,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,,carpentry ,,for ,,boys ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,typical ,work ,bench4 ,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,,carpentry ,,for ,,boys in simple language1 including chapters on drawing1 laying out work1 designing and architecture ,,with #bej ,,original ,,illustrations ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,zerbe1 ,m4,e4 ,,author ,,of ,,electricity ,,for ,,boys ,,practical ,,mechanics ,,for ,,boys ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics are marked by underscore771 ,bold text is marked by 1 ,small caps have been uppercased4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,contents ,,introductory ,i4 ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,page #e ,knowledge of ,tools4 ,a ,full ,kit of ,tools4 ,the ,hatchet4 ,the ,claw ,hammer4 ,about ,saws--,cross-cut1 ,rip ,saw1 ,back ,saw4 ,planes--,jack ,plane1 ,smoothing ,plane1 ,pore ,plane4 ,gages4 ,chisels--,firmer ,chisel4 ,trusses4 ,saw ,clamps4 ,the ,grindstone4 ,oilstone4 ,miter ,box4 ,the ,work ,bench4 ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,grind ,,and ,,sharpen ,,tools ,page #af ,care of ,tools---,first ,requisites4 ,saws--,how to ,set4 ,saw-set ,errors4 ,saw ,setting ,block4 ,filing4 ,the ,angle of ,filing4 ,filing ,pitch4 ,saw ,clamps4 ,filing ,suggestions4 ,the ,file4 ,using the ,file4 ,the ,grindstone4 ,in the ,use of ,grindstones4 ,correct ,way of ,holding ,tool in ,grinding4 ,care of ,stone4 ,incorrect ,way to ,hold ,tool4 ,way to ,revolve or ,turn ,grindstone4 ,the ,plane4 ,the ,gage4 ,chisels4 ,general ,observations4 ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,hold ,,and ,,handle ,,tools ,page #bi ,on the ,holding of ,tools4 ,the ,saw4 ,how to ,start a ,saw4 ,sawing on a ,line4 ,the ,first ,stroke4 ,the ,starting ,cut for ,cross-cutting4 ,forcing a ,saw4 ,the ,stroke4 ,the ,chinese ,saw4 ,things to ,avoid4 ,the ,plane4 ,angle for ,holding ,planes4 ,errors to be ,avoided4 ,the ,gage4 ,holding the ,gage4 ,the ,draw-knife4 ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,design ,,articles ,page #ci ,fundamentals of ,designing4 ,the ,commercial ,instinct4 ,first ,requirements of ,designing4 ,conventional ,styles4 ,the ,mission ,style4 ,cabinets4 ,harmony of ,parts4 ,harmony of ,wood4 ,v4 ,,how ,,work ,,is ,,laid ,,out ,page #dc ,concrete ,examples of ,work4 ,dimensions4 ,laying ,out a ,table4 ,the ,top4 ,the ,mortises4 ,the ,facing ,boards4 ,the ,tenons4 ,tools ,used4 ,chamfered ,tenons4 ,the ,frame4 ,the ,drawer ,support4 ,the ,table ,frame4 ,the ,top4 ,the ,drawer4 ,how ,any ,structure is ,built ,up4 ,observations ,about ,making a ,box4 ,points4 ,beveling and ,mitering4 ,proper ,terms4 ,picture ,frames4 ,dovetail ,points4 ,box ,points4 ,first ,steps in ,dovetailing4 ,cutting ,out the ,spaces4 ,tools ,used in ,laying ,out ,mortises and ,tenons4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,compass ,,and ,,the ,,square ,page #ei ,the ,compass4 ,determining ,angles4 ,definition of ,degrees4 ,degrees ,without a ,compass4 ,how ,degrees are ,calculated by the ,dividers4 ,,vii4 ,,how ,,the ,,different ,,structural ,,parts ,,are ,,designated ,page #fe ,importance of ,proper ,designation4 ,how to ,explain ,mechanical ,forms4 ,defining ,segment and ,sector4 ,arcade1 ,arch1 ,buttress1 ,flying ,buttress1 ,chamfer1 ,cotter1 ,crenelated1 ,crosses1 ,curb ,roof1 ,cupola1 ,crown ,post1 ,corbels1 ,dormer1 ,dowel1 ,drip1 ,detent1 ,extrados1 ,engrailed1 ,facet1 ,fret1 ,fretwork1 ,frontal1 ,frustrums1 ,fylfot1 ,gambrel ,roof1 ,gargoyle1 ,gudgeon1 ,guilloche4 ,half ,timbered1 ,hammer ,beam1 ,header1 ,hip ,roof1 ,hood ,molding1 ,inclave1 ,interlacing ,arch1 ,inverted1 ,inverted ,arch1 ,key ,stone1 ,king ,post1 ,label1 ,louver1 ,lintel1 ,lug1 ,m-,roof1 ,mansard ,roof1 ,newel1 ,parquetry1 ,peen1 ,pendant1 ,pendastyle1 ,pedestal1 ,plinth1 ,portico1 ,plate1 ,queen ,post1 ,quirk ,molding1 ,re-entering ,angle1 ,rafter1 ,scarfing1 ,scotia ,molding1 ,sill1 ,skewback1 ,spandrel1 ,strut1 ,stud1 ,stile1 ,tie ,beam1 ,timber1 ,trammel1 ,turret1 ,transom1 ,valley ,roof4 ,,viii4 ,,drawing ,,and ,,its ,,utility ,page #gc ,fundamentals in ,drawing4 ,representing ,objects4 ,forming ,lines and ,shadows4 ,analysis of ,lines and ,shadings4 ,how to ,show ,plain ,surfaces4 ,concave ,surfaces4 ,convex ,surfaces4 ,shadows from a ,beam4 ,flat ,effects4 ,the ,direction of ,light4 ,raised ,surfaces4 ,depressed ,surfaces4 ,full ,shading4 ,illustrating ,cube ,shading4 ,shading ,effect4 ,heavy ,lines4 ,perspectives4 ,true ,perspective of a ,cube4 ,isometric ,cube4 ,flattened ,perspective4 ,technical ,designations4 ,sector and ,segment4 ,terms of ,angles4 ,circles and ,curves4 ,irregular ,curves4 ,ellipses and ,ovals4 ,focal ,points4 ,produced ,line4 ,spirals1 ,perpendicular and ,vertical4 ,signs to ,indicate ,measurement4 ,definitions4 ,abscissa4 ,angle4 ,apothegm4 ,apsides or ,apsis4 ,chord4 ,cycloid4 ,conoid4 ,conic ,section4 ,ellipsoid4 ,epicycloid4 ,evolute4 ,flying ,buttress4 ,focus4 ,gnomes4 ,hexagon4 ,hyperbola4 ,hypothenuse4 ,incidental4 ,isosceles4 ,triangle4 ,parabola4 ,parallelogram4 ,pelecoid4 ,polygons4 ,pyramid4 ,rhomb4 ,sector4 ,segment4 ,sinusoid4 ,tangent4 ,tetrahedron4 ,vertex4 ,,ix4 ,,moldings1 ,,with ,,practical ,,illustrations ,,in ,,embellishing ,,work ,page #ic ,moldings4 ,the ,basis of ,moldings4 ,the ,simplest ,moldings4 ,the ,astragal4 ,the ,cavetto4 ,the ,ovolo4 ,the ,torus4 ,the ,apothegm4 ,the ,cymatium4 ,the ,ogee4 ,ogee ,recta4 ,ogee ,reversa4 ,the ,reedy4 ,the ,casement4 ,the ,roman-,doric ,column4 ,lesson from the ,doric ,column4 ,applying ,molding4 ,base4 ,embellishments4 ,straight-faced ,molding4 ,plain ,molding4 ,base4 ,diversified ,uses4 ,shadows ,cast by ,moldings4 ,x4 ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,tenoning1 ,,mortising1 ,,rabbeting ,,and ,,beading ,page #ajd ,where ,mortises ,should be ,used4 ,depth of ,mortises4 ,rule for ,mortises4 ,true ,mortise ,work4 ,steps in ,cutting ,mortises4 ,things to ,avoid in ,mortising4 ,lap-and-,butt ,joints4 ,scarfing4 ,the ,tongue and ,groove4 ,beading4 ,ornamental ,bead ,finish4 ,the ,bead and ,rabbet4 ,shading with ,beads and ,rabbets4 ,,xi4 ,,house ,,building ,page #aac ,house ,building4 ,the ,home and ,embellishments4 ,beauty ,not ,ornamentation4 ,plain ,structures4 ,colonial ,type4 ,the ,roof the ,keynote4 ,bungalow ,types4 ,general ,house ,building4 ,building ,plans4 ,the ,plain ,square-,floor ,plan4 ,the ,rectangular ,plan4 ,room ,measurements4 ,front and ,side ,lines4 ,the ,roof4 ,roof ,pitch4 ,the ,foundation4 ,the ,sills4 ,the ,flooring ,joist4 ,the ,studding4 ,setting ,up4 ,the ,plate4 ,intermediate ,studding4 ,wall ,headers4 ,ceiling ,joist4 ,braces4 ,the ,rafters4 ,the ,gutter4 ,setting ,door and ,window ,frames4 ,plastering and ,finish ,work4 ,,xii4 ,,bridges1 ,,trussed ,,work ,,and ,,like ,,structures ,page #acj ,bridges4 ,self-supporting ,roofs4 ,common ,trusses4 ,the ,vertical ,upright ,truss4 ,the ,warren ,girder4 ,the ,bowstring ,girder4 ,fundamental ,truss ,forms4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,best ,,woods ,,for ,,the ,,beginner ,page #acd ,the ,best ,woods4 ,soft ,woods4 ,hard ,woods4 ,the ,most ,difficult ,woods4 ,the ,hard-ribbed ,grain in ,wood4 ,the ,easiest ,working ,woods4 ,differences in the ,working of ,woods4 ,forcing ,saws in ,wood4 ,,xiv4 ,,wood ,,turning ,page #ach ,advantages of ,wood ,turning4 ,simple ,turning ,lathe4 ,the ,rails4 ,the ,legs4 ,centering ,blocks4 ,the ,tail-stock4 ,the ,tool ,rest4 ,materials4 ,the ,mandrel4 ,fly-wheel4 ,the ,tools ,required4 ,,xv4 ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,stains ,page #adg ,soft ,wood4 ,use of ,stains4 ,stains as ,imitations4 ,good ,taste in ,staining4 ,great ,contrasts ,bad4 ,staining ,contrasting ,woods4 ,hard ,wood ,imitations4 ,natural ,effects4 ,natural ,wood ,stains4 ,polishing ,stained ,surfaces4 ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,carpenter ,,and ,,the ,,architect ,page #aeb ,,xvii4 ,,useful ,,articles ,,to ,,make ,page #aee ,common ,bench4 ,its ,proportions4 ,square ,top ,stool4 ,folding ,blacking ,box4 ,convenient ,easel4 ,hanging ,book-rack4 ,sad ,iron ,holder4 ,bookcase4 ,wood-box4 ,parallel ,bars for ,boys' ,use4 ,mission ,writing ,desk4 ,screen ,frame4 ,mission ,chair4 ,grandfather's ,clock4 ,knockdown and ,adjustable ,bookcase4 ,coal ,scuttle ,frame or ,case4 ,mission ,arm ,chair4 ,dog-house4 ,settle1 ,with ,convenient ,shelves4 ,towel ,rack4 ,sofa ,framework4 ,,xviii4 ,,special ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,page #agj ,bit and ,level ,adjuster4 ,miter ,boxes4 ,swivel ,arm ,uprights4 ,movable ,stops4 ,angle ,dividers4 ,odd ,job ,tool4 ,bit ,braces4 ,ratchet ,mechanism4 ,interlocking ,jaws4 ,steel ,frame ,breast ,drills4 ,horizontal ,boring4 #c-;,jaw ,chuck4 ,planes4 ,rabbeting1 ,beading and ,matching4 ,cutter ,adjustment4 ,depth ,gage4 ,slitting ,gage4 ,dovetail ,tongue and ,groove ,plane4 ,router ,planes4 ,bottom ,surfacing4 ,door ,trim ,plane4 ,,xix4 ,,roofing ,,trusses ,page #ahe ,characteristics of ,trusses4 ,tie ,beams4 ,ornamentation4 ,objects of ,beams1 ,struts and ,braces4 ,utilizing ,space4 ,types of ,structures4 ,gambrel ,roof4 ,purlin ,roof4 ,the ,princess ,truss4 ,arched1 or ,cambered1 ,tie ,beam ,truss4 ,the ,mansard4 ,scissors ,beam4 ,braced ,collar ,beam4 ,rib and ,collar ,truss4 ,hammer-beam ,truss4 ,flying ,buttress4 ,,xx4 ,,on ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,joints ,page #aig ,definition and ,uses4 ,different ,types4 ,bridle ,joint4 ,spur ,tenon4 ,saddle ,joints4 ,joggle ,joint4 ,heel ,joints4 ,stub ,tenon4 ,tusk ,tenon4 ,double ,tusk ,tenon4 ,cogged ,joints4 ,anchor ,joints4 ,deep ,anchor ,joints4 ,,xxi4 ,,some ,,mistakes ,,and ,a ,,little ,,advice ,,in ,,carpentry ,page #bje ,lessons ,from ,mistakes4 ,planing the ,edge of a ,board ,straight4 ,planing it ,square4 ,planing to ,dimensions4 ,holding the ,plane4 ,how it ,should be ,run on the ,edge of the ,board4 ,truing ,with the ,weight of the ,plane4 ,a ,steady ,grasp4 ,in ,smoothing ,boards4 ,correct ,sand-papering4 ,gluing4 ,removing ,surplus ,glue4 ,work ,edge and ,work ,side4 ,the ,scribing and ,marking ,line4 ,finishing ,surfaces4 ,sawing a ,board ,square4 ,the ,stroke of the ,saw4 ,sawing ,out of ,true4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 #a4 ,a typical work bench ,frontispiece ,,page #b4 ,hatchet #f #c4 ,hammer #g #d4 ,common saw #g #e4 ,plane #h #f4 ,jack plane bit #i #f;a4 ,fore plane bit #aj #g4 ,firmer chisel #aa #g;a4 ,mortising chisel #ab #h4 ,trestle #ab #i4 ,miter box #ac #aj4 ,incorrect saw setting #ag #aj;a4 ,correct saw setting #ag #aa4 ,saw setting device #ag #ab4 ,filing angle #ah #ac4 ,rip saw #ai #ad4 ,cross cut #bj #ae4 ,filing clamp #ba #af4 ,grindstone #bc #ag4 ,correct manner of holding tool #bd #ah4 ,incorrect way of holding tool #bd #ai4 ,gage #bf #bj4 ,starting a saw #ca #ba4 ,wrong sawing angle #cb #bb4 ,correct sawing angle #cc #bc4 ,thrust cut #cd #bd4 ,chinese saw #cd #be4 ,moving angle for plane #ce #bf4 ,holding gage #cf #bg4 ,laying out table leg #dc #bh4 ,the first marking line #dd #bi4 ,scribing mortise line #dd #cj4 ,the corner mortises #dd #ca4 ,the side rail #df #cb4 ,scribing the tenons #df #cc4 ,cross scoring #dg #cd4 ,the tenon #dg #ce4 ,finishing the tenon #dg #cf4 ,the tenon and mortise #dh #cg4 ,the drawer support #dh #ch4 ,drawer cleats #di #ci4 ,assembled table frame #ej #dj4 ,the top #ea #da4 ,the drawer #eb #db4 ,bevel joint #ec #dc4 ,miter joint #ec #dd4 ,picture frame joint #ed #de4 ,initial marks for dovetails #ee #df4 ,end marks for dovetails #ee #dg4 ,angles for dovetails #ee #dh4 ,cutting out recesses for dovetails #ef #di4 ,tongues for dovetails #ef #ej4 ,recess for dovetails #ef #ea4 ,determining angles #fa #eb4 ,marking degrees #fc #ec4 ,angles from base lines #fc #ed4 ,stepping off spaces #fc #ee4 ,arcade #fg #ef4 ,arch #fg #eg4 ,buttress #fg #eh4 ,chamfer #fg #ei4 ,cooter #fg #fj4 ,crenelated #fg #fa4 ,crosses #fg #fb4 ,curb roof #fg #fc4 ,cupola #fg #fd4 ,console #fg #fe4 ,corbels #fg #ff4 ,dormer #fg #fg4 ,dowel #fg #fh4 ,drips #fg #fi4 ,detail #fh #gj4 ,extrados #fh #ga4 ,engrailed #fh #gb4 ,facet #fh #gc4 ,fret #fh #gd4 ,frontal #fh #ge4 ,frustrums #fh #gf4 ,fylfat #fh #gg4 ,gambrel #fh #gh4 ,gargoyle #fh #gi4 ,gudgeon #fh #hj4 ,guilloche #fh #ha4 ,half timbered #fh #hb4 ,hammer beam #fh #hc4 ,haunches #fi #hd4 ,header #fi #he4 ,hip roof #fi #hf4 ,hood molding #fi #hg4 ,inclave #fi #hh4 ,interlacing arch #fi #hi4 ,invected #fi #ij4 ,inverted arch #fi #ia4 ,keystone #fi #ib4 ,king post #fi #ic4 ,label #fi #id4 ,louver #fi #ie4 ,lintel #gj #if4 ,lug #gj #ig4 ,m-roof #gj #ih4 ,mansard roof #gj #ii4 ,newel post #gj #ajj4 ,parquetry #gj #aja4 ,peen1 or pein #gj #ajb4 ,pendant #gj #ajc4 ,pentastyle #gj #ajd4 ,pedestal #gj #aje4 ,pintle #gj #ajf4 ,portico #gj #ajg4 ,plate #gj #ajh4 ,queen post #ga #aji4 ,quirk molding #ga #aaj4 ,re-entering #ga #aaa4 ,rafter #ga #aab4 ,scarfing #ga #aac4 ,scotia molding #ga #aad4 ,sill #ga #aae4 ,skew back #ga #aaf4 ,spandrel #ga #aag4 ,strut #ga #aah4 ,stud1 studding #ga #aai4 ,stile #gb #abj4 ,trammel #gb #aba4 ,turret #gb #abb4 ,transom #gb #abc4 ,valley roof #gb #abe4 ,plain line #gd #abf4 ,concave shading #gd #abg4 ,convex shading #gd #abh4 ,wave shading #ge #abi4 ,light past concave surface #ge #acj4 ,light past convex surface #ge #aca4 ,plain surface #ge #acb4 ,outlines #gf #acc4 ,raised surface #gg #acd4 ,depressed surface #gg #ace4 ,shading raised surfaces #gh #acf4 ,shading depressed surfaces #gh #acg4 ,plain cubical outline #gi #ach4 ,indicating cube #gi #aci4 ,confused lines #gi #adj4 ,heavy horizontal lines #hj #ada4 ,heavy vertical lines #hj #adb4 ,isometric cube #ha #adc4 ,cube and circle #ha #add4 ,flattened perspective #hb #ade4 ,angles in isometric cube #hc #adf4 ,plain circle #hd #adg4 ,sphere shading #hd #adh4 ,drawing regular ellipse #hf #adi4 ,drawing irregular ellipse #hh #aej4 ,drawing spiral #hi #aea4 ,abscissa #ij #aeb4 ,angle #ia #aec4 ,apothegm #ia #aed4 ,apsides1 or apsis #ia #aee4 ,chord #ia #aef4 ,convolute #ia #aeg4 ,conic sections #ia #aeh4 ,conoid #ia #aei4 ,cycloid #ia #afj4 ,ellipsoid #ia #afa4 ,epicycloid #ia #afb4 ,evolute #ia #afc4 ,focus #ia #afd4 ,gnome #ia #afe4 ,hyperbola #ia #afg4 ,hypothenuse #ia #afh4 ,incidence #ib #afi4 ,isosceles triangle #ib #agj4 ,parabola #ib #aga4 ,parallelogram #ib #agb4 ,pelecoid #ib #agc4 ,polygons #ib #agd4 ,pyramid #ib #age4 ,quadrant #ib #agf4 ,quadrilateral #ib #agg4 ,rhomb #ib #agh4 ,sector #ib #agi4 ,segment #ib #ahj4 ,sinusoid #ib #aha4 ,tangent #ib #ahb4 ,tetrahedron #ib #ahc4 ,vertex #ib #ahd4 ,volute #ib #ahe4 ,band 7molding7 #id #ahf4 ,astragal 7molding7 #id #ahg4 ,cavetto 7molding7 #id #ahh4 ,ovolo 7molding7 #id #ahi4 ,torus 7molding7 #ie #aij4 ,apophyges 7molding7 #ie #aia4 ,cymatium 7molding7 #ie #aib4 ,ogee-recta 7molding7 #ie #aic4 ,ogee-reversa 7molding7 #if #aid4 ,bead 7molding7 #if #aie4 ,casement 7molding7 #ig #aif4 ,the ,doric column #ih #aig4 ,front of cabinet #ajj #aih4 ,facia board #ajj #aii4 ,molding on facia board #ajj #bjj4 ,ogee-recta on facia #aja #bja4 ,trim below facia #aja #bjb4 ,trim below ogee #aja #bjc4 ,trim above base #ajb #bjd4 ,trim above base molding #ajb #bje4 ,shadows cast by plain moldings #ajc #bjf4 ,mortise and tenon joint #aje #bjg4 ,incorrect mortising #aje #bjh4 ,steps in mortising #ajf #bji4 ,the shoulders of tenons #ajh #baj4 ,lap-and-butt joint #ajh #baa4 ,panel joint #aji #bab4 ,scarfing #aji #bac4 ,tongue and groove #aaj #bad4 ,beading #aaj #bae4 ,outside beading finish #aaj #baf4 ,edge beading #aaa #bag4 ,corner beading #aaa #bah4 ,point beading #aaa #bai4 ,round edge beading #aaa #bbj4 ,beading and molding #aaa #bba4 ,first square house plan #aag #bbb4 ,first rectangular house plan #aah #bbc4 ,square house to scale #aai #bbd4 ,rectangular house to scale #abj #bbe4 ,front elevation of square house #aba #bbf4 ,elevation of rectangular house #aba #bbg4 ,illustrating one-third pitch #abb #bbh4 ,illustrating half pitch #abb #bbi4 ,the sills at the corner #abc #bcj4 ,the joist and sills #abc #bca4 ,the plate splice #abd #bcb4 ,the rafters #abe #bcc4 ,the gutter #abf #bcd4 ,the cornice #abg #bcd;a4 ,the finish without gutter #abh #bce4 ,common truss #acj #bcf4 ,upright truss #aca #bcg4 ,vertical upright truss #aca #bch4 ,warren girder #acb #bci4 ,extended ,warren girder #acb #bdj4 ,bowstring girder #acb #bda4 ,frame details of wood turning lathe #aci #bdb4 ,tail stock details #adj #bdc4 ,tool rest details #adb #bdd4 ,section of mandrel #adc #bde4 ,view of turning lathe #ade #bdf4 ,turning tools #adf #bdg4 ,bench #aee #bdh4 ,stool #aef #bdi4 ,blacking box #aef #bej4 ,easel #aeg #bea4 ,hanging book rack #aeh #beb4 ,book shelf #aei #bec4 ,wood box #afj #bed4 ,horizontal bars #afa #bee4 ,mission desk #afa #bef4 ,screen frame #afb #beg4 ,mission chair #afb #beh4 ,grandfather's clock #afc #bei4 ,frame for bookcase #afd #bfj4 ,coal scuttle case #afe #bfa4 ,mission arm chair #afe #bfb4 ,dog house #afh #bfc4 ,settle #afg #bfd4 ,towel rack #afh #bfe4 ,mission sofa frame #afh #bff4 ,bit and square level #agj #bfg4 ,metal miter box #aga #bfh4 ,parts of metal miter box #agb #bfi4 ,angle dividers #agc #bgj4 ,an odd job tool #agd #bga4 ,universal-jaw brace #agf #bgb4 ,taper-shank bit brace #agf #bgc4 ,alligator-jaw brace #agf #bgd4 ,steel frame breast drill #agg #bge4 ,steel frame breast drill #agg #bgf4 ,steel frame breast drill #agg #bgg4 ,details of metal plane #agi #bgh4 ,rabbet1 matching and dado plane #ahj #bgi4 ,molding and beading plane #aha #bhj4 ,dovetail tongue and groove plane #ahb #bha4 ,router planes #ahc #bhb4 ,router planes #ahc #bhc4 ,door trim plane #ahd #bhd4 ,gambrel roof #ahg #bhe4 ,purlin roof #ahh #bhf4 ,princess truss #ahi #bhg4 ,arched1 or cambered1 tie beam #aij #bhh4 ,the mansard #aia #bhi4 ,scissors beam #aib #bij4 ,braced collar beam #aic #bia4 ,rib and collar truss #aid #bia-a_/b4 ,hammer-beam truss #aie #bib4 ,bridle joints #aig #bic4 ,spur tenons #aih #bid4 ,saddle joints #aih #bie4 ,joggle joints #aii #bif4 ,framing joints #aii #big4 ,heel joints #bjj #bih4 ,stub tenon #bjj #bii4 ,tusk tenon #bja #cjj4 ,double tusk tenon #bjb #cja4 ,cogged joints #bjc #cjb4 ,anchor joint #bjc #cjc4 ,deep anchor joint #bjd ,,carpentry ,a ,,practical ,,course1 ,,which ,,tells ,,in ,,concise ,,and ,,simple ,,form ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,it ,,introductory ,carpentry is the oldest of the arts1 and it has been said that the knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any trade or occupation requiring the use of tools4 ,the hatchet1 the saw1 and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter4 ,the value is in knowing how to use them4 ,the institution of ,manual ,training ,schools everywhere is but a tardy recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools4 ,there is no branch of industry which needs such diversification1 in order to become efficient4 ,the skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge1 to weld1 and to temper2 that of the machinist depends upon the callipered dimensions of his product2 the painter in his taste for harmony2 the mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately2 and the plasterer to produce a uniform surface4 ,but the carpenter must1 in order to be an expert1 combine all these qualifications1 in a greater or less degree1 and his vocation may justly be called the ,king of ,trades4 ,rightly1 therefore1 it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of manual training work4 ,but there is another feature of the utmost importance and value1 which is generally overlooked1 and on which there is placed too little stress1 even in many of the manual training schools4 ,the training of the mind has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all the brain cells4 ,manual training to be efficient should1 at the same time1 be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the muscular development of the child1 while at the same time cultivating his mind4 ,there is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry4 ,it may be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle of the body4 ,the saw1 the plane1 the hammer1 the chisel1 each requires its special muscular energy4 ,the carpenter1 unlike the blacksmith1 does not put all his brawn into his shoulders1 nor develop his torso at the expense of his other muscles1 like the mason4 ,it may also be said that1 unlike most other occupations1 the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor exercise1 so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation1 summer or winter1 rain or shine2 and this also further illustrates the value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation4 ,it is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work2 what tools and materials to use2 and in what manner the tools used may be made most serviceable1 and used most advantageously4 ,it would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is made2 or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and tenons in order to hold it together4 ,the boy must have something as a base which will enable him to design his own creations1 and not be an imitator2 his mind must develop with his body4 ,it is the principal aim of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is learning how to bring each individual part to perfection4 ,if the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each structural device2 that there is a reason for making certain things a definite way1 he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later develop into an initiative of his own4 ,it is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will be merely a machine or an intelligent organism4 ,this work puts together in a simple1 concise form1 not only the fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know1 but it defines every structural form used in this art1 and illustrates all terms it is necessary to use in the employment of carpentry4 ,a full chapter is devoted to drawings practically applied4 ,all terms are diagrammed and defined1 so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved4 ,finally1 it will be observed that every illustration has been specially drawn for this book4 ,we have not adopted the plan usually followed in books of this class1 of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers' tools and devices1 nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of a tool or a machine and then write a description around it4 ,we have illustrated the book to explain how to do the work2 also1 to teach the boy what the trade requires1 and to give him the means whereby he may readily find the form of every device1 tool1 and structure used in the art4 ,,chapter ,i ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,,knowledge ,,of ,,tools4--,a knowledge of tools and their uses is the first and most important requirement4 ,the saw1 the plane1 the hatchet and the hammer are well known to all boys2 but how to use them1 and where to use the different varieties of each kind of tool1 must be learned1 because each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art4 ,these uses will now be explained4 ,a ,,full ,,kit ,,of ,,tools4--,a kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work should embrace the following3 #a4 ,a ,hatchet4 #b4 ,a ,claw ,hammer--two sizes preferred4 #c4 ,cross-cut ,saw1 #bj inches long4 #d4 ,rip ,saw1 #bd inches long4 #e4 ,wooden ,mallet4 #f4 ,jack ,plane4 #g4 ,smoothing ,plane4 #h4 ,compass ,saw4 #i4 ,brace4 #aj4 ,bits for ,brace1 ranging from #a_/d inch to #a inch diameter4 #aa4 ,several small ,gimlets4 #ab4 ,square4 #ac4 ,compass4 #ad4 ,draw-knife4 #ae4 ,rule4 #af4 ,two ,gages4 #ag4 ,set of ,firmer ,chisels4 #ah4 ,two ,mortising ,chisels4 #ai4 ,small ,back ,saw4 #bj4 ,saw ,clamps4 #ba4 ,miter ,box4 #bb4 ,bevel ,square4 #bc4 ,small ,hand ,square4 #bd4 ,pliers4 #be4 ,pair of ,awls4 #bf4 ,hand ,clamps4 #bg4 ,set ,files4 #bh4 ,glue ,pot4 #bi4 ,oil ,stone4 #cj4 ,grindstone4 #ca4 ,trusses4 #cb4 ,work ,bench4 #cc4 ,plumb ,bob4 #cd4 ,spirit ,level4 ,,the ,,hatchet4--,the hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side1 and not on one side only1 as is customary with a plasterer's lathing hatchet1 because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the edges of boards4 ,unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be controlled to cut accurately4 ,a light hatchet is preferable to a heavy one4 ,it should never be used for nailing purposes1 except in emergencies4 ,the pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the hatchet when used for trimming material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,the ,,claw ,,hammer4--,this is the proper tool for driving nails and for drawing them out4 ,habits should be formed with the beginner1 which will be of great service as the education proceeds4 ,one of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for which it was made4 ,the expert workman 7and he becomes expert because of it7 makes the hammer do its proper work2 and so with every other tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,,about ,,saws4--,there are four well-defined kinds4 ,first1 a long1 flat saw1 for cross-cutting4 ,second1 a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes4 ,third1 a back saw1 with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid1 used for making tenons2 and1 fourth1 a compass or keyhole saw4 ,,cross-,,cuts4--,the difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is1 that in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in the cross-cut saw4 ,the illustrations 7,figs4 #ac and #ad7 will distinctly show the difference in the teeth4 ,when a cross-cut saw is used for ripping along the grain of the wood1 the teeth1 if disposed at an angle1 will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood1 and refuse to take hold or bite into the wood4 ,on the other hand1 if the rip saw is used for cross-cutting purposes1 the saw kerf will be rough and jagged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons1 and has uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood4 ,,planes4--,the plane may be called the sthetic tool in the carpenter's kit4 ,it is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory when thoroughly mastered4 ,how to care for and handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chapter4 ,we are now concerned with its uses only4 ,each complete kit must have three distinct planes1 namely1 the jack plane1 which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the board4 ,the short smoothing plane1 which is designed to even up the inequalities made by the jack plane2 and the long finishing plane1 or fore plane1 which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of finished surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,jack plane bit4 ,,the ,,jack ,,plane4--,this plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved 7,fig4 #f71 because1 as the bit must be driven out so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood1 the curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging into the planed surface4 ,on the other hand1 the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are ground straight across their cutting edges4 ,in the foregoing we have not enumerated the different special planes1 designed to make beads1 rabbets1 tongues and grooves1 but each type is fully illustrated1 so that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics4 7,fig4 #f;a74 ,,gages4--,one of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage1 but it is1 in fact1 the least known4 ,this is simply a straight bar1 with a sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end1 and having an adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece4 ,this tool is indispensable in making mortises or tenons1 because the sharpened steel point which projects from the side of the bar1 serves to outline and define the edges of the mortises or tenons1 so that the cutting line may readily be followed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f;a4 ,fore-plane bit4 ,this is the most difficult tool to hold when in use1 but that will be fully explained under its proper head4 ,each kit should have two1 as in making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the mortise or tenon4 ,,chisels4--,two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer 7,fig4 #g7 and the mortising chisel4 ,the firmer has a flat body or blade1 and a full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches4 ,the sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch1 the inch and the inch-and-a-half widths4 ,these are used for trimming out cross grains or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses where sharp-end tools are required4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,the ,,mortising ,,chisel4--,the mortising chisel 7,fig4 #g;a71 on the other hand1 is very narrow and thick1 with a long taper down to the cutting edge4 ,they are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for mortises4 ,never1 under any circumstances1 use a hammer or hatchet for driving chisels4 ,the mallet