies of water if possible4 ,their influence varies according to their size and depth1 and the distance of the orchard from them4 ,good examples of this influence are the ,chautauqua ,grape ,belt on the eastern shore of ,lake ,erie and the ,western ,new ,york ,apple ,belt on the south shore of ,lake ,ontario4 ,professor ,brackett has well summed up the whole question3 ,the selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed by any arbitrary rule1 he says4 ,all farms do not afford the best soils or exposures for orchards4 ,the owners of such as do not are unfortunate1 yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not planting trees and caring for them afterward4 ,there are a number of factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate1 but one already located1 either favorably or unfavorably4 ,about these even the most intelligent orchardists often differ4 ,we have only laid down general principles and given opinions4 ,here as elsewhere application is a matter of judgment4 ,,varieties4--,a proper soil and a good location and site having been selected1 the next important question to be decided is the varieties to be planted4 ,so much and so variable advice is given on this question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties4 ,rightly viewed1 the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one4 ,personal preference1 tempered by careful study of certain factors and good judgment1 are all that are required4 ,beginners1 especially1 are too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion4 ,the only safe way is to learn the facts and then decide for yourself4 ,we have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of varieties4 ,this should be absolute4 ,it is very unwise to try to grow any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do well4 ,the experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this respect4 ,the limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded4 ,an apple may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst in another4 ,find out from experienced growers in your region1 or from your ,state ,experiment ,station what varieties are best adapted climatically to the place where you live4 ,it is an excellent rule never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any one else1 or still better1 to plant a variety that you can grow better than anyone else4 ,grow something that not everyone can grow4 ,do not try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over supply4 ,a few examples may make this more clear4 ,western ,new ,york is the home of the ,baldwin1 the ,twenty ,ounce and the ,king4 ,albemarle ,pippins grown on the eastern slope of the ,blue ,ridge are famous4 ,the ,spitzenburg appears at its best in the ,northwest4 ,the ,northern ,spy1 the ,mc,intosh1 and the ,fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the ,champlain ,valley1 in ,vermont1 or in ,maine4 ,to attempt to compete with these sections in the growing of these varieties1 except under equally favorable conditions1 would be foolish4 ,your section probably grows some varieties to perfection4 ,find out what these varieties are and plant them4 ,all these are general factors to be observed which cannot be specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality4 ,certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more definitely outlined4 ,if the prospective orchardist will get these factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in planting should be much more rare4 ,the more important ones are3 ,the purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used1 whether for the general market1 a dessert or fancy trade1 or for culinary and general table use2 whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived1 or temporary and used as fillers2 whether the earliest possible income is desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development of the orchard2 whether the stock of the particular variety is strong or weak growing2 whether the variety is high1 medium1 or low as to quality2 and whether the market is to be local1 distant1 or export4 ,the following tables were originally compiled by ,professor ,c4,s4 ,wilson of ,cornell ,university4 ,they have been slightly revised and modified for our purpose4 ,we believe that they are essentially correct and that they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of varieties3 ,,general ,,market ,,apples ,,dessert ,,or ,,fancy ,,trade ,,commercial ,,box ,,well ,baldwin ,mc,intosh ,ben ,davis ,northern ,spy ,hubbardson ,fameuse ,northern ,spy ,wagener ,king ,grimes ,golden ,rome ,beauty ,yellow ,newton ,oldenburg ,red ,canada ,alexander ,king ,twenty ,ounce ,sutton ,winesap ,hubbardson ,york ,imperial ,esopus ,spitzenburg ,,culinary ,,and ,,general ,,table ,,use ,rhode ,island ,greening ,grimes ,golden ,gravenstein ,twenty ,ounce ,newtown ,yellow ,bellflower ,alexander ,oldenburg ,tolman ,sweet ,sweet ,winesap ,,good ,,permanent ,,good ,,temporary ,,trees ,,trees--,,fillers ,baldwin ,mc,intosh ,rhode ,island ,greening ,wealthy ,northern ,spy ,wagener ,mc,intosh ,rome ,beauty 99,king ,oldenburg 99,twenty ,ounce ,jonathan 99,hubbardson ,alexander ,alexander ,twenty ,ounce ,rome ,beauty ,hubbardson 99 ,when this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top worked on a hardier stock1 such as ,northern ,spy4 ,age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit4 7,add two years for a paying crop74 ,,five ,,years ,,or ,,under ,,eight ,,years ,,and ,,up ,rome ,beauty ,esopus ,spitzenburg ,oldenburg ,fall ,pippin ,maiden ,blush ,golden ,russet ,wagener ,northern ,spy ,yellow ,newton ,baldwin ,mc,intosh ,gravenstein ,fameuse ,tolman ,sweet ,king ,rhode ,island ,gr4 ,twenty ,ounce ,winesap ,,especially ,,hardy ,,stocks ,,poor ,,rather ,,weak ,,growers99 ,northern ,spy ,king ,tolman ,sweet ,twenty ,ounce ,ben ,davis ,esopus ,spitzenburg ,baldwin ,hubbardson ,fameuse ,grimes ,golden ,winter ,banana ,sutton ,canada ,red 99 ,other varieties are medium4 ,,high ,,in ,,quality ,,local ,,or ,,peddler',s ,,varieties ,mc,intosh ,rhode ,island ,greening ,esopus ,spitzenburg ,wealthy ,northern ,spy ,mc,intosh ,newtown ,fameuse ,gravenstein ,tolman ,sweet ,red ,canada ,grimes ,golden ,fameuse ,jonathan ,grimes ,golden ,hubbardson ,,good ,,general ,,market ,,varieties ,rhode ,island ,greening ,baldwin ,,medium ,,to ,,poor ,,quality ,rhode ,island ,king ,ben ,davis ,twenty ,ounce ,oldenburg ,mc,intosh ,rome ,beauty ,hubbardson ,roxbury ,russet ,northern ,spy ,,good ,,export ,,varieties ,baldwin ,newtown ,ben ,davis ,esopus ,spitzenburg ,northern ,spy ,jonathan ,only the best and most common varieties for the more northern latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too cumbersome to classify all our known varieties4 ,it must be remembered that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the variety4 ,it should be used as such and not taken literally4 ,the characters of the different varieties grade into each other4 ,for example1 the ,mc,intosh is very high and the ,ben ,davis is very low in quality but the ,king and the ,twenty ,ounce are neither very good nor very poor1 but midway between4 ,we must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a matter of judgment1 tempered by the facts regarding them4 ,one who is not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had better stay out of the apple business entirely1 as he will often be called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard4 ,the facts here given are intended as suggestive4 ,the reader who desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult ,beach's ,apples of ,new ,york1 published by the ,geneva ,experiment ,station4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,planting ,,and ,,growing ,,the ,,orchard ,the proper soil1 site1 and location having been selected1 the solution of the problems of orchard management is only just begun1 although a good start has certainly been made4 ,farm management brings constantly to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems1 whatever the type of farming4 ,the skill with which these problems are met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of the farm manager4 ,to some men the details of the orchard business offer the greatest obstacles1 while to others it is the general relationship of one detail to another which is difficult4 ,both are essentials of good management4 ,if we are able in this chapter to remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose4 ,as we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many questions come up for answer4 ,when shall ,i plant8 ,where and of whom shall ,i purchase my trees8 ,how old should they be8 ,is it wise to use fillers or temporary trees1 and if so1 what kind8 ,how far apart should the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre8 ,what arrangement of the trees is most advisable8 ,how should the ground be prepared8 ,what is the best method of setting8 ,when the trees are planted should they be inter-cropped1 and if so1 with what8 ,how should the young trees be handled and cared for8 ,he who would be a successful orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions4 ,,when ,,to ,,plant4--,the question of fall or spring planting is a less important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it is with a more tender fruit like the peach4 ,apples may safely be planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young trees are well matured1 both of which are very important if winter injury is to be avoided4 ,fall planting has several distinct advantages4 ,during the winter fall planted trees become well established in the soil which enables them to start root growth earlier in the spring4 ,consequently the young trees are better able to endure droughts4 ,in the fall the weather is usually more settled and there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than in the unsettled weather of spring4 ,it is usually possible1 too1 to get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because most of the trees are not sold until midwinter4 ,still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is the more conservative course4 ,there is always danger of getting immature trees in the fall1 and of winter injury to fall planted trees4 ,trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature which is usually after ,october #ast to #ahth in the latitude of ,new ,york4 ,they should not be pruned back in the fall1 as this invites winter killing of the uppermost buds4 ,the question of available time must also be considered4 ,on some farms fall offers more time2 on others1 spring4 ,to sum up the matter1 plant at the most convenient time1 providing the conditions are favorable4 ,,where ,,to ,,buy4--,but one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down4 ,buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of the most reliable and honest dealers4 ,beware of the tree agent1 who has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost any other traveling agent4 ,buy of a salesman under one condition only1 that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a well-known and reputable nursery firm1 and then make your order subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as represented4 ,the safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with whose standing and honesty you are familiar1 and whose trees you can personally inspect4 ,such a man has a reputation at stake and will have an object in keeping your trade4 ,moreover1 you will save freight1 secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling1 and get trees grown under your own conditions4 ,if stock is purchased away from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern latitude in order to secure trees of better growth4 ,all trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick of his stock4 ,select a well grown mature tree two years old from the bud4 ,one year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at least five feet high they are probably best4 ,but a one year old tree is rather more delicate1 requiring careful handling and intelligent training4 ,unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an expert in handling trees1 the two year old tree is to be preferred1 but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year old seedling4 ,the average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting trees true to name1 which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on purchasing from an honest dealer4 ,some nurserymen guarantee their varieties to be true to name1 and all ought to do so4 ,buyers should demand it4 ,the seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety planted4 ,they are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings imported from ,france4 ,sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted which is equally as good a method of propagation4 ,it is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings1 but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer1 as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires considerable skill4 ,always buy a high grade tree4 ,seconds are often equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of crowding in the nursery row4 ,a tree which is second grade because of being stunted1 crooked1 or poorly grown should never be set4 ,thirds are seldom worth considering at any price4 ,,fillers4--,whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use fillers is a question which he alone must decide4 ,in the writer's opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing1 but we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for himself4 ,the term filler is one used to designate a tree planted in the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet in bearing4 ,fillers make a more complete use of the land1 bringing in larger as well as quicker returns from it1 three distinct advantages4 7,see ,chapter ,,xii1 ,the ,cost of ,growing ,apples47 ,on the other hand1 objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees1 and that their care often requires different operations and at different times from the other trees1 such as spraying1 which may result in injury to the permanent trees in the orchard4 ,trees used as fillers for apples should have two important characteristics2 they should be rapid1 vigorous growers and should come into bearing at a very early age4 ,two kinds of fillers are available1 those of the same species1 which may be either dwarf or standard trees1 and those of a different species1 of which peaches and plums1 and possibly pears1 are the best adapted4 ,dwarf trees may be dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely proved profitable under ordinary conditions1 as they are much more difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few advantages over them4 ,the varieties of standard apples which are advisable as fillers have been indicated in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the use of peaches and the ,japanese plums1 both of which make excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing quickly1 is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation4 ,they are adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates and under other conditions are impracticable4 ,on heavier soils and in more rigorous climates the ,european plums and the more rapid and early bearing pears1 such as the ,keiffer1 make fairly good fillers4 ,on the whole1 the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in the general farm orchard4 ,quicker returns from an investment of this nature1 which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off several years1 are very important4 ,under careful and intelligent management the objections to their use are easily overcome4 ,,spacing ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,trees4--,the distance apart of planting depends on the variety planted4 ,close headed1 upright growing trees may be planted closer together than spreading varieties4 ,some varieties grow larger than others1 and the same variety may vary in size on different soils4 ,it is seldom advisable to plant standard apple trees in the latitude of ,new ,york closer than thirty feet1 or farther apart than fifty feet4 ,trees of the nature of ,twenty ,ounce and ,oldenburg 7,dutchess7 should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six feet apart1 while ,baldwins1 ,rhode ,island ,greenings1 and ,northern ,spies represent the other extreme and will require forty1 and sometimes fifty feet of space4 ,the method and thoroughness of pruning influences the size of trees greatly1 and hence the distance at which ,it is necessary to set them4 ,varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more upright and may be set closer together4 ,it should be remembered in this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond the spread of the branches4 ,from thirty-five to forty feet is a good average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this space and no more4 ,where fillers are used the latter distance is best1 as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close enough for any standard variety4 ,,rectangular4--,the method of setting or the arrangement of the trees will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row4 ,the most common method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method1 e4g41 trees forty by forty feet1 or forty by fifty feet1 and rows at right angles1 and this is still preferred by many4 ,it is easy to lay out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making mistakes4 ,it is best adapted to regular fields with right angle corners1 especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular rotation4 ,all tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards set on this plan4 ,a slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable1 especially where fillers are used1 is to set a tree in the center of the square4 ,the trees then stand like the five spots of a domino1 and the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart4 ,this plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an acre4 ,,hexagonal ,,or ,,triangular4--,another method of arrangement of the trees which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular system4 ,more trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any other1 it being very economical of space4 ,it makes all adjacent trees equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral triangles4 ,this plan is better adapted to small areas and especially to irregular ones1 and should be employed where land is expensive and culture very intensive4 ,it is more difficult to set an orchard after this method without error1 and it is open to the objection of inconvenience in cultural operations4 ,most people forget that while the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after this plan may be a standard distance apart1 yet the right angle rows 7not trees7 in which it may be more convenient to work are actually much closer together4 ,the best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level field is what is known as the outside stake method4 ,this plan requires the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way through the middle4 ,for this purpose ordinary building laths are best1 about one hundred and fifty laths1 or three bundles1 being required for five acres1 which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this plan4 ,first1 determine the distance from the road or fence to the first tree row1 which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning the teams1 and establish base lines on each side of the field at right angles to each other4 ,second1 beginning at the given distance from the side of the field1 set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the fence and the first right angle row4 ,do the same on all sides of the field4 ,third1 by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field4 ,these should be about six or eight rods apart1 and care should be used to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of the right angle rows4 ,this plan has the great merit of enabling the entire orchard to be set without moving a stake1 as no stake stands where a tree is to be set4 ,if the trees are set exactly where the sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal distance apart1 the rows will be perfectly straight4 ,on rough or rolling land this plan does not work well4 ,here more simple methods1 though requiring more time1 must be used4 ,lines drawn with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well for small areas4 ,poles of the right length are often used to good advantage4 ,in setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best1 especially on small rough areas1 as it is very accurate1 simple1 and quite rapid4 ,some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point where a tree is to be placed4 ,in these cases a simple device locates the original stakes after the hole has been dug4 ,a light board about six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them at each end is placed with the notch at the stake4 ,one end is then swung round and the hole dug4 ,when the end is replaced on its peg the tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake did4 ,the following table shows the number of trees required per acre at different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the hexagonal method4 ,sq4 ,hex4 ,sq4 ,hex4 #ab x #ab #cjb #cdd #bd x #bd #ge #hj #ab x #ae #bdb 444 #bd x #cj #fj 44 #ae x #ae #aic #bbd #cj x #cj #dh #ef #ae x #ah #afa 444 #cj x #cf #dj 44 #ae x #bj #ade 444 #cc x #cc #dj #df #ae x #cj #if 444 #cj x #dh #cj 44 #ah x #ah #acd #aef #cj x #fj #bd 44 #ah x #bj #aba 444 #cf x #cf #cc #ci #bj x #bj #ajh #abd #dj x #dj #bg #ca #bj x #cj #gb 444 #dj x #ej #ba 44 ,it will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan1 even when the trees are set the same distance apart4 ,this is the great advantage of this plan over the square4 ,filling an orchard one way1 i4e41 between the permanent row1 in one direction only1 practically doubles the trees which can be set on an acre2 filling both ways quadruples the number4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,soil4--,the previous condition and treatment of a soil for an orchard are important4 ,if the soil has been in a good rotation of field crops1 including some cultivated crops1 it should be in prime condition for the trees4 ,old pastures and meadows should be plowed up1 cropped1 and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the best and quickest results4 ,if one is in a hurry1 however1 this may be done after setting the trees4 ,good results are sometimes obtained by setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland4 ,where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich soil4 ,the best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees should be such as to place the soil in good tilth4 ,deep plowing1 thorough cultivation1 and the application of liberal amounts of manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means of doing this4 ,the best crop immediately to precede trees is clover4 ,sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same time improve the physical condition of the soil4 ,fall plowing is a good practice on the medium loams and more open soils1 but on the heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred1 as when plowed in the fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle4 ,care should always be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth4 ,tile draining is frequently advisable4 ,,intercropping4--,the question of intercropping a young orchard is one to be carefully considered4 ,as it is often practiced it is very injurious to the orchard1 but it is possible to manage crops so as to be of very little harm to the trees4 ,while the practice may be inadvisable in many commercial orchards1 yet on a general farm we should by all means think that it was the right thing to do4 ,certain facts must be remembered1 however1 which have a bearing on the subject4 ,trees are a crop1 as much as corn or grass4 ,if we grow a crop between the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly4 ,there is absolutely no use in setting an apple orchard1 expecting it to take care of itself1 just growing1 like ,topsy1 as numerous dilapidated and broken down orchards bear ample testimony4 ,if orchards are to be cropped this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind4 ,the best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring cultivation1 or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the season4 ,field beans1 potatoes1 and garden truck of all kinds1 as small vegetables1 melons1 etc41 are among the very best crops to grow in the young orchard4 ,corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much4 ,small grain and grass should not be used1 especially where they come up close to the trees4 ,these crops form too stiff a sod and use up too much moisture4 ,a mulch of straw1 cut grass1 or coarse manure will help to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used4 ,after cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory orchard crop in some cases4 ,a regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation4 ,this space should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger1 to four1 six1 and eight feet4 ,this method has been used by the author very successfully for a number of years4 ,some good rotations to use in a growing orchard are3 7#a7 ,wheat or rye one year1 clover one year1 beans or potatoes one year2 7#b7 oats one year1 clover one year1 potatoes one year2 7#c7 beans one year1 rye plowed under in spring1 followed by any cultivated crop one or two years4 ,the essentials of a good rotation for an orchard are3 ,a humus and fertility supplying crop1 preferably clover1 in the north1 and cow peas in the south1 and at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of the summer4 ,most of the points regarding the management of young trees have already been mentioned1 but a few others should have attention directed to them4 ,fall planted trees should not be cut back until spring4 ,in the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in transplanting1 thus preserving the balance between root and top4 ,this will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth4 ,from three to five well distributed branches should be left with which to form the top4 ,during the first few years of their lives the young apple trees will need little or no pruning1 except to shape them and remove crossing or interfering branches4 ,constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be the rule with young growing trees1 with which this is even more important than with older trees4 ,it is a good plan to plow the orchard in fall where possible1 always turning the furrows toward the trees1 leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows4 ,at ,beechwood ,farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall1 using a shovel4 ,this not only firms the soil about the tree1 holding it straight and strong through the winter1 but it affords good protection against rodents1 especially mice4 ,where rabbits are prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the trees in addition to this4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pruning ,,the ,,trees ,pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first thought suppose4 ,it is one of nature's most common processes4 ,nature accomplishes this result through the principle of competition1 by starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive4 ,in the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each individual tree4 ,it is only by the crowding out and the perishing of many buds1 branches1 and trees that others are enabled to reach maturity and fulfill their purpose4 ,this being too slow and too expensive a process for him1 man accomplishes in a day with the knife and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding1 shading1 and competition4 ,proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's method4 ,neither is it true1 as some claim1 that pruning is a devitalizing process4 ,on the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree4 ,all practical experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable1 necessary1 and advantageous process4 ,true1 it is often overdone1 and improperly done4 ,as in many other things1 certain fundamental principles underlie and should govern practice4 ,when these are known and observed1 pruning becomes a more simple matter4 ,heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the growth and tends to increase the production of wood4 ,in the same way pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and tends to induce fruitfulness1 if the tree remains healthy4 ,but this fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree4 ,on the other hand1 the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the growth of wood1 the same as poor feeding4 ,as above noted heading back a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth4 ,the habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning4 ,some varieties of apples are upright1 others are spreading growers4 ,climate and locality greatly affect these habits of growth4 ,so also the habit of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old age4 ,the tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its uppermost or terminal buds4 ,although the heading in of new growth checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the development of lateral and dormant buds1 nevertheless the pruned tree soon resumes its natural upward growing habit4 ,plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use to the growing tissues of the tree4 ,whenever there is any obstruction above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a lateral bud1 but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely thickens and growth is checked4 ,when too heavy pruning is practiced the balance between the roots and top is disturbed4 ,this usually results in what are commonly known as suckers4 ,these are caused by an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or injury to the tree1 they are often of great value in restoring or readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top4 ,pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one4 ,it may sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the ,baldwin1 which have an alternate bearing habit1 but this is a more theoretical than practical method4 ,fruit bearing is determined more by the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning1 and this is especially true of old trees4 ,it is easier to influence young trees4 ,conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds4 ,a quiescent state is a better condition for this4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,pruning4--,with these fundamental principles in mind we may safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree4 ,as the desired end is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from that of an old one4 ,there are five important things for which to prune a young tree1 namely3 #a4 ,to preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time of setting out4 ,this usually means cutting off the broken and the very long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth of the previous season4 #b4 ,to make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely4 ,in the humid climate of the ,northeastern ,states1 it is usually advisable to prune a tree so as to have a rather open top4 ,this is necessary in order properly to color and mature the fruit4 #c4 ,to regulate the number of limbs composing the top4 ,probably three branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the ideal head1 but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top4 #d4 ,to fix the branches at the proper height from the ground4 ,this is more or less a matter of opinion1 some growers preferring a low and others a high head4 ,the character of the tree growth1 the method of culture1 and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent greatly influence the height of the head4 ,an upright growing variety should be headed lower than a spreading one4 ,trees kept in sod or under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural operations close around them4 ,permanent trees should be headed higher than temporary trees4 ,apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a foot from the ground1 nor more than four feet above it4 ,for upright growing varieties intended as permanents1 the writer prefers three to three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet2 while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height4 #e4 ,to do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering branches4 ,a crotch formed by two branches of equal size1 especially when the split is deep1 is a weak crotch and should be avoided4 ,strong crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and making almost a right angle branch from the parent one4 ,all branches which rub each other1 which tend to occupy the same space with another1 or which generally seem out of place1 are better removed as soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist4 ,,ideals ,,in ,,pruning4--,the general method of pruning the old trees and the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young tree1 especially the shaping of it4 ,once determined upon1 the ideal should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it becomes older4 ,as the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes4 ,these we can conveniently consider under six heads3 #a4 ,every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size1 shape1 and degree of openness in mind4 ,to have such an ideal is very important4 ,it is only by industriously and consistently carrying it out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained4 ,haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are really worse than no pruning at all4 #b4 ,it almost goes without saying that to remove all dead1 diseased1 or injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning4 ,dead and injured branches open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches1 and disease spreads through the tree4 ,the removal of all such branches is as essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance4 ,in removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease4 #c4 ,all mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way the operations of tillage1 spraying1 and harvesting4 ,it is most important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and picking can be easily done4 ,it is difficult to spray properly a tree which is more than twenty-five feet in height4 ,even this height necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension pole4 ,an apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two feet4 ,of course1 if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under previous management1 sometimes we have to make the best of a bad situation4 ,if the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the leaders1 but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two feet4 ,heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the chapter on ,renovating ,old ,orchards4 ,ladders longer than twenty-two feet are heavy and clumsy to handle4 ,if cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower limbs must be pruned so as to allow this4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a mature tree1 contrary to the common belief and practice4 ,cultivation is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature tree4 ,by the use of set-over tools1 all that is necessary can be well cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches4 #d4 ,as has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young trees1 in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant through the growing season1 the open head is most desirable4 ,sunlight on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of the fruit1 and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and attractive appearance of the fruit4 ,an open center with upright growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to penetrate through the tree4 #e4 ,as we have seen1 pruning in the dormant season tends to increase the vigor of the tree4 ,thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal and vigorous wood growth1 which is most essential to a healthy fruit-bearing tree4 ,on the other hand1 such pruning may be excessive and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds1 throwing the tree out of bearing4 #f4 ,the sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds4 ,the proper balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety4 ,a perfect balance is hard to get1 but with study and skill it can be closely approximated4 ,pruning1 too1 may thin the fruit1 as removing branches removes fruit buds4 ,this is best done by removing small branches near the ends of larger ones4 ,it is a much cheaper method of thinning than picking off individual fruits1 but not as effective4 ,,time ,,of ,,pruning4--,the particular time of the year for pruning is not vital4 ,as between summer and winter pruning1 winter is to be preferred because of the physical effect on the tree4 ,summer pruning is an unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to check growth or induce fruitfulness1 as it may result in injury to the tree4 ,it is essential that a tree mature its foliage1 which it frequently does not do after summer pruning4 ,diseased1 dead1 or injured wood should be removed when first observed1 summer or winter4 ,spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on the general farm4 ,while dormant season pruning may be done at any time between ,november #ast and ,june #ast1 the cuts heal more rapidly in the spring when the sap begins to flow4 ,in regions subject to severe and drying winds in the winter1 pruning should be deferred at least to late winter4 ,considered from every standpoint1 ,march and ,april are quite the best months in which to prune4 ,after the removal of useless branches1 the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more strong and vigorous4 ,in removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool1 the cut should be made upward from below and opposite a bud4 ,on upright growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce the tree to spread as much as possible1 while on spreading trees leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree grow more upright4 ,always cut close to the parent branch1 never leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree4 ,cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the branch where it joins the parent4 ,a cut behind the shoulder will not heal1 neither will one too far ahead of it4 ,a stub left on a trunk or large branch does not heal1 but soon begins to rot at the end where the heartwood is exposed4 ,this gradually works back into the main branch and the tree finally becomes rotten at the heart4 ,all that is needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind1 an ice or a snow storm1 or a heavy load of fruit4 ,all wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either with a heavy lead paint1 which is preferable1 or with some gas tar preparation4 ,these things do not in themselves heal a cut1 but they keep out the decaying elements1 air and moisture1 thus helping to preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in nature's way4 ,a little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of the paint4 ,,pruning ,,tools4--,the best tool to use in pruning is one which brings you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control to make all kinds of cuts4 ,in the writer's experience no tool does this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw4 ,a good saw should be quite rigid1 rather heavy at the butt1 where its depth should be about six inches1 tapering down to about two inches at the point4 ,it should have a full1 firm grip1 be not more than thirty inches long1 and should always be kept sharp4 ,two-edged saws should not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in crotches4 ,cutting shears are often very useful1 especially the smaller1 one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees4 ,the larger1 two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of branches or in heading back new growth4 ,they should not be too heavy1 as they are tiresome to use4 ,the extension handled types are too cumbersome1 too slow to work with1 and the operator is of necessity too far away from his work for the best results4 ,,fruit ,,thinning4--,a matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is thinning the fruit1 and may properly be treated here4 ,that this is not as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be1 the great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample evidence4 ,many persons will at once raise the question as to whether or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees4 ,the answer is that many growers find it not only practicable1 but most profitable to do so4 ,wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is desired1 thinning is a practical necessity1 especially when the crop of fruit is heavy4 ,the proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known as the ,june drop1 i4e41 the falling off of those fruits not well enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity4 ,in thinning the fruit should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six inches apart on the same branch1 although the distance apart on any branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts of the tree4 ,never leave clusters of fruit on any branches1 as some of them are sure to be small and out of shape4 ,furthermore two apples lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity4 ,step ladders and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning4 ,the cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment4 ,,chapter ,v ,,cultivation ,,and ,,cover ,,cropping ,in its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil4 ,thus understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well as the stirring of the soil with various implements4 ,in its more common and restricted meaning1 however1 cultivation is the stirring of the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity4 ,to have the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard treatment--a method of neglect and of letting well enough alone4 ,with the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the soil has come to be the more popular method4 ,but within the last few years an improved modification of the old sod method1 known as the sod mulch system1 has attracted much attention because of the success with which a few men have practiced it4 ,for a correct understanding of these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we must again turn to underlying principles and purposes4 ,it may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to nature4 ,but it accomplishes what nature does in another way4 ,tillage has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think of it almost as a custom4 ,there are1 however1 scientific and practical reasons for tillage4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,tillage on the soil are three fold1 physical1 chemical1 and increasing of water holding capacity4 ,tillage affects the soil physically by fining and deepening it1 thus increasing the feeding area of roots1 and by bringing about the more free admission of air warms and dries the soil1 thus reducing extremes of temperature and moisture4 ,chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free plant food1 promoting nutrification1 hastening the decomposition of organic matter1 and the extending of these agencies to greater depth4 ,tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of the soil and by checking evaporation4 ,of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil1 two should be especially emphasized for the apple orchard1 namely1 soil moisture and soil texture4 ,that moisture is a very important consideration in the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample evidence4 ,the amount of rainfall in the ,eastern ,states when it is properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple tree4 ,by enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation1 an excess of rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use4 ,as a rule1 the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as the supplying of plant food and much cheaper4 ,the latter is of no consequence unless the plant can use it4 ,scientists tell us that there is an abundance of plant food in most soils4 ,the problem is to make it available4 ,plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it4 ,good tillage supplies these conditions4 ,can they be obtained equally well in another way8 ,it is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard culture that it also supplies these conditions4 ,humus or decayed vegetable matter holds moisture4 ,grass or other mulch decaying in the soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity4 ,by forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some extent1 although probably not as effectively in a practical way1 as by cultivation4 ,if there is a good grass sod in the orchard1 moisture and plant food made available by that moisture are utilized1 and if the grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish these elements to the tree4 ,but there is a rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass4 ,in fact1 grass may well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons1 or from wet lands4 ,laying aside theoretical considerations1 let us see what practical experience teaches on this subject4 ,we have the accurate data on a large number of western ,new ,york orchards showing the results of cultivation and other methods of soil management4 ,these data are overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation4 ,in ,wayne ,county the average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was #bga bushels per acre1 as compared with #bjj bushels per acre for those in sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for1--an increase of thirty-five per cent4 in favor of good tillage4 ,in ,orleans ,county1 under the same conditions1 the increase in yield due to cultivation was forty-five per cent4 and in ,niagara ,county it was twenty-two per cent4 ,records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced1 as intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged4 ,these results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it is quite possible1 although not probable1 that other conditions might give different results4 ,there are1 however1 special conditions as will be pointed out later1 