,transcriber's note3 ,a few typographical errors have been corrected3 they are listed at the end of the text4 ,original page numbers are shown as #ii4 ,,the ,,faith ,,of ,,islam3 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,edward ,,sell1 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,madras4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tr,,bner ,,co41 ,,london4 ,,addison ,,co41 ,,madras4 #ahhj4 ,all rights reserved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,madras3 ,,printed ,,by ,,addison ,,and ,,co41 ,,mount ,,road4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface4 ,the following pages embody a study of ,islm during a residence of fifteen years in ,india1 the greater part of which time ,i have been in daily intercourse with ,musalmns4 ,i have given in the footnotes the authorities from which ,i quote4 ,i was not able to procure in ,madras a copy of the ,arabic edition of ,ibn ,khaldoun's great work1 but the ,french translation by ,baron ,m4 de ,slane1 to which ,i so frequently refer1 is thoroughly reliable4 ,the quotations from the ,qurn are made from ,rodwell's translation4 ,the original has been consulted when necessary4 ,a few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred1 such as ,sult for ,salt1 ,munkar for ,munkir1 c41 but in no case is the meaning affected4 ,in some words1 such as ,khalf1 ,khalfate1 and ,omar1 ,i have retained the anglicised form instead of using the more correct terms1 ,khalfa1 ,khilfat1 ',umr4 ,the letter ,q has been used to distinguish the ,kf-i-,karashat from the ,kf-i-,tz4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,madras1 ,december #ast1 #ahhj4 v 99 99 99 99 99 ,,contents4 ,introduction4 444 ,,page ix ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,the ,qurn--,its revelation--,miraculous nature--,arrangement of ,qurn--,osmn's recension4 ,the ,sunnat--,the authority of ,sunnat--,tradition--,bid'at or innovation--,sha'h ,traditions4 ,ijm'--,ijtihd--,four orthodox ,imms1 ,hanfa1 ,mlik1 ,shfa' and ,hanbal4 ,qs--,established by the early ,mujtahidn--,sterility of ,islm 444 ,,page #a ,note to ,chapter ,i4 ,ijtihd 444 ,,page #cb ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,exegesis ,,of ,,the ,,qur,n ,,and ,,the ,,traditions4 ,inspiration--,the seven readings--,work of a ,commentator--,words and ,sentences of the ,qurn--,use of the words--,deductions of arguments from the ,qurn--,divisions of the ,qurn--,abrogation--,creation of the ,qurn--,hads or ,tradition--,collections of ,traditions--,classification of ,traditions 444 ,,page #cg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sects ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,the ,sha'hs--,the ,immat--,khrigites--,nr-i-,muhammad--,im m--,ism1lians and ,immites--,ghair-i-,mahds--,d1ir--,mahmd ah--,khalfate--,sfism--,persian ,poetry--,darwshes--,omar ,khayym--,wahhbs--their rise--spread in ,india--doctrines and influence 444 ,,page #gc ,note to ,chapter ,,iii4 ,wahhbism 444 ,,page #aad vi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,creed ,,of ,,isl,m ,imn--,god--,attributes of ,god--,discussions on the nature of ,god--,the rise of the ,mutazilites--,the ,siftans--,mushbihites--,names of ,god--,creation of the ,qurn4 ,angels--,recording ,angels--,hrt and ,mrt--,munkir and ,nakr--,jinn4 ,the ,books--,abrogation--,tahrf4 ,the ,prophets--,rank and inspiration of prophets--,nab and ,rasl--,sinlessness of prophets--,the ,anbiya-ulul-',azm--,miracles of prophets--,the ,mi'rj4 ,the ,resurrection and the last day--,the ,trumpets--,descent of the books--,balances--,bridge--,al-,a'rf--,a l-,barzakh--,intercession of ,muhammad--,heaven--,hell4 ,the ,predestination of good and evil--,jabrans--,qadrans--,ash'arans--,f ree-will--,apostacy 444 ,,page #aaf ,note to ,chapter ,,iv4 ,muslim ,philosophy 444 ,,page #aha ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,practical ,,duties ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,farz1 wjib1 sunnat1 mustahab and mubh actions--,harm or unlawful acts4 ,tashahhud4 ,salt--,waz--,ghusl--,tayammum--,namz--, farz1 sunnat1 witr and nafl rak'ats--,appointed hours of prayer--,friday ,namz and sermon--,namz on a journey and in time of war--,namz in ,ramazn1 during an eclipse and in time of drought--,funeral service--,its ritual and prayers4 ,fasting--,its time and nature4 ,zakt--,nisb--,proportion of property to be given as alms--,recipients of the ,zakt4 ,the ,hajj--,farz1 sunnat1 wjib and mustahab duties connected with the ,hajj--,time for the ,hajj--,arrival of the ,hj at ,mecca--,tawf--,ceremonies of the ,hajj--,conclusion of the ,hajj--,formal nature of ,islm 444 ,,page #ahg ,note to ,chapter ,v4 ,fatv on the ,namz 444 ,,page #bcc vii ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,feasts ,,and ,,fasts ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,muharram--'shr ,khna--,marsiya--,wqi'a ,khn--',alams--,ceremonies of the 'shr--,ftihas for ',al1 for ,hasan and ,husain--,akhir-i-chr ,shamba--,br ,waft--,jashn-i-mild-i-,sharif--sr-i-,sh arf--,shab ,bart--,ramazn and 'd-ul-,fitr--',itikf--,sadqa--,sermon on the 'd-ul-,fitr--,baqr-'d or 'd-uz-,zuh--,sermon on the 'd-uz-,zuh--,the ,qurbn or ,sacrifice--,festival of ,madr--,festival of ,slr ,mas'd ,ghz--,festival of ,khja ,khizr--,feast of ,pr ,dastgr ,shib--,festival of ,qdir ,wal ,shib 444 ,,page #bcg ,index of ,technical ,terms 444 ,,page #bfe ix 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction4 ,it is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents of this work4 ,it does not fall in with its plan to enter into an account either of the life of ,muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of the system founded by him4 ,the first has been done by able writers in ,england1 ,france and ,germany4 ,i could add nothing new to this portion of the subject1 nor throw new light upon it4 ,the political growth of ,muslim nations has also been set forth in various ways4 ,it seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of the religious system which has grown out of the ,prophet's teaching1 and of its effect upon the individual and the community4 ,what the ,church in her missionary enterprise has to deal with1 what ,european ,governments in the political world have to do with is ,islm as it is1 and as it now influences those who rule and those who are ruled under it4 ,i have1 therefore1 tried to show from authentic sources1 and from a practical knowledge of it1 what the ,faith of ,islm really is1 and how it influences men and nations in the present day4 ,i think that recent ,fatvs delivered by the ',ulam in ,constantinople show how firmly a ,muslim ,state is bound in the fetters of an unchangeable ,law1 whilst the present practice of orthodox ,muslims all the world x over is a constant carrying out of the precepts given in the ,qurn and the ,sunnat1 and an illustration of the principles ,i have shown to belong to ,islm4 ,on this subject it is not too much to say that there is1 except amongst ,oriental scholars1 much misconception4 ,again1 much that is written on ,islm is written either in ignorant prejudice1 or from an ideal standpoint4 ,to understand it aright1 one should know its literature and live amongst its people4 ,i have tried faithfully to prove every statement ,i have made2 and if1 now and again1 ,i have quoted ,european authors1 it is only by way of illustration4 ,i rest my case entirely upon ,musalmn authorities themselves4 ,still more1 ,i have ascertained from living witnesses that the principles ,i have tried to show as existing in ,islm1 are really at work now and are as potent as at any previous period4 ,i have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and development of the system1 seeking wherever possible to link the past with the present4 ,in order not to interfere with this unity of plan1 ,i have had to leave many subjects untouched1 such as those connected with the civil law1 with slavery1 divorce1 jihd or religious wars1 c4 ,a good digest of ,muhammadan ,law#a will give all necessary information on these points4 ,the basis of the ,law which determines these questions is what ,i have described in my first chapter4 ,ijtihd1 for example1 rules quite as effectually in a question of domestic xi economy or political jurisprudence as on points of dogma4 ,it was not1 therefore1 necessary for me to go into details on these points4 ,when ,i have drawn any conclusion from data which ,muhammadan literature1 and the present practice of ,muslims have afforded me1 ,i have striven to give what seems to me a just and right one4 ,still1 ,i gladly take this opportunity of stating that ,i have found many ,muslims better than their creed1 men with whom it is a pleasure to associate1 and whom ,i respect for many virtues and esteem as friends4 ,i judge the system1 not any individual in it4 ,in ,india1 there are a number of enlightened ,muhammadans1 ornaments to native society1 useful servants of the ,state1 men who show a laudable zeal in all social reforms1 so far as is consistent with a reputation for orthodoxy4 ,their number is far too few1 and they do not1 in many cases1 represent orthodox ,islm1 nor do ,i believe their counterpart would be found amongst the ',ulam of a ,muslim ,state4 ,the fact is that the wave of scepticism which has passed over ,europe has not left the ,east untouched4 ,hindu and ,muslim alike have felt its influence1 but to judge of either the one system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men who expound their views before ,english audiences is to yield oneself up to delusion on the subject4 ,islm in ,india has also felt the influence of contact with other races and creeds1 though1 theologically speaking1 the ,imn and the ,dn1 the faith and the practice1 are unchanged1 and remain as ,i have xii described them in chapters four and five4 ,if ,islm in ,india has lost some of its original fierceness1 it has also adopted many superstitious practices1 such as those against which the ,wahhbs protest4 ,the great mass of the ,musalmn people are quite as superstitious1 if not more so1 than their heathen neighbours4 ,still the manliness1 the suavity of manner1 the deep learning1 after an oriental fashion1 of many ,indian ,musalmns render them a very attractive people4 ,it is true there is a darker side--much bigotry1 pride of race1 scorn of other creeds1 and1 speaking generally1 a tendency to inertness4 ,it is thus that in ,bengal1 ,madras and perhaps in other places1 they have fallen far behind the ,hindus in educational status1 and in the number of appointments they hold in the ,government service4 ,indeed1 this subject is a serious one and deserves the special attention of the ,indian ,government4 ,in ,bengal the proportion of ,musalmns to ,hindus in the upper ranks of the ,uncovenanted ,civil ,service in #ahga was #gg to #cda4 ,in the year #ahhj it had declined to #ec to #dea4 ,the state of affairs in ,madras is equally bad4 ,yet an intelligent ,muslim1 as a rule1 makes a good official4 ,looking at the subject from a wider stand-point1 ,i think the ,church has hardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of ,islm is to her onward march in the ,east4 ,surely special men with special training are required for such an enterprise as that of encountering ,islm in its own strongholds4 ,no better pioneers of the ,christian xiii faith could be found in the ,east than men won from the ,crescent to the ,cross4 ,all who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help in this volume1 and ,i am not without hope that it may also throw some light on the political questions of the day4 #a 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,faith ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,the creed of ,islm1 ,l-ilha-il-lal-lhu wa ,muhammad-ur-,rasl-,ullh1 7,there is no deity but ,god1 and ,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god7 is very short1 but the system itself is a very dogmatic one4 ,such statements as3 ,the ,qurn is an all-embracing and sufficient code1 regulating everything1 ,the ,qurn contains the entire code of ,islm--that is1 it is not a book of religious precepts merely1 but it governs all that a ,muslim does1 ,the ,qurn contains the whole religion of ,muhammad1 ,the ,qurn which contains the whole ,gospel of ,islm are not simply misleading1 they are erroneous4 ,so far from the ,qurn alone being the sole rule of faith and practice to ,muslims1 there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practice is based on it alone4 ,no one among them disputes its authority or casts any doubt upon its genuineness4 ,its voice is supreme in all that it concerns1 but its exegesis1 the whole system of legal jurisprudence and of theological science1 is largely founded on the ,traditions4 ,amongst the orthodox ,musalmns1 the foundations of the ,faith are four in number1 the ,qurn1 ,sunnat1 ,ijm' and ,qs4 ,the fact that all the sects do not agree with the orthodox--the ,sunns--in this matter illustrates another important fact in ,islm--the want of unity amongst its followers4 #b #a4 ,,the ,,qur,n4--,the question of the inspiration will be fully discussed1 and an account of the laws of the exegesis of the ,qurn will be given in the next chapter4 ,it is sufficient now to state that this book is held in the highest veneration by ,muslims of every sect4 ,when being read it is kept on a stand elevated above the floor1 and no one must read or touch it without first making a legal ablution4#b ,it is not translated unless there is the most urgent necessity1 and even then the ,arabic text is printed with the translation4 ,it is said that ,god chose the sacred month of ,ramazn in which to give all the revelations which in the form of books have been vouchsafed to mankind4 ,thus on the first night of that month the books of ,abraham came down from heaven2 on the sixth the books of ,moses2 on the thirteenth the ,injl1 or ,gospel1 and on the twenty-seventh the ,qurn4 ,on that night1 the ,laylut-ul-,qadr1 or night of power1 the whole ,qurn is said to have descended to the lowest of the seven heavens1 from whence it was brought piecemeal to ,muhammad as occasion required4#c ,verily we have caused it 7the ,qurn7 to descend on the night of power4 7,sra xcvii4 #a47 ,that night is called the blessed night1 the night better than a thousand months1 the night when angels came down by the permission of their ,lord1 the night which bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn4 ,twice on that night in the solitude of the cave of ,hira the voice called1 twice though pressed sore as if a fearful weight had been laid upon him1 the prophet struggled #c against its influence4 ,the third time he heard the words3-- ,recite thou1 in the name of thy ,lord who created-- ,created man from clots of blood4 7,sra xcvi4 #e47 ,when the voice had ceased to speak1 telling how from minutest beginnings man had been called into existence1 and lifted up by understanding and knowledge of the ,lord1 who is most beneficent1 and who by the pen had revealed that which man did not know1 ,muhammad woke up from his trance and felt as if a book had been written in his heart4 ,he was much alarmed4 ,tradition records that he went hastily to his wife and said--,o ,khadja6 what has happened to me6 ,he lay down and she watched by him4 ,when he recovered from his paroxysm1 he said ,o ,khadja6 he of whom one would not have believed 7i4e41 himself7 has become either a soothsayer 7khin7 or mad4 ,she replied1 ,god is my protection1 ,o ,ab-ul-ksim4 ,he will surely not let such a thing happen unto thee1 for thou speakest the truth1 dost not return evil for evil1 keepest faith1 art of a good life and art kind to thy relatives and friends1 and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars4 ,what has befallen thee8 ,hast thou seen aught terrible8 ,muhammad replied ,yes4 ,and he told her what he had seen4 ,whereupon she answered and said3--,rejoice1 ,o dear husband and be of good cheer4 ,he in whose hands stands ,khadja's life1 is my witness that thou wilt be the ,prophet of this people4#d ,the next ,sra1 the #gdth1 was revealed at ,mecca1 after which there seems to have been an intermission1 called the ,fatrah4 ,it was during this time that the ,prophet gained some knowledge of the contents of the ,jewish and the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication4 ,this fact1 however1 is only once stated in the ,qurn3--,say1 whoso is the enemy of ,gabriel--,for he it is #d who by ,god's leave hath caused the ,qurn to descend on thy heart 7,sra ii4 #ia47 ,this ,sra was revealed some years after the ,prophet's flight to ,madna4 ,the other references to the revelation of the ,qurn are3--,verily from the ,lord of the worlds hath this book come down2 the ,faithful ,spirit 7,rh-ul-mn7 hath come down with it 7,sra xxvi4 #aib47 ,the ,qurn is no other than a revelation revealed to him1 one terrible in power 7,shadd-ul-,qu7 taught it him4 7,sra liii4 #e47 ,these latter passages do not state clearly that ,gabriel was the medium of communication1 but the belief that he was is almost1 if not entirely1 universal1 and the ,commentators say that the terms ,rh-ul-mn and ,shadd-ul-,qu refer to no other angel or spirit4 ,the use of the word taught in the last ,sra quoted1 and the following expression in ,sra lxxv4 #ah4 ,when we have recited it1 then follow thou the recital1 show that the ,qurn is entirely an objective revelation and that ,muhammad was only a passive medium of communication4 ,the ,muhammadan historian1 ,ibn ,khaldoun1 says on this point3--,of all the divine books the ,qurn is the only one of which the text1 words and phrases have been communicated to a prophet by an audible voice4 ,it is otherwise with the ,pentateuch1 the ,gospel and the other divine books3 the prophets received them under the form of ideas4#e ,this expresses the universal belief on this point--a belief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of ,islm4 ,the ,qurn thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle of ,islm4 ,other divine books1 it is admitted1 were revelations received under the form of ideas1 but the ,qurn is far superior to them all for the actual text was revealed to the ear of the prophet4 ,thus we read in ,sra lxxv4 #af-ai3-- #e ,move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation2 ,for we will see to the collecting and recital of it2 ,but when we have recited it1 then follow thou the recital2 ,and verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee4 ,the ,qurn is1 then1 believed to be a miraculous revelation of divine eloquence1 as regards both form and substance1 arrangement of words1 and its revelation of sacred things4 ,it is asserted that each well-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department of human skill or science most flourishing in his age4 ,thus in the days of ,moses magic exercised a wide influence1 but all the magicians of ,pharaoh's court had to submit to the superior skill of the ,hebrew prophet4 ,in the days of ,jesus the science of medicine flourished4 ,men possessed great skill in the art of healing2 but no physician could equal the skill of ,jesus1 who not only healed the sick1 but raised the dead4 ,in the days of ,muhammad the special and most striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of the ,arabs in the art of poetry4 ,muhammad-ud-,damiri says3--,wisdom hath alighted on three things--the brain of the ,franks1 the hands of the ,chinese and the tongue of the ,arabs4 ,they were unrivalled for their eloquence1 for the skill with which they arranged their material and gave expression to their thoughts4 ,it is in this very particular that superior excellence is claimed for the ,qurn4#f ,it is to the ,muhammadan mind a sure evidence of its miraculous origin that it should excel in this respect4 ,muslims say that miracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order to confirm the divine message4 ,in this case the ,qurn is both a revelation and a miracle4 #f ,muhammad himself said3--,each prophet has received manifest signs which carried conviction to men3 but that which ,i have received is the revelation4 ,so ,i hope to have a larger following on the day of resurrection than any other prophet has4 ,ibn ,khaldoun says that by this the ,prophet means that such a wonderful miracle as the ,qurn1 which is also a revelation1 should carry conviction to a very large number4#g ,to a ,muslim the fact is quite clear1 and so to him the ,qurn is far superior to all the preceding books4 ,muhammad is said to have convinced a rival1 ,lebid1 a poet-laureate1 of the truth of his mission by reciting to him a portion of the now second ,sra4 ,unquestionably it is one of the very grandest specimens of ,koranic or ,arabic diction4444 ,but even descriptions of this kind1 grand as they be1 are not sufficient to kindle and preserve the enthusiasm and the faith and the hope of a nation like the ,arabs4444 ,the poets before him had sung of valour and generosity1 of love and strife and revenge 444 of early graves1 upon which weeps the morning cloud1 and of the fleeting nature of life which comes and goes as the waves of the desert sands1 as the tents of a caravan1 as a flower that shoots up and dies away4 ,or they shoot their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own soul4 ,muhammad sang of none of these4 ,no love-minstrelsy his1 not the joys of the world1 nor sword1 nor camel1 nor jealousy1 nor human vengeance1 not the glories of tribe or ancestor4 ,he preached ,islm4 ,the very fierceness with which this is done1 the swearing such as ,arab orator1 proficient though he may have been in the art1 had never made1 the dogmatic certainty with which the ,prophet proclaimed his message have tended1 equally with the passionate grandeur of his utterances1 to hold the ,muslim world spell-bound to the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book4 ,so sacred is the text supposed to be that only the #g ,companions#h of the ,prophet are deemed worthy of being commentators on it4 ,the work of learned divines since then has been to learn the ,qurn by heart and to master the traditions1 with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon4 ,the revelation itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by the ordinary rules of criticism4 ,if only the ,isnd1 or chain of authorities for any interpretation1 is good1 that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted as the correct one4 ,it is a fundamental article of belief that no other book in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought or expression4 ,it deals with positive precepts rather than with principles4 ,its decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the very letter on all men1 at all times and under every circumstance of life4 ,this follows as a natural consequence from the belief in its eternal nature4 ,the various portions recited by the ,prophet during the twenty-three years of his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of his followers1 or treasured up in their memories4 ,as the recital of the ,qurn formed a part of every act of public worship1 and as such recital was an act of great religious merit1 every ,muslim tried to remember as much as he could4 ,he who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour1 and was often the recipient of a substantial reward4#i ,the ,arab love for poetry facilitated the exercise of this faculty4 ,when the ,prophet died the revelation ceased4 ,there was no distinct copy of the whole1 nothing to show what was of transitory importance1 what of permanent value4 ,there is nothing which proves that the ,prophet took any special care of any portions4 ,there seems to have been no definite order in which1 when the book was #h compiled1 the various ,sras were arranged1 for the ,qurn1 as it now exists1 is utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence4 ,for a year after the ,prophet's death nothing seems to have been done2 but then the battle of ,yemana took place in which a very large number of the best ,qurn reciters were slain4 ,omar took fright at this1 and addressing the ,khalf ,abu ,bakr1 said1 ,the slaughter may again wax hot amongst the repeaters of the ,qurn in other fields of battle1 and much may be lost therefrom4 ,now1 therefore1 my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy orders for the collection of the ,qurn4 ,abu ,bakr agreed1 and said to ,zeid who had been an amanuensis of the ,prophet3--,thou art a young man1 and wise1 against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation2 and thou wert wont to write down the inspired revelations of the ,prophet of the ,lord1 wherefore now search out the ,qurn and bring it all together4 ,zeid being at length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the ,qurn together from date leaves1 and tablets of white stone1 and from the hearts of men4 ,in course of time it was all compiled in the order in which the book is now arranged4 ,this was the authorized text for some twenty-three years after the death of ,muhammad4 ,owing1 however1 either to different modes of recitation1 or to differences of expression in the sources from which ,zeid's first recension was made1 a variety of different readings crept into the copies in use4 ,the ,faithful became alarmed and the ,khalf ,osmn was persuaded to put a stop to such a danger4 ,he appointed ,zeid with three of the leading men of the ,quraish as assistants to go over the whole work again4 ,a careful recension was made of the whole book which was then assimilated to the ,meccan dialect1 the purest in ,arabia4 ,after this all other copies of the ,qurn were burnt by order of the ,khalf1 and new transcripts were made of the revised edition which was now the only authorised copy4 ,as it is a fundamental tenet of ,islm that the ,qurn is incorruptible and absolutely free #i from error1 no little difficulty has been felt in explaining the need of ,osmn's new and revised edition and of the circumstances under which it took place2 but as usual a ,tradition has been handed down which makes it lawful to read the ,qurn in seven dialects4 ,the book in its present form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction of ,abu ,bakr's edition with authoritative corrections4 ,we may rest assured that we have in the ,qurn now in use the record of what ,muhammad said4 ,it thus becomes a fundamental basis of ,islm4 ,it was a common practice of the early ,muslims when speaking of the ,prophet to say3--,his character is the ,qurn4 ,when people curious to know details of the life of their beloved master asked 'yesha1 one of his widows1 about him1 she used to reply3--,thou hast the ,qurn1 art thou not an ,arab and readest the ,arab tongue8 ,why dost thou ask me1 for the ,prophet's disposition is no other than the ,qurn8 ,whether ,muhammad would have arranged the ,qurn as we now have it is a subject on which it is impossible to form an opinion4 ,there are ,traditions which seem to show that he had some doubts as to its completeness4 ,i give the following account on the authority of ,m4 ,caussin de ,percival4 ,when ,muhammad felt his end draw near he said3--,bring ink and paper3 ,i wish to write to you a book to preserve you always from error4 ,but it was too late4 ,he could not write or dictate and so he said3--,may the ,qurn always be your guide4 ,perform what it commands you3 avoid what it prohibits4 ,the genuineness of the first part of this ,tradition is1 ,i think1 very doubtful1 the latter is quite in accordance with the ,prophet's claim for his teaching4 ,the letter of the book became1 as ,muhammad intended it should become1 a despotic influence in the ,muslim world1 a barrier to freethinking on the part of all the orthodox1 an obstacle to innovation in all spheres--political1 social1 intellectual and moral4 ,there are many topics connected with it which can be better explained in the next chapter4 ,all #aj that has now to be here stated is that the ,qurn is the first foundation of ,islm4 ,it is an error to suppose it is the only one3 an error which more than anything else has led persons away from the only position in which they could obtain a true idea of the great system of ,islm4 ,the ,sha'hs maintain1 without good reason1 that the following verses favourable to the claims of ',al and of the ,sha'h faction were omitted in ,osmn's recension4 ,o ,believers6 believe in the two lights4 7,muhammad and ',al74 ',al is of the number of the pious1 we shall give him his right in the day of judgment2 we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him4 ,we have honoured him above all this family4 ,he and his family are very patient4 ,their enemy#aj is the chief of sinners4 ,we have announced to thee a race of just men1 men#aa who will not oppose our orders4 ,my mercy and peace are on them living#ab or dead4 ,as to those who walk in their way1 my mercy is on them2 they will certainly gain the mansions of ,paradise4 #b4 ,,the ,,sunnat4--,the second foundation of ,islm is based on the ,hads 7plural ,ahds7 or ,tradition4 ,commands from ,god given in the ,qurn are called 'farz' and 'wjib4' ,a command given by the ,prophet or an example set by him is called 'sunnat1' a word meaning a rule4 ,it is then technically applied to the basis of religious faith and practice1 which is founded on traditional accounts of the sayings and acts of ,muhammad4#ac ,it is the belief common to all ,musalmns1 that the ,prophet in all that he did1 and in all that he said1 was supernaturally guided1 and that his words and acts are to all time and to all his followers a divine rule of faith and practice4 ,we should know that ,god ,almighty has given commands and prohibitions to his #aa servants1 either by means of the ,qurn1 or by the mouth of ,his ,prophet4#ad ,al-,ghazli1 a most distinguished theologian1 writes3--,neither is the faith according to ,his will1 complete by the testimony to the ,unity alone1 that is1 by simply saying1 ',there is but one ,god1' without the addition of the further testimony to the ,apostle1 that is1 the statement1 ',muhammad is the apostle of ,god4' ,this belief in the ,prophet must extend to all that he has said concerning the present and the future life1 for1 says the same author1 ,a man's faith is not accepted till he is fully persuaded of those things which the ,prophet hath affirmed shall be after death4 ,it is often said that the ,wahhbs reject ,tradition4 ,in the ordinary sense of the word ,tradition they may2 but in ,muslim ,theology the term ,hads1 which we translate ,tradition1 has a special meaning4 ,it is applied only to the sayings of the ,prophet1 not to those of some uninspired divine or teacher4 ,the ,wahhbs reject the ,traditions handed down by men who lived after the time of the ,companions1 but the ,hads1 embodying the sayings of the ,prophet1 they1 in common with all ,muslim sects1 hold to be an inspired revelation of ,god's will to men4 ,it would be as reasonable to say that ,protestants reject the four ,gospels as to say that the ,wahhbs reject ,tradition4#ae ,an orthodox ,muslim places the ,gospels in the same rank as the ,hads1 that is1 he looks upon them as a record of what ,jesus said and did handed down to us by ,his ,companions4 ,in the same way as other ,prophets received their books under the form of ideas1 so our ,prophet has in the same way received a great number of communications which are found in the collections of the #ab ,traditions 7,ahds74#af ,this shows that the ,sunnat must be placed on a level with the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures2 whilst the ,qurn is a revelation superior to them all4 ,to no sect of ,musalmns is the ,qurn alone the rule of faith4 ,the ,sha'hs1 it is true1 reject the ,sunnat1 but they have in their own collection of ,traditions an exact equivalent4 ,the nature of the inspiration of the ,sunnat and its authoritative value are questions of the first importance1 whether ,islm is viewed from a theological or a political stand-point4 ,muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise1 of whom only one would be worthy of ,paradise4 ,the ,companions inquired which sect would be so highly favoured4 ,the ,prophet replied3--',the one which remains firm in my way and in that of my friends4' ,it is certain that this must refer to the ,ahl-i-,sunnat wa ,jam'at4 7,sunns47#ag ,it is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should be rendered to the ,sunnat of the ,prophet4 ,thus in the fourth ,sra of the ,qurn it is written3 ,o true believers6 obey ,god and obey the apostle4 ,we have not sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the permission of ,god4 ,from these and similar passages the following doctrine is deduced3 ,it is plain that the ,prophet 7on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy and peace of ,god67 is free from sin in what he ordered to be done1 and in what he prohibited1 in all his words and acts2 for were it otherwise how could obedience rendered to him be accounted as obedience paid to ,god8#ah ,believers are exhorted to render obedience to ,god by witnessing to ,his divinity1 and to the ,prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship2 this is a sign of love1 and love is the cause of nearness to ,god4 ,the ,prophet himself is reported to have #ac said1 ,obey me that ,god may regard you as friends4 ,from this statement the conclusion is drawn that the love of ,god 7to man7 is conditional on obedience to the ,prophet4 ,belief in and obedience to the ,prophet are essential elements of the true faith1 and he who possesses not both of these is in error4#ai ,in order to show the necessity of this obedience1 ,god is said to have appointed ,muhammad as the ,mediator between ,himself and man4 ,in a lower sense1 believers are to follow the ,sunnat of the four ,khalfs1 ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn1 and ',al1 who are true guides to men4 ,to the ,muslim all that the ,prophet did was perfectly in accord with the will of ,god4 ,moral laws have a different application when applied to him4 ,his jealousy1 his cruelty to the ,jewish tribes1 his indulgence in licentiousness1 his bold assertion of equality with ,god as regards his commands1 his every act and word1 are sinless1 and a guide to men as long as the world shall last4 ,it is easy for an apologist for ,muhammad to say that this is an accretion1 something which engrafted itself on to a simpler system4 ,it is no such thing4 ,it is rather one of the essential parts of the system4 ,let ,muhammad be his own witness3--,he who loves not my ,sunnat is not my follower4 ,he who revives my ,sunnat revives me1 and will be with me in ,paradise4 ,he who in distress holds fast to the ,sunnat will receive the reward of a hundred martyrs4 ,as might be expected1 the setting up of his own acts and words as an infallible and unvarying rule of faith accounts more than anything else for the immobility of the ,muhammadan world1 for it must be always remembered that in ,islm ,church and ,state are one4 ,the ,arab proverb1 ,al mulk wa dn tawmin--country and religion are twins--is the popular form of expressing the unity of ,church and ,state4 #ad ,to the mind of the ,musalmn the rule of the one is the rule of the other1--a truth sometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform of ,turkey or the regeneration of the ,house of ,osmn4 ,the ,sunnat as much as the ,qurn covers all law1 whether political1 social1 moral1 or religious4 ,a modern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with ,islm says3--,if ,islm is to be a power for good in the future1 it is imperatively necessary to cut off the social system from the religion4 ,the difficulty lies in the close connection between the religious and social ordinances in the ,kurn1 the two are so intermingled that it is hard to see how they can be disentangled without destroying both4 ,i believe this to be impossible1 and the case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that the same remark would apply to the ,sunnat4 ,to forget this is to go astray1 for ,ibn ,khaldoun distinctly speaks of the ,law derived from the ,qurn and the ,sunnat1 of the maxims of ,musalmn ,law based on the text of the ,qurn and the teaching of the ,traditions4#bj ,the ,prophet had a great dread of all innovation4 ,the technical term for anything new is bida't1 and of it1 it is said3 ,bida't is the changer of ,sunnat4 ,in other words1 if men seek after things new1 if fresh forms of thought arise1 and the changing condition of society demands new modes of expression for the ,faith1 or new laws to regulate the community1 if in internals or externals1 any new thing 7bida't7 is introduced1 it is to be shunned4 ,the law as revealed in the ,qurn and the ,sunnat is perfect4 ,everything not in accordance with the precepts therein contained is innovation1 and all innovation is heresy4 ,meanwhile some #ae bida't is allowable1 such as the teaching of etymology and syntax1 the establishment of schools1 guest-houses1 c41 which things did not exist in the time of the ,prophet2 but it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance with the least ,sunnat 7i4e4 the obeying the least of the orders of the ,prophet1 however trivial7 is far better than doing some new thing1 however advantageous and desirable it may be4 ,there are many stories which illustrate the importance the ,companions of the ,prophet attached to ,sunnat4 ,the ,khalf ,omar looked towards the black stone at ,mecca1 and said1 ',by ,god1 ,i know that thou art only a stone1 and canst grant no benefit1 canst do no harm4 ,if ,i had not known that the ,prophet kissed thee1 ,i would not have done so1 but on account of that ,i do it4' ,abdullah-,ibn-',umr was seen riding his camel round and round a certain place4 ,in answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said3 ,i know not1 only ,i have seen the ,prophet do so here4 ,ahmad-,ibn-,hanbal1 one of the four great ,imms1 and the founder of the ,hanbal school of interpretation1 is said to have been appointed on account of the care with which he observed the ,sunnat4 ,one day when sitting in an assembly he alone of all present observed some formal custom authorised by the practice of the ,prophet4 ,gabriel at once appeared and informed him that now1 and on account of his act1 he was appointed an ,imm4#ba ,in short1 it is distinctly laid down that the best of all works is the following of the practice of ,muhammad4 ,the essence of religion has been stated by a learned theologian to consist of three things3 first1 to follow the ,prophet in morals and in acts2 secondly1 to eat only lawful food2 thirdly1 to be sincere in all actions4 #af ,the ,sunnat is now known to ,musalmns through the collections of ,traditions gathered together by the men whose names they now bear4 ,the whole are called ,sihah-,sittah1 or six correct books4 ,not one of these collectors flourished until the third century of the ,hijra1 and so1 as may be easily supposed1 their work has not passed unchallenged4 ,there is by no means an absolute consensus of opinion among the ,sunns as to the exact value of each ,tradition1 yet all admit that a 'genuine ,tradition' must be obeyed4 ,whether the ,prophet spoke what in the ,traditions is recorded as spoken by him under the influence of the highest kind of inspiration is1 as will be shown in the next chapter1 a disputed point2 but it matters little4 ,whatever may have been the degree1 it was according to ,muslim belief a real inspiration1 and thus his every act and word became a law as binding upon his followers as the example of ,christ is upon ,christians4 ,the ,sha'hs do not acknowledge the ,sihah-,sittah1 the six correct books of the ,sunns1 but it by no means follows that they reject ,tradition4 ,they have five books of ,traditions1 the earliest of which was compiled by ,abu ,ja'far ,muhammad ,a4,h4 #cbi1 or a century later than the ,sahh-i-,bukhr1 the most trustworthy of the ,sunn set4 ,thus all ,musalmn sects accept the first and second ground of the faith--the ,qurn and the ,sunnat--as the inspired will of ,god2 the ,sha'hs substituting in the place of the ,traditions on which the ,sunnat is based1 a collection of their own4 ,what it is important to maintain is this1 that the ,qurn alone is to no ,musalmn an all-sufficient guide4 #c4 ,,ijm'4--,the third foundation of the ,faith is called ,ijm'1 a word signifying to be collected or assembled4 ,technically it means the unanimous consent of the leading theologians1 or what in ,christian theology would be called the unanimous consent of the ,fathers4 ,practically it is a collection of the opinions of the ,companions1 the ,tbi'n and the ,taba-i-,tbi'n4 ,the ,law1 says ,ibn ,khaldoun #ag is grounded on the general accord of the ,companions and their followers4 ,the election of ,abu ,bakr to the ,khalifate is called ,ijm'-i-,ummat1 the unanimous consent of the whole sect4 ,the ,companions of the ,prophet had special knowledge of the various circumstances under which special revelations had been made2 they alone knew which verses of the ,qurn abrogated others1 and which verses were thus abrogated4 ,the knowledge of these matters and many other details they handed on to their successors1 the ,tbi'n1 who passed the information on to their followers1 the ,taba-i-,tbi'n4 ,some ,muslims1 the ,wahhbs for example1 accept only the ,ijm' of the ,companions2 and by all sects that is placed in the first rank as regards authority2 others accept that of the ',fugitives' who dwelt at ,madna2 and there are some amongst the orthodox who allow1 as a matter of theory1 that ,ijm' may be collected at any time1 but that practically it is not done because there are now no ,mujtahidn4 ,the highest rank a ,muslim ,theologian could reach was that of a ,mujtahid1 or one who could make an ,ijtihd1 a word which1 derived from the same root as ,jihd 7a ,crescentade71 means in its technical sense a logical deduction4 ,it is defined as the attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching into the principles of jurisprudence4 ,the origin of ,ijtihd was as follows3--,muhammad wished to send a man named ,mu'z to ,yaman to receive some money collected for alms1 which he was then to distribute to the poor4 ,on appointing him he said3 ,o ,mu'z1 by what rule will you act8 ,he replied1 by the ,law of the ,qurn4 ,but if you find no direction therein8 ,then ,i will act according to the ,sunnat of the ,prophet4 ,but what if that fails8 ,then ,i will make an ,ijtihd and act on that4 ,the ,prophet raised his hands and said1 ,praise be to ,god who guides the messenger of ,his ,prophet in what ,he pleases4#bb ,this is considered a proof of the authority of ,ijtihd for the ,prophet clearly sanctioned it4 #ah ,when the ,prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and fears3 an infallible authority was always present ready to give an inspired direction4 ,the ,khalfs who succeeded the ,prophet had only to administer the ,law according to the opinions which they knew ,muhammad had held4 ,they were busily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest2 they neither attempted any new legislation1 nor did they depart from the practice of him whom they revered4 ,in the first days of ,islm1 the knowledge of the ,law was purely ,traditional4 ,in forming their judgments they had no recourse either to speculation1 to private opinion1 or to arguments founded upon analogy4#bc ,however1 as the ,empire grew1 new conditions of life arose1 giving rise to questions1 concerning which ,muhammad had given no explicit direction4 ,this necessitated the use of ,ijtihd4 ,during the ,khalifates of ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn and ',al--the ,khulafa-i-,rshidn1 or the ,khalfs who could guide men in the right way1 the custom was for the ,faithful to consult them as to the course of action to be pursued under some new development of circumstances2 for they knew as none other did the ,prophet's sayings and deeds1 they could recall to their memories a saying or an act from which a decision could be deduced4 ,in this way all ,muslims could feel that in following their judgments and guidance they were walking in the right path4 ,but after the death of ',al1 the fourth ,khalf1 civil war and hostile factions imperilled the continuance of the ,faith in its purity4 ,at ,madna1 where ,muhammad's career as a recognised ,prophet was best known1 devout men commenced to learn by heart the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat1 and the analogical judgments 7,ijtihd7 of the four ,khalfs4 ,these men were looked up to as authorities1 and their decisions were afterwards known as the ',customs of ,madna4' ,it is not difficult to see that a system1 which sought to regulate all departments of life1 all developments of men's ideas and energies by the ,sunnat and analogical deductions #ai therefrom1 was one which not only gave every temptation a system could give to the manufacture of ,tradition1 but one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use4 ,hence1 it was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent mass of ,tradition1 of judgments given by ,khalfs and ,mujtahidn4 ,this gave rise to the systems of jurisprudence1 founded by the four orthodox ,imms1 to one or other of which all ,muslims1 except the ,sha'hs1 belong4 ,these ,imms1 ,abu ,hanfa1 ,ibn ,mlik1 ,as-,shfi'i and ,ibn ,hanbal were all ,mujtahidn of the highest rank4 ,after them it is the orthodox belief that there has been no ,mujtahid4 ,thus in a standard theological book much used in ,india it is written3 ,ijm' is this1 that it is not lawful to follow any other than the four ,imms4 ,in these days the ,qz must make no order1 the ,muft give no fatv 7i4e4 a legal decision71 contrary to the opinion of the four ,imms4 ,to follow any other is not lawful4 ,so far then as orthodoxy is concerned1 change and progress are impossible4 ,imm ,abu ,hanfa was born at ,basra 7,a4,h4 #hj71 but he spent the greater part of his life at ,kfa4 ,he was the founder and teacher of the body of legists known as 'the jurists of ,irk4' ,his system differs considerably from that of the ,imm ,mlik who1 living at ,madna1 confined himself chiefly to ,tradition as the basis of his judgments4 ,madna was full of the memories of the sayings and acts of the ,prophet2 ,kfa1 the home of ,hanfa1 on the contrary1 was not founded till after the ,prophet's death and so possessed none of his memories4 ,islm there came into contact with other races of men1 but from them it had nothing to learn4 ,if these men became ,muslims1 well and good3 if not1 the one law for them as for the ,faithful was the teaching of ,muhammad4 ,various texts of the ,qurn are adduced to prove the correctness of this position4 ,for to thee have we sent down the book which cleareth up every thing4 7,sra xvi4 #ia7 ,nothing have we passed over in the book4 7,sra vi4 #bj #ch47 ,neither is there a grain in the darkness of the earth nor a thing green or sere1 but it is noted in a distinct writing4 7,sra vi4 #ei74 ,these texts were held to prove that all law was provided for by anticipation in the ,qurn4 ,if a verse could not be found bearing on any given question1 analogical deduction was resorted to4 ,thus3 ,he it is who created for you all that is on earth4 7,sra ii4 #bg74 ,according to the ,hanifite jurists1 this is a deed of gift which annuls all other rights of property4 ,the 'you' refers to ,muslims4 ,the earth#bd may be classified under three heads3--7#a7 land which never had an owner2 7#b7 land which had an owner and has been abandoned2 7#c7 the person and property of the ,infidels4 ,from the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulness of slavery1 piracy and constant war against the unbelievers4 ,to return to ,abu ,hanfa4 ,he admitted very few ,traditions as authoritative in his system1 which claims to be a logical development from the ,qurn4 ,the merit of logical fearlessness cannot be denied to it4 ,the wants and wishes of men1 the previous history of a country--all those considerations1 in fact1 which are held in the ,west to be the governing principles of legislation1 are set aside by the legists of ,irk as being of no account whatever4 ,legislation is not a science inductive and experimental1 but logical and deductive4#be ,imm ,ibn ,mlik was born at ,madna 7,a4,h4 #ic7 and his system of jurisprudence is founded1 as might be expected from his connection with the sacred city1 on the ,customs of ,madna4 ,his business was to arrange and systematize the ,traditions current in ,madna1 and to form out of them and the ,customs a system of jurisprudence embracing the whole sphere of life4 ,the treatise composed by him was called the ,muwatta or ,the ,beaten ,path4 ,the greater part of its contents are legal maxims and opinions #ba delivered by the ,companions4 ,his system of jurisprudence1 therefore1 has been described as historical and traditional4 ,in an elegy on his death by ,abu ,muhammad ,ja'far it is said3 ,his ,traditions were of the greatest authority2 his gravity was impressive2 and when he delivered them1 all his auditors were plunged in admiration4#bf ,the ,traditions were his great delight4 ,i delight1 said he1 in testifying my profound respect for the sayings of the ,prophet of ,god1 and ,i never repeat one unless ,i feel myself in a state of perfect purity1#bg 7i4e41 after performing a legal ablution47 ,as death approached1 his one fear was lest he should have exercised his private judgment in delivering any legal opinion4 ,in his last illness a friend went to visit him1 and enquiring why he wept1 received the following answer3 ,why should ,i not weep1 and who has more right to weep than ,i8 ,by ,allah6 ,i wish ,i had been flogged and reflogged for every question of law on which ,i pronounced an opinion founded on my own private judgment4#bh ,imm ,as-,shfa'1 a member of the ,quraish tribe1 was born ,a4,h4 #aej4 ,he passed his youth at ,mecca but finally settled in ,cairo where he died 7,a4,h4 #bjd74 ,ibn ,khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge of the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat1 and the sayings of the ,companions4 ,never1 said ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal1 have ,i passed a night without praying for ,god's mercy and blessing upon ,as-,shfi'4 ,whosoever pretends1 said ,abu ,thaur1 that he saw the like of ,as-,shfi' for learning is a liar4 ,having carefully studied the systems of the two preceding ,imms he then proceeded on an eclectic system to form his own4 ,it was a reaction against the system of ,abu ,hanfa4 ,as-,shfi' follows rather the traditional plan of ,ibn ,mlik4 ,the ,hanifite will be satisfied if1 in the absence of a clear and a direct statement1 he finds one #bb passage in the ,qurn1 or one ,tradition from which the required judgment may be deduced4 ,the ,shfi'ite in the same circumstances1 if ,tradition is the source of his deduction1 will require a considerable number of ,traditions from which to make it4 ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal was the last of the four ,orthodox ,imms4 ,he was born at ,baghdd 7,a4,h4 #afd74 ,his system is a distinct return to ,traditionalism4 ,he lived at ,baghdd during the reign of the ,khalf ,mamun1 when ,orthodox ,islm seemed in danger of being lost amid the rationalistic speculations1 7that is1 from an ,orthodox ,muslim stand-point71 and licentious practices of the ,court4 ,the jurists most in favour at ,court were followers of ,abu ,hanfa4 ,they carried the principle of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths in order to satisfy the latitudinarianism of the ,khalf4 ,human speculation seemed to be weakening all the essentials of the ,faith4 ,ibn ,hanbal met the difficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction4 ,at the same time he saw that the ,mliki system1 founded as it was on the ,customs of ,madna1 was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and growing ,empire4 ,it needed to be supplemented4 ,what better1 what surer ground could he go upon than the ,traditions4 ,these at least were inspired1 and thus formed a safer foundation on which to build a system of jurisprudence than the analogical deductions of ,abu ,hanfa did4 ,the system of ,ibn ,hanbal has almost ceased to exist4 ,there is now no ,muft of this sect at ,mecca1 though the other three are represented there4 ,still his influence is felt to this day in the importance he attached to ,tradition4 ,the distinction between the four ,imms has been put in this way4 ,abu ,hanfa exercised his own judgment4 ,mlik and ,hanbal preferred authority and precedent4 ,as-,shfi' entirely repudiated reason4 ,they differ1 too1 as regards the value of certain ,traditions1 but to each of them an authentic ,tradition is an incontestable authority4 ,their #bc opinion on points of doctrine and practice forms the third basis of the ,faith4 ,the ,ijm' of the four ,imms is a binding law upon all ,sunns4 ,it might be supposed that as the growing needs of the ,empire led to the formation of these schools of interpretation2 so now the requirements of modern1 social and political life might be met by fresh ,imms making new analogical deductions4 ,this is not the case4 ,the orthodox belief is1 that since the time of the four ,imms there has been no ,mujtahid who could do as they did4 ,if circumstances should arise which absolutely require some decision to be arrived at1 it must be given in full accordance with the 'mazhab1' or school of interpretation1 to which the person framing the decision belongs4#bi ,this effectually prevents all change1 and by excluding innovation1 whether good or bad1 keeps ,islm stationary4 ,legislation is now purely deductive4 ,nothing must be done contrary to the principles contained in the jurisprudence of the four ,imms4 ,thus1 in any ,muhammadan ,state legislative reforms are simply impossible4 ,there exists no initiative4 ,the ,sultn1 or ,khalf can claim the allegiance of his people only so long as he remains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the ,law4 ,the question then as regards the politics of the ,eastern #bd ,question is not whether ,muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived1 an apostle or an impostor2 whether the ,qurn is on the whole good or bad2 whether ,arabia was the better or the worse for the change ,muhammad wrought2 but what ,islm as a religious and political system has become and is1 how it now works1 what ,orthodox ,muslims believe and how they act in that belief4 ,the essence of that belief is1 that the system as taught by ,prophet1 ,khalfs and ,imms is absolutely perfect4#cj ,innovation is worse than a mistake4 ,it is a crime1 a sin4 ,this completeness1 this finality of his system of religion and polity1 is the very pride and glory of a true ,muslim4 ,to look for an increase of light in the knowledge of his relation to ,god and the unseen world1 in the laws which regulate ,islm on earth is to admit that ,muhammad's revelation was incomplete1 and that admission no ,muslim will make4 ,it has been stated on high authority that all that is required for the reform of ,turkey is that the ,qnns or orders of the ,sultn should take the place of the ,shar'at or law of ,islm4 ,precisely so2 if this could be done1 ,turkey might be reformed2 but ,islm would cease to be the religion of the ,state4 ,that the law as formulated by the ,imm ,abu ,hanfa ill suits the conditions of modern life is more than probable2 but it is the very function of the ,khalf of ,islm1 #be which the ,sultn claims to be1 to maintain it4 ,he is no ,mujtahid1 for such there are not now amongst the ,sunns1 to which sect the ,turks belong4 ,if through stress of circumstances some new law must be made1 orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly in accordance with the opinions of the ,imms4 ,the ,sha'hs1 in opposition to the ,sunns1 hold that there are still ,mujtahidn1 but this opinion arises from their peculiar doctrine of the ,immat1 a subject we shall discuss a little later on4 ,at first sight it would seem that if there can be ,mujtahidn who are now able to give authoritative opinions1 there may be some hope of enlightened progress amongst ,sha'h people--the ,persians for example4 ,there is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest1 more mysticism1 more heresy1 but they are no further on the road of progress than their neighbours2 and the apparent advantage of the presence of a ,mujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his decisions must be strictly in accordance with the ,qurn and the ,sunnat1 or rather with what to the ,sha'h stands in the place of the ,sunnat4 ,the ,sha'h1 as well as the ,sunn1 must base all legislation on the fossilized system of the past1 not on the living needs of the present4 ,precedent rules both with an iron sway4 ,the ,wahhbs reject all ,ijm' except that of the ,companions1 but that they accept2 so when they are called the ,puritans of ,islm1 it must be remembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the ,qurn1 but the ,sunnat1 and some ,ijm'4 ,in order to make ,ijm' binding1 it is necessary that the ,mujtahidn should have been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice4 ,the whole subject of ,ijtihd is one of the most important in connection with the possibility of reforms in a ,muslim state4 ,a modern ,muhammadan writer#ca seeking to show that ,islm does possess a capacity for progress and that so far from being a hard and fast system1 it is able to adapt itself to new circumstances1 because the ,prophet ushered in #bf an age of active principles1 uses the story ,i have already related when describing the origin of ,ijtihd 7,ante4 p4 #ag7 to prove the accuracy of his statement4 ,he makes ,mu'z to say3--,i will look first to the ,qurn1 then to precedents of the ,prophet1 and lastly rely upon my own judgment4 ,it is true that ,ijtihd literally means 'great effort1' it is true that the ,companions and ,mujtahidn of the first class had the power of exercising their judgment in doubtful cases1 and of deciding them according to their sense of the fitness of things1 provided always1 that their decision contravened no law of the ,qurn or the ,sunnat2 but this in no way proves that ,islm has any capacity for progress1 or that an age of active principles was ushered in by ,muhammad1 or that his words breathe energy and force1 and infuse new life into the dormant heart of humanity4 ,for1 though the term ,ijtihd might1 in reference to the men ,i have mentioned1 be somewhat freely translated as one's own judgment1 it can have no such meaning now4 ,it is a purely technical term1 and its use and only use now is to express the referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the ,qurn and the ,sunnat4 ,but even were the meaning not thus restricted1 even though it meant now as it sometimes meant at first1 one's own judgment2 still ,syed ,amr ',al's position would remain to be proved for1 since the days of the four ,imms1 the orthodox believe that there has been no ,mujtahid of the first class1 and to none but men of this rank has such power ever been accorded4 ,thus granting1 for the sake of argument merely1 that the ,syed's translation is grammatically and technically correct1 all that results from it is that the age of active principles lasted only for two centuries4 ,i do not admit that there ever was such an age in ,islm1 and certainly neither its theological development1 nor its political growth negative the opposite assertion1 viz41 that ,muhammad gave precepts rather than principles4 ,the ,turks are included in the dormant heart of humanity1 but it is difficult to see what energy and #bg force is breathed1 what new life is infused into them by the wonderful words of the ,prophet1 or what lasting good the age of active principles has produced4 #d4 ,q,s is the fourth foundation of ,islm4 ,the word literally means reasoning1 comparing4 ,it is in common use in ,hindustani and ,persian in the sense of guessing1 considering1 c4 ,technically1 it means the analogical reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat and the ,ijm'4 ,for example1 the ,qurn says3--,honour thy father and thy mother and be not a cause of displeasure to them4 ,it is evident from this that disobedience to parents is prohibited1 and prohibition implies punishment if the order is disobeyed4 ,again1 if the ,qurn and the ,sunnat hold children responsible1 according to their means1 for the debts of their father1 does it not follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their parents all those obligations which for some reason or other the parents may not be able to perform1 such as the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 c4 ,a ,tradition said to come from the ,companions runs thus3--,one day1 a woman came to the ,prophet and said1 'my father died without making the ,pilgrimage4' ,the ,prophet said1 ',if thy father had left a debt what wouldest thou do1' ',i would pay the debt4' ',good1 then pay this debt also4' ,the ,qurn forbids the use of ,khamar1 an intoxicating substance1 and so it is argued that wine and opium are unlawful1 though not forbidden by name4 ,the ,wahhbs would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco4 ,from cases such as these1 many jurisconsults hold that the ,mujtahidn of the earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which they call ,qs4 ,it is also called ,i'tibr-ul-,amsl1 or imitation of an example4 ,the idea is taken from the verse3 ,profit by this example1 ye who are men of insight 7,sra lix4 #b74 ,there are strict rules laid down which regulate ,qs1 of which the most important is1 that in all cases it must be based on the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat1 and the ,ijm'4 ,in fact1 the fundamental idea of ,islm #bh is that a perfect law has been given1 even unto details1 of social and political life4 ,the teaching of ,muhammad contains the solution of every difficulty that can arise4 ,every law not provided by the ,prophet must be deduced analogically4 ,this produces uniformity after a fashion1 but only because intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceases and moral stagnation follows4 ,thus all who come within the range of this system are bound down to political servitude4 ,whatever in feeling or conviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn set of laws is swept away4 ,there is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all ,musalmn ,states1 which seems to point to a common cause4 ,all first principles are contained in the ,qurn and the ,sunnat2 all that does not coincide with them must be wrong4 ,they are above all criticism4 ,qs1 then1 affords no hope of enlightened progress1 removes no fetter of the past1 for in it there must be no divergence in principle from a legislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in its essence4#cb ,in the ,nihyat-ul-,murd it is written3--,we are shut up to following the four ,imms4 ,in the ,tafsr-i-,ahmad we read3--,to follow any other than the four ,imms is unlawful4 ,an objector may say that such respect is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors4 ,to this an answer is given in the preface to the ,tarjuma-i-,sharh-i-,waqyah4 ,the writer there says that it is nothing of the kind4 ,the ,mujtahidn are not the source of the orders of the ,law1 but they are the medium by which we obtain the ,law4 ,thus ,imm ,abu ,hanfa said3 ',we select first from the ,qurn1 then from the ,traditions1 then from the decrees of the ,companions2 we act on what the ,companions agreed upon2 where they doubt1 we doubt4' ,the ,commentator ,jell-ud-dn ,mahl says1 ',the common people and others who have #bi not reached the rank of a ,mujtahid1 must follow one of the four ,imms4' ,then when he enters one ,mazhab 7sect7 he must not change4 ,again1 it may be objected that ,god gave no order about the appointment of four ,imms4 ,now1 it is recorded in a ,tradition that the ,prophet said1 ',follow the way of the great company2 whosoever departs from it will enter hell4' ,the ,followers of the ,imms are a great company4 ,it is moreover the unanimous opinion1 the ,ijm'-i-,ummat1 that the ,imms rightly occupy the position accorded to them4 ,it is a great blessing1 as we read in the ,tafsr-i-,ahmad3 ,it is of the grace of ,god1 that we are shut up to these four ,imms4 ,god approves of this1 and into this matter proofs and explanations do not enter4 ,should any one further object that1 in the days of the ,prophet1 there were no ,mujtahidn1 that each man acted on a saying as he heard it1 that he did not confine his belief or conduct to the deductions made by some appointed ,companion1 he may be answered thus3--,for a long time after the death of the ,prophet many ,companions were alive1 and consequently the ,traditions then current were trustworthy2 but now it is not so1 hence the need for the ,imms and their systems4 ,these four foundations1--the ,,qur,n1 the ,,sunnat1 ,,ijm' and ,q,s--form in orthodox ,muslim opinion and belief a perfect basis of a perfect religion and polity4 ,they secure the permanence of the system1 but they repress an intelligent growth4 ,the bearing of all this on modern politics is very plain4 ,take again the case of ,turkey4 ,the constitution of the ,government is theocratic4 ,the germs of freedom are wanting there as they have never been wanting in any other country in ,europe4 ,the ruling power desires no change2 originality of thought1 independence of judgment is repressed4 ,nothing good has the ,turk ever done for the world4#cc ,this rule has been one continued display of brute #cj force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory which shone for a while in ,cordova and in ,baghdd4 ,no nation can possibly progress1 the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are what has been described in this chapter4 ,when brought into diplomatic and commercial intercourse with ,states possessing the energy and vigour of a national life and liberal constitution1 ,muslim kingdoms must1 in the long run1 fail and pass away4 ,it has been well said that ,spain is the only instance of a country once thoroughly infused with ,roman civilisation which has been actually severed from the empire2 and even then the severance1 though of long duration1 was but partial and temporary4 ,after a struggle of nearly eight centuries1 the higher form of social organisation triumphed over the lower and the usurping power of ,islm was expelled4 ,so it ought to be1 and so indeed it must ever be1 for despotism must give way to freedom2 the life latent in the subject ,christian communities must sooner or later cast off the yoke of a barbarian rule1 which even at its best is petrified and so is incapable of progress4 ,however low a ,christian community may have fallen1 there is always the possibility of its rising again4 ,a lofty ideal is placed before it4 ,all its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward4 ,in ,islm there is no regenerative power4 ,its golden age was in the past4 ,when the work of conquest is done1 when a ,muhammadan nation has to live by industry1 intelligence and thrift1 it always miserably fails4 ,in this chapter which must now draw to a close1 ,i have tried to prove from authentic and authoritative sources that #ca the ,qurn alone is to no ,muslim the sole guide of life4 ,the fetters of a dogmatic system fasten alike around the individual and the community4 ,islm is sterile1 it gives no new birth to the spirit of a man1 leads him not in search of new forms of truth1 and so it can give no real life1 no lasting vitality to a nation4#cd #cb ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,i4 ,,ijtih,d4 ,questions connected with ,ijtihd are so important in ,islm1 that ,i think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical account of it1 than ,i could do in the ,chapter just concluded4 ,this account which ,i shall now give is that of a learned ,musalmn1 and is1 therefore1 of the highest value4 ,it consists of extracts from an article in the ,journal ,asiatique1 ,quatrime ,srie1 tome1 #ae1 on ,le ,marche et les ,progres de la ,jurisprudence parmi les ,sectes orthodoxes ,musalmanes by ,mirza ,kzim ,beg1 ,professor in the ,university of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid character of ,muhammadan ,law1 and of the immobility of systems founded thereon4 ,orthodox ,musalmns admit the following propositions as axioms4 #a4 ,god the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people whom ,he has chosen1 and in order to enable them to walk in that way ,he has shown to them the precepts which are found1 partly in the eternal ,qurn1 and partly in the sayings of the ,prophet transmitted to posterity by the ,companions and preserved in the ,sunnat4 ,that way is called the ,shar'at4 ,the rules thereof are called ,ahkm4 #b4 ,the ,qurn and the ,sunnat1 which since their manifestation are the primitive sources of the orders of the ,law1 form two branches of study1 viz41 ,ilm-i-,tafsr1 or the interpretation of the ,qurn and ,ilm-i-,hads1 or the study of ,tradition4 #c4 ,all the orders of the ,law have regard either to the actions 7,dn71 or to the belief 7,imn7 of the ,mukallifs4#ce #d4 ,as the ,qurn and the ,sunnat are the principal sources from whence the precepts of the ,shar'at have been drawn1 so the rules recognized as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of ,ilm--,fiqh1 or the science of ,law4 ,fiqh in its root signifies conception1 comprehension4 ,thus ,muhammad prayed for ,ibn ,mas'd3 ,may ,god make him #cc comprehend 7,faqqihahu71 and make him know the interpretation of the ,qurn4 ,muhammad in his quality of ,judge and chief of the ,believers decided1 without appeal or contradiction1 all the affairs of the people4 ,his sayings served as a guide to the ,companions4 ,after the death of the ,prophet the first ,khalfs acted on the authority of the ,traditions4 ,meanwhile the ,qurn and the ,sunnat1 the principal elements of religion and legislation1 became little by little the subject of controversy4 ,it was then that men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the ,qurn and the ,traditions1 and then that jurisprudence became a separate science4 ,no science had as yet been systematically taught1 and the early ,musalmns did not possess books which would serve for such teaching4 ,a change soon1 however1 took place4 ,in the year in which the great jurisconsult of ,syria died 7,a4,h4 #hj7 ,n'imn bin ,sabit1 surnamed ,abu ,hanfa was born4 ,he is the most celebrated of the founders of the schools of jurisprudence1 a science which ranks first in all ,muslim seats of learning4 ,until that time and for thirty years later the ,mufassirs1#cf the ,muhaddis1#cg and the ,fuqih1#ch had all their knowledge by heart1 and those who possessed good memories were highly esteemed4 ,many of them knew by heart the whole ,qurn with the comments made on it by the ,prophet and by the ,companions2 they also knew the ,traditions and their explanations1 and all the commands 7,ahkm7 which proceed from the ,qurn1 and the ,sunnat4 ,such men enjoyed the right of ,mujtahidn4 ,they transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally4 ,it was not till towards the middle of the second century ,a4,h4 that treatises on the different branches of the ,law were written1 after which six schools 7,mazhabs7 of jurisprudence were formed4 ,the founders1 all ,imms of the first class1 were ,abu ,hanfa1 the ,imm-i-,a'zam or great ,imm 7,a4,h4 #aej71ci ,safian ,as-,sur 7,a4,h4 #afa71 ,mlik 7,a4,h4 #agi71 ,as-,shfa' 7,a4,h4 #bjd71 ,hanbal 7,a4,h4 #bda7 and ,imm ,dd ,az-,zahar 7,a4,h4 #bgj74 ,the two sects founded by ,sur and ,zahar became extinct in the eighth century of the ,hijra4 ,the other four still remain4 ,these men venerated one another4 ,the younger ones speak with great respect of the elder4 ,thus ,shfa' said3--,no one in the world was so well versed in jurisprudence as ,abu ,hanfa was1 and he who has read neither his works1 nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence4 ,hanbal when sick wore a shirt which had belonged to ,shfa'1 in order that he might be cured of his malady2 but all this #cd did not prevent them starting schools of their own1 for the right of ,ijtihd is granted to those who are real ,mujtahidn4 ,there are three degrees of ,ijtihd4 #a4 ,al-,ijtihd fi'l ,shari'3 absolute independence in legislation #b4 ,al-,ijtihd fi'l ,mazhab3 authority in the judicial systems founded by the ,mujtahidn of the first class4 #c4 ,al-,ijtihd fi'l ,masil3 authority in cases which have not been decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence4 ,the first is called a complete and absolute authority1 the second relative1 the third special4 ,,the ,,first ,,degree ,,of ,,ijtih,d4 ,absolute independence in legislation is the gift of ,god4 ,he to whom it is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the ,divine ,law is not bound to follow any other teacher4 ,he can use his own judgment4 ,this gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first1 and to some in the second and third centuries4 ,the ,companions1 however1 who were closely connected with the ,prophet1 having transmitted immediately to their posterity the treasures of legislation1 are looked upon as ,mujtahidn of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries4 ,thus ,abu ,hanfa says3--,that which comes to us from the ,companions is on our head and eyes 7i4e41 to be received with respect73 as to that which comes from the ,tbi'n1 they are men and we are men4 ,since the time of the ,tbi'n this degree of ,ijtihd has only been conferred on the six great ,imms4 ,theoretically any ,muslim can attain to this degree1 but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions1 and so no one now gains the honour4 ,these conditions are3-- #a4 ,the knowledge of the ,qurn and all that is related to it2 that is to say1 a complete knowledge of ,arabic literature1 a profound acquaintance with the orders of the ,qurn and all their sub-divisions1 their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the ,sunnat4 ,the candidate should know when1 and why each verse of the ,qurn was written1 he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal meaning of the words1 the speciality or generality of each clause1 the abrogating and abrogated sentences4 ,he should be able to make clear the meaning of the 'obscure' passages 7,mutashbih71 to discriminate between the literal and the allegorical1 the universal and the particular4 #b4 ,he must know the ,qurn by heart with all the ,traditions and explanations4 #ce #c4 ,he must have a perfect knowledge of the ,traditions1 or at least of three thousand of them4 ,he must know their source1 history1 object and their connection with the laws of the ,qurn4 ,he should know by heart the most important ,traditions4 #d4 ,a pious and austere life4 #e4 ,a profound knowledge of all the sciences of the ,law4 ,should any one now aspire to such a degree another condition would be added1 viz3-- #f4 ,a complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence4 ,the obstacles1 then1 are almost insurmountable4 ,on the one hand1 there is the severity of the ',ulam1 which requires from the candidate things almost impossible2 on the other1 there is the attachment of the ',ulam to their own ,imms1 for should such a man arise no one is bound now to listen to him4 ,imm ,hanbal said3--,draw your knowledge from whence the ,imms drew theirs1 and do not content yourself with following others for that is certainly blindness of sight4 ,thus the schools of the four ,imms remain intact after a thousand years have passed1 and so the ',ulam recognise since the time of these ,imms no ,mujtahd of the first degree4 ,ibn ,hanbal was the last4 ,the rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important4 ,he was not bound to be a disciple of another1 he was a mediator between the ,law and his followers1 for whom he established a system of legislation1 without any one having the right to make any objection4 ,he had the right to explain the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat and the ,ijm' according as he understood them4 ,he used the ,prophet's words1 whilst his disciples only used his4 ,should a disciple find some discrepancy between a decision of his own ,imm and the ,qurn or ,traditions1 he must abide by the decision of the ,imm4 ,the ,law does not permit him to interpret after his own fashion4 ,when once the disciple has entered the sect of one ,imm he cannot leave it and join another4 ,he loses the right of private judgment1 for only a ,mujtahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of the ,imms4 ,theoretically such ,mujtahidn may still arise2 but1 as we have already shown1 practically they do not4 ,,the ,,second ,,degree ,,of ,,ijtih,d4 ,this degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great ,imms who have elaborated the systems of their masters4 ,they enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary ',ulam1 and of their respective ,imms who in some cases have allowed them #cf to retain their own opinion4' ,the most famous of these men are the two disciples of ,abu ,hanfa1 ,abu ,ysuf and ,muhammad bin al ,hasan4 ,in a secondary matter their opinion carries great weight4 ,it is laid down as a rule that a ,muft may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes against that of ,abu ,hanfa4 ,,the ,,third ,,degree ,,of ,,ijtih,d4 ,this is the degree of special independence4 ,the candidates for it should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence according to the four schools of the ,arabic language and literature4 ,they can solve cases which come before them1 giving reasons for their judgment1 or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous ,mujtahidn2 but in either case their decisions must always be in absolute accordance with the opinions of the ,mujtahidn of the first and second classes1 and with the principles which guided them4 ,many of these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime1 but to most of them this rank is not accorded till after their death4 ,since ,imm ,qz ,khn died 7,a4,h4 #eib71 no one has been recognised by the ,sunns as a ,mujtahid even of the third class4 ,there are three other inferior classes of jurists1 called ,muqallidn1 or followers of the ,mujtahidn2 but all that the highest in rank amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of the older jurisconsults4 ,by some of the ',ulam they are considered to be equal to the ,mujtahidn of the third class4 ,if there are several conflicting legal opinions on any point1 they can select one opinion on which to base their decision4 ,this a mere ,qz cannot do4 ,in such a case he would have to refer to those men1 or to their writings for guidance4 ,they seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems without originating anything new4 ,the author of the ,hidyah1 who lived at the end of the sixth century1 was a ,muqallid4 ,such is ,mirza ,kzim ,beg's account4 ,the whole article1 of which ,i have only given the main points1 is worthy of the closest study4 ,it shows how the system1 as a whole1 rejects experience as a guide to deeper insight or wider knowledge2 tramples upon the teaching of the past2 pays no heed to differences of climate1 character1 or history2 but regards itself as a body of absolute truth1 one jot or tittle of which cannot be rejected without incurring the everlasting wrath of ,god4#dj #cg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,exegesis ,,of ,,the ,,qur,n ,,and ,,the ,,traditions4 ,the following account of this branch of ,muslim theology1 technically called ',ilm-i-,usl1 may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of inspiration according to ,islm1 though that is not strictly speaking a portion of this study4 ,there are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration1 ,wah and ,ilhm4 ,wah is the term applied to the inspiration of the ,qurn1 and implies that the very words are the words of ,god4 ,it is divided into ,wah ,zhir 7external inspiration71 and ,wah ,btin 7internal inspiration74 ,the whole book was prepared in heaven4 ,muhammad1 instructed by ,gabriel1 is simply the medium through which the revelation of ,wah ,zhir reaches man4 ,the ,wah ,qurn1 i4e41 the highest form of inspiration1 always came to the ear of the ,prophet through the instrumentality of ,gabriel4 ,in ,muhammadan theology1 this is the special work of ,gabriel4 ,thus in the ,traditions it is related that he appeared to ,adam twelve times1 to ,enoch four1 to ,noah fifty1 to ,abraham forty-two1 to ,moses four hundred1 to ,jesus ten times1 to ,muhammad twenty-four thousand times4 ,ilhm means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he1 though rightly guided1 delivers the subject matter out of his own mind1 and is not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of ,gabriel4 ,there is a lower form of ,wah ,zhir1 which is called ,ishrat-ul-,malak 7literally1 sign of the ,angel47 ,this expresses what ,muhammad meant when he said3 ,the ,holy ,ghost has entered into my heart4 ,in other words1 he received the inspiration through #ch ,gabriel1 but not by word of mouth4 ,this form of inspiration is higher than that possessed by saints1 and is usually applied to the inspiration of the ,traditions4 ,this is denied by some1 who say that except when delivering the ,qurn ,muhammad spoke by ,ilhm and not by ,wah4 ,the practical belief is1 however1 that the ,traditions were ,wah inspiration1 and thus they come to be as authoritative as the ,qurn4 ,sharastani speaks of the signs 7sayings7 of the ,prophet which have the marks of ,wah4#da ,this opinion is said by some ,muslim theologians to be supported by the first verse of the fifty-third ,sra1 entitled the ,star4 ,by the ,star when it setteth2 your companion ,muhammad erreth not1 nor is he led astray1 neither doth he speak of his own will4 ,it is none other than a revelation which hath been revealed to him4 ,in any case the inspiration of ,muhammad is something quite different from the ,christian idea of inspiration1 which is to ,musalmns a very imperfect mode of transmitting a revelation of ,god's will4 ,that there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is an idea not only foreign1 but absolutely repugnant to ,muhammadans4 ,the ,qurn is not a book of principles4 ,it is a book of directions4 ,the ,qurn describes the revelation given to ,moses thus3--,we wrote for him upon the tables a monition concerning every matter and said3 ',receive them thyself with steadfastness1 and command thy people to receive them for the observance of its most goodly precepts4' 7,sra vii4 #adb74 ,it is such an inspiration as this the ,qurn claims for itself4 ,muhammad's idea was that it should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter for all mankind4 ,it is not the word of a prophet enlightened by ,god4 ,it proceeds immediately from ,god1 and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes1 or is understood to precede1 every sentence4 ,this to a ,muslim is the highest form of inspiration2 this alone stamps a book as #ci divine4 ,it is acknowledged that the ,injl--the ,gospel--was given by ,jesus2 but as that1 too1 according to ,muslim belief1 was brought down from heaven by the angel ,gabriel during the month of ,ramazn1 it is now asserted that it has been lost1 and that the four ,gospels of the ,new ,testament are simply ,traditions collected by the writers whose names they bear4 ,their value is1 therefore1 that of the second foundation of the ,islmic system4 ,the question next arises as to the exact way in which ,gabriel made known his message to ,muhammad4 ,the ,mudrij-un-,nabuwat1 a standard theological work1 gives some details on this point4#db ,though the ,qurn is all of ,god1 both as to matter and form1 yet it was not all made known to the ,prophet in one and the same manner4 ,the following are some of the modes3-- #a4 ,it is recorded on the authority of 'yesha1 one of ,muhammad's wives1 that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the ,prophet4 ,according to some commentators this brightness remained six months4 ,in some mysterious way ,gabriel1 through this brightness or vision1 made known the will of ,god4 #b4 ,gabriel appeared in the form of ,dahiah1 one of the ,companions of the ,prophet1 renowned for his beauty and gracefulness4 ,a learned dispute has arisen with regard to the abode of the soul of ,gabriel when he assumed the bodily form of ,dahiah4 ,at times1 the angelic nature of ,gabriel overcame ,muhammad1 who was then translated to the world of angels4 ,this always happened when the revelation was one of bad news1 such as denunciations or predictions of woe4 ,at other times1 when the message brought by ,gabriel was one of consolation and comfort1 the human nature of the ,prophet overcame the angelic nature of the angel1 who1 in such case1 having assumed a human form1 proceeded to deliver the message4 #dj #c4 ,the ,prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell4 ,to him alone was known the meaning of the sound4 ,he alone could distinguish in1 and through it1 the words which ,gabriel wished him to understand4 ,the effect of this mode of ,wah was more marvellous than that of any of the other ways4 ,when his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated4 ,on the coldest day1 the perspiration1 like beads of silver1 would roll down his face4 ,the glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a ghastly hue1 whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed the intensity of the emotion through which he was passing4 ,if riding1 the camel on which he sat would fall to the ground4 ,the ,prophet one day1 when reclining with his head in the lap of ,zeid1 heard the well known sound3 ,zeid1 too1 knew that something unusual was happening1 for so heavy became the head of ,muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he could support the weight4 #d4 ,at the time of the ,mi'rj1 or night ascent into heaven1 ,god spoke to the ,prophet without the intervention of an angel4 ,it is a disputed point whether the face of the ,lord was veiled or not4 #e4 ,god sometimes appeared in a dream1 and placing his hands on the ,prophet's shoulders made known his will4 #f4 ,twice1 angels having each six hundred wings1 appeared and brought the message from ,god4 #g4 ,gabriel1 though not appearing in bodily form1 so inspired the heart of the ,prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words of ,god4 ,this is technically called ,ilk1 and is by some supposed to be the degree of inspiration to which the ,traditions belong4 ,above all1 the ,prophet was not allowed to remain in any error2 if1 by any chance1 he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation1 another was always sent to rectify it4 ,this idea has been worked up to a science of abrogation1 according to which some verses of the ,qurn abrogate others4 ,muhammad found it necessary to shift #da his stand-point more than once1 and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation4 ,thus in various ways was the revelation made known to ,muhammad4 ,at first there seems to have been a season of doubt 7,ante p4 #c71 the dread lest after all it might be a mockery4 ,but as years rolled on confidence in himself and in his mission came4 ,at times1 too1 there is a joyousness in his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth1 by ,god and man2 but more often the visions were weird and terrible4 ,tradition says3--,he roared like a camel1 the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces4 ,some strange power moved him1 his fear was uncontrollable4 ,for twenty years or more the revelations came1 a direction on things of heaven and of earth1 to the ,prophet as the spiritual guide of all men1#dc to the ,warrior-,chief1 as the founder of political unity among the ,arab tribes4 ,a ,muhammadan student1 after passing through a course of instruction in grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 law1 and dogmatics1 at length reaches the stage when he is permitted to enter upon the study of ',ilm-i-usl1 or the exegesis of the ,qurn1 and the inspired sayings of the ,prophet4 ,this done1 he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the ,fathers of ,islm have to say4 ,this science in one way fits him to be a commentator1 for the work of a ,muslim divine now is1 not to bring things new and old out of the sacred book1 but to hand down to others the things old4 ,there is no indwelling spirit in the ,church of ,islm which can reveal to the devout mind new views of truth1 or lead the pious scholar on to deeper and more profound knowledge4 ,the greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the ,qurn by heart1 who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators have said1 who can remember1 and quote in the most apposite manner1 the #db ,prophet's sayings preserved in the ,traditions handed down by the ,companions1 their followers1 and their followers' followers1 who can point out a flaw in the ,isnd 7i4e4 chain of narrators7 of a ,tradition quoted by an opponent1 or maintain1 by repeating the long list of names1 the authority of the ,isnd of the ,tradition he quotes himself4 ,a good memory1 not critical acumen1 is the great desideratum in a ,muslim theologian4 ,the chief qualification of a ,hfiz1 a man who can repeat the whole ,qurn by heart1 is not that he shall understand its meaning1 but that he shall be able to pronounce each word correctly4 ,by men who are not ,arabs by birth1 this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood4 ,the ,sunns say that no ,sha'h can ever become a ,hfiz1 from which fact they draw the conclusion that the ,sha'hs are heretics4 ,in the early days of ,islm1 the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation of the ,qurn were the ,khalfs ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn1 and ',al1 and ten of the ,companions1 who learned from the ,prophet himself the exact way in which ,gabriel had spoken4 ,the ,arabic of heaven was the ,arabic of ,islm4 ,the effort1 however1 to preserve one uniform method of repeating the ,qurn failed4 ,men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of ,mecca1 and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became current4 ,here was a great difficulty1 but it proved surmountable4 ,abu ,ibn ,kb1 one of the ,companions1 had become so famous as a reader that the ,prophet himself said3 read the ,qurn under ,abu ,ibn ,kb4 ,these men remembered that ,abu ,ibn ,kb had stated1 that one day when scandalized at man after man who entered the mosque repeating the ,qurn in different ways1 he spoke to ,muhammad about it4 ,his ,highness said3 ,o ,abu ,ibn ,kb6 intelligence was sent to me to read the ,qurn in one dialect1 and ,i was attentive to the ,court of ,god1 and said3 'make easy the reading of the ,qurn to my sects4' ,these instructions were sent to me a second time saying3 'read the #dc ,qurn in two dialects4' ,then ,i turned myself to the ,court of ,god saying3 'make easy the reading of the ,qurn to my sects4' ,then a voice was sent to me the third time saying3 'read the ,qurn in seven dialects4' ,this removed all difficulty1 and the foresight displayed by the ,prophet in thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked upon as a proof of his inspiration4 ,thus arose the haft qir1at1 or seven readings of the ,qurn1 now recognised4 ,in the ,qurn compiled by the order of the ,khalf ,osmn there were no vowel-points1 but when men of other countries embraced ,islm they found great difficulty in mastering ,arabic4 ,khalid bin ,ahmad1 a great grammarian1 then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks4 ,the seven famous ,readers whose names have been given to the various modes of reading1 are ,imm ,nafi of ,madna1 ,imm ,ibn-i-,kasir of ,mecca1 ,imm ,abu ',umr of ,basra1 ,imm ,hamza of ,kufa1 ,imm ,ibn ',amir of ,syria1 ,imm 'sim of ,kufa1 ,imm ,kise of ,kufa4#dd ,these learned men affixed different vowel-points in many places in the ,qurn1 and thus slight differences of meaning arose4 ,in ,india the qir1at--reading1--of ,imm 'sim is followed by both ,sunns and ,sha'hs4 ,there are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the ,qurn privately1 but not when reading any part in a liturgical service4 ,during the month of ,ramazn the ,qurn is repeated every night in the mosque1 it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each night4 ,the ,imm of the mosque1 or public ,reader1 7,qr7 who commences according to one of the seven recognised readings 7qir1at71 must keep to the same all the month4 ,as he has to recite without a book this involves a great exercise of the memory4 ,a good ,hfiz will know the whole seven varieties4 ,the various readings thus introduced1 though #dd unimportant in their nature1#de amount to about five hundred in number4 ,the following are a few illustrations4 ,in the second ,sra ,abu ',umr reads3 ,nor shall ye be questioned concerning that which they have done2 but 'sim reads3 ,that which ye have done4 ,this is caused by putting two dots above the line instead of below it4 ,again 'sim reads3 ,enter ye the gates of hell 7,sra xxxix4 #gc71 but ,nafi reads3 ,ye will be made to enter hell1--that is1 by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice4 ,these are fair samples of the rest4 ,no doctrine1 so far as ,i know1 is touched1 but the way in which ,tradition records the ,prophet's anticipation of the difficulty is instructive to the student of ,islm4 ,at times1 too1 fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous ,readers whose names ,i have given above4 ,in the year #ice ,a4,h41 ,ibn ,shanabud1 a resident of ,baghdd1 ventured to introduce some different readings in his recital of the ,qurn4 ,the people of ,baghdd1 not knowing these1 were furious1 and the ,khalf was compelled to cast the offender into prison4 ,a ,council of divines was called together1 before whom the unhappy ,ibn ,shanabud was produced4 ,for a while he maintained the correctness of his readings1 but after being whipped seven times he said3 ,i renounce my manner of reading1 and in future ,i shall follow no other than that of the manuscript drawn up by the ,khalf ,osmn1 and that which is generally received4#df ,closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the science of grammar4 ,as ,islm spread1 it became necessary to expound the ,qurn to persons unacquainted with ,arabic4 ,the science of grammar then became an important branch of study1 and the collection of ,traditions a necessary duty4 ,the ,faithful were for a long time in #de doubt as to the lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book4 ,there was no command in the book itself to do so1 nor had the ,prophet given any directions on this point4 ,it was then neither farz nor sunnat1 that is1 neither a command based on the ,qurn nor one based on any saying or act of the ,prophet4 ,the ,traditions1 however1 solve the difficulty4 ,al ,mamun1 the distinguished though heretical ,khalf of ,baghdd1 was a patron of ,al ,farra1 the chief of grammarians4 ,a distinguished pupil of his1 ,abu'l ',abbs ,thalub1 on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that the ,qurnists1 the ,traditionists1 and others1 had gained their heavenly reward1 but he had been only a grammarian1 and grammar after all was1 in connection with the ,qurn1 a science of doubtful legality4 ,the friend to whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision4 ,it is recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night1 in which he saw the blessed ,prophet1 who said to him3 ,give my greeting to ,abu'l ',abbs ,thalub1 and say1 'thou art master of the superior science4' ,the ,prophet had now spoken1 and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in ,islm4 ,muslims now quote the ,qurn as a perfect model of style2 it may be well to remember that the rules have been made for it1 and that1 therefore1 it is but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of ,arabic grammar4#dg ,the question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very important branch of the ',ilm-i-usl4 ,it is said that the ,qurn was brought from ,paradise by ,gabriel to ,muhammad as occasion required4 ,the ,prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation1 and #df answered the reproach by the following verse1 sent for the purpose4 ,the infidels say1 'unless the ,qurn be sent down to him all at once'--but in this way we establish thy heart in it1 in parcels have we parcelled it out to thee 7,sra xxv4 #cd74 ,the revelation thus given is entirely objective2 it came to the ear of the ,prophet through the teaching of ,gabriel4 ,yet it is a glorious ,qurn1 written on the preserved ,table4 7,sra lxxxv4 #bb74 ,gabriel addresses the ,prophet thus3 ,when we have recited it then follow thou the recital4 7,sra lxxv4 #ah74 ,the external mode in which it came is referred to in the verse3 ,we have sent down to thee an ,arabic ,qurn4 7,sra xx4 #aab74 ,the fragmentary way in which the ,qurn was given#dh was not without its difficulties4 ,some passages contradicted others1 some were difficult to understand4 ,to the ,prophet alone was the solution known4 ,the knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers1 the ,companions1 as they are called1 thus3 ,to thee have we sent down this book of monitions1 that thou mayest make clear to men what hath been sent down to them4 7,sra xvi4 #df74 ,ibn ,khaldoun says3 ,the ,prophet unfolded the meaning1 distinguished between abrogated and abrogating verses1 #dg and communicated this knowledge to his ,companions4 ,it was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being made4#di ,the ,companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with the whole revelation4 ,this knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their followers1 the ,tba'n1 who in their turn passed it on to their followers the ,taba-i-,tba'n4 ,the art of writing then became common1 and the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the sayings of the ,companions thus handed down4 ,criticism of a passage in the ,qurn was not his duty1 criticism of a comment made on it by a ,companion was beyond his province3 the first was too sacred to be touched1 the second must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were perfect4 ,thus early in the history of ,islm were the principles of exegesis fixed and settled4 ,every word1 every sentence1 has now its place and class4 ,the commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before1#ej though he may in elucidation of the point1 bring forth some ,tradition hitherto unnoticed1 which would1 however1 be a difficult thing to do4 ,it will thus be seen that anything like the work of a ,christian commentator1 with all its fresh life and new ideas1 is not to be had in ,islm4 ,the perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature-- ,while as the world rolls on from age to age1 ,and realms of thought expand1 ,the letter stands without expanse or range1 ,stiff as a dead man's hand4 ,the technical terms which the student must know1 and #dh the definitions of which he must understand1 are those which relate to the nature of the words1 the sentences1 the use of the words of the ,qurn1 and the deduction of arguments from passages in the book4 ,i4 ,the words of the ,qurn are divided into four classes4 #a4 ,khss1 or special words4 ,these are sub-divided into three classes4 ,first1 words which relate to genus1 e4g4 mankind4 ,secondly1 words which relate to species1 e4g4 a man1 which refers to men as distinguished from women4 ,thirdly1 words which relate to special individuality1 e4g4 ,zeid1 which is the name of a special individual4 #b4 ',amm1 or common or collective names1 such as people4 #c4 ,mushtarik1 or words which have several significations1 as the ,arabic word 'ain1 which may mean an eye1 a fountain1 or the sun4 ,again1 the word ,sult1 if connected with ,god1 may mean mercy1 as ,sult ,ullh1 the mercy of ,god2 if with man1 it may mean either namz1 a stated liturgical service1 or du'a1 prayer in its ordinary sense1 e4g4 ,sult-ul-,istisq 7prayer in time of drought7 is du'a1 not namz4 #d4 ,muawwal1 words which have several significations1 all of which are possible1 and so a special explanation is required4 ,for example1 ,sra cviii4 #b1 reads thus in ,sale's translation4 ,wherefore pray unto the ,lord and slay 7the victims74 ,the word translated slay is in ,arabic nahr1 which has many meanings4 ,the followers of the great ,legist ,abu ,hanfa render it1 sacrifice1 and add the words 7the victims74 ,the followers of ,ibn ,shfa' say it means placing the hands on the breast in prayer4 ,this illustrates the difference between ,mushtarik and ,muawwal4 ,in the former1 only one meaning is allowable1 and that meaning the context settles2 in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right4 ,these divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of defining any word in the ,qurn gained1 the #di student passes on to consider the nature of the sentences4 ,these are divided into two great classes1--the ,obvious1 and the ,hidden4 ,this division is referred to in the following passage of the ,qurn4 ,he it is who hath sent down to thee the book4 ,some of its signs are of themselves perspicuous2 these are the basis 7literally mother7 of the book1 and others are figurative4 ,but they whose hearts are given to err follow its figures1 craving discord1 craving an interpretation2 yet none know its interpretation1 but ,god4#ea ,and the stable in knowledge say3 ',we believe in it1 it is all from ,god4' 7,sra iii4 #c74 ,this has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and allegorical statements4 ,in order to explain these correctly the commentator must know 7#a7 the reason why1 7#b7 the place where1 7#c7 the time when1 the particular passage he is expounding was revealed2 he must know whether it abrogates or is abrogated1 whether it is in its proper order and place or not2 whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which the context throws upon it2 he must know all the ,traditions which bear upon it1 and the authority for each such ,tradition4 ,this effectually confines the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the ,companions1 and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply reproduce their opinions4#eb ,but to return from this digression4 ,sentences are ,zhir--,obvious1 or ,khaf--,hidden4 ,obvious sentences are divided into four classes4 ,i4 7#a74 ,zhir1 or obvious1 the meaning of which is so clear that he who hears it at once understands its meaning #ej without seeking for any explanation4 ,this kind of sentence may be abrogated4 ,unless abrogated1 action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of ,god4 ,all penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one religious act for another1 e4g4 almsgiving instead of fasting1 must be based on this1 the clearest of the obvious sentences4 7#b74 ,nass1 a word commonly used for a text of the ,qurn1 but in its technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence1 the meaning of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it4 ,the following sentence illustrates both ,zhir and ,nass3 ,take in marriage of such other women as please you1 two1 three1 four4 ,this sentence is ,zhir1 because marriage is here declared lawful2 it is ,nass1 because the words one1 two1 three1 four1 which occur in the sentence1 show the unlawfulness of having more than four wives4 7#c74 ,mufassir1 or explained4 ,this is a sentence which needs some word in it to explain it and make it clear4 ,thus3 ,and the angels prostrated themselves1 all of them with one accord1 save ,iblis 7,satan74 ,here the words save ,iblis1 show that he did not prostrate himself4 ,this kind of sentence may be abrogated4 7#d74 ,mukham1 or perspicuous4 ,this is a sentence as to the meaning of which there can be no doubt1 and which cannot be controverted1 thus3 ,god knoweth all things4 ,this kind of sentence cannot be abrogated4 ,to act on such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest degree of obedience to ,god's command4 ,the difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or apparent contradiction between them4 ,if such should occur1 the first must give place to the second1 and so on4 ,thus ,mukham cannot be abrogated or changed by any of the preceding1 or ,mufassir by ,nass1 c4 ,the other great division of sentences is that of ,,ii4 7#a74 ,khaf or hidden4 ,such are those sentences in #ea which other persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or expression contained therein1 as3 as for a thief1 whether male or female1 cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings4 7,sra v4 #db74 ,the word for thief is ,sriq1 and in this passage it is understood to include highwaymen1 pickpockets1 plunderers of the dead1 c4 ,these meanings are ,khaf or hidden under it4 7#b74 ,muskhil1 or ambiguous1 ,the following is given as an illustration3 ,and 7their attendants7 shall go round about them with vessels of silver and goblets4 ,the bottles shall be bottles of silver4 ,the difficulty here is that bottles are not made of silver1 but of glass4 ,the commentators say1 however1 that glass is dull in colour1 though it has some lustre1 whilst silver is white1 and not so bright as glass4 ,now it may be1 that the bottles of ,paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre1 and like silver as regards their colour4 ,but anyhow1 it is very difficult to ascertain the meaning4 7#c47 ,mujmal4 ,these are1 first1 sentences which may have a variety of interpretations1 owing to the words in them being capable of several meanings2 in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the ,traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted4 ,secondly1 the sentence may contain some very rare word1 and thus its meaning may be doubtful1 as3 ,man truly is by creation hasty4 7,sra lxx4 #ai47 ,in this verse the word hal'--hasty--occurs4 ,it is very rarely used1 and had it not been for the following words1 when evil toucheth him1 he is full of complaint2 but when good befalleth him1 he becometh niggardly1 its meaning would not have been at all easy to understand4 ,the following is an illustration of the first kind of ,mujmal sentences3 ,stand for prayer 7salt7 and give alms1 7zakt47 ,both salt and zakt are ',mushtarik' words4 ,the people1 therefore1 did not understand this verse1 so they applied to ,muhammad for an explanation4 ,he explained to them that salt might mean the ritual of public prayer1 #eb standing to say the words ,god is great1 or standing to repeat a few verses of the ,qurn2 or it might mean private prayer4 ,the primitive meaning of zakt is growing4 ,the ,prophet1 however1 fixed the meaning here to that of almsgiving1 and said1 ,give of your substance one-fortieth part4 7#d47 ,mutashbih4 ,these are sentences so difficult that men cannot understand them1 a fact referred to in ,sra iii4 #c4 7,ante4 p4 #di71 nor will they do so until the day of resurrection4 ,the ,prophet1 however1 knew their meaning4 ,such portions are the letters ,a1 ,l1 ,m2 ,a1 ,l1 ,r2 ,y1 ,a at the commencement of some of the ,sras4#ec ,such expressions also as ,god's hand1 ,the face of ,god1 ,god sitteth1 c41 come under this category4 ,the next point to be considered is the use of words in the ,qurn1 and here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found1 viz3-- 7#a47 ,haqqat1 that is1 words which are used in their literal meaning1 as ruk'1 a prostration1 and salt in the sense of prayer4 7#b47 ,majz1 or words which are used in a figurative sense1 as salt in the sense of nmz a liturgical service4 7#c47 ,sarh1 or words the meaning of which is quite evident1 as1 ,thou art divorced1 ,thou art free4 7#d47 ,kinayh1 or words which1 being used in a metaphorical sense1 require the aid of the context to make their meaning clear1 as3 ,thou art separated1 which may1 as it #ec stands alone1 mean ,thou art divorced4 ,this class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be known from the context1 e4g4 one day the ,prophet not knowing who knocked at his door said1 ,who art thou8 ,the man replied1 ,it is ,i4 ,muhammad answered1 ,why dost thou say ,i1 ,i8 ,say thy name that ,i may know who thou art4 ,the pronoun ,i is here 'kinayh4' ,the most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is istidll1 or the science of deducing arguments from the ,qurn4 ,this too is divided into four sections1 as follows3-- 7#a47 ,ibrat1 or the plain sentence4 ,mothers1 after they are divorced1 shall give suck unto their children two full years1 and the father shall be obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is reasonable4 7,sra ii4 #bcc47 ,from this verse two deductions are made4 ,first1 from the fact that the word them is in the feminine plural1 it must refer to the mothers and not to the children2 secondly1 as the duty of supporting the mother is incumbent on the father1 it shows that the relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother4 ,penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind4 7#b47 ,ishrat1 that is1 a sign or hint which may be given from the order in which the words are placed4 7#c47 ,dallat1 or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some special word in the verse1 as3 say not to your parents1 ,fie 7,arabic uff7 7,sra xvii4 #bc74 ,from the use of the word uff1 it is argued that children may not beat or abuse their parents4 ,penal laws may be based on dallat1 thus3 ,their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth2 but ,god loveth not the abettors of disorder4 7,sra v4 #fi47 ,the word translated aim is in ,arabic literally yasa'na1 they run4 ,from this the argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about1 they are included amongst those whom ,god loveth not1 and that1 therefore1 the severest punishment may be given to #ed them1 for any deduction that comes under the head of dallat is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal laws4 7#d47 ,iqtiz4 ,this is a deduction which demands certain conditions3 whosoever killeth a believer by mischance1 shall be bound to free a believer from slavery4 7,sra iv4 #id74 ,as a man has no authority to free his neighbour's slave1 the condition here required1 though not expressed1 is that the slave should be his own property4 ,the ,qurn is divided into3-- 7#a74 ,harf 7plural ,hurf71 letters4 ,the numbers given by different authorities vary4 ,in one standard book it is said that there are #cch1fjf letters4 7#b74 ,kalima 7plural ,kalimt71 words1 stated by some to amount to #gi1jhg2 by others to #gg1icd4 7#c74 yat 7plural yt71 verses4 yat really means a sign1 and was the name given by ,muhammad to short sections or verses of the ,qurn4 ,the end of a verse is determined by the position of a small circle 7474 ,the early ,qurn ,readers did not agree as to the position of these circles1 and so five different ways of arranging them have arisen4 ,this accounts for a variation in the number of verses in various editions4 ,the varieties are3-- 7#a74 ,kfa verses4 ,the ,readers in the city of ,kfa say that they followed the custom of ',al4 ,their way of reckoning is generally adopted in ,india4 ,they reckon #f1bci verses4 7#b74 ,basra verses4 ,the ,readers of ,basra follow ',asim bin ,hajjj1 a ,companion4 ,they reckon #f1bjd4 7#c74 ,shmi verses4 ,the ,readers in ,syria 7,shm7 followed ,abd-ullh bin ',umr1 a ,companion4 ,they reckon #f1bbe verses4 7#d74 ,mecca verses4 ,according to this arrangement there are #f1bai verses4 7#e74 ,madna verses4 ,this way of reading contains #f1baa verses4 #ee ,in each of the above varieties the verse ,bismillh 7in the name of ,god7 is not reckoned4 ,it occurs #aac times in the ,qurn4 ,this diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any important passage4 ,the third verse of the third ,sra is an important exception4 ,the position of the circle 7471 the symbol denoting a full stop1 in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of scholasticism 7',ilm-i-kalm7 in ,islm4 ,most of the cases1 however1 are like the following3-- ,in ,sra xxvii4 an account is given of the ,queen of ,sheba's receiving a letter from ,king ,solomon4 ,addressing her nobles she said3 ,verily1 ,kings1 when they enter a city 7by force7 waste the same1 and abase the most powerful of the inhabitants hereof3 and so will 7these7 do 7with us74 ,many ,readers put the full stop after the word hereof1 and say that ,god is the speaker of the words and so will they do4 7#d74 ,sra1 or chapter4 ,the word ,sra means a row or series1 such as a line of bricks arranged in a wall1 but it is now exclusively used for chapters in the ,qurn4 ,these are one hundred and fourteen in number4 ,the ,sras are not numbered in the original ,arabic1 but each one has some approximate name1 7as ,baqr--the cow1 ,nis--women1 c417 generally taken from some expression which occurs in it4 ,they are not arranged in chronological order1 but according to their length4 ,as a general rule1 the shorter ,sras which contain the theology of ,islm1 belong to the ,meccan period of the ,prophet's career1#ed and the longer ones relating chiefly to social duties and relationships1 to the organisation of ,islm as a civil polity1 to the time when he was consolidating his power at ,madna4 ,the best way1 therefore1 to #ef read the ,qurn1 is to begin at the end4 ,the attempt to arrange the ,sras in due order1 is a very difficult one1 and1 after all1 can only be approximately correct4#ee ,carlyle referring to the confused mass of endless iterations1 long windedness1 entanglement1 most crude1 incondite says3 nothing but a sense of duty could carry any ,european through the ,qurn4 ,when re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible4 ,the chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter4 ,there is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier and later ,sras4 ,the references to historical events sometimes give a clue4 ,individual ,sras are often very composite in their character1 but1 such as they are1 they have been from the beginning4 ,the recension made by ,zeid1 in the reign of the ,khalf ,osmn1 has been handed down unaltered in its form4 ,the only variations 7qir'at7 now to be found in the text have been already noticed4 ,they in no way affect the arrangements of the ,sras4 #e4 ,spra a thirtieth portion4 ,this is a ,persian word derived from s1 thirty1 and pra1 a portion4 ,the ,arabs call each of these divisions a ,juz4 ,owing to this division1 a pious man can recite the whole ,qurn in a month1 taking one ,spra each day4 ,musalmns never quote the ,qurn as we do by ,sra and yat1 but by the ,spra and ,ruk'1 a term ,i now proceed to explain4 #f4 ,ruk' 7plural ,rukt74 ,this word literally means a prostration made by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers4 ,the collection of verses recited from the ,qurn1 ascriptions of praise offered to ,god1 and various ritual acts connected with these1 constitute one act of worship called a rak'at4 ,after reciting some verses in this form of prayer1 the worshipper makes a ,ruk'1 or prostration1 the #eg portion then recited takes the name of ,ruk'4 ,tradition states that the ,khalf ,osmn1 when reciting the ,qurn during the month of ,ramazn1 used to make twenty rak'ats each evening4 ,in each rak'at he introduced different verses of the ,qurn1 beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on4 ,in this way he recited about two hundred verses each evening2 that is1 about ten verses in each rak'at4 ,since then1 it has been the custom to recite the ,qurn in this way in ,ramazn1 and also to quote it by the ruk'1 e4g41 such a passage is in such a ,spra and in such a ruk'4 ,the following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain4 ,when the ,faithful are assembled in the mosque1 the ,imm1 or leader1 being in front facing the ,qibla1 the service commences thus3--,each worshipper stands and says the ,niyyat 7literally intention71 a form of words declaring his intention to say his prayers4 ,he then says3 ,god is great4 ,after this1 looking downwards1 he says3 ,holiness to ,thee1 ,o ,god6 and praise be to ,thee1 ,great is ,thy name1 ,great is ,thy greatness1 there is no deity but ,thee4 ,then follows3 ,i seek from ,god refuge from cursed ,satan4 ,then the ,tasmiyah is repeated3 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate and ,merciful4 ,then follows the ,ftiha1 that is1 the short chapter at the commencement of the ,qurn4 ,after this has been recited1 the ,imm proceeds1 on the first night of the month ,ramazn1 with the first verse of the second chapter4#ef ,after saying a few verses1 he makes a ruk'2 that is1 he bends his head and body down1 and places his hands on his knees4 ,in this position he says3 ,god is great4 ,then he repeats three times the words3 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,great4 ,he then stands up and says3 ,god hears him who praises ,him4 ,to this the people respond3 ,o ,lord1 thou art praised4 ,again1 falling on his knees1 the worshipper says3 ,god is great4 ,then he puts first his nose1 and then his forehead on the #eh ground and says three times3 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,most ,high4 ,then sitting on his heels1 he says3 ,god is great2 and again repeats as before3 ,i extol1 etc4 ,he then rises and says3 ,god is great4 ,this is one rak'at4 ,on each night in the month of ,ramazn this is gone through twenty times1 the only variation being that after the ,ftiha and before the first prostration1 fresh verses of the ,qurn are introduced4 ,the whole is1 of course1 done in ,arabic1 in whatever country the worshippers may be4 ,the name of the prostration 7ruk'7 has been transferred to the portion of the ,qurn recited just before it is made4 ,there are altogether #eeg ,rukt4 7#g74 ,the other divisions are not important4 ,they are1 a ,sumn1 ,ruba'1 ,nisf1 ,suls1 that is one-eighth1 one-fourth1 one-half1 one-third of a ,spra respectively4 ,in reciting the ,qurn the worshipper must be careful to say the ,takbr1 i4e4 ,god is great1 after the several appointed places4 ,such a place is after the recital of the #icrd ,sra4 ,the custom arose in this way4 ,the hypocrites came to the ,prophet and asked him to relate the story of the ,seven ,sleepers4 ,he said3 ,i will tell you to-morrow2 but he forgot to add the words if ,god will4 ,by way of warning1 ,god allowed no inspiration to descend upon him for some days4 ,then the hypocrites began to laugh and say3 ,god has left him4 ,as it was not ,god's purpose to put his messenger to ridicule1 the ,sra entitled ,the brightness 7xciii7 was immediately brought by the ever-ready ,gabriel4 ,it begins3 ,by the brightness of the morning1 and by the night when it groweth dark1 thy ,lord hath not forsaken thee1 neither doth ,he hate thee4 ,in remembrance of this signal interposition of ,providence on his behalf1 the ,prophet always concluded the recital of this ,sra with the words3 ,god is great4 ,the practice thus became a ,sunnat obligation2 that is1 it should be done because the ,prophet did it4 ,the doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in #ei connection with the study of the ,qurn4 ,it is referred to in the verses3 ,whatever verses we cancel or cause thee to forget1 we give thee better in their stead1 or the like thereof4 7,sra ii4 #ajj74 ,this is a ,madna ,sra4 ,what ,he pleaseth will ,god abrogate or confirm2 for with ,him is the source of revelation4 7,sra xiii4 #ci74 ,some verses which were cancelled in the ,prophet's life-time are not now extant4 ,abdullah ,ibn ,masd states that the ,prophet one day recited a verse1 which he immediately wrote down4 ,the next morning he found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written4 ,astonished at this1 he acquainted ,muhammad with the fact1 and was informed that the verse in question had been revoked4 ,there are1 however1 many verses still in the ,qurn1 which have been abrogated4 ,it was an exceedingly convenient doctrine1 and one needed to explain the change of front which ,muhammad made at different periods of his career4 ,certain rules have been laid down to regulate the practice4 ,the verse which abrogates is called ,nsikh1 and the abrogated verse ,manskh4 ,manskh verses are of three kinds3--first1 where the words and the sense have both been abrogated2 secondly1 where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains2 thirdly1 where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains4 ,imm ,mlik gives as an instance of the first kind the verse3 ,if a son of ,adam had two rivers of gold1 he would covet yet a third2 and if he had three he would covet yet a fourth4 ,neither shall the belly of a son of ,adam be filled1 but with dust4 ,god will turn unto him who shall repent4 ,the ,imm states that originally this verse was in the ,sra 7ix47 called ,repentance4 ,the verse1 called the verse of stoning is an illustration of the second kind4 ,it reads3 ,abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you4 ,if a man and woman of reputation commit adultery1 ye shall stone them both2 it is a punishment ordained by ,god2 for ,god is mighty and wise4 ,the ,khalf ,omar says this verse was extant in ,muhammad's life-time but that it #fj is now lost4 ,but it is the third class which practically comes into ',ilm-i-usl4 ,authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated4 ,sale states that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five4 ,the principal ones are not many in number1 and are very generally agreed upon4 ,i give a few examples4 ,it is a fact worthy of notice that they occur chiefly1 if not almost entirely1 in ,sras delivered at ,madna4 ,there1 where ,muhammad had to confront ,jews and ,christians1 he was at first politic in his aim to win them over to his side1 and then1 when he found them obstinate1 the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently4 ,this is seen plainly in the following case4 ,at ,mecca ,muhammad and his followers did not stand facing any particular direction when at prayer1 a fact to which the following passage refers3--,to ,god belongeth the east and west2 therefore1 whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of ,god4 7,sra ii4 #aji74 ,when ,muhammad arrived at ,madna1 he entered into friendship with the ,jews and tried to win them to his side4 ,the ,qibla 7sanctuary7 towards which the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was ,jerusalem4 ,this went on for a while1 but when ,muhammad claimed to be not merely a ,prophet for the ,arabs1 but the last and the greatest of all the ,prophets1 when he asserted that ,moses had foretold his advent1 and that his revelations were the same as those contained in their own ,scriptures1 they utterly refused allegiance to him4 ,in the first half of the second year of the ,hijra the breach between them was complete4 ,it was now time to reconcile the leaders of the ,quraish tribe at ,mecca4 ,so the verse quoted above was abrogated by3 ,we have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven1 but we will have thee turn to a ,qibla1 which shall please thee4 ,turn then thy face toward the ,holy ,temple 7of ,mecca71 and wherever ye be1 turn your faces toward that part4 7,sra ii4 #aci47 ,the ,faithful were consoled by the assurance that though they had not done so hitherto1 yet ,god would not let their #fa faith be fruitless1 for unto man is ,god merciful1 gracious4 7v4 #ach47 ,the doctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in the following case3 ,it is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter1 nor to change thy present wives for other women1 though their beauty charm thee1 except slaves1 whom thy right hand shall possess4 7,sra xxxiii4 #eb47 ,this is said by ,beidawi1 and other eminent ,muslim divines1 to have been abrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of verses1 was really delivered after it4 ,the verse is3 ,o ,prophet1 we allow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered1 and the slaves which thy right hand possesseth out of the booty which ,god hath granted thee2 and the daughters of thy uncle1 and the daughters of thy aunts1 both on thy father's side1 and on thy mother's side1 who have fled with thee 7to ,madna71 and any other believing woman1 who hath given herself up to the ,prophet2 if the ,prophet desireth to wed her1 it is a peculiar privilege for thee1 above the rest of the ,faithful4 7,sra xxxiii4 #di47 ,the ,moghul ,emperor ,akbar1 wishing to discredit the ',ulam1 in one of the meetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign1 propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry4 ,the lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the ,prophet4 ,of other women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two1 and three and three1 and four and four4 7,sra iv4 #c47 ,the ,emperor said that he had not restricted himself to that number1 and that ,shaikh ',abd-un-,nabi had told him that a certain ,mujtahid had had nine wives4 ,the ,mujtahid in question1 ,ibn ,abi ,lailah reckoned the number allowed thus #bcdi4 ,other learned men counted in this way #bb1 #cc1 #ddah4 ,the ,emperor wished the meeting to decide the point4 ,again1 the second verse of ,sra lxxiii reads3 ,stand up all night1 except a small portion of it1 for prayer4 ,according to a ,tradition handed down by 'yesha the last verse #fb of this ,sra was revealed a year later4 ,it makes the matter much easier4 ,god measureth the night and the day2 he knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright1 and therefore turneth to you mercifully4 ,recite then so much of the ,qurn as may be easy to you4 7v4 #bj47 ,the following is an illustration of a verse abrogated1 though there is no verse to prove its abrogation4 ,however1 according to the ,ijm' it has been abrogated4 ,but alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to those who collect them1 and to those whose hearts are won to ,islm4 7,sra ix4 #fj47 ,the clause--to those whose hearts are won to ,islm--is now cancelled4#eg ,muhammad1 to gain the hearts of those1 who lately enemies1 had now become friends1 and to confirm them in the faith1 gave them large presents from the spoils he took in war2 but when ,islm spread and became strong1 the ',ulam agreed that such a procedure was not required and said that the order was mansukh4 ,the other verses abrogated relate to the ,ramazn fast1 to ,jihd1 the law of retaliation1 and other matters of social interest4 ,the doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by ,musalmn controversialists to the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 which they say are abrogated by the ,qurn4 ,his 7,muhammad's7 law is the abrogator of every other law4#eh ,this is not1 however1 a legitimate use of the doctrine4 ,according to the best and most ancient ,muslim divines1 abrogation refers entirely to the ,qurn and the ,traditions1 and even then is confined to commands and prohibitions4 ,those who imagine it to be part of the ,muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another1 are utterly mistaken--we hold no such doctrine4#ei ,in the ,tafsr-i-,itifq it is written3 ,abrogation affects those #fc matters which ,god has confined to the followers of ,muhammad1 and one of the chief advantages of it is that the way is made easy4 ,in the ,tafsr-i-,mazhir we find3 ,abrogation refers only to commands and prohibitions1 not to facts or historical statements4#fj ,again1 no verse of the ,qurn1 or a ,tradition can be abrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it in meaning4 ,if it is a verse of the ,qurn1 we must have the authority of ,muhammad himself for the abrogation2 if a ,tradition1 that of a ,companion4 ,thus the word of a commentator or a ,mujtahid is not sufficient unless there is a 'genuine ,tradition' 7,hads-i-,sahh71 to show the matter clearly4 ,the question of the abrogation of any previous command depends on historical facts with regard to the abrogation1 not on the mere opinion of a commentator4 ,it cannot be shown that either ,muhammad or a ,companion ever said that the ,bible was abrogated4 ,this rule1 whilst it shows that the assertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation1 also illustrates another point to which ,i have often called attention1 viz42 that in ,islm all interpretation must be regulated by traditionalism4 ,additions were occasionally made4 ,thus when it was revealed that those who stay at home were not before ,god as those who go forth to war1 ,abdullah and ,ibn ,um-,maktum said3 'and what if they were blind4' ,the ,prophet asked for the shoulder-blade on which the verse was written4 ,he then had a spasmodic convulsion4 ,after his recovery he made ,zeid add the words1 free from trouble4 ,so now the whole verse reads thus3 ,those believers who sit at home free from trouble 7i4e41 bodily infirmity71 and those who do valiantly in the cause of ,god1 with their substance and their persons1 shall not be treated alike4 7,sra iv4 #ig74 ,years after1 ,zeid said3 ,i fancy ,i see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack4 #fd ,the question of the eternal nature of the ,qurn does not properly come under the head of ',ilm-i-usl1 but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many ,muslims4 ,in the days of the ,khalf ,al-,mamun this question was fiercely debated4 ,the ,freethinkers1 whilst believing in the ,mission of ,muhammad1 asserted that the ,qurn was created1 by which statement they meant that the revelation came to him in a subjective mode1 and that the language was his own4 ,the book was thus brought within the reach of criticism4 ,in the year #bab1 ,a4,h4 the ,khalf issued a decree to the effect that all who held the ,qurn to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy4 ,but the ,khalf himself was a notorious rationalist1 and so the orthodox1 though they remained quiet1 remained unconvinced4 ,the arguments used on the orthodox side are1 that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal1 that the attempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the ,divine ,mind and as it appears in the ,qurn is highly dangerous4 ,in vain do their opponents argue that1 if the ,qurn is uncreated1 two ,eternal ,beings are in existence4 ,to this it is answered3 ,this is the honourable ,qurn1 written in the preserved ,tablet4 7,sra lvi4 #gf74 ,a ,tradition is also adduced which states3 ,god wrote the ,thora 7,law7 with ,his own hand1 and with ,his own hand ,he created ,adam2 and also in the ,qurn it is written1 'and ,we wrote for him upon the tables a monition concerning every matter1' in reference to the tables of the ,law given to ,moses4 ,if ,god did this for former prophets and their works1 how much more1 it is argued1 should he not have done it for the last and greatest of the prophets1 and the noble ,qurn8 ,it is not easy to get a correct definition of the term the uncreated ,qurn1 but it has been put thus3 ,the ,word as it exists in the mind of ,god is ',kalm-i-,nafs' 7spiritual word71 something unwritten and eternal4 ,it is acknowledged by the ,ijm'-i-,ummat 7consent of the ,faithful71 the ,traditions1 and by other prophets that ,god #fe speaks4 ,the ,kalm-i-,nafs then is eternal1 but the actual words1 style1 and eloquence are created by ,god2 so also is the arrangement and the miraculous nature of the book4 ,this seems to be a reasonable account of the doctrine1 though there are theologians who hold that the very words are eternal4 ,the doctrine of abrogation clashes with this idea1 but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute predestination4 ,this accounts for the circumstances which necessitated the abrogation1 for the circumstances1 as well as the abrogated verses1 were determined on from all eternity4 ,this concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the ,qurn1 a book difficult and uninteresting for a non-,muslim to read1 but one which has engaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of the human race4 ,thousands of devout students in the great theological schools of ,cairo1 ,stamboul1 ,central ,asia and ,india are now plodding through this very subject of which ,i have here been treating2 soon will they go forth as teachers of the book they so much revere4 ,how utterly unfit that training is to make them wise men in any true sense of the word1 how calculated to render them proud1 conceited1 and scornful of other creeds1 its rigid and exclusive character shows4 ,still1 it is a marvellous book2 for twelve hundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith1 animate the courage1 cheer the despondency of multitudes1 whether dwellers in the wild uplands of ,central ,asia1 in ,hindustan1 or on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,turanian and the ,aryan1 the ,arab and the ,negro1 alike learn its sonorous sentences1 day by day repeat its opening clauses1 and pray in its words as their fathers prayed before them4 ,next to the act of testifying to the unity of ,god1 the ,qurn is the great bond of ,islm4 ,no matter from what race the convert may have come1 no matter what language he may speak1 he must learn in ,arabic1 and repeat by rote portions of the ,qurn in every act of public worship4 ,the next subject for consideration is that of the #ff ,traditions1 or the second branch of the science of ',ilm-i-usl4 ,the ,traditions contain the record of all that ,muhammad did and said4 ,it is the belief of every ,muslim1 to whatever sect he belongs1 that the ,prophet not only spake but also acted under a divine influence4 ,the mode of the inspiration is different from that of the ,qurn4 ,there the revelation was objective4 ,in the ,prophet's sayings recorded in the ,traditions the inspiration is subjective1 but still a true inspiration4 ,this belief places the ,traditions in a place second only to the ,qurn2 it makes them a true supplement to that book1 and thus they not only throw light on its meaning1 but themselves form the basis on which doctrines may be established4 ,without going so far as to say that every ,tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in ,islm1 it may be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed of that system if the ,traditions are not studied and taken into account4 ,so important a branch of ,muslim theology is it1 that the study of the ,traditions is included in the ',ilm-i-usl1 or science of exegesis4 ,some account of them1 therefore1 naturally forms part of this chapter4 ,the first four ,khalfs were called the ,khulaf-i-,rshidn that is1 those who could guide others aright4 ,they had been friends and ,companions of the ,prophet1 and the ,faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt4 ,the ,prophet had declared that ,islm must be written in the hearts of men4 ,there was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing4 ,they were handed down by word of mouth4 ,as no argument was so effectual in a dispute as a saying of the ,prophet1 the door was opened by which spurious ,traditions could be palmed off on the ,faithful4 ,to prevent this1 a number of strict rules were framed1 at the head of which stands the ,prophet's saying1 itself a ,tradition3 ,convey to other persons none of my words except those which ye know of a surety4 ,verily1 he who purposely represents my #fg words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire4 ,to enforce this rule1 it was laid down that the relator of a ,tradition must also repeat its ,isnd1 or chain of authorities1 as3 ,i heard from such an one1 who heard from such an one1 and so on1 until the chain reaches the ,prophet himself4 ,each person1 too1 in this ,isnd1 must have been well known for his good character and retentive memory4 ,this failed1 however1 to prevent a vast number of manifestly false ,traditions becoming current2 so men set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of ,tradition that in the second century of ,islm had begun to work untold evil4 ,these men are called ,muhadisn1 or collectors of ,tradition4 ,the ,sunns and the ,wahhbs recognise six such men1 and their collections are known as the ,sihah-,sittah1 or six correct books4 ,they are the following3-- 7#a74 ,the ,sahh-i-,bukhr1 called after ,abu ,abdullah ,muhammad ,ibn-i-,ism'l1 a native of ,bukhr4 ,he was born ,a4,h4 #aid4 ,he was a man of middle height1 spare in frame1 and as a boy totally blind4 ,the grief of his father was on this account intense2 but one day in a dream he saw the ,patriarch ,abraham1 who said to him3 ,god on account of thy grief and sorrow has granted sight to thy son4 ,the sight being thus restored1 at the age of ten he went to school1 and began to learn the ,traditions by heart4 ,after his education was finished1 a famous ,muhadis named ,dkhl came to ,bukhr4 ,one day the youthful ,bukhr ventured to correct the famous man4 ,it was an astounding piece of audacity1 but the youth was proved to be in the right4 ,this set him on the work of collecting and sifting the ,traditions4 ,at the early age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand4 ,in course of time he collected #fjj1jjj ,traditions4 ,the result of his examination and selection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and seventy-five4 ,these are now recorded in his great work1 the ,sahh-i-,bukhr4 ,it #fh is said that he never sat down to examine a ,tradition without first performing a legal ablution1 and repeating two rak'at prayers4 ,he then said3 ,o ,lord1 let me not make a mistake4 ,for sixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of sixty-four4 7#b74 ,sahh-i-,muslim4 ,muslim ,ibn-i-,hajjj was born at ,nishpr1 a city of ,khorsn4 ,he collected about #cjj1jjj ,traditions1 from which he made his collection4 ,he is said to have been a very just man1 and willing to oblige all who sought his advice4 ,in fact1 this willingness to oblige was the indirect cause of his death4 ,one day he was sitting as usual in the mosque when some people came to ask him about a ,tradition4 ,as he could not discover it in the books he had with him1 he went to his house to search there4 ,the people brought him a basket of dates4 ,he went on eating and searching1 but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died4 7,a4,h4 #bfa47 7#c74 ,sunan-i-,abu ,dd4 ,abu ,dd ,sajistn1 a native of ,seistn1 was born ,a4,h4 #bjb4 ,he was a great traveller1 and went to all the chief places of ,musalmn learning4 ,in knowledge of the ,traditions1 in devotion1 in piety1 he was unrivalled4 ,he collected about #ejj1jjj ,traditions1 of which he selected four thousand eight hundred for his book4 7#d74 ,jm'-i-,tirmiz4 ,abu ,isa' ,muhammad ,tirmiz was born at ,tirmiz in the year ,a4,h4 #bji4 ,he was a disciple of ,bukhr4 ,ibn ,khallikan says this work is the production of a well-informed man3 its exactness is proverbial4#fa 7#e74 ,sunan-i-,nas4 ,abu ,abd-ur-,rahman ,nas was born at ,nas1 in ,khorsn1 in the year ,a4,h4 #bad1 and died ,a4,h4 #cjc4 ,it is recorded of him1 with great approbation1 that he fasted every other day1 and had four wives and many slaves4 ,this book is considered of great value4 ,he met with his death in rather a sad way4 ,he had compiled a book on the virtues of ',al1 and as the people of #fi ,damascus were at that time inclined to the heresy of the ,khrigites1 he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place4 ,after he had read a little way1 a man arose and asked him whether he knew aught of the praises of ,muavia1 ',al's deadly enemy4 ,he replied that he did not4 ,this answer enraged the people1 who beat him so severely that he died soon after4 7#f74 ,sunan-i-,ibn ,mjah4 ,ibn ,mjah#fb was born at ',irak ,a4,h4 #bji4 ,this work contains #d1jjj ,traditions4 ,the ,sha'hs reject these books and substitute five books#fc of their own instead4 ,they are of a much later date1 the last one1 indeed1 having been compiled more than four hundred years after the ,hijra4 ,the belief which underlies the question of the authority of the ,traditions is that before the ,throne of ,god there stands a 'preserved ,table1' on which all that can happen1 and all that has ever entered1 or will enter1 the mind of man is 'noted in a distinct writing4' ,through the medium of ,gabriel1 the ,prophet had access to this4 ,it follows then that the words of the ,prophet are the words of ,god4 ,of the four great ,canonical ,legists of ,islm1 ,ahmad ,ibn ,hanbal was the greatest collector of ,traditions4 ,it is said that he knew by heart no less than one million4 ,of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system of jurisprudence4 ,that system is now almost obsolete4 ,abu ,hanfa1 who is said to have accepted only eighteen ,traditions as authentic1 founded a system which is to this day the most powerful in ,islm4 ,the ,hanifites1 however1 as well as other ,muslims1 acknowledge the six standard collections of ,traditions as direct revelations of the will of #gj ,god4 ,they range over a vast number of subjects1 and furnish a commentary on the ,qurn4 ,the ,prophet's personal appearance1 his mental and moral qualities1 his actions1 his opinions1 are all recorded over and over again4 ,many questions of religious belief are largely founded on the ,traditions1 and it is to them we must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of ,islm4 ,it is very difficult for any one1 who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse with ,muslims1 to realize how much their religious life and opinions1 their thought and actions1 are based on the ,traditions4 ,having thus shown the importance of the ,traditions1 ,i now proceed to enter a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them4 ,the classification adopted by different authors may vary in some subordinate points2 but the following account is adopted from a standard ,muhammadan work4 ,a ,tradition may be ,hads-i-,qual1 that is1 an account of something the ,prophet said2 or ,hads-i-,fa'l1 a record of something which he did2 or ,hads-i-,taqrr1 a statement of some act performed by other persons in his presence1 and which action he did not forbid4 ,the ,traditions may be classed under two general heads3-- ,first4--,hads-i-,mutawtr1 that is1 an undoubted ,tradition1 the ,isnd1 or chain of narrators of which is perfect1 and in which chain each narrator possessed all the necessary qualifications for his office4#fd ,some authorities say there are only a few of these ,traditions extant1 but most allow that the following is one3 ,there are no good works except with intention1 for example1 a man may fast1 but1 unless he has the intention of fasting firmly in his mind1 he gains no spiritual reward by so doing4 ,second4--,hads-i-,ahd4 ,the authority of this class is #ga theoretically somewhat less than that of the first1 but practically it is the same4 ,this class is again sub-divided into two3-- 7#a74 ,hads-i-,sahh1 or a genuine ,tradition4 ,it is not necessary to go into the sub-divisions of this sub-division4 ,a ,tradition is ,sahh if the narrators have been men of pious lives1 abstemious in their habits1 