by the ,library of ,congress7 ,,checking ,,the ,,waste ,a ,,study ,,in ,,conservation ,by ,,mary ,,huston ,,gregory 99 99 99 ,what you would weave into the life of the nation1 put into the public schools4 --,,emperor ,,william ,i4 99 99 99 ,,indianapolis ,,the ,,bobbs-,,merrill ,,company ,,publishers ,,copyright #aiaa ,,press ,,of ,,braunworth ,,co4 ,,bookbinders ,,and ,,printers ,,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,what ,,is ,,conservation8 #a ,,ii ,,soil #aj ,,iii ,,forests #db ,,iv ,,water #hf ,v ,,coal #abd ,,vi ,,other ,,fuels #add ,,vii ,,iron #afd ,,viii ,,other ,,minerals #aha ,,ix ,,animal ,,foods #aih ,x ,,insects #bag ,,xi ,,birds #bcf ,,xii ,,health #bfe ,,xiii ,,beauty #cjb ,,xiv ,,in ,,conclusion #cab ,,preface ,much has been said and written on the subject of conservation and many excellent ideas have been advanced1 but as yet too little has been accomplished in the way of practical results4 ,probably this is due largely to the fact that most people think of conservation as a problem for the federal and state governments1 mine owners1 great lumber companies1 owners of vast tracts of land1 and large corporations2 and have not realized how much the responsibility for the care of our natural resources and the penalty for their waste rest with the whole people1 that every one has a part in this work which has been called the greatest question before the ,american people4 ,one cause of the failure to realize this personal responsibility is that while there have been college text-books and scientific treatises on various branches of the subject1 such as ,forestry1 there has been no book treating of the entire problem of our natural resources1 their extent1 the amount and nature of their use1 their waste1 and what may be done to conserve them1 prepared in a way that can be readily understood by the ordinary reader1 and dealing with the practical1 rather than the technical1 side4 ,it is to supply the need for such general knowledge1 and to show how such saving may be accomplished1 that this book has been written4 ,it is designed as a short but complete statement of the entire conservation question1 and should be of service for study in teachers' reading circles1 farmers' institutes1 women's clubs1 the advanced grades in schools1 and for general library purposes4 ,every statement of fact bears the weight of authority1 for no facts or figures are given that have not been verified by government reports1 reports of scientific societies1 etc4 ,information has been gathered from many sources1 chief among them being the ,report of the ,conference of ,governors at the ,white ,house1 in ,may1 #aijh2 the ,report of the ,national ,conservation ,commission1 the ,report on ,national ,vitality1 the ,report of the ,inland ,waterways ,commission1 of the ,geological ,survey1 the ,census ,reports1 and many government departmental pamphlets4 ,m4 ,h4 ,g4 ,indianapolis1 ,november #bd1 #aiaj4 99 99 99 ,,checking ,,the ,,waste ,,chapter ,i ,,what ,,is ,,conservation8 ,a ,nation's ,riches lie both in its people and in its natural resources4 ,neither can exist in its highest estate without the other4 ,goldsmith predicted the certain downfall of lands where wealth accumulates and men decay1 but1 in the truest1 broadest definition1 there can be no national wealth unless the men and women of the nation are healthy1 intelligent1 educated and right-minded4 ,on the other hand it is equally true that if the people of a country are to make the most of themselves in mind and body2 if they are to get the most comfort and happiness out of life and to become in the highest degree useful1 they must develop its natural resources to the greatest possible degree4 ,the ,united ,states is particularly fortunate in its abundant riches of soil1 forest and mine1 and in the fact that from the beginning of the nation these have been the inheritance not of a people slowly learning the use of tools and materials1 and emerging from ignorance and savagery1 but representing the most advanced and enlightened ideas and spiritual ideals of the time4 ,the result of these conditions has been inventions and discoveries that have developed a great nation at home and have done much to better the condition of the world4 ,but the very magnitude of our natural wealth has made us careless1 even prodigal1 in its use1 and thoughtful men are beginning to realize that with the natural increase of population which is to be expected1 we shall1 if the present rates of use and waste continue1 find ourselves no longer rich1 but facing poverty and even actual want4 ,but it is not too late to save ourselves from the results of our past extravagance4 ,we are only beginning to see the danger into which we have almost plunged1 but we see enough to make us realize that every one must do his part in checking the waste4 ,before this can be intelligently accomplished we must understand something of the great national movement for the conservation of our national resources4 ,let us go back for a moment to the beginning of our history as a nation1 the days of ,washington4 ,invention at that time was little advanced over what it had been three hundred years before4 ,the same type of slow-sailing vessels carried all the commerce4 ,wind and water were the only powers employed in running the few factories4 ,only a little iron was used in this country1 and in fact almost its only use anywhere at that time was for tools4 ,there was little machinery1 and that of the simplest description4 ,anthracite coal was known in this country only as a hard black rock4 ,bituminous coal1 gas1 and oil were unknown4 ,the forests stretched away in unbroken miles of wilderness4 ,the wood was used for the settlers' homes1 their fuel1 and their scanty furniture1 but they needed so little that it grew much faster than it could be used4 ,the man who cut down a tree was a public benefactor4 ,the trees1 though so necessary to life1 were regarded as a serious hindrance to civilization1 for they must be cleared away before crops could be planted4 ,to the pioneers as to us the soil was the most valuable of all resources4 ,the rivers were necessary to every community for carrying their commerce1 and turning the wheels of their saw and grist mills2 while the fish1 game1 and birds made a necessary part of their living4 ,under these conditions1 with every resource to be found in such abundance that it seemed impossible it could ever be exhausted1 and with a small scattered population to draw on all these riches1 careless habits of using were sure to spring up4 ,our forefathers took the best that the land offered1 and that which was easiest to get1 and gave no thought to caring for what remained4 ,their children1 and the new immigrants who came in such numbers1 all practised the same wasteful methods4 ,in the century and a quarter that has passed since then1 a great change has come over the world4 ,by the magic of the railroad1 the telegraph1 and the telephone1 all the nations of the earth are bound more closely to one another now than were the scattered communities of a single county in those days1 or than the states of the ,union before the ,civil ,war4 ,the forests have been cut away and in place of endless miles of wilderness there now stretch endless miles of fertile farms1 yielding abundant harvests4 ,slow-going sailing vessels have given place to steamboats which now carry the river and lake commerce4 ,but men are no longer dependent on the rivers1 for swift railway trains penetrate every part of the country4 ,the stage-coach is replaced by the trolley-car1 and the horseback rider1 plodding over corduroy roads with his saddle-bags1 is succeeded by the automobile rider speeding over the most improved highways4 ,farm machinery of all descriptions has revolutionized the old methods of doing farm work4 ,the fish1 game1 and birds are largely gone and in their place are the animal foods raised by man4 ,modern houses1 filled with countless devices for labor-saving and comfort1 have replaced the simple homes of colonial days4 ,what has brought about this change8 ,the energy and industry of ,american men and women1 aided for the most part by ,american inventions1 and made possible by the wonderful natural resources of ,america4 ,no one could wish to have had our country's development checked in any way4 ,these great results could be obtained only by using the materials that could be had easiest and cheapest1 even if it meant great waste in the beginning4 ,labor was scarce and high in this country1 abundant and cheap in ,europe4 ,in order to make goods that could be sold at prices even above those of ,european countries1 it was absolutely necessary to have cheap lumber1 coal and iron4 ,but the time has come when we can no longer continue this waste without interfering with future development4 ,some of the resources have been so exhausted that a few years will see the end of their use in large commercial quantities4 ,others1 such as coal and iron1 will last much longer1 but when they are gone they can never be replaced2 and so far as we can now foresee1 the country will cease to prosper when they can no longer be had for use in manufacturing4 ,the length of time they will last at the present rate of use can be easily calculated4 ,it is a long time for us to look forward1 for it is longer than the lifetime of any man now living1 or of his children1 but it is within the life of his grandchildren1 and that is a very short time in the history of a nation4 ,it may be said that while other nations have passed into decay1 none has ever exhausted its resources so early in its history1 and surely this great rich nation can not so soon face actual need4 ,but we must remember that no other nation has ever used its resources as we have used ours4 ,we are using in years what other nations have used in centuries4 ,it is not possible now1 it probably never will be possible1 to use every particle of a resource4 ,this would be too expensive1 would mean a labor cost far beyond the value of the thing saved4 ,in the beginning1 as we have shown1 the vast wastes were not wanton1 but absolutely necessary1 and we have not yet reached the point where we can afford to use the low-grade ores1 to use all lumber waste and to practise many other economies that may sometime become necessary4 ,but in the case of the forests we should provide enough trees for use in coming years1 and in the case of all minerals1 the refuse should be left in such condition that it can easily be ready for possible future use4 ,if conservation meant leaving our resources untouched1 and checking development in order that there might be an abundance for future generations1 it would be both an unwise and unacceptable policy2 but it must be thoroughly understood that this is not what is desired4 ,conservation does not mean the locking up of our resources1 nor a hindrance to real progress in any direction4 ,it means only wise1 careful use4 ,it does not mean that we shall cease to cut our timber1 but it does mean that we shall not waste two-thirds of all that is cut1 as we are doing at present4 ,it means1 too1 that we shall take better care of articles manufactured from it1 and most of all1 it means that1 when a tree is cut down another shall1 whenever possible1 be planted in its stead to provide for the needs of the future4 ,it means that we shall not allow the farms of our country to lose five hundred million dollars in value every year by letting the rich top-soil drain off into our rivers1 because we have cut away the trees whose roots held the soil in place4 ,it also means that we shall not steadily rob the land of the elements that would produce good crops1 and put nothing back into the soil4 ,it means that we shall not kill the birds that destroy harmful insects and thus invite the insects to destroy the crops that we have cultivated with such care4 ,it does not mean that we shall let our mines of coal and iron lie unused1 as the miser does his gold1 but that we shall1 while taking what we need1 leave as little waste in the mine as possible1 and shall use what we take in the most economical way4 ,this means a saving of money to the user1 as well as a conservation of resources4 ,it means1 too1 that we shall not allow our water-power to remain unused1 while we burn millions of tons of coal in doing the work that water-power would do better4 ,it means that we shall not allow enough natural gas to escape into the air every day to light all the large cities in the ,united ,states4 ,it means that we shall take better care of the life and health of the people4 ,this is the true conservation4 ,in the following chapters we shall take up each of the great resources in turn1 shall see what we have used1 what we have wasted1 what remains to us1 how long it will continue at the present rate1 how it may be used more wisely1 and how it may be replaced1 if that be possible1 or what may be used instead of those which can not be renewed4 ,we shall study how we may make the most of all that nature has given us and develop our country to the highest possible point1 how we may rise far above our present level in comfort1 convenience1 and abundance1 and yet do all these things with much less waste than we now permit4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,soil ,the soil is the greatest of our natural resources4 ,we may almost say that it is greater than all the others combined1 for from it comes all of our food2 a large part of it directly as plants which grow in the soil and which we eat in the form of roots1 leaves1 grains1 berries1 fruits1 and nuts2 and a part of it indirectly as animals1 which have received their food supply from the plants4 ,but this is not all4 ,the soil supplies almost every known need4 ,we build our homes from the trees of the forest2 combined with the iron that comes from the soil they furnish our fuel1 our ships1 our cars1 our furniture1 and countless other things4 ,our clothing is made from the cotton or flax which grows from the soil1 the wool from the sheep that feed on the pastures1 or from the silk-worms that feed on leaves4 ,so it is to the earth that we turn for every need1 and ,mother ,nature supplies it4 ,but it is of the soil as it gives us our food supply that we shall speak in this chapter1 and we must first learn the nature of the soil1 and the process of its making1 in order to understand the need of extraordinary care in its management1 and also how to use it so that it will not wear out1 or become exhausted1 but will increase in value for years and even centuries1 as it will if properly cared for4 ,the earth's surface is constantly being renewed4 ,although the great formative movements occurred ages ago1 yet earthquakes1 volcanic action1 wind1 frost and water are working continual changes4 ,hills and mountains have been thrown up1 and nature has gone to work at once to shave down the mountains and fill up the valleys4 ,the whole earth is as carefully adjusted and balanced as the wheels of a watch1 but these adjustments take place in long periods of time4 ,in a lifetime1 or even a century1 the changes of the earth's surface seem few and small1 but they are none the less sure4 ,the soil or humus1 that is1 the upper layer of the earth's crust which is used in farming1 has an average depth of about four feet1 and has been formed by decay1 first and most important of all by rock decay which is constantly going on under the surface of the earth and in exposed places everywhere1 and is caused by the action of air and water4 ,this process is very slow4 ,in places where the rock is already partly ground up1 or1 disintegrated1 as we sometimes say1 it is more rapid1 but the average growth of the soil from beneath by rock decay is scarcely more than a foot in ten thousand years4 ,some waste of this upper layer is constantly taking place from above1 caused by wind and floods1 and considerable additions are made to it by the decay of animal and vegetable matter1 but in order to keep the soil at its best1 the average soil waste should not amount to more than an inch every thousand years4 ,when this humus is once exhausted there is no way to repair the damage but to wait for the slow rock-decay4 ,in the river valleys there is no immediate danger of exhausting the entire body of the soil1 but on the hills and in the higher regions the soil-depth is very much less than four feet1 and the danger of waste much more serious4 ,there are parts of the earth that were once almost as fertile as ours where great cities once stood1 but where now nothing is left but the bare rock4 ,so we know that the end is sure1 even for the life of man upon earth1 unless we learn to conserve our soil4 ,the value of our farm crops can not be overestimated4 ,in food value they are the life of the nation2 in money value1 our greatest national wealth4 ,for the year #aiji the total value of farm products was the amazing sum of #h1gfj1jjj1jjj4 ,it may give some idea of this vast amount to say that if we could have it in the form of twenty-dollar gold pieces1 stacked in one pile1 the column would reach seven hundred miles high4 ,if they were laid flat1 edge to edge1 they would extend from ,alaska to the ,panama ,canal1 with enough left over to reach from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco4 ,if the money could be distributed1 it would give us all1 every man1 woman and child in the ,united ,states1 one hundred dollars apiece4 ,the corn crop was worth #a1gbj1jjj1jjj2 the cotton #hej1jjj1jjj2 wheat comes third with a value of #gbe1jjj1jjj2 then come hay1 oats1 and other crops in vast amounts worth hundreds of millions of dollars4 ,the cotton alone was worth more than the world's output of gold and silver combined4 ,the corn would pay for the ,panama ,canal1 for fifty battleships1 and for the irrigation projects in the ,west1 with a hundred million dollars left over4 ,and this is all new wealth4 ,if we build a house1 we have gained the house1 but the trees of which we build it are gone4 ,the same thing is true of every article we manufacture4 ,something is taken from our store in the making4 ,but after we have taken these wonderful crops from our farms the land is still there1 and the soil is just as ready to produce a good crop the next year1 and the next1 and the next1 if we treat it properly4 ,this matter of soil conservation is of the greatest importance to every one of us4 ,if you are to own a farm1 or rent a farm1 or till a garden1 or plant an orchard ten years from now1 it will make a great difference to you whether the man who owns it from now until then knows how to care for it so as to make it produce well1 or whether1 by neglect1 he allows it to become poorer each year4 ,it will make a far greater difference if twenty years elapse4 ,it makes a difference to the farmer whether he gets twelve bushels of wheat to the acre1 or