under which the sod mulch method might be more advisable than tillage4 ,it is cheaper1 makes a cleaner cover for the drop fruit1 avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled trees are liable1 and can be practiced on lands too steep to till4 ,it often happens1 too1 that it fits into the scheme of management on a general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of cultivation4 ,and it must be remembered that we are dealing with this question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the commercial orchardist4 ,so that where the sod mulch gives equally good results it would be preferred under these conditions4 ,,late ,,fall ,,and ,,early ,,spring ,,plowing4--,the common tillage practice in the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall or as early as possible in the spring4 ,whether fall or spring plowing is best depends on two things3 the character of the soil and convenience4 ,on heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to bake when it dries1 making it hard to handle4 ,on gravel loams1 medium loams1 and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period affords the most time4 ,on the general farm where there are several crops for which the land must be prepared in spring1 it would seem best to get as much of the plowing as possible done in the fall4 ,but a large crop of apples or a large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable4 ,always plan this work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best distribution of labor4 ,after fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring4 ,sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the orchard in the spring without any plowing at all1 especially on loose loams where there are few stones4 ,but on newly plowed land a disk cuts too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots4 ,on spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best results4 ,after the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is passed1 a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the soil only4 ,the growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts in the spring and continues up to about midsummer4 ,if cultivation is to stimulate growth as much as possible1 it should be done during this period4 ,the first object of cultivation in the early spring is to loosen up1 aerate1 and dry out the soil1 which is usually too wet at that time4 ,as cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and firmed again by the time drier weather comes on4 ,a fairly deep digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this time1 and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements4 ,after this period is passed and during drier weather1 cultivation is carried on for a different purpose1 namely1 to conserve moisture by making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface4 ,this is best accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth harrow1 the acme harrow1 or a light wheel cultivator are best4 ,as the season and the amount of rainfall vary1 so must tillage operations be varied4 ,in an early dry season begin with the lighter implements earlier4 ,in a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later4 ,as soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of tillage is to modify moisture conditions4 ,as a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a week to ten days are necessary4 ,sometimes more1 sometimes less are required1 according to the character and condition of the soil and the season4 ,the later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried on every week or ten days1 according to weather conditions4 ,it is good practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain4 ,use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier tools after packing or beating rains4 ,in practice from five to eight or ten of these cultivations are necessary4 ,the drier the season the more necessary does frequent cultivation become4 ,a ,,cover ,,crop is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually considered a part of the system4 ,it should be sown in midsummer as soon as tillage ceases4 ,this time will vary from ,july first to ,august fifteenth1 depending on the locality1 the rainfall1 the crop of fruit on the trees1 and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good stand of the cover crop are4 ,the farther south the locality1 or the earlier the fruit1 the sooner the crop should be sown4 ,absence of sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation1 both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer4 ,in a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size and maturity1 and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature its fruit and leaf buds for the following year4 ,on the other hand1 in a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter killing4 ,the different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely associated with fertilization4 ,strictly speaking1 however1 a cover crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage4 ,in addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking up the nitrates and a part of the moisture1 thus helping to ripen the wood4 ,,sod ,,mulch4--,the ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system4 ,the one is a system of neglect1 the other of intention4 ,in the sod mulch system the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or is cut1 it is left on the ground to decay1 forming a soil mulch meanwhile4 ,the removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor practice and should be discouraged4 ,the grass mulch may well be supplemented by the addition of other grass1 straw1 leaves1 coarse manure1 or other similar materials4 ,sometimes this mulch is put on to the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree4 ,thus practiced it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus which is so necessary to the soil4 ,sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the fruit4 ,let us see what these effects are4 ,it is common knowledge that fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a tillage system4 ,this is probably largely due to the fact that tillage keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so early4 ,fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod orchards4 ,it has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod4 ,it is claimed also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better quality and flavor4 ,certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier and less crisp and juicy4 ,the effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known4 ,tilled trees have a darker1 richer green foliage1 indicating a better and more vigorous health4 ,the leaves are also larger and more numerous4 ,they come out three or four days earlier in the spring and stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees kept in sod4 ,tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season that those in sod do1 in fact there is danger of their making wood growth at the expense of fruit buds4 ,tillage also gives a deeper1 better distributed root system4 ,despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system1 there are times1 places1 and circumstances under which one is more advisable than the other4 ,on lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so as to be easily tillable1 cultivation is without doubt the best system4 ,but it should be practiced in connection with cover crops1 and the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one year in from three to five4 ,the sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and readily available4 ,it is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or rough to till1 or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation4 ,tillage is the more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture might be more advisable for this reason1 other conditions being not too unfavorable4 ,in order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling land3 #aiab4 ,early plowing in spring1 cultivation to ,july first to fifteenth4 ,then sow red clover as a cover crop4 #aiac4 ,repeat previous year's treatment1 varying the time of sowing cover crop according to conditions4 #aiad4 ,let the clover grow1 mowing and leaving on the ground as a mulch1 ,june fifteenth to twentieth1 and again in ,august4 #aiae4 ,plow early in spring1 cultivate to midsummer1 and then sow rye or buckwheat as a cover crop ,july fifteenth to ,august fifteenth4 #aiaf4 ,repeat #aiae treatment and if trees are not growing too fast1 sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop4 #aiag4 ,same as #aiab1 etc4 ,,pasturing ,,the ,,orchard4--,the sod mulch system explains itself and does not need illustration4 ,sod orchards are often managed as pasture for animals1 however1 and this practice should be discussed4 ,an orchard is considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year4 ,results in orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle1 but that fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used4 ,the evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate1 that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst possible practice4 ,these animals rub against the trees1 break the branches1 browse the limbs and leaves1 and destroy the fruit as high as they can reach4 ,all experience is against this practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated4 ,pasturing an orchard with sheep1 although a somewhat doubtful practice1 often gives good results4 ,sheep crop the grass close to the ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which usually takes place from the leaves of grass4 ,their well distributed manure is worth considerable4 ,they also browse the branches to some extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the season as they will destroy considerable fruit4 ,pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other pasture treatment of the orchard4 ,hogs do considerable rooting which prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards4 ,a good deal of manure is added to the soil1 especially when the hogs are fed outside the orchard4 ,hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit4 ,pasturage of orchards has its advantages4 ,it gives a double utilization of the land4 ,it is a cheap method of management4 ,when the animals are fed outside the orchard1 as should always be the case1 it adds considerable plant food to the soil4 ,when plenty of outside food can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in pasturing orchards4 ,in very rough fields incapable of tillage1 this is undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management4 ,pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from the animals1 but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen4 ,hogs especially soil the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over4 ,under the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage1 especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more advantageous than it would be commercially4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,manuring ,,and ,,fertilizing ,cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage4 ,in the previous chapter this function has been discussed4 ,it now remains to point out another important function--that of a green manure crop adding humus and plant food to the soil4 ,not only do some cover crops add plant food and all humus to the soil1 but they tend to conserve these by preventing leaching1 especially of nitrates1 and they help to render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a form more available for the tree4 ,they sometimes act as a protection against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk4 ,they also help to dry out the soil in spring1 thus making the land tillable earlier4 ,there are two great classes of cover or green manure crops1 leguminous and non-leguminous4 ,a non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and improves the physical condition of the soil4 ,in itself it adds no plant food1 although it may take up1 utilize1 and leave behind plant food in a more available form for the tree's use4 ,but in addition to these benefits1 leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots4 ,,non-,,leguminous ,,crops4--,the most important of the non-leguminous crops are rye1 buckwheat1 turnips or rape1 barley1 oats1 and millet4 ,the first mentioned are the most commonly used4 ,also in order of importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green manure crops to be used3 clovers1 winter vetch1 soy beans1 alfalfa1 cow peas 7first in the ,south74 ,in order to determine the relative advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some of their characteristics and requirements4 ,rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops1 especially in the young orchard1 as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open4 ,a particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite late in the fall and starts early in the spring4 ,starting earlier than most crops in the spring1 it makes a considerable amount of growth before the land is fit to plow4 ,especially in warmer climates rye should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before ,september #ast--because of this too heavy growth4 ,rye is also adapted to a great variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not do well4 ,about two bushels of seed are required per acre4 ,buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard cover crop1 although it does not produce quite as much organic matter4 ,it will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very dry4 ,it is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and thrive on soils too poor for other crops1 due to its numerous shallow feeding rootlets4 ,it grows rapidly and covers the ground well1 but like rye does not thrive as well in shade4 ,buckwheat should not be used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on the land4 ,one bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding4 ,turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops4 ,they are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to secure a good stand of them even in dry weather4 ,sown in late ,july in the ,north they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much moisture to the soil1 especially if they cover the ground well4 ,their broad1 abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in winter4 ,cow ,horn is the best variety of turnips to use1 as it is a large1 rank grower4 ,use one to two pounds of seed to the acre4 ,rape makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs1 but especially for the former4 ,eight or nine pounds of seed are necessary to the acre4 ,barley1 oats1 and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing1 because1 with the possible exception of millet1 they make their best growth early in the season4 ,moreover they take up too much moisture from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture4 ,in fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in too wet seasons4 ,two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary for a good seeding4 ,although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops1 they are often valuable ones4 ,they grow rapidly and rank1 making a large bulk of humus1 without the expense of seeding4 ,if they are not allowed to go to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm1 they often make the best of cover crops4 ,this necessitates a mowing in ,september4 ,weeds are plants out of place1 and when these plants are in place they are not necessarily weeds1 as they have then become serviceable4 ,,legumes4--,in general1 legumes are more valuable as cover and green manure crops than non-leguminous plants1 because as a rule they are more rank growers and more deeply rooted1 as well as because they add nitrogen to the soil4 ,but it is rather more difficult to secure a good stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for several reasons4 ,as a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed usually has greater germinating power than a small one4 ,this often means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown4 ,then legumes are more difficult to grow1 requiring better soil conditions4 ,still these should be present in good orchard soils4 ,drainage must be good1 the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical condition1 it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow legumes satisfactorily4 ,where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as green manure crops4 ,the chief difficulty with them is that of obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer4 ,the mammoth red and the medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier soils1 while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will grow1 on the lighter gravel loams4 ,the latter is especially well adapted to building up run down sandy soils4 ,although it is somewhat easier to secure a stand of this clover1 alsike does not grow rank enough to make a good cover or green manure crop4 ,most clovers are deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as well as being great nitrogen gatherers4 ,the amounts of seed required per acre for the different kinds are about as follows3 mammoth fifteen to twenty pounds2 red 7medium7 twelve to fifteen pounds2 crimson twelve to fifteen pounds2 and alsike ten to twelve pounds4 ,where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a better cover and green manure crop than the clovers4 ,it is deeper rooted1 makes a better top growth1 and therefore adds more nitrogen and more humus to the soil than the clovers4 ,it cannot be recommended for common use1 however1 as it is so difficult to grow except under favorable conditions4 ,it requires a more fertile soil than clover1 a soil with little or no acidity1 good drainage1 and usually the soil must be inoculated4 ,only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be generally recommended4 ,vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop1 forming a thick1 close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil4 ,it is very quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring4 ,it also adds larger quantities of nitrogen4 ,the hairy or winter vetch lives through the hard freezing winters4 ,summer vetch1 although an equally good grower1 is killed by freezing4 ,one bushel of seed is required per acre and the seed is expensive1 which is the greatest objection to the use of this excellent crop4 ,two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth trial as cover crops--soy beans in the ,north and cow peas in the ,south4 ,both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil4 ,under favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of vegetation in a very short time4 ,being larger seeded1 it is considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons than it is of the smaller seeded clovers4 ,it is usually best to sow in drills the ordinary width1 seven inches1 apart4 ,cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the ,south1 but they do not thrive so well in the ,north4 ,one and one half to two bushels of seed are required per acre4 ,in the ,north the earlier maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good4 ,one to one and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre4 ,leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of nitrogen for the apple orchard1 after they are well established4 ,their use may be overdone1 however4 ,too much nitrogen results in a growth of wood at the expense of fruit buds4 ,to avoid this it is often advisable to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately1 when the orchard is making a satisfactory growth4 ,sometimes also these two kinds of crops1 as buckwheat and clover for example1 may be combined with good results4 ,when this is done one half the usual amount of seed of each should be used4 ,,early ,,plowing4--,many people make the common mistake of thinking that a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in ,june in order to secure the maximum amount of growth4 ,there are several reasons why this is not good practice4 ,in the first place cultivation is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out4 ,then moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a better physical condition of the soil secured4 ,plowing early in the spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly4 ,lastly1 material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is more abundant1 which is very important4 ,an apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists4 ,when it is not properly fed and cared for1 good yields of fruit may not justly be expected4 ,especially is this true of an orchard which is being intercropped4 ,but because of the fact that an apple tree is not an annual crop but the product of many years' growth1 because its root system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops1 and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is comparatively small1 fertilization is less important than many persons would have us think4 ,it is a fact that where orchards receive good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers give but medium results4 ,,elements ,,of ,,fertility4--,three elements are necessary for the growth of apple trees1 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ,to these lime may be added1 although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a plant food4 ,how badly any of these elements may be needed depends on the soil1 its previous treatment1 and on the system of management4 ,by learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit we may determine under what conditions1 if any1 their use is advisable4 ,nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves1 giving the latter a dark green color4 ,in fact the color of the leaves and the amount of the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen4 ,nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the maturity of wood and buds4 ,it always has a tendency to delay the maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late4 ,on many varieties it tends to produce poorly colored fruits4 ,when trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a dark green in color1 there is little need of nitrogen4 ,but when trees are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow color1 then the need of nitrogen is evident4 ,on early soils and in long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than under other conditions4 ,the effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much more uncertain4 ,they are supposed to influence the quality and the flavor of the fruit1 giving better color and flavor1 and this they undoubtedly do to some extent4 ,potash probably gives the leaves a darker green color4 ,the precise effect of these two elements is at present a subject of much discussion1 one set of investigators maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects are too small to be worth while1 and the other claiming that they have a marked effect in the ways above indicated4 ,the only safe guide is the actual local result4 ,if the fruit is satisfactory in every way it will be of little use to try fertilizers4 ,on the other hand1 if it is not1 then it will pay to experiment with them4 ,the needs of and the results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively4 ,,stable ,,manure4--,the necessary plant food is best supplied by stable manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application4 ,this amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees4 ,such an application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash1 but especially if coarse will add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil4 ,except on land which washes badly1 manure should be applied in the fall and winter4 ,it should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground4 ,it is particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding root area of the tree4 ,,commercial ,,fertilizers4--,where manure is not available or where it cannot be applied in sufficient amounts1 commercial fertilizers may be resorted to1 after they have been experimentally tested out4 ,leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen1 as has been indicated1 but where these do not grow well1 or in seasons when they have for some reason failed1 nitrate of soda or dried blood are good substitutes4 ,from two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or cold weather is past4 ,it is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two applications a few weeks apart1 especially on soils which are leachy and in wet seasons1 as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is applied at once4 ,these should be thoroughly worked into the soil with a spring-tooth harrow4 ,to supply the other two elements1 from two hundred to four hundred pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric acid1 and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash1 should be applied at any time in the early part of the season1 preferably just before a light rain1 and worked into the soil as before4 ,home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements1 and especially of the potash4 ,they cannot be purchased economically in any quantity1 but on the general farm there could be no better way to utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two4 ,wood ashes are also a good source of lime1 being about one-third calcium oxide4 ,thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the tree1 and where it is needed should result not only in better wood growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the following year4 ,lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils actually deficient in it4 ,but it will usually be advisable to apply from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned lime or its equivalent1 in order to correct any natural soil acidity1 to hasten the decay of organic material1 to increase the activity of the soil bacteria1 and to improve the physical condition of the soil by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils4 ,lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain other elements in the soil4 ,all these effects make a more congenial medium for the leguminous crops to grow in1 and it is frequently advisable to use lime for this purpose alone4 ,after this first heavy application about #hjj pounds of lime should be applied per acre every four or five years4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,,affecting ,,the ,,apple ,it is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than there used to be4 ,how often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect apples that grew on a certain tree when he was a boy1 before people had generally heard of codling moth1 ,san ,jose scale1 apple scab1 or other troubles now only too common4 ,we never sprayed1 but the apples were fine1 he says4 ,is this the usual glorification of the mythical past or is it true8 ,in all probability it is a little of both1 but it is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased rapidly of late years4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,pest ,,increase4--,when there is an abundance of food and conditions are otherwise favorable1 any animal or plant will thrive better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable4 ,as long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not the opportunity for the development of apple pests1 but as soon as they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites was wonderful to see4 ,another factor which has been at least partly responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds1 and1 by interfering with their natural surroundings1 driven them away4 ,birds are great destroyers of insects1 and their presence in the orchard should be encouraged in every possible way4 ,add to these facts the marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe1 and the increase is less remarkable4 ,loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the millions4 ,it has been estimated that the loss in the ,united ,states from wormy apples alone is over #aa1jjj1jjj annually4 ,thus has the necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen4 ,in order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history and to know its most vulnerable point of attack4 ,it is impossible to work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge1 which should include the several stages of the insect or disease1 the point of attack1 the time of making it1 and when and with what it can be most easily destroyed4 ,the number of insects and diseases which affect the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat them all in detail here4 ,we have therefore selected nine insects and three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and whose effects are usually most serious4 ,the essential facts in their life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out4 ,the method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests which it may be necessary to combat4 ,,insect ,,pests4--,of the many insects which affect either the tree or the fruit of the apple1 the nine selected probably inflict the most damage and are the most difficult to control of all those in the ,northeastern ,states4 ,according to their method of attack all insects may be divided into two classes3 biting and sucking4 ,biting insects are those which actually eat parts of the tree1 as the leaves or fruit4 ,these are combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the following chapter4 ,sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree or fruit directly1 but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the juices or sap from the limbs1 leaves or fruit4 ,of the biting insects the five which we shall discuss are3 7#a7 codling moth1 7#b7 apple maggot1 7#c7 bud moth1 7#d7 cigar case bearer1 7#e7 curculio4 ,the four sucking insects discussed are3 7#f7 ,san ,jose scale1 7#g7 oyster shell scale1 7#h7 blister mite1 and 7#i7 aphis or plant louse4 #a4 ,,the ,,codling ,,moth1 the most insidious of all apple pests1 is mainly responsible for wormy apples4 ,the adult is a night flying moth with a wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch4 ,the moths appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom4 ,each female is supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the leaves and fruit1 but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples4 ,the eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit4 ,three-fourths of them enter the apple through its blow end4 ,after twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple1 during which time they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long1 they leave the apple1 usually through its side4 ,the full grown caterpillar now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in which the pupal period is passed4 ,this lasts about a fortnight1 when the process is sometimes repeated1 so that in the ,eastern ,states there are often two broods each season4 ,the most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when it is entering the fruit4 ,if a fine poison spray covers the surface of the fruit1 and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple inside and out1 when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be killed4 ,it is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent4 of the cocoons on the bark of trees4 #b4 ,,apple ,,maggot4--,it is fortunate that the apple maggot1 often called the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the fruit1 is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much more difficult to control with a poison4 ,a two-winged fly appears in early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the apple4 ,in a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow indiscriminately through the fruit4 ,the full grown larvae are a greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long4 ,from the fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed in the soil4 ,the next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs4 ,spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be placed where it will be eaten by the maggots4 ,the best known remedy is to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose hogs in the orchard are very effective4 ,the distribution of this insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference for summer and autumn varieties4 #c4 ,,the ,,bud ,,moth closely resembles the codling moth in form and size1 but differs from it in color and life history4 ,the larvae1 after hibernating through the winter1 appear as little brown caterpillars about ,may first or as soon as the buds begin to open1 and a week or two later begin their work of destruction4 ,they inflict great damage on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them4 ,when full grown the larvae1 cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head1 are about one-half inch long4 ,they then roll themselves up in a tube made from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken threads4 ,in this cocoon pupation1 which lasts about ten days1 takes place4 ,early in ,june the moths appear4 ,there is but one brood in the ,north4 ,these insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray applied early before the buds open4 #d4 ,,the ,,cigar ,,case ,,bearer winters in its case attached to a twig4 ,when the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them1 carrying its case with it1 and begins to feed on the young and tender buds4 ,by the time the leaves are well open1 it has fed a good deal on the tender buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case4 ,this it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form of a cigar1 whence its name4 ,in this case the larvae continue feeding about a month1 causing much injury to the leaves1 although this is not as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring1 before the tree is fully leafed out4 ,about the last of ,june pupation takes place and in about ten days the moth emerges4 ,the eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves and hatch in about fifteen days4 ,the newly hatched larvae become leaf miners during ,august1 and migrate to the branches again in the fall where they pass the winter4 ,these leaf and bud eating insects can be destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again later to the opening leaf and flower buds4 #e4 ,,curculio ,,beetles pass the winter under leaves and grass4 ,in the spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves4 ,as soon as the young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture made just inside a short1 crescent-shaped cut in the little apple4 ,the eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core where they remain two or three weeks1 or until full grown4 ,the larvae then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they pupate4 ,the earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit4 ,the principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the beetles and the work of the larvae1 although the latter is not as bad in the apple as in the stone fruits4 ,a poison on the young foliage as soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating curculio4 ,jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it is with the plum4 #f4 ,,the ,,san ,,jose ,,scale1 one of our worst apple tree pests1 is a sucking insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk1 limbs or branches1 or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant4 ,at first the growth is checked only1 but as the insects develop their work finally results in the death of the part1 unless they are destroyed4 ,the insect winters in an immature condition on the bark under a grayish1 circular1 somewhat convex scale about the size of a pinhead4 ,the young1 of which a great many broods are produced1 are soft bodied but soon form a scale4 ,in the early spring small two-winged insects issue from these scales4 ,after mating the males die1 but the females continue to grow and in about a month begin the production of living young--minute1 yellow1 oval creatures4 ,these young settle on the bark and push their slender beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap4 ,in about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they change to pupae1 and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves bearing young4 ,a single female may give birth to four hundred young in one season and there are several generations in a season4 ,this great prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest4 ,in fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are soon born4 ,in order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both4 ,thoroughness is most essential4 #g4 ,,the ,,oyster ,,shell ,,scale1 although it is essentially the same in its habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as bad a pest as the ,san ,jose scale because it is less prolific1 there being but one brood a year4 ,still this scale often destroys a branch and sometimes a whole tree4 ,the lice winter as eggs under the scale and hatch in late ,may or early ,june4 ,after crawling about the bark for two or three days1 the young fix their beaks into it and remain fastened there for life1 sucking out the sap4 ,by the end of the season they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs for the next season's crop winter4 ,a smothering spray like lime and sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically control this scale4 ,but the young may be destroyed in summer by a contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap4 #h4 ,,the ,,leaf ,,blister ,,mite is a small1 four-legged animal1 so small as hardly to be visible to the naked eye4 ,it passes the winter in the bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes to the tender leaves which it punctures1 producing light green or reddish pimples according to the variety of apple4 ,these later develop into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and finally result in the destruction of the leaf4 ,trees are sometimes practically defoliated by this pest1 and this at a time when a good foliage is most needed4 ,inside of the galls eggs are deposited and when the young hatch they burrow in all directions4 ,in ,october the mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again4 ,a strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales1 which is practically the only time when they are vulnerable4 #i4 ,,aphides1 or plant lice1 are of seasonal importance4 ,although nearly always present1 it is only occasionally that they become so numerous as seriously to damage mature apple trees4 ,but they are more often serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched4 ,their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish lice will be found4 ,eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this condition1 hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of the growth of vegetation4 ,from these winter eggs females are hatched which bear living young1 which may also bear living young and so on for several generations until autumn1 when eggs are again deposited for the winter stage4 ,fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous insects hold them more or less in check4 ,because of the difficulty of getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly work they are extremely hard to control4 ,lime and sulphur when the trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact with4 ,a tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the growing season4 ,the trees must be closely watched and if the lice appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or serious damage is likely to result4 ,these are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has to combat1 but they are usually the most important4 ,canker worm and tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards1 but they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as they appear4 ,the same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating worms4 ,apple tree borers are frequently serious1 especially in young orchards1 where the trees should be regularly grubbed and the borers dug out or killed with a piece of wire4 ,they may be prevented to some extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or some gas tar preparation4 ,,diseases4--,although not as numerous as insects1 the diseases which attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to control4 ,they are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil4 ,if either of these works within the plant1 as is sometimes the case1 it must be attacked before it enters4 ,it is very necessary to be thorough in order to control these diseases4 ,weather conditions influence nearly all of them materially4 ,of those which attack the apple tree or fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most necessary for the grower to combat1 namely1 7#a7 apple scab1 7#b7 ,new ,york apple tree canker1 and 7#c7 fire blight4 ,to these should be added in the ,south and middle latitudes1 sooty blotch and bitter rot4 ,baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and localities4 7#a7 ,,the ,,apple ,,scab1 commonly known among growers as the fungus1 is the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on the fruit1 although it attacks the leaves as well4 ,in some seasons the fruit is made almost unsalable4 ,this disease lives through the winter on old leaves4 ,in the spring about blossoming time the spores are scattered by the wind and other agencies1 and reaching the tender shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant4 ,their development is greatly dependent on the weather4 ,in a season in which there is little fog or continued damp or humid weather1 they may not develop at all1 but where these conditions are present they frequently become very virulent4 ,spraying will be governed by the weather conditions1 but the mixture must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be effective4 ,the object is to prevent the spores from germinating1 the spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure4 ,the disease most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on the blossoms4 ,two mixtures have been found to control it1 namely1 ,bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur4 ,one or other of these should be applied just before the blossoms open1 just before they fall1 and when necessary two and nine weeks later4 7#b7 ,,new ,,york ,,apple ,,tree ,,canker is usually found mainly on the trunks of old trees1 but it also affects the smaller branches4 ,practically every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker1 and where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree4 ,this fungus is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards4 ,the surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black pimples4 ,it lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to another4 ,as it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in pruning1 these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and oil paint4 ,all diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as observed4 ,the value of spraying for this disease is not definitely known1 but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well cared for orchards4 7#c7 ,,blight appears on apple trees in three forms1 as blossom blight1 as twig blight1 and as blight cankers4 ,it is a bacterial disease which is distributed by flies1 bees1 birds1 etc41 and cannot be controlled by spraying4 ,the bacteria are carried over the winter in cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees1 oozing out in a sticky mass in the spring4 ,these cankers should be cut out with a sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the wound with corrosive sublimate1 one part to one thousand of water4 ,cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms4 ,it is not usually as serious on apples as on pears4 ,some varieties1 like ,alexander1 are more subject to it than others4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,principles ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,spraying ,the spraying of fruit trees in the ,united ,states is of comparatively recent origin1 having been a general commercial practice for less than two decades4 ,it involves the principle of applying with force and in the form of a fine rain or mist1 water in which a poison or a substance which kills by contact is suspended4 ,the first application of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore4 ,pure arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals4 ,our greatest fungicide1 ,bordeaux mixture1 was discovered by accident in #ahhb when it was found to control mildew in ,france4 ,up until about five years ago ,bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as the poison were almost universally used4 ,within the last few years1 however1 there have been developed two substitutes which1 although known and used to some extent for twenty years1 have only recently come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays4 ,these are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide4 ,the necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been pointed out4 ,there is an increasing demand for fine fruit the supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying4 ,in the humid ,east especially the competition of more progressive sections in the ,west is demanding more and better spraying4 ,there is no cure-all in this process4 ,it does not make a tree more fruitful except as it improves its general health1 but it does bring a larger percentage of the fruit to perfection4 ,certain knowledge is fundamental2 the grower must know what he is spraying for1 when and with what to combat it and how to accomplish the desired result most effectively4 ,spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit1 and the best and most successful growers are those most completely insured4 ,it has many general advantages also4 ,it stimulates the grower to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge and skill required4 ,it compels thoroughness4 ,it necessitates spending money1 therefore a return is looked for4 ,to be sure1 it is only one of the operations necessary to success1 but it enables us to grow a quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it4 ,,spray ,,materials are conveniently divided into two classes1 insecticides and fungicides4 ,an insecticide is a poison by which the insect is killed either directly by eating it1 or indirectly by the caustic1 smothering1 or stifling effects resulting from closing its breathing pores4 ,direct poisons are used for insects which eat some