,,riverside ,,textbooks ,,in ,,education ,,edited ,,by ,,ellwood ,p4 ,,cubberley ,,professor ,,of ,,education ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university ,,division ,,of ,,secondary ,,education ,,under ,,the ,,editorial ,,direction ,,of ,,alexander ,,inglis ,,professor ,,of ,,education ,,harvard ,,university ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,intelligence ,,an ,,explanation ,,of ,,and ,a ,,complete ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,stanford ,,revision ,,and ,,extension ,,of ,the ,binet-,simon ,intelligence ,scale ,,by ,,lewis ,m4 ,,terman ,,professor ,,of ,,education ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university ,illustration ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,san ,,francisco ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,,copyright1 #aiaf1 ,,by ,,lewis ,m4 ,,terman ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,the ,riverside ,press ,,cambridge ,,massachusetts ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,u4,s4,a4 ,to the ,memory ,,of ,,alfred ,,binet ,,patient ,,researcher1 ,,creative ,,thinker1 ,,unpretentious ,,scholar2 ,,inspiring ,,and ,,fruitful ,,devotee ,,of ,,inductive ,,and ,,dynamic ,,psychology ,,editor',s ,,introduction ,the present volume appeals to the editor of this series as one of the most significant books1 viewed from the standpoint of the future of our educational theory and practice1 that has been issued in years4 ,not only does the volume set forth1 in language so simple that the layman can easily understand1 the large importance for public education of a careful measurement of the intelligence of children1 but it also describes the tests which are to be given and the entire procedure of giving them4 ,in a clear and easy style the author sets forth scientific facts of far-reaching educational importance1 facts which it has cost him1 his students1 and many other scientific workers1 years of painstaking labor to accumulate4 ,only very recently1 practically only within the past half-dozen years1 have scientific workers begun to appreciate fully the importance of intelligence tests as a guide to educational procedure1 and up to the present we have been able to make but little use of such tests in our schools4 ,the conception in itself has been new1 and the testing procedure has been more or less unrefined and technical4 ,the following somewhat popular presentation of the idea and of the methods involved1 itself based on a scientific monograph which the author is publishing elsewhere1 serves for the first time to set forth in simple language the technical details of giving such intelligence tests4 ,the educational significance of the results to be obtained from careful measurements of the intelligence of children can hardly be overestimated4 ,questions relating to the choice of studies1 vocational guidance1 schoolroom procedure1 the grading of pupils1 promotional schemes1 the study of the retardation of children in the schools1 juvenile delinquency1 and the proper handling of subnormals on the one hand and gifted children on the other1--all alike acquire new meaning and significance when viewed in the light of the measurement of intelligence as outlined in this volume4 ,as a guide to the interpretation of the results of other forms of investigation relating to the work1 progress1 and needs of children1 intelligence tests form a very valuable aid4 ,more than all other forms of data combined1 such tests give the necessary information from which a pupil's possibilities of future mental growth can be foretold1 and upon which his further education can be most profitably directed4 ,the publication of this revision and extension of the original ,binet-,simon scale for measuring intelligence1 with the closer adaptation of it to ,american conditions and needs1 should mark a distinct step in advance in our educational procedure4 ,it means the perfection of another and a very important measuring stick for evaluating educational practices1 and in particular for diagnosing individual possibilities and needs4 ,just now the method is new1 and its use somewhat limited1 but it is the confident prediction of many students of the subject that1 before long1 intelligence tests will become as much a matter of necessary routine in schoolroom procedure as a blood-count now is in physical diagnosis4 ,that our schoolroom methods will in turn become much more intelligent1 and that all classes of children1 but especially the gifted and the slow1 will profit by such intellectual diagnosis1 there can be but little question4 ,that any parent or teacher1 without training1 can give these tests1 the author in no way contends4 ,however1 the observations of ,dr4 ,kohs1 cited in ,chapter ,,vii1 as well as the experience of the author and others who have given courses in intelligence testing to teachers1 alike indicate that sufficient skill to enable teachers and school principals to give such tests intelligently is not especially difficult to acquire4 ,this being the case it may be hoped that the requisite training to enable them to handle these tests may be included1 very soon1 as a part of the necessary pedagogical equipment of those who aspire to administrative positions in our public and private schools4 ,besides being of special importance to school officers and to students of education in colleges and normal schools1 this volume can confidently be recommended to physicians and social workers1 and to teachers and parents interested in intelligence measurements1 as at once the simplest and the best explanation of the newly-evolved intelligence tests1 which has so far appeared in print4 ,,ellwood ,p4 ,,cubberley4 ,,preface ,the constant and growing use of the ,binet-,simon intelligence scale in public schools1 institutions for defectives1 reform schools1 juvenile courts1 and police courts is sufficient evidence of the intrinsic worth of the method4 ,it is generally recognized1 however1 that the serviceableness of the scale has hitherto been seriously limited1 both by the lack of a sufficiently detailed guide and by a number of recognized imperfections in the scale itself4 ,the ,stanford revision and extension has been worked out for the purpose of correcting as many as possible of these imperfections1 and it is here presented with a rather minute description of the method as a whole and of the individual tests4 ,the aim has been to present the explanations and instructions so clearly and in such an untechnical form as to make the book of use1 not only to the psychologist1 but also to the rank and file of teachers1 physicians1 and social workers4 ,more particularly1 it is designed as a text for use in normal schools1 colleges1 and teachers' reading-circles4 ,while the use of the intelligence scale for research purposes and for accurate diagnosis will of necessity always be restricted to those who have had extensive training in experimental psychology1 the author believes that the time has come when its wider use for more general purposes should be encouraged4 ,however1 it cannot be too strongly emphasized that no one1 whatever his previous training may have been1 can make proper use of the scale unless he is willing to learn the method of procedure and scoring down to the minutest detail4 ,a general acquaintance with the nature of the individual tests is by no means sufficient4 ,perhaps the best way to learn the method will be to begin by studying the book through1 in order to gain a general acquaintance with the tests2 then1 if possible1 to observe a few examinations2 and finally to take up the procedure for detailed study in connection with practice testing4 ,twenty or thirty tests1 made with constant reference to the procedure as described in ,part ,,ii1 should be sufficient to prepare the teacher or physician to make profitable use of the scale4 ,the ,stanford revision of the scale is the result of a number of investigations1 made possible by the coperation of the author's graduate students4 ,grateful acknowledgment is especially due to ,professor ,h4 ,g4 ,childs1 ,miss ,grace ,lyman1 ,dr4 ,george ,ordahl1 ,dr4 ,louise ,ellison ,ordahl1 ,miss ,neva ,galbreath1 ,mr4 ,wilford ,talbert1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,harold ,williams1 and ,mr4 ,herbert ,e4 ,knollin4 ,without their assistance this book could not have been written4 ,,stanford ,,university1 ,april1 #aiaf4 ,,contents ,,part ,i4 ,,problems ,,and ,,results ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,intelligence ,,tests #c ,intelligence tests of retarded school children4 ,intelligence tests of the feeble-minded4 ,intelligence tests of delinquents4 ,intelligence tests of superior children4 ,intelligence tests as a basis for grading4 ,intelligence tests for vocational fitness4 ,other uses of intelligence tests4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sources ,,of ,,error ,,in ,,judging ,,intelligence #bb ,are intelligence tests superfluous8 ,the necessity of standards4 ,the intelligence of retarded children usually overestimated4 ,the intelligence of superior children usually underestimated4 ,other fallacies in the estimation of intelligence4 ,binet's questionnaire on teachers' methods of judging intelligence4 ,binet's experiment on how teachers test intelligence4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method #cf ,essential nature of the scale4 ,how the scale was derived4 ,list of tests4 ,how the scale is used4 ,special characteristics of the ,binet-,simon method4 ,the use of age standards4 ,the kind of mental functions brought into play4 ,binet would test general intelligence4 ,binet's conception of general intelligence4 ,other conceptions of intelligence4 ,guiding principles in choice and arrangement of tests4 ,some avowed limitations of the ,binet tests4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,stanford ,,revision ,,and ,,extension #ea ,sources of data4 ,method of arriving at a revision4 ,list of tests in the ,stanford revision and extension4 ,summary of changes4 ,effects of the revision on the mental ages secured4 ,,chapter ,v ,,analysis ,,of ,,one ,,thousand ,,intelligence ,,quotients #fe ,the distribution of intelligence4 ,the validity of the intelligence quotient4 ,sex differences4 ,intelligence of the different social classes4 ,the relation of the ,i ,q to the quality of the child's school work4 ,the relation between ,i ,q and grade progress4 ,correlation between ,i ,q and the teachers' estimates of the children's intelligence4 ,the validity of the individual tests4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,various ,,intelligence ,,quotients #gh ,frequency of different degrees of intelligence4 ,classification of intelligence quotients4 ,feeble-mindedness4 ,border-line cases4 ,examples of border-line deficiency4 ,dull normals4 ,average intelligence4 ,superior intelligence4 ,very superior intelligence4 ,examples of very superior intelligence4 ,genius and near genius4 ,is the ,i ,q often misleading8 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,reliability ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method #aje ,general value of the method4 ,dependence of the scale's reliability on the training of the examiner4 ,influence of the subject's attitude4 ,the influence of coaching4 ,reliability of repeated tests4 ,influence of social and educational advantages4 ,,part ,,ii ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,stanford ,,revision ,,and ,,extension ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,instructions #aba ,necessity of securing attention and effort4 ,quiet and seclusion4 ,presence of others4 ,getting into rapport4 ,keeping the child encouraged4 ,the importance of tact4 ,personality of the examiner4 ,the avoidance of fatigue4 ,duration of the examination4 ,desirable range of testing4 ,order of giving the tests4 ,coaxing to be avoided4 ,adhering to formula4 ,scoring4 ,recording responses4 ,scattering of successes4 ,supplementary considerations4 ,alternative tests4 ,finding mental age4 ,the use of the intelligence quotient4 ,how to find the ,i ,q of adult subjects4 ,material for use in testing4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,iii #a4 ,pointing to parts of the body #adb #b4 ,naming familiar objects #adc #c4 ,enumeration of objects in pictures #ade #d4 ,giving sex #adf #e4 ,giving the family name #adg #f4 ,repeating six to seven syllables #adi ,alternative test3 ,repeating three digits #aej ,,chapter ,x ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,iv #a4 ,comparison of lines #aea #b4 ,discrimination of forms #aeb #c4 ,counting four pennies #aed #d4 ,copying a square #aee #e4 ,comprehension1 first degree #aeg #f4 ,repeating four digits #aei ,alternative test3 ,repeating twelve to thirteen syllables #afj ,,chapter ,,xi ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,v #a4 ,comparison of weights #afa #b4 ,naming colors #afc #c4 sthetic comparison #afe #d4 ,giving definitions in terms of use #afg #e4 ,the game of patience #afi #f4 ,three commissions #agb ,alternative test3 ,giving age #agc ,,chapter ,,xii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,vi #a4 ,distinguishing right and left #age #b4 ,finding omissions in pictures #agh #c4 ,counting thirteen pennies #ahj #d4 ,comprehension1 second degree #aha #e4 ,naming four coins #ahd #f4 ,repeating sixteen to eighteen syllables #ahe ,alternative test3 ,forenoon and afternoon #ahg ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,vii #a4 ,giving the number of fingers #ahi #b4 ,description of pictures #aij #c4 ,repeating five digits #aic #d4 ,tying a bow-knot #aif #e4 ,giving differences from memory #aii #f4 ,copying a diamond #bjd ,alternative test #a3 ,naming the days of the week #bje ,alternative test #b3 ,repeating three digits reversed #bjg ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,viii #a4 ,the ball-and-field test #baj #b4 ,counting backwards from #bj to #a #bac #c4 ,comprehension1 third degree #bae #d4 ,giving similarities1 two things #bag #e4 ,giving definitions superior to use #bba #f4 ,vocabulary 7#bj definitions1 #cfjj words7 #bbd ,alternative test #a3 ,naming six coins #bca ,alternative test #b3 ,writing from dictation #bca ,,chapter ,,xv ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,ix #a4 ,giving the date #bcd #b4 ,arranging five weights #bcf #c4 ,making change #bdj #d4 ,repeating four digits reversed #bdb #e4 ,using three words in a sentence #bdb #f4 ,finding rhymes #bdh ,alternative test #a3 ,naming the months #bea ,alternative test #b3 ,counting the value of stamps #beb ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,x #a4 ,vocabulary 7#cj definitions1 #edjj words7 #bee #b4 ,detecting absurdities #bee #c4 ,drawing designs from memory #bfj #d4 ,reading for eight memories #bfb #e4 ,comprehension1 fourth degree #bfh #f4 ,naming sixty words #bgb ,alternative test #a3 ,repeating six digits #bgg ,alternative test #b3 ,repeating twenty to twenty-two syllables #bgg ,alternative test #c3 ,healy's ,construction ,puzzle ,a #bgh ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,xii #a4 ,vocabulary 7#dj definitions1 #gbjj words7 #bha #b4 ,defining abstract words #bha #c4 ,the ball-and-field test 7superior plan7 #bhf #d4 ,dissected sentences #bhf #e4 ,interpretation of fables 7score #d7 #bij #f4 ,repeating five digits reversed #cja #g4 ,interpretation of pictures #cjb #h4 ,giving similarities1 three things #cjf ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,xiv #a4 ,vocabulary 7#ej definitions1 #ijjj words7 #caj #b4 ,induction test3 finding a rule #caj #c4 ,giving differences between a president and a king #cac #d4 ,problem questions #cae #e4 ,arithmetical reasoning #cai #f4 ,reversing hands of a clock #cba ,alternative test3 ,repeating seven digits #cbb ,,chapter ,,xix ,,instructions ,,for ,,average ,,adult #a4 ,vocabulary 7#fe definitions1 #aa1gjj words7 #cbd #b4 ,interpretation of fables 7score #h7 #cbd #c4 ,differences between abstract terms #cbd #d4 ,problem of the enclosed boxes #cbg #e4 ,repeating six digits reversed #cbi #f4 ,using a code #ccj ,alternative test #a3 ,repeating twenty-eight syllables #ccb ,alternative test #b3 ,comprehension of physical relations #ccc ,,chapter ,,xx ,,instructions ,,for ,,superior ,,adult #a4 ,vocabulary 7#ge definitions1 #ac1ejj words7 #cch #b4 ,binet's paper-cutting test #cch #c4 ,repeating eight digits #cdj #d4 ,repeating thought of passage #cdj #e4 ,repeating seven digits reversed #cde #f4 ,ingenuity test #cde ,,selected ,,references #cdi ,,index #cei ,,figures ,,and ,,diagrams #a4 ,distribution of ,mental ,ages of #fb ,normal ,adults #ee #b4 ,distribution of ,i ,q's of #ije ,unselected ,children1 #e-ad ,years of ,age #ff #c4 ,median ,i ,q of #deg ,boys and #ddh ,girls1 for the ,ages #e-ad ,years #fi #d4 ,diamond drawn by ,r4 ,w42 ,age #ac-aj2 ,mental ,age #g-f #hb #e4 ,writing from ,dictation4 ,r4 ,m41 ,age #ae2 ,mental ,age #i #hc #f4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,i4 ,m41 ,age #ad-b2 ,mental ,age #i #hd #g4 ,diamond drawn by ,a4 ,w4 #he #h4 ,drawing ,designs from ,memory4 ,h4 ,s41 ,age #aa2 ,mental ,age #h-c #hf #i4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,s4 ,f41 ,age #ag2 ,mental ,age #aa-f #hh #aj4 ,writing from ,dictation4 ,c4 ,p41 ,age #aj-b2 ,mental ,age #g-aa #ij #aa4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,m4 ,p41 ,age #ad2 ,mental ,age #aj-h #ia #ab4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,r4 ,g41 ,age #ac-e2 ,mental ,age #aj-f #ic #ac4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,e4 ,b41 ,age #g-i2 ,i ,q #acj #ih #ad4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,f4 ,mc,a41 ,age #aj-c2 ,mental ,age #ad-f #ajj #ae4 ,drawing ,designs from ,memory4 ,e4 ,m41 ,age #f-aa2 ,mental ,age #aj1 ,i ,q #ade #aja #af4 ,ball and ,field ,test4 ,b4 ,f41 ,age #g-h2 ,mental ,age #ab-d2 ,i ,q #afj #ajb #ag4 ,healy and ,fernald ,construction ,puzzle #bgi ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,intelligence ,,part ,i ,,problems ,,and ,,results ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,intelligence ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,of ,,retarded ,,school ,,children4 ,numerous studies of the age-grade progress of school children have afforded convincing evidence of the magnitude and seriousness of the retardation problem4 ,statistics collected in hundreds of cities in the ,united ,states show that between a third and a half of the school children fail to progress through the grades at the expected rate2 that from #aj to #ae per cent are retarded two years or more2 and that from #e to #h per cent are retarded at least three years4 ,more than #aj per cent of the #djj1jjj1jjj annually expended in the ,united ,states for school instruction is devoted to re-teaching children what they have already been taught but have failed to learn4 ,the first efforts at reform which resulted from these findings were based on the supposition that the evils which had been discovered could be remedied by the individualizing of instruction1 by improved methods of promotion1 by increased attention to children's health1 and by other reforms in school administration4 ,although reforms along these lines have been productive of much good1 they have nevertheless been in a measure disappointing4 ,the trouble was1 they were too often based upon the assumption that under the right conditions all children would be equally1 or almost equally1 capable of making satisfactory school progress4 ,psychological studies of school children by means of standardized intelligence tests have shown that this supposition is not in accord with the facts4 ,it has been found that children do not fall into two well-defined groups1 the feeble-minded and the normal4 ,instead1 there are many grades of intelligence1 ranging from idiocy on the one hand to genius on the other4 ,among those classed as normal1 vast individual differences have been found to exist in original mental endowment1 differences which affect profoundly the capacity to profit from school instruction4 ,we are beginning to realize that the school must take into account1 more seriously than it has yet done1 the existence and significance of these differences in endowment4 ,instead of wasting energy in the vain attempt to hold mentally slow and defective children up to a level of progress which is normal to the average child1 it will be wiser to take account of the inequalities of children in original endowment and to differentiate the course of study in such a way that each child will be allowed to progress at the rate which is normal to him1 whether that rate be rapid or slow4 ,while we cannot hold all children to the same standard of school progress1 we can at least prevent the kind of retardation which involves failure and the repetition of a school grade4 ,it is well enough recognized that children do not enter with very much zest upon school work in which they have once failed4 ,failure crushes self-confidence and destroys the spirit of work4 ,it is a sad fact that a large proportion of children in the schools are acquiring the habit of failure4 ,the remedy1 of course1 is to measure out the work for each child in proportion to his mental ability4 ,before an engineer constructs a railroad bridge or trestle1 he studies the materials to be used1 and learns by means of tests exactly the amount of strain per unit of size his materials will be able to withstand4 ,he does not work empirically1 and count upon patching up the mistakes which may later appear under the stress of actual use4 ,the educational engineer should emulate this example4 ,tests and forethought must take the place of failure and patchwork4 ,our efforts have been too long directed by trial and error4 ,it is time to leave off guessing and to acquire a scientific knowledge of the material with which we have to deal4 ,when instruction must be repeated1 it means that the school1 as well as the pupil1 has failed4 ,every child who fails in his school work or is in danger of failing should be given a mental examination4 ,the examination takes less than one hour1 and the result will contribute more to a real understanding of the case than anything else that could be done4 ,it is necessary to determine whether a given child is unsuccessful in school because of poor native ability1 or because of poor instruction1 lack of interest1 or some other removable cause4 ,it is not sufficient to establish any number of special classes1 if they are to be made the dumping-ground for all kinds of troublesome cases--the feeble-minded1 the physically defective1 the merely backward1 the truants1 the incorrigibles1 etc4 ,without scientific diagnosis and classification of these children the educational work of the special class must blunder along in the dark4 ,in such diagnosis and classification our main reliance must always be in mental tests1 properly used and properly interpreted4 ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,of ,,the ,,feeble-,,minded4 ,thus far intelligence tests have found their chief application in the identification and grading of the feeble-minded4 ,their value for this purpose is twofold4 ,in the first place1 it is necessary to ascertain the degree of defect before it is possible to decide intelligently upon either the content or the method of instruction suited to the training of the backward child4 ,in the second place1 intelligence tests are rapidly extending our conception of feeble-mindedness to include milder degrees of defect than have generally been associated with this term4 ,the earlier methods of diagnosis caused a majority of the higher grade defectives to be overlooked4 ,previous to the development of psychological methods the low-grade moron was about as high a type of defective as most physicians or even psychologists were able to identify as feeble-minded4 ,wherever intelligence tests have been made in any considerable number in the schools1 they have shown that not far from #b per cent of the children enrolled have a grade of intelligence which1 however long they live1 will never develop beyond the level which is normal to the average child of #aa or #ab years4 ,the large majority of these belong to the moron grade2 that is1 their mental development will stop somewhere between the #g-year and #ab-year level of intelligence1 more often between #i and #ab4 ,the more we learn about such children1 the clearer it becomes that they must be looked upon as real defectives4 ,they may be able to drag along to the fourth1 fifth1 or sixth grades1 but even by the age of #af or #ah years they are never able to cope successfully with the more abstract and difficult parts of the common-school course of study4 ,they may master a certain amount of rote learning1 such as that involved in reading and in the manipulation of number combinations but they cannot be taught to meet new conditions effectively or to think1 reason1 and judge as normal persons do4 ,it is safe to predict that in the near future intelligence tests will bring tens of thousands of these high-grade defectives under the surveillance and protection of society4 ,this will ultimately result in curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime1 pauperism1 and industrial inefficiency4 ,it is hardly necessary to emphasize that the high-grade cases1 of the type now so frequently overlooked1 are precisely the ones whose guardianship it is most important for the ,state to assume4 ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,of ,,delinquents4 ,one of the most important facts brought to light by the use of intelligence tests is the frequent association of delinquency and mental deficiency4 ,although it has long been recognized that the proportion of feeble-mindedness among offenders is rather large1 the real amount has1 until recently1 been underestimated even by the most competent students of criminology4 ,the criminologists have been accustomed to give more attention to the physical than to the mental correlates of crime4 ,thus1 ,lombroso and his followers subjected thousands of criminals to observation and measurement with regard to such physical traits as size and shape of the skull1 bilateral asymmetries1 anomalies of the ear1 eye1 nose1 palate1 teeth1 hands1 fingers1 hair1 dermal sensitivity1 etc4 ,the search was for physical stigmata characteristic of the criminal type4 ,although such studies performed an important service in creating a scientific interest in criminology1 the theories of ,lombroso have been wholly discredited by the results of intelligence tests4 ,such tests have demonstrated1 beyond any possibility of doubt1 that the most important trait of at least #be per cent of our criminals is mental weakness4 ,the physical abnormalities which have been found so common among prisoners are not the stigmata of criminality1 but the physical accompaniments of feeble-mindedness4 ,they have no diagnostic significance except in so far as they are indications of mental deficiency4 ,without exception1 every study which has been made of the intelligence level of delinquents has furnished convincing testimony as to the close relation existing between mental weakness and moral abnormality4 ,some of these findings are as follows3-- ,miss ,renz tested #ajj girls of the ,ohio ,state ,reformatory and reported #cf per cent as certainly feeble-minded4 ,in every one of these cases the commitment papers had given the pronouncement intellect sound4 ,under the direction of ,dr4 ,goddard the ,binet tests were given to #ajj juvenile court cases1 chosen at random1 in ,newark1 ,new ,jersey4 ,nearly half were classified as feeble-minded4 ,one boy #ag years old had #i-year intelligence2 another of #ae had #h-year intelligence4 ,of #ef delinquent girls #ad to #bj years of age tested by ,hill and ,goddard1 almost half belonged either to the #i- or the #aj-year level of intelligence4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,g4 ,fernald's tests of #ajj prisoners at the ,massachusetts ,state ,reformatory showed that at least #be per cent were feeble-minded4 ,of #aahf girls tested by ,miss ,dewson at the ,state ,industrial ,school for ,girls at ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania1 #bh per cent were found to have subnormal intelligence4 ,dr4 ,katherine ,bement ,davis's report on #ajjj cases entered in the ,bedford ,home for ,women1 ,new ,york1 stated that there was no doubt but that at least #aeg were feeble-minded4 ,recently there has been established at this institution one of the most important research laboratories of the kind in the ,united ,states1 with a trained psychologist1 ,dr4 ,mabel ,fernald1 in charge4 ,of #efd prostitutes investigated by ,dr4 ,anna ,dwyer in connection with the ,municipal ,court of ,chicago1 only #c per cent had gone beyond the fifth grade in school4 ,mental tests were not made1 but from the data given it is reasonably certain that half or more were feeble-minded4 ,tests1 by ,dr4 ,george ,ordahl and ,dr4 ,louise ,ellison ,ordahl1 of cases in the ,geneva ,school for ,girls1 ,geneva1 ,illinois1 showed that1 on a conservative basis of classification1 at least #ah per cent were feeble-minded4 ,at the ,joliet ,prison1 ,illinois1 the same authors found #ej per cent of the female prisoners feeble-minded1 and #bf per cent of the male prisoners4 ,at the ,st4 ,charles ,school for ,boys #bf per cent were feeble-minded4 ,tests1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,harold ,williams1 of #aej delinquents in the ,whittier ,state ,school for ,boys1 ,whittier1 ,california1 gave #bh per cent feeble-minded and #be per cent at or near the border-line4 ,about #cjj other juvenile delinquents tested by ,mr4 ,williams gave approximately the same figures4 ,as a result of these findings a research laboratory has been established at the ,whittier ,school1 with ,dr4 ,williams in charge4 ,in the girls' division of the ,whittier ,school1 ,dr4 ,grace ,fernald collected a large amount of psychological data on more than #ajj delinquent girls4 ,the findings of this investigation agree closely with those of ,dr4 ,williams for the boys4 ,at the ,state ,reformatory1 ,jeffersonville1 ,indiana1 ,dr4 von ,klein-,schmid1 in an unusually thorough psychological study of #ajjj young adult prisoners1 finds the proportion of feeble-mindedness not far from #ej per cent4 ,but it is needless to multiply statistics4 ,those given are but samples4 ,tests are at present being made in most of the progressive prisons1 reform schools1 and juvenile courts throughout the country1 and while there are minor discrepancies in regard to the actual percentage who are feeble-minded1 there is no investigator who denies the fearful rle played by mental deficiency in the production of vice1 crime1 and delinquency4#a #a ,see ,references at end of volume4 ,heredity studies of degenerate families have confirmed1 in a striking way1 the testimony secured by intelligence tests4 ,among the best known of such families are the ,kallikaks1 the ,jukes1 the ,hill ,folk1 the ,nams1 the ,zeros1 and the ,ishmaelites4 ,the ,kallikak family4 ,martin ,kallikak was a youthful soldier in the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,at a tavern frequented by the militia he met a feeble-minded girl1 by whom he became the father of a feeble-minded son4 ,in #aiab there were #dhj known direct descendants of this temporary union4 ,it is known that #cf of these were illegitimates1 that #cc were sexually immoral1 that #bd were confirmed alcoholics1 and that #h kept houses of ill-fame4 ,the explanation of so much immorality will be obvious when it is stated that of the #dhj descendants1 #adc were known to be feeble-minded1 and that many of the others were of questionable mentality4 ,a few years after returning from the war this same ,martin ,kallikak married a respectable girl of good family4 ,from this union #dif individuals have been traced in direct descent1 and in this branch of the family there were no illegitimate children1 no immoral women1 and only one man who was sexually loose4 ,there were no criminals1 no keepers of houses of ill-fame1 and only two confirmed alcoholics4 ,again the explanation is clear when it is stated that this branch of the family did not contain a single feeble-minded individual4 ,it was made up of doctors1 lawyers1 judges1 educators1 traders1 and landholders4#b #b ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard3 ,the ,kallikak ,family4 7#aiad47 #ada pp4 ,the ,hill ,folk4 ,the ,hill ,folk are a ,new ,england family of which #gji persons have been traced4 ,of the married women1 #bd per cent had given birth to illegitimate offspring1 and #aj per cent were prostitutes4 ,criminal tendencies were clearly shown in #bd members of the family1 while alcoholism was still more common4 ,the proportion of feeble-minded was #dh per cent4 ,it was estimated that the ,hill ,folk have in the last sixty years cost the ,state of ,massachusetts1 in charitable relief1 care of feeble-minded1 epileptic1 and insane1 conviction and punishment for crime1 prostitution pauperism1 etc41 at least #ejj1jjj4c #c ,danielson and ,davenport3 ,the ,hill ,folk4 ,eugenics ,record ,office1 ,memoir ,no4 #a4 #aiab4 #ef pp4 ,the ,nam family and the ,jukes give equally dark pictures as regards criminality1 licentiousness1 and alcoholism1 and although feeble-mindedness was not as fully investigated in these families as in the ,kallikaks and the ,hill ,folk1 the evidence is strong that it was a leading trait4 ,the #ghd ,nams who were traced included #ahg alcoholics1 #bcb women and #aii men known to be licentious1 and #dj who became prisoners4 ,it is estimated that the ,nams have already cost the ,state nearly #a1ejj1jjj4d #d ,estabrook and ,davenport3 ,the ,nam ,family4 ,eugenics ,record ,office ,memoir ,no4 #b4 7#aiab74 #he pp4 ,of #edj ,jukes1 practically one fifth were born out of wedlock1 #cg were known to be syphilitic1 #ec had been in the poorhouse1 #gf had been sentenced to prison1 and of #bbi women of marriageable age #abh were prostitutes4 ,the economic damage inflicted upon the ,state of ,new ,york by the ,jukes in seventy-five years was estimated at more than #a1cjj1jjj1 to say nothing of diseases and other evil influences which they helped to spread4#e #e ,r4 ,l4 ,dugdale3 ,the ,jukes4 7,fourth edition1 #aiaj47 #abj pp4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,but why do the feeble-minded tend so strongly to become delinquent8 ,the answer may be stated in simple terms4 ,morality depends upon two things3 7a7 the ability to foresee and to weigh the possible consequences for self and others of different kinds of behavior2 and 7b7 upon the willingness and capacity to exercise self-restraint4 ,that there are many intelligent criminals is due to the fact that 7a7 may exist without 7b74 ,on the other hand1 7b7 presupposes 7a74 ,in other words1 not all criminals are feeble-minded1 but all feeble-minded are at least potential criminals4 ,that every feeble-minded woman is a potential prostitute would hardly be disputed by any one4 ,moral judgment1 like business judgment1 social judgment1 or any other kind of higher thought process1 is a function of intelligence4 ,morality cannot flower and fruit if intelligence remains infantile4 ,all of us in early childhood lacked moral responsibility4 ,we were as rank egoists as any criminal4 ,respect for the feelings1 the property rights1 or any other kind of rights1 of others had to be laboriously acquired under the whip of discipline4 ,but by degrees we learned that only when instincts are curbed1 and conduct is made to conform to principles established formally or accepted tacitly by our neighbors1 does this become a livable world for any of us4 ,without the intelligence to generalize the particular1 to foresee distant consequences of present acts1 to weigh these foreseen consequences in the nice balance of imagination1 morality cannot be learned4 ,when the adult body1 with its adult instincts1 is coupled with the undeveloped intelligence and weak inhibitory powers of a #aj-year-old child1 the only possible outcome1 except in those cases where constant guardianship is exercised by relatives or friends1 is some form of delinquency4 ,considering the tremendous cost of vice and crime1 which in all probability amounts to not less than #ejj1jjj1jjj per year in the ,united ,states alone1 it is evident that psychological testing has found here one of its richest applications4 ,before offenders can be subjected to rational treatment a mental diagnosis is necessary1 and while intelligence tests do not constitute a complete psychological diagnosis1 they are1 nevertheless1 its most indispensable part4 ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,of ,,superior ,,children4 ,the number of children with very superior ability is approximately as great as the number of feeble-minded4 ,the future welfare of the country hinges1 in no small degree1 upon the right education of these superior children4 ,whether civilization moves on and up depends most on the advances made by creative thinkers and leaders in science1 politics1 art1 morality1 and religion4 ,moderate ability can follow1 or imitate1 but genius must show the way4 ,through the leveling influences of the educational lockstep such children at present are often lost in the masses4 ,it is a rare child who is able to break this lockstep by extra promotions4 ,taking the country over1 the ratio of accelerates to retardates in the school is approximately #a to #aj4 ,through the handicapping influences of poverty1 social neglect1 physical defects1 or educational maladjustments1 many potential leaders in science1 art1 government1 and industry are denied the opportunity of a normal development4 ,the use we have made of exceptional ability reminds one of the primitive methods of surface mining4 ,it is necessary to explore the nation's hidden resources of intelligence4 ,the common saying that genius will out is one of those dangerous half-truths with which too many people rest content4 ,psychological tests show that children of superior ability are very likely to be misunderstood in school4 ,the writer has tested more than a hundred children who were as much above average intelligence as moron defectives are below4 ,the large majority of these were found located below the school grade warranted by their intellectual level4 ,one third had failed to reap any advantage whatever1 in terms of promotion1 from their very superior intelligence4 ,even genius languishes when kept over-long at tasks that are too easy4 ,our data show that teachers sometimes fail entirely to recognize exceptional superiority in a pupil1 and that the degree of such superiority is rarely estimated with anything like the accuracy which is possible to the psychologist after a one-hour examination4 ,b4 ,f41 for example1 was a little over #g years old when tested4 ,he was in the third grade1 and was therefore thought by his teacher to be accelerated in school4 ,this boy's intelligence1 however1 was found to be above the #ab-year level4 ,there is no doubt that his mental ability would have enabled him1 with a few months of individual instruction1 to carry fifth or even sixth-grade work as easily as third1 and without injury to body or mind4 ,nevertheless1 the teacher and both the parents of this child had found nothing remarkable about him4 ,in reality he belongs to a grade of genius not found oftener than once in several thousand cases4 ,another illustration is that of a boy of #aj years who tested at the average adult level4 ,he was doing superior work in the sixth grade1 but according to the testimony of the teacher had no unusual ability4 ,it was ascertained from the parents that this boy1 at an age when most children are reading fairy stories1 had a passion for standard medical literature and textbooks in physical science4 ,yet1 after more than a year of daily contact with this young genius 7who is a relative of ,meyerbeer1 the composer71 the teacher had discovered no symptoms of unusual ability4#f #f ,see p4 #bf ff4 for further illustrations of this kind4 ,teachers should be better trained in detecting the signs of superior ability4 ,every child who consistently gets high marks in his school work with apparent ease should be given a mental examination1 and if his intelligence level warrants it he should either be given extra promotions1 or placed in a special class for superior children where faster progress can be made4 ,the latter is the better plan1 because it obviates the necessity of skipping grades2 it permits rapid but continuous progress4 ,the usual reluctance of teachers to give extra promotions probably rests upon three factors3 7#a7 mere inertia2 7#b7 a natural unwillingness to part with exceptionally satisfactory pupils2 and 7#c7 the traditional belief that precocious children should be held back for fear of dire physical or mental consequences4 ,in order to throw light on the question whether exceptionally bright children are specially likely to be one-sided1 nervous1 delicate1 morally abnormal1 socially unadaptable1 or otherwise peculiar1 the writer has secured rather extensive information regarding #ca children whose mental age was found by intelligence tests to be #be per cent above the actual age4 ,this degree of intelligence is possessed by about #b children out of #ajj1 and is nearly as far above average intelligence as high-grade feeble-mindedness is below4 ,the supplementary information1 which was furnished in most cases by the teachers1 may be summarized as follows3-- #a4 ,ability special or general4 ,in the case of #bj out of #ca the ability is decidedly general1 and with #b it is mainly general4 ,the talents of #e are described as more or less special1 but only in one case is it remarkably so4 ,doubtful #d4 #b4 ,health4 #ae are said to be perfectly healthy2 #ac have one or more physical defects2 #d of the #ac are described as delicate2 #d have adenoids2 #d have eye-defects2 #a lisps2 and #a stutters4 ,these figures are about the same as one finds in any group of ordinary children4 #c4 ,studiousness4 ,extremely studious1 #ae2 usually studious or fairly studious1 #aa2 not particularly studious1 #e2 lazy1 #j4 #d4 ,moral traits4 ,favorable traits only1 #ai2 one or more unfavorable traits1 #h2 no answer1 #d4 ,the eight with unfavorable moral traits are described as follows3 #b are very self-willed2 #a needs close watching2 #a is cruel to animals2 #a is untruthful2 #a is unreliable2 #a is a bluffer2 #a is sexually abnormal1 perverted1 and vicious4 ,it will be noted that with the exception of the last child1 the moral irregularities mentioned can hardly be regarded1 from the psychological point of view1 as essentially abnormal4 ,it is perhaps a good rather than a bad sign for a child to be self-willed2 most children need close watching2 and a certain amount of untruthfulness in children is the rule and not the exception4 #e4 ,social adaptability4 ,socially adaptable1 #be2 not adaptable1 #b2 doubtful1 #d4 #f4 ,attitude of other children4 ,favorable1 friendly1 liked by everybody1 much admired1 popular1 etc41 #bf2 not liked1 #a2 inspires repugnance1 #a2 no answer1 #a4 #g4 ,is child a leader8 ,yes1 #ad2 no1 or not particularly1 #ab2 doubtful1 #e4 #h4 ,is play life normal8 ,yes1 #bf2 no1 #a2 hardly1 #a2 doubtful1 #c4 #i4 ,is child spoiled or vain8 ,no1 #bb2 yes1 #e2 somewhat1 #b2 no answer1 #b4 ,according to the above data1 exceptionally intelligent children are fully as likely to be healthy as ordinary children2 their ability is far more often general than special1 they are studious above the average1 really serious faults are not common among them1 they are nearly always socially adaptable1 are sought after as playmates and companions1 their play life is usually normal1 they are leaders far oftener than other children1 and notwithstanding their many really superior qualities they are seldom vain or spoiled4 ,it would be greatly to the advantage of such children if their superior ability were more promptly and fully recognized1 and if 7under proper medical supervision1 of course7 they were promoted as rapidly as their mental development would warrant4 ,unless they are given the grade of work which calls forth their best efforts1 they run the risk of falling into lifelong habits of submaximum efficiency4 ,the danger in the case of such children is not over-pressure1 but under-pressure4 ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,as ,a ,,basis ,,for ,,grading4 ,not only in the case of retarded or exceptionally bright children1 but with many others also1 intelligence tests can aid in correctly placing the child in school4 ,the pupil who enters one school system from another is a case in point4 ,such a pupil nearly always suffers a loss of time4 ,the indefensible custom is to grade the newcomer down a little1 because1 forsooth1 the textbooks he has studied may have differed somewhat from those he is about to take up1 or because the school system from which he comes may be looked upon as inferior4 ,teachers are too often suspicious of all other educational methods besides their own4 ,the present treatment accorded such children1 which so often does them injustice and injury1 should be replaced by an intelligence test4 ,the hour of time required for the test is a small matter in comparison with the loss of a school term by the pupils4 ,indeed1 it would be desirable to make all promotions on the basis chiefly of intellectual ability4 ,hitherto the school has had to rely on tests of information because reliable tests of intelligence have not until recently been available4 ,as trained ,binet examiners become more plentiful1 the information standard will have to give way to the criterion which asks merely that the child shall be able to do the work of the next higher grade4 ,the brief intelligence test is not only more enlightening than the examination2 it is also more hygienic4 ,the school examination is often for the child a source of worry and anxiety2 the mental test is an interesting and pleasant experience4 ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,for ,,vocational ,,fitness4 ,the time is probably not far distant when intelligence tests will become a recognized and widely used instrument for determining vocational fitness4 ,of course1 it is not claimed that tests are available which will tell us unerringly exactly what one of a thousand or more occupations a given individual is best fitted to pursue4 ,but when thousands of children who have been tested by the ,binet scale have been followed out into the industrial world1 and their success in various occupations noted1 we shall know fairly definitely the vocational significance of any given degree of mental inferiority or superiority4 ,researches of this kind will ultimately determine the minimum intelligence quotient necessary for success in each leading occupation4 ,industrial concerns doubtless suffer enormous losses from the employment of persons whose mental ability is not equal to the tasks they are expected to perform4 ,the present methods of trying out new employees1 transferring them to simpler and simpler jobs as their inefficiency becomes apparent1 is wasteful and to a great extent unnecessary4 ,a cheaper and more satisfactory method would be to employ a psychologist to examine applicants for positions and to weed out the unfit4 ,any business employing as many as five hundred or a thousand workers1 as1 for example1 a large department store1 could save in this way several times the salary of a well-trained psychologist4 ,that the industrially inefficient are often of subnormal intelligence has already been demonstrated in a number of psychological investigations4 ,of #aej hoboes tested under the direction of the writer by ,mr4 ,knollin1 at least #ae per cent belonged to the moron grade of mental deficiency1 and almost as many more were border-line cases4 ,to be sure1 a large proportion were found perfectly normal1 and a few even decidedly superior in mental ability1 but the ratio of mental deficiency was ten or fifteen times as high as that holding for the general population4 ,several had as low as #i- or #aj-year intelligence1 and one had a mental level of #g years4 ,the industrial history of such subjects1 as given by themselves1 was always about what the mental level would lead us to expect--unskilled work1 lack of interest in accomplishment1 frequent discharge from jobs1 discouragement1 and finally the road4 ,the above findings have been fully paralleled by ,mr4 ,glenn ,johnson and ,professor ,eleanor ,rowland1 of ,reed ,college1 who tested #ajh unemployed charity cases in ,portland1 ,oregon4 ,both of these investigators made use of the ,stanford revision of the ,binet scale1 which is especially serviceable in distinguishing the upper-grade defectives from normals4 ,it hardly needs to be emphasized that when charity organizations help the feeble-minded to float along in the social and industrial world1 and to produce and rear children after their kind1 a doubtful service is rendered4 ,a little psychological research would aid the united charities of any city to direct their expenditures into more profitable channels than would otherwise be possible4 ,,other ,,uses ,,of ,,intelligence ,,tests4 ,another important use of intelligence tests is in the study of the factors which influence mental development4 ,it is desirable that we should be able to guard the child against influences which affect mental development unfavorably2 but as long as these influences have not been sifted1 weighed1 and measured1 we have nothing but conjecture on which to base our efforts in this direction4 ,when we search the literature of child hygiene for reliable evidence as to the injurious effects upon mental ability of malnutrition1 decayed teeth1 obstructed breathing1 reduced sleep1 bad ventilation1 insufficient exercise1 etc41 we are met by endless assertion painfully unsupported by demonstrated fact4 ,we have1 indeed1 very little exact knowledge regarding the mental effects of any of the factors just mentioned4 ,when standardized mental tests have come into more general use1 such influences will be easy to detect wherever they are really present4 ,again1 the most important question of heredity is that regarding the inheritance of intelligence2 but this is a problem which cannot be attacked at all without some accurate means of identifying the thing which is the object of study4 ,without the use of scales for measuring intelligence we can give no better answer as to the essential difference between a genius and a fool than is to be found in legend and fiction4 ,applying this to school children1 it means that without such tests we cannot know to what extent a child's mental performances are determined by environment and to what extent by heredity4 ,is the place of the so-called lower classes in the social and industrial scale the result of their inferior native endowment1 or is their apparent inferiority merely a result of their inferior home and school training8 ,is genius more common among children of the educated classes than among the children of the ignorant and poor8 ,are the inferior races really inferior1 or are they merely unfortunate in their lack of opportunity to learn8 ,only intelligence tests can answer these questions and grade the raw material with which education works4 ,without them we can never distinguish the results of our educational efforts with a given child from the influence of the child's original endowment4 ,such tests would have told us1 for example1 whether the much-discussed wonder children1 such as the ,sidis and ,wiener boys and the ,stoner girl1 owe their precocious intellectual prowess to superior training 7as their parents believe7 or to superior native ability4 ,the supposed effects upon mental development of new methods of mind training1 which are exploited so confidently from time to time 7e4g41 the ,montessori method and the various systems of sensory and motor training for the feeble-minded71 will have to be checked up by the same kind of scientific measurement4 ,in all these fields intelligence tests are certain to play an ever-increasing rle4 ,with the exception of moral character there is nothing as significant for a child's future as his grade of intelligence4 ,even health itself is likely to have less influence in determining success in life4 ,although strength and swiftness have always had great survival value among the lower animals1 these characteristics have long since lost their supremacy in man's struggle for existence4 ,for us the rule of brawn has been broken1 and intelligence has become the decisive factor in success4 ,schools1 railroads1 factories1 and the largest commercial concerns may be successfully managed by persons who are physically weak or even sickly4 ,one who has intelligence constantly measures opportunities against his own strength or weakness and adjusts himself to conditions by following those leads which promise most toward the realization of his individual possibilities4 ,all classes of intellects1 the weakest as well as the strongest1 will profit by the application of their talents to tasks which are consonant with their ability4 ,when we have learned the lessons which intelligence tests have to teach1 we shall no longer blame mentally defective workmen for their industrial inefficiency1 punish weak-minded children because of their inability to learn1 or imprison and hang mentally defective criminals because they lacked the intelligence to appreciate the ordinary codes of social conduct4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sources ,,of ,,error ,,in ,,judging ,,intelligence ,,are ,,intelligence ,,tests ,,superfluous8 ,binet tells us that he often encountered the criticism that intelligence tests are superfluous1 and that in going to so much trouble to devise his measuring scale he was forcing an open door4 ,those who made this criticism believed that the observant teacher or parent is able to make an offhand estimate of a child's intelligence which is accurate enough4 ,it is a stupid teacher1 said one1 who needs a psychologist to tell her which pupils are not intelligent4 ,every one who uses intelligence tests meets this attitude from time to time4 ,this should not be surprising or discouraging4 ,it is only natural that those who are unfamiliar with the methods of psychology should occasionally question their validity or worth1 just as there are many excellent people who do not believe in vaccination against typhoid and small pox1 operations for appendicitis1 etc4 ,there is an additional reason why the applications of psychology have to overcome a good deal of conservatism and skepticism2 namely1 the fact that every one1 whether psychologically trained or not1 acquires in the ordinary experiences of life a certain degree of expertness in the observation and interpretation of mental traits4 ,the possession of this little fund of practical working knowledge makes most people slow to admit any one's claim to greater expertness4 ,when the astronomer tells us the distance to ,jupiter1 we accept his statement1 because we recognize that our ordinary experience affords no basis for judgment about such matters4 ,but every one acquires more or less facility in distinguishing the coarser differences among people in intelligence1 and this half-knowledge naturally generates a certain amount of resistance to the more refined method of tests4 ,it should be evident1 however1 that we need more than the ability merely to distinguish a genius from a simpleton1 just as a physician needs something more than the ability to distinguish an athlete from a man dying of consumption4 ,it is necessary to have a definite and accurate diagnosis1 one which will differentiate more finely the many degrees and qualities of intelligence4 ,just as in the case of physical illness1 we need to know not merely that the patient is sick1 but also why he is sick1 what organs are involved1 what course the illness will run1 and what physical work the patient can safely undertake1 so in the case of a retarded child1 we need to know the exact degree of intellectual deficiency1 what mental functions are chiefly concerned in the defect1 whether the deficiency is due to innate endowment1 to physical illness1 or to faults of education1 and what lines of mental activity the child will be able to pursue with reasonable hope of success4 ,in the diagnosis of a case of malnutrition1 the up-to-date physician does not depend upon general symptoms1 but instead makes a blood test to determine the exact number of red corpuscles per cubic millimeter of blood and the exact percentage of hmoglobin4 ,he has learned that external appearances are often misleading4 ,similarly1 every psychologist who is experienced in the mental examination of school children knows that his own or the teacher's estimate of a child's intelligence is subject to grave and frequent error4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,standards4 ,in the first place1 in order to judge an individual's intelligence it is necessary to have in mind some standard as to what constitutes normal intelligence4 ,this the ordinary parent or teacher does not have4 ,in the case of school children1 for example1 each pupil is judged with reference to the average intelligence of the class4 ,but the teacher has no means of knowing whether the average for her class is above1 equal to1 or below that for children in general4 ,her standard may be too high1 too low1 vague1 mechanical1 or fragmentary4 ,the same1 of course1 holds in the case of parents or any one else attempting to estimate intelligence on the basis of common observation4 ,,the ,,intelligence ,,of ,,retarded ,,children ,,usually ,,overestimated4 ,one of the most common errors made by the teacher is to overestimate the intelligence of the over-age pupil4 ,this is because she fails to take account of age differences and estimates intelligence on the basis of the child's school performance in the grade where he happens to be located4 ,she tends to overlook the fact that quality of school work is no index of intelligence unless age is taken into account4 ,the question should be1 not1 ,is this child doing his school work well8 but rather1 ,in what school grade should a child of this age be able to do satisfactory work8 ,a high-grade imbecile may do average work in the first grade1 and a high-grade moron average work in the third or fourth grade1 provided only they are sufficiently over-age for the grade in question4 ,our experience in testing children for segregation in special classes has time and again brought this fallacy of teachers to our attention4 ,we have often found one or more feeble-minded children in a class after the teacher had confidently asserted that there was not a single exceptionally dull child present4 ,in every case where there has been opportunity to follow the later school progress of such a child the validity of the intelligence test has been fully confirmed4 ,the following are typical examples of the neglect of teachers to take the age factor into account when estimating the intelligence of the over-age child3-- ,a4 ,r4 ,girl1 age #aa2 in low second grade4 ,she was able to do the work of this grade1 not well1 but passably4 ,the teacher's judgment as to this child's intelligence was dull but not defective4 ,what the teacher overlooked was the fact that she had judged the child by a #g-year standard1 and that1 instead of only being able to do the work of the second grade indifferently1 a child of this age should have been equal to the work of the fifth grade4 ,in reality1 ,a4 ,r4 is definitely feeble-minded4 ,although she is from a home of average culture1 is #aa years old1 and has attended school five years1 she has barely the intelligence of the average child of six years4 ,d4 ,c4 ,boy1 age #ag2 in fifth grade4 ,his teacher knew that he was dull1 but had not thought of him as belonging to the class of feeble-minded4 ,she had judged this boy by the #aa-year standard and had perhaps been further misled by his normal appearance and exceptionally satisfactory behavior4 ,the ,binet test quickly showed that he had a mental level of approximately #i years4 ,there is little probability that his comprehension will ever surpass that of the average #aj-year-old4 ,r4 ,a4 ,boy1 age #ag2 mental age #aa2 sixth grade2 school work nearly average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,test plainly shows this child to be a high-grade moron1 or border-liner at best4 ,had attended school regularly #aa years and had made #f grades4 ,teacher had compared child with his #ab-year-old classmates4 ,h4 ,a4 ,boy1 age #ad2 mental age #i-f2 low fourth grade2 school work inferior2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,the teacher blamed the inferior quality of school work to bad home environment4 ,as a matter of fact1 the boy's father is feeble-minded and the normality of the mother is questionable4 ,an older brother is in a reform school4 ,we are perfectly safe in predicting that this boy will not complete the eighth grade even if he attends school till he is #ba years of age4 ,f4 ,i4 ,boy1 age #ab-aa2 mental age #i-d2 third grade2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average2 social environment average2 health good and attendance regular4 ,intelligence and school success are what we should expect of an average #i-year-old4 ,d4 ,a4 ,boy1 age #ab2 mental age #i-b2 third grade2 school work inferior2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,teacher imputes inferior school work to absence from school and lack of interest in books2 we have yet to find a child with a mental age #be per cent below chronological age who was particularly interested in books or enthusiastic about school4 ,c4 ,u4 ,girl1 age #aj2 mental age #g-h2 second grade2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,teacher blames adenoids and bad teeth for retardation4 ,no doubt of child's mental deficiency4 ,p4 ,i4 ,girl1 age #h-aj2 mental age #f-g2 has been in first grade #b years2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,the mother and one brother of this girl are both feeble-minded4 ,h4 ,o4 ,girl1 age #g-aj2 mental age #e-b2 first grade for #b years2 school work inferior2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,the teacher nevertheless adds1 ,this child is not normal1 but her ability to respond to drill shows that she has intelligence4 ,it is of course true that even feeble-minded children of #e-year intelligence are able to profit a little from drill4 ,their weakness comes to light in their inability to perform higher types of mental activity4 ,,the ,,intelligence ,,of ,,superior ,,children ,,usually ,,underestimated4 ,we have already mentioned the frequent failure of teachers and parents to recognize superior ability4#g ,the fallacy here is again largely due to the neglect of the age factor1 but the resulting error is in the opposite direction from that set forth above4 ,the superior child is likely to be a year or two younger than the average child of his grade1 and is accordingly judged by a standard which is too high4 ,the following are illustrations3-- #g ,see p4 #ac ff4 ,m4 ,l4 ,girl1 age #aa-b2 mental age average adult 7#af72 sixth grade2 school work superior2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,teacher credits superior school work to unusual home advantages4 ,father a college professor4 ,the teacher considers the child accelerated in school4 ,in reality she ought to be in the second year of high school instead of in the sixth grade4 ,h4 ,a4 ,boy1 age #aa2 mental age #ad2 sixth grade2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,according to the supplementary information the boy is wonderfully attentive1 studious1 and possessed of all-round ability4 ,the estimate of average intelligence was probably the result of comparing him with classmates who averaged about a year older4 ,k4 ,r4 ,girl1 age #f-a2 mental age #h-e2 second grade2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence superior2 social environment average4 ,is it not evident that a child from ordinary social environment1 who does work of average quality in the second grade when barely #f years of age1 should be judged very superior rather than merely superior in intelligence8 ,the intelligence quotient of this girl is #adj1 which is not reached by more than one child in two hundred4 ,s4 ,a4 ,boy1 age #h-aj2 mental age #aj-i2 fourth grade2 school work average2 teacher's estimate of intelligence average4 ,teacher attributed school acceleration to studiousness and delight in school work4 ,it would be more reasonable to infer that these traits are indications of unusually superior intelligence4 ,,other ,,fallacies ,,in ,,the ,,estimation ,,of ,,intelligence4 ,another source of error in the teacher's judgment comes from the difficulty in distinguishing genuine dullness from the mental condition which results sometimes from unfavorable social environment or lack of training4 ,v4 ,p4 ,boy1 age #g4 ,had attended school one year and had profited very little from the instruction4 ,he had learned to read very little1 spoke chiefly in monosyllables1 and seemed queer4 ,the teacher suspected his intelligence and asked for a mental examination4 ,the ,binet test showed that except for vocabulary1 which was unusually low1 there was practically no mental retardation4 ,inquiry disclosed the fact that the boy's parents were uneducated deaf-mutes1 and that the boy had associated little with other children4 ,four years later this boy was doing fairly well in school1 though a year retarded because of his unfavorable home environment4 ,x4 ,y4 ,boy1 age #aj4 ,son of a successful business man1 he was barely able to read in the second reader4 ,the ,binet test revealed an intelligence level which was absolutely normal4 ,the boy was removed to a special class where he could receive individual attention1 and two years later was found doing good work in a regular class of the fifth grade4 ,his bad beginning seemed to have been due to an unfavorable attitude toward school work1 due in turn to lack of discipline in the home1 and to the fact that because of the father's frequent change of business headquarters the boy had never attended one school longer than three months4 ,another source of error in judging intelligence from common observation is the tendency to overestimate the intelligence of the sprightly1 talkative1 sanguine child1 and to underestimate the intelligence of the child who is less emotional1 reacts slowly1 and talks little4 ,one occasionally finds a feeble-minded adult1 perhaps of only #i- or #aj-year intelligence1 whose verbal fluency1 mental liveliness1 and self-confidence would mislead the offhand judgment of even the psychologist4 ,one individual of this type1 a border-line case at best1 was accustomed to harangue street audiences and had served as major in ,kelly's ,army1 a horde of several hundred unemployed men who a few years ago organized and started to march from ,san ,francisco to ,washington4 ,,binet',s ,,questionnaire ,,on ,,teachers' ,,methods ,,of ,,judging ,,intelligence4#h ,aroused by the skepticism so often shown toward his test method1 ,binet decided to make a little study of the methods by which teachers are accustomed to arrive at a judgment as to a child's intelligence4 ,accordingly1 through the coperation of the director of elementary education in ,paris1 he secured answers from a number of teachers to the following questions3-- #h ,see p4 #afi ff4 of reference #b1 at end of this book #a4 ,by what means do you judge the intelligence of your pupils8 #b4 ,how often have you been deceived in your judgments8 ,about #dj replies were received4 ,most of the answers to the first question were vague1 one-sided1 verbal1 or bookish4 ,only a few showed much psychological discrimination as to what intelligence is and what its symptoms are4 ,there was a very general tendency to judge intelligence by success in one or more of the school studies4 ,some thought that ability to master arithmetic was a sure criterion4 ,others were influenced almost entirely by the pupil's ability to read4 ,one teacher said that the child who can read so expressively as to make you feel the punctuation is certainly intelligent1 an observation which is rather good1 as far as it goes4 ,a few judged intelligence by the pupil's knowledge of such subjects as history and geography1 which1 as ,binet points out1 is to confound intelligence with the ability to memorize4 ,memory1 says ,binet1 is a great simulator of intelligence4 ,it is a wise teacher who is not deceived by it4 ,only a small minority mentioned resourcefulness in play1 capacity to adjust to practical situations1 or any other out-of-school criteria4 ,some suggested asking the pupil such questions as the following3-- ,why do you love your parents8 ,if it takes three persons seven hours to do a piece of work1 would it take seven persons any longer8 ,which would you rather have1 a fourth of a pie1 or a half of a half8 ,which is heavier1 a pound of feathers or a pound of lead8 ,if you had twenty cents what would you do with it8 ,a great many based their judgment mainly on the general appearance of the face and eyes4 ,an active or passive expression of the eyes was looked upon as especially significant4 ,one teacher thought that a mere glance of the eye was sufficient to display the grade of intelligence4 ,if the eyes are penetrating1 reflective1 or show curiosity1 the child must be intelligent2 if they are heavy and expressionless1 he must be dull4 ,the mobility of countenance came in for frequent mention1 also the shape of the head4 ,no one will deny that intelligence displays itself to a greater or less extent in the features2 but how1 asks ,binet1 are we going to standardize a glance of the eye or an expression of curiosity so that it will serve as an exact measure of intelligence8 ,the fact is1 the more one sees of feeble-minded children1 the less reliance one comes to place upon facial expression as a sign of intelligence4 ,some children who are only slightly backward have the general appearance of low-grade imbeciles4 ,on the other hand1 not a few who are distinctly feeble-minded are pretty and attractive4 ,with many such children a ready smile takes the place of comprehension4 ,if the smile is rather sweet and sympathetic1 as is often the case1 the observer is almost sure to be deceived4 ,as regards the shape of the head1 peculiar conformation of the ears1 and other stigmata1 science long ago demonstrated that these are ordinarily of little or no significance4 ,in reply to the second question1 some teachers stated that they never made a mistake1 while others admitted failure in one case out of three4 ,still others said1 ,once in ten years1 once in twenty years1 once in a thousand times1 etc4 ,as ,binet remarks1 the answers to this question are not very enlightening4 ,in the first place1 the teacher as a rule loses sight of the pupil when he has passed from her care1 and seldom has opportunity of finding out whether his later success belies her judgment or confirms it4 ,errors go undiscovered for the simple reason that there is no opportunity to check them up4 ,in the second place1 her estimate is so rough that an error must be very great in order to have any meaning4 ,if ,i say that a man is six feet and two inches tall1 it is easy enough to apply a measuring stick and prove the correctness or incorrectness of my assertion4 ,but if ,i say simply that the man is rather tall1 or very tall1 the error must be very extreme before we can expose it1 particularly since the estimate can itself be checked up only by observation and not by controlled experiment4 ,the teachers' answers seem to justify three conclusions3-- #a4 ,teachers do not have a very definite idea of what constitutes intelligence4 ,they tend to confuse it variously with capacity for memorizing1 facility in reading1 ability to master arithmetic1 etc4 ,on the whole1 their standard is too academic4 ,they fail to appreciate the one-sidedness of the school's demands upon intelligence4 ,in a quaintly humorous passage discussing this tendency1 ,binet characterizes the child in a class as dnatur1 a ,french word which we may translate 7though rather too literally7 as denatured4 ,too often this denatured child of the classroom is the only child the teacher knows4 #b4 ,in judging intelligence teachers are too easily deceived by a sprightly attitude1 a sympathetic expression1 a glance of the eye1 or a chance bump on the head4 #c4 ,although a few teachers seem to realize the many possibilities of error1 the majority show rather undue confidence in the accuracy of their judgment4 ,,binet',s ,,experiment ,,on ,,how ,,teachers ,,test ,,intelligence4#i ,finally1 ,binet had three teachers come to his laboratory to judge the intelligence of children whom they had never seen before4 ,each spent an afternoon in the laboratory and examined five pupils4 ,in each case the teacher was left free to arrive at a conclusion in her own way4 ,binet1 who remained in the room and took notes1 recounts with playful humor how the teachers were unavoidably compelled to resort to the much-abused test method1 although their attempts at using it were sometimes1 from the psychologist's point of view1 amusingly clumsy4 #i ,see p4 #ahb ff4 of reference #b at end of this book4 ,one teacher1 for example1 questioned the children about some canals and sluices which were in the vicinity1 asking what their purpose was and how they worked4 ,another showed the children some pretty pictures1 which she had brought with her for the purpose1 and asked questions about them4 ,showing the picture of a garret1 she asked how a garret differs from an ordinary room4 ,one teacher asked whether in building a factory it was best to have the walls thick or thin4 ,as ,king ,edward had just died1 another teacher questioned the children about the details of this event1 in order to find out whether they were in the habit of reading the newspapers1 or understood the things they heard others read4 ,other questions related to the names of the streets in the neighborhood1 the road one should take to reach a certain point in the vicinity1 etc4 ,binet notes that many of the questions were special1 and were only applicable with the children of this particular school4 ,the method of proposing the questions and judging the responses was also at fault4 ,the teachers did not adhere consistently to any definite formula in giving a particular test to the different children4 ,instead1 the questions were materially altered from time to time4 ,one teacher scored the identical response differently for two children1 giving one child more credit than the other because she had already judged his intelligence to be superior4 ,in several cases the examination was needlessly delayed in order to instruct the child in what he did not know4 ,the examination ended1 quite properly for a teacher's examination1 with questions about history1 literature1 the metric system1 etc41 and with the recitation of a fable4 ,a comparison of the results showed hardly any agreement among the estimates of the three teachers4 ,when questioned about the standard that had been taken in arriving at their conclusions1 one teacher said she had taken the answers of the first pupil as a point of departure1 and that she had judged the other pupils by this one4 ,another judged all the children by a child of her acquaintance whom she knew to be intelligent4 ,this was1 of course1 an unsafe method1 because no one could say how the child taken as an ideal would have responded to the tests used with the five children4 ,in summarizing the result of his little experiment1 ,binet points out that the teachers employed1 as if by instinct1 the very method which he himself recommends4 ,in using it1 however1 they made numerous errors4 ,their questions were often needlessly long4 ,several were dilemma questions1 that is1 answerable by yes or no4 ,in such cases chance alone will cause fifty per cent of the answers to be correct4 ,some of the questions were merely tests of school knowledge4 ,others were entirely special1 usable only with the children of this particular school on this particular day4 ,not all of the questions were put in the same terms1 and a given response did not always receive the same score4 ,when the children responded incorrectly or incompletely1 they were often given help1 but not always to the same extent4 ,in other words1 says ,binet1 it was evident that the teachers employed very awkwardly a very excellent method4 ,the above remark is as pertinent as it is expressive4 ,as the statement implies1 the test method is but a refinement and standardization of the common-sense approach4 ,binet remarks that most people who inquire into his method of measuring intelligence do so expecting to find something very surprising and mysterious2 and on seeing how much it resembles the methods which common sense employs in ordinary life1 they heave a sigh of disappointment and say1 ,is that all8 ,binet reminds us that the difference between the scientific and unscientific way of doing a thing is not necessarily a difference in the nature of the method2 it is often merely a difference in exactness4 ,science does the thing better1 because it does it more accurately4 ,it was of course not the purpose of ,binet to cast a slur upon the good sense and judgment of teachers4 ,the teachers who took part in the little experiment described above were ,binet's personal friends4 ,the errors he points out in his entertaining and good-humored account of the experiment are inherent in the situation4 ,they are the kind of errors which any person1 however discriminating and observant1 is likely to make in estimating the intelligence of a subject without the use of standardized tests4 ,it is the writer's experience that the teacher's estimate of a child's intelligence is much more reliable than that of the average parent2 more accurate even than that of the physician who has not had psychological training4 ,indeed1 it is an exceptional school physician who is able to give any very valuable assistance to teachers in the classification of mentally exceptional children for special pedagogical treatment4 ,this is only to be expected1 for the physician has ordinarily had much less instruction in psychology than the teacher1 and of course infinitely less experience in judging the mental performances of children4 ,even if graduated from a first-rank medical school1 the instruction he has received in the important subject of mental deficiency has probably been less adequate than that given to the students of a standard normal school4 ,as a rule1 the doctor has no equipment or special fitness which gives him any advantage over the teacher in acquiring facility in the use of intelligence tests4 ,as for parents1 it would of course be unreasonable to expect from them a very accurate judgment regarding the mental peculiarities of their children4 ,the difficulty is not simply that which comes from lack of special training4 ,the presence of parental affection renders impartial judgment impossible4 ,still more serious are the effects of habituation to the child's mental traits4 ,as a result of such habituation the most intelligent parent tends to develop an unfortunate blindness to all sorts of abnormalities which exist in his own children4 ,the only way of escape from the fallacies we have mentioned lies in the use of some kind of refined psychological procedure4 ,binet testing is destined to become universally known and practiced in schools1 prisons1 reformatories1 charity stations1 orphan asylums1 and even ordinary homes1 for the same reason that ,babcock testing has become universal in dairying4 ,each is indispensable to its purpose4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method ,,essential ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,scale4 ,the ,binet scale is made up of an extended series of tests in the nature of stunts1 or problems1 success in which demands the exercise of intelligence4 ,as left by ,binet1 the scale consists of #ed tests1 so graded in difficulty that the easiest lie well within the range of normal #c-year-old children1 while the hardest tax the intelligence of the average adult4 ,the problems are designed primarily to test native intelligence1 not school knowledge or home training4 ,they try to answer the question ,how intelligent is this child8 ,how much the child has learned is of significance only in so far as it throws light on his ability to learn more4 ,binet fully appreciated the fact that intelligence is not homogeneous1 that it has many aspects1 and that no one kind of test will display it adequately4 ,he therefore assembled for his intelligence scale tests of many different types1 some of them designed to display differences of memory1 others differences in power to reason1 ability to compare1 power of comprehension1 time orientation1 facility in the use of number concepts1 power to combine ideas into a meaningful whole1 the maturity of apperception1 wealth of ideas1 knowledge of common objects1 etc4 ,,how ,,the ,,scale ,,was ,,derived4 ,the tests were arranged in order of difficulty1 as found by trying them upon some #bjj normal children of different ages from #c to #ae years4 ,it was found1 for illustration1 that a certain test was passed by only a very small proportion of the younger children1 say the #e-year-olds1 and that the number passing this test increased rapidly in the succeeding years until by the age of #g or #h years1 let us say1 practically all the children were successful4 ,if1 in our supposed case1 the test was passed by about two thirds to three fourths of the normal children aged #g years1 it was considered by ,binet a test of #g-year intelligence4 ,in like manner1 a test passed by #fe to #ge per cent of the normal #i-year-olds was considered a test of #i-year intelligence1 and so on4 ,by trying out many different tests in this way it was possible to secure five tests to represent each age from #c to #aj years 7excepting age #d1 which has only four tests71 five for age #ab1 five for #ae1 and five for adults1 making #ed tests in all4 ,,list ,,of ,,tests4 ,the following is the list of tests as arranged by ,binet in #aiaa1 shortly before his untimely death3-- ,age #c3 #a4 ,points to nose1 eyes1 and mouth4 #b4 ,repeats two digits4 #c4 ,enumerates objects in a picture4 #d4 ,gives family name4 #e4 ,repeats a sentence of six syllables4 ,age #d3 #a4 ,gives his sex4 #b4 ,names key1 knife1 and penny4 #c4 ,repeats three digits4 #d4 ,compares two lines4 ,age #e3 #a4 ,compares two weights4 #b4 ,copies a square4 #c4 ,repeats a sentence of ten syllables4 #d4 ,counts four pennies4 #e4 ,unites the halves of a divided rectangle4 ,age #f3 #a4 ,distinguishes between morning and afternoon4 #b4 ,defines familiar words in terms of use4 #c4 ,copies a diamond4 #d4 ,counts thirteen pennies4 #e4 ,distinguishes pictures of ugly and pretty faces4 ,age #g3 #a4 ,shows right hand and left ear4 #b4 ,describes a picture4 #c4 ,executes three commissions1 given simultaneously4 #d4 ,counts the value of six sous1 three of which are double4 #e4 ,names four cardinal colors4 ,age #h3 #a4 ,compares two objects from memory4 #b4 ,counts from #bj to #j4 #c4 ,notes omissions from pictures4 #d4 ,gives day and date4 #e4 ,repeats five digits4 ,age #i3 #a4 ,gives change from twenty sous4 #b4 ,defines familiar words in terms superior to use4 #c4 ,recognizes all the pieces of money4 #d4 ,names the months of the year1 in order4 #e4 ,answers easy comprehension questions4 ,age #aj3 #a4 ,arranges five blocks in order of weight4 #b4 ,copies drawings from memory4 #c4 ,criticizes absurd statements4 #d4 ,answers difficult comprehension questions4 #e4 ,uses three given words in not more than two sentences4 ,age #ab3 #a4 ,resists suggestion4 #b4 ,composes one sentence containing three given words4 #c4 ,names sixty words in three minutes4 #d4 ,defines certain abstract words4 #e4 ,discovers the sense of a disarranged sentence4 ,age #ae3 #a4 ,repeats seven digits4 #b4 ,finds three rhymes for a given word4 #c4 ,repeats a sentence of twenty-six syllables4 #d4 ,interprets pictures4 #e4 ,interprets given facts4 ,adult3 #a4 ,solves the paper-cutting test4 #b4 ,rearranges a triangle in imagination4 #c4 ,gives differences between pairs of abstract terms4 #d4 ,gives three differences between a president and a king4 #e4 ,gives the main thought of a selection which he has heard read4 ,it should be