whether he gets twenty1 for the cost of producing the smaller amount is just as great as the cost of producing the larger1 and the extra bushels are all profit4 ,it makes a difference whether a garden furnishes all the fruit and vegetables needed by the family1 or whether it does not even pay for cultivation1 and the food must be bought at high prices4 ,it makes even more difference to the dweller in the city1 who must buy all that he eats1 whether food is abundant or not4 ,if food is abundant1 prices are low1 but when the yield is small the demand is so great that prices become high4 ,not only the men1 but the women and children as well1 are affected by these food values1 because it is from the extra money left over after the actual cost of living is taken out that the clothing1 the house-furnishings1 books1 pictures1 music1 travel and all the pleasures of life must come4 ,great as are our harvests1 we are not raising much more than enough for our present needs4 ,each year we are using more of our food at home1 and have less to export to other countries4 ,in a few years more the public lands will all be taken1 and there will be comparatively little more land than we now cultivate to supply a population that will be many times as great as at present4 ,men who watch the great movements of the world tell us that the time is coming before many years when there will not be food enough to supply all our people1 when we shall be buying food from other countries instead of selling to them1 when we shall have famine instead of plenty unless we realize the danger and at once set about to make the most of every acre of our land4 ,james ,j4 ,hill1 the great railroad builder of the ,northwest1 and one of the best informed men of the country on food production and the increase of population1 is doing a great work in pointing out these dangers to the people on every possible occasion4 ,watching the great food-producing region of the country1 he has noted that each year the yield per acre is growing less1 and the population steadily more4 ,he tells us that when our first census was taken only four per cent4 of the people lived in cities1 that fifty years ago one-third of the people lived in cities1 and two-thirds in the country1 that is1 two-thirds of the people were furnishing food to the remainder4 ,now conditions are almost exactly reversed4 ,only one-third remain in the country1 and must supply the food1 not only for themselves1 but for all the two-thirds who are not food producers1 so that the food supply is lagging far behind the demand4 ,the price of corn has advanced from twenty-five cents to sixty-five cents a bushel in ten years1 and this in turn raises the price of live stock4 ,and so all along the line4 ,prices are growing higher all the time because not enough food is being produced to supply the demand4 ,so we can see that it is absolutely necessary that the soil be properly cared for if we are to continue to increase and prosper1 for as ,secretary ,wilson has said1 ,upon the fertility of the soil depends the whole business of agriculture4 ,the soil is exhausted in two ways3 7#a7 ,by erosion1 or the carrying away of the entire soil itself4 7#b7 ,by so using the soil that one or more of its principal elements are worn out4 ,we shall consider this form of soil exhaustion first1 because it more directly concerns the work of every farmer4 ,by a fertile soil is meant one that has an abundance of plant food in the proper proportions4 ,the soil contains all the elements that are needed to support life1 but they are in an inorganic form1 that is1 they are lifeless4 ,plants alone can take these inorganic substances from the soil1 and change them into starch1 sugar1 fats1 and protein4 ,all animals1 including man1 must get these substances through plants1 or through other animals that have already absorbed them from plants4 ,the soil contains ten elements that are absorbed or assimilated by plants4 ,these are3 7#a7 lime1 7#b7 magnesia1 7#c7 iron1 7#d7 sulphur1 all of which are found in most plants in very small proportions1 and are present in most soils in quantities far beyond the needs of crops for ages to come2 7#e7 carbon1 which is obtained by plants through their leaves directly from the air and the sunshine2 7#f7 hydrogen and 7#g7 oxygen1 which are taken from the water in the soil and carried to the leaves1 where they also help to take the carbon from the atmosphere4 ,with none of these elements1 then1 does the farmer need to concern himself in regions where the water supply is abundant1 as they are1 and will continue to be1 plentifully supplied by nature4 ,but the other three1 7#h7 nitrogen1 7#i7 potassium1 and 7#aj7 phosphorus1 are needed by plants in large quantities1 and are taken from the soil far more rapidly than nature can replace them4 ,all these elements are necessary to plant life1 but some plants require a large amount of one element1 others a small proportion of that1 but a large amount of some of the others4 ,no two varieties of plants require exactly the same proportions1 so it is easy to see that the plant that takes out of the soil any one element makes the soil less capable each year of producing a good crop of the same kind4 ,in the early days of farming in this country1 it was the custom to grow a single crop1 which had been found to give good results1 year after year in the same field4 ,in ,virginia and other near-by states nearly all the best land was given every year to the cultivation of tobacco1 which exhausts the soil rapidly4 ,in the states farther north other crops were planted in the same way4 ,as a result1 some of the most fertile soil in ,virginia1 the ,carolinas1 ,massachusetts1 and other eastern states has been so exhausted that it is no longer worth cultivating4 ,everywhere throughout the ,new ,england states are to be found these worn-out farms1 and1 while they were never so fertile as the lands of the ,mississippi ,valley1 each one was rich enough to support a family in comfort1 with something left to sell2 but because they were required to produce the same crops1 and so take the same element from the soil1 year after year1 they have become so lacking in one of the essential elements that they are unfit for cultivation1 and have been abandoned4 ,it is wisdom and good business policy for farmers to study carefully this question of plant food and to learn what each crop is taking from the soil1 so that it may be replaced4 ,it has been found by long and careful experiments1 that when land has been single cropped1 as this abuse of the land is called1 for a long time1 the soil has been almost entirely deprived of its nitrogen4 ,as you know1 nitrogen is one of the elements of the air1 so that there is a never-ending supply1 but most plants are unable to take it from the air1 and until the last few years the task of replacing nitrogen in the soil was considered impossible4 ,recent discoveries1 however1 have shown that there are two ways in which it may be done4 ,by means of electricity1 nitrogen may be directly combined with the other elements of the soil4 ,the other method is nature's own plan1 and so is easier and cheaper4 ,it has been found that while most plants exhaust the nitrogen from the soil1 one class of plants1 the legumes1 of which beans1 peas1 clover1 and alfalfa are the best known1 have the power of drawing large stores of nitrogen from the air1 and1 by means of bacteria attached to their roots1 restoring it to the ground4 ,so farmers have learned that if they plant corn one year1 it is wiser not to plant corn in the same field the next year1 but to sow wheat1 which requires less nitrogen1 and the following year to sow clover1 so that the nitrogen which the corn and wheat have taken from the soil1 may be put back into it4 ,if the land be naturally fertile1 and has been well cared for1 the soil is then ready to produce a good crop of corn again4 ,if the soil has become worn-out and the farmer is trying to improve its general condition1 he can gain better results by keeping the field in clover a second year1 when a profitable crop of clover seed may be had from the land4 ,this system of changing each year1 and alternating cereal crops1 which take the nitrogen from the soil1 with leguminous plants1 which restore it to the soil again1 is called rotation of crops1 and if regularly followed will preserve a proper balance of nitrogen in the soil4 ,in some parts of the ,west there is a lack of decaying vegetable matter in the soil1 because the few plants which naturally grow there have small roots1 and leave little vegetable material behind when they decay4 ,for this condition one of the best crops to employ in rotation is sugar-beets1 because they strike many small roots deep into the earth4 ,as these decay1 each leaves behind a tiny load of vegetable mold deep in the earth1 and also makes the soil more porous4 ,as the principal elements of the soil needed by sugar-beets are carbon and oxygen1 which are absorbed from the air and sunshine1 and as the beets can be sold at a good profit1 it is an excellent crop to employ in rotation4 ,in the ,united ,states records in various states show that where sugar-beets are used in rotation1 the wheat and corn yield is increased from two to four times1 and in ,germany they are largely used to restore the fertility of the land1 even if the sugar-beets themselves are sold at a loss4 ,it is most important that farmers should understand the principle of rotation of crops1 because nothing is taken from the soil so quickly or in such large quantities as nitrogen1 and nothing is so easily put back2 while1 if it is not so replaced1 the land becomes worthless4 ,a comparison of the results of single cropping and the rotation of crops has been clearly shown at the ,experiment ,station of the ,agricultural ,college of the ,state of ,minnesota1 where for ten years they have planted corn on one plot of ground4 ,for the first five years it averaged a little more than twenty bushels per acre1 and for the last five years1 eleven bushels4 ,on another plot1 where corn was planted in rotation1 the average yield was more than forty-eight bushels1 the difference in average in the two plots being thirty-two bushels1 or twice the value of the entire average yield on the exhausted ground4 ,the corn grown at the end of the ten years was only about three feet high1 the ears were small1 and the grains light in weight4 ,but it cost just as much to cultivate the land that produced it as it did to cultivate the land that produced forty-eight bushels4 ,of the other two elements1 potassium is found abundantly in most soils4 ,it is also found in a readily soluble form in various parts of the ,united ,states and is sold at a very low price4 ,but even if these deposits were exhausted we could still use the rocks which are very rich in potassium1 and are very abundant1 in a pulverized form1 or potash could be manufactured from them4 ,the only remaining element of the soil is phosphorus4 ,this element was discovered in #afjg1 the year of the first ,english settlement at ,jamestown and was first noticed because of its property of giving off light from itself4 ,the name which was given it means light-bearer4 ,it was at first thought to be the source of all power1 to heal all diseases1 and to turn the common minerals into gold4 ,although we have long ago learned that these ideas are absurd1 yet we have also learned that its real value to man is far greater than was even dreamed of then4 ,it is the most important element in every living thing1 for no cell1 however small1 in either animal or vegetable organisms can grow or even live without phosphorus4 ,it is found in the green of the leaves1 and helps to make the starch4 ,it enters largely into the grain and seeds of plants1 and is necessary for their germination1 or sprouting1 as well as their growth4 ,three-fourths of all the phosphorus in a crop of cereals is in the grains1 giving them size and weight4 ,it will thus be seen how necessary it is that the soil which feeds our plants1 which in turn become the food of animals and of man1 should contain a sufficient amount of phosphorus4 ,phosphorus is taken from the soil in large quantities by every kind of crop4 ,in parts of ,wisconsin which have been farmed a little more than fifty years without fertilizing1 it is found that about one-third of the phosphorus has been taken out of the soil1 which would mean that in one hundred and fifty years1 or a hundred years from now1 the soil would be incapable of producing any living thing1 and long before that time the crops would not pay for the labor of producing them4 ,almost every acre of land that has been farmed for ten years without fertilization is deficient in phosphorus1 that is1 so much has been used that the soil can no longer produce at its former rate4 ,it may be asked1 if this be true1 why the soil of ,america1 which before it was cultivated had borne rich forests and fields of waving grass1 has not become exhausted long ago4 ,we must remember that nature always adjusts itself2 that1 in the wild state1 all plants decay where they grow1 and the same elements are returned again to the soil4 ,but when the entire product of vast areas is removed year after year1 the soil has nothing except the slow rock-decay with which to renew itself4 ,in tropical regions it is not necessary to feed domestic animals at any season of the year1 but in those countries where the natural food can be found only during a part of the year1 the need of artificial feeding is seen at once1 and it becomes a part of the regular expense of farming4 ,it would be considered the height of folly for a man to allow his valuable animals to starve to death because of the expense of feeding them1 but few people recognize the fact1 which is also true1 that it is equally bad business policy to allow the valuable crops of wheat1 oats1 and corn to starve for want of plant food4 ,the phosphates 7that is1 phosphorus7 are the only large items of expense1 and in a large measure this may be lessened by raising live stock1 for which high prices can be obtained either as meat or dairy products1 and returning the manure1 which contains a large amount of phosphate1 to the soil4 ,if all the waste animal products could be returned to the land1 ,professor ,van ,hise says1 three-fourths of the phosphorus would be replaced4 ,all animal products are rich in phosphates4 ,the packing houses manufacture large quantities from the bones and blood of animals4 ,the garbage of cities1 when reduced to powder1 yields large returns in phosphorus4 ,it is said that if the sewage of cities1 which in this country is often turned into rivers and streams1 polluting them and causing disease1 was reduced to commercial fertilizer1 it would supply the equivalent of from six to nine pounds of rock phosphate per year for every acre of cultivated land in the ,united ,states4 ,and this valuable product is now totally lost1 and worse than lost1 since it menaces the life and health of great numbers of our people4 ,there still remain to be considered the rock phosphates1 the form in which phosphorus is found in separate deposits4 ,the only large deposits that have been used are in ,florida1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,tennessee1 and from them about two and a quarter million tons were mined in #aijg4 ,unfortunately1 however1 there is no law that prevents its export from this country1 and almost half of this found its way to ,europe1 where it is eagerly sought at high prices4 ,within a short time valuable phosphate beds1 more extensive than any before known to exist in this country1 have been discovered in ,utah1 ,wyoming1 and ,idaho4 ,professor ,van ,hise1 who is one of the highest authorities on the subject1 says of these deposits that with the exception of our coal and iron lands1 they are our most precious mineral possession2 that every ounce should be saved for the time which is coming when the population will have outgrown the capacity of the land1 and means of increasing its fertility in order to prevent famine will be sought from every possible source4 ,the other great waste of the soil is by erosion1 or the wearing away of the soil by stream-flow4 ,we can all see this in a small way by wandering along the shore of any swift-running stream and noticing how the banks are worn away1 and what deep gullies and ravines are cut into them by the water running down from the fields above4 ,another way in which we can observe the effect of this waste is by noticing the muddy yellow color of streams during floods and after heavy rains1 and comparing it with the clear blue of the same stream at ordinary times4 ,when we realize that this muddy color always means that the water is filled with soil1 all that it will hold in solution1 that it is carrying away the top soil1 which is best for agriculture1 and1 finally1 that every little streamlet and creek1 as well as the mightiest river1 is carrying this rich soil-deposit downward toward the sea in its flow1 we begin to see how great a factor erosion is in the wasting of the land4 ,the ,missouri ,river1 which drains a large area of wheat and corn land1 is notable as a muddy1 yellow river at almost all seasons4 ,do you understand what that means8 ,it means that this great productive region is growing poorer each year1 and that as the population increases1 and the need of great harvests increases1 the land is becoming less able to produce them4 ,the ,mississippi ,river is said to tear down from its banks more soil each year than is to be dredged from the ,panama ,canal4 ,at the mouth of the river is a delta many miles in extent1 formed wholly of land that has been carried down the river4 ,the soil in lower ,mississippi and ,louisiana is almost black1 and is in many places seventy feet in depth1 and it has all been left there by the river1 which took it from the higher lands4 ,it is estimated that our rivers carry out to sea one billion tons of our richest soil each year4 ,the ancient ,egyptians worshiped the ,nile because each year the spring floods left behind the rich soil deposits that fertilized their fields and gave them an abundant harvest4 ,entire fields and even whole farms along the upper stretches of the ,mississippi and ,missouri have been carried away1 not the top soil only1 but the land itself1 by the swift current of the springtime floods as they cut a new channel for the river4 ,canaan1 the land of promise of the ,bible1 was once an abundant region1 flowing with milk and honey in the language of ,moses1 with its grapes1 its vast forests of cedar1 fir1 and oak1 its treasures of wheat1 olive-oil1 and other rich agricultural products4 ,now all are gone4 ,the entire country seen by the traveler in the ,holy ,land to-day is one of the most desolate regions on the globe1 where the few inhabitants are scarcely able to obtain a