part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons4 ,sprays which kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays4 ,arsenical compounds have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat external biting insects4 ,two stomach poisons are commonly used1 namely1 arsenate of lead and paris green1 but the former is rapidly replacing the latter4 ,,arsenate ,,of ,,lead is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar 7acetate7 of lead in water1 but it will not as a rule pay the grower to mix his own material1 as arsenate of lead can be purchased in convenient commercial form at a reasonable price4 ,the preparation on the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms1 one a powder and the other a paste4 ,these are probably about equally good and are readily kept suspended in water4 ,less free arsenic is contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic1 making it safer to use1 especially in heavy applications4 ,arsenate of lead may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or six pounds to fifty gallons of water1 but three pounds is the usual and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which it is efficacious4 ,,paris ,,green is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several reasons4 ,it is a compound of white arsenic1 copper oxide1 and acetic acid4 ,the commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles rapidly1 a serious fault4 ,it is more soluble than arsenate of lead and hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it4 ,moreover1 it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound1 and the arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound4 ,the amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from one-half to three-quarters of a pound4 ,when paris green is used alone as a poison lime should be added4 ,both these arsenicals should be thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are put into the spray tank1 in order to get them in as complete suspension as possible4 ,they may be used in the same mixture with ,bordeaux or lime sulphur4 ,,contact ,,sprays4--,four compounds are used as contact sprays in combating sucking insects1 namely1 lime sulphur1 soaps such as whale oil soap1 kerosene emulsion1 and tobacco extract4 ,of these lime sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best4 ,this preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until they unite1 twenty pounds of quick lime1 fifteen pounds of flower of sulphur1 and fifty gallons of water4 ,although the home made mixture is much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the market1 many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and trouble of preparing the mixture1 although there is nothing difficult about it4 ,this contact spray is used chiefly for the ,san ,jose scale and the blister mite1 and in order to control these must be applied strong on the dormant wood4 ,the strength necessary will vary from one part of the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation1 to from seven to ten parts of water1 according to the density test of the material1 which should be around twenty-eight per cent4 ,beaume 7a scale for measuring the density of a liquid7 for home made1 and thirty-two per cent4 for the commercial mixture4 ,any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as plant lice4 ,the fish oil soaps1 although variable in composition1 are often valuable1 especially the one known in the trade as whale oil soap4 ,this soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two pounds of soap to one gallon of water1 makes a good winter spray for scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to become gelatinous4 ,for a summer contact spray against lice1 one pound of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective4 ,it is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to make and handle4 ,lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray1 but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking insects4 ,kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the scale and plant lice4 ,it is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot water4 ,for dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted with six gallons of water4 ,while this spray is effective it is no more so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to handle4 ,as a summer spray1 however1 it is often necessary4 ,several preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes used4 ,their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not as good4 ,within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf tobacco extract 7nicotine sulphate7 has come into quite common use4 ,it can be purchased commercially under various brand names1 and should be diluted according to its strength1 but usually about one part to fifty of water4 ,it may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in two gallons of water for one-half-hour4 ,objections to it are that it evaporates very quickly1 although it is supposed to be non-volatile1 and that it is expensive1 but it is very convenient to use1 can be readily mixed with other summer sprays1 and is very effective against plant lice and mites4 ,,bordeaux ,,mixture4 ,fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of plant weeds known as fungi4 ,there are three commonly well known and used fungicides1 ,bordeaux mixture1 commercial lime sulphur1 and the self-boiled lime-sulphur4 ,the ,bordeaux mixture is the best all-around fungicide known4 ,it is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate 7blue vitriol or bluestone7 with three or more pounds of fresh burned stone lime in fifty gallons of water4 ,the two compounds should be put together as fruit growers say with water between1 that is each should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed4 ,the best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels1 fifty gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the purpose4 ,place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and suspend it about midway in the barrel of water4 ,in a few hours it will all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time very well4 ,if say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in fifty gallons of water1 each gallon of water will contain one pound of the bluestone1 which makes a very convenient way to measure it4 ,so also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake1 more water being added as required up to fifty gallons4 ,if too much water is added to the lime at the first it will be drowned and its slaking checked4 ,these two stock mixtures1 each gallon containing one pound of the copper sulphate or one pound of the lime1 are then mixed together4 ,it is well to fill the tank about half full of water1 then put in the required amount of the copper sulphate1 and after stirring well add the lime milk4 ,it is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to the leaves well4 ,if one is sure that he has at least as much lime1 or an excess of lime1 it will not be necessary to test the mixture1 but if he is not1 a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of potassium1 obtained at a drug store4 ,a few drops of this mixture will disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate1 that is1 it will be neutralized1 but if it is not1 they will remain a bright purplish red4 ,bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons of water1 but the former is usually sufficient4 ,,lime-,,sulphur4--,the more important fungicides1 the commercial lime sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur1 are practically superseding ,bordeaux as a fungicide1 not because they are necessarily better1 but because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting of the fruit from the use of the ,bordeaux4 ,this is unfortunate as the latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient and pleasant to use4 ,the self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime alone1 and makes a pretty good substitute for the ,bordeaux when it injures foliage or fruit4 ,this preparation of lime and sulphur differs from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter4 ,it may therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength1 there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when the mixture is properly made4 ,equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used1 these being from eight to ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water4 ,the mixture is best prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes4 ,first1 place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or four pounds of lime is usually sufficient4 ,then add the sulphur and enough more water to slake the paste1 keeping it well stirred meanwhile4 ,the violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the mixture in from five to fifteen minutes1 depending on the quality of the lime and how fast it is slaked4 ,just as soon as the violent boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action4 ,if this is not done1 some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the result4 ,this self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it4 ,against the apple scab1 however1 it is not as effective as the boiled wash1 or the commercial preparations4 ,for this disease a strength of from one to thirty to one to forty 7that is about one and one-half gallons of the prepared mixture testing #ca to #cc ,beaume to fifty gallons of water7 of the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective4 ,,spray ,,pumps4--,the application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully as important as the sprays themselves1 for on the right application at the right time depends the efficacy of the spray4 ,for this purpose a considerable amount of special machinery has been devised4 ,lack of space prevents us from going into much detail on this question1 so we must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines and mentioning their accessories4 ,sprays are forced through single1 double or triple acting pumps1 either by hand or power4 ,the three types of power available are traction1 compressed air1 and gasoline1 the last being the most used4 ,steam power is practically obsolete4 ,the knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump1 but it is of no practical use in the mature apple orchard4 ,for small orchards and small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective4 ,the lever type of pump1 where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the operator1 probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect1 because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent4 ,it is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank1 but set on a movable base of its own1 as then it can be used for any one of a number of barrels4 ,such an outfit may be obtained for from twenty-five to forty dollars4 ,it is well to buy a standard make of pump1 preferably from a nearby dealer1 so that repairs may be readily secured4 ,for all orchards up to three or four acres in size1 and for larger orchards where the trees are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height1 this kind of spray rig is the most practicable and advisable1 when the expense is taken into consideration4 ,this applies especially to the general farm4 ,the power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels4 ,there is much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective spray can be supplied by this method4 ,by accumulating considerable pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping every other tree in order to keep up the pressure1 going over the rows twice1 a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which are not too large4 ,the argument for this type of machine1 and it is especially applicable on the general farm1 is that it can be used for other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard1 especially for potatoes and small fruits4 ,it is a comparatively cheap type of power1 particularly when it can be used for several purposes4 ,the compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and cost for a power sprayer4 ,its most economic use is found where orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air or gas right in the orchard4 ,this is of course impracticable on the general farm4 ,therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped to the farm in steel tubes4 ,this often causes delay at critical times and is rather expensive4 ,moreover1 the gas is open to the objection of interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of the sulphur4 ,the gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for the orchard sprayer1 as well as for general use on the farm4 ,many makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble4 ,one and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying1 but most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able to use the engine more for other purposes4 ,the latter power is open to objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight1 as especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig over the soft ground4 ,such an outfit is also rather expensive4 ,standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying cost from #ge4jj to #aej4jj according to horsepower and efficiency4 ,for very large trees1 for mature orchards1 and for all orchards larger than four or five acres1 the gasoline engine is the best source of power for spraying1 particularly where it can be used for other purposes on the farm4 ,a double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable4 ,if there is plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better4 ,the requirements of a good pump are3 sufficient power for the work desired of it2 strong but not too heavy2 fewest possible number of parts consistent with efficiency2 brass parts and valves2 and a good sized air chamber4 ,a number of standard makes of pumps answer these conditions very well4 ,pumps should always be washed out with clean water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts coated with vaseline4 ,never leave water in a pump chamber or in the engine jacket in cold weather4 ,the ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on a wagon1 unless the trees are very high4 ,but for large orchards1 high trees1 and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is desirable to have a special truck for the outfit4 ,the front wheel should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver to make short turns around the trees4 ,a tower is desirable where high old trees are to be sprayed4 ,this should be substantial but as small as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and make it difficult to get close up around the trees4 ,the height of the platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the ground4 ,on steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests should be underslung4 ,in order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances4 ,the best quality1 three to five ply1 is none too good4 ,hose should be three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter1 one inch being too heavy4 ,extension rods are a practical necessity4 ,they should be ten to twelve feet long and made of bamboo lined with brass1 that is1 as light as possible4 ,nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying4 ,there is no best nozzle1 nor one with which all the work can be done4 ,several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle4 ,first of all1 it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so constructed that it will not clog easily4 ,second1 for apple trees it should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as possible4 ,third1 the nature of the spray is very important4 ,insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively coarse driving spray1 but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree4 ,therein lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together4 ,,time ,,of ,,spraying4--,fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate application for each insect and disease1 but they may be treated together to some extent4 ,in most cases expediency demands that the arsenicals be used with the fungicides4 ,many growers are finding the most satisfactory results1 however1 from applying the arsenical spray separately1 just after the blossoms fall1 because of the physical impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the mist spray--together4 ,for most practical purposes on the general farm1 three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four1 sometimes five1 are often advisable4 ,these may be summarized as follows3 #a4 ,with lime-sulphur1 winter strength1 on the dormant wood in early spring4 #b4 ,with lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the blossoms open 7may sometimes be omitted74 #c4 ,with the same 7or ,bordeaux for scab7 just after the blossoms fall4 #d4 ,with the same two or three weeks later4 #e4 ,with arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later 7may sometimes be omitted74 7,in the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary47 #f4 ,with ,bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall4 #g4 ,again with the same about two weeks later4 ,a ,calendar for ,spraying ,apples ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,insects ,nature ,before ,before ,after ,in #b ,in #h ,materials of ,leaf ,flower ,petals to #c to #i to ,injury ,buds ,buds ,fall ,weeks ,weeks ,use ,open ,open ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,codling ,eating x x x ,lead ,moth ,worm ,arsenate or ,par4 ,gr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,san ,jose,sucking x ,lime ,scale ,insect ,sulphur ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,oyster ,sucking x ,lime ,shell ,insect ,sulphur ,scale ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,blister ,leaf x ,lime ,mite ,miner ,sulphur ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,plant ,sucking when seen ,whale ,oil ,louse ,insect ,soap or ,tobacco ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,cigar ,eating x x x ,lead ,case ,insect ,arsenate ,bearer or ,par4 ,gr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,apple ,eating x x destroy fruit ,lead ,maggot ,worm ,arsenate or ,par4 ,gr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bud ,eating x x x ,lead ,moth ,worm ,arsenate or ,par4 ,gr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,curculio ,eating x x ,lead ,worm ,arsenate ,beetle or ,par4 ,gr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,diseases ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,apple ,fungus x x x x if ,lime ,scab necessary ,sulphur or ,bordeaux #c-c4ej ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,new ,york ,fungus x8 cut out ,lime ,apple infections ,sulphur ,tree ,canker ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,leaf ,fungus x x x ,lime ,spot ,sulphur ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,sooty x x x ,bordeaux ,blotch ,mixture and ,lime ,sulphur ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ix ,,harvesting ,,and ,,storing ,apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are picked and shipped green4 ,by green we mean not fully ripe1 not ripe enough to eat out of hand4 ,this is necessary for all fruit which is to be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored4 ,used in this sense green has no reference to color1 but as a matter of fact1 much of our fruit is picked too green1 before it has even reached its full size and is well colored4 ,there is no exact time at which apples must be picked1 but this depends on many factors such as the variety1 the distance to be shipped1 the soil1 the climate1 and various other conditions1 to say nothing of seasonal differences4 ,the time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section will be learned by experience4 ,in general1 apples should be left on the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color4 ,when the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication that it is time to pick4 ,if the fruit is to be sold in the local market or for immediate consumption1 it may be allowed to get riper than would otherwise be the case4 ,with most varieties one picking is sufficient1 but in the case of varieties like the ,wealthy which does not ripen uniformly1 or like the ,twenty ,ounce1 which does not always color evenly1 two or three pickings should be made4 ,two or three pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is desired1 in order to get the ideal size1 color1 and uniformity4 ,,ladders4--,there are two general types of picking ladders1 the rung and the step ladders4 ,for large trees the rung ladders are the best4 ,they may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree4 ,lengths of more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy to handle1 even when made of pine1 which is the best material as it is light and strong for its weight4 ,in very old1 high trees extension rung ladders are sometimes used4 ,they are also useful for interior work but are heavy to handle4 ,rung ladders cost from ten to twenty cents a running foot4 ,step ladders are useful only on young and small trees4 ,the two styles1 the three 7,japanese7 and four legged1 are both quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them4 ,receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel4 ,both baskets and bags are used1 some preferring one and some the other1 and a choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference4 ,there is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in baskets1 but the latter are more convenient in some ways4 ,fruit should never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully4 ,some varieties1 as ,mc,intosh1 show almost every finger mark and literally require handling with gloves4 ,,handling4--,the old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the orchard is a poor one and should not be followed1 as it causes unnecessary handling and bruising4 ,moreover1 fruit should be packed and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible4 ,picking and placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable1 but as the weather at picking time in the ,eastern ,states is frequently quite uncertain1 it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as can be done in the ,west1 where dry air and sunshine prevail4 ,still1 wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several pickers1 the plan of packing directly from the table is best4 ,many growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing shed to be packed later4 ,convenience and expediency must govern the general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan1 often having to do as he can4 ,,packing ,,tables enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he can see better what he is doing1 and to handle the fruit more cheaply and quickly and with less injury4 ,they should be portable so that they can be moved about the orchard4 ,a convenient type has one end mounted on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another4 ,the top of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas1 one tacked firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches of dip and the other laid loosely over it4 ,this plan provides a soft resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas4 ,three feet six inches is about the right width for the table1 and the