emphasized that merely to name the tests in this way gives little idea of their nature and meaning1 and tells nothing about ,binet's method of conducting the #ed experiments4 ,in order to use the tests intelligently it is necessary to acquaint one's self thoroughly with the purpose of each test1 its correct procedure1 and the psychological interpretation of different types of response4#aj #aj ,see ,part ,,ii of this volume1 and ,references #a and #bi1 for discussion and interpretation of the individual tests4 ,in fairness to ,binet1 it should also be borne in mind that the scale of tests was only a rough approximation to the ideal which the author had set himself to realize4 ,had his life been spared a few years longer1 he would doubtless have carried the method much nearer perfection4 ,,how ,,the ,,scale ,,is ,,used4 ,by means of the ,binet tests we can judge the intelligence of a given individual by comparison with standards of intellectual performance for normal children of different ages4 ,in order to make the comparison it is only necessary to begin the examination of the subject at a point in the scale where all the tests are passed successfully1 and to continue up the scale until no more successes are possible4 ,then we compare our subject's performances with the standard for normal children of the same age1 and note the amount of acceleration or retardation4 ,let us suppose the subject being tested is #i years of age4 ,if he goes as far in the tests as normal #i-year-old children ordinarily go1 we can say that the child has a mental age of #i years1 which in this case is normal 7our child being #i years of age74 ,if he goes only as far as normal #h-year-old children ordinarily go1 we say that his mental age is #h years4 ,in like manner1 a mentally defective child of #i years may have a mental age of only #d years1 or a young genius of #i years may have a mental age of #ab or #ac years4 ,,special ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method4 ,psychologists had experimented with intelligence tests for at least twenty years before the ,binet scale made its appearance4 ,the question naturally suggests itself why ,binet should have been successful in a field where previous efforts had been for the most part futile4 ,the answer to this question is found in three essential differences between ,binet's method and those formerly employed4 #a4 ,the use of age standards4 ,binet was the first to utilize the idea of age standards1 or norms1 in the measurement of intelligence4 ,it will be understood1 of course1 that ,binet did not set out to invent tests of #aj-year intelligence1 #f-year intelligence1 etc4 ,instead1 as already explained1 he began with a series of tests ranging from very easy to very difficult1 and by trying these tests on children of different ages and noting the percentages of successes in the various years1 he was able to locate them 7approximately7 in the years where they belonged4 ,this plan has the great advantage of giving us standards which are easily grasped4 ,to say1 for illustration1 that a given subject has a grade of intelligence equal to that of the average child of #h years is a statement whose general import does not need to be explained4 ,previous investigators had worked with subjects the degree of whose intelligence was unknown1 and with tests the difficulty of which was equally unknown4 ,an immense amount of ingenuity was spent in devising tests which were used in such a way as to preclude any very meaningful interpretation of the responses4 ,the ,binet method enables us to characterize the intelligence of a child in a far more definite way than had hitherto been possible4 ,current descriptive terms like bright1 moderately bright1 dull1 very dull1 feeble-minded1 etc41 have had no universally accepted meaning4 ,a child who is designated by one person as moderately bright may be called very bright by another person4 ,the degree of intelligence which one calls moderate dullness1 another may call extreme dullness1 etc4 ,but every one knows what is meant by the term #h-year mentality1 #d-year mentality1 etc41 even if he is not able to define these grades of intelligence in psychological terms2 and by ascertaining experimentally what intellectual tasks children of different ages can perform1 we are1 of course1 able to make our age standards as definite as we please4 ,why should a device so simple have waited so long for a discoverer8 ,we do not know4 ,it is of a class with many other unaccountable mysteries in the development of scientific method4 ,apparently the idea of an age-grade method1 as this is called1 did not come to ,binet himself until he had experimented with intelligence tests for some fifteen years4 ,at least his first provisional scale1 published in #aije1 was not made up according to the age-grade plan4 ,it consisted merely of #cj tests1 arranged roughly in order of difficulty4 ,although ,binet nowhere gives any account of the steps by which this crude and ungraded scale was transformed into the relatively complete age-grade scale of #aijh1 we can infer that the original and ingenious idea of utilizing age norms was suggested by the data collected with the #aije scale4 ,however the discovery was made1 it ranks1 perhaps1 from the practical point of view1 as the most important in all the history of psychology4 #b4 ,the kind of mental functions brought into play4 ,in the second place1 the ,binet tests differ from most of the earlier attempts in that they are designed to test the higher and more complex mental processes1 instead of the simpler and more elementary ones4 ,hence they set problems for the reasoning powers and ingenuity1 provoke judgments about abstract matters1 etc41 instead of attempting to measure sensory discrimination1 mere retentiveness1 rapidity of reaction1 and the like4 ,psychologists had generally considered the higher processes too complex to be measured directly1 and accordingly sought to get at them indirectly by correlating supposed intelligence with simpler processes which could readily be measured1 such as reaction time1 rapidity of tapping1 discrimination of tones and colors1 etc4 ,while they were disputing over their contradictory findings in this line of exploration1 ,binet went directly to the point and succeeded where they had failed4 ,it is now generally admitted by psychologists that higher intelligence is little concerned in such elementary processes as those mentioned above4 ,many of the animals have keen sensory discrimination4 ,feeble-minded children1 unless of very low grade1 do not differ very markedly from normal children in sensitivity of the skin1 visual acuity1 simple reaction time1 type of imagery1 etc4 ,but in power of comprehension1 abstraction1 and ability to direct thought1 in the nature of the associative processes1 in amount of information possessed1 and in spontaneity of attention1 they differ enormously4 #c4 ,binet would test general intelligence4 ,finally1 ,binet's success was largely due to his abandonment of the older faculty psychology which1 far from being defunct1 had really given direction to most of the earlier work with mental tests4 ,where others had attempted to measure memory attention1 sense discrimination1 etc41 as separate faculties or functions1 ,binet undertook to ascertain the general level of intelligence4 ,others had thought the task easier of accomplishment by measuring each division or aspect of intelligence separately1 and summating the results4 ,binet1 too1 began in this way1 and it was only after years of experimentation by the usual methods that he finally broke away from them and undertook1 so to speak1 to triangulate the height of his tower without first getting the dimensions of the individual stones which made it up4 ,the assumption that it is easier to measure a part1 or one aspect1 of intelligence than all of it1 is fallacious in that the parts are not separate parts and cannot be separated by any refinement of experiment4 ,they are interwoven and intertwined4 ,each ramifies everywhere and appears in all other functions4 ,the analogy of the stones of the tower does not really apply4 ,memory1 for example1 cannot be tested separately from attention1 or sense-discrimination separately from the associative processes4 ,after many vain attempts to disentangle the various intellective functions1 ,binet decided to test their combined functional capacity without any pretense of measuring the exact contribution of each to the total product4 ,it is hardly too much to say that intelligence tests have been successful just to the extent to which they have been guided by this aim4 ,memory1 attention1 imagination1 etc41 are terms of structural psychology4 ,binet's psychology is dynamic4 ,he conceives intelligence as the sum total of those thought processes which consist in mental adaptation4 ,this adaptation is not explicable in terms of the old mental faculties4 ,no one of these can explain a single thought process1 for such process always involves the participation of many functions whose separate rles are impossible to distinguish accurately4 ,instead of measuring the intensity of various mental states 7psycho-physics71 it is more enlightening to measure their combined effect on adaptation4 ,using a biological comparison1 ,binet says the old faculties correspond to the separate tissues of an animal or plant1 while his own scheme of thought corresponds to the functioning organ itself4 ,for ,binet1 psychology is the science of behavior4 ,,binet',s ,,conception ,,of ,,general ,,intelligence4 ,in devising tests of intelligence it is1 of course1 necessary to be guided by some assumption1 or assumptions1 regarding the nature of intelligence4 ,to adopt any other course is to depend for success upon happy chance4 ,however1 it is impossible to arrive at a final definition of intelligence on the basis of a-priori considerations alone4 ,to demand1 as critics of the ,binet method have sometimes done1 that one who would measure intelligence should first present a complete definition of it1 is quite unreasonable4 ,as ,stern points out1 electrical currents were measured long before their nature was well understood4 ,similar illustrations could be drawn from the processes involved in chemistry physiology1 and other sciences4 ,in the case of intelligence it may be truthfully said that no adequate definition can possibly be framed which is not based primarily on the symptoms empirically brought to light by the test method4 ,the best that can be done in advance of such data is to make tentative assumptions as to the probable nature of intelligence1 and then to subject these assumptions to tests which will show their correctness or incorrectness4 ,new hypotheses can then be framed for further trial1 and thus gradually we shall be led to a conception of intelligence which will be meaningful and in harmony with all the ascertainable facts4 ,such was the method of ,binet4 ,only those unacquainted with ,binet's more than fifteen years of labor preceding the publication of his intelligence scale would think of accusing him of making no effort to analyze the mental processes which his tests bring into play4 ,it is true that many of ,binet's earlier assumptions proved untenable1 and in this event he was always ready1 with exceptional candor and intellectual plasticity1 to acknowledge his error and to plan a new line of attack4 ,binet's conception of intelligence emphasizes three characteristics of the thought process3 7#a7 ,its tendency to take and maintain a definite direction2 7#b7 the capacity to make adaptations for the purpose of attaining a desired end2 and 7#c7 the power of auto-criticism4#aa #aa ,see ,binet and ,simon3 ,l'intelligence des imbeciles1 in ,l',anne ,psychologique 7#aiji71 pp4 #a-adg4 ,the last division of this article is devoted to a discussion of the essential nature of the higher thought processes1 and is a wonderful example of that keen psychological analysis in which ,binet was so gifted4 ,how these three aspects of intelligence enter into the performances with various tests of the scale is set forth from time to time in our directions for giving and interpreting the individual tests4#ab ,an illustration which may be given here is that of the patience test1 or uniting the disarranged parts of a divided rectangle4 ,as described by ,binet1 this operation has the following elements3 7#a7 to keep in mind the end to be attained1 that is to say1 the figure to be formed2 7#b7 to try different combinations under the influence of this directing idea1 which guides the efforts of the subject even though he may not be conscious of the fact2 and 7#c7 to judge the combination which has been made1 to compare it with the model1 and to decide whether it is the correct one4 #ab ,see especially pages #afb and #bch4 ,much the same processes are called for in many other of the ,binet tests1 particularly those of arranging weights1 rearranging dissected sentences1 drawing a diamond or square from copy1 finding a sentence containing three given words1 counting backwards1 etc4 ,however1 an examination of the scale will show that the choice of tests was not guided entirely by any single formula as to the nature of intelligence4 ,binet's approach was a many-sided one4 ,the scale includes tests of time orientation1 of three or four kinds of memory1 of apperception1 of language comprehension1 of knowledge about common objects1 of free association1 of number mastery1 of constructive imagination1 and of ability to compare concepts1 to see contradictions1 to combine fragments into a unitary whole1 to comprehend abstract terms1 and to meet novel situations4 ,,other ,,conceptions ,,of ,,intelligence4 ,it is interesting to compare ,binet's conception of intelligence with the definitions which have been offered by other psychologists4 ,according to ,ebbinghaus1 for example1 the essence of intelligence lies in comprehending together in a unitary1 meaningful whole1 impressions and associations which are more or less independent1 heterogeneous1 or even partly contradictory4 ,intellectual ability consists in the elaboration of a whole into its worth and meaning by means of many-sided combination1 correction1 and completion of numerous kindred associations4444 ,it is a combination activity4 ,meumann offers a twofold definition4 ,from the psychological point of view1 intelligence is the power of independent and creative elaboration of new products out of the material given by memory and the senses4 ,from the practical point of view1 it involves the ability to avoid errors1 to surmount difficulties1 and to adjust to environment4 ,stern defines intelligence as the general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements3 it is general adaptability to new problems and conditions of life4 ,spearman1 ,hart1 and others of the ,english school define intelligence as a common central factor which participates in all sorts of special mental activities4 ,this factor is explained in terms of a psycho-physiological hypothesis of cortex energy1 cerebral plasticity1 etc4 ,the above definitions are only to a slight extent contradictory or inharmonious4 ,they differ mainly in point of view or in the location of the emphasis4 ,each expresses a part of the truth1 and none all of it4 ,it will be evident that the conception of ,binet is broad enough to include the most important elements in each of the other definitions quoted4 ,,guiding ,,principles ,,in ,,choice ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,tests4 ,in choosing his tests ,binet was guided by the conception of intelligence which we have set forth above4 ,tests were devised which would presumably bring into play the various mental processes thought to be concerned in intelligence1 and then these tests were tried out on normal children of different ages4 ,if the percentage of passes for a given test increased but little or not at all in going from younger to older children this test was discarded4 ,on the other hand1 if the proportion of passes increased rapidly with age1 and if children of a given age1 who on other grounds were known to be bright1 passed more frequently than children of the same age who were known to be dull1 then the test was judged a satisfactory test of intelligence4 ,as we have shown elsewhere1#ac practically all of ,binet's tests fulfill these requirements reasonably well1 a fact which bears eloquent testimony to the keen psychological insight of their author4 #ac ,see p4 #ee4 ,in arranging the tests into a system ,binet's guiding principle was to find an arrangement of the tests which would cause an average child of any given age to test at age2 that is1 the average #e-year-old must show a mental age of #e years1 the average #h-year-old a mental age of #h years1 etc4 ,in order to secure this result ,binet found that his data seemed to require the location of an individual test in that year where it was passed by about two thirds to three fourths of unselected children4 ,it was in the assembling of the tests that the most serious faults of the scale had their origin4 ,further investigation has shown that a great many of the tests were misplaced as much as one year1 and several of them two years4 ,on the whole1 the scale as ,binet left it was decidedly too easy in the lower ranges1 and too difficult in the upper4 ,as a result1 the average child of #e years was caused to test at not far from #f years1 the average child of #ab years not far from #aa4 ,in the ,stanford revision an effort has been made to correct this fault1 along with certain other generally recognized imperfections4 ,,some ,,avowed ,,limitations ,,of ,,the ,,binet ,,tests4 ,the ,binet tests have often been criticized for their unfitness to perform certain services which in reality they were never meant to render4 ,this is unfair4 ,we cannot make a just evaluation of the scale without bearing in mind its avowed limitations4 ,for example1 the scale does not pretend to measure the entire mentality of the subject1 but only general intelligence4 ,there is no pretense of testing the emotions or the will beyond the extent to which these naturally display themselves in the tests of intelligence4 ,the scale was not designed as a tool for the analysis of those emotional or volitional aberrations which are concerned in such mental disorders as hysteria1 insanity1 etc4 ,these conditions do not present a progressive reduction of intelligence to the infantile level1 and in most of them other factors besides intelligence play an important rle4 ,moreover1 even in the normal individual the fruitfulness of intelligence1 the direction in which it shall be applied1 and its methods of work are to a certain extent determined by the extraneous factors of emotion and volition4 ,it should1 nevertheless1 be pointed out that defects of intelligence1 in a large majority of cases1 also involve disturbances of the emotional and volitional functions4 ,we do not expect to find perfectly normal emotions or will power of average strength coupled with marked intellectual deficiency1 and as a matter of fact such a combination is rare indeed4 ,in the course of an examination with the ,binet tests1 the experienced clinical psychologist is able to gain considerable insight into the subject's emotional and volitional equipment1 even though the method was designed primarily for another purpose4 ,a second misunderstanding can be avoided by remembering that the ,binet scale does not pretend to bring to light the idiosyncrasies of special talent1 but only to measure the general level of intelligence4 ,it cannot be used for the discovery of exceptional ability in drawing1 painting1 music1 mathematics1 oratory1 salesmanship1 etc41 because no effort is made to explore the processes underlying these abilities4 ,it can1 therefore1 never serve as a detailed chart for the vocational guidance of children1 telling us which will succeed in business1 which in art1 which in medicine1 etc4 ,it is not a new kind of phrenology4 ,at the same time1 as we have already pointed out1 it is capable of bounding roughly the vocational territory in which an individual's intelligence will probably permit success1 nothing else preventing4#ad #ad ,see p4 #ag4 ,in the third place1 it must not be supposed that the scale can be used as a complete pedagogical guide4 ,although intelligence tests furnish data of the greatest significance for pedagogical procedure1 they do not suggest the appropriate educational methods in detail4 ,these will have to be worked out in a practical way for the various grades of intelligence1 and at great cost of labor and patience4 ,finally1 in arriving at an estimate of a subject's grade of intelligence and his susceptibility to training1 it would be a mistake to ignore the data obtainable from other sources4 ,no competent psychologist1 however ardent a supporter of the ,binet method he might be1 would recommend such a policy4 ,those who accept the method as all-sufficient are as much in error as those who consider it as no more important than any one of a dozen other approaches4 ,standardized tests have already become and will remain by far the most reliable single method for grading intelligence1 but the results they furnish will always need to be interpreted in the light of supplementary information regarding the subject's personal history1 including medical record1 accidents1 play habits1 industrial efficiency1 social and moral traits1 school success1 home environment1 etc4 ,without question1 however1 the improved ,binet tests will contribute more than all other data combined to the end of enabling us to forecast a child's possibilities of future improvement1 and this is the information which will aid most in the proper direction of his education4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,stanford ,,revision ,,and ,,extension ,although the ,binet scale quickly demonstrated its value as an instrument for the classification of mentally-retarded and otherwise exceptional children1 it had1 nevertheless1 several imperfections which greatly limited its usefulness4 ,there was a dearth of tests at the higher mental levels1 the procedure was so inadequately defined that needless disagreement came about in the interpretation of data1 and so many of the tests were misplaced as to make the results of an examination more or less misleading1 particularly in the case of very young subjects and those near the adult level4 ,it was for the purpose of correcting these and certain other faults that the ,stanford investigation was planned4#ae #ae ,the writer wishes to acknowledge his very great indebtedness to ,miss ,grace ,lyman1 ,dr4 ,george ,ordahl1 ,dr4 ,louise ,ellison ,ordahl1 ,miss ,neva ,galbreath1 ,mr4 ,wilford ,talbert1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,harold ,williams1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,e4 ,knollin1 and ,miss ,irene ,cuneo for their coperation in making the tests on which the ,stanford revision is chiefly based4 ,without their loyal assistance the investigation could not have been carried through4 ,grateful acknowledgment is also made to the many public school teachers and principals for their generous and invaluable coperation in furnishing subjects for the tests1 and in supplying1 sometimes at considerable cost of labor1 the supplementary information which was called for regarding the pupils tested4 ,their contribution was made in the interest of educational science1 and without expectation of personal benefits of any kind4 ,their professional spirit cannot be too highly commended4 ,,sources ,,of ,,data4 ,our revision is the result of several years of work1 and involved the examination of approximately #bcjj subjects1 including #agjj normal children1 #bjj defective and superior children1 and more than #djj adults4 ,tests of #djj of the #agjj normal children had been made by ,childs and ,terman in #aiaj-aa1 and of #cjj children by ,trost1 ,waddle1 and ,terman in #aiaa-ab4 ,for various reasons1 however1 the results of these tests did not furnish satisfactory data for a thoroughgoing revision of the scale4 ,accordingly a new investigation was undertaken1 somewhat more extensive than the others1 and more carefully planned4 ,its main features may be described as follows3-- #a4 ,the first step was to assemble as nearly as possible all the results which had been secured for each test of the scale by all the workers of all countries4 ,the result was a large sheet of tabulated data for each individual test1 including percentages passing the test at various ages1 conditions under which the results were secured1 method of procedure1 etc4 ,after a comparative study of these data1 and in the light of results we had ourselves secured1 a provisional arrangement of the tests was prepared for try-out4 #b4 ,in addition to the tests of the original ,binet scale1 #dj additional tests were included for try-out4 ,this1 it was expected1 would make possible the elimination of some of the least satisfactory tests1 and at the same time permit the addition of enough new ones to give at least six tests1 instead of five1 for each age group4 #c4 ,a plan was then devised for securing subjects who should be as nearly as possible representative of the several ages4 ,the method was to select a school in a community of average social status1 a school attended by all or practically all the children in the district where it was located4 ,in order to get clear pictures of age differences the tests were confined to children who were within two months of a birthday4 ,to avoid accidental selection1 all the children within two months of a birthday were tested1 in whatever grade enrolled4 ,tests of foreign-born children1 however1 were eliminated in the treatment of results4 ,there remained tests of approximately #ajjj children1 of whom #ije were between #e and #ad years of age4 #d4 ,the children's responses were1 for the most part1 recorded verbatim4 ,this made it possible to re-score the records according to any desired standard1 and thus to fit a test more perfectly to the age level assigned it4 #e4 ,much attention was given to securing uniformity of procedure4 ,a half-year was devoted to training the examiners and another half-year to the supervision of the testing4 ,in the further interests of uniformity all the records were scored by one person 7the writer74 ,,method ,,of ,,arriving ,,at ,a ,,revision4 ,the revision of the scale below the #ad-year level was based almost entirely on the tests of the above-mentioned #a1jjj unselected children4 ,the guiding principle was to secure an arrangement of the tests and a standard of scoring which would cause the median mental age of the unselected children of each age group to coincide with the median chronological age4 ,that is1 a correct scale must cause the average child of #e years to test exactly at #e1 the average child at #f to test exactly at #f1 etc4 ,or1 to express the same fact in terms of intelligence quotient1#af a correct scale must give a median intelligence quotient of unity1 or #ajj per cent1 for unselected children of each age4 #af ,the intelligence quotient 7often designated as ,i ,q7 is the ratio of mental age to chronological age4 7,see pp4 #fe ff4 and #gh ff47 ,if the median mental age resulting at any point from the provisional arrangement of tests was too high or too low1 it was only necessary to change the location of certain of the tests1 or to change the standard of scoring1 until an order of arrangement and a standard of passing were found which would throw the median mental age where it belonged4 ,we had already become convinced1 for reasons too involved for presentation here1 that no satisfactory revision of the ,binet scale was possible on any theoretical considerations as to the percentage of passes which an individual test ought to show in a given year in order to be considered standard for that year4 ,as was to be expected1 the first draft of the revision did not prove satisfactory4 ,the scale was still too hard at some points1 and too easy at others4 ,in fact1 three successive revisions were necessary1 involving three separate scorings of the data and as many tabulations of the mental ages1 before the desired degree of accuracy was secured4 ,as finally revised1 the scale gives a median intelligence quotient closely approximating #ajj for the unselected children of each age from #d to #ad4 ,since our school children who were above #ad years and still in the grades were retarded left-overs1 it was necessary to base the revision above this level on the tests of adults4 ,these included #cj business men and #aej migrating unemployed men tested by ,mr4 ,h4 ,e4 ,knollin1 #aej adolescent delinquents tested by ,mr4 ,j4 ,harold ,williams1 and #ej high-school students tested by the writer4 ,the extension of the scale in the upper range is such that ordinarily intelligent adults1 little educated1 test up to what is called the average adult level4 ,adults whose intelligence is known from other sources to be superior are found to test well up toward the superior adult level1 and this holds whether the subjects in question are well educated or practically unschooled4 ,the almost entirely unschooled business men1 in fact1 tested fully as well as high-school juniors and seniors4 ,figure #a shows the distribution of mental ages for #fb adults1 including the #cj business men and the #cb high-school pupils who were over #af years of age4 ,it will be noted that the middle section of the graph represents the mental ages falling between #ae and #ag4 ,this is the range which we have designated as the average adult level4 ,those above #ag are called superior adults1 those between #ac and #ae1 inferior adults4 ,subjects much over #ae years of age who test in the neighborhood of #ab years may ordinarily be considered border-line cases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,mental ,,ages ,,of #fb ,,normal ,,adults ,the following method was employed for determining the validity of a test4 ,the children of each age level were divided into three groups according to intelligence quotient1 those testing below #ij1 those between #ij and #aji1 and those with an intelligence quotient of #aaj or above4 ,the percentages of passes on each individual test at or near that age level were then ascertained separately for these three groups4 ,if a test fails to show a decidedly higher proportion of passes in the superior ,i ,q group than in the inferior ,i ,q group1 it cannot be regarded as a satisfactory test of intelligence4 ,on the other hand1 a test which satisfies this criterion must be accepted as valid or the entire scale must be rejected4 ,henceforth it stands or falls with the scale as a whole4 ,when tried out by this method1 some of the tests which have been most criticized showed a high degree of reliability2 certain others which have been considered excellent proved to be so little correlated with intelligence that they had to be discarded4 ,after making a few necessary eliminations1 #ij tests remained1 or #cf more than the number included in the ,binet #aiaa scale4 ,there are #f at each age level from #c to #aj1 #h at #ab1 #f at #ad1 #f at average adult1 #f at superior adult1 and #af alternative tests4 ,the alternative tests1 which are distributed among the different groups1 are intended to be used only as substitutes when one or more of the regular tests have been rendered1 by coaching or otherwise1 undesirable4#ag #ag ,see p4 #acg ff4 for explanations regarding the calculation of mental age and the use of alternative tests4 ,of the #cf new tests1 #bg were added and standardized in the various ,stanford investigations4 ,two tests were borrowed from the ,healy-,fernald series1 one from ,kuhlmann1 one was adapted from ,bonser1 and the remaining five were amplifications or adaptations of some of the earlier ,binet tests4 ,following is a complete list of the tests of the ,stanford revision4 ,those designated al4 are alternative tests4 ,the guide for giving and scoring the tests is presented at length in ,part ,,ii of this volume4 ,the ,stanford revision and extension ,year ,,iii4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,points to parts of body4 7#c to #d47 ,nose2 eyes2 mouth2 hair4 #b4 ,names familiar objects4 7#c to #e47 ,key1 penny1 closed knife1 watch1 pencil4 #c4 ,pictures1 enumeration or better4 7,at least #c objects enumerated in one picture47 7a7 ,dutch ,home2 7b7 ,river ,scene2 7c7 ,post-,office4 #d4 ,gives sex4 #e4 ,gives last name4 #f4 ,repeats #f to #g syllables4 7#a to #c47 ,al4 ,repeats #c digits4 7#a success in #c trials4 ,order correct47 ,year ,,iv4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,compares lines4 7#c trials1 no error47 #b4 ,discrimination of forms4 7,kuhlmann47 7,not over #c errors47 #c4 ,counts #d pennies4 7,no error47 #d4 ,copies square4 7,pencil4 #a to #c47 #e4 ,comprehension1 #ast degree4 7#b to #c47 7,stanford addition47 ,what must you do3 ,when you are sleepy8 ,cold8 ,hungry8 #f4 ,repeats #d digits4 7#a to #c4 ,order correct47 7,stanford addition47 ,al4 ,repeats #ab to #ac syllables4 7#a to #c absolutely correct1 or #b with #a error each47 ,year ,v4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,comparison of weights4 7#b to #c47 #c-ae2 #ae-c2 #c-ae4 #b4 ,colors4 7,no error47 ,red2 yellow2 blue2 green4 #c4 sthetic comparison4 7,no error47 #d4 ,definitions1 use or better4 7#d to #f47 ,chair2 horse2 fork2 doll2 pencil2 table4 #e4 ,patience1 or divided rectangle4 7#b to #c trials4 #a minute each47 #f4 ,three commissions4 7,no error4 ,order correct47 ,al4 ,age4 ,year ,,vi4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,right and left4 7,no error47 ,right hand2 left ear2 right eye4 #b4 ,mutilated pictures4 7#c to #d correct47 #c4 ,counts #ac pennies4 7#a to #b trials1 without error47 #d4 ,comprehension1 #b;d degree4 7#b to #c47 ,what's the thing for you to do3 7a7 ,if it is raining when you start to school8 7b7 ,if you find that your house is on fire8 7c7 ,if you are going some place and miss your car8 #e4 ,coins4 7#c to #d47 ,nickel2 penny2 quarter2 dime4 #f4 ,repeats #af to #ah syllables4 7#a to #c absolutely correct1 or #b with #a error each47 ,al4 ,morning or afternoon4 ,year ,,vii4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,fingers4 7,no error47 ,right2 left2 both4 #b4 ,pictures1 description or better4 7,over half of performance description37 ,dutch ,home2 ,river ,scene2 ,post-,office4 #c4 ,repeats #e digits4 7#a to #c4 ,order correct47 #d4 ,ties bow-knot4 7,model shown4 #a minute47 7,stanford addition47 #e4 ,gives differences4 7#b to #c47 ,fly and butterfly2 stone and egg2 wood and glass4 #f4 ,copies diamond4 7,pen4 #b to #c47 ,al4 #a4 ,names days of week4 7,order correct4 #b to #c checks correct47 ,al4 #b4 ,repeats #c digits backwards4 7#a to #c47 ,year ,,viii4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,ball and field4 7,inferior plan or better47 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,counts #bj to #a4 7#dj seconds4 #a error allowed47 #c4 ,comprehension1 #c;d degree4 7#b to #c47 ,what's the thing for you to do3 7a7 ,when you have broken something which belongs to some one else8 7b7 ,when you are on your way to school and notice that you are in danger of being tardy8 7c7 ,if a playmate hits you without meaning to do it8 #d4 ,gives similarities1 two things4 7#b to #d47 7,stanford addition47 ,wood and coal2 apple and peach2 iron and silver2 ship and automobile4 #e4 ,definitions superior to use4 7#b to #d47 ,balloon2 tiger2 football2 soldier4 #f4 ,vocabulary1 #bj words4 7,stanford addition4 ,for list of words used1 see record booklet47 ,al4 #a4 ,first six coins4 7,no error47 ,al4 #b4 ,dictation4 7,see the little boy4 ,easily legible4 ,pen4 #a minute47 ,year ,,ix4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,date4 7,allow error of #c days in c1 no error in a1 b1 or d47 7a7 day of week2 7b7 month2 7c7 day of month2 7d7 year4 #b4 ,weights4 7#c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae4 ,procedure not illustrated4 #b to #c47 #c4 ,makes change4 7#b to #c4 ,no coins1 paper1 or pencil47 #aj--d2 #ae--ab2 #be--d4 #d4 ,repeats #d digits backwards4 7#a to #c47 7,stanford addition47 #e4 ,three words4 7#b to #c4 ,oral4 #a sentence or not over #b cordinate clauses47 ,boy1 river1 ball2 work1 money1 men2 desert1 rivers1 lakes4 #f4 ,rhymes4 7#c rhymes for two of three words4 #a minute for each part47 ,day2 mill2 spring4 ,al4 #a4 ,months4 7#ae seconds and #a error in naming4 #b checks of #c correct47 ,al4 #b4 ,stamps1 gives total value4 7,second trial if individual values are known47 ,year ,x4 7#f tests1 #b months each47 #a4 ,vocabulary1 #cj words4 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,absurdities4 7#d to #e4 ,warn4 ,spontaneous correction allowed47 7,four of ,binet's1 one ,stanford47 #c4 ,designs4 7#a correct1 #a half correct4 ,expose #aj seconds47 #d4 ,reading and report4 7#h memories4 #ce seconds and #b mistakes in reading47 7,binet's selection47 #e4 ,comprehension1 #dth degree4 7#b to #c4 ,question may be repeated47 7a7 ,what ought you to say when some one asks your opinion about a person you don't know very well8 7b7 ,what ought you to do before undertaking 7beginning7 something very important8 7c7 ,why should we judge a person more by his actions than by his words8 #f4 ,names #fj words4 7,illustrate with clouds1 dog1 chair1 happy47 ,al4 #a4 ,repeats #f digits4 7#a to #b4 ,order correct47 7,stanford addition47 ,al4 #b4 ,repeats #bj to #bb syllables4 7#a to #c correct1 or #b with #a error each47 ,al4 #c4 ,form board4 7,healy-,fernald ,puzzle ,a4 #c times in #e minutes47 ,year ,,xii4 7#h tests1 #c months each47 #a4 ,vocabulary1 #dj words4 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,abstract words4 7#c to #e47 ,pity2 revenge2 charity2 envy2 justice4 #c4 ,ball and field4 7,superior plan47 7,stanford addition47 #d4 ,dissected sentences4 7#b to #c4 #a minute each47 #e4 ,fables4 7,score #d2 i4e41 two correct or the equivalent in half credits47 7,stanford addition47 ,hercules and ,wagoner2 ,maid and ,eggs2 ,fox and ,crow2 ,farmer and ,stork2 ,miller1 ,son1 and ,donkey4 #f4 ,repeats #e digits backwards4 7#a to #c47 7,stanford addition47 #g4 ,pictures1 interpretation4 7#c to #d4 ,explain this picture47 ,dutch ,home2 ,river ,scene2 ,post-,office2 ,colonial ,home4 #h4 ,gives similarities1 three things4 7#c to #e47 7,stanford addition47 ,snake1 cow1 sparrow2 book1 teacher1 newspaper2 wool1 cotton1 leather2 knife-blade1 penny1 piece of wire2 rose1 potato1 tree4 ,year ,,xiv4 7#f tests1 #d months each47 #a4 ,vocabulary1 #ej words4 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,induction test4 7,gets rule by #fth folding47 7,stanford addition47 #c4 ,president and king4 7,power2 accession2 tenure4 #b to #c47 #d4 ,problems of fact4 7#b to #c47 7,binet's two and one ,stanford addition47 #e4 ,arithmetical reasoning4 7#a minute each4 #b to #c47 7,adapted from ,bonser47 #f4 ,clock4 7#b to #c4 ,error must not exceed #c or #d minutes47 #f4bb4 #h4aj4 #b4df4 ,al4 ,repeats #g digits4 7#a to #b4 ,order correct47 ,,average ,,adult4 7#f tests1 #e months each47 #a4 ,vocabulary1 #fe words4 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,interpretation of fables4 7,score #h47 7,stanford addition47 #c4 ,difference between abstract words4 7#c real contrasts out of #d47 ,laziness and idleness2 evolution and revolution2 poverty and misery2 character and reputation4 #d4 ,problem of the enclosed boxes4 7#c to #d47 7,stanford addition47 #e4 ,repeats #f digits backwards4 7#a to #c47 7,stanford addition47 #f4 ,code1 writes ,come quickly4 7#b errors4 ,omission of dot counts half error4 ,illustrate with war and spy47 7,from ,healy and ,fernald47 ,al4 #a4 ,repeats #bh syllables4 7#a to #b absolutely correct47 ,al4 #b4 ,comprehension of physical relations4 7#b to #c47 7,stanford addition47 ,path of cannon ball2 weight of fish in water2 hitting distant mark4 ,,superior ,,adult4 7#f tests1 #f months each47 #a4 ,vocabulary1 #ge words4 7,stanford addition47 #b4 ,binet's paper-cutting test4 7,draws1 folds1 and locates holes47 #c4 ,repeats #h digits4 7#a to #c4 ,order correct47 7,stanford addition47 #d4 ,repeats thought of passage heard4 7#a to #b47 7,binet's and ,wissler's selections adapted47 #e4 ,repeats #g digits backwards4 7#a to #c47 7,stanford addition47 #f4 ,ingenuity test4 7#b to #c4 #e minutes each47 7,stanford addition47 ,,summary ,,of ,,changes4 ,a comparison of the above list with either the ,binet #aijh or #aiaa series will reveal many changes4 ,on the whole1 it differs somewhat more from the ,binet #aiaa scale than from that of #aijh4 ,thus1 of the #di tests below the adult group in the #aiaa scale1 #b are eliminated and #bi are relocated4 ,of these1 #be are moved downward and #d upward4 ,the shifts are as follows3-- ,down #a year1 #ah ,down #b years1 #d ,down #c years1 #b ,down #f years1 #a ,up #a year1 #c ,up #b years1 #a ,of the adult group in ,binet's #aiaa series #a is eliminated1 #b are moved up to superior adult1 and #a is moved up to #ad4 ,accordingly1 of ,binet's entire #ed tests1 we have eliminated #c and relocated #cb1 leaving only #ai in the positions assigned them by ,binet4 ,the #c eliminated are3 repeating #b digits1 resisting suggestion1 and reversed triangle4 ,the revision is really more extensive than the above figures would suggest1 since minor changes have been made in the scoring of a great many tests in order to make them fit better the locations assigned them4 ,throughout the scale the procedure and scoring have been worked over and made more definite with the idea of promoting uniformity4 ,this phase of the revision is perhaps more important than the mere relocation of tests4 ,also1 the addition of numerous tests in the upper ranges of the scale affects very considerably the mental ages above the level of #aj or #aa years4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,revision ,,on ,,the ,,mental ,,ages ,,secured4 ,the most important effect of the revision is to reduce the mental ages secured in the lower ranges of the scale1 and to raise considerably the mental ages above #aj or #aa years4 ,this difference also obtains1 though to a somewhat smaller extent1 between the ,stanford revision and those of ,goddard and ,kuhlmann4 ,for example1 of #ajd adult individuals testing by the ,stanford revision between #ab and #ad years1 and who were therefore somewhat above the level of feeble-mindedness as that term is usually defined1 #ej per cent tested below #ab years by the ,goddard revision4 ,that the dull and border-line adults are so much more readily distinguished from the feeble-minded by the ,stanford revision than by other ,binet series is due as much to the addition of tests in the upper groups as to the relocation of existing tests4 ,on the other hand1 the ,stanford revision causes young subjects to test lower than any other version of the ,binet scale4 ,at #e or #f years the mental ages secured by the ,stanford revision average from #f to #aj months lower than other revisions yield4 ,the above differences are more significant than would at first appear4 ,an error of #aj months in the mental age of a #e-year-old is as serious as an error of #bj months in the case of a #aj-year-old4 ,stating the error in terms of the intelligence quotient makes it more evident4 ,thus1 an error of #aj months in the mental age of a #e-year-old means an error of almost #ae per cent in the intelligence quotient4 ,a scale which tests this much too low would cause the child with a true intelligence quotient of #ge 7which ordinarily means feeble-mindedness or border-line intelligence7 to test at #ij1 or only slightly below normal4 ,three serious consequences came from the too great ease of the original ,binet scale at the lower end1 and its too great difficulty at the upper end3-- #a4 ,in young subjects the higher grades of mental deficiency were overlooked1 because the scale caused such subjects to test only a little below normal4 #b4 ,the proportion of feeble-mindedness among adult subjects was greatly overestimated1 because subjects who were really of the #ab- or #ac-year mental level could only earn a mental age of about #aa years4 #c4 ,confusion resulted in efforts to trace the mental growth of either feeble-minded or normal children4 ,for example1 by other versions of the ,binet scale an average #e-year-old will show an intelligence quotient probably not far from #aaj or #aae2 at #i1 an intelligence quotient of about #ajj2 and at #ad1 an intelligence quotient of about #he or #ij4 ,by such a scale the true border-line case would test approximately as follows3-- ,at age #e1 #ij ,i ,q 7apparently not far below normal74 ,at age #i1 #ge ,i ,q 7border-line74 ,at age #ad1 #fe ,i ,q 7moron deficiency74 ,on the other hand1 re-tests of children by the ,stanford revision have been found to yield intelligence quotients almost identical with those secured from two to four years earlier by the same tests4 ,those who graded feeble-minded in the first test graded feeble-minded in the second test3 the dull remained dull1 the average remained average1 the superior remained superior1 and always in approximately the same degree4#ah #ah ,see ,some ,problems relating to the ,detection of ,border-line ,cases of ,mental ,deficiency1 by ,lewis ,m4 ,terman and ,h4 ,e4 ,knollin1 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthemes1 ,june1 #aiaf4 ,it is unnecessary to emphasize further the importance of having an intelligence scale which is equally accurate at all points4 ,absolute perfection in this respect is not claimed for the ,stanford revision1 but it is believed to be at least free from the more serious errors of other ,binet arrangements4 ,,chapter ,v ,,analysis ,,of #ajjj ,,intelligence ,,quotients ,an extended account of the #ajjj tests on which the ,stanford revision is chiefly based has been presented in a separate monograph4 ,this chapter will include only the briefest summary of some of those results of the investigation which contribute to the intelligent use of the revision4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,intelligence4 ,the question as to the manner in which intelligence is distributed is one of great practical as well as theoretical importance4 ,one of the most vital questions which can be asked by any nation of any age is the following3 ,how high is the average level of intelligence among our people1 and how frequent are the various grades of ability above and below the average8 ,with the development of standardized tests we are approaching1 for the first time in history1 a possible answer to this question4 ,most of the earlier ,binet studies1 however1 have thrown little light on the distribution of intelligence because of their failure to avoid the influence of accidental selection in choosing subjects for testing4 ,the method of securing subjects for the ,stanford revision makes our results on this point especially interesting4#ai ,it is believed that the subjects used for this investigation were as nearly representative of average ,american-born children as it is possible to secure4 #ai ,see p4 #eb ff4 for method used to avoid accidental selection of subjects for the ,stanford investigation4 ,the intelligence quotients for these #ajjj unselected children were calculated1 and their distribution was plotted for the ages separately4 ,the distribution was found fairly symmetrical at each age from #e to #ad4 ,at #ae the range is on either side of #ij as a median1 and at #af on either side of #hj as a median4 ,that the #ae- and #af-year-olds test low is due to the fact that these children are left-over retardates and are below average in intelligence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,distribution ,,of ,i ,q',s ,,of #ije ,,unselected ,,children4 #e-ad ,,years ,,of ,,age ,the ,i ,q's were then grouped in ranges of ten4 ,in the middle group were thrown those from #if to #aje2 the ascending groups including in order the ,i ,q's from #ajf to #aae1 #aaf to #abe1 etc42 correspondingly with the descending groups4 ,figure #b shows the distribution found by this grouping for the #ije children of ages #e to #ad combined4 ,the subjects above #ad are not included in this curve because they are left-overs and not representative of their ages4 ,the distribution for the ages combined is seen to be remarkably symmetrical4 ,the symmetry for the separate ages was hardly less marked1 considering that only #hj to #abj children were tested at each age4 ,in fact1 the range1 including the middle #ej per cent of ,i ,q's1 was found practically constant from #e to #ad years4 ,the tendency is for the middle #ej per cent to fall 7approximately7 between #ic and #ajh4 ,three important conclusions are justified by the above facts3-- #a4 ,since the frequency of the various grades of intelligence decreases gradually and at no point abruptly on each side of the median1 it is evident that there is no definite dividing line between normality and feeble-mindedness1 or between normality and genius4 ,psychologically1 the mentally defective child does not belong to a distinct type1 nor does the genius4 ,there is no line of demarcation between either of these extremes and the so-called normal child4 ,the number of mentally defective individuals in a population will depend upon the standard arbitrarily set up as to what constitutes mental deficiency4 ,similarly for genius4 ,it is exactly as we should undertake to classify all people into the three groups3 abnormally tall1 normally tall1 and abnormally short4#bj #bj ,see ,chapter ,,vi for discussion of the significance of various ,i ,q's4 #b4 ,the common opinion that extreme deviations below the median are more frequent than extreme deviations above the median seems to have no foundation in fact4 ,among unselected school children1 at least1 for every child of any given degree of deficiency there is another child as far above the average ,i ,q as the former is below4 ,we have shown elsewhere the serious consequences of neglect of this fact4#ba #ba ,see p4 #ab ff4 #c4 ,the traditional view that variability in mental traits becomes more marked during adolescence is here contradicted1 as far as intelligence is concerned1 for the distribution of ,i ,q's is practically the same at each age from #e to #ad4 ,for example1 #f-year-olds differ from one another fully as much as do #ad-year-olds4 ,,the ,,validity ,,of ,,the ,,intelligence ,,quotient4 ,the facts presented above argue strongly for the validity of the ,i ,q as an expression of a child's intelligence status4 ,this follows necessarily from the similar nature of the distributions at the various ages4 ,the inference is that a child's ,i ,q1 as measured by this scale1 remains relatively constant4 ,re-tests of the same children at intervals of two to five years support the inference4 ,children of superior intelligence do not seem to deteriorate as they get older1 nor dull children to develop average intelligence4 ,knowing a child's ,i ,q1 we can predict with a fair degree of accuracy the course of his later development4 ,the mental age of a subject is meaningless if considered apart from chronological age4 ,it is only the ratio of retardation or acceleration to chronological age 7that is1 the ,i ,q7 which has significance4 ,it follows also that if the ,i ,q is a valid expression of intelligence1 as it seems to be1 then the ,binet-,simon age-grade method becomes transformed automatically into a point-scale method1 if one wants to use it that way4 ,as such it is superior to any other point scale that has been proposed1 because it includes a larger number of tests and its points have definite meaning4#bb #bb ,for discussion of the supposed advantages of the point-scale method1 see ,yerkes and ,bridges3 ,a ,new ,point ,scale for ,measuring ,mental ,ability4 7,warwick and ,york1 #aiae47 ,,sex ,,differences4 ,the question as to the relative intelligence of the sexes is one of perennial interest and great social importance4 ,the ancient hypothesis1 the one which dates from the time when only men concerned themselves with scientific hypotheses1 took for granted the superiority of the male4 ,with the development of individual psychology1 however1 it was soon found that as far as the evidence of mental tests can be trusted the average intelligence of women and girls is as high as that of men and boys4 ,if we accept this result we are then confronted with the difficult problem of finding an explanation for the fact that so few of those who have acquired eminence in the various intellectual fields have been women4 ,two explanations have been proposed3 7#a7 ,that women become eminent less often than men simply for lack of opportunity and stimulus2 and 7#b7 that while the average intelligence of the sexes is the same1 extreme variations may be more common in males4 ,it is pointed out that not only are there more eminent men than eminent women1 but that statistics also show a preponderance of males in institutions for the mentally defective4 ,accordingly it is often said that women are grouped closely about the average1 while men show a wider range of distribution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,median ,i ,q ,,of #deg ,,boys 7,,unbroken ,,line7 ,,and #ddh ,,girls 7,,dotted ,,line7 ,,for ,,the ,,ages #e-ad ,,years ,many hundreds of articles and books of popular or quasi-scientific nature have been written on one aspect or another of this question of sex difference in intelligence2 but all such theoretical discussions taken together are worth less than the results of one good experiment4 ,let us see what our #ajjj ,i ,q's have to offer toward a solution of the problem4 #a4 ,when the ,i ,q's of the boys and girls were treated separately there was found a small but fairly constant superiority of the girls up to the age of #ac years4 ,at #ad1 however1 the curve for the girls dropped below that for boys4 ,this is shown in ,figure #c4 ,the supplementary data1 including the teachers' estimates of intelligence on a scale of five1 the teachers' judgments in regard to the quality of the school work1 and records showing the age-grade distribution of the sexes1 were all sifted for evidence as to the genuineness of the apparent superiority of the girls age for age4 ,the results of all these lines of inquiry support the tests in suggesting that the superiority of the girls is probably real even up to and including age #ad1 the apparent superiority of the boys at this age being fully accounted for by the more frequent elimination of #ad-year-old girls from the grades by promotion to the high school4#bc #bc ,it will be remembered that this series of tests did not follow up and test those who had been promoted to high school4 #b4 ,however1 the superiority of girls over boys is so slight 7amounting at most ages to only #b to #c points in terms of ,i ,q7 that for practical purposes it would seem negligible4 ,this offers no support to the opinion expressed by ,yerkes and ,bridges that at certain ages serious injustice will be done individuals by evaluating their scores in the light of norms which do not take account of sex differences4 #c4 ,apart from the small superiority of girls1 the distribution of intelligence in the two sexes is not different4 ,the supposed wider variation of boys is not found4 ,girls do not group themselves about the median more closely than do boys4 ,the range of ,i ,q including the middle fifty per cent is approximately the same for the two sexes4#bd #bd ,for an extensive summary of other data on the variability of the sexes see the article by ,leta ,s4 ,hollingworth1 in ,the ,american ,journal of ,sociology 7,january1 #aiad71 pp4 #eaj-cj4 ,it is shown that the findings of others support the conclusions set forth above4 #d4 ,when the results for the individual tests were examined1 it was found that not many showed very extreme differences as to the per cent of boys and girls passing4 ,in a few cases1 however1 the difference was rather marked4 ,the boys were decidedly better in arithmetical reasoning1 giving differences between a president and a king1 solving the form board1 making change1 reversing hands of clock1 finding similarities1 and solving the induction test4 ,the girls were superior in drawing designs from memory1 sthetic comparison1 comparing objects from memory1 answering the comprehension questions1 repeating digits and sentences1 tying a bow-knot1 and finding rhymes4 ,accordingly1 our data1 which for the most part agree with the results of others1 justify the conclusion that the intelligence of girls1 at least up to #ad years1 does not differ materially from that of boys either as regards the average level or the range of distribution4 ,it may still be argued that the mental development of boys beyond the age of #ad years lasts longer and extends farther than in the case of girls1 but as a matter of fact this opinion receives little support from such tests as have been made on men and women college students4 ,the fact that so few women have attained eminence may be due to wholly extraneous factors1 the most important of which are the following3 7#a7 ,the occupations in which it is possible to achieve eminence are for the most part only now beginning to open their doors to women4 ,women's career has been largely that of home-making1 an occupation in which eminence1 in the strict sense of the word1 is impossible4 7#b7 ,even of the small number of women who embark upon a professional career1 a majority marry and thereafter devote a fairly large proportion of their energy to bearing and rearing children4 7#c7 ,both the training given to girls and the general atmosphere in which they grow up are unfavorable to the inculcation of the professional point of view1 and as a result women are not spurred on by deep-seated motives to constant and strenuous intellectual endeavor as men are4 7#d7 ,it is also possible that the emotional traits of women are such as to favor the development of the sentiments at the expense of innate intellectual endowment4 ,,intelligence ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,social ,,classes4 ,of the #ajjj children1 #dib were classified by their teachers according to social class into the following five groups3 very inferior1 inferior1 average1 superior1 and very superior4 ,a comparative study was then made of the distribution of ,i ,q's for these different groups4#be #be ,the results of this comparison have been set forth in detail in the monograph of source material and some of the conclusions have been set forth on p4 #aae ff4 of the present volume4 ,the data may be summarized as follows3-- #a4 ,the median ,i ,q for children of the superior social class is about #g points above1 and that of the inferior social class about #g points below1 the median ,i ,q of the average social group4 ,this means that by the age of #ad inferior class children are about one year below1 and superior class children one year above1 the median mental age for all classes taken together4 #b4 ,that the children of the superior social classes make a better showing in the tests is probably due1 for the most part1 to a superiority in original endowment4 ,this conclusion is supported by five supplementary lines of evidence3 7a7 the teachers' rankings of the children according to intelligence2 7b7 the age-grade progress of the children2 7c7 the quality of the school work2 7d7 the comparison of older and younger children as regards the influence of social environment2 and 7e7 the study of individual cases of bright and dull children in the same family4 #c4 ,in order to facilitate comparison1 it is advisable to express the intelligence of children of all social classes in terms of the same objective scale of intelligence4 ,this scale should be based on the median for all classes taken together4 #d4 ,as regards their responses to individual tests1 our children of a given social class were not distinguishable from children of the same intelligence in any other social class4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,i ,q ,,to ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,the ,,child',s ,,school ,,work4 ,the school work of #ejd children was graded by the teachers on a scale of five grades3 very inferior1 inferior1 average1 superior1 and very superior4 ,when this grouping was compared with that made on the basis of ,i ,q1 fairly close agreement was found4 ,however1 in about one case out of ten there was rather serious disagreement2 a child1 for example1 would be rated as doing average school work when his ,i ,q would place him in the very inferior intelligence group4 ,when the data were searched for explanations of such disagreements it was found that most of them were plainly due to the failure of teachers to take into account the age of the child when grading the quality of his school work4#bf ,when allowance was made for this tendency there were no disagreements which justified any serious suspicion as to the accuracy of the intelligence scale4 ,minor disagreements may1 of course1 be disregarded1 since the quality of school work depends in part on other factors than intelligence1 such as industry1 health1 regularity of attendance1 quality of instruction1 etc4 #bf ,see p4 #bd ff4 ,,the ,,relation ,,between ,i ,q ,,and ,,grade ,,progress4 ,this comparison1 which was made for the entire #ajjj children1 showed a fairly high correlation1 but also some astonishing disagreements4 ,nine-year intelligence was found all the way from grade #a to grade #g1 inclusive2 #aj-year intelligence all the way from grade #b to grade #g2 and #ab-year intelligence all the way from grade #c to grade #h4 ,plainly the school's efforts at grading fail to give homogeneous groups of children as regards mental ability4 ,on the whole1 the grade location of the children did not fit their mental ages much better than it did their chronological ages4 ,when the data were examined1 it was found that practically every child whose grade failed to correspond fairly closely with his mental age was either exceptionally bright or exceptionally dull4 ,those who tested between #if and #aje ,i ,q were never seriously misplaced in school4 ,the very dull children1 however1 were usually located from one to three grades above where they belonged by mental age1 and the duller the child the more serious1 as a rule1 was the misplacement4 ,on the other hand1 the very bright children were nearly always located from one to three grades below where they belonged by mental age1 and the brighter the child the more serious the school's mistake4 ,the child of #aj-year mental age in the second grade1 for example1 is almost certain to be about #g or #h years old2 the child of #aj-year intelligence in the sixth grade is almost certain to be #ac to #ae years of age4 ,all this is due to one fact1 and one alone3 the school tends to promote children by age rather than ability4 ,the bright children are held back1 while the dull children are promoted beyond their mental ability4 ,the retardation problem is exactly the reverse of what we have thought it to be4 ,it is the bright children who are retarded1 and the dull children who are accelerated4 ,the remedy is to be sought in differentiated courses 7special classes7 for both kinds of mentally exceptional children4 ,just as many special classes are needed for superior children as for the inferior4 ,the social consequences of suitable educational advantages for children of superior ability would no doubt greatly exceed anything that could possibly result from the special instruction of dullards and border-line cases4#bg #bg ,see ,chapter ,,vi for further discussion of the school progress possible to children of various ,i ,q's4 ,special study of the ,i ,q's between #gj and #gi revealed the fact that a child of this grade of intelligence never does satisfactory work in the grade where he belongs by chronological age4 ,by the time he has attended school four or five years1 such a child is usually found doing very inferior to average work in a grade from two to four years below his age4 ,on the other hand1 the child with an ,i ,q of #abj or above is almost never found below the grade for his chronological age1 and occasionally he is one or two grades above4 ,wherever located1 his work is always superior or very superior1 and the evidence suggests strongly that it would probably remain so even if extra promotions were granted4 ,,correlation ,,between ,i ,q ,,and ,,the ,,teachers' ,,estimates ,,of ,,the ,,children',s ,,intelligence4 ,by the ,pearson formula the correlation found between the ,i ,q's and the teachers' rankings on a scale of five was 4#dh4 ,this is about what others have found1 and is both high enough and low enough to be significant4 ,that it is moderately high in so far corroborates the tests4 ,that it is not higher means that either the teachers or the tests have made a good many mistakes4 ,when the data were searched for evidence on this point1 it was found1 as we have shown in ,chapter ,,ii1 that the fault was plainly on the part of the teachers4 ,the serious mistakes were nearly all made with children who were either over age or under age for their grade1 mostly the former4 ,in estimating children's intelligence1 just as in grading their school success1 the teachers often failed to take account of the age factor4 ,for example1 the child whose mental age was1 say1 two years below normal1 and who was enrolled in a class with children about two years younger than himself1 was often graded average in intelligence4 ,the tendency of teachers is to estimate a child's intelligence according to the quality of his school work in the grade where he happens to be located4 ,this results in overestimating the intelligence of older1 retarded children1 and underestimating the intelligence of the younger1 advanced children4 ,the disagreements between the tests and the teachers' estimates are thus found1 when analyzed1 to confirm the validity of the test method rather than to bring it under suspicion4 ,,the ,,validity ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,tests4 ,the validity of each test was checked up by measuring it against the scale as a whole in the manner described on p4 #ee4 ,for example1 if #aj-year-old children having #aa-year intelligence succeed with a given test decidedly better than #aj-year-old children who have #i-year intelligence1 then either this test must be accepted as valid or the scale as a whole must be rejected4 ,since we know1 however1 that the scale as a whole has at least a reasonably high degree of reliability1 this method becomes a sure and ready means of judging the worth of a test4 ,when the tests were tried out in this way it was found that some of those which have been most criticized have in reality a high correlation with intelligence4 ,among these are naming the days of the week1 giving the value of stamps1 counting thirteen pennies1 giving differences between president and king1 finding rhymes1 giving age1 distinguishing right and left1 and interpretation of pictures4 ,others having a high reliability are the vocabulary tests1 arithmetical reasoning1 giving differences1 copying a diamond1 giving date1 repeating digits in reverse order1 interpretation of fables1 the dissected sentence test1 naming sixty words1 finding omissions in pictures1 and recognizing absurdities4 ,among the somewhat less satisfactory tests are the following3 repeating digits 7direct order71 naming coins1 distinguishing forenoon and afternoon1 defining in terms of use1 drawing designs from memory1 and sthetic comparison4 ,binet's line suggestion test correlated so little with intelligence that it had to be thrown out4 ,the same was also true of two of the new tests which we had added to the series for try-out4 ,tests showing a medium correlation with the scale as a whole include arranging weights1 executing three commissions1 naming colors1 giving number of fingers1 describing pictures1 naming the months1 making change1 giving superior definitions1 finding similarities1 reading for memories1 reversing hands of clock1 defining abstract words1 problems of fact1 bow-knot1 induction test1 and comprehension questions4 ,a test which makes a good showing on this criterion of agreement with the scale as a whole becomes immune to theoretical criticisms4 ,whatever it appears to be from mere inspection1 it is a real measure of intelligence4 ,henceforth it stands or falls with the scale as a whole4 ,the reader will understand1 of course1 that no single test used alone will determine accurately the general level of intelligence4 ,a great many tests are required2 and for two reasons3 7#a7 because intelligence has many aspects2 and 7#b7 in order to overcome the accidental influences of training or environment4 ,if many tests are used no one of them need show more than a moderately high correlation with the scale as a whole4 ,as stated by ,binet1 ,let the tests be rough1 if there are only enough of them4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,various ,,intelligence ,,quotients ,,frequency ,,of ,,different ,,degrees ,,of ,,intelligence4 ,before we can interpret the results of an examination it is necessary to know how frequently an ,i ,q of the size found occurs among unselected children4 ,our tests of #ajjj unselected children enable us to answer this question with some degree of definiteness4 ,a study of these #ajjj ,i ,q's shows the following significant facts3-- ,the lowest #a go to #gj or below1 the highest #a reach #acj or above #b #gc #b #abh #c #gf #c #abe #e #gh #e #abb #aj #he #aj #aaf #ae #hh #ae #aac #bj #ia #bj #aaj #be #ib #be #ajh #cca_/c #ie #cca_/c #ajf ,or1 to put some of the above facts in another form3-- ,the child reaching #aaj is equaled or excelled by #bj out of #ajj 7about7 #aae #aj #abe #c #acj #a ,conversely1 we may say regarding the subnormals that3-- ,the child testing at 7about7 #ij is equaled or excelled by #hj out of #ajj #he #ij #ge #ig #gj #ii ,,classification ,,of ,,intelligence ,,quotients4 ,what do the above ,i ,q's imply in such terms as feeble-mindedness1 border-line intelligence1 dullness1 normality1 superior intelligence genius1 etc48 ,when we use these terms two facts must be borne in mind3 7#a7 ,that the boundary lines between such groups are absolutely arbitrary1 a matter of definition only2 and 7#b7 that the individuals comprising one of the groups do not make up a homogeneous type4 ,nevertheless1 since terms like the above are convenient and will probably continue to be used1 it is desirable to give them as much definiteness as possible4 ,on the basis of the tests we have made1 including many cases of all grades of intelligence1 the following suggestions are offered for the classification of intelligence quotients3-- ,i ,q ,classification ,above #adj ,near genius or genius4 #abj-adj ,very superior intelligence4 #aaj-abj ,superior intelligence4 #ij-aaj ,normal1 or average1 intelligence4 #hj- #ij ,dullness1 rarely classifiable as feeble-mindedness4 #gj- #hj ,border-line deficiency1 sometimes classifiable as dullness1 often as feeble-mindedness4 ,below #gj ,definite feeble-mindedness4 ,of the feeble-minded1 those between #ej and #gj ,i ,q include most of the morons 7high1 middle1 and low71 those between #bj or #be and #ej are ordinarily to be classed as imbeciles1 and those below #bj or #be as idiots4 ,according to this classification the adult idiot would range up to about #c-year intelligence as the limit1 the adult imbecile would have a mental level between #c and #g years1 and the adult moron would range from about #g-year to #aa-year intelligence4 ,it should be added1 however1 that the classification of ,i ,q's for the various sub-grades of feeble-mindedness is not very secure1 for the reason that the exact curves of mental growth have not been worked out for such grades4 ,as far as the public schools are concerned this does not greatly matter1 as they never enroll idiots and very rarely even the high-grade imbecile4 ,school defectives are practically all of the moron and border-line grades1 and these it is important teachers should be able to recognize4 ,the following discussions and illustrative cases will perhaps give a fairly definite idea of the significance of various grades of intelligence4#bh #bh ,the clinical descriptions to be given are not complete and are designed merely to aid the examiner in understanding the significance of intelligence quotients found4 ,,feeble-,,mindedness 7,,rarely ,,above #ge ,i ,q47 ,there are innumerable grades of mental deficiency ranging from somewhat below average intelligence to profound idiocy4 ,in the literal sense every individual below the average is more or less mentally weak or feeble4 ,only a relatively small proportion of these1 however1 are technically known as feeble-minded4 ,it is therefore necessary to set forth the criterion as to what constitutes feeble-mindedness in the commonly accepted sense of that word4 ,the definition in most general use is the one framed by the ,royal ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons of ,london1 and adopted by the ,english ,royal ,commission on ,mental ,deficiency4 ,it is substantially as follows3-- ,a feeble-minded person is one who is incapable1 because of mental defect existing from birth or from an early age1 7a7 of competing on equal terms with his normal fellows2 or 7b7 of managing himself or his affairs with ordinary prudence4 ,two things are to be noted in regard to this definition3 ,in the first place1 it is stated in terms of social and industrial efficiency4 ,such efficiency1 however1 depends not merely on the degree of intelligence1 but also on emotional1 moral1 physical1 and social traits as well4 ,this explains why some individuals with ,i ,q somewhat below #ge can hardly be classed as feeble-minded in the ordinary sense of the term1 while others with ,i ,q a little above #ge could hardly be classified in any other group4 ,in the second place1 the criterion set up by the definition is not very definite because of the vague meaning of the expression ordinary prudence4 ,even the expression competing on equal terms cannot be taken literally1 else it would include also those who are merely dull4 ,it is the second part of the definition that more nearly expresses the popular criterion1 for as long as an individual manages his affairs in such a way as to be self-supporting1 and in such a way as to avoid becoming a nuisance or burden to his fellowmen1 he escapes the institutions for defectives and may pass for normal4 ,the most serious defect of the definition comes from the lax interpretation of the term ordinary prudence1 etc4 ,the popular standard is so low that hundreds of thousands of high grade defectives escape identification as such4 ,moreover1 there are many grades of severity in social and industrial competition4 ,for example1 most of the members of such families as the ,jukes1 the ,nams1 the ,hill ,folk1 and the ,kallikaks are able to pass as normal in their own crude environment1 but when compelled to compete with average ,american stock their deficiency becomes evident4 ,it is therefore necessary to supplement the social criterion with a more strictly psychological one4 ,for this purpose there is nothing else as significant as the ,i ,q4 ,all who test below #gj ,i ,q by the ,stanford revision of the ,binet-,simon scale should be considered feeble-minded1 and it is an open question whether it would not be justifiable to consider #ge ,i ,q as the lower limit of normal intelligence4 ,certainly a large proportion falling between #gj and #ge can hardly be classed as other than feeble-minded1 even according to the social criterion4 ,examples of feeble-minded school children ,f4 ,c4 ,boy1 age #h-f2 mental age #d-b2 ,i ,q approximately #ej4 ,from a very superior home4 ,has had the best medical care and other attention4 ,attended a private kindergarten until rejected because he required so much of the teacher's time and appeared uneducable4 ,will probably develop to about the #f- or #g-year mental level4 ,high grade imbecile4 ,has since been committed to a state institution4 ,cases as low as ,f4 ,c4 very rarely get into the public schools4 ,r4 ,w4 ,boy1 age #ac-aj2 mental age #g-f2 ,i ,q approximately #ee4 ,home excellent4 ,is pubescent4 ,because of age and maturity has been promoted to the third grade1 though he can hardly do the work of the second4 ,has attended school more than six years4 ,will probably never develop much if any beyond #h years1 and will never be self-supporting4 ,low-grade moron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,diamond ,,drawn ,,by ,r4 ,w41 ,,age #ac-aj2 ,,mental ,,age #g-f ,m4 ,s4 ,girl1 age #g-f2 mental age #d-f2 ,i ,q #fj4 ,father a gardener1 home conditions and medical attention fair4 ,has twice attempted first grade1 but without learning to read more than a few words4 ,in each case teacher requested parents to withdraw her4 ,takes things4 ,is considered foolish by the other children4 ,will probably never develop beyond a mental level of #h years4 ,r4 ,m4 ,boy1 age #ae2 mental age #i2 ,i ,q #fj4 ,decidedly superior home environment and care4 ,after attending school eight years is in fifth grade1 though he cannot do the work of the fourth grade4 ,parents unable to teach him to respect property4 ,boys torment him and make his life miserable4 ,at middle-moron level and has probably about reached the limit of his development4 ,has since been committed to a state institution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,writing ,,from ,,dictation4 ,r4 ,m41 ,,age #ae2 ,,mental ,,age #i ,s4 ,m4 ,girl1 age #ai-b2 mental age #aj2 ,i ,q approximately #fe 7not counting age beyond #af74 ,from very superior family4 ,has attended public and private schools twelve years and has been promoted to seventh grade1 where she cannot do the work4 ,appears docile and childlike1 but is subject to spells of disobedience and stubbornness4 ,did not walk until #d years old4 ,plays with young children4 ,susceptible to attention from men and has to be constantly guarded4 ,writing excellent1 knows the number combinations1 but missed all the absurdities and has the vocabulary of an average #aj-year-old4 ,the type from which prostitutes often come4 ,r4 ,h4 ,boy1 age #ad2 mental age #h-d2 ,i ,q #fe4 ,father ,irish1 mother ,spanish4 ,family comfortable and home care average4 ,has attended school eight years and is unable to do fourth-grade work satisfactorily4 ,health excellent and attendance regular4 ,reads in fourth reader without expression and with little comprehension of what is read4 ,fair skill in number combinations4 ,writing and drawing very poor4 ,cannot use a ruler4 ,has no conception of an inch4 ,r4 ,h4 is described as high-tempered1 irritable1 lacking in physical activity1 clumsy1 and unsteady4 ,plays little4 ,just stands around4 ,indifferent to praise or blame1 has little sense of duty1 plays underhand tricks4 ,is slow1 absent-minded1 easily confused1 in thought1 never shows appreciation or interest4 ,so apathetic that he does not hear commands4 ,voice droning4 ,speech poor in colloquial expressions4 ,three years later1 at age of #ag1 was in a special class attempting sixth-grade work4 ,reported as doing absolutely nothing in that grade4 ,still sullen1 indifferent1 and slow in grasping directions1 and lacking in play interests4 ,no apperception of anything1 but has mastered such mechanical things as reading 7calling the words7 and the fundamentals in arithmetic4 ,in school work1 moral traits1 and out-of-school behavior ,r4 ,h4 shows himself to be a typical case of moron deficiency4 ,i4 ,m4 ,girl1 age #ad-b2 mental age #i2 ,i ,q approximately #fe4 ,father a laborer4 ,does unsatisfactory work in fourth grade4 ,plays with little girls4 ,a menace to the morals of the school because of her sex interests and lack of self-restraint4 ,rather good-looking if one does not hunt for appearances of intelligence4 ,mental reactions intolerably slow4 ,will develop but little further and will always pass as feeble-minded in any but the very lowest social environment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field ,,test4 ,i4 ,m41 ,,age #ad-b2 ,,mental ,,age #i ,g4 ,v4 ,boy1 age #aj2 mental age #f-d2 ,i ,q #fe4 ,father ,spanish1 mother ,english4 ,family poor but fairly respectable4 ,brothers and sisters all retarded4 ,in high first grade4 ,work all very poor except writing1 drawing1 and hand work1 in all of which he excels4 ,is quiet and inactive1 lacks self-confidence1 and plays little4 ,mentally slow1 inert1 thick1 and inattentive4 ,health fair4 ,three years later ,g4 ,v4 was in the low third grade and still doing extremely poor work in everything except manual training1 drawing1 and writing4 ,is not likely ever to go beyond the fourth or fifth grade however long he remains in school4 ,v4 ,j4 ,girl1 age #aa-f2 mental age #h2 ,i ,q #gj4 ,has been tested three times in the last five years1 always with approximately the same result in terms of ,i ,q4 ,home fair to inferior4 ,has been in a special class two years and in school altogether nearly six years4 ,is barely able to do third-grade work4 ,her feeble-mindedness is recognized by teachers and by other pupils4 ,belongs at about middle-moron to high-moron level4 ,a4 ,w4 ,boy1 age #i-d2 mental age #g2 ,i ,q #ge4 ,a year and a half ago he tested at #f-b4 ,from superior family1 brothers of very superior intelligence4 ,in school three years and has made about a grade and a half4 ,has higher ,i ,q than ,v4 ,j4 described above1 but his deficiency is fully as evident4 ,is generally recognized as mentally defective4 ,slyly abstracted one of the pennies used in the test and slipped it into his pocket4 ,has caused much trouble at school by puncturing bicycle tires4 ,high-grade moron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,diamond ,,drawn ,,by ,a4 ,w4 ,a4 ,c4 ,boy1 age #ab2 mental age #h-e2 ,i ,q #gj4 ,from ,portuguese family of ten children4 ,has a feeble-minded brother4 ,parents in comfortable circumstances and respectable4 ,a4 ,c4 has attended school regularly since he was #f years old4 ,trying unsuccessfully to do the work of the fourth grade4 ,reads poorly in the third reader4 ,hesitates1 repeats1 miscalls words1 and never gets the thought4 ,writes about like a first-grade pupil4 ,cannot solve such simple problems as ,how many marbles can you buy for ten cents if one marble costs five cents8 even when he has marbles and money in his hands4 ,described by teacher as mentally slow and inert1 inattentive1 easily distracted1 memory poor1 ideas vague and often absurd1 does not appreciate stories1 slow at comprehending commands4 ,is also described as unruly1 boisterous1 disobedient1 stubborn1 and lacking sense of propriety4 ,tattles4 ,three years later1 at age of #ae1 was in a special class and was little if any improved4 ,he had1 however1 learned the mechanics of reading and had mastered the number combinations4 ,deficiencies described as of wide range4 ,conduct1 however1 had improved4 ,was working hard to get on4 ,a4 ,c4 must be considered definitely feeble-minded4 ,h4 ,s4 ,boy1 age #aa2 mental age #h-c2 ,i ,q approximately #ge4 ,at #h years tested at #f4 ,parents highly educated1 father a scholar4 ,brother and sister of very superior intelligence4 ,started to school at #g1 but was withdrawn because of lack of progress4 ,started again at #h and is now doing poor work in the second grade4 ,weakly and nervous4 ,painfully aware of his inability to learn4 ,during the test keeps saying1 ,i tried anyway1 ,it's all ,i can do if ,i try my best1 ain't it8 etc4 ,regarded defective by other children4 ,will probably never be able to do work beyond the fourth or fifth grade and is not likely to develop above the #aa-year level1 if as high4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,drawing ,,designs ,,from ,,memory4 ,h4 ,s41 ,,age #aa2 ,,mental ,,age #h-c ,i4 ,s4 ,boy1 age #i-f2 mental age #g2 ,i ,q #ge4 ,german parentage4 ,started to school at #f4 ,now in low second grade and unable to do the work4 ,health good4 ,inattentive1 mentally slow and inert1 easily distracted1 speech is monotone4 ,equally poor in reading1 writing1 and numbers4 ,i4 ,s4 is described as quiet1 sullen1 indifferent1 lazy1 and stubborn4 ,plays little4 ,three years later had advanced from low second to low fourth grade1 but was as poor as ever in his school work4 ,miscalls the simplest words4 ,moral traits unsatisfactory4 ,may reach sixth or seventh grade if he remains in school long enough4 ,i4 ,s4 learned to walk at #b years and to talk at #c4 ,the above are cases of such marked deficiency that there could be no disagreement