scanty living4 ,we wonder what has brought about this change1 and we have not far to seek in answer to our questioning4 ,the preservation of the forests means the preservation of the soil1 and the destruction of the forests means the destruction of the soil4 ,this is the universal law4 ,first the forests were cut down and the hillsides left bare4 ,then the streams wore great ravines down the unprotected hillsides4 ,steadily the work of destruction by erosion has gone on1 until time beyond our possibility to comprehend must pass before the land can be made productive again4 ,the hills and valleys of ,china have been devastated in the same way1 and many of the older regions of the earth that were once the sites of great cities and extensive commerce are now marked only by the ruins of the civilization that has passed away4 ,they have almost ceased to support life4 ,in the days of ,rome's greatness1 ,sicily was known as the granary of ,rome because from this little island came the grains to supply her vast armies4 #ab1jjj1jjj bushels of grain was the tribute that ,rome claimed of ,sicily each year1 and yet ,sicily had enough left to make her rich4 ,she built splendid cities and became great4 ,but the same story of destruction is to be read in the history of ,sicily4 ,now the entire island does not raise a million and a half bushels of wheat altogether4 ,the soil is barren4 ,the cities have nearly all fallen into ruin4 ,the people are scattered4 ,thousands have come to ,america1 seeking a poor living at the lowest wages because at home there was no chance to earn even the little they require4 ,they allowed the soil to become exhausted by lack of fertilization and by erosion and it long ago ceased to support the people4 ,all the rest followed naturally4 ,in many parts of our own country this same danger is coming on us4 ,it is only the beginning1 but the end is as sure for us as for those far-off ,eastern countries4 ,millions of acres have already been destroyed in the ,east and ,south4 ,the ,appalachian mountain system lies not far from the coast1 and the rivers on the eastern slopes are short and swift4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to exercise the greatest care of the forests in order to prevent the floods in this region from carrying away the lands in their swift rush to the sea4 ,north ,carolina was one of the richest states in the ,union in natural resources a hundred years ago4 ,now it is low on the list in agricultural products4 ,the forests on its mountain tops were valuable for their lumber1 their turpentine1 pitch1 and other products1 and great lumber companies have almost denuded the hillsides1 regardless of the fate of the lands they cut over4 ,the people of the state are powerless to prevent this except by buying all of these lands and replanting the forests4 ,they have been pleading with ,congress for power to stop the destruction of their forests and the wasting of their lands1 but so far have received no assistance and meanwhile the land grows poorer each year4 ,the same conditions are to be found in many other states that now rank high agriculturally1 but in ,north ,carolina we are beginning to see results4 ,in order to understand exactly how the damage is done to the land1 let us suppose a case which has actually occurred in hundreds of places4 ,a farmer owned a farm on the mountain side4 ,much of it was good wheat land1 but the top was covered with forests4 ,at last he decided to cut and sell the timber1 and use the land for raising more wheat4 ,he did so1 but now there was no spreading foliage to check the dash of the heavy rains as they fell to the ground4 ,as they sank below the surface there were no masses of tangled roots to hold the moisture in the soil and to carry it up into the air again through the trees4 ,as the water penetrated deeper1 the soil became softened1 and was carried away down the hillside4 ,it was only a muddy little stream1 but it took away some of the richest soil from the fields1 and the next year's crop was not quite so good4 ,every rain that fell carried more of the fertile soil down the hillside1 and the next year the farmer wondered that the yield was still less4 ,after a few years he ceased to sow the field because it had never paid for its cultivation1 and was constantly growing poorer4 ,but it was too late then to repair the damage that had been done4 ,there were no seeds of forest trees left in the ground and the farmer did not plant them1 so the ground lay idle and desolate4 ,the rain wore deep gullies down the hillside1 which1 as they grew larger1 became more of a menace to the lands below them4 ,the streams soon grew large enough to take the top-soil from the fields lower down1 and in a few years more the whole farm had grown so unproductive that the farmer1 tired of the struggle1 left the farm and went to the city to make a living4 ,in the meantime the land in the valley below had been growing more fertile1 for each year the spring floods had left a rich soil deposit behind them4 ,the farmer down there had been innocently stealing the land above him1 but not all of it1 for much had been carried out to sea4 ,it is not possible to prevent this entirely1 but much of the loss might have been avoided by leaving the hilltops1 which are never well fitted for cultivation1 covered with forests4 ,in this way the soil-wash from above is prevented and the streams run gently and with only a small amount of muddy deposit1 forming proper drainage for the soil4 ,the preserving of the forests on the great mountain ranges of the country1 where nature has placed them1 will mean in the one matter of soil-wash1 fruitful lands and bountiful harvests1 instead of barren1 wasted lands1 desolated by floods and seamed by great ravines1 carrying desolation to the lands below them4 ,but in many cases the trees are already cut away4 ,here replanting becomes necessary and should be done in every case where soil-wash is beginning on the mountain tops4 ,it is almost equally desirable to plant small shrubs and bushes as an undergrowth1 so that the roots may form a thick mat below the ground to hold the water in the soil1 and permit it to filter through slowly4 ,in ,massachusetts1 the tracks of the ,boston and ,albany ,railroad are depressed so that trains may pass below the level of the highways4 ,in order to protect the banks from erosion1 the sloping sides of this roadway have been planted with trailing rose-bushes and other vines which have thickly matted roots4 ,these serve a double purpose in preventing landslides and washouts on the tracks1 and in adding greatly to the attractiveness of the scenery along the railway4 ,the poorest land of a farm is always found on the hilltops1 because even with the greatest care there is always considerable waste of the top-soil4 ,this land1 then1 should never be used for field crops4 ,it should constitute the woodland1 or if this is not possible1 the pasture-land of the farm1 for the grass roots protect the soil and prevent it from washing away1 and the profits on the hay are at least as great as any other crop which could be grown on hill land4 ,but when erosion has been checked and the top-soil preserved1 when the soil is thoroughly fertilized1 and a proper rotation of crops established1 there are still other lessons to be learned in order to make our country as productive as it might be1 as it will need to be to support the population that we shall have by the end of the century4 ,as a nation we undertake to farm too much land and do it carelessly4 ,the invention of labor-saving machinery has made it possible to farm hundreds and even thousands of acres together with little physical labor4 ,this has made farmers heedless of small amounts of land wasted4 ,a man often only expects to make a comfortable living on one hundred and sixty acres of land1 while in ,europe he would expect to grow rich on two or three acres4 ,it is often said that a ,french family would live off of an ,american farmer's neglected fence-corners4 ,in ,france1 in ,england1 in ,holland and ,belgium every bit of land is tended and made useful4 ,we have the best natural soil in the world1 the most fertile river valleys1 watered by abundant rains4 ,the fertility of our lands is the envy of the civilized world1 and has drawn thousands to our shores in the hope of finding comfort and plenty1 and yet the total value of our farm products was only eleven dollars and thirty-eight cents per cultivated acre according to the last census1 while in the little island of ,jersey1 just off the ,english coast1 the average annual value of products is over two hundred and fifty dollars per acre4 ,germany has been cultivated nearly eighteen hundred years1 the soil is not naturally so productive nor the climate so favorable as ours1 but the wheat yield there averages more than twice as much as in this country4 ,when the most fertile land in the world produces so much less than poorer lands elsewhere it plainly shows that we are robbing the soil in order to get the largest cash returns in the shortest possible time and with the least possible labor4 ,the ,american farmer needs to cultivate a much smaller amount of land thoroughly1 to have a soil analysis made of his land in order to know what crops are best suited to it and what elements are lacking to make it produce the best4 ,in ,illinois more than half a million acres had become unfit for cultivation4 ,analysis showed that the soil was too acid4 ,by mixing limestone dust with the soil the trouble was corrected and the land reclaimed4 ,often it is only necessary to find the cause of some deficiency1 or lack1 in the soil1 and the remedy will be found to be simple and cheap1 while the result of its use will be to double the crop4 ,nothing else so quickly and easily responds to proper treatment1 no other resource is so easily conserved4 ,all the soil needs is proper treatment4 ,every bit of waste land should be cultivated for either use or beauty1 or both4 ,if all the lanes and neglected places could be planted with fruit and nut trees1 berry vines1 and bushes1 herbs or flowers which need little cultivation after they are planted1 our food1 in variety and quantity1 would be greatly increased4 ,the hedge-rows of ,old ,england are famous for their beauty and the air of comfort and prosperity they give4 ,they take the place of the weeds that grow by the country roadsides in ,america and which constitute one of the greatest nuisances of the farmer4 ,another thing that should be considered is the marketing of farm products4 ,near a city or near a canning factory the soil can be most profitably used for the raising of vegetables1 for which the cost of cultivation is great1 but which yield far larger profits than farm crops4 ,within the last few years a new system of farming has been developed in the ,west1 which is of great interest to all of us1 both because it is opening up for production a large part of our country that has seemed valueless1 and because the lessons that have been learned there are of the greatest advantage in every part of the country4 ,west of the one-hundredth meridian1 which crosses ,north and ,south ,dakota1 the western part of ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 ,oklahoma1 and ,texas1 and including the states west of them1 lies a vast region that used to be known as the great ,american desert4 ,it comprises almost half of the ,united ,states4 ,here the noble forests of the eastern states and the prairie grasses of the plains were replaced by sage-brush and cactus4 ,the soil was light in color and weight1 and the rainfall very scanty4 ,it seemed impossible that it could ever be fitted for agriculture4 ,but there were a few great rivers1 rich mining districts1 and excellent grazing lands4 ,these attracted settlers1 and to them some cultivation of the soil became almost a necessity4 ,the waste waters of the rivers were used for irrigation and the land when watered was found to produce remarkably fine fruits and agricultural products4 ,yet there were hundreds of thousands of acres that could not be irrigated for lack of water1 and the problem of finding a use for these barren1 semi-arid lands remained unsolved for many years4 ,but here and there in different states and under varying conditions1 after many experiments and failures1 men began without water to grow successful crops on these semi-arid lands1 where the rainfall was scarcely more than ten inches per year4 ,others following this method found success1 and it began to seem possible that all this territory might some day become a great farming region4 ,by comparing the methods employed in different states1 the few general laws have been worked out which must be applied in order to farm successfully in this region1 though the details differ with local differences in altitude1 climate1 soil1 and rainfall4 ,here farming is being reduced to a science4 ,in other parts of the country a man sows his seed and nature cares for it1 and gives him his harvest2 but here he must wring from nature all that he gets1 so it is only the man who farms according to fixed laws who can hope to succeed4 ,this system is usually called dry farming1 though scientific farming would perhaps be a better name1 for the same principles that are absolutely necessary here will greatly increase the yield anywhere4 ,the most important principle is to conserve every particle of moisture in the soil4 ,it is necessary to go deep into the soil to find the underlying moisture4 ,the seed-bed is made very deep4 ,plowing is from sixteen to nineteen inches deep1 while in well-watered regions it is only about six inches4 ,this deep seed-bed is thoroughly cultivated to make the soil porous1 the soil being reduced to a fine powder4 ,after sowing the seed1 the ground is packed as solidly as possible4 ,this is done by especially designed machines4 ,the surface of the soil is kept broken all the time to prevent the escape of the moisture4 ,this rule applies equally to all soils in dry weather1 and will often save a crop of corn in any part of the country during a drought4 ,these are simple rules1 but the practice of them is opening up the great semi-arid regions1 not of the ,united ,states only1 but of the whole earth4 ,western ,canada1 a large part of ,australia1 the ,kalahari ,desert of ,africa1 and many parts of ,asia1 which are all semi-arid1 will in time become productive instead of barren4 ,it must be remarked that the grains of the ,east could not withstand the severe winters in a large part of the ,northwest1 so the ,department of ,agriculture sent men all over the world to find drought-and-cold-resisting grains4 ,they found a hard winter wheat1 the most nutritious in existence1 which is now growing all the way from the ,dakotas to the ,pacific ,ocean1 producing crops far above the yield of the eastern states4 #ej1jjj1jjj bushels of this wheat was raised in #aijg4 ,the soil is the natural disintegrated rock1 rich in the mineral elements1 but lacking in decayed vegetable matter4 ,the crops soon exhaust the nitrogen1 and as clover and the common alfalfas can not grow there1 the problem of finding legumes has been the most serious one facing this new region2 but in ,siberia the ,agricultural ,department has recently found a new clover and three varieties of alfalfa that will stand the cold1 and ,secretary ,wilson believes that these will solve the problem4 ,every acre brought under cultivation adds to the world's food supply4 ,can we even dream of what it will mean when #bjj1jjj1jjj acres are added to the farm lands of this continent8 ,it means prosperity for the farmers themselves1 homes for those who are now crowded in cities1 work for the idle1 and food for the hungry4 ,it means wealth and happiness for thousands now living and millions yet to come4 ,,references ,lands4 ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,soil ,wastage4 ,chamberlain4 ,report ,white ,house ,conference of ,governors4 ,conservation of ,soils4 ,van ,hise4 7,same47 ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #dd4;,a ,footnote ,a3 ,department of ,agriculture bulletins are free unless a price is indicated1 and may be obtained by application to ,the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,postage is free in the ,united ,states4 ,these bulletins contain the latest scientific information and result of research work by the government4 ,the ,liming of ,soils4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #eg4 ,renovation of ,worn-out ,soils4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #bde4 ,soil ,fertility4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #beg4 ,management of ,soils to ,conserve ,moisture4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #bff4 ,fertilizers for ,cotton ,soils4 ,bureau of ,soils ,bulletin1 #fb4 ,work of the ,bureau of ,soils4 ,bureau of ,soils ,bulletin4 ,exhaustion and ,abandonment of ,soils4 ,bureau of ,soils ,bulletin4 ,whitney1 #e;c4 ,phosphorus4 ,illinois ,agricultural ,experiment ,station ,bulletin4 ,the ,present ,status of the ,nitrogen ,problem4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,reprint1 #daa4 ,the ,search for ,leguminous ,forage ,crops4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,reprint1 #dgh4 ,leguminous ,crops4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #bgh4 ,progress in ,legume ,inoculation4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #cae4 ,a ,grain for ,semi-arid ,lands4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #aci4 ,the ,sugar-,beet4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin1 #eb4 ,dry-,land ,problems in the ,great ,plains ,area4 ,yearbook ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,reprint1 #dfa4 ,reports of ,dry ,farming ,congress4 ,the ,natural ,wealth of the ,land4 ,j4 ,j4 ,hill1 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,national ,wealth and the ,farm4 ,j4 ,j4 ,hill4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,forests ,aside from the soil itself1 which supports all life1 there is no other resource so important to man as the forests1 with their many uses covering so wide a range4 ,the beauty and restfulness of a forest1 the grace and dignity of single trees1 the shade for man and animals1 the shelter from storms--all these things appeal to our love for the beautiful1 and touch our higher nature4 ,the person who loves trees is a better person than the one who does not4 ,as the poet expresses it3 ,ah1 bare must be the shadeless ways1 and bleak the path must be1 ,of him1 who1 having open eyes1 has never learned do see1 ,and so has never learned to love the beauty of a tree4 ,who loves a tree1 he loves the life that springs in star and clod1 ,he loves the love that gilds the clouds1 and greens the ,april sod1 ,he loves the wide ,beneficence2 his soul takes hold on ,god4 ,trees have played an important