same sloping to three feet four inches at one end1 is the correct height from the ground4 ,most packers like to have this gradual slope to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end4 ,the length may be anything up to eight or ten feet1 beyond which the table becomes heavy and unmanageable4 ,,barrels4--,the standard apple barrel adopted by the ,national ,apple ,shippers' ,association and made law in ,new ,york ,state has a length of stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of seventeen and one-eighth inches4 ,the outside circumference of the bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is twenty-six inches4 ,it contains one hundred quarts dry measure4 ,the staves are mostly made of elm1 pine1 and red gum1 and the heads principally of pine with some beech and maple4 ,in most apple growing sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their manufacture is a business by itself4 ,only the largest growers set up their own barrels4 ,practically all barrels are purchased knocked down and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up4 ,barrels can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each1 but the cost varies somewhat with the season and the region4 ,apple packages should always present a neat1 clean1 and attractive appearance4 ,never use flour barrels1 soiled or ununiform barrels of any kind4 ,if a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved4 ,a head lining of plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the package4 ,the wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly advisable4 ,the fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of two types of presses1 both of which are good4 ,the lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily changed1 but it is harder to operate4 ,the screw press distributes the pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more powerful4 ,the steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are3 ,first1 see that the middle and closed end hoops are tight1 if necessary1 nailing them and clinching the nails2 second1 mark the head plainly with the grade and variety and the name of the packer or owner2 then place the barrel on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers 7the face end being packed first72 select the facers1 which should be the best representatives of the grade being packed1 and no others1 and place them in two courses in regular order stems down2 with a drop handle basket fill the barrel1 using care not to bruise the fruit1 and jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place2 lastly1 arrange a layer of apples stems up and apply the press1 using a hatchet to get the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops4 ,,the ,,box ,,package is rapidly growing in favor1 especially as a carrier of fancy fruit4 ,there is no standard box the size of which is fixed by law unless it be a box labeled a bushel4 ,but two sizes of boxes are in common use1 both probably being necessary on account of the variation in the size of different varieties4 ,the ,standard box is #aja_/b by #aaa_/b by #ah inches inside measurement and contains #b1agc4e cubic inches 7the lawful stricken bushel is #b1aej4d cubic inches74 ,the ,special box is #aj by #aa by #bj inches inside measurement and contains #b1bjj cubic inches4 ,the bulge when properly made will add about #aej cubic inches more1 making the two boxes hold #b1cbc4e cubic inches and #b1cej cubic inches respectively4 ,spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material4 ,fir is sometimes used1 but is likely to split4 ,pine is good if strong enough4 ,the ends should be of three-quarter-inch material2 the sides of three-eighth-inch1 and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of one-quarter-inch material4 ,there should also be two cleats each for top and bottom4 ,the sides of the box should be nailed with four1 preferably five-penny cement-coated nails1 at each end4 ,the cleats should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them1 going through into the top and bottom4 ,boxes commonly come knocked down or in the flat and are usually put together by the grower4 ,they cost from ten to thirteen cents each in the flat4 ,there are several kinds of packs1 depending on the size of the apples and the choice of the grower4 ,the diagonal pack with each apple resting over the spaces between others is preferable1 but on account of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes4 ,the offset pack1 first three 7or four7 on one side and then on the other1 is very much like the diagonal1 but not much used on account of its accommodating too few apples in a box4 ,the following table gives the packs1 number of rows1 number of apples in the row1 box to use1 and number of apples used to the box1 as used at ,hood ,river1 ,oregon3 ,no4 ,size expressed apples ,no4 in ,no4 apples in layers in ,box per box ,tier ,pack row depth used ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #de #c #c ,st4 #e-e #c ,standard #ed #c #c ,st4 #f-f #c ,special #fc #c #c ,st4 #g-g #c ,special #fd #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #d-d #d ,standard #gb #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #d-e #d ,standard #hj #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #e-e #d ,standard #hh #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #e-f #d ,standard #if #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #f-f #d ,special #ajd #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #f-g #d ,special #aab #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #g-g #d ,special #abj #ca_/b #b-b ,diag4 #g-h #d ,special #abh #d #d ,st4 #h-h #d ,special #add #d #d ,st4 #i-i #d ,special #aej #da_/b #c-b ,diag4 #f-f #e ,standard #afc #da_/b #c-b ,diag4 #f-g #e ,standard #age #da_/b #c-b ,diag4 #g-g #e ,standard #ahe #da_/d #c-b ,diag4 #g-h #e ,special #bjj #da_/b #c-b ,diag4 #h-h #e ,special ,it is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes4 ,for this purpose a heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes1 #h by #aj and #aj by #aj1 according to the size of the apple1 is used4 ,a lining paper #ah by #bd in size and white news in grade is first placed in the box4 ,between the layers of apples a colored tagboard paper1 size #aga_/d by #aa or #bj by #ic_/d1 according to the box used1 is laid so as to make the layers come out right at the top4 ,in packing the box is inclined toward the packer for convenience in placing the fruit4 ,after laying in the lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place4 ,as an aid to picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber finger is used on the forefinger4 ,when the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends1 in order to give a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly in place without bruising4 ,there has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is the better package for apples4 ,this is needless1 for as a matter of fact each is best for its own particular purpose4 ,the barrel is best adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade wanted them4 ,the barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in size and shape than does the box1 and these can be more easily and cheaply handled in packing4 ,on the other hand1 the box is the ideal package for small amounts of fancy fruit1 to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade4 ,it presents a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to handle1 as well as one which is more open to inspection4 ,it already has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel4 ,as a fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm orchard with high-class varieties like the ,northern ,spy1 ,mc,intosh1 and others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel4 ,,storage4--,car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are comparatively modern developments4 ,few persons who have not been affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had upon the fruit1 and particularly the apple industry4 ,apples could not be shipped any very great distance4 ,crops had to be marketed immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and the fruit became almost valueless4 ,the first hot spell would demoralize the trade altogether4 ,then later in the season the supply would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks before there had been a feast4 ,under such conditions it is not surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger markets4 ,the coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much wider area4 ,refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the export trade4 ,cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding over the surplus of fruit1 thus relieving fall gluts in the market and providing a winter supply of apples4 ,these conditions created a more stable market with more uniform prices1 extending the business from a side issue to one of chief importance4 ,marketing has become almost a business by itself1 inducing the formation of growers' associations and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission men4 ,these conditions1 too1 have led to speculation4 ,two kinds of storage are used1 common or cellar storage and cold storage4 ,both are about equally available1 but the latter is too expensive for the small grower4 ,there is always a question as to the advisability of the small grower storing his fruit4 ,storage means a degree of speculation4 ,a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush1 especially when the bird is a good one4 ,so far as rules can be laid down1 the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind3 ,it is safest to store apples when they are of the highest quality2 in a season most unfavorable to common storage2 when the fewest are being stored2 when the price in the fall is medium to low1 never when high2 and when one can afford to lose the whole crop4 ,successful storage requires several things3 good fruit1 stored immediately after picking1 careful sorting and handling1 subsequent rest1 and a reasonable control of the temperature4 ,the functions of storage are to arrest ripening1 retard the development of disease1 and furnish a uniform1 cold temperature4 ,storage of apples does not remedy over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased1 bruised1 or partly rotted fruit4 ,there are three general methods of storage3 7#a7 by ventilation1 7#b7 by the use of ice and 7#c7 by mechanical means4 ,cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm storage4 ,it requires that there be perfect insulation against outside temperature changes1 adequate ventilation1 and careful watching of temperatures4 ,to provide for good insulation a dead air space is necessary4 ,this can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards with one or two layers of building paper inside and out1 over a framework of two-by-fours4 ,over the building paper tight1 well matched siding should be laid also inside and out4 ,two of the dead air spaces will make insulation doubly sure4 ,to provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at the bottom1 and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room4 ,these should serve all parts of the room1 one being necessary for this purpose every twelve to sixteen feet4 ,do not depend too much on windows4 ,warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to twelve feet long4 ,the attention to such a house is most important4 ,keep it closed tightly early in the fall with blinded windows4 ,when nights get cool open the doors and windows to let in cold air1 closing them again during the day4 ,on hot days close the ventilators also4 ,in this way a temperature of #cf to #dj degrees ,fahr4 can be secured in early fall and one of #cb to #cc degrees ,fahr4 later4 ,this is probably the cheapest as well as the most practical method of farm storage4 ,ice storage is quite practical in the ,north1 but more expensive4 ,the principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit1 allowing the cold air to flow down the sides of the room4 ,a shaft in the middle of the room will serve to remove the warm air4 ,this method is open to the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit4 ,moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable4 ,mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for individual growers1 as it costs from #a4ej to #b4jj a barrel of capacity to construct such a storage4 ,rents of this kind of storage range from #aj to #be cents a barrel per month1 or #be to #ej cents a barrel for the season of from four to six months4 ,,chapter ,x ,,markets ,,and ,,marketing ,having produced a good product1 there remains the problem of making a profitable and satisfactory disposition of it4 ,in many ways marketing is the measure of successful fruit growing4 ,of what use is it to prune well1 cultivate well1 spray thoroughly1 or even pack well the finest kind of product1 if after the expense of these operations is paid and the railroad and commission agents have had their share1 no profit remains to the producer8 ,many growers find it easier to produce good fruit than to market it at a good price1 and this is especially true of the general farmer4 ,failure to market well spells failure in the business of fruit growing4 ,successful marketing presupposes a knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality1 varieties1 and supply demanded in those markets4 ,methods of distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of marketing4 ,,types ,,of ,,markets4--,there are two general types of markets1 the local1 which is a special market and the general or wholesale market1 both of which have different but definite requirements4 ,the local market handles fruit in small quantities1 but usually with a larger margin of profit per unit to the producer4 ,as a rule delivery is direct in a local market1 and thus commissions are saved4 ,competition is also more or less limited to one's neighbors4 ,more varieties1 including less well known ones1 are called for4 ,appearance does not count for as much as quality1 which is of first importance4 ,fruit may be riper as it is consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling4 ,packages are usually returned to the grower4 ,special markets are often willing to pay extra for fruit out of season1 and they always require special study and adaptation to meet their needs4 ,the general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities1 usually with a smaller margin of profit4 ,a selling agent or commission man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market1 where competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world4 ,only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale4 ,great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to quality4 ,fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a standard package1 which is not returned1 but goes with the fruit1 and must be packed so as to endure rough treatment4 ,out of season fruit is not in demand1 but even the general market sometimes has special preferences4 ,almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to pay a larger price than other markets4 ,just as ,boston wants a brown egg and ,new ,york a white one1 so these and other cities have their favorite varieties of apples4 ,some markets prefer a red apple1 others a green one1 although the former is most generally popular4 ,in the mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green apples1 or seconds1 because they are cheaper4 ,many second-class hotels prefer small apples1 if they are well colored1 as they go farther4 ,the fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the markets for large1 perfect1 and highly colored specimens4 ,housewives demand cooking apples like ,greenings1 hotels want a good out-of-hand apple like the ,mc,intosh1 while private families have their own special favorites4 ,as will readily be seen1 the producer's problem is to find the special market for what he grows4 ,it has been said that different markets have special varietal preferences1 paying a better price for these than do other markets for the same quality4 ,we can only take the space here to point out a few of these preferences4 ,the ,baldwin is by all odds our best general market and export variety4 ,it is the workingman's apple and finds its best sale in our largest cities1 particularly in ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,the ,rhode ,island ,greening is a better seller in the northern markets than it is in the southern1 finding its best sale in ,boston and in ,new ,york4 ,the ,northern ,spy is highly regarded by all our large northern and eastern markets1 is fairly well liked by the middle latitude markets1 but not popular south of ,baltimore and ,pittsburgh or west of ,milwaukee4 ,central western markets appear to prefer the ,hubbardson1 but this apple is fairly good in all markets4 ,king is well thought of nearly everywhere4 ,ben ,davis is a favorite in the ,south1 ,new ,orleans especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality4 ,jonathan has a good reputation everywhere4 ,dutchess of ,oldenburg is regarded as excellent in ,buffalo and ,chicago4 ,wealthy1 although generally a local market apple1 is well known and liked in all markets4 ,twenty ,ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere4 ,the ,fameuse is not well liked in the ,south1 but popular in the ,north1 etc4 ,these particular facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by observation of the market quotations4 ,,the ,,commission ,,man4--,the present system of marketing fruit products makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market4 ,neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the consumer or even to the retailer1 except in a very limited way4 ,it may be impracticable to devise any other workable system1 but it must be remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so1 and this pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the buyer's price4 ,but so long as present conditions of marketing and distribution prevail1 so long will a selling agent in the general market be necessary1 and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting against it4 ,an unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are dishonest4 ,this is not true1 although undoubtedly there are many scoundrels among them1 as they have shippers almost completely at their mercy4 ,the best method under our present system is to choose an honest commission man in the city where you sell1 to get acquainted with him1 to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so long as he treats you fairly1 and then supply him with as good quality of stuff as you can produce4 ,this plan has worked out well with many successful growers and marketers4 ,perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding good markets is that of proper distribution4 ,as has been pointed out in the previous chapter1 there has been a great increase in the production of apples and hence in competition1 accompanied by speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business4 ,a necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum cost1 as well as for finding the best market for that product4 ,in the rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are acting in the same way or that there is a future4 ,the result is the piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations1 and a subsequent drop in the price4 ,then all turn from such a market to a better one with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or even days before there had been a feast4 ,thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can possibly dispose of at the time1 while another1 perhaps equally good1 goes begging4 ,such conditions are ruinous to trade4 ,growers are disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man4 ,consumers are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the price high4 ,other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of the grades1 the packages1 or the fruit itself4 ,there should be a clear definition of just what firsts and seconds are and this definition rigidly adhered to4 ,transportation is too frequently insufficient1 not rapid enough1 especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small lots1 and usually at a too high rate4 ,there are undoubtedly too many middlemen between producer and consumer4 ,growers sell to local dealers who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end4 ,these sell to wholesalers at the consuming end1 who may sell to jobbers1 who sell to retailers4 ,each man must have his profits1 all of which greatly increases costs4 ,,co-,,operation4--,individuals have practically no power to remedy such a state of affairs4 ,so long as producers act independently they will have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to better such market conditions4 ,acting together as a unit growers have accomplished great things which can be repeated4 ,the co-operative principle has been well tried out in ,california1 where it was first put into operation with citrous fruits1 in several other ,western ,states with apples1 and in ,michigan and the ,province of ,ontario4 ,co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand and take steps to adapt their shipments to it4 ,they standardize the grade1 the package1 and the fruit1 and govern their shipments to given markets by the needs and the demands of those markets4 ,their unity of effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies1 such as packages1 spraying material1 fertilizers1 etc41 and in obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market conditions4 ,they also advertise their products1 making them better known1 creating a demand for them1 and by means of correspondence or traveling agents seek out the best markets4 ,there are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide sections of country4 ,but the local associations are the vital units in any co-operative movement4 ,such associations should be incorporated under ,state laws so that they can do all sorts of business when necessary4 ,six simple objects should be kept in mind1 namely1 7#a7 to prevent unnecessary competition1 and to supervise and control distribution of products2 7#b7 to provide for uniformity in the grade1 package1 and fruit2 7#c7 to build up a high standard of excellence and to create a demand for it2 7#d7 to economize in buying supplies and selling products2 7#e7 to promote education regarding all phases of the fruit business2 and 7#f7 when necessary to act as a buying and selling agent for the community4 ,such an association requires a board of directors1 a treasurer1 and an active and well-paid manager4 ,the latter is most important1 as upon his honesty1 ability1 and energy will largely depend the success or failure of the organization4 ,sometimes where fruit is packed in a central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee1 a foreman packer is also necessary4 ,the capitalization required for such an enterprise is not necessarily large1 unless warehouses or packing houses are built4 ,these are usually better rented until the organization becomes well established4 ,the shares should be small so that every member may be financially well represented1 and members should be prohibited from holding more than a small percentage of the total shares1 in order to prevent possible monopoly4 ,dividends on stock held should only be expected from