endowed with a good memory1 free from blemish1 and persons who lived at peace with their neighbours4 ,the following also are ,sahh1 though their importance as authorities varies4 ,i arrange them in the order of their value4 ,sahh ,traditions are those which are found in the collections made by ,bukhr and ,muslim1 or in the collection of either of the above1 though not in both2 or1 if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors1 if it has been retained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of ,traditions2 or lastly1 if retained in accordance with the rules of any other approved collector4 ,for each of these classes there is a distinct name4 7#b74 ,hads-i-,hasan4 ,the narrators of this class are not of such good authority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities2 but these ,traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any practical use4#fe ,it is merely as a matter of classification that they rank second4 ,in addition to these names1 there are a number of other technical terms which have regard to the personal character of the narrators1 the ,isnd1 and other points4 ,a few may be mentioned4 7#a74 ,hads-i-,z'af1 or a weak ,tradition4 ,the narrators of it have been persons whose characters were not above reproach1 whose memories were bad1 or who1 worse still1 were addicted to bid'at1 innovation1 a habit now1 as then1 a crime in the eyes of all true ,muslims4 ,all agree that a #gb weak ,tradition has little force2 but few rival theologians agree as to which are1 and which are not1 weak ,traditions4 7#b74 ,hads-i-,mua'llaq1 or a ,tradition in the ,isnd of which there is some break4 ,if it begins with a ,tbi' 7one in the generation after that of the ,companions71 it is called ,mursal the one link in the chain1 the ,companion1 being wanting4 ,if the first link in the chain of narrators begins in a generation still later1 it has another name1 and so on4 7#c74 ,traditions which have various names1 according as the narrator concealed the name of his ,imm1 or where different narrators disagree1 or where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the ,tradition1 or has been proved to be a liar1 an evil liver1 or mistaken2 but into an account of these it is not necessary to enter1 for no ,tradition of this class would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base any important doctrine4#ff ,it is the universally accepted rule1 that no authentic ,tradition can be contrary to the ,qurn4 ,the importance attached to ,tradition has been shown in the preceding chapter1 an importance which has demanded the formation of an elaborate system of exegesis4 ,to an orthodox ,muslim the ,book and the ,sunnat1 ,god's word direct and ,god's word through the mind of the ,prophet1 are the foundation and sum of ,islm1 a fact not always taken into account by modern panegyrists of the system4 #gc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sects ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,it is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion1 that the ,muhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and the unanimity of its professors4 ,in this chapter ,i propose to show how the great sects differ in some very important principles of the faith1 and their consequent divergence in practice4 ,there is much that is common ground to all1 and of that some account was given in the first chapter on the ,foundations of ,islm4 ,it was there shown that all ,muslim sects are not agreed as to the essential foundations of the ,faith4 ,the ,sunns recognise four foundations1 the ,wahhbs two2 whilst the ,sha'hs reject altogether the ,traditions held sacred by both ,sunn and ,wahhb4 ,the next chapter will contain a full account of the doctrines held by the ,sunns1 and so no account of this1 the orthodox sect1 is given in this chapter4 ,the first breach in ,islm arose out of a civil war4 ,the story has been so often told that it need not be reproduced here at any length4 ',al1 the son-in-law of ,muhammad1 was the fourth ,khalf of ,islm4 ,he is described as the last and worthiest of the primitive ,musalmns who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the ,prophet himself1 and who followed to the last the simplicity of his character4 ,he was a man calculated by his earnest devotion to the ,prophet and his own natural graces to win1 as he has done1 the admiration of succeeding generations4 ,a strong opposition1 however1 arose1 and ',al was assassinated in a mosque at ,kfa4 ,it is not easy1 amid the conflicting statements of historians of the rival sects1 to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events which happened then2 #gd but the generally received opinion is1 that after the assassination of ',al1 ,hasan1 his son1 renounced his claim to the ,khalifate in favour of his father's rival1 ,muavia4 ,hasan was ultimately poisoned by his wife1 who1 it is said1 was instigated by ,muavia to do the deed1 in order to leave the coast clear for his son ,yezd4 ,the most tragic event has yet to come4 ,yezd1 who succeeded his father1 was a very licentious and irreligious man4 ,the people of ,kfa1 being disgusted at his conduct1 sent messengers to ,husain1 the remaining son of ',al1 with the request that he would assume the ,khalifate4 ,in vain the friends of ,husain tried to persuade him to let the people of ,kfa first revolt1 and thus show the reality of their wishes by their deeds4 ,in an evil hour ,husain started with a small band of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers4 ,on the plain of ,karbal he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men4 ,we are few in number1 said ,husain1 and the enemy is in force4 ,i am resolved to die4 ,but you--,i release you from your oath of allegiance2 let all those who wish to do so leave me4 ,o ,son of the ,apostle of ,god6 was the reply1 what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrection did we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies8 ,one by one these brave men fell beneath the swords of the enemy1 until ,husain and his infant son alone were left4 ,weary and thirsty1 ,husain sat upon the ground4 ,the enemy drew near1 but no one dared to kill the grandson of the ,prophet4 ,an arrow pierced the ear of the little boy and he died4 ,we came from ,god1 and we return to him1 were the pathetic words of ,husain1 as with a sorrowful heart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand4 ,he then stooped down to drink some water from the river ,euphrates4 ,seeing him thus stooping1 the enemy discharged a flight of arrows1 one of which wounded him in the mouth4 ,he fought bravely for a while1 but at last fell covered with many wounds4 ,the schism between the ,sunn and the ,sha'h was now complete4 #ge ,the ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of ,muharram refer to these historical facts1 and help to keep alive a bitter feud2 but to suppose that the only difference between the ,sha'h and the ,sunn is a mere dispute as to the proper order of the early ,khalfs would be a mistake4 ,starting off with a political quarrel1 the ,sha'hs have travelled into a very distinct religious position of their own4 ,the fundamental tenet of the ,sha'h sect is the divine right of ',al the ,chosen and his descendants4 ,from this it follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the ,imm 7or ,pontiff72 from which position some curious dogmas issue4 ,the whole question of the ,immat is a very important one4 ,the word ,imm comes from an ,arabic word meaning to aim at1 to follow after4 ,the term ,imm then becomes equal to the word leader or exemplar4 ,it is applied in this sense to ,muhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions1 and to the ,khalfs1 his successors4 ,it is also1 in its religious import only1 applied to the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence1 and in a restricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque4 ,it is with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal4 ,it is so used in the ,qurn--,when his ,lord made trial of ,abraham by commands which he fulfilled1 ,he said3 ',i am about to make of thee an ,imm to mankind2' he said3 ',of my offspring also8' ',my covenant1' said ,god1 'embraceth not the evil-doers4' 7,sra ii4 #aah47 ,from this verse two doctrines are deduced4 ,first1 that the ,imm must be appointed by ,god1 for if this is not the case1 why did ,abraham say of my offspring also8 ,secondly1 the ,imm is free from sin1 for ,god said3 ,my covenant embraceth not the evil-doer4 ,the first dispute about the ,immat originated with the twelve thousand who revolted from ',al after the battle of ,siffin 7#feg ,a4,d471 because he consented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and ,muavia4 ,some years after they were nearly all destroyed by ',al4 ,a few #gf survivors1 however1 fled to various parts4 ,two at last settled in ,omn1 and there preached their distinctive doctrines4 ,in course of time the people of ,omn adopted the doctrine that the ,immat was not hereditary but elective1 and that in the event of misconduct the ,imm might be deposed4 ',abdullah-ibn-,ibdh 7#gdd ,a4,d47 was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine1 and from him the sect known as the ',ibdhiyah takes its rise4 ,the result of this teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the ,imm of ,omn4 ,the ',ibdhiyah seem to have always kept themselves independent of the ,sunn ,khalfs of ,baghdd1 and1 therefore1 would consider themselves free from any obligation to obey the ,sultn of ,turkey4 ,from the ordinary ,sha'hs they differ as regards the divine right of ',al and his children4 ,the curious in such matters will find the whole subject well treated in ,dr4 ,badger's ,seyyids of ,omn4 ,the term ,khrigite 7,separatist7 has since become the generic name for a group of sects which agree as to the need of an ,imm1 though they differ as to the details of the dogma4 ,in opposition to this heresy of the ,khrigite stands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the ,sha'h4 ,the ,sha'hs hold that the ,immat must continue in the family of ',al1 and that religion consists mainly in devotion to the ,imm4 ,the tragic end of ',al and his sons invested them with peculiar interest4 ,when grieving for the sad end of their leaders1 the ,sh'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soon found development1 viz41 that it was ,god's will that the ,immat should continue in the family of ',al4 ,thus a tradition relates that the ,prophet said3 ,he of whom ,i am master has ',al also for a master4 ,the best judge among you is ',al4 ,ibn ,abbs1 a ,companion says3 ,i heard the ,prophet say3 ',he who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of ,god2 he who blasphemes the name of ',al blasphemes my name4' ,a popular ,persian hymn shows to what an extent this feeling deepened4 #gg ,mysterious being6 none can tell ,the attributes in thee that dwell2 ,none can thine essence comprehend2 ,to thee should every mortal bend-- ,for 'tis by thee that man is given ,to know the high behests of heaven4 ,the general idea is1 that long before the creation of the world1 ,god took a ray of light from the splendour of ,his own glory and united it to the body of ,muhammad1 to which ,he said3 ,thou art the elect1 the chosen1 ,i will make the members of thy family the guides to salvation4 ,muhammad said3 ,the first thing which ,god created was my light1 and my spirit4#fg ,the body of the ,prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden4 ,in due time the world was created1 but not until the birth of ,muhammad did this ray of glory appear4 ,it is well known to all ,musalmns as the ,nr-i-,muhammad--light of ,muhammad4 ,this ,nr is said to be of four kinds4 ,from the first kind ,god created ,his ,throne1 from the second the ,pen of ,fate1 from the third ,paradise1 and from the fourth the state1 or place of ,spirits and all created beings4 ,according to a statement made by ',al1 ,muhammad said that he was created from the light of ,god1 whilst all other created beings were formed from the light of ,muhammad4#fh ,this light descended to ',al1 and from him passed on to the true ,imms1 who alone are the lawful successors of the ,prophet4 ,rebellion against them is sin2 devotion to them the very essence of religion4 ,the doctrine of the ,immat has given rise to endless discussion and dissension1 as the numerous sub-divisions of the ,sha'h sect will show4 ,they are said to be thirty-two in number4 ,the ,sha'h proper is the largest and most influential of them4 ,the following are the ,sh'ah tenets regarding the ,imm1 based on one of their standard books of #gh divinity4#fi ,the ,imm is the successor of the ,prophet1 adorned with all the qualities which he possessed4 ,he is wiser than the most learned men of the age1 holier than the most pious4 ,he is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all sin original or actual3 hence the ,imm is called ma'sum 7innocent47#gj ,god rules the world by wisdom1 hence the sending forth of prophets was a necessity2 but it was equally necessary to establish the ,immat4 ,thus the ,imm is equal to a prophet4 ',al said3 ,in me is the glory of every prophet that has ever been4 ,the authority of the ,imm is the authority of ,god1 for 7,i quote the ,hyt-un-,nafs7 his word is the word of ,god and of the ,prophet1 and obedience to his order is incumbent4 ,the nature of the ,imm is identical with the nature of ,muhammad1 for did not ',al say3 ,i am ,muhammad1 and ,muhammad is me4 ,this probably refers to the possession by the ,imm of the light of ,muhammad4 ,the bodies of the ,imms are so pure and delicate that they cast no shadow4#ga ,they #gi are the beginning and the end of all things4 ,to know the ,imms is the very essence of the knowledge which men can gain of ,god4 ,the ,holy ,god calls the ,imms ,his word1 ,his hands1 ,his signs1 ,his secret4 ,their commands and prohibitions1 their actions too1 ,he recognises as ,his own4 ,as mediums between ,god and man they hold a far higher position than the prophets1 for the grace of ,god1 without their intervention1 reaches to no created being4 ,these extravagant claims for the ,imms culminate in the assertion that for them a pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven1 by which the actions of the ,faithful are made known to them4 ,the ,imm is the supreme ,pontiff1 the ,vicar of ,god on earth4 ,the possession of an infallible book is not sufficient4 ,the infallible guide is needed4 ,such wisdom and discernment as such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants of the ,prophet4 ,it is no longer1 then1 a matter of wonder1 that in some cases1 almost1 if not entirely1 divine honour is paid to ',al and his descendants4#gb ,the ,usl1 or fundamental tenets of the ,sha'h sect are five in number4 7#a7 ,to believe in the unity of ,god1 7#b7 ,to admit that ,he is just1 7#c7 ,to believe in the divine mission of all the prophets1 and that ,muhammad is the chief of all1 7#d7 ,to consider ',al the ,khalf next in order after ,muhammad1 7#e7 ,to believe ',al's descendants from ,hasan to ,mahd1 the twelfth ,imm1 to be his true successors1 and to consider all of them in character1 position and dignity as raised far above all other ,muslims4 ,this is the doctrine of the ,immat4 #hj ,the first principal divisions of the ,sha'h sect are the ,ism'lians and the ,immites4 ,the latter believe in twelve ,imms1 reckoning ',al as the first4#gc ,the last of the twelve ,abu'l-,qsim1 is supposed to be alive still1 though hidden in some secret place4 ,he bears the name of ,al-,mahd1 the guided4 ,it is expected that he will reappear at the second advent of ,christ4 ,they say that he was born near ,baghdd in the year #beh ,a4,h4 ,he afterwards mysteriously disappeared4 ,when he was born the words1 ,say3 'truth is come and falsehood is vanished3 ,verily falsehood is a thing that vanisheth1' 7,sra xvii4 #hc7 were found written on his right arm4 ,when he came into the world1 he pointed with his fingers to heaven1 sneezed1 and said3 ',praise be to ,god1 the ,lord of the world4' ,a person one day visited ,imm ,hasan ',askar 7the eleventh ,imm7 and said3 ',o son of the ,prophet who will be ,khalf and ,imm after thee8' ,he brought out a child and said3 'if thou hadst not found favour in the eyes of ,god1 ,he would not have shown thee this child2 his name is that of the ,prophet1 and so is his patronymic1' 7,abu 'l-,qsim74 ,the sect who believe ,mahd to be alive at present1 say that he rules over cities in the far west1 and he is even said to have children4 ,god alone knows the truth4#gd ,the other large division1 the ,ism'lians1 agree with the ,immites in all particulars save one4 ,they hold that after ,sdiq1 the sixth ,imm1 commenced what is called the succession of the concealed ,imms4 ,they believe that there never can be a time when there shall be no ,imm1 but that he is now in seclusion4 ,this idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies1 and has paved the way for a mystical religion1 which often lands its votaries in atheism4#ge #ha ,the ,ghair-i-,mahd 7literally without ,mahd7 are a small sect who believe that ,al-,mahd will not reappear4 ,they say that one ,syed ,muhammad of ,jeypore was the real ,mahd1 the twelfth ,imm1 and that he has now gone never more to return4 ,they venerate him as highly as they do the ,prophet1 and consider all other ,musalmns to be unbelievers4 ,on the night called ,lailat-ul-,qadr1 in the month of ,ramazn1 they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers4 ,after that act of devotion is over1 they say3 ,god is ,almighty1 ,muhammad is our ,prophet1 the ,qurn and ,mahd are just and true4 ,imm ,mahd is come and gone4 ,whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel4 ,they are a very fanatical sect4 ,there is another small community of ,ghair-i-,mahds called the ,d1ir1 settled in the province of ,mysore1 who hold peculiar views on this point4 ,about four hundred years ago1 a man named ,syed ,ahmad collected some followers in the dominions of the ,nizm of ,hyderabad4 ,he called himself the ,imm ,mahd1 and said that he was superior to any prophet4 ,he and his disciples1 being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox ,musalmns1 fled to a village in the adjoining district of ,mysore where their descendants1 fifteen hundred in number1 now reside4 ,it is said that they do not intermarry with other ,musalmns4 ,the usual ,friday service in the mosque is ended by the leader saying3 ,imm ,mahd came and went away1 to which the people respond3 ,he who does not believe this is a ,kfir 7infidel74 ,there are several ,traditions which refer to the latter days4 ,when of time one day shall be left1 ,god shall raise up a man from among my descendants1 who shall fill the world with justice1 just as before him the world was full of oppression4 ,and again3 ,the world shall not come to an end till the king of the earth shall appear1 who is a man of my family1 and whose name is the same as mine4 ,when ,islm entered upon the tenth century of its existence1 there was throughout ,persia and ,india a millenarian movement4 ,men #hb declared that the end was drawing near1 and various persons arose who claimed to be ,al-,mahd4 ,i have already mentioned two4 ,amongst others was ,shaikh ',al of ,agra4 7#ief ,a4,h47 ,shaikh ,mubarak1 the father of ,abu'l-,fazl--the ,emperor ,akbar's famous vizier1 was a disciple of ,shaikh ',al and from him imbibed ,mahdav ideas4 ,this brought upon him the wrath of the ',ulam who1 however1 were finally overcome by the free-thinking and heretical ,emperor and his vizier4 ,there never was a better ruler in ,india than ,akbar1 and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox ,islm is concerned4 ,the ,emperor delighted in the controversies of the age4 ,the ,sfs and ,mahdavs were in favour at ,court4 ,the orthodox ',ulam were treated with contempt4 ,akbar fully believed that the millennium had come4 ,he started a new era1 and a new religion called the ',divine ,faith4' ,there was toleration for all except the bigoted orthodox ,muslims4 ,abu'l-,fazl and others like him1 who professed to reflect ,akbar's religious views1 held that all religions contained truth4 ,thus3-- ,o ,god1 in every temple ,i see people that seek ,thee1 and in every language ,i hear spoken1 people praise ,thee6 ,polytheism and ,islam feel after ,thee1 ,each religion says1 ',thou art one1 without equal4' ,if it be a mosque1 people murmur the holy prayer1 and if it be a ,christian ,church1 people ring the bell from love to ,thee1 ,sometimes ,i frequent the ,christian cloister1 and sometimes the mosque1 ,but it is ,thou whom ,i search from temple to temple4 ,in this reign one ,mr ,sharf was promoted to the rank of a ,commander of a thousand1 and to an appointment in ,bengal4 ,his chief merit in ,akbar's eyes was that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the close advent of the millennium4 ,he was a disciple of ,mahmd of ,busakhwn1 the founder of the ,nuqtawiah sect4 ,as this is another offshoot of the ,sha'hs ,i give a brief account of them here4 ,mahmd lived in the reign of ,timur and #hc professed to be ,al-,mahd4 ,he also called himself the ,shakhs-i-,whd--the ,individual one4 ,he used to quote the verse1 ,it may be that thy ,lord will raise thee up to a glorious 7mahmd7 station4 7,sra xvii4 #ha74 ,from this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in purity since the creation1 and that on its reaching to a certain degree1 one ,mahmd 7glorious7 would arise1 and that then the dispensation of ,muhammad would come to an end4 ,he claimed to be the ,mahmd4 ,he also taught the doctrine of transmigration1 and that the beginning of everything was the ,nuqtah-i-khk--earth atom4 ,it is on this account that they are called the ,nuqtawiah sect4 ,they are also known by the names ,mahmdiah and ,whdiah4 ,shah ',abbs king of ,persia expelled them from his dominions1 but ,akbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to high offices of ,state4 ,this ,mahdav movement1 arising as it did out of the ,sha'h doctrine of the ,immat1 is a very striking fact4 ,that imposters should arise and claim the name and office of ,al-,mahd is not to be wondered at1 but that large bodies of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts1 and how they longed for a personal leader and guide4 ,the whole of the ,sha'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there is in the human heart a natural desire for some ,mediator--some ,word of the ,father1 who shall reveal ,him to ,his children4 ,at first sight it would seem1 as if the doctrine of the ,immat might to some extent reconcile the thoughtful ,sha'h to the ,christian doctrine of the ,incarnation and ,mediation of ,jesus ,christ1 to ,his office as the perfect revealer of ,god's will2 and as our ,guide in life2 but alas6 it is not so4 ,the mystic lore connected with ,sha'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and vigour4 ,a system of religious reservation1 too1 is a fundamental part of the system in its mystical developments1 whilst all ,sha'hs may lawfully practise taka1 or religious #hd compromise in their daily lives4 ,it thus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a ,sha'h may profess1 as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion4 ,if he becomes a mystic1 he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictions imposed by an ,almighty ,power4 ,the omission of the one is a sin almost1 if not quite1 as bad as a breach1 of the other4 ,the advent of ,mahd is the good time when all such restrictions shall be removed1 when the utmost freedom shall be allowed4 ,thus the moral sense1 in many cases1 becomes deadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with these people can hardly credit4 ,the practice of taka1 religious compromise1 and the legality of muta'h or temporary marriages1 have done much to demoralise the ,sha'h community4 ,the following words of a recent author descriptive of the ,sha'h system are in the main true1 though they do not apply to each individual in that system3-- ,there can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed1 than that men should escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme law of conduct1 and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine as the goal of human existence4#gf ,the ,mutazilites1 or ,seceders1 were once an influential body4 ,they do not exist as a separate sect now4 ,an account of them will be given in the next chapter4 ,in the doctrine of the ,immat1 common to all the offshoots of the ,sha'h sect1 is to be found the chief point of difference between the ,sunn and the ,sha'h1 a difference so great that there is no danger of even a political union between these two great branches of ,islm4 ,i have already described1 too1 how the ,sha'hs reject the ,sunnat1 though they do not reject ,tradition4 ,a good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by the recollection--a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of the ,muharram fast--of the sad #he fate of ',al and his sons4 ,the ,sunns are blamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith1 whilst the ,khalfs ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 and ,osmn are looked upon as usurpers4 ,not to them was committed the wonderful ray of light4 ,in the possession of that alone can any one make good a claim to be the ,imm1 the ,guide of the ,believers4 ,the terrible disorders of the early days of ,islm can only be understood when we realise to some extent the passionate longing which men felt for a spiritual head--an ,imm4 ,it was thought to be impossible that ,muhammad1 the last--the seal--of the prophets should leave the ,faithful without a guide1 who would be the interpreter of the will of ,allah4 ,we here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends beyond the ,sha'h sect1 and is of some importance in its bearing upon the ,eastern ,question4 ,apart from the superhuman claims for the ,imm1 what he is as a ruler to the ,sha'h1 the ,khalf is to the ,sunn--the supreme head in ,church and ,state1 the successor of the ,prophet1 the ,conservator of ,islm as made known in the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat and the ,ijm' of the early ,mujtahidn4 ,to administer the laws1 the administrator must have a divine sanction4 ,thus when the ,ottoman ruler1 ,selim the ,first1 conquered ,egypt1 7,a4,d4 #aeaf7 he sought and obtained1 from an old descendant of the ,baghdd ,khalfs1 the transfer of the title to himself1 and in this way the ,sultns of ,turkey became the ,khalfs of ,islm4 ,whether ,mutawakal ,billl1 the last titular ,khalf of the house of ',abbs1 was right or wrong in thus transferring the title is not my purpose now to discuss4 ,i only adduce the fact to show how it illustrates the feeling of the need of a ,pontiff--a divinely appointed ,ruler4 ,strictly speaking1 according to ,muhammadan law1 the ,sultns are not ,khalfs1 for it is clearly laid down in the ,traditions that the ,khalf 7or the ,imm7 must be of the tribe of the ,quraish1 to which the ,prophet himself belonged4 ,ibn-i-,umr relates that the ,prophet said3--,the ,khalfs shall be in the ,quraish tribe as long as there are two #hf persons in it1 one to rule and another to serve4#gg ,it is a necessary condition that the ,khalf should be of the ,quraish tribe4#gh ,such quotations might be multiplied1 and they tend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox ,sunns1 other than the ,turks1 to rush to the rescue of the ,sultn1 whilst to the ,sha'hs he is little better than a heretic4 ,certainly they would never look upon him as an ,imm1 which personage is to them in the place of a ,khalf4 ,in countries not under ,turkish rule1 the ,khutbah1 or prayer for the ruler1 said on ,fridays in the mosques1 is said for the ruler of the age1 or for the ,amr1 or whatever happens to be the title of the head of the ,state4 ,of late years it has become more common in ,india to say it for the ,sultn4 ,this is not1 strictly speaking1 according to ,muhammadan law1 which declares that the ,khutbah can only be said with the permission of the ruler1 and as in ,india that ruler is the ,british ,government1 the prayers should be said for the ,queen4 ,evidently the law never contemplated large bodies of ,musalmns residing anywhere but where the influence of the ,khalf extended4 ,in thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by ,turkish ,sultns to the ,khalifate of ,islm1 ,i do not deny that the ,law of ,islm requires that there should be a ,khalf4 ,unfortunately for ,islm1 there is nothing in its history parallel to the conflict of ,pope and ,emperor1 of ,church and ,state4 ,the action and re-action of these powerful and partially independent forces1 their resistance to each other1 and their ministry to each other1 have been of incalculable value to the higher activity and life of ,christendom4 ,in ,islm the ,khalf is both ,pope and ,emperor4 ,ibn ,khaldoun states that the difference between the ,khalf and any other ruler is that the former rules according to divine1 the latter according to human law4 ,the ,prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the ,khalfs1 his successors1 conveyed to #hg them absolute powers4 ,khalfs can be assassinated1 murdered1 banished1 but so long as they reign anything like constitutional liberty is impossible4 ,it is a fatal mistake in ,european politics and an evil for ,turkey to recognize the ,sultn as the ,khalf of ,islm1 for1 if he be such1 ,turkey can never take any step forward to newness of political life4#gi ,this1 however1 is a digression from the subject of this chapter4 ,there has been from the earliest ages of ,islm a movement which exists to this day4 ,it is a kind of mysticism1 known as ,sfism4 ,it has been especially prevalent among the ,persians4 ,it is a re-action from the burden of a rigid law1 and a wearisome ritual4 ,it has now existed for a thousand years1 and if it has the element of progress in it1 if it is the salt of ,islm some fruit should now be seen4 ,but what is ,sfism8 ,the term ,sf is most probably derived from the ,arabic word ,sf1 wool1 of which material the garments worn by ,eastern ascetics used to be generally made4 ,some persons1 however1 derive it from the ,persian1 ,sf1 pure1 or the ,greek ,greek3 sophia1 wisdom4 ,tasawwuf1 or ,sfism1 is the abstract form of the word1 and is1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 and other learned orientalists1 a figurative mode1 borrowed mainly from the ,indian philosophers of the ,vedanta school1 of expressing the fervour of devotion4 ,the chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree1 but not #hh in kind1 from the ,divine ,spirit1 of which they are emanations1 and to which they will ultimately return4 ,the ,spirit of ,god is in all ,he has made1 and it in ,him4 ,he alone is perfect love1 beauty1 etc4--hence love to him is the only real thing2 all else is illusion4 ,sa'd says3 ,i swear by the truth of ,god1 that when ,he showed me ,his glory all else was illusion4 ,this present life is one of separation from the beloved4 ,the beauties of nature1 music1 and art revive in men the divine idea1 and recall their affections from wandering from ,him to other objects4 ,these sublime affections men must cherish1 and by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on ,god1 and so approximate to ,his essence1 and finally reach the highest stage of bliss--absorption into the ,eternal4 ,the true end and object of human life is to lose all consciousness of individual existence--to sink in the ocean of ,divine ,life1 as a breaking bubble is merged into the stream on the surface of which it has for a moment risen4#hj ,sfs1 who all accept ,islm as a divinely established religion1 suppose that long before the creation of the world a contract was made by the ,supreme ,soul with the assembled world of spirits1 who are parts of it4 ,each spirit was addressed separately1 thus3 ,art thou not with thy ,lord8 that is1 bound to him by a solemn contract4 ,to this they all answered with one voice1 ,yes4 ,another account says that the seed of theosophy 7m'arifat7 was placed in the ground in the time of ,adam2 that the plant #hi came forth in the days of ,noah1 was in flower when ,abraham was alive and produced fruit before ,moses passed away4 ,the grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time of ,jesus1 but it was not till the age of ,muhammad that pure wine was made from them4 ,then those intoxicated with it1 having attained to the highest degree of the knowledge of ,god1 could forget their own personality and say3--,praise to me1 is there any greater than myself8 ,i am the ,truth4 ,the following verse of the ,qurn is quoted by ,sfs in support of their favourite dogma--the attaining to the knowledge of ,god3 ,when ,god said to the angels1 ',i am about to place a viceregent on the earth1' they said3 ',wilt ,thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and shed blood8 ,nay2 we celebrate ,thy praise and holiness4' ,god answered them1 ',verily ,i know that ye wot not of4' 7,sra ii4 #bh47 ,it is said that this verse proves that1 though the great mass of mankind would commit abomination1 some would receive the divine light and attain to a knowledge of ,god4 ,a ,tradition states that ,david said3 ',oh ,lord6 why hast ,thou created mankind8' ,god replied1 ',i am a hidden treasure1 and ,i would fain become known4' ,the business of the mystic is to find this treasure1 to attain to the ,divine light and the true knowledge of ,god4 ,the earlier ,muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and formal ritual1 and though the seeds of ,pantheism were planted in their system from the first1 they maintained that they were orthodox4 ,our system of doctrine1 says ,al-,junaid1 is firmly bound up with the dogmas of the faith1 the ,qurn and the ,traditions4 ,there was a moral earnestness about many of these men which frequently restrained the arm of unrighteous power1 and their sayings1 often full of beauty1 show that they had the power of appreciating the spiritual side of life4 ,some of these sentences are worthy of any age4 ,as neither meat nor drink1 says one1 profit the diseased body1 so no warning avails #ij to touch the heart full of the love of this world4 ,the work of a holy man doth not consist in this1 that he eats grain1 and clothes himself in wool1 but in the knowledge of ,god and submission to ,his will4 ,thou deservest not the name of a learned man till thy heart is emptied of the love of this world4 ,hide thy good deeds as closely as thou wouldst hide thy sins4 ,a famous mystic was brought into the presence of the ,khalf ,hrn-ur-,rashd who said to him3 ,how great is thy abnegation8 ,he replied1 ,thine is greater4 ,how so8 said the ,khalf4 ,because ,i make abnegation of this world1 and thou makest abnegation of the next4 ,the same man also said3 ,the display of devotional works to please men is hypocrisy1 and acts of devotion done to please men are acts of polytheism4 ,but towards the close of the second century of the ,hijra1 this earlier mysticism developed into ,sfism4 ,then ,al-,hallj taught in ,baghdd thus3 ,i am the ,truth4 ,there is nought in ,paradise but ,god4 ,i am ,he whom ,i love1 and ,he whom ,i love is ,i2 we are two souls dwelling in one body4 ,when thou seest me1 thou seest ,him2 and when thou seest ,him thou seest me4 ,this roused the opposition of the orthodox divines by whom ,al-,hallj was condemned to be worthy of death4 ,he was then by order of the ,khalf flogged1 tortured and finally beheaded4 ,thus died one of the early martyrs of ,sfism1 but it grew in spite of bitter persecution4 ,in order to understand the esoteric teaching of ,sfistic poetry1 it is necessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller1 the knowledge of ,god the goal1 the doctrines of this ascent1 or upward progress is the ,tarikat1 or the road4 ,the extinction of self is necessary before any progress can be made on that road4 ,a ,sf poet writes3-- ,plant one foot upon the neck of self1 ,the other in thy ,friend's domain2 ,in everything ,his presence see1 ,for other vision is in vain4 #ia ,sa'd in the ,bustn says3 ,art thou a friend of ,god8 ,speak not of self1 for to speak of ,god and of self is infidelity4 ,shaikh ,abu'l-,faiz1 a great poet and a friend of the ,emperor ,akbar1 from whom he received the honourable title of ,mlik-ush-,shu'ar--,master of the ,poets1 says3 ,those who have not closed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage from the calm of this world and of the world to come4 ,khusrau1 another well-known poet says3-- ,i have become ,thou3 ,thou art become ,i1 ,i am the body1 ,thou the soul2 ,let no one henceforth say ,that ,i am distinct from ,thee1 and ,thou from me4 ,the fact is1 that ,persian poetry is almost entirely ,sfistic4 ,it is difficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of these writings4 ,kitmn1 or the art of hiding from the profane religious beliefs1 often contrary to the revealed law1 has always been a special quality of the ,east4 ,pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated4#ha ,thus3-- ,i was1 ere a name had been named upon earth2 ,ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth2 ,when the locks of the ,loved ,one streamed forth for a sign1 ,and ,being was none1 save the ,presence ,divine6 ,named and name were alike emanations from ,me1 ,ere aught that was ',i' existed1 or ',we4' ,the poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace in ,christianity1 ,hinduism1 and the religion of the ,parsee4 ,even ,islm gave him no satisfaction1 for-- ,nor above nor beneath came the ,loved ,one to view1 ,i toiled to the summit1 wild1 pathless and lone1 ,of the globe-girding ,kaf#hb3--;but the ',anka#hc had flown6 #ib ,the sev'nth heaven ,i traversed--the sev'nth heaven explored1 ,but in neither discern'd ,i the court of the ,lord6 ,i question'd the ,pen and the ,tablet of ,fate1 ,but they whisper'd not where ,he pavilions ,his state2 ,my vision ,i strain'd2 but my ,god-scanning eye ,no trace1 that to ,godhead belongs1 could descry4 ,my glance ,i bent inward2 within my own breast1 ,lo1 the vainly sought elsewhere1 the ,godhead confess'd6 ,in the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd1 ,till each atom of separate being ,i lost4 ,these are the words of the greatest authority among the ,sfs1 the famous ,maulna ,jell-ud-dn ,rm1 founder of the order of the ,maulv ,darwshes4 ,he also relates the following story3 ,one knocked at the door of the beloved1 and a voice from within said3 ',who is there8' ,then he answered1 ',it is ,i4' ,the voice replied1 ',this house will not hold me and thee6' ,so the door remained shut4 ,the lover retired to a wilderness1 and spent some time in solitude1 fasting1 and prayer4 ,one year elapsed1 when he again returned1 and knocked at the door4 ',who is there8' said the voice4 ,the lover answered1 ',it is thou4' ,then the door was opened4 ,the great object of life1 then1 being to escape from the hindrances to pure love and to a return to the divine essence1 the ,tlib1 or seeker1 attaches himself to a ,murshid1 or teacher4 ,if he prosecutes his studies according to ,sfistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders of ,darwshes4 ,after due preparation under his ,murshid1 he is allowed to enter on the road4 ,he then becomes a ,slik1 or traveller1 whose business henceforth is slk that is1 devotion to one idea--the knowledge of ,god4 ,in this road there are eight stages4 7#a7 ,service4 ,here he must serve ,god and obey the ,law for he is still in bondage4 7#b7 ,love4 ,it is supposed that now the ,divine influence has so attracted his soul that he really loves ,god4 7#c7 ,seclusion4 ,love having expelled all worldly desires1 he arrives at this stage1 and passes his time in meditation on the deeper doctrines #ic of ,sfism regarding the ,divine nature4 7#d7 ,knowledge4 ,the meditation in the preceding stage1 and the investigation of the metaphysical theories concerning ,god1 ,his nature1 ,his attributes and the like make him an 'rif--one who knows4 7#e7 ,ecstasy4 ,the mental excitement caused by such continued meditation on abstruse subjects produces a kind of frenzy1 which is looked upon as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from ,god4 ,it is known as ,hl--the state2 or ,wajd--ecstasy4 ,arrival at this stage is highly valued1 for it is the certain entrance to the next4 7#f7 ,haqiqat--the ,truth4 ,now to the traveller is revealed the true nature of ,god1 now he learns the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking4 ,this admits him to the highest stage in his journey1 as far as this life is concerned4 7#g7 ,that stage is ,wasl--union with ,god4 ,there was a door to which ,i found no key2 ,there was a veil past which ,i could not see3 ,some little talk of ,me and ,thee ,there seemed--and then no more of ,thee and ,me4 ,he cannot1 in this life1 go beyond that1 and very few reach that exalted stage4 ,thus arose a system of ,pantheism1 which represents joy and sorrow1 good and evil1 pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changeless essence4 ,religion1 as made known by an outward revelation1 is1 to the few who reach this stage1 a thing of the past4 ,even its restraints are not needed4 ,the soul that is united to ,god can do no evil4 ,the poet ,khusrau says3 ,love is the object of my worship1 what need have ,i of ,islm8 ,death ensues and with it the last stage is reached4 7#h7 ,it is ,fan--extinction4 ,the seeker after all his search1 the traveller after all his wearisome journey passes behind the veil and finds--nothing6 ,as the traveller proceeds from stage to stage1 the restraints of an objective revelation and of an outward system are less and less heeded4 ,the #id religion of the mystic consists in his immediate communication with ,god1 and when once this has been established1 the value of ecclesiastical forms1 and of the historical part of religion1 becomes doubtful4 ,what law can bind the soul in union with ,god1 what outward system impose any trammels on one who1 in the ,ecstasy1 has received from ,him1 who is the ,truth1 the direct revelation of ,his own glorious nature8 ,moral laws and ceremonial observances have only an allegorical signification4 ,creeds are but fetters cunningly devised to limit the flight of the soul2 all that is objective in religion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated4#hd ,pantheistic in creed1 and too often ,antinomian in practice1 ,sfism possesses no regenerative power in ,islm4 ,it is not a substantive religion such as shapes the life of races or of nations1 it is a state of opinion4 ,no ,muslim ,state makes a national profession of ,sfism4 ,in spite of all its dogmatic utterances1 in spite of much that is sublime in its idea of the search after light and truth1 ,sfism ends in utter negation of all separate existence4 ,the pantheism of the ,sfs1 this esoteric doctrine of ,islm1 as a moral doctrine leads to the same conclusions as materialism1 the negation of human liberty1 the indifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments4 ,the result of ,sfism has been the establishment of a large number of religious orders known as ,darwshes4#he ,these men are looked upon with disfavour by the #ie orthodox2 but they flourish nevertheless1 and in ,turkey at the present day have great influence4 ,there are in ,constantinople two hundred ,takiahs1 or monasteries4 ,the ,darwshes are not organized with such regularity1 nor subject to discipline so severe as that of the ,christian ,monastic orders2 but they surpass them in number4 ,each order has its own special mysteries and practices by which its members think they can obtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible world4 ,they are also called ,faqrs--poor men1 not1 however1 always in the sense of being in temporal want1 but as being poor in the sight of ,god4 ,as a matter of fact the ,darwshes of many of the orders do not beg1 and many of the ,takiahs are richly endowed4 ,they are divided into two great classes1 the ,ba ,shara' 7with the ,law7 ,darwshes2 and the ,be ,shara' 7without the ,law74 ,the former prefer to rule their conduct according to the law of ,islm and are called the ,slik--travellers on the path 7tarqat7 to heaven2 the latter though they call themselves ,muslims do not conform to the law1 and are called ,azd 7free71 or ,majzb 7abstracted71 a term which signifies their renunciation of all worldly cares and pursuits4 ,the ,slik ,darwshes are those who perform the ,zikrs4#hf ,what little hope there is of these professedly religious men working any reform in ,islm will be seen from the following account of their doctrines4#hg #a4 ,god only exists1--,he is in all things1 and all things are in ,him4 ,verily we are from ,god1 and to ,him shall we return4 7,sra ii4 #aea47 #if #b4 ,all visible and invisible beings are an emanation from ,him1 and are not really distinct from ,him4 ,creation is only a pastime with ,god4 #c4 ,paradise and ,hell1 and all the dogmas of positive religions1 are only so many allegories1 the spirit of which is only known to the ,sf4 #d4 ,religions are matters of indifference2 they1 however1 serve as a means of reaching to realities4 ,some1 for this purpose1 are more advantageous than others4 ,among which is the ,musalmn religion1 of which the doctrine of the ,sfs is the philosophy4 #e4 ,there is not any real difference between good and evil1 for all is reduced to unity1 and ,god is the real author of the acts of mankind4 #f4 ,it is ,god who fixes the will of man4 ,man1 therefore1 is not free in his actions4 #g4 ,the soul existed before the body1 and is now confined within it as in a cage4 ,at death the soul returns to the ,divinity from which it emanated4 #h4 ,the principal occupation of the ,sf is to meditate on the unity1 and so to attain to spiritual perfection--unification with ,god4 #i4 ,without the grace of ,god no one can attain to this unity2 but ,god does not refuse ,his aid to those who are in the right path4 ,the power of a ,sheikh1 a spiritual leader1 is very great4 ,the following account of the admission of a ,novice1 called ,tawakkul ,beg1 into an ,order1 and of the severe tests applied1 will be of some interest4#hh ,tawakkul ,beg says3--,having been introduced by ,akhnd ,mooll ,muhammad to ,sheikh ,moolla ,shh1 my heart1 through frequent intercourse with him1 was filled with such a burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical science that ,i found no sleep by night1 nor rest by day4 ,when the initiation commenced1 #ig ,i passed the whole night without sleep1 and repeated innumerable times the ,srat-ul-,ikhls3-- ,say3 ,he is ,god alone3 ,god the eternal3 ,he begetteth not1 and ,he is not begotten2 ,and there is none like unto ,him4 7,sra cxii47 ,whosoever repeats this ,sra one hundred times can accomplish all his vows4 ,i desired that the ,sheikh should bestow on me his love4 ,no sooner had ,i finished my task than the heart of the ,sheikh became full of sympathy for me4 ,on the following night ,i was conducted to his presence4 ,during the whole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me1 whilst ,i gave myself up to inward meditation4 ,three nights passed in this way4 ,on the fourth night the ,sheikh said3--',let ,mooll ,senghim and ,slih ,beg1 who are very susceptible to ecstatic emotions1 apply their spiritual energies to ,tawakkul ,beg4' ,they did so1 whilst ,i passed the whole night in meditation1 with my face turned toward ,mecca4 ,as the morning drew near1 a little light came into my mind1 but ,i could not distinguish form or colour4 ,after the morning prayers1 ,i was taken to the ,sheikh who bade me inform him of my mental state4 ,i replied that ,i had seen a light with my inward eye4 ,on hearing this1 the ,sheikh became animated and said3 ',thy heart is dark1 but the time is come when ,i will show myself clearly to thee4' ,he then ordered me to sit down in front of him1 and to impress his features on my mind4 ,then having blindfolded me1 he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him4 ,i did so1 and in an instant by the spiritual help of the ,sheikh my heart opened4 ,he asked me what ,i saw4 ,i said that ,i saw another ,tawakkul ,beg and another ,mooll ,shh4 ,the bandage was then removed1 and ,i saw the ,sheikh in front of me4 ,again they covered my face1 and again ,i saw him with my inward eye4 ,astonished1 ,i cried2 ',o master6 whether ,i look with my bodily eye1 or with my spiritual #ih sight1 it is always you ,i see4' ,i then saw a dazzling figure approach me4 ,the ,sheikh told me to say to the apparition1 ',what is your name8' ,in my spirit ,i put the question1 and the figure answered to my heart3 ',i am ',abd-ul-,qdir ,jiln1 ,i have already aided thee1 thy heart is opened4' ,much affected1 ,i vowed that in honour of the saint1 ,i would repeat the whole ,qurn every ,friday night4 ,mooll ,shh then said3 ',the spiritual world has been shown to thee in all its beauty4' ,i then rendered perfect obedience to the ,sheikh4 ,the following day ,i saw the ,prophet1 the chief ,companions1 and legions of saints and angels4 ,after three months1 ,i entered the cheerless region in which the figures appeared no more4 ,during the whole of this time1 the ,sheikh continued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the ,unity and of the knowledge of ,god2 but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality4 ,it was not until a year had passed that ,i arrived at the true conception of unity4 ,then in words such as these ,i told the ,sheikh of my inspiration4 ',i look upon the body as only dust and water1 ,i regard neither my heart nor my soul1 alas6 that in separation from ,thee 7,god7 so much of my life has passed4 ,thou wert ,i and ,i knew it not4' ,the ,sheikh was delighted1 and said that the truth of the union with ,god was now clearly revealed to me4 ,then addressing those who were present1 he said3 ',tawakkul ,beg learnt from me the doctrine of the ,unity1 his inward eye has been opened1 the spheres of colours and of images have been shown to him4 ,at length1 he entered the colourless region4 ,he has now attained to the ,unity1 doubt and scepticism henceforth have no power over him4 ,no one sees the ,unity with the outward eye1 till the inward eye gains strength and power4' ,i cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few remarks on ,omar ,khayym1 the great ,astronomer-,poet of ,persia4 ,he is sometimes confounded with the ,sfs1 for there is much in his poetry which is similar #ii in tone to that of the ,sf writers4 ,but his true position was that of a sceptic4 ,he wrote little1 but what he has written will live4 ,as an astronomer he was a man of note4 ,he died in the year #eag ,a4,h4 ,there are two things which may have caused his scepticism4 ,to a man of his intelligence the hard and fast system of ,islm was an intolerable burden4 ,then1 his scientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism1 the earnest enthusiasts of which were too often followed by hollow impostors4 ,it is true1 that there was much in the spirit of some of the better ,sfs that seemed to show a yearning for something higher than mere earthly good2 above all1 there was the recognition of a ,higher ,power4 ,but with all this came spiritual pride1 the world and its duties became a thing of evil1 and the religious and the secular life were completely divorced1 to the ruin of both4 ,the ,pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man's will to act1 for his conscience to guide4 ,so the moral law become a dead letter4 ,irreligious men1 to free themselves from the bondage and restraints of law1 assumed the religious life4 ,thus a movement1 animated at first by a high and lofty purpose1 has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill4 ,the stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has become a vast swamp1 exhaling vapours charged with disease and death4 ,omar ,khayym saw through the unreality of all this4 ,in vain does he try1 by an assumed air of gaiety1 to hide from others the sadness which fills his heart1 as all that is bright is seen passing away into oblivion4 ,one moment in annihilation's waste1 ,one moment1 of the well of life to taste-- ,the stars are setting and the ,caravan ,starts for the dawn of nothing--oh1 make haste6 ,ah1 fill the cup3--what boots it to repeat ,how ,time is slipping underneath our feet3 ,unborn ,to-morrow1 and dead ,yesterday1 ,why fret about them if ,to-day be sweet4 #ajj ,omar held to the earthly and the material4 ,for him there was no spiritual world4 ,chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men4 ,a pitiless destiny shaped out the course of each human being4 ',tis all a chequer-board of nights and days ,where destiny with men for pieces plays3 ,hither and thither moves1 and mates1 and slays1 ,and one by one back in the closet lays4 ,the moving finger writes2 and1 having writ1 ,moves on3 nor all thy piety nor wit ,shall lure it back to cancel half a line1 ,nor all thy tears wash out a word of it4 ,neither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry4 ,with sages and saints he discussed1 and heard1 great argument1 but evermore came out by the same door as in he went4 ,he left the wise to talk1 for one thing alone was certain1 and all else was lies1--the flower that once has blown for ever dies4 ,leaving men he turned to nature1 but it was all the same4 ,up from earth's centre through the seventh gate ,i rose1 and on the throne of ,saturn sate1 ,and many knots unravell'd by the road2 ,but not the knot of human death and fate4 ,and that inverted bowl we call the sky1 ,where under crawling coop'd we live and die1 ,lift not thy hands to it for help--for it ,rolls impotently on as thou or ,i4 ,omar has with justice been compared to ,lucretius4 ,both were materialists1 both believed not in a future life4 ,lucretius built a system for himself in his poem 444 it has a professed practical aim--to explain the world's self-acting machine to the polytheist1 and to disabuse him of all spiritual ideas4 ,omar builds up no system1 he only shows forth his own doubts and difficulties1 he loves to balance antitheses of belief1 and settle himself in the equipoise of the sceptic4 #aja ,the fact that there is no hereafter gives ,lucretius no pain1 but ,omar who1 if only his reason could let him1 would believe1 records his utter despair in words of passionate bitterness4 ,he is not glad that there is no help anywhere4#hi ,and though he calls for the wine-cup1 and listens to the voice within the tavern cry1 ,awake1 my little ones1 and fill the cup ,before ,life's liquor in its cup be dry1 yet he also looks back to the time1 when he consorted with those who professed to know1 and could say3 ,with them the seed of wisdom did ,i sow1 ,and with my own hand laboured it to grow4 ,the founder of the ,wahhb sect was ,muhammad-ibn-,abd-ul-,wahhb1 who was born at a village in ,nejd in the year #afia ,a4,d4 ,the ,wahhbs speak of themselves as ,muwahhid--,unitarians2 but their opponents have given to them the name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them ,wahhbs4 ,muhammad was a bright intelligent youth1 of a strong constitution and generous spirit4 ,after going through a course of ,arabic literature he studied jurisprudence under a teacher of the ,hanfi school4 ,he then set out in company with his father to perform the ,hajj4 ,at ,madna he received further instruction in the ,law4 ,he spent sometime at ,ispahn in the society of learned men4 ,full of #ajb knowledge1 he returned to his native village of ,ayna where he assumed the position of a religious teacher4 ,he was shocked to see how the ,arabs had departed from what seemed to him the strict unchanging precepts of the ,prophet4 ,luxury in the form of rich dresses and silken garments1 superstition in the use of omens1 auguries1 and the like1 in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be altering the character of the religion as given by the ,apostle of ,god4 ,he saw1 or thought he saw1 that in the veneration paid to saints and holy men1 the great doctrine of the ,unity was being obscured4 ,the reason was very plain4 ,the ,qurn and the ,traditions of the ,companions had been neglected1 whilst the sayings of men of lesser note1 and the jurisprudence of the four great ,imms had been too readily followed4 ,here was work to do4 ,he would reform the ,church of ,islm1 and restore men to their allegiance to the ,book and the ,sunnat1 as recorded by the ,companions4 ,it is true1 that the ,sunns would rise up in opposition1 for thus the authority of the four ,imms1 the ,canonical ,legists of the orthodox sect1 would be set aside2 but what of that8 ,had he not been a follower of ,abu ,hanfa8 ,now he was prepared to let ,aba ,hanfa go1 for none but a ,companion of the ,prophet could give an authoritative statement with regard to the ,sunnat--the ,prophet's words and acts4 ,he must break a lance with the glorious ,imm1 and start a school of his own4 ,he said3 ,the ,muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the ,prophet1 and the sepulchre of ',al1 and of other saints who have died in the odour of sanctity4 ,they run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers4 ,by this means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporal needs1 ,from what do they seek this benefit8 ,from walls made of mud and stones1 from corpses deposited in tombs4 ,if you speak to them they will reply1 ',we do not call these monuments ,god2 we turn to them in prayer1 and we pray the saints to intercede for us on high4' ,now1 the true #ajc way of salvation is to prostrate one's self before ,him who is ever present1 and to venerate ,him--the one without associate or equal4 ,such outspoken language raised up opposition1 and he had to seek the protection of ,muhammad-,ibn-,saud1 a chief of some importance1 who now vigorously supported the ,wahhb movement4 ,he was a stern and uncompromising man4 ,as soon as you seize a place1 he said to his soldiers1 put the males to the sword4 ,plunder and pillage at your pleasure1 but spare the women and do not strike a blow at their modesty4 ,on the day of battle he used to give each soldier a paper1 a safe conduct to the other world4 ,this letter was addressed to the ,treasurer of ,paradise4 ,it was enclosed in a bag which the warrior suspended to his neck4 ,the soldiers were persuaded that the souls of those who died in battle would go straight to heaven1 without being examined by the angels ,munkar and ,nakr in the grave4 ,the widows and orphans of all who fell were supported by the survivors4 ,nothing could resist men who1 fired with a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth1 received a share of the booty1 if conquerors2 who went direct to ,paradise if they were slain4 ,in course of time1 ,muhammad-,ibn-,saud married the daughter of ,ibn-,abd-ul-,wahhb and founded the ,wahhb dynasty which to this day rules at ,ryadh4#ij ,such was the origin of this great movement1 which spread1 in course of time1 over ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 and in the beginning of this century found acceptance in ,india4 ,in the year #ahjc ,a4,d4 both ,mecca and ,madna fell into the hands of the ,wahhbs4 ,a clean sweep was made of all things1 the use of which was opposed to ,wahhb principles4 ,not only rosaries and charms1 but silk robes and pipes were consigned to the flames1 for smoking is a #ajd deadly sin4 ,on this point there is a good story told by ,palgrave--',abd-ul-,karm said3 ',the first of the great sins is the giving divine honours to a creature4' ,of course ,i replied1 ',the enormity of such a sin is beyond all doubt4 ,but if this be the first1 there must be a second2 what is it8' ',drinking the shameful6' 7in ,english idiom1 'smoking tobacco'7 was the unhesitating answer4 ',and murder1 and adultery1 and false witness8' ,i suggested4 ',god is merciful and forgiving1' rejoined my friend2 that is1 these are merely little sins4#ia ,after holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were driven out by the ,turkish forces4 ',abdullah1 the fourth ,wahhb ruler1 was captured by ,ibrahm ,pasha1 and afterwards executed in the square of ,st4 ,sophia 7#ahah ,a4,d47 ,the political power of the ,wahhbs has since been confined to parts of ,arabia2 but their religious opinions have widely spread4 ,the leader of the ,wahhb movement in ,india was ,sayyid ,ahmad1 a reformed freebooter4 ,he was now born at ,r ,bareili1 in ,oudh1 #aghf ,a4,d4 ,when about thirty years of age he gave up his wild way of living and settled down in ,delhi as a student of the ,law of ,islm4 ,after a while1 he went on pilgrimage to ,mecca1 but his opinions1 so similar to those of the noted ,wahhb1 attracted the attention of the orthodox theologians1 through whose influence he was expelled from the sacred city4 ,persecution deepened his religious convictions1 and he returned to ,india a pronounced ,wahhb4 ,he soon gained a large number of disciples1 and in #ahbf ,a4,d4 he preached a ,jihd against the ,sikhs4 ,this war was not a success4 ,in the year #ahca the ,wahhbs were suddenly attacked by the ,sikhs1 under ,sher ,singh1 and ,sayyid ,ahmad was slain4 ,this did not1 however1 prevent the spread of ,wahhb principles1 for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an enthusiastic disciple4 ,this man1 #aje ,muhammad ,ism'l1 was born near ,delhi in the year #agha ,a4,d4 ,he was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjects which form the curriculum of a liberal education amongst ,musalmns4 ,his first preaching was in a ,mosque at ,delhi on ,tauhd 7,unity71 and against ,shirk 7,polytheism74 ,he now met with ,sayyid ,ahmad who soon acquired great influence over his new disciple4 ,ism'l told him one evening that he could not offer up his prayers with ,huzr-i-,kalb1 presence of heart4 ,the ,sayyid took him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first of the prayers after him1 and then to conclude them alone4 ,he did so1 and was able to so abstract himself in the contemplation of ,god that he remained engaged in prayer till the morning4 ,henceforward he was a devoted adherent of his spiritual teacher4 ,in the public discussions1 which now often took place1 none were a match for ,ism'l4 ,this fervent preacher of ,wahhbism is now chiefly remembered by his great work1 the ,takwiat-ul-,imn1 the book from which the account of ,wahhb doctrine given in this chapter is taken4 ,if ,i make no special reference to the quotations given1 it will be known that my authority for the statements thus made is ,muhammad ,ism'l1 the most famous of all ,sayyid ,ahmad's disciples4 ,this book was followed by the ,sirt-ul-,mustaqm1 said to have been written by one of ,ism'l's followers4 ,wahhb doctrines are now spread throughout ,india4 ,in the ,south there is not much religious excitement or inquiry1 yet ,wahhbs are to be found there4#ib ,it was and is a remarkable movement4 ,in one sense it is a struggle against the traditionalism of later ages1 but in no sense can it be said that the ,wahhbs reject ,tradition4 ,they acknowledge as the foundation of the faith--first1 the ,qurn2 secondly1 the ,traditions which are recorded on the authority of the ,companions1 and also the ,ijm' of the ,companions1 that is1 all things on which they were unanimous in opinion #ajf or in practice4 ,thus to the ,wahhb as to the ,sunn1 ,muhammad is in all his acts and words a perfect guide4 ,so far from ,wahhbism being a move onward because it is a return to first principles1 it rather binds the fetters of ,islm more tightly4 ,it does not originate anything new1 it offers no relaxation from a system which looks upon the ,qurn and the ,traditions as a perfect and complete law1 social and political1 moral and religious4 ,the ,wahhb places the doctrine of the ,tauhd1 or ,unity1 in a very prominent position4 ,it is true that all ,musalmn sects put this dogma in the first rank1 but ,wahhbs set their faces against practices common to the other sects1 because they consider that they obscure this fundamental doctrine4 ,it is this which brings them into collision with other ,musalmns4 ,the greatest of all sins is ,shirk 7i4e4 the ascribing of plurality to the ,deity74 ,a ,mushrik 7,polytheist7 is one who so offends4 ,all ,musalmns consider ,christians to be ,polytheists1 and all ,wahhbs consider all other ,musalmns also to be ,polytheists1 because they look to the ,prophet for intercession1 pray to saints1 visit shrines1 and do other unlawful acts4 ,the ,takwiat-ul-,imn says that two things are necessary in religion--to know ,god as ,god1 and the ,prophet as the ,prophet4 ,the two fundamental bases of the faith are the ,doctrine of the ,tauhd 7,unity7 and obedience to the ,sunnat4 ,the two great errors to be avoided are ,shirk 7,polytheism7 and ,bida't 7,innovation74 ,as ,bida't is looked upon as evil1 it is somewhat difficult to see what hope of progress can be placed upon this latest phase of ,muhammadan revival4 ,shirk is defined to be of four kinds3 ,shirk-ul-',ilm1 ascribing knowledge to others than ,god2 ,shirk-ut-tasarruf1 ascribing power to others than ,god2 ,shirk-ul-',ibdat1 offering worship to created things2 ,shirk-ul-'dat1 the performance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others than ,god4 #ajg ,the first1 ,shirk-ul-',ilm1 is illustrated by the statement that prophets and holy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as revealed to them by ,god4 ,thus some wicked persons made a charge against 'yesha4 ,the ,prophet was troubled in mind1 but knew not the truth of the matter till ,god made it known to him4 ,to ascribe1 then1 power to soothsayers1 astrologers1 and saints is ,polytheism4 ,all who pretend to have a knowledge of hidden things1 such as fortune-tellers1 soothsayers and interpreters of dreams1 as well as those who profess to be inspired are all liars4 ,again1 should any one take the name of any saint1 or invoke his aid in the time of need1 instead of calling on ,god1 or use his name in attacking an enemy1 or read passages to propitiate him1 or make him the object of contemplation--it is ,shirk-ul-',ilm4 ,the second kind1 ,shirk-ut-tasarruf1 is to suppose that any one has power with ,god4 ,he who looks up to any one as an intercessor with ,god commits ,shirk4 ,thus3 ,but they who take others beside ,him as lords1 saying1 ',we only serve them that they may bring us near ,god1'--,god will judge between them 7and the ,faithful7 concerning that wherein they are at variance4 7,sra xxxix4 #d47 ,intercession may be of three kinds4 ,for example1 a criminal is placed before the ,king4 ,the ,vizier intercedes4 ,the ,king1 having regard to the rank of the ,vizier1 pardons the offender4 ,this is called ,shaf'at-i-,wajahat1 or 'intercession from regard4' ,but to suppose that ,god so esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of it is ,shirk4 ,again1 the ,queen or the ,princes intercede for the criminal4 ,the ,king1 from love to them1 pardons him4 ,this is called ,shaf'at-i-muhabbat1 or 'intercession from affection4' ,but to consider that ,god so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his account is to give that loved one power1 and this is ,shirk1 for such power is not possible in the ,court of ,god4 ,god may out of ,his bounty confer on ,his favourite servants the epithets of ,habb--favourite1 or ,khall--friend1 #ajh c42 but a servant is but a servant1 no one can put his foot outside the limits of servitude1 or rise beyond the rank of a servant4 ,again1 the ,king may himself wish to pardon the offender1 but he fears lest the majesty of the law should be lowered4 ,the ,vizier perceives the ,king's wish1 and intercedes4 ,this intercession is lawful4 ,it is called ,shaf'at-i-ba-izn--intercession by permission1 and such power ,muhammad will have at the day of ,judgment4 ,wahhbs hold that he has not that power now1 though all other ,musalmns consider that he has1 and in consequence 7in ,wahhb opinion7 commit the sin of ,shirk-ut-tasarruf4 ,the ,wahhbs quote the following passages in support of their view4 ,who is he that can intercede with ,him but by ,his own permission4 7,sra ii4 #bef7 ,say3 ,intercession is wholly with ,god6 ,his the kingdoms of the heavens and of the earth4 7,sra xxxix4 #df74 ,they also say3 whenever an allusion is made in the ,qurn1 or the ,traditions to the intercession of certain prophets or apostles1 it is this kind of intercession and no other that is meant4 ,the third ,shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea of worshipping it4 ,it also includes perambulating the shrines of departed saints4 ,thus3 ,prostration1 bowing down1 standing with folded arms1 spending money in the name of an individual1 fasting out of respect to his memory1 proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling out the name of the saint whilst so going is ,shirk-ul-',ibdat4 ,it is wrong to cover the grave with a sheet 7ghilf71 to say prayers at the shrine1 to kiss any particular stone1 to rub the mouth and breast against the walls of the shrine1 c4 ,this is a stern condemnation of the very common practice of visiting the tombs of saints and of some of the special practices of the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,all such practices as are here condemned are called ,ishrk fi'l ',ibdat--'association in worship4' ,the fourth ,shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs1 such as the ,istikhra--seeking guidance from beads #aji c41 trusting to omens1 good or bad1 believing in lucky and unlucky days1 adopting such names as ',abd-un-,nabi 7slave of the ,prophet71 and so on4 ,in fact1 the denouncing of such practices and calling them ,shirk brings ,wahhbism into daily contact with the other sects1 for scarcely any people in the world are such profound believers in the virtue of charms and the power of astrologers as ,musalmns4 ,the difference between the first and fourth ,shirk1 the ,shirk-ul-',ilm and the ,shirk-ul-'dat1 seems to be that the first is the belief1 say in the knowledge of a soothsayer1 and the second the habit of consulting him4 ,to swear by the name of the ,prophet1 of ',al1 of the ,imms1 or of ,prs 7,leaders7 is to give them the honour due to ,god alone4 ,it is ,ishrk fi'l adab--',shirk in association4' ,another common belief which ,wahhbs oppose is that ,musalmns can perform the ,hajj 7pilgrimage to ,mecca71 say prayers1 read the ,qurn1 abide in meditation1 give alms1 and do other good works1 the reward of which shall be credited to a person already dead4#ic ,amongst other ,musalmns it is a common practice to read the ,qurn in the belief that1 if done with such an intention1 the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire4 ,wahbs entirely object to this4 ,the above technical exposition of ,wahhb tenets shows how much stress they lay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the ,unity4 ,l-il-lha1 ,il-lal-l-hu 7there is no ,god but ,god7 is an eternal truth4 ,yet to the ,musalmn ,god is a ,being afar off4 ,in rejecting the ,fatherhood of ,god he has accepted as the object of his worship1 hardly of his affections1 a ,being despotic in all ,he does1 arbitrary in all ,his ways4 ,he has accepted the position of a slave instead of that of a son4 ,wahhbism emphasizes the ideas which flow from the first article of the ,muslim creed4 ,but #aaj on this subject we prefer to let ,palgrave speak4 ,he of all men knew the ,wahhb best1 and he1 at least1 can