part in the history of our country3 ,the ,charter ,oak1 in the hollow of which the original charter of ,connecticut remained hidden from the agents of the king2 ,eliot's ,oak1 under which the gospel was first preached to the ,indians2 the wide-spreading elm under which ,william ,penn signed his treaty of peace with the ,indians4 ,but no tree has held so dear a place in the hearts of the people1 or been so watchfully cared for as the old ,washington ,elm still standing in ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts4 ,under it ,washington took command of the continental army4 ,it is visited every year by hundreds of persons1 who stand with uncovered heads beneath its spreading branches4 ,many years ago it was struck by lightning and the upper part torn off1 but all the broken edges have been sealed with pitch to stop decay4 ,it has been covered with fine wire netting to prevent the bark being chipped off by relic hunters4 ,it is carefully guarded from damage by insects1 and the boughs are stayed by strong wires4 ,and so we might name many instances of trees that are loved and cared for on account of their beauty1 stateliness or some event connected with them1 but it is the usefulness of trees that we shall mention in this chapter4 ,in the larger use of forests is included their effect on climate and rainfall4 ,it is generally believed that clouds1 passing over the damp1 cool air that rises from a forest1 are more likely to be condensed into rain1 and so we can establish the general rule that the country which is well wooded will probably have a larger rainfall than the one which has few trees4 ,twenty-five years ago ,kansas was a prairie state with few trees1 and the semi-arid plains extended half-way across the state1 but thousands of acres of trees have been planted1 and crops have been cultivated1 and the more forests and crops the farmer plants the more rain comes to water them4 ,the great droughts which used to ruin their crops year after year no longer disturb them4 ,the hot winds which could undo a whole season's hard work in a day are seldom heard of now4 ,kansas is no longer in the semi-arid region4 ,it is one of the most productive states in the ,union1 and this has come1 not by dry-farming1 but by the cultivation of the soil and by the planting of trees4 ,though rainfall increases1 destructive floods become fewer1 for the humus and the leaves on the ground in the forests hold the water as in a vast sponge1 and1 as we have seen in the preceding chapter1 they keep the waters in check and distribute the rainfall gently and evenly on the lands below4 ,they thus prevent erosion of the hillsides and balance the water supply of rivers4 ,trees supply us with food and medicine1 and greatest of all their direct uses1 they furnish lumber for all kinds of manufacturing4 ,we can not think of life without the comforts and conveniences that we get from wood2 but interior ,china affords a striking example of what it means for a nation to have a very small supply4 ,there is no wood for manufacturing and the natives search the hillsides for even the tiniest shrubs to burn and even for grass scratched from the soil4 ,once this part of ,china was a great forest region1 but century by century the forests have been used1 not rapidly1 as in this country1 for ,china is not a great industrial nation1 but surely1 until there is hardly a twig left4 ,china is not the only nation that has suffered in this way4 ,many of the ancient peoples have entirely passed away2 and the destruction of their forests1 as we have seen in the previous chapter1 was the first cause leading to their extinction4 ,denmark was originally almost covered with forests4 ,these were cut down for fuel1 for lumber1 and to make way for agriculture4 ,for a long time there was no attempt to restore them1 and now a large area1 once productive1 has become a sandy desert4 ,in the same way1 large parts of ,austria and ,italy have become valueless because the growing forests were cut down4 ,in ,france the forests at the head-waters of the ,rhone and the ,seine were cut down and fierce floods began to pour down the valleys each year1 bringing destruction to property and crops all along their way4 ,but ,france has long ago learned the lesson of forestry1 and as soon as the danger was seen1 the mountain sides were replanted with trees1 and since then conditions have been gradually changing for the better4 ,france has had another experience in forestry that has taught her what can be done to save her waste lands4 ,near the coast were great sand-dunes4 ,the winds drove them each year farther inland1 and the sand was gradually driving out the vineyards and farm crops4 ,in #agic the planting of forests on these dunes was begun4 ,of #cej1jjj acres1 #bge1jjj have been planted in valuable pine forests4 ,more than half of these belong to private owners and there is no record of their value1 but the portion belonging to the government has yielded a large income above all expenses1 and is worth #aj1jjj1jjj as land2 and this was not only valueless but was a menace to the surrounding country4 ,in the interior of ,france a sandy marsh covering #b1jjj1jjj acres has been changed into a profitable forest valued at #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,a hundred years ago all the eastern part of the ,united ,states and the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,pacific coast region were covered with thick forests hundreds and hundreds of miles in extent4 ,evergreens--the pines1 hemlocks1 cedars and spruces--grew near the coast in great abundance1 while farther inland were found the most magnificent hardwood forests in the world4 ,unfortunately1 the first needs of the early settlers required them to cut down these mighty forests4 ,the soil1 which was very fertile1 could not1 of course1 be used for farming purposes until the land was cleared1 and so this was the first necessity4 ,the wood was used to build the cabins1 to make the rude furniture1 the wagons and ox-carts1 and for fuel1 but this disposed of only a small amount of the wood that came from the clearing of a farm4 ,no man could give it to his neighbor when all had more than they could use1 and there was no market for its sale4 ,the trees were burned in large quantities to clear the land for the planting of crops4 ,wood was of the greatest value to the first settlers1 but it was also the greatest hindrance to their making homes1 so they took no care whatever of what they could not use4 ,it was burned or left on the ground to decay4 ,as towns sprang up1 there began to be a demand for lumber for houses1 for furniture1 for vehicles and for fuel from those who had no trees of their own4 ,this made a market for the best grades of lumber at a low price1 but almost every farmer would give away trees of the best hardwood to any person who would cut and haul them away4 ,conditions have changed very slowly1 but very surely4 ,in every state1 in every county and in every township there has been a steady clearing of the land as it fills with new home-makers4 ,at the same time the demand has grown enormously each year from the dwellers in cities4 ,the opening up of railroads and telegraph lines in the middle and latter part of the century made a great demand for wood4 ,the building of ships and steamboats1 the opening of mines1 the establishing of telephone and trolley systems1 the building of great cities1 all these have called steadily and increasingly for wood4 ,the time has long passed when wood was a hindrance to progress4 ,for a long time there has been a ready market at high prices and it is rapidly reaching the point where we shall face an actual shortage of timber4 ,this is not true of all parts of the country1 of course4 ,maine1 ,washington1 and parts of ,oregon1 ,alabama1 ,arkansas1 and ,mississippi1 ,wisconsin and some other states1 still have vast quantities of lumber1 but trains and ships carry it to all parts of the world so there is no lack of a market4 ,the change from plenty1 even great excess1 to need1 has come so gradually that few persons1 even those living in the forest regions1 have realized until within a very few years how general is their destruction4 ,those who1 riding about a small portion of the country familiar to them1 have been struck with the disappearance of the woods and the cultivation of the lands1 have looked upon it wholly as a sign of progress1 and have not realized that the same thing is going on in every part of the country4 ,the wholesale destruction of the forests1 without replanting1 has come mostly from ignorance4 ,we have had all our resources in such great abundance that we have not hitherto needed to learn the lessons that the ,old ,world has learned1 sometimes at the cost of whole nations1 but the time has come when we do need to learn them4 ,the first lesson is to study the various uses of the forests1 to find how they are being affected by present use1 their wastes1 and the best means of preserving them4 ,when all the people have learned these lessons1 they will1 undoubtedly1 gladly set about righting the wrongs that have been done in the past4 ,the original forests of this country covered an area of about #hej1jjj1jjj acres1 with nearly five and a half trillion board feet of merchantable1 that is1 salable1 timber according to present standards4 7,a board foot is one foot long1 one foot wide and one inch in thickness47 ,considerably more than half the original number of acres are still forested1 but most of the land has been cut or burned over1 some of it several times1 and the amount remaining of salable timber1 which includes only the best part of the trunk1 is from two to two and a half trillion1 that is from #a1djj to #b1jjj billion1 feet4 ,the yearly cut for all purposes1 including waste1 is now over two hundred billion board feet2--some authorities place the amount as high as two hundred and seventy-five billion feet4 ,this1 however1 probably includes firewood1 one of the largest uses of wood1 but taken very largely from worm-eaten wood that could not be cut into lumber4 ,it also probably includes boughs1 and other unsalable parts of the tree4 ,the timber cut doubled from #ahhj to #aije1 is still increasing at almost the same rate1 and1 if we had the timber1 it would doubtless double again by #aicj4 ,but even at the present rate1 the forests now standing1 without allowance for growth1 would be exhausted in from ten to sixteen years4 ,the yearly growth of timber in our present forests is estimated at from forty-two to sixty billion feet1 and the yearly cut at from three to three and a half times the amount added for growth4 ,that is1 we are using in four months at least as much wood as will naturally grow in a year4 ,the other eight months we shall be using our forest reserves1 and each year there will be less forest land to produce new growth1 as well as less old wood to cut4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,long1 an expert lumberman who spoke before the first ,conservation ,congress1 estimated then that the forests1 making allowance for growth1 would not last over thirty-five years4 ,the government figures indicate that they will last about thirty-three years1 at the present rate1 but as the rate has been doubling every twenty-five years1 many persons who have studied the situation believe that the supply will not continue in commercial quantities for manufacturing more than twenty-five years4 ,we must understand1 must think1 what the destruction of our forests would mean to us4 ,it would mean fierce droughts and fiercer floods4 ,it would mean the gradual drying up of our streams1 a scarcity of water to drink1 as in ,china to-day4 ,it would mean that the manufacture of wooden articles would practically cease4 ,the thousand conveniences that we enjoy as a matter of course would become rare and costly4 ,it would mean that only the rich could build houses of wood1 and this would force the masses of people into crowded quarters1 not only the poor1 but the well-to-do also4 ,these are only a few of the many disasters that would follow the loss of our forests1 and all these things might come to pass before we ourselves are old6 ,if we knew that at a certain time a tidal wave would engulf our homes1 how we should work to save all that we could before the calamity overtook us6 ,and we should set about the saving of our forests with equal care1 for their destruction means distress for every one of us4 ,fortunately1 this is only the dark possibility4 ,the methods of prevention are well known to those who have studied the history of the nations that have fallen1 and the nations that have risen to power4 ,it is only necessary that all the people should know these things and realize their importance1 in order to keep conditions as they are at present or even to better them4 ,the methods of prevention are five4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,to use the trees in the most careful and conservative way without the great wastes now common4 7#b7 ,to save the vast areas of forests that are now burned each year4 7#c7 ,to prevent loss from insects4 7#d7 ,to use substitutes3 that is1 to use other and cheaper materials to take the place of wood whenever possible4 7#e7 ,to plant trees and to replant where old ones have been cut1 until all land that is not fitted for agriculture is covered with forests4 ,these are only the rules that good sense and good business would teach us to follow1 but we have not followed any of them in the past1 and now it will be necessary to do all these things if we are to continue to have enough wood to use to keep pace with our progress in other directions4 ,as an example of the rapid rate at which we are consuming our forests1 we use nine times as much lumber for every man1 woman and child as the people of ,germany use1 and twenty-five times as much as the people of ,england use4 ,this is due to several causes1 many of which we would not wish changed4 ,to begin with1 this was a new and undeveloped country1 a large part of which had never been inhabited1 and all the land1 as fast as it was occupied1 must be built up with entirely new homes2 and because wood is the cheapest building material it is the one generally used4 ,the growth of all ,european countries is mostly by the increase of their own people1 while this is only a small percentage of our growth1 which comes largely from immigration from other countries1 so the increase of population is much greater here and the proportion of new homes needed is far greater4 ,improvements of all kinds1 public buildings1 churches and bridges were built in almost every ,european community long ago1 while in this country these things are being done each year in thousands of places4 ,wages are higher in this country1 and more people are able to afford the luxuries of life1 vehicles1 musical instruments1 and the large variety of small conveniences to be found in almost every ,american home but seen in few homes of the poorer class in ,europe4 ,these are a few of the reasons why we use such a large amount of lumber each year4 ,they are all conditions that mean a larger1 better nation than we could otherwise have1 with a higher standard of living1 and while in some particulars1 as we shall show1 there should be changes that would conserve our forests1 the great wastes do not lie in the use1 but in the abuse of the forests4 ,now let us see what use is made of all the wood that is cut every year4 ,the greatest use of all is for firewood1 but this is largely the decaying or faulty trees from farmers' wood-lots1 or the waste product of a lumber region1 so this does not constitute so heavy a drain on the forests as the fact that #ajj1jjj1jjj cords a year are used1 would indicate4 ,twenty times as much of the salable timber is sawed into lumber as is used in any other way4 ,nearly #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet are thus used1 but lumber is used in a variety of ways1 while the other cuts are confined to a single use4 ,the first and greatest use of lumber is for building purposes1 for houses1 barns1 sheds1 out-buildings1 fences1 and for window-sashes1 doors and inside finishings of all buildings1 even those made of other materials4 ,next comes furniture of all kinds1--chairs1 tables1 beds1 and all other house1 office1 and school furniture2 musical instruments1 pianos1 etc41 vehicles of all kinds1--farm wagons1 delivery wagons1 carriages and other pleasure vehicles1 including parts of automobile bodies1 agricultural implements1 plows1 harrows1 harvesters1 threshing machines and other farm implements4 ,though these are built largely of iron1 yet one-fourth of the implement factories report a use of #bae1jjj1jjj feet of lumber a year1 so the entire output of these factories calls for a large amount of wood from our forests4 ,car building is the other really great use for lumber4 ,freight cars1 passenger cars1 and trolley cars use each year an increasingly large proportion of the product of our saw-mills4 ,after these come the various smaller articles1 which1 though themselves small1 are used in every home and are turned out in such vast quantities as to require a very large amount of lumber each year4 ,an empty spool seems a trifle1 but the making of all the spools requires the cutting of hundreds of acres of ,new ,england's best birch woods4 ,butter dishes1 fruit crates1 baskets1 wooden boxes of all kinds1 tools and handles1 kitchen utensils1 toys and sporting goods1 picture molding and frames1 grille and fretwork1 excelsior1 clothes-pins1 matches1 tooth-picks1--all these are mowing down our forests by the thousands of acres4 ,the lumber cut includes all kinds of both hard and soft woods4 ,a very large percentage of this is of yellow or southern hard pine1 of which several billion feet a year are used4 ,an almost equal amount is used for hewn cross-ties for railroads and trolley lines4 ,many sawed cross-ties are included in the item of lumber4 ,the hewed cross-ties are made from young oak-trees1 or from hard-pine1 cedar and chestnut4 ,without them no more railroad or trolley lines could be built1 and the present systems could not be kept in repair4 ,many other materials have been tried1 but wood is the only one that has ever proved satisfactory and safe for this purpose4 ,the next largest use of lumber is the grinding of it into pulp to be used in making paper for our books1 magazines and newspapers1 wrapping papers1 etc4 ,the woods used for this purpose are mostly spruce and hemlock4 ,the great sources of supply of pulp-wood are ,maine and ,wisconsin1 and large amounts are imported from ,canada1 which greatly lessens the drain on our own forests4 ,next in importance comes cooperage stock for the making of barrels4 ,when we consider the many uses of barrels1--that vinegar1 oil1 and liquors are all shipped in tight barrels1 