business done outside the association membership1 interest on money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at cost4 ,receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in1 and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which they contribute1 prices for the same grade being pooled4 ,the charge to growers for handling should be actual cost1 but outsiders' products should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come into the association4 ,the same method should be followed in purchasing supplies4 ,the general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a better product for his money and the grower receives a better price for his product4 ,it is very essential to the success of the organization that growers stick together1 even through low prices and discouragement which so often come1 until they are firmly established4 ,substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and handling in market4 ,if a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in this thorough and businesslike way1 it will be advantageous and a step in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing4 ,this method has also been followed with success4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,some ,,hints ,,on ,,renovating ,,old ,,orchards ,nearly every general farm in the humid part of the ,united ,states has its small1 old apple orchard4 ,for the most part these orchards were planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular fruit4 ,in fact1 but few orchards have been planted on a commercial scale with a view of selling the fruit1 until recently and outside of a few sections4 ,therefore1 as a rule we find these old farm orchards to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred trees4 ,these trees are usually good standard varieties which have been the source of much apple sass1 many an apple pie1 and many a barrel of cider-vinegar4 ,not having been set for profit1 these trees received little care4 ,orchards were cropped in the regular rotation1 or with hay1 or pastured4 ,farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard management4 ,the orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land1 which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the circumstances1 and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop1 the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed4 ,but conditions have now changed4 ,both local and foreign markets have been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is great4 ,it will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able to do so in any adequate way4 ,it has been shown in ,chapter ,i how heavy has been the falling off in the supply1 even in the face of these heavy plantings4 ,meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm orchards for our supply of apples4 ,just at this particular time the renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to increase the farm income4 ,the question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the ,east4 ,will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees8 ,if so1 what should ,i do to make them profitable8 ,what will it cost and what returns may be expected8 ,the latter question will be taken up in the following chapter1 but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it may pay to renovate an old orchard1 as well as those under which it may not pay1 and also how to go about the problem4 ,,necessary ,,qualities4--,an apple orchard must have certain qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and money necessary to accomplish the desired results4 ,these we may take up briefly under five heads3 7#a7 varieties1 7#b7 age1 7#c7 number or stand of trees1 7#d7 vigor and health of the trees1 and 7#e7 soil1 site1 and location4 ,the discussion of these subjects in ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii has equal application here1 but we may perhaps point out their specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected farm orchard4 7#a7 ,varieties should be desirable sorts4 ,if they are the best standard market varieties1 as is often the case1 so much the better4 ,otherwise little is gained by improving the tree and fruit4 ,poor or unknown varieties have little or no market value1 except perhaps a very local one4 ,if the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous1 poor varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better varieties4 ,characteristics which may make1 a variety undesirable are3 inferior quality2 unattractiveness in color1 shape1 or size2 lack of hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit2 low yield2 or being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand4 ,summer varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a nearby local market4 7#b7 ,vigor is more important than age in the tree1 but is closely correlated with it4 ,ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate a tree more than forty or fifty years old1 but this must always depend almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics4 7#c7 ,in order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work which means expense1 there must be enough of the orchard to justify the expenditure of the time and money4 ,this affects the results not only in expense1 but in economy in management1 equipment1 and marketing4 ,there should be at least an acre of say thirty trees1 and better1 more than that number to justify the expense of time and money necessary for renovation4 ,one hundred trees would certainly justify it1 other conditions being favorable4 ,then1 too1 the trees should be in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great trouble and expense1 i4e41 not too scattered or isolated or in the midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops4 7#d7 ,vigor and good general health are of great importance4 ,many old trees are too far gone with neglect1 having been too long starved or having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort for their rehabilitation worth while4 ,good vigor1 even though it be dormant1 is absolutely essential4 ,disease weakens the tree1 making the expense of renovation greater4 ,moreover1 all diseased branches must be removed1 requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the tree4 ,disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make stimulation practically impossible4 ,such matters should be carefully looked into before attempting renovation4 7#e7 ,if the soil1 site1 and location are all unfavorable or even if two of these are not good1 time and money are likely to be wasted on renovation4 ,what constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects has already been pointed out in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,practically the same principles of pruning1 cultivation1 fertilization and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any other orchard4 ,it may be well1 however1 to restate these1 briefly pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary4 ,the steps to be taken are four3 7#a7 pruning1 7#b7 fertilizing1 7#c7 cultivating1 and 7#d7 spraying4 7#a7 ,,pruning4--,old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a large amount of dead wood in them4 ,this may be removed at any time of the year1 but fall and winter are good times to begin the work4 ,if the trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the middle of the trees is not well filled out1 the trees should be headed back rather severely4 ,such trees may safely have their highest limbs cut back from five to ten feet4 ,it is best not to remove too many branches in one year1 but to spread severe cutting back over at least two years1 as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes an excessive growth of suckers4 ,each limb should be cut back to a rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the growth of the upright one4 ,the effect of such heading back will be to stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or less suckers4 ,the following year the best of these suckers should be selected at proper points about the tree1 headed in so as to develop their lateral buds1 and encouraged by the removal of all other suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired4 ,all such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring4 7#b7 ,,fertilizing4--,at some time during the late fall or winter twelve to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each acre1 scattering it well out under the ends of the branches4 ,this will amount to a load to from three to five trees4 ,in case manure is not available1 or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick results are wanted #ajj to #bjj pounds of nitrate of soda1 #cjj to #ejj pounds of acid phosphate1 and #aej to #bjj pounds of sulphate or muriate of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in spring1 as soon as growth starts1 and thoroughly worked into the soil4 ,this will give the trees an abundance of available plant food1 which is usually badly needed1 and help to stimulate them to a vigorous growth4 ,such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard4 7#c7 ,,cultivating4--,if the orchard has been in sod for a number of years1 as is often the case1 it is usually best to plow it in the fall about four inches deep1 just deep enough to turn under the sod4 ,by so doing a large number of roots will probably be broken1 but such injury will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next season4 ,it is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of this plowed ground early in the winter4 ,fall plowing gives a better opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of the elements the soil1 which is usually stale and inactive after lying so long unturned4 ,in the spring the regular treatment with springtooth and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in ,chapter ,v4 7#d7 ,,spraying in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to emphasize the first spray1 the dormant one1 winter strength on the wood4 ,this is the most important spray for a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied4 ,it is a sort of cleaning-up spray for scale1 fungus1 and insects which winter on the bark4 ,in orchards where the ,san ,jose scale is bad a strong lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up4 ,it is usually a pretty good plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough1 shaggy bark extends1 destroying the scrapings4 ,for this purpose an old and dull hoe does very well4 ,this treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying them and their winter quarters4 ,,patching ,,old ,,trees4--,a few suggestions on patching up the weak places in an old tree may not be entirely out of place4 ,the question is often asked1 will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old trees8 ,if the tree is otherwise desirable to save1 it usually will4 ,scrape out all the dead and rotten material1 cleaning down to the sound heart wood4 ,then fill up the cavity with a rough cement1 being careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth1 sloping surface so as to drain away all moisture4 ,this treatment will probably prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical support4 ,trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts4 ,where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them with wide1 strong washers at the ends is very effective in strengthening the tree4 ,where limbs must be braced from one side of the tree across to the other wires are the best to use4 ,they may be fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside hooks on the inside1 or by passing the wire around the branches4 ,in the latter case some wide1 fairly rigid material such as tin1 pieces of wood1 or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the limb4 ,,cost4--,for the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the probable cost of renovating old apple orchards1 the following estimate made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject is given4 ,this estimate has been carefully made up from actual records kept on several ,new ,york farms4 ,because these costs are very variable according to the condition of the orchard1 both maximum and minimum amounts are given per acre for the first year only4 ,minimum ,maximum cost cost ,plowing #b4jj #c4jj ,manure1 #aj to #bj loads at #a1 or their equivalent in commercial fertilizer #aj4jj #bj4jj ,hauling manure #e4jj #aj4jj ,pruning and hauling brush #e4jj #aj4jj ,disking or harrowing twice #a4jj #a4ej ,disking or harrowing #c;d or #dth time 4#ej #a4jj ,cultivating two to four times 4#ej #a4jj ,spraying once with ,l4,s4 dilution #a to #i--material #b4jj #d4jj ,spraying once1 ,l4,s41 labor #a4jj #a4ej ,spraying second time with ,l4,s4 dilution #a to #dj1 labor and material #a4ej #b4ej ,spraying third time with same #a4ej #b4ej ------ ------ ,total cost #cj4jj #eg4jj ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,growing ,,apples ,two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm1 and they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come4 ,these are the comparatively large investment required and the necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be obtained4 ,farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long for returns have been wise4 ,others who1 though lacking the necessary capital1 still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the importance of capital in the business both for the original investment and to carry the enterprise4 ,and yet with sufficient capital and the proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of agriculture than fruit growing4 ,who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age8 ,or what it costs to produce a barrel of apples8 ,we venture to say that very few persons do4 ,because of the large investment both in fixed and in working capital it is most important to know these costs4 ,moreover an accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any business is of first importance to intelligent management4 ,for these reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment4 ,as farming becomes more intensive competition increases1 costs multiply1 and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller4 ,it therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on the cost of production4 ,,factors ,,in ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,production4--,the value of records depends on their accuracy and on their completeness4 ,there are a great many factors which enter into the cost of production4 ,for convenience these may be classified as cash costs and labor costs4 ,labor charges should include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their actual cost or by a careful estimate4 ,man labor costs are easily reckoned1 as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and certain privileges1 the value of which should be estimated in cash4 ,the value of horse labor is more difficult to determine4 ,it is made up of interest on valuation1 depreciation1 stable rental1 feed1 care1 etc4 ,a fair estimate of this cost is #aj a month or #abj a year for a horse4 ,cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment in machinery1 etc41 or rental of the same1 taxes1 a proper share of the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings1 telephone1 etc41 the cost of spraying material1 packages1 fertilizers1 etc4 ,there are many ways of keeping such a record4 ,any method which accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good one4 ,it will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day book1 entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later distribution to the proper field or crop1 and also to keep a diary of all labor4 ,any form of diary will answer the purpose1 but one which has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate the crop or field worked upon1 and the number of hours worked is more convenient and therefore more desirable4 ,,an ,,example4--,for a number of years the author has kept such records on his farm in western ,new ,york4 ,as an illustration of the method and in order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that practically everyone of the above mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard is managed and that these figures are not an average but one average and on one farm4 ,true averages are arrived at only by bringing together a large number of figures4 ,in any case1 the question of cost is essentially an individual problem on every farm4 ,these figures are of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm under its own special conditions4 ,the orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the spring of #aijc1 and the records begin with that year and end with #aiaj1 covering a period of eight years in all4 ,throughout this period other crops have been grown between the tree rows1 thereby offsetting to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard4 ,forty trees at the north end of the orchard are pears1 but they have received substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected the cost4 ,in #aijd1 #baa plum trees were set as fillers one way4 ,the apple trees were set #cf by #cf feet apart1 so that1 filled one way1 the trees stand #ah by #cf feet apart4 ,the orchard is ten rows wide and forty-seven long1 containing in all #dfg trees4 ,,bringing ,,to ,,bearing ,,age4--,the first of the following tables is given as a sample of one year's records1 that of #aijg1 on this orchard in order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what the items amounted to in one year3 ,,field ,a--#aijg4 ,,fifth ,,year ,total ,hours ,cost ,cost hours ,total per acre per per ,operation ,man ,horse cost ,man ,horse acre #ajj ,mulching #c #f #a4je 4#dee 4#ia #j4af #j4bb ,pruning #aa 444 #a4fe #a4fg 444 4#be 4#ce ,cultivating #a #g #g #a4ge #a4jf #a4jf 4#bf 4#ch ,cultivating #b #aj #aj #b4ej #a4ea #a4ea 4#ch 4#ed ,cultivating #c #f #f #a4ej 4#ia 4#ia 4#bc 4#cb ,plowing in fall #dg #id #af4de #g4ab #ad4be #b4ej #c4eb ,banking trees #ab 444 #a4hj #a4hb 444 4#bg 4#ci ,harrowing #ba #db #g4ce #c4ah #f4cf #a4aa #a4eh --- --- ------ ----- ----- ----- ----- ,total lab4 cost4 #aag #afe #cd4je #ag4gc #be4jj #e4af #g4cj #d loads manure at #a4ej #f4jj 4#ia #a4bi ,equipment charge #a4ae 4#agd 4#be ,taxes #e4bi 4#hja #a4ac ,interest #ch4dh #e4hc #h4bc ------ ------- ------ ,total cost #hd4ig #ab4hge #ah4bj ,,income1 ,,cost ,,and ,,profit ,,on ,,beans--,,field ,a--#aijg ,income ,cost ,profit #ge bushels at #a4ej #aab4ej #ca_/b tons pods at #f #ba4jj #acc4fe #id4ej #ch4he ,,loss ,,on ,,field ,a--#aijg ,total ,per acre ,net income from beans #ch4he #e4hi ,cost of orchard #hd4ig #ab4hg ------ ------ ,loss #df4ab #f4ih ,a summary of the cost of the orchard1 the net income from the crop1 the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the eight years follows3 ,,summary ,,of ,,costs ,,for ,,eight ,,years1 ,,field ,a ,net ,income ,crop income from ,cost of #f4f acres ,year grown from crop orchard orchard ,profit ,loss #aijc ,corn #ae4ag 444 #aji4hg 444 #id4gj #aijd ,beans #db4eg 444 #baf4af 444 #agc4ei #aije ,beans #dc4ac 444 #hc4gh 444 #dj4fe #aijf ,beans #abj4ij 444 #hj4ad #dj4gf 444 #aijg ,beans #ch4he 444 #hd4ig 444 #df4ab #aijh ,corn #cg4fh 444 #fd4bb 444 #bf4ed #aiji ,oats and strawberries #ajj4fa #bg4hh #hd4gc #dc4gf 444 #aiaj ,wheat #fj4gj #ch4fe #if4ce #c4jj 444 ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- ,totals #dei4fa #ff4ec #fbj4bb #hg4eb #cha4fj ,net loss on field for eight years #bid4jh ,average annual loss #ch4gf ,total cost an acre1 exclusive of income #abd4bg ,total cost an acre1 including income #dd4ee ,total net cost a hundred trees #fb4ig ,total net cost an apple tree #a4cg ,total net cost an apple tree1 exclusive of income #c4hj ,total labor cost an acre #ce4ji ,total cash cost an acre #hi4ai ,we find that this orchard has cost #abd4bg an acre during the eight years of its life1 but that the #gi4gb an acre of crops grown in the orchard has brought this cost down to #dd4ee an acre4 ,it is safe to say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not been for the crops1 for many operations charged directly to the crops would of necessity have been charged to the trees4 ,the cost a hundred trees does not mean much1 as it often happens that not all the trees are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly affects these costs4 ,we have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept4 ,this orchard of five acres contains #abf standard apple trees1 filled both ways with #cge peach trees4 ,it was set in the spring of #aijh1 so that the trees have grown four seasons4 ,the permanents 7apples7 are set #cf by #dj feet apart1 so that1 with the peaches between1 the trees stand #ah by #bj feet apart4 ,a crop of beans has been grown between the tree rows each season4 ,the first season a full seven rows1 twenty-eight inches apart1 were planted in the wider space2 the second and third season six rows1 and the last season only four rows4 ,the crop has been very good each year until the last4 ,one application of manure1 one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed under1 and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has been used with each crop4 ,this year the peach trees bore their first crop4 ,the record of the four years is as follows3 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,a ,,four-,,year-,,old ,,apple ,,and ,,peach ,,orchard ,net ,income ,crop income from ,cost of ,year grown from crop orchard orchard ,profit ,loss #aijh ,beans #fc4cg 444 #acj4ab 444 #fb4ge #aiji ,beans #ff4gj 444 #he4jc 444 #ah4cc #aiaj ,beans #gi4ha 444 #hc4ci 444 #c4eh #aiaa ,beans #ec4bj #df4je #fa4ie #cg4cj 444 ------- ------ ------- ------ ------ ,totals #bfg4jh #df4je #cfj4di #cg4cj #hd4ff ,total cost an acre1 exclusive of income #gb4aj ,total cost an acre1 including income #i4dg ,total net cost a hundred trees #d4gc ,total net cost an apple tree 4#cgf ,total net cost an apple tree1 exclusive of income #b4hf ,these figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age4 ,after paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees1 including the interest on the land at #aej an acre1 and deducting the net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us #i4dg an acre1 or #cga_/b cents an apple tree at four years old4 ,had no crop been grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least #fb4hi an acre after deducting the income from the first peach crop4 ,the peach trees are now at full bearing age1 and should show a good profit from this time on4 ,possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this orchard will entirely have paid for itself4 ,the only possible further charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been there4 ,we estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop of beans from the land #cj per cent4 ,as the average net income from beans was #ac4ce an acre this would amount to #d an acre a year--an insignificant sum4 ,,in ,,bearing4--,having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of bringing an orchard to bearing age1 it may be well also to give the cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard4 ,our bearing apple orchard consists of #f4a acres containing #bcd trees4 ,about one-half of the trees1 or #aaj1 are #cf years old4 ,the remainder are nearly #ej years of age4 ,as they are all in one block and handled together1 the