should be used invariably4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g;a4 ,,trusses4--,there should be at least two1 each three feet in length and twenty inches in height4 ,,saw ,,clamps4--,these are necessary adjuncts1 and should be made of hard wood1 perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow back saw4 ,the illustration shows their shape and form4 ,,the ,,grindstones4--,it is better to get a first-class stone1 which may be small and rigged up with a foot treadle4 ,a soft1 fine-grained stone is most serviceable1 and it should have a water tray1 and never be used excepting with plenty of water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,,an ,,oil ,,stone is as essential as a grindstone4 ,for giving a good edge to tools it is superior to a water stone4 ,it should be provided with a top1 and covered when not in use1 to keep out dust and grit4 ,these are the little things that contribute to success and should be carefully observed4 ,,the ,,miter ,,box4--,this should be #ad inches long and #c by #c inside1 made of hard wood #c_/d thick4 ,the sides should be nailed to the bottom1 as shown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,,the ,,work ,,bench4--,in its proper place we show in detail the most approved form of work bench1 fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools1 conveniently arranged4 ,in this chapter we are more particularly concerned with the uses of tools than their construction2 and we impress on boys the necessity of having a place for everything1 and that every tool should be kept in its proper place4 ,a carpenter's shop filled with chips1 shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the indiscriminate placing of tools4 ,if correct habits are formed at the outset1 by carefully putting each tool in its place after using1 it will save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance4 ,one of the most important things in laying off work1 for instance1 on trusses1 is the disposition of the saw and square4 ,our illustration shows each truss with side cleats1 which will permit the user temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy1 and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of the tools from being thrown to the floor4 ,in the same way1 and for the same purpose1 the work bench has temporary holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front1 which are particularly desirable1 because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work bench while the work is being assembled1 and tools of this kind should not be laid flat on a working surface1 nor should they be stood in a leaning position against a truss or work bench4 ,strictly observe these fundamentals--,never place a tool with the cutting edge toward you4 ,always have the racks or receptacles so made that the handle may be seized4 ,don't put a tool with an exposed cutting edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge4 ,never keep the nail or screw boxes above the work bench4 ,they should always be kept to one side1 to prevent1 as much as possible1 the bench from becoming a depository for nails4 ,keep the top of the bench free from tools4 ,always keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench4 ,if order was ,heaven's first law1 it is a good principle to apply it in a workman's shop1 and its observance will form a habit that will soon become a pleasure to follow4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,grind ,,and ,,sharpen ,,tools ,,care ,,of ,,tools4--,dull tools indicate the character of the workman4 ,in an experience of over forty years1 ,i have never known a good workman to keep poorly sharpened tools4 ,while it is true that the capacity to sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice1 correct habits at the start will materially assist4 ,in doing this part of the artisan's work1 it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way4 ,there is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool1 which should be observed4 ,a skilled artisan knows that there is a particular way to grind the bits of each plane2 that the manner of setting a saw not only contributes to its usefulness1 but will materially add to the life of the saw2 that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its cutting edge is square and at the right working angle4 ,,first ,,requisite4--,a beginner should never attempt a piece of work until he learns how the different tools should be sharpened1 or at least learn the principle involved4 ,practice will make perfect4 ,,saws4--,as the saw is such an important part of the kit1 ,i shall devote some space to the subject4 ,first1 as to setting the saw4 ,the object of this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the blade1 and thereby cause the saw to travel freely4 ,a great many so-called saw sets are found in the market1 many of them built on wrong principles1 as will be shown1 and these are incapable of setting accurately4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,,how ,,to ,,set4--,to set a saw accurately1 that is1 to drive out each tooth the same distance1 is the first requirement1 and the second is to bend out the whole tooth1 and not the point only4 ,in the illustration 7,fig4 #aj71 the point is merely bent out4 ,this is wrong4 ,the right way is shown in ,fig4 #aj;a4 ,the whole tooth is bent1 showing the correct way of setting4 ,the reasons for avoiding one way and following the other are3 ,first1 that if the point projects to one side1 each point or tooth will dig into the wood1 and produce tooth prints in the wood1 which make a roughened surface4 ,second1 that if there are inequalities in setting the teeth 7as is sure to be the case when only the points are bent out71 the most exposed points will first wear out1 and thereby cause saw deterioration4 ,third1 a saw with the points sticking out causes a heavy1 dragging cut1 and means additional labor4 ,where the whole body of the tooth is bent1 the saw will run smoothly and easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #aa7 shows a very simple setting block1 the principal merit of which is that any boy can make it1 and in the use of which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth4 ,,simple ,,saw ,,setter4--,take a block of wood1 a #d by #d inch studding1 four inches long4 ,get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches square4 ,have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely fastened in a mortise in the block1 with its upper side flush with the upper surface of the block4 ,now1 with a file1 finish off one edge1 going back for a quarter of an inch1 the angle at ,a to be about #ab degrees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,rip-,saw4 ,,filing ,,angles4--,in its proper place will be shown how you may easily calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind4 ,fig4 #ab shows an approximation to the right angle4 ,b1 ,b 7,fig4 #aa7 should be a pair of wooden pegs1 driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal piece4 ,the teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as a guide or a gage1 and the teeth of the saw1 therefore1 project over the inclined part 7,b7 of the metal block4 ,now1 with an ordinary punch and a hammer1 each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on the inclined face 7,a71 so that it is impossible to set the teeth wrongly4 ,when you glance down the end of a properly set saw1 you will see a ,v-shaped channel1 and if you will place a needle in the groove and hold the saw at an angle1 the needle will travel down without falling out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 cross-cut4 ,,filing4--,the next step is the filing4 ,two things must be observed3 the pitch and the angle4 ,by pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth4 ,note the illustration 7,fig4 #ac71 which shows the teeth of a rip saw4 ,you will see at ,a that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge of the saw4 ,in ,fig4 #ad1 which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw1 the pitch 7,b7 is about #aj degrees off4 ,the teeth of the rip saw are also larger than those of the cross-cut4 ,,the ,,angle ,,of ,,filing4--,by angle is meant the cutting position of the file4 ,in ,fig4 #ab1 the lines ,b represent the file disposed at an angle of #ab degrees1 not more1 for a rip saw4 ,for a cross-cut the angle of the file may be less4 ,,saw ,,clamps4--,you may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows3 ,take two pieces of hard wood1 each three inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and equal in length to the longest saw4 ,bevel one edge of each as shown in ,a 7,fig4 #ae71 so as to leave an edge 7,b7 about one-eighth of an inch thick4 ,at one end cut away the corner on the side opposite the bevel1 as shown at ,c1 so the clamps will fit on the saw around the saw handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,when the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the jaws of the vise1 you are ready for the filing operation4 ,observe the following filing suggestions3 ,always hold the file horizontal or level4 ,in filing1 use the whole length of the file4 ,do the work by a slow1 firm sweep4 ,do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation1 but only the alternate teeth1 so as to keep the file at the same angle1 and thus insure accuracy2 then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one angle for the alternate set of teeth4 ,give the same number of strokes1 and exert the same pressure on the file for each tooth1 to insure uniformity4 ,learn also to make a free1 easy and straight movement back and forth with the file4 ,,the ,,file4--,in order to experiment with the filing motion1 take two blocks of wood1 and try surfacing them off with a file4 ,when you place the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be convex1 because the hands1 in filing1 unless you exert the utmost vigilance1 will assume a crank-like movement4 ,the filing test is so to file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling on each other4 ,before shaping and planing machines were invented1 machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off surfaces with a file4 ,in using the files on saws1 however small the file may be1 one hand should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file4 ,a file brush should always be kept on hand1 as it pays to preserve files by cleaning them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,,the ,,grindstone4--,as most of the tools require a grindstone for sharpening purposes1 an illustration is given as a guide1 with a diagram to show the proper grinding angle4 ,in ,fig4 #af the upright 7,a7 of the frame serves as a line for the eye1 so that if the point of the tool is brought to the sight line1 and the tool 7,c7 held level1 you will always be able to maintain the correct angle4 ,there is no objection to providing a rest1 for instance1 like the cross bars 7,d1 ,d71 but the artisan disdains such contrivances1 and he usually avoids them for two reasons3 ,first1 because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally2 and1 second1 by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better control of it4 ,there is only one thing which can be said in favor of a rest1 and that is1 the stone may be kept truer circumferentially1 as all stones have soft spots or sides4 ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,grindstones4--,there are certain things to avoid and to observe in the use of stones4 ,never use one spot on the stone1 however narrow the tool may be4 ,always move the tool from side to side4 ,never grind a set of narrow tools successively4 ,if you have chisels to grind intersperse their grinding with plane bits1 hatchet or other broad cutting tools1 so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein4 ,never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,correct manner of holding tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,incorrect way of holding tool4 ,,correct ,,way ,,to ,,hold ,,tool ,,for ,,grinding4--,there is a correct way to hold each tool2 see illustration 7,fig4 #ag74 ,the left hand should grasp the tool firmly1 near the sharp edge1 as shown1 and the right hand should loosely hold the tool behind the left hand4 ,there is a reason for this which will be apparent after you grind a few tools4 ,the firm grasp of the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade1 so it cannot turn1 and when inequalities appear in the grindstone1 the rigid hold will prevent the blade from turning1 and thus enable you to correct the inequalities of the stone4 ,bear in mind1 the stone should be taken care of just as much as the tools4 ,an experienced workman is known by the condition of his tools1 and the grindstone is the best friend he has among his tools4 ,,incorrect ,,way ,,to ,,hold ,,tool ,,for ,,grinding4--,the incorrect way of holding a tool is shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,this1 ,i presume1 is the universal way in which the novice takes the tool4 ,it is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of both hands are on top of the blade1 and they serve as pivots on which the tool may turn4 ,the result is that the corners of the tool will dig into the stone to a greater or less degree1 particularly if it has a narrow blade1 like a chisel4 ,try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the incorrect way2 and then grasp it firmly with the left hand1 and you will at once see the difference4 ,the left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum1 whereas the right hand controls the angle of the tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,these remarks apply to all chisels1 plane bits and tools of that character1 but it is obvious that a drawknife1 which is always held by the handles in grinding1 and hatchets1 axes and the like1 cannot be held in the same manner4 ,a too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone4 ,this is wrong4 ,do not try to force the grinding4 ,then1 again1 it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the tool4 ,the stone should always move toward the tool1 so as to prevent forming a feather edge4 ,,the ,,plane4--,indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided4 ,never use the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces4 ,the jack plane is the proper tool for this work4 ,on the other hand1 the fore plane should invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards1 or for fine surfacing purposes4 ,as the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved edge1 it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print surface4 ,,the ,,gage4--,the illustration 7,fig4 #ai7 shows one of the most useful tools in the kit4 ,it is used to scribe the thickness of the material which is to be dressed down1 or for imprinting the edges of tenons and mortises4 ,two should be provided in every kit1 for convenience4 ,the scribing point should be sharpened with a file1 the point being filed to form a blade1 which is at right angles to the bar1 or parallel with the movable cheekpiece4 ,,chisels4--,i have already pointed out1 in general1 how to hold tools for grinding purposes1 this description applying particularly to chisels1 but several additional things may be added4 ,always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting edge is square with the side edge4 ,this will be difficult at first1 but you will see the value of this as you use the tool4 ,for instance1 in making rebates for hinges1 or recesses and mortises for locks1 the tool will invariably run crooked1 unless it is ground square4 ,the chisel should never be struck with a hammer or metal instrument1 as the metal pole or peon of the hammer will sliver the handle4 ,the wooden mallet should invariably be used4 ,,general ,,observations4--,if the workman will carefully observe the foregoing requirements he will have taken the most important steps in the knowledge of the art4 ,if he permits himself to commence work without having his tools in first-class condition1 he is trying to do work under circumstances where even a skilled workman is liable to fail4 ,avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary work4 ,the best artisans are those who try to find out and know which is the best tool1 or how to make a tool for each requirement1 but that tool1 to be serviceable1 must be properly made1 and that means it must be rightly sharpened4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,hold ,,and ,,handle ,,tools ,observation may form part of each boy's lesson1 but when it comes to the handling of tools1 practice becomes the only available means of making a workman4 ,fifty years of observation would never make an observer an archer or a marksman1 nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to build a table4 ,it sometimes happens that an apprentice will1 with little observation1 seize a saw in the proper way1 or hold a plane in the correct manner1 and1 in time1 the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct habits4 ,but why put in useless time and labor in order to gain that which a few well-directed hints and examples will convey8 ,tools are made and are used as short cuts toward a desired end4 ,before the saw was invented the knife was used laboriously to sever and shape the materials4 ,before planes were invented a broad1 flat sharpened blade was used to smooth off surfaces4 ,holes were dug out by means of small chisels requiring infinite patience and time4 ,each succeeding tool proclaimed a shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing4 ,the man or boy who can make a new labor-saving tool is worthy of as much praise as the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before4 ,let us now thoroughly understand how to hold and use each tool4 ,that is half the value of the tool itself4 ,,the ,,saw4--,with such a commonplace article as the saw1 it might be assumed that the ordinary apprentice would look upon instruction with a smile of derision4 ,,how ,,to ,,start ,a ,,saw4--,if the untried apprentice has such an opinion set him to work at the task of cutting off a board accurately on a line4 ,he will generally make a failure of the attempt to start the saw true to the line1 to say nothing of following the line so the kerf is true and square with the board4 ,,how ,,to ,,start ,,on ,a ,,line4--,the first mistake he makes is to saw on the line4 ,this should never be done4 ,the work should be so laid out that the saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material4 ,the saw should cut alongside the line1 and the line should not be obliterated in the cutting4 ,material must be left for trimming and finishing4 ,,the ,,first ,,stroke4--,now1 to hold the saw in starting is the difficult task to the beginner4 ,once mastered it is simple and easy4 ,the only time in which the saw should be firmly held by the hand is during the initial cut or two2 afterwards always hold the handle loosely4 ,there is nothing so tiring as a tightly grasped saw4 ,the saw has but one handle1 hence it is designed to be used with one hand4 ,sometimes1 with long and tiresome jobs1 in ripping1 two hands may be used1 but one hand can always control a saw better than two hands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,,the ,,starting ,,cut4--,in order to make our understanding of the starting cut more explicit1 we refer to ,fig4 #bj1 in which the thumb of the left hand is shown in the position of a guide--the end of the thumb being held up a sufficient distance to clear the teeth4 ,in this position you need not fear that the teeth of the saw 7,a7 will ride up over the thumb if you have a firm grasp of the saw handle4 ,the first stroke should be upwardly1 not downwardly4 ,while in the act of drawing up the saw you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the mark1 and when the saw moves downwardly for the first cut1 you may be assured that the cut is accurate1 or at the right place1 and the thumb should be kept in its position until two or three cuts are made1 and the work is then fairly started4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,wrong sawing angle4 ,,for ,,cross-,,cutting4--,for ordinary cross-cutting the angle of the saw should be at #de degrees4 ,for ripping1 the best results are found at less than #de degrees1 but you should avoid flattening down the angle4 ,an incorrect as well as a correct angle are shown in ,figs4 #ba and #bb4 ,,forcing ,a ,,saw4--,forcing a saw through the wood means a crooked kerf4 ,the more nearly the saw is held at right angles to a board1 the greater is the force which must be applied to it by the hand to cause it to bite into the wood2 and1 on the other hand1 if the saw is laid down too far1 as shown in the incorrect way1 it is a very difficult matter to follow the working line4 ,furthermore1 it is a hard matter to control the saw so that it will cut squarely along the board1 particularly when ripping4 ,the eye must be the only guide in the disposition of the saw4 ,some boys make the saw run in one direction1 and others cause it to lean the opposite way4 ,after you have had some experience and know which way you lean1 correct your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite direction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,right sawing angle4 ,,the ,,stroke4--,make a long stroke1 using the full blade of the saw4 ,don't acquire the jerky style of sawing4 ,if the handle is held loosely1 and the saw is at the proper angle1 the weight of the saw1 together with the placement of the handle on the saw blade1 will be found sufficient to make the requisite cut at each stroke4 ,you will notice that the handle of every saw is mounted nearest the back edge4 7,see ,fig4 #bc47 ,the reason for so mounting it is1 that as the cutting stroke is downward1 the line of thrust is above the tooth line1 and as this line is at an angle to the line of thrust1 the tendency is to cause the saw teeth to dig into the wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,saw4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,saw4--,this saw is designed to saw with an upward cut1 and the illustration 7,fig4 #bd7 shows the handle jutting out below the tooth line1 in order to cause the teeth to dig into the material as the handle is drawn upwardly4 ,reference is made to these features to impress upon beginners the value of observation1 and to demonstrate the reason for making each tool a particular way4 ,,things ,,to ,,avoid4--,do not oscillate the saw as you draw it back and forth4 ,this is unnecessary work1 and shows impatience in the use of the tool4 ,there is such an infinite variety of use for the different tools that there is no necessity for rendering the work of any particular tool1 or tools1 burdensome4 ,each in its proper place1 handled intelligently1 will become a pleasure1 as well as a source of profit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,,the ,,plane4--,the jack plane and the fore plane are handled with both hands1 and the smoothing plane with one hand1 but only when used for dressing the ends of boards4 ,for other uses both hands are required4 ,,angles ,,for ,,holding ,,planes4--,before commencing to plane a board1 always observe the direction in which the grain of the wood runs4 ,this precaution will save many a piece of material1 because if the jack plane is set deep it will run into the wood and cause a rough surface1 which can be cured only by an extra amount of labor in planing down4 ,never move the jack plane or the smoothing plane over the work so that the body of the tool is in a direct line with the movement of the plane4 ,it should be held at an angle of about #ab or #ae degrees 7see ,fig4 #be74 ,the fore plane should always be held straight with the movement of the plane1 because the length of the fore plane body is used as a straightener for the surface to be finished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,avoided4--,never draw back the plane with the bit resting on the board4 ,this simply wears out the tool1 and if there should be any grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the bit4 ,this applies particularly to the jack plane1 but is bad practice with the others as well4 ,a work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of dirt4 ,provide a special ledge or shelf for the planes1 and be sure to put each plane there immediately after using4 ,,the ,,gage4--,a man1 who professed to be a carpenter1 once told me that he never used a gage because he could not make it run straight4 ,a few moments' practice convinced him that he never knew how to hold it4 ,the illustration shows how properly to hold it1 and the reason why it should so be held follows4 ,you will observe 7,fig4 #bf7 that the hand grasps the stem of the gage behind the cheekpiece1 so that the thumb is free to press against the side of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece4 ,,holding ,,the ,,gage4--,the hand serves to keep the cheekpiece against the board1 while the thumb pushes the gage forward4 ,the hand must not1 under any circumstances1 be used to move the gage along4 ,in fact1 it is not necessary for the fingers to be clasped around the gage stem1 if the forefinger presses tightly against the cheekpiece1 since the thumb performs all the operation of moving it along4 ,naturally1 the hand grasps the tool in order to hold it down against the material1 and to bring it back for a new cut4 ,,the ,,draw-,,knife4--,it is difficult for the apprentice to become accustomed to handle this useful tool4 ,it is much more serviceable than a hatchet for trimming and paring work4 ,in applying it to the wood always have the tool at an angle with the board1 so as to make a slicing cut4 ,this is specially desirable in working close to a line1 otherwise there is a liability of cutting over it4 ,this knife requires a firm grasp--firmness of hold is more important than strength in using4 ,the flat side is used wholly for straight edges1 and the beveled side for concave surfaces4 ,it is the intermediate tool between the hatchet and the plane1 as it has the characteristics of both those tools4 ,it is an ugly1 dangerous tool1 more to be feared when lying around than when in use4 ,put it religiously on a rack which protects the entire cutting edge4 ,keep it off the bench4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,how ,,to ,,design ,,articles ,,fundamentals ,,of ,,designing4--,a great deal of the pleasure in making articles consists in creative work4 ,this means1 not that you shall design some entirely new article1 but that its general form1 or arrangement of parts1 shall have some new or striking feature4 ,a new design in any art does not require a change in all its parts4 ,it is sufficient that there shall be an improvement1 either in some particular point1 as a matter of utility1 or some change in an artistic direction4 ,a manufacturer in putting out a new chair1 or a plow1 or an automobile1 adds some striking characteristic4 ,this becomes his talking point in selling the article4 ,,the ,,commercial ,,instinct4--,it is not enough that the boy should learn to make things correctly1 and as a matter of pastime and pleasure4 ,the commercial instinct is1 after all1 the great incentive1 and should be given due consideration4 ,it would be impossible1 in a book of this kind1 to do more than to give the fundamental principles necessary in designing1 and to direct the mind solely to essentials1 leaving the individual to build up for himself4 ,,first ,,requirements ,,for ,,designing4--,first1 then1 let us see what is necessary to do when you intend to set about making an article4 ,suppose we fix our minds upon a table as the article selected4 ,three things are necessary to know3 ,first1 the use to which it is to be put2 second1 the dimensions2 and1 third1 the material required4 ,assuming it to be the ordinary table1 and the dimensions fixed1 we may conclude to use soft pine1 birch or poplar1 because of ease in working4 ,there are no regulation dimensions for tables1 except as to height1 which is generally uniform1 and usually #cj inches4 ,as to the length and width1 you will be governed by the place where it is to be used4 ,if the table top is to have dimensions1 say1 of #cf #dh1 you may lay out the framework six inches less each way1 thus giving you a top overhang of three inches1 which is the usual practice4 ,,conventional ,,styles4--,now1 if you wish to depart from the conventional style of making a table you may make variations in the design4 ,for instance1 the ,chippendale style means slender legs and thin top4 ,it involves some fanciful designs in the curved outlines of the top1 and in the crook of the legs4 ,or if1 on the other hand1 the ,mission type is preferred1 the overhang of the top is very narrow2 the legs are straight and heavy1 and of even size from top to bottom2 and the table top is thick and nearly as broad as it is long4 ,such furniture has the appearance of massiveness2 it is easily made and most serviceable4 ,,mission ,,style4--,the ,mission style of architecture also lends itself to the making of chairs and other articles