which are mostly made of the best white oak1 and that flour1 starch1 sugar1 crackers1 fruits and vegetables1 glassware1 chemicals1 and cement are shipped in what are called slack barrels1 made of various hardwoods1 the hoops being always of soft elm1 a wood which is rapidly disappearing1 we can see the size and necessity of this industry4 ,round mine timbers1 largely made of young hardwood trees1 are used to support the mines underground4 ,mining engineers say that on an average three feet of lumber are used in mining every ton of coal taken out4 ,assuming that #dej1jjj1jjj tons of coal are mined each year1 this would mean that almost a billion and a half feet a year are used in the coal mines1 and this is about the amount shown by the government report4 ,after this comes wood for lath used in building4 ,this product is usually taken from lower class wood or logging camp waste4 ,then comes the wood for distillation into wood-alcohol for use in manufacture and to furnish power in engines4 ,next in quantity used comes veneer1 which has two entirely different uses4 ,the highest grade woods are cut to about one-twentieth of an inch and glued to cheaper woods as an outside finish in the making of furniture4 ,the other use is for veneer used alone1 when a very thin wood is desired4 ,this is employed for butter dishes1 berry baskets1 crates1 boxes and barrels4 ,next on the list come poles--electric railway1 electric light1 telegraph1 and telephone poles4 ,every pole that is erected for any of these purposes1 every extension of the service1 and all replacing caused by wind or decay1 means the cutting of a tall1 straight1 perfect tree1 usually cedar or chestnut4 ,if we think of each pole of the network that covers the entire continent1 as a tree1 we shall better realize what our forests have done in binding the nation together4 ,leather is stained by soaking the hides in a solution containing the bark of oak or hemlock4 ,sometimes an extract is made from chestnut wood4 ,this has caused one of the most criminal wastes of trees1 for a great deal of timber was cut down solely for the bark1 and the wood left to decay in the forest4 ,but now1 as the price of lumber advances1 more of it is used each year and less left to waste4 ,the bark and extract of the quebracho1 a ,south ,american tree1 are being imported for use in tanning1 and are still further reducing the drain on our own forests4 ,turpentine and rosin do not in themselves destroy the forests any more than does tapping the maple trees for their sap1 but in the making of turpentine trees that are too small are often boxed and the trees are easily blown down by heavy winds or are attacked by insects and fungi4 ,many destructive fires also follow turpentining1 so that on the whole the turpentine industry is responsible for the destruction each year of large areas of the southern pine forests4 ,the methods of turpentining introduced by the government result in the saving of thirty per cent4 more turpentine1 and also protect the trees so that they may be used fifteen or twenty years and still be almost as valuable as ever for timber4 ,twenty millions of posts are cut each year in the ,lake ,states alone1 and the entire number used is probably two or three times as great4 ,these constitute the greater uses of wood1 not a full and detailed list2 but it plainly shows that all the uses are not only desirable1 but necessary for our comfort and happiness1 and that we would not willingly sacrifice one of them1 and in order that this shall not become necessary1 let us see what abuses we can find in the management of our forests4 ,and here we find the most startling figures of all4 ,great and important as is our list of products made from wood1 we are surprised to learn that of all wood cut fully two-thirds is wasted in the forests1 left to decay or burned4 ,the largest forests are now all located far from the great manufacturing regions1 and that means far from the lumber market4 ,the cost of transportation must be added to every car of lumber sold4 ,the freight on a car-load of lumber from the ,south to ,chicago or other points in the middle ,west is not less than a hundred dollars1 and from the ,pacific coast it is very much higher4 ,it does not pay to send low-grade lumber when the cost is so great1 and as there is no local market a large part of each tree is burned4 ,all the upper end of the trunk and all branches are thus destroyed1 although much valuable timber is contained in them4 ,at one mill in ,alabama a pile of waste wood and branches as high as a two-story house burns night and day throughout the year1 and that is probably true of all the larger mills4 ,if the timber could be conservatively managed as are live-stock products1 so that all the waste could be utilized1 all the small articles1 shingles1 lath1 posts1 tan-bark and extract1 pulp-wood1 wood for distillation and small manufactured articles would be made by-products of the larger cuts4 ,much has been said of the greed of large lumber companies in causing wholesale and reckless destruction of the forests1 and much of it is doubtless true1 but the lumber companies cite the fact that no farmer will gather a crop of corn which will not pay for the labor cost of gathering1 and say that at the present prices of lumber they can not pay the present freight rates to the factories4 ,it seems therefore that a certain amount of waste is unavoidable unless wood-working plants are established near the forest regions4 ,the first great step in conserving our forests is to stop the unnecessary wastes in use4 ,the next step is to take measures to prevent the great destruction of our forests by fire4 ,those who have never lived in a great forest region can have little idea of the extent of the damage caused by these great forest fires4 ,the loss of life of both man and animals1 the sweeping away of houses and crops1 the homelessness and misery of those who have lost everything they had saved1 are not to be taken into account here1 but only the loss of the forests themselves4 ,it is estimated that the loss by fire is as great as the entire amount cut for use in the entire ,united ,states4 ,the ,national ,conservation ,committee reports that #ej1jjj1jjj acres of woodland are burned over yearly4 ,this probably includes all burned-over lands1 in much of which the standing timber is not destroyed1 but the saplings and seedlings are killed as well as the grass for grazing and for the protection of the roots4 ,much land is burned over in this way year after year until hope of future growth is gone1 though the damage to the large trees has not been great4 ,in one way this loss is even more serious1 as it shuts off the hope of future forests1 but the loss of our full-grown standing forests is grave4 ,in #ahia this loss amounted to #ae1jjj1jjj acres1 or nearly forty thousand acres every day in the year4 ,since then the work of the ,forest ,service in fighting fires and the great clearing of the forests1 has reduced this somewhat1 but it still amounts to no less than #cj1jjj acres of our best salable timber a day4 ,this is the really great and serious loss of the forests4 ,all the wood that is used goes to make our country a better place to live in1 to make its people more comfortable and happy1 but all that is lost by fire is a loss to all the nation in comforts for the future1 and in the present it means high prices for lumber because our forests are disappearing so rapidly4 ,and we are letting them burn at the rate of thirty thousand acres every day6 ,more than enough to supply all our needs4 ,if any one could gather together in one vast pile our houses and barns1 our furniture1 our wagons and carriages1 our farm implements1 all our home conveniences1 our railroad cross-ties1 our trolley and telephone poles1 our papers and magazines1 and burn them all1 the whole world would be roused by the fearfulness of the loss4 ,but we sit idly by and see the materials of which all these things are made and must be made in the future1 and with them our shade1 our water-sheds1 the soil of the forest-lands itself destroyed1 with never a word of protest4 ,in a paper prepared for the ,national ,conservation ,congress1 it was stated that in some years government survey parties were unable to work in the ,rocky ,mountains for whole seasons on account of the dense smoke1 and the fires were allowed to burn till the snows of winter put them out4 ,the writer further stated that he believed from observation that the ,forest ,service1 by checking fires in their beginning1 has in the last few years saved more timber than has been used for commercial purposes4 ,private owners of large tracts should be compelled to use the same care in preventing fires that is exercised by the government4 ,this care1 and the breaking up of the forests into smaller tracts by clearing the land in alternate sections would soon reduce the fire loss so greatly as almost to save us from anxiety for the future of our timber lands4 ,the next great loss to the forests is from insects4 ,when insects have bored into wood it becomes honey-combed by the canals cut by the little insects and is utterly valueless4 ,the loss to fruit and forest trees will be taken up more fully in the chapter on insects4 ,at present it is only necessary1 in order to show how much our forests suffer in this way1 to state that the yearly loss from this cause is placed at no less than #ajj1jjj1jjj a year1 and the loss to fruits is counted at one-fifth of the entire crop4 ,some slight idea of the danger to our forests will be seen by the simple statement that forty-one different species of insects infest the locust tree1 eighty the elm1 one hundred and five the birch1 one hundred and sixty-five the pine1 one hundred and seventy the hickory1 one hundred and eighty-six the willow1 while oak trees are attacked by over five hundred6 ,this is exceedingly difficult to control and can perhaps never be entirely checked4 ,some remedies will be suggested later1 and by having smaller forests1 more carefully watched1 some personal care can be given to the trees4 ,in ,germany the trees are as closely watched as are other crops1 and the saving in value well repays this extra care and expense4 ,a much smaller loss comes from the winds that sometimes level all the trees over many square miles4 ,this can not1 of course1 be prevented1 except possibly in the turpentine forests1 but care should be taken to use all the wood1 never allowing it to decay where it fell1 and also to replant the land with trees1 unless it is fitted for agriculture4 ,a great saving of the forests may be effected by what is called preservative treatment1 which consists of treating railroad ties1 piling1 mine timbers1 poles1 and posts with creosote or zinc chlorid to prevent decay from the moisture of the ground or from injury by salt-water borers4 ,the use of creosote is almost double the cost of zinc chlorid1 but it is much more effective and durable4 ,a fence post can be treated with creosote for about ten cents1 a railroad tie for twenty cents1 and a telephone pole for from seventy-five cents to a dollar4 ,in every case the timber treated will last twice as long as it would without such treatment and in view of the present high prices it is bad business policy to use timber in such a way that it will need replacing soon4 ,it is estimated that if all timbers which could be profitably treated were so cared for1 it would mean a money saving to the owners of #dg1jjj1jjj1 and an annual saving in wood equal to #d1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber4 ,the next point in the conservation of the forests is to seek substitutes to take the place of wood4 ,there are many uses of wood which nothing else will satisfactorily supply4 ,for example1 no railroad cross-tie has ever been designed of other material that does not increase the danger of railway accidents1 though over two hundred kinds have been patented4 ,there is nothing that will take the place of wood in furniture1 and in many small articles4 ,some articles might be replaced in metal1 but it makes them too heavy or too expensive4 ,but in certain lines there is an excellent opportunity to use other materials to great advantage4 ,cars are now being built of steel1 and of combinations of metal with asbestos4 ,these are not yet entirely satisfactory1 but it is hoped that they can be perfected soon4 ,cement and concrete are taking the place of wood to a great extent in building1 and their use will doubtless increase rapidly4 ,when veneer is used for barrels and boxes it affords a saving of nearly two-thirds in the amount of wood required4 ,this is a line of use where cheaper substitutes should always be used if possible1 because a package is usually used only once1 never more than twice1 and then discarded1 so that the wood is put to little real service compared with other wooden articles4 ,when possible1 small articles of wood should be made only in a forest region or near saw-mills to use the scraps and save an unnecessary drain on the more valuable grades of lumber4 ,one of the most important lines in which substitutes are practicable is in the making of paper and box-board or pasteboard4 ,the latter is sometimes called strawboard1 because it is made from wheat straw1 and where it is manufactured1 uses a large amount of straw that would otherwise be wasted1 but the great wheat fields of the ,west still have immense quantities of unused straw1 which1 if made into strawboard1 would not only bring more prosperity to that region but would lessen the drain on the forests4 ,a box bound with wire and made of corrugated paper now takes the place for many light articles of the wooden packing-case4 ,the strawboard also takes the place of wood-pulp for smaller paper boxes4 ,rice-straw1 hemp1 flax-straw1 cotton fiber and peat have all been tested in a small way and found to make excellent paper1 and it is thought corn-stalks can also be used1 but none of these is now manufactured in the ,united ,states on a large scale4 ,this is largely because the price of pulp-wood is low1 and the cost of experimenting with new materials is great with the results uncertain4 ,this brings us to the last one of our preventive measures for the decline of our forests1 the one which needs the most careful attention of all--the replanting of the lands that are not fitted for agriculture1 and planting trees about houses and unoccupied spaces4 ,many farmers have planted orchards on a part of their farm-lands and many trees have been planted in town and country1 but until a few years ago there was no organized effort to plant trees4 ,now many states have set apart a day which is called ,arbor ,day1 for this purpose1 but in no state does it hold so important a place as it should4 ,it is observed by the schools but not by the general public4 ,in ,germany there are regular tree-planting days in which all the people take part4 ,every one who is not too poor--and he must be poor indeed--plants a tree in his own garden1 or in front of his home1 in the forest or in the highway2 for himself or for the general good4 ,each child plants a tree on his or her birthday every year1 and watches and cares for it as it grows4 ,the roadsides are lined with fruit or nut or flowering trees which have been planted in neat1 orderly rows4 ,these things are in striking contrast to the observance of ,arbor ,day in this country1 where one tree suffices for an entire school1 or at best each class has a tree of its own4 ,it is all a matter of enthusiasm and education4 ,in considering the best trees for planting we come to the last great use of trees of which we have not spoken4 ,fruit and nut trees supply us with large quantities of the most wholesome and delicious food4 ,the apple1 pear1 peach1 plum1 and cherry grow in the central part of the ,united ,states1 and oranges1 lemons1 figs1 olives and apricots in the warmer parts4 ,by planting these trees in suitable places one may have a rich harvest for many years to come4 ,if a small fraction of the seeds of fruit trees which are wasted each year were planted1 the general food supply would be greatly increased1 and many benefits would be derived from the trees themselves4 ,have you ever heard the story of ,apple-seed ,john1 the man who1 according to tradition1 went through what is now western ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio and ,indiana while the country was still a wilderness and planted orchards for the settlers who1 he was sure1 would come later8 ,so many stories have been told of him that it is hard to discover how much of the tale is really true4 ,at least one poem has been written about him1 and the ,reverend ,newell ,dwight ,hillis has woven the facts and fancies of his career into a charming book1 ,the ,quest of ,john ,chapman4 ,the story is that he spent his winters in the settlements near the ,atlantic coast teaching the children or working at small tasks about the farms1 and taking his pay always in the seeds of apples1 peaches1 pears1 plums1 and grapes4 ,the farmers and their families saved all their seeds for him and when spring came he filled his boat with seeds and started down the ,ohio ,river4 ,when he reached a suitable landing-place he took his bags of seeds on his back and trudged through the forest4 ,whenever he came to an open space he planted an orchard1 built a fence of boughs about it1 and started on again4 ,and so he traveled on and on1 through all the spring and summer months1 year after year1 planting his seeds for those who would come after him1 until he grew too old to work4 ,the first settlers in those states found the orchards and vineyards awaiting them1 and a few trees are still standing that are said to have been planted by ,apple-,seed ,john4 ,the story of this man who in his humble way devoted his life to others is one that may well be told and imitated1 for while none of us can do the work he did1 it may inspire us with a wish to make some spot on earth better by planting our few seeds or plants4 ,in carrying on this work in the schools as well as by the general public1 a regular plan should be followed4 ,much can be accomplished with no expense at all1 even in cities4 ,in all cases the expense will be very small compared to the good accomplished4 ,seeds may be planted and later transplanted4 ,this will require no expense and little labor4 ,every child1 large and small1 in city and country1 can learn to do this work and can thus perform a real service4 ,small saplings which are growing close together1 where they can never develop1 may each be planted in a place where it will have a chance to grow into a thrifty tree4 ,most farmers would be entirely willing to allow the pupils to take such saplings from their wood-lots if the work were properly done4 ,this is an excellent work for country schools to undertake1 both for the good