among competent judges in classifying them in the group of feeble-minded4 ,all are definitely institutional cases4 ,it is a matter of record1 however1 that one of the cases1 ,h4 ,s41 was diagnosed by a physician 7without test7 as backward but not a defective4 and with the added encouragement that the backwardness will be outgrown4 ,of course the reverse is the case2 the deficiency is becoming more and more apparent as the boy approaches the age where more is expected of him4 ,in at least three of the above cases 7,s4 ,m41 ,i4 ,s41 and ,i4 ,m47 the teachers had not identified the backwardness as feeble-mindedness4 ,not far from #b children out of #ajj1 or #b out of #ajjj1 in the average public school are as defective as some of those just described4 ,teachers get so accustomed to seeing a few of them in every group of #bjj or #cjj pupils that they are likely to regard them as merely dull1--dreadfully dull1 of course1--but not defective4 ,children like these1 for their own good and that of other pupils1 should be kept out of the regular classes4 ,they will rarely be equal to the work of the fifth grade1 however long they attend school4 ,they will make a little progress in a well-managed special class1 but with the approach of adolescence1 at latest1 the ,state should take them into custodial care for its own protection4 ,,border-,,line ,,cases 7,,usually ,,between #gj ,,and #hj ,i ,q74 ,the border-line cases are those which fall near the boundary generally recognized as such and the higher group usually classed as normal but dull4 ,they are the doubtful cases1 the ones we are always trying 7rarely with success7 to restore to normality4 ,it must be emphasized1 however1 that this doubtful group is not marked off by definite ,i ,q limits4 ,some children with ,i ,q as high as #ge or even #hj will have to be classified as feeble-minded2 some as low as #gj ,i ,q may be so well endowed in other mental traits that they may manage as adults to get along fairly well in a simple environment4 ,the ability to compete with one's fellows in the social and industrial world does not depend upon intelligence alone4 ,such factors as moral traits1 industry1 environment to be encountered1 personal appearance1 and influential relatives are also involved4 ,two children classified above as feeble-minded had an ,i ,q as high as #ge4 ,in these cases the emotional1 moral1 or physical qualities were so defective as to render a normal social life out of the question4 ,this is occasionally true even with an ,i ,q as high as #hj4 ,some of the border-line cases1 with even less intelligence1 may be so well endowed in other mental traits that they are capable of becoming dependable unskilled laborers1 and of supporting a family after a fashion4 ,examples of border-line deficiency ,s4 ,f4 ,girl1 age #ag2 mental age #aa-f2 ,i ,q approximately #gb 7disregarding age above #af years74 ,father intelligent2 mother probably high-grade defective4 ,lives in a good home with aunt1 who is a woman of good sense and skillful in her management of the girl4 ,s4 ,f4 has attended excellent schools for eleven years and has recently been promoted to the seventh grade4 ,the teacher admits1 however1 that she cannot do the work of that grade1 but says1 ,i haven't the heart to let her fail in the sixth grade for the third time4 ,she studies very hard and says she wants to become a teacher6 ,at the time the test was made she was actually studying her books from two to three hours daily at home4 ,the aunt1 who is very intelligent1 had never thought of this girl as feeble-minded1 and had suffered much concern and humiliation because of her inability to teach her to conduct herself properly toward men and not to appropriate other people's property4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field ,,test ,s4 ,f41 ,,age #ag2 ,,mental ,,age #aa-f ,s4 ,f4 is ordinarily docile1 but is subject to fits of anger and obstinacy4 ,she finally determined to leave her home1 threatening to take up with a man unless allowed to work elsewhere4 ,since then she has been tried out in several families1 but after a little while in a place she flies into a rage and leaves4 ,she is a fairly capable houseworker when she tries4 ,this young woman is feeble-minded and should be classed as such4 ,she is listed here with the border-line cases simply for the reason that she belongs to a group whose mental deficiency is almost never recognized without the aid of a psychological test4 ,probably no physician could be found who would diagnose the case1 on the basis of a medical examination alone1 as one of feeble-mindedness4 ,f4 ,h4 ,boy1 age #af-f2 mental age #aa-e2 ,i ,q approximately #gb 7disregarding age above #af years74 ,tested for three successive years without change of more than four points in ,i ,q4 ,father a laborer1 dull1 subject to fits of rage1 and beats the boy4 ,mother not far from border-line4 ,f4 ,h4 has always had the best of school advantages and has been promoted to the seventh grade4 ,is really about equal to fifth-grade work4 ,fairly rapid and accurate in number combinations1 but cannot solve arithmetical problems which require any reasoning4 ,reads with reasonable fluency1 but with little understanding4 ,appears exceedingly good-natured1 but was once suspended from school for hurling bricks at a fellow pupil4 ,played a joke on another pupil by fastening a dangerous1 sharp-pointed1 steel paper-file in the pupil's seat for him to sit down on4 ,he is cruel1 stubborn1 and plays truant1 but is fairly industrious when he gets a job as errand or delivery boy4 ,discharged once for taking money4 ,f4 ,h4 is generally called queer1 but is not ordinarily thought of as feeble-minded4 ,his deficiency is real1 however1 and it is altogether doubtful whether he will be able to make a living and to keep out of trouble1 though he is now 7at age #bj7 employed as messenger boy for the ,western ,union at #cj per month4 ,this is considerably less than pick-and-shovel men get in the community where he lives4 ,delinquents and criminals often belong to this level of intelligence4 ,w4 ,c4 ,boy1 age #af-h2 mental age #ab2 ,i ,q #ge 7disregarding age above #af years74 ,father a college professor4 ,all the other children in the family of unusually superior intelligence4 ,when tested 7four years ago7 was trying to do seventh-grade work1 but with little success4 ,wanted to leave school and learn farming1 but father insisted on his getting the usual grammar-school and high-school education4 ,made #be one summer by raising vegetables on a vacant lot4 ,in the four years since the test was made he has managed to get into high school4 ,teachers say that in spite of his best efforts he learns next to nothing1 and they regard him as hopelessly dull4 ,is docile1 lacks all aggressiveness1 looks stupid1 and has head circumference an inch below normal4 ,here is a most pitiful case of the overstimulated backward child in a superior family4 ,instead of nagging at the boy and urging him on to attempt things which are impossible to his inferior intelligence1 his parents should take him out of school and put him at some kind of work which he could do4 ,if the boy had been the son of a common laborer he would probably have left school early and have become a dependable and contented laborer4 ,in a very simple environment he would probably not be considered defective4 ,c4 ,p4 ,boy1 age #aj-b2 mental age #g-aa2 ,i ,q #gh4 ,portuguese boy1 son of a skilled laborer4 ,one of eleven children1 most of whom have about this same grade of intelligence4 ,has attended school regularly for four years4 ,is in the third grade1 but cannot do the work4 ,except for extreme stubbornness his social development is fairly normal4 ,capable in plays and games1 but is regarded as impossible in his school work4 ,like his brother1 ,m4 ,p41 the next case to be described1 he will doubtless become a fairly reliable laborer at unskilled work and will not be regarded1 in his rather simple environment1 as a defective4 ,from the psychological point of view1 however1 his deficiency is real4 ,he will probably never develop beyond the #aa- or #ab-year level or be able to do satisfactory school work beyond the fifth or sixth grade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,writing ,,from ,,dictation4 ,c4 ,p41 ,,age #aj-b2 ,,mental ,,age #g-aa ,m4 ,p4 ,boy1 age #ad2 mental age #aj-h2 ,i ,q #gg4 ,has been tested four successive years1 ,i ,q being always between #ge and #hj4 ,brother to ,c4 ,p4 above4 ,in school nearly eight years and has been promoted to the fifth grade4 ,at #af was doing poor work in the sixth grade4 ,good school advantages1 as the father has tried conscientiously to give his children a good education4 ,perfectly normal in appearance and in play activities and is liked by other children4 ,seems to be thoroughly dependable both in school and in his outside work4 ,will probably become an excellent laborer and will pass as perfectly normal1 notwithstanding a grade of intelligence which will not develop above #aa or #ab years4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field ,,test4 ,m4 ,p41 ,,age #ad2 ,,mental ,,age #aj-h ,what shall we say of cases like the last two which test at high-grade moronity or at border-line1 but are well enough endowed in moral and personal traits to pass as normal in an uncomplicated social environment8 ,according to the classical definition of feeble-mindedness such individuals cannot be considered defectives4 ,hardly any one would think of them as institutional cases4 ,among laboring men and servant girls there are thousands like them4 ,they are the world's hewers of wood and drawers of water4 ,and yet1 as far as intelligence is concerned1 the tests have told the truth4 ,these boys are uneducable beyond the merest rudiments of training4 ,no amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the true sense of the word4 ,judged psychologically they cannot be considered normal4 ,it is interesting to note that ,m4 ,p4 and ,c4 ,p4 represent the level of intelligence which is very1 very common among ,spanish-,indian and ,mexican families of the ,southwest and also among negroes4 ,their dullness seems to be racial1 or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come4 ,the fact that one meets this type with such extraordinary frequency among ,indians1 ,mexicans1 and negroes suggests quite forcibly that the whole question of racial differences in mental traits will have to be taken up anew and by experimental methods4 ,the writer predicts that when this is done there will be discovered enormously significant racial differences in general intelligence1 differences which cannot be wiped out by any scheme of mental culture4 ,children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical4 ,they cannot master abstractions1 but they can often be made efficient workers1 able to look out for themselves4 ,there is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce1 although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually prolific breeding4 ,,dull ,,normals 7,i ,q ,,usually #hj ,,to #ij74 ,in this group are included those children who would not1 according to any of the commonly accepted social standards1 be considered feeble-minded1 but who are nevertheless far enough below the actual average of intelligence among races of western ,european descent that they cannot make ordinary school progress or master other intellectual difficulties which average children are equal to4 ,a few of this class test as low as #ge to #hj ,i ,q1 but the majority are not far from #he4 ,the unmistakably normal children who go much below this 7in ,california1 at least7 are usually ,mexicans1 ,indians1 or negroes4 ,r4 ,g4 ,negro boy1 age #ac-e2 mental age #aj-f2 ,i ,q approximately #hj4 ,normal in appearance and conduct1 but very dull4 ,is attempting fifth-grade work in a special class1 but is failing4 ,from a fairly good home and has had ordinary school advantages4 ,in the examination his intelligence is very even as far as it goes1 but stops rather abruptly after the #aj-year tests4 ,will unquestionably pass as normal among unskilled laborers1 but his intelligence will never exceed the #ab-year level and he is not likely to advance beyond the seventh grade1 if as far4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field4 ,r4 ,g41 ,,age #ac-e1 ,,mental ,,age #aj-f ,f4 ,d4 ,boy1 tested at age #aj-b2 ,i ,q #hc1 and again at #ad-a2 ,i ,q #gi4 ,mental age in the first test was #h-f and in the second test #aa4 ,son of a barber4 ,father dead2 mother capable2 makes a good home1 and cares for her children well4 ,at #aj was doing unsatisfactory work in the fourth grade1 and at #ab unsatisfactory work in low sixth4 ,good-looking1 normal in appearance and social development1 and though occasionally obstinate is usually steady4 ,any one unacquainted with his poor school work and low ,i ,q would consider him perfectly normal4 ,no physical or moral handicaps of any kind that could possibly account for his retardation4 ,is simply dull4 ,needs purely a vocational training1 but may be able to complete the eighth grade with low marks by the age of #af or #ag4 ,g4 ,g4 ,girl1 age #ab-d2 mental age #aj-aj2 ,i ,q #hb4 ,from average home4 ,excellent educational advantages and no physical handicaps4 ,at #ab years was doing very poor work in fifth grade4 ,appearance1 play life1 and attitude toward other children normal4 ,simply dull4 ,will probably never go beyond the #ab- or #ac-year level and is not likely to get as far as the high school4 ,those testing #hj and #ij will usually be able to reach the eighth grade1 but ordinarily only after from one to three or four failures4 ,they are so very numerous 7about #ae per cent of the school enrollment7 that it is doubtful whether we can expect soon to have special classes enough to accommodate all4 ,the most feasible solution is a differentiated course of study with parallel classes in which every child will be allowed to make the best progress of which he is capable1 without incurring the risk of failure and non-promotion4 ,the so-called ,mannheim system1 or something similar to it1 is what we need4 ,,average ,,intelligence 7,i ,q #ij ,,to #aaj74 ,it is often said that the schools are made for the average child1 but that the average child does not exist4 ,he does exist1 and in very large numbers4 ,about #fj per cent of all school children test between #ij and #aaj ,i ,q1 and about #dj per cent between #ie and #aje4 ,that these children are average is attested by their school records as well as by their ,i ,q's4 ,our records show that1 of more than #bjj children below #ad years of age and with ,i ,q between #ie and #aje1 not one was making much more nor much less than average school progress4 ,four were two years retarded1 but in each case this was due to late start1 illness1 or irregular attendance4 ,children who test close to #ij1 however1 often fail to get along satisfactorily1 while those testing near #aaj are occasionally able to win an extra promotion4 ,the children of this average group are seldom school problems1 as far as ability to learn is concerned4 ,nor are they as likely to cause trouble in discipline as the dull and border-line cases4 ,it is therefore hardly necessary to give illustrative cases here4 ,the high school1 however1 does not fit their grade of intelligence as well as the elementary and grammar schools4 ,high schools probably enroll a disproportionate number of pupils in the ,i ,q range above #ajj4 ,that is1 the average intelligence among high-school pupils is above the average for the population in general4 ,it is probably not far from #aaj4 ,college students are1 of course1 a still more selected group1 perhaps coming chiefly from the range above #aae4 ,the child whose school marks are barely average in the elementary grades1 when measured against children in general1 will ordinarily earn something less than average marks in high school1 and perhaps excessively poor marks in college4 ,,superior ,,intelligence 7,i ,q #aaj ,,to #abj74 ,children of this group ordinarily make higher marks and are capable of making somewhat more rapid progress than the strictly average child4 ,perhaps most of them could complete the eight grades in seven years as easily as the average child does in eight years4 ,they are not usually the best scholars1 but on a scale of excellent1 good1 fair1 poor1 and failure they will usually rank as good1 though of course the degree of application is a factor4 ,it is rare1 however1 to find a child of this level who is positively indolent in his school work or who dislikes school4 ,in high school they are likely to win about the average mark4 ,intelligence of #aaj to #abj ,i ,q is approximately five times as common among children of superior social status as among children of inferior social status2 the proportion among the former being about #bd per cent of all1 and among the latter only #e per cent of all4 ,the group is made up largely of children of the fairly successful mercantile or professional classes4 ,the total number of children between #aaj and #abj is almost exactly the same as the number between #hj and #ij2 namely1 about #ae per cent4 ,the distance between these two groups 7say between #he and #aae7 is as great as the distance between average intelligence and border-line deficiency1 and it would be absurd to suppose that they could be taught to best advantage in the same classes4 ,as a matter of fact1 pupils between #aaj and #abj are usually held back to the rate of progress which the average child can make4 ,they are little encouraged to do their best4 ,,very ,,superior ,,intelligence 7,i ,q #abj ,,to #adj74 ,children of this group are better than somewhat above average4 ,they are unusually superior4 ,not more than #c out of #ajj go as high as #abe ,i ,q1 and only about #a out of #ajj as high as #acj4 ,in the schools of a city of average population only about #a child in #bej or #cjj tests as high as #adj ,i ,q4 ,in a series of #dgf unselected children there was not a single one reaching #abj whose social class was described as below average4#bi ,of the children of superior social status1 about #aj per cent reached #abj or better4 ,the #abj-adj group is made up almost entirely of children whose parents belong to the professional or very successful business classes4 ,the child of a skilled laborer belongs here occasionally1 the child of a common laborer very rarely indeed4 ,at least this is true in the smaller cities of ,california among populations made up of native-born ,americans4 ,in all probability it would not have been true in the earlier history of the country when ordinary labor was more often than now performed by men of average intelligence1 and it would probably not hold true now among certain immigrant populations of good stock1 but limited social and educational advantages4 #bi ,in other investigations1 however1 we have found even brighter children from very inferior homes4 ,see p4 #aag for an example4 ,what can children of this grade of ability do in school8 ,the question cannot be answered as satisfactorily as one could wish1 for the simple reason that such children are rarely permitted to do what they can4 ,what they do accomplish is as follows3 ,of #ed children 7of the #ajjj unselected cases7 falling in this group1 #ab per cent were advanced in the grades two years1 approximately #ed per cent were advanced one year1 #bh per cent were in the grade where they belonged by chronological age1 and three children1 or #e per cent1 were actually retarded one year4 ,but wherever located1 such children rarely get anything but the highest marks1 and the evidence goes to show that most of them could easily be prepared for high school by the age of #ab years4 ,serious injury is done them by schools which believe in putting on the brakes4 ,the following are illustrations of children testing between #acj and #ade4 ,not all are taken from the #ajjj unselected tests4 ,the writer has discovered several children of this grade as a result of lectures before teachers' institutes4 ,it is his custom1 in such lectures1 to ask the teachers to bring in for a demonstration test the brightest child in the city 7or county1 etc474 ,the ,i ,q resulting from such a test is usually between #acj and #adj1 occasionally a little higher4 ,examples of very superior intelligence ,margaret ,p4 ,age #h-aj2 mental age #aa-a2 ,i ,q #acj4 ,father only a skilled laborer 7house painter71 but a man of unusual intelligence and character for his social class4 ,home care above average4 ,m4 ,p4 has attended school a little less than three years and is completing fourth grade4 ,marks all excellent4 ,health perfect4 ,social and moral traits of the very best4 ,is obedient1 conscientious1 and unusually reliable for her age4 ,quiet and confident bearing1 but no touch of vanity4 ,m4 ,p4 is known to be related on her father's side to ,john ,wesley1 and her maternal grandfather was a highly skilled mechanic and the inventor of an important train-coupling device used on all railroads4 ,although she is not yet #i years old and is completing the fourth grade1 she is still about a grade below where she belongs by mental age4 ,she could no doubt easily be made ready for high school by the age of #ab4 ,j4 ,r4 ,girl1 age #ab-i2 mental age #af 7average adult72 ,i ,q approximately #acj4 ,daughter of a university professor4 ,in first year of high school4 ,from first grade up her marks have been nearly all of the ,a rank4 ,for first semester of high school four of six grades were ,a1 the others ,b4 ,a wonderfully charming1 delightful girl in every respect4 ,play life perfectly normal4 ,j4 ,r4's parents have moved about a great deal and she has attended eight different schools4 ,she is two years above grade in school1 but of this gain only one-half grade was made in school2 the other grade and a half she gained in a little over a year by staying out of school and working a little each day under the instruction of her mother4 ,but for this she would doubtless now be in the seventh grade instead of in high school4 ,as it is she is at least a grade below where she belongs by mental age4 ,something better than an average college record may be safely predicted for ,j4 ,r4 ,e4 ,b4 ,girl1 age #g-i2 mental age #aj-b2 ,i ,q #acj4 ,e4 ,b4 was selected by the teachers of a small ,california city as the brightest school child in that city 7school population about #ejj74 ,her parents are said to be unusually intelligent4 ,e4 ,b4 is in the third grade1 a year advanced1 but her mental level shows that she belongs in the fourth4 ,the test was made as a demonstration test in the presence of about #aej teachers1 all of whom were charmed by her delightful personality and keen responses4 ,no trace of vanity or queerness of any kind4 ,health excellent4 ,e4 ,b4 ought to be ready for high school at #ab2 she will really have the intelligence to do high-school work by #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field ,,test4 ,e4 ,b41 ,,age #g-i2 ,i ,q #acj ,l4 ,b4 ,girl1 age #h-f2 mental age #aa-f2 ,i ,q #ace4 ,tested nearly three years earlier1 age #e-aa2 mental age #g-f2 ,i ,q #abg4 ,daughter of a university professor4 ,at age of #h-f was doing very superior work in the fifth grade4 ,later1 at age of #aj-f1 is in the seventh grade with all her marks excellent4 ,has two sisters who test almost as high1 both completing the eighth grade at barely #ab years of age4 ,l4 ,b4 looks rather delicate1 and though a little nervous is ordinarily strong4 ,we have known her since her early childhood4 ,like both her sisters1 she is a favorite with young and old1 as nearly perfection as the most charming little girl could be4 ,r4 ,s4 ,boy1 age #f-e2 mental age #i-f2 ,i ,q #adh4 ,when tested at age #e-b he had a mental age of #g-f1 ,i ,q #adb4 ,father a university professor4 ,r4 ,s4 entered school at exactly #f years of age1 and at the present writing is #g years old and is entering the third grade4 ,leads his class in school and takes delight in the work4 ,is normal in play life and social traits and is dependable and thoughtful beyond his years4 ,should enter high school not later than #ab2 could probably be made ready a year earlier1 but as he is somewhat nervous this might not be wise4 ,t4 ,f4 ,boy1 age #aj-f2 mental age #ad2 ,i ,q #acc4 ,at #ac-f tested at superior adult1 and had vocabulary of #ac1jjj 7also superior adult74 ,son of a college professor4 ,did not go to school till age of #i years and was not taught to read till #h4 ,at this writing he is #ae years old and is a senior in high school4 ,he will complete the high-school course in three and one-half years with ,a to ,b marks1 mostly ,a4 ,gets his hardest mathematics lessons in five to ten minutes4 ,science is his play4 ,when he discovered ,hodge's ,nature ,study and ,life at age of #aa years he literally slept with the book till he almost knew it by heart4 ,since age #ab he has given much time to magazines on mechanics and electricity4 ,at #ac he installed a wireless apparatus without other aid than his electrical magazines4 ,he has1 for a boy of his age1 a rather remarkable understanding of the principles underlying electrical applications4 ,he is known by his playmates as the boy with a hobby4 ,stamp collections1 butterfly and moth collections 7over #gj different varieties71 seashore collections1 and wireless apparatus all show that the appellation is fully merited4 ,he chooses his hobbies and rides them entirely on his own initiative4 ,j4 ,s4 ,boy1 age #h-b2 mental age #aa-d2 ,i ,q #ach4 ,father was a lawyer1 parents now dead4 ,is in high fourth grade4 ,leads his class4 ,attractive1 healthy1 normal-appearing lad4 ,full of good humor4 ,is loving and obedient1 strongly attached to his foster mother 7an aunt74 ,composes verses and fables for pastime4 ,here are a couple of verses composed before his eighth birthday4 ,they are reproduced without change of spelling or punctuation3-- ,christmas ,hurrah for ,christmas ,and all it's joy's ,that come that day ,for girls and boy's4 ,flowers ,flowers in the garden4 ,that is all you see ,who likes them best8 ,that's the honey bee4 ,j4 ,s4 ought to be in the fifth grade1 instead of the fourth4 ,he will easily be able to enter college by the age of #ae if he is allowed to make the progress which would be normal to a child of his intelligence4 ,but it is too much to expect that the school will permit this4 ,f4 ,mc,a4 ,boy1 age #aj-c2 mental age #ad-f2 ,i ,q #adb4 ,father a school principal4 ,f4 is leading his class of #bd pupils in the high seventh grade4 ,has received so many extra promotions only because his father insisted that the teachers allow him to try the next grade4 ,the dire consequences which they predicted have never followed4 ,f4 is perfectly healthy and one of the most attractive lads the writer has ever seen4 ,he has the normal play instincts1 but when not at play he has the dignified bearing of a young prince1 although without vanity4 ,his vocabulary is #ijjj 7#ad years71 and his ability is remarkably even in all directions4 ,f4 should easily enter college by the age of #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field ,f4 ,mc,a41 ,,age #aj-c1 ,,mental ,,age #ad-f ,e4 ,m4 ,boy1 age #f-aa2 mental age #aj2 ,i ,q #ade4 ,learned to read at age of #e without instruction and shortly afterward had learned from geography maps the capitals of all the ,states of the ,union4 ,started to school at #g4 ,entered the first grade at #i ,a4,m4 and had been promoted to the fourth grade by #c ,p4,m4 of the same day6 ,has now attended school a half-year and is in the fifth grade1 age #g years1 #h months4 ,father is on the faculty of a university4 ,e4 ,m4 is as superior in personal and moral traits as in intelligence4 ,responsible1 sturdy1 playful1 full of humor1 loving1 obedient4 ,health is excellent4 ,has had no home instruction in school work4 ,his progress has been perfectly natural4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,drawing ,,designs ,,from ,,memory4 ,e4 ,m41 ,,age #f-aa2 ,,mental ,,age #aj1 ,i ,q #ade 7,this performance is satisfactory for year #aj7 ,the above list of very superior children includes only a few of those we have tested who belong to this grade of intelligence4 ,every child in the list is so interesting that it is hard to omit any4 ,we have found all such children 7with one or two exceptions not included here7 so superior to average children in all sorts of mental and moral traits that one is at a loss to understand how the popular superstitions about the queerness of bright children could have originated or survived4 ,nearly every child we have found with ,i ,q above #adj is the kind one feels1 before the test is over1 one would like to adopt4 ,if the crime of kidnaping could ever be forgiven it would be in the case of a child like one of these4 ,,genius ,,and ,,near ,,genius4 ,intelligence tests have not been in use long enough to enable us to define genius definitely in terms of ,i ,q4 ,the following two cases are offered as among the highest test records of which the writer has personal knowledge4 ,it is doubtful whether more than one child in #aj1jjj goes as high as either4 ,one case has been reported1 however1 in which the ,i ,q was not far from #bjj4 ,such a record1 if reliable1 is certainly phenomenal4 ,e4 ,f4 ,russian boy1 age #h-e2 mental age #ac2 ,i ,q approximately #aee4 ,mother is a university student apparently of very superior intelligence4 ,e4 ,f4 has a sister almost as remarkable as himself4 ,e4 ,f4 is in the sixth grade and at the head of his class4 ,although about four grades advanced beyond his chronological age he is still one grade retarded6 ,he could easily carry seventh-grade work4 ,in all probability ,e4 ,f4 could be made ready for college by the age of #ab years without injury to body or mind4 ,his mother has taken the only sensible course2 she has encouraged him without subjecting him to overstimulation4 ,e4 ,f4 was selected for the test as probably one of the brightest children in a city of a third of a million population4 ,he may not be the brightest in that city1 but he is one of the three or four most intelligent the writer has found after a good deal of searching4 ,he is probably equaled by not more than one in several thousand unselected children4 ,how impatiently one waits to see the fruit of such a budding genius6 ,b4 ,f4 ,son of a minister1 age #g-h2 mental age #ab-d2 ,i ,q #afj4 ,vocabulary #gjjj 7#ab years74 ,this test was not made by the writer1 but by one of his graduate students4 ,the record included the verbatim responses1 so that it was easy to verify the scoring4 ,there can be no doubt as to the substantial accuracy of the test4 ,this ,i ,q of #afj is the highest one in the ,stanford ,university records4 ,b4 ,f4 has excellent health1 normal play interests1 and is a favorite among his playfellows4 ,parents had not thought of him as especially remarkable4 ,he is only in the third grade1 and is therefore about three grades below his mental age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,ball ,,and ,,field4 ,b4 ,f41 ,,age #g-h2 ,,mental ,,age #ab-d2 ,i ,q #afj 7,this is a #ab-year performance7 ,it is especially noteworthy that not one of the children we have described with ,i ,q above #acj has ever had any unusual amount or kind of home instruction4 ,in most cases the parents were not aware of their very great superiority4 ,nor can we give the credit to the school or its methods4 ,the school has in most cases been a deterrent to their progress1 rather than a help4 ,these children have been taught in classes with average and inferior children1 like those described in the first part of this chapter4 ,their high ,i ,q is only an index of their extraordinary cerebral endowment4 ,this endowment is for life4 ,there is not the remotest probability that any of these children will deteriorate to the average level of intelligence with the onset of maturity4 ,such an event would be no less a miracle 7barring insanity7 than the development of an imbecile into a successful lawyer or physician4 ,,is ,,the ,i ,q ,,often ,,misleading8 ,do the cases described in this chapter give a reliable picture as to what one may expect of the various ,i ,q levels8 ,does the ,i ,q furnish anything like a reliable index of an individual's general educational possibilities and of his social worth8 ,are there not feeble-minded geniuses1 and are there not children of exceptionally high ,i ,q who are nevertheless fools8 ,we have no hesitation in saying that there is not one case in fifty in which there is any serious contradiction between the ,i ,q and the child's performances in and out of school4 ,we cannot deny the existence of feeble-minded geniuses1 but after a good deal of search we have not found one4 ,occasionally1 of course1 one finds a feeble-minded person who is an expert penman1 who draws skillfully1 who plays a musical instrument tolerably well1 or who handles number combinations with unusual rapidity2 but these are not geniuses2 they are not authors1 artists1 musicians1 or mathematicians4 ,as for exceptionally intelligent children who appear feeble-minded1 we have found but one case1 a boy of #aj years with an ,i ,q of about #abe4 ,this boy1 whom we have tested several times and whose development we have followed for five years1 was once diagnosed by a physician as feeble-minded4 ,his behavior among other persons than his familiar associates is such as to give this impression4 ,nothing less than an entire chapter would be adequate for a description of this case1 which is in reality one of disturbed emotional and social development with superior intelligence4 ,it should be emphasized1 however1 that what we have said about the significance of various ,i ,q's holds only for the ,i ,q's secured by the use of the ,stanford revision4 ,as we have shown elsewhere 7p4 #fb ff47 the ,i ,q yielded by other versions of the ,binet tests are often so inaccurate as to be misleading4 ,we have not found a single child who tested between #gj and #hj ,i ,q by the ,stanford revision who was able to do satisfactory school work in the grade where he belonged by chronological age4 ,such children are usually from two to three grades retarded by the age of #ab years4 ,on the other hand1 the child with an ,i ,q of #abj or above is almost never found below the grade for his chronological age1 and occasionally he is one or two grades above4 ,wherever located1 his school work is so superior as to suggest strongly the desirability of extra promotions4 ,those who test between #if and #aje are almost never more than one grade above or below where they belong by chronological age1 and even the small displacement of one year is usually determined by illness1 age of beginning school1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,reliability ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method ,,general ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,method4 ,in a former chapter we have noted certain imperfections of the scale devised by ,binet and ,simon2 namely1 that many of the tests were not correctly located1 that the choice of tests was in a few cases unsatisfactory1 that the directions for giving and scoring the tests were sometimes too indefinite1 and that the upper and lower ranges of the scale especially stood in need of extensions and corrections4 ,all of these faults have been quite generally admitted4 ,the method itself1 however1 after being put to the test by psychologists of all countries and of all faiths1 by the skeptical as well as the friendly1 has amply demonstrated its value4 ,the agreement on this point is as complete as it is regarding the scale's imperfections4 ,the following quotations from prominent psychologists who have studied the method will serve to show how it is regarded by those most entitled to an opinion3-- ,there can be no question about the fact that the ,binet-,simon tests do not make half as frequent or half as great errors in the mental ages 7of feeble-minded children7 as are included in gradings based on careful1 prolonged general observation by experienced observers4#cj #cj ,dr4 ,f4 ,kuhlmann3 ,the ,binet-,simon ,tests of ,intelligence in ,grading ,feeble-,minded ,children1 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiab71 p4 #ahi4 ,all of the different authors who have made these researches 7with ,binet's method7 are in a general way unanimous in recognizing that the principle of the scale is extremely fortunate1 and all believe that it offers the basis of a most useful method for the examination of intelligence4#ca #ca ,dr4 ,otto ,bobertag3 ,l'chelle mtrique de l'intelligence1 in ,l',anne ,psychologique 7#aiab71 p4 #bgb4 ,it serves as a relatively simple and speedy method of securing1 by means accessible to every one1 a true insight into the average level of ability of a child between #c and #ae years of age4#cb #cb ,dr4 ,ernest ,meumann3 ,experimentelle ,pdagogik 7#aiac71 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgg4 ,that1 despite the differences in race and language1 despite the divergences in school organization and in methods of instruction1 there should be so decided agreement in the reactions of the children--is1 in my opinion1 the best vindication of the principle of the tests that one could imagine1 because this agreement demonstrates that the tests do actually reach and discover the general developmental conditions of intelligence 7so far as these are operative in public-school children of the present cultural epoch71 and not mere fragments of knowledge and attainments acquired by chance4#cc #cc ,dr4 ,w4 ,stern3 ,the ,psychological ,methods of ,testing ,intelligence4 ,translated by ,whipple 7#aiac71 p4 #di4 ,it is without doubt the most satisfactory and accurate method of determining a child's intelligence that we have1 and so far superior to everything else which has been proposed that as yet there is nothing else to be considered4#cd #cd ,dr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard3 ,the ,binet ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence2 ,what it is and ,how it is to be ,used1 in ,the ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiab74 ,the value of the method lies both in the swiftness and the accuracy with which it works4 ,one who knows how to apply the tests correctly and who is experienced in the psychological interpretation of responses can in forty minutes arrive at a more accurate judgment as to a subject's intelligence than would be possible without the tests after months or even years of close observation4 ,the reasons for this have already been set forth4#ce ,the difference is something like that between measuring a person's height with a yardstick and estimating it by guess4 ,that this is not an unfair statement of the case is well shown by the following candid confession by a psychologist who tested #bjj juvenile delinquents brought before ,judge ,lindsey's court3-- #ce ,see this volume1 p4 #bd ff4 ,as a matter of interest ,i estimated the mental ages of #aej of my subjects before testing them4 ,in #ed of the estimates the error was not more than one year in either direction2 #gj of the subjects were estimated too high1 the average error being #b years and #g months2 #bf of the subjects were estimated too low1 the average error being #b years and #b months4 ,these figures would seem to imply that an estimate with nothing to support it is wholly unreliable1 more especially as many of the estimates were four or five years wide of the mark4#cf #cf ,c4 ,s4 ,bluemel3 ,binet ,tests on #bjj ,delinquents1 in ,the ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiae71 p4 #aib4 7,italics inserted47 ,criticisms of the ,binet method have also been frequently voiced1 but chiefly by persons who have had little experience with it or by those whose scientific training hardly justifies an opinion4 ,it cannot be too strongly emphasized that eminence in law1 medicine1 education1 or any other profession does not of itself enable any one to pass judgment on the validity of a psychological method4 ,,dependence ,,of ,,the ,,scale',s ,,reliability ,,on ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,the ,,examiner4 ,on this point two radically different opinions have been urged4 ,on the one hand1 some have insisted that the results of a test made by other than a thoroughly trained psychologist are absolutely worthless4 ,at the opposite extreme are a few who seem to think that any teacher or physician can secure perfectly valid results after a few hours' acquaintance with the tests4 ,the dispute is one which cannot be settled by the assertion of opinion1 and1 unfortunately1 thoroughgoing investigations have not yet been made as to the frequency and extent of errors made by untrained or partially trained examiners4 ,the only study of this kind which has so far been reported is the following3--#cg #cg ,samuel ,c4 ,kohs3 ,the ,binet ,test and the ,training of ,teachers1 in ,the ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiad71 pp4 #aac-ag4 ,dr4 ,kohs gives the results of tests made by #eh inexperienced teachers who were taking a summer course in the ,training ,school at ,vineland4 ,the class met three times a week for instruction in the use of the ,binet scale4 ,during the first week the students listened to three lectures by ,dr4 ,goddard4 ,the second week was given over to demonstration testing4 ,each student saw four children tested1 and attended two discussion periods of an hour each4 ,during the third1 fourth1 and fifth weeks each student tested one child per week1 and observed the testing of two others4 ,the student was allowed to carry the test through in his own way1 but received criticism after it was finished4 ,twice a week ,dr4 ,goddard spent an hour with the class1 discussing experimental procedure4 ,the subjects tested were feeble-minded children whose exact mental ages were already known1 and for this reason it was possible to check up the accuracy of each student's work4 ,kohs's table of results for the trial testing of the #agd children showed3-- 7#a7 ,that #ej per cent of the work was as exact as any one in the laboratory could make it2 7#b7 ,that in an additional #ch per cent the results were within three fifths of a year of being exact2 7#c7 ,that nearly #ij per cent of the work of the summer students was sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes2 7#d7 ,that the records improved during the brief training so that during the third week only one test missed the real mental age by as much as a year4 ,since hardly any of these students had had any previous experience with the ,binet tests1 ,dr4 ,kohs seems to be entirely justified in his conclusion that it is possible1 in the brief period of six weeks1 to teach people to use the tests with a reasonable degree of accuracy4 ,what shall we say of the teacher or of the physician who has not even had this amount of instruction8 ,the writer's experience forces him to agree with ,binet and with ,dr4 ,goddard1 that any one with intelligence enough to be a teacher1 and who is willing to devote conscientious study to the mastery of the technique1 can use the scale accurately enough to get a better idea of a child's mental endowment than he could possibly get in any other way4 ,it is necessary1 however1 for the untrained person to recognize his own lack of experience1 and in no case would it be justifiable to base important action or scientific conclusions upon the results of the inexpert examiner4 ,as ,binet himself repeatedly insisted1 the method is not absolutely mechanical1 and cannot be made so by elaboration of instructions4 ,it is sometimes held that the examination and classification of backward children for special instruction should be carried out by the school physicians4 ,the fact is1 however1 that there is nothing in the physician's training to give him any advantage over the ordinary teacher in the use of the ,binet tests4 ,because of her more intimate knowledge of children and because of her superior tact and adaptability1 the average teacher is perhaps better equipped than the average physician to give intelligence tests4 ,finally1 it should be emphasized that whatever the previous training or experience of the examiner may have been1 his ability to adjust to the child's personality and his willingness to follow conscientiously the directions for giving the tests are important factors in his equipment4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,subject',s ,,attitude4 ,one continually meets such queries as1 ,how do you know the subject did his best8 ,possibly the child was nervous or frightened1 or1 ,perhaps incorrect answers were purposely given4 ,all such objections may be disposed of by saying that the competent examiner can easily control the experiment in such a way that embarrassment is soon replaced by self-confidence1 and in such a way that effort is kept at its maximum4 ,as for mischievous deception1 it would be a poor clinicist who could not recognize and deal with the little that is likely to arise4 ,cautions regarding embarrassment1 fatigue1 fright1 illness1 etc4 are given in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,most of the errors which have been reported along this line are such as can nearly always be avoided by ordinary prudence1 coupled with a little power of observation4#ch ,we must not charge the mistakes of untrained and indiscreet examiners against the validity of the method itself4 #ch ,see1 for example1 the rather ludicrous errors of the ,binet method reported in ,the ,psychological ,clinic for #aiae1 pp4 #adj ff4 and #afg ff4 ,it is possibly true that even if the examiner is tactful and prudent an unfavorable attitude on the part of the subject may occasionally affect the results of a test to some extent1 but it ought not seriously to invalidate one examination out of five hundred4 ,the greatest danger is in the case of a young subject who has been recently arrested and brought before a court4 ,even here a little common sense and scientific insight should enable one to guard against a mistaken diagnosis4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,coaching4 ,it might be supposed that after the intelligence scale had been used with a few pupils in a given school all of their fellows would soon be apprised of the nature of the tests1 and so learn the correct responses4 ,experience shows1 however1 that there is little likelihood of such influence except in the case of a small minority of the tests4 ,experiments in the psychology of testimony have demonstrated that children's ability to report upon a complex set of experiences is astonishingly weak4 ,in testing with the ,stanford revision a child is ordinarily given from twenty-four to thirty different tests1 many of which are made up of three or more items4 ,of the total forty to fifty items the child is ordinarily able to report but few1 and these not always correctly4 ,such tests as memory for sentences and digits1 drawing the square and diamond1 reproducing the designs from memory1 comparing weights and lines1 describing and interpreting pictures1 sthetic comparison1 vocabulary1 dissected sentences1 fables1 reading for memories1 finding differences and similarities1 arithmetical reasoning1 and the form-board test1 are hardly subject to report at all4 ,while almost any of the other tests might1 theoretically1 be communicated1 there is little danger that many of them will be4 ,it is assumed1 of course1 that the examiner will take proper precautions to prevent any of his blanks or other materials from falling into the hands of those who are to be examined4 ,the following tests are the ones most subject to the influence of coaching3 ,ball and field1 giving date1 naming sixty words1 finding rhymes1 changing hands of clock1 comprehension of physical relations1 induction test1 and ingenuity test4 ,in several instances we have interviewed children an hour or two after they had taken the examination1 in order to find out how many of the tests they could recall4 ,a boy of #d years1 after repeated questioning1 could only say3 ,he showed me some pictures4 ,he had a knife and a penny4 ,he told me to shut the door4 ,a girl of #c years could recall nothing whatever that was intelligible4 ,an #h-year-old boy said3 ,he made me tie a knot4 ,he asked me about a ship and an auto4 ,he wanted me to count backwards4 ,he made me say over some things1 numbers and things4 ,a boy of #ab years said3 ,he told me to say all the words ,i could think of4 ,he said some foolish things and asked what was foolish he could not repeat a single absurdity4 ,i had to put some blocks together4 ,i had to do some problems in arithmetic he could not repeat a single problem4 ,he read some fables to me4 ,asked about the fables he was able to recall only part of one1 that of the fox and the crow4 ,he showed me the picture of a field and wanted to know how to find a ball4 ,it is evident from the above samples of report that the danger of coaching increases considerably with the age of the children concerned4 ,with young subjects the danger is hardly present at all2 with children of the upper-grammar grades1 in the high school1 and most of all in prisons and reformatories1 it must be taken into account4 ,alternative tests may sometimes be used to advantage when there is evidence of coaching on any of the regular tests4 ,it would be desirable to have two or three additional scales which could be used interchangeably with the ,binet-,simon4 ,,reliability ,,of ,,repeated ,,tests4 ,will the same tests give consistent results when used repeatedly with the same subject8 ,in general we may say that they do4 ,something depends1 however1 on the age and intelligence of the subject and on the time interval between the examinations4 ,goddard proves that feeble-minded individuals whose intelligence has reached its full development continue to test at exactly the same mental age by the ,binet scale1 year after year4 ,in their case1 familiarity with the tests does not in the least improve the responses4 ,at each retesting the responses given at previous examinations are repeated with only the most trivial variations4 ,of #ceb feeble-minded children tested at ,vineland1 three years in succession1 #aji gave absolutely no variation1 #bcb showed a variation of not more than two fifths of a year1 while #bb gained as much as one year in the three tests4 ,the latter1 presumably1 were younger children whose intelligence was still developing4 ,goddard has also tested #dfd public-school children for three successive years4 ,approximately half of these showed normal progress or more in mental age1 while most of the remainder showed somewhat less than normal progress4 ,bobertag's retesting of #hc normal children after an interval of a year gave results entirely in harmony with those of ,goddard4 ,the reapplication of the tests showed absolutely no influence of familiarity1 the correlation of the two tests being almost perfect 74#ie74 ,those who tested at age in the first test had advanced1 on the average1 exactly one year4 ,those who tested plus in the first test advanced in the twelve months about a year and a quarter1 as we should expect those to do whose mental development is accelerated4 ,correspondingly1 those who tested minus at the first test advanced only about three fourths of a year in mental age during the interval4#ci #ci ,otto ,bobertag3 ,ueber ,intelligenz ,prfungen1 in ,zeitsch4 f4 ,angew4 ,psychol4 7#aiab71 p4 #eba ff4 ,our own results with a mixed group of normal1 superior1 dull and feeble-minded children agree fully with the above findings4 ,in this case the two tests were separated by an interval of two to four years1 and the correlation between their results was practically perfect4 ,the average difference between the ,i ,q obtained in the second test and that obtained in the first was only #d per cent1 and the greatest difference found was only #h per cent4#dj #dj ,see ,the ,stanford ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,scale for ,measuring ,intelligence4 7,warwick and ,york1 #aiaf47 ,the repetition of the test at shorter intervals will perhaps affect the result somewhat more1 but the influence is much less than one might expect4 ,the writer has tested1 at intervals of only a few days to a few weeks1 #ad backward children of #ab to #ah years1 and #h normal children of #e to #ac years4 ,the backward children showed an average improvement in the second test of about two months in mental age1 the normal children an average improvement of little more than three months4 ,no child varied in the second test more than half a year from the mental age first secured4 ,on the whole1 normal children profit more from the experience of a previous test than do the backward and feeble-minded4 ,berry tested #de normal children and #ej defectives with the ,binet #aijh and #aiaa scales at brief intervals4 ,the author does not state which scale was applied first1 but the mental ages secured by the two scales were practically the same when allowance was made for the slightly greater difficulty of the #aiaa series of tests4#da #da ,charles ,scott ,berry3 ,a ,comparison of the ,binet ,tests of #aijh and #aiaa1 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiab71 pp4 #ddd-ea4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that while it would probably be desirable to have one or more additional scales for alternative use in testing the same children at very brief intervals1 the same scale may be used for repeated tests at intervals of a year or more with little danger of serious inaccuracy4 ,moreover1 results like those set forth above are important evidence as to the validity of the test method4 ,,influence ,,of ,,social ,,and ,,educational ,,advantages4 ,the criticism has often been made that the responses to many of the tests are so much subject to the influence of school and home environment as seriously to invalidate the scale as a whole4 ,some of the tests most often named in this connection are the following3 ,giving age and sex2 naming common objects1 colors1 and coins2 giving the value of stamps2 giving date2 naming the months of the year and the days of the week2 distinguishing forenoon and afternoon2 counting2 making change2 reading for memories2 naming sixty words2 giving definitions2 finding rhymes2 and constructing a sentence containing three given words4 ,it has in fact been found wherever comparisons have been made that children of superior social status yield a higher average mental age than children of the laboring classes4 ,the results of ,decroly and ,degand and of ,meumann1 ,stern1 and ,binet himself may be referred to in this connection4 ,in the case of the ,stanford investigation1 also1 it was found that when the unselected school children were grouped in three classes according to social status 7superior1 average1 and inferior71 the average ,i ,q for the superior social group was #ajg1 and that of the inferior social group #ic4 ,this is equivalent to a difference of one year in mental age with #g-year-olds1 and to a difference of two years with #ad-year-olds4 ,however1 the common opinion that the child from a cultured home does better in tests solely by reason of his superior home advantages is an entirely gratuitous assumption4 ,practically all of the investigations which have been made of the influence of nature and nurture on mental performance agree in attributing far more to original endowment than to environments4 ,common observation would itself suggest that the social class to which the family belongs depends less on chance than on the parents' native qualities of intellect and character4 ,the results of five separate and distinct lines of inquiry based on the ,stanford data agree in supporting the conclusion that the children of successful and cultured parents test higher than children from wretched and ignorant homes for the simple reason that their heredity is better4 ,the results of this investigation are set forth in full elsewhere4#db #db ,see ,the ,stanford ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence4 7,warwick and ,york1 #aiaf7 ,it would1 of course1 be going too far to deny all possibility of environmental conditions affecting the result of an intelligence test4 ,certainly no one would expect that a child reared in a cage and denied all intercourse with other human beings could by any system of mental measurement test up to the level of normal children4 ,there is1 however1 no reason to believe that ordinary differences in social environment 7apart from heredity71 differences such as those obtaining among unselected children attending approximately the same general type of school in a civilized community1 affects to any great extent the validity of the scale4 ,a crucial experiment would be to take a large number of very young children of the lower classes and1 after placing them in the most favorable environment obtainable1 to compare their later mental development with that of children born into the best homes4 ,no extensive study of this kind has been made1 but the writer has tested twenty orphanage children who1 for the most part1 had come from very inferior homes4 ,they had been in a well-conducted orphanage for from two to several years1 and had enjoyed during that time the advantages of an excellent village school4 ,nevertheless1 all but three tested below average1 ranging from #ge to #ij ,i ,q4 ,the impotence of school instruction to neutralize individual differences in native endowment will be evident to any one who follows the school career of backward children4 ,the children who are seriously retarded in school are not normal1 and cannot be made normal by any refinement of educational method4 ,as a rule1 the longer the inferior child attends school1 the more evident his inferiority becomes4 ,it would hardly be reasonable1 therefore1 to expect that a little incidental instruction in the home would weigh very heavily against these same native differences in endowment4 ,cases like the following show conclusively that it does not3-- ,x is the son of unusually intelligent and well-educated parents4 ,the home is everything one would expect of people of scholarly pursuits and cultivated tastes4 ,but ,x has always been irresponsible1 troublesome1 childish1 and queer4 ,he learned to walk at #b years1 to talk at #c1 and has always been delicate and nervous4 ,when brought for examination he was #h years old4 ,he had twice attempted school work1 but could accomplish nothing and was withdrawn4 ,his play-life was not normal1 and other children1 younger than himself1 abused and tormented him4 ,the ,binet tests gave an ,i ,q of approximately #ge2 that is1 the retardation amounted to about two years4 ,the child was examined again three years later4 ,at that time1 after attending school two years1 he had recently completed the first grade4 ,this time the ,i ,q was #gc4 ,strange to say1 the mother is encouraged and hopeful because she sees that her boy is learning to read4 ,she does not seem to realize that at his age he ought to be within three years of entering high school4 ,the forty-minute test had told more about the mental ability of this boy than the intelligent mother had been able to learn in eleven years of daily and hourly observation4 ,for ,x is feeble-minded2 he will never complete the grammar school2 he will never be an efficient worker or a responsible citizen4 ,let us change the picture4 ,z is a bright-eyed1 dark-skinned girl of #i years4 ,she is dark-skinned because her father is a mixture of ,indian and ,spanish4 ,the mother is of ,irish descent4 ,with her strangely mated parents and two brothers she lives in a dirty1 cramped1 and poorly furnished house in the country4 ,the parents are illiterate1 and the brothers are retarded and dull1 though not feeble-minded4 ,it is ,z's turn to be tested4 ,i inquire the name4 ,it is familiar1 for ,i have already tested the two stupid brothers4 ,i also know her ignorant parents and the miserable cabin in which she lives4 ,the examination begins with the #h-year tests4 ,the responses are quick and accurate4 ,we proceed to the #i-year group4 ,there is no failure1 and there is but one minor error4 ,successes and failures alternate for a while until the latter prevail4 ,z has tested at #aa years4 ,in spite of her wretched home1 she is mentally advanced nearly #be per cent4 ,by the vocabulary test she is credited with a knowledge of nearly #fjjj words1 or nearly four times as many as ,x1 the boy of cultured home and scholarly parents1 had learned by the age of #h years4 ,five years have passed4 ,when given the test1 ,z was in the fourth grade and1 as we have already stated1 #i years of age4 ,as a result of the test she was transferred to the fifth grade4 ,later she skipped again and at the age of #ad is a successful student in the second year of high school4 ,to assay her intelligence and determine its quality was a task of forty-five minutes4 ,the above cases1 each of which could be paralleled by many others which we have found1 will serve to illustrate the fact that exceptionally superior endowment is discoverable by the tests1 however unfavorable the home from which it comes1 and that inferior endowment cannot be normalized by all the advantages of the most cultured home4 ,quoting again from ,stern1 ,the tests actually reach and discover the general developmental conditions of intelligence1 and not mere fragments of knowledge and attainments acquired by chance4 ,,part ,,ii ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,stanford ,,revision ,,and ,,extension ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,instructions ,,necessity ,,of ,,securing ,,attention ,,and ,,effort4 ,the child's intelligence is to be judged by his success in the performance of certain tasks4 ,these tasks may appear to the examiner to be very easy1 indeed2 but we must bear in mind that they are often anything but easy for the child4 ,real effort and attention are necessary for his success1 and occasionally even his best efforts fall short of the desired result4 ,if the tests are to display the child's real intellectual ability it will be necessary1 therefore1 to avoid as nearly as possible every disturbing factor which would divide his attention or in any other way injure the quality of his responses4 ,to insure this it will be necessary to consider somewhat in detail a number of factors which influence effort1 such as degree of quiet1 the nature of surroundings1 presence or absence of others1 means of gaining the child's confidence1 the avoidance of embarrassment1 fatigue1 etc4 ,one should not expect1 however1 to secure an absolutely equal degree of attention from all subjects4 ,the power to give sustained attention to a difficult task is characteristically weak in dull and feeble-minded children4 ,what we should labor to secure is the maximum attention of which the child is capable1 and if this is unsatisfactory without external cause1 we are to regard the fact as symptomatic of inferior mental ability1 not as an extenuating factor or an excuse for lack of success in the tests4 ,attention1 of course1 cannot be normal if any acute physical or mental disturbance is present4 ,toothache1 headache1 earache1 nausea1 fever1 cold1 etc41 all render the test inadvisable4 ,the same is true of mental anxiety or fear1 as in the case of the child who has just been arrested and brought before the court4 ,,quiet ,,and ,,seclusion4 ,the tests should be conducted in a quiet room1 located where the noises of the street and other outside distractions cannot enter4 ,a reasonably small room is better than a very large one1 because it is more homelike4 ,the furnishings of the room should be simple4 ,a table and two chairs are sufficient4 ,if the room contains a number of unfamiliar objects1 such as psychological apparatus1 pictures on the walls1 etc41 the attention of the child is likely to be drawn away from the tasks which he is given to do4 ,the halls and corridors which it is sometimes necessary to use in testing school children are usually noisy1 cold1 or otherwise objectionable4 ,,presence ,,of ,,others4 ,a still more disturbing influence is the presence of other persons4 ,generally speaking1 if accurate results are to be secured it is not permissible to have any auditor1 besides possibly an assistant to record the responses4 ,even the assistant1 however quiet and unobtrusive1 is sometimes a disturbing element4 ,though something of a convenience1 the assistant is by no means necessary1 after the examiner has thoroughly mastered the procedure of the tests and has acquired some skill in the use of abbreviations in recording the answers4 ,if an assistant or any other person is present1 he should be seated somewhat behind the child1 not too close1 and should take no notice of the child either when he enters the room or at any time during the examination4 ,at all events1 the presence of parent1 teacher1 school principal1 or governess is to be avoided4 ,contrary to what one might expect1 these distract the child much more than a strange personality would do4 ,their critical attitude toward the child's performance is very likely to cause embarrassment4 ,if the child is alone with the examiner1 he is more at ease from the mere fact that he does not feel that there is a reputation to sustain4 ,the praise so lavishly bestowed upon him by the friendly and sympathetic examiner lends to the same effect4 ,as ,binet emphasizes1 if the presence of others cannot be avoided1 it is at least necessary to require of them absolute silence4 ,parents1 and sometimes teachers1 have an almost irrepressible tendency to interrupt the examination with excuses for the child's failures and with disturbing explanations which are likely to aid the child in comprehending the required task4 ,without the least intention of doing so1 they sometimes practically tell the child how to respond4 ,parents1 especially1 cannot refrain from scolding the child or showing impatience when his answers do not come up to expectation4 ,this1 of course1 endangers the child's success still further4 ,the psychologist is not surprised at such conduct4 ,it would be foolish to expect average parents1 even apart from their bias in the particular case at hand1 to adopt the scientific attitude of the trained examiner4 ,since we cannot in a few moments at our disposal make them over into psychologists1 our only recourse is to deal with them by exclusion4 ,this is not to say that it is impossible to test a child satisfactorily in the presence of others4 ,if the examiner is experienced1 and if the child is not timid1 it is sometimes possible to make a successful test in the presence of quite a number of auditors1 provided they remain silent1 refrain from staring1 and otherwise conduct themselves with discretion4 ,but not even the veteran examiner can always be sure of the outcome in demonstration testing4 ,,getting ,,into ,,rapport4 ,the examiner's first task is to win the confidence of the child and overcome his timidity4 ,unless rapport has first been established1 the results of the first tests given are likely to be misleading4 ,the time and effort necessary for accomplishing this are variable factors1 depending upon the personality of both the examiner and the subject4 ,in a majority of cases from three to five minutes should be sufficient1 but in a few cases somewhat more time is necessary4 ,the writer has found that when a strange child is brought to the clinic for examination1 it is advantageous to go out of doors with him for a little walk around the university buildings4 ,it is usually possible to return from such a stroll in a few minutes1 with the child chattering away as though to an old friend4 ,another approach is to begin by showing the child some interesting object1 such as a toy1 or a form-board1 or pictures not used in the test4 ,the only danger in this method is that the child is likely to find the object so interesting that he may not be willing to abandon it for the tests1 or that his mind will keep reverting to it during the examination4 ,still another method is to give the child his seat as soon as he is ushered into the room1 and1 after a word of greeting1 which must be spoken in a kindly tone but without gushiness1 to open up a conversation about matters likely to be of interest4 ,the weather1 place of residence1 pets1 sports1 games1 toys1 travels1 current events1 etc41 are suitable topics if rightly employed4 ,when the child has begun to express himself without timidity and it is clear that his confidence has been gained1 one may proceed1 as though in continuance of the conversation1 to inquire the name1 age1 and school grade4 ,the examiner notes these down in the appropriate blanks1 rather unconcernedly1 at the same time complimenting the child 7unless it is clearly a case of serious retardation7 on the fine progress he has made with his studies4 ,,keeping ,,the ,,child ,,encouraged4 ,nothing contributes more to a satisfactory rapport than praise of the child's efforts4 ,under no circumstances should the examiner permit himself to show displeasure at a response1 however absurd it may be4 ,in general1 the poorer the response1 the better satisfied one should appear to be with it4 ,an error is always to be passed by without comment1 unless it is painfully evident to the child himself1 in which case the examiner will do well to make some excuse for it2 e4g41 ,you are not quite old enough to answer questions like that one2 but1 never mind1 you are doing beautifully1 etc4 ,exclamations like fine6 splendid6 etc41 should be used lavishly4 ,almost any innocent deception is permissible which keeps the child interested1 confident1 and at his best level of effort4 ,the examination should begin with tests that are fairly easy1 in order to give the child a little experience with success before the more difficult tests are reached4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,tact4 ,it goes without saying that children's personalities are not so uniform and simple that we can adhere always to a single stereotyped procedure in working our way into their good graces4 ,suggestions like the above have their value1 but1 like rules of etiquette1 they must be supported by the tact which comes of intuition and cannot be taught4 ,the address which flatters and pleases one child may excite disgust in another4 ,the examiner must scent the situation and adapt his method to it4 ,one child is timid and embarrassed2 another may think his mental powers are under suspicion and so react with sullen obstinacy2 a third may be in an angry mood as a result of a recent playground quarrel4 ,situations like these are1 of course1 exceptional1 but in any case it is necessary to create in the child a certain mood1 or indefinable attitude of mind1 before the test begins4 ,,personality ,,of ,,the ,,examiner4 ,doubtless there are persons so lacking in personal adaptability that success in this kind of work would be for them impossible4 ,the wooden1 mechanical1 matter-of-fact and unresponsive personality is as much out of place in the psychological clinic as the traditional bull in the china shop4 ,it would make an interesting study for some one to investigate1 by exact methods1 the influence on test results of the personality of different examiners who have been equally trained in the methods to be employed and who are equally conscientious in applying them according to rules4 ,on the whole1 differences of this kind are probably not very great among experienced and reasonably competent examiners4 ,adaptability grows with experience and with increase of self-confidence4 ,after a few score tests there should be no serious failure from inability to get into rapport with the child4 ,even in those rare cases where the child breaks down and cries from timidity1 or perhaps refuses to answer out of embarrassment1 the difficulty can be overcome by sufficient tact so that the examination may proceed as though nothing had happened4 ,if the examiner has the proper psychological and personal equipment1 the testing of twenty or thirty children forms a fairly satisfactory apprenticeship4 ,without psychological training1 no amount of experience will guarantee absolute accuracy of the results4 ,,the ,,avoidance ,,of ,,fatigue4 ,against the validity of intelligence tests it is often argued that the result of an examination depends a great deal on the time of day when it is made1 whether in the morning hours when the mind is at its best1 or in the afternoon when it is supposedly fatigued4 ,although no very extensive investigation has been made of this influence1 there is no evidence that the ordinary fatigue incident to school work injures the child's performance appreciably4 ,our tests of #ajjj children showed no inferiority of results secured from #a to #d ,p4,m41 as compared with tests made from #i to #ab ,a4,m4 ,an explanation for this is not hard to find4 ,although school work causes fatigue1 in the sense that a part of the child's available supply of mental energy is used up1 there is always a reserve of energy sufficient to carry the child through a thirty-to fifty-minute test4 ,the fact that the required tasks are novel and interesting to a high degree insures that the reserve energy will really be brought into play4 ,this principle1 of course1 has its natural limits4 ,the examiner would avoid testing a child who was exhausted either from work or play1 or a child who was noticeably sleepy4 ,,duration ,,of ,,the ,,examination4 ,about the only danger of fatigue lies in making the examination too long4 ,young children show symptoms of weariness much more quickly than older children1 and it is therefore fortunate that not so much time is needed for testing them4 ,the following allowances of time will usually be found sufficient3-- ,children #c-e years old #be-cj minutes #f-h #cj-dj #i-ab #dj-ej #ac-ae #ej-fj ,adults #fj-ij ,this allowance ordinarily includes the time necessary for getting into rapport with the child1 in addition to that actually consumed in the tests4 ,but the examiner need not expect to hold fast to any schedule4 ,some subjects respond in a lively manner1 others are exasperatingly slow4 ,it is more often the mentally retarded child who answers slowly1 but exceptions to this rule are not uncommon4 ,one #h-year-old boy examined by the writer answered so hesitatingly that it required two sittings of nearly an hour each to complete the test4 ,the result1 however1 showed a mental age of #aa years1 or an ,i ,q of #adc4 ,it is permissible to hurry the child by an occasional that's fine2 now1 quickly1 etc41 but in doing this caution must be exercised1 or the child's mental process may be blocked4 ,the appearance of nagging must be carefully avoided4 ,if the test goes so slowly that it cannot be completed in the above limits of time1 it is usually best to stop and complete the examination at another time4 ,when this is not possible1 it is advisable to take a ten-minute intermission and a little walk out of doors4 ,time can be saved by having all the necessary materials close at hand and conveniently arranged4 ,the coins should be kept in a separate purse1 and the pictures1 colors1 stamps1 and designs for drawing should be mounted on stiff cardboard which may be punched and kept in a notebook cover4 ,the series of sentences1 digits1 comprehension questions1 fables1 etc41 should either be mounted in similar fashion1 or else printed in full on the record sheets used in the tests4 ,the latter is more convenient4#dc ,all other materials should be kept where they will not have to be hunted for4 #dc ,examiners will find it a great convenience to use the record booklet which has been specially devised for testing with the ,stanford revision4 ,it contains all the necessary printed material1 including digits1 sentences1 absurdities1 fables1 the vocabulary list1 the reading selection1 the square and diamond for copying1 etc41 and in addition gives with each test the standard for scoring4 ,it is so arranged as to afford ample room for a verbatim record of all the child's responses1 and contains other features calculated to make testing easy and accurate4 ,regarding purchasing of supplies see p4 #ada4 ,besides saving valuable time1 a little methodical foresight of this kind adds to the success of the test4 ,if the child is kept waiting1 the test loses its interest and attention strays4 ,see to it1 if possible1 that no lull occurs in the performance4 ,inexperienced examiners sometimes waste time foolishly by stopping to instruct the child on his failures4 ,this is doubly bad1 for besides losing time it makes the child conscious of the imperfection of his responses and creates embarrassment4 ,adhere to the purpose of the test1 which is to ascertain the child's intellectual level1 not to instruct him4 ,,desirable ,,range ,,of ,,testing4 ,there are two considerations here of equal importance4 ,it is necessary to make the examination thorough1 but in the pursuit of thoroughness we must be careful not to produce fatigue or ennui4 ,unless there is reason to suspect mental retardation1 it is usually best to begin with the group of tests just below the child's age4 ,however1 if there is a failure in the tests of that group1 it is necessary to go back and try all the tests of the previous group4 ,in like manner the examination should be carried up the scale1 until a test group has been found in which all the tests are failed4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that because of time limitations and fatigue1 it is not always practicable to adhere to this ideal of thoroughness4 ,in testing normal children1 little error will result if we go back no farther than the year which yielded only one failure1 and if we stop with the year in which there was only one success4 ,this is the lowest permissible limit of thoroughness4 ,defectives are more uneven mentally than normal children1 and therefore scatter their successes and failures over a wider range4 ,with such subjects it is absolutely imperative that the test be thorough4 ,in the case of defectives it is sometimes necessary to begin with random testing1 until a rough idea is gained of the mental level4 ,but the skilled observer soon becomes able to utilize symptoms in the child's conversation and conduct and to dispense with most of this preliminary exploration4 ,,order ,,of ,,giving ,,the ,,tests4 ,the child's efforts in the tests are sometimes markedly influenced by the order in which they are given4 ,if language tests or memory tests are given first1 the child is likely to be embarrassed4 ,more suitable to begin with are those which test knowledge or judgment about objective things1 such as the pictures1 weights1 stamps1 bow-knot1 colors1 coins1 counting pennies1 number of fingers1 right and left1 time orientation1 ball and field1 paper-folding1 etc4 ,tests like naming sixty words1 finding rhymes1 giving differences or similarities1 making sentences1 repeating sentences1 and drawing are especially unsuitable because they tend to provoke self-consciousness4 ,the tests as arranged in this revision are in the order which it is usually best to follow1 but one should not hesitate to depart from the order given when it seems best in a given case to do so4 ,it is necessary to be constantly alert so that when the child shows a tendency to balk at a given type of test1 such as those of memory1 language1 numbers1 drawing1 comprehension1 etc41 the work can be shifted to more agreeable tasks4 ,when the child is at his ease again1 it is usually possible to return to the troublesome tests with better success4 ,in the case of #h-year-old ,d4 ,c41 who is a speech defective but otherwise above normal1 it was quite impossible at the first sitting to give such tests as sentence-making1 naming sixty words1 reading1 repeating sentences1 giving definitions1 etc42 at each test of this type the child's voice broke and he was ready to cry1 due1 no doubt1 to sensitiveness regarding his speech defect4 ,others do everything willingly except the drawing and copying4 ,the younger children sometimes refuse to repeat the sentences or digits4 ,in all such cases it is best to pass on to something else4 ,after a few minutes the rejected task may be done willingly4 ,,coaxing ,,to ,,be ,,avoided4 ,although we should always encourage the child to believe that he can answer correctly1 if he will only try1 we must avoid the common practice of dragging out responses by too much urging and coaxing4 ,the sympathies of the examiner tend to lead him into the habit of repeating and explaining the question if the child does not answer promptly4 ,this is nearly always a mistake1 for the question is one which should be understood4 ,besides1 explanations and coaxing are too often equivalent to answering the question for the child4 ,it is almost impossible to impress this danger sufficiently upon the untrained examiner4 ,one who is not familiar with the psychology of suggestion may put the answer in the child's mouth without suspecting what he is doing4 ,,adhering ,,to ,,formula4 ,it cannot be too strongly emphasized that unless we follow a standardized procedure the tests lose their significance4 ,the danger is chiefly that of unintentionally and unconsciously introducing variations which will affect the meaning of the test4 ,one who has not had a thorough training in the methods of mental testing cannot appreciate how numerous are the opportunities for the unconscious transformation of a test4 ,many of these are pointed out in the description of the individual tests1 but it would be folly to undertake to warn the experimenter against every possible error of this kind4 ,sometimes the omission or the addition of a single phrase in giving the test will alter materially the significance of the response4 ,only the trained psychologist can vary the formula without risk of invalidating the result1 and even he must be on his guard4 ,all sorts of misunderstandings regarding the correct placing of tests and regarding their accuracy or inaccuracy have come about through the failure of different investigators to follow the same procedure4 ,one who would use the tests for any serious purpose1 therefore1 must study the procedure for each and every test until he knows it thoroughly4 ,after that a considerable amount of practice is necessary before one learns to avoid slips4 ,during the early stages of practice it is necessary to refer to the printed instructions frequently in order to check up errors before they have become habitual4 ,the instructions hitherto available are at fault in not defining the procedure with sufficient definiteness1 and it is the purpose of this volume to make good this deficiency as far as possible4 ,it is too much1 however1 to suppose that the instructions can be made fool-proof4 ,with whatever definiteness they may be set forth1 situations are sure to arise which the examiner cannot be formally prepared for4 ,there is no limit to the multitude of misunderstandings possible4 ,after testing hundreds of children one still finds new examples of misapprehension4 ,in a few such cases the instruction may be repeated1 if there is reason to think the child's hearing was at fault or if some extraordinary distraction has occurred4 ,but unless otherwise stated in the directions1 the repetition of a question is ordinarily to be avoided4 ,supplementary explanations are hardly ever permissible4 ,in short1 numberless situations may arise in the use of a test which may injure the validity of the response1 events which cannot always be dealt with by preconceived rule4 ,accordingly1 although we must urge unceasingly the importance of following the standard procedure1 it is not to be supposed that formulas are an adequate substitute either for scientific judgment or for common sense4 ,,scoring4 ,the exact method of scoring the individual tests is set forth in the following chapters4 ,reference to the record booklet for use in testing will show that the records are to be kept in detail4 ,each subdivision of a test should be scored separately1 in order that the clinical picture may be as complete as possible4 ,this helps in the final evaluation of the results4 ,it makes much difference1 for example1 whether success in repeating six digits is earned by repeating all three correctly or only one2 or whether the child's lack of success with the absurdities is due to failure on two1 three1 four1 or all of them4 ,time should be recorded whenever called for in the record blanks4 ,,recording ,,responses4 ,plus and minus signs alone are not usually sufficient4 ,whenever