of furniture4 ,a chair is1 probably1 the most difficult piece of household furniture to make1 because strength is required4 ,in this type soft wood may be used1 as the large legs and back pieces are easily provided with mortises and tenons1 affording great rigidity when completed4 ,in designing1 therefore1 you may see how the material itself becomes an important factor4 ,,cabinets4--,in the making of cabinets1 sideboards1 dressers and like articles1 the ingenious boy will find a wonderful field for designing ability1 because in these articles fancy alone dictates the sizes and the dimensions of the parts4 ,not so with chairs and tables4 ,the imagination plays an important part even in the making of drawers1 to say nothing of placing them with an eye to convenience and artistic effect4 ,,harmony ,,of ,,parts4--,but one thing should be observed in the making of furniture1 namely1 harmony between the parts4 ,for instance1 a table with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance of a top-heavy structure2 or the wrong use of two different styles is bad from an artistic standpoint2 moreover1 it is the height of refined education if1 in the use of contrasting woods1 they are properly blended to form a harmonious whole4 ,,harmonizing ,,wood4--,imagine a chiffonier with the base of dark wood1 like walnut1 and the top of pine or maple1 or a like light-colored wood4 ,on the other hand1 both walnut and maple1 for instance1 may be used in the same article1 if they are interspersed throughout the entire article4 ,the body may be made of dark wood and trimmed throughout with a light wood to produce a fine effect4 ,,chapter ,v ,,how ,,work ,,is ,,laid ,,out ,,concrete ,,examples ,,of ,,work4--,a concrete example of doing any work is more valuable than an abstract statement4 ,for this purpose ,i shall direct the building of a common table with a drawer in it and show how the work is done in detail4 ,for convenience let us adopt the ,mission style1 with a top #cf #db and the height #cj4 ,the legs should be #b #b and the top #a1 dressed4 ,the material should be of hard wood with natural finish1 or1 what is better still1 a soft wood1 like birch1 which may be stained a dark brown1 as the ,mission style is more effective in dark than in light woods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,,framework4--,as we now know the sizes1 the first thing is to build the framework4 ,the legs should be dressed square and smoothed down with the fore plane to make them perfectly straight4 ,now1 lay out two mortises at the upper end of each leg4 ,follow the illustrations to see how this is done4 ,,laying ,,out ,,the ,,legs4--,fig4 #bg shows a leg with square cross marks 7,a7 at each end4 ,these marks indicate the finished length of the leg4 ,you will also see crosses on two sides4 ,these indicate what is called the work sides4 ,the work sides are selected because they are the finest surfaces on the leg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,,the ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,mortises4--,then take a small try square 7,fig4 #bh7 and add two cross lines 7,b1 ,c7 on each of the inner surfaces1 the second line 7,b7 one-half inch from the finish line 7,a71 and the other line 7,c7 seven inches down from the line 7,a74 ,the side facing boards1 hereafter described1 are seven inches wide4 ,when this has been done for all the legs1 prepare your gage 7,fig4 #bi7 to make the mortise scribe1 and1 for convenience in illustrating1 the leg is reversed4 ,if the facing boards are #a thick1 and the tenons are intended to be #a_/b thick1 the first scribe line 7,e7 should be #a_/b from the work side1 because the shoulder on the facing board projects out #a_/d1 and the outer surface of the facing board should not be flush with the outer surface of the leg4 ,the second gage line 7,f7 should be #a from the work side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,,the ,,mortises4--,when the mortises have been made they will appear as shown in the enlarged cross section of the leg 7,fig4 #cj71 the total depth of each mortise being #a-a_/b4 ,the depth of this mortise determines for us the length of the tenons on the facing boards4 ,,the ,,facing ,,boards4--,these boards are each #a inch thick and #g inches wide4 ,as the top of the table is #db inches long1 and we must provide an overhang1 say of #b inches1 we will first take off #d inches for the overhang and #d inches for the legs1 so that the length of two of the facing boards1 from shoulder to shoulder1 must be #cd inches2 and the other two facing boards #bh inches4 ,then1 as we must add #a-a_/b inches for each tenon1 two of the boards will be #cg inches long and two of them #ca inches long4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #ca7 shows a board marked with the cross lines 7,b7 at each end for the end of the tenons1 or the extreme ends of the boards4 ,,the ,,tenons4--,do not neglect first to select the work side and the working edge of the board4 ,the outer surface and the upper edges are the sides to work from4 ,the cheekpiece 7,a7 of the gage must always rest against the working side4 ,the cross marks 7,b1 ,c7 should be made with the point of a sharp knife1 and before the small back saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines 7,b71 which indicate the shoulders1 should be scored with a sharp knife1 as shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,this furnishes a guide for the saw1 and makes a neat finish for the shoulder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illusstration ,fig4 #ce4 ,,tools ,,used4--,the back saw is used for cutting the tenon1 and the end of the board appears as shown in the enlarged ,fig4 #cd4 ,two things are now necessary to complete the tenons4 ,on the upper or work edge of each board use the gage to mark off a half-inch slice1 and then cut away the flat side of the tenon at the end1 on its inner surface1 so it will appear as shown in ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,,chamfered ,,tenons4--,the object of these chamfered or beveled tenons is to permit the ends to approach each other closely within the mortise1 as shown in the assembled parts 7,fig4 #cf74 ,,the ,,frame ,,assembled4--,the frame is now ready to assemble1 but before doing so a drawer opening and supports should be made4 ,the ends of the supports may be mortised into the side pieces or secured by means of gains4 ,mortises and tenons are better4 ,,the ,,drawer ,,supports4--,take one of the side-facing boards 7,fig4 #cg7 and cut a rectangular opening in it4 ,this opening should be #d inches wide and #ah inches long1 so placed that there is #a inch of stock at the upper margin and #b inches of stock at the lower margin of the board4 ,at each lower corner make a mortise 7,a71 so that one side of the mortise is on a line with the margin of the opening1 and so that it extends a half inch past the vertical margin of the opening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,you can easily cut a gain 7,b7 in a strip1 or1 as in ,fig4 #ch1 you may use two strips1 one 7,c7 an inch wide and a half inch thick1 and on this nail a strip 7,d7 along one margin4 ,this forms the guide and rest for the drawer4 ,at the upper margin of the opening is a rebate or gain 7,e7 at each corner1 extending down to the top line of the drawer opening1 into which are fitted the ends of the upper cross guides4 ,,the ,,table ,,frame4--,when the entire table frame is assembled it will have the appearance shown in ,fig4 #ci1 and it is now ready for the top4 ,,the ,,top4--,the top should be made of three boards1 either tongued and grooved1 or doweled and glued together4 ,in order to give a massive appearance1 and also to prevent the end grain of the boards from being exposed1 beveled strips may be used to encase the edges4 ,these marginal cleats are #c_/d inch thick and #b inches wide1 and joined by beveled ends at the corners1 as shown in ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,,the ,,drawer4--,the drawer 7,fig4 #da7 shown in cross section1 has its front 7,a7 provided with an overlapping flange 7,b74 ,it is not our object in this chapter to show how each particular article is made1 but simply to point out the underlying principles1 and to illustrate how the fastening elements1 the tenons and mortises1 are formed1 so that the boy will know the proper steps in their natural order4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,,how ,,any ,,structure ,,is ,,built ,,up4--,it should be observed that each structure1 however small1 is usually built from the base up4 ,just the same as the more pretentious buildings are erected3 ,first1 the sill1 then the floor supports1 then the posts and top plates1 with their connecting girders1 and1 finally1 the roof4 ,the chapter on ,house ,building will give more detailed illustrations of large structures1 and how they are framed and braced4 ,at this point we are more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order to lay out the simple structural details1 and if one subject of this kind is fully mastered the complicated character of the article will not be difficult to master4 ,,observations ,,about ,a ,,box4--,as simple a little article as a box frequently becomes a burden to a beginner4 ,try it4 ,simply keep in mind one thing2 each box has six sides4 ,now1 suppose you want a box with six equal sides--that is1 a cubical form--it is necessary to make only three pairs of sides2 two for the ends1 two for the sides and two for the top and bottom4 ,each set has dimensions different from the other sets4 ,both pieces of the set1 representing the ends1 are square2 the side pieces are of the same width as the end pieces1 and slightly longer2 and the top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,a box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards1 properly cut4 ,make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right dimensions4 ,,joints4--,for joining together boards at right angles to each other1 such as box corners1 drawers and like articles1 tenons and mortises should never be resorted to4 ,in order to make fine work the joints should be made by means of dovetails1 rabbets or rebates1 or by beveling or mitering the ends4 ,,beveling ,,and ,,mitering4--,there is a difference in the terms beveling and mitering1 as used in the art4 ,in ,fig4 #db the joint ,a is beveled1 and in ,fig4 #dc the joint ,b is mitered1 the difference being that a bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner1 while a miter has reference to a joint such as is illustrated in ,fig4 #dc1 such as the corner of a picture frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,,proper ,,terms4--,it is the application of the correct terms to things that lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in describing work4 ,a wise man once said that the basis of true science consists in correct definitions4 ,,picture ,,frames4--,in picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw kerf 7,c7 cut across the corners1 as shown in ,fig4 #dd1 and a thin blade of hard wood driven in1 the whole being glued together4 ,,dovetail ,,joints4--,it is in the laying out of the more complicated dovetail joints that the highest skill is required1 because exactness is of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery4 ,in order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given1 and you will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner1 and do it quickly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,,preparing ,a ,,box ,,joint4--,in order to match a box joint for the inner end of a table drawer1 the first step is to select two work sides4 ,one work side will be the edge of the board1 and the other the side surface of the board1 and on those surfaces we will put crosses1 as heretofore suggested4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,,first ,,steps4--,now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards 7,y1 ,z71 so the ends are toward you1 as shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,then1 after measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined 7the thinnest1 if they are of different thicknesses71 set your compasses1 or dividers1 for #a_/d inch1 providing the boards are #a_/b inch thick1 and1 commencing at the work edge of the board1 step off and point1 as at ,a1 the whole width of the board1 and with a square make the two cross marks 7,b71 using the two first compass points 7,a71 then skipping one1 using the next two1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,when this is done1 turn up the board ,z 7,fig4 #df71 so that it is at right angles to the board ,y1 and so the outer surface of the board ,z is flush with the end of the board ,x1 and with a sharp knife point extend the lines ,b along with the grain of the wood on board ,z1 up to the cross mark ,c4 ,this cross mark should have been previously made and is located as far from the end of the board ,z as the thickness of the board ,y4 ,we now have the marks for the outer surface of the board ,z1 and the end marks of board ,y4 ,for the purpose of getting the angles of the end of the board ,z and the outer side of board ,y1 a cross line 7,d1 ,fig4 #dg7 is drawn across the board ,x near the end1 this line being as far from the end as the thickness of the board ,z1 and a vertical line 7,e7 is drawn midway between the two first cross marks 7,a74 ,now1 with your compass1 which1 in the meantime1 has not been changed1 make a mark 7,f71 and draw down the line 7,g71 which will give you the working angle at which you may set the bevel gage4 ,then draw down an angle from each alternate cross line 7,a71 and turn the bevel and draw down the lines 7,h74 ,these lines should all be produced on the opposite side of the board1 so as to assure accuracy1 and to this end the edges of the board also should be scribed4 ,,cutting ,,out ,,the ,,spaces4--,in cutting out the intervening spaces1 which should be done with a sharp chisel1 care should be observed not to cut over the shoulder lines4 ,to prevent mistakes you should put some distinctive mark on each part to be cut away4 ,in this instance ,e1 ,h show the parts to be removed1 and in ,fig4 #dh two of the cutaway portions are indicated4 ,when the end of the board ,z is turned up 7,fig4 #di71 it has merely the longitudinal parallel lines ,b4 ,the bevel square may now be used in the same manner as on the side of the board ,y1 and the fitting angles will then be accurately true4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #ej1 in which1 also1 two of the cutaway parts are removed4 ,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,laying ,,out ,,tenons ,,and ,,mortises4--,a sharp-pointed knife must always be used for making all marks4 ,never employ an awl for this work1 as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it4 ,a small try square should always be used 7not the large iron square71 and this with a sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a satisfactory piece of work4 ,the foregoing examples1 carefully studied1 will enable you to gather the principles involved in laying off any work4 ,if you can once make a presentable box joint1 so that all the dovetails will accurately fit together1 you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of the work1 and it is an exercise which will amply repay you1 because you will learn to appreciate what accuracy means4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,compass ,,and ,,the ,,square ,,the ,,square4--,the square is1 probably1 the oldest of all tools1 and that1 together with the compass1 or dividers1 with which the square is always associated1 has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest historical times4 ,so far as we now know1 the plain flat form1 which has at least one right angle and two or more straight edges1 was the only form of square used by the workman4 ,but modern uses1 and the development of joinery and cabinet making1 as well as the more advanced forms of machinery practice1 necessitated new structural forms in the square1 so that the bevel square1 in which there is an adjustable blade set in a handle1 was found necessary4 ,,the ,,try ,,square4--,in the use of the ordinary large metal square it is necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work1 and the long limb must1 therefore1 rest against the work side or edge of the timber1 so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest flat against the work4 ,as such a tool is defective in work requiring accuracy1 it brought into existence what is called the try square1 which has a rectangular handle1 usually of wood1 into which is fitted at one end a metal blade1 which is at right angles to the edge of the handle4 ,the handle1 therefore1 always serves as a guide for the blade in scribing work1 because it lies flat down on the work4 ,,the ,t-,,square is another modification of the try square1 its principal use being for draughting purposes4 ,,the ,,compass4--,the compass is one of the original carpenter's tools4 ,the difference between compass and dividers is that compasses have adjustable pen or pencil points1 whereas dividers are without adjustable points4 ,modern work has brought refinements in the character of the compass and dividers1 so that we now have the bow-compass1 which is1 usually1 a small tool1 one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point1 the two legs being secured together1 usually1 by a spring bow1 or by a hinged joint with a spring attachment4 ,,proportional ,,dividers4--,a useful tool is called the proportional dividers1 the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends1 so that the pivotal joint is adjustable4 ,by means of this tool the scale of work may be changed1 although its widest field of usefulness is work laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge proportionally4 ,,determining ,,angles4--,now1 in order to lay out work the boy should know quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required in his work4 ,the quickest way in which to learn this is to become familiar with the degree in its various relations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,,definition ,,of ,,degree4--,a degree is not a measure1 as we would designate a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity4 ,it is used to denote a division1 space1 interval or position4 ,to illustrate1 look at the circle1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the four cardinal points are formed by the cross lines 7,a1 ,b71 and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is divided into #ij degrees4 ,look at the radial lines 7,c1 ,d71 and you will find that the distance between these lines is different along the curved line 7,e7 than along the curved line 7,f74 ,the degree is1 therefore1 to indicate only the space1 division or interval in the circle4 ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,angle4--,most important for one to know at a glance is that of #de degrees1 because the one can the more readily calculate the other degrees1 approximately1 by having #de degrees once fixed in the mind1 and impressed on the visual image4 ,with a square and a compass it is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off #de degrees1 as it is the line ,c1 midway between ,a and ,b1 and the other degrees may be calculated from the line ,c and the cardinal lines ,a or ,b4 ,,degrees ,,without ,a ,,compass4--,but in the absence of a compass and when you do not wish to step off a circle1 you will in such case lay down the square1 and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal dimensions4 ,suppose we take #b inches on each limb of the square4 ,the angle thus formed by the angle square blade is #de degrees4 ,to find #cj degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from #b inches on one limb to #c-a_/b inches on the other limb1 and it will be found that for #ae degrees the blade runs from #b inches on one limb to #g-a_/b inches on the other limb4 ,it would be well to fix firmly these three points1 at least1 in your mind1 as they will be of the utmost value to you4 ,it is a comparatively easy matter now to find #aj degrees or #be degrees1 or any intermediate line4 ,,what ,,degrees ,,are ,,calculated ,,from4--,the question that now arises is what line one may use from which to calculate degrees1 or at what point in the circle zero is placed4 ,degrees may be calculated either from the horizontal or from the vertical line4 ,examine ,fig4 #ec4 ,the working margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line1 and in specifying an angle you calculate it from the work edge4 ,thus1 the line ,a indicates an angle of #cj degrees4 ,the dotted line is #de degrees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,,the ,,dividers4--,the dividers are used not only for scribing circles1 but also for stepping and dividing spaces equally4 ,there is a knack in the use of the dividers1 where accuracy is wanted1 and where the surface is of wood4 ,unless the utmost care is observed1 the spaces will be unequal1 for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into the wood at some places than at others1 due to the uneven texture of the wood grain4 ,it will be better to make a line lengthwise1 and a cross line 7,a7 for starting 7see ,fig4 #ed74 ,you may then insert one point of the dividers at the initial mark 7,b71 and describe a small arc 7,c74 ,then move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc 7,c7 on the line1 and make the next mark1 and so on4 ,some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter on ,drawing1 which should be carefully studied4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,how ,,the ,,different ,,structural ,,parts ,,are ,,designated ,,the ,,right ,,name ,,for ,,everything4--,always make it a point to apply the right term to each article or portion of a structure4 ,your explanation1 to those who do know the proper technical terms1 will render much easier a thorough understanding2 and to those who do not know1 your language will be in the nature of an education4 ,,proper ,,designations4--,every part in mechanism1 every point1 curve and angle has its peculiar designation4 ,a knowledge of terms is an indication of thoroughness in education1 and1 as heretofore stated1 becomes really the basis of art1 as well as of the sciences4 ,when you wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood by both4 ,furthermore1 and for this very reason1 you should study to find out how to explain or to define the terms4 ,you may have a mental picture of the structure in your mind1 but when asked to explain it you are lost4 ,,learning ,,mechanical ,,forms4--,suppose1 for example1 we take the words segment and sector4 ,without a thorough understanding in your own mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other4 ,but let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some one who has no idea of terms and their definitions4 ,how would you describe it8 ,while it is true it is wedge-shaped1 you will see by examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge4 ,the sector has two sides running from a point like a wedge1 but the large end of the sector is curved4 ,if you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one straight line and one curve1 but this would not define it very lucidly4 ,therefore1 in going over the designations given1 not only fix in your mind the particular form1 but try to remember some particular manner in which you can clearly express the form1 the shape or the relation of the parts4 ,for your guidance1 therefore1 ,i have given1 as far as possible1 simple figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their designations1 without repeating the more simple forms which ,i have used in the preceding chapters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4-;,fig4 #fe4 #ee4 ,arcade4--,a series of arches with the columns or piers which support them1 the spandrels above1 and other parts4 #ef4 ,arch4--,a curved member made up1 usually1 of separate wedge-shaped solids1 ,a4 ,k1 ,keystone2 ,s1 ,springers2 ,c1 ,chord1 or span4 #eg4 ,buttress4--,a projecting mass of masonry4 ,a1 used for resisting the thrust of an arch1 or for ornamentation2 ,b1 a flying buttress4 #eh4 ,chamfer4--,the surface ,a formed by cutting away the arris or angle formed by two faces1 ,b1 ,c1 of material4 #ei4 ,cotter or ,cotter ,pin4--,a pin1 ,a1 either flat1 square or round1 driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position4 #fj4 ,crenelated4--,a form of molding indented or notched1 either regularly or irregularly4 #fa4 ,crosses4--#a4 ,latin cross1 in the ,church of ,rome carried before ,bishops4 #b4 ,double cross1 carried before ,cardinals and ,bishops4 #c4 ,triple or ,papal cross4 #d4 ,st4 ,andrew's and ,st4 ,peter's cross4 #e4 ,maltese cross4 #f4 ,st4 ,anthony or ,egyptian cross4 #g4 ,cross of ,jerusalem4 #h4 ,a cross patt or ferm 7head or first74 #i4 ,a cross patonce 7that is1 growing larger at the ends74 #aj4 ,greek cross4 #fb4 ,curb ,roof4--,a roof having a double slope1 or composed on each side of two parts which have unequal inclinations2 a gambrel roof4 #fc4 ,cupola4--,so called on account of its resemblance to a cup4 ,a roof having a rounded form4 ,when on a large scale it is called a dome4 ,crown ,post4--,see ,king ,post4 #fd4 ,console4--,a bracket with a projection not more than half its height4 #fe4 ,corbels4--,a mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure4 ,largely employed in ,gothic architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4-;,fig4 #gi4 #ff4 ,dormer4--,a window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical1 while the roof slopes away from it4 ,also called a ,gablet4 #fg4 ,dowel4--,a pin or stud in one block1 or body1 designed to engage with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment4 #fh4 ,drip4--,that part of a cornice or sill course ,a1 or other horizontal member which projects beyond the rest1 so as to divert water4 #fi4 ,detents4--,recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place4 #gj4 ,extrados4--,the exterior curve of an arch1 especially the upper curved face ,a4 ,b is the ,intrados or ,soffit4 #ga4 ,engrailed4--,indented with small concave curves1 as the edge of a bordure1 bend1 or the like4 #gb4 ,facet4--,the narrow plain surface1 as ,a1 between the fluting of a column4 #gc4 ,fret1 ,fretwork4--,ornamental work consisting of small fillets1 or slats1 intersecting each other or bent at right angles4 ,openwork in relief1 when elaborated and minute in all its parts4 ,hence any minute play of light and shade4 ,a1 ,japanese fretwork4 ,b1 ,green fret4 #gd4 ,frontal1 also called ,pediment4--,the triangular space1 ,a1 above a door or window4 #ge4 ,frustums4--,that part of a solid next the base1 formed by cutting off the top2 or the part of any solid1 as of a cone1 pyramid1 etc41 between two planes1 which may either be parallel or inclined to each other4 #gf4 ,fylfat4--,a rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an ornament4 ,it is also called ,gammadium1 and more commonly known as ,swastika4 #gg4 ,gambrel ,roof4--,a curb roof having the same section in all its parts1 with a lower1 steeper and longer part4 ,see ,curb ,roof and distinguish difference4 #gh4 ,gargoyle4--,a spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building1 often carved grotesquely4 #gi4 ,gudgeon4--,a wooden shaft1 ,a1 with a socket1 ,b1 into which is fitted a casting1 ,c4 ,the casting has a gudgeon1 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4-;,fig4 #ic4 #hj4 ,guilloche4--,an ornament in the form of two or more bands or strings twisted together or over or through each other4 #ha4 ,half ,timbered4--,constructed of a timber frame1 having the spaces filled in with masonry4 #hb4 ,hammer ,beam4--,a member of one description of roof truss1 called hammer-beam truss1 which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the top of the wall4 ,a is the hammer beam1 and ,c the pendant post4 #hc4 ,haunches4--,the parts ,a1 ,a1 on each side of the crown of an arch4 ,each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch4 #hd4 ,header4--,a piece of timber1 ,a1 fitted between two trimmers1 ,b1 ,b1 to hold the ends of the tail beams1 ,c1 ,c4 #he4 ,hip ,roof4--,the external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in different directions4 #hf4 ,hood ,molding4--,a projecting molding over the head of an arch1 as at ,a1 forming the outer-most member of the archivolt4 #hg4 ,inclave4--,the border1 or borders1 having a series of dovetails4 ,one variation of molding or ornamentation4 #hh4 ,interlacing ,arch4--,arches1 usually circular1 so constructed that their archivolts1 ,a1 intersect and seem to be interlaced4 #hi4 ,invected4--,having a border or outline composed of semicircles or arches1 with the convexity outward4 ,the opposite of engrailed4 #ij4 ,inverted ,arch4--,an arch placed with the crown downward2 used in foundation work4 #ia4 ,keystone4--,the central or topmost stone1 ,a1 of an arch1 sometimes decorated with a carving4 #ib4 ,king ,post4--,a member1 ,a1 of a common form of truss for roofs4 ,it