it will accomplish and for the training of the pupils themselves in practical work4 ,fruit trees of suitable size for planting may be had for about twenty cents each4 ,most ,american children could easily save that amount from money spent on candy1 sweetmeats or toys so as to have a tree ready for planting on ,arbor ,day which would yield them fruit as they grow older1 and be a source of pride and pleasure4 ,such trees will of course usually be planted at the children's own homes1 but it would be an excellent idea to follow the ,german plan of planting public orchards just outside the town4 ,when the trees are old enough to bear1 the children are allowed on certain days to go and gather and eat the fruit and carry it home in baskets4 ,the older boys in every school1 whether city or country1 should be taught to plant and transplant trees in the best way4 ,the following directions for the work are sent out by the ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington3 ,the proper season for planting is not everywhere the same4 ,when the planting is done in the spring1 the right time is when the frost is out of the ground and before budding begins4 ,the day to plant is almost as important as the season4 ,sunny1 windy weather is to be avoided4 ,cool1 damp days are the best4 ,trees can not be thrust carelessly into a rough soil and then be expected to flourish4 ,they should be planted in properly worked soil1 well enriched4 ,if they can not be planted immediately after they are taken up the first step is to prevent their roots drying out in the air4 ,this may be done by piling fresh dirt deep about the roots or setting the roots in mud4 ,in planting they should be placed from two to three inches deeper than they stood originally4 ,fine soil should always be pressed firmly--not made hard--about the roots1 and two inches of dry soil at the top should be left very loose to retain the moisture4 ,the reading of such poems as ,lucy ,larcom's ,he who plants a tree plants a hope1 or ,william ,cullen ,bryant's1 ,come1 let us plant the apple tree1 and suitable talks or papers on trees1 dealing with their kinds and uses1 on the benefits of forests1 and on practical forestry1 should be a part of the ,arbor ,day exercises4 ,in many communities a tract of land which is not well suited for general agriculture may be obtained for the benefit of the school1 and some simple work in forestry may be undertaken by the pupils4 ,sometimes a farmer may be induced to give a small bit of waste land where the experiment may be tried4 ,sometimes such land can be bought by the school in one of the following ways3 ,a series of entertainments may be given by the pupils1 the proceeds to be applied to the buying of the land1 and the pupils may also obtain money in other outside ways to bring to the general fund4 ,if only one acre can be bought and cleared by the pupils1 and properly planted1 a little at a time1 a tree for each child's birthday1 or by obtaining small seedlings and saplings from the forest1 it will be a source of keen interest1 and will give an added pleasure to the school work4 ,watching the growth of the trees and caring for them will keep this interest alive year after year1 and in time it will become a valuable property belonging to the school4 ,sometimes the school officials will set aside a sum from the public money to purchase the land4 ,in one ,high ,school1 one acre is thus bought each year1 and every pupil in the senior year gives and plants a tree4 ,sometimes the farmers or the merchants of a community may unite in buying the land1 which will1 of course1 become public property1 and set it aside for improvement after the manner of a city park4 ,sometimes women's clubs become interested in such a movement and will raise the funds necessary for beginning it4 ,it then becomes the duty of the school1 year after year1 to plant and care for the land4 ,after a time the school will have a valuable property to sell1 or can have a yearly income from the sale of timber4 ,such plans may be carried out in many schools4 ,every school can and should do something to forward this great work4 ,all school yards should be well planted and care taken that the boy with a new knife does not try it on the bark or that the bark is not rubbed from the trees in careless play4 ,many trees planted in school yards have been destroyed in this way4 ,but we shall not be safe if only the schools plant trees4 ,farmers and lot owners should take up the work in earnest1 adding as many trees as possible each year4 ,in this way they could insure an abundant supply of fruit1 nuts and timber for the future1 could increase the value of their property1 and provide a steady income besides4 ,farmers' institutes would find this a most important work to undertake1 arranging for a common plan to be carried out in an entire neighborhood1 and setting aside days in which all the members may work together to set out trees by the roadsides4 ,this brings us to the question of what kinds of trees are best to plant4 ,for town or city lots1 fruit trees should always be chosen1 because they bear in a short time and will add to the family food supply1 and so lessen the cost of living and increase the variety of food4 ,every farm should have a good assortment of fruit4 ,any nurseryman's catalogue will furnish lists of kinds so that a wise choice may be made4 ,in selecting fruit trees1 great care should be taken to choose the best varieties4 ,for streets and roadsides1 nut or wild fruit trees are best1 for the trees are generally graceful in appearance and will yield some return1 as the more popular maples and poplars will not4 ,the chestnut is one of the best trees for such planting1 though it is of a rather slow growth4 ,english or ,american walnuts1 pecans1 mulberry and persimmon trees can be grown in most parts of the ,united ,states4 ,one town in ,kansas is planting fruit trees on all its streets1 so that in a few years there will be an abundance of fruit free to every passer-by4 ,this is a most excellent plan1 but individuals would be likely to find the fruit molested if only a few trees are planted in a community4 ,barn-lots and lanes should be planted with wild cherry1 haws1 elder1 dogwood1 mountain-ash1 and other wild fruits to serve as food for birds1 poultry1 and hogs4 ,where the banks of streams need to be protected from erosion1 probably the best tree for planting is the basket willow1 which thrives well near the water1 has a heavy network of roots1 and is valuable for weaving into baskets and furniture4 ,for all hillsides and rocky places1 as well as wood-lots1 the hardwoods which sell best for timber should be planted in the ,north and ,west1 and the evergreens near the sea-coasts and in the ,south4 ,forests of oak1 hickory1 walnut1 maple 7especially the sugar maple1 which yields a steady return during the lifetime of the tree71 elm1 chestnut1 and locust will sell for a good price1 and are always salable4 ,it requires many years to grow large timber1 but by proper management several years can be gained in its growth1 and it is always a valuable investment for a farmer to make for his children4 ,not individuals only1 but states and the national government as well1 should provide forests for the future1 and this is the greatest duty of all1 for much of the most important work can only be done by a power that can control the entire watershed at the head-waters of a river-system4 ,for example1 the ,appalachian ,mountains are the source of hundreds of streams which flow east1 west and south1 and pass through many states4 ,these mountains were originally covered with a heavy forest growth1 but they belong largely to private companies who are cutting the forests at a rapid rate4 ,the effect of this is seen in bare hillsides1 washed by mountain torrents which are causing disastrous floods on the lowlands1 filling up the streams1 and carrying away much of the most fertile soil of some of the southeastern states1 and in the drying up of the small tributaries4 ,this can not be remedied by single companies nor by the states that suffer most4 ,the only remedy is for the government to buy the land at the head-waters of the rivers and reforest it4 ,the same conditions on a smaller scale are to be found in every mountainous region where the forests are cut away4 ,the ,united ,states owns a large amount of forest but not nearly enough to insure a supply of wood for the future4 ,the public forest lands are nearly all in the ,west4 ,they consist of national forests1 national parks1 ,indian and military reservations and land open to entry as timber claims4 ,in all they contain nearly #ajj1jjj1jjj acres1 or about half as much as is contained in farmers' wood-lots and about one-fourth as much as the amount owned by large lumber companies4 ,the ,united ,states1 on its public domain1 is setting about a careful system of cutting and replanting4 ,this system is known as forestry4 ,it has been worked out by some of the more advanced nations of ,europe who saw that destruction was coming on them through the cutting away of their forests4 ,now forestry is practised by every nation except ,turkey and ,china4 ,the principles have been well proved and the results of scientific care of the forests are known to be even more sure than in farming or live-stock raising4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture will send complete directions for planting trees in rows at proper distances1 will tell what kinds are best suited to each region and condition1 how to make them grow rapidly1 and when to cut4 ,all these things should be thoroughly understood by every land owner1 large or small1 but at present forestry is practised on only one per cent4 of all land in this country1 owned by private persons or companies1 though it is practised on seventy per cent4 of all public lands4 ,the countries that show the best results in forestry are some of the ,german states1 particularly ,prussia and ,saxony1 and ,france4 ,in ,prussia the rate of production is three times as great as it was seventy-five years ago4 ,there is three times as much saw timber in a tree as there was at that time1 and the money returns from an average acre of forest are now nearly ten times what they were sixty years ago4 ,in ,saxony the state forests are receiving two dollars and thirty cents per acre a year above all expenses from forests on land not fitted for agriculture1 and the profit is increasing every year4 ,france and ,germany together spend #aa1jjj1jjj a year on their public forests and receive from them an income of #cj1jjj1jjj1 or nearly three times as much1 while the ,united ,states spends for its public forests more than ten times as much as it receives4 ,many of our states are taking an active interest in forestry and are buying tracts of land of low value for state forests4 ,new ,york is taking the lead in the work of planting forests1 but even here the amount done is much less than it should be4 ,the state forester says that one million trees are planted each year while twenty millions should be planted4 ,the ,national ,conservation ,commission reported that the entire ,united ,states should plant an area larger than the states of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and ,west ,virginia1 in order to supply our future needs1 but that we have actually planted an area less than the state of ,rhode ,island4 ,this1 then1 is the lesson we should learn in regard to our forests3 ,to guard against waste in cutting and use1 fire1 and insects1 and to plant trees until our future supply of timber is assured1 till the head-waters of our streams are protected and our waste lands made into valuable forest tracts2 till every farm has its wood-lot1 and every community its fruit and shade4 ,it is a work in which every one of us may take some part and from which good results are certain to come4 ,,orchards ,another phase of tree-culture that does not1 strictly speaking1 come under the head of forestry1 but which should be considered here1 is the cultivation of orchards1 either for home use or for commercial purposes4 ,in a few sections1 fruit is the most valuable of all crops4 ,oranges in ,florida and ,california1 peaches in some of the southern states1 and apples in the northwest1 are more profitable than any field crops1 and their cultivation is made the subject of careful scientific study4 ,but there are many other states where the raising of fruit in commercial quantities is almost altogether neglected1 and to which almost all fruit is shipped from other sections4 ,this is particularly true in the rich corn and wheat producing states of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the early settlers each planted an orchard for home use1 and these produced the finest quality of fruit in abundance2 but usually1 after being planted1 the trees were left to take care of themselves1 while the farmer's time and attention were given to his fields of grain4 ,as time passed1 plant diseases and insect pests increased1 winds broke down many of the unpruned trees1 frosts often blighted the entire crop of fruit1 and the uncultivated1 sod-choked trees produced fruit that was less in quantity and poorer in quality each year4 ,in recent years the highest grade of apples have all been shipped from the ,west4 ,these are grown on irrigated land2 a high price being paid both for the land itself and for the water-privilege1 and the orchards are seldom more than ten acres in extent4 ,wind and frost may cause as much damage here as in the eastern states and plant diseases and insect enemies are equally liable to injure the crop4 ,but here orcharding is carried on in a scientific manner4 ,the small size of the orchard makes it possible for the owner properly to care for every tree1 and each one must be made a source of profit4 ,every condition that tends to affect the crop is carefully studied1 and the remedy found and applied4 ,there is no reason why the same care and labor should not produce equally good results with far less expense in the well-watered regions of the eastern and central part of the ,united ,states4 ,the neglected orchard will prove a failure anywhere1 as surely as will a neglected garden1 and success will come only by giving to fruit the same intelligent care that would be bestowed upon any other crop4 ,the cultivation of apples should receive particular attention in the north central states1 because they have great food value1 are not perishable1 can be shipped long distances1 and the demand1 both at home and abroad1 is always greater than the supply4 ,the home orchard1 however1 should contain many kinds of fruit1 and the same general rules in regard to the care of the orchard apply to all of them4 ,first1 the orchard should not be located on land that is fitted to produce the best farm crops1 but it must not be too steep and hilly to be cultivated4 ,a sunny sloping hillside is best suited to orchard crops4 ,in most cases little fertilization is needed except the planting of clover or some other leguminous crop4 ,if corn be planted in young orchards1 as is often the case1 potash should be used as a fertilizer after the crop is gathered1 since both corn and fruit trees draw very heavily on the potash in the soil4 ,old orchards sometimes need a single application of a general fertilizer containing all the principal soil elements4 ,all fertilizers should be applied not merely around the base of the trunk1 but as far from it as the tree spreads its branches in all directions4 ,the trees should be carefully pruned and special attention paid to trimming the tops low to prevent damage from winds1 and also to make spraying easy4 ,the soil should be deeply cultivated the first few years in order to make the roots strike deep into the ground1 and afterward the soil should receive some surface cultivation every year4 ,when there is danger of frost after the trees have bloomed1 brushwood fires are lighted and a dense smoke is raised over the orchard by burning pots of crude oil4 ,this smoke is helpful in preventing the formation of frost1 and will often be the means of saving the crop4 ,the other great causes of failure to grow large quantities of perfect fruit1 if the varieties are well chosen1 are plant diseases and damage by insects4 ,the methods of their control are given in the chapter on ,insects1 and include principally the disposal of all decayed fruit1 the raking up and burning of all leaves in infected orchards1 arsenical and lime sprays1 and1 above all1 such attention to pruning and cultivation as will keep the trees in good condition4 ,lastly1 the keeping of bees in the orchard will pay well1 not only for the honey they produce1 but because they assist greatly in carrying the pollen from flower to flower1 and so increasing the crop of fruit4 ,,references ,forests4 ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,forest ,conservation1 ,papers and ,discussions1 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,arbor ,day1 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #if4 ,tree ,planting on ,rural ,school ,grounds4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #acd4 ,practical ,assistance to ,tree ,planters4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #bb4 ,how to ,transplant ,forest ,trees4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #fa4 ,forest ,planting on ,coal ,lands4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #da4 ,forestry in the ,public ,schools4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #acj4 ,primer of ,forestry4 7,pinchot74 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #agc4 ,the ,use of the ,national ,forests4 7,pinchot47 ,what ,forestry ,has ,done4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #adj4 ,forest ,preservation and ,national ,prosperity4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #ce4 ,forest ,planting and ,farm ,management4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #bbh4 ,facts and ,figures ,regarding our ,forest ,resources4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #aa4 ,drain ,upon the ,forests4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #abi4 ,the ,waning ,hardwood ,supply4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #abi4 ,timber ,supply of the ,united ,states4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #aaf4 ,forestry and the ,lumber ,supply4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #ig4 ,how to ,cultivate and ,care for ,forests in ,semi-arid ,regions4 ,forest ,service ,department of ,agriculture ,circular1 #ed4 ,paper-making ,materials and their ,conservation4 ,bureau of ,chemistry1 #da4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,water ,water is an absolute necessity to man1 as much as the air he breathes or the food he eats4 ,water comes to us in the form of rain or snow4 ,we usually think of it as unlimited1 