charges cannot well be separated4 ,one hundred and thirty-four of the trees are ,baldwins1 #dd ,twenty ,ounce1 #dj ,tompkins ,county ,kings1 and the remainder odd varieties4 ,for the whole period of ten years the orchard has had very good care and attention4 ,a cover crop was not sown every year1 but when it was used the charge was made against the orchard4 ,the manure charge1 omitted because of uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value1 is the only thing lacking in this table4 ,two or three sprayings have been made every year4 ,until #aiji1 ,bordeaux mixture and ,paris green were used1 but since then the commercial brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place1 nearly doubling the cost of the spray material4 ,the average cost of the material for spraying has been #b4ej per acre1 or nearly three and one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested4 ,in #aiaj this cost was #c4ib per acre and seven cents a barrel4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,items ,,of ,,expense ,,in ,,producing ,,apples ,,in ,a ,,six ,,acre ,,orchard ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #e ,cover,spraying int4 ,equip4 ,o'vh'd ,labor ,total ,year crop mat4 ,bar4 on inv4charge charge cost cost ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aijb #f4fd #aag4hhbg4de #be4jj #b4ig #cci4de #eai4ci #aijc #aa4bb #afd4ib #bh4hh #be4jj #b4hh #bdi4ee #dhb4ef #aijd #aj4ej #aji4ij #cj4ej #be4jj #c4ic #ahj4ee #cfj4ch #aije #f4aj #ab4de #hh4hj #cj4ej #be4jj #c4dj #aeh4jf #cbd4ca #aijf #ad4he #aab4ce #cc4jf #be4jj #d4gh #baa4gf #dja4hj #aijg #aj4jj #af4he #gi4hj #ce4ef #be4jj #d4hi #aib4cj #cfd4dj #aijh #i4ge #bje4de #cg4gf #cj4ji #e4ji #bic4ej #ehc4ee #aiji #h4fh #ai4bf #aif4ce #da4ig #ch4ih #e4ia #bhj4gh #eia4ic #aiaj #bc4hi #aaf4ij #de4ge #cb4ci #e4eh #age4bf #cii4gg #aiaa #aj4ej #bg4jh #bjf4ch #de4ge #cb4ci99 #e4ec99 #bge4jj99 #fjb4fc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aj yr4 av4 #ae4be #aci4hg #ce4gc #bh4cg #d4gh #bce4fb #dfc4jg ,av4 per acre #b4ej #bb4ic #e4hf #d4fe 4#gh #ch4fc #ge4ib ,av4 per bbl 4#jcf 4#cbg 4#jhd 4#jff 4#jaa 4#eeb -#a4jh 99 ,partly estimated1 records not yet complete4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,the cost of the package has varied from #bh to #ch cents and has averaged about #cba_/b cents1 or #bb4ic per acre4 ,of course the latter amount varies greatly with the crop4 ,interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent41 but as the price of the land has varied from #ij an acre at the beginning of the period to its present valuation of #afj1jj an acre1 due both to its improvement and to a general increase in the price of land1 the amount of interest has also varied4 ,the same is true of the equipment charge which has steadily increased each year4 ,the average valuation of the land for the ten-year period was #aag4ae an acre4 ,this means an annual interest charge of #e4hf per acre1 or #ha_/b cents a barrel4 ,the equipment charge1 which is interest1 repairs1 and depreciation on the machinery used in the orchard1 amounts to more than #fa_/b cents a barrel1 or #d4fe per acre4 ,taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed per acre for the farm average 4#gh per acre1 or a trifle over one cent per barrel4 ,these costs have also increased in the last few years4 ,labor is the largest single item4 ,for the first four years this was estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years1 for which more careful records were kept4 ,it is computed at its actual cost to us on the farm1 which was #aea_/b cents an hour for men and #aca_/b cents an hour for horses4 ,this amounts to #d4be per day for man and team4 ,the cost of the labor to grow1 pick1 pack1 and market a barrel of apples was #ee cents1 or #ch4fc per acre with an average yield of #gj barrels per acre4 ,to sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten years with an annual crop of #dbg barrels1 or #gj per acre1 on #f4a acres of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows3 spray material1 4#jcf2 packages1 4#cbg2 interest on the land1 4#jhd2 use of equipment1 4#jff2 taxes1 4#jaa2 labor1 4#eeb2 and a total of #a4jh per barrel4 ,if the estimated cost of manure1 six cents a barrel be added1 the total will be #a4ad4 ,as we have said1 these costs per barrel vary with the crop4 ,when our yield was #ajj barrels per acre the cost per barrel was only 4#ii1 but when it was #cd barrels per acre this cost rose to #a4gc per barrel4 ,in #aiaj we grew a crop of #ee barrels per acre for #a4bj per barrel4 ,it may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were on this orchard4 ,for this purpose we give the following table showing the yield1 income1 cost1 and net profit for each of the ten years1 and the average3 ,yield in ,income ,income ,cost ,net ,profit bbls4 bbls4 inc4 culls per bbls4 inc4 culls ,year per ,a4 only and drops bbl4 alone and drops #aijb #ajc #a4if99 #a4df99 4#hc #a4ac 4#fc #aijc #ga #a4ij #b4bc #a4aa 4#gi #a4ab #aijd #ea #a4ff #a4gh #a4ae 4#ea 4#fc #aije #di #b4cj #b4fh #a4aj #a4bj #a4eh #aijf #ec #a4if #b4be #a4be 4#ga #a4cj #aijg #cd #c4di #d4aj #a4gc #a4gf #b4cg #aijh #if #b4jc #b4cb 4#ii #a4jd #a4cc #aiji #ib #c4jj #c4ch #a4jf #a4id #b4cb #aiaj #ee #b4fi #c4jc #a4bj #a4di #a4hc #aiaa #ajj #b4jf #b4cb 4#ii #a4jg #a4cc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #aj yr4 av4 #gj #b4ae #b4dg #a4jh #a4jg #a4ci 99 ,in arriving at these incomes different divisors were used4 ,two hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not used in getting the average income from barrels only1 but were used in getting the average income including culls and drops4 ,partly estimated1 records not yet being complete for the season4 ,,the ,,end ,,outing ,,handbooks ,each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it thoroughly4 ,if you want to know anything about ,airedales an ,,outing ,,handbook gives you all you want4 ,if it's ,apple ,growing1 another ,,outing ,,handbook meets your need4 ,the ,fisherman1 the ,camper1 the ,poultry-raiser1 the ,automobilist1 the ,horseman1 all varieties of outdoor enthusiasts1 will find separate volumes for their separate interests4 ,there is no waste space4 ,the series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each book complete4 ,the authors are experts4 ,each book has been specially prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style1 flexible cloth binding1 selling at the fixed price of seventy cents per copy4 ,two hundred titles are projected4 ,the series covers all phases of outdoor life1 from bee-keeping to big game shooting4 ,among the books now ready are those described on the following pages4 ,,outing ,,publishing ,,company ,,outing ,,magazine ,yachting ,,outing ,,handbooks #ada-ade ,,west #cfth ,,st4 ,,new ,,york #abb ,s4 ,,michigan ,,ave4 ,,chicago ,,the ,,airedale4 ,by ,williams ,haynes4 ,the book opens with a short chapter on the origin and development of the ,airedale1 as a distinctive breed4 ,the author then takes up the problems of type as bearing on the selection of the dog1 breeding1 training and use4 ,the book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier1 who wishes common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or expenditure4 ,chapters are included on the care of the dog in the kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases4 ,a splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of every owner of an ,airedale whether novice or breeder4--,the ,kennel ,review4 ,it ought to be read and studied by every ,airedale owner and admirer4--,howard ,keeler1 ,airedale ,farm ,kennels4 ,,apple ,,growing4 ,by ,m4,c4 ,burritt4 ,mr4 ,burritt takes up the question of the profit in apple growing1 the various kinds best suited to different parts of the country and different conditions of soil1 topography1 and so on4 ,he discusses also the most approved methods of planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected with the cultivation1 fertilization1 and pruning4 ,the book contains chapters on the restoration of old orchards1 the care of the trees1 their protection against various insect-enemies and blight1 and the most approved method of harvesting1 handling and storing the fruit4 ,,the ,,automobile--,its ,selection1 ,care and ,use4 ,by ,robert ,sloss4 ,this is a plain1 practical discussion of the things that every man needs to know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it4 ,the various details of operation and care are given in simple1 intelligent terms4 ,from it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his motor and the art of locating motor trouble1 as well as how to use his car for the greatest pleasure4 ,a chapter is included on building garages4 ,it is the one book dealing with autos1 that gives reliable information4--,the ,grand ,rapids 7,mich47 ,herald4 ,,backwoods ,,surgery ,,and ,,medicine4 ,by ,charles ,s4 ,moody1 ,m4,d4 ,a handy book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill but believes in being on the safe side4 ,common-sense methods for the treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting a broken limb1 reducing a dislocation1 caring for burns1 cuts1 etc4 ,practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended1 as well as the ordinary indications of the most probable ailments4 ,includes a list of the necessary medical and surgical supplies4 ,the manager of a mine in ,nome1 ,alaska1 writes as follows3 ,i have been on the trail for years 7twelve in the ,klondike and ,alaska7 and have always wanted just such a book as ,dr4 ,moody's ,backwoods ,surgery and ,medicine4 ,,camp ,,cookery4 ,by ,horace ,kephart4 ,the less a man carries in his pack1 the more he must carry in his head1 says ,mr4 ,kephart4 ,this book tells what a man should carry in both pack and head4 ,every step is traced--the selection of provisions and utensils1 with the kind and quantity of each1 the preparation of game1 the building of fires the cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or woods1 fields1 or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts4 ,every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience4 ,every recipe has been carefully tested4 ,it is the book for the man who wants to dine well and wholesomely1 but in true wilderness fashion without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits4 ,it is adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all conditions of climate1 season or country2 the best possible companion for one who wants to travel light and live well4 ,the chapter headings tell their own story4 ,provisions--,utensils--,fires--,dressin g and ,keeping ,game and ,fish--,meat--,game--,fish and ,shell ,fish--,cured ,meats1 etc4--,eggs--,bread-stuffs and ,cereals--,vegetables--,soups--,beverage s and ,desserts4 ,scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well as the camper from ,camp ,cookery4--,portland ,oregonian4 ,i am inclined to think that the advice contained in ,mr4 ,kephart's book is to be relied on4 ,i had to stop reading his receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry4--,new ,york ,herald4 ,the most useful and valuable book to the camper yet published4--,grand ,rapids ,herald4 ,camp ,cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent dweller in the country4--,edwin ,markham in the ,san ,francisco ,examiner4 ,,camps ,,and ,,cabins4 ,by ,oliver ,kemp4 ,a working guide for the man who wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the storm or cold4 ,this describes the making of lean-tos1 brush shelters1 snow shelters1 the utilization of the canoe1 and so forth4 ,practically the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe1 and ,mr4 ,kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements4 ,more elaborate camps and log cabins1 also1 are described and detailed plans reproduced4 ,illustrated with drawings by the author4 ,,exercise ,,and ,,health4 ,by ,dr4 ,woods ,hutchinson4 ,dr4 ,hutchinson takes the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most of us is to get enough of the right kind4 ,the greatest error in exercise is not to take enough1 and the greatest danger in athletics is in giving them up4 ,the ,chapter heads are illuminating4 ,errors in ,exercise--,exercise and the ,heart--,muscle ,maketh ,man--,the ,danger of ,stopping ,athletics--,exercise that ,rests4 ,it is written in a direct matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms1 and a strong emphasis on the rational1 all-round manner of living that is best calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or consciousness of body weakness4 ,it contains good physiology as well as good common sense1 written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner1 who has the courage of his convictions and is a master of ,english style4--,d4,a4 ,sargent1 ,m4,d41 ,sargent ,school for ,physical ,education4 ,one of the most readable books ever written on physical exercise4--,luther ,h4 ,gulick1 ,m4,d41 ,department of ,child ,hygiene1 ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,a little book for the busy man written in brilliant style4--,kansas ,city ,star4 ,,the ,,fine ,,art ,,of ,,fishing4 ,by ,samuel ,g4 ,camp4 ,combines the pleasure of catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the most approved manner4 ,the suggestions offered are helpful to beginner and expert anglers4 ,the range of fish and fishing conditions covered is wide and includes such subjects as ,casting ,fine and ,far ,off1 ,strip-,casting for ,bass1 ,fishing ,for ,mountain ,trout and ,autumn ,fishing for ,lake ,trout4 ,the book is pervaded with a spirit of love for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine angler will appreciate4 ,a companion book to ,fishing ,kits and ,equipment4 ,the advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how to use the equipment4 ,will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert fisherman4--,n4,y4 ,sun4 ,a vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every chapter4--,scientific ,american4 ,,fishing ,,kits ,,and ,,equipment4 ,by ,samuel ,g4 ,camp4 ,a complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit4 ,every detail of fishing kit of the freshwater angler is described1 from rodtip to creel and clothing4 ,special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing1 but full instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel1 pike1 muskellunge1 lake-trout1 bass and other fresh-water game fishes4 ,prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method of selecting and testing the various rods1 lines1 leaders1 etc41 is described4 ,a complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit4--,peoria ,herald4 ,the man advised by ,mr4 ,camp will catch his fish4--,seattle ,p4,i4 ,even the seasoned angler will read this hook with profit4--,chicago ,tribune4 ,,the ,,horse--,its ,breeding1 ,care and ,use4 ,by ,david ,buffum4 ,mr4 ,buffum takes up the common1 every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user1 such as feeding1 shoeing1 simple home remedies1 breaking and the cure for various equine vices4 ,an important chapter is that tracing the influx of ,arabian blood into the ,english and ,american horses and its value and limitations4 ,chapters are included on draft-horses1 carriage horses1 and the development of the two-minute trotter4 ,it is distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time4 ,i am recommending it to our students as a useful reference book for both the practical farmer and the student4--,t4 ,r4 ,arkell1 ,animal ,husbandman1 ,n4,h4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is valuable for reference work4--,prof4 ,e4,l4 ,jordon1 ,professor of ,animal ,industry1 ,louisiana ,state ,university4 ,,making ,,and ,,keeping ,,soil4 ,by ,david ,buffum4 ,this deals with the various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops1 common sense tests as to the use of soils1 and also the common sense methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use4 ,,the ,,motor ,,boat--,its ,selection1 ,care and ,use4 ,by ,h4,w4 ,slauson4 ,the intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat best suited to his particular needs1 the power required for the desired speeds1 and the equipment necessary for the varying uses4 ,the care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions1 its care through the winter1 and its efficiency in the summer4 ,,navigation ,,for ,,the ,,amateur4 ,by ,capt4 ,e4,t4 ,morton4 ,a short treatise on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer4 ,it is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a boat anywhere off shore4 ,illustrated with drawings4 ,,outdoor ,,signalling4 ,by ,elbert ,wells4 ,mr4 ,wells has perfected a method of signalling by means of wig-wag1 light1 smoke1 or whistle which is as simple as it is effective4 ,the fundamental principle can be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that of any other code now in use4 ,it permits also the use of cipher and can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather1 light1 or topography4 ,i find it to be the simplest and most practical book on signalling published4--,frank ,h4 ,schrenk1 ,director of ,camp ,belgrade4 ,one of the finest things of the kind ,i have ever seen4 ,i believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system1 and ,i know that we will find it very useful here in our ,boy ,scout work4--,lyman ,g4 ,haskell1 ,physical ,director1 ,y4,m4,c4,a41 ,jacksonville1 ,fla4 ,,practical ,,poultry ,,keeping4 ,by ,r4,b4 ,sando4 ,the chapters outlined in this book are poultry keeping and keepers1 housing and yarding1 fixtures and equipment1 choosing and buying stock1 foods and feeding1 hatching and raising chicks4 ,inbreeding1 caponizing1 etc41 ,what to do at different seasons4 ,the merits of secrets and systems1 ,the truth about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes4 ,poultry parasites and diseases4 ,a complete list of the breeds and subjects is attached4 ,it is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is prone4 ,all the statements are based on the authors own experience and special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration4 ,,profitable ,,breeds ,,of ,,poultry4 ,by ,arthur ,s4 ,wheeler4 ,mr4 ,wheeler has chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as ,rhode ,island ,reds1 ,plymouth ,rocks1 ,wyandottes1 ,mediterraneans1 ,orpingtons1 and ,cornish1 describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each4 ,there are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds1 and so forth1 and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing4 ,,rifles ,,and ,,rifle ,,shooting4 ,by ,charles ,askins4 ,part ,i describes the various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and adaptibility of the various calibers1 the relative merits of lever1 bolt and pump action1 the claims of the automatic1 and so forth4 ,part ,,ii deals with rifle shooting1 giving full instruction for target practice1 snap shooting1 and wing shooting4 ,,scottish ,,and ,,irish ,,terriers4 ,by ,williams ,haynes4 ,this is a companion book to ,the ,airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds1 the standard types1 approved methods of breeding1 kenneling1 training1 care and so forth1 with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary diseases and simple remedies4 ,,sporting ,,firearms4 ,by ,horace ,kephart4 ,this book is devided into two parts1 ,part ,i dealing with the ,rifle and ,part ,,ii with the ,shotgun4 ,mr4 ,kephart goes at some length into the questions of range1 trajectory and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and also has chapters on rifle mechanisms1 sights1 barrels1 and so forth4 ,in the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range1 the effectiveness of various loads1 suitability of the different types of boring1 the testing of the shotguns by pattern1 and so forth4 ,,tracks ,,and ,,tracking4 ,by ,josef ,brunner4 ,after twenty years of patient study and practical experience1 ,mr4 ,brunner can1 from his intimate knowledge1 speak with authority on this subject4 ,tracks and ,tracking shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or bird tracks4 ,it teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise pass unnoticed4 ,it proves how it is possible to tell from the footprints the name1 sex1 speed1 direction1 whether and how wounded1 and many other things about wild animals and birds4 ,all material has been gathered first hand2 the drawings and half-tones from photographs form an important part of the work1 as the author has made faithful pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed4 ,the list is3 ,the ,white-,tailed or ,virginia ,deer--,the ,fan-,tailed ,deer--,the ,mule-,deer--,the ,wapiti or ,elk--,the ,moose--,the ,mountain ,sheep--,the ,antelope--,the ,bear--,the ,cougar--,the ,lynx--,the ,domestic ,cat--,the ,wolf--,the ,coyote--,the ,fox--,the ,jack ,rabbit--,the ,varying ,hare--,the ,cottontail ,rabbit--,the ,squirrel--,the ,marten and the ,black-,footed ,ferret--,the ,otter--,the ,mink--,the ,ermine--,the ,beaver--,the ,badger--,the ,porcupine--,the ,skunk--,feathered ,game--,upland ,birds--,waterfowl--,predatory ,birds--,this book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter4 ,this book studied carefully1 will enable the reader to become as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual experience4--,lewiston ,journal4 ,,wing ,,and ,,trap-,,shooting4 ,by ,charles ,askins4 ,the only practical manual in existance dealing with the modern gun4 ,it contains a full discussion of the various methods1 such as snap-shooting1 swing and half-swing1 discusses the flight of birds with reference to the gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this country4 ,a chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the field4 ,it is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight in hunting can afford to be without this valuable book4--,chamber of ,commerce ,bulletin1 ,portland1 ,ore4 ,this book will prove an invaluable manual to the true sportsman1 whether he be a tyro or expert4--,book ,news ,monthly4 ,its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful reading4--,n4,y4 ,times4 ,,the ,,yachtsman',s ,,handbook4 ,by ,commander ,c4,s4 ,stanworth1 ,u4,s4,n4 and ,others4 ,deals with the practical handling of sail boats1 with some light on the operation of the gasoline motor4 ,it includes such subjects as handling ground tackle1 handling lines and taking soundings1 and use of the lead line2 handling sails1 engine troubles that may be avoided1 care of the gasoline motor and yachting etiquette4 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,typographical errors corrected in text3 ,page #ab3 'together with is long season' replaced with 'together with its long season' ,page #cb3 prunned replaced with pruned ,page #cf3 profiable replaced with profitable ,page #fe3 humous replaced with humus ,page #hb3 'it must be sour' corrected to 'it must not be sour' ,in sentence referring to lime which is used to reduce acidity 7sourness74 ,page #hh3 prsent replaced with present ,page #aje3 tisses replaced with tissues ,page #ajg3 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to 'carried over the winter in cankers' ,page #abf3 ,jose replaced with ,jose ,page #afc3 7table7 ,syraying replaced with ,spraying ,page #afc3 7table7 ,syraping replaced with ,spraying ,page #afd3 ',the factors have always operated to deter' corrected to ',two factors have always operated to deter' ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99