be accused of no sectarian bias4 ,the extract is rather long1 but will repay perusal2 indeed1 the whole passage from which this extract is taken should be read4 ',there is no ,god but ,god1' are words simply tantamount in ,english to the negation of any deity save one alone2 and thus much they certainly mean in ,arabic1 but they imply much more also4 ,their full sense is1 not only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of nature or of person in the ,supreme ,being1 not only to establish the unity of the ,unbegetting and the ,unbegot1 in all its simple and incommunicable oneness1 but besides this1 the words1 in ,arabic and among ,arabs1 imply that this one ,supreme ,being is the only ,agent1 the only ,force1 the only ,act existing throughout the universe1 and leave to all beings else1 matter or spirit1 instinct or intelligence1 physical or moral1 nothing but pure unconditional passiveness1 alike in movement or in quiescence1 in action or in capacity4 ,hence in this one sentence is summed up a system which1 for want of a better name1 ,i may be permitted to call the ',pantheism of ,force4' ',god is ,one in the totality of omnipotent and omnipresent action1 which acknowledges no rule1 standard1 or limit1 save one sole and absolute will4 ,he communicates nothing to ,his creatures1 for their seeming power and act ever remain ,his alone1 and in return ,he receives nothing from them4' ',it is ,his singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than ,his slaves1 that they may the better acknowledge ,his superiority4' ',he ,himself1 sterile in ,his inaccessible height1 neither loving nor enjoying aught save ,his own and self-measured decree1 without son1 companion1 or councillor1 is no less barren for ,himself than for ,his creatures1 and ,his own barrenness and lone egoism in ,himself is the cause and rule of ,his indifferent and unregarding despotism around4'#id ,palgrave allows that such a notion of the ,deity is monstrous1 but maintains that it is the truest mirror of the mind and scope of the writer of the ,book 7,qurn71 and that1 as such1 it is confirmed by authentic ,tradition and learned commentaries4 ,at all events1 ,palgrave possessed #aaa the two essential qualifications for a critic of ,islam--a knowledge of the literature1 and intercourse with the people4 ,so far as my experience goes ,i have never seen any reason to differ from ,palgrave's statement4 ,men are often better than their creeds4 ,even the ,prophet was not always consistent4 ,there are some redeeming points in ,islm4 ,but the root idea of the whole is as described above1 and from it no system can be deduced which will grow in grace and beauty as age after age rolls by4 ,the ,arab proverb states that ,the worshipper models himself on what he worships4#ie ,thus a return to first principles1 sometimes proclaimed as the hope of ,turkey1 is but the putting back the hour-hand of ,islm to the place where indeed ,muhammad always meant it to stay1 for ,islm is in its essence stationary1 and was framed thus to remain4 ,sterile1 like its ,god1 lifeless like its first ,principle and supreme ,original in all that constitutes true life--for life is love1 participation1 and progress1 and of these the ,qurnic ,deity has none--it justly repudiates all change1 all advance1 all development4#if ,muhammad ,ibn ',abd-ul ,wahhb was a man of great intellectual power and vigour4 ,he could pierce through the mists of a thousand years1 and see with an eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the ,faith4 ,he had the rare gift of intuition1 and could see that change 7,bida't7 and progress were alien to the truth4 ,this recognition of his ability is due to him2 but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest1 by the worship of the letter1 all hope of progress1 and to make the starting-point of ,islm its goal4 ,that he was a good ,musalmn in so doing no one can doubt1 but that his work gives any hope of the rise of an enlightened form of ,islm no one who really has studied ,islm can believe4 ,wahhbism simply amounts to this1 that while it denounces all other ,musalmns as polytheists1 it enforces the #aab ,sunnat of the ,prophet with all its energy4#ig ,it breaks down shrines1 but insists on the necessity of a pilgrimage to a black stone at ,mecca4 ,it forbids the use of a rosary1 but attaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of ,god on the fingers4 ,it would make life unsocial4 ,the study of the ,fine ,arts with the exception of ,architecture can find no place in it4 ,ism'l quotes with approval the following ,tradition4 'yesha said3 ',i purchased a carpet on which were some figures4 ,the ,prophet stood in the doorway and looked displeased4' ,i said3 ',o messenger of ,god1 ,i repent to ,god and ,his ,messenger2 what fault have ,i committed that you do not enter8' ,his ,highness then said3 ',what is this carpet8' ,i replied2 ',i have bought it for you to sit and rest upon4' ,then the messenger of ,god replied3 ',verily1 the maker of pictures will be punished on the day of resurrection1 when ,god will desire them to bring them to life4 ,a house which contains pictures is not visited by the angels4' ,in a ,tradition quoted by ,ibn ',abbs1 the ,prophet classes artists with murderers and parricides4 ,wahhbism approves of all this1 and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society an organised hypocrisy4 ,it would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for all mankind except its own followers1 and1 where it had the power1 it would force its convictions on others at the point of the sword4 ,wahhbism was reform after a fashion1 in one direction2 in the history of ,islm there have been attempts at reform in other directions2 there will yet be such attempts1 but so long as the ,qurn and the ,sunnat 7or1 in the case of the ,sha'h1 its equivalent7 are to form1 as they have hitherto #aac done for every sect1 the sole law to regulate all conditions and states of life1 enlightened and continued progress is impossible4 ,the deadening influence of ,islm is the greatest obstacle the ,church of ,god has to overcome in her onward march2 its immobility is the bane of many lands2 connection with it is the association of the living with the dead2 to speak of it1 as some do1 as if it were a sort of sister religion to ,christianity1 is but to show deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable4 ,thus it is plain that ,musalmns are not all of one heart and soul4#ih ,in the next chapter ,i hope to show that ,islm is a very dogmatic and complex system in spite of the simple form of its creed4 #aad ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,wahh,b,,ism4 ,in the ,journal ,asiatique1 #dme ,srie1 tome #aa1 a curious account is given of the voyage of ,mirz ,muhammad ',al ,khn1 some time ,persian ,ambassador in ,paris4 ,this gentleman states that in one of his voyages from ,persia to ,india he met with a ,wahhb1 who had in his possession a tract written by the founder of the sect4 ,this small pamphlet he allowed ,mirz ,muhammad to copy4 ,i give the substance of the pamphlet in this note4 ,the original ,arabic will be found in the ,journal ,asiatique4 ,it is of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry4 ,it is as follows3--,i know that ,god is merciful1 that the sect of ,abu ,hanfa is orthodox and identical with the religion of ,abraham4 ,after thou hast known that ,god has created ,his servants for the purpose of being served by them1 know also that this service or devotion is to worship ,god1 ,one and alone2 just as prayer 7,salt7 is not prayer 7,salt71 unless it is accompanied with the legal purification4 ,god ,most ,high has said3 ,it is not for the votaries of other gods with ,god1 witnesses against themselves of infidelity1 to visit the temples of ,god4 ,these6 vain their works3 and in the fire shall they abide for ever6 7,sra ix4 #ag47 ,those who in their prayers1 address any other than ,god1 in the hope of obtaining by them that which ,god alone can give--those bring unto their prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect1 and who erreth more than he who1 beside ,god1 calleth upon that which shall not answer him until the day of resurrection4 7,sra xlvi4 #d7 ,on the contrary1 when the day of resurrection comes1 they will become their enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than ,god4 ,but the gods whom ye call on beside ,him have no power over the husk of a date-stone6 ,if ye cry to them they will not hear your cry2 and if they heard they would not answer you1 and in the day of resurrection they will disown your joining them with ,god4 7,sra xxxv4 #ad1ae47 ,he who says3 ,o thou ,prophet of ,god6 ,o ',ibn ',abbs6 ,o ',abd-ul-,qdir6 c4 with the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can obtain from ,god that of which the suppliant has need1 or that they can protect him1 is an infidel whose blood any one may shed1 and whose goods any one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent4 ,there are four different classes of idolaters4 #aae ,first1 the infidels against whom the ,prophet made war4 ,these acknowledge that ,god is the creator of the world1 that ,he supports all living creatures1 that in wisdom ,he rules over all4 ,say3 who supplieth you from the heavens and the earth8 who hath power over hearing and sight8 and who bringeth forth the living from the dead1 and bringeth forth the dead from the living8 who ruleth all things8 they will surely say3 ',god1' then say3 ',what6 will ye not therefore fear ,him4' 7,sra x4 #cb47 ,it is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind2 but under an outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray2 for they have recourse to divinities of their own choosing and pray to them4 ,secondly1 there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with ,god1 and that what they desire they seek from ,god4 ,the ,qurn furnishes a proof against them4 ,they worship beside ,god what cannot hurt or help them1 and say1 these are our advocates with ,god6 say3 will ye inform ,god of aught in the heavens and in the earth which ,he knoweth not8 7,sra x4 #ai47 ,thirdly1 those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron1 or rather those who1 renouncing the worship of idols1 become attached to one saint1 as ,jesus or ,his ,mother1 and put themselves under the protection of ,guardian ,angels4 ,against them we cite the verse3 ,those whom ye call on1 themselves desire union with their ,lord1 striving which of them shall be nearest to ,him2 they also hope for ,his mercy1 and fear ,his chastisement4 7,sra xvii4 #ei47 ,we see here that the ,prophet drew no distinction between the worship of an idol and the worship of such and such a saint2 on the contrary1 he treated them all as infidels1 and made war upon them in order to consolidate the religion of ,god upon a firm basis4 ,fourthly1 those who worship ,god sincerely in the time of trouble1 but at other times call on other ,gods are idolaters4 ,thus3 ,lo6 when they embark on board a ship1 they call upon ,god1 vowing ,him sincere worship1 but when ,he bringeth them safe to land1 behold they join partners with ,him4 7,sra xxix4 #fe47 ,in the age in which we live1 ,i could cite still worse heresies4 ,the idolaters1 our contemporaries1 pray to and invoke the lower divinities when they are in distress4 ,the idolaters of the ,prophet's time were less culpable than those of the present age are4 ,they1 at least1 had recourse to ,god in time of great evil2 these in good and evil states1 seek the aid of their patrons1 other than ,god1 and pray to them4 #aaf 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,creed ,,of ,,isl,m4#ii ,faith is defined by ,muslim theologians as3 ,confession with the tongue and belief with the heart4#ajj ,it is said to stand midway between hope and fear4 ,it is sub-divided into ,imn--mujmal and ,imn--mufassal4 ,the former is an expression of the following faith3 ,i believe in ,god1 ,his names and attributes1 and accept all ,his commands4#aja ,the latter is the acceptance of the following dogmas3 ,i believe in ,god1 ,angels1 ,books1 ,prophets1 the ,last ,day1 the ,predestination by the ,most ,high ,god of good and evil and the ,resurrection after death4#ajb ,these form the articles of faith which every ,muslim must believe1 to which belief1 in order to render it perfect1 he must add the performance of the acts of practice1 viz43 7#a7 ,the recital of the ,kalima or creed3--',there is no deity but ,god1 and ,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god4' 7#b7 ,sult4 ,the five daily prayers4 7#c7 ,roza4 ,the thirty days fast of ,ramazn4 7#d7 ,zakt4 ,the legal alms4 7#e7 ,hajj1 or the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,this chapter will contain an account of the ,imn--the dogmas of ,islm4 ,an account of the ,dn--the practical duties1 will be given in the next chapter4 #aag #a4 ,,god4--,this article of the faith includes a belief in the existence of ,god1 ,his unity and attributes1 and has given rise to a large number of sects4 ,some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thus arisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of ,islm4 ,i commence the consideration of this subject by giving the substance of a ,sunn1 or orthodox treatise known as the ,risla-i-,berkevi4 ,the learned orientalist ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 considered it to be of such authority that in his ,l',islamisme d'aprs le ,coran he has inserted a translation of the ,risla4#ajc ,muhammad ,al-,berkevi1 speaking of the ,divine attributes1 says3-- 7#a74 ,life4 7,hyt74 ,god ,most ,high is alone to be adored4 ,he has neither associate nor equal4 ,he is free from the imperfections of humanity4 ,he is neither begotten nor does ,he beget4 ,he is invisible4 ,he is without figure1 form1 colour or parts4 ,his existence has neither beginning nor end4 ,he is immutable4 ,if ,he so wills1 ,he can annihilate the world in a moment of time and1 if it seem good to ,him1 recreate it in an instant4 ,nothing is difficult to ,him1 whether it be the creation of a fly or that of the seven heavens4 ,he receives neither profit nor loss from whatever may happen4 ,if all the ,infidels became ,believers and all the irreligious pious1 ,he would gain no advantage4 ,on the other hand1 if all ,believers became ,infidels1 ,he would suffer no loss4 7#b74 ,knowledge4 7',ilm74 ,he has knowledge of all things hidden or manifest1 whether in heaven or on earth4 ,he knows the number of the leaves of the trees1 of the grains of wheat and of sand4 ,events past and future are known to ,him4 ,he knows what enters into the heart of man and what he utters with his mouth4 ,he alone1 except those to whom ,he has revealed them1 knows the invisible things4 ,he is free from forgetfulness1 negligence and error4 ,his knowledge is eternal3 it is not posterior to ,his essence4 7#c74 ,power4 7,qudrat74 ,he is ,almighty4 ,if ,he wills1 ,he can raise the dead1 make stones talk1 trees walk1 annihilate the heavens and the earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those destroyed4 ,he can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to the west1 or from the west to the east1 or to the seventh heaven4 ,his power is eternal priori and posteriori4 ,it is not posterior to ,his essence4 #aah 7#d74 ,will 7,irdah74 ,he can do what ,he wills1 and whatever ,he wills comes to pass4 ,he is not obliged to act4 ,everything1 good or evil1 in this world exists by ,his will4 ,he wills the faith of the believer and the piety of the religious4 ,if ,he were to change ,his will there would be neither a true believer nor a pious man4 ,he willeth also the unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and1 without that will1 there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion4 ,all we do we do by ,his will3 what ,he willeth not does not come to pass4 ,if one should ask why ,god does not will that all men should believe we answer3 ,we have no right to enquire about what ,god wills and does4 ,he is perfectly free to will and to do what ,he pleases4 ,in creating unbelievers1 in willing that they should remain in that state2 in making serpents1 scorpions and pigs3 in willing1 in short1 all that is evil ,god has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should know4 ,we must acknowledge that the will of ,god is eternal and that it is not posterior to ,his essence4 7#e74 ,hearing4 7,sama'74 ,he hears all sounds whether low or loud4 ,he hears without an ear for ,his attributes are not like those of men4 7#f74 ,seeing4 7,basr74 ,he sees all things1 even the steps of a black ant on a black stone in a dark night2 yet ,he has no eye as men have4 7#g74 ,speech4 7,kalm74 ,he speaks1 but not with a tongue as men do4 ,he speaks to some of ,his servants without the intervention of another1 even as ,he spoke to ,moses1 and to ,muhammad on the night of the ascension to heaven4 ,he speaks to others by the instrumentality of ,gabriel1 and this is the usual way in which ,he communicates ,his will to the prophets4 ,it follows from this that the ,qurn is the word of ,god1 and is eternal and uncreated4 ,these are the haft sift1 or seven attributes of ,god4 ,there is unanimity of opinion as to the number of attributes1 but not as regards their nature and the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain4 ,thus some say that the knowledge of ,god is the first thing to acquire2 but ,imm ,shfa' and the ,mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the idea of the knowledge of ,god4 ,the meaning of the expression ,knowledge of ,god is the ascertaining the truth of ,his existence1 and of ,his positive and privative attributes1 as far as the human understanding can enter into these matters4 ,the unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute1 for the number one is the first of a series and implies a second1 but ,god has not a #aai second4 ,he is singular without anything like ,him1 separate having no equal2 for1 had there been either in heaven or earth gods beside ,god1 both surely had gone to ruin4 7,sra xxi4 #bb74 ,god is not a substance1 for substance has accidents1 but ,god has none3 otherwise ,his nature would be that of dependent existence4 ,god is without parts1 for otherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed1 and ,his existence would depend on the parts1 that is1 on something beside ,himself4 ,the orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars1 for say they1 just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds darkness intervene to prevent all observation1 so the understanding finds itself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of ,god4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,we did not know the reality of the knowledge of ,thee2 and to his followers he gave this advice3 ,think of ,god's gifts1 not of ,his nature3 certainly you have no power for that4 ,the ,khalf ,akbar is reported to have said3 to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge and to enquire into the nature of ,god is ,shirk 7infidelity74#ajd ,a moderate acquaintance with ,muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of the ,prophet nor the warning of the ,khalf has been heeded4 ,according to the early ,muslims1 the ,companions and their followers1 enquiries into the nature of ,god and ,his attributes were not lawful4 ,the ,prophet knowing what was good for men1 had plainly revealed the way of salvation and had taught them3-- ,say3 ,he is ,god alone3 ,god the eternal6 ,he begetteth not1 and ,he is not begotten2 ,and there is none like unto ,him4 7,sra cxii7 ,this was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the ,godhead4 ,god is far beyond the reach of the human #abj understanding4 ,he alone embraces all in ,his comprehension4 ,men should therefore mistrust their own perceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator ,muhammad1 who loving them better than they love themselves1 and knowing better than they do what is truly useful1 has revealed both what they ought to believe and what they ought to do4 ,it is true that men must exercise their reason1 but they must not do so with regard to the divine attributes4#aje ,dogma is divided into two portions1 usl and far'--7i4e41 roots and branches47 ,the former include the doctrine about ,god2 the latter1 as the name implies1 consist of truths which result from the acceptance of the former4 ,the orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the far'1 for the usl being founded on the ,qurn and ,sunnat have an objective basis4 ,differences of opinion about various branches of the far'1 led to discussions which did not stop there but went on to the usl1 and so paved the way for the rise of scholastic theology 7',ilm-i-kalm47 ,i have already in the chapter on the exegesis of the ,qurn explained the difference in meaning between muhkam 7obvious7 verses and mutashbih 7intricate7 ones4 ,this difference lies at the very foundation of the present subject4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to enter a little into detail4 ,the question turns very much on the interpretation of the #eth verse of the #crd ,sra3 ,he it is who hath sent down to thee 'the ,book4' ,some of its signs are of themselves perspicuous 7muhkam73 these are the basis of the #aba ,book--and others are figurative 7mutashbih47 ,but they whose hearts are given to err1 follow its figures1 craving discord1 craving an interpretation2 yet none knoweth its interpretation but ,god4 ,and the stable in knowledge say1 ',we believe in it3 it is all from our ,lord4' ,but none will bear this in mind1 save men endued with understanding4 ,here it is clearly stated 7#a7 that no one except ,god can know the interpretation of mutashbih verses1 and 7#b7 that wise men though they know not their interpretation1 yet believe them all4 ,many learned men1 however1 say that the full stop should not be placed after the word ,god but after knowledge1 and so this portion of the verse would read thus3 ,none knoweth its interpretation but ,god and the stable in knowledge4 ,they say3 'we believe1 c4' ,on this slight change in punctuation1 which shows that the 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashbih verses1 opposite schools of theology have arisen in ,islm4 ,the latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects which all the early ,muslims avoided as beyond their province4 ,in the early days of ,islm it was held that all parts of the ,qurn1 except the muhkam verses and the purely narrative portions1 were mutashbih2 that is1 all verses which related to the attributes of ,god1 to the existence of angels and genii1 to the appearance of ,antichrist1 the period and signs of the day of judgment1 and generally all matters which are beyond the daily experience of mankind4 ,it was strongly felt that not only must there be no discussion on them1#ajf but no attempt should be made to understand or act on them4 ,ibn ',abbs1 a ,companion1 says3 ,one must believe the mutashbih verses1 but not take them for a rule of conduct4 ,ibn ,jubair was once #abb asked to put the meaning of the ,qurn into writing4 ,he became angry and said3 ,i should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so4#ajg ',ayesha said3 ,avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of the ,qurn1 for they are those whom ,god has referred to in the words1 'whose hearts are given to err4' ,the first reading is the one adopted by the ,ashb1 the ,tbi'n and the ,taba-i-,tbi'n and the great majority of ,commentators4 ,the ,sunns generally1 and1 according to the testimony of ,fakr-ud-dn ,rz 7,a4,h4 #edd-fjf71 the ,shfa' sect are of the same opinion4 ,those who take the opposite view are the ,commentators ,mujhid 7died ,a4,h4 #aja71 ,rb' bin ,ans and others4 ,the scholastic theologians#ajh 7,mutakallimn7 generally adopt the latter reading4#aji ,they argued thus3 how could men believe what they did not know2 to which their opponents answered1 that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing here praised by ,god4 ,the scholastics then enquired why1 since the ,qurn was sent to be a guide and direction to men1 were not all its verses muhkam8 ,the answer was1 that the ,arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence4 ,one kind was to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that the meaning might be at once apparent1 the other was to speak in figurative language4 ,now1 if the ,qurn had not contained both these styles of composition1 it could not have claimed the position it does as a book absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter4#aaj ,bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion1 we can now pass on to the consideration of the attributes4 #abc ,the essential attributes are ,life1 ,knowledge1 ,power1 ,will1 for without these the others could not exist4 ,then the attributes of ,hearing1 ,seeing1 ,speech give us a further idea of perfection4 ,these are the ,sift-i-,sabtiah1 or affirmative attributes1 the privation of which would imply loss2 there are also ,sift-i-,salbiah1 or privative attributes1 such as--,god has no form1 is not limited by place1 has no equal1 c4 ,the acts of sitting1 rising1 descending1 the possession of face1 hands1 eyes1 c41 being connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfection and apparently contradict the doctrine of exemption 7tenzih7 according to which ,god is1 in virtue of ,his essence1 in no way like the creatures ,he has made4 ,this was a difficulty1 but the four great ,imms all taught that it was impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions were mutashbih4 ,the ,imm ,hanbal and other early divines followed in the path of the early ,muslims and said3 ',we believe in the ,book and the ,sunnat1 and do not desire explanations4 ,we know that the ,high ,god is not to be compared to any created object3 nor any creature with ,him4'#aaa ,imm ,as-,shfa' said that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake1 and carried about1 and that the following proclamation should be made before him3 ,this is the reward of him who left the ,qurn and the ,traditions for the study of scholastic theology4 ,imm ,hanbal says3 ,whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the ,qurn the words1 ',i have created with my hand1' ought to have his hand cut off2 and whoever stretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of ,muhammad1 ',the heart of the believer is between two fingers of the ,merciful1' deserves to have his finger cut off4 ,at-,tirmz when consulted about the statement of the ,prophet that ,god had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens1 said3 ,the descent is intelligible1 the manner how is unknown2 the belief therein #abd is obligatory2 and the asking about it is a blameable innovation4 ,but all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed4 ,the two main points in the discussion of this question are 7#a7 whether the attributes of ,god are internal or external1 whether they are part of ,his essence or not1 and 7#b7 whether they are eternal or not4 ,the two leading ,sects were the ,siftians 7or ,attributists7 and the ,mutazilites4 ,the ,siftians whom the early orthodox ,muslims follow1 taught that the attributes of ,god are eternally inherent in ,his essence without separation or change4 ,every attribute is conjoined with ,him as life with knowledge1 or knowledge with power4 ,they also taught that the mutashbih verses were not to be explained1 and such were those which seemed to show a resemblance between ,god and ,his creatures4 ,so at first they did not attempt to give the meaning of the terms1 hands1 eyes1 face1 c41 when applied to ,god4 ,they simply accepted them as they stood4 ,in course of time1 as will be seen1 differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions of this sect4 ,the ,mutazilites were the great opponents of the ,siftians4 ,they rejected the idea of eternal attributes1 saying that eternity was the formal attribute of the essence of ,god4 ,if1 said they1 we admit the eternal existence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of eternal existences4 ,they also rejected the attributes of hearing1 seeing and speech1 as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences4 ,they looked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions1 and not as having a real existence in the divine essence4 ,the ,mutazilites were emphatically the ,free thinkers of ,islm4 ,the origin of the sect was as follows3 ,al ,hasan1 a famous divine1 was one day seated in the ,mosque at ,basra when a discussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortal sin became thereby an unbeliever4 ,the ,khrigites 7,ante p4 #gf7 #abe affirmed that it was so4 ,the orthodox denied this1 saying that1 though guilty of sin1 yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel4#aab ,one of the scholars ,wsil ,ibn ,at1 7who was born at ,madna ,a4,h4 #hj71 then rose up and said3 ,i maintain that a ,muslim who has committed a mortal sin should be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever1 but as occupying a middle station between the two4 ,he then retired to another part of the ,mosque where he was joined by his friend ',umr ,ibn ,obaid and others4 ,they resumed the discussion4 ,a learned man1 named ,katda1 entering the ,mosque1 went up to them1 but on finding that they were not the party in which ,al ,hasan was1 said 'these are the ,seceders 7,al-,mutazila74' ,al ,hasan soon expelled them from his school4 ,wsil then founded a school of his own of which1 after the death of his master1 ',umr ,ibn ,obaid became the head4 ,wsil felt that a believer1 though sinful1 did not merit the same degree of punishment as an infidel1 and thus starting off on the question of degrees of punishment1 he soon opened up the whole subject of man's responsibility and the question of free-will4 ,this soon brought him into conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that again to the subject of the inspiration1 the interpretation and the eternity of the ,qurn1 and of the divine attributes4 ,his followers rejected the doctrine of the divine right of the ,imm1 and held that the entire body of the ,faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person1 who need not necessarily be a man of the ,quraish tribe1 to fill that office4 ,the principles of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear on the precepts of religion4 ,according to ,shahrastn the ,mutazilites hold3-- ,that ,god is eternal2 and that eternity is the peculiar property of ,his essence2 but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes 7as distinct from ,his nature74 ,for they say1 ,he is ,omniscient as to #abf ,his nature2 ,living as to ,his nature2 ,almighty as to ,his nature2 but not through any knowledge1 power or life existing in ,him as eternal attributes2 for knowledge1 power and life are part of ,his essence1 otherwise1 if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the ,deity1 it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities4 ,they maintain that the knowledge of ,god is as much within the province of reason as that of any other entity2 that ,he cannot be beheld with the corporeal sight2 and with the exception of ,himself everything else is liable to change or to suffer extinction4 ,they also maintain that ,justice is the animating principle of human actions3 ,justice according to them being the dictates of ,reason and the concordance of the ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates4 ,again1 they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human actions2 that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men are the results of growth and development2 that ,god has commanded and forbidden1 promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually4 ,at the same time1 say they1 he who works righteousness merits rewards and he who works evil deserves punishment4 ,they also say1 that all knowledge is attained through reason1 and must necessarily be so obtained4 ,they hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within the province of reason2 that nothing is known to be right or wrong until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction2 and that thankfulness for the blessings of the ,benefactor is made obligatory by reason1 even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject4 ,they also maintain that man has perfect freedom2 is the author of his actions both good and evil1 and deserves reward or punishment hereafter accordingly4 ,during the reigns of the ',abbsside ,khalfs ,mmn1 ,mutasim and ,wathik 7#aih-bcb ,a4,h47 at ,baghdd1 the ,mutazilites were in high favour at ,court1 ,under the ',abbsside dynasty#aac the ancient ,arab ,society was revolutionized1 ,persians filled the most important offices of ,state2 ,persian doctrines took the place of ,arab ones4 ,the orthodox suffered bitter persecution4 ,the story of that persecution will be told later on4 ,the ,khalf ,wathik at length relented4 #abg ,an old man1 heavily chained1 was one day brought into his presence4 ,the prisoner obtained permission to put a few questions to ,ahmad ,ibn ,abu ,d1d1 a ,mutazilite and the ,president of the ,court of ,inquisition4 ,the following dialogue took place4 ,ahmad1 said the prisoner1 what is the dogma which you desire to have established4 ,that the ,qurn is created1 replied ,ahmad4 ,this dogma1 then1 is without doubt an essential part of religion1 insomuch that the latter cannot without it be said to be complete8 ,certainly4 ,has the ,apostle of ,god taught this to men or has he left them free8 ,he has left them free4 ,was the ,apostle of ,god acquainted with this dogma or not8 ,he was acquainted with it4 ,wherefore1 then1 do you desire to impose a belief regarding which the ,apostle of ,god has left men free to think as they please8 ,ahmad remaining silent1 the old man turned to ,wathik and said1 ,o ,prince of ,believers1 here is my first position made good4 ,then turning to ,ahmad1 he said1 ,god has said1 ',this day have ,i perfected religion for you1 and have filled up the measures of my favours upon you2 and it is my pleasure that ,islm be your religion4' 7,sra v4 #e74 ,but according to you ,islm is not perfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the ,qurn is created4 ,which now is most worthy of credence--,god1 when ,he declares ,islm to be complete and perfect1 or you when you announce the contrary8 ,ahmad was still silent4 ,prince of ,believers1 said the old man1 there is my second point made good4 ,he continued1 ,ahmad1 how do you explain the following words of ,god in ,his ,holy ,book8--',o ,apostle6 proclaim all that hath been sent down to thee from thy ,lord2 for if thou dost not1 thou hast not proclaimed ,his message at all4' ,now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the ,faithful1 has the ,apostle taught it1 or has he abstained from doing so8 ,ahmad remained silent4 ,the old man resumed1 ,prince of ,believers1 such is my third argument4 ,then turning to ,ahmad he said3 ,if the ,prophet was acquainted with the doctrine #abh which you desire to impose upon us1 had he the right to pass by it in silence8 ,he had the right4 ,and did the same right appertain to ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn and ',ali8 ,it did1 ,prince of ,believers1 said the prisoner1 ,god will1 in truth1 be severe on us1 if ,he deprives us of a liberty which ,he accorded to the ,prophet and his ,companions4 ,the ,khalf assented1 and at once restored the old man to liberty4 ,so ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever had to endure1 but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriers of traditionalism4#aad ,the next ,khalf1 ,al ,mutawakhil1 a ferocious and cruel man1 restored the orthodox party to place and power4 ,he issued a fatva 7decree7 declaring that the dogma that the ,qurn was created was an utter falsehood4 ,he instituted severe measures against ,christians1 ,jews1 ,sha'hs and ,mutazilites4 ,ahmad ,ibn ,abu ,d1d was one of the first to be disgraced4 ,heresy and latitudinarianism were banished4 ,the final blow to the ,mutazilites1 however1 came not from the ,khalf but a little later on from ,abu ,hasan-al-,ash'ar 7#bgj-cdj ,a4,h47 ,the ,mutazilites expelled from power in ,baghdd1 still flourished at ,basra where one day the following incident occurred4 ,abu ',al ,al-,jubbai1 a ,mutazilite doctor1 was lecturing to his students when ,al-,ash'ar propounded the following case to his master3 ,there were three brothers1 one of whom was a true believer1 virtuous and pious2 the second an infidel1 a debauchee and a reprobate2 and the third an infant2 they all died4 ,what became of them8 ,al-,jubbai answered3 ,the virtuous brother holds a high station in ,paradise1 the infidel is in the depths of hell1 and the child is among those who have obtained salvation4 #abi ,suppose now1 said ,al-,ash'ar1 that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuous brother1 would he be allowed to do so8 ,no1 replied ,al-,jubbai1 it would be said to him3 'thy brother arrived at this place through ,his numerous works of obedience to ,god1 and thou hast no such works to set forward4' ,suppose then1 said ,al-,ash'ar1 that the child should say3 'this is not my fault1 you did not let me live long enough1 neither did you give me the means of proving my obedience4' ,in that case1 said ,al-,jubbai1 the ,almighty would say3 ',i knew that if ,i allowed thee to live1 thou wouldest have been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell3 ,i acted1 therefore1 for thy advantage4' ,well1 said ,al-,ash'ar1 and suppose the infidel brother were here to say3 ',o ,god of the ,universe6 since ,thou knowest what awaited him1 ,thou must have known what awaited me2 why then didst ,thou act for his advantage and not for mine8'#aae ,al-,jubbai was silent1 though very angry with his pupil1 who was now convinced that the ,mutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false1 and that ,god elects some for mercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever4 ,disagreeing with his teacher on this point1 he soon began to find other points of difference1 and soon announced his belief that the ,qurn was not created4 ,this occurred on a ,friday in the ,great ,mosque at ,basra4 ,seated in his chair he cried out in a loud voice3 ,they who know me know who ,i am2 as for those who do not know me ,i shall tell them2 ,i am ',al ,ibn ,ism'l ,al-,ash'ar1 and ,i used to hold that the ,qurn was created1 that the eyes 7of men7 shall not see ,god1 and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds2 now1 ,i have returned to the truth3 ,i renounce these opinions1 and ,i take the engagement to refute the ,mutazilites and expose their infamy and turpitude4#aaf ,he then1 adopting scholastic methods1 started a school of #acj thought of his own1 which was in the main a return to orthodoxy4 ,the ,ash'aran doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the ,siftians of which sect ,al-,ash'ar's disciples form a branch4 ,the ,ash'arans hold-- 7i47 ,that the attributes of ,god are distinct from ,his essence1 yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison being made between ,god and ,his creatures4 ,they say they are not 'ain nor ghair3 not of ,his essence1 nor distinct from it3 i4e41 they cannot be compared with any other things4 7ii47 ,that ,god has one eternal will from which proceed all things1 the good and the evil1 the useful and the hurtful4 ,the destiny of man was written on the eternal table before the world was created4 ,so far they go with the ,siftians1 but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they say that he has power to convert will into action4 ,but this power cannot create anything new for then ,god's sovereignty would be impaired2 so they say that ,god in ,his providence so orders matters that whenever a man desires to do a certain thing1 good or bad1 the action corresponding to the desire is1 there and then1 created by ,god1 and1 as it were1 fitted on to the desire4 ,thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of the man1 whereas it does not4 ,this action is called ,kasb 7acquisition7 because it is acquired by a special creative act of ,god4 ,it is an act directed to the obtaining of profit1 or the removing of injury3 the term is1 therefore1 inapplicable to the ,deity4 ,abu ,bakr-al-,bakilln1 a disciple of ,al-,ash'ar1 says3 ,the essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of ,god1 but its being an action of obedience1 such as prayer1 or an action of disobedience1 such as fornication1 are qualities of the action1 which proceed from the power of man4 ,the ,imm ,al-,haramain 7#dai-dgh ,a4,h47 held that the actions of men were effected by the power which ,god has created in man4 ,abu ,ishq al ,isfarayain says3 ,that which maketh impression1 or hath influence on action1 is a compound of the power of ,god and the power of man4 #aca 7iii47 ,they say that the word of ,god is eternal1 though they acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the ,qurn1 which is the manifestation of that word1 are created4 ,they say1 in short1 that the ,qurn contains 7#a7 the eternal word which existed in the essence of ,god before time was2 and 7#b7 the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters4 ,this last they call the created word4 ,thus ,al-,ash'ar traversed the main positions of the ,mutazilites1 denying that man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of good and evil4 ,he must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed4 ,he has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of ,god4 ,it cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will be rewarded1 or the bad punished in a future world4 ,man must always approach ,god as a slave1 in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the actions of the ,supreme4 ,whether ,god will accept the penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted1 for ,he is an absolute ,sovereign1 above all law4#aag ,the opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the ,siftians need not be entered into at any length4 ,the ,mushbihites 7or ,assimilators71 interpreting some of the mutashbih verses literally1 held that there is a resemblance between ,god and ,his creatures2 and that the ,deity is capable of local motion1 of ascending1 descending1 c4 ,these they called declarative attributes4 ,the ,mujassimians 7or ,corporealists7 declared ,god to be corporeal1 by which some of them meant1 a self-subsisting body1 whilst others declared the ,deity to be finite4 ,they are acknowledged to be heretics4 #acb ,the ,jabrans gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man1 and thus opposed the ,mutazilites1 who in this respect are ,kadrans1 that is1 they deny ,al-,kadr1 ,god's absolute sovereignty1 and recognize free will in man4 ,these and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance4 ,the ,sunns follow the teaching of ,al-,ash'ar1 whilst the ,sh'ahs incline to that of the ,mutazilites4 ,connected with the subject of the attributes of ,god is that of the names to be used when speaking of ,him4 ,all sects agree in this1 that the names ,the ,living1 the ,wise1 the ,powerful1 the ,hearer1 the ,seer1 the ,speaker1 c41 are to be applied to ,god2 but the orthodox belief is that all such names must be tauqfi1 that is dependent on some revelation4 ,thus it is not lawful to apply a name to ,god expressive of one of ,his attributes1 unless there is some statement made1 or order given by ,muhammad to legalize it4 ,god is rightly called ,shf 7,healer71 but ,he cannot be called ,tabb which means much the same thing1 for the simple reason that the word ,tabb is never applied in the ,qurn or the ,traditions to ,god4 ,in like manner the term 'lim 7,knower7 is lawful1 but not so the expression 'qil 7,wise74 ,the ,mutazilites say that if1 in the ,qurn or ,traditions1 there is any praise of an attribute1 then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute can be applied to ,god even though the actual word does not occur in any revelation4 ,al-,ghazzl 7,a4,h4 #dej-eje71 who gave in the ,east the death-blow to the ,muslim philosophers1 says3 ,the names of ,god not given in the ,law1 if expressive of ,his glory1 may be used of ,him1 but only as expressive of ,his attributes1 not of ,his nature4 ,on the ground that it does not occur in the ,law1 the ,persian word ,khuda has been objected to1 an objection which also holds good with regard to the use of such terms as ,god1 ,dieu1 ,gott1 c4 ,to this it is answered1 that as ,khuda means one who comes by himself it is equivalent to the term ,wjib-ul-,wajd1 #acc one who has necessary existence1 and therefore so long as it is not considered as the ,ism-i-,zt 7name of ,his nature7 it may with propriety be used4#aah ,the current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the term ,allh1 current in a language1 can be used1 provided always that such a name is not taken from the language of the ,infidels2 so ,god1 ,dieu1 c1 still remain unlawful4 ,the names of ,god authorised by the ,qurn and ,traditions are1 exclusive of the term ,allh1 ninety-nine in number4 ,they are called the ,asm-i-,husn#aai 7noble names72 but in addition to these there are many synonyms used on the authority of ,ijm'4 ,such are ,hann1 equal to ,rahm 7,merciful7 and ,mann1 one who puts another under an obligation4 ,in the ,tafsr-i-,bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of ,god2 one thousand of which are known to angels2 one thousand to prophets2 whilst one thousand are thus distributed1 viz41 in the ,pentateuch there are three hundred1 in the ,psalms three hundred1 in the ,gospels three hundred1 in the ,qurn ninety-nine1 and one still hidden4 ,the following texts of the ,qurn are adduced to prove the nature of the divine attributes3-- 7#a74 ,life4 ,there is no ,god but ,he1 the ,living1 the ,eternal4 7,sra ii4 #bef74 ,put thy trust in ,him that liveth and dieth not4 7,sra xxv4 #fj74 7#b74 ,knowledge4 ,dost thou not see that ,god knoweth all that is in the heavens1 and all that is in the earth4 7,sra lviii4 #h74 ,with ,him are the keys of the secret things2 none knoweth them but ,he3 ,he knoweth whatever is on the land and in the sea2 and no leaf falleth but ,he knoweth it2 neither is there a grain in the darknesses of the earth1 nor a thing green or sere1 but it is noted in a distinct writing4 7,sra vi4 #ei74 #acd 7#c74 ,power4 ,if ,god pleased1 of their ears and of their eyes would ,he surely deprive them4 ,verily ,god is ,almighty4 7,sra ii4 #ai74 ,is ,he not powerful enough to quicken the dead4 7,sra lxxv4 #dj74 ,god hath power over all things4 7,sra iii4 #aei47 7#d74 ,will4 ,god is worker of that ,he willeth4 7,sra lxxxv4 #af74 ,but if ,god pleased1 ,he would surely bring them1 one and all1 to the guidance4 7,sra vi4 #ce74 ,god misleadeth whom ,he will1 and whom ,he will ,he guideth--,god doeth ,his pleasure4 7,sra xiv4 #d1 #cb74 ,as this attribute is closely connected with the article of the ,creed which refers to ,predestination1 the different opinions regarding it will be stated under that head4 ,there has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of these four attributes so clearly described in the ,qurn3 the difference is with regard to the mode of their existence and their operation4 ,there is1 first1 the ancient ,siftian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the essence of ,god3 secondly1 the ,mutazilite theory that they are not eternal2 and1 thirdly1 the ,ash'aran dogma that they are eternal1 but distinct from ,his essence4 ,there is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next three attributes--hearing1 sight1 speech4 ,for the existence of the two first of these the following verses are quoted1 ,he truly heareth and knoweth all things4 7,sra xliv4 #e74 ,no vision taketh in ,him1 but ,he taketh in all vision4 7,sra vi4 #ajc74 ,the use of the terms sitting1 rising1 c41 hands1 face1 eyes1 and so on1 gave rise as ,i have shown to several sub-divisions of the ,siftians4 ,al-,ghazzl says3 ,he sits upon ,his throne after that manner which ,he has ,himself described and in that sense which ,he ,himself means1 which is a sitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon1 or local situation4 ,this is the ,ash'aran idea1 but between the ,ash'arans and those who fell into the error of the #ace ,mujassimians1#abj there was another school4 ,the followers of ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal say that such words represent the attributes existing in ,god4 ,the words ,god sits on ,his throne mean that ,he has the power of sitting4 ,thus1 they say1 ,we keep the literal meaning of the words1 we allow no figurative interpretation4 ,to do so is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation1 for the negation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken the authority of revelation4 ,at the same time we do not pretend to explain the act1 for it is written3 ',there is none like unto ,him4' 7,sra cxii47 ',nought is there like ,him4' 7,sra xlii4 #i47 ',unworthy the estimate they form of ,god4' 7,sra xxii4 #gc47 ,to prove that ,god occupies a place they produce the following ,tradition3 ,ibn-al-,hkim wished to give liberty to a female slave ,saouda and consulted the ,prophet about it4 ,muhammad said to her1 ',where is ,god8' ',in heaven1' she replied4 ',set her at liberty1 she is a true believer4' ,not1 say the ,commentators1 because she believed that ,god occupied a place but because she took the words in their literal signification4 ,the ,sh'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to ,god movement1 quiescence1 c1 for these imply the possession of a body4 ,they hold1 too1 in opposition to the orthodox that ,god will never be seen1 for that which is seen is limited by space4 ,the seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long and important controversy connected with the nature of the ,qurn1 for the word ,kalm means not mere speech1 but revelation and every other mode of communicating intelligence4 ,al-,ghazzl says3-- ,he doth speak1 command1 forbid1 promise1 and threaten by an eternal ancient word1 subsisting in ,his essence4 ,neither is it like to the word of the creatures1 nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the commotion of the air and the collision of bodies1 nor letters #acf which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion of the tongue4 ,the ,qurn1 the ,law1 the ,gospel and the ,psalter are books sent down by ,him to ,his ,apostles1 and the ,qurn1 indeed1 is read with tongues written in books1 and is kept in hearts2 yet1 as subsisting in the essence of ,god1 it doth not become liable to separation and division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper4 ,thus ,moses also heard the word of ,god without voice or letter1 even as the saints behold the essence of ,god without substance or accident4 ,the orthodox believe that ,god is really a speaker3 the ,mutazilites deny this1 and say that ,he is only called a speaker because ,he is the originator of words and sounds4 ,they also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine of the eternity of the ,qurn4 7#a7 ,it is written in ,arabic1 it descended1 is read1 is heard1 and is written4 ,it was the subject of a miracle4 ,it is divided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others4 7#b7 ,events are described in the past tense1 but if the ,qurn had been eternal the future tense would have been used4 7#c7 ,the ,qurn contains commands and prohibitions2 if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished8 7#d7 ,if it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity1 and so even in the last day1 and in the next world1 men will be under the obligation of performing the same religious duties as they do now1 and of keeping all the outward precepts of the law4 7#e7 ,if the ,qurn is eternal1 then there are two eternals4 ,the position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of ,islm4 ,it was more a speculative opinion than anything else1 but the opposition of the ,mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become not only stout assertors of the eternity of the ,qurn1 but to give up their lives in defence of what they believed to be true4 ,the ,mutazilites by asserting the subjective nature of the ,qurnic inspiration brought the book itself within the reach of criticism4 ,this was too much for orthodox ,islm to bear even though the ,khalf ,mmn in the #acg year #bab ,a4,h4 issued a fatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the ,qurn were guilty of heresy4 ,some six years after this1 the ,imm ,ahmad ,ibn ,hanbal was severely beaten1 and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to the truth of the decree issued by the ,khalf4 ,al ,buwaiti1 a famous disciple of ,as-,shfa'1 used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when being punished by the order of the ,khalf4 ,he was taken all the way from ,cairo to ,baghdd and told to confess that the ,qurn was created4 ,on his refusal1 he was imprisoned at ,baghdd and there remained in chains till the day of his death4 ,as ,ar-,rb ,ibn ,sulaimn says3 ,i saw ,al ,buwaiti mounted on a mule3 round his neck was a wooden collar1 on his legs were fetters1 from these to the collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing fifty pounds4 ,whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words1 ',almighty ,god created the world by means of the word ,be6 ,now1 if that word was created1 one created thing would have created another4'#aba ,al ,buwaiti here refers to the verse1 ,verily our speech unto a thing when we will the same1 is that we only say to it1 ',be1' and it is1--,kun fayakna4 7,sra xxxvi4 #hb74 ,this1 in the way ,al ,buwaiti applied it1 is a standing argument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the ,qurn4 ,when times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion4 ,the ,imm ,as-,shfa' held a public disputation in ,baghdd with ,hafs1 a ,mutazilite preacher1 on this very point4 ,shfa' quoted the verse1 ,god said be1 and it was1 and asked1 ,did not ,god create all things by the word be8 ,hafs assented4 ,if then the ,qurn was created1 must not the word be have been created with it8 ,hafs could not deny so plain a proposition4 ,then1 said ,shfa'1 ,all things1 according to you1 were created by a created being1 which is a gross inconsistency and manifest #ach impiety4 ,hafs was reduced to silence1 and such an effect had ,shfa''s logic on the audience that they put ,hafs to death as a pestilent heretic4 ,thus did the ,ash'aran opinions on the subject of the ,divine attributes again gain the mastery4#abb ,the ,mutazilites failed1 and the reason why is plain4 ,they were1 as a rule1 influenced by no high spiritual motives2 often they were mere quibblers4 ,they sought no light in an external revelation4 ,driven to a reaction by the rigid system they combated1 they would have made reason alone their chief guide4 ,the nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faith they professed to follow4 ,it was1 however1 a great movement1 and at one time1 it threatened to change the whole nature of ,islm4 ,this period of ,muslim history1 famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off the fetters of the rigid system which ,islm was gradually tightening by the increased authority given to traditionalism1 and to the refinements of the four ,imms1 was undoubtedly a period of1 comparatively speaking1 high civilization4 ,baghdd1 the capital of the ,khalfate1 was a busy1 populous1 well-governed city4 ,this it mainly owed to the influence of the ,persian family of the ,barmecides1 one of whom was ,vizier to the ,khalf ,hrn-ur-,rashd4 ,hrn's fame as a good man is quite undeserved4 ,it is true that he was a patron of learning1 that his ,empire was extensive1 that he gained many victories1 that his reign was the culminating point of ,arab grandeur4 ,but for all that1 he was a morose despot1 a cruel man1 thoroughly given up to pleasures of a very questionable nature4 ,drunkenness and debauchery were common at court4 ,plots and intrigues were ever at work4 ,such was the state of one of the greatest1 if not the greatest1 periods #aci of ,muslim rule4 ,this1 too1 was at a time most favourable for the development of any good which ,islm might have possessed4 ,it should be remembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period is connected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent1 when orthodoxy was weak in ,baghdd4 ,the culture of the time was in spite of1 not on account of1 the influence of orthodox ,islm4 #b4 ,,angels4--,of this article of the creed ,muhammad ,al-,berkevi says3-- ,we must confess that ,god has angels who act according to ,his order and who do not rebel against ,him4 ,they neither eat nor drink1 nor is there amongst them any difference of sex4 ,some are near the throne of ,god2 those are ,his messengers4 ,each one has his particular work4 ,some are on earth1 some in heaven1 some are always standing1 some always prostrate themselves and some laud and praise ,god4 ,others have charge of men and record all their actions4 ,some angels are high in stature and are possessed of great power4 ,such an one is ,gabriel 7,jibr1l7 who in the space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth1 and who with one wing can lift up a mountain4 ,we must believe in ',izr1l who receives the souls of men when they die1 and in ,isrfl into whose charge is committed the trumpet4 ,this trumpet he has actually in his hand1 and placed to his mouth ready to blow when ,god gives the order4 ,when he receives that order he will blow such a terrible blast that all living things will die4#abc ,this is the commencement of the last day4 ,the world will remain in this state of death forty years4 ,then ,god ,most ,high will revive ,isrfl who will blow a second blast1 at the sound of which all the dead will rise to life4#abd ,this confession of faith makes no mention of ,mk1l 7,michael71 the fourth of the archangels4 ,his special duty is to see that all created beings have what is needful for them4 ,he has charge of the rain-fall1 plants1 grain and all that is required for the sustenance of men1 beasts1 fishes1 c4 ,gabriel's special charge is the communication of ,god's will to prophets4 ,the words one terrible in power 7,sra liii4 #e7 #adj are generally applied to him4 ,he is honoured with the privilege of nearness to ,god4 ,tradition says that on the night of the ,mi'rj1 the ,prophet saw that ,gabriel had six hundred wings1 and that his body was so large that from one shoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying bird would require five hundred years to pass over it4 ,nine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed of light4 ,their rank is stationary1 and each is content with the position he occupies4 ,their one desire is to love and to know ,god4 ,whatever he commands they do4 ,all beings in the heaven and on the earth are ,his3 and they who are in ,his presence disdain not ,his service1 neither are they wearied3 they praise ,him day and night4 7,sra xxi4 #ai1 #bj47 ,they are free from all sin4#abe ,it is true that they did not wish for the creation of ,adam1 and this may seem like a want of confidence in ,god4 ,it is said1 however1 that their object was not to oppose ,god1 but to relieve their minds of the doubts they had in the matter4 ,thus when the ,lord said to the angels1 ',verily1 ,i am about to place one in my stead on earth1' they said3 ',wilt ,thou place there one who will do ill therein1 and shed blood when we celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness4' ,god said3 ',verily ,i know what ye know not4' ,it is true that ,ibls was disobedient1 but then he belonged not to the angelic order but to that of the jinn4 ,when we said to the angels1 'prostrate yourselves before ,adam1' they all prostrated themselves save ,ibls1 who was of the jinn1 and revolted from his ,lord's behest4 7,sra xviii4 #dh47 7,see also ,sra ii4 #cc47 ,angels appear in human form on special occasions1 but usually they are invisible4 ,it is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils4 ,this accounts for the saying1 ,if you hear a cock crow1 pray for mercy1 for it has seen an angel2 but if you hear an ass bray1 take refuge with ,god1 for it has seen a devil4 #ada ,the angels intercede for man3 ,the angels celebrate the praise of their ,lord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth4 7,sra xlii4 #c47 ,they also act as guardian angels3 ,each hath a succession of angels before him and behind him who watch over him by ,god's behest4 7,sra xiii4 #ab47 ,is it not enough for you that your ,lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down from on high8 7,sra iii4 #abj47 ,supreme over ,his servants ,he sendeth forth guardians who watch over you1 until when death overtaketh any one of you our messengers take his soul and fail not4 7,sra vi4 #fa47 ,in the ,traditions it is said that ,god has appointed for every man two angels to watch over him by day1 and two by night4 ,the one stands on the right hand side of the man1 the other on his left4 ,some1 however1 say that they reside in the teeth1 and that the tongue of the man is the pen and the saliva of the mouth the ink4#abf ,they protect the actions of men and record them all whether good or bad4 ,they are called the ,mua'qqibt1 i4e41 those who succeed one another4 ,they also bear the name of ,kirm-ul-,ktibn1 the exalted writers4 ,they are referred to in the ,qurn4 ,think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk8 ,yes1 and our angels who are at their sides write them down4 7,sra xliii4 #hj74 ,there are eight angels who support the throne of ,god4 ,and the angels shall be on its sides1 and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy ,lord4 7,sra lxix4 #ag74 ,nineteen have charge of hell4 ,over it are nineteen4 ,none but angels have we made guardians of the fire4 7,sra lxxiv4 #cj74 ,there is a special arrangement made by ,providence to mitigate the evils of ,satanic interference4 ,ibls1 says ,jbir ,maghrab1 though able to assume all other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the ,deity1 or #adb any of ,his angels1 or prophets4 ,there would otherwise be much danger to human salvation1 as he might1 under the appearance of one of the prophets1 or of some superior being1 make use of this power to seduce men to sin4 ,to prevent this1 whenever he attempts to assume such forms1 fire comes down from heaven and repulses him4 ,the story of ,hrt and ,mrt is of some interest from its connection with the question of the impeccability of the angels4 ,speaking of those who reject ,god's ,apostle the ,qurn says3 ,and they followed what the ,satans read in the reign of ,solomon2 not that ,solomon was unbelieving1 but the ,satans were unbelieving4 ,sorcery did they teach to men1 and what had been revealed to the two angels ,hrt and ,mrt at ,bbel4 ,yet no man did these two teach until they had said1 ',we are only a temptation4 ,be not thou an unbeliever4' 7,sra ii4 #if74 ,here it is quite clear that two angels teach sorcery1 which is generally allowed to be an evil4 ,some explanation has to be given4 ,commentators are by no means reticent on this subject4 ,the story goes that in the time of the prophet ,enoch when the angels saw the bad actions of men they said3 ,o ,lord6 ,adam and his descendants whom ,thou has appointed as ,thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently4 ,to which the ,lord replied3 ,if ,i were to send you on earth1 and to give you lustful and angry dispositions1 you too would sin4 ,the angels thought otherwise2 so ,god told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal4 ,they selected two1 renowned for devotion and piety4 ,god having implanted in them the passions of lust and anger said3 ,all day go to and fro on the earth1 put an end to the quarrels of men1 ascribe no equal to ,me1 do not commit adultery1 drink no wine1 and every night repeat the ,ism-ul-,a'zam1 the exalted name 7of ,god7 and return to heaven4 ,this they did for some time1 but at length a beautiful woman named ,zuhra 7,venus7 led them astray4 ,one day she brought them a cup of wine4 ,one said3 #adc ,god has forbidden it2 the other1 ,god is merciful and forgiving4 ,so they drank the wine1 killed the husband of ,zuhra1 to whom they revealed the exalted name1 and fell into grievous sin4 ,immediately after1 they found that the name had gone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual4 ,they were very much concerned at this and begged ,enoch to intercede for them4 ,the prophet did so1 and with such success that the angels were allowed to choose between a present or a future punishment4 ,they elected to be punished here on earth4 ,they were then suspended with their heads downwards in a well at ,bbel4 ,some say that angels came and whipped them with rods of fire1 and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the reach of their parched lips4 ,the woman was changed to a star4 ,some assert that it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence4 ,others say that she is the star ,venus4 ,it is only right to state that the ,qz ',ayz1 ,imm ,fakhr-ud-dn ,rz 7#edd-fjf ,a4,h471 ,qz ,nsir-ud-dn ,baidav 7#fbj-fia ,a4,h47 and most scholastic divines deny the truth of this story4 ,they say that angels are immaculate1 but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty which the ,qurn itself raises in connection with ,hrt and ,mrt4 ,they want to know how beings in such a state can teach1 and whether it is likely that men would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene4 ,as to the woman1 they think the whole story absurd1 not only because the star ,venus was created before the time of ,adam1 but also because it is inconceivable that one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for ever4 ,a solution1 however1 they are bound to give1 and it is this4 ,magic is a great art which ,god must allow mankind to know4 ,the dignity of the order of prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly hurtful4 ,two angels were therefore sent1 and so men can now distinguish between the miracles of prophets1 the signs of #add saints1 the wonders of magicians and others4 ,then ,hrt and ,mrt always discouraged men from learning magic4 ,they said to those who came to them3 ,we are only a temptation4 ,be not thou an unbeliever4 ,others assert that it is a ,jewish allegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence1 the woman the evil appetites4 ,the woman's ascent to heaven represents death4 ,to this solution of the difficulty1 however1 the great body of the ,traditionists do not agree4 ,they declare that the story is a ,hads-i-,sahh1 and that the ,isnd is sound and good4 ,i name only a few of the great divines who hold this view4 ,they are ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal1 ,ibn ,ma'sd1 ,ibn ',umr1 ,ibn ',abbs1 ,hfiz ',asqalln#abg and others4 ,jell-ud-din ,syt in his commentary the ,drr-i-,mashr1 has given all the ,traditions in order and1 though there is some variety in the details1 the general purport accords with the narrative as ,i have related it4 ,the ,traditionists answer the objections of the ,scholastics thus4 ,they say that angels are immaculate only so long as they remain in the angelic state2 that1 though confined1 ,hrt and ,mrt can teach magic1 for a word or two is quite sufficient for that purpose2 that some men have no fear and1 if they have1 it is quite conceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality of devils or jinn4 ,with regard to the woman ,zuhra they grant that to be changed into a bright star is of the nature of a reward2 but they say the desire to learn the exalted name was so meritorious an act that the good she desired outweighs the evil she did4 ,with regard to the date of the creation of the star ,venus1 it is said that all our astronomical knowledge is based on observations made since the ,flood1 whereas this story relates to the times of ,enoch who lived before the days of ,noah4 ,so the dispute goes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in the story4 #ade ,munkir and ,nakr are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes who visit every man in his grave1 and examine him with regard to his faith in ,god and in ,muhammad4 ,the dead are supposed to dwell in 'lam-i-barzakh1 a state of existence intervening between the present life and the life of mankind after the resurrection4#abh ,this is the meaning of the word grave when used in this connection4 ,unbelievers and wicked ,muslims suffer trouble in that state2 true believers who can give a good answer to the angels are happy4 ,some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for this purpose and that some of them bear the name of ,munkir1 and some that of ,nakr and that1 just as each man has two recording angels during his lifetime1 two from this class are appointed to examine him after death4 ,there is a difference of opinion with regard to children4 ,the general belief is that the children of believers will be questioned1 but that the angels will teach them to say3 ,allh is my ,lord1 ,islm my religion1 and ,muhammad my ,prophet4 ,with regard to the children of unbelievers being questioned1 ,imm ,abu ,hanfa hesitated to give an opinion4 ,he also doubted about their punishment4 ,some think they will be in ,a'rf1 a place between heaven and hell2 others suppose that they will be servants to the true believers in ,paradise4 ,distinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire called jinn 7genii47 ,it is said that they were created thousands of years before ,adam came into existence4 ,we created man of dried clay1 of dark loam moulded1 and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire4 7,sra xv4 #bf1 #bg47 ,they eat1 drink1 propagate their species and are subject to death1 though they generally live many centuries4 ,they dwell chiefly in the ,koh-i-,kf1 a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world3#abi #adf some are believers in ,islm2 some are infidels1 and will be punished4 ,i will wholly fill hell with jinn and men4 7,sra xi4 #abj47 ,the ,sra called ,srat-ul-,jinn 7lxxii47 refers to their belief in ,islm4 ,the passage is too long to quote4 ,they try to hear#acj what is going on in heaven4 ,we guard them 7i4e41 men7 from every stoned ,satan1 save such as steal a hearing4 7,sra xv4 #ah47 ,they were under the power of ,solomon and served him4 7,sra xxxviii4 #cf47 ,an ',ifrt of the jinn said1 ,i will bring it thee 7,solomon7 ere thou risest from thy place3 ,i have power for this and am trusty4 7,sra xxvii4 #ci47 ,at the last day the jinn also will be questioned4 ,imm ,hanfa doubted whether the jinn who are ,muslims will be rewarded4 ,the unbelieving jinn will assuredly be punished4 ,tradition classifies them in the following order3 7#a7 ,jnn1 7#b7 ,jinn1 7#c7 ,shaitn1 7#d7 ',ifrt1 7#e7 ,mrid4 ,many fables have been invented concerning these beings1 and though intelligent ,muslims may doubt these wonderful accounts1 yet a belief in the order of jinn is imperative1 at least1 as long as there is belief in the ,qurn4 ,those who wish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on it in ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians4 #c4 ,,the ,,books4--,al ,berkevi says3-- ,it is necessary to believe that the books of ,god have been sent through the instrumentality of ,gabriel1 to prophets upon the