but we must come to think of it as a resource that can be abused and wasted or made useful and profitable as is the soil itself4 ,the amount of water is fixed and passes in an endless round from cloud to river or land and back to the clouds again4 ,the average yearly rainfall of the ,united ,states is estimated at thirty inches1 about forty inches in the eastern half1 an average of eighteen inches in the western part1 and in many places not more than ten or twelve inches4 ,one inch of rain would amount to nearly one hundred and one tons per acre1 or on a roof twenty feet long by twenty feet wide1 one inch of rain would be two hundred and fifty gallons4 ,with a rainfall of forty inches1 this would amount to #aj1jjj gallons in a year1 or an average1 over every bit of land twenty feet square1 of twenty-seven gallons for every day in the year4 ,this is about the quantity that falls in the eastern part of the ,united ,states4 ,it varies slightly from year to year1 but there is no more--there is no possible way of adding to it1 though we may lessen it by allowing it to rush out to sea1 giving no service to the land4 ,as the land waters diminish the rainfall also grows less4 ,this two hundred trillions cubic feet of water which falls on our land every year constitutes our entire water resource1 is the source of all our rivers and streams1 of the moisture in the air1 of our rains and snows1 and our water for plant and animal growth4 ,to understand how much this is1 we may say that it is about equal to ten times the amount of water that flows through the ,mississippi ,river system4 ,the water of the ,mississippi and its branches is nearly half of all the water in the ,united ,states that flows through waterways to the sea4 ,this water that flows through our streams is sometimes called the run-off4 ,the run-off is increasing every year as we cut our forests and cultivate our land4 ,it is used for navigation1 irrigation and power1 but the increase is not an advantage for these purposes as might be supposed1 because it comes in disastrous floods1 tearing away dams1 ruining power sites1 and not only preventing navigation during the flood season1 but by filling up the rivers and changing the channels1 making navigation difficult and dangerous throughout the year4 ,the run-off is controlled to some extent and may be brought under almost as complete control as may be desired4 ,as much as the water of five or six ,mississippis1 or a little more than half of our supply1 is evaporated to moisten and temper the air1 to fall as rain or snow1 or to form dews4 ,this is sometimes called the fly-off1 and except for some changes caused by management of the land1 is entirely beyond control4 ,a part of the remainder sinks into the soil below the surface4 ,a large portion of this helps to cause the slow rock-decay that forms the soil1 and which is known as ground water4 ,it is estimated that within the first hundred feet below the surface of the earth there is a quantity of water that has seeped down2 and that would form1 if it were collected1 a vast reservoir sixteen or seventeen feet in depth spreading over all the #c1jjj1jjj square miles of the area of our country4 ,this is equal to about seven years' rainfall and is a very important part of our water resources4 ,in many places it forms into underground streams or lakes4 ,it feeds all the springs and many of the lakes4 ,our wells are dug or drilled into this underground water system4 ,it carries away the excess of salts and mineral matter from the soil1 the trees strike their roots deep into the earth and draw from it1 and last and most important of all1 that which sinks immediately below the surface supplies all our plant growth4 ,so that it is this last portion1 that which sinks below the ground1 and which is sometimes termed the cut-off1 amounting to about one-tenth of all our water resource1 or about the quantity that flows through the ,mississippi ,river system1 that forms the really important part4 ,on this depends all that makes a land habitable1 the water for drinking purposes and for plant and animal growth4 ,on it depends the rate of production of every acre of farm and forest land and the life of every animal4 ,every full-grown man of one hundred and fifty pounds takes into his system not less than a ton of water each year1 and every bushel of corn requires for its making fifteen or twenty tons of water4 ,of the importance of this ,professor ,chamberlain says3 ,the key to the problem of soil conservation lies in due control of the water that falls on every acre4 ,this water is an asset of great value4 ,it should be counted by every land owner as a possible value1 saved if turned where it will do good1 lost if permitted to run away1 doubly lost if it also carries away the soil and does destructive work below4 ,the uses of rainfall are given thus3 ,a due portion should go through the soil to its bottom to promote rock decay4 ,some of it should go into the underdrainage to carry away harmful matter1 another portion goes up to the surface carrying solutions needed by the plants4 ,a portion goes into the plants to nourish them1 and still another part runs off the surface1 carrying away the worn-out parts of the soil4 ,crops can use to advantage all the rain that falls during the growing season2 and in most cases crops are all the better for all the water that can be carried over from the winter4 ,there are many local exceptions1 but in general crops are best when the soil can be made to absorb as much of the rainfall and snowfall as possible4 ,this also causes the least possible amount of wash from the land4 ,doctor ,n4 ,j4 ,mc,gee says3 ,scarcely anywhere in the ,united ,states is the rainfall excessive1 that is1 greater than is needed by growing plants1 living animals and men4 ,nearly everywhere it falls below this standard4 ,in the western part the average rainfall is only about eighteen inches2 in the extreme eastern part the fall averages forty-eight inches4 ,in the western part much of the land is unable to produce crops at all except when artificially watered4 ,the eastern part might produce more abundant crops1 develop greater industries and support a larger population with a rainfall of sixty inches than it is able to do with a rainfall of forty-eight inches4 ,as may readily be seen1 the fly-off can be controlled only in a very small degree1 by conserving the moisture that is in the soil1 and so preventing it from evaporating too rapidly4 ,the cut-off can be controlled to a considerable extent through forestry and scientific farming and it is very important that the supply should be as carefully conserved as possible4 ,but it is in the run-off that the great waste of water occurs1 and also that great saving is possible4 ,it has been found by careful estimate that from eighty-five per cent4 to ninety-five per cent4 of the water that flows to the sea is wasted in freshets or destructive floods4 ,we are not accustomed to think of the water as wasted1 since it seems beyond our control1 but as we are taking a careful account of stock1 and seeing how our forests1 our fuels and our minerals are disappearing1 and our soil being carried out to sea by the rushing waters1 it is well to consider1 also1 whether this great resource may not be so used as to benefit mankind in many ways and at the same time lessen the drain on other resources4 ,the water of streams may be divided as to use into four great classes4 ,the most important is that used by cities for general supply1 for household and drinking purposes2 next1 that which is used for navigation and the running of boats to carry commerce2 third1 that which is used for artificial watering or irrigation1 and lastly1 that which is used for power in manufacturing4 ,in the past1 when water has been used it has seldom been employed for more than one of these purposes1 but as we come to understand more the nature1 value and possibilities of this great resource1 we shall learn to make the money spent for one of these lines of activity supply several other needs4 ,as we study each of these separately we shall see this interrelation among them4 ,the cities of the ,united ,states have expended #bej1jjj1jjj in waterworks and nearly as much more in land for reservoirs1 and for canals for conveying the water from these reservoirs to the cities4 ,the better managed systems protect the drained lands from erosion by planting forests or grass and the water is completely controlled1 so that all the water1 even the storm overflow1 is saved4 ,there is very little waste in these city water systems until it comes to the consumer1 where1 except when it is sold through meters1 the waste is often great4 ,the failure to provide the greatest good lies in the fact that the water systems have been used for water supply only and have not been made profitable in other ways4 ,the drainage basins should be heavily planted with trees1 which will in time yield a large return1 or with hay1 which can be marketed each year4 ,whenever possible1 the canals carrying the water supply should also be used to furnish power4 ,the city of ,los ,angeles1 when it had a population of only #aej1jjj1 undertook to provide pure water from a point two hundred and fifty miles distant4 ,to do so it must take on itself a debt of #bc1jjj1jjj1 a large sum for a city ten times its size4 ,yet the people were ready to assume this great burden to insure an unending supply of pure water1 for they realized that without it their city could not continue to grow4 ,it was not until the plans for piping water to the city were almost completed that the value of the water-power along the route was realized4 ,it has been disposed of at a rate that pays ten per cent4 interest on the debt each year1 and has made what seemed a dangerous risk1 a profitable business arrangement4 ,all these other uses of water which are profitable1 help to lower the price of water to the users4 ,the matter of supreme importance in the water supply1 however1 is not whether the water is cheap1 but whether it is pure4 ,if refuse from factories is allowed to drain into a stream1 the water becomes loaded with poisonous chemicals1 acids1 or minerals4 ,if city sewage or barn-yards are allowed to drain into it1 the germs of typhoid and other fevers enter the water supply4 ,to insure the purity of water supply from a stream1 no factory waste1 city sewage or country refuse should be allowed to enter any part of the stream4 ,in addition to this it should be carefully filtered4 ,the disposal of waste is a serious problem1 and the easiest way is to divert it into the nearest water course and trust to the old maxim1 ,running water purifies itself4 ,this1 while true as a general fact1 has so many exceptions that it is not safe to trust to it4 ,the ,sanitary ,district ,canal of ,chicago has proved positively that even the most heavily germ-laden water becomes pure by running many miles at a regulated speed through the open country1 but the conditions are altogether different from those of an ordinary river4 ,first1 in a river1 sewage may enter at any point down-stream to add to the germs already present in the water1 while nothing is allowed to enter the ,drainage ,canal after it leaves the city4 ,second1 some germs live for several days and may be carried many miles4 ,only a microscopic test can prove whether water contains such germs4 ,usually such tests are not made and water is used without people knowing whether it is pure or not1 but the water of the ,sanitary ,canal is tested at many points to determine its purity4 ,each hour and each mile of its journey it grows purer4 ,this proves that although running water does purify itself1 a stream that is drained into all along its course is not a fit source of water supply4 ,factory refuse1 instead of being allowed to pollute the waters1 should be turned to good use by extracting the chemicals1 which form valuable by-products4 ,all farm waste should be taken to a remote part of the farm1 placed in an open shed or vat with cement floor and screened from flies to form a compost heap for fertilizers for the farm4 ,this will amply repay the extra trouble and expense by increasing the farm crops4 ,the sooner such refuse1 especially manure1 is returned to the land1 the more valuable it is as a fertilizer4 ,in cities the sewage should be disposed of in such a way as to yield a profit to the city1 and also promote the health of the people4 ,the sewage of a city of #ajj1jjj people is supposed to be worth1 in ,germany1 about #ijj1jjj a year for fertilizer on account of the phosphorus it contains4 ,the city of ,berlin operates large sewage farms1 using as laborers men condemned to the workhouse4 ,the expense for land and sewer system was #ac1jjj1jjj1 but it pays for the money invested1 with #fj1jjj yearly profit over all expenses4 ,on the other hand the cost of impure water to the city of ,pittsburg was reckoned at #c1hej1jjj1 and in the city of ,albany1 ,new ,york1 the annual loss was estimated at #dge1jjj4 ,in the early settlement of our country all towns were built on streams1 and the ones which grew and flourished were all on rivers large enough to carry commerce by boat4 ,after the invention of steamboats1 daily packet lines were run on all the principal rivers4 ,albert ,gallatin planned a complete system of improved waterways1 including many canals1 that was intended to establish a great commercial route4 ,many canals were built and put into actual operation and dozens of others had been planned1 when the building of railways began4 ,this new system of transportation at once became popular4 ,not only were no more canals dug and no more steamboat lines built1 but many of those actually in operation were abandoned4 ,in order to encourage railroad building and develop new regions1 the government has given land and money to the extent of hundreds of millions of dollars1 until now the railroads form one-seventh of all our national wealth1 having #bbh1jjj miles of tracks and earning #b1ejj1jjj1jjj each year1 while the waterways owned by the government have fallen into disuse4 ,within the last four or five years another change has come about in the general attitude toward the waterways4 ,at the time that the crops are moved in the fall1 and when coal is needed for the winter supply1 there are not nearly enough cars in the country to handle the volume of business1 neither are there enough locomotives to move the necessary cars1 nor tracks1 nor stations4 ,in short1 the railways are entirely unable to handle the vast products of the country during the busiest seasons4 ,many persons in the ,west have suffered for fuel1 and commerce has been greatly checked by the shortage2 and the situation is growing worse each year as production increases4 ,james ,j4 ,hill estimates that the cost of equipping the railroads to carry the commerce of the country would be from five to eight billion dollars4 ,this means a heavy tax on iron and coal and timber as well as on the labor resources of the country1 and it would then be only a question of time until still further extensions were needed4 ,with these facts in view1 interest in the waterways of the country has been revived4 ,it is estimated that it will require five hundred million dollars1 or fifty million dollars a year for ten years completely to improve the waterways of the country4 ,this is not more than one-tenth of what would be needed to equip the railroads4 ,the cost of carrying freight by rail is from four to five times that of carrying it by water4 ,much of the heavy freight of the country1--coal1 iron1 grain and lumber1--should be carried in this way1 in order to reduce freight rates and so1 indirectly1 the cost to the people1 and further to relieve the burden on the railways4 ,the railways1 it might be added1 would still have a large and increasing package-freight business1 besides the handling of heavy freight in parts of the country where there are no navigable rivers4 ,for these reasons it would seem clearly the only wise policy to adopt a general plan for waterway improvement and carry it into effect at once4 ,but there are many things to be considered4 ,millions of dollars 7in all about five hundred and fifty-two millions7 have been spent for the improvement of waterways4 ,some of it has resulted in great gain1 but a large part of it has been wasted through lack of an organized plan4 ,work has been begun and not enough money appropriated to finish it4 ,in the course of a few years much of the value of the work is destroyed by the action of the current or by shifting sands1 or if a stretch of river is finished in the most approved manner1 often it is not used much1 in some cases actually less after than before the work was begun1 and these things have created a prejudice against waterway improvements4 ,the other reason is that in spite of the overcrowding of the railroads1 the traffic on many of our large rivers is steadily growing less4 ,the ,inland ,waterways ,commission finds as a reason for the decrease1 the relations existing between the railways and the waterways4 ,a railway1 they consider1 has two classes of advantages4 ,first1 those that come from natural conditions4 ,a railroad line can be built in any direction to any part of the country except the extremely mountainous parts1 while a river runs only in a single direction4 ,if a new region distant from a large water course is opened up1 as is being done rapidly in the ,west through irrigation and dry farming1 the people are entirely dependent on the railways to develop it1 to bring them all the conveniences of the outside world1 and to carry the products of their land to the market4 ,branch lines and switches can be built to factories and warehouses1 while boats can reach only those situated along the water-front4 ,another advantage of the railroads is that they bill freight all the way through1 and that freight is much more easily transferred from one road to another4 ,it is much more difficult and expensive to load and reload freight from boats and barges on account of the high and low water stages of the river4 ,this difference amounts to as much as sixty feet in the ,ohio ,river at ,cincinnati4 ,railways make faster time1 and the distance between two points is usually shorter1 though sometimes during the busy season of the railways the river freight reaches its destination much sooner4 ,the other class of reasons relates to the railways themselves1 which have always been in open competition with the waterways1 and to gain traffic for themselves1 usually charge lower rates to those points to which boats also carry freight4 ,in many cases they have bought the steamboat lines so that rates might be kept up1 and then1 unable to operate the two lines as cheaply as one1 have abandoned the steamboat lines4 ,another method by which the railroads have driven out the water