possible the entire response should be recorded4 ,if the test results are to be used by any other person than the examiner1 this is absolutely essential4 ,any other standard of completeness opens the door to carelessness and inaccuracy4 ,in nearly all the tests1 except that of naming sixty words1 the examiner will find it possible by the liberal use of abbreviations to record practically the entire response verbatim4 ,in doing so1 however1 one must be careful to avoid keeping the child waiting4 ,occasionally it is necessary to leave off recording altogether because of the embarrassment sometimes aroused in the child by seeing his answer written down4 ,the writer has met the latter difficulty several times4 ,when for any reason it is not feasible to record anything more than score marks1 success may be indicated by the sign 1 failure by -1 and half credit by 4 ,an exceptionally good response may be indicated by and an exceptionally poor response by --4 ,if there is a slight doubt about a success or failure the sign8 may be added to the or -4 ,in general1 however1 score the response either or -1 avoiding half credit as far as it is possible to do so4 ,if the entire response is not recorded it is necessary to record at least the score mark for each test when the test is given4 ,it must be borne in mind that the scoring is not a purely mechanical affair4 ,instead1 the judgment of the examiner must come into play with every record made4 ,if the scoring is delayed1 there is not only the danger of forgetting a response1 but the judgment is likely to be influenced by the subject's responses to succeeding questions4 ,our special record booklet contains wide margins1 so that extended notes and observations regarding the child's responses and behavior can be recorded as the test proceeds4 ,,scattering ,,of ,,successes4 ,it is sometimes a source of concern to the untrained examiner that the successes and failures should be scattered over quite an extensive range of years4 ,why1 it may be asked1 should not a child who has #aj-year intelligence answer correctly all the tests up to and including group ,x1 and fail on all the tests beyond8 ,there are two reasons why such is almost never the case4 ,in the first place1 the intelligence of an individual is ordinarily not even4 ,there are many different kinds of intelligence1 and in some of these the subject is better endowed than in others4 ,a second reason lies in the fact that no test can be purely and simply a test of native intelligence4 ,given a certain degree of intelligence1 accidents of experience and training bring it about that this intelligence will work more successfully with some kinds of material than with others4 ,for both of these reasons there results a scattering of successes and failures over three or four years4 ,the subject fails first in one or two tests of a group1 then in two or three tests of the following group1 the number of failures increasing until there are no successes at all4 ,success tapers off from #ajj per cent to #j4 ,once in a great while a child fails on several of the tests of a given year and succeeds with a majority of those in the next higher year4 ,this is only an extreme instance of uneven intelligence or of specialized experience1 and does not necessarily reflect upon the reliability of the tests for children in general4 ,the method of calculation given above strikes a kind of average and gives the general level of intelligence1 which is essentially the thing we want to know4 ,,supplementary ,,considerations4 ,it would be a mistake to suppose that any set of mental tests could be devised which would give us complete information about a child's native intelligence4 ,there are no tests which are absolutely pure tests of intelligence4 ,all are influenced to a greater or less degree also by training and by social environment4 ,for this reason1 all the ascertainable facts bearing on such influences should be added to the record of the mental examination1 and should be given due weight in reaching a final conclusion as to the level of intelligence4 ,the following supplementary information should be gathered1 when possible3-- #a4 ,social status 7very superior1 superior1 average1 inferior1 or very inferior74 #b4 ,the teacher's estimate of the child's intelligence 7very superior1 superior1 average1 inferior1 or very inferior74 #c4 ,school opportunities1 including years of attendance1 regularity1 retardation or acceleration1 etc4 #d4 ,quality of school work 7very superior1 superior1 average1 inferior1 or very inferior74 #e4 ,physical handicaps1 if any 7adenoids1 diseased tonsils1 partial deafness1 imperfect vision1 malnutrition1 etc474 ,in addition1 the examiner will need to take account of the general attitude of the child during the examination4 ,this is provided for in the record blanks under the heading comments4 ,the comments should describe as fully as possible the conduct and attitude of the child during the examination1 with emphasis upon such disturbing factors as fear1 timidity1 unwillingness to answer1 overconfidence1 carelessness1 lack of attention1 etc4 ,sometimes1 also1 it is desirable to verify the child's age and to make record of the verification4 ,once more let it be urged that no degree of mechanical perfection of the tests can ever take the place of good judgment and psychological insight4 ,intelligence is too complicated to be weighed1 like a bag of grain1 by any one who can read figures4 ,,alternative ,,tests4 ,the tests designated as alternative tests are not intended for regular use4 ,inasmuch as they have been standardized and belong in the year group where they are placed1 they may be used as substitute tests on certain occasions4 ,sometimes one of the regular tests is spoiled in giving it1 or the requisite material for it may not be at hand4 ,sometimes there may be reason to suspect that the subject has become acquainted with some of the tests4 ,in such cases it is a great convenience to have a few substitutes available4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to warn against a possible misuse of alternative tests4 ,it is not permissible to count success in an alternative test as offsetting failure in a regular test4 ,this would give the subject too much leeway of failure4 ,there are very exceptional cases1 however1 when it is legitimate to break this rule2 namely1 when one of the regular tests would be obviously unfair to the subject being tested4 ,in year ,x1 for example1 one of the three alternative tests should be substituted for the reading test 7,x1 #d7 in case we are testing a subject who has not had the equivalent of at least two years of school work4 ,in year ,,viii1 it would be permissible to substitute the alternative test of naming six coins1 instead of the vocabulary test1 in the case of a subject who came from a home where ,english was not spoken4 ,in ,,vii1 it would perhaps not be unfair to substitute the alternative test1 in place of the test of copying a diamond1 in the case of a subject who1 because of timidity or embarrassment1 refused to attempt the diamond4 ,but it would be going entirely too far to substitute an alternative test in the place of every regular test which the subject responded to by silence4 ,in the large majority of cases persistent silence deserves to be scored failure4 ,certain tests have been made alternatives because of their inferior value1 some because the presence of other tests of similar nature in the same year rendered them less necessary4 ,,finding ,,mental ,,age4 ,as there are six tests in each age group from ,,iii to ,x1 each test in this part of the scale counts #b months toward mental age4 ,there are eight tests in group ,,xii1 which1 because of the omission of the #aa-year group1 have a combined value of #bd months1 or #c months each4 ,similarly1 each of the six tests in ,,xiv has a value of #d months 7#bd #f #d74 ,the tests of the average adult group are given a value of #e months each1 and those of the superior adult group a value of #f months each4 ,these values are in a sense arbitrary1 but they are justified in the fact that they are such as to cause ordinary adults to test at the average adult level4 ,the calculation of mental age is therefore simplicity itself4 ,the rule is3 7#a7 ,credit the subject with all the tests below the point where the examination begins 7remembering that the examination goes back until a year group has been found in which all the tests are passed72 and 7#b7 add to this basal credit #b months for each test passed successfully up to and including year ,x1 #c months for each test passed in ,,xii1 #d months for each test passed in ,,xiv1 #e months for each success in average adult1 and #f months for each success in superior adult4 ,for example1 let us suppose that a child passes all the tests in ,,vi1 five of the six tests in ,,vii1 three in ,,viii1 two in ,,ix1 and one in ,x4 ,the total credit earned is as follows3-- ,years,months ,credit presupposed1 years ,i to ,v #e ,credit earned in ,,vi1 #f tests passed1 #b months each #a ,credit earned in ,,vii1 #e tests passed1 #b months each #aj ,credit earned in ,,viii1 #c tests passed1 #b months each #f ,credit earned in ,,ix1 #b tests passed1 #b months each #d ,credit earned in ,x1 #a test passed1 #b months #b ---- ---- ,total credit #g #aj ,taking a subject who tests higher1 let us suppose the following tests are passed3 ,all in ,x1 six of the eight in ,,xii1 two of the six in ,,xiv1 and one of the six in average adult4 ,the total credit is as follows3-- ,years,months ,credit presupposed1 years ,i to ,,ix #i ,credit earned in ,x1 #f tests passed1 #b months each #a ,credit earned in ,,xii1 #f tests passed1 #c months each #a #f ,credit earned in ,,xiv1 #b tests passed1 #d months each #j #h ,credit earned in average adult1 #a success1 #e months #e ---- ---- ,total credit #ab #g ,one other point3 ,if one or more tests of a year group have been omitted1 as sometimes happens either from oversight or lack of time1 the question arises how the tests which were given in such a year group should be evaluated4 ,suppose1 for example1 a subject has been given only four of the six tests in a given year1 and that he passes two1 or half of those given4 ,in such a case the probability would be that had all six tests been given1 three would have been passed2 that is1 one half of all4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that when a test has been omitted1 a proportionately larger value should be assigned to each of those given4 ,if all six tests are given in any year group below ,,xii1 each has a value of #b months4 ,if only four are given1 each has a value of #c months 7#ab #d #c74 ,if five tests only are given1 each has a value of #b4d months 7#ab #e #b4d74 ,if in year group ,,xii only six of the eight tests are given1 each has a value of #d months 7#bd #f #d74 ,if in the average adult group only five of the six tests are given1 each has a value of #f months instead of the usual #e months4 ,in this connection it will need to be remembered that the six average adult tests have a combined value of #cj months 7#f tests1 #e months each72 also that the combined value of the six superior adult tests is #cf months 7#f #f #cf74 ,accordingly1 if only five of the six superior adult tests are given1 the value of each is #cf #e #g4b months4 ,for example1 let us suppose that a subject has been tested as follows3 ,all the six tests in ,x were given and all were passed2 only six of the eight in ,,xii were given and five were passed2 five of the six in ,,xiv were given and three were passed2 five of the six in average adult were given and one was passed2 five were given in superior adult and no credit earned4 ,the result would be as follows3-- ,years,months ,credit presupposed1 years ,i to ,,ix #i ,credit earned in ,x1 #f given1 #f successes #a ,credit earned in ,,xii1 #f given1 #e passed4 ,unit value of each test given is #bd #f #d4 ,total value of the #e tests passed is #e #d or #a #h ,credit earned in ,,xiv1 #e tests given1 #c passed4 ,unit value of each of the #e given is #bd #e #d4h4 ,value of the #c passed is #c #d4h1 or #j #ad ,credit earned in average adult1 #e tests given1 #a passed4 ,unit value of the #e tests given is #cj #e #f4 ,value of the #a success #j #f ,credit earned in superior adult #j #j ---- ---- ,total credit #ac #d ,the calculation of mental age is really simpler than our verbal illustrations make it appear4 ,after the operation has been performed twenty or thirty times1 it can be done in less than a half-minute without danger of error4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,intelligence ,,quotient4 ,as elsewhere explained1 the mental age alone does not tell us what we want to know about a child's intelligence status4 ,the significance of a given number of years of retardation or acceleration depends upon the age of the child4 ,a #c-year-old child who is retarded one year is ordinarily feeble-minded2 a #aj-year-old retarded one year is only a little below normal4 ,the child who at #c years of age is retarded one year will probably be retarded two years at the age of #f1 three years at the age of #i1 and four years at the age of #ab4 ,what we want to know1 therefore1 is the ratio existing between mental age and real age4 ,this is the intelligence quotient1 or ,i ,q4 ,to find it we simply divide mental age 7expressed in years and months7 by real age 7also expressed in years and months74 ,the process is easier if we express each age in terms of months alone before dividing4 ,the division can1 of course1 be performed almost instantaneously and with much less danger of error by the use of a slide rule or a division table4 ,one who has to calculate many intelligence quotients should by all means use some kind of mechanical help4 ,,how ,,to ,,find ,,the ,i ,q ,,of ,,adult ,,subjects4 ,native intelligence1 in so far as it can be measured by tests now available1 appears to improve but little after the age of #ae or #af years4 ,it follows that in calculating the ,i ,q of an adult subject1 it will be necessary to disregard the years he has lived beyond the point where intelligence attains its final development4 ,although the location of this point is not exactly known1 it will be sufficiently accurate for our purpose to assume its location at #af years4 ,accordingly1 any person over #af years of age1 however old1 is for purposes of calculating ,i ,q considered to be just #af years old4 ,if a youth of #ah and a man of #fj years both have a mental age of #ab years1 the ,i ,q in each case is #ab #af1 or 4#ge4 ,the significance of various values of the ,i ,q is set forth elsewhere4#dd ,here it need only be repeated that #ajj ,i ,q means exactly average intelligence2 that nearly all who are below #gj or #ge ,i ,q are feeble-minded2 and that the child of #abe ,i ,q is about as much above the average as the high-grade feeble-minded individual is below the average4 ,for ordinary purposes all who fall between #ie and #aje ,i ,q may be considered as average in intelligence4 #dd ,see ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,material ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,testing4 ,it is strongly recommended that in testing by the ,stanford revision the regular ,stanford record booklets be used4 ,these are so arranged as to make testing accurate1 rapid1 and convenient4 ,they contain square1 diamond1 round field1 vocabulary list1 fables1 sentences1 digits1 and selections for memory tests1 the reading selection barred for scoring1 the dissected sentences1 arithmetical problems1 etc4 ,one is required for each child tested4#de #de ,houghton ,mifflin ,company will supply all the printed material needed in the tests1 including the lines for the forms for ,,vi1 #b1 the four pictures for enumeration1 description1 and interpretation1 the pictures for ,v1 #c and ,,vi1 #b1 the colors1 designs for ,x1 #c1 the code for ,average ,adult #f1 and score cards for square1 diamond1 designs1 and ball-and-field4 ,this is all the material required for the use of the ,stanford revision1 except the five weights for ,,ix1 #b1 and ,v1 #a1 and the ,healy-,fernald ,construction ,puzzle for ,x4 ,these may be purchased of ,c4 ,h4 ,stoelting ,co41 #cjcg ,carroll ,avenue1 ,chicago4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to have the weights and the ,construction ,puzzle1 as the presence of one or more alternative tests in each year makes it possible to substitute other tests instead of those requiring these materials4 ,this saves considerable expense4 ,apart from these1 which may either be made at home 7see pages #bgh1 #bgi7 or dispensed with1 the only necessary equipment for using the ,stanford revision is a copy of this book with the accompanying set of printed matter1 and the record booklets4 ,the record booklets are supplied only in packages of #be4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,instructions ,for ,year ,,iii ,,iii1 #a4 ,,pointing ,,to ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,procedure4 ,after getting the child's attention1 say3 ,show me your nose4 ,put your finger on your nose4 ,same with eyes1 mouth1 and hair4 ,tact is often necessary to overcome timidity4 ,if two or three repetitions of the instruction fail to bring a response1 point to the child's chin or ear and say3 ,is this your nose8 ,no8 ,then where is your nose8 ,sometimes1 after one has tried two or three parts of the test without eliciting any response1 the child may suddenly release his inhibitions and answer all the questions promptly4 ,in case of persistent refusal to respond it is best not to harass the child for an answer1 but to leave the test for a while and return to it later4 ,this is a rule which applies generally throughout the scale4 ,in the case of one exceptionally timid little girl1 it was impossible to get any response by the usual procedure1 but immediately when a doll was shown the child pointed willingly to its nose1 eyes1 mouth1 and hair4 ,the device was successful because it withdrew the child's attention from herself and centered it upon something objective4 ,,scoring4 ,three responses out of four must be correct4 ,instead of pointing1 the child sometimes responds by winking the eyes1 opening the mouth1 etc41 which is counted as satisfactory4 ,,remarks4 ,binet's purpose in this test is to ascertain whether the subject is capable of comprehending simple language4 ,the ability to comprehend and use language is indeed one of the most reliable indications of the grade of mental development4 ,the appreciation of gestures comes first1 then the comprehension of language heard1 next the ability to repeat words and sentences mechanically1 and finally the ability to use language as a means of communication4 ,the present test1 however1 is not more strictly a test of language comprehension than the others of the #c-year group1 and in any case it could not be said to mark the beginning of the power to comprehend spoken language4 ,that is fairly well advanced by the age of #b years4 ,the test closely resembles ,,iii1 #b 7naming familiar objects71 and ,,iii1 #c 7enumeration of objects in a picture71 except that it brings in a personal element and gives some clue to the development of the sense of self4 ,all the data agree in locating the test at year ,,iii4 ,,iii1 #b4 ,,naming ,,familiar ,,objects ,,procedure4 ,use a key1 a penny1 a closed knife1 a watch1 and an ordinary lead pencil4 ,the key should be the usual large-sized doorkey1 not one of the ,yale type4 ,the penny should not be too new1 for the freshly made1 untarnished penny resembles very little the penny usually seen4 ,any ordinary pocket knife may be used1 and it is to be shown unopened4 ,the formula is1 ,what is this8 or1 ,tell me what this is4 ,,scoring4 ,there must be at least three correct responses out of five4 ,a response is not correct unless the object is named4 ,it is not sufficient for the child merely to show that he knows its use4 ,a child1 for example1 may take the pencil and begin to mark with it1 or go to the door and insert the key in the lock1 but this is not sufficient4 ,at the same time we must not be too arbitrary about requiring a particular name4 ,cent or pennies for penny is satisfactory1 but money is not4 ,the watch is sometimes called a clock or a tick-tock1 and we shall perhaps not be too liberal if we score these responses plus4 ,pen for pencil1 however1 is unsatisfactory4 ,substitute names for key and knife are rarely given4 ,mispronunciations due to baby-talk are of course ignored4 ,,remarks4 ,the purpose of this test is to find out whether the child has made the association between familiar objects and their names4 ,the mental processes necessary to enable the child to pass this test are very elementary1 and yet1 as far as they go1 they are fundamental4 ,learning the names of objects frequently seen is a form of mental activity in which the normally endowed child of #b to #d years finds great satisfaction4 ,any marked retardation in making such associations is a grave indication of the lack of that spontaneity which is so necessary for the development of the higher grades of intelligence4 ,it would be entirely beside the point1 therefore1 to question the validity of the test on the ground that a given child may not have been taught the names of the objects used4 ,practically all children #c years old1 however poor their environment1 have made the acquaintance of at least three of the five objects1 and if intelligence is normal they have learned their names as a result of spontaneous inquiry4 ,always use the list of objects here given1 because it has been standardized4 ,any improvised selection would be sure to contain some objects either less or more familiar than those in the standardized list4 ,note also that three correct responses out of five are sufficient4 ,if we required five correct answers out of six 7like ,kuhlmann71 or three out of three 7like ,binet1 ,goddard1 and ,huey71 the test would probably belong at the #d-year level4 ,binet states that this test is materially harder than that of naming objects in a picture1 since in the latter the child selects from a number of objects in the picture those he knows best1 while in the former test he must name the objects we have arbitrarily chosen4 ,this difference does not hold1 however1 if we require only three correct responses out of five for passing the test of naming objects1 instead of ,binet's three out of three4 ,all else being equal1 it is of course easier to recognize and name a real object shown than it is to recognize and name it from a picture4 ,,iii1 #c4 ,,enumeration ,,of ,,objects ,,in ,,pictures ,,procedure4 ,use the three pictures designated as ,dutch ,home1 ,river ,scene1 and ,post-,office4 ,say1 ,now ,i am going to show you a pretty picture4 ,then1 holding the first one before the child1 close enough to permit distinct vision1 say3 ,tell me what you see in this picture4 ,if there is no response1 as sometimes happens1 due to embarrassment or timidity1 repeat the request in this form3 ,look at the picture and tell me everything you can see in it4 ,if there is still no response1 say3 ,show me the 444 7naming some object in the picture74 ,only one question of this type1 however1 is permissible4 ,if the child answers correctly1 say3 ,that is fine2 now tell me everything you see in the picture4 ,from this point the responses nearly always follow without further coaxing4 ,indeed1 if rapport has been properly cultivated before the test begins1 the first question will ordinarily be sufficient4 ,if the child names one or two things in a picture and then stops1 urge him on by saying ,and what else ,proceed with pictures b and c in the same manner4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the child enumerates as many as three objects in one picture spontaneously2 that is1 without intervening questions or urging4 ,anything better than enumeration 7as description or interpretation7 is also acceptable1 but description is rarely encountered before #e years and interpretation rarely before #i or #aj4df #df ,see instructions for ,,vii1 #b1 and ,,xii1 #g4 ,,remarks4 ,the purpose of the test in this year is to find out whether the sight of a familiar object in a picture provokes recognition and calls up the appropriate name4#dg ,the average child of #c or #d years is in what ,binet calls the identification stage2 that is1 familiar objects in a picture will be identified but not described1 their relations to one another will not be grasped4 #dg ,for a discussion of the significance of the different types of response1 enumeration1 description1 and interpretation1 see ,,vii1 #b1 and ,,xii1 #g4 ,in giving the test1 always present the pictures in the same order1 first ,dutch ,home1 then ,river ,scene1 then ,post-,office4 ,the order of presentation will no doubt seem to the uninitiated too trivial a matter to insist upon1 but a little experience teaches one that an apparently insignificant change in the procedure may exert a considerable influence upon the response4 ,some pictures tend more strongly than others to provoke a particular type of response4 ,some lend themselves especially to enumeration1 others to description1 others to interpretation4 ,the pictures used in the ,stanford revision have been selected from a number which have been tried because they are more uniform in this respect than most others in use4 ,however1 they are not without their differences1 picture b1 for example1 tending more than the others to provoke description4 ,there seems to be no disagreement as to the proper location of this test4 ,,iii1 #d4 ,,giving ,,sex ,,procedure4 ,if the subject is a boy1 the formula is3 ,are you a little boy or a little girl8 ,if a girl1 ,are you a little girl or a little boy8 ,this variation in the formula is necessary because of the tendency in young children to repeat mechanically the last word of anything that is said to them4 ,if there is no response1 say3 ,are you a little girl8 7if a boy72 or1 ,are you a little boy8 7if a girl74 ,if the answer to the last question is no 7or a shake of the head71 we then say3 ,well1 what are you8 ,are you a little boy or a little girl8 7or vice versa74 ,,scoring4 ,the response is satisfactory if it indicates that the child has really made the discrimination1 but we must be cautious about accepting any other response than the direct answer1 ,a little girl1 or1 ,a little boy4 ,yes and no in response to the second question must be carefully checked up4 ,,remarks4 ,binet and ,goddard say that #c-year-olds cannot pass this test and that #d-year-olds almost never fail4 ,we can accept the last part of this statement1 but not the first part4 ,nearly all of our #c-year-old subjects succeed with it4 ,the test probably has nothing to do with sex consciousness1 as such4 ,success in it would seem to depend on the ability to discriminate between familiar class names which are in a certain degree related4 ,,iii1 #e4 ,,giving ,,the ,,family ,,name ,,procedure4 ,the child is asked1 ,what is your name8 ,if the answer1 as often happens1 includes only the first name 7,walter1 for example71 say3 ,yes1 but what is your other name8 ,walter what8 ,if the child is silent1 or if he only repeats the first name1 say3 ,is your name ,walter 444 8 7giving a fictitious name1 as ,jones1 ,smith1 etc474 ,this question nearly always brings the correct answer if it is known4 ,,scoring4 ,simply or -4 ,no attention is paid to faults of pronunciation4 ,,remarks4 ,there is unanimous agreement that this test belongs in the #c-year group4 ,although the child has not had as much opportunity to learn the family name as his first name1 he is almost certain to have heard it more or less1 and if his intelligence is normal the interest in self will ordinarily cause it to be remembered4 ,the critic of the intelligence scale need not be unduly exercised over the fact that there may be an occasional child of #c years who has never heard his family name4 ,we have all read of such children1 but they are so extremely rare that the chances of a given #c-year-old being unjustly penalized for this reason are practically negligible4 ,in the second place1 contingencies of this nature are throughout the scale consistently allowed for in the percentage of passes required for locating a test4 ,since 7in the year groups below ,,xiv7 the individual tests are located at the age level where they are passed by #fj to #gj per cent of unselected children of that age1 it follows that the child of average ability is expected to fail on about one third of the tests of his age group4 ,the plan of the scale is such as to warrant this amount of leeway4 ,but even granting the possibility that one subject out of a hundred or so may be unjustly penalized for lack of opportunity to acquire the knowledge which the test calls for1 the injustice done does not greatly alter the result4 ,a single test affects mental age only to the extent of two months1 and the chances of two such injustices occurring with the same child are very slight4 ,herein lies the advantage of a multiplicity of tests4 ,no test considered by itself is very dependable1 but two dozen tests1 properly arranged1 are almost infinitely reliable4 ,,iii1 #f4 ,,repeating ,,six ,,to ,,seven ,,syllables ,,procedure4 ,begin by saying3 ,can you say 'mamma'8 ,now1 say 'nice kitty4' ,then ask the child to say1 ,i have a little dog4 ,speak the sentence distinctly and with expression1 but in a natural voice and not too slowly4 ,if there is no response1 the first sentence may be repeated two or three times4 ,then give the other two sentences3 ,the dog runs after the cat1 and1 ,in summer the sun is hot4 ,a great deal of tact is sometimes necessary to enlist the child's coperation in this test4 ,if he cannot be persuaded to try1 the alternative test of three digits may be substituted4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if at least one sentence is repeated without error after a single reading4 ,without error is to be taken literally2 there must be no omission1 insertion1 or transposition of words4 ,ignore indistinctness of articulation and defects of pronunciation as long as they do not mutilate the sentence beyond easy recognition4 ,,remarks4 ,the test does not presuppose that the child should have the ability to make and use sentences like these for purposes of communication1 or even that he should know the meaning of all the words they contain4 ,its purpose is to bring out the ability of the child to repeat a six-syllable series of more or less familiar language sounds4 ,as every one knows1 the normal child of #b or #c years is constantly imitating the speech of those around him and finds this a great source of delight4 ,long practice in the semi-mechanical repetition of language sounds is necessary for the learning of speech cordinations and is therefore an indispensable preliminary to the purposeful use of language4 ,high-grade idiots and the lowest grade of imbeciles never acquire much facility in the repetition of language heard4 ,the test gets at one of the simplest forms of mental integration4 ,binet says that children of #c years never repeat sentences of ten syllables4 ,this is not strictly true1 for six out of nineteen #c-year-olds succeeded in doing so4 ,all the data agree1 however1 that the average child of #c years repeats only six to seven syllables correctly4 ,,iii4 ,,alternative ,,test3 ,,repeating ,,three ,,digits ,,procedure4 ,use the following digits3 #f-d-a1 #c-e-b1 #h-c-g4 ,begin with two digits1 as follows3 ,listen2 say #d-b4 ,now1 say #f-d-a4 ,now1 say #c-e-b1 etc4 ,pronounce the digits in a distinct voice and with perfectly uniform emphasis at a rate just a little faster than one per second4 ,two per second1 as recommended by ,binet1 is too rapid4 ,young subjects1 because of their natural timidity in the presence of strangers1 sometimes refuse to respond to this test4 ,with subjects under #e or #f years of age it is sometimes necessary in such cases to re-read the first series of digits several times in order to secure a response4 ,the response thus secured1 however1 is not counted in scoring1 the purpose of the re-reading being merely to break the child's silence4 ,the second and third series may be read but once4 ,with the digits tests above year ,,iv the re-reading of a series is never permissible4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the child repeats correctly1 after a single reading1 one series out of the three series given4 ,not only must the correct digits be given1 but the order also must be correct4 ,,remarks4 ,others1 on the basis of rather scanty data1 have usually located this test at the #d-year level4 ,our results show that with the procedure described above it is fully as easy as the test of repeating sentences of #f to #g syllables4#dh #dh ,see p4 #aid ff4 for further discussion of the digits test4 ,,chapter ,x ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,iv ,,iv1 #a4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,lines ,,procedure4 ,present the appropriate accompanying card with the lines in horizontal position4 ,point to the lines and say3 ,see these lines4 ,look closely and tell me which one is longer4 ,put your finger on the longest one4 ,we use the superlative as well as the comparative form of long because it is often more familiar to young subjects4 ,if the child does not respond1 say3 ,show me which line is the biggest4 ,then withdraw the card1 turn it about a few times1 and present it again with the position of the two lines reversed1 saying3 ,now show me the longest4 ,turn the card again and make a third presentation4 ,,scoring4 ,all three comparisons must be made correctly2 or if only two responses out of three are correct1 all three pairs are again shown1 just as before1 and if there is no error this time1 the test is passed4 ,the standard1 therefore1 is three correct responses out of three1 or five out of six4 ,sometimes the child points1 but at no particular part of the card4 ,in such cases it may be difficult to decide whether he has failed to comprehend and to make the discrimination or has only been careless in pointing4 ,it is then necessary to repeat the experiment until the evidence is clear4 ,,remarks4 ,as noted by ,binet1 success in this test depends on the comprehension of the verbal directions rather than on actual discrimination of length4 ,the child who would unerringly choose the larger of two pieces of candy might fail on the comparison of lines4 ,however1 since the child must correctly compare the lines three times in succession1 or at least in five out of six trials1 willingness to attend also plays a part4 ,the attention of the low-grade imbecile1 or even of the normal child of #c years1 is not very obedient to the suggestions of the experimenter4 ,it may be gained momentarily1 but it is not easily held to the same task for more than a few seconds4 ,hence some children who perfectly comprehend this task fail to make a succession of correct comparisons because they are unable or unwilling to bring to bear even the small amount of attention which is necessary4 ,this does not in the least condone the failure1 for it is exactly in such voluntary control of mental processes that we find one of the most characteristic differences between bright and dull1 or mature and immature subjects4 ,there has been little disagreement as to the proper location of this test4 ,,iv1 #b4 ,,discrimination ,,of ,,forms ,,procedure4 ,use the forms supplied with this book4 ,first1 place the circle of the duplicate set at ,x1 and say3 ,show me one like this1 at the same time passing the finger around the circumference of the circle4 ,if the child does not respond1 say3 ,do you see all of these things8 7running the finger over the various forms72 ,and do you see this one8 7pointing again to the circle72 ,now1 find me another one just like this4 ,use the square next1 then the triangle1 and the others in any order4 ,correct the child's first error by saying3 ,no1 find one just like this 7again passing the finger around the outline of the form at ,x74 ,make no comment on errors after the first one1 proceeding at once with the next card1 but each time the choice is correct encourage the child with a hearty ,that's good1 or something similar4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if seven out of ten choices1 are correct1 the first corrected error being counted4 ,,remarks4 ,in the test of discriminating forms1 unlike the test of comparing lines1 lack of success is less often due to inability to understand the task than to failure to discriminate4 ,the test may be regarded as a variation of the form-board test4 ,it displays the subject's ability to compare and contrast successive visual perceptions of form4 ,the accurate perception of even a fairly simple form requires the integration of a number of sensory elements into one whole4 ,the forms used in this test have meaning4 ,they are far from nonsense figures even for the 7normal7 child of #d years1 who has1 of course1 never heard about triangles1 squares1 rectangles1 etc4 ,the meaning present at this level of intelligence is probably a compound of such factors as appreciation of symmetry and direction1 and discrimination of quantity and number4 ,another element in success1 especially in the latter part of the experiment1 is the ability to make an attentive comparison between the form shown and the others4 ,the child may be satisfied to point to the first form his eye happens to fall upon4 ,far from being a legitimate excuse for failure1 such an exhibition of inattention and of weakness of the critical faculty is symptomatic of a mental level below #d years4 ,in addition to counting the number of errors made1 it is interesting to note with what forms they occur4 ,to match the circle with the ellipse or the octagon1 for example1 is a less serious error than to match it with the square or triangle4 ,this test was devised and standardized by ,dr4 ,fred ,kuhlmann4 ,it is inserted here without essential alteration1 except that the size recommended for the forms is slightly reduced and minor changes have been made in the wording of the directions4 ,our own results are favorable to the test and to the location assigned it by its author4 ,,iv1 #c4 ,,counting ,,four ,,pennies ,,procedure4 ,place four pennies in a horizontal row before the child4 ,say3 ,see these pennies4 ,count them and tell me how many there are4 ,count them with your finger1 this way 7pointing to the first one on the child's left7--,one--,now1 go ahead4 ,if the child simply gives the number 7whether right or wrong7 without pointing1 say3 ,no2 count them with your finger1 this way1 starting him off as before4 ,have him count them aloud4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed only if the counting tallies with the pointing4 ,it is not sufficient merely to state the correct number without pointing4 ,,remarks4 ,contrary to what one might think1 this is not to any great extent a test of schooling4 ,practically all children of this age have had opportunity to learn to count as far as four1 and with normal children the spontaneous interest in number is such that very few #d-year-olds1 even from inferior social environment1 fail to pass the test4 ,while success requires more than the ability to repeat the number names by rote1 it does not presuppose any power of calculation or a mastery of the number concepts from one to four4 ,many children who will readily say1 mechanically1 one1 two1 three1 four1 when started off1 are not able to pass the test4 ,on the other hand1 it is not expected that the child who passes will also necessarily understand that four is made up of two two's1 or four one's1 or three plus one1 etc4 ,binet1 ,goddard1 and ,kuhlmann place this test in the #e-year group1 but three separate series of tests made for the ,stanford revision1 as well as nearly all the statistics available from other sources1 show that it belongs at #d years4 ,,iv1 #d4 ,,copying ,a ,,square ,,procedure4 ,place before the child a cardboard on which is drawn in heavy black lines a square about #a inches on a side4#di ,give the child a pencil and say3 ,you see that 7pointing to the square74 ,i want you to make one just like it4 ,make it right here 7showing where it is to be drawn74 ,go ahead4 ,i know you can do it nicely4 #di ,no material is needed if the regular ,stanford record blanks are used1 as these all contain the square and diamond4 ,avoid such an expression as1 ,i want you to draw a figure like that4 ,the child may not know the meaning of either draw or figure4 ,also1 in pointing to the model1 take care not to run the finger around the four sides4 ,children sometimes have a deep-seated aversion to drawing on request and a bit of tactful urging may be necessary4 ,experience and tact will enable the experimenter in all but the rarest cases to come out victorious in these little battles with balky wills4 ,give three trials1 saying each time3 ,make it exactly like this1 pointing to model4 ,make sure that the child is in an easy position and that the paper used is held so it cannot slip4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if at least one drawing out of the three is as good as those marked on the score card4 ,young subjects usually reduce figures in drawing from copy1 but size is wholly disregarded in scoring4 ,it is of more importance that the right angles be fairly well preserved than that the lines should be straight or the corners entirely closed4 ,the scoring of this test should be rather liberal4 ,,remarks4 ,after the three copies have been made say3 ,which one do you like best8 ,in this way we get an idea of the subject's power of auto-criticism1 a trait in which the mentally retarded are nearly always behind normal children of their own age4 ,normal children1 when young1 reveal the same weakness to a certain extent4 ,it is especially significant when the subject shows complete satisfaction with a very poor performance4 ,observe whether the child makes each part with careful effort1 looking at the model from time to time1 or whether the strokes are made in a haphazard way with only an initial glance at the original4 ,the latter procedure is quite common with young or retarded subjects4 ,curiously enough1 the first trial is more successful than either of the others1 due perhaps to a waning of effort and attention4 ,note that pencil is used instead of pen and that only one success is necessary4 ,binet gives only one trial and requires pen4 ,goddard allows pencil1 but permits only one trial4 ,kuhlmann requires pen and passes the child only when two trials out of three are successful4 ,but these authors locate the test at #e years4 ,our results show that nearly three fourths of #d-year-olds succeed with pencil in one out of three trials if the scoring is liberal4 ,it makes a great deal of difference whether pen or pencil is used1 and whether two successes are required or only one4 ,no better illustration could be given of the fact that without thoroughgoing standardization of procedure and scoring the best mental test may be misleading as to the degree of intelligence it indicates4 ,copying a square is one of three drawing tests used in the ,binet scale1 the others being the diamond 7year ,,vii71 and the designs to be copied from memory 7year ,x74 ,these tests do not to any great extent test what is usually known as drawing ability4 ,only the square and the diamond tests are strictly comparable with one another1 the other having a psychologically different purpose4 ,in none of them does success seem to depend very much on the amount of previous instruction in drawing4 ,to copy a figure like a square or a diamond requires first of all an appreciation of spacial relationships4 ,the figure must be perceived as a whole1 not simply as a group of meaningless lines4 ,in the second place1 success depends upon the ability to use the visual impression in guiding a rather complex set of motor cordinations4 ,the latter is perhaps the main difficulty1 and is one which is not fully overcome1 at least for complicated movements1 until well toward adult life4 ,it is interesting to compare the square and the diamond as to relative difficulty4 ,they have the same number of lines and in each case the opposite sides are parallel2 but whereas #d-year intelligence is equal to the task of copying a square1 the diamond ordinarily requires #g-year intelligence4 ,probably no one could have foreseen that a change in the angles would add so much to the difficulty of the figure4 ,it would be worth while to devise and standardize still more complicated figures4 ,,iv1 #e4 ,,comprehension1 ,,first ,,degree ,,procedure4 ,after getting the child's attention1 say3 ,what must you do when you are sleepy8 ,if necessary the question may be repeated a number of times1 using a persuasive and encouraging tone of voice4 ,no other form of question may be substituted4 ,about twenty seconds may be allowed for an answer1 though as a rule subjects of #d or #e years usually answer quite promptly or not at all4 ,proceed in the same way with the other two questions3 ,what ought you to do when you are cold8 ,what ought you to do when you are hungry8 ,,scoring4 ,there must be two correct responses out of three4 ,no one form of answer is required4 ,it is sufficient if the question is comprehended and given a reasonably sensible answer4 ,the following are samples of correct responses3-- 7a7 ,go to bed4 ,go to sleep4 ,have my mother get me ready for bed4 ,lie still1 not talk1 and ,i'll soon be asleep4 7b7 ,put on a coat 7or cloak1 furs1 wrap up1 etc474 ,build a fire4 ,run and ,i'll soon get warm4 ,get close to the stove4 ,go into the house1 or1 ,go to bed1 may possibly deserve the score plus1 though they are somewhat doubtful and are certainly inferior to the responses just given4 7c7 ,eat something4 ,drink some milk4 ,buy a lunch4 ,have my mamma spread some bread and butter1 etc4 ,with the comprehension questions in this year it is nearly always easy to decide whether the response is acceptable1 failure being indicated usually either by silence or by an absurd or irrelevant answer4 ,one #h-year-old boy who had less than #d-year intelligence answered all three questions by putting his finger on his eye and saying3 ,i'd do that4 ,have to cry is a rather common incorrect response4 ,,remarks4 ,the purpose of these questions is to ascertain whether the child can comprehend the situations suggested and give a reasonably pertinent reply4 ,the first requirement1 of course1 is to understand the language2 the second is to tell how the situation suggested should be met4 ,the question may be raised whether a given child might not fail to answer the questions correctly and yet have the intelligence to do the appropriate thing if the real situation were present4 ,this is at least conceivable1 but since it would not be practicable to make the subject actually cold1 sleepy1 or hungry in order to observe his behavior1 we must content ourselves with suggesting a situation to be imagined4 ,it probably requires more intelligence to tell what one ought to do in a situation which has to be imagined than to do the right thing when the real situation is encountered4 ,the comprehension questions of this year had not been standardized until the ,stanford investigation of #aiac-ad4 ,questions a and b were suggested by ,binet in #aije1 while c is new4 ,they make an excellent test of #d-year intelligence4 ,,iv1 #f4 ,,repeating ,,four ,,digits ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,now1 listen4 ,i am going to say over some numbers and after ,i am through1 ,i want you to say them exactly like ,i do4 ,listen closely and get them just right--#d-g-c-i4 ,same with #b-h-e-d and #g-b-f-a4 ,the examiner should consume nearly four seconds in pronouncing each series1 and should practice in advance until this speed can be closely approximated4 ,if the child refuses to respond1 the first series may be repeated as often as may be necessary to prove an attempt1 but success with a series which has been re-read may not be counted4 ,the second and third series may be pronounced but once4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the child repeats correctly1 after a single reading1 one series out of the three series given4 ,the order must be correct4 ,,remarks4 ,the test of repeating four digits was not included by ,binet in the scale and seems not to have been used by any of the ,binet workers4 ,it is passed by about three fourths of our #d-year-olds4 ,,iv4 ,,alternative ,,test3 ,,repeating ,,twelve ,,to ,,thirteen ,,syllables ,the three sentences are3-- 7a7 ,the boy's name is ,john4 ,he is a very good boy4 7b7 ,when the train passes you will hear the whistle blow4 7c7 ,we are going to have a good time in the country4 ,,procedure4 ,get the child's attention and say3 ,listen1 say this3 ',where is kitty8' ,after the child responds1 add3 ,now say this 4441 reading the first sentence in a natural voice1 distinctly and with expression4 ,if the child is too timid to respond1 the first sentence may be re-read1 but in this case the response is not counted4 ,re-reading is permissible only with the first sentence4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if at least one sentence is repeated without error after a single reading4 ,as in the alternative test of year ,,iii1 we ignore ordinary indistinctness and defects of pronunciation due to imperfect language development1 but the sentence must be repeated without addition1 omission1 or transposition of words4 ,,remarks4 ,sentences of twelve syllables had not been standardized previous to the ,stanford revision1 but ,binet locates memory for ten syllables at year ,v1 and others have followed his example4 ,our own data show that even #d-year-olds are usually able to repeat twelve syllables with the procedure here set forth4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,v ,v1 #a4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,weights ,,materials4 ,it is necessary to have two weights1 identical in shape1 size1 and appearance1 weighing respectively #c and #ae grams4#ej ,if manufactured weights are not at hand1 it is easy to make satisfactory substitutes by taking stiff cardboard pill-boxes1 about #a inches in diameter1 and filling them with cotton and shot to the desired weight4 ,the shot must be embedded in the center of the cotton so as to prevent rattling4 ,after the box has been loaded to the exact weight1 the lid should be glued on firmly4 ,if one does not have access to laboratory scales1 it is always possible to secure the help of a druggist in the rather delicate task of weighing the boxes accurately4 ,a set of pill-box weights will last through hundreds of tests1 if handled carefully1 but they will not stand rough usage4 ,the manufactured blocks are more durable1 and so more satisfactory in the long run4 ,if the weights are not at hand1 the alternative test may be substituted4 #ej ,the weights required for this test1 and also for ,,ix1 #b1 may be purchased of ,c4 ,h4 ,stoelting ,co41 #cjcg ,carroll ,avenue1 ,chicago1 ,illinois4 ,,procedure4 ,place the #c- and #ae-;gram weights on the table before the child some two or three inches apart4 ,say3 ,you see these blocks4 ,they look just alike1 but one of them is heavy and one is light4 ,try them and tell me which one is heavier4 ,if the child does not respond1 repeat the instructions1 saying this time1 ,tell me which one is the heaviest4 7,many ,american children have heard only the superlative form of the adjective used in the comparison of two objects47 ,sometimes the child merely points to one of the boxes or picks up one at random and hands it to the examiner1 thinking he is asked to guess which is heaviest4 ,we then say3 ,no1 that is not the way4 ,you must take the boxes in your hands and try them1 like this 7illustrating by lifting with one hand1 first one box and then the other1 a few inches from the table74 ,most children of #e years are then able to make the comparison correctly4 ,very young subjects1 however1 or older ones who are retarded1 sometimes adopt the rather questionable method of lifting both weights in the same hand at once4 ,this is always an unfavorable sign1 especially if one of the blocks is placed in the hand on top of the other block4 ,after the first trial1 the weights are shuffled and again presented for comparison as before1 this time with the positions reversed4 ,the third trial follows with the blocks in the same position as in the first trial4 ,some children have a tendency to stereotyped behavior1 which in this test shows itself by choosing always the block on a certain side4 ,hence the necessity of alternating the positions4#ea ,reserve commendation until all three trials have been given4 #ea ,for discussion of stereotypy see p4 #bjc4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three comparisons are correct4 ,if there is reason to suspect that the successful responses were due to lucky guesses1 the test should be entirely repeated4 ,,remarks4 ,this test is decidedly more difficult than that of comparing lines 7,,iv1 #a74 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if we can regard the difference as one due primarily to the relative difficulty of visual discrimination and muscular discrimination4 ,in fact1 the test with weights hardly taxes sensory discrimination at all when used with children of #e-year intelligence4 ,success depends1 in the first place1 on the ability to understand the instructions2 and in the second place1 on the power to hold the instructions in mind long enough to guide the process of making the comparison4 ,the test presupposes1 in elementary form1 a power which is operative in all the higher independent processes of thought1 the power to neglect the manifold distractions of irrelevant sensations and ideas and to drive direct toward a goal4 ,here the goal is furnished by the instruction1 ,try them and see which is heavier4 ,this must be held firmly enough in mind to control the steps necessary for making the comparison4 ,ideas of piling the blocks on top of one another1 throwing them1 etc41 must be inhibited4 ,sometimes the low-grade imbecile starts off in a very promising way1 then apparently forgets the instructions 7loses sight of the goal71 and begins to play with the boxes in a random way4 ,his mental processes are not consecutive1 stable1 or controlled4 ,he is blown about at the mercy of every gust of momentary interest4 ,there is very general agreement in the assignment of this test to year ,v4 ,v1 #b4 ,,naming ,,colors ,,materials4 ,use saturated red1 yellow1 blue1 and green papers1 about #b #a inch in size1 pasted one half inch apart on white or gray cardboard4 ,for sake of uniformity it is best to match the colors manufactured especially for this test4#eb #eb ,printed cards showing these colors are included in the set of material furnished by the publishers of this book4 ,,procedure4 ,point to the colors in the order1 red1 yellow1 blue1 green4 ,bring the finger close to the color designated1 in order that there may be no mistake as to which one is meant1 and say3 ,what is the name of that color8 ,do not say3 ,what color is that8 or1 ,what kind of a color is that8 ,such a formula might bring the answer1 ,the first color2 or1 ,a pretty color4 ,still less would it do to say3 ,show me the red1 ,show me the yellow1 etc4 ,this would make it an entirely different test1 one that would probably be passed a year earlier than the ,binet form of the experiment4 ,nor is it permissible1 after a color has been miscalled1 to return to it and again ask its name4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed only if all the colors are named correctly and without marked uncertainty4 ,however1 prefixing the adjective dark1 or light1 before the name of a color is overlooked4 ,,remarks4 ,naming colors is not a test of color discrimination1 for that capacity is well developed years below the level at which this test is used4 ,all #e-year-olds who are not color blind discriminate among the four primary colors here used as readily as adults do4 ,as stated by ,binet1 it is a test of the verbalization of color perception4 ,it tells us whether the child has associated the names of the four primary colors with his perceptual imagery of those colors4 ,the ability to make simple associations between a sense impression and a name is certainly present in normal children some time before the above color associations are actually made4 ,many objects of experience are correctly named two or three years earlier1 and it may seem at first a little strange that color names are learned so late4 ,but it must be remembered that the child does not have numerous opportunities to observe and hear the names of several colors at once1 nor does the designation of colors by their names ordinarily have much practical value for the young child4 ,when he finally learns their names1 it is more because of his spontaneous interest in the world of sense4 ,lack of such spontaneous interest is always an unfavorable sign1 and it is not surprising1 therefore1 that imbecile intelligence has ordinarily never taken the trouble to associate colors with their names4 ,girls are somewhat superior to boys in this test1 due probably to a greater natural interest in colors4 ,binet originally placed this test in year ,,viii1 changing it to year ,,vii in the #aiaa scale4 ,goddard places it in year ,,vii1 while ,kuhlmann omits it altogether4 ,with a single exception1 all the actual statistics with normal children justify the location of the test in year ,v4 ,bobertag's figures are the exception1 opposed to which are ,rowe1 ,winch1 ,dumville1 ,dougherty1 ,brigham1 and all three of the ,stanford investigations4 ,the test is probably more subject to the influence of home environment than most of the other tests of the scale1 and if the social status of the child is low1 failure would not be especially significant until after the age of #f years4 ,on the whole it is an excellent test4 ,v1 #c4 ,,sthetic ,,comparison ,use the three pairs of faces supplied with the printed forms4 ,it goes without saying that improvised drawings may not be substituted for ,binet's until they have first been standardized4 ,,procedure4 ,show the pairs in order from top to bottom4 ,say3 ,which of these two pictures is the prettiest8 ,use both the comparative and the superlative forms of the adjective4 ,do not use the question1 ,which face is the uglier 7ugliest78 unless there is some difficulty in getting the child to respond4 ,it is not permitted1 in case of an incorrect response1 to give that part of the test again and to allow the child a chance to correct his answer2 or1 in case this is done1 we must consider only the original response in scoring4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed only if all three comparisons are made correctly4 ,any marked uncertainty is failure4 ,sometimes the child laughingly designates the ugly picture as the prettier1 yet shows by his amused expression that he is probably conscious of its peculiarity or absurdity4 ,in such cases pretty seems to be given the meaning of funny or amusing4 ,nevertheless1 we score this response as failure1 since it betokens a rather infantile tolerance of ugliness4 ,,remarks4 ,from the psychological point of view this is a most interesting test4 ,one might suppose that sthetic judgment would be relatively independent of intelligence4 ,certainly no one could have known in advance of experience that intellectual retardation would reveal itself in weakness of the sthetic sense about as unmistakably as in memory1 practical judgment1 or the comprehension of language4 ,but such is the case4 ,the development of the sthetic sense parallels general mental growth rather closely4 ,the imbecile of #d-year intelligence1 even though he may have lived forty years1 has no more chance of passing this test than any other test in year ,v4 ,it would be profitable to devise and standardize a set of pictures of the same general type which would measure a less primitive stage of sthetic development4 ,the present test was located by ,binet in year ,,vi and has been retained in that year in other revisions2 but three separate ,stanford investigations1 as well as the statistics of ,winch1 ,dumville1 ,brigham1 ,rowe1 and ,dougherty1 warrant its location in year ,v4 ,v1 #d4 ,,giving ,,definitions ,,in ,,terms ,,of ,,use ,,procedure4 ,use the words3 ,chair1 horse1 fork1 doll1 pencil1 and table4 ,say3 ,you have seen a chair4 ,you know what a chair is4 ,tell me1 what is a chair8 ,and so on with the other words1 always in the order in which they are named above4 ,occasionally there is difficulty in getting a response1 which is sometimes due merely to the child's unwillingness to express his thoughts in sentences4 ,the earlier tests require only words and phrases4 ,in other cases silence is due to the rather indefinite form of the question4 ,the child could answer1 but is not quite sure what is expected of him4 ,whatever the cause1 a little tactful urging is nearly always sufficient to bring a response4 ,in this test we have not found the difficulty of overcoming silence nearly as great as others have stated it to be4 ,in consecutive tests of #aej #e- and #f-year-old children we encountered unbreakable silence with #h words out of the total #ijj 7#aej #f74 ,this is less than #a per cent4 ,but tactful encouragement is sometimes necessary1 and it is best to take the precaution of not giving the test until rapport has been well established4 ,the urging should take the following form3 ,i'm sure you know what a 444 is4 ,you have seen a 4444 ,now1 tell me1 what is a 444 8 ,that is1 we merely repeat the question with a word of encouragement and in a coaxing tone of voice4 ,it would not at all do to introduce other questions1 like1 ,what does a 444 look like8 or1 ,what is a 444 for8 ,what do people do with a 444 8 ,sometimes1 instead of attempting a definition 7of doll1 for example71 the child begins to talk in a more or less irrelevant way1 as ,i have a great big doll4 ,auntie gave it to me for ,christmas1 etc4 ,in such cases we repeat the question and say1 ,yes1 but tell me2 what is a doll8 ,this is usually sufficient to bring the little chatter-box back to the task4 ,unless it is absolutely necessary to give the child lavish encouragement1 it is best to withhold approval or disapproval until the test has been finished4 ,if the first response is a poor one and we pronounce it fine or very good1 we tempt the child to persist in his low-grade type of definition4 ,by withholding comment until the last word has been defined1 we give greater play to spontaneity and initiative4 ,,scoring4 ,as a rule1 children of #e and #f years define an object in terms of use1 stating what it does1 what it is for1 what people do with it1 etc4 ,definitions by description1 by telling what substance it is made of1 and by giving the class to which it belongs are grouped together as definitions superior to use4 ,it is not before #h years that two thirds of the children spontaneously give a large proportion of definitions in terms superior to use4 ,the test is passed in year ,v if four words out of the six are defined in terms of use 7or better than use74 ,the following are examples of satisfactory responses3-- ,chair3 ,to sit on4 ,you sit on it4 ,it is made of wood and has legs and back1 etc4 ,horse3 ,to drive4 ,to ride4 ,what people drive4 ,to pull the wagon4 ,it is big and has four legs1 etc4 ,fork3 ,to eat with4 ,to stick meat with4 ,it is hard and has three sharp things1 etc4 ,doll3 ,to play with4 ,what you dress and put to bed4 ,to rock1 etc4 ,pencil3 ,to write with4 ,to draw4 ,they write with it4 ,it is sharp and makes a black mark4 ,table3 ,to eat on4 ,what you put the dinner on4 ,where you write4 ,it is made of wood and has legs4 ,examples of failure are such responses as the following3 ,a chair is a chair2 ,there is a chair2 or simply1 ,there 7pointing to a chair74 ,we record such responses without pressing for a further definition4 ,about the only other type of failure is silence4 ,,remarks4 ,it is not the purpose of this test to find out whether the child knows the meaning of the words he is asked to define4 ,words have purposely been chosen which are perfectly familiar to all normal children of #e years4 ,but with young children there is a difference between knowing a word and giving a definition of it4 ,besides1 we desire to find out how the child apperceives the word1 or rather the object for which it stands2 whether the thing is thought of in terms of use1 appearance 7shape1 size1 color1 etc471 material composing it1 or class relationships4 ,this test1 because it throws such interesting light on the maturity of the child's apperceptive processes1 is one of the most valuable of all4 ,it is possible to differentiate at least a half-dozen degrees of excellence in definitions1 according to the intellectual maturity of the subject4 ,a volume1 indeed1 could be written on the development of word definitions and the growth of meanings2 but we will postpone further discussion until ,,viii1 #e4 ,our concern at present is to know that children of #e years should at least be able to define four of these six words in terms of use4 ,binet placed the test in year ,,vi1 but our own figures and those of nearly all the other investigations indicate that it is better located in year ,v4 ,v1 #e4 ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,patience ,,material4 ,prepare two rectangular cards1 each #b #c inches1 and divide one of them into two triangles by cutting it along one of its diagonals4 ,,procedure4 ,place the uncut card on the table with one of its longer sides to the child4 ,by the side of this card1 a little nearer the child and a few inches apart1 lay the two halves of the divided rectangle with their hypothenuses turned from each other as follows3 ,illustration ,then say to the child3 ,i want you to take these two pieces 7touching the two triangles7 and put them together so they will look exactly like this 7pointing to the uncut card74 ,if the child hesitates1 we repeat the instructions with a little urging4 ,say nothing about hurrying1 as this is likely to cause confusion4 ,give three trials1 of one minute each4 ,if only one trial is given1 success is too often a result of chance moves2 but luck is not likely to bring two successes in three trials4 ,if the first trial is a failure1 move the cut halves back to their original position and say3 ,no2 put them together so they will look like this 7pointing to the uncut card74 ,make no other comment of approval or disapproval4 ,disregard in silence the inquiring looks of the child who tries to read his success or failure in your face4 ,if one of the pieces is turned over1 the task becomes impossible1 and it is then necessary to turn the piece back to its original position and begin over1 not counting this trial4 ,have the under side of the pieces marked so as to avoid the risk of presenting one of them to the child wrong side up4 ,,scoring4 ,there must be two successes in three trials4 ,about the only difficulty in scoring is that of deciding what constitutes a trial4 ,we count it a trial when the child brings the pieces together and 7after few or many changes7 leaves them in some position4 ,whether he succeeds after many moves1 or leaves the pieces with approval in some absurd position1 or gives up and says he cannot do it1 his effort counts as one trial4 ,a single trial may involve a number of unsuccessful changes of position in the two cards1 but these changes may not consume altogether more than one minute4 ,,remarks4 ,as aptly described by ,binet1 the operation has the following elements3 7#a7 ,to keep in mind the end to be attained1 that is to say1 the figure to be formed4 ,it is necessary to comprehend this end and not to lose sight of it4 7#b7 ,to try different combinations under the influence of this directing idea1 which guides the efforts of the child even though he be unconscious of the fact4 7#c7 ,to judge the formed combination1 compare it with the model1 and decide whether it is the correct one4 ,it may be classed1 therefore1 as one of the many forms of the combination method4 ,elements must be combined into some kind of whole under the guidance of a directing idea4 ,in this respect it has something in common with the form-board test1 the ,ebbinghaus test1 and the test with dissected sentences 7,,xii1 #d74 ,binet designates it a test of patience1 because success in it depends upon a certain willingness to persist in a line of action under the control of an idea4 ,not all failures in this test are equally significant4 ,a bright child of #e years sometimes fails1 but usually not without many trial combinations which he rejects one after another as unsatisfactory4 ,a dull child of the same age often stops after he has brought the pieces into any sort of juxtaposition1 however absurd1 and may be quite satisfied with his foolish effort4 ,his mind is not fruitful and he lacks the power of auto-criticism4 ,it would be well worth while to work out a new and somewhat more difficult test of patience1 but with special care to avoid the puzzling features of the usual games of anagrams4 ,the one given us by ,binet is rather easy for year ,v1 though plainly somewhat too difficult for year ,,iv4 ,v1 #f4 ,,three ,,commissions ,,procedure4 ,after getting up from the chair and moving with the child to the center of the room1 say3 ,now1 ,i want you to do something for me4 ,here's a key4 ,i want you to put it on that chair over there2 then ,i want you to shut 7or open7 that door1 and then bring me the box which you see over there 7pointing in turn to the objects designated74 ,do you understand8 ,be sure to get it right4 ,first1 put the key on the chair1 then shut 7open7 the door1 then bring me the box 7again pointing74 ,go ahead4 ,stress the words first and then so as to emphasize the order in which the commissions are to be executed4 ,give the commissions always in the above order4 ,do not repeat the instructions again or give any further aid whatever1 even by the direction of the gaze4 ,if the child stops or hesitates it is never permissible to say3 ,what next8 ,have the self-control to leave the child alone with his task4 ,,scoring4 ,all three commissions must be executed and in the proper order4 ,failure may result1 therefore1 either from leaving out one or more of the commands or from changing the order4 ,the former is more often the case4 ,,remarks4 ,success depends first on the ability to comprehend the commands1 and secondly1 on the ability to hold them in mind4 ,it is therefore a test of memory1 though of a somewhat different kind from that involved in repeating digits or sentences4 ,it is an excellent test1 for it throws light on a kind of intelligence which is demanded in all occupations and in everyday life4 ,a more difficult test of the same type ought to be worked out for a higher age level4 ,binet originally located this test in year ,,vi1 but in #aiaa changed it to year ,,vii4 ,this is unfortunate1 for the three ,stanford investigations1 as well as the statistics of all other investigators1 show conclusively that it is easy enough for year ,v4 ,v4 ,,alternative ,,test3 ,,giving ,,age ,,procedure4 ,the formula is simply1 ,how old are you8 ,the child of this age is1 of course1 not expected to know the date of his birthday1 but merely how many years old he is4 ,,scoring4 ,about the only danger in scoring is in the failure to verify the child's response4 ,some children give an incorrect answer with perfect assurance1 and it is therefore always necessary to verify4 ,,remarks4 ,inability to give the age may or may not be significant4 ,if the child has arrived at the age of #g or #h years and has had anything like a normal social environment1 failure in the test is an extremely unfavorable sign4 ,but if the child is an orphan or has grown up in neglect1 ignorance of age has little significance for intelligence4 ,about all we can say is that if a child gives his age correctly1 it is because he has had sufficient interest and intelligence to remember verbal statements which have been made concerning him in his presence4 ,he may even pass the test without attaching any definite meaning to the word year4 ,on the other hand1 if he has lived seven or eight years in a normal environment1 it is safe to assume that he has heard his age given many times1 and failure to remember it would then indicate either a weak memory or a grave inferiority of spontaneous interests1 or both4 ,normal children have a natural interest in the things they hear said about themselves1 while the middle-grade imbecile of even #dj years may fail to remember his age1 however often he may have heard it stated4 ,binet placed the test in year ,,vi of the #aijh series1 but omitted it altogether in #aiaa4 ,kuhlmann and ,goddard also omit it1 perhaps wisely4 ,nevertheless1 it is always interesting to give as a supplementary test4 ,children from good homes acquire the knowledge about a year earlier than those from less favorable surroundings4 ,unselected children of ,california ordinarily pass the test at #e years4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,vi ,,vi1 #a4 ,,distinguishing ,,right ,,and ,,left ,,procedure4 ,say to the child3 ,show me your right hand4 ,after this is responded to1 say3 ,show me your left ear4 ,then3 ,show me your right eye4 ,stress the words left and ear rather strongly and equally2 also right and eye4 ,if there is one error1 repeat the test1 this time with left hand1 right ear1 and left eye4 ,carefully avoid giving any help by look of approval or disapproval1 by glancing at the part of the body indicated1 or by supplementary questions4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if all three questions are answered correctly1 or if1 in case of one error1 the three additional questions are all answered correctly4 ,the standard1 therefore1 is three out of three1 or five out of six4 ,the chief danger of variation among different examiners in scoring comes from double responses4 ,for example1 the child may point first to one ear and then to the other4 ,in all cases of double response1 the rule is to count the second response and disregard the first4 ,this holds whether the first response was wrong and the second right1 or vice versa4 ,,remarks4 ,it is interesting to follow the child's acquisitions of language distinctions relating to spacial orientation4 ,other distinctions of this type are those between up and down1 above and below1 near and far1 before and behind1 etc4 ,as ,bobertag has pointed out1 the child first masters such distinctions as up and down1 above and below1 before and behind1 etc41 and arrives at a knowledge of right and left rather tardily4 ,how may we explain the late distinction of right and left as compared with up and down8 ,at least four theories may be advanced3 7#a7 ,something depends on the frequency with which children have occasion to make the respective distinctions4 7#b7 ,it may be explained on the supposition that kinsthetic sensations are more prominently involved in distinctions of up and down than in distinctions of right and left4 ,it is certainly true that1 in distinguishing the two sides of a thing1 less bodily movement is ordinarily required than in distinctions of its upper and lower aspects4 ,the former demands only a shift of the eyes1 the latter often requires an upward or downward movement of the head4 7#c7 ,it may be due to the fact that the appearance of an object is more affected by differences in vertical orientation than by those of horizontal orientation4 ,we see an object now from one side1 now from the other1 and the two aspects easily blend1 while the two aspects corresponding to above and below are not viewed in such rapid succession and so remain much more distinct from one another in the child's mind4 ,or1 7#d71 the difference may be mainly a matter of language4 ,the child undoubtedly hears the words up and down much oftener than right and left1 and thus learns their meaning earlier4 ,horizontal distinctions are commonly made in such terms as this side and that side1 or merely by pointing1 while in the case of vertical distinctions the words up and down are used constantly4 ,this last explanation is a very plausible one1 but it is very probable that other factors are also involved4 ,the distinction between right and left has a certain inherent and more or less mysterious difficulty4 ,to convince one's self of this it is only necessary to try a little experiment on the first fifty persons one chances to meet4 ,the experiment is as follows4 ,say3 ,i am going to ask you a question and ,i want you to answer it as quickly as you can4 ,then ask3 ,which is your right hand8 ,about forty persons out of fifty will answer correctly without a second's hesitation1 several will require two or three seconds to respond1 while a few1 possibly four or five per cent1 will grow confused and perhaps be unable to respond for five or ten seconds4 ,some very intelligent adults cannot possibly tell which is the right or left hand without first searching for a scar or some other distinguishing mark which is known to be on a particular hand4 ,others resort to incipient movements of writing1 and since1 of course1 every one knows which hand he writes with1 the writing movements automatically initiated give the desired clue4 ,one bright little girl of #h years responded by trying to wink first one eye and then the other4 ,asked why she did this1 she said she knew she could wink her left eye1 but not her right6 ,one who is resourceful enough to adopt such an ingenious method is surely not less intelligent than the one who is able to respond by a direct instead of an intermediate association4 ,it seems that normal people never encounter a corresponding difficulty in distinguishing up and down4 ,the writer has questioned several hundred without finding a single instance1 whereas a great many have to employ some intermediate association in order to distinguish right and left4 ,it is the p's and q's that children must be told to mind2 not the p's and b's4 ,the former is a horizontal1 the latter a vertical distinction4 ,considering the difficulty which normal adults sometimes have in distinguishing right and left1 is it fair to use this test as a measure of intelligence8 ,we may answer in the affirmative4 ,it is fair because normal adults1 notwithstanding momentary uncertainty1 are invariably able to make the distinction1 if not by direct association1 then by an intermediate one4 ,we overlook the momentary confusion and regard only the correctness of the response4 ,subjects who are below middle-grade imbecile1 however long they have lived1 seldom pass the test4 ,this test found a place in year ,,vi of ,binet's #aijh scale1 but was shifted to year ,,vii in the #aiaa revision4 ,the ,stanford statistics1 and all other available data1 with the exception of ,bobertag's1 justify its retention in year ,,vi4 ,it is possible that the children of different nations do not have equal opportunity and stimulus for learning the distinction between right and left1 but the data show that as far as ,american and ,english children are concerned we have a right to expect this knowledge in children of #f years4 ,,vi1 #b4 ,,finding ,,omissions ,,in ,,pictures ,,procedure4 ,show the pictures to the child one at a time in the order in which they are lettered1 a1 b1 c1 d4 ,when the first picture is shown 7that with the eye lacking71 say3 ,there is something wrong with this face4 ,it is not all there4 ,part of it is left out4 ,look carefully and tell me what part of the face is not there4 ,often the child gives an irrelevant answer2 as1 ,the feet are gone1 ,the stomach is not there1 etc4 ,these statements are true1 but they do not satisfy the requirements of the test1 so we say3 ,no2 ,i am talking about the face4 ,look again and tell me what is left out of the face4 ,if the correct response does not follow1 we point to the place where the eye should be and say3 ,see1 the eye is gone4 ,when picture b is shown we say merely3 ,what is left out of this face8 ,likewise with picture c4 ,for picture d we say3 ,what is left out of this picture8 ,no help of any kind is given unless 7if necessary7 with the first picture4 ,with the others we confine ourselves to the single question1 and the answer should be given promptly1 say within twenty to twenty-five seconds4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the omission is correctly pointed out in three out of four of the pictures4 ,certain minor errors we may overlook1 such as eyes instead of eye for the first picture2 nose and one ear instead of merely nose for the third2 hands instead of arms for the fourth1 etc4 ,errors like the following1 however1 count as failure3 ,the other eye1 or ,the other ear for the first or third2 ,the ears for the fourth1 etc4 ,,remarks4 ,the test is one of the two or three dozen forms of the so-called completion test1 all of which have it in common that from the given parts of a whole the missing parts are to be found4 ,the whole to be completed may be a word1 a sentence1 a story1 a picture1 a group of pictures1 an object1 or in fact almost anything4 ,sometimes all the parts of the whole are given and only the arrangement or order is to be found1 as in the test with dissected sentences4 ,further discussion of the completion test will be found in connection with test #d1 year ,,xii4 ,for the present we will only observe that notwithstanding a certain similarity among the tests of this type1 they do not all call into play the same mental processes4 ,the factor most involved may be verbal language coherence1 visual perception of form1 the association of abstract ideas1 etc4 ,to pass ,binet's test with mutilated pictures requires1 7#a7 that the parts of the picture be perceived as constituting a whole2 and 7#b7 that the idea of a human face or form be so easily and so clearly reproducible that it may act1 even before it comes fully into consciousness1 as a model or pattern1 for the criticism of the picture shown4 ,the younger the child1 the less adequate1 in this sense1 is his perceptual familiarity with common objects4 ,in standardizing a series of absurd pictures1 the writer has found that normal children of #c years often see nothing wrong in a picture which shows a cat with two legs or a hen with four legs4 ,such children would1 of course1 never mistake a cat for a hen4 ,their trouble lies in the inability to call up in clear form a free idea of a cat or a hen for comparison with the perceptual presentation offered by the picture4 ,middle-grade imbeciles of adult age have much the same difficulty as normal children of #d years in recognizing mutilations or absurdities in pictures of familiar objects4 ,binet first placed this test in year ,,vii1 changing it to year ,,viii in the #aiaa revision4 ,in other revisions it has been retained in year ,,vii1 although all the available statistics except ,bobertag's warrant its location in year ,,vi4 ,,vi1 #c4 ,,counting ,,thirteen ,,pennies ,,procedure4 ,the procedure is the same as in the test of counting four pennies 7year ,,iv1 test #c74 ,if the first response contains only a minor error1 such as the omission of a number in counting1 failure to tally with the finger1 etc41 a second trial is given4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if there is one success in two trials4 ,success requires that the counting should tally with the pointing4 ,it is not sufficient merely to state the number of pennies without pointing1 for unless the child points and counts aloud we cannot be sure that his correct answer may not be the joint result of two errors in opposite directions and equal2 for example1 if one penny were skipped and another were counted twice the total result would still be correct1 but the performance would not satisfy the requirements4 ,,remarks4 ,does success in this test depend upon intelligence or upon schooling8 ,the answer is1 intelligence mainly4 ,there are possibly a few normal #f-year-old children who could not pass the test for lack of instruction1 but children of this age usually have enough spontaneous interest in numbers to acquire facility in counting as far as #ac without formal teaching4 ,certainly1 inability to do so by the age of #g years is a suspicious sign unless the child's environment has been extraordinarily unfavorable4 ,on the other hand1 feeble-minded adults of the #e-year level usually have to have a great deal of instruction before they