is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam1 ,b1 in the middle4 ,if there are struts1 ,c1 supporting the rafters1 ,d1 they extend down to the foot of the ,king ,post4 #ic4 ,label4--,the name given to the projecting molding1 ,a1 around the top of the door opening4 ,a form of medival architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4-;,fig4 #ajd4 #id4 ,louver4--,the sloping boards1 ,a1 set to shed rain water outward in an opening of a frame1 as in belfry windows4 #ie4 ,lintel4--,a horizontal member4 ,a spanning or opening of a frame1 and designed to carry the wall above it4 #if4 ,lug4--,a4 projecting piece1 as ,a1 to which anything is attached1 or against which another part1 like ,b1 is held4 #ig4 ,m-,roof4--,a kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs with a valley between them1 so the section resembles the letter ,m4 #ih4 ,mansard ,roof4--,a hipped curb roof1 that is1 a roof having on all sides two slopes1 the lower one1 ,a1 being steeper than the upper portion or deck4 #ii4 ,newel ,post4--,the upright post at the foot of a stairway1 to which the railing is attached4 #ajj4 ,parquetry4--,a species of joinery or cabinet work1 consisting of an inlay of geometric or other patterns1 generally of different colored woods1 used particularly for floors4 #aja4 ,peen4 also ,pein4--,the round1 round-edged or hemispherical end1 as at ,a1 of a hammer4 #ajb4 ,pendant4--,a hanging ornament on roofs1 ceilings1 etc41 and much used in the later styles of ,gothic architecture where it is of stone4 ,imitated largely in wood and plaster work4 #ajc4 ,pentastyle4--,a pillar4 ,a portico having five pillars1 ,a1 is called the ,pentastyle in temples of classical construction4 #ajd4 ,pedestal4--,an upright architectural member1 ,a1 right-angled in plan1 constructionally a pier1 but resembling a column1 having a capital1 shaft and base to agree with the columns in the structure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4-;,fig4 #aag4 #aje4 ,pintle4--,an upright pivot pin1 or the pin of a hinge2 ,a represents the pintle of a rudder4 #ajf4 ,portico4--,a colonnade or covered structure1 especially in classical style1 of architecture1 and usually at the entrance of a building4 #ajg4 ,plate4--,a horizontal timber1 ,a1 used as a top or header for supporting timbers1 roofs and the like4 #ajh4 ,queen ,post4--,one of two suspending posts in a roof truss1 or other framed truss of simple form4 ,compare with ,king ,post4 ,a1 ,b1 tie beam2 ,c1 ,c1 queen posts2 ,d1 straining piece2 ,e1 principal rafter2 ,f1 rafter4 #aji4 ,quirk ,molding4--,a small channel1 deeply recessed1 in proportion to its width1 used to insulate and give relief to a convex rounded molding4 ,an excellent corner post for furniture4 #aaj4 ,re-entering4--,the figure shows an irregular polygon 7that is1 many-sided figure7 and is a re-entering polygon4 ,the recess ,a is a re-entering angle4 #aaa4 ,rafter4--,originally any rough and heavy piece of timber1 but in modern carpentry used to designate the main roof support1 as at ,a4 ,see ,queen ,post4 #aab4 ,scarfing4--,cutting timber at an angle along its length1 as the line ,a4 ,scarfing joints are variously made4 ,the overlapping joints may be straight or recessed and provided with a key block ,b4 ,when fitted together they are securely held by plates and bolts4 #aac4 ,scotia ,molding4--,a sunken molding in the base of a pillar1 so called from the dark shadow which it casts4 #aad4 ,sill4--,in carpentry the base piece1 or pieces1 ,a1 on which the posts of a structure are set4 #aae4 ,skew-,back4--,the course of masonry1 such as a stone1 ,a1 with an inclined face1 which forms the abutment for the voussoirs1 ,b1 or wedge-shaped stones comprising the arch4 #aaf4 ,spandrel4--,the irregular1 triangular space1 ,a1 between the curve of an arch and the enclosing right angle4 #aag4 ,strut4--,in general1 any piece of a frame1 such as a timber ,a1 or a brace ,b1 which resists pressure or thrust in the direction of its length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4-;,fig4 #abc4 #aah4 ,stud1 ,studding4--,the vertical timber or scantling1 ,a1 which is one of the small uprights of a building to which the boarding or plastering lath are nailed4 #aai4 ,stile4--,the main uprights of a door1 as ,a1 ,a2 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 rails2 ,c1 ,c1 mullions2 ,d1 ,d1 panels4 ,tie ,beam4--,see ,queen ,post4 #abj4 ,trammel4--,a very useful tool for drawing ellipses4 ,it comprises a cross1 ,a1 with grooves and a bar1 ,b1 with pins1 ,c1 attached to sliding blocks in the grooves1 and a pen or stylus1 ,d1 at the projecting end of the bar to scribe the ellipse4 #aba4 ,turret4--,a little tower1 frequently only an ornamental structure at one of the angles of a larger structure4 #abb4 ,transom4--,a horizontal cross-bar1 ,a1 above a door or window or between a door and a window above it4 ,transom is the horizontal member1 and if there is a vertical1 like the dotted line ,b1 it is called a ,mullion4 ,see ,stile4 #abc4 ,valley ,roof4--,a place of meeting of two slopes of a roof which have their sides running in different directions and formed on the plan of a re-entrant angle4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,drawing ,,and ,,its ,,utility ,a knowledge of drawing1 at least so far as the fundamentals are concerned1 is of great service to the beginner4 ,all work1 after being conceived in the brain1 should be transferred to paper4 ,a habit of this kind becomes a pleasure1 and1 if carried out persistently1 will prove a source of profit4 ,the boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles1 and with a drawing or ruling pen he can make straight lines4 ,,representing ,,objects4--,but let him try to represent some object1 and the pens become useless4 ,there is a vast difference in the use of drawing tools and free-hand drawing4 ,while the boy who is able to execute free-hand sketches may become the better artist1 still that art would not be of much service to him as a carpenter4 ,first1 because the use of tools gives precision1 and this is necessary to the builder2 and1 second1 because the artist deals wholly with perspectives1 whereas the builder must execute from plane surfaces or elevations4 ,,forming ,,lines ,,and ,,shadows4--,it is not my intention to furnish a complete treatise on this subject1 but to do two things1 one of which will be to show1 among other features1 how simple lines form objects2 how shading becomes an effective aid2 how proportions are formed2 and1 second1 how to make irregular forms1 and how they may readily be executed so that the boy may be able to grasp the ideas for all shapes and structural devices4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,line ,,shading4--,in the demonstration of this work ,i shall give an analysis of the simple lines formed1 showing the terms used to designate the lines1 curves1 and formations1 so that when any work is laid out the beginner will be able1 with this glossary before him1 to describe architecturally1 as well as mathematically1 the angles and curves with which he is working4 ,,how ,,to ,,characterize ,,surface4--,suppose we commence simply with straight lines4 ,how shall we determine the character of the surface of the material between the two straight lines shown in ,fig4 #abe8 ,is it flat1 rounded1 or concaved8 ,let us see how we may treat the surface by simple lines so as to indicate the configuration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,,concave ,,surfaces4--,in ,fig4 #abf the shading lines commence at the upper margin1 and are heaviest there1 the lines gradually growing thinner and farther apart4 ,,convex ,,surfaces4--,in ,fig4 #abg the shading is very light along the upper margin1 and heavy at the lower margin4 ,the first shaded figure1 therefore1 represents a concaved surface1 and the second figure a convex surface4 ,but why8 ,simply for the reason that in drawings1 as well as in nature1 light is projected downwardly1 hence when a beam of light moves past the margin of an object1 the contrast at the upper part1 where the light is most intense1 is strongest4 ,the shading of the ,s-shaped surface 7,fig4 #abh7 is a compound of ,figs4 #abf and #abg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,,shadows ,,from ,a ,,solid ,,body4--,we can understand this better by examining ,fig4 #abi1 which shows a vertical board1 and a beam of light 7,a7 passing downwardly beyond the upper margin of the board4 ,under these conditions the upper margin of the board appears darker to the vision1 by contrast1 than the lower part4 ,it should also be understood that1 in general1 the nearer the object the lighter it is1 so that as the upper edge of the board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading there will at least give the appearance of distance to that edge4 ,but suppose that instead of having the surface of the board flat1 it should be concaved1 as in ,fig4 #acj1 it is obvious that the hollow1 or the concaved1 portion of the board must intensify the shadows or the darkness at the upper edge4 ,this explains why the heavy shading in ,fig4 #abf is at that upper margin4 ,,flat ,,effects4--,if the board is flat it may be shaded1 as shown in ,fig4 #aca1 in which the lines are all of the same thickness1 and are spaced farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,light4--,now1 in drawing1 we must observe another thing4 ,not only does the light always come from above1 but it comes also from the left side4 ,i show in ,fig4 #acb two squares1 one within the other4 ,all the lines are of the same thickness4 ,can you determine by means of such a drawing what the inner square represents8 ,is it a block1 or raised surface1 or is it a depression8 ,,raised ,,surfaces4--,fig4 #acc shows it in the form of a block1 simply by thickening the lower and the right-hand lines4 ,,depressed ,,surfaces4--,if1 by chance1 you should make the upper and the left-hand lines heavy1 as in ,fig4 #acd1 it would1 undoubtedly1 appear depressed1 and would need no further explanation4 ,,full ,,shading1--,but1 in order to furnish an additional example of the effect of shading1 suppose we shade the surface of the large square1 as shown in ,fig4 #ace1 and you will at once see that not only is the effect emphasized1 but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show4 ,in like manner1 in ,fig4 #acf1 we shade only the space within the inner square1 and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface conformation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,,illustrating ,,cube ,,shading4--,in ,fig4 #acg ,i show merely nine lines joined together1 all lines being of equal thickness4 ,as thus drawn it may represent1 for instance1 a cube1 or it may show simply a square base 7,a7 with two sides 7,b1 ,b7 of equal dimensions4 ,,shading ,,effects4--,now1 to examine it properly so as to observe what the draughtsman wishes to express1 look at ,fig4 #ach1 in which the three diverging lines 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 are increased in thickness1 and the cube appears plainly4 ,on the other hand1 in ,fig4 #aci1 the thickening of the lines 7,d1 ,e1 ,f7 shows an entirely different structure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,it must be remembered1 therefore1 that to show raised surfaces the general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right vertical lines4 7,see ,fig4 #acc47 ,,heavy ,,lines4--,but there is an exception to this rule4 ,see two examples 7,fig4 #adj74 ,here two parallel lines appear close together to form the edge nearest the eye4 ,in such cases the second1 or upper1 line is heaviest4 ,on vertical lines1 as in ,fig4 #ada1 the second line from the right is heaviest4 ,these examples show plain geometrical lines1 and those from ,figs4 #ach to #ada1 inclusive1 are in perspective4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,,perspective4--,a perspective is a most deceptive figure1 and a cube1 for instance1 may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length1 and also be equidistant from each other4 ,or all the lines may be of the same length and have the distances between them vary4 ,supposing we have two cubes1 one located above the other1 separated1 say1 two feet or more from each other4 ,it is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not be the same to a camera1 because1 if they were photographed1 they would appear exactly as they are1 so far as their positions are concerned1 and not as they appear4 ,but the cubes do appear to the eye as having six equal sides4 ,the camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so far as measurement is concerned4 ,you will see1 therefore1 that the position of the eye1 relative to the cube1 is what determines the angle1 or the relative angles of all the lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,a ,,true ,,perspective ,,of ,a ,,cube4--,fig4 #adb shows a true perspective--that is1 it is true from the measurement standpoint4 ,it is what is called an isometrical view1 or a figure in which all the lines not only are of equal length1 but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same distances from each other4 ,,isometric ,,cube4--,i enclose this cube within a circle1 as in ,fig4 #adc4 ,to form this cube the circle 7,a7 is drawn and bisected with a vertical line 7,b74 ,this forms the starting point for stepping off the six points 7,c7 in the circle1 using the dividers without resetting1 after you have made the circle4 ,then connect each of the points 7,c7 by straight lines 7,d74 ,these lines are called chords4 ,from the center draw two lines 7,e7 at an angle and one line 7,f7 vertically4 ,these are the radial lines4 ,you will see from the foregoing that the chords 7,d7 form the outline of the cube--or the lines farthest from the eye1 and the radial lines 7,e1 ,f7 are the nearest to the eye4 ,in this position we are looking at the block at a true diagonal--that is1 from a corner at one side to the extreme corner on the opposite side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,let us contrast this1 and particularly ,fig4 #adb1 with the cube which is placed higher up1 viewed from the same standpoint4 ,,flattened ,,perspective4--,fig4 #add shows the new perspective1 in which the three vertical lines 7,a1 ,a1 ,a7 are of equal length1 and the six angularly disposed lines 7,b1 ,c7 are of equal length1 but shorter than the lines ,a4 ,the only change which has been made is to shorten the distance across the corner from ,d to ,d1 but the vertical lines 7,a7 are the same in length as the corresponding lines in ,fig4 #adc4 ,notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of the same size1 as1 in fact1 they really are4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,in forming a perspective1 therefore1 it would be a good idea for the boy to have a cube of wood always at hand1 which1 if laid down on a horizontal support1 alongside1 or within range of the object to be drawn1 will serve as a guide to the perspective4 ,,technical ,,designations4--,as all geometrical lines have designations1 ,i have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy1 each figure being accompanied by its proper definition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,before passing to that subject ,i can better show some of the simple forms by means of suitable diagrams4 ,referring to ,fig4 #ade1 let us direct our attention to the body 7,g71 formed by the line 7,d7 across the circle4 ,this body is called a segment4 ,a chord 7,d7 and a curve comprise a segment4 ,,sector ,,and ,,segment4--,now examine the shape of the body formed by two of the radial lines 7,e1 ,e7 and that part of the circle which extends from one radial line to the other4 ,the body thus formed is a sector1 and it is made by two radiating lines and a curved line4 ,learn to distinguish readily1 in your mind1 the difference between the two figures4 ,,terms ,,of ,,angles4--,the relation of the lines to each other1 the manner in which they are joined together1 and their comparative angles1 all have special terms and meanings4 ,thus1 referring to the isometric cube1 in ,fig4 #ade1 the angle formed at the center by the lines 7,b1 ,e7 is different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines 7,e1 ,f74 ,the angle formed by ,b1 ,e is called an exterior angle2 and that formed by ,e1 ,f is an interior angle4 ,if you will draw a line 7,g7 from the center to the circle line1 so it intersects it at ,c1 the lines ,b1 ,d1 ,g form an equilateral or isosceles triangle2 if you draw a chord 7,a7 from ,c to ,c1 the lines ,h1 ,e1 ,f will form an obtuse triangle1 and ,b1 ,f1 ,h a right-angled triangle4 ,,circles ,,and ,,curves4--,circles1 and1 in fact1 all forms of curved work1 are the most difficult for beginners4 ,the simplest figure is the circle1 which1 if it represents a raised surface1 is provided with a heavy line on the lower right-hand side1 as in ,fig4 #adf2 but the proper artistic expression is shown in ,fig4 #adg1 in which the lower right-hand side is shaded in rings running only a part of the way around1 gradually diminishing in length1 and spaced farther and farther apart as you approach the center1 thus giving the appearance of a sphere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,,irregular ,,curves4--,but the irregular curves require the most care to form properly4 ,let us try first the elliptical curve 7,fig4 #adh74 ,the proper thing is1 first1 to draw a line 7,a71 which is called the major axis4 ,on this axis we mark for our guidance two points 7,b1 ,b74 ,with the dividers find a point 7,c7 exactly midway1 and draw a cross line 7,d74 ,this is called the minor axis4 ,if we choose to do so we may indicate two points 7,e1 ,e7 on the minor axis1 which1 in this case1 for convenience1 are so spaced that the distance along the major axis1 between ,b1 ,b1 is twice the length across the minor axis 7,d71 along ,e1 ,e4 ,now find one-quarter of the distance from ,b to ,c1 as at ,f1 and with a compass pencil make a half circle 7,g74 ,if1 now1 you will set the compass point on the center mark 7,c71 and the pencil point of the compass on ,b1 and measure along the minor axis 7,d7 on both sides of the major axis1 you will make two points1 as at ,h4 ,these points are your centers for scribing the long sides of the ellipse4 ,before proceeding to strike the curved lines 7,j71 draw a diagonal line 7,k7 from ,h to each marking point 7,f74 ,do this on both sides of the major axis1 and produce these lines so they cross the curved lines 7,g74 ,when you ink in your ellipse do not allow the circle pen to cross the lines 7,k71 and you will have a mechanical ellipse4 ,,ellipses ,,and ,,ovals4--,it is not necessary to measure the centering points 7,f7 at certain specified distances from the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines4 ,we may take any point along the major axis1 as shown1 for instance1 in ,fig4 #adi4 ,let ,b be this point1 taken at random4 ,then describe the half circle 7,c74 ,we may1 also1 arbitrarily1 take any point1 as1 for instance1 ,d on the minor axis ,e1 and by drawing the diagonal lines 7,f7 we find marks on the circle 7,c71 which are the meeting lines for the large curve 7,h71 with the small curve 7,c74 ,in this case we have formed an ovate or an oval form4 ,experience will soon make perfect in following out these directions4 ,,focal ,,points4--,the focal point of a circle is its center1 and is called the focus4 ,but an ellipse has two focal points1 called foci1 represented by ,f1 ,f in ,fig4 #adh1 and by ,b1 ,b in ,fig4 #adi4 ,a produced line is one which extends out beyond the marking point4 ,thus in ,fig4 #adh that part of the line ,k between ,f and ,g represents the produced portion of line ,k4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,,spirals4--,there is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a circle pen than a spiral4 ,in ,fig4 #aej a horizontal and a vertical line 7,a1 ,b71 respectively1 are drawn1 and at their intersection a small circle 7,c7 is formed4 ,this now provides for four centering points for the circle pen1 on the two lines 7,a1 ,b74 ,intermediate these points indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines4 ,if you will now set the point of the compass at1 say1 the mark #c1 and the pencil point of the compass at ,d1 and make a curved mark one-eighth of the way around1 say1 to the radial line 7,e71 then put the point of the compass to #d1 and extend the pencil point of the compass so it coincides with the curved line just drawn1 and then again make another curve1 one-eighth of a complete circle1 and so on around the entire circle of marking points1 successively1 you will produce a spiral1 which1 although not absolutely accurate1 is the nearest approach with a circle pen4 ,to make this neatly requires care and patience4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,,perpendicular ,,and ,,vertical4--,a few words now as to terms4 ,the boy is often confused in determining the difference between perpendicular and vertical4 ,there is a pronounced difference4 ,vertical means up and down4 ,it is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls straight toward the center of the earth4 ,the word perpendicular1 as usually employed in astronomy1 means the same thing1 but in geometry1 or in drafting1 or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular line is at right angles to some other line4 ,suppose you put a square upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the roof1 and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof4 ,in this case the projecting leg is perpendicular to the roof4 ,never use the word vertical in this connection4 ,,signs ,,to ,,indicate ,,measurements4--,the small circle 77 is always used to designate degree4 ,thus #aj means ten degrees4 ,feet are indicated by the single mark '2 and two closely allied marks are for inches4 ,thus five feet ten inches should be written #e' #aj4 ,a large cross 77 indicates the word by1 and in expressing the term six feet by three feet two inches1 it should be written #f' #c'b4 ,the foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be acquired1 and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing intelligible work2 but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go into the more refined phases of the subject4 ,,definitions4--,the following figures show the various geometrical forms and their definitions3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4-;,fig4 #afe4 #aea4 ,abscissa4--,the point in a curve1 ,a1 which is referred to by certain lines1 such as ,b1 which extend out from an axis1 ,x1 or the ordinate line ,z4 #aeb4 ,angle4--,the inclosed space near the point where two lines meet4 #aec4 ,apothegm4--,the perpendicular line ,a from the center to one side of a regular polygon4 ,it represents the radial line of a polygon the same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle4 #aed4 ,apsides or ,apsis4--,one of two points1 ,a1 ,a1 of an orbit1 oval or ellipse farthest from the axis1 or the two small dots4 #aee4 ,chord4--,a right line1 as ,a1 uniting the extremities of the arc of a circle or a curve4 #aef4 ,convolute 7see also ,involute74--,usually employed to designate a wave or folds in opposite directions4 ,a double involute4 #aeg4 ,conic ,section4--,having the form of or resembling a cone4 ,formed by cutting off a cone at any angle4 ,see line ,a4 #aeh4 ,conoid4--,anything that has a form resembling that of a cone4 #aei4 ,cycloid4--,a curve1 ,a1 generated by a point1 ,b1 in the plane of a circle or wheel1 ,c1 when the wheel is rolled along a straight line4 #afj4 ,ellipsoid4--,a solid1 all plane sections of which are ellipses or circles4 #afa4 ,epicycloid4--,a curve1 ,a1 traced by a point1 ,b1 in the circumference of a wheel1 ,c1 which rolls on the convex side of a fixed circle1 ,d4 #afb4 ,evolute4--,a curve1 ,a1 from which another curve1 like ,b1 on each of the inner ends of the lines ,c is made4 ,d is a spool1 and the lines ,c represent a thread at different positions4 ,the thread has a marker1 ,e1 so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker ,e makes the evolute line ,a4 #afc4 ,focus4--,the center1 ,a1 of a circle2 also one of the two centering points1 ,b1 of an ellipse or an oval4 #afd4 ,gnome4--,the space included between the boundary lines of two similar parallelograms1 the one within the other1 with an angle in common4 #afe4 ,hyperbola4--,a curve1 ,a1 formed by the section of a cone4 ,if the cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line1 ,a1 the curve is a hyperbola4 ,see ,parabola4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4-;,fig4 #ahd4 #afg4 ,hypothenuse4--,the side1 ,a1 of a right-angled triangle which is opposite to the right angle ,b1 ,c4 ,a1 regular triangle2 ,c1 irregular triangle4 #afh4 ,incidence4--,the angle1 ,a1 which is the same angle as1 for instance1 a ray of light1 ,b1 which falls on a mirror1 ,c4 ,the line ,d is the perpendicular4 #afi4 ,isosceles ,triangle4--,having two sides or legs1 ,a1 ,a1 that are equal4 #agj4 ,parabola4--,one of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone so that the cut line1 ,a1 is not vertical4 ,see ,hyperbola where the cut line is vertical4 #aga4 ,parallelogram4--,a right-lined quadrilateral figure1 whose opposite sides1 ,a1 ,a1 or ,b1 ,b1 are parallel and consequently equal4 #agb4 ,pelecoid4--,a figure1 somewhat hatchet-shaped1 bounded by a semicircle1 ,a1 and two inverted quadrants1 and equal to a square1 ,c4 #agc4 ,polygons4--,many-sided and many with angles4 #agd4 ,pyramid4--,a solid structure generally with a square base and having its sides meeting in an apex or peak4 ,the peak is the vertex4 #age4 ,quadrant4--,the quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a circle4 ,a horizontal line1 ,a1 and a vertical line1 ,b1 make the four quadrants1 like ,c4 #agf4 ,quadrilateral4--,a plane figure having four sides1 and consequently four angles4 ,any figure formed by four lines4 #agg4 ,rhomb4--,an equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the opposite sides1 ,b1 ,b1 parallel4 #agh4 ,sector4--,a part1 ,a1 of a circle formed by two radial lines1 ,b1 ,b1 and bounded at the end by a curve4 #agi4 ,segment4--,a part1 ,a1 cut from a circle by a straight line1 ,b4 ,the straight line1 ,b1 is the chord or the segmental line4 #ahj4 ,sinusoid4--,a wave-like form4 ,it may be regular or irregular4 #aha4 ,tangent4--,a line1 ,a1 running out from the curve at right angles from a radial line4 #ahb4 ,tetrahedron4--,a solid figure enclosed or bounded by four triangles1 like ,a or ,b4 ,a plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles4 #ahc4 ,vertex4--,the meeting point1 ,a1 of two or more lines4 #ahd4 ,volute4--,a spiral scroll1 used largely in architecture1 which forms one of the chief features of the ,ionic capital4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,moldings1 ,,with ,,practical ,,illustrations ,,in ,,embellishing ,,work ,,moldings4--,the use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of antiquity1 and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which the ,phoenecians1 the ,greeks and the ,romans produced4 ,if you analyze the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs which go to make up the wonderful columns1 spires1 minarets and domes which are represented in the various types of architecture4 ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,moldings4--,suppose we take the base type of moldings1 and see how simple they are and then1 by using these forms1 try to build up or ornament some article of furniture1 as an example of their utility4 ,,the ,,simplest ,,molding4--,in ,fig4 #ahe we show a molding of the most elementary character known1 being simply in the form of a band 7,a7 placed below the cap4 ,such a molding gives to the article on which it is placed three distinct lines1 ,c1 ,d and ,e4 ,if you stop to consider you will note that the molding1 while it may add to the strength of the article1 is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce shadows1 and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense4 ,,the ,,astragal4--,fig4 #ahf shows the ankle-bone molding1 technically called the ,astragal4 ,this form is round1 and properly placed produces a good effect1 as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,band4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,astragal or ,ankle ,bone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,cavetto4 ,concave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,ovolo4 ,quarter round4 ,,the ,,cavetto4--,fig4 #ahg is the cavetto1 or round type4 ,its proper use gives a delicate outline1 but it is principally applied with some other form of molding4 ,,the ,,ovolo4--,fig4 #ahh1 called the ovolo1 is a quarter round molding with the lobe 7,a7 projecting downwardly4 ,it is distinguished from the astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below4 ,,the ,,torus4--,fig4 #ahi1 known as the torus1 is a modified form of the ovolo1 but the lobe 7,a7 projects out horizontally instead of downwardly4 ,,the ,,apophyges 7,pronounced apof-i-ges74--,fig4 #aij is also called the scape1 and is a concaved