earth4 ,the books are never sent except to prophets4 ,the ,qurn was sent to ,muhammad portion by portion during a space of #bc years4 ,the ,pentateuch came to ,moses1 the ,injl to ,jesus1 the ,zabr to ,david1 and the other books to other prophets4 ,the whole number of the ,divine books is #ajd4 ,the ,qurn1 the last of all1 is to be followed till the day of judgment4 ,it can neither be abrogated nor changed4 ,some laws of the previous books have been abrogated by the ,qurn and ought not to be followed4 ,the one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following order3--,to ,adam1 ten2 to ,seth1 fifty2 to ,enoch 7,idris71 thirty2 to ,abraham1 ten2 to ,moses1 the #adg ,taurt 7,pentateuch72 to ,david1 the ,zabr 7,psalms72 to ,jesus1 the ,injl2 to ,muhammad1 the ,qurn4 ,the one hundred to which no distinctive name is given are known as the ,suhf-ul-,anbiya1--,books of the ,prophets4 ,the ,qurn is also known as the ,furqn1 the distinguisher2 the ,qurn-i-,sharf1 noble ,qurn2 the ,quran-i-,majd1 glorious ,qurn2 the ,mushaf1 the ,book4 ,it is said to be the compendium of the ,taurt1 ,zabr and ,injl#aca2 so ,muslims do not require to study these books4#acb ,the orthodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the ,qurn1#acc though ,syed ,ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those ,musalmns who say so4#acd ,be that as it may1 their inspiration is considered to be of a lower order than that of the ,qurn4 ,a large #adh portion of the ,injl is considered to be mere narrative4 ,the actual words of ,christ only are looked upon as the revelation which descended from heaven4 ,it is so in the case of the ,old ,testament ,prophets4 ,however1 it was the rule to call a book by the name of the prophet1 whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only1 or whether it was mixed up with narrative also4 ,it is to be observed that1 in the case of our own ,prophet1 the revelations made to him were intended to impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down1 literally and exactly1 in the form in which they were communicated without any narrative being inserted in them4#ace ,the writings of the ,apostles are not considered to be inspired books4 ,we do not consider that the ,acts of the ,apostles1 or the various ,epistles1 although unquestionably very good books1 are to be taken as part and parcel of the ,new ,testament itself2 nevertheless we look upon the writings of the ,apostles in the same light as we do the writings of the ,companions of our own ,prophet2 that is to say1 as entitled to veneration and respect4#acf ,there are many verses in the ,qurn which speak of previous revelations1 thus3 ,we also caused ,jesus1 the son of ,mary1 to follow the footsteps of the prophets1 confirming the law 7,taurt7 which was sent before him1 and we gave him the ,injl with its guidance and light1 confirmatory of the preceding law2 a guidance and a warning to those that fear ,god4 7,sra v4 #ej74 ,we believe in ,god1 and that which hath been sent down to us1 and that which hath been sent down to ,abraham and ,isaac and ,jacob and the tribes1 and that which hath been given to ,moses and to ,jesus1 and that which was given to the prophets from their ,lord4 ,no difference do we make between any of them3 and to ,god are we resigned4 7,sra ii4 #acj74 ,in truth hath ,he sent down to thee the ,book1 which confirmeth those that precede it1 for ,he had sent down the #adi ,law and the ,injl aforetime1 as man's guidance2 and now hath ,he sent down the ,furqn4 7,sra iii4 #b74acg ,practically1 ,musalmns reject the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,to do so is manifestly against the letter of the ,qurn1 and1 as some reason for this neglect of previous ,scriptures must be given1 ,muslim divines say that the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures have been corrupted4 ,the technical expression is tahrf1 a word signifying1 to change1 to turn aside anything from the truth4 ,then tahrf may be of two kinds1 tahrf-i-m'anav1 a change in the meaning of words2 tahrf-i-lafz1 an actual change of the written words4 ,most ,musalmns maintain that the latter kind of corruption has taken place1 and so they do not feel bound to read or study the previous revelations so frequently referred to in the ,qurn4 ,the charge brought against the ,jews of corrupting their ,scriptures is based on the following verse of the ,qurn3 ,some truly are there among you who torture the ,scriptures with their tongues1 in order that ye may suppose it to be from the ,scripture1 yet it is not from the ,scripture4 ,and they say3 'this is from ,god1' yet it is not from ,god2 and they utter a lie against ,god1 and they know they do so4 7,sra iii4 #gb47 ,all the ancient commentators assert that this only proved tahrf-i-m'anav2 that is1 that the ,jews referred to either misinterpreted what they read1 or1 whilst professing to read from the ,scripture1 used expressions not found therein4 ,it does not mean that they altered the text of their ,scriptures4 ,this1 however1 does not excuse ,musalmns for their neglect of the previous ,scriptures1 and so the orthodox divines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--the tahrf-i-lafz1 has taken place4 ,the question is fully discussed1 and the opinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by ,syed ,ahmad in his ,commentary on the ,bible4#ach #aej #d4 ,,prophets4--,muhammad ,al ,berkevi says3-- ,it is necessary to confess that ,god has sent prophets2 that ,adam is the first of the prophets and the father of all men2 that ,muhammad is the last of the prophets2 that between ,adam and ,muhammad there were a great number of prophets2 that ,muhammad is the most excellent of all and that his people are the best of all peoples2 that each of the preceding prophets was sent to a special people1 some with books1 some without1 but that ,muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii2 that his law will remain until the end of the world1 that his miracles are many in number1 that by his blessed finger he made waters flow1 that he divided the moon into two parts1 that animals1 trees1 and stones said to him3 ',thou art a true prophet4' ,we must also believe that one night he was transported from ,mecca to ,jerusalem1 and from thence to heaven1 where he saw both paradise and hell1 conversed with the ,most ,high and returned to ,mecca before morning4 ,after him no other prophet will come1 for he is the seal of the prophets4 ,the number of prophets sent by ,god to make known ,his will varies according to the ,tradition which records it4 ,about two hundred thousand is the usual number stated4 ,twenty-five are mentioned by name in the ,qurn1 of whom six are distinguished by special titles4 ,adam1 ,sufi ,ullh1 the chosen of ,god2 ,noah1 ,nab ,ullh1 the prophet of ,god2 ,abraham1 ,khall ,ullh1 the friend of ,god2 ,moses1 ,kalm ,ullh1 the speaker with ,god2 ,jesus1 ,rh ,ullh1 the spirit of ,god2 ,muhammad1 ,rasl ,ullh1 the messenger of ,god4 ,these are called the ,anbiya-ulul-',azm 7possessors of purpose7 because they were the heads of their respective dispensations1 and because they will be permitted by ,god to intercede in the day of judgment for their followers4 ,they are the greatest and most exalted of the prophets4#aci ,there are degrees of rank amongst the prophets1 for ,some of the ,apostles have ,we endowed more highly than others4 ,those to whom ,god hath spoken1 ,he hath raised to the loftiest grade1 and to ,jesus1 the ,son of ,mary ,we gave #aea manifest signs1 and ,we strengthened him with the ,holy ,spirit4 7,sra ii4 #bed74 ,the ,anbiya-ulul-',azm are ranked in the following order3 ,noah1 ,jesus1 ,moses1 ,abraham and as the chief of all1 ,muhammad1 of whom it is said3 ,he is the ,apostle of ,god and the seal of the prophets4 7,sra xxxiii4 #dj74 ,a ,tradition1 as usual1 supports his position4 ,i am the chief of the sons of men4 ,adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the judgment day4#adj ,it is said that the law given by ,moses was harsh and severe2 that by ,christ was mild and gracious2 but that the law given by ,muhammad is perfect1 for it combines both the quality of strictness and that of graciousness2 according to the ,tradition3 ,i always laugh and by laughing kill4#ada ,each prophet is said to have been sent to his own tribe1 but ,muhammad was sent for all men4 ,a ,tradition is adduced to support this statement3 ,i was raised up for all men whether white or black1 other prophets were not except for their own tribe4 ,the ,qurn also states3 ,we have sent thee 7,muhammad7 for all men4 ,there is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are superior to the angels4 ,the ,hanfites hold that the prophets amongst men are superior to the prophets amongst angels1 who in their turn are superior to the ordinary run of men1 to whom again the angels1 other than prophets1 are inferior4 ,the ,mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets4 ,the ,sha'hs assert that the twelve ,imms are superior to prophets4 ,the way in which ,muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previous chapter2 but ,ibn ,khaldoun gives such an interesting account of prophetic inspiration that ,i give the substance of his remarks here4 ,he speaks somewhat as follows4#adb ,if we contemplate the world and the creatures it contains we shall recognize a perfect order1 a regular #aeb system1 a sequence of cause and effect1 a connexion between different categories of existence1 and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to another4 ,then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body1 who is in fact a spiritual existence4 ,this agent1 which is the soul1 must on the one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and1 on the other1 with the existences in the next category of superiority1 and one whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence4 ,such are the angels4 ,it follows1 then1 that the human soul has a tendency towards the angelic world4 ,all this is quite in accordance with the idea that1 according to a regular order1 all the categories of existences in the universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account of their nature4 ,the souls of men may be divided into three classes4 ,the first kind of soul is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual3 it has to content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination4 ,thus it can understand concepts and affirmations4 ,it can raise itself high in its own category but cannot pass its limit4 ,the souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence4 ,they can enter into a state of contemplation which results in ecstasy4 ,this is the intuition of the ,saints 7,auliya7#adc to whom ,god has given this divine knowledge4 ,the souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise to the angelic state where they become like angels4 ,in a moment of time such #aec a soul perceives the sublime company 7of angels7 in the sphere which contains them4 ,it1 there and then1 hears the speech of the soul and the divine voice4 ,such are the souls of the prophets4 ,god has given to these souls the power of leaving the human body4 ,whilst thus separate from it ,god gives to them ,his revelation4 ,the prophets are endowed by ,god with such a purity of disposition1 such an instinct of uprightness1 that they are naturally inclined to the spiritual world4 ,they are animated by an ardour quite peculiar to their order4 ,when they return from the angelic state they deliver to men the revelations they have received4 ,sometimes the revelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse4 ,he grasps the ideas and1 as soon as the humming ceases1 he comprehends the message2 sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation1 and what he says the prophet learns by heart4 ,the journey to1 the return from the angelic state1 and the comprehension of the revelation received there occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye4 ,so rapidly do the souls of prophets move4 ,so instantaneously do they receive and understand ,god's revelations4 ,this is why inspiration is called ,wah1 a word which1 according to ,ibn ,khaldoun1 means to make haste4 ,the first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it is only a ,nab 7prophet71 and not a ,rasl 7apostle or messenger47 ,the second mode is employed towards a ,rasl who1 on the principle that the greater contains the less1 is also a ,nab4 ,a ,hads records that ,muhammad said3 ,revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatigued me much4 ,when it stopped ,i learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to me4 ,sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and1 whilst he was speaking1 ,i learnt what was said4 ,that a prophet should feel oppressed on such occasions is hinted at in ,with measured tone intone the ,qurn1 for we shall devolve on thee mighty words4 7,sra lxxiii4 #e47 #aed ,a ,nab1 7who must be a wise and a free man1 that is1 one who is not a slave of another1 and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or mind71 receives ,wah but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders of ,god4 ,a ,rasl who must possess the same qualifications as a ,nab1 is one who is commanded to deliver ,god's message to men1 though he does not necessarily abrogate what preceding ,rasls have delivered4 ,neither is it necessary that he should bring a book or even a new law4 ,some ,rasls do so1 but the distinguishing mark of the ,rasl is that he delivers to men commands direct from ,god1 and is specially commissioned so to do4 ,thus every ,rasl is a ,nab1 whilst every ,nab is not a ,rasl4 ,the question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which considerable attention has been paid by ,muslim theologians4 ,the orthodox belief is that they are free from sin4 ,some think that their freedom from sin is because the grace of ,god being ever in them in the richest fulness they are kept in the right path4 ,the ,ash'arans believe that the power of sinning is not created in them4#add ,the ,mutazilites deny this1 but admit the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil4 ,these theories do not agree with actual facts4 ,prophets like other men commit faults1 but here comes in the ,muslim distinction of sins into gunh-i-kabra great sins1 and gunh-i-saghra little sins4 ,the gunh-i-kabra are1 murder1 adultery1 disobedience to ,god and to parents1 robbing of orphans1 to accuse of adultery1 to avoid fighting against infidels1 drunkenness1 to give or to take usury1 to neglect the ,friday prayers and the ,ramazn fast1 tyranny1 backbiting1 untrustworthiness1 forgetting the ,qurn after reading it1 to avoid giving true or to give false witness1 lying without sufficient reason1#ade to swear falsely or to swear by any other than ,god1 flattery of tyrants1 false judgments1 giving short weight or measure1 #aee magic1 gambling1 approval of the ceremonies of infidels1 boasting of one's piety1 calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such times1#adf dancing1 music1 neglect when opportunity offers of warning other persons with regard to the commands and prohibitions of ,god1 disrespect to a ,hfiz1 to shave the beard1 to omit saying the dard 7i4e4 on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of ,god7 whenever the name of ,muhammad is mentioned4#adg ,these are all great sins and can only be forgiven after due repentance3 the little sins are forgiven if some good actions are done4 ,observe prayer at early morning1 at the close of day1 and at the approach of night2 for the good deeds drive away the evil deeds4 7,sra xi4 #aaf74 ,men may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly4 ,it is the universal belief that a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way2 but there is a difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins4 ,some hold that they can do them unwittingly1 though even then it is not in any thing connected with their office4 ,others again limit even this frailty to the period before wah 7inspiration7 comes upon them4 ,the general opinion1 however1 is that they are free from all sin1 whether great or small4 ,the frailties which they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not amounting to sin4 ,this1 to the ,muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the ,qurn itself raises on this point4 ,with the exception of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,anbiya-ulul-',azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox ,muslim would call sin4 ,adam's transgression#adh is referred to in ,sra ii4 #bi-cg and #aef in ,sra vii4 #aj-bd4 ,i quote only one verse3 ,they said1 ',o our ,lord6 with ourselves have we dealt unjustly2 if ,thou forgive us not and have not pity on us1 we shall surely be of those that perish4' ,the sin of ,noah is not specified in the ,qurn1 yet it is plainly hinted at4 ,to ,thee verily1 ,o my ,lord1 do ,i repair lest ,i ask that of ,thee wherein ,i have no knowledge3 unless ,thou forgive me and be merciful to me ,i shall be one of the lost4 7,sra xi4 #di74 ,there is also a similar request in ,sra lxxi4 #bi4 ,abraham is represented as saying to his people3 ,they whom ye worship1 ye and your fathers of early days1 are my foes2 but not so the ,lord of the worlds1 who hath created me1 and guideth me1 who giveth me food and drink2 and when ,i am sick1 he healeth me1 and who will cause me to die and again quicken me1 and who1 ,i hope1 will forgive me my sins in the day of reckoning4 7,sra xxvi4 #ge-hb74 ,moses is described as having done a work of ,satan in killing a man1 and as saying3 ',o my ,lord1 ,i have sinned to my own hurt2 forgive me4' ,so ,god forgave him2 for ,he is the forgiving1 the merciful4 ,he said3 ',lord1 because thou hast showed me this grace1 ,i will never again be the helper of the wicked4' 7,sra xxviii4 #ae1 #af74 ,the following passages refer to ,muhammad4 ,be thou steadfast and patient2 for true is the promise of ,god2 and seek pardon for thy fault4#adi 7,sra xl4 #eg74 ,ask pardon for thy sin1 and for believers1 both men and women4 7,sra xlvii4 #ba74 ,the scandal caused by the ,prophet's conduct with the wife of ,zeid1 and with the ,egyptian slave ,mary1 necessitated a pretended revelation of ,god's will in reference to these events4 ,the circumstances will be found fully detailed in ,sra xxxiii4 #cf-ch and in ,sra lxvi4 #a-e4 ,one of the most important verses is3 ,verily1 we have won for thee an undoubted victory1 in token that ,god forgiveth thy earlier and later fault4 7,sra xlviii4 #a-b74 #aeg ,it is not quite clear what victory is here referred to4 ,according to the ,tafsr-i-,husain1 some commentators say that it is the taking of ,mecca1 the past tense being prophetically used for the future4 ,the following explanations are given of the expression earlier and later fault4 7#a7 ,god has forgiven thy sin committed before and after the descent of wah1 7#b7 before and after the taking of ,mecca1 or 7#c7 before the descent of this ,sra4 7#d7 ,the commentator ,salm says3 ,the earlier sin refers to the sin of ,adam committed when ,muhammad was in the loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him2 the later sin refers to the followers of the ,prophet1 and in that way is connected with him1 just as the sin of ,adam was the predecessor and the cause of their sin4 7#e7 ,imm ,abu'l-,lais says3 ,the words refer to the sin of ,adam1 and to those of the followers of the ,prophet4 ,both are connected with ,muhammad1 because the former is forgiven by the blessing1 and the latter by the intercession of ,muhammad4#aej ,from these extracts from the ,qurn it appears that sin is imputed to prophets1 though ,muslims evade the charge by the casuistry ,i have already referred to4 ,be that as it may1 it is a striking fact that the one sinless member of the ,anbiya-ulul-',azm1 the one sinless prophet of ,islm1 is none other than ,jesus ,christ4 ,there is no passage in the ,qurn which hints at sin1 even in the modified form in which ,muslims attribute it to other prophets1 being committed by him3 no passage which speaks of ,his seeking for pardon4 ,it is the universal belief that prophets work miracles1 7mu'jizt74 ,a miracle is defined to be ,kharq-i-'dat1 that is1 something contrary to the usual course of nature4 ,the object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one1 and chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet4 ,although ,muhammad makes1 in the #aeh ,qurn1 no distinct claim to the power of working miracles1#aea his followers maintain that in this1 as in all other respects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets1 and produce various passages of the ,qurn in support of their view4 ,thus1 according to ,shaikh ,jell-ud-dn ,syut1 if to ,adam was given the power of naming every thing1 ,muhammad also possessed the same power4 ,enoch was exalted on high1 but ,muhammad was taken to the ',baqb-i-qausain1' the 'two bows' length1' where ,gabriel1 one mighty in power1 appeared to him4 7,sra liii4 #e-i74 ,ishmael was ready to be sacrificed1 but ,muhammad endured the splitting of his chest2#aeb ,joseph was to some extent handsome1 but ,muhammad was the very perfection of beauty2 ,moses brought water from the rock1 but ,muhammad produced it from his fingers4 ,the sun was stayed on its course by ,joshua and so it was by ,muhammad4 ,solomon had a great kingdom1 ,muhammad a greater1 for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth4 ,wisdom was given to ,john the ,baptist whilst yet a child1 so also were wisdom and understanding granted to ,muhammad at an early period of his life4 ,jesus could raise the dead1 so also could ,muhammad4 ,in addition to all these1 the special miracles of the ,prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder1 the ,mi'rj1 the coming of a tree into his presence1 and above all the wonderful miracle of the ,qurn4#aec ,the splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in1 #aei ,the hour of judgment approacheth2 and the moon hath been split in sunder4 7,sra liv4 #a74 ,imm ,zhid says that ,abu ,jahl and a ,jew visited the ,prophet1 and demanded a sign from him on pain of death4 ,the ,prophet made a sign with his little finger1 and at once the moon separated into two parts3 one of which remained in the sky1 the other went off to a long distance4 ,the ,jew believed in ,islm forthwith4 ,abu ,jahl ascribed the affair to magic1 but on making enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they1 on this very night1 distinctly saw the moon in two parts4#aed ,some1 however1 refer the passage to the future1 as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one of the signs of the last day4 ,the ,mi'rj1 or night ascent1 is mentioned in1 ,glory be to ,him who carried ,his servant by night from the sacred temple 7of ,mecca7 to the temple that is more remote1 whose precinct ,we have blessed1 that ,we might show him of our signs4 7,sra xvii4 #a74 ,muslim writers1 who are fond of the marvellous1 narrate at length the wonderful things the ,prophet saw and did on this eventful night2#aee but some maintain that it was only a vision1 and quote the words3 ,we ordained the vision which we showed thee1 in proof of this assertion4#aef ,be that as it may1 all orthodox ,muslims maintain the superiority of ,muhammad1 as a worker of miracles1 over all other prophets4 #e4 ,,the ,,resurrection ,,and ,,the ,,last ,,day4--,these two articles of the faith may be considered together4 ,the #afj following is a summary of the remarks of ,muhammad ,al ,berkevi on this point4 ,it is necessary to acknowledge3-- #a4 ,that the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that ,munkir and ,nakr 7,ante p4 #ade7 will come and interrogate the dead person concerning his ,god1 his ,prophet1 his faith and his ,qibla4 ,the faithful will reply3 our ,god is ,god2 our ,prophet is ,muhammad2 our religion1 ,islm2 our ,qibla1 the ,ki-'databa4 #b4 ,that all the signs of the last day mentioned by the ,prophet will come to pass2 such as1 the appearance of ,dajjl1 or ,antichrist2 the descent of ,jesus from heaven2 the appearance of ,imm ,mahd and of ,gog and ,magog2 the rising of the sun from the west1 c4 #c4 ,that all living things will die2 that the mountains will fly in the air like birds2 that the heavens will melt away2 that after some time has thus passed ,god most ,high will set the earth in order and raise the dead2 that prophets1 saints1 doctors of the law1 and the faithful will find near them the robes and the horses of ,paradise4 ,they will put on the robes1 and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of ,god4 ,other men1 hungry1 thirsty1 and naked will go on foot4 ,the ,faithful will go to the right1 the ,infidels to the left4 #d4 ,that there will be a balance1 in which the good and bad actions of men will be weighed4 ,those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to ,paradise2 if the bad predominate1 they will go into the fire1 unless ,god has mercy on them1 or the prophets or saints intercede for them4 ,if1 however1 they were not ,muslims there will be no intercession for them1 nor will they come out from the fire4 ,the ,muslims who enter the fire will1 after having purged their crimes1 enter ,paradise4 #e4 ,that the bridge ,sirt1 which is sharper than a sword1 is raised above the fire2 that all men must pass over this4 ,some will pass over with the speed of lightning1 some like a horse that runs1 some1 their backs laden with their sins1 will go very slowly over2 others will fall and certainly enter into the fire4 #f4 ,that each prophet has a pool where he1 with his people1 will quench their thirst before entering ,paradise2 that the pool of ,muhammad is the largest of all1 for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the other4 ,its water is sweeter than honey1 whiter than milk4 #g4 ,that ,paradise and ,hell actually exist2 that the chosen remain for ever in the former2 they neither die1 nor grow aged4 ,they experience no kind of change4 ,the ,houris and the females are exempted #afa from the infirmities of their sex4 ,they will no longer bear children4 ,the elect will find there the meat and the drink they require1 without taking upon themselves any trouble4 ,the ground of ,paradise is of musk2 the bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver4 ,the unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell1 tormented by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel1 by scorpions as large as mules1 by fire and by scalding water4 ,their bodies will burn1 till they become reduced to a coal1 when ,god will revive them so that they may endure fresh torments4 ,this will last for ever4 ,the following additional remarks are based on the ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm4 ,they fall under four heads4 7#a74 ,the sounding of the trumpets4 7,nafkhatain-i-,sr74 ,this will not take place until wickedness spreads over all the earth4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,the resurrection will not come to pass1 till some of the sects among my followers mix up with the ,mushriks 7those who associate others with ,god7 and till others commence to worship monuments4 ,again1 ,the last hour will not be till no one is found who calls on ,god4 ,then ,there shall be a blast on the trumpet1 and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth shall expire1 save those whom ,god shall vouchsafe to live4 ,there shall be another blast on it1 and lo6 arising they shall gaze around them4 7,sra xxxix4 #fh74 ,abu ,huraira1 a ,companion1 relates that the ,prophet speaking of the trumpet stated as follows3 ,after the creation of the heavens and the earth ,god created the trumpet and gave it to ,isrfl who1 with his mouth placed to it1 is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it4 ,he will blow three times4#aeg ,the first time1 the blast of consternation1 to terrify2 the second1 the blast of examination1 to slay2 the third1 the blast of resurrection1 to quicken the dead4 ,most persons believe that everything1 save ,god and ,his attributes1 will perish4 ,the ,karamians and some other sects deny this4 #afb ,the resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the ,qurn4 ,thus1 ,they say1 ',who will bring us back8' ,say3 ',he who created you at first4' 7,sra xvii4 #ec74 ',who shall give life to bones when they are rotten8' ,say3 ',he shall give life to them who gave them being at first1 for in all creation is ,he skilled4' 7,sra xxxvi4 #gi74 ,man saith3 ',what6 after ,i am dead1 shall ,i in the end be brought forth alive8' ,doth not man bear in mind that we made him at first1 when he was nought8 7,sra xix4 #fh74 ,the infidels will say1 'shall we indeed be restored as at first8 ,what6 ,when we have become rotten bones8' ',this then1' say they1 'will be a return to loss4' ,verily1 it will be but a single blast1 and lo6 they are on the surface of the earth4 7,sra lxxix4 #aj-ad74 ,is ,he not powerful enough to quicken the dead8 7,sra lxxv4 #dj74 ,this resurrection will be to judgment4 ',never1' say the unbelievers1 'will the hour come upon us4' ,say3 ',yea1 by my ,lord who knoweth the unseen1 it will surely come upon you1 444 to the intent that ,god may reward those who have believed1 444 but as for those who aim to invalidate our signs1 a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them4' 7,sra xxxiv4 #c1 #d74 ,a terrible chastisement doth await them on the ,day when faces shall turn white1 and faces shall turn black4 ',what6 after your belief have ye become infidels8 ,taste1 then1 the chastisement for that ye have been unbelievers4' ,and as to those whose faces shall have become white1 they shall be within the mercy of ,god4 7,sra iii1 #ajb74 ,the ,prophet knew not the time when all this would take place4 ,they will ask thee of the ',hour1' when will be its fixed time8 ,but what knowledge hast thou of it8 ,its period is known only to thy ,lord2 and thou art charged with the warning of those who fear it4 7,sra lxxix4 #da-de47 ,these and similar texts show the certainty of the resurrection4 ,according to the ,ijm' of the ,faithful1 he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel4 ,the #afc ,mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is necessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed4 ,the orthodox agree with the conclusion1 but hesitate to base it on reason4#aeh ,the ,karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease to be1 but that at the last ,god will gather them together4 ,thinketh man that we shall not re-unite his bones8 ,aye6 his very finger tips we are able evenly to replace4 7,sra lxxv4 #c1 #d47 ,the orthodox1 however1 hold that this verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation1 a belief supported by the ,prophet's saying1 ,all the sons of men will be annihilated4 ,it will be a re-creation though the body will return to its former state4 ,the learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this period of the death of the body1 and therefore disagree with regard to its revival4 ,some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of the soul1 for it exists in the body as fire in coal1 hence its revival is included in the resurrection of the body2 others maintain that as it is a distinct entity1 it is not annihilated with the body4 ,the scholastics favour the first idea4 ,practically the result seems the same in both cases4 ,the resurrection body has a soul4 ,wise and foolish1 devils and beasts1 insects and birds--all will rise at the last day4 ,muhammad will come first in order and be the first to enter ,paradise4 7#b74 ,the descent of the ,books 7,tatr-i-sah1f74 ,after the resurrection1 men will wander about for forty years1 during which time the ,books of ,actions will be given to them4 ,these books contain the record kept by the ,kirm-ul-,ktibn1 7,ante p4 #ada74 ,traditions recorded by ,abu ,huraira state3 ,men will rise up naked1 and confused2 some will walk about1 some stand for forty years4 ,all will be constantly looking up toward the heavens 7i4e4 expecting the books47 ,they will perspire profusely through #afd excess of sorrow4#aei ,then ,god will say to ,abraham1 'put on clothes4' ,he will put on a robe of ,paradise4 ,then ,he will call ,muhammad for whose benefit a fountain will flow forth not far from ,mecca4 ,the people1 too1 shall thirst no more4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,i will also put on a dress and will stand near the throne1 where no one else will be allowed to stand and ,god will say3 ',ask and it shall be granted to thee2 intercede1 thy intercession shall be accepted4' ,each book flies from the treasury under the ,throne of ,god and is given to its proper owner4 ,every man's fate have ,we fastened about his neck2 and on the day of resurrection will ,we bring forth to him 7every man7 a book which shall be proffered to him wide open3 ',read thy book1 there needeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day4' 7,sra xvii4 #ae74 ,he into whose right hand his book shall be given1 shall be reckoned1 with an easy reckoning1 and shall turn1 rejoicing1 to his kindred4 ,but he whose book shall be given behind his back 7i4e4 into his left hand7 shall invoke destruction4 7,sra lxxxiv4 #h-aa47 ,he1 who shall have his book given into his left hand will say3 ',o that my book had never been given me6 and that ,i had not known my reckoning4' 7,sra lxix4 #be74 ,it is always said that wicked ,musalmns will be seized by the right hand before they are cast into the fire1 which is a proof that they are not always to remain there4 ,some hold that the expression ,read thy book implies a literal reading2 others that it is a metaphorical expression which simply means that all the past actions will be known4 ,those who believe in a literal reading say that each believer will read the account of his faults only1 and that other persons will read that of his good deeds4 ,the face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently1 but black will be the face of the infidel4 #afe 7#c74 ,the ,balances 7,mzn74 ,this belief is based on the authority of the ,qurn1 ,sunnat and the ,ijm'2 no ,muslim1 therefore1 can have any doubt about it4 ,thus3 ,they whose balances shall be heavy1 shall be the blest2 but they whose balances shall be light1--these are they who shall lose their souls1 abiding in hell for ever4 7,sra xxiii4 #ajd74 ,as to him whose balances are heavy1 his shall be a life that shall please him well3 and as to him whose balances are light1 his dwelling-place shall be the pit4 ,and who shall teach thee what the pit 7,al-,hwa7 is8 ,a raging fire6 7,sra ci4 #e-h74 ,the ,traditions on this point are very numerous4 ,the ,ijm' is also strong on the reality1 the objective existence1 of a balance with scales1 c41 complete4 ,they also state that the ,books of ,actions 7,sah1f-i-,a'ml7 will be weighed4 ,in the ,sahh-i-,bukhr it is said that the ,believers will not be weighed in the balances1 for ,god will say1 ',o ,muhammad make those of thy people1 from whom no account is taken1 enter into ,paradise4' ,prophets and angels will also be exempt4 ,such a test also is not required for the unbelievers1 for their state is very evident2 ,by their tokens shall the sinners be known1 and they shall be seized by their forelocks and their feet4 7,sra lv4 #da74 ,thus it is evident that1 with regard to true believers and unbelievers1 the works of such only as ,god may choose need be weighed4 ,some1 however1 maintain that no unbeliever will have this test applied to his case and quote3 ,vain therefore1 are their works2 and no weight will we allow them on the day of resurrection4 7,sra xviii4 #aje74 ,to this it is answered1 that all that is here denied is the fact of a weighing in their favour4 ,the place where the weighing will take place is situated midway between heaven and hell4 ,gabriel standing by watches the movement of the scales and ,michael guards the balance4 ,the orthodox are not agreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe of men1 and also for each of the 'good works' #aff of the believers4 ,those who hold that there will be a balance for prayer1 another for fasting and so on1 adduce the use of the plural form1 balances 7muwzn7 in proof of their statement4 ,there is also a difference of opinion as to whether the works themselves1 or the books 7sah1f7 will be weighed4 ,the latter opinion is supported by a ,tradition recorded by ,tirmz4 ,the ,prophet said3 ',ninety-nine registers will be distributed4 ,each register will extend as far as the eye can reach4 ,god will say3 ',what6 dost thou deny this1 or have the recording angels treated thee unjustly8' ,each will say3 ',no6 ,o ,lord4' ',hast thou then any excuse8' ',no6 ,o ,lord4' ,then ,god will display a cloth on which the ,kalima is written4 ,this will be put into one scale1 and ,god will say3 ',to thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale1 and this cloth in the other1 for the first scale will be light4' ,this is considered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the ,sah1f4 ,the ,mutazilites objected to statements such as these1 for said they3 actions are accidents1 and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannot be attributed to accidents4 ,they explained the verses of the ,qurn and the statements of the ,traditions on this point1 as being a figurative way of saying that perfect justice will be done to all in the ,day of ,judgment4 7#d74 ,the ,bridge 7,sirt74 ,the meaning of the word ,sirt is a road1 a way4 ,it is so used in the ,qurn4 ,in connection with the ,day of ,judgment it is said3 ,if we pleased we would surely put out their eyes3 yet even then would they speed on with rivalry in their path 7,sirt74 7,sra xxxvi4 #ff74 ,gather together those who have acted unjustly1 and their consorts 7demons71 and the gods whom they have adored beside ,god2 and guide them to the road 7,sirt7 for hell4 7,sra xxxvii4 #bc74 ,it is nowhere in the ,qurn called a bridge1 but ,tradition is very clear on this point4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,there will be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword1 finer than a hair1 suspended over #afg hell4 ,iron spikes on it will pierce those whom ,god wills4 ,some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye1 some like a flash of lightning1 others with the speed of a swift horse4 ,the angels will call out1 ',o ,lord6 save and protect4' ,some ,muslims will be saved1 some will fall headlong into hell4 ,bukhr relates a similar ,tradition4 ,the infidels will all fall into hell and there remain for ever4 ,muslims will be released after a while4 ,the ,mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge4 ,if we admit it1 say they1 it would be a trouble for the believers1 and such there is not for them in the ,day of ,judgment4 ,to this the orthodox reply that the believers pass over it to show how they are saved from fire1 and that thus they may be delighted with ,paradise1 and also that the infidels may feel chagrin at those who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever4 ,al ,a'rf is situated between heaven and hell4 ,it is described thus3 ,on 7the wall7 ,al ,a'rf shall be men who know all1 by their tokens1#afj and they shall cry to the inhabitants of ,paradise1 ',peace be on you6' but they shall not yet enter it1 although they long to do so4 ,and when their eyes are turned towards the inmates of the fire1 they shall say1 ',o our ,lord6 place us not with offending people c4' 7,sra vii4 #dd1 #de74 ,sale's summary of the opinions regarding ,al ,a'rf in his ,preliminary ,discourse is exceedingly good4 ,it is as follows3-- ,they call it ,al ,orf1 and more frequently in the plural1 ,al ,arf1 a word derived from the verb ,arafa1 which signifies to distinguish between things1 or to part them2 though some commentators give another reason for the imposition of this name1 because1 say they1 those who stand on this partition will know and distinguish the blessed from the damned1 by their respective marks or characteristics3 and others way the word properly intends anything that is high raised or elevated1 as such a wall of separation must be supposed to #afh be4 ,some imagine it to be a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and prophets1 or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for sanctity4 ,others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other1 and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment2 and these1 say they1 will on the last day be admitted into ,paradise1 after they shall have performed an act of adoration1 which will be imputed to them as a merit1 and will make the scale of their good works to overbalance4 ,others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war1 without their parents' leave1 and therein suffered martyrdom2 being excluded from ,paradise for their disobedience1 and escaping hell because they are martyrs4 ,there is also an interval1 between the death of the body in this world and the ,last ,day1 called ,al-,barzakh4 ,behind them shall be a barrier 7barzakh71 until the day when they shall be raised again4 7,sra xxiii4 #ajb74 ,when death takes place1 the soul is separated from the body by the ,angel of death2 in the case of the good with ease1 in that of the wicked with violence4 ,it then enters into ,al-,barzakh4#afa ,it is a doctrine founded on ,ijm'1 that ,god will not pardon ,shirk1 that is1 the ascribing plurality to the ,divine ,being4 ,the ,mushrik1 one who does so1 will remain in hell for ever1 for as ,kufr1 infidelity1 is an eternal crime1 its punishment must also be eternal4 ,the unbelievers among the people of the ,book1 and among the ,polytheists shall go into the fire of ,gehenna to abide therein for aye4 ,of all creatures are they the worst8 7,sra xcviii4 #e74 ,cast into ,hell every infidel1 every hardened one1 the hinderer of the good1 the transgressor1 the doubter who set up other ,gods with ,god4 ,cast ye him into the fierce torment4 7,sra #a4 #bc-be47 ,muslims who commit great 7,kabra7 sins1 though they die unrepentant1 will not remain in hell for ever1 for1 whosoever shall have wrought an atom's weight of good shall #afi behold it4 7,sra xcix4 #g74 ,it is asserted that the fact of believing in ,islm is a good work and merits a reward3 this cannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins1 and therefore he must be1 after a while1 released from punishment4 ,perfect faith 7,imn-i-,kmil7 consists in believing with sincerity of heart and acting in accordance thereto1 but the actions are not the faith itself4 ,great sins1 therefore1 prevent a man from having perfect faith1 but do not destroy faith 7,imn71 nor make the ,muslim an infidel1 but only a sinner4#afb ,the ,mutazilites teach that the ,muslim who enters hell will remain there for ever4 ,they maintain that the person who1 having committed great sins1 dies unrepentant1 though not an infidel1 ceases to be a believer and hence suffers as the infidels do4 ,the orthodox belief is that ,muhammad is now an ,intercessor and will be so at the ,last ,day4 ,the intercession then is of several kinds4 ,there is the 'great intercession' to which the words1 it may be that thy ,lord will raise thee to a glorious station1 7,sra xvii4 #ha7 are supposed to refer4 ,the ,maqm-i-mahmd1 7glorious station71 is said to be the place of intercession in which all persons will praise the ,prophet4#afc ,in the ,zd-ul-,masr it is said that the ,maqm-i-mahmd refers to the fact that ,god will place the ,prophet on ,his ,throne4 ,others say that it is a place in which a standard will be given to the ,prophet1 around whom all the other prophets will then gather to do him honour4 ,the first interpretation is1 however1 the ordinary one4 ,the people will be in great fear4 ,muhammad will say3 ,o my people6 ,i am appointed for intercession4 ,their fear will then pass away4 ,the second intercession is made so that they may enter into ,paradise without rendering an account4 ,the authorities differ with regard to this4 ,the third intercession is on behalf of those ,muslims who #agj ought to go to hell4 ,the fourth for those who are already there4 ,no one but the ,prophet can make these intercessions4 ,the fifth intercession is for an increase of rank to those who are in ,paradise4 ,the ,mutazilites maintained that there would be no intercession for ,muslims guilty of great sins1 and adduced in favour of their opinion the verse3 ,fear ye the day when soul shall not satisfy for soul at all1 nor shall any intercession be accepted from them1 nor shall any ransom be taken1 neither shall they be helped4 7,sra ii4 #de74 ,the orthodox bring in reply this ,hads-i-,sahh3 ,the ,prophet said3 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committed great sins4' ,if this ,tradition is disputed1 they then say that the verse in the ,qurn just quoted does not refer to ,muslims at all1 but to the ,infidels4#afd ,according to a ,tradition related by ,anas the ,prophet said3 ,in the day of resurrection ,musalmns will not be able to move1 and they will be greatly distressed and say3 'would to ,god that we had asked ,him to create some one to intercede for us1 that we might be taken from this place1 and be delivered from tribulation and sorrow4' ,the ,tradition goes on to state how they sought help from ,adam and the prophets of the old dispensation1 who1 one and all1 excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness4 ,at length ,moses told them to go to ,jesus1 the ,apostle of ,god1 the ,spirit of ,god and the ,word of ,god4 ,they did so and ,jesus said3 ,go to ,muhammad who is a servant1 whose sins ,god has forgiven both first and last4 ,the ,prophet continued1 according to the ,tradition1 then the ,musalmns will come to me1 and ,i will ask permission to go into ,god's presence and intercede for them4#afe ,the second advent of ,christ is a sign of the last day4 ,jesus is no more than a servant whom ,we favoured 444 #aga and he shall be a sign of the last hour4 7,sra xliii4 #fa74 ,he will not1 according to the ,qurn1 come as a judge1 but like other prophets to be judged4 ,we formed with them 7i4e4 prophets7 a strict covenant1 that ,god may question the men of truth as to their truth1 7i4e4 how they have discharged their prophetic functions74 7,sra xxxiii4 #g1 #h74 ,he will come to bear witness against the ,jews who reject him3 ,in the day of resurrection1 ,he will be a witness against them4 7,sra iv4 #aeh74 ,it is necessary to believe in the pond of the ,prophet called ,kausar4 ,this faith is founded on the verse ,truly we have given thee an abundance4 7,sra cviii4 #a74 ,bukhr says3 ,the meaning of ,kausar is the 'abundance of good' which ,god gives to the ,prophet4 ,abu ,bsh said to one ,sa'd1 'the people think that ,kausar is a river of ,paradise4' ,sa'd replied1 ',kausar is a river in which there is abundance of good4' ,according to the same authority ,muhammad said3 ,my pond is square1 its water is whiter than milk1 its perfume better than that of musk1 whosoever drinks thereof will thirst no more4 ,there are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers are admitted4 ,the ,prophet1 according to ,tirmz1 said there were one hundred4 ,some of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give to ,paradise4 7#a47 ,jannat-ul-,khuld4 ,say3 ,is this1 or the ,garden of ,eternity which was promised to the ,god-fearing1 best8 7,sra xxv4 #af47 7#b47 ,jannat-us-,salm4 ,for them is a ,dwelling of ,peace with their ,lord4 7,sra vi4 #abg47 7#c47 ,dr-ul-,qarr4 ,the life to come is the ,mansion which abideth4 7,sra xl4 #db47 7#d47 ,jannat-ul-',adan4 ,to the ,faithful1 both men and women1 ,god promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the ,garden of ,eden4 7,sra ix4 #gc47 7#e47 ,jannat-ul-,maw4 ,near which is the ,garden of ,repose4 7,sra liii4 #ae47 7#f7 ,jannat-un-,na'm4 ,amid delights shall the righteous dwell4 7,sra lxxxii4 #ac47 7#g7 ,jannat-ul-,illiyn4 ,the register of the righteous is #agb in ,illiyn4 7,sra lxxxiii4 #ah17 7#h47 ,jannat-ul-,firdaus4 ,those who believe and do the things that are right1 they shall have the ,gardens of ,paradise for their abode4 7,sra xviii4 #ajg47 ,hell is said to have seven divisions4 ,the ,qurn1 though it mentions the names of these divisions1 does not state what classes of persons will be sent to each2 but ,muslim ,commentators have supplied the needed information4 ,they classify them thus3--7#a47 ,jahannam1 for sinners who die without repentance4 7#b47 ,lazw1 for the infidels 7i4e41 ,christians47 7#c47 ,hutama1 a fire for ,jews1 and according to some for ,christians4 7#d47 ,sa'ir1 for devils1 the descendants of ,ibls4 7#e47 ,saqar1 for the magians3 also for those who neglect prayer4 7#f47 ,jahm1 a boiling caldron for idolaters3 also for ,gog and ,magog4 7#g47 ,hwa1 a bottomless pit for hypocrites4 ,it is said that heaven has one division more than hell to show that ,god's mercy exceeds ,his justice4 ,the ,muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the events connected with the resurrection1 judgment and future state of those who are lost1 and of those who are saved4 ,sale gives such an excellent summary of these opinions1 that it is not necessary to enter into details here4 ,the orthodox belief is that the statements in the ,qurn and the ,traditions regarding the pleasures of ,paradise are to be taken literally4#aff #f4 ,,the ,,predestination ,,of ,,good ,,and ,,evil4--,i have already in the section in which the attribute will is described 7p4 #aah7 given some account of the dogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination2 but as it always forms a distinct chapter in ,musalmn books1 ,i treat it separately here4 ,having1 however1 in the passage referred #agc to1 given ,al ,berkevi's words on the attribute will1 it is only necessary to make a short extract from his dogmatic statement concerning ,predestination4 ,he says3-- ,it is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the predestination and predetermination of ,god1 that all that has been and all that will be was decreed in eternity1 and written on the preserved table2#afg that the faith of the believer1 the piety of the pious and good actions are foreseen1 willed1 predestinated1 decreed by the writing on the preserved table1 produced and approved by ,god2 that the unbelief of the unbeliever1 the impiety of the impious and bad actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge1 will1 predestination and decree of ,god1 but not with ,his satisfaction and approval4 ,should any ask why ,god willeth and produceth evil1 we can only reply that ,he may have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend4 ,another confession of faith has3-- ,whoever shall say1 that ,god is not delighted with virtue and faith1 and is not wroth with vice and infidelity1 or that ,god has decreed good and evil with equal complacency is an infidel4 ,there are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject3-- ,first4--,the ,jabrans1 so called from the word jabr compulsion1 deny all free agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the force of ,god's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does4#afh ,they hold that as #agd ,god is the absolute ,lord1 ,he can1 if ,he so wills1 admit all men into ,paradise1 or cast all into hell4 ,this sect is one of the branches of the ,ash'arans with whom on most points they agree4 ,secondly4--,the ,qadrans1 who deny ,al-,qadr1 or ,god's absolute decree1 say that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to ,god but to man1 who is altogether a free agent4 ,god has given him the power to do or not to do an act4 ,this sect is generally considered to be a branch of the ,mutazilite body1 though in reality it existed before ,wsil quitted the school of his master ,hasan 7,ante4 p4 #abe74 ,as ,wsil1 however1 followed the opinions of ,mbad-al-,john1 the leading ,kadran divine1 the ,mutazilites and ,qadrans are practically one and the same4 ,thirdly4--,the ,ash'arans1 of whom ,i have already given some account1 maintain that ,god has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever ,he willeth1 both of ,his own actions and those of men2 that ,he willeth that which ,he knoweth and what is written on the preserved table2 that ,he willeth both good and evil4 ,so far they agree with the ,jabrans2 but then they seem to allow some power to man1 a tenet ,i have already explained when describing their idea of ,kasb 7,ante4 p4 #acj74 ,the orthodox1 or ,sunn belief is theoretically ,ash'aran1 but practically the ,sunns are confirmed ,jabrans4 ,the ,mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical4 ,no subject has been more warmly discussed in ,islm than that of predestination4 ,the following abstract of some lengthy discussions will present the points of difference4 ,the ,ash'arans1 who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views1 formulate their objections to the ,mutazilite system thus3-- 7i74 ,if man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will1 then he should also have the power of controlling the result of that action4 7ii74 ,if it be granted that man has the power to originate #age an act it is necessary that he should know all acts1 because a creator should be independent in act and choice4 ,intention must be conditioned by knowledge4 ,to this the ,mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of a road before he walks1 or the structure of the throat before he talks4 7iii74 ,suppose a man wills to move his body and ,god at the same time wills it to be steady1 then if both intentions come to pass there will be a collection of opposites2 if neither1 a removal of opposites2 if the exaltation of the first1 an unreasonable preference4 7iv74 ,if man can create an act1 some of his works will be better than some of the works of ,god1 e4g4 a man determines to have faith3 now faith is a better thing than reptiles1 which are created by ,god4 7v74 ,if man is free to act1 why can he not make at once a human body2 why does he need to thank ,god for grace and faith8 7vi74 ,but better far than all argument1 the orthodox say1 is the testimony of the ,book4 ,all things have we created under a fixed decree4 7,sra liv4 #di74 ,when ,god created you and that ye make4 7,sra xxxvii4 #id74 ,some of them there were whom ,god guided and there were others decreed to err4 7,sra xvi4 #ch74 ,as ,god decrees faith and obedience ,he must be the causer of it1 for on the hearts of these hath ,god graven the ,faith4 7,sra lviii4 #bb74 ,it is he who causeth you to laugh and weep1 to die and make alive4 7,sra liii4 #dd74 ,if ,god pleased ,he would surely bring them1 one and all1 to the guidance4 7,sra vi4 #cf74 ,had ,god pleased1 ,he had guided you all aright4 7,sra vi4 #aej74 ,had the ,lord pleased1 ,he would have made mankind of one religion4 7,sra xi4 #abj74 ,god will mislead whom he pleaseth1 and whom ,he pleaseth ,he will place upon the straight path4 7,sra vi4 #ci47 ,tradition records that the ,prophet said3 ,god is the maker of all makers and of their actions4#afi #agf ,the ,mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and said3-- 7i74 ,if man has no power to will or to do1 then what is the difference between praising ,god and sinning against ,him2 between faith and infidelity2 good and evil2 what is the use of commands and prohibitions2 rewards and punishments2 promises and threats2 what is the use of prophets1 books1 c4 7ii74 ,some acts of men are bad1 such as tyranny and polytheism4 ,if these are created by ,god1 it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe plurality to the ,deity is to render obedience4 ,to this the ,ash'arans reply that orders are of two kinds1 immediate and mediate4 ,the former which they call ,amr-i-takwti1 is the order1 ,be and it was4 ,this comprehends all existences1 and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass4 ,the latter they call ,amr-i-tashri'1 an order given in the ,law4 ,this comes to men through prophets and thus is to be obeyed4 ,true obedience is to act according to that which is revealed1 not according to the secret intentions of ,god1 for that we know not4 7iii74 ,if ,god decrees the acts of men1 ,he should bear the name of that which he decrees4 ,thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel2 of tyranny a tyrant1 and so on2 but to speak thus of ,god is blasphemy4 7iv74 ,if infidelity is decreed by ,god ,he must wish it2 but a prophet desires faith and obedience and so is opposed to ,god4 ,to this the orthodox reply1 that ,god knows by ,his eternal knowledge that such a man will die an infidel4 #agg ,if a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation to such an one to make ,god's knowledge become ignorance1 he would be doing wrong2 but as he does not know the secret decrees of ,god1 his duty is to deliver his message according to the ,hads3 ,a prophet has only to deliver the clear message4 7v74 ,the ,mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the ,qurn1 in which the words to do1 to construct1 to renew1 to create1 c41 are applied to men4 ,such are the verses3 ,whatever is in the heavens and in the earth is ,god's that ,he may reward those who do evil according to their deeds3 and those who do good will ,he reward with good things4 7,sra liii4 #cb74 ,whoso shall have wrought evil shall not be recompensed but with its like3 but whoso shall have done the things that are right1 whether male or female and is a believer1 these shall enter ,paradise4 7,sra xl4 #dc74 ,say3 the truth is from the ,lord2 let him then who will believe2 and let him who will1 be an infidel4 7,sra xviii4 #bh74agj ,those who add ,gods to ,god will say3 ',if ,god had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given ,him companions4' ,say3 ',verily ye follow only a conceit1 ye utter lies4' 7,sra vi4 #adi74 ,the ,hads is also very plain4 ,all good is in ,thy hands and evil is not to ,thee4 7,al-khair kuluhu f yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika47 ,the ,ash'arans have one famous text which they bring to bear against all this reasoning and evidence4 ,it is3 ,this truly is a warning2 and whoso willeth1 taketh the way of his ,lord2 but will it ye shall not1 unless ,god will it1 for ,god is knowing1 wise4 7,sra lxxvi4 #bi1 #cj74 ,to the ,hads they reply 7#a7 that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil and decreeing it4 ,thus the expression ,god willeth not tyranny for ,his servants1 does not mean #agh that ,god hath not decreed it1 but that tyranny is not one of ,his attributes3 so evil is not to ,thee means it is not an attribute of ,god2 and 7#b7 the ,hads must be explained in accordance with the teaching of the ,qurn4 ,the ,muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty4 ,averhoes says3 ,we are free to act in this way or that1 but our will is always determined by some exterior cause4 ,for example1 we see something which pleases us1 we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves4 ,our will is thus bound by exterior causes4 ,these causes exist according to a certain order of things which is founded on the general laws of nature4 ,god alone knows before hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery4 ,the connection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of nature4 ,it is this which in theology we call1 'decrees and predestination4'#aga ,i have already shown how1 as ,islm grew into a system1 the ,muslims fell into a ,cabbalism1 and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters and words of the ,qurn4 ,with this declension came a still more distorted view of the character of ,god4 ,the quotations made from the ,qurn in the last few pages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedom to man and speak of his consequent responsibility1 others teach a clear and distinct fatalism4 ,the great strength of ,islm lay in the energy with which ,muhammad preached the doctrine that ,god was a divine ,ruler1 one who would deal righteous judgment1 who taught man that which he knew not4 ,as the system became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of its first principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of ,god4 ,he became an unapproachable being4 ,a harsh unfeeling ,fate took the place of the ,omnipotent ,ruler4 ,it is this dark fatalism which1 whatever the ,qurn may teach on the subject1 is the ruling principle in all ,muslim #agi communities4 ,it is this which makes all ,muhammadan nations decay4 ,careless of self-improvement1#agb heedless of the need of progress1 the ,muslim nations1 still independent1 are in all that relates to the higher aspects of intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west4 ,the subject of ',ilm-i-,aqd1 or the science of dogma properly ends here1 but most ,muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a few practical remarks4 ,i therefore add a summary of them here4 ,the believer who commits murder1 fornication1 c41 does not cease to be a ,muslim provided that he does not say that these are allowed3 should he die unrepentant1 ,god can punish him for a while in hell1 or forgive him without punishment4 ,the ,hadd1 a punishment based on a ,zhir1 or obvious sentence of the ,qurn requires that a ,muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death4#agc ,in the case of an apostate woman1 ,imm ,abu ,hanfa ruled that she should be imprisoned and beaten every day4 ,the other three ,imms1 ,mlik1 ,shfa' and ,hanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with the ,tradition which says3 ,he who changes his religion1 kill4 ,the ,arabic word man1 usually translated ,he who is of common gender1 and so these ,imms include women in the list of those who1 after apostasy1 are to be killed4#agd ,god does not pardon polytheism and infidelity2 but ,he can1 if ,he willeth1 pardon all other crimes4 ,if any one is asked1 dost thou believe8 he should reply1 ,i am truly a believer1 and not say3 ,if ,god #ahj willeth4#age ,if any one says to him3 ,wilt thou die in the faith8 he should reply3 ,i do not know1 ,god knows4 ,except when speaking of prophets1 or of those of whom the ,prophets have spoken1 such as ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn and ',al1 it must not be said of any one1 he is gone to ,paradise1 for ,god only knows his state4 ,prayer should be made for a deceased ,muslim whether he was a good or bad man4 ,to give alms1 to read the ,qurn1 to perform other good works1 and to apply the merit thus gained to the souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act4 #aha ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,muslim ,,philosophy4 ,i have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics1 or the ,mutazilites1 as they are called1 were finally crushed by the orthodox party4 ,the later scholastics1 or the philosophers1 form the subject of this note4 ,the ,khalf ,mmn 7#hac-hcc ,a4,d471 a notorious free-thinker1 was the first to give an impulse to philosophic researches4 ,it was then that ,greek philosophical works were translated into ,arabic4 ,the ,greek author most patronized was ,aristotle1 partly1 because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of the ,arab mind better than the pure idealism of ,plato2 and1 partly1 because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the daily quarrels between the rival theological schools4 ,it was quite natural that ,aristotle should be thus followed4 ,the ,musalmn mind was trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed dogmas4 ,the ,muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to cultivate their own intellect4 ,for that purpose1 a sharp and subtle systematist like ,aristotle was the very man they required4#agf ,some idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an account given by the ,arab historian1 ,masoudi1 of a meeting held under the ,presidentship of ,yahya1 one of the famous ,barmecide family4#agg ,yahya thus addressed the meeting3 ,you have discussed at length the theory of concealment 7,al-,kumn7 and manifestation 7,al-,zahr71 of pre-existence and creation1 of duration and stability1 of movement and quiescence1 of the union and separation 7of the ,divine substance71 of existence and non-existence1 of bodies and accidents1 of the approval and the refutation 7of the ,isnds of the ,traditions71 of the absence or the existence of attributes in ,god1 of potential and active force1 of substance1 quantity1 modality and relation1 of life and annihilation4 ,you have examined the question as to whether the ,imm rules by divine right1 or by popular election2 you have had an exhaustive discussion on metaphysical subjects1 in their principles and corollaries4 ,occupy yourselves to-day with the subject of love1 c4 ,the translation of the works of ,aristotle1 as indeed of all the ,greek authors1 was made by ,syrian and ,chaldean ,christians1 and #ahb especially by the ,nestorians who1 as physicians1 were in high favour with the liberal ,khalfs of the ',abbsside dynasty4 ,in some cases the translation into ,arabic was made from ,syriac versions1 for in the time of the ,emperor ,justinian many ,greek works had been translated into the latter language4 ,the most celebrated translator was the historian physician ,honein-,ibn-,ishak 7died #hgf ,a4,d471 a man profoundly acquainted with the ,syriac1 ,greek and ,arabic languages4 ,he was at the head of a school of interpreters in ,baghdd1 to which his son ,ishak-ben-,honein and his nephew ,hobeisch-,al-,asam also belonged4 ,in the tenth century 7,a4,d47 ,yahya-ben-,adi and ,isa-ben-,zara'a translated some works and corrected earlier translations of others4 ,it is to these men that the ,arabs owe their chief acquaintance with ,plato4 ,the study of ,aristotle spread rapidly amongst the ,muslim people1 especially amongst the heretical sects4 ,the orthodox looked with grave suspicion on the movement1 but could not for a while stay the impulse4 ,the historian ,makrizi says3 ,the doctrine of the ,philosophers has worked amongst the ,muslims evils most fatal4 ,it serves only to augment the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety4#agh ,it came into contact with ,muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the world1 the special providence of ,god and the nature of the divine attributes4 ,to a certain extent the ,mutazilites were supported by the philosophical theories they embraced1 but this did not diminish the disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy4 ,still it grew1 and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic methods4 ,thus arose a later system of scholasticism4 ,the earlier system was confined mainly to matters of religion2 the later school occupied itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation1 and thus went farther and farther away from orthodox ,islm4 ,the ,muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier period4 ,men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching1 but orthodoxy finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics1 and in the form known as that of the ,ash'aran ,school became again supreme4#agi ,the great intellectual movement of the ,philosophers proper1 the later scholastics 7,mutakallimn71 lasted longer1 but by the end of the twelfth century 7,a4,d47 the whole ,muhammadan world had again become orthodox4 ,salh-ud-dn 7,saladin7 and his successors in ,egypt were strong supporters of the ,ash'arans4 #ahc ,the period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 exegesis1 traditions and the various branches of philosophy2 but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers were then1 and are now1 considered heretics4#ahj ,al-,kendi1 was born at ,basra1 on the ,persian ,gulf4 ,he died about #hgj ,a4,d4 ,he was a very scientific man1 but a thorough rationalist in theology4 ,he composed commentaries on the logic of ,aristotle4 ,in his great work on the unity of ,god he has strayed far away from ,muslim dogmas4 ,al ,farabi1 another philosopher patronized by the ',abbssides1 seems to have denied not only the rigid and formal ,islmic view of inspiration1 but any objective revelation at all4 ,he held that intuition was a true inspiration1 and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were real prophets4 ,this is the only revelation he admits4 ,he received his philosophical training at ,baghdd1 where for a while he taught2 but finally he went to ,damascus1 where he died #iej ,a4,d4 ,ibn ,sina1 better known as ,avicenna1 a man of ,persian origin1 was a ,philosopher of great note1 but of him it is said that in spite of the concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age1 he could not find favour for his opinions1 which ill accord with the principles of ,islm4 ,he was born near ,bukhr1 in the year #ihj ,a4,d4 ,for a while he taught medicine and philosophy in ,ispahn4 ,ibn ,badja1 7,avempace7 was one of the most celebrated ,muslim ,philosophers of ,spain4 ,he was born at ,saragossa towards the end of the eleventh century4 ,he is distinguished for having opposed the mystical tendencies of the teaching of ,al-,ghazzl1 and for maintaining that speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true conception of his own proper nature4 ,he was violently attacked by the orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was a calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good way4 ,al-,ghazzl was born ,a4,d4 #ajei in ,khorsn4 ,he was a famous ,muslim divine4 ,he adopted scholastic methods4 ,for a while he was ,president of the ,nizmiah ,college at ,baghdd4 ,he travelled much1 and wrote many books to prove the superiority of ,islm over all other religions and over philosophy4 ,the first result of his wide and extensive study of the writings of the philosophers1 and of the heretics was that he fell into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy4 ,from this he emerged into ,sfism1 in #ahd which his restless spirit found satisfaction4 ,on ,sfism1 however1 he exercised no very notable influence2 but the scepticism which he still retained as regards philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were trying to bring ,islm into accord with philosophic theories4 ,his works1 ,tendency of ,philosophers1 and ,destruction of the ,philosophers had an immense influence4 ,in the preface to the latter book1 he speaks of those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence1 and who1 in their pride1 mistaking the precepts of religion1 take as a guide the authority of certain great men1 instead of revealed religion4 ,it is1 however1 and with some show of reason supposed that ,al-,ghazzl did not really object to all that he condemned1 but that to gain the orthodox he wrote what he did4 ,indeed1 ,moses of ,narbonne states that ,ghazzl later on in life wrote a book1 circulated only amongst a few select friends1 in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in the ,destruction of ,philosophers4 ,be that as it may1 it is acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the ,east it has never recovered2 that is1 as far as the ,muslim world is concerned4 ,his course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious principle of ,islm against philosophical speculation1 which in spite of all accommodation never made itself orthodox4 ,in ,spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in ,ibn ,rashd1 better known as ,averhoes4 ,this celebrated man was born at ,cordova in the year #aabf ,a4,d41 or about #ebj of the ,muhammadan era4 ,he came of a noble and learned