acquire the ability to count #ac1 and many of them are hardly able to learn it at all4 ,so much does our learning depend on original endowment4 ,binet originally placed this test in year ,,vii1 but moved it to year ,,vi in #aiaa4 ,all the statistics1 without exception1 show that this change was justified4 ,bobertag says that nearly all #g-year-olds who are not feeble-minded can pass it1 a statement with which we can fully agree4 ,,vi1 #d4 ,,comprehension1 ,,second ,,degree ,,procedure4 ,the questions used in this year are3-- 7a7 ,what's the thing to do if it is raining when you start to school8 7b7 ,what's the thing to do if you find that your house is on fire8 7c7 ,what's the thing to do if you are going some place and miss your train 7car78 ,note that the wording of the first part of the questions is slightly different from that in year ,,iv1 test #e4 ,if there is no response1 or if the child looks puzzled1 the question may be repeated once or twice4 ,the form of the question must not under any circumstances be altered4 ,question b1 for example1 would be materially changed if we should say3 ,suppose you were to come home from school and find that your house was burning up4 ,what would you do8 ,the expression burning up would probably be much less likely to suggest calling a fireman than would the words on fire4 ,,scoring4 ,two out of three must be answered correctly4 ,the harder the comprehension questions are1 the greater the variety of answers and the greater the difficulty of scoring4 ,because of the difficulty many examiners find in scoring this test1 we will list the most common satisfactory1 unsatisfactory1 and doubtful responses to each question4 7a7 ,if it is raining when you start to school ,satisfactory4 ,take umbrella1 ,bring a parasol1 ,put on rubbers1 ,wear an overcoat1 etc4 ,this type of response occurred #fa times out of #gb successes4 ,have my father bring me also counts plus4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,go home1 ,stay at home1 ,stay in the house1 ,have the rainbow1 ,stay in school1 etc4 ,stay at home is the most common failure and might at first seem to the examiner to be a satisfactory response4 ,as a matter of fact1 this answer rests on a slight misunderstanding of the question1 the import of which is that one is to go to school and it is raining4 ,doubtful4 ,run as an answer is a little more troublesome4 ,it may reasonably be scored plus if it can be ascertained that the child is accustomed to meet the situation in this way4 ,it is a common response with children in those regions of the ,southwest where rains are so infrequent that umbrellas are rarely used4 ,bring my lunch may be considered a satisfactory response in case the child is in the habit of so doing on rainy days4 7b7 ,if you find that your house is on fire ,satisfactory4 ,ring the fire alarm1 ,call the firemen1 ,call for help1 ,put water on it1 etc4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,the most common failure1 accounting for nearly half of all1 is to suggest finding other shelter2 e4g41 ,go to the hotel1 ,get another house1 ,stay with your friends1 ,build a new house1 etc4 ,others are3 ,tell them you are sorry it burned down1 ,be careful and not let it burn again1 ,have it insured1 ,cry1 ,call the policeman1 etc4 ,doubtful4 ,instead of suggesting measures to put out the fire1 a good many children suggest mere escape or the saving of household articles4 ,responses of this type are3 ,jump out of the windows1 ,save yourself1 ,get out as fast as you can1 ,save the baby1 ,get my dolls and jewelry and hurry and get out4 ,these answers are about one seventh as frequent as the perfectly satisfactory ones1 and the rule for scoring them is a matter of some importance4 ,under certain circumstances the logical thing to do would be to save one's self or valuables without wasting time trying to call help4 ,there may be no help in reach1 or a fire which the child imagines may be too far along for help to be effective4 ,in order to avoid the possibility of doing a subject an injustice1 it may be desirable to score such answers plus4 ,we must not be too arbitrary4 7c7 ,if you miss your train ,satisfactory4 ,the answer we expect is1 ,wait for another1 ,take the next car1 or something to that effect4 ,this type of answer includes about #he per cent of the responses which do not belong obviously in the unsatisfactory group4 ,take a jitney is a modern variation of this response which must be counted as satisfactory4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,these are endless4 ,one continues to meet new examples of absurdity1 however many children one has tested4 ,the possibilities are literally inexhaustible1 but the following are among the most common3 ,wait for it to come back1 ,have to walk1 ,be mad1 ,don't swear1 ,run and try to catch it1 ,try to jump on1 ,don't go to that place1 ,go to the next station1 etc4 ,doubtful4 ,the main doubtful response is1 ,go home again1 ,come back next day and catch another1 etc4 ,in small or isolated towns having only one or two trains per day1 this is the logical thing to do1 and in such cases the score is plus4 ,fortunately1 only about one answer in ten gives rise to any difference of opinion among even partly trained examiners4 ,,remarks4 ,the three comprehension questions of this group were all suggested by ,binet in #aije4 ,only one of them1 however1 ,what would you do if you were going some place and missed your train8 was incorporated in the #aijh or #aiaa series1 and this was used in year ,x with seven others much harder4 ,the other two remained unstandardized previous to the ,stanford investigation4#ec #ec ,for general discussion of the comprehension questions as a test1 see p4 #aeh4 ,,vi1 #e4 ,,naming ,,four ,,coins ,,procedure4 ,show a nickel1 a penny1 a quarter1 and a dime1 asking each time3 ,what is that8 ,if the child misunderstands and answers1 ,money1 or ,a piece of money1 we say3 ,yes1 but what do you call that piece of money8 ,show the coins always in the order given above4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if three of the four questions are correctly answered4 ,any correct designation of a coin is satisfactory1 including provincialisms like two bits for the #be-;cent piece1 etc4 ,if the child changes his response for a coin1 we count the second answer and ignore the first4 ,no supplementary questions are permissible4 ,,remarks4 ,some of the critics of the ,binet scale regard this test as of little value1 because1 they say1 the ability to identify pieces of money depends entirely on instruction or other accidents of environment4 ,the figures show1 however1 that it is not greatly influenced by differences of social environment1 although children from poor homes do slightly better with it than those from homes of wealth and culture4 ,the fact seems to be that practically all children by the age of #f years have had opportunity to learn the names of the smaller coins1 and if they have failed to learn them it betokens a lack of that spontaneity of interest in things which we have mentioned so often as a fundamental presupposition of intelligence4 ,it is by no means a test of mere mechanical memory4 ,this test was given a place in year ,,vii of ,binet's #aijh scale1 the coins used being the #a-sou1 #b-sous1 #aj-sous1 and #e-;franc pieces4 ,it was omitted from the ,binet #aiaa revision and also from that of ,goddard4 ,kuhlmann retains it in year ,,vii4 ,others1 however1 have required all four coins to be correctly named1 and when this standard is used the test is difficult enough for year ,,vii4 ,germany has six coins up to and including the #a-mark piece1 all of which could be named by #gf per cent of ,bobertag's #g-year-olds4 ,with the coins and the standard of scoring used in the ,stanford revision the test belongs well in year ,,vi4 ,,vi1 #f4 ,,repeating ,,sixteen ,,to ,,eighteen ,,syllables ,the sentences are3-- 7a7 ,we are having a fine time4 ,we found a little mouse in the trap4 7b7 ,walter had a fine time on his vacation4 ,he went fishing every day4 7c7 ,we will go out for a long walk4 ,please give me my pretty straw hat4 ,,procedure4 ,the instructions should be given as follows3 ,now1 listen4 ,i am going to say something and after ,i am through ,i want you to say it over just like ,i do4 ,understand8 ,listen carefully and be sure to say exactly what ,i say4 ,then read the first sentence rather slowly1 in a distinct voice1 and with expression4 ,if the response is not too bad1 praise the child's efforts4 ,then proceed with the second and third sentences1 prefacing each with an exhortation to say exactly what ,i say4 ,in this year and in the memory-for-sentences test of later years it is not permissible to re-read even the first sentence4 ,the only reason for allowing a repetition of one of the sentences in the earlier test of this kind was to overcome the child's timidity4 ,with children of #f years or upward we seldom encounter the timidity which sometimes makes it so hard to secure responses in some of the tests of the earlier years4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if at least one sentence out of three is repeated without error1 or if two are repeated with not more than one error each4 ,a single omission1 insertion1 or transposition counts as an error4 ,faults of pronunciation are of course overlooked4 ,it is not sufficient that the thought be reproduced intact2 the exact language must be repeated4 ,the responses should be recorded verbatim4 ,this is easily done if record blanks used for scoring have the sentences printed in full4 ,,remarks4 ,in this test and in later tests of memory for sentences1 it is interesting to ask after each response3 ,did you get it right8 ,as in the tests with digits1 it is an unfavorable sign when the child is perfectly satisfied with a very poor response4 ,it is evident that tests of this type give opportunity for different degrees of failure4 ,to repeat only a half or a third of each sentence is much more serious than to make but one error in each sentence 7one word omitted1 inserted1 or misplaced74 ,it would be possible to use the same sentences at three or four different age levels1 by setting the appropriate standard for success at each age4 ,if the standard is one sentence out of three repeated with no more than two errors1 the test belongs in year ,v4 ,if we require two absolutely correct responses out of three1 the test belongs at about year ,,vii4 ,the shifting standard is rendered unnecessary1 however1 by the use of other tests of the same kind1 easier ones in the lower years and more difficult ones in the upper4 ,sentences of sixteen syllables found a place in ,binet's #aijh scale and were correctly located in year ,,vi1 but later revisions1 including that of ,binet1 have omitted the test4 ,,vi4 ,,alternative ,,test3 ,,forenoon ,,and ,,afternoon ,,procedure4 ,if it is morning1 ask3 ,is it morning or afternoon8 ,if it is afternoon1 put the question in the reverse form1 ,is it afternoon or morning8 ,this precaution is necessary because of the tendency of some children to choose always the latter of two alternatives4 ,do not cross-question the child or give any suggestion that might afford a clue as to the correct answer4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the correct response is given with apparent assurance4 ,if the child says he is not sure but thinks it forenoon 7or afternoon1 as the case may be71 we score the response a failure even if the answer happens to be correct4 ,however1 this type of response is not often encountered4 ,,remarks4 ,it is interesting to follow the child's development with regard to orientation in time4 ,this development proceeds much more slowly than we are wont to assume4 ,certain distinctions with regard to space1 as up and down1 come much earlier4 ,as ,binet remarks1 schools sometimes try to teach the events of national history to children whose time orientation is so rudimentary that they do not even know morning from afternoon6 ,the test has two rather serious faults3 7#a7 ,it gives too much play to chance1 for since only two alternatives are offered1 guesses alone would give about fifty per cent of correct responses4 7#b7 ,we cannot be sure that the verbal distinction between forenoon and afternoon always corresponds the two divisions of the day4 ,it is possible that the temporal discrimination precedes the formation of the correct verbal association4 ,this test was included in the year ,,vi group of the #aijh scale1 but was omitted from the #aiaa revision4 ,nearly all the data except ,bobertag's show that it is rather easy for year ,,vi1 though too difficult for year ,v4 ,bobertag's figures would place the test in year ,,vii4 ,possibly the corresponding ,german words are not as easy to learn as our morning and afternoon4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,vii ,,vii1 #a4 ,,giving ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,fingers ,,procedure4 ,how many fingers have you on one hand8 ,how many on the other hand8 ,how many on both hands together8 ,if the child begins to count in response to any of the questions1 say3 ,no1 don't count4 ,tell me without counting4 ,then repeat the question4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if all three questions are answered correctly and promptly without the necessity of counting4 ,some subjects do not understand the question to include the thumbs4 ,we disregard this if the number of fingers exclusive of thumbs is given correctly4 ,,remarks4 ,like the two tests of counting pennies1 this one1 also1 throws light on the child's spontaneous interest in numbers4 ,however1 the mental processes it calls into play are a little less simple than those required for mere counting4 ,if the child is able to give the number of fingers1 it is ordinarily because he has previously counted them and has remembered the result4 ,the memory would hardly be retained but for a certain interest in numbers as such4 ,middle-grade imbeciles of even adult age seldom remember how many fingers they have1 however often they may have been told4 ,they are not able to form accurate concepts of other than the simplest number relationships1 and numbers have little interest or meaning for them4 ,binet gave this test a place in year ,,vii of the #aijh series1 but omitted it in the #aiaa revision4 ,goddard omits it1 while ,kuhlmann retains it in year ,,vii1 where1 according to our own figures1 it unmistakably belongs4 ,bobertag finds it rather easy for year ,,vii1 though too difficult for year ,,vi4 ,our data prove that this test fulfills the requirements of a good test4 ,it shows a rapid but even rise from year ,v to year ,,viii in the per cent passing1 the agreement among the different testers is extraordinarily close1 and it is relatively little influenced by training and social environment4 ,for these reasons1 and because it is so easy to give and score with uniformity1 it well deserves a place in the scale4 ,,vii1 #b4 ,,description ,,of ,,pictures ,,procedure4 ,use the same pictures as in ,,iii1 #c1 presenting them always in the following order3 ,dutch ,home1 ,river ,scene1 ,post-,office4 ,the formula for the test in this year is somewhat different from that of year ,,iii4 ,say3 ,what is this picture about8 ,what is this a picture of8 ,use the double question1 and follow the formula exactly4 ,it would ruin the test to say3 ,tell me everything you see in this picture1 for this form of question tends to provoke the enumeration response even with intelligent children of this age4 ,when there is no response1 the question may be repeated as often as is necessary to break the silence4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three pictures are described or interpreted4 ,interpretation1 however1 is seldom encountered at this age4 ,often the response consists of a mixture of enumeration and description4 ,the rule is that the reaction to a picture should not be scored plus unless it is made up chiefly of description 7or interpretation74 ,study of the following samples of satisfactory responses will give a fairly definite idea of the requirements for satisfactory description3-- ,picture 7a73 satisfactory responses ,the little girl is crying4 ,the mother is looking at her and there is a little kitten on the floor4 ,the mother is watching the baby1 and the cat is looking at a hole in the floor1 and there is a lamp and a table so ,i guess it's a dining room4 ,the little girl has wooden shoes4 ,her mother is sitting in a chair and has a funny cap on her head4 ,the cat is sitting on the floor and there is a basket by the mother and a table with something on it4 ,it's about ,holland4 ,the little ,dutch girl is crying and the mother is sitting down4 ,a little ,dutch girl and her mother and that's a kitten1 and the little girl has her hand up as if she was doing something to her forehead4 ,she has shoes that curve up in front4 ,dutch lady1 and the little baby doesn't want to come to her mother and the cat is looking for some mice4 ,the mother is sitting down and the little one has her hands up over her eyes4 ,there's a pail by the mother and a chair with some clothes on it and a table with dishes4 ,and here's a lamp and here's some curtains4 ,picture 7b73 satisfactory responses ,some people in a boat4 ,the water is high and if they don't look out the boat will tip over4 ,some ,indians and a lady and man4 ,they are in a boat on the river and the boat is about to upset1 and there are some dead trees going to fall4 ,there's a lot of water coming up to drown the people4 ,there are two people in the boat and the boat is sinking4 ,there's some people sailing in a canoe and the woman is leaning over on the man because she is afraid4 ,there's an ,indian and some white people in the boat4 ,i suppose they are out for a ride in a canoe4 ,picture about some man and lady in a canoe and going down to the sea4 ,they are taking a boat ride on the ocean and the water is up so high that one of them is scared4 ,here are some trees and two of them are going to fall down4 ,here's a little place or bridge you can stand on4 ,the man is touching this one's head and this one has his hand on the cover4 ,the water is splashing all over4 ,there's trees on this bank and there's a rock and some trees falling down4 ,the people have a blanket over them4 ,picture 7c73 satisfactory responses ,a man selling eggs and two men reading the paper together and two men watching4 ,a few men reading a newspaper and one has a basket of eggs and this one has been fishing4 ,there's a man with a basket of eggs and another is reading the paper and a woman is hanging out clothes4 ,there's a house near4 ,there's a man trying to read the paper and the others want to read it too4 ,here's a lady walking up to the barn4 ,there are houses over there and one man has a basket4 ,there's a big brick house and five men by it and a man with a basket of eggs and a post-office sign and a lady going home4 ,they are all looking at the paper4 ,he is looking over the other man's shoulder and this one is looking at the back of the paper4 ,there's a woman cleaning up her back yard and some coops for hens4 ,a man reading a paper1 a man with eggs1 a woman and a tree and another house4 ,that man has an apron on4 ,this is the post-office4 ,unsatisfactory responses are those made up entirely or mainly of enumeration4 ,a phrase or two of description intermingled with a larger amount of enumeration counts minus4 ,sometimes the description is satisfactory as far as it goes1 but is exceedingly brief4 ,in such cases a little tactful urging 7,go ahead1 etc47 will extend the response sufficiently to reveal its true character4 ,,remarks4 ,description is better than enumeration because it involves putting the elements of a picture together in a simple way or noting their qualities4 ,this requires a higher type of mental association 7combinative power7 than mere enumeration4 ,an unusually complete description indicates relative wealth of mental content and facility of association4 ,binet placed this test in year ,,vii1 and it seems to have been retained in this location in all revisions except ,bobertag's4 ,however1 the statistics of various workers show much disagreement4 ,lack of agreement is easily accounted for by the fact that different investigators have used different series of pictures and doubtless also different standards for success4 ,the pictures used by ,binet have little action or detail and are therefore rather difficult for description4 ,on the other hand1 the ,jingleman-,jack pictures used by ,kuhlmann represent such familiar situations and have so much action that even #e- or #f-year intelligence seldom fails with them4 ,the pictures we employ belong without question in year ,,vii4 ,no better proof than the above could be found to show how ability of a given kind does not make its appearance suddenly4 ,there is no one time in the life of even a single child when the power to describe pictures suddenly develops4 ,on the contrary1 pictures of a certain type will ordinarily provoke description1 rather than enumeration1 as early as #e or #f years2 others not before #g or #h years1 or even later4 ,,vii1 #c4 ,,repeating ,,five ,,digits ,,procedure4 ,use3 #c-a-g-e-i2 #d-b-c-h-e2 #i-h-a-g-f4 ,tell the child to listen and to say after you just what you say4 ,then read the first series of digits at a slightly faster rate than one per second1 in a distinct voice1 and with perfectly uniform emphasis4 ,avoid rhythm4 ,in previous tests with digits1 it was permissible to re-read the first series if the child refused to respond4 ,in this year1 and in the digits tests of later years1 this is not permissible4 ,warning is not given as to the number of digits to be repeated4 ,before reading each series1 get the child's attention4 ,do not stare at the child during the response1 as this is disconcerting4 ,look aside or at the record sheet4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the child repeats correctly1 after a single reading1 one series out of the three series given4 ,the order must be correct4 ,,remarks4 ,psychologically the repetition of digits differs from the repetition of sentences mainly in the fact that digits have less meaning 7fewer associations7 than the words of a sentence4 ,it is because they are not as well knit together in meaning that three digits tax the memory as much as six syllables making up a sentence4 ,testing auditory memory for digits is one of the oldest of intelligence tests4 ,it is easy to give and lends itself well to exact quantitative standardization4 ,its value has been questioned1 however1 on two grounds3 7#a7 ,that it is not a test of pure memory1 but depends largely on attention2 and 7#b7 that the results are too much influenced by the child's type of imagery4 ,as to the first objection1 it is true that more than one mental function is brought into play by the test4 ,the same may be said of every other test in the ,binet scale and for that matter of any test that could be devised4 ,it is impossible to isolate any function for separate testing4 ,in fact1 the functions called memory1 attention1 perception1 judgment1 etc41 never operate in isolation4 ,there are no separate and special faculties corresponding to such terms1 which are merely convenient names for characterizing mental processes of various types4 ,in any test it is general ability which is operative1 perhaps now chiefly in remembering1 at another time chiefly in sensory discrimination1 again in reasoning1 etc4 ,the second objection1 that the test is largely invalidated by the existence of imagery types1 is not borne out by the facts4 ,experiments have shown that pure imagery types are exceedingly rare1 and that children1 especially1 are characterized by mixed imagery4 ,there are probably few subjects so lacking in auditory imagery as to be placed at a serious disadvantage in this test4 ,lengthening a series by the addition of a single digit adds greatly to the difficulty4 ,while four digits can usually be repeated by children of #d years1 five digits belong in year ,,vii and six in year ,x4 ,it is always interesting to note the type of errors made4 ,the most common error is to omit one or more of the digits1 usually in the first part of the series4 ,if the child's ability is decidedly below the test he may give only the last two or three out of the five or six heard4 ,substitutions are also quite frequent1 and if so many substitutions are made as to give a series quite unlike that which the child has heard1 it is an unfavorable sign1 indicating weakness of the critical sense which is so often found with low-level intelligence4 ,in case of extreme weakness of the power of auto-criticism1 the child in response to the series #i-h-a-g-f-1 may say #a-b-c-d-e-f1 or perhaps merely a couple of digits like #h-f1 and still express complete satisfaction with his absurd response4 ,after each series1 therefore1 the examiner should say1 ,was it right8#ed ,very young subjects1 however1 have a tendency to answer yes to any question of this type1 and it is therefore best not to call for criticism of a performance below the age of #f or #g years4 #ed ,was it wrong8 is not an equivalent question and should not be used4 ,digit series of a given length are not always of equal difficulty1 and for this reason it is never wise to use series improvised at the moment of the experiment4 ,we must avoid especially series of regularly ascending or descending value1 the repetition at regular intervals of a particular digit1 and all other peculiarities of arrangement which would favor the grouping of the digits for easier retention4 ,it remains to mention two or three further cautions in regard to procedure4 ,it is best to begin with a series about one digit below the child's expected ability4 ,if the child has a probable intelligence of about #f or #g years1 we should begin with four digits2 in case of probable #aj-year intelligence we begin with five digits1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 we should avoid beginning too far down1 because then the result is too much complicated by the effects of practice and fatigue4 ,it is not necessary1 and often it is not expedient1 to give the digits tests of all the different years in succession2 that is1 without other tests intervening4 ,while this may be permissible with older children1 in young children the power of sustained attention is so weak that no single kind of test should occupy more than two or three minutes4 ,children below #f or #g years should ordinarily be given the tests in the order in which they are listed in the record booklet4 ,in his #aiaa revision of the scale ,binet unfortunately shifted this test from year ,,vii to year ,,viii4 ,goddard follows his example1 but ,kuhlmann retains it in year ,,vii4 ,the data from more than a dozen leading investigations in ,america1 ,england1 and ,germany agree in showing that the test should remain in year ,,vii4 ,,vii1 #d4 ,,tying ,a ,,bow-,,knot ,,procedure4 ,prepare a shoestring tied in a bow-knot around a stick4 ,the knot should be an ordinary double bow1 with wings not over three or four inches long4 ,make this ready in advance of the experiment and show the child only the completed knot4 ,place the model before the subject with the wings pointing to the right and left1 and say3 ,you know what kind of knot this is1 don't you8 ,it is a bow-knot4 ,i want you to take this other piece of string and tie the same kind of knot around my finger4 ,at the same time give the child a piece of shoestring1 of the same length as that which is tied around the stick1 and hold out a finger pointed toward the child and in convenient position for the operation4 ,it is better to have the subject tie the string around the examiner's finger than around a pencil or other object because the latter often falls out of the string and is otherwise awkward to handle4 ,some children who assert that they do not know how to tie a bow-knot are sometimes nevertheless successful when urged to try4 ,it is always necessary1 therefore1 to secure an actual trial4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if a double bow-knot 7both ends folded in7 is made in not more than a minute4 ,a single bow-knot 7only one end folded in7 counts half credit1 because children are often accustomed to use the single bow altogether4 ,the usual plain common knot1 which precedes the bow-knot proper1 must not be omitted if the response is to count as satisfactory1 for without this preliminary plain knot a bow-knot will not hold and is of no value4 ,to be satisfactory the knot should also be drawn up reasonably close1 not left gaping4 ,,remarks4 ,this test1 which had not before been standardized1 was suggested to the writer by the late ,dr4 ,huey1 who in a conversation once remarked upon the frequent inability of feeble-minded adults to perform the little motor tasks which are universally learned by normal persons in childhood4 ,the test was therefore incorporated in the ,stanford trial series of #aiac-ad and tried with #cgj non-selected children within two months of the #fth1 #gth1 #hth1 or #ith birthday4 ,it was expected that the test would probably be found to belong at about the #h-year level1 but it proved to be easy enough for year ,,vii1 where #fi per cent of the children passed it4 ,only #ce per cent of the #f-year-olds succeeded1 but after that age the per cent passing increased rapidly to #id per cent at #i years4 ,this little experiment1 simple as it is1 seems to fulfill reasonably well the requirements of a good test4 ,the main objection which might be brought against it is that it is much subject to the influence of training4 ,if this were true in any marked degree1 the mentally retarded children of #g-year intelligence should be expected to succeed better with it than mentally advanced children of the same mental level1 since the former would have had at least two or three years more in which to learn the task4 ,a comparison of the two groups1 however1 shows no great difference4 ,the factor of age1 apart from mental age1 affects the results so little that it is evident we have here a real test of intelligence4 ,it would1 of course1 be easy to imagine a child of #g years who had not had reasonable opportunity to make the acquaintance of bow-knots or to learn to tie them4 ,but such children are seldom encountered in the ages above #f or #g4 ,of #fh #g-year-olds who were asked whether they had ever seen a bow-knot 7a knot like that7 only two replied in the negative4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that specific instruction and special stimulus to practice do play a certain part4 ,this is suggested by the fact that girls excel the boys somewhat at each age1 doubtless because bow-knots play a larger rle in feminine apparel4 ,social status affects the results in only a moderate degree1 though it might be supposed that poor ragamuffins1 on the one hand1 and children of the very rich1 on the other1 would both make a poor showing in this test2 the former because of their scanty apparel1 the latter because they sometimes have servants to dress them4 ,the following are probably the chief factors determining success with this test3 7#a7 ,interest in common objective things2 7#b7 ability to form permanent associative connections between successive motor cordinations 7memory for a series of acts72 and 7#c7 skill in the acquisition of voluntary motor control4 ,the last factor is probably much less important than the other two4 ,motor awkwardness often prolongs the time from the usual ten or fifteen seconds to thirty or forty seconds1 but it is rarely a cause of a failure4 ,the important thing is to be able to reproduce the appropriate succession of acts1 acts which nearly all children of #g years1 under the joint stimulus of example and spontaneous interest1 have before performed or tried to perform4 ,,vii1 #e4 ,,giving ,,differences ,,from ,,memory ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,what is the difference between a fly and a butterfly8 ,if the child does not seem to understand1 say3 ,you know flies1 do you not8 ,you have seen flies8 ,and you know the butterflies6 ,now1 tell me the difference between a fly and a butterfly4 ,proceed in the same way with stone and egg1 and wood and glass4 ,a little coaxing is sometimes necessary to secure a response1 but supplementary questions and suggestions of every kind are to be avoided4 ,for example1 it would not be permissible for the examiner to say3 ,which is larger1 a fly or a butterfly8 ,this would give the child his cue and he would immediately answer1 ,a butterfly4 ,the child must be left to find a difference by himself4 ,sometimes a difference is given1 but without any indication as to its direction1 as1 for example1 ,one is bigger than the other 7for fly and butterfly74 ,it is then permissible to ask3 ,which is bigger8 ,,scoring4 ,passed if a real difference is given in two out of three comparisons4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that an essential difference be given2 the difference may be trivial1 only it must be a real one4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses3-- ,fly and butterfly ,satisfactory4 ,butterfly is larger4 ,butterfly has bigger wings4 ,fly is black and a butterfly is not4 ,butterfly is yellow 7or white1 etc47 and fly is black4 ,fly bites you and butterfly don't4 ,butterfly has powder on its wings1 fly does not4 ,fly flies straighter4 ,butterfly is outdoors and a fly is in the house4 ,flies are more dangerous to our health4 ,flies haven't anything to sip honey with4 ,butterfly doesn't live as long as a fly4 ,butterfly comes from a caterpillar4 ,sometimes a double contrast is meant1 but not fully expressed2 as1 ,a fly is small and a butterfly is pretty4 ,here the thought is probably correct1 only the language is awkward4 ,of #ajb correct responses1 #gj were in terms of size1 or size plus color or form2 #ab were in terms of both form and color2 #f in terms of color alone2 and the rest scattered among such responses as those mentioned above4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,these are mostly misstatements of facts2 as3 ,fly is bigger4 ,fly has legs and butterfly hasn't4 ,butterfly has no feet and fly has4 ,butterfly makes butter4 ,fly is a fly and a butterfly is not4 ,failures due to misstatement of fact are of endless variety4 ,if an indefinite response is given1 like ,the fly is different1 or ,they don't look alike1 we ask1 ,how is it different8 or1 ,why don't they look alike8 ,it is satisfactory if the child then gives a correct answer4 ,stone and egg ,satisfactory4 ,stone is harder4 ,egg is softer4 ,egg breaks easier4 ,egg breaks and stone doesn't4 ,stone is heavier4 ,egg is white and stone is not4 ,egg has a shell and stone does not4 ,eggs have a white and a yellow in them4 ,you put eggs in a pudding4 ,an egg is rounder than a stone4 ,we may also accept statements which are only qualifiedly true2 as1 ,you can break an egg1 but not a stone4 ,likewise double but incomplete comparisons are satisfactory2 as1 ,an egg you fry and a stone you throw1 ,a stone is tough and an egg you eat1 etc4 ,a little over three fourths of the comparisons made by children of #f1 #g1 and #h years are in terms of hardness4 ,the other responses are widely scattered4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,a stone is bigger 7or smaller7 than an egg4 ,a stone is square and an egg is round4 ,an egg is yellow and a stone is white4 ,stones are red 7or black1 etc47 and eggs are white4 ,an egg is to eat and a stone is to plant4 ,an egg is round and a stone is sometimes round4 ,it will be noted that the above responses are partly true and partly false4 ,the error they contain renders them unacceptable4 ,most of the failures are due to misstatements as to size1 shape1 or color1 but occasionally one meets a bizarre answer4 ,wood and glass ,satisfactory4 ,glass breaks easier than wood4 ,glass breaks and wood does not4 ,wood is stronger than glass4 ,glass you can see through and wood you can't4 ,glass cuts you and wood doesn't4 ,you get splinters from wood and you don't from glass4 ,glass melts and wood doesn't4 ,wood burns and glass doesn't4 ,wood has bark and glass hasn't4 ,wood grows and glass doesn't4 ,glass is heavier than wood4 ,glass glistens in the sun and wood does not4 ,an incomplete double comparison is also counted satisfactory2 as1 ,wood you can burn and glass you can see through4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,wood is black and glass is white4 7,color differences are always unsatisfactory in this comparison unless transparency is also mentioned47 ,glass is square and wood is round4 ,glass is bigger than wood 7or vice versa74 ,wood is oblong and glass is square4 ,glass is thin and wood is thick4 ,wood is made out of trees and glass out of windows4 ,there is no glass in wood4 ,the two most frequent types of failures are misstatements regarding color and thickness4 ,the other failures are widely scattered4 ,,remarks4 ,the test is one which all the critics agree in commending1 largely because it is so little influenced by ordinary school experience4 ,its excellence lies mainly1 however1 in the fact that it throws light upon the character of the child's higher thought processes1 for thinking means essentially the association of ideas on the basis of differences or similarities4 ,nearly all thought processes1 from the most complex to the very simplest1 involve to a greater or less degree one or the other of these two types of association4 ,they are involved in the simple judgments made by children1 in the appreciation of puns1 in mechanical inventions1 in the creation of poetry1 in the scientific classification of natural phenomena1 and in the origination of the hypotheses of science or philosophy4 ,the ability to note differences precedes somewhat the ability to note resemblances1 though the contrary has sometimes been asserted by logician-psychologists4 ,the difficulty of the test is greatly increased by the fact that the objects to be compared are not present to the senses1 which means that the free ideas must be called up for comparison and contrast4 ,failure may result either from weakness in the power of ideational representation of objects1 or from the inadequacy of the associations themselves1 or from both4 ,probably both factors are usually involved4 ,intellectual development is especially evident in increased ability to note essential differences and likenesses1 as contrasted with those which are trivial1 superficial1 and accidental4 ,to distinguish an egg from a stone on the basis of one being organic1 the other inorganic matter requires far higher intelligence than to distinguish them on the basis of shape1 color1 fragibility1 etc4 ,it is not till well toward the adult stage that the ability to give very essential likenesses and differences becomes prominent1 and when we get a comparison of this type from a child of #g or #h years it is a very favorable sign4 ,it would be well worth while to standardize a new test of this kind for use in the upper years and especially adapted to display the ability to give essential likenesses and differences4 ,at year ,,vii we must accept as satisfactory any real difference4 ,one point remains4 ,in the tests of giving differences and similarities1 it is well to make note of any tendency to stereotypy1 by which is meant the mechanical reappearance of the same idea1 or element1 in successive responses4 ,for example1 the child begins by comparing fly and butterfly on the basis of size2 as1 ,a butterfly is bigger than a fly4 ,so far1 this is quite satisfactory2 but the child with a tendency to stereotypy finds himself unable to get away from the dominating idea of size and continues to make it the basis of the other comparisons3 ,a stone is larger than an egg1 ,wood is larger than glass1 etc4 ,in case of stereotypy in all three responses1 we should have to score the total response failure even though the idea employed happened to fit all three parts of the question4 ,as a rule it is encountered only with very young children or with older children who are mentally retarded4 ,it is therefore an unfavorable sign4 ,although this test has been universally used in year ,,viii1 all the available statistics1 with the exception of ,bobertag's and ,bloch's1 indicate that it is decidedly too easy for that year4 ,binet himself says that nearly all #g-year-olds pass it4 ,goddard finds #ig per cent passing at year ,,viii1 and ,dougherty #ij per cent at year ,,vi4 ,with the standard of scoring given in the present revision1 and with the substitution of stone and egg instead of the more difficult paper and cloth1 the test is unquestionably easy enough for year ,,vii4 ,,vii1 #f4 ,,copying ,a ,,diamond ,,procedure4 ,on a white cardboard draw in heavy black lines a diamond with the longer diagonal three inches and the shorter diagonal an inch and a half4 ,the specially prepared record booklet contains the diamond as well as many other conveniences4 ,place the model before the child with the longer diagonal pointing directly toward him1 and giving him pen and ink and paper1 say3 ,i want you to draw one exactly like this4 ,give three trials1 saying each time3 ,make it exactly like this one4 ,in repeating the above formula1 merely point to the model2 do not pass the fingers around its edge4 ,unlike the test of copying a square in year ,,iv1 there is seldom any difficulty in getting the child to try this one4 ,by the age of #g the child has grown much less timid and has become more accustomed to the use of writing materials4 ,note whether the child draws each part carefully1 looking at the model from time to time1 or whether the strokes are made in a more or less haphazard manner with only an initial glance at the original4 ,after each trial1 say to the child3 ,is it good8 ,and after the three copies have been made say3 ,which one is the best8 ,retarded children are sometimes entirely satisfied with the most nondescript drawings imaginable1 but they are more likely correctly to pick out the best of three than to render a correct judgment about the worth of each drawing separately4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three drawings are at least as good as those marked satisfactory on the score card4 ,the diamond should be drawn approximately in the correct position1 and the diagonals must not be reversed4 ,disregard departures from the model with respect to size4 ,,remarks4 ,the test is a good one4 ,age and training1 apart from intelligence1 affect it only moderately4 ,there are few adult imbeciles of #f-year intelligence who are able to pass it1 while but few subjects who have reached the #h-year level fail on it4#ee #ee ,for further discussion of drawing tests1 see ,v1 #a1 and ,x1 #c4 ,this test was located in year ,,vii of the #aijh scale1 but was shifted to year ,,vi in ,binet's #aiaa revision4 ,the change was without justification1 for ,binet expressly states1 both in #aijh and #aiaa1 that only half of the #f-year-olds succeed with it4 ,the large majority of investigations have given too low a proportion of successes at #f years to warrant its location at that age1 particularly if pen is required instead of pencil4 ,location at year ,,vi would be warranted only on the condition that the use of pencil be permitted and only one success required in three trials4 ,,vii1 ,,alternative ,,test #a3 ,,naming ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,the ,,week ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,you know the days of the week1 do you not8 ,name the days of the week for me4 ,sometimes the child begins by naming various annual holidays1 as ,christmas1 ,fourth of ,july1 etc4 ,perhaps he has not comprehended the task2 at any rate1 we give him one more trial by stopping him and saying3 ,no2 that is not what ,i mean4 ,i want you to name the days of the week4 ,no supplementary questions are permissible1 and we must be careful not to show approval or disapproval in our looks as the child is giving his response4 ,if the days have been named in correct order1 we check up the response to see whether the real order of days is known or whether the names have only been repeated mechanically4 ,this is done by asking the following questions3 ,what day comes before ,tuesday8 ,what day comes before ,thursday8 ,what day comes before ,friday8 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if1 within fifteen seconds1 the days of the week are all named in correct order1 and if the child succeeds in at least two of the three check questions4 ,we disregard the point of beginning4 ,,remarks4 ,the test has been criticized as too dependent on rote memory4 ,bobertag says a child may pass it without having any adequate conception of week1 yesterday1 day before yesterday1 etc4 ,this criticism holds if the test is given according to the older procedure1 but does not apply with the procedure above recommended4 ,the checking-up questions enable us at once to distinguish responses that are given by rote from those which rest upon actual knowledge4 ,the test has been shown to be much more influenced by age1 apart from intelligence1 than most other tests of the scale4 ,notwithstanding this fault1 it seems desirable to keep the test1 at least as an alternative1 because it forms one of a group which may be designated as tests of time orientation4 ,the others of this group are3 ,distinguishing forenoon and afternoon 7,,vi71 ,giving the date and ,naming the months 7,,ix74 ,it would be well if we had even more of this type1 for interest in the passing of time and in the names of time divisions is closely correlated with intelligence4 ,one reason for the inferiority of the dull and feeble-minded in tests of this type is that their mental associations are weaker and less numerous4 ,the greater poverty of their associations brings it about that their remembered experiences are less definitely located in time with reference to other events4 ,the test was located in year ,,ix of the #aijh scale1 but was omitted from the #aiaa revision4 ,kuhlmann also omits it1 while ,goddard places it in year ,,viii4 ,the statistics from every ,american investigation1 however1 warrant its location in year ,,vii4 ,it may be located in year ,,viii only on the condition that the child be required to name the days backwards1 and that within a rather low time limit4 ,,vii1 ,,alternative ,,test #b3 ,,repeating ,,three ,,digits ,,reversed ,,procedure4 ,the digits used are3 #b-h-c2 #d-b-g2 #e-i-f4 ,the test should be given after1 but not immediately after1 the tests of repeating digits forwards4 ,say to the child3 ,listen carefully4 ,i am going to read some numbers again1 but this time ,i want you to say them backwards4 ,for example1 if ,i should say #a-b-c1 you would say #c-b-a4 ,do you understand8 ,when it is evident that the child has grasped the instructions1 say3 ,ready now2 listen carefully1 and be sure to say the numbers backwards4 ,then read the series at the same rate and in the same manner as in the other digits tests4 ,it is not permissible to re-read any of the series4 ,if the first series is repeated forwards instead of backwards series exhort the child to listen carefully and to be sure to repeat the numbers backwards4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if one series out of three is repeated backwards without error4 ,,remarks4 ,the test of repeating digits backwards was suggested by ,bobertag in #aiaa1 but appears not to have been used or standardized previous to the ,stanford investigation4 ,it is very much harder to repeat a series of digits backwards in the direct order at year ,,vii1 and six at year ,x4 ,reversing the order places three digits in year ,,vii1 four in year ,x1 five in year ,,xii1 and six in average adult4 ,even intelligent adults sometimes have difficulty in repeating six digits backwards1 once in three trials4 ,as a test of intelligence this test is better than that of repeating digits in the direct order4 ,it is less mechanical and makes a much heavier demand on attention4 ,the digits must be so firmly fixated in memory that they can be held there long enough to be told off1 one by one1 backwards4 ,feeble-minded children find this test especially difficult1 perhaps mainly because of its element of novelty4 ,school children are often asked to write numbers dictated by the teacher1 and even the very dull acquire a certain proficiency in doing so2 but the test of repeating digits backwards requires a certain facility in adjusting to a new task1 exactly the sort of thing in which the feeble-minded are so markedly deficient4 ,as a rule the response consumes much more time than in the other digits test4 ,this is particularly true when the series to be repeated backwards contains four or more digits4 ,the chance of success is greatly increased if the subject first thinks the series through two or three times in the direct order before attempting the reverse order4 ,the subject who responds immediately is likely to begin correctly1 but to give the first part of the original series in the direct order4 ,for example1 #f-e-b-h is given #h-b-f-e4 ,sometimes the child gives one or two numbers and then stops1 having completely lost the rest of the series in the stress of adjusting to the novel and relatively difficult task of beginning with the final digit4 ,in such cases the feeble-minded are prone to fill in with any numbers they may happen to think of4 ,a good method for the subject is to break the series up into groups and to give each group separately4 ,thus1 #f-e-b-h is given #h-b 7pause7 #e-f4 ,as a rule only the more intelligent subjects adopt this method4 ,one #ab-year-old girl attending high school was able to repeat eight digits backwards by the aid of this device4 ,it would be well worth while to investigate the relation of this test to imagery type4 ,such a study would have to make use of adult subjects trained in introspection4 ,it would seem that success might be favored by the ability to translate the auditory impression into visual imagery1 so that the remembered numbers could be read off as from a book2 but this may or may not be the case4 ,at any rate1 success seems to depend largely upon the ability to manipulate mental imagery4 ,the degree of certainty as to the correctness of the response is usually much less than in repeating digits forwards4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,viii ,,viii1 #a4 ,,the ,,ball-,,and-,,field ,,test 7,,score #b1 ,,inferior ,,plan7 ,,procedure4 ,draw a circle about two and one half inches in diameter1 leaving a small gap in the side next the child4 ,say3 ,let us suppose that your baseball has been lost in this round field4 ,you have no idea what part of the field it is in4 ,you don't know what direction it came from1 how it got there1 or with what force it came4 ,all you know is that the ball is lost somewhere in the field4 ,now1 take this pencil and mark out a path to show me how you would hunt for the ball so as to be sure not to miss it4 ,begin at the gate and show me what path you would take4#ef #ef ,the ,stanford record booklet contains the circle ready for use4 ,give the instructions always as worded above4 ,avoid using an expression like1 ,show me how you would walk around in the field2 the word around might suggest a circular path4 ,sometimes the child merely points or tells how he would go4 ,it is then necessary to say3 ,no2 you must mark out your path with the pencil so ,i can see it plainly4 ,other children trace a path only a little way and stop1 saying3 ,here it is4 ,we then say3 ,but suppose you have not found it yet4 ,which direction would you go next8 ,in this way the child must be kept tracing a path until it is evident whether any plan governs his procedure4 ,,scoring4 ,the performances secured with this test are conveniently classified into four groups1 representing progressively higher types4 ,the first two types represent failures2 the third is satisfactory at year ,,viii1 the fourth at year ,,xii4 ,they may be described as follows3-- ,type a 7failure74 ,the child fails to comprehend the instructions and either does nothing at all or else1 perhaps1 takes the pencil and makes a few random strokes which could not be said to constitute a search4 ,type b 7also failure74 ,the child comprehends the instructions and carries out a search1 but without any definite plan4 ,absence of plan is evidenced by the crossing and re-crossing of paths1 or by breaks4 ,a break means that the pencil is lifted up and set down in another part of the field4 ,sometimes only two or three fragments of paths are drawn1 but more usually the field is pretty well filled up with random meanderings which cross each other again and again4 ,other illustrations of type b are3 ,a single straight or curved line going direct to the ball1 short haphazard dashes or curves1 bare suggestion of a fan or spiral4 ,type c 7satisfactory at year ,,viii74 ,a successful performance at year ,,viii is characterized by the presence of a plan1 but one ill-adapted to the purpose4 ,that some forethought is exercised is evidenced1 7#a7 by fewer crossings1 7#b7 by a tendency either to make the lines more or less parallel or else to give them some kind of symmetry1 and 7#c7 by fewer breaks4 ,the possibilities of type c are almost unlimited1 and one is continually meeting new forms4 ,we have distinguished more than twenty of these1 the most common of which may be described as follows3-- #a4 ,very rough or zigzag circles or similarly imperfect spirals4 #b4 ,segments of curves joined in a more or less symmetrical fashion4 #c4 ,lines going back and forth across the field1 joined at the ends and not intended to be parallel4 #d4 ,the wheel plan1 showing lines radiating from near the center of the field toward the circumference4 #e4 ,the fan plan1 showing a number of lines radiating 7usually7 from the gate and spreading out over the field4 #f4 ,fan ellipses or fan spirals radiating from the gate like the lines just described4 #g4 ,the leaf plan1 rib plan1 or tree plan1 with lines branching off from a trunk line like ribs1 veins of a leaf1 or branches of a tree4 #h4 ,parallel lines which cross at right angles and mark off the field like a checkerboard4 #i4 ,paths making one or more fairly symmetrical geometrical figures1 like a square1 a diamond1 a star1 a hexagon1 etc4 #aj4 ,a combination of two or more of the above plans4 ,type d 7satisfactory at year ,,xii74 ,performances of this type meet perfectly1 or almost perfectly1 the logical requirements of the problem4 ,the paths are almost or quite parallel1 and there are no intersections or breaks4 ,the possibilities of type d are fewer and embrace chiefly the following3-- #a4 ,a spiral1 perfect or almost perfect1 and beginning either at the gate or at the center of the field4 #b4 ,concentric circles4 #c4 ,transverse lines1 parallel or almost so1 and joined at the ends4 ,up to about #d years most children failed entirely to comprehend the task4 ,by the age of #f years the task is usually understood1 but the search is conducted without plan4 ,type c is not attained by two thirds before the mental level of #h years1 and score #c ordinarily not until #aa or #ab years4 ,grading presents some difficulties because of occasional border-line performances which have a value almost midway between the types b and c or between c and d4 ,frequent reference to the scoring card will enable the examiner1 after a little experience1 to score nearly all the doubtful performances satisfactorily4 ,,remarks4 ,the ball-and-field problem may be called a test of practical judgment4 ,unlike a majority of the other tests1 it gives the subject a chance to show how well he can meet the demands of a real1 rather than an imagined1 situation4 ,tests like this1 involving practical adjustments1 are valuable in rounding out the scale1 which1 as left by ,binet1 placed rather excessive emphasis on abstract reasoning and the comprehension of language4 ,the test requires little time and always arouses the child's interest4 ,our analysis of the responses of nearly #aejj subjects shows that improvement with increasing mental age is steady and fairly rapid4 ,occasionally1 however1 one meets a high-grade performance with children of #f or #g years1 and a low-grade performance with adults of average intelligence4 ,like all the other tests of the scale1 it is unreliable when used alone4 ,,viii1 #b4 ,,counting ,,backwards ,,from #bj ,,to #a ,,procedure4 ,say to the child3 ,you can count backwards1 can you not8 ,i want you to count backwards for me from #bj to #a4 ,go ahead4 ,in the great majority of cases this is sufficient2 the child comprehends the task and begins4 ,if he does not comprehend1 and is silent1 or starts in1 perhaps1 to count forwards from #a or #bj1 say3 ,no2 ,i want you to count backwards from #bj to #a1 like this3 #bj-ai-ah1 and clear on down to #a4 ,now1 go ahead4 ,insist upon the child trying it even though he asserts he cannot do it4 ,in many such cases an effort is crowned with success4 ,say nothing about hurrying1 as this confuses some subjects4 ,prompting is not permissible4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the child counts from #bj to #a in not over forty seconds and with not more than a single error 7one omission or one transposition74 ,errors which the child spontaneously corrects are not counted as errors4 ,,remarks4 ,the statistics on this test agree remarkably well4 ,it is plainly too easy for year ,,ix1 and no one has found it easy enough for year ,,vii4 ,the main lack of uniformity has been in the adherence to a time limit4 ,binet required that the task be completed in twenty seconds1 and ,goddard and most others adhere rather strictly to this rule4 ,kuhlmann1 however1 allows thirty seconds if there is no error and twenty seconds if one error is committed4 ,we agree with ,bobertag that owing to the nature of this test we should not be pedantic about the time4 ,while a majority of children who are able to count backwards do the task in twenty seconds1 there are some intelligent but deliberate subjects who require as much as thirty-five or forty seconds4 ,if the counting is done with assurance and without stumbling1 there is no reason why we should not allow even forty seconds4 ,beyond this1 however1 our generosity should not go1 because of the chance it would give for the use of special devices such as counting forwards each time to the next number wanted4 ,it may be said that counting backwards is a test of schooling1 and to a certain extent this is true4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that special training would enable the child to pass the test a little earlier than he would otherwise be able to do1 though it is doubtful whether many children below #g years of age have had enough of such training to influence the performance very materially4 ,on the other hand1 when the child has reached an intelligence level of #h or at most #i years1 he is ordinarily able to count from #bj to #a whether he has ever tried it before or not4 ,what psychological factors are involved in this test8 ,it presupposes1 in the first place1 the ability to count from #a to #bj4 ,but this alone does not guarantee success in counting backwards4 ,something more is required than a mere rote memory for the number names in their order from #a up to #bj4 ,the quantitative relationships of the numbers must also be apprehended if the task is to be performed smoothly without a great deal of special training4 ,in addition to being reasonably secure in his knowledge of the number relationships involved1 the child must be able to give sustained attention until the task is completed4 ,his mental processes must be dominated by the guiding idea1 count backwards4 ,associations which do not harmonize with this aim1 or which fail to further it1 must be inhibited4 ,even momentary relaxation of attention means a loss of directive force in the guiding idea and the dominance of better known associations which may be suggested by the task1 but are out of harmony with it4 ,thus1 if a child momentarily loses sight of the end after counting backwards successfully from #bj to #ad1 he is likely to be overpowered by the law of habit and begin counting forwards1 #ad-ae-af-ag1 etc4 ,we may regard the test1 therefore1 as a test of attention1 or prolonged thought control4 ,the ability to exercise unbroken vigilance for a period of twenty or thirty seconds is rarely found below the level of #g- or #h-year intelligence4 ,,viii1 #c4 ,,comprehension1 ,,third ,,degree ,the questions for this year are3-- 7a7 ,what's the thing for you to do when you have broken something which belongs to some one else8 7b7 ,what's the thing for you to do when you notice on your way to school that you are in danger of being tardy8 7c7 ,what's the thing for you to do if a playmate hits you without meaning to do it8 ,the procedure is the same as in previous comprehension questions4#eg ,each question may be repeated once or twice1 but its form must not be changed4 ,no explanations are permissible4 #eg ,see ,,iv1 #e1 and ,,vi1 #d4 ,,scoring3-- ,question a 7,if you have broken something7 ,satisfactory responses are those suggesting either restitution or apology1 or both4 ,confession is not satisfactory unless accompanied by apology4 ,the following are satisfactory3 ,buy a new one4 ,pay for it4 ,give them something instead of it4 ,have my father mend it4 ,apologize4 ,tell them ,i'm sorry1 that ,i did not mean to break it1 etc4 ,of #ib correct answers1 #gf suggested restitution1 while #af suggested apology1 or apology and restitution4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,tell them ,i did it4 ,go tell my mother4 ,feel sorry4 ,be ashamed4 ,pick it up1 etc4 ,mere confession accounts for over #bj per cent of all failures4 ,question b 7,in danger of being tardy7 ,satisfactory4 ,the expected response is1 ,hurry1 ,walk faster1 or something to that effect4 ,one bright city boy said he would take a car4 ,of the answers not obviously incorrect1 nearly #ie per cent suggest hurrying4 ,the rule ordinarily recommended is to grade all other responses minus4 ,but this rule is too sweeping to be followed blindly4 ,one who would use intelligence tests must learn to discriminate4 ,i would go back home and not go to school that day is a good answer in those cases 7fortunately rare7 in which children are forbidden by the teacher to enter the schoolroom if tardy4 ,go back home and get mother to write an excuse would be good policy if by so doing the child might escape the danger of incurring an extreme penalty4 ,when teachers inflict absurd penalties for unexcused tardiness1 it is the part of wisdom for children to incur no risks6 ,when such a response is given1 it is well to inquire into the school's method of dealing with tardiness and to score the response accordingly4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,go to the principal4 ,tell the teacher ,i couldn't help it4 ,have to get an excuse4 ,go to school anyway4 ,get punished4 ,not do it again4 ,not play hooky4 ,start earlier next time1 etc4 ,lack of success results oftenest from failure to get the exact shade of meaning conveyed by the question4 ,it is implied1 of course1 that something is to be done at once to avoid tardiness2 but the subject of dull comprehension may suggest a suitable thing to do in case tardiness has been incurred4 ,hence the response1 ,i would go to the principal and explain4 ,answers of this type are always unsatisfactory4 ,question c 7,playmate hits you7 ,satisfactory responses are only those which suggest either excusing or overlooking the act4 ,these ideas are variously expressed as follows3 ,i would excuse him 7about half of all the correct answers74 ,i would say 'yes' if he asked my pardon4 ,i would say it was all right4 ,i would take it for a joke4 ,i would just be nice to him4 ,i would go right on playing4 ,i would take it kind-hearted4 ,i would not fight or run and tell on him4 ,i would not blame him for it4 ,ask him to be more careful1 etc4 ,unsatisfactory responses are all those not of the above two types2 as3 ,i would hit them back4 ,i would not hit them back1 but ,i would get even some other way4 ,tell them not to do it again4 ,tell them to 'cut it out4' ,tell him it's a wrong thing to do4 ,make him excuse himself4 ,make him say he's sorry4 ,would not play with him4 ,tell my mamma4 ,i would ask him why he did it4 ,he'd say 'excuse me' and ,i'd say 'thank you4' ,he should excuse me4 ,he is supposed to say 'excuse me4' ,,remarks4 ,all three comprehension questions of this year were used by ,binet1 ,goddard1 ,huey1 and others in year ,x2 two of them in the easy series and one in the hard series4 ,the ,stanford data show that they belong at the #h-year level on the standard of scoring above set forth4 ,the three differ little among themselves in difficulty1 but all of them are decidedly easier than the other five used by ,binet4 ,it would be absurd to go on using the comprehension questions as ,binet bunched them1 eight together1 ranging in difficulty from one which is easy enough for #f-year intelligence 7,what's the thing to do if you miss your train87 to one which is hard for the #ab-year level 7,why is a bad act done when one is angry more excusable than the same act done when one is not angry874 ,,viii1 #d4 ,,giving ,,similarities2 ,,two ,,things ,,procedure4 ,say to the child3 ,i am going to name two things which are alike in some way1 and ,i want you to tell me how they are alike4 ,wood and coal3 in what way are they alike8 ,proceed in the same manner with3-- ,an apple and a peach4 ,iron and silver4 ,a ship and an automobile4 ,after the first pair the formula may be abbreviated to ,in what way are 444 and 444 alike8 ,it is often necessary to insist a little if the child is silent or says he does not know1 but in doing this we must avoid supplementary questions and suggestions4 ,in giving the first pair1 for example1 it would not be permissible to ask such additional questions as1 ,what do you use wood for8 ,what do you use coal for8 ,and now1 how are wood and coal alike8 ,this is really putting the answer in the child's mouth4 ,it is only permissible to repeat the original question in a persuasive tone of voice1 and perhaps to add3 ,i'm sure you can tell me how 444 and 444 are alike1 or something to that effect4 ,a very common mistake which the child makes is to give differences instead of similarities4 ,this tendency is particularly strong if test #e1 year ,,vii 7giving differences71 has been given earlier in the sitting1 but it happens often enough in other cases also to suggest that finding differences is1 to a much greater extent than finding similarities1 the child's preferred method of making a comparison4 ,when a difference is given1 instead of a similarity1 we say3 ,no1 ,i want you to tell me how they are alike4 ,in what way are 444 and 444 alike8 ,unless the child is of rather low intelligence level this is sufficient1 but the mentally retarded sometimes continue to give differences persistently in spite of repeated admonitions1 or if they cease to do so for one or two comparisons1 they are likely to repeat the mistake in the latter part of the test4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if a likeness is given in two out of four comparisons4 ,we accept as satisfactory any real likeness1 whether fundamental or superficial1 though1 of course1 the more essential the resemblance1 the better indication it is of intelligence4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory answers3--#eh #eh ,for aid in classifying the responses in this and certain other tests the writer is indebted to ,miss ,grace ,lyman4 7a7 ,wood and coal ,satisfactory4 ,both burn4 ,both keep you warm4 ,both are used for fuel4 ,both are vegetable matter4 ,both come from the ground4 ,can use them both for running engines4 ,both hard4 ,both heavy4 ,both cost money4 ,of #hj correct answers1 #fd1 or #hj per cent1 referred in one way or another to combustibility4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,most frequent is the persistent giving of a difference instead of a similarity4 ,this accounts for a little over half of all the failures4 ,about half of the remainder are cases of inability to give any response4 ,incorrect statements with regard to color are rather common4 ,sample failures of this type are3 ,both are black1 or ,both the same color4 ,other failures are3 ,both are dirty on the outside2 ,you can't break them2 ,coal burns better2 ,wood is lighter than coal1 etc4 7b7 ,an apple and a peach ,satisfactory4 ,both are round4 ,both the same shape4 ,they are about the same color4 ,both nearly always have some red on them4 ,both good to eat4 ,can make pies of both of them4 ,both can be cooked4 ,both mellow when they are ripe4 ,both have a stem 7or seeds1 skin1 etc474 ,both come from trees4 ,can be dried in the same way4 ,both are fruits4 ,both green 7in color7 when they are not ripe4 ,of #hb correct answers1 #be per cent mention color2 #be per cent1 form2 #bb per cent1 edibility2 #bj per cent1 having stem1 seed1 or skin2 and #e per cent1 that both grow on trees4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,both taste the same4 ,both have a lot of seeds4 ,both have a fuzzy skin4 ,an apple is bigger than a peach4 ,one is red and one is white1 etc4 ,again1 over #ej per cent of the failures are due to giving differences and about #ah per cent to silence4 7c7 ,iron and silver ,satisfactory4 ,both are metals 7or mineral74 ,both come out of the ground4 ,both cost money4 ,both are heavy4 ,both are hard4 ,both can be melted4 ,both can be bent4 ,both used for utensils4 ,you manufacture things out of both of them4 ,both can be polished4 ,these are named most frequently in the following order3 7#a7 hardness1 7#b7 origin from the ground1 7#c7 heaviness1 7#d7 use in making things4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,both thin 7or thick74 ,sometimes they are the same shape4 ,both the same color4 ,a little silver and lots of iron weigh the same4 ,both made by the same company4 ,they rust the same4 ,you can't eat them 767#ei #ei ,one is here reminded of the puzzling conundrum1 ,why is a brick like an elephant8 ,the answer being1 ,because neither can climb a tree6 ,a response of this type states a fact1 but because of its bizarre nature should hardly be counted satisfactory4 ,of #fj failures1 #cb were due to giving differences and #ad to silence or unwillingness to hazard a reply4 7d7 ,a ship and an automobile ,satisfactory4 ,both means of travel4 ,both go4 ,you ride in them4 ,both take you fast4 ,they both use fuel4 ,both run by machinery4 ,both have a steering gear4 ,both have engines in them4 ,both have wood in them4 ,both can be wrecked4 ,both break if they hit a rock4 ,about #de per cent of the answers are in terms of running or travel1 #cg per cent in terms of machinery or structure1 the rest scattered4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,both black 7or some other color74 ,both very big4 ,they are made alike4 ,both run on wheels4 ,ship is for the water and automobile for the land4 ,ship goes on water and an automobile sometimes goes in water4 ,an auto can go faster4 ,ship is run by coal and automobile by gasoline4 ,of #ea failures1 #cb were due to giving differences and #ad to failure to reply4 ,,remarks4 ,the test of finding similarities was first used by ,binet in #aije4 ,our results show that it is fully as satisfactory as the test of giving differences4 ,the test reveals in a most interesting way one of the fundamental weaknesses of the feeble mind4 ,young normal children1 say of #g or #h years1 often fail to pass1 but it is the feeble-minded who give the greatest number of absurd answers and who also find greatest difficulty in resisting the tendency to give differences4#fj #fj ,for further discussion of the processes involved1 see ,,vii1 #e4 ,,viii1 #e4 ,,giving ,,definitions ,,superior ,,to ,,use ,,procedure4 ,the words for this year are balloon1 tiger1 football1 and soldier4 ,ask simply3 ,what is a balloon8 etc4 ,if it appears that any of the words are not familiar to the child1 substitution may be made from the following3 automobile1 battle-ship1 potato1 store4 ,make no comments on the responses until all the words have been given4 ,in case of silence or hesitation in answering1 the question may be repeated with a little encouragement2 but supplementary questions are never in order4 ,ordinarily there is no difficulty in securing a response to the definition test of this year4 ,the trouble comes in scoring the response4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the four words are defined in terms superior to use4 ,superior to use includes chiefly3 7a7 ,definitions which describe the object or tell something of its nature 7form1 size1 color1 appearance1 etc472 7b7 definitions which give the substance or the materials or parts composing it2 and 7c7 those which tell what class the object belongs to or what relation it bears to other classes of objects4 ,it is possible to distinguish different grades of definitions in each of the above classes4 ,a definition by description 7type a7 may be brief and partial1 mentioning only one or two qualities or characteristics1 or it may be relatively rich and complete4 ,likewise with definitions of type b4 ,classificatory definitions 7type c7 are of particularly uneven value1 the lowest order being those which subsume the object to be defined under a remote class and give few if any characteristics to distinguish it from other members of the same class2 as1 for example1 ,a football is a thing you can have fun with1 or1 ,a soldier is a person4 ,the best classificatory definitions are those which subsume the object under the next higher class and give the more essential traits 7perhaps a number of them7 which distinguish the object from others of the class named2 as1 for example1 ,a tiger is a large animal like a cat2 it lives in the jungle and eats men and other animals1 or1 ,a soldier is a man who goes to war4 ,these shades of distinction give interesting and valuable clues to the maturity and richness of the apperceptive processes1 but for purposes of scoring it is necessary merely to decide whether the definition is given in terms superior to use4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory definitions1 those for each word being arranged roughly in the order of their value from excellent to barely passing3-- 7a7 ,balloon ,satisfactory4 ,a balloon is a means of traveling through the air4 ,it is a kind of airship1 made of cloth and filled with air so it can go up4 ,it is big and made of cloth4 ,it has gas in it and carries people up in a basket that's fastened on to the bottom4 ,it is a thing you hold by a string and it goes up4 ,it is like a big bag with air in it4 ,it is a big thing that goes up4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to go up in the air4 ,what you go up in4 ,when you go up4 ,they go up in it4 ,it's full of gas4 ,to carry you up4 ,a balloon is a balloon1 etc4 ,it is big4 ,they go up1 etc4 7b7 ,tiger ,satisfactory4 ,it is a wild animal of the cat family4 ,it is an animal that's a cousin to the lion4 ,it is an animal that lives in the jungle4 ,it is a wild animal4 ,it looks like a big cat4 ,it lives in the woods and eats flesh4 ,something that eats people4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to eat you up4 ,to kill people4 ,to travel in the circus4 ,what eats people4 ,it is a tiger1 etc4 ,you run from it1 etc4 7c7 ,football ,satisfactory4 ,it is a leather bag filled with air and made for kicking4 ,it is a ball you kick4 ,it is a thing you play with4 ,it is made of leather and is stuffed with air4 ,it is a thing you kick4 ,it is brown and filled with air4 ,it is a thing shaped like a watermelon4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to kick4 ,to play with4 ,what they play with4 ,boys play with it4 ,it's filled with air4 ,it is a football4 ,it is a basket ball4 ,it is round4 ,you kick it4 7d7 ,soldier ,satisfactory4 ,a man who goes to war4 ,a brave man4 ,a man that walks up and down and carries a gun4 ,it is a man who minds his captain and stands still and walks straight4 ,it is a man who goes to war and shoots4 ,it is a man who stands straight and marches4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to shoot4 ,to go to war4 ,it is a soldier4 ,a soldier that marches4 ,he fights4 ,he shoots4 ,what fights1 etc4 ,when you march and shoot4 ,silence accounts for only a small proportion of the failures with children of #h1 #i1 and #aj years4 ,,remarks4 ,the use definitions sometimes given at this age are usually of slightly better quality than those given in year ,v4 ,younger children more often use the infinitive form1 to play with 7doll71 to drive 7horse71 to eat on 7table71 etc4 ,use definitions of this year more often begin with they1 or what2 as1 they go up in it 7balloon71 they kick it 7football71 etc4 ,why1 it may be asked1 is the use definition regarded as inferior to the descriptive or the classificatory definition8 ,is not the use to which an object may be put the most essential thing about it1 for the child at least8 ,is it not more important to know that a fork is to eat with than to be able to name the material it is made of8 ,is not the use primary and does it not determine most of the physical characteristics of the object8 ,the above questions may sound reasonable1 but they are based on poor psychology4 ,we must rest our case upon the facts4 ,the first lesson which the student of child psychology must learn is that it is unsafe to set up criteria of intelligence1 of maturity1 or of any other mental trait on the basis of theoretical considerations4 ,experiment teaches that normal children of #e or #f years1 also older feeble-minded persons of the #e-year intelligence level1 define objects in terms of use2 also that normal children of #h or #i years and older feeble-minded persons of this mental level have for the most part developed beyond the stage of use definitions into the descriptive or classificatory stage4 ,an ounce of fact is worth a ton of theory4 ,the test has usually been located in year ,,ix1 with the requirement of three successes out of five trials and with somewhat more rigid scoring of the individual definitions4 ,when only two successes are required in four trials1 and when scored leniently1 the test belongs at the #h-year level4 ,,viii1 #f4 ,,vocabulary2 ,,twenty ,,definitions1 #cfjj ,,words ,,procedure4 ,use the list of words given in the record booklet4 ,say to the child3 ,i want to find out how many words you know4 ,listen2 and when ,i say a word you tell me what it means4 ,if the child can read1 give him a printed copy of the word list and let him look at each word as you pronounce it4 ,the words are arranged approximately 7though not exactly7 in the order of their difficulty1 and it is best to begin with the easier words and proceed to the harder4 ,with children under #i or #aj years1 begin with the first4 ,apparently normal children of #aj years may safely be credited with the first ten words without being asked to define them4 ,apparently normal children of #ab may begin with word #af1 and #ae-year-olds with word #ba4 ,except with subjects of almost adult intelligence there is no need to give the last ten or fifteen words1 as these are almost never correctly defined by school children4 ,a safe rule to follow is to continue until eight or ten successive words have been missed and to score the remainder minus without giving them4 ,the formula is as follows3 ,what is an orange8 ,what is a bonfire8 ,roar2 what does roar mean8 ,gown2 what is a gown8 ,what does tap mean8 ,what does scorch mean8 ,what is a puddle8 etc4 ,some children at first show a little hesitation about answering1 thinking that a strictly formal definition is expected4 ,in such cases a little encouragement is necessary2 as3 ,you know what a bonfire is4 ,you have seen a bonfire4 ,now1 what is a bonfire8 ,if the child still hesitates1 say3 ,just tell me in your own words2 say it any way you please4 ,all ,i want is to find out whether you know what a bonfire is4 ,do not torture the child1 however1 by undue insistence4 ,if he persists in his refusal to define a word which he would ordinarily be expected to know1 it is better to pass on to the next one and to return to the troublesome word later4 ,above all1 avoid helping the child by illustrating the use of a word in a sentence4 ,adhere strictly to the formula given above4 ,if the definition as given does not make it clear whether the child has the correct idea1 say3 ,explain1 or1 ,i don't understand2 explain what you mean4 ,encourage the child frequently by saying3 ,that's fine4 ,you are doing beautifully4 ,you know lots of words1 etc4 ,never tell the child his definition is not correct1 and never ask for a different definition4 ,avoid saying anything which would suggest a model form of definition1 as the type of definition which the child spontaneously chooses throws interesting light on the degree of maturity of the apperceptive processes4 ,record all definitions verbatim if possible1 or at least those which are exceptionally good1 poor1 or doubtful4 ,,scoring4 ,credit a response in full if it gives one correct meaning for the word1 regardless of whether that meaning is the most common one1 and regardless of whether it is the original or a derived meaning4 ,occasionally half credit may be given1 but this should be avoided as far as possible4 ,to find the entire vocabulary1 multiply the number of words known by #ahj4 7,this list is made up of #ajj words selected by rule from a dictionary containing #ah1jjj words47 ,thus1 the child who defines #bj words correctly has a vocabulary of #bj #ahj #cfjj words2 #ej correct definitions would mean a vocabulary of #ijjj words1 etc4 ,the following are the standards for different years1 as determined by the vocabulary reached by #fj to #fe per cent of the subjects of the various mental levels3-- #h years #bj words vocabulary #c1fjj #aj years #cj words vocabulary #e1djj #ab years #dj words vocabulary #g1bjj #ad years #ej words vocabulary #i1jjj ,average adult #fe words vocabulary #aa1gjj ,superior adult #ge words vocabulary #ac1ejj ,although the form of the definition is significant1 it is not taken into consideration in scoring4 ,the test is intended to explore the range of ideas rather than the evolution of thought forms4 ,when it is evident that the child has one fairly correct meaning for a word1 he is given full credit for it1 however poorly the definition may have been stated4 ,while there is naturally some difficulty now and then in deciding whether a given definition is correct1 this happens much less frequently than one would expect4 ,in order to get a definite idea of the extent of error due to the individual differences among examiners1 we have had the definitions of #be subjects graded independently by #aj different persons4 ,the result showed an average difference below #c in the number of definitions scored plus4 ,since these subjects attempted on an average about #fj words1 the average number of doubtful definitions per subject was below #e per cent of the number attempted4 ,an idea of the degree of leniency to be exercised may be had from the following examples of definitions1 which are mostly of low grade1 but acceptable unless otherwise indicated3-- #a4 ,orange4 ,an orange is to eat4 ,it is yellow and grows on a tree4 7,both full credit47 #b4 ,bonfire4 ,you burn it outdoors4 ,you burn some leaves or things4 ,it's a big fire4 7,all full credit47 #c4 ,roar4 ,a lion roars4 ,you holler loud4 7,full credit47 #d4 ,gown4 ,to sleep in4 ,it's a nightie4 ,it's a nice gown that ladies wear4 7,all full credit47 #g4 ,puddle4 ,you splash in it4 ,it's just a puddle of water4 7,both full credit47 #i4 ,straw4 ,it grows in the field4 ,it means wheat-straw4 ,the horses eat it4 7,all full credit47 #aj4 ,rule4 ,the teacher makes rules4 ,it means you can't do something4 ,you make marks with it1 i4e41 a ruler1 often called a rule by school children4 7,all full credit47 #aa4 ,afloat4 ,to float on the water4 ,a ship floats4 7,both full credit47 #ab4 ,eyelash4 ,if the child says1 ,it's over the eye1 tell him to point to it1 as often the word is confused with eyebrow4 #ad4 ,copper4 ,it's a penny4 ,it means some copper wire4 7,both full credit47 #ae4 ,health4 ,it means good health or bad health4 ,it means strong4 7,both full credit47 #ag4 ,guitar4 ,you play on it4 7,full credit47 #ah4 ,mellow4 ,if the child says1 ,it