type of molding1 being a hollowed curvature used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the fillet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,torus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,apophyge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,cymatium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,ogee-,recta4 ,,the ,,cymatium4--,fig4 #aia is the cymatium 7derived from the word cyme71 meaning wave-like4 ,this form must be in two curves1 one inwardly and one outwardly4 ,,the ,,ogee4--,fig4 #aib1 called the ogee1 is the most useful of all moldings1 for two reasons3 ,first1 it may have the concaved surface uppermost1 in which form it is called ogee recta--that is1 right side up2 or it may be inverted1 as in ,fig4 #aic1 with the concaved surface below1 and is then called ogee reversa4 ,contrast these two views and you will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the appearance4 ,second1 because the ogee has in it1 in a combined form1 the outlines of nearly all the other types4 ,the only advantage there is in using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your work better than by using only one simple form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,ogee-,reversa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,bead or ,reedy4 ,you will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium1 the difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the ogee1 and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee4 ,it is capable of use with other moldings1 and may be reversed with just as good effect as the ogee4 ,,the ,,reedy4--,fig4 #aid represents the reedy1 or the bead--that is1 it is made up of reeds4 ,it is a type of molding which should not be used with any other pronounced type of molding4 ,,the ,,casement 7,fig4 #aie74--;,in this we have a form of molding used almost exclusively at the base of structures1 such as columns1 porticoes and like work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,casement4 ,now1 before proceeding to use these moldings1 let us examine a ,roman-,doric column1 one of the most famous types of architecture produced4 ,we shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce grace1 lights and shadows and artistic effects4 ,,the ,,roman-,,doric ,,column4--,in ,fig4 #aif is shown a ,roman-,doric column1 in which the cymatium1 the ovolo1 cavetto1 astragal and the ogee are used1 together with the fillets1 bases and caps1 and it is interesting to study this because of its beautiful proportions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,the pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the entablature and capital4 ,the entablature is but slightly narrower than the pedestal2 and the length of the column is1 approximately1 four times the height of the pedestal4 ,the base of the shaft1 while larger diametrically than the capital1 is really shorter measured vertically4 ,there is a reason for this4 ,the eye must travel a greater distance to reach the upper end of the shaft1 and is also at a greater angle to that part of the shaft1 hence it appears shorter1 while it is in reality longer4 ,for this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base of a shaft1 and it is also smaller in diameter4 ,it will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful blending of the various forms of moldings1 but because it will impress you with a sense of proportions1 and give you an idea of how simple lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work4 ,,lessons ,,from ,,the ,,doric ,,column4--,as an example1 suppose we take a plain cabinet1 and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding described1 and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be carried4 ,,applying ,,molding4--,let ,fig4 #aig represent the front1 top and bottom of our cabinet2 and the first thing we shall do is to add a base 7,a7 and a cap 7,b74 ,now1 commencing at the top1 suppose we utilize the simplest form of molding1 the band4 ,this we may make of any desired width1 as shown in ,fig4 #aih4 ,on this band we can apply the ogee type 7,fig4 #aii7 right side up4 ,but for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed1 as in ,fig4 #bjj4 ,this will afford us something else to think about and will call upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or edge of the ogee reversa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,if we take the ogee recta1 as shown in ,fig4 #bja1 we may use the cavetto1 or the ovolo 7,fig4 #bjb72 but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a convex molding like the cavetto at one base1 and a convex molding1 like the torus or the ovolo1 at the other base4 ,in the latter 7,fig4 #bjb7 four different moldings are used with the ogee as the principal structure4 ,,base ,,embellishments4--,in like manner 7,fig4 #bjd7 the base may have the casement type first attached in the corner1 and then the ovolo1 or the astragal added1 as in ,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,,straight-,,faced ,,moldings4--,now let us carry the principle still further1 and1 instead of using various type of moldings1 we will employ nothing but straight strips of wood4 ,this treatment will soon indicate to you that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of whatever he finds at hand4 ,let us take the same cabinet front 7,fig4 #bje71 and below the cap 7,a7 place a narrow strip 7,b71 the lower corner of which has been chamfered off1 as at ,c4 ,below the strip ,b is a thinner strip 7,d71 vertically disposed1 and about two-thirds its width4 ,the lower corner of this is also chamfered1 as at ,f4 ,to finish1 apply a small strip 7,g7 in the corner1 and you have an embellished top that has the appearance1 from a short distance1 of being made up of molding4 ,,plain ,,molded ,,base4--,the base may be treated in the same manner4 ,the main strip 7#d7 has its upper corner chamfered off1 as at ,i1 and on this is nailed a thin1 narrow finishing strip 7,j74 ,the upper part or molded top1 in this case1 has eleven distinct lines1 and the base has six lines4 ,by experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of molding strips4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,,diversified ,,uses4--,for a great overhang you may use the cavetto1 or the apophyges1 and below that the astragal or the torus2 and for the base the casement is the most serviceable molding1 and it may be finished off with the ovolo or the cymatium4 ,pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the diversification available with different types4 ,,shadows ,,cast ,,by ,,moldings4--,always bear in mind that a curved surface makes a blended shadow4 ,a straight1 flat or plain surface does not1 and it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces1 brought out by moldings1 become so important4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,a little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex1 a concave or a flat surface1 and a corner or corners should be arranged relatively to each other2 how much one should project beyond the other2 and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should be4 ,an entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject4 ,,chapter ,x ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,tenoning1 ,,mortising1 ,,rabbeting ,,and ,,beading ,in the chapter on ,how ,work is ,laid ,out1 an example was given of the particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons1 and also dovetailed work4 ,i deem it advisable to add some details to the subject1 as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly belong to the laying out of work4 ,,where ,,mortises ,,should ,,be ,,used4--,most important of all is a general idea of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to4 ,there are four ways in which different members may be secured to each other4 ,first1 by mortises and tenons2 second1 by a lap-and-butt2 third1 by scarfing2 and1 fourth1 by tonguing and grooving4 ,,depth ,,of ,,mortises4--,when a certain article is to be made1 the first consideration is1 how the joint or joints shall be made4 ,the general rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each other1 as in the following figure4 ,,rule ,,for ,,mortises4--,fig4 #bjf shows such an example4 ,you will notice this in doors particularly1 as an example of work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,the next consideration is1 shall the mortises be cut entirely through the piece8 ,this is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of the tenon will be exposed2 and usually1 if a smooth finish is required1 the mortise should not go through the member4 ,in a door1 however1 the tenons are exposed at the edges of the door1 and are1 therefore1 seen1 so that we must apply some other rule4 ,the one universally adopted is1 that where1 as in a door stile1 it is broad and comparatively thin1 or where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than its width1 the mortise should go through from edge to edge4 ,the reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through the stile 7,a1 ,fig4 #bjg7 perfectly true1 and usually the job is turned out something like the illustration shows4 ,the side of the rail 7,b7 must be straight with the side of the stile4 ,if the work is done by machinery it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,,true ,,mortise ,,work4--,the essense of good joining work is the ability to sink the chisel true with the side of the member4 ,more uneven work is produced by haste than by inability4 ,the tendency of all beginners is to strike the chisel too hard1 in order the more quickly to get down to the bottom of the mortise4 ,hence1 bad work follows4 ,,steps ,,in ,,cutting ,,mortises4--,examine ,fig4 #bjh1 which1 for convenience1 gives six successive steps in making the mortise4 ,the marks a1 b designate the limits1 or the length1 of the mortise4 ,the chisel 7,c7 is not started at the marking line 7,a71 but at least an eighth of an inch from it4 ,the first cut1 as at ,b1 gives a starting point for the next cut or placement of the chisel4 ,when the second cut 7,b7 has thus been made1 the chisel should be turned around1 as in dotted line d1 position ,c1 thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise1 line e1 so that when the fourth cut has been made along line f1 we are ready for the fifth cut1 position ,c2 then the sixth cut1 position ,d1 which leaves the mortise as shown at ,e4 ,then turn the chisel to the position shown at ,f1 and cut down the last end of the mortise square1 as shown in ,g1 and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on the marking lines 7a1 b74 ,the particular reason for cleaning out the mortise before making the finish cuts is1 that the corners of the mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels1 and the eighth of an inch stock still remaining protects the corners4 ,,things ,,to ,,avoid ,,in ,,mortising4--,you must be careful to refrain from undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines a1 b1 because if you commit this error you will make a bad joint4 ,as much care should be exercised in producing the tenon1 although the most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder4 ,this should be a trifle undercut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,see the lines 7,a1 ,fig4 #bji71 which illustrate this4 ,,lap-,,and-,,butt ,,joint4--,the lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members which is most generally used to splice together timbers1 where they join each other end to end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,bolts are used to secure the laps4 ,but the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet work4 ,it is of great service in paneling4 ,a rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel1 and a molding is then secured to the other side on the panel1 to hold the latter in place4 ,,scarfing4--,this method of securing members together is the most rigid1 and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the timber4 ,each member 7,a1 ,fig4 #bab7 has a step diagonally cut 7,b71 the two steps being on different planes1 so they form a hook joint1 as at ,c1 and as each point or terminal has a blunt end1 the members are so constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction4 ,the overlapping plates 7,d7 and the bolts 7,e7 hold the joint rigidly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,,the ,,tongue ,,and ,,groove4--,this form of uniting members has only a limited application4 ,it is serviceable for floors1 table tops1 paneling1 etc4 ,in ,fig4 #bac1 a door panel is shown1 and the door mullions 7,b7 are also so secured to the rail 7,c74 ,the tongue-and-groove method is never used by itself4 ,it must always have some support or reinforcing means4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,,beading4--,this part of the work pertains to surface finishings1 and may or may not be used in connection with rabbeting4 ,figs4 #bad and #bae show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting1 or with the tongue and groove4 ,the bead is placed on one or both sides of that margin of the board 7,fig4 #bad7 which has the tongue1 and the adjoining board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the tongue4 ,it is frequently the case that a blind bead1 as in ,fig4 #bae1 runs through the middle of the board1 so as to give the appearance of narrow strips when used for wainscoting1 or for ceilings4 ,the beads also serve to hide the joints of the boards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,,ornamental ,,bead ,,finish4--,these figures show how the bead may be used for finishing corners1 edges and projections4 ,fig4 #baf has a bead at each corner of a stile 7,a71 and a finishing strip of half-round material 7,b7 is nailed to the flat edge4 ,fig4 #bag has simply the corners themselves beaded1 and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of projecting members4 ,fig4 #bah1 used for wider members1 has the corners beaded and a fancy molding 7,c72 or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,,the ,,bead ,,and ,,rabbet4--,a more amplified form of work is available where the rabbet plane is used with the beader4 ,these two planes together will1 if properly used1 offer a strong substitute for molding and molding effects4 ,fig4 #bai has both sides first rabbeted1 as at ,a1 and the corners then beaded1 as at ,b1 with the reduced part of the member rounded off1 as at ,c4 ,or1 as in ,fig4 #bbj1 the reduced edge of the member may have the corners beaded1 as at ,d1 and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round or concaved moulding 7,e74 ,,shading ,,with ,,beads ,,and ,,rabbets4--,you will see from the foregoing1 that these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows2 and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which this class of work requires4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,house ,,building ,house building is the carpenter's craft2 cabinet-making the joiner's trade1 yet both are so intimately associated1 that it is difficult to draw a line4 ,the same tools1 the same methods and the same materials are employed4 ,there is no trade more ennobling than home building4 ,it is a vocation which touches every man and woman1 and to make it really an art is1 or should be1 the true aspiration of every craftsman4 ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,embellishments4--,the refined arts1 such as sculpture and painting1 merely embellish the home or the castle1 so that when we build the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and convenience1 but fitting in an artistic and sthetic sense4 ,it is just as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly1 ungainly1 illy proportioned structure4 ,,beauty ,,not ,,ornamentation4--,the boy1 in his early training1 should learn this fundamental truth1 that beauty1 architecturally1 does not depend upon ornamentation4 ,some of the most beautiful structures in the world are very plain4 ,beauty consists in proportions1 in proper correlation of parts1 and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be put4 ,,plain ,,structures4--,a house with a plain faade1 having a roof properly pitched and with a simple cornice1 if joined to a wing which is not ungainly or out of proper proportions1 is infinitely more beautiful than a rambling structure1 in which one part suggests one order of architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all1 and in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or pretensions of the house4 ,,colonial ,,type4--,for real beauty1 on a larger scale1 there is nothing to-day which equals the old ,colonial type with the ,corinthian columns and entablature4 ,the ,lee mansion1 now the ,national ,cemetery1 at ,washington1 is a fine example4 ,such houses are usually square or rectangular in plan1 severely plain1 with the whole ornamentation consisting of the columns and the portico4 ,this type presents an appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is concentrated or massed at one point4 ,the ,church of the ,madelaine1 ,paris1 is another striking example of this period of architecture4 ,of course1 it would be out of place with cottages and small houses1 but it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and desirable to adopt1 and particularly to know something of the art in which you are interested4 ,,the ,,roof ,,the ,,keynote4--,now1 there is one thing which should1 and does1 distinguish the residence from other types of buildings1 excepting churches4 ,it is the roof4 ,a house is dominated by its covering4 ,i refer to the modern home4 ,it is not true with the ,colonial or the ,grecian types4 ,in those the faade or the columns and cornices predominate over everything else4 ,,bungalow ,,types4--,if you will take up any book on bungalow work and note the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main element or theme4 ,in fact1 in most buildings of this kind everything is submerged but the roof and roof details4 ,they are made exceedingly flat1 with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and indiscriminately placed1 with cornices illy assorted and of different kinds1 so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an appearance of great elaboration4 ,many of those designs are monstrosities and should1 if possible1 be legally prohibited4 ,i cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes art in its relation to building1 but my object is to call attention to this phase of the question1 and as you proceed in your studies and your work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing observations4 ,,general ,,house ,,building4--,we are to treat1 generally1 on the subject of house building1 how the work is laid out1 and how built1 and in doing so ,i shall take a concrete example of the work4 ,this can be made more effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines4 ,,building ,,plans4--,we must first have a plan2 and the real carpenter must have the ability to plan as well as to do the work4 ,we want a five-room house1 comprising a parlor1 dining room1 two bedrooms1 a kitchen and a bathroom4 ,just a modest little home1 to which we can devote our spare hours1 and which will be neat and comfortable when finished4 ,it must be a one-story house1 and that fact at once settles the roof question4 ,we can make the house perfectly square in plan1 or rectangular1 and divide up the space into the proper divisions4 ,,the ,,plain ,,square ,,floor ,,plan will first be taken up1 as it is such an easy roof to build4 ,of course1 it is severely plain4 ,fig4 #bba shows our proposed plan1 drawn in the rough1 without any attempts to measure the different apartments1 and with the floor plan exactly square4 ,supposing we run a hall 7,a7 through the middle4 ,on one side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen1 a portion of the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,the chimney 7,b7 must be made accessible from both rooms4 ,on the other side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms4 ,,the ,,rectangular ,,plan4--,in the rectangular floor plan 7,fig4 #bbb7 a portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch 7,a71 so that we may use the end or the side for the entrance4 ,supposing we use the end of the house for this purpose4 ,the entrance room 7,b7 may be a bedroom1 or a reception and living room1 and to the rear of this room is the dining room1 connected with the reception room by a hall 7,c74 ,this hall also leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom1 as well as to the other bedroom4 ,the parlor is connected with the entrance room 7,b71 and also with the bedroom4 ,all of this is optional1 of course4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,there are also two chimneys1 one chimney 7,d7 having two flues and the other chimney 7,e7 having three flues1 so that every room is accommodated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,,room ,,measurements4--,we must now determine the dimensions of each room1 and then how we shall build the roof4 ,in ,figs4 #bbc and #bbd1 we have now drawn out in detail the sizes1 the locations of the door and windows1 the chimneys and the closets1 as well as the bathroom4 ,all this work may be changed or modified to suit conditions and the taste of the designer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,,front ,,and ,,side ,,lines4--,from the floor diagram1 and the door and window spaces1 as marked out1 we may now proceed to lay out rough front and side outlines of the building4 ,the ceilings are to be #i feet1 and if we put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure 7,fig4 #bbc7 the front may look something like ,fig4 #bbe1 and a greater pitch given to the rectangular plan 7,fig4 #bbd7 will present a view as shown in ,fig4 #bbf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,,the ,,roof4--,the pitch of the roof 7,fig4 #bbe7 is what is called third pitch1 and the roof 7,fig4 #bbf7 has a half pitch4 ,a third pitch is determined as follows3 ,,roof ,,pitch4--,in ,fig4 #bbg draw a vertical line 7,a7 and join it by a horizontal line 7,b74 ,then strike a circle 7,c7 and step it off into three parts4 ,the line 7,d71 which intersects the first mark 7,e7 and the angle of the lines 7,a1 ,b71 is the pitch4 ,in ,fig4 #bbh the line ,a is struck at #ae degrees1 which is halfway between lines ,b and ,c1 and it is1 therefore1 termed half-pitch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,thus1 we have made the ground plans1 the elevations and the roofs as simple as possible4 ,let us proceed next with the details of the building4 ,,the ,,foundation4--,this may be of brick1 stone or concrete1 and its dimensions should be at least #a-a_/b inches further out than the sill4 ,,the ,,sills4--,we are going to build what is called a balloon frame2 and1 first1 we put down the sills1 which will be a course of #b #f1 or #b #h joists1 as in ,fig4 #bbi4 ,,the ,,flooring ,,joist4--,the flooring joists 7,a7 are then put down 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,these should extend clear across the house from side to side1 if possible1 or1 if the plan is too wide1 they should be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together4 ,the ends should extend out flush with the outer margins of the sills1 as shown1 but in putting down the first and last sill1 space must be left along the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place the studding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,,the ,,studding4--,the next step is to put the studding into position4 #d #d must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window openings4 #d #f may be used at corners1 if preferred4 ,consult your plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows4 ,measure the widths of the door and window frames1 and make a measuring stick for this purpose4 ,you must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the window or door frame1 so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the frame4 ,,setting ,,up4--,first set up the corner posts1 plumbing and bracing them4 ,cut a top plate for each side you are working on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,,the ,,plate4--,as it will be necessary in our job to use two or more lengths of #b #d scantling for the plate1 it will be necessary to join them together4 ,do this with a lap-and-butt joint 7,fig4 #bca74 ,then set up the #d #d posts for the sides of the doors and windows1 and for the partition walls4 ,the plate should be laid down on the sill1 and marked with a pencil for every scantling to correspond with the sill markings4 ,the plate is then put on and spiked to the #d #d posts4 ,,intermediate ,,studding4--,it will then be an easy matter to put in the intermediate #b #d studding1 placing them as nearly as possible #af inches apart to accommodate the #dh-;inch plastering lath4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,,wall ,,headers4--,when all the studding are in you will need headers above and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors1 so that you will have timbers to nail the siding to1 as well as for the lathing4 ,,ceiling ,,joists4--,we are now ready for the ceiling joists1 which are1 usually1 #b #f1 unless there is an upper floor4 ,these are laid #af inches apart from center to center1 preferably parallel with the floor joist4 ,it should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on with reference to the roof4 ,thus1 in ,fig4 #bcb1 the ceiling joists 7,a7 have their ends resting on the plate 7,b71 so that the rafters are in line with the joists4 ,,braces4--,it would also be well1 in putting up the studding1 to use plenty of braces1 although for a one-story building this is not so essential as in two-story structures1 because the weather boarding serves as a system of bracing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,,the ,,rafters4--,these may be made to provide for the gutter or not1 as may be desired4 ,they should be of #b #d scantling4 ,,the ,,gutter4--,in ,fig4 #bcc ,i show a most serviceable way to provide for the gutter4 ,a ,v-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter1 in which is placed the floor and a side4 ,this floor piece is raised at one end to provide an incline for the water4 ,a face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters4 ,this face-board is surmounted by a cap1 which has an overhang1 beneath which is a molding of any convenient pattern4 ,the face-board projects down at least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter1 so that when the base-board is applied1 the lower margin of the face-board will project one inch below the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,this base-board is horizontal1 as you will see4 ,the facia-board may be of any desired width1 and a corner molding should be added4 ,it is optional to use the brackets1 but if added they should be spaced apart a distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket4 ,a much simpler form of gutter is shown in ,fig4 #bcd1 in which a ,v-shaped notch is also cut in the rafter1 and the channel is made by the pieces4 ,the end of the rafter is cut at right angles1 so the face-board is at an angle4 ,this is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding4 ,the base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters1 and the facia is then applied4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd;a4 ,in ,fig4 #bcd;a the roof has no gutter1 so that the end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board4 ,the base is nailed to the rafters4 ,this is the cheapest and simplest form of structure for the roof4 ,,setting ,,door ,,and ,,window ,,frames4--,the next step in order is to set the door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding4 ,it is then ready for the roof1 which should be put on before the floor is laid4 ,,plastering ,,and ,,inside ,,finish4--,next in order is the plastering1 then the base-boards and the casing2 and1 finally1 the door and windows should be fitted into position4 ,enough has been said here merely to give a general outline1 with some details1 how to proceed with the work4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,bridges1 ,,trussed ,,work ,,and ,,like ,,structures ,,bridges4--,bridge building is not1 strictly1 a part of the carpenter's education at the present day1 because most structures of this kind are now built of steel2 but there are certain principles involved in bridge construction which the carpenter should master4 ,,self-,,supporting ,,roofs4--,in putting up1 for instance1 self-supporting roofs1 or ceilings with wide spans1 and steeples or towers1 the bridge principle of trussed members should be understood4 ,the most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known ,a-shaped arch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,,common ,,trusses4--,one form is shown in ,fig4 #bce1 with a vertical king post4 ,in ,fig4 #bcf there are two vertical supporting members1 called queen posts1 used in longer structures4 ,both