family1 whilst he himself must ever occupy a distinguished place amongst the ,muslim ,philosophers4 ,without dispute he was one of the most learned men of the ,muslim world1 and one of the profoundest commentators of ,aristotle4 ,he knew all the sciences then accessible to the ,muslims and was a most prolific writer4#aha ,one of his most famous works was the ,refutation of the destruction of ,philosophers4 ,notwithstanding his philosophical opinions ,averhoes claimed to pass for a good ,muslim4 ,he held that the philosophic truths are the highest object of research2 but that only a few men could by speculation arrive at them1 and that1 therefore1 a divine revelation through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and religion4 ,he held1 it is true1 that the orthodox had paid too much attention to the letter1 and too little to the spirit1 and that false interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in religion4 ,this #ahe profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms of worship1 however1 did not save him from suspicion4 ,he was accused of preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of religion4 ,he was deprived of his honours and banished by the ,khalf ,al-,mansr to ,lucena1 near ,cordova4 ,in his disgrace he had to suffer many insults from the orthodox4 ,one day on entering the mosque with his son he was forcibly expelled by the people4 ,he died at ,morocco in #aaih ,a4,d4 ,thus passed away in disgrace the last of the ,muslim ,philosophers worthy of the name4#ahb ,in ,spain a strict prohibition was issued against the study of ,greek philosophy1 and many valuable works were committed to the flames4 ,soon after the rule of the ,moors in ,spain began to decline4 ,the study of philosophy came to an end1 and liberal culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of ,islm4 ,in ,spain1#ahc as in ,baghdd1 orthodoxy gained the day4 ,there was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the ,muslim ,philosophers1 but they were ,muslims1 and if they went too far in their efforts to rationalize ,islm1 they also tried to cast off what to them seemed accretions1 added on by the ,traditionalists and the ,canonical ,legists4 ,they failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no gospel to proclaim to men1 no tidings to give of a new life which could enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject4 ,another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove was a logical development of the foundations of ,islm1 and these foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual one to uproot4 ,they were men of good position in life1 voluminous writers1 profound admirers of ,aristotle1 and more or less devoted to science1 especially to medicine4 ,yet they did not advance philosophy1 and science they left much as they found it4 ,they preserved something of what ,grecian thought had achieved1 and so far their labour is not lost4 ,thus ,islm has1 as a religion1 no right to claim any of the glory which ,muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it4 #ahf ,the founders of ,islm1 the ,arabs1 produced but one philosopher of note4#ahd ,the first impetus to the study was given by heretical ,khalfs employing ,christians at ,baghdd to translate ,greek books2 whilst in ,spain1 where philosophy most flourished1 it was due largely to the contact of intelligent ,muslims with learned ,jews4 ,even there1 the philosophers were1 as a rule1 the objects of bitter persecution4 ,now and again1 a liberal minded ,khalf arose1 but a system such as ,islm survives the liberal tendencies of a generation4 ,from the close of the twelfth century 7,a4,d47 downwards it would be difficult to point to any ,muslim ,philosopher1 much more to an ,arab one1 whose work is of any real value to the human race4 ,for four hundred years the contest raged1 a contest such as ,islm has never since seen4 ,this great effort to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought1 to introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed4 ,the lesson is plain4 ,any project of reform in ,islm which admits in any degree its fundamental principles must fail4 ,revolution1 not reform1 is the only hope for the permanence of an independent ,muslim state when it enters into the circle of civilized nations4 #ahg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,practical ,,duties ,,of ,,isl,m4 ,the portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected with ,imn 7faith72 the remaining portion is connected with ,dn 7practical religion74 ,the five principal acts are called ,irkn-i-,dn1 pillars of religion4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,the recital of the ,kalima1 or short confession of faith2 7#b7 ,sult1 the five stated periods of prayer2 7#c7 ,roza1 the thirty days' fast of ,ramazn2 7#d7 ,zakt1 legal alms2 7#e7 ,hajj1 the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,these are all farz duties1 being based on a ,nass-i-,zhir1 or obvious1 sentence of the ,qurn1 a proof derived from which is called dall-i-qata'4 ,this is the strongest of all kinds of proofs4 ,the authorities1 however1 specify other religious duties which good ,muslims should perform4 ,such are the seven duties which are wjib1 or duties based on the more obscure texts of the ,qurn1 called ,khafi1 or hidden sentences1 a proof derived from which is called dall-i-zan4 ,these duties are3 7#a7 ,to make the ',umra1 or ,pilgrimage to ,mecca in addition to the ,hajj2 7#b7 obedience to parents2 7#c7 the obedience of a wife to her husband2 7#d7 the giving of alms after a fast2 7#e7 the offering of sacrifice2 7#f7 the saying of ,namz-i-witr1 a term which will be explained later on2 7#g7 the support of relatives4 ,the duties numbered as 7#d7 and 7#e7 are wjib orders to the rich2 but only mustahab to the poor3 that is1 it is meritorious if they perform them1 but not sinful if they leave them undone4 ,the duties next in order as regards authority are the sunnat ones4 ,they are three in number and are based either on the practice of the ,prophet1 or are fitrat1 that is practices of previous prophets1 the continuance of which #ahh ,muhammad did not forbid4 ,they are 7#a7 circumcision2 7#b7 shaving off the hair from the head and the body2 7#c7 the paring of the nails4 ,in addition to these there are actions which are mustahab4 ,they are those which ,muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted4 ,there is a still lower class of action which are mubh4 ,these are works of supererogation4 ,if omitted there is no fear of punishment4 ,it may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are 7#a7 ,harm1 actions and food forbidden either in the ,qurn or the ,traditions2 7#b7 ,mahrh1 actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain1 but which are generally considered wrong2 7#c7 ,mufsid1 actions corrupting or pernicious4 ,it is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will now frequently occur4 #a4 ,,tashahhud4--,this is the recital of a confession of faith4 ,there are several forms of this4 ,a common one is3 ,i testify that there is no deity but ,god1 ,i testify to ,his unity and that ,he has no partner2 ,i testify that ,muhammad is ,his servant and ,his messenger4 ,the shorter form is3 ,there is no deity but ,god and ,muhammad is the apostle of ,god4 ,the power contained in this latter confession is extraordinary4 ,it embodies the very spirit of ,islm4 ,it has led everywhere the march of its armies1 it has rung for twelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets1 it has been passed from lip to lip1 as no other word has ever been passed1 by thousands of millions of the human race4 ,the power of ,islm1 its proclamation of the ,unity1 is here seen in the closest contact with what is to ,muslim theologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of ,muhammad1 a dogma which retards the healthy development1 explains the narrowness1 and causes the prostration of ,islm1 as the world around grows luminant with the light of science and truth1 of faith and reason4 #b4 ,,sul,t4#ahe--;,all the books on ,fiqh 7,law7 which treat of #ahi these ,irkn-i-dn1 give in connection with ,sult the rules regarding the necessary purifications4 ,it will be convenient to follow the same order4 ,tahrat or legal purification is of three kinds3 7#a7 ,waz1 the lesser lustration2 7#b7 ,ghusl1 the greater lustration2 7#c7 ,tayammum1 or purification by sand4 7#a74 ,waz is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers4 ,those which are 'farz' are four in number1 viz3--to wash 7#a7 the face from the top of the forehead to the chin1 and as far as each ear2 and 7#b7 the hands and arms up to the elbow2 7#c7 to rub 7masah7 with the wet hand a fourth part of the head2 also 7#d7 the feet to the ankles4 ,the authority for these actions is the text3 ,o ,believers6 when ye address yourselves to prayer1 wash your hands up to the elbow1 and wipe your heads1 and your feet to the ankles 7,sra v4 #h74 ,the ,sunns wash the feet3 the ,sha'hs are apparently more correct1 for they only wipe1 or rather rub1 7masah7 them4 ,in these ablutions1 if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched1 the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain4 ,the act of making waz1 however1 has not been allowed to remain in this simple form4 ,the ,sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number4 ,they are1 7#a7 to make the intention of waz1 thus3 ,i make this waz for the purpose of putting away impurity2 7#b7 to wash the hand up to the wrist1 but care must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water1 until each has been rubbed three times with water poured on it2 7#c7 to say one of the names of ,god at the commencement of the waz#ahf thus3 ,in the name of the ,great ,god1 or ,thanks be to ,god for the religion of ,islm2 7#d7 to clean the teeth2 7#e7 to rinse the mouth three times2 7#f7 to put water into the #aij nostrils three times2 7#g7 to do all the above in proper order2 7#h7 to do all without any delay between the various acts2 7#i7 each part is to be purified three times2 7#aj7 the space between the fingers of one hand must be rubbed with the wet fingers of the other2 7#aa7 the beard must be combed with the fingers2 7#ab7 the whole head must be rubbed once2 7#ac7 the ears must be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last operation2 7#ad7 to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of the left hand1 drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between each toe in succession4 ,imm ,shfa' holds that 7#a7 and 7#g7 are farz duties and that 7#ab7 should be done three times4 ,imm ,mlik considers 7#h7 to be farz4 ,the actions may be done in silence1 or prayer may be repeated4 ,such a recital is a mustahab1 not a sunnat or farz order4 ,it is not obligatory4 ,a specimen of these prayers is given in a note4#ahg 7#b74 ,ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal defilements1 and should be made as follows4 ,the person should put on clean clothes and perform the waz1 then he should say3 ,i make ghusl to put away impurity4 ,all being ready he should wash himself in the following order4 ,he must pour water over the right shoulder three times1 then over the left three times and1 lastly1 on his head #aia also the same number of times4 ,the three farz conditions are that 7#a7 the mouth must be rinsed1 7#b7 water be put into the nostrils1 and 7#c7 the whole body be washed4 ,if one hair even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless4 ,all other particulars are sunnat or mustahab4 ,there are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a purification1 or of the cases in which ghusl is required1 cannot be given here4 ,every standard ,muslim work on ,fikh1 or law1 deals fully with the subject4 ,nothing is more calculated to show the student of ,islm how much the ,sunnat rules in the practical life of ,muslims4 ,the ,traditions have raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest importance4 ,that there may be spiritually minded men in ,islm is not to be denied2 but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer depends practically on an ablution1 and that that ablution is useless unless done in the order prescribed1 is one well calculated to make men formalists and nothing more4 ,it comes to this1 that1 if a man when making waz washes his left hand before his right1 or his nose before his teeth1 he cannot lawfully say the daily ,namz enjoined on all ,muslims4 ,none but those who have studied ,muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial1 but which from their connection with the ,sunnat are deemed by learned ,muslims of great importance4 7#c74 ,tayammum1 or purification by sand1 is allowable under the following circumstances4 7#a7 ,when water cannot be procured except at a distance of one kos 7about #b miles72 7#b7 in case of sickness when the use of water might be injurious2 7#c7 when water cannot be obtained without incurring danger from an enemy1 a beast or a reptile2 and 7#d7 when on the occasion of the ,namz of a ,feast day or the ,namz at a funeral1 the worshipper is late and has no time to perform the waz4 ,on ordinary days this substitution of tayammum for waz is not allowable4 #aib ,the ceremony is performed as follows4 ,the person says3 ,i make tayammum to put away impurity2 then1 ,i seek refuge near ,god from cursed ,satan4 ,i commence in the name of ,god1 most ,merciful and most ,high1 whose praises are in the religion of ,islm4 ,he then strikes the sand with open hands1 rubs his mouth and1 at last1 the arms to the elbows4 ,not one hair must be left untouched or the whole ceremony is useless4 ,the farz acts are to make the intention of tayammum1 to rub the mouth and the hands4 ,if ye are sick1 or on a journey1 or if one of you come from the place of retirement1 or if ye have touched women1 and ye find no water1 then take clean sand and rub your faces and your hands with it4 7,sra v4 #i47 ,minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used for purification4 ,the following kinds of water are lawful3--rain1 sea1 river1 fountain1 well1 snow and ice-water4 ,ice is not lawful4 ,the first kind is authorized by the ,qurn4 ,he sent you down water from heaven that ,he might thereby cleanse you1 and cause the pollution of ,satan to pass from you4 7,sra viii4 #aa47 ,the use of the others is sanctioned by the ,traditions4 ,i give one illustration4 ,a man one day came to the ,prophet and said3 ,i am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh water2 if ,i use it for ablutions ,i shall have none wherewith to quench my thirst1 may ,i use sea water8 ,the ,prophet replied3 ,the water of the sea is pure4 ,tirmz states that this is a ,hads-i-,sahh4 ,great difference of opinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water1 and so renders it unfit for ablutions4 ,it would be wearisome to the reader to enter into all details1 but ,i may briefly say that1 amongst the orthodox1 it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into flowing water1 or into a reservoir more than #ae feet square it can be used1 provided always that the colour1 smell and taste are not changed4 ,it is for this reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits square4 ,if of #aic that size1 it is called a dah dar dah1 7literally #aj x #aj74 ,it may be1 and commonly is1 larger than this4 ,it should be about one foot deep4 ,the necessary ablutions having been made1 the worshipper can commence the ,namz4 7#d74 ,salt or ,namz4 ,the ,namz can be said either in private or in public4 ,all that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper should be clean1 the place free from all impurity1 and that the face be turned towards ,mecca4 ,whether the ,namz is said in public or in private1 it must be preceded by waz1 except when tayammum is allowed4 ,if the ,namz#ahh is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious than repeating it in private1 it must be preceded by the ,azn1 or call to prayers1 and the ,iqmat4 ,minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in which the ,musall1 one who says the ,salt1 must stand and the words he is to say are given in ,muslim books4 ,the following account will give some idea of a ,namz1 or ,service4#ahi ,the ,mu1azzin#aij calls out loudly in ,arabic3-- ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar#aia6 ,all who hear it respond3-- ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,the ,mu1azzin says3-- ,i confess there is no ,god but ,god1 ,i confess there is no ,god but ,god4 ,each of his auditors replies3-- ,i confess there is no ,god but ,god1 ,i confess there is no ,god but ,god4 #aid ,mu1azzin3--,i confess ,muhammad is the apostle of ,god4 ,auditor3--,i confess ,muhammad is the apostle of ,god4 ,mu1azzin3--,come to prayer4 ,auditor3--,i have no power or strength but from ,god most ,high and ,great4 ,mu1azzin3--,come to do good4 ,auditor3--,what ,god wills will be2 what ,he wills not will not be4 ,if it is the time of morning prayer1 the ,mu1azzin adds the words3 ,prayer is better than sleep1 to which the response is given3 ,thou hast spoken well4 ,allhu ,akbar1 and ,there is no ,god but ,god are then repeated twice and so the ,azn ends4 ,the ,iqmat 7literally1 causing to stand7 is a repetition of the ,azn1 but after the words1 come to do good1 the statement prayer has commenced is made4 ,these preliminaries being now over1 the ,namz can commence4 ,it is as follows3 ,the ,musall1 or worshipper1 stands with his hands close to his side and says in a low voice the ,niyyat 7intention73-- ,i have purposed to offer up to ,god only1 with a sincere heart this morning 7or as the case may be71 with my face ,qibla-wards1 two 7or as the case may be7 rak'at prayers1 farz 7or sunnat or nafl1 as the case may be74 ,then follows the ,takbr-i-,tahrmah1 said with the thumbs touching the lobes of the ears4 ,the palms of the hands are placed towards the ,qibla4 ,the fingers are slightly separated from each other4 ,in this position the ,musall says3--,allhu ,akbar6 ,the ,qm1 or standing position4 ,the palm of the right hand being placed on the back of the left1 the thumb and little finger of the former seize the wrist of the latter4 ,both hands are then placed below the navel1#aib the eyes are #aie directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper will touch the ground in prostration1 and the ,san is said4 ,it is3-- ,holiness to ,thee ,o ,god6 and praise be to ,thee6 ,great is ,thy name6 ,great is thy ,greatness6 ,there is no ,god but ,thee6 ,the ,ta'awwuz is then said3-- ,i seek refuge near ,god from cursed ,satan4 ,then follows the ,tasmyah3-- ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,then follows the ,ftiha1#aic or first chapter of the ,qurn3-- ,praise be to ,god1 ,lord of the worlds6 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful6 ,king on the day of reckoning6 ,thee only do we worship1 and to ,thee do we cry for help4 ,guide ,thou us on the straight path3 the path of those to whom ,thou hast been gracious3 with whom ,thou art not angry1 and who go not astray4 ,after this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the ,qurn as he likes4#aid ,some verses he must repeat4 ,the ,srat-ul-,ikhls 7,sra #aab7 is generally said3-- ,say3 ,he is ,god alone3 ,god the ,eternal1 ,he begetteth not1 and is not begotten2 and there is none like unto ,him4 ,the ,takbr-i-ruk'--,allhu ,akbar6--is said whilst the ,musall makes an inclination of the head and body1 and separating the fingers a little1 places his hands upon his knees4 ,the ,tasbh-i-ruk' is said in the same position4 ,it is3-- ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,great6 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,great6 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,great6 ,the ,tasma' is then said with the body erect1 but with the hands placed on either side4 ,thus3-- #aif ,god hears him who praises ,him3 ,o ,lord1 ,thou art praised#aie4 ,the ,takbr-i-,sijdar--,allhu ,akbar6--is said as the worshipper drops on his knees4 ,the ,musall then kneeling down1 places his hands1 with the fingers close to each other1 upon the ground4 ,he must rest upon his toes1 not on the side of the feet which must be kept straight behind him4 ,the elbow must not touch the side1 nor the stomach the thigh1 nor the thigh the calf of the leg4 ,the eyes must be kept bent downwards4 ,then he touches the ground first with his nose1 and then with his forehead1 taking care that the thumbs just touch the lobe of the ears4#aif ,all this being carefully attended to1 the ,musall can say the ,tasbh-i-,sijda thus3-- ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,most ,high6 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,most ,high6 ,i extol the holiness of my ,lord1 the ,most ,high6 ,he then raises his head and body1 sinks backwards upon his heels1 places his hands a little above his knees1 and whilst doing so says the ,takbr-i-,jalsa#aig--;,allhu ,akbar6 ,after a slight pause1 a second prostration1 or ,sijda is made and the ,takbr-i-,sijda and the ,tasbh-i-,sijda are repeated as before4 ,then when in the act of rising up the ,musall says the ,takbr-i-,qm--,allhu ,akbar6 ,this concludes one rak'at4 ,the second rak'at begins with the ,ftiha1 so that after saying the ,takbr-i-,qm a ,musall would have to begin again at that place 7p4 #aie7 and repeat all that he had just finished2 the only change being that after the ,ftiha1 he recites different verses of the ,qurn to those he said in the first rak'at4 ,after two rak'ats have been said1 and after the last1 though it be an odd number1 the #aig ,musall1 unless he is a ,sha'h1 places his left foot under him and sits upon it4 ,he then places his hands above his knees1 as for the ,takbr-i-,jalsa1 and with his eyes directed towards his lap says the ,attahyt3-- ,the adorations of the tongue are for ,god1 and also the adorations of the body1 and almsgiving6 ,peace be on thee ,o ,prophet6 with the mercy of ,god and ,his blessing4 ,peace be on us and upon ,god's righteous servants6 ,then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the ,tashahhud#aih3-- ,i testify that there is no deity but ,god2 and ,i testify that ,muhammad is the servant of ,god and the messenger of ,god4 ,then at the end of all the rak'ats the ,musall1 whilst in the same posture1 says the ,dard3-- ,o ,god6 have mercy on ,muhammad and his descendants#aii2 as ,thou didst have mercy on ,abraham and his descendants1 ,thou art to be praised and ,thou art great4 ,o ,god6 bless ,muhammad and his descendants1 as ,thou didst bless ,abraham and his descendants4 ,thou art to be praised and ,thou art great4 ,then comes the ,du'1 which may be in the worshipper's own words though he usually says#bjj3-- ,o ,god our ,lord1 give us the blessings of this life1 and also the blessings of life everlasting4 ,save us from the torments of hell4 ,then turning the head to the right the ,musall repeats the ,salm3-- ,the peace and mercy of ,god be with you4 ,then turning the head to the left he says3-- ,the peace and mercy of ,god be with you4 ,at the close of the whole ceremony1 the worshipper raises #aih his hands as high as his shoulders1 with the palm towards heaven1 or towards his own face1 and offers up a ,munjt1 or supplication1 either in ,arabic or in the vernacular4 ,the hands are then drawn over the face1 as if to convey the blessing received from above to every part of the body4 ,the appointed periods of prayer are five in number1 in proof of which the following text is quoted3 ,glorify ,god when ye reach the evening 7mas71 and when ye rise at morn 7subh72 and to ,him be praise in the heavens and in the earth1--and at twilight 7'ash7 and when ye rest at noon 7zuhr74 7,sra xxx4 #ag74 ,the ,commentators say that mas includes both sunset and the period after sunset2 that is both the ,salt-ul-,maghrib and the ,salt-ul-',ish4 ,there is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in the following verse3 ,observe prayer at early morning1 at the close of the day1 and at the approach of night4 7,sra xi4 #aaf74 ,these daily ,namz are farz1 sunnat1 witr and nafl prayers4 ,farz are those distinctly ordained by ,god1 such as the five stated periods of prayer4 ,sunnat1 a certain number of rak'ats which are added1 because it is said the ,prophet repeated them4 ,witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats1 #c1 #e or #g1 which may be said after the last prayer at night1 and before the dawn of day4 ,usually they are added to the ,salt-ul-',ish4 ,imm ,abu ,hanfa says they are wjib1 that is ordered by ,god4 ,they are not authorised by any text in the ,qurn1 but by ,traditions each of which is generally received as a ,hads-i-,sahh1 and so witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority4 ,imm ,shfa'1 however1 considers them to be sunnat only1 a term already explained4 ,the ,traditions referred to are3 ,god has added to your ,namz one ,namz more3 know that it is witr1 say it between the ,salt-ul-',ish and dawn4 ,on the authority of ,buzr1 a ,traditionist1 it is recorded that the ,prophet #aii said3 ,witr is wjib upon ,muslims1 and in order to enforce the practice he added3 ,witr is right1 he who does not observe it is not my follower4 ,the ,prophet1 the ,companions1 the ,tba'n and the ,taba-i-,tba'n all observed it4 ,the word witr literally means odd number4 ,a ,tradition says3 ,god is odd1 ,he loves the odd4 7,allhu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra74 ,musalmns pay the greatest respect to an odd number4 ,it is considered unlucky to begin any work1 or to commence a journey on a day1 the date of which is an even number4 ,the number of lines in a page of a book is nearly always an odd number4 ,nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab1 or meritorious1 but they are not of divine obligation4 ,it must be understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form4 ,they simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats1 of which ,i have already given a single illustration in full4 ,a ,muslim who says the five daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the ,service ,i have described fifty times in one day4 ,if in addition to these he observes the three voluntary periods of prayers1 he must add twenty-five more rak'ats1 making a grand total of seventy-five4 ,it is1 however1 usual to omit some of the ,sunnat rak'ats2 still there is a vast amount of repetition1 and as the whole must be said in ,arabic it becomes very mechanical4 ,a ,muslim who ventured to say that a ,namz might be recited in ,hindustani was publicly excommunicated in the principal ,mosque at ,madras on ,friday1 ,february #acth1 #ahhj4bja ,the table on the next page will make the matter clear4#bjb ,the optional ,sunnat rak'ats are called #bjj ',sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'2 the ,sunnat rak'ats before the farz are ',sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,no4 ,time4 ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,prayer4 ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,rak',,ats ,,said4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,witr -------------------------------------- ,nafl ----------------------------------- ,sunnat after ,farz -------------------------------- ,farz ----------------------------- ,sunnat-i-mau-kadda' -------------------------- ,sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda' ---------------------- ,arabic ,persian ,urdu ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a ,from dawn to ,salt-ul- ,namz-i- ,fajr ,k #b sunrise4 ,fajr4 ,subh4 ,namz4 #b ,when the sun ,salt-uz- ,namz-i- ,zuhr ,k #d #d #b #b has begun to ,zuhr4 ,peshn4 ,namz4 decline4 #c ,midway between ,salt-ul- ,namz-i- ',asr ,k #d #d ,no4 #b and #d4 ',asr4 ,dgar4 ,namz4 #d ,a few minutes ,salt-ul- ,namz-i- ,maghrib #c #b #b after sunset4 ,maghrib4 ,shm4 ,k ,namz4 #e ,when the night ,salt-ul- ,namz-i- ',ish ,k #d #d #b #bg has closed in4 ',ish4 ,khuftan4 ,namz4 #bjc #a ,when the sun ,salt-ul- ,namz-i- ,ishrq ,k #h has well risen4 ,ishrq4 ,ishrq4 ,namz4 #b ,about #aa o'clock ,salt-uz- ,namz-i- ,zuh ,k #h ,a4,m4 ,zuh4 ,chast4 ,namz4 #c ,after mid-night4 ,salt-ut- ,namz-i- ,tahajjud #i ,tahajjud4 ,tahajjud4 ,k ,namz4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,in addition to these there are several kinds of ,namz which have to be said at different times1 or under special circumstances4 7i74 ,salt-ul-,juma'--,the ,friday ,namz4 ,this is a farz duty4 ,it has the threefold authority of the ,qurn1 the ,sunnat1 and the ,ijm'4 ,thus3 ,o ye who believe6 ,when ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly 7,friday71 haste ye to the commemoration of ,god1 and quit your traffic4 7,sra lxii4 #i47 ,the ,prophet also said3 ,juma' is farz1 and1 ,god will make a mark on the heart of him who misses the ,salt-ul-,juma'#bjd4 ,there are1 however1 eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent1 viz3 a traveller1 a sick person1 a slave1 a woman1 a young child1 a mad #bja person1 a blind or a lame person4 ,the conditions which make this ,namz obligatory are3-- 7#a74 ,that the place in which it is said be a town in which a ,qz 7judge7 dwells4 7#b74 ,there must be in the town a ruler or his deputy4 7#c74 ,it must take the place of the ,salt-uz-,zuhr1 with which it agrees1 except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited4 ,the nafl rak'ats are omitted4 ,the four sunnat rak'ats which precede1 and the two which follow the farz ones are said4 7#d74 ,one1 or according to the followers of ,imm ,shfa' two ,khutbas1 or sermons are preached4 ,these are delivered by the ,imm after the four sunnat rak'ats are recited1 and before the two farz ones4 ,the ,khutba should consist of the praise of ,god1 prayer and injunctions to piety4 7#e74 ,there must be a congregation of three persons besides the ,imm4 ,the ,shfa'tes say there should be at least forty worshippers4 7#f74 ,the ,azn1 or call to prayers1 must be made to all without distinction of rank4 ,any person who is qualified to act as ,imm at the other prayers can conduct this ,namz4 ,the ,imm and ,khatb 7preacher7 is usually1 but not necessarily1 one and the same person4 ,the ,khutbas should not be long1 for ,muhammad said that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of the latter days4 ,when two ,khutbas are said1 the ,imm sits down to rest before the delivery of the second4 ,the worshippers may then offer up a ,du'1 or private prayer4 ,some1 however1 say that this practice is bid'at1 7innovation7 and consider it a very bad act4 ,according to the ,traditionists1 ,bukhr1 ,abu ,dd and ,tirmz1 it is a mustahab act to wear clean clothes on ,friday4 ,the preacher standing on the second step of the ,mimbar1 or pulpit1 with a large club or staff in his hand1 delivers his sermon4#bje #bjb ,the following is a specimen of the ,khutbas4 ,,sermon ,,on ,,the ,,excellence ,,of ,,friday4 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,praise be to ,god1 the ,king1 the ,holy1 the ,great1 the ,knower4 ,he has opened our hearts through the blessing of ,islm4 ,he has made ,friday the best of days4 ,we testify that there is no ,god but ,god1 the ,one1 without partner4 ,this confession saves those who make it from danger and from darkness4 ,we testify that our ,lord ,muhammad is ,his servant and ,his ,apostle sent to all mankind4 ,may the mercy and peace of ,god be on him1 his descendants and on his ,companions4 ,o men6 ,o believers of ,god6 ,i advise you and my own soul thus3 ,obey ,god6 ,know1 ,o servants of ,god6 that when ,friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven1 and ,gabriel1 7on whom be peace7 is the ,mu1azzin1 ,mk1l the ,khatb1 ,isrfl the ,imm and ',izr1l the ,mukabbir#bjf and all the angels join in the ,namz4 ,when it is over ,gabriel says3 ,i give the reward due to me as ,mu1azzin to the ,mu1azzins of the sect of ,islm2 ,mk1l3 ,i give mine to the ,khatbs2 ,isrfl3 ,i give mine to the ,imms2 ',izr1l3 ,i give mine to the ,mukabbirs4 ,the angels say3 ,we give ours to the company of the ,muslims4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,the night and day of ,friday last twenty-four hours1 and each hour ,god releases a thousand souls from hell4 ,whosoever makes 'ghusl' on ,friday1 ,god will give him for every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds4 ,whosoever dies on a ,friday meets with the reward of a martyr4 ,certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the ,holy ,qurn1 the ,word of ,god1--the ,king1 the ,great1 the ,knower4 ,his word is true and righteous4 ,when thou readest the ,qurn say3 ,o ,god6 protect me from cursed ,satan4 ,in the name of ,god the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,when ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly1 haste to the commemoration of ,god and quit your traffic4 ,this1 if ye knew it1 will be best for you4 ,and when the prayer is ended1 then disperse yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of ,god2 and that it may be well with you1 oft remember ,god4 ,but when they get a sight of merchandize or sport1 they disperse after1 and leave thee standing alone4 ,say3 ',god hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares4 ,god is the best provider4' 7,sra lxii4 #i-aa47 ,god #bjc by means of the ,holy ,qurn will bless us and you4 ,and by its verses and teaching will reward us and you4 ,god is ,almighty1 ,generous1 ,merciful1 ,eternal1 ,holy1 ,clement4 ,here ends the first sermon2 after a short pause the preacher commences the second4 ,in the name of ,god the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,praise be to ,god1 the ,creator of the earth and heavens1 the ,maker of light and darkness4 ,i testify that there is no ,god but ,god4 ,he is one4 ,he has no partner4 ,know1 ,o believers6 that this confession will save you from trouble and calamity4 ,i testify that ,muhammad1 who wipes out error and infidelity1 is the servant and ,apostle of ,god4 ,the mercy of ,god be on our ,lord ,muhammad1 the ,lord of ,creation2 and on his descendants2 and on his ,companions be grace and honour4 ,o servants of ,god6 ,i advise you and my own soul thus3 ,obey ,god6 ,fear ,god1 who created life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions4 ,o ,god6 be pleased with ,abu ,bakr1 the righteous1 the ,shib-ul-,ghr1#bjg and with ,omar ,ibn-ul-,khattb1 the chief of the holy men2 and with ,osmn the possessor of two lights1 who was martyred when reading the ,holy ,qurn1 and upon ',al ,murtuz1 the destroyer of infidels and sinners4 ,o ,god6 be pleased with the great ,imms ,hasan and ,husain4 ,be pleased with their mother ,fatimat-uz-,zuhra1 the chief of women1 and with ,hamza and ',abbs1 the uncles of the ,prophet4 ,also be pleased with all the ,ashb 7,companions74 ,o ,god6 help those who help the religion of ,muhammad1 and make us of their number4 ,make those wretched who corrupt it1 and keep us aloof from all such4 ,o believers6 truly ,god orders you to do justice and to show kindness to your kindred4 ,he orders you to abstain from infidelity and from the greater and the lesser sins4 ,god warns you4 ,god is the ,most ,high1 the ,most ,glorious4 ,god is ,great6 ,the collection of ,khutbas from which the above have been translated contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects1 such as prayer1 the resurrection1 worldliness1 the various feast and fast days1 c4 ,the form in all is very similar4 ,the exordium and the conclusion are practically the same4 ,a few sentences in the middle refer to the special subject of the sermon4 ,the second of the two #bjd sermons is always the same2 it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons4 ,both are said in ,arabic4 ,what would answer to our idea of a sermon1 such as an explanation of some doctrine1 or an exposition of some passages in the ,qurn1 is not part of the public worship in the mosque1 but would be done in an ordinary assembly1 in any convenient place1 by a ,mooll1 or any learned man who could collect an audience4 7ii74 ,salt-ul-,musfir4--,prayers said by a traveller4 ,a person who makes a journey which lasts three days or three nights is1 for this purpose1 considered a traveller4#bjh ,the length of a day's journey is estimated at the distance a camel can march in that period of time4 ,if a traveller intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days1 he must repeat the usual ,namz2 if less than fifteen days1 or when actually on the journey1 he can shorten it4 ,he is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats4 ,he may omit the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses2 but the three witr rak'ats he must recite at the ,salt-ul-',ish4 ,if a traveller passing through a place is1 for the time being1 the most suitable person to act as ,imm1 he being a traveller will only recite two rak'ats4 ,the rest of the worshippers then complete the ,namz4 ,in the case where a permanent resident of the place is the ,imm and the traveller only a worshipper1 the ,imm is bound to recite the whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole after him4 ,the principle on which this is based is that the worshippers must not recite less than the ,imm4#bji 7iii74 ,salt-ul-,khauf4--,prayers of fear4 ,this is a ,namz said during the time of war4 ,when there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy the ,imm should divide the army into two bodies2 one of which should be placed in a position towards the enemy1 the other should recite1 if they are on the march1 one rak'at2 if stationary #bje in a place1 two rak'ats4 ,this division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the ,namz4 ,the ,salm 7,ante4 p4 #aig7 will be recited by the ,imm alone4 ,the first division of troops will not say the qir1at1 i4e4 the ,ftiha and the other verses of the ,qurn recited after it 7,ante4 p4 #aie72 but the second division will supply the omission4 ,if the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not dismount1 then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself1 and make the ruk' and sijda by means of signs4 ,if he cannot turn towards the ,qibla1 he is1 under the circumstances1 allowed to face any direction most convenient4 ,during the recital of the ,namz he must not fight1 or allow his horse to move1 lest the prayer should be rendered void4 ,when ye go forth to war in the land1 it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers1 if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you4 ,verily1 the infidels are your undoubted enemies6 ,and when thou1 ,o ,apostle6 shalt be among them1 and shalt pray with them1 then let a party of them rise up with thee1 but let them take their arms2 and when they shall have made their prostrations1 let them retire to your rear3 then let another party that hath not prayed come forward1 and let them pray with you4 7,sra iv4 #ajb1 #ajc74 7iv74 ,salt-ut-,tarwh4--,this is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited every night during the month of ,ramazn4 ,they must be said after the farz and sunnat1 and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the ,salt-ul-',ish4 ,the ,salt-ut-,tarwh is considered of sunnat obligation4 ,the practice dates from the time of the ,khalf ,omar4 ,abd-ur-,rahmn1 a ,traditionist1 states that one night in ,ramazn he went with ,omar to the ,mosque4 ,they saw some persons saying the ,namz alone and some reciting it in groups4 ,omar said3 ,if ,i gather them all together1 so that they may recite it after one ,imm it will be good4 ,he did so1 and the next night the people of their own accord came in great numbers and united together4 ,then said ,omar3 this #bjf bid'at is good4 ,this is good authority for the institution1 for the ,prophet said3 ,follow my ,sunnat and that of the ,khulaf-i-,rashdn4 ,there is also a ,hads-i-,sahh to the effect that ,god has made the fast of ,ramazn farz1 and its qm#baj sunnat4 7,kutiba 'alaikum smu ,ramazna wa sunna qmuhu74 ,the ,prophet was anxious lest the ,tirwh ,namz should become farz and1 therefore1 after going to the ,mosque on two successive nights in ,ramazn1 he stayed away on the third1 giving as his reason for so doing that he feared that1 if he went every night1 it might be considered a farz and not a sunnat duty4#baa ,the number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty1 as that was the number recited by ,muhammad and by the ,khalf ,omar4 ,the ,sha'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the ,mosque on such occasions1 as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four ,khalfs--the first three of whom they hate4 7v74 ,salt-ul-,kusf and ,salt-ul-,khusf--,prayer said when an eclipse of the sun1 or of the moon takes place4 ,in the former case1 the ,imm recites with the congregation in the ,mosque two rak'ats4 ,the ,azn and the ,iqmat are both omitted4 ,no ,khutba is said4 ,in each rak'at one ruk' is read4 ,the ,shfa'tes read two4 ,after the rak'ats are completed those present remain in prayer 7,du'7 until the eclipse is at an end4 ,the ,namz during an eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun1 with this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation4 ,each ,muslim can say the ,namz privately in his own house4 ,the practice is founded on the ,prophet's saying3 ,when you see an eclipse then remember ,god1 pray 7,du'7 and recite the ,namz until it becomes light again4 7vi74 ,salt-ul-,istisq4--,prayer in time of drought4 ,when #bjg there is a scarcity of water each person should1 with face ,qibla-wards1 offer up prayer to ,god4 ,they can be said at home and in private4 ,care must be taken that no ,zimm#bab is present4 ,the reason given is that this is a prayer for a blessing2 but ,god sends no blessing on a company in which a ,zimm is present4 ,these prayers are simple ,du' and not a ,namz4 ,there is no well-authenticated ,tradition to the effect that the ,prophet ever said ,namz on such an occasion2 whilst there are many which show that he made ,du'4 ,this is a very good example of the use of the term ,salt as a ,mushtarik word1 i4e4 one which has several significations4 ,its ordinary meaning is ,namz2 here it means ,du'4 7vii74 ,salt-ul-,janza4--,prayers at a ,funeral4 ,when a person is about to die1 the attendants should place him on his right side with his face ,qibla-wards4 ,in that position he should repeat the ,kalima-i-,shahdat1 the creed of testimony3 ,i confess that ,god is one1 without a partner2 that truly ,muhammad is ,his servant and ,his ,apostle4 ,after death has taken place1 the corpse is laid out1 incense is burnt1 and the shroud is perfumed an odd number of times4 ,a tradition states that an odd number is fixed upon1 because the number one which represents the unity of ,god is odd and not even4 ,the lesser lustration 7waz7 is then made4 ,the head and beard are washed with a decoction made of some flowers1 after which the greater lustration 7ghusl7 is made4 ,the members of the body used when making sijda 7prostration7 i4e41 forehead1 nose1 hands1 knees1 feet1 are then rubbed with camphor4 ,to recite the ,salt-ul-,janza is a duty called ,farz-i-kifya1 that is1 if some few persons in the assembly say it1 all need not do so2 whilst if no one repeats it all will be guilty of sin4 ,to prove that this ,namz is farz the following verse is quoted3 ,take alms of their substance1 that thou mayest #bjh cleanse and purify them thereby1 and pray for them2 for thy prayers shall assure their minds3 and ,god heareth1 knoweth4 7,sra ix4 #ajd47 ,the proof that it is not ,farz-i-'ain 7i4e41 incumbent on all71 but ,farz-i-kifya is drawn from an account given in a ,hads1 to the effect that the ,prophet one day did not recite the ,namz over one of his deceased followers4 ,now1 if the ,namz had been ,farz-i-'ain even the ,prophet could not have omitted it4 ,his ,sunnat1 or practice1 has decided the nature of the farz command contained in the verse of the ,qurn just quoted4 ,the ,namz can only be said when the corpse is present4 ,it is recited in the open space in front of the ,mosque1 or in some neighbouring spot3 never in the graveyard4 ,when all are assembled the ,imm or leader says3 ,here begins the ,namz for the dead4 ,the company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the direction of ,mecca4 ,the ,imm stands a little in front1 near the head or waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female4 ,then all assume the ,qm1 or standing position1 and recite the ,niyyat as follows3-- ,i recite ,namz for the sake of ,god1 and offer prayers 7,du'7 for this deceased person1 and ,i follow the ,imm 7who is about to officiate47 ,then all at the first#bac ,takbr put the hands to the lobe of the ears and say3 ,god is ,great6 ,then they say the ,san 7,ante1 p4 #aie473-- ,holiness to ,thee ,o ,god6 ,and to ,thee be praise6 ,great is ,thy ,name6 ,great is ,thy greatness6 ,great is ,thy praise6 ,there is no ,god but ,thee6 ,then follows the second ,takbr3 ,god is ,great6 ,then all say the ,darud-i-,ibrhm3-- ,o ,god6 have mercy on ,muhammad and upon his descendants1 as ,thou didst bestow mercy1 and peace1 and blessing1 and compassion1 and great kindness upon #bji ,abraham and upon his descendants4 ,thou art praised1 and ,thou art ,great6 ,o ,god1 bless ,muhammad and his descendants as ,thou didst bless1 and didst have compassion and great kindness upon ,abraham and upon his descendants4 ,then follows the third ,takbr3 ,god is ,great6 ,the ,du' is then repeated3-- ,o ,god1 forgive our living and our dead1 and those o us who are present1 and those who are absent1 and our children and our full grown persons1 our men and our women4 ,o ,god1 those whom ,thou dost keep alive amongst us1 keep alive in ,islm1 and those whom ,thou causest to die1 let them die in the ,faith4#bad ,then follows the fourth ,takbr3 ,god is ,great6 ,then all say3-- ,o ,god1 give us good in this world and in the next1 and save us by ,thy mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell4 ,then each one in a low voice says the ,salm1 as in an ordinary ,namz4 7,ante1 p4 #aig47bae ,the ,namz is now over and the people make another ,du' thus3-- ',o our ,lord6 suffer not our hearts to go astray after that ,thou hast once guided us2 and give us mercy from before ,thee2 for verily ,thou art ,he who giveth4' 7,sra iii4 #f47 ,o ,god1 ,thou art his#baf ,master1 and ,thou createdst him1 and ,thou didst nourish him1 and didst guide him toward ,islm1 and ,thou hast taken his life1 and ,thou knowest well his inner and outer life4 ,provide intercessors for us4 ,forgive him1 for ,thou art the ,forgiver1 the most ,merciful4 #baj ,then going towards the head of the corpse1 they say3-- ,no doubt is there about this ,book 7,qurn47 ,it is a guidance to the ,god-fearing1 who believe in the unseen1#bag who observe prayer 7salt71 and out of what we have bestowed on them1 expend 7for ,god71 and who believe in that which hath been sent down to thee 7,muhammad71 and in what hath been sent down before thee2 and full faith have they in the life to come3 these are guided by their ,lord2 and with these it shall be well4 7,sra ii4 #a-d74 ,then coming towards the feet of the corpse1 they say3-- ,the ,apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his ,lord1 as do the faithful also4 ,each believeth in ,god1 and ,his angels1 and ,his ,books and ,his ,apostles3 we make no distinction between any of ,his ,apostles4#bah ,and they say3 ',we have heard and we obey4 7,we implore7 ,thy mercy1 ,lord2 for unto ,thee must we return4' ,god will not burden any soul beyond its power4 ,it shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired1 and shall bear the evil for the acquirement of which it laboured4 ,o our ,lord6 punish us not if we forget1 or fall into sin2 ,o our ,lord6 and lay not on us a load like that which ,thou hast laid on those who have been before us#bai2 ,o our ,lord6 and lay not on us that for which we have no strength3 but blot out our sins and forgive us1 and have pity on us4 ,thou art our protector2 give us victory therefore over the infidel nations4 7,sra ii4 #bhe1 #bhf74 #baa ,the chief mourner then gives the ,izn-i-'mm1 that is1 he says3-- ,all have permission to depart4 ,some then proceed homewards1 others go with the corpse to the graveyard4 ,when the bier is lifted up1 or when it is placed down near the grave1 the people say3-- ,we commit thee to earth in the name of ,god and in the religion of the ,prophet4 ,if the ground is very hard1 a recess 7lahad7 is dug out in the side of the grave4 ,this must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when ,munkir and ,nakr come to interrogate it4 ,if the ground is soft a small grave is excavated at the bottom of the larger one4 ,the corpse is then placed in the lower one4 ,the idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a position that it can have free movement4 ,the body is placed with the face towards ,mecca4 ,when the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people say3-- ,o ,god deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased1 place us not in trouble4 ,each person then takes seven clods of earth1 and over each clod says2 ,bismillh 7in the name of ,god71 and the ,srat-ul-,ikls 7,sra cxii7 and then places each clod by the head of the corpse4 ,unburnt bricks1 bamboos or boards having then been placed over the smaller grave1 the persons present with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave4 ,the first time they say3 ,from it 7earth7 ,we created you2 the second time1 and into it will ,we return you2 the third time1 and out of it will ,we bring you a second time4 7,sra xx4 #eg74 ,then they say this ,du'3 ,o ,god ,i beseech ,thee for the sake of ,muhammad not to trouble the deceased4 ,when the attendants are filling up the grave they say3-- ,o ,god1 defend the deceased from ,shaitan 7devil7 and from the torments of the grave4 ,when the grave is completely filled up1 one man pours #bab water three1 or five1 or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it4#bbj ,one of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the ,talqn 7instruction73-- ,o servant of ,god1 and child of a female servant of ,god4 ,o son of 7such an one71#bba remember the faith you professed on earth to the very last2 that is1 your witness that there is no ,god but ,god1 and that certainly ,muhammad is ,his ,apostle1 and that ,paradise and ,hell and the ,resurrection from the dead are real2 that there will be a day of judgment1 and say3 ',i confess that ,god is my ,lord1 ,islm my religion1 ,muhammad 7on whom be the mercy and peace of ,god7 my ,prophet1 the ,qurn my guide1 the ,k'aba my ,qibla1 and that ,muslims are my brethren4' ,o ,god1 keep him 7the deceased7 firm in this faith1 and widen his grave1 and make his examination 7by ,munkir and ,nakr7 easy1 and exalt him and have mercy on him1 ,o ,thou most ,merciful4 ,the other persons present then offer a ,ftiha4#bbb ,after this1 they may1 if they like to do so1 read the ,srat-ul-,y ,sn 7xxxvi7 and the ,srat-ul-,mulk 7lxvii47 ,it is not common to do so4 ,then retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a ,ftiha1 for by this time the examination of the deceased has commenced4 ,the first night is one of great trouble to the deceased1 so alms should be given liberally that night in his name4 ,in order to relieve him as much as possible1 two nafl rak'ats of a ,namz should be said4 ,after the ,ftiha in each rak'at the worshipper should repeat the yat-ul-,kurs #bac 7,throne-verse7#bbc three times2 then the ,srat-ut-,taksur 7#ajb7 eleven times2 then the ,srat-ul-,ikls 7#aab7 three times4 ,after the ,salm and the ,dard the worshipper lifts up both hands1 and with great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be bestowed on the deceased4 7viii74 ,salt-ul-,istikhra4--,this is a ,namz said before undertaking any special work4 ,the person recites two rak'at prayers4 ,after each rak'at he says the following ,du'3 ,o ,god1 make me know what is best for me1 and keep me from evil1 and bestow good upon me1 for ,i have no power to know what is best for me4 ,he then goes to sleep1 during which period be expects to receive a special inspiration 7,ilhm7 which will give him the needed directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand4 7ix74 ,salt-ut-,tarwih4--,this consists of twenty rak'ats recited each evening during the month of ,ramazn4 ,an account of these will be given in the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the ,ramazn fast are described4 #c4 ,,roza1 ,,the ,,thirty ,,days' ,,fast ,,of ,,ramaz,n4--,fasting is defined to be abstinence from food1 drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset4 ,there must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast4 ,the person should say3 ,o ,lord1 ,i intend to fast to-morrow for ,thy sake4 ,forgive my past and future sin4 ,when the fast is ended he says3 ,o ,god ,i fasted for ,thy sake and had faith in ,thee1 and confided in ,thee and now ,i break 7iftr7 the fast with the food ,thou givest4 ,accept this act4 ,it is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month ,ramazn4 ,this is laid down in the words3 ,o believers6 a fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you4 ,as to the month ,ramazn1 in which the ,qurn was sent down to be man's guidance1 and an explanation of that guidance1 and of that #bad illumination1 as soon as any one of you observeth the moon1 let him set about the fast4 7,sra ii4 #agi-aha74 ,the ,ijm' is also unanimous on this point4 ,young children and idiots are excused4 ,sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time4 ,he who is sick1 or upon a journey1 shall fast a like number of other days4 ,god wisheth you ease1 but wisheth not your discomfort1 and that you fulfil the number of days4 7,sra ii4 #aha74 ,this is called a qaz fast1 that is1 a fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted4 ,if a person makes a vow that1 if ,god grants a certain request1 he will fast 7roza-i-nazr71 or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed 7roza-i-kafra71 in both cases it is a wjib duty to keep the fast4 ,some hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse3 ,let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close1 and let them pay their vows4 7,sra xxii4 #cj74 ,all other kinds of fasts are nafl1 a term already explained 7p4 #aii74 ,such are the fasts kept on the #ajth day of ,muharram1 on the ,aiym-i-,bz 7bright days7--the #acth1 #adth and #aeth day of any month1 on the #aeth of ,sh'abn1 that is1 the day following the night called ,shab-,bart1 and on the #cjth of each month in which there are thirty days4 ,a nafl fast may be broken if the person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast4 ,according to ,bukhr1 a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her husband4 ,the reverse is not the case1 for ,men are superior to women on account of the qualities with which ,god hath gifted the one above the other1 and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for them4 7,sra iv4 #ch74 ,it is said that one day a woman came to the ,prophet and said that her husband had slapped her4 ,the ,prophet wished to punish him for doing so improper an act1 but he was prevented by the descent from heaven of the verse just quoted1 which is held to be conclusive evidence of the inferiority of women4 ,the verse also contains the words chide those #bae 7wives7 for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear2 remove them into beds apart1 and scourge them4 ,it is mustahab to fast some days in the month ,shawwl1 for ,muhammad is reported to have said3 ,whosoever keeps the fast of ,ramazn and some seven days in the preceding month of ,shawwl1 it is as if his whole life were a fast4 ,if on account of dull weather1 or of dust storms the new moon is not visible1 it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person who declares that ,ramazn has commenced4 ,imm ,shfa' requires two1 but the following ,tradition is quoted against him3 ,an ,arab came to the ,prophet and said3 ',i have seen the new moon4' ,his ,excellency said3 ',dost thou believe that there is no ,god but ,god8 ,dost thou confess that ,muhammad is ,his ,apostle8' ',yes1' replied the man4 ,the ,prophet calling ,billl1 the ,mu1azzin1 said3 ',tell the people to commence the fast4' ,this proves that the evidence of one good ,muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter4 ,the fast is destroyed in the following cases3--if when cleansing the teeth a little water should pass into the throat1 if food is eaten under compulsion1 if an enema is used1 if medicine is put into the ears1 nose or a wound in the head1 if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it was night when it was really day1 if the niyyat 7intention7 in the ,ramazn fast was not properly made1 if after a meal taken during the night a portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in a cavity of a tooth1 lastly1 if food is vomited4 ,in each of these cases a qaz fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken4 ,in the case where the fast is deliberately broken1 the person must atone for his sin by setting a slave at liberty2 if from any cause that cannot be done1 he must fast every day for two months2 if that cannot be done1 he must give sixty persons two full meals each1 or give one man such meals daily for sixty days4 ,the fast is not broken by merely tasting anything1 by #baf applying antimony to the eyes1 and oil to the beard1 by cleansing the teeth1 or by kissing a person2 but it is considered better not to do these things during the day-time4 ,the ,imm ,as-,shfa' declared that it was very wrong indeed to do either of these actions after noon4 ,he used to repeat the following ,tradition handed down by ,tabrn4 ,the ,prophet said3 'when you fast1 cleanse the teeth in the early morning1 because when the lips of him who fasts become dry and parched1 they will be for him a light in the day of judgment4' ,if a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast1 he must perform sadqa1 that is1 he must feed a poor person4 ,this opinion is based on a sentence in the ,qurn1 which has caused a good deal of dispute3 ,as for those who are able 7to keep it and yet break it71 the expiation of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man4 7,sra ii4 #ahj74 ,this seems to make fasting a matter of personal option1 and some ,commentators admit that at first it was so1 but they say that the words have been abrogated#bbd by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse3 ,as soon as any one of you observeth the moon1 let him set about the fast4 ,others say that the negative particle not must be understood before able1 in which case the words in italics must be omitted4 ,others explain the expression those who are able as equivalent to those who have great difficulty therein1 such as aged and infirm persons4 ,this seems to be the best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on4 ,in the case of women with child1 mothers giving suck to their children1 sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure1 it is sufficient if they keep it at another time2 that is1 they must when convenient make a qaz fast4 #bag ,in these cases the sadqa or feeding of the poor is not required4 ,thus ,abu ,dd says3 ,the ,prophet said1 ',god allows travellers to shorten the ,namz and to postpone the fast4 ,women also are allowed to fast another time4' ,the ,qurn is also clear on the point3 ,he who is sick or upon a journey1 shall fast a like number of other days4 7,sra ii4 #aha74 ,there are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to fast4 ,these are1 'd-ul-,fitr1 ,baqr-'d and the three following days1 viz3 the #aath1 #abth and #acth of ,zu'l-,hajja4 ,if during the month of ,ramazn1 a person arrives at maturity1 or an ,infidel becomes a ,muslim1 each must keep the fast during the remaining days of the month4 ,to take the ,sahra1 or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of ,ramazn1 is a ,sunnat act4 ,the great ,traditionists1 ,bukhr1 ,muslim and ,tirmz1 all agree that the ,prophet said3 ,eat ,sahra because there is a blessing in it4 ,the difference between our fast and that of the men of the ,book 7,christians7 is the partaking of ,sahra4 ,the meal eaten immediately after sunset is called ,iftr1 or the breaking of the fast4 ,in ,india it is the custom to eat a date first1 or if that fruit is not procurable to drink a little water4 ,in ,turkey an olive is chosen as the fruit with which the fast should be broken4 ,the distinctive feature of a ,muhammadan fast is1 that it is a fast during the day only4 ,the rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its rigour4 ,they1 however1 frequently break the fast1 though any such action must be done in secret1 for popular opinion all over the ,musalmn world is strongly against a man who does not outwardly1 at least1 observe the fast of ,ramazn4 ,in this matter it may be said ,pecher en secret1 n'est pas pecher1 ,ce n'est que l'clat qui fait le crime4 ,those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast very difficult1 for however laborious may be their occupation they must not swallow any liquid2 yet as #bah a rule the lower classes observe it strictly4#bbe ,in hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing4 ,in such circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for1 as then the ,iftr can be commenced4 ,the month of ,ramazn brings with it other duties than that of fasting4 ,these will be described in the next chapter4 #d4 ,,zak,t4--,there are two terms in use to express almsgiving4 ,the first is ,zakt 7literally1 purification7 or the legal alms due1 with certain exceptions1 from every ,muslim4 ,the second is ,sadqa1 or offerings on the feast day known as 'd-ul-,fitr1 or alms in general4#bbf ,it is the first of these that has now to be considered4 ,on the authority of the ,qurn and the ,ijm'-i-,ummat it is declared to be a farz duty for every ,muslim of full age1 after the expiration of a year1 to give the ,zakt on account of his property2 provided that1 he has sufficient for his subsistence and is a ,shib-i-,nisb1 or one who possesses an income equivalent to about #e per annum4 ,the ,qurn says3 ,observe prayer 7,salt7 and the legal impost 7,zakt74 7,sra ii4 #dj74 ,the ,khalf ',umr ,ibn ',abd-ul-',azz used to say3 ,prayer carries us half way to ,god1 fasting brings us to the door of ,his palace1 and alms procure us admission4 ,the three conditions without which ,zakt would not be compulsory are ,islm1 ,hurriat 7freedom7 and ,nisb 7stock74 ,the reason for this is1 that ,zakt is said to be a fundamental part of ',ibdat 7worship71 and that1 as the ,infidels cannot perform acceptable worship1 they have nothing to do with ,zakt4 ,freedom is necessary1 for slaves hold no #bai property4 ,nisb is required1 for so the ,prophet has decreed4 ,when the ,nisb is required for daily use the zakt is not taken from it2 such as a slave retained for personal service1 grain for food1 weapons1 tools1 books1 household furniture1 wearing apparel1 horses for riding1 c41 for one ,tradition records that the ,prophet specially exempted all these1 whilst another given on the authority of ,bukhr states that for slaves employed in domestic service only the ,sadqa-i-fitr#bbg should be given4 ,if a person owes a debt1 the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his property and the ,zakt given on the balance4 ,if it is a debt due to ,god1 such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the neglect of some religious duty1 it must not be so deducted from the property on which ,zakt is due4 ,the amount of gold which constitutes a ,nisb is #bj miskats1 or of silver #bjj dirhems 7#e #ds474 ,whether these metals are in coin or not1 one-fortieth part is due4 ,some say that gold and silver ornaments are exempt1 but ,imm ,shfa' does not admit this1 and quotes from ,abu ,dd the following ,tradition3 ,a woman with a child1 on whose arms were heavy golden bracelets1 came to the ,prophet4 ,he enquired if the ,zakt had been given for them4 ,on receiving a reply in the negative he said3 ',it is easy for ,god in the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire4' ,the girl then took them off and said3 ',these are for the service of ,god and of ,his ,prophet4' ,on all treasure known as rikz1 that is1 buried treasure found by any one1 and on valuable metals extracted from mines1 one-fifth of the value must be paid1 whether the land be ,khrij1 rented at its proper market value2 or ',ushar possessed by the payment of a tithe4 ,if the rikz is found in ,dar-ul-,harb1 a country under a non-,muslim ,government1 the whole belongs to the finder1 if it is on his own land1 or if on unclaimed #bbj land he must pay the one-fifth4 ,if the coins found bear the mint stamp of a ,musalmn ,government1 the finder must1 if he can1 find the owner and return them to him2 if they were coined in a mint belonging to the ,infidels1 after having given one-fifth as ,zakt1 he may retain four-fifths for himself4 ,pearls1 amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction1 for the ,prophet said3 ,there is no ,zakt for stones4 ,as regards cattle the following rules have been laid down4 ,for sheep and goats nothing is given when the number is under forty4 ,the owner must give one for one hundred and twenty1 two for the next eighty and one for every hundred after4 ,the scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep4 ,for camels the rule is as follows3 from #e to #bd in number1 one sheep or goat must be given2 from #be to #ce1 one yearling female camel 7bint-i-mukhz72 from #cf to #de1 one two-year old female camel 7bint-i-labn72 from #df to #fj1 one three-year old female camel 7hiqqah72 from #fa to #ge1 one four-year old female camel 7jaz'ah72 from #gf to #ij1 two bint-i-labn2 from #ia to #abj1 two hiqqah2 and from #aba upwards1 either a bint-i-labn for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty4 ,horses follow this scale1 or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead4 ,for #cj cows a one-year old female calf 7tabi'a7 must be given2 for #dj1 a two-year old female calf 7musinna71 and after that one calf for every ten cows4 ,donkeys and mules are exempt1 for the ,prophet said3 ,no order has come down 7from heaven7 to me about them4 ,if a stock of merchandize exceeds the ,nisb 7#e #ds471 ,zakt must be given on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty1 or two-and-a-half per cent4 ,the ,hanfites do not count a fraction of the forty4 ,the ,shfa'tes count such a fractional part as forty and require the full ,zakt to be paid on it4 ,honey1 fruit1 grain1 c41 although less than five camel #bba loads1#bbh must according to ,imm ,abu ,hanfa pay one-tenth2 but the ,shibain and ,imm ,shfa' say that if there is less than the five camel loads no ,zakt is required4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,if produced on land naturally watered one-tenth is due1 if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth4 ,as he said nothing about the quantity1 the ,hanfites adduce the fact of the omission as a proof on their side4 ,the ,zakt should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the following verse4 ,alms are to be given to the poor and the needy1 and to those who collect them1 and to those whose hearts are won to ,islm1 and for ransoms1 and for debtors1 and for the cause of ,god1 and for the wayfarer4 7,sra ix4 #fj74 ,the words italicised1 according to the ,tafsr-i-,husain1 are now cancelled 7manskh74 ,the reference is to the ,arab ,chiefs who were beaten by the ,prophet at the battle of ,honein 7,a4,h4 #h74 ,this victory is referred to in the #beth verse of this ,sra4 ,god hath helped you in many battle fields1 and on the day of ,honein4 ,abu ,bakr abolished this giving of ,zakt to converts1 and the ,khalf ,omar said to these or similar persons3 ,this ,zakt was given to incline your hearts toward ,islm4 ,now ,god has prospered ,islm4 ,if you be converted it is well2 if not1 a sword is between us4 ,no ,companion has denied this statement1 and so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the ,ijm'-i-,ummat 7unanimous consent74 ,it is well that an appeal to unworthy motives should be abolished1 but no commentator so far as ,i know makes that a reason for the cancelling of this order4 ,it is always placed on the ground of the triumphant nature of ,islm which now needs no such support4 ,contemptuous indifference1 not any high moral motive was the cause of the change4 ,in addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted1 ,zakt may be given to assist a ,muktib1 or slave #bbb who is working in order to purchase his freedom4 ,persons who are too poor to go on a ,jihd or to make the ,hajj must be assisted4 ,the ,zakt must not be given for building mosques1#bbi for funeral expenses1 liquidating the debts of a deceased person1 or to purchase a slave in order to set him free4 ,it is not lawful to give the ,zakt to parents or grand-parents1 children or grandchildren2 or for a husband to give it to his wife1 or a wife to her husband2 or a master to his slave4 ,the ,shibain#bcj maintain that a wife can apply the ,zakt to her husband's wants and quote this ,tradition3 ,a woman asked the ,prophet if she could give the ,zakt to her husband4 ,he answered 'give2 such an act has two rewards1 one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the duties of relationship4' ,it should not be given to a rich man1 nor to his son1 nor to his slave4 ,the descendants of ,hsham and the descendants of the ,prophet should not be the recipients of the ,zakt4 ,the ,prophet said3 ,o ,ahl-i-,beit 7men of the house71 it is not lawful for you to receive ,zakt1 for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty4 ,so some say that ,syeds are excluded2 but they demur and reply that they do not now get a portion of the spoil of the ,infidels4 ,zakt must not be given to a ,zimm 7a non-muslim subject74 ,in ,muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the ,zakt2 in ,india the payment is left to each person's conscience4 ,whilst there is not much regularity in the payment1 due credit must be given for the care which ,musalmns take of their poor4 ,the ,sadqa 7charitable offerings7 form a different branch of this subject4 ,a full account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which treats of the 'd-ul-,fitr4 #bbc #e4 ,,the ,,hajj4--,the ,hajj1 or pilgrimage to ,mecca1 is a farz duty1 and he who denies this fact is considered to be an infidel4 ,the pilgrimage to the temple is a service due to ,god from those who are able to journey thither3 and as to him who believeth not--verily ,god can afford to dispense with all creatures4 7,sra iii4 #ia1 #ib47 ,on the authority of ,ibn ',abbs the following ,tradition has been handed down4 ,the ,prophet said3 ',god has made the ,hajj farz4' ,then ,aqra' bin ,hbis1 standing up1 said3 ',o ,prophet is it to be made every year8' ,his ,excellency said3 ',if ,i say--yes1 it will be a wjib duty to do it annually2 but that ye are not able to bear1 so the ,hajj is necessary only once2 whatever pilgrimage may be made to ,mecca in addition is nafl4' ,the ,hajj must be made by every free ,muslim1 who is sound in body1 and of full age1 when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses1 after duly providing for the support of his household till his return4 ,if a slave1 or a child should make the ,hajj1 the former on attaining freedom1 and the latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage4 ,if a woman1 whose residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from ,mecca1 goes on pilgrimage1 she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near relative4 ,imm ,as ,shfa' denies the necessity of such attendance1 stating that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction4 ,his objection is1 however1 met as usual by a ,tradition4 ,a certain man came to the ,prophet and said3 ',my wife is about to make the ,hajj1 but ,i am called to go on a warlike expedition4' ,the ,prophet said3 ',turn away from the war and accompany thy wife in the ,hajj4' ,imm ,abu ,ysuf considered that a man who possessed the means should go to ,mecca1 and held that if he delayed more than a year in making the ,hajj he was a sinner4 ,imm ,muhammad1 and most others think that a person may postpone the ,hajj for some years1 but if death should overtake the man before he has made #bbd the pilgrimage1 he will be accounted a sinner4 ,so practically all agree that delay is dangerous4 ,connected with the ,hajj there are three actions which are farz1 and five which are wjib2 all the rest are sunnat or mustahab4 ,the farz requisites are3 7#a7 to wear no other garment except the ,ihrm1#bca two seamless wrappers1 one of which is worn round the loins1 the other thrown over the shoulder2 7#b7 to stand in ',arft2 7#c7 to make the ,tawf1 that is to go round the ,k'aba seven times4 ,the wjib duties are3 7#a7 to stay in ,muzdalfah2 7#b7 to run between ,mount ,saf and ,mount ,marwah2 7#c7 to perform the ,ram-ul-,jamr1 or the casting of the pebbles2 7#d7 if the pilgrims are non-,meccans they must make an extra ,tawf2 7#e7 to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over4 ,the ,hajj must be made at the appointed season4 ,let the pilgrimage 7,hajj7 be made in the months already known4 7,sra ii4 #aic74 ,these months are ,shawwl1 ,zu'l-q'ada1 and the first ten days of ,zu'l-,hajja4 ,the actual ,hajj must be in the month ,zu'l-,hajja1 but the preparations for1 and the niyyat1 or intention of the ,hajj can be made in the two preceding months4 ,the ',umrah1 or ordinary pilgrimage1 can be done at any time of the year except on the ninth1 and four succeeding days of ,zu'l-,hajja4 ,on each of the various roads leading to ,mecca1 there are at a distance of about five or six miles from the city stages called ,mqt4 ,the following are the names4 ,on the ,madna road1 the stage 7manzil7 is called ,zu'l-,halifah2 on the ',irq road1 ,zt-i-',arq2 on the ,syrian road1 ,hujfah2 on the ,najd road1 ,qarn2 on the ,yaman road1 ,yalamlam4#bcb #bbe ,the ,hjs from all parts of the ,muslim world at length arrive weary and worn at one of these stages4 ,they then divest themselves of their ordinary clothing1 and after a legal ablution1 and after saying a ,namz of two nafl rak'ats they put on the ,ihrm4 ,the ,hj1 having now really entered upon the ,hajj1 faces ,mecca and makes the niyyat 7intention71 and says3 ,o ,god1 ,i purpose to make the ,hajj2 make this service easy to me and accept it from me4 ,he then says the ,talbyah#bcc3 ,here ,i am6 ,o ,allh6 ,here ,i am6 ,here ,i am6 ,there is no ,god but ,thee6 ,truly1 praise and bounty1 and the kingdom are to ,thee6 ,no partner hast ,thou6 ,here am ,i6 ,the persons who reside permanently in any of these ,mqt can assume the pilgrim's garb in a place called ,hal1 near to ,mecca1 or in the city itself2 whilst the inhabitants of ,mecca can put on the ,ihrm in the precincts of the temple4 ,the ,hj having assumed the ,ihrm must now abstain from worldly affairs1 and devote himself entirely to the duties of the ,hajj4 ,he is not allowed to hunt1 though he may catch fish if he can4 ,o ,believers1 kill no game while ye are on pilgrimage4 7,sra v4 #if74 ,the ,prophet also said3 ,he who shows the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills it4 ,the ,hj must not scratch himself1 lest vermin be destroyed1 or a hair be uprooted4 ,should he feel uncomfortable1 he must rub himself with the open palm of his hand4#bcd ,the face and head must be left uncovered1 the hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut4 ,shave not your heads until the #bbf offering reach the place of sacrifice4 7,sra ii1 #aib74 ,on arriving at an elevated place1 on descending a valley1 on meeting any one1 on entering the city of ,mecca or the ,musjid-ul-,harm#bce the ,hj should continually repeat the word ,labbaik1 ,labbaik4 ,as soon as he sees the ,k'aba#bcf he must say the ,takbr and the ,tahll4 ,the ,traditionist ',at says that at this stage the ,prophet used to lift up his hands and pray4 ,on entering the enclosure1 the ,hj says the ,labbaik1 ,takbr and the ,tahll1 then a ,du'4 ,a ,namz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of one of the four great ,imms4 ,on arriving near the ,hajr-ul-,aswad 7black stone7 the ,hj again says the ,takbr and the ,tahll1 after which he kisses the stone4 ,if1 on account of the crowd1 he cannot get near enough to do this1 he must touch it with his hand or with a stick1 and kiss that with which he has thus touched the stone4 ,at the same time he says3 ,o ,allh1 7,i do this7 in ,thy belief1 and in verification of ,thy book1 and in pursuance of ,thy ,prophet's example--may ,allh bless and preserve him4 ,o accept ,thou my supplication1 diminish my obstacles1 pity my humiliation and graciously grant me ,thy pardon4 ,then he again repeats the ,takbr and the #bbg ,tahll1 the ,dard and the ,tahrf 7prayer for1 and praise of ,muhammad74 ,he then encompasses the ,k'aba seven times1 in accordance with the niyyat he had made1 thus3 ,in the name of ,allh1 and ,allh is ,omnipotent6 ,i purpose to make the circuit seven times4#bcg ,this is called the ,tawf4 ,the ,hj runs round three times at a rapid pace 7,tarammul71 and four times he proceeds slowly 7,taammul74 ,a permanent resident in ,mecca will not perform the ,tawf4 ,the ,hj then presses his stomach1 chest and right cheek against the portion of the ,k'aba wall1 called ,al-,multazim1 and raising up his arms on high says3 ,o ,allh1 ,lord of the ,ancient ,house1 free my neck from hell-fire1 and preserve me from every evil deed2 make me contented with that daily bread which ,thou hast given to me1 and bless me in all ,thou hast granted6 ,he then says the ,istigfr--,i beg pardon of ,allh1 the ,most ,high1 the ,living1 the ,eternal1 and to ,him ,i repent4 ,the ,hj next proceeds to the ,maqm-i-,ibrhm#bch 7place of ,abraham7 and then recites two rak'ats#bci called ,sunnat-ut-,tawf4 ,some water from the sacred well ,zemzem is then drunk1 after which the ,hj returns to the ,hajr-ul-,aswad1 and again kisses it4 ,hj ,burton thus describes one shaut or circuit3-- ,we began the prayer ',o ,allh 7,i do this7 in ,thy belief and in verification of ,thy ,book1 and in faithfulness to ,thy covenant and after the example of ,thy ,prophet ,muhammad4 ,may ,allh bless and preserve him6' till we reached the place ,al-,multazim1 between the corner of the black stone and the ,k'aba door4 ,here we ejaculated1 ',o ,allh1 ,thou hast rights1 so pardon my transgressing them4' ,opposite the door we repeated1 ',o ,allh1 verily the house is ,thy house1 and the sanctuary ,thy sanctuary1 and the safeguard ,thy #bbh safeguard1 and this is the place of ,him who flees to ,thee from 7hell7 fire4' ,at the building called ,maqm-i-,ibrhm1 we said3 ',o ,allh1 verily this is the place of ,abraham1 who took refuge with1 and fled to ,thee from the fire6 ,o deny my flesh and blood1 my skin and bones to the 7eternal7 flames4' ,as we paced slowly round the north or ,irk corner of the ,k'aba we exclaimed1 ',o ,allh1 verily ,i take refuge with ,thee from polytheism1 and disobedience1 and hypocrisy1 and evil conversation1 and evil thoughts concerning family1 and property and progeny4' ,when we passed from the ,mzb1 or spout1 we repeated the words1 ',o ,allh1 verily ,i beg of ,thee faith which shall not decline1 and a certainty which shall not perish1 and the good aid of ,thy ,prophet ,muhammad--may ,allh bless and preserve him6 ,o ,allh1 shadow me in ,thy shadow1 on the day when there is no shadow by ,thy shadow2 and cause me to drink from the cup of ,thy ,prophet ,muhammad--may ,allh bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught1 after which is no thirst to all eternity1 ,o ,lord of honour and glory4' ,turning to the west corner1 or the ,rukn el ,shm1 we exclaimed3 ',o ,allh1 make it an acceptable pilgrimage1 and a forgiveness of sins1 and a laudable endeavour1 and a pleasant action 7in ,thy sight71 and a store which perisheth not1 ,o ,thou ,glorious1 ,o ,thou ,pardoner6' ,this was repeated thrice1 till we arrived at the ,yeman1 or southern corner1 where the crowd being less importunate1 we touched the wall with the right hand1 after the example of the ,prophet1 and kissed the finger-tips4 ,between the south angle and that of the black stone1 where our circuit would be completed1 we said3 ',o ,allh1 verily ,i take refuge with ,thee from infidelity1 and ,i take refuge with ,thee from want1 and from the tortures of the tomb1 and from the troubles of life and death4 ,and ,i fly to ,thee from ignominy in this world and the next1 and implore ,thy pardon for the present and the future4 ,o ,lord1 grant to me in this life prosperity1 and in the next life prosperity1 and save me from the punishment of fire4' ,the next important step is the running between the ,mounts ,saf and ,marwah4 ,starting from the former1 the ,hj runs seven times between the two summits4 ,he runs1 moving the shoulders1 and with head erect1 like soldiers charging in battle4 ,the reason for this is1 that the infidel ,meccans mocked the ,companions of the ,prophet1 and said that the climate of ,madna had made them weak4 ,this bold way of running was adopted to disprove the #bbi calumny and so has become a ,sunnat practice4 ,the prayer to be said during the ,s'ai 7running7 is3 ,o my ,lord1 pardon and pity1 and pass over that 7sin7 which ,thou knowest4 ,verily ,thou knowest what is not known1 and verily ,thou art the most ,glorious1 the most ,generous4 ,o1 our ,lord1 grant us in both worlds prosperity1 and save us from fire4 ,the ,hj should also quote passages from the ,qurn4 ,this ,s'ai must be done after an important ,tawf1 either the first1 or a later one4 ,on the seventh day the ,imm must preach in ,mecca1 and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the ,hajj4 ,he preaches again on the ninth and eleventh days4 ,on the eighth day1 7,rz-i-,tarwih71 the ,hj goes to ,min1 a place three miles distant from ,mecca1 where with all the other ,hjs he says the usual ,namz1 and there spends the night4#bdj ,this is a sunnat observance4 ,on the morning of the ninth day1 starting after the ,salt-ul-,fajr1 the ,hj goes to ',arift4#bda ,on arriving there he says3 ,o ,god1 ,i turn to ,thee1 ,i put my trust on ,thee1 ,i desire ,thee1 pardon my sin1 accept my ,hajj1 show mercy to me1 supply my need in ',arift1 ,thou art powerful over all4 ,he then says ,labbaik1 the ,takbr and the ,tahll4 ,the noontide1 and the afternoon ,namz are said together there3 they are thus shortened4#bdb ,this done he should stand upon the mountain1 if possible at or near the place the ,prophet #bcj is said to have occupied4 ,this is called the ,wukf or 7standing71 a necessary part of the ,hajj4 ,he must also listen to the sermon delivered by the ,imm1 explaining what still remains of the ritual of the ,hajj1 i4e41 how the ,hjs are to stand in ,muzdalfah1 to throw the stones in ,min1 to make the sacrifice1 c4 ,all the time the ,hj should constantly shout out the ,talbyah1 and the ,tahll1 and weep bitterly4 ,the ,hj then proceeds to ,muzdalfah1 a place situated about half-way between ,min and ',arift1 where he should pass a portion of the night4 ,after a visit to the ,mosque ,mashar al ,harm1 he should collect seven pebbles and proceed to ,min4 ,when the morning of the tenth day1 the 'd-ul-,azh arrives1 he again goes to ,min1 where there are three different pillars1 called respectively the ,jamrat-ul-,akabah1 commonly known as the ,shaitan-ul-,kabr#bdc 7great devil71 the ,wusta1 or middle pillar1 and the ,al ,ula1 or first one4 ,holding the jamr1 or pebble1 between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand1 the ,hj throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says3 ,in the name of ,allh1 and ,allh is ,almighty1 7,i do this7 in hatred of the ,fiend and to his shame4 ,the remaining six stones are thrown in like manner4 ,the object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there4 ,the stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt4 ,before each stone is thrown the ,takbr must be said4 ,this ceremony is called ,ram-ul-,jamr1 the throwing of stones4 ,it is also known as ,hasal ,khazaf4 ,it is said that this ceremony has been performed since the time of ,abraham1 and that the stones are miraculously removed4 ,ibn ',abbs1 a ,companion1 says that if the pilgrimage of a ,hj is approved of by ,god1 the stones are secretly removed4 ,mujhid1 a well known ,traditionist1 #bca says that he put a mark on his stones and afterwards searched1 but found them not4 ,the pilgrim then returns to ,min1 and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'd-ul-,azh4 ,an account of this will be given in the next chapter4 ,this act strictly speaking1 concludes the ,hajj4 ,the ,hj can now shave his head1 pare his nails and remove the ,ihrm4 ,the remaining three days1 the #aath1 #abth and #acth of ,zu'l-,hajja are called the ,aiym-ut-,tashrq days of drying flesh because now the pilgrims prepare provisions for the return journey1 by cutting slices from the victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun4 ,the ,hj should spend this time at ,min1 and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the pillars4 ,this ceremony duly over1 he returns to ,mecca and makes the ,tawf-ul-,wid' 7circuit of farewell74 ,he should also drink some water from the well of ,zemzem4 ,tradition says that when ,ishmael was thirsty ,gabriel stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth4 ,this is now the far-famed well ,zemzem4 ,finally1 the ,hj kisses the threshold1 and then1 with hands uplifted laying hold of the covering of the ,k'aba1 and weeping bitterly1 he prays most humbly1 and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart from a place so dear as the sacred ,k'aba4 ,retiring backwards1 he makes his exit and the ,hajj is complete4#bdd ,the ,umrh or little pilgrimage can be made at any time except the eighth1 ninth and tenth of ,zu'l-,hajja4 ,it is usually done before pilgrims start homewards4 ,its ceremonies differ but slightly from the ,hajj4 ,the ,ihrm must #bcb be put on1 and the obligations of abstinence which it entails must be observed4 ,the usual course is then to make the ,zirat1 or visit to the tomb of the ,prophet at ,madna4 ,henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of ,hj and so is1 ever after1 a person of some consequence among the community in which he dwells4 ,the ,hajj cannot be performed by proxy1 though it is esteemed a 'good work1' if someone who can afford it1 sends a pilgrim who otherwise could not go4 ,this account of the ,irkn-i-dn1 or five pillars of religion1 must now draw to a close4 ,they illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of ,islm1 whilst the constant reference to the ,prophet's sayings and practice1 as an authority for many of the details1 shows how largely ,islm is based on the ,sunnat4 ,with regard to the differences of opinion which the great ,imms hold on some of the details1 it is most difficult to decide which side holds the correct view4 ,such opinions are always based on some ,tradition1 the value of which it is impossible to determine4 ,the opponent says it is a weak 7z'aif7 ,tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to disprove4 ,it is sometimes said in praise of ,musalmns that they are not priest-ridden2 but no people in the world are so ,tradition-ridden1 if one may use such an expression4 ,until this chain of superstition is broken there can be no progress and no enlightenment2 but when it is so broken ,islm will cease to be ,islm1 for this foundation of the ,faith and the edifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the one will be the fall of the other4 #bcc ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,v4 ,the following ,fatv was publicly given in the ,great ,mosque1 ,triplicane1 ,madras1 ,february #acth1 #ahhj4 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,,question4 ,o ',ulam of the religion1 and ,mufts of the enlightened ,law1 what is your opinion in this matter8 ,a person having translated a juz 7one-thirtieth part7 of the noble ,qurn into the ,hindustani language has printed it4 ,the translation is defective3 moreover the ,arabic text is not given4 ,in order to give the translation the same authority as the original1 he has retained the usual signs and marks of the ,arabic editions2 such as--to1 qif1 jm1 l1 mm1 and 7474#bde ,at the end of the juz he has added a translation of the ,tashshahud1 ,qand1 ,san1 ,ta'awwuz1 ,tasm1 ,tashibt1 ruk' and ,sujd1 and has said that all these must be read in ,hindustani4 ,he further states that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of the original1 and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the ,arabic4 ,he has also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the ,namz1 and has stated that to those who do not know ,arabic1 it is a wjib and a farz duty to recite the translation2 otherwise they commit sin and the ,namz is vain4 ,as regards the past1 he considers that the ignorant are forgiven1 but he maintains that the ',ulam of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not telling the people to use translations of the ,qurn4 ,further1 in support of his views he adduces a ,hads-i-,sahh1 according to which the ,prophet said to a ,companion1 ,salmn-i-,fars3 ,read a translation of the ,qurn in the ,namz4 ,he claims1 as on his side1 the four great ,imms4 ,he himself understands ,arabic1 yet he says his ,namz in ,hindustani and influences others to do likewise4 ,he has been spoken to1 but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all over ,india4 ,now1 what is the order of the noble ,law with regard to such a person1 and what is the decree in the case of those who follow #bcd him1 or who circulate his opinions1 or who consider him a religious man and a guide1 or who consider the translation to which reference has been made to be the ,holy ,qurn1 or who teach it to their children8 ,o learned men1 state the ,law in this matter and merit a good reward4 ,,the ,,answer4 ,after praising ,god1 and after imploring ,his mercy and peace on ,muhammad1 be it known that the person referred to is an infidel1 an atheist and a wanderer from the truth4 ,he also causes others to wander4 ,his assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the four ,imms is utterly false1 because according to ,imm ,shfa'1 ,imm ,mlik1 and ,imm ,hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the ,qurn when saying the ,namz1 whether the worshipper is ignorant of ,arabic or not4 ,thus ,imm ,navar1 a disciple of ,shfa' says3 ,it is unlawful in any case to use ,persian#bdf in the ,namz4 ,faq ',al1 a disciple of ,mlik says3 ,persian is unlawful4 ,to these opinions ,kf1 a disciple of ,hanbal adds his testimony3 ,to recite in the ,namz from a translation of the ,qurn is unlawful4 ,moreover from the ,qurn itself1 the recital of it in ,arabic is proved to be a divine command 7farz74 ,the term ,qurn1 too1 means an ,arabic ,qurn1 for ,god speaks of it as a revelation in ,arabic4 ,the words recite so much of the ,qurn as may be easy to you prove the duty of reciting it2 whilst the words an ,arabic ,qurn have we sent it down show that the ,qurn to be used is an ,arabic one4 ,imm ,abu ,hanfa and his disciples1 the ,shibain 7,imm ,muhammad and ,imm ,abu ,ysuf71 consider that1 if a person can recite only a short verse in ,arabic1 it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation4 ,if he cannot read the ,arabic character1 he must learn by heart such a sentence as ,praise be to ,god1 ,lord of the people4 ,until he learns this he may use a translation4#bdg ,in the ,tanwr-ul-,absr it is written3 ,it is a farz duty to read one verse1 and to learn it by heart is farz-i-'ain 7i4e41 incumbent on all74 ,in the ,mash-ul-,azhar it is written3 ,if a person says the ,namz in a language other than ,arabic1 he is a madman or an atheist4 ,with regard to the statement made by ,imm ,abu ,hanfa that a person might use for a #bce time a translation1 it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion4 ,the statement made by the person complained of regarding ,sulmn-i-,fars is not correct4 ,in the ,nihyh 7commentary on the ,hidyah7 it is written that some ,persians wrote to ,sulmn1 and requested him to send them a ,persian translation of ,srat-ul-,ftiha4 ,he complied with their request and they used it in the ,namz1 until they could pronounce ,arabic properly4 ,the ,prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark4 ,this account1 however1 is not trustworthy2 but granting that it is true1 all that it proves is that1 until some ,arabic words can be remembered1 a translation may be used4 ,no ,imm has ever allowed that to read a translation is farz or wjib4 ,so if the person referred to says that it is farz to read his own translation1 then it follows that to read the original ,arabic will not be farz1 but will be unlawful4 ,now such an opinion is infidelity4 ,the person is a ,kfir1 for he tries to make out that the ',ulam of all preceding ages who have instructed the people1 from the days of the ,prophet till now1 to read ,arabic in the ,namz are sinners4 ,further1 he rejects the statement made by learned canonists and listens now to no advice4 ,he reads his translation in the ,namz and causes others to read it4 ,he boasts that his translation is equal in style to the original4 ,he has translated the ,du'-i-qunt1 ,san1 and the ,tasbht of the ruk' and ,sujd1 and has said that these translations should be used in the ,namz4 ,thus1 it is plain that he wants to abolish the use of ,arabic in the prayers4 ,the result of such a course would be that soon a number of different translations would be circulated1 and the text like that of the ,taurait1 and the ,injl would be corrupted4 ,in the ,fatw-i-'lamgr it is written3 ,whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful or vice vers is a ,kfir4 ,if any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the ',ulam1 his orthodoxy is doubtful4 ,a man who after committing a fault declines to repent1 though requested to do so1 is an infidel4 ,in the ,tahqq-i-,sharh-i-,husain it is written2 ,to translate the ,qurn into ,persian and to read that is unlawful4 ,in the ,fatw-i-,matlb-ul-,mminn it is said3 ,whosoever intends to write the ,qurn in ,persian must be strictly forbidden4 ,in the ,itqn it is written3 ,according to ,ijm'1 it is wrong to speak of the ,qurn as having rhymes4#bdh ,in the ,fatw-i-,ttr ,khna it is said3 ,to translate the ,arabic into ,persian is an act of infidelity4 ,our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to this person4 ,if he dies he must not be buried in a ,musalmn #bcf cemetery4 ,his marriages are void and his wives are at liberty1 according to the rule laid down in the ,mifth-us-,s'dat4 ,to doubt of the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity4 ,as by the proofs of the law here adduced1 the ',ulam have declared such a person to be an infidel1 it follows that all those who assist him or who consider his claim just1 or who circulate his opinions1 or who consider him to be a religious person and a fit guide for men1 are also infidels4 ,to send children to be taught by him1 to purchase newspapers which advocate his views1 and to continue to read his translation is unlawful4 ,in the ,fatw-i-'lamgr in the chapter entitled ,murtd it is written3 ,whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is an infidel4 ,god says in the ,qurn3 ,be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety1 but be not helpful for evil and malice2 and fear ye ,god4 7,sra v4 #c74 ,in another place ,god says3 ,whosoever acts not according to ,god's order is an infidel4 ,now1 what greater disobedience can there be than this1 that a person should say that the recital of the ,arabic ,qurn in the ,namz is not lawful1 and that the recital of his own ,hindustani translation of it is incumbent 7farz74 ,our duty is to give information to ,musalmns1 and ,god is the best ,knower4 ,this was written by a learned ,moulvie1 and signed by twenty-four other leading ,moulvies of the city of ,madras4 ,this ,fatv1 an authentic copy of which is in my possession1 is of very considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of ,islm is to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists4 ,the law enjoining the ,arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for the ,arab people1 and the principle involved would seem to be that the vernacular language of a country should be used by the ,muslims of that country for the purposes of devotion2 but1 as ,i have repeatedly shown1 precepts1 not principles are the ruling power in ,islm4 ,it further demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated1 not by the needs of the age or country1 but by an antiquated law which1 to say the least1 is an anachronism in the world's history4 ,the authority paid to the statements made by the four chief ,imms1 and the fact that the ,fatv is based on their decisions1 and on previous ,fatvs in which their authority has been adduced1 show how even to the present day they are regarded as the ,mujtahidn of ,islm4 ,the ,fatv is thus manifestly orthodox1 and corroborates most fully all ,i have said in the first chapter on the ,foundations of ,islm4 #bcg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,feasts ,,and ,,fasts ,,of ,,isl,m4 #a4 ,,muharram4--,muharram1 the name of the first month of the ,muhammadan year1 has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by the ,sha'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of ',al and of his two sons ,hasan and ,husain4 ,the historical events thus referred to have been already described in the third chapter1 so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies connected with the ,muharram4 ,they differ in different countries4 ,the following is a description of an ,indian ,muharram4 ,some days previous to the feast1 the 'shr ,khna 7literally1 ten-day house7 is prepared4 ,as soon as the new moon appears1 the people gather together in the various 'shr ,khnas1 and offer a ,ftiha over some sherbet or some sugar in the name of ,husain4 ,the ,ftiha concludes thus3 ,o ,god1 grant the reward of this to the soul of ,husain4 ,the sherbet and sugar are then given to the poor4 ,then they mark a spot for the ,allwa1 or hole for the bonfire which is to be lit4 ,every night during the festival these fires are kindled1 and the people1 both old and young1 fence across the fire with swords or sticks1 and jump about calling out3 ',al6 ,noble ,husain6 ,noble ,husain6 ,dulha6 ,dulha6 ,bridegroom6 ,bridegroom6 ,friend6 c4 ,these words they repeat hundreds of times4 ,in some parts of the country they erect an ,imm ,bra 7,imm-house74 ,this is often a substantial building1 frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for the founder and his family4 ,in ,south ,india the 'shr ,khna only is known4 ,this is generally a temporary structure1 or #bch some large hall fitted up for the occasion4 ,sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth1 bordered with texts of the ,qurn written in a large and elegant style4 ,the place is brilliantly illuminated4 ,on one side stands the ,tzahs or ,tbts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely ornamented4 ,they are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the plains of ,karbal over the remains of ,husain4 ,sometimes the ,tzah is constructed to represent the ,prophet's tomb at ,madna4 ,large sums of money are spent on these ,tzahs1 which when lighted up have a very elegant appearance4 ,at the back of the ,tzahs are laid the several articles similar to those supposed to have been used by ,husain at ,karbal1--a turban of gold1 a rich sword1 a shield1 a bow and arrow4 ,the ,mimbar1 or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face ,mecca4 ,the ',alams1 or standards1 which are commonly made of copper and brass1 though occasionally of gold or of silver1 are placed against the walls4 ,the usual standard is that of a hand placed on a pole4 ,this is emblematic of the five members who compose the family of the ,prophet1 and is the special standard of the ,sha'hs4 ,these standards have many different names1 such as--the standard of the palm of ',al1 the ,lady ,ftima's standard1 the standard of the ,horse-shoe1 to represent the shoe of ,husain's swift horse1 and others too numerous to mention4 ,mirrors1 chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene4 ,every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'shr ,khnas4 ,in the centre1 on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the ,marsiya1 an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred ,husain4 ,it is a monotonous performance lasting about an hour2 but it has a wonderful effect on the audience1 who1 seated on the ground1 listen patiently and attentively4 ,at each pause the hearers beat their breasts1 and say ,husain6 ,husain6 ,real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and tears1 though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved for a later ceremony4 #bci ,this over1 the ,wqi'a ,khn 7literally1 narrator of events7 ascends the ,mimbar1 or pulpit1 and seats himself on the top1 or on a lower step4 ,he proceeds to relate the historical facts1 adding many curious stories gathered from the vast heap of ,traditions which have cast such a halo of glory around the martyr4 ,sometimes he becomes very excited1 and the audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm4 ,the following account is that of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'shr ,khna4 ,the first ,wqi'a ,khn was a ,persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own tongue4 ,it was calm but effective4 ,he was succeeded by an eloquent old gentleman who spoke rapidly in ,hindustani at the top of his voice1 then rose up1 ran down the steps1 and casting off his turban rushed in and out amongst the audience1 vociferating vigorously all the while4 ,the effect was marvellous1 old and venerable men wept like little children1 whilst from the adjoining ,zanna was heard the bitter weeping of the women who1 though not exposed to view1 could hear all that was said4 ,after a while1 the assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other4 ,a boy then chanted a few words and the whole assembly began1 slowly at first1 to sway their bodies to and fro1 calling out ',al6 ',al6 ,husain6 ,husain6 ,each one then began to beat his breast vigorously4 ,the excitement at last became intense and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures4 ,in some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast1 so severe is the self-inflicted beating4 ,this continues till they are well-nigh exhausted1 when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over again in some other 'shr ,khna4 ,a devout person will visit several each evening4 ,during the day some pious ,sha'hs recite the ,qurn4 ,during this season women who can read1 visit the ,zannas and chant ,marsiyas to the ladies of the ,harem1 by whom this season of ,muharram is celebrated with great earnestness4 ,for the first six days1 nothing else takes place1 but on the #bdj seventh day the ',alam-i-,qsm is taken out in public procession4 ,this is to represent the marriage of ,qsm1 the son of ,hasan1 to the favourite daughter of ,husain1 just before the death of the latter4 ,the event is now commemorated by the bearing of ,qsm's standard in procession4 ,it is usually borne by a man on horseback4 ,if it is carried by a man on foot1 he reels about like a drunken man to show his grief4 ,the crowd shout out3 ,bridegroom6 ,bridegroom6 ,after perambulating the principal thoroughfares1 the people bring the standard back to its own 'shr ,khna4 ,as the standard which represents ,qsm is supposed to be a martyr1 it is then laid down1 covered over1 and treated as a corpse4 ,lamentation is made over it as for one dead4 ,sherbet is then produced1 and a ,ftiha is said1 after which the standard is again set up in its own place4 ,the ,neza1 a lance or spear1 with a lime on the top1 to recall to remembrance the fact that ,yezd caused ,husain's head to be thus carried about1 is taken in procession from one place to another4 ,the ,na'l ,shib 7literally1 ,mr4 ,horse-shoe7 is the representation of a horse shoe1 and is meant to remind the people of the swift horse of ,husain4 ,vows are frequently made to this standard4 ,thus a woman may say to it3 ,should ,i through your favour be blessed with offspring1 ,i shall make it run in your procession4 ,if she attains her wish1 the child when seven or eight years old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the ,na'l ,shib4 ,if two ',alams1 or standards1 meet1 they embrace each other1 that is they are made to touch4 ,ftiha is then said and the respective processions pass on their way4 ,the ,burq1 supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by ,gabriel for ,muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven 7,ante4 p4 #aei7 is also taken out4 ,on the evening before the tenth day1 which according to the ,muslim mode of computing time is the tenth night1 the whole of the ,tzas and the ',alams are taken out in #bda procession4 ,it is a scene of great confusion1 for men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about4 ,it is the carnival of the ,musalmn year4 ,on the following day1 the 'shr1 they kindle the fires in the ,allwas1 and say a ,ftiha in each 'shr ,khna4 ,after this the ',alams and the ,tzas are taken away to a large open spot near water1 which represents the plain of ,karbal4 ,another ,ftiha is said1 the ornaments and decorations are taken off the ,tzas1 the frameworks of which are then cast into the water4#bdi ,sometimes they are reserved for use the following year4 ,the water reminds the people of the parching thirst which ,husain felt before his death4 ,only the ',alams1 not the ,burqs nor the ,na'l ,shibs1 are immersed4 ,the people then burn incense1 recite the ,marsiyas1 return home and say ,ftiha over the ',alams1 ,burqs1 c4 ,on the evening of the #abth1 they sit up all night reading the ,qurn1 reciting ,marsiyas and verses in the praise of ,husain4 ,on the #acth day1 a quantity of food is cooked which1 when a ,ftiha has been said over it1 is distributed to the poor4 ,some very pious ,sha'hs celebrate the fortieth day after the first of ,muharram4 ,it is on this day1 according to some accounts1 that the head and body of ,husain were reunited4 ,it is known as the 'd-i-sar wa tan 7head and body feast74 ,the ,sunns do not1 except as spectators1 take any part in the ,muharram ceremonies4 ,indeed1 where the ruling power is not strong1 there is often much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns ',al and his family4 ,the three first ,khalfs are often well abused1 and that no ,sunn can bear with patience4 ,the breach between the ,sunn and the ,sha'h is very wide1 and the annual recurrence of the ,muharram feast tends to keep alive the distinction4 #bdb ,the tenth day--the 'shr is1 however1 a ,sunnat feast and1 as such1 is observed by all ,sunns4 ,it is considered to be a most excellent day1 for on it ,god is said to have created ,adam and ,eve1 ,his throne1 heaven1 hell1 the seat of judgment1 the tablet of decree1 the pen1 fate1 life and death4 ,the ,sunns about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet and khichr--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified butter and spices4 ,a ,ftiha in the name of ,husain and of those who were martyred with him is then said4 ,the food is disposed of as usual in such cases4 ,a ,namz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a ,du' is added4 ,on this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on1 and say ,ftiha over the graves of their friends4 ,indian ,musalmns have copied in their feast many ,hindu ceremonies4 ,the procession of the ,tzas1 and the casting of them into the water is very similar to the procession at the ,hindu feast of the ,durga ,puja1#bej when on the tenth day the ,hindus cast the idol ,durga1 the wife of ,siva1 into the ,ganges4 ,the oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those offered by the ,hindus1 such as rice1 clarified butter and flowers4 ,the ,muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country1 in which an allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated1 addressing itself to the senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart2 consequently the ,musalmn festivals have borrowed from it a variety of pagan rites1 and a pompous and splendid ceremonial4 ,while this has done much to add to the superstition of the ,musalmns in ,india1 it has no doubt softened their intolerant spirit4 ,though the ,sunns consider the ,sha'h observances as impious1 they look on with the contempt of indifference4 ,the fact that the ,british ,government punishes all who break #bdc the peace may have something to do with this4 ,still the ,sunn and the ,sha'h in ,india live on much better terms1 and have more respect for each other than the ,turk has for the ,persian1 or the ,persian for the ,turk4 ,some ,musalmn poets1 indeed1 are both ,sunns and ,sha'hs4 ,thus ,wl1 begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four first ,khalfs1 and then bestows an eulogy on ',al and his sons ,hasan and ,husain whom he calls ,imms of the world4 ,the following is a prayer used in a ,ftiha for ',al3-- ,i pray1 ,that ,god may deign for the sake of that pure soul1 the ornament of the book of nature1 the first of mortals after the ,prophet1 the star of mortals1 the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue1 the lord of the high and the low1 he who occupies a distinguished place on the bridge of eternity1 the mihrb#bea of the faith1 he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law1 the ship of the sea of religion1 the sun of the firmament of glory1 the power of the arm of the ,prophet1 he who has merited access to the tabernacle of the ,divine ,unity1 the most profound of all religious people1 the resplendent brightness of the marvels of ,god1 the father of victory1 the ,imm of the gate of heaven1 the cup-bearer of the water of ,kausar1 he who has merited the praise of ,muhammad1 he who is the best of men1 the holy martyr1 the chief of ,believers1 the ,imm of the ,faithful1 ',al1 son of ,abu ,tlib1 ',al the victorious lion of the ,most ,high4 ,i pray that ,god for the sake of this holy ,khalf may favourably hear the vows which ,i offer to ,him4 ,the following prayer occurs in a ,ftiha said for ,hasan and ,husain3-- ,i pray1 ,that the eternal ,god may deign to accept the vows which ,i make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave ,imms1 the martyrs well-beloved by ,god1 the innocent victims of wickedness1 the blessed ,abu ,muhammad ,al-,hasan and ,abu ',abd-,allh ,al-,husain1 and for the twelve ,imms1 and the fourteen#beb pure ones1 and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of ,karbal4 #bdd #b4 ,,akhir-,i-,,ch,r ,,shamba4--,this feast is held on the last ,wednesday of the month ,safar4 ,it is kept in commemoration of the fact1 that1 as on this day1 the ,prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next month terminated his life4 ,sweet cakes are prepared1 and ,ftihas in the name of the ,prophet are said over them2 but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of the seven ,salms4 ,a plantain1 or a mango tree leaf1 or a piece of paper is taken to a ,mull1 or a religious teacher1 who writes seven short sentences from the ,qurn upon it4 ,the writing whilst still wet is washed off1 and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written4 ,peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future4 ,the seven ,salms are3 7#a7 ,peace6 shall be the word on the part of a merciful ,lord4 7,sra xxxvi4 #eh74 7#b7 ,peace be on ,noah throughout the worlds4 7,sra xxxvii4 #gg74 7#c7 ,peace be on ,abraham4 7,sra xxxvii4 #aji74 7#d7 ,peace be on ,moses and ,aaron4 7,sra xxxvii4 #abj74 7#e7 ,peace be on ,elias4 7,sra xxxvii4 #acj74 7#f7 ,peace be on you1 ye have been good2 enter into ,paradise4 7,sra xxxix4 #gc74 7#g7 ,it is peace till the breaking of the morn4 7,sra xcvii4 #e74 ,the ,sha'hs consider this an unlucky day4 ,they call it ,chr ,shamba-i-,sr4--,the ,wednesday of the ,trumpet2 that is1 of the trumpet of the last day4 ,the ,sunns1 on the other hand1 rejoice in the day1 and esteem it an excellent and auspicious season4 #c4 ,b,r ,,waf,t4--,this feast is held on the twelfth day of the month ,rab'-ul-,awwal4 ,the name is derived from br1 twelve and waft1 death1 because many suppose that on this day the ,prophet died4 ,according to a well-known ,muslim writer the terrific intelligence1 circulating throughout the world1 produced universal consternation1 and all hastened to offer to ,god their vows and prayers for the repose of the ,prophet's soul4 ,others1 however1 maintain that he died on the second of the month and1 as there is some doubt on the subject1 many persons make a ,ftiha #bde every day1 from the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive4 ,those who keep the feast as ,br ,waft observe the ceremony called ,sandal on the previous evening1 and the ',urs1 that is1 the prayers and the oblations1 on the twelfth4 ,the ,sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood4 ,this is then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'd-gh1#bec or to the place where ,ftiha will be said4 ,it is then distributed to the people4 ,it is a sort of public notice on the eve of a ,feast day1 or of a ,saint's day1 that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be made in such and such a place4 ,on the morning of the twelfth1 the ,qurn is read in the ,mosque1 or in private houses3 then food is cooked and ,ftihas are said4 ,some persons possess a ,qadam-i-,rasl1 or footstep of the ,prophet4 ,this is a stone with the impression of a footstep on it4 ,it is a sacred thing and on this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated4 ,when a company has assembled1 some persons appointed for the purpose1 repeat the story of the birth1 miracles and death of the ,prophet4 ,portions of the ,qurn are read and the ,dard is said4#bed ,in ,madras1 and in some other parts1 it is more customary to keep this day1 not as the anniversary of the death of the ,prophet1 but as the ',jashn-i-mild-i-,sharf1 the ,feast of the noble birth4 ,the practical duties are the same4 ,instead of the ,qadam-i-,rasl1 the sr-i-,sharf is exhibited4 ,this is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the ,prophet's beard and moustache4 ,it is said to possess #bdf the miraculous property of growing again when a portion is broken off4 ,on this day it is put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes4 ,great virtue is attached to this proceeding4 ,in the sr ,khna1 or house in which this hair is kept ,ftihas1 ,dards1 c41 are repeated4 ,the observance of this festival is neither wjib nor sunnat1 but mustahab4 ,it is generally kept1 and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does not believe in the miraculous growth of the sr-i-,sharf4 #d4 ,,shab ,,bar,t4--,this feast1 the name of which signifies the night of the record1 is held on the fourteenth day of the month ,sh'abn4 ,the ',arfa1 or vigil is kept on the preceding day4#bee ,it is commonly but erroneously called ,shab-i-,bart4 ,the word ,bart signifies a book or record4 ,it is said that ,god on this night registers in the ,bart all the actions men are to perform during the ensuing year4 ,on the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a ,ftiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it4 ,when all in the house are assembled1 the ,srat-ul-,ftiha is read once1 the ,srat-ul-,ikls 7#aab7 three times1 the yat-ul-,kurs once1 and then the ,dard4 ,after this a prayer is offered1 in which ,god is asked to transfer the reward of this ,service1 and of the charity shown in the gift of food to the poor1 to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family4 ,this petition is offered in the name of the ,prophet4 ,the men then go to the ,mosque and after the ,namz-i-',ish they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats4 ,this over1 the ,srat-ul-,y ,sn is read three times4 ,it must be done with the niyyat1 intention4 ,the first time1 the intention is that the worshipper may have a long life2 the second time1 that his means of subsistence may be increased2 the third time1 that he may be protected from evil4 #bdg ,the ,sra-i-,dukhn 7#add7 is then read with the same intentions4 ,any other portions may then be read4 ,after this those present rise1 and go to the various cemeteries4 ,on the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards strewn on the graves4 ,a ,ftiha is then said4 ,if the worshipper has no relatives or friends buried there1 prayer is offered for the benefit of the ,arwh-i-,qubr1 the souls of those there buried4 ,the very pious spend the whole night in going from one cemetery to another4 ,these observances are neither farz1 nor sunnat1 but nawfil1 7sing4 nafl71 works of supererogation4 ,still though they are bid'at1 yet they are esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-,hasana1 or excellent innovation4 ,the general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious signification4 ,the night of the fifteenth is the ,guy ,fawkes night of ,islm4 ,large sums of money are spent on fireworks1 of which more are let off on this feast than at any other4 ,the following prayer occurs in the ,ftiha3 ,o our ,god1 by the merits of the ,apostleship of ,muhammad1 grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal1 which we pray ,thee to shed on them4 ,o ,god1 admit them1 we beseech ,thee1 unto the abode of eternal felicity4 #e4 ,,ramaz,n ,,and ',d-,,ul-,,fitr--,it is one of the five pillars of the practical religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month ,ramazn4 ,the subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter2 and so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with the religious observance of this month4 ,from the earliest days of ,islm this month has been held in the greatest esteem by ,muslims1 for it was in this month that ,muhammad used to retire for meditation1 year after year1 to the cave of ,hira1 situated on a low hill some few miles distant from ,mecca4 ,in the second year of the ,hijra1 or flight from ,mecca1 it was ordained that the month of ,ramazn should be kept as a fast4 ,as to the month #bdh ,ramazn1 in which the ,qurn was sent down to be man's guidance1 and an explanation of that guidance1 and of that illumination1 as soon as any one of you observeth the moon1 let him set about the fast4 7,sra ii4 #aha74 ,the ,muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the ',ashr1 the tenth of ,muharram4 ,this fast was probably connected with the ,jewish fast on the tenth day of the seventh month4 ,also on the tenth day of this seventh month there shall be a day of atonement3 it shall be an holy convocation unto you2 and ye shall afflict your souls1 c4 7,leviticus xxiii4 #bg74 ,now1 when ,muhammad first went to ,madna he had great hopes of winning over the ,jews to his side2 but when he failed he took every opportunity of making ,islm differ as much as possible from ,judaism4 ,this was the reason why the ,qibla was changed 7,ante4 p4 #fj71 and that in the second year of his residence at ,madna the fast of ,ramazn was appointed4 ,the reasons assigned by learned ,muslims for the selection of this month1 are that in ,ramazn ,god gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names1 and that in this month the ,qurn was sent down from the ,secret ,tablet in the seventh heaven to the first or lowest1 and that on the ,laylut-ul-,qadr1 or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to ,muhammad4 ,verily we have caused it 7,qurn7 to descend on the 'night of power4' ,and who shall teach thee what the night of power is8 ,the night of power excelleth a thousand nights4 7,sra xcvii4 #a-c74 ,to illustrate the sacredness of this month the ,prophet used to say that in it the gates of ,paradise are open1 and the gates of hell are shut1 and the devils are chained by the leg4 ,only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven called ,rayyn4 ,those who keep the fast will be pardoned all their past venial sins4#bef ,in making the fast one for the day1 and none for the night1 #bdi ,muhammad doubtless had reference to the verse3 ,god wisheth you ease1 but wisheth not your discomfort4 7,sra ii4 #aha74 ,the special ceremonies connected with the ,ramazn are the ,tarwh ,namz and ',itikf 7retirement74 ,the ,tarwh prayers have been described already 7p4 #bje74 ,each night in ,ramazn one-thirtieth part 7spra7 of the ,qurn is recited in the ,mosque4 ,the duty of performing the ',itikf is a ,sunnat-ul-maukadda1 a very strict duty4 ,the ,mu'takif1 one who makes ',itikf1 must remain apart in a ,mosque used for public services1 and there meditate4 ,bukhr says that the ,prophet made ',itikf the last ten days of each ,ramazn1 and that the practice was continued by his wives after his death4 ,usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of ,ramazn4 ,if his meditation is disturbed by any illegal interruption1 another day should be devoted to it2 but ,imm ,muhammad says3 ,the least legal time is one hour4 ,some theologians hold that ',itikf is farz-i-kifya1 that is1 if one person of a community does it the obligation does not rest on the others4 ,if1 however1 a person makes a vow in ,ramazn1 then ',itikf is considered wjib4 ',itikf can be performed at any time other than the last ten days of ,ramazn1 but then it is only mustahab1 a work of supererogation4 ,all the sects except the ,shfa'tes hold that the ,mu'takif must fast4 ,he should also make the nizzat1 or intention1 of performing what he is about to do4 ,the ,mu'takif must not go out of the ,mosque except for obviously necessary purposes1 and for making the legal waz and ghusl 7purifications74 ,at night he may eat1 drink and sleep in the ,mosque3 acts quite unlawful at other times4 ,he may speak with others on religious matters1 and if a man of business1 he may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize1 but on no account must any goods be brought to him4 ,it is highly meritorious for him to read the ,qurn in an audible voice4 ,by such an act he becomes #bej a man of penetration1 whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword4#beg ,when the thirty days have passed the fast is broken4 ,this act is called ,iftr1 and the first day on which food is taken is called the 'd-ul-,fitr--the ',feast of the breaking of the fast4' ,on that day the ,sadqa1 or alms are given before the ,namz is said in the ,mosque4 ,the ,sadqa of the 'd-ul-,fitr is confined to ,muslims3 no other persons receive it4 ,if any one neglects to give these alms before the ,namz is said1 he will not merit so great a reward as he otherwise would4 ,the reason assigned for this is that1 unless they are given early in the day1 the poor cannot refresh themselves before coming to the ,mosque for the ,namz4 ,the ,sadqa are given for the good of one's own soul1 for that of young children1 slaves male and female--,muslim or ,infidel2 but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife or elder children4 ,in ,south ,india1 the ,sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one person4 ,when this has been done the people go to the ,mosque saying1 ',god is great6 ,god is great6' ,the ,namz is like that of a ,friday1 except that only two rak'ats are said1 and the ,khutba which is said after the ,namz is sunnat2 whereas the ,friday ,khutba is said before the farz rak'ats1 and is itself of farz obligation4 ,after hearing the sermon1 the people disperse1 visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves4 ,a very usual form of the ,khutba of the 'd-ul-,fitr which is preached in ,arabic is as follows3-- ,,sermon ,,on ,,the ',d-,,ul-,,fitr4 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,holy is ,god who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast1 and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven4 ,god is greater than all4 ,there is no ,god save ,him4 ,god is great6 ,god is great6 and worthy of praise4 ,it #bea is of ,his grace and favour that ,he rewards those who keep the fast4 ,he has said3 ',i will give in the future world houses and palaces1 and many excellent blessings to those who fast4 ,god is great6 ,god is great6 ,holy is ,he who certainly sent the ,qurn to our ,prophet in the month of ,ramazn1 and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers4 ,god is great6 and worthy of all praise4 ,we praise and thank ,him for the 'd-ul-,fitr1 that great blessing2 and we testify that beside ,him there is no ,god4 ,he is alone4 ,he has no partner4 ,this witness which we give to ,his ,unity will be a cause of our safety here1 and finally gain us an entrance to ,paradise4 ,muhammad 7on whom be the mercy and peace of ,god7 and all famous prophets are ,his slaves4 ,he is the ,lord of genii and of men4 ,from ,him comes mercy and peace upon ,muhammad and his family1 so long as the world shall last4 ,god is greater than all4 ,there is none beside ,him4 ,god is great6 ,god is great6 and worthy of all praise4 ,o company of ,believers1 ,o congregation of ,muslims1 the mercy of the ,true ,one is on you4 ,he says that this ,feast day is a blessing to you1 and a curse to the unbelievers4 ,your fasting will not be rewarded1 and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa4#beh ,o congregation of ,believers1 to give alms is to you a wjib duty4 ,give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent4 ,your duty in ,ramazn was to say the ,tarwh prayers1 to make supplication to ,god1 to sit and meditate 7',itikf7 and to read the ,qurn4 ,the religious duties of the first ten days of ,ramazn gain the mercy of ,god1 those of the second ten merit ,his pardon2 whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell4 ,god has declared that ,ramazn is a noble month1 for is not one of its nights1 the ,laylut-ul-,qadr1 better than a thousand months8 ,on that night ,gabriel and the angels descended from heaven3 till the morning breaks it is full of blessing4 ,its eloquent interpreter1 and its clearest proof is the ,qurn1 the ,word of ,god1 most ,gracious4 ,holy is ,god who says in the ,qurn3 ,this word of ,god comes down in the month of ,ramazn4 ,this is a guide for men1 a distinguisher between right and wrong4 ,o ,believers1 in such a month be present1 obey the order of your ,god and fast2 but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost1 and say3 ,god is great6 and praise ,him4 ,god has made the fast easy for you4 ,o ,believers1 ,god will bless you and us by the grace of the ,holy ,qurn4 ,every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom4 ,god is the ,bestower1 the #beb ,holy ,king1 the ,munificent1 the ,kind1 the ,nourisher1 the ,merciful1 the ,clement4#bei ,the assemblies of the ladies on this 'd are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state4 ,some receiving1 others paying visits in covered conveyances2 all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress4 ,the ,zanna rings with festive songs and loud music1 the cheerful meeting of friends1 the distribution of presents to dependents1 and remembrances to the poor2 all is life and joy1 cheerful bustle and amusement1 on this happy day of 'd1 when the good lady of the ,mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others4#bfj #f4 ,the ,baqr-'d4--,this is the most important ,feast in the whole year4 ,it is also known as the 'd-i-,qurbn1 and as the 'd-ul-,azh1 commonly called the d-uz-,zuh1 the feast of sacrifice4 ,in ,turkey and in ,egypt it is called ,bairm4 ,its origin was as follows3 ,a few months after the ,hijra1 or flight from ,mecca1 ,muhammad1 dwelling in ,madna1 observed that the ,jews kept1 on the tenth day of the seventh month1 the great fast of the ,atonement4 ,a ,tradition records that the ,prophet asked them why they kept this fast4 ,he was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of ,moses and the children of ,israel from the hands of ,pharaoh4 ,we have a greater right in ,moses than they1 said ,muhammad1 so he fasted with the ,jews and commanded his followers to fast also4 ,this was at the period of his mission when ,muhammad was friendly with the ,jews of ,madna1 who occasionally came to hear him preach4 ,the ,prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue4 ,then came the change of the ,qibla from ,jerusalem to ,mecca1 for the ,jews were not so ready to change their #bec creed as ,muhammad had at first hoped4 ,in the second year of the ,hijra1 ,muhammad and his followers did not participate in the ,jewish fast1 for the ,prophet now instituted the feast of the ,baqr-'d4 ,the idolatrous ,arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to ,mecca at this season of the year4 ,the offering of animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage4 ,that portion--the sacrifice of animals--,muhammad adopted in the feast which now1 at ,madna1 he substituted for the ,jewish fast4 ,this was well calculated to attract the attention of the ,meccans and to gain the goodwill of the ,arabs4 ,muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities2 but on the tenth day of the month ,zu'l-,hajja1 at the very time when the ,arabs at ,mecca were engaged in sacrificing victims1 ,muhammad went forth from his house at ,madna1 and assembling his followers instituted the d-uz-,zuh or ,baqr-'d4 ,two young kids were brought before him4 ,one he sacrificed and said3 ,o ,lord6 ,i sacrifice this for my whole people1 all those who bear witness to ,thy unity and to my mission4 ,o ,lord6 this is for ,muhammad and for the family of ,muhammad4 ,great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast4 'yesha relates how the ,prophet once said3 ,man hath not done anything on the 'd-ul-,azh more pleasing to ,god than spilling blood2 for verily the animal sacrificed will come on the day of resurrection with its horns1 hair and hoofs1 and will make the scale of his good actions very heavy4 ,verily its blood reached the acceptance of ,god before it falleth upon the ground1 therefore be joyful in it4 ,musalmns say that the ,patriarch ,abraham was ordered to sacrifice ,ishmael1 and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son4 ,ishmael then said to his father3 ,it is through pity and compassion for me that you allow the knife to miss3 blindfold yourself and then sacrifice me4 ,abraham acted upon this advice1 #bed blindfolded himself1 drew his knife1 repeated the ,bismillh1 and1 as he thought1 cut the throat of his son2 but1 behold1 in the meantime ,gabriel had substituted a sheep for the lad4 ,this event is commemorated in this feast4 ,on the day before the feast1 the ,arfa1 or vigil1 is kept4 ,food of various kinds is prepared1 over which a ,ftiha is offered1 first1 in the name of the ,prophet2 secondly1 in the names of deceased relatives1 and of others for whom a blessing is desired1 or from whom some favor is expected4 ,the food is then sent as a present to friends4 ,on the morning of the feast day1 the devout ,muslims proceed to the 'd-gh or1 if there is no 'd-gh1 to the principal ,mosque1 repeating on the way the ,takbr ,god is ,great6 and ,there is no other ,god save the one true ,god1 ,god is great1 praise be to ,god4 ,at the time of making waz1 the worshipper should say3 ,o ,god1 make this 7i4e4 the sacrifice ,i shall offer to-day7 an atonement for my sin1 and purify my religion and take evil away from me4 ,the ,service at the 'd-gh1 or in the ,mosque consists of two farz rak'ats1 as in the ,salt-ul-,juma 7p4 #bja71 after the ,khutba is delivered4 ,it will1 however1 be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four more rak'ats4 ,,sermon ,,on ,,the ',d-,,uz-,,zuh4 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4 ,allhu ,akbar6 ,god is ,great4 ,there is no ,god but ,god4 ,god is ,great6 ,god is ,great and worthy of all praise4 ,he is ,holy4 ,day and night we should praise ,him4 ,he is without partner1 without equal4 ,all praise be to ,him4 ,holy is ,he1 ,who makes the rich generous1 ,who provides the sacrifice for the wise4 ,he is ,great1 without an equal4 ,all praise be to ,him4 ,listen6 ,i testify that there is no ,god but ,god4 ,he is alone1 without partner4 ,this testimony is as bright as the early dawn1 as brilliant as the glorious feast day4 ,muhammad is ,his servant who delivered ,his message4 ,on ,muhammad1 and on his family1 and on his ,companions may the peace of ,god rest4 ,on you who are present1 ,o congregation of ,muslimn1 may the #bee mercy of ,god for ever rest4 ,o servants of ,god6 our first duty is to fear ,god and to be kind4 ,god has said3 ,i will be with those who fear ,me and are kind4 ,know ,o servants of ,god6 that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign and mark of the pure and good4 ,exalted will be the rank of such in ,paradise 7,dr-ul-,qarr71 especially on the day of resurrection will they obtain dignity and honour4 ,do not on this day foolish acts4 ,it is no time for amusements and negligence4 ,this is the day on which to utter the praises of ,god4 7,tasbh47 ,read the ,kalma1 the ,takbr and the ,tamhd4 ,this is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice4 ,read now the ,takbr-ut-,tashrq4 ,god is great6 ,god is great6 ,there is no ,god but ,god6 ,god is great6 ,god is great6 ,all praise be to ,him6 ,from the morning of the ',arfa1 after every farz rak'at it is good 7mustahab7 for a person to repeat the ,takbr-ut-,tashrq4 ,the woman before whom is a man as ,imm1 and the traveller whose ,imm is a permanent resident 7,muqm7 should also repeat this ,takbr4 ,it should be said at each ,namz until the ,salt-ul-',asr of the ,feast day 7#ajth74 ,some1 however1 say that it should be recited every day till the afternoon 7',asr7 of the thirteenth day1 as these are the days of the ,tashrq 7p4 #bca74bfa ,if the ,imm forgets to recite1 let not the worshipper forget4 ,know1 ,o believers1 that every free man who is a ,shib-i-,nisb 7i4e4 worth ,rs4 #eb7 should offer sacrifice on this day1 provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse1 his clothes1 his tools1 and his household goods and slaves4 ,it is wjib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself1 but it is not a wjib order that he should do it for his children4#bfb ,a goat1 a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons4 ,the victim must not be one-eyed1 blind1 lame or very thin4 ,if you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well1 and carry you across the ,sirt4 ,o ,believers1 thus said the ,prophet1 on whom be the mercy and peace of ,god1 ,sacrifice the victim with your own hands1 this was the ,sunnat of ,ibrhm1 on whom be peace4 ,in the ,kitb-uz-zd-ut-,taqw1 it is said that on the 'd-ul-,fitr and the 'd-uz-,zuh1 four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz ,namz #bef of the 'd4 ,in the first rak'at after the ,srat-ul-,ftiha recite the ,srat-ul-,a'l 7,sra lxxvii72 in the second1 the ,srat-ush-,shams 7,sra xci72 in the third1 the ,srat-uz-,zuh 7,sra xciii72 in the fourth1 the ,srat-ul-,ikhls 7cxii74 ,o ,believers1 if ye do so1 ,god will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past and of fifty years to come4 ,the reading of these ,sras are equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books ,god has sent by ,his prophets4 ,may ,god include us amongst those who are accepted by ,him1 who act according to the ,law1 whose desire will be granted at the last day4 ,to all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection2 no sorrow in the examination at the day of judgment4 ,the best of all books is the ,qurn4 ,o believers6 ,may ,god give to us1 and to you a blessing for ever by the grace of the ,noble ,qurn4 ,may its verses be our guide1 and may its wise mention of ,god direct us aright4 ,i desire that ,god may pardon all believers1 male and female1 the ,muslimn and the ,muslimt4 ,o believers1 also seek for pardon4 ,truly ,god is the ,forgiver1 the ,merciful1 the ,eternal ,king1 the ,compassionate1 the ,clement4 ,o believers1 the ,khutba is over4 ,let all desire that on ,muhammad ,mustaf the mercy and peace of ,god may rest4 ,the worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the sacrifice1#bfc for it is a wjib order that every ,muslim should keep this feast1 and sacrifice an animal for himself4 ,he need not fear though he has to incur debt for the purchase of an animal1 for it is said that ,god will in some way help him to pay the debt4 ,if a camel is sacrificed1 it should be one not less than five years of age1 if a cow or sheep it should at least be in its second year1 though the third year is better2 if a goat it must not be less than six months old4 ,all of these animals must be without a blemish1 or defect of any kind4 ,it is a sunnat order that the head of the household should himself slay the victim4 ,if1 however1 from any cause1 he cannot do so1 he may call in a butcher2 but in that case he must place his hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed4 ,if the #beg victim is a camel1 it must be placed with the head towards ,mecca4 ,its front legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand side of the victim1 and plunge the knife into its throat with such force that the animal may fall at once4 ,any other mode of slaying it is unlawful4 ,other animals must be slain in the same way4 ,just before slaying the victim the following verse of the ,qurn should be repeated3 ,say6 my prayers1 and my worship1 and my life and my death are unto ,god1 the ,lord of the worlds4 ,he hath no associate4 ,this am ,i commanded1 and ,i am the first of the ,muslims4 7,sra vi4 #afc74 ,the operator also adds3 ,o ,god1 from ,thee1 and to ,thee 7,i do this71 in the name of ,god1 ,god is ,great6 ,then having slain the victim he says3 ,o ,god accept this for me4 ,the first meal taken should be prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered1 after which the members of the family1 the neighbours1 and the poor should receive some portions4 ,it is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member of the family2 but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear1 it is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household4 ,in extreme cases men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole1 but the number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy4 ,some authorities limit the number to seven4 ,this feast is strictly observed by all ,muslims wherever they may be4 ,the ,baqr-'d and the 'd-ul-,fitr constitute the 'dain1 the two great ,feasts of ,islm4 ,a country in which ,musalmns could not observe them both would at once become ,dr-ul-,harb1 or ,house of ,enmity1 in which it would be the bounden duty of every ,muslim to join in a ,jhd1 against the ,infidel rulers of the land4 ,this completes the principal ,feasts of the ,muslim year4 ,among other practices borrowed from the ,hindus must be placed the pilgrimage made by ,indian ,musalmns to the #beh shrines of ,saints1 the ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their honour4 ,properly speaking1 the ,sunns have but two festivals--the ,baqr-'d and the 'd-ul-,fitr1 but many others are now observed4 ,of these ,i have described several4 ,it only remains to notice a few of the festival days which are peculiar to ,india4 ,the title of ,pr given to a ,musalmn devotee is equivalent to the term ,guru amongst the ,hindus4 ,a man who seeks to be a 'religious' takes a ,pr as a spiritual guide4 ,follow1 says the poet ,wal1 the footsteps of thy ,pr1 like a shadow4 ,after death these ,prs are venerated as ,wals or ,saints4 ,the ,prs when alive1 are frequently resorted to for a ta'wz1 or charm1 and the aid of their prayers is often invoked4 ,the sepulchre of a ,wal is called a ,dargh1 shrine2 ,mazr1 place of pilgrimage2 ,rauza1 garden4 ,the professional reciter of the ,qurn1 and the ,namz at such places is called a ,rauza ,khn4 ,as a rule1 processions are made to the shrines1 and flowers1 sweetmeats and food over which a ,ftiha has been said are offered4 ,usually the ,ftiha is for the ,saint1 not to the ,saint4 ,it is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the erection of such shrines and to endow them4 ,an account of many of these ,saints is given in the ,bara ,masa by ,jawn and the ryish-i-,mahfil by ,afsos4 ,the following selection will give an idea of the customs prevalent3-- #a4 ,,festival ,,of ,,mad,r4--,sayyid ,badr-ud-dn ,kutb-ul-,madr is said to have descended from the ,imm ,husain4 ,he was born at ,aleppo about ,a4,d4 #ajej1 and received from ,muhammad permission to hold his breath 7,habs-i-dam74 ,thus he was able to live to a good old age4 ,he is said to have had #a1ddb sons1 and to have died when upwards of #cjj years old4 ,more rational people explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children4 ,the length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make a certain number of inspirations1 the less frequently he does it the longer he will live4 ,jawn in his account of #bei the festival states3 ,the tomb of ,madr is at ,makanpr1 a place about forty miles from ,cawnpore4 ,on the seventeenth of the month ,jamd-ul-,awwal an immense crowd fills the village which is illuminated at night4 ,fires are lighted1 around which ,fakrs dance1 and through which they leap calling out ,dam ,madr1 ,dam ,madr1 7breath of ,madr47 ,an order of ,fakrs1 called ,madria1 look to this ,saint as their patron4 ,in distant places where this feast is kept they set up an ,alam1 or standard in honour of the ,saint1 and perform ceremonies common to such days4 ,the nights are spent in celebrating his praises1 c4 #b4 ,,festival ,,of ,,mu',n-,,ud-,d,n ,,chist4#bfd--,the tomb of this ,saint is in ,ajmr4 ,he was a ,syed descended from ,husain1 the son of ',al1 and was born in ,sajistn about the year #ecg ,a4,h4 ,his father died when he was about fifteen years old4 ,soon after this he fell in with a famous ,fakr1 ,ibrhm ,qandz1 through whose influence he began to seek the ,tarqat1 or mystical road to the knowledge of ,god4 ,when he was twenty years of age he received further instruction from the famous ',abd-ul-,qdir ,jln4 ,after the conquest of ,hindustan by ,shahb-ud-dn ,ghor1 ,mu'n-ud-dn retired to ,ajmr1 where he died in the odour of sanctity #fcf ,a4,h4 ,pilgrimages to this tomb have been and are very popular4 ,emperors and people vied with each other in doing honour to the memory of this saint4 ,even ,akbar1 sceptic though he was as regards orthodox ,islm1 made a pilgrimage to this shrine1 and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood4 ,hindus also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not unusual4 #c4 ,,festival ,,of ,s,l,r ,,mas',d ,,gh,z4--,there is some doubt as to the nationality of this ,saint4 ,some say he was a ,husain ,syed1 others that he was a ,pathn1 and a martyr4 ,his tomb is situated in ,oude4 ,afsos thus describes the #bfj