means a mellow apple1 ask what kind of apple that would be4 ,for full credit the answer must be soft1 mushy1 etc4 #ai4 ,pork4 ,if the answer is meat1 ask what animal it comes from4 ,half credit if wrong animal is named4 #ba4 ,plumbing4 ,you fix pipes4 7,full credit47 #be4 ,southern4 ,if the answer is ,southern ,states1 or ,southern ,california1 say3 ,yes2 but what does 'southern' mean8 ,do not credit unless explanation is forthcoming4 #bf4 ,noticeable4 ,you notice a thing4 7,full credit47 #bi4 ,civil4 ,civil ,war4 7,failure unless explained47 ,it means to be nice4 7,full credit47 #cj4 ,treasury4 ,give half credit for definitions like ,valuables1 ,lots of money1 etc42 i4e41 if the word is confused with treasure4 #cb4 ,ramble4 ,to go about fast4 7,half credit47 #ch4 ,nerve4 ,half credit if the slang use is defined1 ,you've got nerve1 etc4 #da4 ,majesty4 ,what you say to a king4 7,full credit47 #de4 ,sportive4 ,to like sports4 7,half credit47 ,playful or happy4 7,full credit47 #df4 ,hysterics4 ,you laugh and cry at the same time4 ,a kind of sickness4 ,a kind of fit4 7,all full credit47 #dh4 ,repose4 ,you pose again4 7,failure47 #eb4 ,coinage4 ,a place where they make money4 7,half credit47 #ef4 ,dilapidated4 ,something that's very old4 7,half credit47 #eh4 ,conscientious4 ,you're careful how you do your work4 7,full credit47 #fj4 ,artless4 ,no art4 7,failure unless correctly explained47 #fa4 ,priceless4 ,it has no price4 7,failure47 #ff4 ,promontory4 ,something prominent4 7,failure unless child can explain what it refers to47 #fh4 ,milksop4 ,you sop up milk4 7,failure47 #gc4 ,harpy4 ,a kind of bird4 7,full credit47 #hj4 ,exaltation4 ,you feel good4 7,full credit47 #he4 ,retroactive4 ,acting backward4 7,full credit47 #ib4 ,theosophy4 ,a religion4 7,full credit47 ,it is seen from the above examples that a very liberal standard has been used4 ,leniency in judging definitions is necessary because the child's power of expression lags farther behind his understanding than is true of adults1 and also because for the young subject the word has a relatively less unitary existence4 ,,remarks4 ,our vocabulary test was derived by selecting the last word of every sixth column in a dictionary containing approximately #ah1jjj words1 presumably the #ah1jjj most common words in the language4 ,the test is based on the assumption that #ajj words selected according to some arbitrary rule will be a large enough sampling to afford a fairly reliable index of a subject's entire vocabulary4 ,rather extensive experimentation with this list and others chosen in a similar manner has proved that the assumption is justified4 ,tests of the same #ge individuals with five different vocabulary tests of this type showed that the average difference between two tests of the same person was less than #e per cent4 ,this means that any one of the five tests used is reliable enough for all practical purposes4 ,it is of no special importance that a given child's vocabulary is #hjjj rather than #gfjj2 the significance lies in the fact that it is approximately #hjjj and not #djjj1 #ab1jjj1 or some other widely different number4 ,it may seem to the reader almost incredible that so small a sampling of words would give a reliable index of an individual's vocabulary4 ,that it does so is due to the operation of the ordinary laws of chance4 ,it is analogous to predicting the results of an election when only a small proportion of the ballots have been counted4 ,it is known that a ballot box contains #fjj votes1 and if when only #cj have been counted it is found that they are divided between two candidates in the proportion of #bj and #aj1 it is safe to predict that a complete count will give the two candidates approximately #djj and #bjj respectively4#fa ,in #aiad about #a1jjj1jjj votes were cast for governor in ,california1 and when only #aj1jjj votes had been counted1 or a hundredth of all1 it was announced and conceded that ,governor ,johnson had been relected by the #aej1jjj plurality4 ,the completed count gave him #ahh1eje plurality4 ,the error was less than #d per cent of the total vote4 #fa ,supposing the ballots to have been shuffled4 ,the vocabulary test has a far higher value than any other single test of the scale4 ,used with children of ,english-speaking parents 7with children whose home language is not ,english it is of course unreliable71 it probably has a higher value than any three other tests in the scale4 ,our statistics show that in a large majority of cases the vocabulary test alone will give us an intelligence quotient within #aj per cent of that secured by the entire scale4 ,out of hundreds of ,english-speaking children we have not found one testing significantly above age who had a significantly low vocabulary2 and correspondingly1 those who test much below age never have a high vocabulary4 ,occasionally1 however1 a subject tests somewhat higher or lower in vocabulary than the mental age would lead us to expect4 ,this is often the case with dull children in cultured homes and with very intelligent children whose home environment has not stimulated language development4 ,but even in these cases we are not seriously misled1 for the dull child of fortunate home surroundings shows his dullness in the quality of his definitions if not in their quantity2 while the bright child of illiterate parents shows his intelligence in the aptness and accuracy of his definitions4 ,we have not worked out a satisfactory method of scoring the quality of definitions in our vocabulary test1 but these differences will be readily observed by the trained examiner4 ,definitions in terms of use and definitions which are slightly inaccurate or hazy are quite characteristic of the lower mental ages4 ,children of the lower mental age have also a tendency to venture wild guesses at words they do not know4 ,this is especially characteristic of retarded subjects and is another example of their weakness of auto-criticism4 ,one feeble-minded boy of #ab years1 with a mental age of #h years1 glibly and confidently gave definitions for every one of the hundred words4 ,about #gj of the definitions were pure nonsense4 ,this vocabulary test was arranged and partially standardized by ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,childs and the writer in #aiaa4 ,many experiments since then have proved its value as a test of intelligence4 ,,viii1 ,,alternative ,,test #a3 ,,naming ,,six ,,coins ,,procedure is exactly as in ,,vi1 #e 7naming four coins74 ,the dollar should be shown before the half-dollar4 ,,scoring4 ,all six coins must be correctly named4 ,if a response is changed the rule is to count the second answer and ignore the first4 ,,remarks4 ,binet used nine pieces and required knowledge of all at year ,x 7#aijh71 but at year ,,ix in the #aiaa revision4 ,most other workers have used the same method1 with the test located in either year ,,ix or year ,x4 ,,viii1 ,,alternative ,,test #b3 ,,writing ,,from ,,dictation ,,procedure4 ,give the child pen1 ink1 and paper1 place him in a comfortable position for writing1 and say3 ,i want you to write something for me as nicely as you can4 ,write these words3 ',see the little boy4' ,be sure to write it all3 ',see the little boy4' ,do not dictate the words separately1 but give the sentence as a whole4 ,further repetition of the sentence is not permissible1 as ability to remember what has been dictated is a part of the test4 ,copy1 of course1 must not be shown4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the sentence is written legibly enough to be easily recognized1 and if no word has been omitted4 ,ordinary mistakes of spelling are disregarded4 ,the rule is that the mistake in spelling must not mutilate the word beyond easy recognition4 ,the performance may be graded by the use of ,thorndike's handwriting scale4 ,the handwriting of #h-year-old children who have been in school not less than one year or more than two usually falls between quality #g and quality #i on this scale1 but we shall1 perhaps1 not be too liberal if we consider a performance satisfactory which does not grade below quality #f1 provided it is not seriously mutilated by errors1 omissions1 etc4#fb #fb ,see scoring card for samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory performances4 ,,remarks4 ,this test found a place in year ,,viii of ,binet's #aijh scale1 but has been omitted from all the other revisions1 including ,binet's own4 ,bobertag did not even regard the test as worthy of a trial4 ,the universal criticism has been that it is a test of schooling rather than of intelligence4 ,that the performance depends1 in a certain sense1 upon special instruction is self-evident4 ,without such instruction no child of #h years1 however intelligent1 would be able to pass the test4 ,nature does not give us a conventionalized language1 either written or spoken4 ,it must be acquired4 ,it is also true that a high-grade feeble-minded child1 say #h years of age and of #f-year intelligence1 is sometimes 7though not always7 able to pass the test after two years of school instruction4 ,it is exceedingly improbable1 however1 that a feeble-minded subject with less than #f-year intelligence will ever be able to pass this test1 however long he remains in school4 ,the conclusions to be drawn from these facts are as follows3 7#a7 ,inability to pass the test should not be counted against the child unless it is known that he has had at least a full year of the usual school instruction4 7#b7 ,ability to pass the test after only two years of school instruction is almost certain proof that the child has reached a mental level of at least #f years4 7#c7 ,failure to pass the test must be regarded as a grave symptom in the case of the child #i or more years of age who is known to have attended school as much as two years4 7#d7 ,for mental levels higher than #h years the test has hardly any diagnostic value1 since feeble-minded persons of #h- or #i-year intelligence can usually be taught to write quite legibly4 ,if the limitations above set forth are kept in mind1 the test is by no means without value1 and is always worth giving as a supplementary test4 ,learning to write simple sentences from dictation is no mean accomplishment4 ,it demands1 in the first place1 a fairly complete mastery of rather difficult muscular cordinations4 ,moreover1 these cordinations must be firmly associated with the corresponding letters and words1 for if the writing cordinations are not fairly automatic1 so much attention will be required to carry them out that the child will not be able to remember what he has been told to write4 ,the necessity of remembering the passage acts as a distraction1 and writing from dictation is therefore a more difficult task than writing from copy4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,ix ,,ix1 #a4 ,,giving ,,the ,,date ,,procedure4 ,ask the following questions in order3-- 7a7 ,what day of the week is it to-day8 7b7 ,what month is it8 7c7 ,what day of the month is it8 7d7 ,what year is it8 ,if the child misunderstands and gives the day of the month for the day of the week1 or vice versa1 we merely repeat the question with suitable emphasis1 but give no other help4 ,,scoring4 ,an error of three days in either direction is allowed for c1 but a1 b1 and d must all be given correctly4 ,if the child makes an error and spontaneously corrects it1 the change is allowed1 but corrections must not be called for or suggested4 ,,remarks4 ,binet originally located this test in year ,,ix1 but unfortunately moved it to year ,,viii in the #aiaa revision4 ,kuhlmann1 ,goddard1 and ,huey all retain it in year ,,ix1 where1 according to our own data1 it unquestionably belongs4 ,with the exception of ,binet's #aiaa results1 the statistics for the test are in remarkably close agreement for children in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 and ,eastern and ,western ,united ,states4 ,it seems that practically all children in civilized countries have ample opportunity to learn the divisions of the year1 month1 and week1 and to become oriented with respect to these divisions4 ,special instruction is doubtless capable of hastening time orientation to a certain degree1 but not greatly4 ,binet tells of a ,french cole maternelle attended by children #d to #f years of age1 where instruction was given daily in regard to the date1 and yet not a single one of the children was able to pass this test4 ,this is a beautiful illustration of the futility of precocious teaching4 ,in spite of well-meant instruction1 it is not until the age of #h or #i years that children have enough comprehension of time periods1 and sufficient interest in them1 to keep very close track of the date4 ,failure to pass the test at the age of #aj or #aa years is a decidedly unfavorable sign1 unless the error is very slight4 ,the fact that normal adults are occasionally unable to give the day of the month is no argument against the validity of the test1 since the system of tests is so constructed as to allow for accidental failures on any particular test4 ,as a matter of fact1 very nearly #ajj per cent of normal #ab-year-old children pass this test4 ,the unavoidable fault of the test is its lack of uniformity in difficulty at different dates4 ,it is easier for school children to give the day of the week on ,monday or ,friday than on ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 or ,thursday4 ,mistakes in giving the day of the month are less likely to occur at the beginning or end of the month than at any other time1 while mistakes in naming the month are most likely to occur then4 ,it is interesting to compare the four parts of this test in regard to difficulty4 ,binet and ,bobertag both state that ability to name the year comes last1 but they give no figures4 ,our own data show that the four parts of the test are of almost exactly the same difficulty and that this is true at all ages4 ,,ix1 #b4 ,,arranging ,,five ,,weights ,use the five weights1 #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 and #ae grams4 ,be sure that the weights are identical in appearance4 ,the weights may be made as described under ,v1 #a1 or they may be purchased of ,c4 ,h4 ,stoelting ,co41 ,chicago1 ,illinois4 ,if no weights are at hand one of the alternative tests may be substituted4 ,,procedure4 ,place the five boxes on the table in an irregular group before the child and say3 ,see the boxes4 ,they all look alike1 don't they8 ,but they are not alike4 ,some of them are heavy1 some are not quite so heavy1 and some are still lighter4 ,no two weigh the same4 ,now1 ,i want you to find the heaviest one and place it here4 ,then find the one that is just a little lighter and put it here4 ,then put the next lighter one here1 and the next lighter one here1 and the lightest of all at this end 7pointing each time at the appropriate spot74 ,do you understand8 ,whatever the child answers1 in order to make sure that he does understand1 we repeat the instructions thus3 ,remember now1 that no two weights are the same4 ,find the heaviest one and put it here1 the next heaviest here1 and lighter1 lighter1 until you have the very lightest here4 ,ready2 go ahead4 ,it is best to follow very closely the formula here given1 otherwise there is danger of stating the directions so abstractly that the subject could not comprehend them4 ,a formula like ,i want you to arrange the blocks in a gradually decreasing series according to weight would be ,greek to most children of #aj years4 ,if the subject still seems at a loss to know what to do1 the instructions may be again repeated4 ,but no further help of any kind may be given4 ,do not tell the subject to take the blocks one at a time in the hand and try them1 and do not illustrate by hefting the blocks yourself4 ,it is a part of the test to let the subject find his own method4 ,give three trials1 shuffling the boxes after each4 ,do not repeat the instructions before the second and third trials unless the subject has used an absurd procedure in the previous trial4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the blocks are arranged in the correct order twice out of three trials4 ,always record the order of arrangement and note the number and extent of displacement4 ,obviously an arrangement like #ab-f-ae-c-i is very much more serious than one like #ae-ab-f-i-c1 but we require that two trials be absolutely without error4 ,scoring is facilitated if the blocks are marked on the bottom so that they may be easily identified4 ,it is then necessary to exercise some care to see that the subject does not examine the bottom of the blocks for a clue as to the correct order4 ,,remarks4 ,binet originally located this test in year ,,ix1 but in his #aiaa revision changed it to year ,,viii4 ,other revisions have retained it in year ,,ix4 ,the correct location depends upon the weights used and upon the procedure and scoring4 ,kuhlmann uses weights of #c1 #i1 #ah1 #bg1 #cf1 and #de grams1 and this probably makes the test easier4 ,bobertag tried two sets of boxes1 one set being of larger dimensions than the other4 ,the larger gave decidedly the more errors4 ,if we require only one success in three trials the test could be located a year or two lower in the scale1 while three successes as a standard would require that it be moved upward possibly as much as two years4 ,much depends also on whether the child is left to find his own method1 and on this there has been much difference of procedure4 ,kuhlmann1 ,bobertag1 and ,wallin illustrate the correct method of making the comparison by first hefting and arranging the weights while the subject looks on4 ,we prefer to keep the test in its original form1 and with the procedure and scoring we have used it is well located in year ,,ix4 ,wallin carries his assistance still further by saying1 after the first block has been placed1 ,now1 find the heaviest of the four1 and after the second has been placed1 ,now1 find the heaviest of the three1 etc4 ,finally1 when the arrangement has been made1 he tells the subject to try them again to make sure the order is correct1 allowing the subject to make whatever changes he thinks necessary4 ,this procedure robs the test of its most valuable features4 ,the experiment was not devised primarily as a test of sensory discrimination1 for it has long been recognized that individuals who have developed as far as the #i- or #aj-year level of intelligence are ordinarily but little below normal in sensory capacity4 ,psychologically1 the test resembles that of comparing weights in ,v1 #a4 ,success depends1 in the first place1 upon the correct comprehension of the task and the setting of a goal to be attained2 secondly1 upon the choice of a suitable method for realizing the goal2 and finally1 upon the ability to keep the end clearly in consciousness until all the steps necessary for its attainment have been gone through4 ,elementary as are the processes involved1 they represent the prototype of all purposeful behavior4 ,the statesman1 the lawyer1 the teacher1 the physician1 the carpenter1 all in their own way and with their own materials1 are continually engaged in setting goals1 choosing means1 and inhibiting the multitudinous appeals of irrelevant and distracting ideas4 ,in this experiment the subject may fail in any one of the three requirements of the test or in all of them4 7#a7 ,he may not comprehend the instructions and so be unable to set the goal4 7#b7 ,though understanding what is expected of him1 he may adopt an absurd method of carrying out the task4 ,or 7#c7 he may lose sight of the end and begin to play with the blocks1 stacking them on top of one another1 building trains1 tossing them about1 etc4 ,sometimes the guiding idea is not completely lost1 but is weakened or rendered only partially operative4 ,in such a case the subject may compare some of the blocks carefully1 place others without trying them at all1 but continue in his half-rational1 half-irrational procedure until all the blocks have been arranged4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 to supplement the mere record of success or failure by jotting down a brief but accurate description of the performance4 ,note any hesitation or inability to grasp the instructions4 ,note especially any absurd procedure1 such as placing all the blocks without hefting any of them1 comparing only some of them1 holding them up and shaking them1 hefting two at once in the same hand1 etc4 ,the ideal method1 of course1 is to try all the blocks carefully before placing any of them1 then to make a tentative arrangement1 and finally1 to correct this tentative arrangement by means of individual comparisons4 ,a slight departure from this method does not always bring failure1 but it renders success less probable4 ,as a rule it is only the very intelligent children of #aj years who think to test out their first arrangement by making a final and additional trial of each block in turn4 ,contrary to what might be supposed1 success is slightly favored by hefting the blocks successively with one hand rather than by taking one in each hand for simultaneous comparison1 but as the child cannot be expected to know this1 we must regard the two methods as equally logical4 ,the test of arranging weights has met universal praise4 ,its special advantage is that it tests the subject's intelligence in the manipulation of things rather than his capacity for dealing with abstractions4 ,it tests his ability to do something rather than his ability to express himself in language4 ,it throws light upon certain factors of motor adaptation and practical judgment which play a great part in the everyday life of the average human being4 ,it depends as little upon school1 perhaps1 as any other test of the scale1 and it is readily usable with children of all nations without danger of being materially altered in translation ,moreover1 it is always an interesting test for the child4 ,bobertag goes so far as to say that any #h- or #i-year child who passes this test cannot possibly be feeble-minded4 ,this may be true2 but the converse is hardly the case2 that is1 the failure of older children is by no means certain proof of mental retardation4 ,the same observation1 however1 applies equally well to many other of the ,binet tests1 some of which correlate more closely with true mental age than this one4 ,a rather considerable fraction of normal #ab-year-olds fail on it1 and it is in fact somewhat less dependable than certain other tests if we wish to differentiate between #i-year and #aa-year intelligence4 ,but it is a test we could ill afford to eliminate4#fc #fc ,compare with ,v1 #a4 ,,ix1 #c4 ,,making ,,change ,,procedure4 ,ask the following questions in the order here given3-- 7a7 ,if ,i were to buy #d cents worth of candy and should give the storekeeper #aj cents1 how much money would ,i get back8 7b7 ,if ,i bought #ac cents worth and gave the storekeeper #ae cents1 how much would ,i get back8 7c7 ,if ,i bought #d cents worth and gave the storekeeper #be cents1 how much would ,i get back8 ,coins are not used1 and the subject is not allowed the help of pencil and paper4 ,if the subject forgets the statement of the problem1 it is permissible to repeat it once1 but only once4 ,the response should be made in ten or fifteen seconds for each problem4 ,,scoring1 ,the test is passed if two out of three problems are answered correctly in the allotted time4 ,in case two answers are given to a problem1 we follow the usual rule of counting the second and ignoring the first4 ,,remarks4 ,problems of this nature1 when thoroughly standardized1 are extremely valuable as tests of intelligence4 ,the difficulty of the test1 as we have used it1 does not lie in the subtraction of #d from #aj1 #ab from #ae1 etc4 ,such subtractions1 when given as problems in subtraction1 are readily solved by practically all normal #h-year-olds who have attended school as much as two years4 ,the problems of the test have a twofold difficulty3 7#a7 ,the statement of the problem must be comprehended and held in mind until the solution has been arrived at2 7#b7 the problem is so stated that the subject must himself select the fundamental operation which applies4 ,the latter difficulty is somewhat the greater of the two1 addition sometimes being employed instead of subtraction4 ,it is just such difficulties as this that prove so perplexing to the feeble-minded4 ,high-grade defectives1 although they require more than the usual amount of drill and are likely to make occasional errors1 are nevertheless capable of learning to add1 subtract1 multiply1 and divide fairly well4 ,their main trouble comes in deciding which of these operations a given problem calls for4 ,they can master routine1 but as regards initiative1 judgment1 and power to reason they are little educable4 ,the psychology and pedagogy of mental deficiency is epitomized in this statement4 ,there has been little disagreement as to the proper location of the test of making change1 but various procedures have been employed4 ,coins have generally been employed1 in which case the subject is actually allowed to make the change4 ,most other revisions have also given only a single problem1 usually #d cents out of #bj cents1 or #d out of #be1 or #i out of #be4 ,it is evident that these are not all of equal difficulty4 ,there is general agreement1 however1 that normal children of #i years should be able to make simple change4 ,,ix1 #d4 ,,repeating ,,four ,,digits ,,reversed ,the series are #f-e-b-h2 #d-i-c-g2 #c-f-b-i4 ,,procedure ,,and ,,scoring4 ,exactly as in ,,vii1 alternate test #b4fd #fd ,see discussion1 p4 #bjg ff4 ,,ix1 #e4 ,,using ,,three ,,words ,,in ,a ,,sentence ,,procedure ,the words used are3-- 7a7 ,boy1 ball1 river4 7b7 ,work1 money1 men4 7c7 ,desert1 rivers1 lakes4 ,say3 ,you know what a sentence is1 of course4 ,a sentence is made up of some words which say something4 ,now1 ,i am going to give you three words1 and you must make up a sentence that has all three words in it4 ,the three words are 'boy1' 'ball1' 'river4' ,go ahead and make up a sentence that has all three words in it4 ,the others are given in the same way4 ,note that the subject is not shown the three words written down1 and that the reply is to be given orally4 ,if the subject does not understand what is wanted1 the instruction may be repeated1 but it is not permissible to illustrate what a sentence is by giving one4 ,there must be no preliminary practice4 ,a curious misunderstanding which is sometimes encountered comes from assuming that the sentence must be constructed entirely of the three words given4 ,if it appears that the subject is stumbling over this difficulty1 we explain3 ,the three words must be put with some other words so that all of them together will make a sentence4 ,nothing is said about hurrying1 but if a sentence is not given within one minute the rule is to count that part of the test a failure and to proceed to the next trio of words4 ,give only one trial for each part of the test4 ,do not specially caution the child to avoid giving more than one sentence1 as this is implied in the formula used and should be understood4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three sentences are satisfactory4 ,in order to be satisfactory a sentence must fulfill the following requirements3 7#a7 ,it must either be a simple sentence1 or1 if compound1 must not contain more than two distinct ideas2 and 7#b7 it must not express an absurdity4 ,slight changes in one or more of the key words are disregarded1 as river for rivers1 etc4 ,the scoring is difficult enough to justify rather extensive illustration4 7a7 ,boy1 ball1 river ,satisfactory4 ,an analysis of #abh satisfactory responses gave the following classification3-- 7#a7 ,simple sentence containing a simple subject and a simple predicate2 as3 ,the boy threw his ball into the river4 ,the boy lost his ball in the river4 ,the boy's ball fell into the river4 ,the boy swam into the river after his ball1 etc4 ,this group contains #gf per cent of the correct responses4 7#b7 ,a sentence with a simple subject and a compound predicate2 as3 ,a boy went to the river and took his ball with him4 ,about #h per cent of all were of this type4 7#c7 ,a complex sentence containing a relative clause 7#b per cent only72 as3 ,the boy ran after his ball which was rolling toward the river4 7#d7 ,a compound sentence containing two independent clauses 7about #ad per cent72 as3 ,the boy had a ball and he lost it in the river4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,the failures fall into four chief groups3-- 7#a7 ,sentences with three clauses 7or else three separate sentences74 7#b7 ,sentences containing an absurdity4 7#c7 ,sentences which omit one of the key words4 7#d7 ,silence1 due ordinarily to inability to comprehend the task4 ,group #a includes #gh per cent of the failures2 group #b1 about #ab per cent2 and group #c and #d about #e per cent each4 ,samples of group #a are3 ,there was a boy1 and he bought a ball1 and it fell into the river4 ,i saw a boy1 and he had a ball1 and he was playing by the river4 ,illustration of an absurd sentence1 ,the boy was swimming in the river and he was playing ball4 7b7 ,work1 money1 men ,satisfactory3-- 7#a7 ,sentence with a simple subject and simple predicate 7including #ge per cent of #aaf satisfactory responses72 as3 ,men work for their money4 ,men get money for their work1 etc4 7#b7 ,a complex sentence with a relative clause 7#ab per cent of correct answers72 as3 ,men who work earn much money4 ,it is easy for men to earn money if they are willing to work1 etc4 7#c7 ,a compound sentence with two independent1 cordinate clauses 7#ac per cent72 as3 ,men work and they earn money4 ,some men have money and they do not work4 ,unsatisfactory3-- 7#a7 ,three clauses2 as3 ,i know a man and he has money1 and he works at the store4 7#b7 ,sentences which are absurd or meaningless2 as3 ,men work with their money4 7#c7 ,omission of one of the words4 7#d7 ,inability to respond4 7c7 ,desert1 rivers1 lakes ,satisfactory3-- 7#a7 ,sentences with a simple subject and a simple predicate 7including #hd per cent of #abf correct answers72 as3 ,there are no rivers or lakes in the desert4 ,the desert has one river and one lake1 etc4 7#b7 ,a complex sentence with a relative clause 7only #b per cent72 as3 ,in the desert there was a river which flowed into a lake4 7#c7 ,a compound sentence with two independent1 cordinate clauses 7#aa per cent72 as3 ,we went to the desert1 and it had no rivers or lakes4 7#d7 ,a compound1 complex sentence 7#c per cent of all72 as3 ,there was a desert1 and near by there was a river that emptied into a lake4 ,unsatisfactory3-- 7#a7 ,sentences with three clauses 7#dj per cent of all failures72 as3 ,a desert is dry1 rivers are long1 lakes are rough4 7#b7 ,sentences containing an absurdity 7#ab per cent of the failures73 as3 a desert is dry1 rivers are long1 lakes are filled with swimming boys4 ,the lake went through the desert and the river4 ,there was a desert and rivers and lakes in the forest4 ,the desert is full of rivers and lakes4 7#c7 ,omission of one of the words 7#dj per cent of the failures74 7#d7 ,inability to respond 7#h per cent74 ,,remarks4 ,the test of constructing a sentence containing given words was first used by ,masselon and is known as the ,masselon experiment4 ,meumann1 who used it in a rather extended experiment1#fe finds it a good test of intelligence and a reliable index as to the richness1 definiteness1 and maturity of the associative processes4 ,as ,meumann shows1 it is instructive to study the qualitative differences between the responses of bright and dull children1 apart from questions of sentence structure4 ,these differences are especially discernible in 7a7 the logical qualities of the associations1 and 7b7 the definiteness of statement4 ,as regards 7a71 bright children are much more likely to use the given words as keystones in the construction of a sentence which would be logically suggested by them4 ,for example1 donkey1 blows1 suggest some such sentence as1 ,the donkey receives blows because he is lazy4 ,in like manner we have found that the words work1 money1 men usually suggest to the more intelligent children a sentence like ,men work for their money 7or because they need money1 etc471 while the dull child is more likely to give some such sentence as ,the men have work and they don't have much money4 ,that is1 the sentence of the dull child1 even though correct in structure and free enough from outright absurdity to satisfy the standard of scoring which we have set forth1 is likely to express ideas which are more or less nondescript1 ideas not logically suggested by the set of words given4 #fe ,ueber eine neue ,methode der ,intelligenzprfung und ber den ,wert der ,kombinationsmethoden1 in ,zeitschrift fr ,pdagogische ,psychologie und ,experimentelle ,pdagogik 7#aiab71 pp4 #ade-fc4 ,the experiment is one of the many forms of the completion test1 or the combination method4 ,as we have already noted1 the power to combine more or less separate and isolated elements into a logical whole is one of the most essential features of intelligence4 ,the ability to do so in a given case depends1 in the first place1 upon the number and logical quality of the associations which have previously been made with each of the given elements separately1 and in the second place1 upon the readiness with which these ideational stores yield up the particular associations necessary for weaving the given words into some kind of unity4 ,the child must pass from what is given to what is not given but merely suggested4 ,this requires a certain amount of invention4 ,scattered fragments must be conceived as the skeleton of a thought1 and this skeleton1 or partial skeleton1 must be assembled and made whole4 ,the task is analogous to that which confronts the palontologist1 who is able to reconstruct1 with a high degree of certainty1 the entire skeleton of an extinct animal from the evidence furnished by three or four fragments of bones4 ,it is no wonder1 therefore1 that subjects whose ideational stores are scanty1 and whose associations are based upon accidental rather than logical connections1 find the test one of peculiar difficulty4 ,invention thrives in a different soil4 ,binet located this test in year ,x4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann assign it the same location1 though their actual statistics agree closely with our own4 ,our procedure makes the test somewhat easier than that of ,binet1 who gave only one trial and used the somewhat more difficult words ,paris1 river1 fortune4 ,others have generally followed the ,binet procedure1 merely substituting for ,paris the name of a city better known to the subject4 ,binet's requirement of a written response also makes the test harder4 ,perhaps the greatest obstacle to uniformity in the use of the test comes from the difficulty of scoring1 particularly in deciding whether the sentence contains enough absurdity to disqualify it1 and whether it expresses three separate ideas or only two4 ,it is hoped that the rather large variety of sample responses which we have given will reduce these difficulties to a minimum4 ,an additional word is necessary in regard to what constitutes an absurdity in 7b74 ,a sentence like ,there are some rivers and lakes in the desert is not an absurdity in certain parts of ,western ,united ,states4 ,in ,professor ,ordahl's tests at ,reno1 ,nevada1 many children whose intelligence was altogether above suspicion gave this reply4 ,the statement is1 indeed1 perfectly true for the semi-arid region in the vicinity of ,reno known as the desert4 ,on the other hand1 such sentences as ,the desert is full of rivers and lakes1 or ,there are forty rivers and lakes in the desert1 can hardly be considered satisfactory4 ,similar difficulties are presented by 7c71 though not so frequently4 ,men who work do not have money expresses1 unfortunately1 more truth than nonsense4 ,,ix1 #f4 ,,finding ,,rhymes ,,procedure4 ,say to the child3 ,you know what a rhyme is1 of course4 ,a rhyme is a word that sounds like another word4 ,two words rhyme if they end in the same sound4 ,understand8 ,whether the child says he understands or not1 we proceed to illustrate what a rhyme is1 as follows3 ,take the two words 'hat' and 'cat4' ,they sound alike and so they make a rhyme4 ',hat1' 'rat1' 'cat1' 'bat' all rhyme with one another4 ,that is1 we first explain what a rhyme is and then we give an illustration4 ,a large majority of ,american children who have reached the age of #i years understand perfectly what a rhyme is1 without any illustration4 ,a few1 however1 think they understand1 but do not2 and in order to insure that all are given equal advantage it is necessary never to omit the illustration4 ,after the illustration say3 ,now1 ,i am going to give you a word and you will have one minute to find as many words as you can that rhyme with it4 ,the word is 'day4' ,name all the words you can think of that rhyme with 'day4' ,if the child fails with the first word1 before giving the second we repeat the explanation and give sample rhymes for day2 otherwise we proceed without further explanation to mill and spring1 saying1 ,now1 you have another minute to name all the words you can think of that rhyme with 'mill1' etc4 ,apart from the mention of one minute say nothing to suggest hurrying1 as this tends to throw some children into mental confusion4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if in two out of the three parts of the experiment the child finds three words which rhyme with the word given1 the time limit for each series being one minute4 ,note that in each case there must be three words in addition to the word given4 ,these must be real words1 not meaningless syllables or made-up words4 ,however1 we should be liberal enough to accept such words as ding 7from ding-dong 7 for spring1 ,jill 7see ,jack and ,jill7 for mill1 ,fay 7girl's name7 for day1 etc4 ,,remarks4 ,at first thought it would seem that the demands made by this test upon intelligence could not be very great4 ,sound associations between words may be contrasted unfavorably with associations like those of cause and effect1 part to whole1 whole to part1 opposites1 etc4 ,but when we pass from a-priori considerations to an examination of the actual data1 we find that the giving of rhymes is closely correlated with general intelligence4 ,the #i-year-olds who test at or above #aj years nearly always do well in finding rhymes1 while #i-year-olds who test as low as #h years seldom pass4 ,when a test thus shows high correlation with the scale as a whole1 we must either accept the test as valid or reject the scale altogether4 ,while the feeble-minded do not do as well in this test as normal children of corresponding mental age1 the percentage successes for them rises rapidly between mental age #h and mental age #aj or #aa4 ,closer psychological analysis of the processes involved will show why this is true4 ,to find rhymes for a given word means that one must hunt out verbal associations under the direction of a guiding idea4 ,every word has innumerable associations and many of these tend1 in greater or less degree1 to be aroused when the stimulus word is given4 ,in order to succeed with the test1 however1 it is necessary to inhibit all associations which are not relevant to the desired end4 ,the directing idea must be held so firmly in mind that it will really direct the thought associations4 ,besides acting to inhibit the irrelevant1 it must create a sort of magnetic stress 7to borrow a figure from physics7 which will give dominance to those associative tendencies pointing in the right direction4 ,even the feeble-minded child of imbecile grade has in his vocabulary a great many words which rhyme with day1 mill1 and spring4 ,he fails on the test because his verbal associations cannot be subjugated to the influence of a directing idea4 ,the end to be attained does not dominate consciousness sufficiently to create more than a faint stress4 ,instead of a single magnetic pole there is a conflict of forces4 ,the result is either chaos or partial success4 ,mill may suggest hill1 and then perhaps the directing idea becomes suddenly inoperative and the child gives mountain1 valley1 or some other irrelevant association4 ,the lack of associations1 however1 is a more frequent cause of failure than inability to inhibit the irrelevant4 ,if any one supposes that finding rhymes does not draw upon the higher mental powers1 let him try the experiment upon himself in various stages of mental efficiency1 say at #i ,a4,m41 when mentally refreshed by a good night of sleep and again when fatigued and sleepy4 ,poets questioned by ,galton on this point all testified to the greater difficulty of finding rhymes when mentally fatigued4 ,in this and in many other respects the mental activities of the fatigued or sleepy individual approach the type of mentation which is normal to the feeble-minded4 ,it is important to note that adults make a less favorable showing in this test than normal children of corresponding mental age1 ,mr4 ,knollin's hoboes of #ab-year intelligence doing hardly as well as school children of #aj-year intelligence4 ,those who are habitually employed in school exercises probably acquire an adeptness in verbal associations which is later gradually lost in the preoccupations of real life4 ,there has been more disagreement as to the proper location of this test than of any other test of the ,binet scale4 ,binet placed it in year ,,xii of the #aijh scale1 but shifted it to year ,,xv in #aiaa4 ,kuhlmann retains it in year ,,xii1 while ,goddard drops it down to year ,,xi4 ,however1 when we examine the actual statistics for normal children we do not find very marked disagreement1 and such disagreement as is present can be largely accounted for by variations in procedure and by differing conclusions drawn from identical data4 ,in the first place1 ,binet gave but one trial4 ,this1 of course1 makes the test much harder than when three trials are given and only two successes are required4 ,to make one trial equal in difficulty to three trials we should perhaps need to demand only two rhymes1 instead of three1 in the one trial4 ,in the second place1 the word used by ,binet 7obeissance7 is much harder than one-syllable words like day1 mill1 and spring4 ,finally1 the wide shift of the test from year ,,xii to year ,,xv was not justified by the statistics of ,binet himself1 and the figures of ,kuhlmann and ,goddard are really in exceptionally close agreement with our own1 notwithstanding the fact that ,goddard required three successes instead of two4 ,in four series of tests1 considered together1 we have found #fb per cent passing at year ,,ix1 #ha per cent at year ,x1 #hc per cent at year ,,xi1 and #id per cent at year ,,xii4 ,,ix1 ,,alternative ,,test #a3 ,,naming ,,the ,,months ,,procedure4 ,simply ask the subject to name all the months of the year4 ,do not start him off by naming one month2 give no look of approval or disapproval as the months are being named1 and make no suggestions or comments of any kind4 ,when the months have been named1 we check up the performance by asking3 ,what month comes before ,april8 ,what month comes before ,july8 ,what month comes before ,november8 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the months are named in about fifteen or twenty seconds with no more than one error of omission1 repetition1 or displacement1 and if two out of the three check questions are answered correctly4 ,disregard place of beginning4 ,,remarks4 ,some are inclined to consider this test of little value1 because of its supposed dependence on accidental training4 ,with this opinion we cannot fully agree4 ,the arguments already given in favor of the retention of naming the days of the week 7year ,,vii71 apply equally well in the present case4 ,it has been shown1 however1 that age1 apart from intelligence1 does have some effect on the ability to name the months4 ,defective adults of #i-year intelligence do about as well with it as normal children of #aj-year intelligence4 ,the test appears in year ,x of ,binet's #aijh scale and in year ,,ix of the #aiaa revision4 ,goddard places it correctly in year ,,ix1 while ,kuhlmann and ,bobertag have omitted it4 ,,ix1 ,,alternative ,,test #b3 ,,counting ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,stamps ,,procedure4 ,place before the subject a cardboard on which are pasted three #a-;cent and three #b-;cent stamps arranged as follows3 #aaabbb4 ,be sure to lay the card so that the stamps will be right side up for the child4 ,say3 ,you know1 of course1 how much a stamp like this costs 7pointing to a #a-;cent stamp74 ,and you know how much one like this costs 7pointing to a #b-;cent stamp74 ,now1 how much money would it take to buy all these stamps8 ,do not tell the individual values of the stamps if these are not known1 for it is a part of the test to ascertain whether the child's spontaneous curiosity has led him to find out and remember their values4 ,if the individual values are known1 but the first answer is wrong1 a second trial may be given4 ,in such cases1 however1 it is necessary to be on guard against guessing4 ,if the child merely names an incorrect sum without saying anything to indicate how he arrived at his answer1 it is well to tell him to figure it up aloud4 ,tell me how you got it4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the correct value is given in not over fifteen seconds4 ,,remarks4 ,the value of this test may be questioned on two grounds3 7#a7 ,that it has an ambiguous significance1 since failure to pass it may result either from incorrect addition or from lack of knowledge of the individual values of the stamps2 7#b7 that familiarity with stamps and their values is so much a matter of accident and special instruction that the test is not fair4 ,both criticisms are in a measure valid4 ,the first1 however1 applies equally well to a great many useful intelligence tests4 ,in fact1 it is only a minority in which success depends on but one factor4 ,the other criticism has less weight than would at first appear4 ,while it is1 of course1 not impossible for an intelligent child to arrive at the age of #i years without having had reasonable opportunity to learn the cost of the common postage stamps1 the fact is that a large majority have had the opportunity and that most of those of normal intelligence have taken advantage of it4 ,it is necessary once more to emphasize the fact that in its method of locating a test the ,binet system makes ample allowance for accidental failures4 ,like the tests of naming coins1 repeating the names of the days of the week or the months of the year1 giving the date1 tying a bow-knot1 distinguishing right and left1 naming the colors1 etc41 this one also throws light on the child's spontaneous interest in common objects4 ,it is mainly the children of deficient intellectual curiosity who do not take the trouble to learn these things at somewhere near the expected age4 ,the test was located in year ,,viii of the ,binet scale4 ,however1 ,binet used coins1 three single and three double sous4 ,since we do not have either a half-cent or a #b-;cent coin1 it has been necessary to substitute postage stamps4 ,this changes the nature of the test and makes it much harder4 ,it becomes less a test of ability to do a simple sum1 and more a test of knowledge as to the value of the stamps used4 ,that the test is easy enough for year ,,viii when it can be given in the original form is indicated by all the ,french1 ,german1 and ,english statistics available1 but four separate series of ,stanford tests agree in finding it too hard for year ,,viii when stamps are substituted and the test is carried out according to the procedure described above4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,x ,x1 #a4 ,,vocabulary 7,,thirty ,,definitions1 #edjj ,,words7 ,,procedure ,,and ,,scoring ,,as ,,in ,,viii1 #f4 ,at year ,x1 thirty words should be correctly defined4 ,x1 #b4 ,,detecting ,,absurdities ,,procedure4 ,say to the child3 ,i am going to read a sentence which has something foolish in it1 some nonsense4 ,i want you to listen carefully and tell me what is foolish about it4 ,then read the sentences1 rather slowly and in a matter-of-fact voice1 saying after each3 ,what is foolish about that8 ,the sentences used are the following3-- 7a7 ,a man said3 ',i know a road from my house to the city which is downhill all the way to the city and downhill all the way back home4' 7b7 ,an engineer said that the more cars he had on his train the faster he could go4 7c7 ,yesterday the police found the body of a girl cut into eighteen pieces4 ,they believe that she killed herself4 7d7 ,there was a railroad accident yesterday1 but it was not very serious4 ,only forty-eight people were killed4 7e7 ,a bicycle rider1 being thrown from his bicycle in an accident1 struck his head against a stone and was instantly killed4 ,they picked him up and carried him to the hospital1 and they do not think he will get well again4 ,each should ordinarily be answered within thirty seconds4 ,if the child is silent1 the sentence should be repeated2 but no other questions or suggestions of any kind are permissible4 ,such questions as ,could the road be downhill both ways8 or1 ,do you think the girl could have killed herself8 would1 of course1 put the answer in the child's mouth4 ,it is even best to avoid laughing as the sentence is read4 ,owing to the child's limited power of expression it is not always easy to judge from the answer given whether the absurdity has really been detected or not4 ,in such cases ask him to explain himself1 using some such formula as3 ,i am not sure ,i know what you mean4 ,explain what you mean4 ,tell me what is foolish in the sentence ,i read4 ,this usually brings a reply the correctness or incorrectness of which is more apparent1 while at the same time the formula is so general that it affords no hint as to the correct answer4 ,additional questions must be used with extreme caution4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if the absurdity is detected in four out of the five statements4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory answers3-- 7a7 ,the road downhill ,satisfactory4 ,if it was downhill to the city it would be uphill coming back4 ,it can't be downhill both directions4 ,that could not be4 ,that is foolish4 7,explain47 ,because it must be uphill one way or the other4 ,that would be a funny road4 7,explain47 ,no road can be like that4 ,it can't be downhill both ways4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,perhaps he took a little different road coming back4 ,i guess it is a very crooked road4 ,coming back he goes around the hill4 ,the man lives down in a valley4 ,the road was made that way so it would be easy4 ,just a road4 ,i don't see anything foolish4 ,he should say1 'a road which goes4' 7b7 ,what the engineer said ,satisfactory4 ,if he has more cars he will go slower4 ,it is the other way4 ,if he wants to go faster he mustn't have so many cars4 ,the man didn't mean what he said1 or else it was a slip of the tongue4 ,that's the way it would be if he was going downhill4 ,foolish1 because the cars don't help pull the train4 ,he ought to say slower1 not faster4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,a long train is nicer4 ,the engine pulls harder if the train has lots of cars4 ,that's all right4 ,i suppose he likes a big train4 ,nothing foolish2 when ,i went to the city ,i saw a train that had lots of cars and it was going awfully fast4 ,he should have said1 'the faster ,i can run4' 7c7 ,the girl who was thought to have killed herself ,satisfactory4 ,she could not have cut herself into eighteen pieces4 ,she would have been dead before that4 ,she might have cut two or three pieces off1 but she couldn't do the rest4 7,laughing7 ,well1 she may have killed herself2 but if she did it's a sure thing that some one else came along after and chopped her up4 ,that policeman must have been a fool4 7,explain47 ,to think that she could chop herself into eighteen pieces4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,think that she killed herself2 they know she did4 ,they can't be sure4 ,some one may have killed her4 ,it was a foolish girl to kill herself4 ,how can they tell who killed her8 ,no girl would kill herself unless she was crazy4 ,it ought to read3 ',they think that she committed suicide4' 7d7 ,the railroad accident ,satisfactory4 ,that was very serious4 ,i should like to know what you would call a serious accident6 ,you could say it was not serious if two or three people were killed1 but forty-eight1--that is serious4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,it was a foolish mistake that made the accident4 ,they couldn't help it4 ,it was an accident4 ,it might have been worse4 ,nothing foolish2 it's just sad4 7e7 ,the bicycle rider ,satisfactory4 ,how could he get well after he was already killed8 ,why1 he's already dead4 ,no use to take a dead man to the hospital4 ,they ought to have taken him to a grave-yard6 ,unsatisfactory4 ,foolish to fall off of a bicycle4 ,he should have known how to ride4 ,they ought to have carried him home4 7,why87 ,so his folks could get a doctor4 ,he should have been more careful4 ,maybe they can cure him if he isn't hurt very bad4 ,there's nothing foolish in that4 ,,remarks4 ,the detection of absurdities is one of the most ingenious and serviceable tests of the entire scale4 ,it is little influenced by schooling1 and it comes nearer than any other to being a test of that species of mother-wit which we call common sense4 ,like the comprehension questions1 it may be called a test of judgment1 using this term in the colloquial and not in the logical sense4 ,the stupid person1 whether depicted in literature1 proverb1 or the ephemeral joke column1 is always 7and justly1 it would seem7 characterized by a huge tolerance for absurd contradictions and by a blunt sensitivity for the fine points of a joke4 ,intellectual discrimination and judgment are inferior4 ,the ideas do not cross-light each other1 but remain relatively isolated4 ,hence1 the most absurd contradictions are swallowed1 so to speak1 without arousing the protest of the critical faculty4 ,the latter1 indeed1 is only a name for the tendency of intellectually irreconcilable elements to clash4 ,if there is no clash1 if the elements remain apart1 it goes without saying that there will be no power of criticism4 ,the critical faculty begins its development in the early years and strengthens pari passu with the growing wealth of inter-associations among ideas2 but in the average child it is not until the age of about #aj years that it becomes equal to tasks like those presented in this test4 ,eight-year intelligence hardly ever scores more than two or three correct answers out of five4 ,by #ab1 the critical ability has so far developed that the test is nearly always passed4 ,it is an invaluable test for the higher grades of mental deficiency4 ,as a test of the critical powers ,binet first used trap questions2 as1 for example1 ,is snow red or black8 ,the results were disappointing1 for it was found that owing to timidity1 deference1 and suggestibility normal children often failed on such questions4 ,deference is more marked in normal than in feeble-minded children1 and it is because of the influence of this trait that it is necessary always to forewarn the subject that the sentence to be given contains nonsense4 ,binet located the test in year ,,xi of the #aijh scale1 but changed it to year ,x in #aiaa4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann retain it in year ,,xi4 ,the large majority of the statistics1 including those of ,goddard and ,kuhlmann1 warrant the location of the test in year ,x4 ,not all have used the same absurdities1 and these have not been worded uniformly4 ,most have required three successes out of five1 but ,bobertag and ,kuhlmann require three out of four2 ,bobertag's procedure is also different in that he does not forewarn the child that an absurdity is to follow4 ,the present form of the test is the result of three successive refinements4 ,it will be noted that we have made two substitutions in ,binet's list of absurdities4 ,those omitted from the original scale are3 ,i have three brothers--,paul1 ,ernest1 and myself1 and1 ,if ,i were going to commit suicide ,i would not choose ,friday1 because ,friday is an unlucky day and would bring me misfortune4 ,the last has a puzzling feature which makes it much too hard for year ,x1 and the other is objectionable with children who are accustomed to hear a foreign language in which the form of expression used in the absurdity is idiomatically correct4 ,the two we have substituted for these objectionable absurdities are1 ,the road downhill and ,what the engineer said4 ,the five we have used1 though of nearly equal difficulty1 are here listed in the order from easiest to hardest4 ,our series as a whole is slightly easier than ,binet's4 ,x1 #c4 ,,drawing ,,designs ,,from ,,memory ,,procedure4 ,use the designs shown on the accompanying printed form4 ,if copies are used they must be exact in size and shape4 ,before showing the card say3 ,this card has two drawings on it4 ,i am going to show them to you for ten seconds1 then ,i will take the card away and let you draw from memory what you have seen4 ,examine both drawings carefully and remember that you have only ten seconds4 ,provide pencil and paper and then show the card for ten seconds1 holding it at right angles to the child's line of vision and with the designs in the position given in the plate4 ,have the child draw the designs immediately after they are removed from sight4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if one of the designs is reproduced correctly and the other about half correctly4 ,correctly means that the essential plan of the design has been grasped and reproduced4 ,ordinary irregularities due to lack of motor skill or to hasty execution are disregarded4 ,half correctly means that some essential part of the design has been omitted or misplaced1 or that parts have been added4 ,the sample reproductions shown on the scoring card will serve as a guide4 ,it will be noted that an inverted design1 or one whose right and left sides have been transposed1 is counted only half correct1 however perfect it many be in other respects2 also that design b is counted only half correct if the inner rectangle is not located off center4 ,,remarks4 ,binet states that the main factors involved in success are attention1 visual memory1 and a little analysis4 ,the power of rapid analysis would seem to be the most important1 for if the designs are analyzed they may be reproduced from a verbal memory of the analysis4 ,without some analysis it would hardly be possible to remember the designs at all1 as one of them contains thirteen lines and the other twelve4 ,the memory span for unrelated objects is far too limited to permit us to grasp and retain that number of unrelated impressions4 ,success is possible only by grouping the lines according to their relationships1 so that several of them are given a unitary value and remembered as one4 ,in this manner1 the design to the right1 which is composed of twelve lines1 may be reduced to four elements3 7#a7 ,the outer rectangle2 7#b7 the inner rectangle2 7#c7 the off-center position of the inner rectangle2 and 7#d7 the joining of the angles4 ,of course the child does not ordinarily make an analysis as explicit as this2 but analysis of some kind1 even though it be unconscious1 is necessary to success4 ,ability to pass the test indicates the presence1 in a certain definite amount1 of the tendency for the contents of consciousness to fuse into a meaningful whole4 ,failure indicates that the elements have maintained their unitary character or have fused inadequately4 ,it is seen1 therefore1 that the test has a close kinship with the test of memory for sentences4 ,the latter1 also1 permits the fusion or grouping of impressions according to meaning1 with the result that five or six times as many meaningful syllables as nonsense syllables or digits can be retained4 ,binet had many more failures on design a than on design b4 ,this was probably due to the fact that he showed the designs with our b to the left4 ,a majority of subjects1 probably because of the influence of reading habits1 examine first the figure to the left1 and because of the short time allowed for the inspection are unable to devote much time to the design at the right4 ,we have placed the design of greater intrinsic difficulty at the left1 with the result that the failures are almost equally divided between the two4 ,binet used this test in his unstandardized series of #aije1 omitted it in #aijh1 but included it in the #aiaa revision1 locating it in year ,x4 ,except for ,goddard1 who recommends year ,,xi1 there is rather general agreement that the test belongs at year ,x4 ,our own data show that it may be placed either at year ,x or year ,,xi1 according as the grading is rigid or lenient4 ,x1 #d4 ,,reading ,,for ,,eight ,,memories ,,material4 ,we use ,binet's selection1 slightly adapted1 as follows3-- ,new ,york1 ,september #eth4 ,a fire last night burned three houses near the center of the city4 ,it took some time to put it out4 ,the loss was fifty thousand dollars1 and seventeen families lost their homes4 ,in saving a girl1 who was asleep in a bed1 a fireman was burned on the hands4 ,the copy of the selection used by the subject should be printed in heavy type and should not contain the bars dividing it into memories4 ,the ,stanford record booklet contains the selection in two forms1 one suitable for use in scoring1 the other in heavy type to be read by the subject4 ,,procedure4 ,hand the selection to the subject1 who should be seated comfortably in a good light1 and say3 ,i want you to read this for me as nicely as you can4 ,the subject must read aloud4 ,pronounce all the words which the subject is unable to make out1 not allowing more than five seconds' hesitation in such a case4 ,record all errors made in reading the selection1 and the exact time4 ,by error is meant the omission1 substitution1 transposition1 or mispronunciation of one word4 ,the subject is not warned in advance that he will be asked to report what he has read1 but as soon as he has finished reading1 put the selection out of sight and say3 ,very well done4 ,now1 ,i want you to tell me what you read4 ,begin at the first and tell everything you can remember4 ,after the subject has repeated everything he can recall and has stopped1 say3 ,and what else8 ,can you remember any more of it8 ,give no other aid of any kind4 ,it is of course not permissible1 when the child stops1 to prompt him with such questions as1 ,and what next8 ,where were the houses burned8 ,what happened to the fireman8 etc4 ,the report must be spontaneous4 ,now and then1 though not often1 a subject hesitates or even refuses to try1 saying he is unable to do it4 ,perhaps he has misunderstood the request and thinks he is expected to repeat the selection word for word1 as in the tests of memory for sentences4 ,we urge a little and repeat3 ,tell me in your own words all you can remember of it4 ,others misunderstand in a different way1 and thinking they are expected to tell merely what the story is about1 they say3 ,it was about some houses that burned4 ,in such cases we repeat the instructions with special emphasis on the words all you can remember4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the selection is read in thirty-five seconds with not more than two errors1 and if the report contains at least eight memories4 ,by underscoring the memories correctly reproduced1 and by interlineations to show serious departures from the text1 the record can be made complete with a minimum of trouble4 ,the main difficulty in scoring is to decide whether a memory has been reproduced correctly enough to be counted4 ,absolutely literal reproduction is not expected4 ,the rule is to count all memories whose thought is reproduced with only minor changes in the wording4 ,it took quite a while instead of it took some time is satisfactory2 likewise1 got burnt for was burned2 who was sleeping for who was asleep2 are homeless for lost their homes2 in the middle for near the center2 a big fire for a fire1 etc4 ,memories as badly mutilated as the following1 however1 are not counted3 ,a lot of buildings for three houses2 a man for a fireman2 who was sick for who was asleep2 etc4 ,occasionally we may give half credit1 as in the case of was seventeen thousand dollars for was fifty thousand dollars2 and fifteen families for and seventeen families1 etc4 ,,remarks4 ,are we warranted in using at all as a measure of intelligence a test which depends as much on instruction as this one does8 ,many are inclined to answer this question in the negative4 ,the test has been omitted from the revisions of ,goddard1 ,kuhlmann1 and ,binet himself4 ,as regards ,binet's earlier test of reading for two memories1 in year ,,viii1 there could hardly be any difference of opinion4 ,the ability to read at that age depends so much on the accident of environment that the test is meaningless unless we know all about the conditions which have surrounded the child4 ,the use of the test in year ,x1 however1 is a very different matter4 ,there are comparatively few children of that age who will fail to pass it for lack of the requisite school instruction4 ,children of #aj years who have attended school with reasonable regularity for three years are practically always able to read the selection in thirty-five seconds and without over two mistakes unless they are retarded almost to the border-line of mental deficiency4 ,of our #aj-year-olds who failed to meet the test1 only a fourth did so because of inability to meet the reading requirements as regards time or mistakes4 ,the remaining failures were caused by inadequate report1 and most of these subjects were of the distinctly retarded group4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that given anything approaching normal educational advantages1 the test is really a measure of intelligence4 ,used with due caution1 it is perhaps as valuable as any other test in the scale4 ,it is only necessary1 in case of failure1 to ascertain the facts regarding the child's educational opportunities4 ,even this precaution is superfluous in case the subject tests as low as #h years by the remainder of the scale4 ,a safe rule is to omit the test from the calculation of mental age if the subject has not attended school the equivalent of two or three years4 ,it has been contended by some that tests in which success depends upon language mastery cannot be real tests of intelligence4 ,by such critics language tests have been set over against intelligence tests as contrasting opposites4 ,it is easy to show1 however1 that this view is superficial and psychologically unsound4 ,every one who has an acquaintance with the facts of mental growth knows that language mastery of some degree is the sine qua non of conceptual thinking4 ,language growth1 in fact1 mirrors the entire mental development4 ,there are few more reliable indications of a subject's stage of intellectual maturity than his mastery of language4 ,the rate of reading1 for example1 is a measure of the rate of association4 ,letters become associated together in certain combinations making words1 words into word groups and sentences4 ,recognition is for the most part an associative process4 ,rapid and accurate association will mean ready recognition of the printed form4 ,since language units 7whether letters1 words1 or word groups7 have more or less preferred associations according to their habitual arrangement into larger units1 it comes about that in the normal mind under normal conditions these preferred sequences arouse the apperceptive complex necessary to make a running recognition rapid and easy4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that in the subnormal mind the habitual common associations are less firmly fixed1 thus diminishing the effectiveness of the ever-changing apperceptive expectancy4 ,reading is1 therefore1 largely dependent on what ,james calls the fringe of consciousness and the consciousness of meaning4 ,in reading connected matter1 every unit is big with a mass of tendencies4 ,the smaller and more isolated the unit1 the greater is the number of possibilities4 ,every added unit acts as a modifier limiting the number of tendencies1 until we have finally1 in case of a large mental unit1 a fairly manageable whole4 ,when the most logical and suitable of these associations arise easily from subconsciousness to consciousness1 recognition is made easy1 and their doing so will depend on whether the habitual relations of the elements have left permanent traces in the mind4 ,the reading of the subnormal subject bears a close analogy to the reading of nonsense matter by the normal person4 ,it has been ascertained by experiment that such reading requires about twice as much time as the reading of connected matter4 ,this is true for the reason that out of thousands of associations possible with each word1 no particular association is favored4 ,the apperceptive expectancy1 practically nil in the reading of nonsense material1 must be decidedly deficient in all poor reading4 ,furthermore1 in the case of the ordinary reader there is a feeling of rightness or wrongness about the thought sequences4 ,that less intelligent subjects have this sense of fitness to a much less degree is evidenced by their passing over words so mutilated in pronunciation as to deprive them of all meaning4 ,the transposition of letters and words1 and the failure to observe marks of punctuation1 point to the same thing4 ,in other words1 all the reading of the stupid subject is with material which to him is more or less nonsensical4#ff #ff ,see ,genius and ,stupidity1 by ,lewis ,m4 ,terman1 in ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,september1 #aijf1 p4 #cdj ff4 ,a little observation will convince one that mentally retarded subjects1 even when they possess a reasonable degree of fluency in recognizing printed words1 do not sense shades of meaning4 ,their reading is by small units4 ,words and phrases do not fuse into one mental content1 but remain relatively unconnected4 ,the expression is monotonous and the voice has more of the unnatural schoolroom pitch4 ,they read more slowly1 more often misplace the emphasis1 and miscall more words4 ,in short1 one who has psychological insight and is acquainted with reading standards can easily detect the symptoms of intellectual inferiority by hearing a dull subject read a brief selection4 ,the giving of memories is also significant4 ,feeble-minded adults who have been well schooled are sometimes able to read the words of the text fairly fluently1 but are usually unable to give more than a scanty report of what has been read4 ,the scope of attention has been exhausted in the mere recognition and pronouncing of words4 ,in general1 the greater the mechanical difficulties which a subject encounters1 the less adequate is his report of memories4 ,the test has1 however1 one real fault4 ,school children have a certain advantage in it over older persons of the same mental age whose school experience is less recent4 ,adult subjects tend to give their report in less literal form4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to give credit for the reproduction of the ideas of the passage rather than for strictly literal memories4 ,the selection we have used is1 with minor changes1 the same as ,binet's4 ,his selection was divided into nineteen memories4 ,the one here given has twenty-one memories4 ,binet used the test both in year ,,viii and year ,,ix1 requiring two memories at year ,,viii and six memories at year ,,ix4 ,when we require eight memories1 as we have done1 the test becomes difficult enough for non-selected school children of #aj years4 ,location in year ,x seems preferable1 because it insures that the child will almost certainly have had the schooling requisite for learning to read a selection of this difficulty1 even if he has started to school at a later age than is customary4 ,naturally1 placing the test higher in the scale makes it more a test of report and less a test of ability to recognize and pronounce printed words4 ,x1 #e4 ,,comprehension1 ,,fourth ,,degree ,the questions for this year are3-- 7a7 ,what ought you to say when some one asks your opinion about a person you don't know very well8 7b7 ,what ought you to do before undertaking 7beginning7 something very important8 7c7 ,why should we judge a person more by his actions than by his words8 ,the ,,procedure is the same as for the previous comprehension tests4 ,each question may be repeated1 but its form must not be changed4 ,it is not permissible to make any explanation whatever as to the meaning of the question1 except to substitute beginning for undertaking when 7b7 seems not to be comprehended4 ,,scoring4 ,two out of the three questions must be answered satisfactorily4 ,study of the following classified responses should make scoring fairly easy in most cases3-- 7a7 ,when some one asks your opinion ,satisfactory4 ,i would say ,i don't know him very well 7#db per cent of the correct answers74 ,tell him what ,i know and no more 7#cd per cent of correct answers74 ,i would say that ,i'd rather not express any opinion about him 7#bj per cent of the correct answers74 ,tell him to ask some one else4 ,i would not express any opinion4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,unsatisfactory responses are due either to failure to grasp the import of the question1 or to inability to suggest the appropriate action demanded by the situation4 ,the latter form of failure is the more common2 e4g43 ,i'd say they are nice4 ,say you like them4 ,say what ,i think4 ,say it's none of their business4 ,tell them ,i mind my own business4 ,say ,i would get acquainted with them4 ,say that ,i don't talk about people4 ,say ,i didn't know how he looked4 ,tell them you ought not to say such things2 you might get into trouble4 ,i wouldn't say anything4 ,i would try to answer4 ,say ,i did not know his name1 etc4 ,the following are samples of failure due to mistaking the import of the question3 ,i'd say1 ',how do you do8' ,say1',i'm glad to meet you4' 7b7 ,before undertaking something important ,satisfactory responses fall into the following classes3-- 7#a7 ,brief statement of preliminary consideration2 as3 ,think about it4 ,look it over4 ,plan it all out4 ,make your plans4 ,stop and think1 etc4 7#b7 ,special emphasis on preliminary preparation and correct procedure2 as3 ,find out the best way to do it4 ,find out what it is4 ,get everything ready4 ,do every little thing that would help you4 ,get all the details you can4 ,take your time and figure it out1 etc4 7#c7 ,asking help2 as3 ,ask some one to help you who knows all about it4 ,pray1 if you are a ,christian4 ,ask advice1 etc4 7#d7 ,preliminary testing of ability1 self-analysis1 etc42 as3 ,try something easier first4 ,practice and make sure ,i could do it4 ,learn how to do it1 etc4 7#e7 ,consider the wisdom or propriety of doing it3 ,think whether it would be best to do it4 ,see whether it would be possible4 ,about #fe per cent of the correct responses belong either to group 7#a7 or 7#b71 about #bj per cent to group 7#c71 and most of the remainder to group 7#d74 ,unsatisfactory responses are of the following types3-- 7#a7 ,due to mistaking the import of the question2 e4g43 ,ask for it4 ,ought to say please4 ,ask whose it is4 ,replies of this kind can be nearly all eliminated by repeating the question1 using beginning instead of undertaking4 7#b7 ,replies more or less absurd or irrelevant2 as3 ,promise to do your best4 ,wash your face and hands4 ,get a lot of insurance4 ,dress up and take a walk4 ,tell your name4 ,know whether it's correct4 ,begin at the beginning4 ,say you will do it4 ,see if it's a fake4 ,go to school a long time4 ,pass an examination4 ,do what is right4 ,add up and see how much it will cost4 ,say ,i would do it4 ,just start doing it4 ,go away4 ,consult a doctor4 ,see if you have time1 etc4 7c7 ,why we should judge a person more by his actions than by his words ,satisfactory responses fall into the following classes3-- 7#a7 ,words and deeds both mentioned and contrasted in reliability2 as3 ,actions speak louder than words 7this in #h per cent of successes74 ,you can tell more by his actions than by his words4 ,he might talk nice and do bad things4 ,sometimes people say things and don't do them4 ,it's not what you say but what you do that counts4 ,talk is cheap2 when he does a thing you can believe it4 ,people don't do everything they say4 ,a man might steal but talk like a nice man4 ,over #de per cent of all correct responses belong to group 7#a74 7#b7 ,acts stressed without mention of words2 as3 ,you can tell by his actions whether he is good or not4 ,if he acts nice he is nice4 ,actions show for themselves4 ,group 7#b7 contains about #be per cent of the correct responses4 7#c7 ,emphasis on unreliability of words2 as3 ,you can't tell by his words1 he might lie or boast4 ,because you can't always believe what people say4 7,group 7#c7 contains #ae per cent of the correct responses47 7#d7 ,responses which state that a man's deeds are sometimes better than his words2 as3 ,he might talk ugly and still not do bad things4 ,some really kind-hearted people scold and swear4 ,a man's words may be worse than his deeds1 etc4 ,group 7#d7 contains over #aj per cent of the correct responses4 ,unsatisfactory responses are usually due to inability to comprehend the meaning of the question4 ,if there is a complete lack of comprehension the result is either silence or a totally irrelevant response4 ,if there is partial comprehension of the question the response may be partially relevant1 but fail to make the expected distinction4 ,the following are sample failures3 ,you could tell by his words that he was educated4 ,it shows he is polite if he acts nice4 ,sometimes people aren't polite4 ,actions show who he might be4 ,acts may be foolish4 ,words ain't right4 ,a man might be dumb4 ,a fellow don't know what he says4 ,some people can talk1 but don't have control of themselves4 ,you can tell by his acts whether he goes with bad people4 ,if he doesn't act right you know he won't talk right4 ,actions show if he has manners4 ,might get embarrassed and not talk good4 ,he may not know how to express his thoughts4 ,he might be a rich man but a poor talker4 ,he might say the wrong thing and afterwards be sorry for it1 etc4 7,the last four are nearer correct than the others1 but they fall just short of expressing the essential contrast47 ,,remarks4 ,for discussion of the comprehension questions as a test of intelligence1 see page #aeh4 ,binet used eight questions1 three easy and five difficult1 and required that five out of eight be answered correctly in year ,x4 ,the eight were as follows3-- 7#a7 ,what to do when you have missed your train4 7#b7 ,when you have been struck by a playmate1 etc4 7#c7 ,when you have broken something1 etc4 7#d7 ,when about to be late for school4 7#e7 ,when about to undertake something important4 7#f7 ,why excuse a bad act committed in anger more readily than a bad act committed without anger4 7#g7 ,what to do if some one asks your opinion1 etc4 7#h7 ,why can you judge a person better by his actions1 etc4 ,as we have shown1 questions #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d are much too easy for year ,x4 ,question #f is hard enough for year ,,xii4 ,we have omitted it because it was not needed and is not entirely satisfactory4 ,x1 #f4 ,,naming ,,sixty ,,words ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,now1 ,i want to see how many different words you can name in three minutes4 ,when ,i say ready1 you must begin and name the words as fast as you can1 and ,i will count them4 ,do you understand8 ,be sure to do your very best1 and remember that just any words will do1 like 'clouds1' 'dog1' 'chair1' 'happy'--,ready2 go ahead6 ,the instructions may be repeated if the subject does not understand what is wanted4 ,as a rule the task is comprehended instantly and entered into with great zest4 ,do not stare at the child1 and do not say anything as the test proceeds unless there is a pause of fifteen seconds4 ,in this event say3 ,go ahead1 as fast as you can4 ,any words will do4 ,repeat this urging after every pause of fifteen seconds4 ,some subjects1 usually rather intelligent ones1 hit upon the device of counting or putting words together in sentences4 ,we then break in with3 ,counting 7or sentences1 as the case may be7 not allowed4 ,you must name separate words4 ,go ahead4 ,record the individual words if possible1 and mark the end of each half-minute4 ,if the words are named so rapidly that they cannot be taken down1 it is easy to keep the count by making a pencil stroke for each word4 ,if the latter method is employed1 repeated words may be indicated by making a cross instead of a single stroke4 ,always make record of repetitions4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if sixty words1 exclusive of repetitions1 are named in three minutes4 ,it is not allowable to accept twenty words in one minute or forty words in two minutes as an equivalent of the expected score4 ,only real words are counted4 ,,remarks4 ,scoring1 as we have seen1 takes account only of the number of words4 ,it is instructive1 however1 to note the kind of words given4 ,some subjects1 more often those of the #h- or #i-year intelligence level1 give mainly isolated1 detached words4 ,as well stated by ,binet1 ,little children exhaust an idea in naming it4 ,they say1 for example1 hat1 and then pass on to another word without noticing that hats differ in color1 in form1 have various parts1 different uses and accessories1 and that in enumerating all these they could find a large number of words4 ,others quickly take advantage of such relationships and name many parts of an object before leaving it1 or name a number of other objects belonging to the same class4 ,hat1 for example1 suggests cap1 hood1 coat1 shirt1 shoes1 stockings1 etc4 ,pencil suggests book1 slate1 paper1 desk1 ink1 map1 school-yard1 teacher1 etc4 ,responses of this type may be made up of ten or a dozen plainly distinct word groups4 ,another type of response consists in naming only objects present1 or words which present objects immediately suggest4 ,it is unfortunate that this occurs1 since rooms in which testing is done vary so much with respect to furnishings4 ,the subject who chooses this method is obviously handicapped if the room is relatively bare4 ,one way to avoid this influence is to have all subjects name the words with eyes closed1 but the distraction thus caused is sometimes rather disturbing4 ,it is perhaps best for the present to adhere to the original procedure1 and to follow the rule of making tests in a room containing few furnishings in addition to the necessary table and chairs4 ,a fourth type of response is that including a large proportion of unusual or abstract words4 ,this is the best of all1 and is hardly ever found except with subjects who are above the #aa-year intelligence level4 ,it goes without saying that a response need not belong entirely to any one of the above types4 ,most responses1 in fact1 are characterized by a mixture of two or three of the types1 one of them perhaps being dominant4 ,though not without its shortcomings1 the test is interesting and valuable4 ,success in it does not1 as one might suppose1 depend solely upon the size of the vocabulary4 ,even #h-year-olds ordinarily know the meaning of more than #cjjj words1 and by #aj years the vocabulary usually exceeds #ejjj words1 or eighty times as many as the child is expected to name in three minutes4 ,the main factors in success are two1 7#a7 richness and variety of previously made associations with common words2 and 7#b7 the readiness of these associations to reinstate themselves4 ,the young or the retarded subject fishes in the ocean of his vocabulary with a single hook1 so to speak4 ,he brings up each time only one word4 ,the subject endowed with superior intelligence employs a net 7the idea of a class1 for example7 and brings up a half-dozen words or more4 ,the latter accomplishes a greater amount and with less effort2 but it requires intelligence and will power to avoid wasting time with detached words4 ,one