of these forms are equally well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports4 ,,the ,,vertical ,,upright ,,truss4--,this form of truss naturally develops into a type of wooden bridge known all over the country1 as its framing is simple1 and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily be made4 ,figs4 #bcg1 #bch and #bci illustrate these forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,,the ,,warren ,,girder4--,out of this simple truss grew the ,warren girder1 a type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction4 ,this is the simplest form for metal bridge truss1 or girder4 ,it is now also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring strength with small weight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,,the ,,bowstring ,,girder4--,only one other form of bridge truss need be mentioned here1 and that is the bowstring shown in ,fig4 #bdj4 ,in this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust1 and the chords act merely as suspending members4 ,,fundamental ,,truss ,,form4--,in every form of truss1 whether for building or for bridge work1 the principles of the famous ,a-truss must be employed in some form or other2 and the boy who is experimentally inclined will readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a specified weight4 ,there are rules for all these problems1 some of them very intricate1 but all of them intensely interesting4 ,it will be a valuable addition to your knowledge to give this subject earnest study4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,best ,,woods ,,for ,,the ,,beginner ,in this place consideration will be given to some of the features relating to the materials to be employed1 particularly with reference to the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage1 rather than to their uses4 ,,the ,,best ,,woods4--,the prime wood1 and the one with which most boys are familiar1 is white pine4 ,it has an even texture throughout1 is generally straight grained1 and is soft and easily worked4 ,white pine is a wood requiring a very sharp tool4 ,it is1 therefore1 the best material for the beginner1 as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of keeping the tools in a good1 sharp condition4 ,,soft ,,woods4--,it is also well for the novice to do his initial work with a soft wood1 because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be easily corrected4 ,if1 for instance1 in mortising and tenoning1 the edge of the mortised member is not true1 or1 rather1 is not square1 the shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does1 and thus leave a crack1 if the wood is hard4 ,if the wood is soft there is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together4 ,therefore1 until you have learned how to make a true joint1 use soft wood4 ,poplar is another good wood for the beginner1 as well as redwood1 a western product4 ,,hard ,,woods4--,of the hard woods1 cherry is the most desirable for the carpenter's tool4 ,for working purposes it has all the advantages of a soft wood1 and none of its disadvantages4 ,it is not apt to warp1 like poplar or birch1 and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other wood1 excepting redwood4 ,there is practically no shrinkage in redwood4 ,,the ,,most ,,difficult ,,woods4--,ash is by far the most difficult wood to work4 ,while not as hard as oak1 it has the disadvantage that the entire board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard1 while the intervening layers between these ribs are soft1 and have open pores1 so that1 for instance1 in making a mortise1 the chisel is liable to follow the hard ribs1 if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the mortise4 ,,the ,,hard-,,ribbed ,,grain ,,in ,,wood4--,this peculiarity of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood when finished4 ,of the light-colored woods1 oak only excels it1 because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a wider band1 and the interstices between the ribs have stronger contrasting colors than ash2 so that in filling the surface1 before finishing it1 the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast4 ,,the ,,easiest ,,working ,,woods4--,the same thing may be said1 relatively1 concerning cherry and walnut4 ,while cherry has a beautiful finishing surface1 the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in walnut4 ,oregon pine is extremely hard to work1 owing to the same difficulties experienced in handling ash2 but the finished ,oregon pine surface makes it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture4 ,do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade4 ,confine yourself to pine1 poplar1 cherry and walnut4 ,these woods are all easily obtainable everywhere1 and from them you can make a most creditable variety of useful articles4 ,sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list4 ,sugar1 particularly1 is a good-working wood1 but maple is more difficult4 ,spruce1 on the other hand1 is the strongest and toughest wood1 considering its weight1 which is but a little more than that of pine4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,working ,,of ,,woods4--,different woods are not worked with equal facility by all the tools4 ,oak is an easy wood to handle with a saw1 but is1 probably1 aside from ash1 the most difficult wood known to plane4 ,ash is hard for the saw or the plane4 ,on the other hand1 there is no wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry4 ,pine is easily worked with a plane1 but difficult to saw2 not on account of hardness1 but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it4 ,,forcing ,,saws ,,in ,,wood4--,one of the reasons why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine4 ,for cross-cutting1 the saw should have fine teeth1 not heavily set1 and evenly filed4 ,to do a good job of cross-cutting1 the saw must be held at a greater angle1 or should lay down flatter than in ripping1 as by so doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the saw should be held more nearly vertical4 ,these general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of intelligence before you commence work4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,wood ,,turning ,,advantages ,,of ,,wood ,,turning4--,this is not1 strictly1 in the carpenter's domain2 but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the trade1 and particularly in cabinet making4 ,i urge the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe1 for the reason that it is a tool easily made and one which may be readily turned by foot1 if other power is not available4 ,,simple ,,turning ,,lathe4--,a very simple turning lathe may be made by following these instructions3 ,,the ,,rails4--,procure two straight #b #d scantling 7,a71 four feet long1 and planed on all sides4 ,bore four #c_/h-;inch holes at each end1 as shown1 and #aj inches from one end four more holes4 ,a plan of these holes is shown in ,b1 where the exact spacing is indicated4 ,then prepare two pieces #b #d scantling 7,c71 planed1 #db inches long1 one end of each being chamfered off1 as at #b1 and provided with four bolt holes4 ,ten inches down1 and on the same side1 with the chamfer 7#b7 is a cross gain 7#c71 the same angle as the chamfer4 ,midway between the cross gain 7#c7 and the lower end of the leg is a gain 7#d7 in the edge1 at right angles to the cross gain 7#c74 ,,the ,,legs4--,now prepare two legs 7,d7 for the tail end of the frame1 each #cb inches long1 with a chamfer 7#e7 at one end1 and provided with four bolt holes4 ,at the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece4 ,this piece 7,e7 is #d #d1 #ba inches long1 and has a bolt hole at each end and one near the middle4 ,the next piece 7,f7 is #b #d1 #ad-a_/b inches long1 provided with a rebate 7#f7 at each end1 to fit the cross gains 7#d7 of the legs 7,c74 ,near the middle is a journal block 7#g74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,frame details4 ,,centering ,,blocks4--,next provide a #d #d piece 7,g71 #dj inches long1 through which bore a #c_/d-;inch hole 7#h71 #b inches from the upper end1 and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole 7#h74 ,then1 with a saw split down this bearing1 as shown at #i1 to a point #d inches from the end4 ,ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains 7#aj71 each an inch deep and four inches wide4 ,in these gains are placed the top rails 7,a71 so the bolt holes in the gains 7#aj7 will coincide with the bolt holes 7#aa7 in the piece ,a4 ,below the gains 7#aj7 this post has a journal block 7#ab71 intended to be in line with the journal block 7#g7 of the piece ,f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,tail ,stock4 ,then make a block 7,h7 #b #d1 and #f inches long4 ,this also must have a shaft hole 7,b71 and a saw kerf 7#ad71 similar to the arrangement on the upper end of the post 7,g72 also bore four bolt holes1 as shown4 ,this block rests between the upper ends of the lugs 7,c74 ,another block 7,i71 #b #d1 and #f feet long1 with four bolt holes1 will be required for the tail end of the frame1 to keep the rails 7,a7 two inches apart at that end4 ,,the ,,tail ,,stock4--,this part of the structure is made of the following described material3 ,procure a scantling 7,j71 planed1 #d #d1 #bd inches long1 the upper end of which is to be provided with four bolt holes1 and a centering hole 7#ae74 ,at the lower end of the piece is a slot 7#af7 #h inches long and #a-a_/b inches wide1 and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end4 ,a pair of cheekpieces 7,k71 #b #d1 and each #ab inches long1 are mitered at the ends1 and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may be bolted to the upright 7,j74 ,then a step wedge 7,l7 is made of #a-c_/h #b material1 #aj inches long4 ,this has at least four steps 7#ag71 each step being #b inches long4 ,a wedge #a-c_/h inches thick1 #aj inches long1 and tapering from #b inches to #a-c_/h inches1 completes the tail-stock4 ,,the ,,tool ,,rest4--,this is the most difficult part of the whole lathe1 as it must be rigid1 and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the lathe4 ,select a good #d #d scantling 7,m71 #ad inches long1 as shown in ,fig4 #bdc4 ,two inches from one end cut a cross gain 7,i71 #a-a_/b inches deep and #a inch wide1 and round off the upper edge1 as at #b4 ,then prepare a piece 7,n71 #a inch thick1 #h inches wide1 and #aj inches long4 ,round off the upper edge to form a nose1 and midway between its ends cut a cross gain #d inches wide and #a-a_/b inches deep4 ,the lower margin may be cut away1 at an angle on each side of the gain4 ,all that is necessary now is to make a block 7,o71 #h inches long1 rounded on one edge1 and a wedge 7,p74 ,illustration3 ,fig #bdc4 ,tool ,rest4 ,a leather belt or strap 7,q71 #a-a_/b inches wide1 formed into a loop1 as shown in the perspective view 7,r71 serves as a means for holding the rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in4 ,,materials4--,then procure the following bolts3 #d-c_/h bolts1 #aj long4 #h-c_/h '' #f '' #bj-c_/h '' #e '' #e-c_/h '' #i '' ,,the ,,mandrel4--,a piece of steel tubing 7,s71 ,no4 #aj gage1 #c_/d inch in diameter1 #aa-a_/b inches long1 will be required for the mandrel4 ,get a blacksmith1 if a machine shop is not convenient1 to put a fixed center 7#a7 in one end1 and a removable centering member 7#b7 in the other end4 ,on this mandrel place a collar 7#c71 held by a set screw1 and alongside of it a pair of pulleys1 each #a-a_/b inches wide1 one of them1 being1 say1 #b inches in diameter1 and the other #c inches4 ,this mandrel is held in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split journal bearings4 ,this form of bearing will make a durable lathe1 free from chattering1 as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel whenever they wear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,mandrel4 ,the center point 7#a7 is designed to rest against a metal plate 7#d7 bolted to the wooden post1 as shown in the large drawing4 ,,fly-,,wheel4--,it now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt4 ,the fly-wheel may be of any convenient size1 or it may be some discarded pulley or wheel4 ,suppose it is two feet in diameter2 then1 as your small pulley is #b inches in diameter1 each revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel1 and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute4 ,in that case your mandrel will revolve #ifj revolutions per minute1 which is ample speed for your purposes4 ,the wheel should be mounted on a piece of #c_/d-;inch steel tubing1 one end having a crank #c inches long4 ,this crank is connected up by a pitman rod1 with the triangularly shaped treadle frame4 ,such a lathe is easily made1 as it requires but little metal or machine work1 and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy to make such a useful tool4 ,what he needs is the proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out the work1 and his own ingenuity will make the modifications suitable to his purpose4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bde7 shows such a lathe assembled ready for work4 ,,the ,,tools ,,required4--,a few simple tools will complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety of work4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bdf7 shows five chisels1 of which all other chisels are modifications4 ,a and ,b are both oblique firmer chisels1 ,a being ground with a bevel on one side only1 and ,b with a bevel on each side4 ,c is a broad gage1 with a hollow blade1 and a curved cutting edge1 ground with a taper on the rounded side only4 ,d is a narrow gage similarly ground1 and ,e is a ,v-shaped gage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,it may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely necessary1 hence a good oil stone1 or several small1 round and ,v-shaped stones should be used4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,stains ,as this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator1 it is not necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off your work4 ,as you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your productions painted or stained1 enough information will be given to enable you1 if the character of the wood justifies it1 to do the work yourself to a limited extent4 ,,soft ,,wood4--,as1 presumably1 most of your first work will be done with pine1 poplar1 or other light-colored material1 and1 as many people prefer the furniture to be dark in color1 you should be prepared to accommodate them4 ,,use ,,of ,,stains4--,our subject has nothing to do with the technique of staining1 but has reference1 solely1 to the use of stains4 ,i recommend1 therefore1 that1 since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock1 and for sale everywhere1 you would better rely upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself4 ,,stains ,,as ,,imitations4--,it will be well to remember one thing as to stains4 ,never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended to produce an imitation of some real wood4 ,there are stains made up which1 when applied1 do not imitate any known wood4 ,this is bad taste and should be avoided4 ,again you should know that the same stain tint will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods4 ,try the cherry stain on pieces of pine1 poplar1 and birch1 and you will readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red1 comparatively speaking1 pine or birch will be much darker1 and the effect on poplar will be that of a muddy color4 ,in fact1 poplar does not stain cherry to good advantage2 and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small addition of vermilion4 ,by making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture1 you will readily see the value of this suggestion4 ,,good ,,taste ,,in ,,staining4--,oak1 mahogany1 cherry1 black walnut1 and like imitations are always good in an artistic sense1 but imitations of unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person4 ,the too common mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch4 ,it may1 with good effect1 be stained to imitate cherry4 ,oregon pine1 or some light-colored wood1 with a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining in imitation of oak4 ,,great ,,contrasts ,,bad4--,violent contrasts in furniture staining have the effect of cheapness1 unless the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed throughout the article1 from base to top finish4 ,,staining ,,contrasting ,,woods4--,then1 again1 do not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents a cheap1 soft wood1 and the other part a dark or costly wood4 ,imagine1 for instance1 a cabinet with the stiles1 rails and mullions of mahogany1 and the panels of pine or poplar1 or the reverse1 and you can understand how incongruous would be the result produced4 ,on the other hand1 it would not be a very artistic job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany1 because the two woods do not harmonize1 although frequently wrongly combined4 ,,hard ,,wood ,,imitations4--,it would be better to use1 for instance1 ash or oak for one portion of the work1 and a dark wood1 like cherry or walnut1 for the other part2 but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of cherry throughout2 while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs of some other material4 ,these considerations should determine for you whether or not you can safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article4 ,,natural ,,effects4--,if effects are wanted1 the skilled workman will properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood2 hence1 in staining1 you should try to imitate nature1 because in staining you will depend for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing effects4 ,,natural ,,wood ,,stains4--,it should be said1 in general1 however1 that a stain is1 at best1 a poor makeshift4 ,there is nothing so pleasing as the natural wood4 ,it always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness4 ,to stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap contrivance4 ,the exception to this rule is mahogany1 which is generally enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood4 ,,polishing ,,stained ,,surfaces4--,if1 on the other hand1 you wish to go to the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree1 staining becomes an art1 and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap wood1 excepting poplar4 ,when the article is highly polished1 so a good1 smooth surface is provided1 staining does not cheapen1 but1 on the other hand1 serves to embellish the article4 ,as a rule1 therefore1 it is well to inculcate this lesson3 ,do not stain unless you polish2 otherwise1 it is far better to preserve the natural color of the wood4 ,one of the most beautiful sideboards ,i ever saw was made of ,oregon pine1 and the natural wood1 well filled and highly polished4 ,that finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,carpenter ,,and ,,the ,,architect ,a carpenter has a trade2 the architect a profession4 ,it is not to be assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other4 ,a profession is defined as a calling1 or occupation1 if not mechanical1 agricultural1 or the like1 to which one devotes himself and his energies4 ,a trade is defined as an occupation which a person has learned and engages in1 especially mechanical employment1 as distinguished from the liberal arts1 or the learned professions4 ,opportunity is the great boon in life4 ,to the ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit4 ,in his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require mathematics of the highest order1 geometry1 the methods of calculating strains and stresses1 as well as laying out angles and curves4 ,this is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to materials1 number1 size1 and methods of joining2 he must remember all the small details which go to make up the entire structure4 ,this exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product4 ,his imagination is thus directed to concrete objects4 ,as the mind develops1 it becomes creative in its character1 and the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field4 ,a good carpenter naturally develops into an architect1 and the best architect is he who knows the trade4 ,it is a profession which requires not only the artistic taste1 but a technical knowledge of details1 of how practically to carry out the work1 how to superintend construction1 and what the different methods are for doing things4 ,the architect must have a scientific education1 which gives him a knowledge of the strength of materials1 and of structural forms2 of the durability of materials2 of the price1 quality1 and use of everything which goes into a structure2 of labor conditions2 and of the laws pertaining to buildings4 ,many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the carpenter4 ,they are in the sphere of his employment1 but it depends upon himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to him4 ,it is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man1 to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done1 that ,i suggest this course4 ,the learned profession is yours if you deserve it1 and you can deserve it only through study1 application1 and perseverance4 ,do well that which you attempt to do4 ,don't do it in that manner because some one has done it in that way before you4 ,if1 in the trade1 the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way of doing things is correct1 there is no law to prevent you from combating that method4 ,your way may be better4 ,but you must remember that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason1 or reasons1 why it is carried out in that way4 ,study and learn to apply those reasons4 ,so in your leisure or in your active moments1 if you wish to advance1 you must be alert4 ,know for yourself the reasons for things1 and you will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and contribute to your success4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,useful ,,articles ,,to ,,make ,as stated in the ,introductory1 the purpose of this book is to show how to do the things1 and not to draw a picture in order to write a description of it4 ,merely in the line of suggestion1 we give in this chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles1 all of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding pages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,this figure shows a common bench wholly made of material #a inch thick1 the top being #ab inches wide and #d feet long4 ,the legs are #ad inches high and #ac inches wide2 and the side supporting rails are #c inches wide4 ,these proportions may1 of course1 be varied4 ,you will note that the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of #a_/b inch on each margin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,this is a common1 square-top stool1 the seat being #ab #ab1 and the legs #ad inches high4 ,two of the pieces forming the legs are #aj inches wide and the other two #h inches wide1 so that when the wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be #aj #aj and thus give the seat an overhang of #a inch around the margins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,a most useful article is shown in ,fig4 #bdi4 ,it is a blacking-box with a lid1 a folding shoe rest and three compartments4 ,the detached figure shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box1 and illustrates how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box4 ,the box itself is #ad #af in dimensions2 the sides are #f inches wide and the legs #e inches in height4 ,in order to give strength to the legs1 the bottom has its corners cut out1 to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in the recesses thus formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,this is a convenient form of easel1 made of four uprights4 ,the main front uprights are of strips #e_/h #a-a_/d1 and the rear uprights are of #a_/b #a material4 ,a thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for the upper end4 ,the rest is made of two strips1 each #a_/b #a1 nailed together to form an ,l1 and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the rest in any desired position4 ,the front uprights should be at least #e feet long4 ,a simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in ,fig4 #bea4 ,the two vertical strips are each #d inches wide1 #a inch thick and #d feet long4 ,four shelves are provided1 each #c_/d inch thick1 #i inches wide and #d feet long4 ,each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side1 so as to permit it to be swung upwardly1 or folded2 and below each hinge is a triangular block or bracket1 fixed to the shelf1 to support it in a horizontal position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,a sad-iron holder1 or bookcase1 shown in ,fig4 #beb1 is another simple form of structure4 ,it may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs1 or the uprights may have holes at their upper ends1 by means of which it can be suspended on a wall4 ,as shown1 it is #cj inches long from bottom to top1 and #bj inches wide4 ,the shelves are #h inches wide4 ,all the material is1 preferably1 #c_/d-;inch stock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,fig4 #bec shows a wood-box1 or it may readily be adapted for coal4 ,for wood it should be #b feet long1 #a foot #h inches wide and #a foot #aj inches high4 ,it will1 of course1 be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood to be stored in it1 and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion of the top should be hinged1 so that the entire top can be opened for filling purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,a pair of parallel bars is shown in ,fig4 #bed4 ,the dimensions of this will vary1 and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it2 but a size best adapted is to make the posts #c feet high1 and the distance between the bars #af inches4 ,this gives ample room for the exercises required4 ,the length between the posts along the bars should be at least #e feet4 ,the entire structure can be made of soft wood1 except the bars1 which should be of hard1 rigid wood4 ,the posts can be made of #b #b material1 and the braces #b #a4 ,the base pieces1 both longitudinal and transverse1 should also be of #b #b material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,fig4 #bee represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use4 ,all the posts1 braces and horizontal bars are of #b #b material1 secured to each other by mortises and tenons4 ,the legs are #bg inches high up to the table top1 and the narrow shelf is #ab inches above the top4 ,the most convenient size for the top is #bf #dh4 ,the top boards may be #a inch thick and the shelf the same thickness1 or even #c_/d inch4 ,it is well braced and light1 and its beauty will depend largely on the material of which it is made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4 ,the screen 7,fig4 #bef7 represents simply the framework1 showing how simple the structure is4 ,the bars are all of #a-a_/b #a-a_/b material1 secured together by mortises and tenons4 ,fig4 #beg represents a mission chair to match the desk 7,fig4 #bee71 and should be made of the same material4 ,the posts are all of #b #b material4 ,the seat of the chair should be #af inches1 and the rear posts should extend up above the seat at least #ah inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,fig4 #beh is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style4 ,the framework only is shown4 ,the frame is #ab #ab1 and #e feet high1 and made up of #b #b material4 ,when neatly framed together1 it is a most attractive article of furniture4 ,the top may be covered in any suitable way1 showing a roof effect4 ,the opening for the dial face of the clock should be at one of the gable ends4 ,a more pretentious bookcase is shown in ,fig4 #bei1 in which the frame is made up wholly of #b #b material4 ,the cross-end bars serve as ledges to support the shelves4 ,this may be lined interiorly and backed with suitable casing material1 such as ,lincrusta ,walton1 or fiber-board1 and the front provided with doors4 ,our only object is to show the framework for your guidance1 and merely to make suggestions as to structural forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle 7,fig4 #bfj74 ,this should be made of #a-;inch boards1 and the size of the door1 which carries the scuttle shelf1 should be #ab #af in size4 ,from this you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself1 the exterior dimensions of which are #ae #bj1 so that when the #a-;inch top is placed on1 it will be #ba inches high4 ,the case from front to rear is #ab inches1 and the shelf above the top is #aa inches wide1 and elevated #aj inches above the top of the case4 ,this is a most useful box for culinary articles1 if not needed for coal1 because the ledge1 used for the coal scuttle1 can be used to place utensils on1 and when the door is opened all the utensils are exposed to view1 and are1 therefore1 