pilgrimage4 ,once a year great crowds of people gather from all parts4 ,they carry red lances1 and beat thousands of tambourines4 ,the ',urs is held on the first ,sunday of the month ,jth 7,may-,june74 ,the people believe that this was his wedding day1 because it is said that he had on wedding garments when he was killed4 ,this belief once led a certain oilman1 a resident of ,radl1 to send a bedstead1 chair1 and other marriage presents to the shrine at this time4 ,the custom is still kept up by the descendants of the oilman4 ,the common people fasten ropes to the branches of the trees in the neighbourhood1 and swing1 some by the hands and some by the heels1 and assume various disguises4 ,they thus hope to obtain what they desire4 ,the ,hindus venerate this ,saint very highly4 ,the ,musalmns look upon him as a most sacred person1 for he slew many idolatrous ,hindus1 and so earned the title of ,ghz1 the warrior3 the ,hindus consider that it was only by the power of ,god that he could do so many acts of prowess4 #d4 ,,festival ,,of ,,the ,b,,ra ,,or ,,of ,,kh,,ja ,,khizr4--,of this ,saint1 ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy says3 ,khja ,khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of orientals vary4 ,many consider him the same as ,phineas1 the grandson of ,aaron2 others that he is the prophet ,elias2 and lastly1 the ,turks confound him with ,st4 ,george4 ,in order to reconcile these conflicting opinions1 some allege that the same soul has animated three different persons4 ,whatever be the fact1 ,khizr1 according to the ,musalmns1 discovered the source of the ,water of ,life of which he is the guardian4 ,he is believed to be very clever in divination1 and to be the patron of waters4 ,as such a festival is held in his honour4 ,jawn describes it thus3 ,in the month of ,bhdn 7,august-,september7 all whose wishes have been fulfilled1 make it a point of duty to set afloat the boat 7n7 in honour of ,khja ,khizr1 and to make according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy personage4 ,on every ,friday1 and in some places on every ,thursday1 in the month #bfa in question1 the devotees having prepared the bra carry it at night to the bank of the river1 with many ceremonies4 ,there great and small1 having lighted lamps and tapers1 make their respective oblations1 whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bra into the middle of the river4 ,sometimes a number of small bras1 made of clay1 are also launched1 and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking4 ,it is said that the ,musalmn natives of the ,maldive ,islands annually launch a small vessel laden with perfumes1 gum1 and odoriferous flowers1 and leave it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the sea4 ,there can be no doubt that this god of the sea is ,khizr1 the patron of the waters4 ,the following prayer is recited in the ,ftiha of ,khizr3 ,to obtain purity of heart1 and the benediction of ,him who hears the vows of mortals1 and who alone can keep from them all evils1 ,i rest upon the merits of ,khja ,khizr1 the great prophet ,elias4 #e4 ,,the ,,feast ,,of ,p,r ,,dastg,r ,s,,hib4--,this is held on the eleventh day of the month of ,rab'-us-,sn4 ,the ,sunnis hold this ,saint in great reverence4 ,he has no less than ninety-nine names4 ,his tomb is at ,baghdd4 ,on the tenth of the month the ceremony called ,sandal 7p4 #bde7 is performed1 followed on the next day by the ',urs1 when the ,maulad1 or the account of the circumstances connected with the birth of the saint is read2 ,qas1id1 or elegiac poems are recited2 the ,dard is repeated and ,ftihas are said4 ,the ,qurn is also read through4 ,vows are frequently made to this ,saint and in time of any special visitation1 such as cholera1 a flag is carried about in honour of this ,pr by some of his devotees to whom presents of food1 c1 are offered4 ,ftiha is then said over them4 ,he is said to appear to his followers during their sleep and to give them directions4 ,ja'far ,sharf1 the compiler of the ,qnn-i-,islm speaking1 on this point relates his own experience thus3 ,the author speaks from personal experience1 for at the time of need1 when he #bfb was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired1 he used to repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the ,pr and vow before the ,holy ,god1 imploring ,his assistance by the soul of ,dastgr2 and through the mercy of the ,almighty1 his ,excellency ,ghaus-ul-,a'zam 7,dastgr7 presented himself in his sleep1 and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his behests4 ,syed ,ahmad ,kabr ,raf1 the founder of the ,rafi ,darwshes was a nephew of this ,saint4 #f4 ,,festival ,,of ,q,,dir ,,wal ,s,,hib4--,this is the great saint of ,southern ,india4 ,the ',urs is celebrated on the tenth day of ,jamd-us-,sn4 ,the shrine is at ,nagore1 a town situated four miles north of ,negapatam4 ,the sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already4 ,he is the patron saint of sailors1 who in times of difficulty vow that1 if they reach the shore in safety1 they will offer a ,ftiha in the name of ,qdir ,wal4 ,the common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to work miracles4 ,the story of the following one is frequently related3 ,a vessel springing a leak was about to founder1 when the ,captain made a vow that should ,qdir ,wal stop the leak1 he would offer in his name the value of the cargo4 ,at that time the saint was being shaved1 but being miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the ,captain he cast away the looking-glass which he held in his hand4 ,this glass attached itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to land4 ,the ,captain1 in due course1 presented his offering to the saint who requested him to return the glass to the barber4 ,the ,captain was astonished at this request and enquired what glass was meant4 ,he was then directed to look at the bottom of his ship4 ,he did so1 and discovered how the saint had saved the ship4 ,the festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which ,hindu influences have acted on ,islm1 and how even ,hindus pay regard to ,muslim ,saints4 ,qdir ,wal is said to #bfc have been a ,fakr who lived on the charity of both ,hindus and ,musalmns4 ,indeed both parties claim him as belonging to their respective religions1 which may be accounted for by the fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to both classes of his hearers4 ,after his death a small ,mosque was erected on or near his tomb4 ,the fame of the ,wal gradually grew1 and a ,hindu ,rajah made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son1 he would enlarge and beautify the ,mosque4 ,his wish was fulfilled1 and the present elegant structure is the result4 ,so famous has the shrine of the ,saint now become that the ,musalmns there say3 ,first ,mecca1 then ,nagore4 ,the same reason which induced the ,hindu ,rajah to make a votive offering years ago1 still influences large numbers of people4 ,on ,thursday evenings1 the commencement of the ,muhammadan ,sabbath1 many ,hindu women resort to the shrine of the ,saint4 ,on the closing night of the ,annual ,feast1 ,tbts are taken in procession from ,negapatam1 and rich presents are sent from the ,tanjore ,palace to the ,nagore ,mosque4 ,thus is the ,hindu connection still kept up with the festival of this ,musalmn ,saint4 ,there are many other ,wals and ,prs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made1 and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up2 but all such pilgrimages to a ,dargh 7shrine7 are no necessary part of ,islm4 ,in all parts of the country there are the shrines of ,saints who have a local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed4 ,still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these4 ,this brings me to the close of my subject4 ,in the preceding chapters1 ,i have endeavoured to set forth the main features of the ,faith of ,islm1 and the religious duties it enjoins4 ,i might now go on to show its relation to ,judaism and ,christianity1 the elements it has drawn from them1 and the distortions it has made in the borrowing1 as well as the protest it raised against much that was #bfd corrupt in the ,christianity with which it came in contact4 ,i might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects1 and the character it produces in the individual and the state4 ,but these subjects would lead me far beyond my present scope4 ,i prefer to content myself with giving a representation of the ,faith of ,islm from its own authorities1 and with leaving my readers to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves4 ,,the ,,end4 #bfe 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,technical ,,terms4 ,a4 ,aiym-i-,bz1 #bad ,aiym-ut-,tashrq1 #bca ',alam1 #bch ,al-,a'rf1 #afg ,al-,barzakh1 #afh ,al-,mahd1 #hj ,akhir-,chr ,shambah1 #bdd ',amm1 #dh ,amr-i-,takwti1 #agf ,anbiya-ulul-',azm1 #aej sr-i-,sharf1 #bde ,ashb1 #g 'shr1 #bda 'shr ,khna1 #bcg ,asm-i-,husn1 #acc ,attahyt1 #aig ,auliya1 #aeb yat1 #ed yat-ul-,kurs1 #bab ,azd1 #ie ,azn1 #aic ,b4 ,br ,waft1 #bdd ,baqb-i-,qausain1 #aeh ,baqr-'d1 #beb bid'at1 #ad ,burq1 #bda ,d4 ,d1r1 #ha ,dallat1 #ec ,dall-i-qata'1 #ahg ,dall-i-zani1 #ahg ,darwshes1 #id ,dargh1 #beh ,du'1 #aig ,f4 ,fan1 #ic ,far'1 #abj ,farz1 #ahg ,farz--'ain1 #bjh ,farz-i-kifya1 #bjg ,fatrah1 #c ,fitrat1 #ahg ,fuqih1 #cc ,g4 ,ghair-i-,mahd1 #ha ,ghusl1 #aij ,gunh-i-kabra1 #aed ,gunh-i-saghra1 #aed #bff ,h4 ,hads-i-,ahd1 #gj ,hads-i-,hasan1 #ga ,hads-i-,mua'llaq1 #gb ,hads-i-,mursal1 #gb ,hads-i-,mutawtr1 #gj ,hads-i-,sahh1 #ga ,hads-i-,z'af1 #ga ,hadd1 #agi ,hfiz1 #db ,haft ,sift1 #aah ,hajj1 #bbc ,hajr-ul-,aswad1 #bbf ,hl1 #ic ,haqqat1 #eb1 #ic ,harm1 #ahh ,hrt1 #adb ,hasal ,khazaf1 #bcj ,i4 ,ibdhiyah1 #gf ,ibrat1 #ec ,ibls1 #adj 'd-gh1 #bde 'd-ul-,fitr1 #bdg ,iftr1 #bej ,ihll1 #bbd ,ihrm1 #bbd ,ijm'1 #af ,ijm'-i-,ummat1 #ag ,ijtihd1 #ag1 #bf1 #cb ,ijtihd fi'l-,mas1l1 #cd ,ijtihd fi'l-,mazhab1 #cd ,ijtihd fi'l-,shar'1 #cd ,ilhm1 #cg ,ilk1 #dj ',ilm-i-usl1 #da ,imm1 #ge ,imm ,abu ,hanfa1 #ai ,imm ,ibn ,mlik1 #bj ,imm ,as-,shfa'1 #ba ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal1 #bb ,immat1 #ge ,imm ,bra1 #bcg ,imn-i-mufassal1 #aaf ,imn-i-mujmal1 #aaf ,istidll1 #ec ,ishrat1 #ec ,ishrk fi'l-'ibdat1 #ajh ,ishrk fi'l-adab1 #aji ,isnd1 #fg ',itikf1 #bdi ,iqmat1 #aid ,iqtiz1 #ed ,i'tibr-ul-,amsl1 #bg ,j4 ,jabrans1 #acb ,jahannum1 #agb ,jm'-i-,tirmiz1 #hf ,jamrat-ul-,akahah1 #bcj ,jannat1 #aga ,jashn-i-mild-i-sharf1 #bde ,jinn1 #ade ,juz1 #ef ,k4 ,k'aba1 #bbg ,kalm1 #ace #bfg ,kalima1 #ed1 #aaf ,karmians1 #afc ,kasb1 #acj ,kausar1 #aga ,kinyah1 #eb ,kirm-ul-,ktibn1 #ada ,kitmn1 #ia ,khaf1 #ej ,khrigites1 #gf ,khss1 #dh ,kharq-i-'dat1 #aeg ,khulaf-i-,rshidn1 #ff ,khutba1 #bja ,l4 ,labbaik1 #bbe ,lahad1 #baa ,lailat-ul-,qadr1 #b ,m4 ,mahmdiah1 #hc ,majz1 #eb ,majzb1 #ie ,maukadda'1 #bjj ,makrh1 #ahh ,manskh1 #ei ,maqm-i-,mahmd1 #afi ,marsiya1 #bch ,mrt1 #adb ,mihrb1 #bdc ,mimbar1 #bci ,mqt1 #bbe ,mzn1 #afe ,mua'qqibt1 #ada ,muawwal1 #dh ,mu1azzin1 #aic ,mubh1 #ahh ,mufassir1 #cc1 #ej ,mufsid1 #ahh ,muhaddis1 #fg ,mujassimians1 #aca ,mu'jizt1 #aeg ,mujmal1 #ea ,mujtahid1 #ag ,mukham1 #ej ,munkir1 #ade ,murshid1 #ib ,mutashbih1 #eb ,musall1 #aic ,mushbihites1 #aca ,mus-haf1 #adg ,muharram1 #bcg ,muskhil1 #ea ,mustahab1 #ahh ,mu'takif1 #bdi ,mustarik1 #dh ,muta'h1 #hd ,mutazilites1 #abe ,n4 ,nab1 #aec ,nafkhatain-i-,sr1 #afa ,nafl1 #aii ,nakr1 #ade ,namz1 #aic ,nass1 #ej ,nsikh1 #ei ,nisb1 #bah ,niyyat1 #aid ,nr-i-,muhammad1 #gg #bfh ,q4 ,qadam-i-,rasl1 #bde ,qadrans1 #agd ,qaz1 #bad ,qm1 #aid ,qs1 #bg1 #bh ,qir1at1 #dc ,qr1 #dc ,r4 ,rak'at1 #aie ,ramazn1 #bdg ,ram-ul-,jamr1 #bcj ,rasl1 #aec ,rauza ,khn1 #beh ,roza1 #bac ,roza-i-nazr1 #bad ,roza-i-kafra1 #bad ,rh-ul-mn1 #d ,ruk'1 #ef ,rz-i-,tarwih1 #bbi ,s4 ,sadqa1 #bej ,sah1f-i-,a'ml1 #afe ,sahh-i-,bukhr1 #fg ,sahh-i-,muslim1 #fh ,s'ai1 #bbi ,salt1 #aic ,salt-ul-',asr1 #bjj ,salt-ul-,fajr1 #bjj ,salt-ul-',ish1 #bjj ,salt-ul-,ishrq1 #bjj ,salt-ul-,istisq1 #bjf ,salt-ul-,istikhra1 #bac ,salt-ul-,janza1 #bjg ,salt-ul-,juma'1 #bjj ,salt-ul-,khauf1 #bjd ,salt-ul-,khusf1 #bjf ,salt-ul-,kusf1 #bje ,salt-ul-,maghrib1 #bjj ,salt-ul-,musfir1 #bjd ,salt-ut-,tarwh1 #bjf ,salt-ul-,tahajjud1 #bjj ,salt-uz-,zuh1 #bjj ,salt-uz-,zuhr1 #bjj ,slik1 #ib ,sarh1 #eb ,shaf'at-i-ba-izn1 #ajh ,shaf'at-i-muhabbat1 #ajg ,shaf'at-i-wajahat1 #ajg ,shirk1 #aje ,shirk-ul-'dat1 #aji ,shirk-ul-ibdat1 #ajh ,shirk-ul-'ilm1 #ajg ,shirk-ut-tasarruf1 #ajg ,sift-i-,salbiah1 #abc ,sift-i-,sabtiah1 #abc ,sihah-,sittah1 #fg ,spra1 #ef ,sirt1 #aff ,sufism1 #hg-aja ,sunan-i-,abu ,dd1 #fh ,sunan-i-,nas1 #fh ,sunan-i-,mjah1 #fi ,sunnat1 #aj ,sra1 #ee ,t4 ,ta'awwuz1 #aie #bfi ,taba-i-,tbi'n1 #g ,tbi'n1 #g ,tbt1 #bch ,tahrat1 #ahi ,tahrf1 #adi ,takbr1 #aic ,taka1 #hd ,talbyah1 #bbe ,talqn1 #bab ,tasbh1 #aie ,tashahhud1 #ahh ,tasma'1 #aie ,tasmyah1 #aie ,tatr-i-,sah1f1 #afc ,tauhd1 #ajf ,tauqfi1 #acb ,tawf1 #bbg ,tawf-ul-,wid'1 #bca ,tayammum1 #aij ,tzah1 #bch ,u4 ,usl1 #abj ',umrh1 #bca ,w4 ,wahhbs1 #aja ,wah1 #cg ,wajd1 #ic ,wjib1 #ahg ,wjib-ul-,wajd1 #acb ,wqi'a ,khn1 #bci ,waz1 #ahi ,witr1 #aih ,z4 ,zakt1 #bah-bbb ,zhir1 #di ,zirat1 #bcc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes #a ,there is an excellent one by ,neil ,b4 ,e4 ,baillie4 ,the question of ,jihd is fully discussed in ,dr4 ,hunter's ,our ,indian ,musalmns4 #b ,let none touch it but the purified4 7,sra lvi4 #gh47 #c ,it was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole ,korn at once to the lowest heaven only1 and not to the earth1 as a bungling prophet would have done2 for if the whole had been published at once1 innumerable objections might have been made1 which it would have been very hard1 if not impossible for him to solve2 but as he pretended to receive it by parcels1 as ,god saw proper that they should be published for the conversion and instruction of the people1 he had a sure way to answer all emergencies1 and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur4 7,sale's ,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section ,,iii47 #d ,literary ,remains of ,emmanuel ,deutsch1 p4 #gg4 #e ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 i4 p4 #aie4 #f ,the grandeur of the ,qurn consists1 its contents apart1 in its diction4 ,we cannot explain the peculiarly dignified1 impressive1 sonorous nature of ,semitic sound and parlance2 its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of affixes and prefixes1 each of them affirming its own position1 whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which they envelope like a garment of many folds1 or as chosen courtiers move around the anointed person of the king4 ,literary ,remains of ,emmanuel ,deutsch1 p4 #abb4 #g ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun vol4 i4 p4 #aid4 #h ,those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called ,ashb 7,companions72 their disciples are named ,tbi'n 7,followers72 their disciples are known as ,taba-i-,tbi'n 7,followers of the ,followers74 #i ,thus1 after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of ,cadesia 7,a4,h4 #ad7 the residue was divided among those who knew most of the ,corn4 ,muir1 vol4 i4 p4 #e4 #aj ,muavia4 #aa ,the twelve ,imms4 #ab ,al-,mahd is still supposed to be alive4 #ac ,these are called 7#a7 ,sunnat-i-,fi'l2 that which ,muhammad himself did4 7#b7 ,sunnat-i-,qaul1 that which he said should be practised4 7#c7 ,sunnat-i-,taqrr1 that which was done in his presence and which he did not forbid4 #ad ,risla-i-,berkev4 #ae ,the great ,wahhb preacher ,muhammad ,ism'l1 of whom some account will be given later on1 says in the ,takwiat-ul-,imn3--,the best of all ways is to have for principles the words 7holy writings7 of ,god and of ,his ,apostle2 to hold them alone as precedents1 and not to allow our own opinion to be exercised4 #af ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun vol4 i4 p4 #aie4 #ag ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #af4 #ah ,mudrij-un-,nabuwat1 p4 #bhe4 #ai ,les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de conformer ses actions ce qui est indiqu dans les traditions attribues au ,prophte1 ,ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfe4 #bj ,in ,june #ahbg1 ,a4,d41 ,sultn ,mahmud issued a manifesto protesting against interference in the affairs of the ,ottomn ,empire1 the affairs of which are conducted upon the principles of sacred legislation1 and all the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of religion4 ,these principles still remain in force1 for the famous ,fatv given by the ,council of the ',ulam1 in ,july #ahgi1 anent ,khair-ud-dn's proposed reforms1 speaks of the unalterable principles of the ,sheri1 or ,law4 #ba ,the respect which modern ,muslims pay to their ,prophet is almost idolatrous4 ,the ,imm ,ibn ,hanbal would not even eat water-melons because although he knew the ,prophet ate them1 he could not learn whether he ate them with or without the rind1 or whether he broke1 bit or cut them3 and he forbade a woman1 who questioned him as to the propriety of the act1 to spin by the light of torches passing in the streets by night1 because the ,prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so4 ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians1 vol4 i4 p4 #ced4 #bb ,mudrij-un-,nabuwat1 p4 #ajji4 #bc ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfi4 #bd ,journal ,asiatique #dme srie1 tom4 xii4 #be ,osborn's ,islm under the ,khalfs1 p4 #bi4 #bf ,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eid4 #bg ,ibid41 p4 #edf4 #bh ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #edh4 #bi ,in ,south ,india1 the ,muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the faith he holds4 ,it is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency4 ,suppose1 then1 for example1 that the charge for changing a shilling is one farthing4 ,it is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny pieces for one shilling plus one farthing1 for then he will have sinned against the laws anent usury by gaining money 7one farthing7 by money2 but if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in copper the transaction will be lawful1 as his profit of one farthing is then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for one shilling1 and not by exactly changing the shilling4 ,again1 pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful2 and so1 when ,british rupees were first circulated in ,india1 good ,muslims doubted whether they could use them1 but after a long consultation the ',ulam declared that1 as the eye of ,his ,majesty was so small as not to be clearly visible1 the use of such coins was legal4 ,this kind of casuistry is very common and very demoralizing2 but it shows how rigid the law is4 #cj ,authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven4 ,despotism1 being the first form of consolidated political authority1 is thus rendered unchangeable and identical in fact with ,government at large4 ,supreme ,government has four stages3 7#a7 where the absolute ,prince 7,muhammad7 is among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues1 and this we call the reign of wisdom2 7#b7 where the ,prince appears no longer1 neither do these virtues centre in any single person3 but are found in four 7,abu ,bakr1 ,omar1 ,osmn and ',al71 who govern in concert with each other1 as if they were one1 and this we call the reign of the pious2 7#c7 where none of these is to be found any longer1 but a chief 7,khalf7 arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones1 and with judgment enough to apply and explain them1 and this we call the reign of the ,sunnat2 7#d7 ,where these latter qualities1 again1 are not to be met with in a single person1 but only in a variety who govern in concert2 and this we call the reign of the ,sunnat-followers4--,akhlk-i-,jall1 pp4 #cgd4 #cgh4 #ca ,life of ,muhammad1 by ,syed ,amr ',al1 p4 #bhi4 #cb ,the ,muslim ',ulam are certainly much fettered by their religion in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning2 and superstition sometimes decides a point which has been controverted for centuries4 ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfi4 #cc ,the ,goth might ravage ,italy1 but the ,goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had kindled4 ,the ,saxon swept ,britain1 but the music of the ,celtic heart softened his rough nature1 and wooed him into less churlish habits4 ,visigoth and ,frank1 ,heruli and ,vandal1 blotted out their ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish4 ,even the ,hun1 wildest ,tartar from the ,scythian waste1 was touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid ,pannonian plains2 but the ,turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded1 defiled1 and defamed2 blasting into eternal decay ,greek1 ,roman and ,latin civilisation1 until1 when all had gone1 he sat down1 satiated with savagery1 to doze for two hundred years into hopeless decrepitude4 ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,f4 ,butler1 ,c4,b41 in ,good ,words for ,september #ahhj4 #cd ,the ,muslim everywhere1 after a brilliant passage of prosperity1 seems to stagnate and wither1 because there is nothing in his system or his belief which lifts him above the level of a servant1 and on that level man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay4 ,the ,christian1 on the other hand1 seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid disorganization and decay defiance1 and to find1 ,antus-like1 in the earth which he touches1 the spring of a new and fruitful progress4 ,for there is that in his belief1 his traditions1 and in the silent influences which pervade the very atmosphere around him1 which is ever moving him1 often in ways that he knows not1 to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power which the ,gospel proposes as the prize of his ,christian calling4 ,the submissive servant of ,allah is the highest type of ,moslem perfection2 the ,christian ideal is the ,christ-like son4--,british ,quarterly1 ,no4 cxxx4 #ce ,a ,mukallif is one who is subject to the ,law4 ,a ,ghair-i-,mukallif is one not so subject1 such as a minor1 an idiot1 c4 ,the term ,mukallif is thus equivalent to a consistent ,muslim1 one who takes trouble 7taklf7 in his religious duties4 #cf ,commentators on the ,qurn4 #cg ,the ,traditionists4 #ch ,plural of ,faqh1 a theologian4 #ci ,i have given the dates of their death4 #dj ,osborn's ,islm under the ,khalfs p4 #gb4 #da ,dabistn1 p4 #bad4 #db pp4 #ejh-eaj4 #dc ,it 7the ,qurn7 is simply an instruction for all mankind 7,sra xii4 #ajd74 #dd ,zawbit-al-,qurn1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 #de ,the opinion of ,von ,hammer1 quoted by ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 in his life of ,muhammad 7vol4 i4 page #bg7 seems to be correct1 ,we may hold the ,qurn to be as surely ,muhammad's words as the ,muhammadans hold it to be the ,word of ,god4 #df ,ibn ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary1 vol4 iii4 p4 #af4 #dg ,were we to examine the ,qurn by the rules of rhetoric and criticism as they are taught in ,muslim schools1 we should be obliged to acknowledge that it is the perfection of thought and expression2 an inevitable result as the ,muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very book4--,baron ,m4 de ,slane1 in the introduction to ,ibu ,khallikan's ,biographical ,dictionary4 #dh ,there are many ,traditions which refer to this fact4 ,omar ,ibn al ,khattb said2 ,i accorded with my cherisher 7i4e41 ,god7 in three things4 ,one is that ,i said1 ',o messenger of ,god6 if we were to say our prayers in ,abraham's place it would be better4' ,then a revelation came down ',take the place of ,abraham for a place of prayer4' ,the second is1 that ,i said1 ',o messenger of ,god6 good and bad people come to your house2 and ,i do not see that it is fitting2 therefore1 if you order your women to be shut up it will be better4' ,then the revelation for doing so came down4 ,the third is1 that his ,majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking honey2 and he had vowed never to drink it more4 ,then ,i said to his ,majesty's wives1 ',should the ,prophet divorce you1 ,god will give him better in exchange4' ,then a revelation1 came down agreeing with what ,i said4 'yesha said3--,i was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to the ,prophet1 and said ',what6 does a woman give herself away8' ,then the revelation descended31 ',thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them1 and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt1 and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected3 and this shall be no crime in thee4' 7,sra xxxiii4 #ea74 ,i said2 ',i see nothing in which your ,god doth not hasten to please you3 whatsoever you wish ,he doeth4' #di ,les ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dei4 #ej ,this includes even the orthography1 for3--,la gnration suivante1 je veux dire les ,tbis 7,tba'n71 adopta l'orthographe des ,compagnons du ,prophte et se fit un mrite de ne point s'carter des formes adoptes par ceux qui1 aprs ,mahommed1 taient les plus excellent des hommes et qui avaient recu de lui les rvlations clestes1 soit par crit1 soit de vive voix4 ,ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cig4 #ea ,this interpretation ,god made known to the ,prophet1 who communicated it to the ,companions1 hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance with theirs4 ,they were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary given by ,muhammad4 ,there is now no room for1 as there is no need of1 any other4 #eb ,speaking on this very subject ,ibn ,khaldoun says3--,rien de tout cela n'a pu se connatre que par des indications provenant des ,compagnons et de leurs disciples4 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #dfj4 #ec ,ibn ,khaldoun says that ,zamakchori1 7a theologian of good repute for learning in the sixth century ,a4,h471 remarked on these letters as follows3--,they indicate that the style of the ,qurn is carried to such a degree of excellence1 that it defies every attempt to imitate it2 for this book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters4 ,all men know them all alike1 but this power disappears when1 in order to express their ideas1 they want to use these same letters combined4 ,on this curious passage ,baron de ,slane remarks that the author is not very clear1 and that the ,turkish translator of ,ibn ,khaldoun gives the sense of the passage as3--,god has placed these letters in several ,sras as a sort of defiance2 as if ,he had said3--',voil les lments dont se compose le ,coran2 prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'gale par le style4' ,ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fh4 #ed ,the last verse revealed at ,mecca was1 ,this day have ,i perfected your religion for you1 and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you2 and it is my pleasure that ,islm be your religion2 but whoso without wilful leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress1 to him1 verily1 will ,god be indulgent1 merciful4 7,sra v4 #e74 ,ibn ,khaldoun vol4 i4 p4 #bjf4 #ee ,the arrangement made by ,professor ,th4 ,nldeke in his ,geschichte des ,qurns is considered by ,stanley ,lane ,poole to be the best4 ,rodwell's ,english version of the ,qurn is1 with some exceptions1 an example of this order4 #ef ,on ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen4 ,the #aabth ,sra is the one generally repeated4 #eg ,tafsr-i-,husain1 p4 #baf4 #eh ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #aca4 #ei ,commentary on the ,holy ,bible by ,syed ,ahmad1 ,c4,s4,i41 vol4 i4 p4 #bfh4 ,see note on this in chapter #d4 ,section ',prophets4' #fj ,niz ,namh1 by ,maulavi ,safdar ',ali1 p4 #bej4 #fa ,biographical ,dictionary1 vol4 ii1 p4 #fgi4 #fb ,he ranked as a high authority in the ,traditions and was well versed in all the sciences connected with them4 ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fhj4 #fc ,the ,kfi1 by ,abu ,ja'far ,muhammad1 ,a4,h4 #cbi4 ,the ,man-l-yastah-zirah-al-,faqh1 by ,shaikh ',al1 ,a4,h4 #cha4 ,the ,tahzb and the ,istibsr by ,shaikh ,abu ,ja'far ,muhammad1 ,a4,h4 #dff4 ,the ,nahaj-ul-,balghat by ,sayyud ,raz ,a4,h4 #djf4 #fd ,if the ,isnd is good1 internal improbability carries with it little weight against the genuineness of a ,tradition4 ,there is a saying current to this effect3--,a relation made by ,shfa' on the authority of ,mlik1 and by him on the authority of ,nafi1 and by him on the authority of ,ibn ,omar1 is really the golden chain4 #fe ,nr-ul-,hidyah1 p4 #e4 #ff ,a full account of these will be found in the preface to the ,nr-ul-,hidyah1 the ,urdu translation of the ,sharh-i-,waqyah4 #fg ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #abc4 #fh ,kisas-ul-,anbiya1--,lives of the ,prophets4 #fi ,hyt-un-,nafs4 #gj ,the ,sha'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible ,imms are more logical than the ,romanists1 thus3-- ,if we are to believe in the inerrability of a person1 or a body of persons1 because it is1 forsooth1 necessary for the full preservation of the truth1 we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be needful for the perfect attainment of that end4 ,now1 the conservation of all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect4 ,it requires the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit4 ,that is to say1 it requires the exclusion of sin2 and the man or body that is to be infallible1 must also be a sinless organ4 ,it is necessary that the tainting1 blinding1 distorting power of sin should be shut out from the spiritual eye of the infallible judge4 ,gladstone's ,gleanings1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfj4 #ga ,it is a common ,musalmn belief that the body of a prophet casts no shadow4 ,a similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over ,northern ,europe4 ,it is alluded to by ,scott in the ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel1 where speaking of the father of the ,ladye1 who in ,padua1 had learned the art that none might name1 he says3-- ,his form no darkening shadow traced ,upon the sunny wall4 ,it is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical honours were in danger of being caught by the devil4 ,now if the devil could only catch the shadow1 and the man escaped1 though so nearly captured1 he became a great magician4 ,this is evidently a legend to explain a previous belief4 ,muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the ,universities of ,southern ,europe1 and ,salamanca and ,padua were the universities1 in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in magic was obtained4 ,the superstition has evidently some connection with the ,musalmn belief regarding the shadows of prophets4 #gb ,the ,sunns esteem and respect the ,imms1 as ,ahl-i-,beit--men of the ,house1 7of the ,prophet72 but do not give them precedence over the duly appointed ,khalfs4 #gc ,the names are ',al1 ,hasan1 ,husain1 ,zain-ul-',abid-dn1 ,muhammad ,bqr1 ,ja'far ,sdiq1 ,musa ,kzim1 ',al ,msa ,raz1 ,muhammad ,taq1 ,muhammad ,naq1 ,hasan ',askar1 ,abu 'l-,qsim 7or ,imm ,mahd74 #gd ,rauzat-ul-,aimmah by ,sayyid ',izzat ',al4 #ge ,for a good account of this movement see1 ,osborn's ,islm under the ,arabs1 pp4 #afh-ahd4 #gf ,islm under the ,khalfs1 p4 #aci4 #gg ,miskt-ul-,musbih4 #gh ,hujjat-ullah-ul-,balaghah4 #gi ,nothing shows this more plainly than the ,fatv pronounced by the ,council of the ',ulam in ,july #ahgi anent ,khar-ud-din's proposed reform1 which would have placed the ,sultn in the position of a constitutional sovereign4 ,this was declared to be directly contrary to the ,law4 ,thus3-- ,the law of the ,sheri does not authorize the ,khalf to place beside him a power superior to his own4 ,the ,khalf ought to reign alone and govern as master4 ,the ,vakils 7,ministers7 should never possess any authority beyond that of representatives1 always dependent and submissive4 ,it would consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the ,sheri1 which should be the guide of all the actions of the ,khalf1 to transfer the supreme power of the ,khalf to one ,vakil4 ,this1 the latest and most important decision of the jurists of ,islm1 is quite in accordance with all that has been said about ,muhammadan ,law4 ,it proves as clearly as possible that so long as the ,sultn rules as ,khalf1 he must oppose any attempt to set up a constitutional ,government4 ,there is absolutely no hope of reform4 #hj ,it is instructive to compare the words of the ,christian poet with the ,sf idea of absorption into the ,divine ,being4 ,that each who seems a separate whole ,should move his rounds1 and fusing all ,the skirts of self again1 should fall ,remerging in the general soul1 ,is faith as vague as all unsweet3 ,eternal form shall still divide ,the eternal soul from all beside2 ,and ,i shall know him when we meet4 ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam4 #ha ,le spiritualisme des ,sofis1 quoiqu'il soit le contraire du matrialisme1 lui est en ralit identique4 ,mais si leur doctrine n'est pas plus raisonnable1 elle est du moins plus levee et plus potique4 ,posie ,philosophique et religieuse chez les ,persans1 par ,m4 ,garcin ,de ,tassy1 p4 #b4 #hb ,kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth4 #hc ',anka--the ,phoenix4 #hd ,ils pensent que la ,bible et le ,coran ont t seulement crits pour l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses1 qui s'occupe de l'extrieur1 pour le zhir parast1 comme ils le nomment1 et non pour le sofi qui sonde le fond des choses4 ,la ,posie ,philosophique et religieuse chez les ,persans1 par ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 p4 #ac4 #he ,the word ,darvsh1 or ,darwsh1 is of ,persian origin4 ,it is derived from 'dar1' a door1 and 'wz' the root of the verb 'awkhtan1' to hang2 hence the idea of hanging about doors1 or begging4 ,the 'z' is changed into 'sh' and the word becomes ',darwsh4' ,some ,musalmns1 however1 do not like this idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging1 and so they propose another derivation4 ,they derive it from dur1 a pearl1 and wsh1 like2 and so a durwsh is one 'like a pearl4' ,the wsh is from wsh1 a lengthened form of wash1 an affix of common use to express similitude2 or the long vowel in wsh may by a figure of speech1 called ,imla1 be changed into the of wsh4 ,i think the first derivation the more probable4 ,a good ,persian dictionary1 the ,ghs-ul-,lugbt1 gives both derivations4 #hf ,for a very interesting account of this religious ceremony1 see ,hughes' ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 ,chapter #ea4 #hg ,la ,posie ,philosophique et ,religieuse chez les ,persans1 par ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 p4 #g4 #hh ,sf doctrines of the ,mooll ,shh by ,tawakkul ,beg4 ,journal ,asiatique #fme ,srie1 tom4 #ac4 #hi ,that ,omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may readily admit1 while1 at the same time1 we may find some excuse for his errors1 if we remember the state of the world at that time4 ,his clear strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest spirits of his age found their refuge1 and his honest independence was equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm2 and at that dark hour of man's history whither1 out of ,islm1 was the thoughtful ,muhammadan to repair8 ,no missionary's step1 bringing good tidings1 had appeared on the mountains of ,persia2 the few ,christians who might cross his path in his native land1 would only seem to him idolaters4 ,speaking1 too1 of ,sa'di's life the reviewer says3 almost the only point of contact with ,christendom is his slavery under the ,crusaders at ,tripoli4 ,the same isolation runs through all the golden period of ,persian ,literature--,calcutta ,review1 ,no4 lix4 #ij ,the following are the names of the ,wahhb chiefs3--,muhammad-,ibn-,saud1 died ,a4,d4 #agfe2 ',abd-ul-,azz1 assassinated1 #ahjc2 ,saud-,ibn-',abd-ul-,azz1 died #ahad2 ',abd-,ullh-ibn-,saud1 beheaded #ahah2 ,turki1 assassinated #ahcj2 ,fayzul1 died #ahff2 ',abd-,ullh1 still living4 ,hughes ,notes1 p4 #bba4 #ia ,palgrave's ,arabia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aj4 #ib ,according to the latest ,census ,report there are #d1jjj in the ,madras ,presidency1 where the total ,musalmn population is about #b1jjj1jjj4 #ic ,mudrij-un-,nabuwat1 p4 #adi4 #id ,palgrave's ,arabia vol4 i4 p4 #cfi4 #ie ,palgrave's ,arabia1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgb4 #if ,ibid1 p4 #cgb4 #ig ,muhammad ,ism'l concludes his great work1 the ,takwiat-ul-,imn1 with the prayer--,o ,lord teach us by ,thy grace1 the meaning of the terms ,bid'at and ,sunnat1 and the ,law of the ,prophet4 ,make us pure ,sunns and strictly submissive to the ,sunnat4 ,this is a clear and distinct proof that ,wahhbs do not reject ,tradition as a basis of the ,faith4 ,it also shows their horror of innovation1 and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress through their influence4 #ih ,mr4 ,finlay1 the clever but partial author of ,the ,byzantine ,empire1 has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to speak of the unity of the ,christian ,church4' ,however this may be1 ,i can affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to ,islm in the ,east4 ,in no part of the world is there more of secret division1 aversion1 misbelief 7taking ,muhammadanism as our standard71 and unbelief than in those very lands which to a superficial survey1 seem absolutely identified in the one common creed of the ,qurn and its author4--,palgrave's ,arabia1 vol4 i4 p4 #aj4 #ii ,strictly speaking1 this chapter should be entitled the ',faith of ,islm1' as the subject of it is technically called ,imn1 or faith4 ,the ,kalima1 or creed is1 in the strict sense1 the expression of belief in one ,god1 and in ,muhammad as ,his apostle4 ,i here use the word creed in the usual sense of a body of dogmas4 #ajj ,iqrrun bil-lisni wa tasdqun bil janni4 #aja ,amantu billhi kama hua bismhi wa sifthi wa qabiltu jam'a ahkmihi4 #ajb ,amantu billhi wa malkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-l-khiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min allhi ta'l wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti4 #ajc ,he speaks of it thus3 l'ouvrage lmentaire de la religion ,musulmane le plus estim et le plus rpandu en ,turquie1 p4 #aed4 #ajd ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #bg4 #aje ,the above statements form the substance of several pages in the ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 in which also occurs the following3 ,cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour dprcier notre intelligence et nos facults perceptives3 l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste3 elle nous fournit des rsultats certains sans nous tromper4 ,mais on ne doit pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent l'unit de ,dieu1 la vie future1 la nature du prophtisme1 au vritable caractre des attributs divine et tout ce qui est au del de sa porte4 ,vouloir le faire1 ce serait une absurdit4 ,vol4 iii4 p4 #de4 #ajf ,telle fut la rgle suivie par les anciens musulmans l'gard des verses motachabeh2 ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du mme genre qui se prsentent dans la ,sonna1 parce qu'elles proviennent de la mme source que celles du ,coran4 ,ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fg4 ,this passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and origin of the ,qurn and the ,sunnat4 #ajg ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 i4 p4 #efe4 #ajh ,the ,musulmn ,authors distinguish between the earlier and later ,mutakallimn4 ,the former 7of whom we here treat7 were occupied with purely religious questions2 the latter1 who arose after the introduction of the ,greek philosophy amongst ,muslims1 embraced many philosophic notions1 though they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions4 ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 p4 #cbj4 #aji ,tafsr-i-,faiz-ul-,karm1 p4 #bej4 #aaj ,tafsr-i-,faiz-ul-,karm1 p4 #bej4 #aaa ,dabistn1 p4 #bah4 #aab ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cdc4 #aac ,c'etait l'poque de la plus grande splendeur extrieure de l'empire des ,arabes1 o leur pouvoir1 et en mme temps leur culture intellectuelle et littraire1 atteignirent leur point culminant4 ,journal ,asiatique #dme ,srie1 ,tome xii4 p4 #ajd4 #aad ,to understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took place1 the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the ,khalfs1 and of the rise and progress of ,muslim philosophy4 ,the former can be found in ,osborn's ,khalfs of ,baghdd4 ,a short review of the latter will be found in a note at the end of this chapter4 #aae ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 ii p4 #ffi4 #aaf ,ibid1 p4 #bbh4 #aag ,ibn ,khaldoun says3 ,l'tablissement des preuves 7fondes sur la raison7 fut adopt par les 7premiers7 scolastiques pour le sujet de leur traits1 mais il ne fut pas1 comme chez les philosophes1 une tentative pour arriver la dcouverte de la vrit et pour obtenir1 au moyen de la dmonstration1 la connaissance de ce qui tait ignor jusqu' alors4 ,les scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la vrit des dogmes1 de justifier les opinions des premiers ,musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs avaient mises4 ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 iii4 p4 #afi4 #aah ,sharh-i-,aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #fc #aai ,most excellent titles has ,god3 by these call ye on ,him and stand aloof from those who pervert ,his titles4 7,sra vii4 #agi47 #abj ,the ,mujassimians1 or ,corporealists not only admitted a resemblance between ,god and created beings1 but declared ,god to be corporeal4 ,sale's ,preliminary discourse1 ,section viii4 para4 #c4 #aba ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cid4 #abb ,the ,freethinkers 7,mutazilites7 left no traces of themselves except in the controversial treatises which they had written4 ,these were destroyed1 and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between ,free-thought and the spirit of ,islm were obliterated4 ,osborn's ,khalfs of ,baghdd1 p4 #adh4 #abc ,sra xxxix1 #fh1 #fi4 #abd ,l',islamisme d'aprs le ,coran1 p4 #ace4 #abe ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #aab4 #abf ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #ahg4 #abg ,tafsr-i-,faiz-ul-,karm1 p4 #eh4 #abh ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #ai4 #abi ,from the beginning of history the ,caucasus is to civilized nations1 both ,greek and ,oriental1 the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed1 the boundary of the world itself4--,bryce's ,transcaucasia and ,ararat1 p4 #dh4 #acj ,see also ,sra xxxviii4 #hi4 #aca ,sharh-,aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #adj4 #acb ,thus the famous ,persian poet ,sa'd says in the ,bustn1 ,yetm kih nkardah ,qurn darust1 kutub khna-i-chand millat bashust4--,the ,perfect one who1 ere the whole of ,gabriel's book he reads1 has blotted out the library of all the peoples' creeds4 #acc ,sharh-,aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #adg4 ,mansukh shud tilwatan wa ,kitbatan1 i4e4 abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated4 ,also ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #fd4 ,dn-i-wai ,nsikh-i-jami'-i-adin ast4--,his religion abrogates all religions4 #acd ,commentary on the ,holy ,bible by ,syed ,ahmad1 ,c4,s4,i41 vol4 i4 p4 #bfh4 ,this ,commentary is written in ,urdu1 but the author has made a translation for the benefit of the ,english reader4 ,the passage referred to reads thus in ,english3 ,those who imagine it to be part of the ,muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken1 and we do not believe that the ,zuboor 7,book of ,psalms7 abrogated the ,taureit 7,pentateuch72 that the ,taureit in turn gave way to the ,injeel 7,new ,testament7 and that the ,new ,testament was suppressed by the ,holy ,korn4 ,we hold no such doctrine1 and if any ignorant ,muhammadan should assert to the contrary1 he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles of his faith4 ,the learned ,syed here assumes the rle of a liberal ,musalmn1 but the ,english translation is different from his ,urdu text which1 literally translated1 is as follows3--,now it should be considered that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of ,muslims that the ,taurt by the coming of the ,zabr1 and the ,zabr by the coming of the ,injl1 and the ,injl by the coming of the ,qurn are abrogated on account of the idea that there is any defect in them are utterly mistaken1 c4 ,the clause which ,i have italicised is entirely omitted in the ,english text2 but it alters the import of the whole passage4 ,to his co-religionists the ,syed says in effect3 ,the books are abrogated but not because they were imperfect4 ,now1 as no ,muslim would believe that a divine book was defective1 the ,syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the previous ,scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox4 ,the leader of an apparently liberal section of ,indian ,musalmns is1 in this instance1 at least1 as conservative as the most bigoted4 #ace ,syed ,ahmad's ,commentary on the ,holy ,bible1 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 #acf ,ibid1 p4 #ca4 #acg ,there are many other such passages4 ,they are given in detail1 with the interpretation of approved commentators1 in a small ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 publication--,the ,korn--by ,sir ,w4 ,muir4 #ach ,commentary on the ,holy ,bible1 by ,syed ,ahmad1 ,c4,s4,i41 vol4 i4 pp4 #fd-ie4 #aci ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #ei4 #adj ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #ei4 #ada ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #fe4 #adb ,prolgomnes d',ibn ,khaldoun1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aif-bje4 #adc ,that the ,auliya are distinguished above ordinary mortals is maintained on the authority of3--,are not the friends 7,auliya7 of ,god1 those on whom no fear shall come1 nor shall they be put to grief4 7,sra x4 #fc47 #add ,sharh-i-,aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #abe4 #ade ,sirt-ul-,islm1 p4 #ah4 #adf ,this is an orthodox blow at the ,sha'h practices in the month of ,muharram4 ,sha'hs consider this a good act4 #adg ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #ah4 #adh ,it is said ,adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the world4 ,had he remained in ,paradise the world would not have been peopled2 and the word of ,god ,i have not created men and jinns1 except for worship1 would not have been fulfilled4 #adi ,that is1 according to the commentator ,beidaw1--,thy remissness in propagating ,islm4 #aej ,tafsr-i-,husain1 p4 #ccb4 #aea ,on the contrary1 he seems to disclaim such a power4 ,thus the ,quraish said3 ,by no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth2 or1 till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes1 and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst2 or thou make the heaven to fall on us1 as thou hast given out1 in pieces2 or thou bring ,god and the angels to vouch for thee1 c4 ,say3 ,am ,i more than a man1 an ,apostle8 7,sra xvii4 #ib-ie74 ,former prophets1 ,muhammad used to say1 were sent to their own sect1 but he was sent for all4 ,their miracles were confined to their own times4 ,the ,qurn the great miracle of ,islm1 was for all ages4 ,he needed no other sign than this4 #aeb ,have ,we not opened thine heart for thee4 7,sra xciv4 #a74 ,tradition relates that when young1 two angels cut open his breast1 and took out a black drop2 many other marvels are also connected with this event4 #aec ,sharh-i-,aqd-i-,jm4 #aed ,tafsr-i-,husain4 p4 #cfb #aee ,for a graphic account of these events see ,literary ,remains of ,emmanuel ,deutsch1 pp4 #ii-aab4 #aef ,all that ,muhammadans must believe respecting the ,mi'rj is that the ,prophet saw himself1 in a vision1 transported from ,mecca to ,jerusalem1 and that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his ,lord4 ,essays by ,syed ,ahmad1 ,essay vi4 p4 #cd4 ,this1 though a legitimate1 is not1 however1 an orthodox opinion2 which is1 that he who denies an actual bodily migration from ,mecca to ,jerusalem is a ,kfir1 7infidel7 as he denies the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the ,qurn4 ,he who denies the ascension to heaven1 and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings preserved in the ,traditions is a fsiq1 7sinner71 though he remains a ,muslim4 #aeg ,some commentators make no distinction between the first and second blast1 as only two are distinctly mentioned in the ,qurn4 #aeh ,sharh-i-',aqd-i-,jm1 p4 #ahc4 #aei ,according to ,bkhr and to ,muslim1 this perspiration will flow to a distance of seventy yards from1 and reach up to the lobe of the ears of those who perspire4 #afj ,that is1 they will know the inhabitants of ,paradise by their whiteness1 and the people of ,hell by the blackness of their faces4 #afa ,for some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there see ,sale's ,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section iv41 p4 #ee4 #afb ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #dg4 #afc ,tafsr-i-,husain1 vol4 i4 p4 #cig4 #afd ,tafsr-i-,faiz-ul-,karm1 p4 #be4 #afe ,miskt-ul-,musbh1 book xxiii4 ch4 #ab4 #aff ,although some ,muhammadans1 whose understandings are too refined to admit such gross conceptions1 look on their ,prophet's description as parabolical1 and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation1 yet the general and orthodox doctrine is1 that the whole is to be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance4 ,sale's ,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section iv4 p4 #gc4 #afg ,this1 the ,lauh-ul-,mahfz1 is referred to in ,sra lxxxv4 #bb1 as that on which the ,qurn is written4 ,in ,sra xxxvi4 #aa1 the actions of men are said to be written in the clear book of our decrees4 ,this is called the ,imm-ul-,mubn1 the clear prototype4 #afh ,the ,prophet of ,god said that ,adam and ,moses 7in the world of ,spirits7 maintained a debate before ,god1 and ,adam got the better of ,moses1 who said1 ,thou art that ,adam1 whom ,god created and breathed into thee ,his own ,spirit1 and made the angels bow down before thee1 and placed thee in ,paradise2 after which1 thou threwest man upon the earth1 from the fault which thou didst commit4' ,adam replied1 ',thou art that ,moses1 whom ,god selected for ,his prophecy and to converse with1 and ,he gave thee twelve tables1 in which are explained everything1 and he made thee ,his confidant and the bearer of ,his secrets2 then how long was the ,bible written before ,i was created8' ,moses said1 ',forty years4' ,then said ,adam1 ',didst thou see in the ,bible that ,adam disobeyed ,god8' ',yes4' ',dost thou reproach me on a matter1 which ,god wrote in the ,bible forty years before creating me8' #afi ,ibn ,kah1 commenting on the verse1 ,when thy ,lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of ,adam and took them to witness against themselves1 ',am ,i not1' said ,he1 'your ,lord1' ,they said3 'yes1 we witness it4' 7,sra vii4 #aga71 goes on to say3 ,god formed all the prophets and saints into one class1 and the martyrs into another4 ,the pious men1 also1 were separated into one1 and the wicked into another4 ,one class was formed of the obedient servants1 while the unbelievers1 viz41 the ,jews1 the ,christians1 the ,majians1 the ,hindus1 c41 were likewise divided into several parties2 next1 they were shaped into forms1 that is1 into the shape in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one4 ,this passage is quoted with approval by the ,wahhb author of the ,takwiyat-ul-,imn4 #agj ,the orthodox ,commentator ',abbs says3 ,this verse refers to the decree1 e4g4 ',he whom ,god wills to believe certainly will do so1 and whom ,he wills to be an infidel will be one1' and not at all to man's free will4 ,tafsr-,hisain1 vol4 ii4 page #i4 #aga ,mlanges de ,philosophe ,juive et ,arabe par ,s4 ,munk4 p4 #deh4 #agb ,thus the poet ,faiz says3 ,before thou and ,i were thought of1 our free will was taken from our hands2 be without cares1 for the ,maker of both worlds settled our affairs long before we were made4 #agc ,the punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences4 ,in the latter part of the year #ahgi1 one of the ,turkish ',ulam1 named ,ahmad1 was condemned to death for having assisted ,dr4 ,koelle1 an ,english clergyman residing in ,constantinople1 in the translation of the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 and a tract on ',christ the ,word of ,god4' ,owing to the urgent representations of the ,british ,ambassador the ,khojah's life was spared1 but he was banished to the island of ,chio4 ,the ,porte promised to maintain his family whilst he was absent4 ,it need scarcely be said that nothing of the kind has been done4 #agd ,journal ,asiatique #dme ,srie1 tome #ag1 p4 #ehb #age ,this is the ,shfa'te form which the ,hanifites consider wrong4 #agf ,kingsley's ,alexandria and her ,schools1 p4 #afj4 #agg ,les ,prairies ,d'or1 tome sixime1 p4 #cfh4 #agh ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 par ,s4 ,munk1 p4 #cae4 #agi ,for a statement of the ,ash'aran doctrines see pp4 #acj-aca4 #ahj ,strictly speaking1 one should not speak of ,arab but of ,muslim philosophy1 for curiously enough only one famous ,philosopher1 ,al-,kendi1 was an ,arab4 #aha ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 par ,s4 ,munk1 p4 #dbi4 #ahb ,aprs lui1 nous ne trouvons plus chez les ,arabes aucun philosophe vritablement digne de ce nom4 ,mlanges de ,philosophie ,juive et ,arabe1 par ,s4 ,munk1 p4 #deh4 #ahc ,muslim rule in ,spain is often referred to as an instance of the height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a ,muhammadan state4 ,i have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching of the ,arab ,prophet and his ,companions1 and with regard to the liberality it is well to remember the words of ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes4 ,he says3 ,the ,arabs1 though they conquered ,spain1 were too weak in numbers to hold that country in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and customs of the people4 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #cf4 #ahd ,there never was any ,arabian science1 strictly speaking4 ,in the first place1 all the ,philosophy and ,science of the ,muhammadans was ,greek1 ,jewish1 and ,persian4444 ,it really designates a reaction against ,islmism1 which arose in the distant parts of the ,empire1 in ,samarcand1 ,bokhara1 ,morocco1 and ,cordova4 ,the ,arabian language having become the language of the ,empire1 this ,philosophy is written in that language2 but the ideas are not ,arabian2 the spirit is not ,arabian4 ,history of ,philosophy1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cd4 #ahe ,the ,persian term for this is ,namz1 a word in commoner use in ,india than ,sult4 ,both terms will henceforth be employed4 #ahf ,there is a ,tradition to the effect that the whole body of him who says the name of ,god when making waz will be clean2 whereas1 if he says it not1 only the part washed will be pure4 #ahg ,before commencing the waz1 say3 ,i am going to purify myself from all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer1 that holy act of duty1 which will draw my soul near to the throne of the ,most ,high4 ,in the name of ,god1 the ,great and ,mighty4 ,praise be to ,god who has given us grace to be ,muslims4 ,islm is a truth and infidelity a falsehood4 ,when cleaning the teeth say3 ,vouchsafe ,o ,god1 as ,i clean my teeth1 to purify me from my faults and accept my homage4 ,o ,lord1 may the purity of my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of judgment4 ,when washing the nostrils say3 ,o my ,god1 if ,i am pleasing in ,thy sight1 perfume me with the odours of ,paradise4 ,when washing the right hand say3 ,o my ,god1 on the day of judgment1 place the book of my actions in my right hand1 and examine my account with favour4 ,when washing the left hand1 say3 ,o my ,god1 place not at the resurrection the book of my actions in my left hand4 ,similar prayers are said at each act4 #ahh ,from the account which follows it will be seen that the term ,namz expresses what we term a ',service4' ,the word for prayer in the ordinary sense is ',du'4' #ahi ,it is taken from the ,sirt-un-,najt1 pp4 #cj-cc4 #aij ,as the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people to prayers4 #aia ,god is ,great4 #aib ,the followers of ,imm ,as-,shfa' and the women of all sects place the hands upon the breast4 ,the feet should be about four inches apart2 women stand with the feet close together4 #aic ,the second rak'at begins here3 all that precedes is only repeated at the first rak'at4 #aid ,a fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of ,ramazn1 which portion is then called a ruk'4 7,ante4 p4 #eg47 #aie ,in a mosque the ,imm says the first sentences alone2 the people the second4 #aif ,women in the ,sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together1 and put both feet at right angles to the body4 ,if their face is ,qibla-wards it is sufficient4 #aig ,here the ,sha'hs say3--,i rise and sit by the power of ,god4 #aih ,this is said at the close of every two rak'ats4 #aii ,the ,sha'hs stop here and omit the rest4 #bjj ,the ,sha'hs omit the ,du' and say3 ,peace be on thee1 ,o ,prophet1 with the mercy of ,god and ,his blessing4 ,peace be on us and on ,god's righteous servants4 #bja ,the ,fatv1 or decree1 will be found in a note at the end of this chapter4 #bjb ,i am indebted to ,hughes' ,notes on ,muhammadanism for this excellent table4 #bjc ,the ,musall may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven4 #bjd ,nr-ul-,hidayat1 p4 #aee4 #bje ,in countries under ,muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed4 #bjf ,one who says1 ,allhu ,akbar--,god is ,great4 #bjg ,a reference to his presence with ,muhammad in the cave 7ghr7 when they fled from ,mecca to ,madna4 ,see ,sra ix4 #dj4 #bjh ,nr-ul-,hidyat1 p4 #aec4 #bji ,sirt-un-,najt1 p4 #dj4 #baj ,qm is one of the positions in a ,namz and is here used by synecdoche for it4 ,in ,mecca the ,salt-ut-,tarwh is called with reference to this ,tradition the ,salt-ul-,qmah4 #baa ,nr-ul-,hidyat1 p4 #ada4 #bab ,that is1 a non-,muslim who is allowed to reside in a ,musalmn ,state on payment of a special tax4 #bac ,the ,shfa'tes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four ,takbrs2 the other sects do so only at the first4 #bad ,if the deceased was a child or a mad person1 they say3-- ,o ,god1 make him 7or her1 as the case may be7 a guide for us1 and make him a cause of our gaining a future reward4 ,o ,god1 save him and make him an intercessor for us4 #bae ,the ,imm makes the ,niyyat in his mind that the ,salm may be on his guardian angels1 and on the worshippers who are behind him2 each worshipper makes the ,niyyat that the ,salm may be on his guardian angels1 on his fellow worshippers and on the ,imm4 #baf i4e41 the deceased's4 #bag ,death1 resurrection1 judgment2 c4 #bah ,this contradicts verse #bed of this ,sra4 ,muslims explain it thus4 ,we accept all prophets and as regards faith in them make no difference1 though as regards dignity we recognize the distinction indicated in the #bedth verse4 #bai ,that is1 the ,jews and ,christians1 on whom1 it is said by the ,muslim ,commentators1 many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent4 ,the word often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial observance is taklilf1 trouble4 ,practically1 ,muslims are not free from these loads1 a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious man--a mukhallif1 one who has to take trouble in the way of performing religious duties4 #bbj ,in ,madras1 a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in4 #bba ,the name of the mother is here inserted4 ,the mother's name is chosen in preference to that of the father1 as there can be no doubt as to the maternity of the child4 ,for the same reason it is said that at the ,last ,day each man will be summoned as such an one1 son of such a mother4 ,this simple fact reveals a sad state of morals1 or1 at least1 a disbelief in the virtue of women4 #bbb ,the idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person on whose behalf it is made4 #bbc ,sra ii4 #bef4 #bbd ,there are others who maintain that this is a mukham statement and cannot therefore be abrogated4 ,they hold that it must be restricted to the aged and to persons who have chronic diseases4 ,tafsr-i-,husain1 p4 #cj4 ,tafsr-i-,faiz-ul-,karm1 p4 #abj4 #bbe ,burton says that1 when in the disguise of a ,musalmn doctor he was in ,cairo making preparations for the ,hajj1 he had but one patient who would break his fast to save his life4 ,all the others refused though death should be the consequence4 #bbf ,the former are called ,zakt1 either because they increase a man's store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality1 or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice2 the latter are called ,sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of ,god4 ,sale's ,preliminary ,discourse1 ,section iv4 #bbg ,that is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person4 #bbh ,the technical term is #e wasq4 ,a wasq is equal to #fj s'1 and a s' is equal to #h ratal4 ,a ratal is equal to #a lb2 so a wasq1 a load for one camel1 is about #dhj lb4 #bbi ,mosques are usually endowed4 ,the property thus set apart is called waqf4 ,this supports the various officials connected with a ,mosque4 #bcj ,the two famous disciples of ,imm ,abu ,hanfa1 ,abu ,ysuf and ,muhammad4 #bca ,this ceremony is called ,al-,ihrm 7i4e41 making unlawful71 because now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from4 ,the ceremony of doffing the pilgrim's garb is called ,al-,ihll 7i4e41 making lawful71 for now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world4 #bcb ,this statement of names is taken from the ,nr-ul-,hidyat p4 #baa1 and that of the distance from ,hughes' ,notes on ,islm2 but ,burton speaks of ,al ,zaribah1 a place #dg miles distant from ,mecca as a ,mqt4 ,it was there that he assumed the ,ihrm4 ,the explanation probably is that a ,hj must not approach nearer to ,mecca without the ,ihrm than the places named in the text4 ,the farther from ,mecca it is assumed1 provided that it be during one of the two months preceding ,zu'l-,hajja1 the more meritorious is the act4 #bcc ,talbyah means the repetition of ,labbaik1 a phrase equivalent to ,i am here4 ,the ,talbyah can be said in any language1 though ,arabic is preferred4 ,it usually is as follows3 ,labbaik1 ,allhumma1 ,labbaik6 ,l ,sharka laka1 ,labbaik6 ,inna-l-hamda wa-n-n'amata laka1 w'-al-mulk6 ,l ,sharka laka1 ,labbaik6 #bcd ,the object of these minute details is that the ,truce of ,god may be kept4 ,the five noxious creatures1 however1 may be slain1 viz41 a crow1 a kite1 a scorpion1 a rat and a biting dog4 7,burton74 #bce ,the ,musjid-ul-,harm is the large ,mosque in ,mecca4 ,the ,k'aba 7cube7 is a square stone building in the centre4 ,this is also called the ,qibla4 ,the ,hajr-ul-,aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the ,k'aba4 #bcf ,it is said to have been rebuilt ten times4 ,a full description will be found in ,burton's ,pilgrimage to ,madna and ,mecca1 vol4 iii4 ch4 #bf4 ,it is far too long to quote1 and it cannot be condensed4 ,the following extract is of some interest1 as it states why the ',ulama consider the ,k'aba so sacred a place4 ,they quote the verse3 ',verily the first house built for mankind 7to worship in7 is that in ,beccah 7,mecca7--,blessed and a salvation to human beings4 ,therein are manifest signs1 even the standing-place of ,abraham1 and he who entereth is safe4' 7,sra iii4 #ij74 ,the word 'therein' is said to mean ,mecca1 and the manifest signs the ,k'aba1 which contains such marvels as the footprints on ,abraham's platform1 and is the spiritual safeguard of all who enter it4 ,in addition1 other signs are the preservation of the black stone1 the miracles put forth to defend the ,house1 the terrible death of the sacrilegious1 and the fact that in the ,flood the big fish did not eat the little fish in the ,harm4 ,invalids recover their health by rubbing themselves against the ,kiswat 7the covering of the ,k'aba71 and the black stone4 ,one hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day1 c4 ,portions of the ,kiswat are highly valued as markers for the ,qurn4 ,waistcoats made of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle4 #bcg ,the whole seven are one ,usb'4 #bch ,the ,maqm-i-,ibrhm is a small building1 supported1 by six pillars about eight feet high1 four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a fine iron railing1 while the space between the two hinder pillars is left open2 within the railing is a frame about five feet square1 said to contain the sacred stone on which ,abraham sat when he built the ,k'aba4 #bci ,in the first rak'at1 the chapter usually recited is ,sra cix2 in the second1 ,sra cxii4 #bdj ,many find this inconvenient and so pass on to ',arift during the afternoon of the eighth day 7,burton74 #bda ,the following legend is current about ',arift4 ,when our parents forfeited heaven by eating wheat1 which deprived them of their primeval purity1 they were cast down upon earth4 ,the serpent descended at ,ispahn1 the peacock at ,cabul1 ,satan at ,bilbays1 ,eve upon ',arift and ,adam at ,ceylon4 ,the latter determining to seek his wife1 began a journey1 to which the earth owes its present mottled appearance4 ,wherever he placed his foot--which was large--a town arose2 between the strides will always be country4 ,wandering for many years he came to the ,mountain of mercy1 where our common mother was continually calling upon his name1 and their recognition gave the place the name of ',arift4 ,they lived here till death took place4 7,burton74 #bdb ,the ,shfa' rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a night and day to reduce the five ,namz to three by joining some4 ,the ,hanaf code allows the shortened form only on this day4 #bdc ,the ,shaitan-ul-,kabr is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight feet high1 by two and a half broad1 placed against a rough wall of stones4 7,burton74 #bdd ,most of the ceremonies connected with the ,hajj1 the ,ihrm1 the shaving of the head1 the going to ,saf and ,marwah1 the throwing of the stones1 the circuit of the ,k'aba1 the kissing of the black stone1 and the sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous ,arabs4 ,muhammad by his time-serving policy1 adopted to gain the ,meccans to his side1 has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been extinct long ago4 ,saf and ,marwah were hills held in superstitious reverence by the ,meccans4 ,the early ,muslims had some doubt about retaining them as sacred places3 then came the revelation to the ,prophet1 ,saf and ,marwah are among the monuments of ,god1 whosoever then maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it1 shall not be to blame if he go round about them both4 7,sra ii4 #aec74 #bde ,these are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when to pause4 ,thus to stands for mutlaq 7slight pause71 qif 7pause71 jm for j1z 7freedom to pause1 or not to pause71 l for no 7no pause71 mm for la'zim 7necessary to pause71 747 is a full stop4 #bdf ,persian was the foreign language with which the early ,muslims were brought most into contact2 but the objection applies equally to any other language4 #bdg ,a concession of no practical value1 as any one with the power of speech could learn these words in a very short time4 #bdh ,this is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity to human compositions4 #bdi ,during the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of the martyrs1 but now being empty the ,tzas become mere ordinary frames and can be destroyed1 ,qnn-i-,islm1 p4 #adf4 #bej ,this feast is known in ,south ,india as the ,dassara4 ,the idol is thrown into a tank4 #bea ,the ,mihrb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of ,mecca4 ,the face is always turned to it when prayers are said2 so that the expression in the prayer means that ',al is to be the object toward which the faithful look4 #beb ,the twelve ,imms1 ,muhammad and ,ftima4 #bec ,the 'd-gh is usually built outside of the town1 and consists of a long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court4 ,there is a ,mihrb in the wall3 but no proper mimbar or pulpit1 three raised steps doing duty for it4 ,sometimes1 however1 a ,mosque is used as an 'd-gh4 #bed ,tradition records that the ,prophet1 after the battle of ,ohud1 was one day ascending a hill in a rage4 ,the heat of his passion was such that the mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained1 some say eighteen2 others1 forty impressions of his feet4 ,when rebuked by ,gabriel for his anger the ,prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke4 ,gabriel told him to look around4 ,the ,prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the stones was astonished4 ,his anger instantly ceased4 ,qnn-i-,islm1 p4 #aeb4 #bee ,the ,baqr-'d is the only other feast that has an ',arfa4 #bef ,mishkt-ul-,musbih1 ,book vii4 ch4 #a4 #beg ,that is1 his blessing or his curse takes effect4 ,qnn-i-,islm p4 #agj4 #beh ,this is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty4 #bei ,khutbah-i-,muhtarjam1 p4 #ajd4 #bfj ,observations on the ,musalmns of ,india4 ,mrs4 ,mr ,husan ',al1 p4 #aib4 #bfa ,the opinion of the various ,traditionists on this point is given in the ,nr-ul-,hidyah1 vol4 iv4 p4 #fa4 #bfb ,still it is mustahab1 or a meritorious act so to do4 ,it is also said that1 if a minor is possessed of property1 his father or his guardian may purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it4 ,the child may then eat as much as it can4 ,the remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something which the child can use1 such as clothes1 shoes1 c4 ,nr-ul-,hidyah1 vol4 iv4 p4 #fj4 #bfc ,according to the ,imms ,shfa' and ,mlik no one must offer up the sacrifice until the ,imm who has officiated at the previous ,namz has slain his victim4 ,nr-ul-,hidyah1 vol4 iv4 p4 #fa4 #bfd ryish-i-,mahfil p4 #add4 99 99 99 99 99 ,corrections made to printed original4 ,page #bi ,it is moreover the unanimous opinion - 'moveover' in original4 ,page #cc the ,imm-i-,a'zam or great ,imm - ,imm--',azam in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #dj ,this is technically called ,ilk - ,ilka in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #ia ,sa'd in the ,bustn says - ,bustun in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #ib the famous ,maulna ,jell-ud-dn ,rm - ,maolna in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #ic ,it is ,fan--extinction4 - ,fana in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #ahh a still lower class of action which are mubh4 - mubah in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,page #aij 7#ab7 the whole head must be rubbed once - '7#ac7' in original4 ,page #aib ,a man one day came to the ,prophet - 'come' in original4 ,page #bah ,islm1 ,hurriat 7freedom7 and ,nisb 7stock74 - ,hrriat in original1 corrected by ,errata4 ,note #acc ,also ,takml-ul-,imn1 p4 #fd4 - ,taml-ul-,imn in original1 corrected by ,errata4