is again and again astonished at the poverty of associations which this test discloses with retarded subjects4 ,for twenty or thirty seconds such children may be unable to think of a single word4 ,it would be interesting if at such periods we could get a glimpse into the subject's consciousness4 ,there must be some kind of mental content1 but it seems too vague to be crystallized in words4 ,the ready association of thoughts with definite words connotes a relatively high degree of intellectual advancement4 ,language forms are the short-hand of thought2 without facile command of language1 thinking is vague1 clumsy1 and ineffective4 ,conversely1 vague mental content entails language shortage4 ,occasionally a child of #aa- or #ab-year intelligence will make a poor showing in this test4 ,when this happens it is usually due either to excessive embarrassment or to a strange persistence in running down all the words of a given class before launching out upon a new series4 ,occasionally1 too1 an intelligent subject wastes time in thinking up a beautiful list of big or unusual words4 ,as stated by ,bobertag1 success is favored by a certain amount of intellectual nonchalance1 a willingness to ignore sense and a readiness to break away from a train of associations as soon as the point of diminishing returns has been reached4 ,this doubtless explains why adults sometimes make such a surprisingly poor showing in the test4 ,they have less intellectual nonchalance than children1 are less willing to subordinate such considerations as completeness and logical connection to the demands of speed4 ,knollin's unemployed men of #ab- to #ac-year intelligence succeeded no better than school children of the #aj-year level4 ,we do not believe1 however1 that this fault is serious enough to warrant the elimination of the test4 ,the fact is that in a large majority of cases the score which it yields agrees fairly closely with the result of the scale as a whole4 ,subjects more than a year or two below the mental age of #aj years seldom succeed4 ,those more than a year or two above the #aj-year level seldom fail4 ,there is another reason why the test should be retained1 it often has significance beyond that which appears in the mere number of words given4 ,the naming of unusual and abstract words is an instance of this4 ,an unusually large number of repetitions has symptomatic significance in the other direction4 ,it indicates a tendency to mental stereotypy1 so frequently encountered in testing the feeble-minded4 ,the proportion of repetitions made by normal children of the #aj- or #aa-year intelligence level rarely exceeds #b or #c per cent of the total number of words named2 those of older retarded children of the same level occasionally reach #f or #h per cent4 ,it is conceivable1 of course1 that a more satisfactory test of this general nature could be devised2 such1 for example1 as having the subject name all the words he can of a given class 7four-footed animals1 things to eat1 articles of household furniture1 trees1 birds1 etc474 ,the main objection to this form of the test is that the performance would in all probability be more influenced by environment and formal instruction than is the case with the test of naming sixty words4 ,one other matter remains to be mentioned2 namely1 the relative number of words named in the half-minute periods4 ,as would be expected1 the rate of naming words decreases as the test proceeds4 ,in the case of the #aj-year-olds1 we find the average number of words for the six successive half-minutes to be as follows3-- #ah1 #ab1 #aj1 #i1 #h1 #g4 ,some subjects maintain an almost constant rate throughout the test1 others rapidly exhaust themselves1 while a very few make a bad beginning and improve as they go4 ,as a rule it is only the very intelligent who improve after the first half-minute4 ,on the other hand1 mentally retarded subjects and very young normals exhaust themselves so quickly that only a few words are named in the last minute4 ,binet first located this test in year ,,xi1 but shifted it to year ,,xii in #aiaa4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann retain it in year ,,xi1 though ,goddard's statistics suggest year ,x as the proper location1 and ,kuhlmann's even suggest year ,,ix4 ,kuhlmann1 however1 accepts fifty words as satisfactory in case the response contains a considerable proportion of abstract or unusual words4 ,all the ,american statistics except ,rowe's agree in showing that the test is easy enough for year ,x4 ,x1 ,,alternative ,,test #a3 ,,repeating ,,six ,,digits ,the digit series used are #c-g-d-h-e-i2 and #e-b-a-g-d-f4 ,the ,,procedure and ,,scoring are the same as in ,,vii1 #c1 except that only two trials are given1 one of which must be correct4 ,the test is somewhat too easy for year #aj when three trials are given4 ,the test of repeating six digits did not appear in the ,binet scale and seems not to have been standardized until inserted in the ,stanford series4 ,x1 ,,alternative ,,test #b3 ,,repeating ,,twenty ,,to ,,twenty-,,two ,,syllables ,the sentences for this year are3-- 7a7 ,the apple tree makes a cool1 pleasant shade on the ground where the children are playing4 7b7 ,it is nearly half-past one o'clock2 the house is very quiet and the cat has gone to sleep4 7c7 ,in summer the days are very warm and fine2 in winter it snows and ,i am cold4 ,,procedure and ,,scoring exactly as in ,,vi1 #f4 ,,remarks4 ,it is interesting to note that five years of mental growth are required to pass from the ability to repeat sixteen or eighteen syllables 7year ,,vi7 to the ability to repeat twenty or twenty-two syllables4 ,similarly in memory for digits4 ,five digits are almost as easy at year ,,vii as six at year ,x4 ,two explanations are available3 7#a7 ,the increased difficulty may be accounted for by a relatively slow growth of memory power after the age of #f or #g years2 or 7#b7 the increase in difficulty may be real1 expressing an inner law as to the behavior of the memory span in dealing with material of increasing length4 ,both factors are probably involved4 ,this is another of the ,stanford additions to the scale4 ,average children of #aj years ordinarily pass it1 but older1 retarded children of #aj-year mental age make a poorer showing4 ,in the case of mentally retarded adults1 especially1 the verbal memory is less exact than that of school children of the same mental age4 ,x1 ,,alternative ,,test #c3 ,,construction ,,puzzle ,a 7,,healy ,,and ,,fernald7 ,,material4 ,use the form-board pictured on page #bgi4 ,this may be purchased of ,c4 ,h4 ,stoelting ,co41 ,chicago1 ,illinois4 ,a home-made one will do as well if care is taken to get the dimensions exact4 ,quarter-inch wood should be used4 ,the inside of the frame should be #c #d inches1 and the dimensions of the blocks should be as follows3 #ac_/af #c2 #a #a2 #a #b2 #a #a2 #a #b4 ,,procedure4 ,place the frame on the table before the subject1 the short side nearest him4 ,the blocks are placed in an irregular position on the side of the frame away from the subject4 ,take care that the board with the blocks in place is not exposed to view in advance of the experiment4 ,say3 ,i want you to put these blocks in this frame so that all the space will be filled up4 ,if you do it rightly they will all fit in and there will be no space left over4 ,go ahead4 ,do not tell the subject to see how quickly he can do it4 ,say nothing that would even suggest hurrying1 for this tends to call forth the trial-and-error procedure even with intelligent subjects4 ,illustration ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the child succeeds in fitting the blocks into place three times in a total time of five minutes for the three trials4 ,the method of procedure is fully as important as the time1 but is not so easily scored in quantitative terms4 ,nevertheless1 the examiner should always take observations on the method employed1 noting especially any tendency to make and to repeat moves which lead to obvious impossibilities2 i4e41 moves which leave a space obviously unfitted to any of the remaining pieces4 ,some subjects repeat an absurd move many times over2 others make an absurd move1 but promptly correct it2 others1 and these are usually the bright ones1 look far enough ahead to avoid error altogether4 ,,remarks4 ,this test was devised by ,professor ,freeman1 was adapted slightly by ,healy and ,fernald1 and was first standardized by ,dr4 ,kuhlmann4 ,miss ,gertrude ,hall has also standardized it1 but on a different procedure from that described above4#fg #fg ,eugenics and ,social ,welfare ,bulletin1 ,no4 #e1 ,the ,state ,board of ,charities1 ,albany1 ,new ,york4 ,the test has a lower correlation with intelligence than most of the other tests of the scale4 ,many bright children of #aj-year intelligence adopt the trial-and-error method and have little success1 while retarded older children of only #h-year intelligence sometimes succeed4 ,age1 apart from intelligence1 seems to play an important part in determining the nature of the performance4 ,a favorable feature of the test1 however1 is the fact that it makes no demand on language ability and that it brings into play an aspect of intelligence which is relatively neglected by the remainder of the scale4 ,for this reason it is at least worth keeping as an alternative test4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,xii ,,xii1 #a4 ,,vocabulary 7,,forty ,,definitions1 #gbjj ,,words7 ,,procedure and ,,scoring as in previous vocabulary tests4#fh ,in this case forty words must be defined4 #fh ,see ,,viii1 #f4 ,,xii1 #b4 ,,defining ,,abstract ,,words ,,procedure4 ,the words to be defined are pity1 revenge1 charity1 envy1 and justice4 ,the formula is1 ,what is pity8 ,what do we mean by pity8 and so on with the other words4 ,if the meaning of the response is not clear1 ask the subject to explain what he means4 ,if the definition is in terms of the word itself1 as ,pity means to pity someone1 ,revenge is to take revenge1 etc41 it is then necessary to say3 ,yes1 but what does it mean to pity some one8 or1 ,what does it mean to take revenge8 etc4 ,only supplementary questions of this kind are permissible4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if three of the five words are satisfactorily defined4 ,the definition need not be strictly logical nor the language elegant4 ,it is sufficient if the definition shows that the meaning of the word is known4 ,definitions which define by means of an illustration are acceptable4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses3-- 7a7 ,pity ,satisfactory4 ,to be sorry for some one4 ,to feel compassion4 ,to have sympathy for a person4 ,to feel bad for some one4 ,it means you help a person out and don't like to have him suffer4 ,to have a feeling for people when they are treated wrong4 ,if anybody gets hurt real bad you pity them4 ,it's when you feel sorry for a tramp and give him something to eat4 ,if some one is in trouble and you know how it feels to be in that condition1 you pity him4 ,you see something that's wrong and have your feeling aroused4 ,of #acj correct responses1 #he1 or #fe per cent1 defined pity as to feel sorry for some one1 or words to that effect4 ,less than #aj per cent defined by means of illustration4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to think of the poor4 ,to be good to others4 ,to help4 ,it means sorrow4 ,mercy4 ,to cheer people up4 ,it means ',what a pity6' ,to be ashamed4 ,to be sick or poor4 ,it's when you break something4 ,apart from inability to reply1 which accounts for nearly one fourth of the failures1 there is no predominant type of unsatisfactory response4 7b7 ,revenge ,satisfactory4 ,to get even with some one4 ,to get back on him4 ,to do something to the one who has done something to you4 ,to hurt them back4 ,to pay it back1 or ,do something back4 ,to do something mean in return4 ,to square up with a person4 ,when somebody slaps you1 you slap back4 ,you kill a person if he does something to you4 ,the expression to get even was found in #db per cent of #abj correct answers2 to pay it back1 or ,to do something back1 in #bj per cent2 ,to get back on him1 in #ag per cent4 ,about #h per cent were illustrations4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to be mad4 ,you try to hurt them4 ,to fight4 ,you hate a person4 ,to kill them4 ,it means hateful4 ,to try again4 ,to think evil of some one4 ,to hate some one who has done you wrong4 ,to let a person off4 ,to go away from something4 ,inability to reply accounts for a little over #dj per cent of the failures4 7c7 ,charity ,satisfactory4 ,to give to the poor4 ,to help those who are needy4 ,it is charity if you are poor and somebody helps you4 ,to give to somebody without pay4 ,of #aaj correct replies1 #gb per cent were worded substantially like the first or second given above4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,a person who helps the poor4 ,a place where poor people get food and things4 ,it is a good life4 ,to be happy4 ,to be poor4 ,charity is being treated good4 ,it is to be charitable4 ,charity is selling something that is not worth much4 ,it means to be good or to be kind4 ,when the last named response is given1 we should say3 ,explain what you mean4 ,if this brings an amplification of the response to ,it means to do things for the poor1 or the equivalent1 the score is plus4 ,charity means love is also minus if the statement cannot be further explained and is merely rote memory of the passage in the #acth chapter of #ast ,corinthians4 ,simply ,to help or ,to give is unsatisfactory4 ,half of the failures are due to inability to reply4 7d7 ,envy ,satisfactory4 ,you envy some one who has something you want4 ,it's the way you feel when you see some one with something nicer than you have4 ,it's when a poor girl sees a rich girl with nice dresses and things4 ,you hate some one because they've got something you want4 ,jealousy 7satisfactory if subject can explain what jealousy means2 otherwise it is minus74 ,it's when you see a person better off than you are4 ,nearly three fourths of the correct responses say in substance1 ,you envy a person who has something you want4 ,most of the others are concrete illustrations4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,to hate some one1 or simply ,to hate4 ,you don't like 'em4 ,bad feeling toward any one4 ,to be a great man or woman4 ,not to be nice to people4 ,what we do to our enemies4 ,inability to respond accounts for #ee per cent of the failures4 7e7 ,justice ,satisfactory4 ,to give people what they deserve4 ,it means that everybody is treated the same way1 whether he is rich or poor4 ,it's what you get when you go to court4 ,if one does something and gets punished1 that's justice4 ,to do the square thing4 ,to give everybody his dues4 ,let every one have what's coming to him4 ,to do the right thing by any one4 ,if two people do the same thing and they let one go without punishing1 that is not justice4 ,approximately #ch per cent of #ajb correct responses referred to treating everybody the same way2 #be per cent to doing the square thing1 #ab per cent were concrete illustrations2 and #d per cent were definitions of what justice is not4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,it means to have peace4 ,it is where they have court4 ,it's the ,courthouse4 ,to be honest4 ,where one is just 7minus1 unless further explained74 ,to do right 7minus1 unless in explaining right the subject gives a definition of justice74 ,it is very necessary1 in case of such answers as ,justice is to do right1 ,to be just1 etc41 that the subject be urged to explain further what he means4 ,to do right includes nearly #ab per cent of all answers1 and is given by the very brightest children4 ,most of these are able1 when urged1 to complete the definition in a satisfactory manner4 ,,remarks4 ,the reader may be surprised that the ability to define common abstract words should develop so late4 ,most children who have had anything like ordinary home or school environment have doubtless heard all of these words countless times before the age of #ab years4 ,nevertheless1 the statistics from the test show unmistakably that before this age such words have but limited and vague meaning4 ,other vocabulary studies confirm this fact so completely that we may say there is hardly any trait in which #ab- to #ad-year intelligence more uniformly excels that of the #i- or #aj-year level4 ,this is readily understandable when we consider the nature of abstract meanings and the intellectual processes by which we arrive at them4 ,unlike such words as tree1 house1 etc41 the ideas they contain are not the immediate result of perceptual processes1 in which even childish intelligence is adept1 but are a refined and secondary product of relationships between other ideas4 ,they require the logical processes of comparison1 abstraction1 and generalization4 ,one cannot see justice1 for example1 but one is often confronted with situations in which justice or injustice is an element2 and given a certain degree of abstraction and generalization1 out of such situations the idea of justice will gradually be evolved4 ,the formation and use of abstract ideas1 of one kind or another1 represent1 par excellence1 the higher thought processes4 ,it is not without significance that delinquents who test near the border-line of mental deficiency show such inferior ability in arriving at correct generalizations regarding matters of social and moral relationships4 ,we cannot expect a mind of defective generalizing ability to form very definite or correct notions about justice1 law1 fairness1 ownership rights1 etc42 and if the ideas themselves are not fairly clear1 the rules of conduct based upon them cannot make a very powerful appeal4#fi #fi ,see also p4 #bih ff4 ,binet used the words charity1 justice1 and kindness1 and required two successes4 ,in the #aiaa revision he shifted the test from year ,,xi to year ,,xii1 where it more nearly belongs4 ,goddard also places it in year ,,xii and uses ,binet's words1 translating bont1 however1 as goodness instead of kindness4 ,kuhlmann retains the test in year ,,xi and adds bravery and revenge1 requiring three correct definitions out of five4 ,bobertag uses pity1 envy1 and justice1 requires two correct definitions1 and finds the test just hard enough for year ,,xii4 ,after using the words goodness and kindness in two series of tests1 we have discarded them as objectionable in that they give rise to so many doubtful definitions4 ,even intelligent children often say3 ,goodness means to do something good1 ,kindness means to be kind to some one1 etc4 ,these definitions in a circle occur less than half as often with pity1 revenge1 and envy1 which are also superior to charity and justice in this respect4 ,the relative difficulty of our five words is indicated by the order in which we have listed them in the test 7i4e41 beginning with the easiest and ending with the hardest74 ,on the standard of three correct definitions1 these words fit very accurately in year ,,xii4 ,,xii1 #c4 ,,the ,,ball-,,and-,,field ,,test 7,,superior ,,plan7 ,,procedure1 as in year ,,viii1 test #a4 ,,scoring4 ,score #c 7or superior plan7 is required for passing in year ,,xii4#gj #gj ,see scoring card4 ,,xii1 #d4 ,,dissected ,,sentences ,the following disarranged sentences are used3-- ,,for ,,the ,,started ,,an ,,we ,,country ,,early ,,at ,,hour ,,to ,,asked ,,paper ,,my ,,teacher ,,correct ,i ,,my ,a ,,defends ,,dog ,,good ,,his ,,bravely ,,master ,these should be printed in type like that used above4 ,the ,stanford record booklet contains the sentences in convenient form4 ,it is not permissible to substitute written words or printed script1 as that would make the test harder4 ,all the words should be printed in caps in order that no clue shall be given as to the first word in a sentence4 ,for a similar reason the period is omitted4 ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,here is a sentence that has the words all mixed up so that they don't make any sense4 ,if the words were changed around in the right order they would make a good sentence4 ,look carefully and see if you can tell me how the sentence ought to read4 ,give the sentences in the order in which they are listed in the record booklet4 ,do not tell the subject to see how quickly he can do it1 because with this test any suggestion of hurrying is likely to produce a kind of mental paralysis4 ,if the subject has no success with the first sentence in one minute1 read it off correctly for him1 somewhat slowly1 and pointing to each word as it is spoken4 ,then proceed to the second and third1 allowing one minute for each4 ,give no further help4 ,it is not permissible1 in case an incorrect response is given1 to ask the subject to try again1 or to say3 ,are you sure that is right8 ,are you sure you have not left out any words8 etc4 ,instead1 maintain absolute silence4 ,however1 the subject is permitted to make as many changes in his response as he sees fit1 provided he makes them spontaneously and within the allotted time4 ,record the entire response4 ,once in a great while the subject misunderstands the task and thinks the only requirement is to use all the words given1 and that it is permitted to add as many other words as he likes4 ,it is then necessary to repeat the instructions and to allow a new trial4 ,,scoring4 ,two sentences out of three must be correctly given within the minute allotted to each4 ,it is understood1 of course1 that if the first sentence has to be read for the subject1 both the other responses must be given correctly4 ,a sentence is not counted correct if a single word is omitted1 altered1 or inserted1 or if the order given fails to make perfect sense4 ,certain responses are not absolutely incorrect1 but are objectionable as regards sentence structure1 or else fail to give the exact meaning intended4 ,these are given half credit4 ,full credit on one1 and half credit on each of the other two1 is satisfactory4 ,the following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses3-- 7a7 ,satisfactory4 ,we started for the country at an early hour4 ,at an early hour we started for the country4 ,we started at an early hour for the country4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,we started early at an hour for the country4 ,early at an hour we started for the country4 ,we started early for the country4 ,half credit4 ,for the country at an early hour we started4 ,for the country we started at an early hour4 7b7 ,satisfactory4 ,i asked my teacher to correct my paper4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,my teacher asked to correct my paper4 ,to correct my paper ,i asked my teacher4 ,half credit4 ,my teacher ,i asked to correct my paper4 7c7 ,satisfactory4 ,a good dog defends his master bravely4 ,a good dog bravely defends his master4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,a dog defends his master bravely4 ,a bravely dog defends his master4 ,a good dog defends his bravely master4 ,a good brave dog defends his master4 ,half credit4 ,a dog defends his good master bravely4 ,a dog bravely defends his good master4 ,a good master bravely defends his dog4 ,,remarks4 ,this is an excellent test4 ,it involves no knowledge which may not be presupposed at the age in which it is given1 and success therefore depends very little on experience4 ,the worst that can be urged against it is that it may possibly be influenced to a certain extent by the amount of reading the subject has done4 ,but this has not been demonstrated4 ,at any rate1 the test satisfies the most important requirement of a test of intelligence2 namely1 the percentage of successes increases rapidly and steadily from the lower to the higher levels of mental age4 ,this experiment can be regarded as a variation of the completion test4 ,binet tells us1 in fact1 that it was directly suggested by the experiment of ,ebbinghaus4 ,as will readily be observed1 however1 it differs to a certain extent from the ,ebbinghaus completion test4 ,ebbinghaus omits parts of a sentence and requires the subject to supply the omissions4 ,in this test we give all the parts and require the formation of a sentence by rearrangement4 ,the two experiments are psychologically similar in that they require the subject to relate given fragments into a meaningful whole4 ,success depends upon the ability of intelligence to utilize hints1 or clues1 and this in turn depends on the logical integrity of the associative processes4 ,all but the highest grade of the feeble-minded fail with this test4 ,this test is found in year ,,xi of ,binet's #aijh series and in year ,,xii of his #aiaa revision4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann retain it in the original location4 ,that it is better placed in year ,,xii is indicated by all the available statistics with normal children1 except those of ,goddard4 ,with this exception1 the results of various investigators for year ,,xii are in remarkably close agreement1 as the following figures will show3-- ,per cent passing at year ,,xii ,binet #ff ,kuhlmann #fh ,bobertag #gh ,dougherty #fd ,strong #gb ,lviste and ,morl #gj ,stanford series 7#aiaa7 #fb ,stanford series 7#aiac7 #eg ,stanford series 7#aiad7 #fb ,princeton data #fa ,this agreement is noteworthy considering that no two experiments seem to have used exactly the same arrangement of words1 and that some have presented the words of a sentence in a single line1 others in two or three lines4 ,a single line would appear to be somewhat easier4 ,,xii1 #e4 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,fables 7,,score #d7 ,the following fables are used3-- 7a7 ,hercules and the ,wagoner ,a man was driving along a country road1 when the wheels suddenly sank in a deep rut4 ,the man did nothing but look at the wagon and call loudly to ,hercules to come and help him4 ,hercules came up1 looked at the man1 and said3 ,put your shoulder to the wheel1 my man1 and whip up your oxen4 ,then he went away and left the driver4 7b7 ,the ,milkmaid and her ,plans ,a milkmaid was carrying her pail of milk on her head1 and was thinking to herself thus3 ,the money for this milk will buy #d hens2 the hens will lay at least #ajj eggs2 the eggs will produce at least #ge chicks2 and with the money which the chicks will bring ,i can buy a new dress to wear instead of the ragged one ,i have on4 ,at this moment she looked down at herself1 trying to think how she would look in her new dress2 but as she did so the pail of milk slipped from her head and dashed upon the ground4 ,thus all her imaginary schemes perished in a moment4 7c7 ,the ,fox and the ,crow ,a crow1 having stolen a bit of meat1 perched in a tree and held it in her beak4 ,a fox1 seeing her1 wished to secure the meat1 and spoke to the crow thus3 ,how handsome you are6 and ,i have heard that the beauty of your voice is equal to that of your form and feathers4 ,will you not sing for me1 so that ,i may judge whether this is true8 ,the crow was so pleased that she opened her mouth to sing and dropped the meat1 which the fox immediately ate4 7d7 ,the ,farmer and the ,stork ,a farmer set some traps to catch cranes which had been eating his seed4 ,with them he caught a stork4 ,the stork1 which had not really been stealing1 begged the farmer to spare his life1 saying that he was a bird of excellent character1 that he was not at all like the cranes1 and that the farmer should have pity on him4 ,but the farmer said3 ,i have caught you with these robbers1 and you will have to die with them4 7e7 ,the ,miller1 ,his ,son1 and the ,donkey ,a miller and his son were driving their donkey to a neighboring town to sell him4 ,they had not gone far when a child saw them and cried out3 ,what fools those fellows are to be trudging along on foot when one of them might be riding4 ,the old man1 hearing this1 made his son get on the donkey1 while he himself walked4 ,soon1 they came upon some men4 ,look1 said one of them1 see that lazy boy riding while his old father has to walk4 ,on hearing this1 the miller made his son get off1 and he climbed on the donkey himself4 ,farther on they met a company of women1 who shouted out3 ,why1 you lazy old fellow1 to ride along so comfortably while your poor boy there can hardly keep pace by the side of you6 ,and so the good-natured miller took his boy up behind him and both of them rode4 ,as they came to the town a citizen said to them1 ,why1 you cruel fellows6 ,you two are better able to carry the poor little donkey than he is to carry you4 ,very well1 said the miller1 we will try4 ,so both of them jumped to the ground1 got some ropes1 tied the donkey's legs to a pole and tried to carry him4 ,but as they crossed the bridge the donkey became frightened1 kicked loose and fell into the stream4 ,,procedure4 ,present the fables in the order in which they are given above4 ,the method is to say to the subject3 ,you know what a fable is8 ,you have heard fables8 ,whatever the answer1 proceed to explain a fable as follows3 ,a fable1 you know1 is a little story1 and is meant to teach us a lesson4 ,now1 ,i am going to read a fable to you4 ,listen carefully1 and when ,i am through ,i will ask you to tell me what lesson the fable teaches us4 ,ready2 listen4 ,after reading the fable1 say3 ,what lesson does that teach us8 ,record the response verbatim and proceed with the next as follows3 ,here is another4 ,listen again and tell me what lesson this fable teaches us1 etc4 ,as far as possible1 avoid comment or commendation until all the fables have been given4 ,if the first answer is of an inferior type and we express too much satisfaction with it1 we thereby encourage the subject to continue in his error4 ,on the other hand1 never express dissatisfaction with a response1 however absurd or malapropos it may be4 ,many subjects are anxious to know how well they are doing and continually ask1 ,did ,i get that one right8 ,it is sufficient to say1 ,you are getting along nicely1 or something to that effect4 ,offer no comments1 suggestions1 or questions which might put the subject on the right track4 ,this much self-control is necessary if we would make the conditions of the test uniform for all subjects4 ,the only occasion when a supplementary question is permissible is in case of a response whose meaning is not clear4 ,even then we must be cautious and restrict ourselves to some such question as1 ,what do you mean8 or1 ,explain2 ,i don't quite understand what you mean4 ,the scoring of fables is somewhat difficult at best1 and this additional question is often sufficient to place the response very definitely in the right or wrong column4 ,,scoring4 ,give score #b1 i4e41 #b points1 for a correct answer1 and #a for an answer which deserves half credit4 ,the test is passed in year ,,xii if #d points are earned2 that is1 if two responses are correct or if one is correct and two deserve half credit4 ,score #b means that the fable has been correctly interpreted and that the lesson it teaches has been stated in general terms4 ,there are two types of response which may be given half credit4 ,they include 7#a7 the interpretations which are stated in general terms and are fairly plausible1 but are not exactly correct2 and 7#b7 those which are perfectly correct as to substance1 but are not generalized4 ,we overlook ordinary faults of expression and regard merely the essential meaning of the response4 ,the only way to explain the method is by giving copious illustrations4 ,if the following sample responses are carefully studied1 a reasonable degree of expertness in scoring fables may be acquired with only a limited amount of actual practice4 ,the sampling may appear to the reader needlessly prolix1 but experience has taught us that in giving directions for the scoring of tests error always lies on the side of taking too much for granted4 7a7 ,hercules and the ,wagoner ,full credit2 score #b4 ,god helps those who help themselves4 ,do not depend on others4 ,help yourself before calling for help4 ,it teaches that we should rely upon ourselves4 ,the following are not quite so good1 but are nevertheless considered satisfactory4 ,we should always try1 even if it looks hard and we think we can't do it4 ,when in trouble try to get out of it yourself4 ,we've got to do things without help4 ,not to be lazy4 ,half credit2 score #a4 ,this is most often given for the response which contains the correct idea1 but states it in terms of the concrete situation1 e4g43 ,the man ought to have tried himself first4 ,hercules wanted to teach the man to help himself4 ,the driver was too much inclined to depend on others4 ,the man was too lazy4 ,he should not have called for help until he had tried to get out by himself4 ,to get out and try instead of watching4 ,unsatisfactory2 score #j4 ,failures are mainly of five varieties3 7#a7 generalized interpretations which entirely miss the point2 7#b7 crude interpretations which not only miss the point1 but are also stated in terms of the concrete situation2 7#c7 irrelevant or incoherent remarks2 7#d7 efforts to repeat the story2 and 7#e7 inability to respond4 ,sample failures of type 7#a71 entirely incorrect generalizations3 ,teaches us to look where we are going4 ,not to ask for anything when there is no one to help4 ,to help those who are in trouble4 ,teaches us to be polite4 ,how to help others4 ,not to be cruel to horses4 ,always to do what people tell you 7or obey orders1 etc474 ,not to be foolish 7or stupid1 etc474 ,if you would have a thing well done1 do it yourself4 ,failures of type 7#b71 crude interpretations stated in concrete terms3 ,how to get out of the mud4 ,not to get stuck in the mud4 ,to carry a stick along to pry yourself out if you get into a mud-hole4 ,to help any one who is stuck in the mud4 ,taught ,hercules to help the horses along and not whip them too hard4 ,not to be mean like ,hercules4 ,failures of type 7#c71 irrelevant responses3 ,it was foolish not to thank him4 ,he should have helped the driver4 ,hercules was mean4 ,if any one helps himself the horses will try4 ,the driver should have done what ,hercules told him4 ,he wanted the man to help the oxen4 ,type 7#d73 ,efforts to repeat the story4 ,type 7#e73 ,inability to respond4 7b7 ,the ,maid and the ,eggs ,full credit2 score #b4 ,teaches us not to build air-castles4 ,don't count your chickens before they are hatched4 ,not to plan too far ahead4 ,slightly inferior1 but still acceptable3 ,never make too many plans4 ,don't count on the second thing till you have done the first4 ,half credit2 score #a4 ,it teaches us not to have our minds on the future when we carry milk on the head4 ,she was building air-castles and so lost her milk4 ,she was planning too far ahead4 ,the responses just given are examples of fairly correct interpretations in non-generalized terms4 ,the following are examples of generalized interpretations which fall below the accuracy required for full credit3 ,never make plans4 ,not to be too proud4 ,to keep our mind on what we are doing4 ,don't cross a bridge till you come to it4 ,don't count your eggs before they are hatched4 ,not to be wanting things2 learn to wait4 ,not to imagine2 go ahead and do it4 ,unsatisfactory2 score #j4 ,type 7#a71 entirely incorrect generalization3 ,that money does not buy everything4 ,not to be greedy4 ,not to be selfish4 ,not to waste things4 ,not to take risks like that4 ,not to think about clothes4 ,count your chickens before they are hatched4 ,type 7#b71 very crude interpretations stated in concrete terms3 ,not to carry milk on the head4 ,teaches her to watch and not throw down her head4 ,to carry her head straight4 ,not to spill milk4 ,to keep your chickens and you will make more money4 ,type 7#c71 irrelevant responses3 ,she wanted the money4 ,teaches us to read and write 7#ah-year-old of #h-year intelligence74 ,about a girl who was selling some milk4 ,type 7#d71 effort to repeat the story4 ,type 7#e71 inability to respond4 7c7 ,the ,fox and the ,crow ,full credit2 score #b4 ,teaches us not to listen to flattery4 ,don't let yourself be flattered4 ,it is not safe to believe people who flatter us4 ,we had better look out for people who brag on us4 ,half credit2 score #a4 ,correct idea in concrete terms3 ,the crow was so proud of herself that she lost all she had4 ,the crow listened to flattery and got left4 ,not to be proud and let people think you can sing when you can't4 ,if anybody brags on you don't sing or do what he tells you4 ,pertinent but somewhat inferior generalizations3 ,not to be too proud4 ,pride goes before a fall4 ,to be on our guard against people who are our enemies4 ,not to do everything people tell you4 ,don't trust every slick fellow you meet4 ,unsatisfactory2 score #j4 ,type 7#a71 incorrect generalization3 ,not to go with people you don't know4 ,not to be selfish4 ,to share your food4 ,look before you leap4 ,not to listen to evil4 ,not to steal4 ,teaches honesty4 ,not to covet4 ,think for yourself4 ,teaches wisdom4 ,never listen to advice4 ,never let any one get ahead of you4 ,to figure out what they are going to do4 ,never try to do two things at once4 ,how to get what you want4 ,type 7#b71 very crude interpretation stated in terms of the concrete situation3 ,not to sing before you eat4 ,not to hold a thing in your mouth2 eat it4 ,to eat a thing before you think of your beauty4 ,to swallow it before you sing4 ,to be on your watch when you have food in your mouth4 ,type 7#c71 irrelevant responses3 ,the fox was greedy4 ,the fox was slicker than what the crow was4 ,the crow ought not to have opened her mouth4 ,the crow should just have shaken her head4 ,it served the crow right for stealing the meat4 ,the fox wanted the meat and just told the crow that to get it4 ,foolishness4 ,guess that's where the old fox got his name--',old ,foxy'--,don't teach us anything4 ,type 7#d71 efforts to repeat the story4 ,type 7#e71 inability to respond4 7d7 ,the ,farmer and the ,stork ,full credit2 score #b4 ,you are judged by the company you keep4 ,teaches us to keep out of bad company4 ,birds of a feather flock together4 ,if you go with bad people you are counted like them4 ,we should choose our friends carefully4 ,don't go with bad people4 ,teaches us to avoid the appearance of evil4 ,half credit2 score #a4 ,the stork should not have been with the cranes4 ,teaches him not to go with robbers4 ,don't go with people who are not of your nation4 ,not to follow others4 ,unsatisfactory2 score #j4 ,type 7#a71 incorrect generalization3 ,not to steal4 ,not to tell lies4 ,not to give excuses4 ,a poor excuse is better than none4 ,not to trust what people say4 ,not to listen to excuses4 ,not to harm animals that do no harm4 ,to have pity on others4 ,not to be cruel4 ,to be kind to birds4 ,not to blame people for what they don't do4 ,teaches that those who do good often suffer for those who do evil4 ,to tend to your own business4 ,not to meddle with other people's things4 ,not to trespass on people's property4 ,not to think you are so nice4 ,to keep out of mischief4 ,type 7#b71 very crude interpretations in concrete terms3 ,taught the stork to look where it stepped and not walk into a trap4 ,taught the stork to keep out of the man's field4 ,not to take the seeds4 ,type 7#c71 irrelevant responses3 ,the farmer was right2 storks do eat grain4 ,served the stork right1 he was stealing too4 ,he should try to help the stork out of the field4 ,type 7#d71 efforts to repeat the story4 ,type 7#e71 inability to reply4 7e7 ,the ,miller1 ,his ,son1 and the ,donkey ,full credit2 score #b4 ,when you try to please everybody you please nobody4 ,don't listen to everybody2 you can't please them all4 ,don't take every one's advice4 ,don't try to do what everybody tells you4 ,use your own judgment4 ,have a mind of your own4 ,make up your mind and stick to it4 ,don't be wishy-washy4 ,have confidence in your own opinions4 ,half credit2 score #a4 ,interpretations which are generalized but somewhat inferior3 ,never take any one's advice 7too sweeping a conclusion74 ,don't take foolish advice4 ,take your own advice4 ,it teaches us that people don't always agree4 ,correct idea but not generalized3 ,they were fools to listen to everybody4 ,they should have walked or rode just as they thought best1 without listening to other people4 ,unsatisfactory2 score #j4 ,type 7#a71 incorrect generalization3 ,to do right4 ,to do what people tell you4 ,to be kind to old people4 ,to be polite4 ,to serve others4 ,not to be cruel to animals4 ,to have sympathy for beasts of burden4 ,to be good-natured4 ,not to load things on animals that are small4 ,that it is always better to leave things as they are4 ,that men were not made for beasts of burden4 ,type 7#b71 very crude interpretations stated in concrete terms3 ,not to try to carry the donkey4 ,that walking is better than riding4 ,the people should have been more polite to the old man4 ,that the father should be allowed to ride4 ,type 7#c71 irrelevant responses3 ,the men were too heavy for the donkey4 ,they ought to have stayed on and they would not have fallen into the stream4 ,it teaches about a man and he lost his donkey4 ,type 7#d71 efforts to repeat the story4 ,type 7#e71 inability to respond4 ,,remarks4 ,the fable test1 or the test of generalization1 as it may aptly be named1 was used by the writer in a study of the intellectual processes of bright and dull boys in #aije1ga and was further standardized by the writer and ,mr4 ,childs in #aiaa4gb ,it has proved its worth in a number of investigations4 ,it has been necessary1 however1 to simplify the rather elaborate method of scoring which was proposed in #aiaa1 not because of any logical fault of the method1 but because of the difficulty in teaching examiners to use the system correctly4 ,the method explained above is somewhat coarser1 but it has the advantage of being much easier to learn4 #ga ,genius and ,stupidity1 in ,pedagogical ,seminary1 vol4 xiii1 pp4 #cjg-gc4 #gb ,a ,tentative ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence1 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiab74 ,the generalization test presents for interpretation situations which are closely paralleled in the everyday social experience of human beings4 ,it tests the subject's ability to understand motives underlying acts or attitudes4 ,it gives a clue to the status of the social consciousness4 ,this is highly important in the diagnosis of the upper range of mental defectiveness4 ,the criterion of the subnormal's fitness for life outside an institution is his ability to understand social relations and to adjust himself to them4 ,failure of a subnormal to meet this criterion may lead him to break common conventions1 and to appear disrespectful1 sulky1 stubborn1 or in some other way queer and exceptional4 ,he is likely to be misunderstood1 because he so easily misunderstands others4 ,the skein of human motives is too complex for his limited intelligence to untangle4 ,ethnological studies have shown in an interesting way the social origin of the moral judgment4 ,the rectitude of the moral life1 therefore1 depends on the accuracy of the social judgment4 ,it would be interesting to know what proportion of offenders have transgressed moral codes because of continued failure to grasp the essential lessons presented by human situations4 ,for the intelligent child even the common incidents of life carry an endless succession of lessons in right conduct4 ,on the average school playground not an hour passes without some happening which is fraught with a moral hint to those who have intelligence enough to generalize the situation4 ,a boy plays unfairly and is barred from the game4 ,one bullies his weaker companion and arouses the anger and scorn of all his fellows4 ,another vents his braggadocio and feels at once the withering scorn of those who listen4 ,laziness1 selfishness1 meanness1 dishonesty1 ingratitude1 inconstancy1 inordinate pride1 and the countless other faults all have their social penalties4 ,the child of normal intelligence sees the point1 draws the appropriate lesson and 7provided emotions and will are also normal7 applies it more or less effectively as a guide to his own conduct4 ,to the feeble-minded child1 all but lacking in the power of abstraction and generalization1 the situation conveys no such lesson4 ,it is but a muddle of concrete events without general significance2 or even if its meaning is vaguely apprehended1 the powers of inhibition are insufficient to guarantee that right action will follow4 ,it is for this reason that the generalization test is so valuable in the mental examinations of delinquents4 ,it presents a moral situation1 imagined1 to be sure1 but none the less real to the individual of normal comprehension4 ,it tells us quickly whether the subject tested is able to see beyond the incidents of the given situation and to grasp their wider relations--whether he is able to generalize the concrete4 ,the following responses made by feeble-minded delinquents from #af to #ba years of age demonstrate sufficiently their inability to comprehend the moral situation3-- ,hercules and the ,wagoner4 ,teaches you to look where you are going4 ,not to help any one who is stuck in the mud4 ,not to whip oxen4 ,teaches that ,hercules was mean4 ,teaches us to carry a stick along to pry the wheels out4 ,the ,fox and the ,crow4 ,not to sing when eating4 ,to keep away from strangers4 ,to swallow it before you sing4 ,not to be stingy4 ,not to listen to evil4 ,the fox was wiser than the crow4 ,not to be selfish with food4 ,not to do two things at once4 ,to hang on to what you've got4 ,the ,farmer and the ,stork4 ,teaches the stork to look where he steps4 ,not to be cruel like the farmer4 ,not to tell lies4 ,not to butt into other people's things4 ,to be kind to birds4 ,teaches us how to get rid of troublesome people4 ,never go with anything else4 ,the following are the responses of an #ah-year-old delinquent 7intelligence level #aj years7 to the five fables3-- ,maid and ,eggs4 ,she was thinking about getting the dress and spilled the milk4 ,teaches selfishness4 ,hercules and the ,wagoner4 ,he wanted to help the oxen out4 ,fox and ,crow4 ,guess that's where the fox got his name--',old ,foxy4' ,don't teach us anything4 ,farmer and ,stork4 ,try and help the stork out of the field4 ,miller1 ,son1 and ,donkey4 ,they was all big fools and mean to the donkey4 ,one does not require very profound psychological insight to see that a person of this degree of comprehension is not promising material for moral education4 ,his weakness in the ability to generalize a moral situation is not due to lack of instruction1 but is inherent in the nature of his mental processes1 all of which have the infantile quality of average #i- or #aj-year intelligence4 ,well-instructed normal children of #aj years ordinarily succeed no better4 ,the ability to draw the correct lesson from a social situation is little developed below the mental level of #ab or #ac years4 ,the test is also valuable because it throws light on the subject's ability to appreciate the finer shades of meaning4 ,the mentally retarded often show marked inferiority in this respect4 ,they sense1 perhaps1 in a general way the trend of the story1 but they fail to comprehend much that to us seems clearly expressed4 ,they do not get what is left for the reader to infer1 because they are insensible to the thought fringes4 ,it is these which give meaning to the fable4 ,the dull subject may be able to image the objects and activities described1 but taken in the rough such imagery gets him nowhere4 ,finally1 the test is almost free from the danger of coaching4 ,the subject who has been given a number of fables along with twenty-five or thirty other tests can as a rule give only hazy and inaccurate testimony as to what he has been put through4 ,moreover1 we have found that1 even if a subject has previously heard a fable1 that fact does not materially increase his chances of giving a correct interpretation4 ,if the situation depicted in the fable is beyond the subject's power of comprehension even explicit instruction has little effect upon the quality of the response4 ,incidentally1 this observation raises the question whether the use of proverbs1 mottoes1 fables1 poetry1 etc41 in the moral instruction of children may not often be futile because the material is not fitted to the child's power of comprehension4 ,much of the school's instruction in history and literature has a moral purpose1 but there is reason to suspect that in this field schools often make precocious attempts in generalizing exercises4 ,,xii1 #f4 ,,repeating ,,five ,,digits ,,reversed ,the series are #c-a-h-g-i2 #f-i-d-h-b2 #e-b-i-f-a4 ,,procedure and ,,scoring4 ,exactly as in years ,,vii and ,,ix4#gc #gc ,see discussion1 p4 #bjg ff4 ,,xii1 #g4 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,pictures ,,procedure4 ,use the same pictures as in ,,iii1 #a1 and ,,vii1 #b1 and the additional picture d4 ,present in the same order4 ,the formula to begin with is identical with that in ,,vii1 #b3 ,tell me what this picture is about4 ,what is this a picture of8 ,this formula is chosen because it does not suggest specifically either description or interpretation1 and is therefore adapted to show the child's spontaneous or natural mode of apperception4 ,however1 in case1 this formula fails to bring spontaneous interpretation for three of the four pictures1 we then return to those pictures on which the subject has failed and give a second trial with the formula3 ,explain this picture4 ,a good many subjects who failed to interpret the pictures spontaneously do so without difficulty when the more specific formula is used4 ,if the response is so brief as to be difficult to classify1 the subject should be urged to amplify by some such injunction as ,go ahead1 or ,explain what you mean4 ,one more caution4 ,it is necessary to refrain from voicing a single word of commendation or approval until all the pictures have been responded to4 ,a moment's thought will reveal the absolute necessity of adhering to this rule4 ,often a subject will begin by giving an inferior type of response 7description1 say7 to the first picture1 but with the second picture adjusts better to the task and responds satisfactorily4 ,if in such a case the first 7unsatisfactory7 response were greeted with an approving ,that's fine1 you are doing splendidly1 the likelihood of any improvement taking place as the test proceeds would be greatly lessened4 ,,scoring4 ,three pictures out of four must be satisfactorily interpreted4 ,satisfactorily means that the interpretation given should be reasonably plausible2 not necessarily the exact one the artist had in mind1 yet not absurd4 ,the following classified responses will serve as a fairly secure guide for scoring3-- 7a7 ,dutch ,home ,satisfactory4 ,child has spilled something and is getting a scolding4 ,the baby has hurt herself and the mother is comforting her4 ,the baby is crying because she is hungry and the mother has nothing to give her4 ,the little girl has been naughty and is about to be punished4 ,the baby is crying because she does not like her dinner4 ,there's bread on the table and the mother won't let the little girl have it and so she is crying4 ,the baby is begging for something and is crying because her mamma won't give it to her4 ,it's a poor family4 ,the father is dead and they don't have enough to eat4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,the baby is crying and the mother is looking at her 7description74 ,it's in ,holland1 and there's a little girl crying1 and a mamma1 and there's a dish on the table 7mainly description74 ,the mother is teaching the child to walk 7absurd interpretation74 7b7 ,river ,scene ,satisfactory4 ,man and lady eloping to get married and an ,indian to row for them4 ,i think it represents a honeymoon trip4 ,in frontier days and a man and his wife have been captured by the ,indians4 ,it's a perilous journey and they have engaged the ,indian to row for them4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,they are shooting the rapids4 ,an ,indian rowing a man and his wife down the river 7mainly description74 ,a storm at sea 7absurd interpretation74 ,indians have rescued a couple from a shipwreck4 ,they have been up the river and are riding down the rapids4 ,the following responses are somewhat doubtful1 but should probably be scored minus3 ,people going out hunting and have ,indian for a guide4 ,the man has rescued the woman from the ,indians4 ,it's a camping trip4 7c7 ,post-,office ,satisfactory4 ,it's a lot of old farmers4 ,they have come to the post-office to get the paper1 which only comes once a week1 and they are all happy4 ,there's something funny in the paper about one of the men and they are all laughing about it4 ,they are reading about the price of eggs1 and they look very happy so ,i guess the price has gone up4 ,it's a bunch of country politicians reading the election news4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,a man has just come out of the post-office and is reading to his friends4 ,it's a little country town and they are looking at the paper4 ,a man is reading the paper and the others are looking on and laughing4 ,some men are reading a paper and laughing1 and the other man has brought some eggs to market1 and it's in a little country town4 7,all the above are mainly description47 ,responses like the following are somewhat better1 but hardly satisfactory3 ,they are reading something funny in the paper4 ,they are reading the ads4 ,they are laughing about something in the newspaper1 etc4 7d7 ,colonial ,home ,satisfactory4 ,they are lovers and have quarreled4 ,the man has to go away for a long time1 maybe to war1 and she is afraid he won't return4 ,he has proposed and she has rejected him1 and she is crying because she hated to disappoint him4 ,the woman is crying because her husband is angry and leaving her4 ,the man is a messenger and has brought the woman bad news4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,the husband is leaving and the dog is looking at the lady4 ,it's a picture to show how people dressed in colonial times4 ,the lady is crying and the man is trying to comfort her4 ,the man is going away4 ,the woman is angry because he is going4 ,the dog has a ball in its mouth and looks happy1 and the man looks sad4 ,such responses as the following are doubtful1 but rather minus than plus3 ,a picture of ,george ,washington's home4 ,they have lost their money and they are sad 7gratuitous interpretation74 ,the man has struck the woman4 ,doubt sometimes arises as to the proper scoring of imaginative or gratuitous interpretations4 ,the following are samples of such3 7a7 ,the little girl is crying because she wants a new dress and the mother is telling her she can have one when ,christmas comes if she will be good4 7b7 ,the man and woman have gone up the river to visit some friends and an ,indian guide is bringing them home4 7c7 ,some old ,rubes are reading about a circus that's going to come4 7d7 ,napoleon leaving his wife4 ,sometimes these imaginative responses are given by very bright subjects1 under the impression that they are asked to make up a story based on the picture4 ,we may score them plus1 provided they are not too much out of harmony with the situation and actions represented in the picture4 ,interpretations so gratuitous as to have little or no bearing upon the scene depicted should be scored minus4 ,,remarks4 ,the test of picture interpretation has been variously located from #ab to #ae years4 ,it cannot be too strongly emphasized that everything depends on the nature of the pictures used1 the form in which the question is put1 and the standard for scoring4 ,the ,jingleman-,jack pictures used by ,kuhlmann are as easy to interpret at #aj years as the ,stanford pictures at #ab4 ,spontaneous interpretation 7,what is this a picture of8 or ,what do you see in this picture87 comes no more readily at #ad years than provoked interpretation 7,explain this picture7 at #ab4 ,the standard of scoring is no less important4 ,if with the ,stanford pictures we require three satisfactory responses out of four1 the test belongs at the #ab-year level1 but the standard of two correct out of four can be met a year or two earlier4 ,even after we have agreed upon a given series of pictures1 the formula for giving the test1 and upon the requisite number of passes1 there remains still the question as to the proper degree of liberality in deciding what constitutes interpretation4 ,there is no single point in mental development where the ability to interpret pictures sweeps in with a rush4 ,like the development of most other abilities1 it comes by slow degrees1 beginning even as early as #f years4 ,the question is1 therefore1 to decide whether a given response contains as much and as good interpretation as we have a right to expect at the age level where the test has been placed4 ,it is imperative for any one who would use the scale correctly to acquaint himself thoroughly with the procedure and standards described above4 ,,xii1 #h4 ,,giving ,,similarities1 ,,three ,,things ,,procedure4 ,the procedure is the same as in ,,viii1 #d1 but with the following words3-- 7a7 ,snake1 cow1 sparrow4 7b7 ,book1 teacher1 newspaper4 7c7 ,wool1 cotton1 leather4 7d7 ,knife-blade1 penny1 piece of wire4 7e7 ,rose1 potato1 tree4 ,as before1 a little tactful urging is occasionally necessary in order to secure a response4 ,,scoring4 ,three satisfactory responses out of five are necessary for success4 ,any real similarity is acceptable1 whether fundamental or superficial1 although the giving of fundamental likenesses is especially symptomatic of good intelligence4 ,failures may be classified under four heads3 7#a7 ,leaving one of the words out of consideration2 7#b7 giving a difference instead of a similarity2 7#c7 giving a similarity that is not real or that is too bizarre or far-fetched2 and 7#d7 inability to respond4 ,types 7#a71 7#c71 and 7#d7 are almost equally numerous1 while type 7#b7 is not often encountered at this level of intelligence4 ,this test provokes doubtful responses somewhat oftener than the earlier test of giving similarities4 ,those giving greatest difficulty are the indefinite statements like ,all are useful1 ,all are made of the same material1 etc4 ,fortunately1 in most of these cases an additional question is sufficient to determine whether the subject has in mind a real similarity4 ,questions suitable for this purpose are3 ,explain what you mean1 ,in what respect are they all useful8 ,what material do you mean8 etc4 ,of course it is only permissible to make use of supplementary questions of this kind when they are necessary in order to clarify a response which has already been made4 ,while the amateur examiner is likely to have more or less trouble in deciding upon scores1 this difficulty rapidly disappears with experience4 ,the following samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses will serve as a fairly adequate guide in dealing with doubtful cases3-- 7a7 ,snake1 cow1 sparrow ,satisfactory4 ,all are animals 7or creatures1 etc474 ,all live on the land4 ,all have blood 7or flesh1 bones1 eyes1 skin1 etc474 ,all move about4 ,all breathe air4 ,all are useful 7plus only if subject can give a use which they have in common74 ,all have a little intelligence 7or sense1 instinct1 etc474 ,unsatisfactory4 ,all have legs4 ,all are dangerous4 ,all feed on grain 7or grass1 etc474 ,all are much afraid of man4 ,all frighten you4 ,all are warm-blooded4 ,all get about the same way4 ,all walk on the ground4 ,all can bite4 ,all holler4 ,all drink water4 ,a snake crawls1 a cow walks1 and a sparrow flies 7or some other difference74 ,they are not alike4 7b7 ,book1 teacher1 newspaper ,satisfactory4 ,all teach4 ,you learn from all4 ,all give you information4 ,all help you get an education4 ,all are your good friends 7plus if subject can explain how74 ,all are useful 7plus if subject can explain how74 ,unsatisfactory4 ,all tell you the news4 ,a teacher writes1 and a book and newspaper have writing4 ,they are not alike4 ,all read4 ,all use the alphabet4 7c7 ,wool1 cotton1 leather ,satisfactory4 ,all used for clothing4 ,we wear them all4 ,all grow 7plus if subject can explain74 ,all have to be sent to the factory to be made into things4 ,all are useful 7plus if subject can give a use which all have in common74 ,all are valuable 7plus if explained74 ,unsatisfactory4 ,all come from plants4 ,all grow on animals4 ,all came off the top of something4 ,all are things4 ,they are pretty4 ,all spell alike4 ,all are furry 7or soft1 hard1 etc474 7d7 ,knife-blade1 penny1 piece of wire ,satisfactory4 ,all are made from minerals 7or metals74 ,all come from mines4 ,all are hard material4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,all are made of steel 7or copper1 iron1 etc474 ,all are made of the same metal4 ,all cut4 ,all bend easily4 ,all are used in building a house4 ,all are worthless4 ,all are useful in fixing things4 ,all have an end4 ,they are small4 ,all weigh the same4 ,can get them all at a hardware store4 ,you can buy things with all of them4 ,you buy them with money4 ,one is sharp1 one is round1 and one is long 7or some other difference74 ,such answers as ,all are found in a boy's pocket1 or ,boys like them1 are not altogether bad1 but hardly deserve to be called satisfactory4 ,all are useful is minus unless the subject can give a use which they have in common1 which in this case he is not likely to do4 ,bizarre uses are also minus2 as1 ,all are good for a watch fob1 ,can use all for paper weights1 etc4 7e7 ,rose1 potato1 tree ,satisfactory4 ,all are plants4 ,all grow from the ground4 ,all have leaves 7or roots1 etc474 ,all have to be planted4 ,all are parts of nature4 ,all have colors4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,all are pretty4 ,all bear fruit4 ,all have pretty flowers4 ,all grow on bushes4 ,all are valuable 7or useful74 ,they grow close to a house4 ,all are ornamental4 ,all are shrubbery4 ,,remarks4 ,the words of each series lend themselves readily to classification into a next higher class4 ,this is the best type of response1 but with most of the series it accounts for less than two thirds of the successes among subjects of #ab-year intelligence4 ,the proportion is less than one third for subjects of #aj-year intelligence and nearly three fourths at the #ad-year level4 ,it would be possible and very desirable to devise and standardize an additional test of this kind1 but requiring the giving of an essential resemblance or classificatory similarity4 ,for discussion of the psychological factors involved in the similarities test1 see ,,vii1 #e4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,instructions ,,for ,,year ,,xiv4 ,,xiv1 #a4 ,,vocabulary 7,,fifty ,,definitions1 #ijjj ,,words7 ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 as in ,,viii1 ,x1 and ,,xii4 ,at year ,,xiv fifty words must be correctly defined4 ,,xiv1 #b4 ,,induction ,,test3 ,,finding ,a ,,rule ,,procedure4 ,provide six sheets of thin blank paper1 say #h #aa inches4 ,take the first sheet1 and telling the subject to watch what you do1 fold it once1 and in the middle of the folded edge tear out or cut out a small notch2 then ask the subject to tell you how many holes there will be in the paper when it is unfolded4 ,the correct answer1 one1 is nearly always given without hesitation4 ,but whatever the answer1 unfold the paper and hold it up broadside for the subject's inspection4 ,next1 take another sheet1 fold it once as before and say3 ,now1 when we folded it this way and tore out a piece1 you remember it made one hole in the paper4 ,this time we will give the paper another fold and see how many holes we shall have4 ,then proceed to fold the paper again1 this time in the other direction1 and tear out a piece from the folded side and ask how many holes there will be when the paper is unfolded4 ,after recording the answer1 unfold the paper1 hold it up before the subject so as to let him see the result4 ,the answer is often incorrect and the unfolded sheet is greeted with an exclamation of surprise4 ,the governing principle is seldom made out at this stage of the experiment4 ,but regardless of the correctness or incorrectness of the first and second answers1 proceed with the third sheet4 ,fold it once and say3 ,when we folded it this way there was one hole4 ,then fold it again and say3 ,and when we folded it this way there were two holes4 ,at this point fold the paper a third time and say3 ,now1 ,i am folding it again4 ,how many holes will it have this time when ,i unfold it8 ,record the answer and again unfold the paper while the subject looks on4 ,continue in the same manner with sheets four1 five1 and six1 adding one fold each time4 ,in folding each sheet recapitulate the results with the previous sheets1 saying 7with the sixth1 for example73 ,when we folded it this way there was one hole1 when we folded it again there were two1 when we folded it again there were four1 when we folded it again there were eight1 when we folded it again there were sixteen2 now1 tell me how many holes there will be if we fold it once more4 ,in the recapitulation avoid the expression ,when we folded it once1 twice1 three times1 etc41 as this often leads the subject to double the numeral heard instead of doubling the number of holes in the previously folded sheet4 ,after the answer is given1 do not fail to unfold the paper and let the subject view the result4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the rule is grasped by the time the sixth sheet is reached2 that is1 the subject may pass after five incorrect responses1 provided the sixth is correct and the governing rule can then be given4 ,it is not permissible to ask for the rule until all six parts of the experiment have been given4 ,nothing must be said which could even suggest the operation of a rule4 ,often1 however1 the subject grasps the principle after two or three steps and gives it spontaneously4 ,in this case it is unnecessary to proceed with the remaining steps4 ,,remarks4 ,this test was first used by the writer in a comparative study of the intellectual processes of bright and dull boys in #aije1 but it was not standardized until #aiad4 ,rather extensive data indicate that it is a genuine test of intelligence4 ,of #ad-year-old school children testing between #if and #aje ,i ,q1 #ei per cent passed this test2 of #ad-year-olds testing below #if ,i ,q1 #da per cent passed2 of those testing above #aje1 #ga per cent passed4 ,that is1 the test agrees well with the results obtained by the scale as a whole4 ,of average adults only #aj per cent fail2 and of superior adults1 fewer than #e per cent4 ,as a rule1 the higher the grade of intelligence1 the fewer the steps necessary for grasping the rule4 ,of the superior adults1 only #ce per cent fail to get the rule as early as the end of the fourth step4 ,the test is little affected by schooling1 and apart from differences in intelligence it is little influenced by age4 ,other advantages of the test are the keen interest it always arouses and its independence of language ability4 ,it has been used successfully with immigrant subjects who had been in this country but a few months4 ,we have named the experiment an induction test4 ,it might be supposed that the solution would ordinarily be arrived at by deduction1 or by an a-priori logical analysis of the principle involved4 ,this1 however1 is rarely the case4 ,not one average adult out of ten reasons out the situation in this purely logical manner4 ,it is ordinarily only after one or more mistakes have been made and have been exposed by the examiner holding up the unfolded paper to view that the correct principle is grasped4 ,in the absence of deductive reasoning the subject must note that each unfolded sheet contains twice as many holes as the previous one1 and must infer that folding the paper again will again double the number4 ,the ability tested is the ability to generalize from particulars where the common element of the particulars can be discerned only by the selective action of attention1 in this case attention to the fact that each number is the double of its predecessor4 ,,xiv1 #c4 ,,giving ,,differences ,,between ,a ,,president ,,and ,a ,,king ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,there are three main differences between a president and a king2 what are they8 ,if the subject stops after one difference is given1 we urge him on1 if possible1 until three are given4 ,,scoring4 ,the three differences relate to power1 tenure1 and manner of accession4 ,only these differences are considered correct1 and the successful response must include at least two of the three4 ,we disregard crudities of expression and note merely whether the subject has the essential idea4 ,as regards power1 for example1 any of the following responses are satisfactory3 ,the king is absolute and the president is not4 ,the king rules by himself1 but the president rules with the help of the people4 ,kings can have things their own way more than presidents can1 etc4 ,it may be objected that the reverse of this is sometimes true1 that the king of to-day often has less power than the average president4 ,sometimes subjects mention this fact1 and when they do we credit them with this part of the test4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 this answer is seldom given4 ,sometimes the subject does not stop until he has given a half-dozen or more differences1 and in such cases the first three differences may be trivial and some of the later ones essential4 ,the question then arises whether we should disregard the errors and pass the subject on his later correct responses4 ,the rule in such cases is to ask the subject to pick out the three main differences4 ,sometimes accession and tenure are given in the form of a single contrast1 as3 ,the president is elected1 but the king inherits his throne and rules for life4 ,this answer entitles the subject to credit for both accession and tenure1 the contrast as regards tenure being plainly implied4 ,unsatisfactory contrasts are of many kinds and are often amusing4 ,some of the most common are the following3-- ,a king wears a crown4 ,a king has jewels4 ,a king sits on a throne4 7,a king sets on a thorn as one feeble-minded boy put it67 ,a king lives in a palace4 ,a king has courtiers4 ,a king is very dignified4 ,a king dresses up more4 ,a president has less pomp and ceremony4 ,a president is more ready to receive the people4 ,a king sits on a chair all the time and a president does not4 ,no differences2 it's just names4 ,a president does not give titles4 ,a king has a larger salary4 ,a king has royal blood4 ,a king is in more danger4 ,they have a different title4 ,a king is more cruel4 ,kings have people beheaded4 ,a king rules in a monarchy and a president in a republic4 ,a king rules in a foreign country4 ,a president is elected and a king fights for his office4 ,a president appoints governors and a king does not4 ,a president lets the lawyers make the laws4 ,everybody works for a king4 ,it is surprising to see how often trivial differences like the above are given4 ,about thirty average adults out of a hundred1 including high-school students1 give at least one unsatisfactory contrast4 ,the test has been criticized as depending too much on schooling4 ,the criticism is to a certain extent valid when the test is used with young subjects1 say of #aj or #ab years4 ,it is not valid1 however1 if the use of the test is confined to older subjects4 ,with the latter1 it is not a test of knowledge1 but of the discriminative capacity to deal with knowledge already in the possession of the subject4 ,it would be difficult to find an adult1 not actually feeble-minded1 who is ignorant of the facts called for3 ,that the king inherits his throne1 while the president is elected2 that the tenure of the king is for life1 and that of the president for a term of years2 that kings ordinarily have1 or are supposed to have1 more power4 ,even the relatively stupid adult knows this2 but he also knows that kings are different from presidents in having crowns1 thrones1 palaces1 robes1 courtiers1 larger pay1 etc41 and he makes no discrimination as regards the relative importance of these differences4 ,the test is psychologically related to that of giving differences in year ,,vii and to the two tests of finding similarities2 but it differs from these in requiring a comparison based on fundamental rather than accidental distinctions4 ,the idea is good and should be worked out in additional tests of the same type4 ,the test first appeared in the ,binet revised scale of #aiaa4 ,kuhlmann omits it1 and besides our own there are few statistics bearing on it4 ,our results show that if two essential differences are required1 the test belongs where we have placed it1 but that if only one essential difference is required1 the test is easy enough for year ,,xii4 ,,xiv1 #d4 ,,problem ,,questions ,,procedure4 ,say to the subject3 ,listen1 and see if you can understand what ,i read4 ,then read the following three problems1 rather slowly and with expression1 pausing after each long enough for the subject to find an answer3-- 7a7 ,a man who was walking in the woods near a city stopped suddenly1 very much frightened1 and then ran to the nearest policeman1 saying that he had just seen hanging from the limb of a tree a 444 a what8 7b7 ,my neighbor has been having queer visitors4 ,first a doctor came to his house1 then a lawyer1 then a minister 7preacher or priest74 ,what do you think happened there8 7c7 ,an ,indian who had come to town for the first time in his life saw a white man riding along the street4 ,as the white man rode by1 the ,indian said--',the white man is lazy2 he walks sitting down4' ,what was the white man riding on that caused the ,indian to say1 ',he walks sitting down'8 ,do not ask questions calculated to draw out the correct response1 but wait in silence for the subject's spontaneous answer4 ,it is permissible1 however1 to re-read the passage if the subject requests it4 ,,scoring4 ,two responses out of three must be satisfactory4 ,the following explanations and examples will make clear the requirements of the test3-- 7a7 ,what the man saw hanging ,satisfactory4 ,the only correct answer for the first is ,a man who had hung himself 7or who had committed suicide1 been hanged1 etc474 ,we may also pass the following answer3 ,dead branches that looked like a man hanging4 ,a good many subjects answer simply1 ,a man4 ,this answer cannot be scored because of the impossibility of knowing what is in the subject's mind1 and in such cases it is always necessary to say3 ,explain what you mean4 ,the answer to this interrogation always enables us to score the response4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,there is an endless variety of failures3 ,a snake1 ,a monkey1 ,a robber1 or ,a tramp being the most common4 ,others include such answers as ,a bear1 ,a tiger1 ,a wild cat1 ,a cat1 ,a bird1 ,an eagle1 ,a bird's nest1 ,a hornet's nest1 ,a leaf1 ,a swing1 ,a boy in a swing1 ,a basket of flowers1 ,an egg1 ,a ghost1 ,a white sheet1 ,clothes1 ,a purse1 etc4 7b7 ,my neighbor ,satisfactory4 ,the expected answer is ,a death1 ,some one has died1 etc4 ,we must always check up this response1 however1 by asking what the lawyer came for1 and this must also be answered correctly4 ,while it is expected that the subject will understand that the doctor came to attend a sick person1 the lawyer to make his will1 and the minister to preach the funeral1 there are a few other ingenious interpretations which pass as satisfactory4 ,for example1 ,a man got hurt in an accident2 the doctor came to make him well1 the lawyer to see about damages1 and then he died and the preacher came for the funeral4 ,or1 ,a man died1 the lawyer came to help the widow settle the estate and the preacher came for the funeral4 ,we can hardly expect the #ad-year-old child to know that it is not the custom to settle an estate until after the funeral4 ,the following excellent response was given by an enlightened young eugenist3 ,a marriage2 the doctor came to examine them and see if they were fit to marry1 the lawyer to arrange the marriage settlement1 and the minister to marry them4 ,the following logical responses occurred once each3 ,a murder4 ,the doctor came to examine the body1 the lawyer to get evidence1 and the preacher to preach the funeral4 ,an unmarried girl has given birth to a child4 ,the lawyer was employed to get the man to marry her and then the preacher came to perform the wedding ceremony4 ,perhaps some will consider this interpretation too far-fetched to pass4 ,but it is perfectly logical and1 unfortunately1 represents an occurrence which is not so very rare4 ,if an incorrect answer is first given and then corrected1 the correction is accepted4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,the failures again are quite varied1 but are most frequently due to failure to understand the lawyer's mission4 ,of #ff tabulated failures1 #bf are accounted for in this way1 while only #f are due to inability to state the part played by the minister4 ,the most common incorrect responses are3 ,a baby born 7accounting for #e out of #ff failures72 ,a divorce 7very common with the children tested by ,dr4 ,ordahl1 at ,reno1 ,nevada672 ,a marriage2 ,a divorce and a remarriage2 ,a dinner2 ,an entertainment2 ,some friends came to chat1 etc4 ,in #bj failures out of #ff1 marriage was incorrectly connected with a will1 a divorce1 the death of a child1 etc4 ,the following are not bad1 but hardly deserve to pass3 ,sickness and trouble2 the lawyer and minister came to help him out of trouble4 ,or1 ,somebody was sick2 the lawyer wanted his money and the minister came to see how he was4 ,a few present a still more logical interpretation1 but so far-fetched that it is doubtful whether they should count as passes2 for example3 ,a man and his wife had a fight4 ,one got hurt and had to have the doctor1 then they had a lawyer to get them divorced1 then the minister came to marry one of them4 ,again1 ,some one is dying and is getting married and making his will before he dies4 7c7 ,what the man was riding on ,the only correct response is ,bicycle4 ,the most common error is horse 7or donkey71 accounting for #dh out of #ga tabulated failures4 ,vehicles1 like wagon1 buggy1 automobile1 or street car1 were mentioned in #ad out of #ga failures4 ,bizarre replies are3 ,a cripple in a wheel chair2 ,a person riding on some one's back1 etc4 ,,remarks4 ,the experiment is a form of the completion test4 ,elements of a situation are given1 out of which the entire situation is to be constructed4 ,this phase of intelligence has already been discussed4#gd #gd ,see ,,ix1 #e1 and ,,xii1 #d4 ,while it is generally admitted that the underlying idea of this test is good1 some have criticized ,binet's selection of problems4 ,meumann thinks the lawyer element of the second is so unfamiliar to children as to render that part of the test unfair4 ,several armchair critics have mentioned the danger of nervous shock from the first problem4 ,bobertag throws out the test entirely and substitutes a completion test modeled after that of ,ebbinghaus4 ,our own results are altogether favorable to the test4 ,if it is used in year ,,xiv1 ,meumann's objection hardly holds1 for ,american children of that age do ordinarily know something about making wills4 ,as for the danger of shock from the first problem1 we have never once found the slightest evidence of this much-feared result4 ,the subject always understands that the situation depicted is hypothetical1 and so answers either in a matter-of-fact manner or with a laugh4 ,the bicycle problem is our own invention4 ,binet used the other two and required both to be answered correctly4 ,the test was located in year ,,xii of the #aijh scale1 and in year ,,xv of the #aiaa revision4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann retain it in the original location4 ,the ,stanford results of #aiaa1 #aiab1 #aiad1 and #aiae agree in showing the test too difficult for year ,,xii1 even when only two out of three correct responses are required4 ,if the original form of the experiment is used1 it is exceedingly difficult for year ,,xv4 ,as here given it fits well at year ,,xiv4 ,,xiv1 #e4 ,,arithmetical ,,reasoning ,,procedure4 ,the following problems1 printed in clear type1 are shown one at a time to the subject1 who reads each problem aloud and 7with the printed problem still before him7 finds the answer without the use of pencil or paper4 7a7 ,if a man's salary is #bj a week and he spends #ad a week1 how long will it take him to save #cjj8 7b7 ,if #b pencils cost #e cents1 how many pencils can you buy for #ej cents8 7c7 ,at #ae cents a yard1 how much will #g feet of cloth cost8 ,only one minute is allowed for each problem1 but nothing is said about hurrying4 ,while one problem is being solved1 the others should be hidden from view4 ,it is not permissible1 if the subject gives an incorrect answer1 to ask him to solve the problem again4 ,the following exception1 however1 is made to this rule3 ,if the answer given to the third problem indicates that the word yard has been read as feet1 the subject is asked to read the problem through again carefully 7aloud7 and to tell how he solved it4 ,no further help of any kind may be given4 ,,scoring4 ,two of the three problems must be solved correctly within the minute allotted to each4 ,no credit is allowed for correct method if the answer is wrong4 ,,remarks4 ,we have selected these problems from the list used by ,bonser in his ,study of the ,reasoning ,ability of ,children in the ,fourth1 ,fifth1 and ,sixth ,school ,grades4#ge #ge ,columbia ,university ,contributions to ,education1 no4 #cg1 #aiaj4 ,our tests of #bgi at age children between #ab and #ae years reveal the surprising fact that the test as here used and scored is not passed by much over half of the children of any age in the grades below the high-school age4 ,of the high-school pupils #ai per cent failed to pass1 #ba per cent of ordinarily successful business men 7671 and #bg per cent of ,knollin's unemployed men testing up to the average adult level4 ,to find average intelligence cutting such a sorry figure raises the question whether the ancient definition of man as the rational animal is justified by the facts4 ,the truth is1 average intelligence does not do a great deal of abstract1 logical reasoning1 and the little it does is done usually under the whip of necessity4 ,at first thought these problems will doubtless appear to the reader to be mere tests of schooling4 ,it is true1 of course1 that in solving them the subject makes use of knowledge which is ordinarily obtained in school2 but this knowledge 7that is1 knowledge of reading and of addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division7 is possessed by practically all adults who are not feeble-minded1 and by many who are4 ,success1 therefore1 depends upon the ability to apply this knowledge readily and accurately to the problems given--precisely the kind of ability in which a deficiency cannot be made good by school training4 ,we can teach even morons how to read problems and how to add1 subtract1 multiply1 and divide with a fair degree of accuracy2 the trouble comes when they try to decide which of these processes the problem calls for4 ,this may require intelligence of high or low order1 according to the difficulty of the problem4 ,as for the present test1 we have shown that almost totally unschooled men of average adult intelligence pass this test as frequently as high-school seniors of the same mental level4 ,,xiv1 #f4 ,,reversing ,,hands ,,of ,,clock ,,procedure4 ,say to the subject3 ,suppose it is six twenty-two o'clock1 that is1 twenty-two minutes after six2 can you see in your mind where the large hand would be1 and where the small hand would be8 ,subjects of #ab- to #ad-year intelligence practically always answer this in the affirmative4 ,then continue3 ,now1 suppose the two hands of the clock were to trade places1 so that the large hand takes the place where the small hand was1 and the small hand takes the place where the large hand was4 ,what time would it then be8 ,repeat the test with the hands at #h4aj 7#aj minutes after #h71 and again with the hands at #b4df 7#ad minutes before #c74 ,the subject is not allowed to look at a clock or watch1 or to aid himself by drawing1 but must work out the problem mentally4 ,as a rule the answer is given