much more accessible than if stored away in the case itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,a mission armchair4 ,fig4 #bfa is more elaborate than the chair shown in ,fig4 #beg1 but it is the same in general character1 and is also made of #b #b stock4 ,the seat is elevated #af inches from the floor1 and the rear posts are #bh inches high4 ,the arms are #h inches above the seat4 ,a chair of this character should have ample seat space1 so the seat is #ah #ah4 ,the dog house 7,fig4 #bfb71 made in imitation of a dwelling1 is #bd inches square1 and #ah inches high to the eaves of the roof4 ,the opening in front is #h #aj1 exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,fig4 #bfc shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under shelf4 ,the seat is #af inches from the floor and #bd inches wide4 ,the back extends up #bd inches from the seat4 ,the lower shelf is midway between the floor and seat1 and is #ai inches wide4 ,this may or may not be upholstered1 dependent on the character of the material of which it is made4 ,if upholstered1 the boards may be of second-class material1 preferably of pine or other light1 soft wood4 ,a towel rack 7,fig4 #bfd7 is always a needed article in the kitchen4 ,the roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to #ah inches in length4 ,the top piece is #b-a_/b inches wide and #ba inches long4 ,the vertical bars are each #a-a_/b inches wide and #i inches long4 ,the brackets are #a-a_/b inches wide and made of #c_/d-;inch material4 ,fig4 #bfe represents the framework of a sofa1 the seat of which is #af inches high1 the front posts up to the arm-rests #bd inches1 and the rear posts #ch inches4 ,from front to rear the seat is #ah inches4 ,the posts are of #c #c material4 ,this makes a very rigid article of furniture1 if mortised and tenoned and properly glued4 ,the seat is #f feet long1 but it may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be placed4 ,it is a companion piece to the chair 7,fig4 #bfa74 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,special ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,in the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple tools1 but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given1 an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now on the market4 ,,bit ,,and ,,level ,,adjuster4--,it is frequently necessary to bore holes at certain angles4 ,this can be done by using a bevel square1 and holding it so one limb will show the boring angle4 ,but this is difficult to do in many cases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,bit and ,square level4 ,this tool has three pairs of ,v slots on its back edges4 ,the shank of the bit will lie in these slots1 as shown in ,fig4 #bff1 either vertically1 or at an angle of #de degrees1 and boring can be done with the utmost accuracy4 ,it may be attached to a ,carpenter's square1 thus making it an accurate plumb or level4 ,,miter ,,boxes4--,the advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent1 when accurate work is required4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #bfg1 shows a metal tool of this kind1 in which the entire frame is in one solid casting4 ,the saw guide uprights are clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold the saw without play1 and this will also counteract a saw that runs out of true1 due to improper setting or filing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,metal ,miter ,box4 ,a second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw4 ,the swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in holes placed on the under side of the base4 ,the edge of the base is graduated in degrees1 as plainly shown1 and the swivel arm can be set and automatically fastened at any degree desired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,parts of ,metal ,miter ,box4 ,the uprights1 front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches1 and movable stops can be set1 by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the cut desired4 ,figure #bfh shows the parts of the miter box1 in which the numbers designate the various parts3 #aja is the frame2 #ajb the frame board2 #ajd frame leg2 #ajf guide stock2 #ajg stock guide clamp2 #aji stock guide plate2 #aaj swivel arm2 #aaa swivel arm bushing2 #aab swivel bushing screw2 #aac index clamping lever2 #aae index clamping lever catch2 #aaf index clamping lever spring2 #abb swivel complete2 #abc ,t-base2 #abd-a_/b uprights2 #abf saw guide cap2 #abg saw guide cap plate2 #acb saw guide tie bar2 #acc left saw guide stop and screw2 #acd right side guide stop and screw2 #ace saw guide stop spring2 #acf saw guide cylinder2 #acg saw guide cylinder plate2 #ach trip lever 7back72 #aci trip lever 7front72 #ada leveling screw2 #adb trip clamp and screw2 #adf ,t-base clamp screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,angle ,dividers4 ,,angle ,,dividers4--,this is another tool1 which does not cost much and is of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are applied at odd angles4 ,to lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of dividers and a second handling of the bevel1 making three operations4 ,,the ,,odd ,,job ,,tool4--,a most useful special tool1 which combines in its make-up a level1 plumb try-square1 miter-square1 bevel1 scratch awl1 depth gage1 marking gage1 miter gage1 beam compass1 and a one-foot rule4 ,to the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an article which should be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,odd ,job ,tool4 ,figure #bgj shows the simplicity of the tool1 and how it is applied in use4 ,,bit ,,braces4--,these tools are now made with so many improved features that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools4 ,the illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of the tools4 ,fig4 #bga shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head1 so called1 as its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing4 ,d represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the ratchet1 and1 being in line with the bit1 makes it more convenient in handling than when it is at right angles4 ,the ratchet parts are entirely enclosed1 thus keeping out moisture and dirt1 retaining lubrication and protecting the users' hands4 ,the ratchet mechanism is interchangeable1 and may be taken apart by removing one screw4 ,the two-piece clutch1 which is drop forged1 is backed by a very strong spring1 insuring a secure lock4 ,when locked1 ten teeth are in engagement1 while five are employed while working at a ratchet4 ,it has universal jaws 7,g7 for both wood and metal workers4 ,in ,fig4 #bgb1 ,b represents a regular ball bearing head1 with the wood screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working loose4 ,this also has a ball thrust4 ,e is the ratchet box1 and this shows the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle1 and encased1 so that the user's hands are protected from the teeth4 ,the interlocking jaws 7,h71 which are best for taper shanks1 hold up to ,no4 #b ,clark's expansion1 and are therefore particularly adapted for carpenter's use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,types of ,bit ,braces4 ,in ,fig4 #bgc the plain bearing head 7,c7 has no ball thrust4 ,the head is screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws4 ,the open ratchet 7,f7 shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed4 ,this has alligator jaws 7,j71 and will hold all ordinary size taper shank bits1 also small and medium round shank bits or drills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,fig4 #bge4 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,steel ,frame ,breast ,drills4 ,,steel ,,frame ,,breast ,,drill4--,these drills are made with both single and double speed1 each speed having three varieties of jaws4 ,the single speed is very high1 the ratio being #d-a_/b to #a1 which makes it desirable to use for small drills1 or for use in wood4 ,a level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to maintain a horizontal position in boring4 ,each of the forms shown has a ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame4 ,the breast plate may be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw4 ,the spindle is kept from turning while changing drills1 by means of the latch mounted on the frame1 and readily engaging with the pinion4 ,the crank is pierced in three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps1 depending on the character of the work4 ,figure #bgd has a three jaw chuck1 and has only single speed4 ,figure #bge has an interlocking jaw1 and is provided with double speed gearing4 ,figure #bgf has a universal jaw1 and double speed4 ,,planes4--,the most serviceable planes are made in iron1 and it might be well to show a few of the most important1 to bring out the manner employed to make the adjustments of the bits4 ,in order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a plane1 examine ,figure #bgg4 ,the parts are designated as follows3 #a;,a is the double plane iron2 #a single plane iron2 #b plane iron cap2 #c cap screw2 #d lever cap2 #e lever cap screw2 #f frog complete2 #g ,y adjusting lever2 #h adjusting nut2 #i lateral adjusting lever2 #aa plane handle2 #ab plane knob2 #ac handle bolt and nut2 #ad knob bolt and nut2 #ae plane handle screw2 #af plane bottom2 #dd frog pin2 #de frog clamping screw2 #df frog adjusting screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,details of ,metal ,plane4 ,,rabbeting1 ,,matching ,,and ,,dado ,,planes4--,figure #bgh shows a useful form of plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons1 adapted to cut rabbets4 ,the detached sections of ,fig4 #bgh show the various parts1 as well as the bits which belong to it4 #a1 #a represent the single plane irons2 #d the lever cap2 #af the plane bottom1 #ej the fence2 #ea the fence thumb screw2 #fa the short arm2 #gj the adjustable depth gage2 #ga the depth gage which goes through the screw2 and #he the spurs with screws4 ,,molding ,,and ,,beading ,,plane4--,a plane of the character shown in ,fig4 #bgi will do an immense variety of work in molding1 beading and dado work1 and is equally well adapted for rabbeting1 for filletsters and for match planing4 ,the regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two cutters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,rabbet1 ,matching and ,dado ,plane4 ,as shown in ,fig4 #bgi1 the plane has a main stock 7,a71 which carries the cutter adjustment1 a handle1 a depth gage1 a slitting gage1 and a steel bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter1 and slides on arms secured to the main stock4 ,this bottom can be raised or lowered1 so that1 in addition to allowing the use of cutters of different widths1 cutters can be used having one edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,molding and ,beading ,plane4 ,the auxiliary center bottom 7,c71 which can be adjusted for width or depth1 fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and gouging the work4 ,the fence ,d has a lateral adjustment by means of a screw1 for extra fine work4 ,the four small cuts in the corners show how the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters1 and the great importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not run4 ,the samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be turned out with the plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,dovetail ,tongue and ,groove ,plane4 ,,dovetail ,,tongue ,,and ,,groove ,,plane4--,this is a very novel tool1 and has many features to recommend it4 ,figure #bhj shows its form1 and how it is used4 ,it is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the groove4 ,it will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty degrees flare1 where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of an inch thick1 and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters of an inch4 ,the tongue and groove are cut separately1 and can be made with parallel or tapering sides4 ,the operation of the plane is very simple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,router ,planes4 ,,router ,,planes4--,this is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the work4 ,the planes are made in two types1 one1 like ,fig4 #bha1 which has a closed throat1 and the other1 ,fig4 #bhb1 with an open throat4 ,both are serviceable1 but the latter is preferable4 ,these planes will level off bottoms of depression1 very accurately1 and the tool is not an expensive one4 ,,door ,,trim ,,plane4--,this is a tool for making mortises for butts1 face plates1 strike plates1 escutcheons1 and the like1 up to a depth of #e_/af1 and a width of #c inches4 ,the principal feature in the plane is the method of mounting the cutter1 which can be instantly set to work from either end of the plane or across it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,door ,trim ,plane4 ,the cutter1 as shown in ,fig4 #bhc1 is cushioned by a spring which prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried4 ,a fence regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being parallel4 ,the depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop4 ,by removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw1 instead of using the spring1 a very superior router plane is obtained4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,roofing ,,trusses ,the chapter on ,bridge ,building gives some suggestions as to form of trusses1 the particular types there shown being principally for wide spans4 ,such trusses were made for one purpose only1 namely1 to take great weight1 and they were1 as a consequence1 so constructed as to provide strength4 ,but a roofing truss1 while designed to hold the accumulated materials1 such as snow and ice1 likely to be deposited there1 is of such a design1 principally1 so as to afford means of ornamentation4 ,this remark has reference to such types as dispense with the cross1 or tie beam1 which is the distinguishing feature in bridge building4 ,the tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses1 where ornamentation is not required1 or in such structures as have the roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls1 or where the space between the roofs is used for storage purposes4 ,in ,england1 and on the ,continent of ,europe1 are thousands of trusses structured to support the roofs1 which are marvels of beauty4 ,some of them are bewildering in their formation4 ,the moldings1 beaded surfaces1 and the carved outlines of the soffits1 of the arches1 and of the purlins1 are wonderful in detail4 ,the wooden roof of ,westminster ,hall1 while very simple in structure1 as compared with many others1 looks like an intricate maze of beams1 struts and braces1 but it is1 nevertheless1 so harmonized that the effect is most pleasing to the eye1 and its very appearance gives the impression of grandeur and strength4 ,nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from medival times1 when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the present time1 but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the wooden prototypes4 ,now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty to the interior4 ,a large dome is grand1 owing to its great simplicity1 but the same plain outlines1 or lack of ornamentation1 in the ceiling of a square or rectangular building would be painful to view1 hence1 the braces1 beams1 plates1 and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental parts1 and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds his inspiration4 ,before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation1 it might be well to develop these roof forms1 starting with the old type ,barn ,roof1 where the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,gambrel ,roof4 ,the ,gambrel ,roof1 ,fig4 #bhd1 requires a tie beam1 7,a71 as shown1 but the space above the beam is free of all obstructions1 and gives a large storage space4 ,the roof has two sets of rafters 7,b1 ,c71 and of different pitch1 the lower rafters 7,b7 having a pitch of about #cj degrees1 and the upper ones 7,c71 about #de degrees4 ,a tie bar 7,d7 joins the middle portion of each of the rafters 7,b1 ,c7 and another tie bar 7,e7 joins the middle part of the rafter 7,b71 and the supporting post 7,f74 ,the cross tie beam 7,g7 completes the span1 and a little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,purlin ,roof4 ,the ,purlin ,roof is a type of structure used very largely throughout the ,united ,states1 for wide barns4 7,a7 is the cross beam2 7,b1 ,b7 the purlin posts2 7,c1 ,c7 the purlin plates2 7,d1 ,d7 the rafters2 and 7,e1 ,e7 the supporting braces4 ,the rafters 7,d7 are in two sections1 the distance from the eaves to the comb being too great for single length rafters1 and the purlin plates are not designed to make what is called a self-supporting roof1 but merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters4 ,the ,princess ,truss1 on the other hand1 is designed to act as a support for the different lengths of rafters 7,a1 ,b1 ,c71 and as a means for holding the roof4 ,it is adapted for low pitch and wide spans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,princess ,truss4 ,the main truss is made up of the cross beam 7,d71 rafters 7,e1 ,e7 and thrust beam 7,f74 ,purlin posts 7,g1 ,g7 are placed at an angle intermediate the ends of the rafters1 and the purlin plates 7,h1 ,h7 support the roof rafters 7,a1 ,b1 ,c72 ,i1 ,i are the vertical tie rods4 ,this type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes1 and it has been modified in many ways1 the most usual modification being the substitution of posts for the tie rods 7,i1 ,i74 ,following out the foregoing forms1 we may call attention to one more type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree1 although it still required the tie beam4 ,in fact the tie beam itself was the feature on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by elaborating it4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #bhg1 and is called the ,arched1 or ,cambered1 ,tie ,beam ,truss4 ,it is a very old type1 samples of which have been found which take it back to a very remote age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,arched1 or ,cambered1 ,tie ,beam4 ,the tie beam ,a1 in wide spans1 was made in two sections1 properly tied together1 and sometimes the outer ends were very wide1 and to add to the effect of the arch1 it might also be raised in the middle1 something in the form shown by the dotted line 7,b74 ,the ,mansard is what may be called a double-mounted roof1 and it will be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types4 ,it will be noted that the simple truss formed by the members 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 is merely superposed on the leaning posts1 the tie beam also being necessary in this construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,the ,mansard4 ,but the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with4 ,the simplest form known is called the ,scissors ,beam1 illustrated in ,fig4 #bhi4 ,this has been utilized for small spaces1 and steep pitches4 ,each rafter 7,a7 has an angled beam or brace 7,b71 springing from its base1 to the opposite rafter 7,a71 to which it is joined1 midway between its ends1 as at ,c4 ,where the two braces 7,b7 cross each other they are secured together1 as at ,d4 ,as a result1 three trusses are formed1 namely1 #a1 #b1 #c1 and it possesses remarkable strength4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,scissors ,beam4 ,,braced ,,collar ,,beam4--,this is a modification of the last type1 but is adapted for thick walls only4 ,the tie rod braces 7,a1 ,a7 have to be brought down low to give a good bracing action1 and this arrangement is capable of considerable ornamentation4 ,the steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace posts 7,b1 ,b7 which were supported by the top of the wall4 ,this form is not available for wide spans1 and is shown to illustrate how the development was made into the succeeding types4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,braced ,collar ,beam4 ,,the ,,rib ,,and ,,collar ,,truss1 ,fig4 #bia1 is the first important structural arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to embellishment4 ,the inwardly-projecting members 7,a1 ,a7 are called ,hammer ,beams4 ,they were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in the ,braced ,collar ,beam ,truss1 and small brackets 7,b1 ,b7 were placed beneath as supports4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4 ,rib and ,collar ,truss4 ,the short tie beam 7,c71 near the apex1 serves as the member to receive the thrust and stress of the curved ribs 7,d1 ,d74 ,it forms a most graceful type of roof1 and is capable of the most exquisite ornamentation1 but it is used for the high pitched roofs only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij-a_/b4 ,hammer ,beam ,truss4 ,the acme of all constructions1 in which strength1 beauty1 and capacity for ornamentation are blended1 is the ,hammer ,beam ,truss4 ,here the hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure1 and has a deeper bracket 7,b71 and this also extends down the pendant post 7,c7 a greater distance4 ,the curved supporting arch 7,d71 on each side1 is not ribbed1 as in the ,rib and ,collar ,truss1 but instead1 is provided with openwork 7not shown herein71 together with beadings and moldings1 and other ornamental characteristics1 and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in existence are in this type of roof4 ,what are called ,flying ,buttresses 7,e7 are sometimes used in connection with the ,hammer ,beam ,truss1 which1 with heavy roofs and wide spans1 is found to be absolutely necessary4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,on ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,joints ,in uniting two or more elements1 some particular type of joint is necessary4 ,in framing timbers1 in making braces1 in roof construction and supports1 in floor beams1 and in numerous other places1 where strength is required1 the workman should have at his command a knowledge of the most serviceable methods4 ,illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types2 but the sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are working with4 ,our aim is to give the idea involved1 and the name by which each is known4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,bridle ,joints4 ,reference has been made in ,chapter ,x1 to certain forms of scarfing and lapping pieces4 ,this chapter has to do with a variety of other structural forms1 but principally with such as are used in heavy building work1 and in cases where neither fish plates nor scarfing will answer the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,spur ,tenon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,saddle ,joints4 ,,bridle ,,joints4--,this is a form of joint where permanency is not desired1 and where it is necessary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber4 ,it is also obvious that the socket for the upright is of such a character that it will not weaken it to any great extent4 ,,spur ,,tenon4--,this tenon can be used in many places where the regular one is not available4 ,this1 like the preceding1 is used where the parts are desired to be detachable1 and the second form is one which is used in many structures4 ,,saddle ,,joint4--,this is still another manner in which a quickly detachable joint can be constructed4 ,the saddle may be mounted on the main base1 or cut into the base piece4 ,an infinite variety of forms of saddles are made1 most of them being used in dock work1 and for framing of that character where large timbers are used1 as in the building of coal chutes1 and the like4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,joggle ,joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,framing ,joints4 ,,joggle ,,joint4--,this joint is used almost exclusively for brace work where great weight must be supported4 ,the brace has a tenon1 and the end must also be so arranged that it will have a direct bearing against the upright1 which it braces and supports1 or it may have two faces1 as in the second figure1 which is an exceedingly strong construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,heel ,joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,stub ,tenon4 ,,framing ,,joints4--,these are the simplest form in which two members are secured together4 ,they are used almost wholly in rafter work1 and have very few modifications4 ,the depth of the cut1 for the toe of the rafter1 depends on the load to be carried1 and also on the distance the end of the rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on which the rafter rests4 ,,heel ,,joints4--,this is by far the most secure of the framing type of joints4 ,this1 if properly made1 is much better than the construction shown in the previous illustration1 but the difficulty is to make the rafter fit into the recesses properly4 ,this is no excuse for failure to use1 but it is on account of inability to make close fits that is accountable for lack of use4 ,it will be seen that in case one of the heels rests against the recess1 and the others do not1 and the pressure is great1 there is a liability to tear out the entire joint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,tusk ,tenon4 ,,stub ,,tenon4--,this is another form of tenon which is made and designed to be used where it is in close proximity to another tenon1 or where the mortises1 if made full size1 will weaken the member4 ,the long tusk can be shortened1 to suit the place where it projects1 and the stub tenon on each side of the tusk may be made very short1 and one side longer than the other if necessary4 ,,tusk ,,tenon4--,two forms of tusk construction are given4 ,any number of forms have been devised1 all for special purposes1 and designed for different kinds of woods4 ,these shown are particularly adapted for soft woods1 and the principal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that they have a number of shoulders within the mortise1 each of which1 necessarily adds to the strength4 ,it should be observed that in the construction of the tusk tenon1 the greatest care must be taken to have it fit the mortise tightly1 and this has reference to the bottom and shoulder ends as well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,double ,tusk ,tenon4 ,,double ,,tusk ,,tenons4--,the distinguishing difference between this and the preceding is in the tusk1 which in this form of construction goes through the upright member1 and is held by a cross key4 ,the double tusk is intended for hard woods1 and it is regarded as the finest1 as well as the strongest1 joint known4 ,,cogged ,,joints4--,this differs from the regular tenoning and mortising methods1 principally because the groove or recess is in the form of an open gain4 ,it is used where the member is to be inserted after the main structure is put together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,cogged ,joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,anchor ,joint4 ,,anchor ,,joint4--,this form of connection is designed for very large timbers1 and where great care must be taken in making the parts fit together nicely1 as everything depends on this4 ,this style is never used where the angles are less than #de degrees1 and the depth of the gain in the timber receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of the brace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,deep ,anchor ,joint4 ,the ,deep ,anchor ,joint is an extension of the tongue of the ,anchor tenon1 so that it affords a greater support for the end thrust4 ,to clearly distinguish between this and the preceding form1 it might be said that the ,anchor ,joint is one designed to protect the member containing the gains1 while the ,deep ,anchor ,joint favors the brace1 by giving it a greater power4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,some ,,mistakes1 ,,and ,a ,,little ,,advice ,,in ,,carpentry ,in the mechanical arts1 workers are as likely to learn from the mistakes committed as through correct information imparted4 ,advice1 therefore1 might be considered superfluous4 ,but there are certain things which are easily remembered and may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out any work4 ,this chapter is not given for the purpose of calling attention to all the errors which are so common1 but merely to point out a few which the boy will commit as he tries to carry out his work for the first time4 ,one of the difficult things for any one to learn1 in working with wood1 is to plane the edge of a board straight and square at the same time4 ,this is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane it strictly to dimensions4 ,usually before the edge is straight it is down to the proper width desired1 and it is then too late to correct any error1 because further work will make it too narrow4 ,the whole difficulty is in the holding of the plane4 ,it matters not how rigidly it is held1 and how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward one side or the other1 it will be found a most difficult task4 ,if the fore1 or finishing1 plane is used1 and which is the proper tool for the purpose1 the impression seems to be1 that to square up the edge and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side than on the other1 requires that the plane should be pressed down with force1 so as to make it dig in and cut a thicker shaving4 ,when this is resorted to the board is liable to get out of true from end to end4 ,a much better plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board true and straight4 ,if it is too high on the edge nearest you1 bring the plane over so the inside edge is flush with the inside edge of the board4 ,then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage to keep the plane from running over4 ,now1 the weight of the plane in such a condition is sufficient to take off a thicker shaving at the high edge1 and this will be done without any effort1 and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts on keeping the plane straight with the board4 ,the weight of the plane will make a thicker shaving on one side than on the other1 and correct inequalities1 provided you do not attempt to force the plane4 ,it requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold a plane firmly for squaring up a half-inch board4 ,singular as it may seem1 it is almost as difficult a job with a two-inch plank4 ,in the case of the thin board the plane will move laterally1 unless the utmost care is exercised2 in the truing up the thick plank the constant tendency is to move the plane along the surface at a slight diagonal1 and this is sure to cause trouble4 ,it only emphasizes the fact most clearly1 that to do a good job the plane must be firmly held1 that it must move along the board with the utmost precision1 and that it should not be forced into the wood4 ,in smoothing down a board with the short smoothing plane1 preparatory to sandpapering it1 the better plan is to move the plane slightly across the grain4 ,this will enable the bit to take hold better1 and when the sandpaper is applied the course of the movement should be across the grain opposite the direction taken by the smoothing plane4 ,it is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper directly along in the course of the grain4 ,such a habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up very rapidly1 particularly with certain woods4 ,when gluing together joints or tenons1 always wipe off the surplus glue with warm water taken from the glue pot4 ,if you do not follow this advice the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper used to finish the work4 ,never try to work from opposite sides of a piece of material4 ,have a work side and a work edge1 and make all measurements therefrom4 ,mark each piece as you go along4 ,take a note mentally just how each piece is to be placed1 and what must be done with it4 ,the carpenter1 above all others1 must be able to carry a mental picture of his product4 ,never saw out the scribing or marking line1 either in cutting or in ripping4 ,the lines should be obliterated by the plane1 when it is being finished1 and not before4 ,make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and edges true and smooth before the ends are cut1 or the mortises or tenons are made4 ,this is one of the most frequent mistakes4 ,no job can be a perfect one unless your material has been worked down to proper dimensions4 ,learn to saw across a board squarely4 ,this may be a hard thing for the novice to do4 ,a long1 easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from running1 unless too badly set or filed1 and will also enable you to hold it more nearly square with the board4 ,if you find that you invariably saw out of true1 then take some sawing lessons for your own benefit1 until you can judge whether the saw is held true or not4 ,it is better to saw up a half dozen boards in making the test than commit the error while working on a job4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,words ,,used ,,in ,,text ,,of ,,this ,,volume ,acute4 ,sharp1 to the point4 ,adjuster4 ,a tool which measures distances and relative spaces4 sthetic4 ,the theory of taste2 science of the beautiful in nature and art4 ,abstract4 ,that which exists in the mind only2 separate from matter2 to think of separately as a quality4 ,alligator jaws4 ,a term used to designate a pair of serrated bars which are held together in a headpiece1 and capable of clamping bits between them4 ,analyzed4 ,separated into its primitive or original parts4 ,anchor4 ,any device for holding an object in a fixed position4 ,angle dividers4 ,a sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an angle can be made at the same time on both side of a base line4 ,angularly disposed4 ,forming an angle with reference to some part or position4 ,archivolt4 ,the architectural member surrounding the curved opening of an arch4 ,more commonly the molding or other ornaments with which the wall face of an arch is changed4 ,artisan4 ,one trained in some mechanic's art or trade4 ,beaded4 ,a piece of wood or iron having rounded creases on its surface4 ,beam compass4 ,a drawing compass in which the points are arranged to slide on a rod1 instead of being fixed on dividers4 ,belfry4 ,a bell-tower1 usually attached to a church4 ,bevel square4 ,a handle to which is pivotally attached a blade1 which may be swung and held at any desired angle4 ,bisected4 ,to divide1 mark1 or cut into two portions4 ,bit4 ,a small tool1 either for drilling1 or for cutting1 as a plane iron4 ,braced collar4 ,a form of roofing truss1 in which the upper cross member is supported by a pair of angled braces4 ,breast drill4 ,a tool for holding boring tools1 and designed to have the head held against the breast for forcing in the boring tool4 ,bridle joint4 ,a form for securing elements together which provides a shallow depression in one member1 and a chamfered member at its end to fit therein4 ,bungalow4 ,a ,bengalese term2 originally a thatched or tiled house or cottage1 single story1 usually surrounded by a veranda4 ,bushing4 ,a substance of any kind interposed1 as1 for instance1 a wearing surface between a mandrel and its bearing4 ,butts4 ,a term applied to certain hinges1 usually of the large type4 ,callipered4 ,a measured portion which has its side or thickness fixed by a finely graduated instrument4 ,cambered4 ,slightly rising in the middle portion4 ,an upward bend1 or projection4 ,capital4 ,a small head or top of a column2 the head or uppermost member of a pilaster4 ,cardinal4 ,pre-eminent1 chief1 main line2 ,cardinal line is the principal line to make calculations or measurements from4 ,centering point4 ,a place for the reception of the point of an instrument1 like a compass or a dividers1 or for the dead center of the tail-stock of a lathe4 ,cheekpiece4 ,a piece or pieces at right angles to another piece1 either fixed or movable1 which serves as a rest or a guide4 ,chiffonier4 ,a movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture with shelves and drawers4 ,chute4 ,a channel in any material1 or made of any substance1 for conveying liquids or solids4 ,circumference4 ,the distance around an object4 ,circumferentially4 ,surrounding or encircling4 ,classical4 ,relating to the first class or rank1 especially in literature or art4 ,cogged4 ,having teeth1 either at regular or at irregular intervals4 ,concrete4 ,expressing the thing itself specifically2 also the quality2 a specific example4 ,configuration4 ,form1 as depending on the relative disposition of the parts of a thing2 a shape or a figure4 ,coincide4 ,to occupy the same place in space2 to correspond exactly2 to agree2 to concur4 ,correlation4 ,a reference1 as from one thing to another2 the putting together of various parts4 ,conventional4 ,something which grows out of or depends upon custom1 or is sanctioned by general usage4 ,craftsman4 ,one skilled in a craft or trade4 ,curvature4 ,the act of curving or being bent4 ,concentrated4 ,to bring to a common center2 to bring together in one mass4 ,dado4 ,a plain flat surface between a base and a surbase molding4 ,sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting on interior walls4 ,depth gage4 ,a tool by means of which the depths of grooves and recesses are measured4 ,degree4 ,measure of advancement2 quality2 extent2 a division or space4 ,discarded4 ,cast off2 to reject or put away4 ,deterioration4 ,to grow worse2 impairing in quality4 ,depressed4 ,a sunken surface or part4 ,diagrammatical4 ,a drawing made to illustrate the working or the scheme1 without showing all the parts or giving their relative positions or measurements4 ,diametrically4 ,a direction toward the center or across the middle of a figure or thing4 ,diagonal4 ,a direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular to a line4 ,dominate4 ,to govern2 controlling4 ,door trim4 ,the hardware which is attached to a door4 ,double-roofed4 ,all form of roof structure where there is an inner frame to support the rafters4 ,drop forged4 ,metal forms which are struck up by means of heavy hammers1 in which are the molds or patterns of the article to be formed4 ,elaboration4 ,wrought with labor2 finished with great care4 ,elevation4 ,the act of raising from a lower to a higher degree2 a projection of a building or other object on a plane perpendicular to the horizon4 ,elliptical4 ,having the form of an ellipse4 ,embellishment4 ,the act of adorning2 that which adds beauty or elegance4 ,entablature4 ,the structure which lies horizontally upon the columns4 ,equidistant4 ,being at an equal distance from a point4 ,escutcheon4 ,an ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole4 ,evolve4 ,to unfold or unroll2 to open and expand4 ,faade4 ,the front of a building2 the principal front having some architectural pretensions4 ,facing-boards4 ,the finishing of the face of a wall of different material than the main part of the wall2 the wide board below the cornice or beneath the windows4 ,factor4 ,one of the elements1 circumstances or influences which contribute to produce a result4 ,fence4 ,a term used to designate a metal barrier or guard on a part of a tool4 ,fish plate4 ,a pair of plates1 usually placed on opposite sides of the pieces to be secured together1 and held by cross bolts4 ,flare4 ,a pitch2 an angle2 an inclination4 ,flush4 ,unbroken1 or even in surface2 on a level with the adjacent surface4 ,frog clamping screw4 ,a screw which is designed to hold or adjust two angled pieces4 ,fulcrum4 ,that by which a lever is sustained1 or on which a lever rests in turning or moving a body4 ,fluting4 ,the channel or channels in a body2 as the grooves in a column4 ,gain4 ,a square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a girder1 beam1 post or other material1 at a corner4 ,gambrel4 ,a roof having two different pitches1 the upper much greater than the lower4 ,geometry4 ,pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates the relations1 properties and measurements of solids1 surfaces1 lines and angles4 ,girder4 ,a main beam2 a straight horizontal beam to span an opening or carry a weight1 such as the ends of floor beams4 ,glossary4 ,a collection or explanation of words and passages of the works of an author2 a partial dictionary4 ,graduated4 ,cut up into steps2 divided into equal parts4 ,guide stock4 ,a member which is the main portion of the tool1 and from which all measurements are taken4 ,hammer beam4 ,a member in a truss roof structure1 at the base of the roof proper1 which consists of an inwardly projecting part1 on which the roof rests1 and from which it is braced4 ,hammer-pole4 ,the peon1 or round end of a hammer which is used for driving nails4 ,hemispherical4 ,pertaining to a half globe or sphere4 ,horizontal4 ,on the level2 at right angles to a line which points to the center of the earth4 ,incorporated4 ,united in one body4 ,index pin4 ,a small movable member which is designed to limit the movement of the operative part of a machine4 ,initial4 ,to make a beginning with2 the first of a series of acts or things4 ,insulate4 ,to place in a detached position2 to separate from4 ,interchangeable4 ,one for the other4 ,interval4 ,a space between things2 a void space2 between two objects4 ,interest4 ,to engage the attention of2 to awaken or attract attention4 ,interlocking jaw4 ,two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in which the said parts pass each other in their motions4 ,intersection4 ,the point or line in which one line or surface cuts another4 ,intervening4 ,the portion between4 ,inverted4 ,turned over2 to put upside down4 ,joggle-joint4 ,a form of connection which has struts attached to a pendant post4 ,joinery4 ,the art or trade of joining wood4 ,kerf4 ,a notch1 channel or slit made in any material by cutting or sawing4 ,kit4 ,a working outfit2 a collection of tools or implements4 ,level4 ,a tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical surfaces4 ,liberal4 ,not narrow or contracted4 ,lobe4 ,any projection1 especially of a rounded form2 the projecting part of a cam-wheel4 ,longitudinal4 ,in the direction of the length2 running lengthwise4 ,lubrication4 ,the system of affording oiling means to a machine or to any article4 ,mandrel4 ,the live spindle of a lathe2 the revolving arbor of a circular saw4 ,mansard4 ,a type of roof structure with two pitches1 one1 the lower1 being very steep1 and the other very flat pitch4 ,manual4 ,of or pertaining to the hand2 done or made by hand4 ,marginal4 ,the border or edge of an object4 ,marking gage4 ,a bar on which is placed a series of points1 usually equidistant from each other4 ,matching4 ,placing tongue in one member and a corresponding groove in another member1 so that they will join each other perfectly4 ,medival4 ,of or relating to the ,middle ,ages4 ,miter-box4 ,a tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any desired adjustable angle4 ,miter-square4 ,a tool which provides adjustment at any desired angle4 ,mullion4 ,a slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division between the lights of windows1 screens1 etc42 also1 indoors1 the main uprights are stiles1 and the intermediate uprights are mullions4 ,obliterated4 ,erased or blotted out4 ,obtuse4 ,not pointed2 bent4 ,orbit4 ,the path made by a heavenly body in its travel around another body4 ,ordinate4 ,the distance of any point in a curve or a straight line1 measured on a line called the axis of ordinates1 or on a line parallel to it from another line1 at right angles thereto1 called the axis of abscissas4 ,ornamentation4 ,to embellish2 to improve in appearance4 ,oscillate4 ,to swing like a pendulum4 ,overhang4 ,in a general sense that which projects out4 ,paneling4 ,a sunken compartment or portion with raised margins1 molded or otherwise1 as indoors1 ceilings wainscoting1 etc4 ,parallelogram4 ,a right-lined quadrilateral figure1 whose opposite sides are parallel and1 consequently1 equal4 ,parallel4 ,extended in the same direction1 and in all parts equally distant4 ,perspective4 ,a view2 a vista2 the effect of distance upon the appearance of objects1 by means of which the eye recognizes them as being at a more or less measurable distance4 ,pivot4 ,a fixed pin1 or short axis1 on the end of which a wheel or other body turns4 ,pitch4 ,slope2 descent2 declivity1 like the slope of a roof4 ,placement4 ,the act of placing2 in the state of being placed4 ,predominate4 ,to be superior in number1 strength1 influence or authority2 controlling4 ,produced4 ,to lengthen out2 to extend4 ,prototype4 ,the original2 that from which later forms sprang4 ,purlin4 ,a longitudinal piece of timber1 under a roof1 midway between the eaves and comb1 to hold the rafters4 ,rabbeting4 ,the manner of cutting grooves or recesses4 ,ratchet4 ,a wheel1 bar1 or other form of member1 having teeth or recesses4 ,rebate4 ,a rectangular1 longitudinal recess or groove1 cut in the corner or edge of a body4 ,rail4 ,a horizontal piece in a frame or paneling4 ,rectangular4 ,right-angled2 having one or more angles of ninety degrees2 a four-sided figure having only right angles4 ,rib and collar4 ,a form of roof truss in which the collar between rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs which project up from the hammer beam4 ,router4 ,a tool for cutting grooves or recesses4 ,saddle joint4 ,a form of connection in which one part has a portion cut away1 resembling a saddle1 and in which the part to be attached has its end cut so as to fit the saddle thus formed4 ,scarfing4 ,the cutting away of the ends of timbers to be joined1 so the two parts on lapping will unite evenly4 ,scissors beam4 ,a form of truss1 in which there is a pair of interior braces formed like shears1 and secured to the main rafters themselves4 ,score1 ,scored4 ,shear2 cut2 divide2 also notching or marking4 ,scratch awl4 ,a sharp-pointed tool1 with a handle4 ,scribe4 ,to cut1 indent or mark with a tool1 such as a knife1 awl or compass1 so as to form a cutting line for the workman4 ,self-supporting4 ,held by itself2 not depending upon outside aid4 ,shank4 ,usually the handle1 or portion to which the handle is attached4 ,slitting gage4 ,a tool which is designed to cut along a certain line guided by an adjustable fence4 ,soffit4 ,the under side of an arch4 ,solid4 ,not hollow2 full of matter2 having a fixed form2 hard2 opposed to liquid or fluid4 ,spindle4 ,a small mandrel2 an arbor2 a turning shaft4 ,springer4 ,the post or point at which an arch rests upon its support1 and from which it seems to spring4 ,sphere4 ,a body or space continued under a single surface which1 in every part1 is equally distant from a point within called its center4 ,spur4 ,a small part jutting from another4 ,strike plate4 ,a plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt and against which the latter strikes in closing4 ,steel ,tubing4 ,pipes made from steel2 tubing is measured across from outside to outside2 piping is measured on the inside4 ,step-wedge4 ,a wedge having one straight edge1 and the other edge provided with a succession of steps1 by means of which the piece gradually grows wider4 ,strain1 ,stresses4 ,to act upon in any way so as to cause change of form or volume2 as forces on a beam to bend it4 ,strut4 ,any piece of timber which runs from one timber to another1 and is used to support a part4 ,stub4 ,a projecting part1 usually of some defined form1 and usually designed to enter or engage with a corresponding recess in another member4 ,submerged4 ,to be buried or covered1 as with a fluid2 to put under4 ,swivel4 ,a pivoted member1 used in many forms of tools1 in which one part turns on the other4 ,tail-stock4 ,the sliding support or block in a lathe1 which carries the dead spindle1 or adjustable center4 ,technical4 ,of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts1 or to any science1 business1 or the like4 ,texture4 ,the disposition of the several parts of any body in connection with each other2 or the manner in which the parts are united4 ,tool rest4 ,that part of a lathe1 or other mechanism1 which supports a tool1 or holds the tool support4 ,torso4 ,the human body as distinguished from the head and limbs4 ,transverse4 ,in a crosswise direction2 lying across2 at right angles to the longitudinal4 ,trimmer4 ,a beam1 into which are framed the ends of headers in floor framing1 as when a hole is left for stairs1 chimneys1 and the like4 ,truss4 ,an assemblage of members of wood or iron1 supported at two points1 and arranged to transmit pressure vertically to those points with the least possible strain1 across the length of any member4 ,tusk4 ,in mechanism1 a long projecting part1 longer than a tenon1 and usually applied to the long or projecting part of a tenon4 ,universal joint4 ,a joint wherein one member is made to turn with another1 although the two turning members are not in a line with each other4 ,vocation4 ,employment2 trade2 profession2 business4 ,voissoir4 ,one of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed4 ,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,,carpentry ,,for ,,boys ,a book which treats1 in a most practical and fascinating manner1 all subjects pertaining to the ,king of ,trades2 showing the care and use of tools2 drawing2 designing1 and the laying out of work2 the principles involved in the building of various kinds of structures1 and the rudiments of architecture4 ,it contains over two hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work1 and includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art4 ,the most comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electricity ,,for ,,boys ,the author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental principles in each phase of the science1 and practically applying the work in the successive stages4 ,it shows how the knowledge has been developed1 and the reasons for the various phenomena1 without using technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy4 ,it has a complete glossary of terms1 and is illustrated with two hundred original drawings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,practical ,,mechanics ,,for ,,boys ,this book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical shop work1 in which the uses of tools1 and the structure and handling of shop machinery are set forth2 how they are utilized to perform the work1 and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out4 ,every subject is illustrated1 and model building explained4 ,it contains a glossary which comprises a new system of cross references1 a feature that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects4 ,fully illustrated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,price #fj cents per volume 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,,by ,,roger ,t4 ,,finlay ,thrilling adventures by sea and land of two boys and an aged ,professor who are cast away on an island with absolutely nothing but their clothing4 ,by gradual and natural stages they succeed in constructing all forms of devices used in the mechanical arts and learn the scientific theories involved in every walk of life4 ,these subjects are all treated in an incidental and natural way in the progress of events1 from the most fundamental standpoint without technicalities1 and include every department of knowledge4 ,numerous illustrations accompany the text4 ,two ,thousand things every boy ought to know4 ,every page a romance4 ,every line a fact4 99 99 99 99 99 ,six titles--#fj cents per volume 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,the ,castaways ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,exploring the ,island ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,the ,mysteries of the ,caverns ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,the ,tribesmen ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,the ,capture and ,pursuit ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,the ,conquest of the ,savages ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,hickory ,,ridge ,,boy ,,scouts ,a ,,series ,,of ,,books ,,for ,,boys ,which1 in addition to the interesting boy scout stories by ,,captain ,,alan ,,douglas1 ,scoutmaster1 contain articles on nature lore1 native animals and a fund of other information pertaining to out-of-door life1 that will appeal to the boy's love of the open4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,the ,campfires of the ,wolf ,patrol ,their first camping experience affords the scouts splendid opportunities to use their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way4 ,elmer ,chenoweth1 a lad from the northwest woods1 astonishes everyone by his familiarity with camp life4 ,a clean1 wholesome story every boy should read4 ,,ii4 ,woodcraft2 or1 ,how a ,patrol ,leader ,made ,good ,this tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys are called upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness4 ,a story filled with healthful excitement4 ,,iii4 ,pathfinder2 or1 ,the ,missing ,tenderfoot ,some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way1 greatly to the credit of our young friends4 ,a variety of incidents follow fast1 one after the other4 ,,iv4 ,fast ,nine2 or1 a ,challenge ,from ,fairfield ,they show the same team-work here as when in camp4 ,the description of the final game with the team of a rival town1 and the outcome thereof1 form a stirring narrative4 ,one of the best baseball stories of recent years4 ,v4 ,great ,hike2 or1 ,the ,pride of ,the ,khaki ,troop ,after weeks of preparation the scouts start out on their greatest undertaking4 ,their march takes them far from home1 and the good-natured rivalry of the different patrols furnishes many interesting and amusing situations4 ,,vi4 ,endurance ,test2 or1 ,how ,clear ,grit ,won the ,day ,few stories get us more than illustrations of pluck in the face of apparent failure4 ,our heroes show the stuff they are made of and surprise their most ardent admirers4 ,one of the best stories ,captain ,douglas has written4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boy ,scout ,nature ,lore to be ,found in ,the ,hickory ,ridge ,boy ,scout ,series ,wild ,animals of the ,united ,states--,tracking--in ,number ,i4 ,trees and ,wild ,flowers of the ,united ,states in ,number ,,ii4 ,reptiles of the ,united ,states in ,number ,,iii4 ,fishes of the ,united ,states in ,number ,,iv4 ,insects of the ,united ,states in ,number ,v4 ,birds of the ,united ,states in ,number ,,vi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cloth ,binding ,cover ,illustrations in ,four ,colors #dj;c4 ,per ,volume ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue 7near #adth ,st47 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,campfire and ,trail ,series #a4 ,in ,camp on the ,big ,sunflower4 #b4 ,the ,rivals of the ,trail4 #c4 ,the ,strange ,cabin on ,catamount ,island4 #d4 ,lost in the ,great ,dismal ,swamp4 #e4 ,with ,trapper ,jim in the ,north ,woods4 #f4 ,caught in a ,forest ,fire4 ,,by ,,lawrence ,j4 ,,leslie ,a series of wholesome stories for boys told in an interesting way and appealing to their love of the open4 ,each1 #abmo4 ,cloth4 #dj cents per volume ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue ,,new ,,york ,christy ,mathewson's ,book ,illustration3 ,,won ,,in ,,the ,,ninth ,,christy ,,mathewson ,a ,ripping ,good ,baseball ,story by ,one ,who ,knows the ,game ,this book has attained a larger sale than any baseball story ever published4 ,the narrative deals with the students of a large university and their baseball team1 the members of which have names which enable the reader to recognize them as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day before their entrance into the major leagues4 ,one gains a very clear idea of inside baseball stripped of wearisome technicalities4 ,the book is profusely illustrated throughout and contains also a number of plates showing the manner in which ,mathewson throws his deceptive curves1 together with brief description of each4 ,cloth bound #e-a_/b x #g-e_/h ,price #fj;c4 per volume ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,economical ,,cooking ,primrose ,edition ,planned for ,two or ,more ,persons ,by ,,miss ,,winifred ,s4 ,,gibbs ,dietitian and ,teacher of ,cooking of the ,new ,york ,association for ,improving the ,condition of the ,poor ,printed on ,fine ,quality ,book ,paper4 ,cover ,design in ,colors ,many ,cook ,books have been published1 from time to time1 to meet various requirements1 or to elucidate certain theories1 but very few have been written to meet the needs of the large proportion of our population who are acutely affected by the constantly increasing cost of food products4 ,notwithstanding that by its valuable suggestions this book helps to reduce the expense of supplying the table1 the recipes are so planned that the economies effected thereby are not offset by any lessening in the attractiveness1 variety or palatability of the dishes4 ,of equal importance are the sections of this work which deal with food values1 the treatment of infants and invalids and the proper service of various dishes4 ,the recipes are planned for two persons1 but may readily be adapted for a larger number4 ,the book is replete with illustrations and tables of food compositions--the latter taken from the latest ,government statistics4 ,cloth ,binding ,illustrated #dj;c4 per volume1 postpaid ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue 7near #adth ,st47 ,,new ,,york ,,cut-,,out ,,and ,,paint ,,books ,illustration3 ,,scissors ,,book ,dolls of ,all ,nations ,an original line of art studies printed in full rich colors on high grade paper4 ,this series introduces many novel features of interest1 and as the subject matters have been selected with unusual care1 the books make a strong appeal not only to the little ones but even to those of riper years4 ,post ,cards ,painting ,book ,dolls of all ,nations ,scissors ,book ,our ,army ,scissors ,book ,children's ,pets ,puzzle ,book ,size #h-a_/d x #aj-a_/d inches ,price #ae;c4 per copy ,send for sample and trade discount ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company #adg ,,fourth ,,avenue ,,new ,,york