within a few seconds or not at all4 ,if an answer is not forthcoming within two minutes the score is failure4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three problems are solved within the following range of accuracy3 the first solution is considered correct if the answer falls between #d4cj and #d4ce1 inclusive2 the second if the answer falls between #a4dj and #a4de1 and the third if the answer falls between #i4aj and #i4ae4 ,,remarks4 ,it appears that success in the test chiefly depends upon voluntary control over constructive visual imagery4 ,weakness of visual imagery may account for the failure of a considerable percentage of adults to pass the test4 ,visual imagery1 however1 is not absolutely necessary to success4 ,one #h-year-old prodigy1 who had #ab-year intelligence1 arrived in forty seconds at a strictly mathematical solution for the second problem1 as follows3 ,if it is #b4df1 and the hands trade places1 then the little hand has gone about one fourth of the distance from #i o'clock to #aj o'clock4 ,one fourth of #fj minutes is #ae minutes1 and so the time would be #ae minutes after #i o'clock4 ,such a solution is certainly possible by the use of verbal imagery of any type4 ,the test shows a high correlation with mental age1 but more than most others it is subject to the influence of cribbing4 ,for this reason1 other positions of the clock hands should be tried out for the purpose of finding substitute experiments of equal difficulty4 ,until such experiments have been made1 it will be necessary to confine the experiment to the three positions here presented4 ,schooling seems to have no influence whatever on the percentage of passes4 ,this test was first used by ,binet in #aije1 but was not included in either the #aijh or #aiaa series4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann both include the test in their revisions1 placing it in year ,,xv4 ,they give only two problems 7our a and c7 and require that both be answered correctly4 ,neither ,goddard nor ,kuhlmann1 however1 indicates the degree of error permitted4 ,something depends upon original position of the hands4 ,binet used #f4bj and #b4df4 ,for some reason the #b4df arrangement is much more difficult than either #h4aj or #f4bb1 yielding almost twice as many failures as either of the other positions4 ,,xiv1 ,,alternative ,,tests3 ,,repeating ,,seven ,,digits ,this time1 as in year ,x1 only two series are given1 one of which must be repeated without error4 ,the two series are3 #b-a-h-c-d-c-i and #i-g-b-h-d-g-e4 ,note that in none of the tests of repeating digits is it permissible to warn the subject of the number to be given4 ,,remarks4 ,binet originally placed this test in year ,,xii1 giving three trials1 but later moved it to year ,,xv4 ,goddard and ,kuhlmann retain it in year ,,xii4 ,our data show that when three trials are given the test is too easy for year ,,xiv1 but that it fits this age when only two trials are allowed2 that after the age of #ab or #ad years memory for relatively meaningless material1 like digits or nonsense syllables1 improves but little2 and that above this level it does not correlate very closely with intelligence4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,instructions ,,for ,,average ,,adult ,,average ,,adult1 #a3 ,,vocabulary 7,,sixty-,,five ,,definitions1 #aa1gjj ,,words7 ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 as in previous vocabulary tests4#gf ,at the average adult level sixty-five words should be correctly defined4 #gf ,see ,,viii1 #f4 ,,average ,,adult1 #b3 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,fables 7,,score #h7 ,,procedure4 ,as in year ,,xii1 test #f4 ,use the same fables4 ,,scoring4 ,the method of scoring is the same as for ,,xii1 but the total score must be #h points to satisfy the requirements at this level4 ,,remarks4 ,for discussion of test1 see ,,xii1 #e4 ,,average ,,adult1 #c3 ,,differences ,,between ,,abstract ,,terms ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,what is the difference between3-- 7a7 ,laziness and idleness8 7b7 ,evolution and revolution8 7c7 ,poverty and misery8 7d7 ,character and reputation8 ,,scoring4 ,three correct contrasting definitions out of four are necessary for a pass4 ,it is not sufficient merely to give a correct meaning for each word of a pair2 the subject must point out a difference between the two words so as to make a real contrast4 ,for example1 if the subject defines evolution as a growth or gradual change1 and revolution as the turning of a wheel on its axis1 the experimenter should say3 ,yes1 but ,i want you to tell me the difference between evolution and revolution4 ,if the contrast is not then forthcoming the response is marked minus4 ,the following are sample definitions which may be considered acceptable3-- 7a7 ,laziness and idleness4 ,it is laziness if you won't work1 and idleness if you are willing to work but haven't any job4 ,lots of men are idle who are not lazy and would like to work if they had something to do4 ,laziness means you don't want to work2 idleness means you are not doing anything just now4 ,idle people may be lazy1 or they may just happen to be out of a job4 ,it is laziness when you don't like to work1 and idleness when you are not working4 ,an idle person might be willing to work2 a lazy man won't work4 ,laziness comes from within2 idleness may be forced upon one4 ,laziness is aversion to activity2 idleness is simply the state of inactivity4 ,laziness is idleness from choice or preference2 idleness means doing nothing4 ,the essential contrast1 accordingly1 is that laziness refers to unwillingness to work2 idleness to the mere fact of inactivity4 ,this contrast must be expressed1 however clumsily4 7b7 ,evolution and revolution4 ,evolution is a gradual change2 revolution is a sudden change4 ,evolution is natural development2 revolution is sudden upheaval4 ,evolution means an unfolding or development2 revolution means a complete upsetting of everything4 ,evolution is the gradual development of a country or government2 revolution is a quick change of government4 ,evolution takes place by natural force2 a revolution is caused by an outside force4 ,evolution is growth2 revolution is a quick change from existing conditions4 ,evolution is a natural change2 revolution is a violent change4 ,evolution is growth step by step2 revolution is more sudden and radical in its action4 ,evolution is a change brought about by peaceful development1 while revolution is brought about by an uprising4 ,the essential distinction1 accordingly1 is that evolution means a gradual1 natural1 or slow change1 while revolution means a sudden1 forced1 or violent change4 ,non-contrasting definitions1 even when the individual terms are defined correctly1 are not satisfactory4 7c7 ,poverty and misery4 ,poverty is when you are poor2 misery means suffering4 ,only the poor are in poverty1 but everybody can be miserable4 ,poverty is the lowest stage of poorness2 misery means pain4 ,the poor are not always miserable1 and the rich are miserable sometimes4 ,poverty means to be in want2 misery comes from any kind of suffering or anguish4 ,the poor are in poverty2 the sick are in misery4 ,poverty is the condition of being very poor financially2 misery is a feeling which any class of people can have4 ,one who is poor is in poverty2 one who is wretched or doesn't enjoy life is in misery4 ,poverty comes from lack of money2 misery1 from lack of happiness or comfort4 ,misery means distress4 ,it can come from poverty or many other things4 7d7 ,character and reputation4 ,character is what you are2 reputation is what people say about you4 ,you have character if you are honest2 but you might be honest and still have a bad reputation among people who misjudge you4 ,character is your real self2 reputation is the opinion people have about you4 ,your character depends upon yourself2 reputation depends on what others think of you4 ,character means your real morals2 reputation is the way you are known in the world4 ,a man has a good character if he would not do evil2 but a man may have a good reputation and still have a bad character4 ,a little practice and a good deal of discrimination are necessary for the correct grading of responses to this test4 ,subjects are often so clumsy in expression that their responses are anything but clear4 ,it is then necessary to ask them to explain what they mean4 ,further questioning1 however1 is not permissible4 ,for uniformity in scoring it is necessary to bear in mind that the definitions given must1 in order to be satisfactory1 express the essential distinction between the two words4 ,,remarks4 ,what we have said regarding the psychological significance of test #b1 year ,,xii1 applies equally well here4 ,the test on the whole is a valuable one4 ,our statistics show that it is not1 as some critics have thought1 mainly a test of schooling4 ,the main criticism to be made is that it imposes a somewhat difficult task upon the power of language expression4 ,for this reason it is necessary in scoring to disregard clumsiness of expression and to look only to the essential correctness or incorrectness of the thought4 ,this test first appeared in year ,,xiii of ,binet's #aijh scale4 ,the terms used were happiness and honor2 evolution and revolution2 event and advent2 poverty and misery2 pride and pretension4 ,in the #aiaa revision1 happiness and honor and pride and pretension were dropped1 and the other three pairs were moved up to the adult group1 two out of three successes being required for a pass4 ,kuhlmann places it in year ,,xv1 using happiness and honor instead of our character and reputation1 and requires three successes out of five4 ,,average ,,adult1 #d3 ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,enclosed ,,boxes ,,procedure4 ,show the subject a cardboard box about one inch on a side4 ,say3 ,you see this box2 it has two smaller boxes inside of it1 and each one of the smaller boxes contains a little tiny box4 ,how many boxes are there altogether1 counting the big one8 ,to be sure that the subject understands repeat the statement of the problem3 ,first the large box1 then two smaller ones1 and each of the smaller ones contains a little tiny box4 ,record the response1 and1 showing another box1 say3 ,this box has two smaller boxes inside1 and each of the smaller boxes contains two tiny boxes4 ,how many altogether8 ,remember1 first the large box1 then two smaller ones1 and each smaller one contains two tiny boxes4 ,the third problem1 which is given in the same way1 states that there are three smaller boxes1 each of which contains three tiny boxes4 ,in the fourth problem there are four smaller boxes1 each containing four tiny boxes4 ,the problem must be given orally1 and the solution must be found without the aid of pencil or paper4 ,only one half-minute is allowed for each problem4 ,note that each problem is stated twice4 ,a correction is permitted1 provided it is offered spontaneously and does not seem to be the result of guessing4 ,guessing can be checked up by asking the subject to explain the solution4 ,,scoring4 ,three of the four problems must be solved correctly within the half-minute allotted to each4 ,,remarks4 ,success depends1 in the first place1 upon ability to comprehend the statement of the problem and to hold its conditions in mind4 ,subjects much below the #ab-year level of intelligence are often unable to do this4 ,granting that the problem has been comprehended1 success seems to depend chiefly upon the facility with which the constructive imagination manipulates concrete visual imagery4 ,in this respect it resembles the problem of reversing the hands of a clock4 ,with some subjects1 however1 verbal imagery alone is operative4 ,tactual imagery would1 of course1 serve the purpose as well4 ,this is as good a place as any to emphasize the fact that the introspective study of mental imagery has little to contribute to the measurement of intelligence4 ,intelligence tests are concerned with the total result of a thought process1 rather than with the imagery supports of that process4 ,thought may be carried on almost equally well by various kinds of imagery4 ,as ,galton showed1 a person can be taught to carry on arithmetical processes by the use of smell imagery4 ,the kind of imagery employed is the product of slight1 innate preferences complicated by the more or less accidental effects of habit4 ,we may say that imagery is to thinking what scaffolding is to architecture4 ,the important thing is the completed building rather than the nature of the scaffolding employed in erecting it4 ,no one thinks of blaming the ill construction of a building upon the kind of scaffolding used1 for if the architect and builder are competent satisfactory scaffolding will be found4 ,just as little are deficiencies or peculiarities of imagery the real cause of low-order intelligence4 ,we cannot increase intelligence by formal drill in the use of supposedly important kinds of mental imagery1 any more than we can transform a plain carpenter into a ,michael ,angelo by instructing him in the use of scaffolding materials such as were employed in the construction of ,st4 ,peter's ,cathedral4 ,this test is of our own invention and has been brought to its present form only after a good deal of preliminary experimentation4 ,it correlates fairly well with mental age as determined by the scale as a whole4 ,it was passed by #ee per cent of high-school pupils and by #fe per cent of unschooled business men4 ,success in it is thus seen not to depend upon schooling4 ,,average ,,adult1 #e3 ,,repeating ,,six ,,digits ,,reversed ,the series used are3 #d-g-a-i-e-b2 #e-h-c-b-i-d2 and #g-e-b-f-c-h4 ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 as in year ,,vii1 alternative #b4 ,,remarks4 ,the test is passed by approximately half of average adults and by three fourths of superior adults4 ,it shows no effect of schooling1 the uneducated business men even surpassing our high-school students4 ,for the higher levels of intelligence1 especially1 the test is superior to that of repeating digits in the direct order4 ,it is less mechanical and makes heavier demands upon higher intelligence4 ,,average ,,adult1 #f3 ,,using ,a ,,code ,,procedure4 ,show the subject the code given on the accompanying form4 ,say3 ,see these diagrams here4 ,look and you will see that they contain all the letters of the alphabet4 ,now1 examine the arrangement of the letters4 ,they go 7pointing7 a b c1 d e f1 g h i1 j k l1 m n o1 p q r1 s t u v1 w x y z4 ,you see the letters in the first two diagrams are arranged in the up-and-down order 7pointing again71 and the letters in the other two diagrams run in just the opposite way from the hands of a clock 7pointing74 ,look again and you will see that the second diagram is drawn just like the first1 except that each letter has a dot with it1 and that the last diagram is like the third except that here1 also1 each letter has a dot4 ,now1 all of this represents a code2 that is1 a secret language4 ,it is a real code1 one that was used in the ,civil ,war for sending secret messages4 ,this is the way it works3 we draw the lines which hold a letter1 but leave out the letter4 ,here1 for example1 is the way we would write 'spy8' ,then write the word spy1 pointing out carefully where each letter comes from1 and emphasizing the fact that the dot must be used in addition to the lines in writing any letter in the second or the fourth diagram4 ,illustrate also with war4 ,then add3 ,i am going to have you write something for me2 remember now1 how the letters go1 first 7pointing1 as before7 a b c1 d e f1 g h i1 then j k l1 m n o1 p q r1 then s t u v1 then w x y z4 ,and don't forget the dots for the letters in this diagram and this one 7pointing74 ,at this point1 take away the diagrams and tell the subject to write the words come quickly4 ,say nothing about hurrying4 ,the subject is given a pencil1 but is allowed to draw only the symbols for the words come quickly4 ,he is not permitted to reproduce the entire code and then to copy the code letters from his reproduction4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the words are written in six minutes and without more than two errors4 ,omission of a dot counts as only a half error4 ,,remarks4 ,it is not easy to analyze the mental functions which contribute to success in the code test4 ,contrary to what might be supposed1 success does not necessarily depend upon getting and retaining a visual picture of the diagrams4 ,kinsthetic imagery will answer the purpose just as well1 or the original visual impression may even be translated at once into auditory-verbal imagery and remembered as such4 ,the significance of the test must be expressed in other terms than the kind of imagery it may happen to bring into play4 ,healy and ,fernald describe the task of writing a code sentence without copy as one which requires close attention and steadiness of purpose4 ,they also emphasize the fact that the attention must be directed inward1 since there is no object of interest before the senses and since no special stimulus to attention is offered by the experimenter4 ,observations we have made on subjects during the test confirm this view as to the factors involved4 ,that inability to remember the code as a whole is not a common cause of failure is shown by the fact that subjects above #ab-year intelligence who have failed on the test are nearly always able to reproduce the diagrams and insert the letters in their proper places4 ,to give the code form of a given letter without copy1 however1 makes a much heavier demand on attention4 ,nearly all subjects find it necessary to trace the code form1 in imagination1 from the beginning up to each letter whose code form is sought4 ,subjects of superior intelligence1 however1 sometimes hit upon the device of remembering the position of the individual key letters e4g4 7the first letter of each figure7 from which1 as a base1 any desired letter form may be quickly sought out4 ,the test correlates well with mental age1 but for some reason not apparent it is passed by a larger percentage of high-school pupils than unschooled adults of the same mental level4 ,the code test was first described by ,healy and ,fernald in their ,tests for ,practical ,mental ,classification4#gg ,the authors gave no data1 however1 which would indicate the mental level to which the test belongs4 ,dr4 ,goddard incorporated it in year ,,xv of his revision of the ,binet scale1 but also fails to give statistics4 ,the location given the test in the ,stanford revision is based on tests of nearly #ejj individuals ranging from a mental level of #ab years to that of superior adult4 ,it appears that the test is considerably more difficult than most had thought it to be4 #gg ,psychological ,review ,monographs 7#aiaa71 vol4 ,,xiii1 no4 #b1 p4 #ea4 ,,average ,,adult1 ,,alternative ,,test #a3 ,,repeating ,,twenty-,,eight ,,syllables ,the sentences for this test are3-- 7a7 ,walter likes very much to go on visits to his grandmother1 because she always tells him many funny stories4 7b7 ,yesterday ,i saw a pretty little dog in the street4 ,it had curly brown hair1 short legs1 and a long tail4 ,,procedure4 ,exactly as in ,,vi1 #f4 ,emphasize that the sentence must be repeated without a single change of any sort4 ,get attention before giving each sentence4 ,,scoring4 ,passed if one sentence is repeated without a single error4 ,in ,,vi and ,x we scored the response as satisfactory if one sentence was repeated without error1 or if two were repeated with not more than one error each4 ,,remarks4 ,the test of repeating sentences is not as satisfactory in the higher intelligence levels as in the lower4 ,it is too mechanical to tax very heavily the higher thought processes4 ,it does1 however1 have a certain correlation with intelligence4 ,contrary to what one would have expected1 uneducated adults of average adult intelligence surpassed our high-school students of the same mental level4 ,binet located this test in year ,,xii of the #aijh series1 but shifted it to year ,,xv in #aiaa4 ,the ,american versions of the ,binet scale have usually retained it in year ,,xii1 though ,goddard admits that the sentences are somewhat too difficult for that year4 ,kuhlmann puts the test in year ,,xii1 but reduces the sentences to twenty-four syllables and permits one re-reading4 ,we give only two trials and our sentences are considerably more difficult4 ,with the procedure and scoring we have used1 the test is rather easy for the average adult group1 but a little too hard for year ,,xiv4 ,,average ,,adult1 ,,alternative ,,test #b3 ,,comprehension ,,of ,,physical ,,relations 7a7 ,problem regarding the path of a cannon ball ,,procedure4 ,draw on a piece of paper a horizontal line six or eight inches long4 ,above it1 an inch or two1 draw a short horizontal line about an inch long and parallel to the first4 ,tell the subject that the long line represents the perfectly level ground of a field1 and that the short line represents a cannon4 ,explain that the cannon is pointed horizontally 7on a level7 and is fired across this perfectly level field4 ,after it is clear that these conditions of the problem are comprehended1 we add3 ,now1 suppose that this cannon is fired off and that the ball comes to the ground at this point here 7pointing to the farther end of the line which represents the field74 ,take this pencil and draw a line which will show what path the cannon ball will take from the time it leaves the mouth of the cannon till it strikes the ground4 ,,scoring4 ,there are four types of response3 7#a7 ,a straight diagonal line is drawn from the cannon's mouth to the point where the ball strikes4 7#b7 ,a straight line is drawn from the cannon's mouth running horizontally until almost directly over the goal1 at which point the line drops almost or quite vertically4 7#c7 ,the path from the cannon's mouth first rises considerably from the horizontal1 at an angle perhaps of between ten to forty-five degrees1 and finally describes a gradual curve downward to the goal4 7#d7 ,the line begins almost on a level and drops more rapidly toward the end of its course4 ,only the last is satisfactory4 ,of course1 nothing like a mathematically accurate solution of the problem is expected4 ,it is sufficient if the response belongs to the fourth type above instead of being absurd1 as the other types described are4 ,any one who has ever thrown stones should have the data for such an approximate solution4 ,not a day of schooling is necessary4 7b7 ,problem as to the weight of a fish in water ,,procedure4 ,say to the subject3 ,you know1 of course1 that water holds up a fish that is placed in it4 ,well1 here is a problem4 ,suppose we have a bucket which is partly full of water4 ,we place the bucket on the scales and find that with the water in it it weighs exactly #de pounds4 ,then we put a #e-pound fish into the bucket of water4 ,now1 what will the whole thing weigh8 ,,scoring4 ,many subjects even as low as #i- or #aj-year intelligence will answer promptly1 ,why1 #de pounds and #e pounds makes #ej pounds1 of course4 ,but this is not sufficient4 ,we proceed to ask1 with serious demeanor3 ,how can this be correct1 since the water itself holds up the fish8 ,the young subject who has answered so glibly now laughs sheepishly and apologizes for his error1 saying that he answered without thinking1 etc4 ,this response is scored failure without further questioning4 ,other subjects1 mostly above the #ad-year level1 adhere to the answer #ej pounds1 however strongly we urge the argument about the water holding up the fish4 ,in response to our question1 ,how can that be the case8 it is sufficient if the subject replies that ,the weight is there just the same2 the scales have to hold up the bucket and the bucket has to hold up the water1 or words to that effect4 ,only some such response as this is satisfactory4 ,if the subject keeps changing his answer or says that he thinks the weight would be #ej pounds1 but is not certain1 the score is failure4 7c7 ,difficulty of hitting a distant mark ,,procedure4 ,say to the subject3 ,you know1 do you not1 what it means when they say a gun 'carries #ajj yards'8 ,it means that the bullet goes that far before it drops to amount to anything4 ,all boys and most girls more than a dozen years old understand this readily4 ,if the subject does not understand1 we explain again what it means for a gun to carry a given distance4 ,when this part is clear1 we proceed as follows3 ,now1 suppose a man is shooting at a mark about the size of a quart can4 ,his rifle carries perfectly more than #ajj yards4 ,with such a gun is it any harder to hit the mark at #ajj yards than it is at #ej yards8 ,after the response is given1 we ask the subject to explain4 ,,scoring4 ,simply to say that it would be easier at #ej yards is not sufficient1 nor can we pass the response which merely states that it is easier to aim at #ej yards4 ,the correct principle must be given1 one which shows the subject has appreciated the fact that a small deviation from the bull's-eye at #ej yards1 due to incorrect aim1 becomes a larger deviation at #ajj yards4 ,however1 the subject is not required to know that the deviation at #ajj yards is exactly twice as great as at #ej yards4 ,a certain amount of questioning is often necessary before we can decide whether the subject has the correct principle in mind4 ,,scoring ,,the ,,entire ,,test4 ,two of the three problems must be solved in such a way as to satisfy the requirements above set forth4 ,,remarks4 ,these problems were devised by the writer4 ,they yield interesting results1 when properly given1 but are not without their faults4 ,sometimes a very superior subject fails1 while occasionally an inferior subject unexpectedly succeeds4 ,on the whole1 however the test correlates fairly well with mental age4 ,at the #ad-year level less than #ej per cent pass2 of average adults1 from #fj to #ge per cent are successful4 ,few superior adults fail4 ,the test as here given is little influenced by the formal instruction given in the grades or the high school4 ,in fact1 #hj per cent of our uneducated business men1 as contrasted with #fe per cent of high-school juniors and seniors1 passed the test4 ,success probably depends in the main upon previous interest in physical relationships and upon the ability to understand phenomena of this kind which the subject has had opportunity to observe4 ,it would be interesting to standardize a longer series of problems designed to test a subject's comprehension of common physical relationships4 ,in the first few months of life a normal child learns that objects unsupported fall to the ground4 ,later he learns that fire burns2 that birds fly in the air2 that fish do not sink in the water2 that water does not run uphill2 that it is easy to lift a leg or arm as one lies prone in the water2 that mud is thrown from a rotating wheel 7and always in the same direction72 that a stone which is flying through the air swiftly is more dangerous than one which is moving slowly2 that it is more dangerous to be run over by a train than by a buggy2 that it is hard to run against a strong wind2 that cyclones blow down trees and houses2 that a rapidly moving train creates a stronger wind than a slower train2 that a feather falls through the air with less speed than a stone2 that a falling object gains momentum2 that a heavy moving object is harder to stop than a light object moving at the same rate2 that freezing water bursts pipes2 that sounds sometimes give echoes2 that rainbows cannot be approached2 that a lamp seems dim by daylight2 that by day the stars are not visible and the moon only barely visible2 that the headlights of an approaching automobile or train are blinding2 that if the room in which we are reading is badly lighted we must hold the book nearer to the eyes2 that running makes the heart beat faster and increases the rate of breathing2 that if we are cold we can get warm by running2 that whirling rapidly makes us dizzy2 that heat or exercise will cause perspiration1 etc4 ,although the causes of some of these phenomena are not understood even by intelligent adults without some instruction1 the facts themselves are learned by the normal individual from his own experience4 ,the higher the mental level and the greater the curiosity1 the more observant one is about such matters and the more one learns4 ,many items of knowledge such as we have mentioned could and should be standardized for various mental levels4 ,in devising tests of this kind we should1 of course1 have to look out for the influences of formal instruction4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,instructions ,,for ,,superior ,,adult ,,superior ,,adult1 #a3 ,,vocabulary 7,,seventy-,,five ,,definitions1 #ac1ejj ,,words7 ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 as in previous vocabulary tests4 ,at the superior adult level seventy-five words should be known4 ,the test is passed by only one third of those at the average adult level1 but by about #ij per cent of superior adults4 ,ability to pass the test is relatively independent of the number of years the subject has attended school1 our business men showing even a higher percentage of passes than high-school pupils4 ,,superior ,,adult1 #b3 ,,binet',s ,,paper-,,cutting ,,test ,,procedure4 ,take a piece of paper about six inches square and say3 ,watch carefully what ,i do4 ,see1 ,i fold the paper this way 7folding it once over in the middle71 then ,i fold it this way 7folding it again in the middle1 but at right angles to the first fold74 ,now1 ,i will cut out a notch right here 7indicating74 ,at this point take scissors and cut out a small notch from the middle of the side which presents but one edge4 ,throw the fragment which has been cut out into the waste-basket or under the table4 ,leave the folded paper exposed to view1 but pressed flat against the table4 ,then give the subject a pencil and a second sheet of paper like the one already used and say3 ,take this piece of paper and make a drawing to show how the other sheet of paper would look if it were unfolded4 ,draw lines to show the creases in the paper and show what results from the cutting4 ,the subject is not permitted to fold the second sheet1 but must solve the problem by the imagination unaided4 ,note that we do not say1 ,draw the holes1 as this would inform the subject that more than one hole is expected4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the creases in the paper are properly represented1 if the holes are drawn in the correct number1 and if they are located correctly1 that is1 both on the same crease and each about halfway between the center of the paper and the side4 ,the shape of the holes is disregarded4 ,failure may be due to error as regards the creases or the number and location of the holes1 or it may involve any combination of the above errors4 ,,remarks4 ,success seems to depend upon constructive visual imagination4 ,the subject must first be able to construct in imagination the creases which result from the folding1 and secondly1 to picture the effects of the cutting as regards number of holes and their location4 ,it appears that a solution is seldom arrived at1 even in the case of college students1 by logical mathematical thinking4 ,our unschooled subjects even succeeded somewhat better than high-school and college students of the same mental level4 ,binet placed this test in year ,,xiii of the #aijh scale1 but shifted it to the adult group in the #aiaa revision4 ,goddard retains it in the adult group1 while ,kuhlmann places it in year ,,xv4 ,there have also been certain variations in the procedure employed4 ,as given in the ,stanford revision the test is passed by hardly any subjects below the #ad-year level1 but by about one third of average adults and by the large majority of superior adults4 ,,superior ,,adult1 #c3 ,,repeating ,,eight ,,digits ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 the same as in previous tests with digits reversed4 ,the series used are3 #g-b-e-c-d-h-i-f2 #d-i-h-e-c-g-f-b2 and #h-c-g-i-e-d-h-b4 ,guard against rhythm and grouping in reading the digits and do not give warning as to the number to be given4 ,the test is passed by about one third of average adults and by over two thirds of superior adults4 ,the test shows no marked difference between educated and uneducated subjects of the same mental level4 ,,superior ,,adult1 #d3 ,,repeating ,,thought ,,of ,,passage ,,procedure4 ,say3 ,i am going to read a little selection of about six or eight lines4 ,when ,i am through ,i will ask you to repeat as much of it as you can4 ,it doesn't make any difference whether you remember the exact words or not1 but you must listen carefully so that you can tell me everything it says4 ,then read the following selections1 pausing after each for the subject's report1 which should be recorded verbatim3-- 7a7 ,tests such as we are now making are of value both for the advancement of science and for the information of the person who is tested4 ,it is important for science to learn how people differ and on what factors these differences depend4 ,if we can separate the influence of heredity from the influence of environment1 we may be able to apply our knowledge so as to guide human development4 ,we may thus in some cases correct defects and develop abilities which we might otherwise neglect4 7b7 ,many opinions have been given on the value of life4 ,some call it good1 others call it bad4 ,it would be nearer correct to say that it is mediocre2 for on the one hand1 our happiness is never as great as we should like1 and on the other hand1 our misfortunes are never as great as our enemies would wish for us4 ,it is this mediocrity of life which prevents it from being radically unjust4 ,sometimes the subject hesitates to begin1 thinking1 in spite of our wording of the instructions1 that a perfect reproduction is expected4 ,others fall into the opposite misunderstanding and think that they are prohibited from using the words of the text and must give the thought entirely in their own language4 ,in cases of hesitation we should urge the subject a little and remind him that he is to express the thought of the selection in whatever way he prefers2 that the main thing is to tell what the selection says4 ,,scoring4 ,the test is passed if the subject is able to repeat in reasonably consecutive order the main thoughts of at least one of the selections4 ,neither elegance of expression nor verbatim repetition is expected4 ,we merely want to know whether the leading thoughts in the selection have been grasped and remembered4 ,all grades of accuracy are found1 both in the comprehension of the selection and in the recall1 and it is not always easy to draw the line between satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses4 ,the following sample performances will serve as a guide3-- ,selection 7a7 ,satisfactory4 ,the tests which we are making are given for the advancement of science and for the information of the person tested4 ,by scientific means we will be able to separate characteristics derived from heredity and environment and to treat each class separately4 ,by doing so we can more accurately correct defects4 ,tests like these are for two purposes4 ,first to develop a science1 and second to apply it to the person to help him4 ,the tests are to find out how you differ from another and to measure the difference between your heredity and environment4 ,these tests are given to see if we can separate heredity and environment and to see if we can find out how one person differs from another4 ,we can then correct these differences and teach people more effectively4 ,the tests that we are now making are valuable along both scientific and personal lines4 ,by using them it can be found out where a person is weak and where he is strong4 ,we can then strengthen his weak points and remedy some things that would otherwise be neglected4 ,they are of great benefit to science and to the person concerned4 ,tests such as we are now making are of great importance because they aim to show in what respects we differ from others and why1 and if they do this they will be able to guide us into the right channel and bring success instead of failure4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,tests such as we are now making are of value both for the advancement of science and for the information of the person interested4 ,it is necessary to know this4 ,such tests as we are now making show about the human mind and show in what channels we are fitted4 ,it is the testing of each individual between his effects of inheritancy and environment4 ,it is very interesting for us to study science for two reasons2 first1 to test our mental ability1 and second for the further development of science4 ,tests such as we are now making help in two ways2 it helps the scientists and it gives information to the people4 ,tests are being given to pupils to-day to better them and to aid science for generations to come4 ,if each person knows exactly his own beliefs and ideas and faults he can find out exactly what kind of work he is fitted for by heredity4 ,the tests show that environment doesn't count1 for if you are all right you will get along anyway4 7,note invention47 ,selection 7b7 ,satisfactory4 ,there are different opinions about life4 ,some call it good and some bad4 ,it would be more correct to say that it is middling1 because we are never as happy as we would like to be and we are never as sad as our enemies want us to be4 ,one hears many judgments about life4 ,some say it is good1 while others say it is bad4 ,but it is really neither of the extremes4 ,life is mediocre4 ,we do not have as much good as we desire1 nor do we have as much misfortune as others want us to have4 ,nevertheless1 we have enough good to keep life from being unjust4 ,some people have different views of life from others4 ,some say it is bad1 others say it is good4 ,it is better to class life as mediocre1 as it is never as good as we wish it1 and on the other hand1 it might be worse4 ,some people think differently of life4 ,some think it good1 some bad1 others mediocre1 which is nearest correct4 ,it brings unhappiness to us1 but not as much as our enemies want us to have4 ,unsatisfactory4 ,some say life is good1 some say it is mediocre4 ,even though some say it is mediocre they say it is right4 ,there are two sides of life4 ,some say it is good while others say it is bad4 ,to some1 life is happy and they get all they can out of life4 ,for others life is not happy and therefore they fail to get all there is in life4 ,one hears many different judgments of life4 ,some call it good1 some call it bad4 ,it brings unhappiness and it does not have enough pleasure4 ,it should be better distributed4 ,there are different opinions of the value of life4 ,some say it is good and some say it is bad4 ,some say it is mediocrity4 ,some think it brings happiness while others do not4 ,nowadays there is much said about the value of life4 ,some say it is good1 while others say it is bad4 ,a person should not have an ill feeling toward the value of life1 and he should not be unjust to any one4 ,honesty is the best policy4 ,people who are unjust are more likely to be injured by their enemies4 7,note invention47 ,,remarks4 ,contrary to what the subject is led to expect1 the test is less a test of memory than of ability to comprehend the drift of an abstract passage4 ,a subject who fully grasps the meaning of the selection as it is read is not likely to fail because of poor memory4 ,mere verbal memory improves but little after the age of #ad or #ae years1 as is shown by the fact that our adults do little better than eighth-grade children in repeating sentences of twenty-eight syllables4 ,on the other hand1 adult intelligence is vastly superior in the comprehension and retention of a logically presented group of abstract ideas4 ,there is nothing in which stupid persons cut a poorer figure than in grappling with the abstract4 ,their thinking clings tenaciously to the concrete2 their concepts are vague or inaccurate2 the interrelations among their concepts are scanty in the extreme2 and such poor mental stores as they have are little available for ready use4 ,a few critics have objected to the use of tests demanding abstract thinking1 on the ground that abstract thought is a very special aspect of intelligence and that facility in it depends almost entirely on occupational habits and the accidents of education4 ,some have even gone so far as to say that we are not justified1 on the basis of any number of such tests1 in pronouncing a subject backward or defective4 ,it is supposed that a subject who has no capacity in the use of abstract ideas may nevertheless have excellent intelligence along other lines4 ,in such cases1 it is said1 we should not penalize the subject for his failures in handling abstractions1 but substitute1 instead1 tests requiring motor cordination and the manipulation of things1 tests in which the supposedly dull child often succeeds fairly well4 ,from the psychological point of view1 such a proposal is navely unpsychological4 ,it is in the very essence of the higher thought processes to be conceptual and abstract4 ,what the above proposal amounts to is1 that if the subject is not capable of the more complex and strictly human type of thinking1 we should ignore this fact and estimate his intelligence entirely on the ability he displays to carry on mental operations of a more simple and primitive kind4 ,this would be like asking the physician to ignore the diseased parts of his patient's body and to base his diagnosis on an examination of the organs which are sound6 ,the present test throws light in an interesting way on the integrity of the critical faculty4 ,some subjects are unwilling to extend the report in the least beyond what they know to be approximately correct1 while others with defective powers of auto-criticism manufacture a report which draws heavily on the imagination1 perhaps continuing in garrulous fashion as long as they can think of anything having the remotest connection with any thought in the selection4 ,we have included1 for each selection1 one illustration of this type in the sample failures given above4 ,the worst fault of the test is its susceptibility to the influence of schooling4 ,our uneducated adults of even superior adult intelligence often fail1 while about two thirds of high-school pupils succeed4 ,the unschooled adults have a marked tendency either to give a summary which is inadequate because of its extreme brevity1 or else to give a criticism of the thought which the passage contains4 ,this test first appeared in ,binet's #aiaa revision1 in the adult group4 ,binet used only selection 7b71 and in a slightly more difficult form than we have given above4 ,goddard gives the test like ,binet and retains it in the adult group4 ,kuhlmann locates it in year ,,xv1 using only selection 7a74 ,on the basis of over #cjj tests of adults we find the test too difficult for the average adult level1 even on the basis of only one success in two trials and when scored on the rather liberal standard above set forth4 ,,superior ,,adult1 #e3 ,,repeating ,,seven ,,digits ,,reversed ,,procedure and ,,scoring1 the same as in previous tests of this kind4 ,the series are3 #d-a-f-b-e-i-c2 #c-h-b-f-d-g-e2 and #i-d-e-b-h-c-g4 ,we have collected fewer data on this test than on any of the others1 as it was added later to the test series4 ,as far as we have used it we have found few average adults who pass1 while about half the superior adults do so4 ,,superior ,,adult1 #f3 ,,ingenuity ,,test ,,procedure4 ,problem a is stated as follows3-- ,a mother sent her boy to the river and told him to bring back exactly #g pints of water4 ,she gave him a #c-pint vessel and a #e-pint vessel4 ,show me how the boy can measure out exactly #g pints of water1 using nothing but these two vessels and not guessing at the amount4 ,you should begin by filling the #e-pint vessel first4 ,remember1 you have a #c-pint vessel and a #e-pint vessel and you must bring back exactly #g pints4 ,the problem is given orally1 but may be repeated if necessary4 ,the subject is not allowed pencil or paper and is requested to give his solution orally as he works it out4 ,it is then possible to make a complete record of the method employed4 ,the subject is likely to resort to some such method as to fill the #c-pint vessel two thirds full1 or1 ,i would mark the inside of the #e-pint vessel so as to show where #d pints come to1 etc4 ,we inform the subject that such a method is not allowable2 that this would be guessing1 since he could not be sure when the #c-pint vessel was two thirds full 7or whether he had marked off his #e-pint vessel accurately74 ,tell him he must measure out the water without any guesswork4 ,explain also1 that it is a fair problem1 not a catch4 ,say nothing about pouring from one vessel to another1 but if the subject asks whether this is permissible the answer is yes4 ,the time limit for each problem is #e minutes4 ,if the subject fails on the first problem1 we explain the solution in full and then proceed to the next4 ,the second problem is like the first1 except that a #e-pint vessel and a #g-pint vessel are given1 to get #h pints1 the subject being told to begin by filling the #e-pint vessel4 ,in the third problem #d and #i are given1 to get #g1 the instruction being to begin by filling the #d-pint vessel4 ,note that in each problem we instruct the subject how to begin4 ,this is necessary in order to secure uniformity of conditions4 ,it is possible to solve all of the problems by beginning with either of the two vessels1 but the solution is made very much more difficult if we begin in the direction opposite from that recommended4 ,give no further aid4 ,it is necessary to refrain from comment of every kind4 ,,scoring4 ,two of the three problems must be solved correctly within the #e minutes allotted to each4 ,,remarks4 ,we have called this a test of ingenuity4 ,the subject who is given the problem finds himself involved in a difficulty from which he must extricate himself4 ,means must be found to overcome an obstacle4 ,this requires practical judgement and a certain amount of inventive ingenuity4 ,various possibilities must be explored and either accepted for trial or rejected4 ,if the amount of invention called for seems to the reader inconsiderable1 let it be remembered that the important inventions of history have not as a rule had a ,minerva birth1 but instead have developed by successive stages1 each involving but a small step in advance4 ,it is unnecessary to emphasize at length the function of invention in the higher thought processes4 ,in one form or another it is present in all intellectual activity2 in the creation and use of language1 in art1 in social adjustments1 in religion1 and in philosophy1 as truly as in the domains of science and practical affairs4 ,certainly this is true if we accept ,mason's broad definition of invention as including every change in human activity made designedly and systematically4#gh ,from the psychological point of view1 perhaps1 ,mason is justified in looking upon the great inventor as an epitome of the genius of the world4 ,to develop a ,krag-,joergensen from a bow and arrow1 a velvet-tipped lucifer match from the primitive fire-stick1 or a modern piano from the first crude1 stringed1 musical instrument has involved much the same intellectual processes as have been operative in transforming fetishism and magic into religion and philosophy1 or scattered fragments of knowledge into science4 #gh ,otis ,t4 ,mason3 ,the ,origins of ,inventions4 7,london1 #aijb47 ,psychologically1 invention depends upon the constructive imagination2 that is1 upon the ability to abstract from what is immediately present to the senses and to picture new situations with their possibilities and consequences4 ,images are united in order to form new combinations4 ,as we have several times emphasized1 the decisive intellectual differences among human beings are not greatly dependent upon mere sense discrimination or native retentiveness4 ,far more important than the raw mass of sense data is the correct shooting together of the sense elements in memory and imagination4 ,this is but another name for invention4 ,it is the synthetic1 or apperceptive1 activity of the mind that gives the seven-league boots to genius4 ,it is1 however1 a kind of ability which is possessed by all minds to a greater or less degree4 ,any test has its value which gives a clue1 as this test does1 to the subject's ability in this direction4 ,the test was devised by the writer and used in #aije in a study of the intellectual processes of bright and dull boys1 but it was not at that time standardized4 ,it has been found to belong at a much higher mental level than was at first supposed4 ,only an insignificant number pass the test below the mental age of #ad years1 and about two thirds of average adults fail4 ,of our superior adults somewhat more than #ge per cent succeed4 ,formal education influences the test little or not at all1 the unschooled business men making a somewhat better showing than the high-school students4 ,,selected ,,references ,the following classified lists include only the most important references under each topic4 ,so many investigations have been made with the ,binet-,simon tests in the last few years1 and so many articles have been written in evaluation of the method1 that a complete bibliography of the subject would require thirty or forty pages4 ,those who desire to make a more thorough study of the literature are referred to the admirable annotated bibliography compiled by ,samuel ,c4 ,kohs1 and published by ,warwick ,york1 ,baltimore4 ,kohs's ,bibliography contains #bed references1 and is complete to ,january #a1 #aiad4 ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,,of ,,normal ,,children #a4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,le dveloppement de l'intelligence chez les enfants2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aijh71 vol4 #ad1 pp4 #a-id4 ,exposition of the original #aijh scale with results4 #b4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,nouvelles recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectuel chez les enfants d'cole2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aiaa71 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #ade-bja4 ,presents the #aiaa revision4 #c4 ,bobertag1 ,o4 ,ueber ,intelligenzprfungen 7nach der ,methode von ,binet und ,simon72 in ,zeitschrift fr angewande ,psychologie 7#aiaa71 vol4 #e1 pp4 #aje-bjc2 and 7#aiab71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #die-ecg4 ,analysis of #djj cases and criticism of method and results4 #d4 ,dougherty1 ,m4 ,l4 ,report on the ,binet-,simon ,tests given to ,four ,hundred and ,eighty-three ,children in the ,public ,schools of ,kansas ,city1 ,kansas2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiac71 vol4 #d1 pp4 #cch-eb4 #e4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale for ,intelligence1 ,revised2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiaa71 vol4 #h1 pp4 #ef-fb4 #f4 ,hoffman1 ,a4 ,vergleichende ,intelligenzprfungen an ,vorschlern und ,volksschlern2 in ,zeitschrift fr angewande ,psychologie 7#aiac71 vol4 #h1 pp4 #ajb-bj4 ,one hundred and fifty-six subjects4 ,ages seven1 nine1 and ten4 #g4 ,johnston1 ,katherine ,l4 ,binet's ,method for the ,measurement of ,intelligence2 ,some ,results2 in ,journal of ,experimental ,pedagogy 7#aiaa71 vol4 #a1 pp4 #bd-ca4 ,results of #bjj tests of school children4 #h4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,some ,results of ,examining #ajjj ,public-,school ,children with a ,revision of the ,binet-,simon ,tests of ,intelligence by ,untrained ,teachers2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiad71 vol4 #ah1 pp4 #aej-gi1 and #bcc-fi4 #i4 ,phillips1 ,byron ,a4 ,the ,binet ,tests applied to ,colored ,children2 in ,psychological ,clinic 7#aiad71 pp4 #aij-if4 ,a comparison of #hf colored and #acg white children4 #aj4 ,rogers1 ,agnes ,l41 and ,mc,intyre1 ,j4 ,l4 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence in ,children by the ,binet-,simon ,scale2 in ,british ,journal of ,psychology 7#aiad71 vol4 #g1 pp4 #bfe-cjj4 #aa4 ,rowe1 ,e4 ,c4 ,five ,hundred ,forty-,seven ,white and ,two ,hundred ,sixty-,eight ,indian ,children tested by the ,binet-,simon ,tests2 in ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiad71 vol4 #ba1 pp4 #ded-fi4 #ab4 ,strong1 ,alice ,c4 ,three ,hundred ,fifty ,white and ,colored ,children measured by the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence2 in ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiac71 vol4 #bj1 pp4 #dhe-eae4 #ac4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m41 and ,childs1 ,h4 ,g4 ,a ,tentative ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiab71 vol4 #c1 pp4 #fa-gd1 #acc-dc1 #aih-bjh1 and #bgg-hi4 ,results of #cif tests of ,california school-children4 #ad4 ,terman1 ,lyman1 ,ordahl1 ,galbreath1 and ,talbert4 ,the ,stanford ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence4 7#aiaf47 ,detailed analysis of the results secured by testing #ajjj unselected school-children within two months of a birthday4 #ae4 ,weintrob1 ,j4 and ,r4 ,the ,influence of ,environment on ,mental ,ability as shown by the ,binet ,tests2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiab71 pp4 #egg-hf4 #af4 ,winch1 ,w4 ,h4 ,binet's ,mental ,tests3 ,what ,they ,are1 and ,what ,we ,can ,do with ,them2 in ,child ,study 7,london71 #aiac1 #aiad1 #aiae1 and #aiaf4 ,an extended series of articles setting forth results of tests with normal children1 and giving valuable criticisms and suggestions4 ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,,of ,,the ,,feeble-,,minded #ag4 ,chotzen1 ,f4 ,die ,intelligenzprfungsmethode von ,binet-,simon bei schwachsinnigen ,kindern2 in ,zeitschrift fr angewande ,psychologie 7#aiab71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #daa-id4 ,a critical study of the results of #bhj tests4 #ah4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,four ,hundred ,feeble-,minded ,children classified by the ,binet ,method2 in ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiaj71 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #chg-ig2 also in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiaj71 vol4 #ae1 pp4 #ag-cj4 ,offers important evidence of the value of the ,binet-,simon method4 #ai4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,the ,binet and ,simon ,tests of ,intelligence in ,grading ,feeble-,minded ,children2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiab71 vol4 #af1 pp4 #agc-ic4 ,analysis of results from #acjj cases4 ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,,of ,,delinquents #bj4 ,bluemel1 ,c4 ,s4 ,binet ,tests on ,two ,hundred ,juvenile ,delinquents2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiae71 pp4 #ahg-ic4 #ba4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,criminal ,imbecile4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiae47 #aeg pages4 ,an analysis of the mentality of three murderers of moron or borderline intelligence4 #bb4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,responsibility of ,children in the ,juvenile ,court2 in ,journal of ,criminal ,law and ,criminology 7,september1 #aiab74 ,analysis of #ajj tests of juvenile delinquents4 #bc4 ,healy1 ,william4 ,the ,individual ,delinquent4 ,little1 ,brown ,co4 7#aiae47 #hcj pages4 ,a textbook on delinquents4 ,gives results of many ,binet-,simon tests4 #bd4 ,spaulding1 ,edith ,r4 ,the ,results of ,mental and ,physical ,examination of ,four ,hundred ,women ,offenders2 in ,journal of ,criminal ,law and ,criminology 7#aiae71 pp4 #gjd-ag4 #be4 ,sullivan1 ,w4 ,c4 ,la mesure du dveloppement intellectuel chez les jeunes dlinquantes2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aiab71 vol4 #ah1 pp4 #cda-fa4 #bf4 ,williams1 ,j4 ,harold4 ,a ,study of #aej ,delinquent ,boys4 ,bulletin no4 #a1 ,research ,laboratory of the ,buckel ,foundation4 7#aiae47 #ae pages4 ,the ,stanford revision used4 ,report of over #djj cases to follow4 ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,,of ,,superior ,,children #bg4 ,jeronutti1 ,a4 ,ricerche psicologiche sperimentali sugli alunni molto intelligenti2 in ,lab4 di ,psicol4 ,sperim4 della ,reg4 ,univ4 ,roma4 7#aiab7 ,out of fifteen hundred school and kindergarten children1 ages five to twelve1 fourteen were selected by the teachers as the brightest4 ,the ,binet test showed them to be from one to three years in advance of their chronological ages4 #bh4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,the ,mental ,hygiene of ,exceptional ,children2 in ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiae71 vol4 #bb1 pp4 #ebi-cg4 ,data on #ca children testing above #abj ,i4 ,q4 ,,instructions ,,for ,,giving ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests #bi4 ,binet1 ,a41 and ,simon1 ,th4 ,a ,method of ,measuring the ,development of ,intelligence in ,young ,children4 ,chicago ,medical ,book ,company4 7#aiae47 #hb pages4 ,authorized translation of ,binet's final instructions for giving the tests4 #cj4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,a ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiaj71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #adf-ee4 ,condensed translation of ,binet's #aijh ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence4 #ca4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale for ,intelligence1 ,revised2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiaa71 vol4 #h1 pp4 #ef-fb4 #cb4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,standard ,method for ,giving the ,binet ,test2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiac71 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #bc-cj4 #cc4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,a ,revision of the ,binet-,simon ,system for ,measuring the ,intelligence of ,children2 ,monograph ,supplement of ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7,september1 #aiab71 #da pages4 #cd4 ,wallin1 ,j4 ,e4 ,w4 ,a ,practical ,guide for the ,administration of the ,binet-,simon ,scale for ,measuring ,intelligence2 in ,the ,psychological ,clinic 7#aiaa71 vol4 #e1 pp4 #bag-ch4 ,,criticisms ,,and ,,evaluations ,,of ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,method #ce4 ,berry1 ,c4 ,s4 ,a ,comparison of the ,binet ,tests of #aijh and #aiaa2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiab71 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ddd-ea4 #cf4 ,bobertag1 ,o4 ,ueber ,intelligenzprfungen 7nach der ,methode von ,binet und ,simon72 in ,zeitschrift fr angewande ,psychologie4 7,a1 #aiaa71 vol4 #e1 pp4 #aje-bjc2 7,b1 #aiab71 vol4 #f1 pp4 #die-ecg4 ,accepts the method and gives valuable suggestions for improvement4 #cg4 ,brigham1 ,carl ,c4 ,an ,experimental ,critique of the ,binet-,simon ,scale2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiad71 pp4 #dci-dh4 ,finds the scale #if efficient4 #ch4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,reliability of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence2 in ,proceedings of the ,fourth ,international ,congress of ,school ,hygiene 7#aiac71 vol4 #e1 pp4 #fic-ii4 ,application of the theory of probability to the results proves the extremely small liability of error4 #ci4 ,kohs1 ,samuel ,c4 ,the ,practicability of the ,binet ,scale and the ,question of the ,borderline ,case2 in ,training ,school ,bulletin 7#aiaf71 pp4 #baa-bc4 ,analysis of cases showing the reliability of the scale4 #dj4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,binet and ,simon's ,system for ,measuring the ,intelligence of ,children2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiaa71 vol4 #ae1 pp4 #gi-ib4 ,finds the method of the greatest value4 #da4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,a ,reply to ,dr4 ,l4 ,p4 ,ayres's ,criticism of the ,binet and ,simon ,system for ,measuring the ,intelligence of ,children2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiaa71 vol4 #af1 pp4 #eh-fg4 ,many of the ,ayres criticisms are shown to be unfounded4 #db4 ,meumann1 ,e4 ,vorlesungen zur ,einfhrung in die ,experimentelle ,pdagogik 7#aiac71 vol4 #b1 pp4 #acj-cjj4 ,summary of the literature on ,binet tests up to #aiac4 ,accepts the method but gives suggestions for improvement4 ,this summary and other writings of ,meumann on the psychology of endowment are reviewed by ,lewis ,m4 ,terman in a series of four articles in the ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics for #aiae4 #dc4 ,otis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,some ,logical and ,mathematical ,aspects of the ,measurement of ,intelligence by the ,binet-,simon ,method2 in ,the ,psychological ,review 7,april and ,june1 #aiaf74 ,considers the ,binet-,simon method imperfect from the mathematical point of view4 #dd4 ,schmitt1 ,clara4 ,standardization of ,tests for ,defective ,children4 ,psychological ,monographs 7#aiae71 no4 #hc1 #aha pages4 ,contains 7pp4 #eb-fg7 a discussion of the ,fallacies and ,inadequacies of the ,binet-,simon ,series4 ,most of the criticisms here given are either superficial or unfair1 some of them apparently being due to a lack of acquaintance with ,binet's writings4 #de4 ,stern1 ,w4 ,the ,psychological ,methods of ,measuring ,intelligence4 ,translated by ,g4 ,m4 ,whipple4 7#aiac47 #afj pages4 ,a splendid critical discussion of the ,binet-,simon method4 ,should be read by every one who would use the scale4 #df4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,suggestions for ,revising1 ,extending1 and ,supplementing the ,binet ,intelligence ,tests2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiac71 vol4 #ah1 pp4 #bj-cc4 #dg4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,psychological ,principles ,underlying the ,binet-,simon ,scale and ,some ,practical ,considerations for its ,correct ,use2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7#aiac71 vol4 #ah1 pp4 #ic-ajd4 #dh4 ,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,a ,report of the ,buffalo ,conference on the ,binet-,simon ,tests of ,intelligence2 in ,pedagogical ,seminary 7#aiac71 vol4 #bj1 pp4 #edi-ed4 ,abstracts of papers presented at the above conference4 #di4 ,terman1 ,lyman1 ,ordahl1 ,galbreath1 and ,talbert4 ,the ,stanford ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,scale for ,measuring ,intelligence4 7#aiaf47 ,contains a chapter on the validity of the individual tests and on considerations relating to the formation of an intelligence scale4 #ej4 ,terman and ,knollin4 ,the ,detection of ,borderline ,deficiency by the ,binet-,simon ,method2 in ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics 7,june1 #aiaf74 ,a comparison of the accuracy of the ,stanford and other revisions with borderline cases4 #ea4 ,trves and ,saffiotti4 ,l'chelle mtrique de l'intelligence modifie selon la mthode ,trves-,saffiotti2 in ,anne ,psychologique 7#aiab71 pp4 #cbg-dj4 ,criticize the age-grade method of measuring intelligence and propose a substitute4 #eb4 ,wallin1 ,j4 ,e4 ,w4 ,experimental ,studies of ,mental ,defectives4 ,a ,critique of the ,binet-,simon ,tests4 ,warwick ,york4 7#aiab47 ,criticism based on the use of the scale with epileptics4 #ec4 ,yerkes and ,bridges4 ,a ,point ,scale for ,measuring ,mental ,ability4 ,warwick ,york4 ,authors think the point scale preferable to the ,binet-,simon method4 ,,books ,,on ,,mental ,,deficiency #ed4 ,binet1 ,a41 and ,simon1 ,th4 ,mentally ,defective ,children4 ,translated from the ,french by ,w4 ,b4 ,drummond4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 7#aiad47 #aga pages4 ,discusses the psychology1 pedagogy1 and medical examination of defectives4 #ee4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,feeble-,mindedness2 ,its ,causes and ,consequences4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiac47 #eii pages4 ,the most important single volume on the subject4 ,extensive data on the causes of feeble-mindedness and excellent clinical pictures of all grades of mental defects4 #ef4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,kallikak ,family4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiad47 #aba pages4 ,an epoch-making study of the hereditary transmission of mental deficiency in a degenerate family4 #eg4 ,holmes1 ,arthur4 ,the ,conservation of the ,child4 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,company4 7#aiab47 #cde pages4 ,methods of examination and treatment of defective children4 #eh4 ,holmes1 ,arthur4 ,the ,backward ,child4 ,bobbs-,merrill ,company4 7#aiae47 ,a popular treatment of the handling of backward children4 #ei4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b4 ,backward and ,feeble-,minded ,children4 ,warwick ,york4 7#aiab47 #bba pages4 ,devoted mainly to clinical accounts of borderline cases4 #fj4 ,lapage1 ,c4 ,p4 ,feeble-,mindedness in ,children of ,school ,age4 ,the ,university ,press1 ,manchester1 ,england4 7#aiaa47 #cei pages4 #fa4 ,sherlock1 ,e4 ,b4 ,the ,feeble-,minded2 ,a ,guide to ,study and ,practice4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiaa47 #cbg pages4 #fb4 ,tredgold1 ,a4 ,f4 ,mental ,deficiency 7,amentia74 ,baillire1 ,tindall1 and ,cox4 ,london1 ,england4 7#b;d ed4 #aiad47 #dia pages4 ,the best medical treatment of the subject4 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,children ,,through ,,the ,,grades #fc4 ,ayres1 ,leonard ,p4 ,laggards in our ,schools4 ,the ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 7#aiji47 #bcf pages4 ,interesting and instructive discussion of school retardation and its causes4 #fd4 ,blan1 ,louis ,b4 ,a ,special ,study of the ,incidence of ,retardation4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,contributions to ,education1 no4 #dj4 7#aiaa47 #aaa pages4 ,review of the literature and a statistical study of the progress of #degi children4 #fe4 ,keyes1 ,c4 ,h4 ,progress ,through the ,grades of ,city ,schools4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,contributions to ,education1 no4 #db4 7#aiaa47 #gi pages4 ,important study of the progress of several thousand children4 #ff4 ,strayer1 ,george ,d4 ,age and ,grade ,census of ,schools and ,colleges4 ,bulletin no4 #dea1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 7#aiaa47 #add pages4 ,statistics of the age-grade status of the children in #cah cities4 #fg4 ,see also the ,reports of leading school surveys1 such as those of ,new ,york1 ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,butte1 ,springfield 7,mass471 ,denver1 ,cleveland1 etc4 ,,references ,,on ,,the ,,special ,,class ,,for ,,exceptional ,,children #fh4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b4 ,the ,education of ,defectives and the ,training of ,teachers for ,special ,classes2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiac71 pp4 #ede-ej4 #fi4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,school ,training of ,defective ,children4 ,world ,book ,company4 7#aiad47 #ig pages4 ,based on his survey of the treatment of backward children in the schools of ,new ,york ,city4 #gj4 ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 ,school ,organization and the ,individual ,child4 ,the ,davis ,press1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 7#aiab47 #baa pages4 ,a comprehensive account of the efforts which have been made to adjust the school to the capacities of individual children4 #ga4 ,maennel1 ,b4 ,auxiliary ,education4 ,translated from the ,german by ,emma ,sylvester4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 7#aiji47 #bfg pages4 #gb4 ,van ,sickle1 ,j4 ,h41 ,witmer1 ,l41 and ,ayres1 ,l4 ,p4 ,provision for ,exceptional ,children in ,public ,schools4 ,bulletin no4 #dfa1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 7#aiaa47 #ib pages4 #gc4 ,shaer1 ,i4 ,special ,classes for ,bright ,children in an ,english ,elementary ,school2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiac71 pp4 #bji-bb4 #gd4 ,stern1 ,w4 ,the ,supernormal ,child2 in ,journal of ,educational ,psychology 7#aiaa71 pp4 #adc-dh and #aha-ij4 ,a strong plea for special classes for superior children4 #ge4 ,vaney1 ,v4 ,les classes pour enfants arrires4 ,bulletin de la ,socit libre pour l'tude psychologique de l'enfant 7#aiaa71 pp4 #ec-aeb4 ,report of the ,french ,national ,commission appointed to investigate methods of treatment and training4 #gf4 ,witmer1 ,l4 ,the ,special ,class for ,backward ,children4 ,the ,psychological ,clinic ,press1 ,philadelphia4 7#aiaa47 #bge pages4 ,an account of the special class conducted in connection with the ,university of ,pennsylvania ,summer ,school4 ,,list ,,of ,,binet',s ,,most ,,important ,,contributions ,,to ,,the ,,measurement ,,of ,,intelligence #gg4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,l'tude experimentale de l'intelligence4 ,paris3 ,schleicher frres4 7#aijc47 #gh4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,a ,propos de la mesure de l'intelligence2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aije71 vol4 #aa1 pp4 #fi-hb4 #gi4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,les enfants anormaux2 guide pour l'admission des enfants anormaux dans les classes de perfectionnement4 ,paris3 ,colin 7#aijg47 #hj4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,comment les instituteurs jugent-ils l'intelligence d'un ecolier8 ,bulletin de la ,socit libre pour l'tude psychologique de l'enfant 7#aiaj71 no4 #aj1 pp4 #agb-hb4 #ha4 ,binet1 ,a4 ,nouvelles recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectuel chez les enfants d'cole2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aiaa71 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #ade-bja4 #hb4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,sur la ncessit d'tablir un diagnostique scientifique des tats infrieurs de l'intelligence2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aije71 vol4 #aa1 pp4 #afc-ij4 #hc4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,mthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostique du niveau intellectuel des anormaux2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aije71 vol4 #aa1 pp4 #aia-bdd4 #hd4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,application des ,mthodes nouvelles au diagnostique du niveau intellectuel chez des enfants normaux et anormaux d'hospice et d'cole primaire2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aije71 vol4 #aa1 pp4 #bde-ccf4 #he4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,le dveloppement de l'intelligence chez les enfants2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aijh71 vol4 #ad1 pp4 #a-id4 #hf4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,langage et pense2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aijh71 vol4 #ad1 pp4 #bhd-cci4 #hg4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,l'intelligence des imbeciles2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aiji71 vol4 #ae1 pp4 #a-adg4 #hh4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,nouvelle thorie psychologique et clinique de la dmence2 in ,anne psychologique 7#aiji71 vol4 #ae1 pp4 #afh-bgb4 #hi4 ,binet1 ,a41 et ,simon1 ,th4 ,la mesure du dveloppement de l'intelligence chez les jeunes enfants4 ,bulletin de la ,socit libre pour l'tude psychologique de l'enfant 7#aiaa71 no4 #aa1 pp4 #ahg-bef4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,teacher',s ,,private ,,library ,,on ,,exceptional ,,children ,ayres1 ,l4 ,p4 ,laggards in our ,schools4 ,the ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 7#aiji47 #bcf pages4 ,treats the amount and causes of school retardation4 ,binet1 ,a41 and ,simon1 ,th4 ,mentally ,defective ,children4 ,translated from the ,french by ,w4 ,b4 ,drummond4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 7#aiad47 #aga pages4 ,discusses the psychology1 pedagogy and medical examination of defectives4 ,binet1 ,a41 and ,simon1 ,th4 ,a ,method of ,measuring the ,development of ,intelligence in ,young ,children4 ,chicago ,medical ,book ,company4 7#aiae47 #hb pages4 ,authorized translation of ,binet's final instructions for giving the tests4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,feeble-,mindedness2 ,its ,causes and ,consequences4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiac47 #eii pages4 ,the most important single volume on the subject4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,kallikak ,family4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiad47 #aba pages4 ,a study of the hereditary transmission of mental deficiency in one family4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,school ,training of ,defective ,children4 ,world ,book ,company4 7#aiad47 #ig pages4 ,admirable treatment of the entire subject4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,criminal ,imbecile4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 7#aiae47 #aeg pages4 ,an analysis of three murderers of borderline intelligence4 ,holmes1 ,arthur4 ,the ,conservation of the ,child4 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,company4 7#aiab47 #cde pages4 ,methods of examination and treatment of defective children4 ,holmes1 ,arthur4 ,the ,backward ,child4 ,the ,bobbs-,merrill ,co4 7#aiae47 ,a popular treatment of the subject4 ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 ,school ,organization and the ,individual ,child4 ,the ,davis ,press1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 7#aiab7 #baa pages4 ,a comprehensive account of methods of adjusting school work to the capacity of the individual child4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b4 ,backward and ,feeble-,minded ,children4 ,warwick ,york4 7#aiab47 #bba pages4 ,clinical studies of borderline cases4 ,kelynack1 ,t4 ,n4 7,editor74 ,defective ,children4 ,john ,bale1 ,sons1 and ,daniellson1 ,london4 7#aiae47 #ddg pages4 ,written by many authors and devoted to all kinds of physical and mental defects4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f4 ,a ,revision of the ,binet-,simon ,system for ,measuring the ,intelligence of ,children4 ,monograph ,supplement of ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics4 7#aiab47 #da pages4 ,contains instructions for use of the ,kuhlmann revision4 ,stern1 ,w4 ,the ,psychological ,method of ,measuring ,intelligence4 ,translated from the ,german by ,g4 ,m4 ,whipple4 ,warwick ,york4 7#aiac47 #afj pages4 ,terman1 ,lyman1 ,ordahl1 ,galbreath1 and ,talbert4 ,the ,stanford ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,scale for ,measuring ,intelligence4 7#aiaf47 ,extended analysis of #ajjj tests4 ,data on the relation of intelligence to school success1 social status1 etc4 ,terman1 ,lewis ,m4 ,the ,hygiene of the ,school ,child4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 7#aiad47 #dag pages4 ,devoted to the physical defects of school children4 ,tredgold1 ,a4 ,f4 ,mental ,deficiency 7,amentia74 ,baillire1 ,tindall ,cox1 ,london4 7#aiad47 #dia pages4 ,the best medical treatment of the subject4 ,whipple1 ,g4 ,m4 ,manual of ,mental and ,physical ,tests4 ,warwick ,york4 ,vol4 ,i 7#aiad71 #cfe pages2 vol4 ,,ii 7#aiae71 #ccf pages4 ,the best treatment of mental tests other than those of the ,binet system4 ,witmer1 ,l4 ,the ,special ,class for ,backward ,children4 ,the ,psychological ,clinic ,press1 ,philadelphia4 7#aiaa47 #bge pages4 ,problems encountered in connection with the special class4 ,,magazines ,the ,training ,school ,bulletin4 ,published monthly by the ,training ,school1 ,vineland1 ,new ,jersey4 ,edited by ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard and ,e4 ,r4 ,johnstone4 ,the ,psychological ,clinic4 ,published monthly by the ,psychological ,clinic ,press1 ,philadelphia4 ,edited by ,lightner ,witmer4 ,the ,journal of ,delinquency4 ,published bi-monthly by the ,whittier ,state ,school1 ,whittier1 ,california4 ,edited by ,williams1 ,goddard1 ,terman1 and others4 ,the ,journal of ,psycho-,asthenics4 ,published quarterly at ,faribault1 ,minnesota4 ,organ of the ,american ,association for the ,study of the ,feeble-,minded4 ,edited by ,a4 ,c4 ,rogers and ,f4 ,kuhlmann4 ,the ,journal of ,educational ,psychology4 ,published by ,warwick ,york1 ,baltimore4 ,edited by ,j4 ,carleton ,bell4 ,,index ,abstract thought1 tests of1 #cdd4 ,absurdities1 #bee ff4 ,adolescence1 and variability in intelligence1 #fg4 ,adult intelligence1 #ed4 ,adults1 how to find ,i ,q of adults1 #adj4 sthetic comparison1 #afe ff4 ,age1 test of giving age1 #agc ff4 ,age standards1 #dj4 ,alternative tests1 #acf4 ,amateur testing1 #ajg ff4 ,apperception1 #afi4 ,arithmetical reasoning1 #cai ff4 ,association processes1 #bgd4 ,attention1 during the test1 #aba4 ,attitude of the subject1 #aji4 ,auto-criticism1 #aef1 #aga1 #aie4 ,average intelligence1 #id ff4 ,ball and field test1 #baj ff41 #bhf4 ,berry1 ,c4 ,s41 #aad4 ,binet1 on how teachers judge intelligence1 #bh ff42 ,binet's conception of intelligence1 #dd ff41 #abc1 #adi1 #aea1 #aed1 #aef1 #aei1 #afe1 #aga1 #agc1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aij1 #aif1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bag1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcd1 #bdg1 #bea1 #beb1 #bed1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bgf1 #bhe1 #bhi1 #cae1 #cbb1 #cbg1 #ccc1 #cci1 #cde4 ,binet-,simon method1 nature and derivation of the scale1 #cf ff41 #dg ff42 limitations of1 #dh ff4 ,bloch1 #bjc4 ,bluemel1 ,c4 ,s41 #ajg4 ,bobertag1 ,otto1 #ajf1 #aac1 #agf1 #agh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bcb1 #bcg1 #bdj1 #beb1 #bge1 #bhe1 #cah4 ,borderline intelligence1 #gi1 #hg ff4 ,bow-knot1 test of tying1 #aif ff4 ,brigham1 #afe1 #aff4 ,change1 test of making change1 #bdj ff4 ,childs1 ,h4 ,g41 #bca1 #bih4 ,coaching1 #aaj ff4 ,code test1 #ccj ff4 ,color naming1 #afc ff4 ,combination method1 #aga4 ,see also ,completion test4 ,commissions1 #agb ff4 ,comparison of lines1 #aea ff4 ,completion test1 #agi1 #bdf1 #bhi4 ,comprehension questions1 #aeg ff41 #aha ff41 #bae ff41 #bfh ff4 ,conditions favorable to testing1 #aba ff4 ,counting1 four pennies1 #aed2 thirteen pennies1 #ahj2 counting backwards1 #bac4 ,crime1 relation to feeble-mindedness1 #h ff42 cost of1 #ab4 ,cuneo1 ,irene1 #ea4 ,davenport1 ,c4 ,b41 #aj4 ,definitions1 in terms of use1 #afg2 superior to use1 #bba2 of abstract words1 #bha ff41 and #cbd ff4 ,see also ,vocabulary tests4 ,degenerate families1 #i ff4 ,delinquency1 relation to feeble-mindedness1 #g ff4 ,diamond1 test of copying diamond1 #bjd4 ,differences1 test of finding1 #aii1 #cac ff4 ,digits4 ,see ,memory for digits4 ,discrimination of forms1 #aeb ff4 ,dissected sentences1 #bhf ff4 ,distribution of intelligence1 #fe ff41 #gh ff4 ,dougherty1 #afe1 #aff1 #bjc4 ,drawing1 #aef1 #bjd1 #bfj4 ,dull normals1 #ib ff4 ,dumville1 #afe1 #aff4 ,ebbinghaus1 #bhi1 #cah4 ,emotion1 #di4 ,enclosed boxes1 #cbg ff4 ,endowment1 #d1 #ai ff4 ,environment1 influence on test1 #aad ff4 ,eugenics1 #i ff4 ,examination1 duration of1 #abg ff4 ,examiner1 qualifications of1 #abd ff4 ,fables1 interpretation of1 #bij ff4 ,fatigue1 influence of1 on test1 #abf ff4 ,feeble-minded1 proportion of school-children feeble-minded1 #f4 ,feeble-mindedness1 value of tests for1 #e ff42 psychological analysis1 #bc2 definition1 #hj2 examples1 #hb ff4 ,fernald1 ,g4 ,g41 #h4 ,fernald1 ,grace1 #ef1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #ccb4 ,fingers1 test of giving number of1 #ahi ff4 ,freeman1 ,frank ,n41 #bhj4 ,functions1 tested by ,binet scale1 #db ff4 ,galbreath1 ,neva1 #ea4 ,galton1 #cbh4 ,general intelligence1 #db ff4 ,generalization1 tests of1 #bih4 ,genius4 ,see ,superior intelligence4 ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h41 #h1 #ajf1 #aab1 #aed1 #aef1 #afe1 #agc1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aif1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bac1 #bcd1 #bde1 #bea1 #beb1 #bei1 #bfd1 #bgf1 #bhe1 #bhi1 #cai1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cci1 #cde4 ,grading1 value of intelligence tests in1 #af4 ,hall1 ,gertrude1 #bhj4 ,healy-,fernald1 #ef1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #ccb4 ,heredity1 use of tests in the study of1 #ai4 ,hill folk1 #aj4 ,hollingworth1 ,leta ,s41 #ga4 ,huey1 ,e4 ,b41 #aig1 #bag1 #bcd4 ,imagery1 #aie1 #bji1 #cba1 #cci4 ,induction test1 #caj ff4 ,ingenuity test1 #cdf4 ,intelligence1 analysis of1 see remarks under instructions for each test2 superior1 #ab ff41 #ie ff41 teachers' estimates of1 #ac1 #bd1 #bf1 #bh1 #ge2 general1 #db ff42 definitions of1 #dd ff4 ,intelligence quotient1 #ec1 #ee1 #fc1 #fe ff42 validity of1 #fh2 classification and significance1 #gi ff41 #adj ff4 ,jukes family1 #aj4 ,kallikak family1 #i4 ,knollin1 ,h4 ,e41 #ah1 #ea1 #ed1 #fc4 ,kohs1 ,s4 ,c41 #ajg ff4 ,kuhlmann1 ,f41 #ef1 #aje1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef1 #afe1 #agc1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aic1 #aif1 #bjf1 #bad1 #bag1 #bcd1 #bdg1 #bea1 #beb1 #bei1 #bfd1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bhe1 #bhi1 #cae1 #cai1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbg1 #ccc1 #cci1 #cde4 ,language comprehension1 #adc1 #add4 ,limitations of the ,binet scale1 #dh ff4 ,lombroso1 #g4 ,lyman1 ,grace1 #ea4 ,mason1 ,otis1 #cdg4 ,masselon1 #bde4 ,material used in the tests1 #ada4 ,memory1 for sentences1 #adi ff41 #afj1 #ahe1 #ccb2 for passages1 #cdj2 for designs1 #bfj2 for digits1 #aej1 #aei1 #aic1 #bjg1 #bdb1 #bgg1 #cja1 #cbb1 #cbi1 #cdj1 #cde4 ,mental age1 #ci ff42 effect of ,stanford revision on1 #fb2 how to calculate1 #acg ff4 ,mental deficiency4 ,see ,feeble-mindedness4 ,meumann1 ,ernst1 #df1 #ajf1 #bde1 #cah4 ,moral development1 dependence of1 on intelligence1 #aa ff4 ,nam family1 #aj4 ,name1 test of giving name1 #adg ff4 ,naming coins1 #ahd ff41 #bca4 ,naming familiar objects1 #adc ff4 ,normals1 dull1 #ib ff4 ,ordahl1 ,dr4 ,george1 #h4 ,ordahl1 ,louise ,ellison1 #h4 ,paper-cutting test1 #cch4 ,physical defects1 effects of1 on intelligence1 #ai4 ,physical relations1 comprehension of1 #ccc ff4 ,physicians1 as ,binet testers1 #cd4 ,pictures1 enumeration of objects in1 #ade2 description of1 #aij ff42 interpretation of1 #cjb2 finding omissions in1 #agh4 ,pointing to parts of body1 #adb ff4 ,practical judgment1 #bab4 ,president and king1 giving differences between1 #cac4 ,problem questions1 #cae ff4 ,procedure1 necessity of uniformity in1 #cb ff41 #aca ff4 ,promotions1 on basis of intelligence tests1 #af ff4 ,race differences1 #ia4 ,range of testing1 #abi4 ,rapport1 #abd ff4 ,reading1 test of reading for memories1 #bfb4 ,record booklet1 #abh4 ,recording responses1 #acc ff4 ,reliability of the scale1 #gf ff41 #aje ff4 ,repeated tests1 #aab ff4 ,retardation1 cost of1 #a1 #ac ff42 training of retarded children1 #d ff41 #bd ff41 #gc ff4 ,reversing hands of clock1 #cba ff4 ,rhymes1 test of finding1 #bdh4 ,right and left1 #age ff4 ,rowe1 ,e4 ,p41 #afe1 #aff1 #bgg4 ,rowland1 ,eleanor1 #ah4 ,scattering of successes1 #acd ff4 ,school success and intelligence1 #gc ff4 ,scoring1 #acb4 ,see also instructions for scoring each test4 ,seclusion during test1 #abb4 ,sex1 test of giving1 #adf ff4 ,sex differences in intelligence1 #fh ff4 ,similarities1 test of finding1 #bag ff41 #cjf ff4 ,sixty words1 #bgb ff4 ,social class and intelligence1 #gb ff41 #aad ff4 ,spearman1 ,c41 definition of intelligence1 #df4 ,special classes1 #e4 ,square1 test of copying1 #aee ff4 ,stamps1 test of counting value of1 #beb4 ,standardization1 value of1 #cj4 ,stanford revision of the ,binet scale1 #ea ff4 ,stereotypy1 #bjc4 ,stern1 ,w41 #df1 #ajf1 #aah4 ,stigmata1 #g4 ,structural psychology1 #dc4 ,superior intelligence1 tests of superior children1 #ab ff41 #ie ff4 ,supplementary information1 #ace4 ,teachers' estimates of intelligence1 #ac1 #bd1 #bf1 #bh1 #ge4 ,terman1 ,lewis ,m41 #fc1 #bfg1 #bih4 ,three words1 test of using1 in a sentence1 #bdb ff4 ,time orientation1 forenoon and afternoon1 #ahg ff42 days of the week1 #bje ff42 giving date1 #bcd ff42 naming months1 #bea ff4 ,unemployment1 relation of1 to intelligence1 #ah4 ,validity of the tests1 #gf ff4 ,vocabulary tests1 #bbd1 #bee1 #bha1 #caj1 #cbd1 #cch4 ,vocational guidance1 use of intelligence tests in1 #ag1 #di4 ,volition1 #di4 ,waddle1 ,charles1 #eb4 ,wallin1 #bcg4 ,weights1 comparison of1 #afa1 #bcf ff4 ,williams1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,harold1 #i1 #ed4 ,winch1 ,w4 ,h41 #afe1 #aff4 ,writing from dictation1 #bca ff4 ,yerkes1 ,r4 ,m41 #gj4