traffic1 is by charging extremely heavy rates for freight hauled a short distance to or from boats1 making it quite as cheap as well as more convenient to send freight all the way by rail4 ,lastly1 railroad warehouses1 terminals and machinery for handling freight are all much better than those of inland steamboat lines1 except at some points on the ,great ,lakes where the traffic is very heavy4 ,some of these disadvantages might be overcome by law4 ,in ,france1 where the waterways are managed better than in any other country1 the law requires that railroad rates be twenty per cent4 higher on all heavy freight than the rates on the same freight if carried by water1 and in several countries railroad companies are not permitted to own or manage a steamboat line4 ,these measures are suggestive of what may be done by law to correct abuses1 but laws alone can not accomplish everything4 ,the rivers belong to all the people1 and every one who wishes may operate steamboat or barge lines1 but before these can become profitable1 and before first class warehouses and machinery are installed1 there must appear on the part of the people a desire to patronize them4 ,the best results are found in those cases where there is harmony between the railways and the steamboat lines2 those in which the steamboat lines relieve the railways of much of the heavy freight which they are not able to handle without greatly increasing their present equipment4 ,there should be coperation on the part of the people4 ,the towns and cities along the banks of many ,european rivers provide suitable terminals1 warehouses and wharves with free use of the service4 ,in other cases this is done by private capital with a charge for use to shippers4 ,sometimes it is done by the steamboat companies themselves1 but unless one or the other method is assured all along the river it is not wise for the government to undertake the improvement of a stream4 ,intelligent improvement of the waterways of the ,united ,states demands first that a careful survey of the needs of the whole country be made1 then that a systematic plan be carried out providing for the improvement of important streams first4 ,the state and nation should work together1 and any work that is begun should be completed as promptly as possible so that its full benefit may be realized4 ,certain work1 such as the improvement of the channel1 should be done by the national government1 since the waters belong to the nation2 but the expense of constructing levees or dykes should be borne by the land owners along the banks1 because the land thus protected is greatly increased in value2 or by the state1 which gets the return in increased taxes4 ,in many instances1 the improvement of a stream would be a great benefit to one state or part of a state1 but it would be impossible in many years to improve all the desirable streams1 so that the larger ones of most general importance must be considered first4 ,in such cases the improvement is often undertaken by the state4 ,some navigable rivers have been thus improved and many canals are the property of states or of private companies4 ,only a few rivers have a steady flow throughout the year at a depth sufficient to carry large boats4 ,on most streams destructive floods at certain seasons and low waters at others interfere with navigation during a considerable part of the year4 ,most rivers have sand-bars1 sunken rocks or logs in the channel1 making the passage of boats difficult and dangerous4 ,others are well suited for navigation1 except at points where rapids and falls make it impossible for boats to pass4 ,the ,ohio1 the ,tennessee1 the ,missouri and the upper ,mississippi abound in such dangerous places and these should be canalized4 ,it is the improving of rivers in these ways1 dredging harbors to make them safer1 and digging canals to provide a short passage between two bodies of water1 that constitute what is known as the ,improvement of ,inland ,waters4 ,if you look at a map showing the navigable streams of the ,united ,states you will see that nearly all of them lie in the eastern part4 ,the ,mississippi is like a great artery with branches extending in all directions1 east and west4 ,the ,great ,lakes1 with their outlet1 the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 and the many important rivers emptying into the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 such as the ,merrimac1 ,hudson1 ,delaware1 ,susquehanna1 ,potomac and ,rio ,grande1 form great highways for all the commerce of the eastern part of the country1 while the ,columbia1 ,sacramento and ,colorado ,rivers1 with their branches1 are the only navigable streams of any importance west of the ,mississippi ,river system4 ,in some places a small portion of land divides two important water areas1 and canals dug through this neck of land change the commercial routes of the whole world4 ,such are the ,isthmus of ,suez1 eighty-seven miles wide1 through which a canal was cut that saves a sailing distance of #c1gjj miles from ,england to ,india4 ,only the ,isthmus of ,panama1 forty-nine miles in width1 divides the ,atlantic from the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,when the canal across this narrow strip is completed1 the sailing distance from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco will be shortened #h1jjj miles1 the entire distance around ,south ,america4 ,the ,sault ,ste4 ,marie ,canal1 connecting ,lakes ,superior and ,huron1 is only a little more than a mile and a half long1 but it opens up the entire iron1 copper1 lumber and wheat resources of the ,northwest to cheap water passage through the other lakes to the manufacturing region of the ,east4 ,the ,erie ,canal1 by connecting ,lake ,erie with the ,hudson ,river from ,buffalo to ,albany1 ,new ,york1 makes the only water passage from the ,great ,lakes to the ocean that lies within the borders of the ,united ,states4 ,if you will turn to the map again1 you will see still other places where a short canal may open up an entirely new and important water route4 ,from ,chicago to ,lockport1 ,illinois1 is only thirty-seven miles1 but ,chicago is on ,lake ,michigan1 while ,lockport is on the ,illinois ,river1 a branch of the ,mississippi4 ,this canal1 a large part of which is now in operation1 is a part of the ,lakes to ,gulf waterway4 ,one plan is to broaden and deepen the channel so that large vessels may pass1 without unloading1 from the ,lakes to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,another proposed canal which would be undertaken largely by individual states and a part of which is already completed1 would afford a safe inside passage connecting the many bays1 channels and navigable rivers of the ,atlantic coast4 ,still another proposed measure is the cutting of a canal from the southern end of ,lake ,michigan to the western end of ,lake ,erie at ,toledo1 ,ohio1 to avoid the long haul up ,lake ,michigan and down ,lake ,huron again4 ,the ,united ,states now has #be1jjj miles of navigable rivers and a nearly equal mileage of rivers not now navigable but which might be made commercially important2 five great lakes that have a combined length of #a1daj miles1 #b1abj miles of operated canals1 and #b1ejj miles of sounds1 bays and bayous1 that might be joined by tidewater canals easily constructed1 less than #a1jjj miles long altogether1 and making a continuous passage from ,new ,england to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in all1 our waterways at the present time are #ee1jjj to #fj1jjj miles long1 the greatest system in the world1 but almost unused4 ,the most important waterway improvement so far completed1 is the ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 or the ,soo canal which cost #if1jjj1jjj4 ,a depth of eight feet was increased to twenty-one feet4 ,the traffic has risen in sixteen years from a million and a quarter tons to forty-one and a quarter million tons4 ,a large proportion of the ,united ,states is not naturally fitted to be the home of man2 at least1 it is not fitted to produce his food1 and except on the lofty mountains the reason for this will almost always be found to be either a lack or an excess of water4 ,in some parts of the country1 there is1 as we have seen1 little rainfall4 ,these arid or semi-arid lands must be provided with water for drinking purposes and for agriculture4 ,the diverting of water courses into canals and ditches so that water can be carried to these waste lands is called irrigation4 ,in other parts of the country where rains are abundant1 serious floods occur every year1 often many times in a year4 ,thousands of acres of land thus subject to overflow are lost to use4 ,the holding back of these flood waters in the upper part of the rivers1 and so preventing these overflows1 is termed storage of waters4 ,in still other regions the rainfall is abundant1 and the land low-lying4 ,large areas are always covered with water4 ,such lands are called swamps or bogs1 and when drained1 they become the richest of agricultural lands4 ,irrigation1 storage and drainage are the three methods employed to make waste lands valuable and useful4 ,the land is saved or reclaimed1 so all these methods of balancing and distributing the water supply are called reclamation4 ,in general it may be said that irrigation is more generally needed in the ,west1 storage of flood waters in the central and eastern states1 and drainage in the ,south4 ,by thus distributing the rainfall1 hundreds of millions of acres have been or may be reclaimed1 and large regions1 formerly unfit to inhabit1 have been turned into profitable farms4 ,three-fourths of one per cent4 of our total rainfall1 or two per cent4 of all that falls in the ,west1 is used for irrigating #ac1jjj1jjj acres4 ,there are several methods of irrigation which are adapted to different regions and different crops4 ,the rice fields of ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana and ,texas are irrigated by allowing the land to remain continually flooded to a depth of several inches4 ,when the irrigation season is over the levees are opened1 and the water runs off rapidly1 and the crop is soon ready to be harvested4 ,tidal rivers are used to supply water in most cases1 but in ,texas many flowing wells are employed for irrigation4 ,in ,florida1 where irrigation is used largely for intensive farming1 various means are employed1 some of which are also used in the western and southwestern states4 ,mechanical pumps1 operated by turbine wheels1 pump the water from the rivers if a lift be required4 ,sometimes the water is pumped direct to the fields in iron pipes and applied by means of hydrants and hose1 as in a city water system4 ,overhead pipe lines are now recognized as the most perfect and satisfactory form of artificial watering4 ,two-inch pipes are run over frames several feet in height4 ,these are arranged in parallel lines all over the fields about forty feet apart4 ,at intervals of forty feet1 a small iron pipe1 ending with a fine spraying attachment1 extends upward4 ,the water is turned on in the evening and comes out of the sprayer in a fine mist and falls upon the plants like a gentle rain4 ,by another form of irrigation1 the fields are divided at regular intervals by wide wooden troughs from which water is directed between the rows of plants4 ,main canals leading from the streams and intersected by short canals extend in all directions through the fields and orchards1 and are distributed in various ways4 ,this system is in general use throughout the arid portions of the ,west4 ,the methods are said to be the most scientific and varied in southern ,california4 ,when water for irrigation is supplied from wells some underground system is generally used4 ,one common method is to lay continuous pipes from the wells all over the fields and distribute from hydrants1 plugs and standpipes4 ,by still another system1 the water is carried below the surface through pipes which are broken every few inches and laid in beds of charcoal4 ,in the eastern states irrigation is only employed in dry weather to increase the yield of vegetable crops4 ,in the arid western region it transforms what would otherwise be a dreary desert into fertile valleys4 ,william ,j4 ,bryan1 speaking at the first ,conservation ,congress1 said1 ,last ,september1 ,i visited the southern part of ,idaho and saw there a tract that has been recently reclaimed4 ,i had been there before4 ,i had looked upon these lands as so barren that it seemed as if it were impossible that they could ever be made useful4 ,when ,i went back this time and found that in three years #a1gjj1jjj acres of land had been reclaimed1 that where three years ago nothing but sage-brush grew1 they are now raising seven tons of alfalfa to the acre1 and more than a hundred bushels of oats2 when ,i found that ten thousand people are living on that tract1 that in one town that has grown up in that time there are more than #a1ijj inhabitants1 and in three banks they had deposits of over half a million dollars1 ,i had some realization of the magic power of water when applied to these desert lands4 ,the same thing might be said of other regions throughout the ,west4 ,in the ,salton district of ,california a marvelous change has been brought about by irrigation4 ,a few years ago that was one of the most desolate and forbidding regions on our continent4 ,now it is covered with several thousands of acres of alfalfa and other crops1 and it bids fair to be a great fruit region4 ,of southern ,california it is said1 ,the irrigation systems of this part of the state are known all over the world1 and have created a prosperous commonwealth in a region which would be a scene of utter desolation without them4 ,this locality presents a better opportunity for the scientific study of farming by irrigation than exists anywhere else in the world4 ,here all land values depend directly on ability to obtain a water supply4 ,so precious is the water and so abundant are the rewards that follow its application to the soil that the most careful consideration is given to the various sources of supply and distribution4 ,as land becomes scarcer and the cost of living greater on account of the increase in population1 men are turning more and more to irrigation to solve the problem of food supply4 ,as showing what may be accomplished by irrigation1 the report of the last census says3 ,the construction of large irrigation works on the ,platte1 ,yellowstone and ,arkansas ,rivers would render fertile an area equal to that of some eastern states4 ,engineers are grappling with the great problems of conserving the flood waters of these streams1 which now are wasted and help to increase the destructive floods of the ,mississippi4 ,the solving of these problems will change a vast area of country1 now practically worthless1 into valuable farms4 ,the ,great ,bend country1 drained by the ,columbia ,river1 contains several million acres of land which only requires water to make it of great agricultural value4 ,the ,gila ,river basin contains more than #aj1jjj1jjj acres of fertile land1 capable of producing immense crops if irrigated1 but without irrigation it is a desert land where only sage-brush and cactus flourish4 ,from arid lands capable of producing excellent crops but lacking in the magical element of water1 we pass to the consideration of lands where the richest of soils are shut off from productiveness because they are covered with water4 ,on the lower ,mississippi the soil is richer than in any other part of the ,united ,states1 but much of it is overflowed so frequently that it is unfit for cultivation4 ,dykes and levees have reclaimed thousands of acres of such overflow land4 ,many states control large marshy sections that have been or may be reclaimed4 ,in southern ,florida lie the ,everglades1 a vast country which has been worse than valueless2 a malarial region abounding in alligators1 rattlesnakes1 scorpions and other dangerous animals and insects4 ,the state of ,florida has undertaken the work of draining this great swamp1 and when the task is completed1 ,florida will have added to its resources #c1jjj1jjj acres of the richest soil for the raising of winter vegetables and fruits4 ,florida is engaged in another great project--the digging of an inside passage connecting its inland tidal waters by a canal system which will open to navigation a continuous inland waterway six hundred miles in length4 ,in digging these canals through the marshes bordering the coast1 thousands of acres of exceedingly fertile land have been reclaimed and are now producing valuable crops4 ,the ,kankakee marshes in ,indiana have been drained1 adding many thousands of acres of rich soil to the agricultural area of the state4 ,in all1 about #hj1jjj1jjj acres are so wet that they must be drained in order to make them produce good farm crops1 but which1 while now covered only with marsh grass or undergrowth1 is capable of being made the most fertile of all land4 ,this swamp land is ten times the area of ,holland1 which supports a population of #e1jjj1jjj people4 ,it is therefore easy to see how greatly we may add to our productive territory and our national wealth by reclamation through drainage4 ,we now come to the use of water as power2 and although in the last fifty years this subject has received little attention1 as manufacturing increases and as fuel decreases and becomes higher1 the value of water becomes more evident1 and water-power sites are being eagerly sought4 ,our age may come to be known in the future as the age of power1 because through the application of mechanical power man has gained such marvelous control over the world about him4 ,wind and water led in the production of power until about #ahgj1 since which time they have scarcely increased at all1 the greater advantages of steam and electricity having driven them out4 ,as long as all factories had to be built by the side of streams having suitable water-power1 the number and size of factories were always extremely limited4 ,with the introduction of steam it became possible to build factories at mines1 in forests1 in fruit or grain regions1 wherever the supply of raw material was plentiful1 and to multiply factories of all kinds in cities near the markets for their product1 or where labor was cheap and abundant4 ,but power could only be used where it was developed1 and the size of the power plant depended on the amount of business done by each individual user4 ,now a new era of power has again enlarged the possibilities of manufacturing4 ,by means of electricity the work1 not only of factories1 but also of the home and the farm may be done in any place where electricity can be installed4 ,we must bear in mind that electricity is never a source of power1 but is only the agent that carries power to the user4 ,the source of all electric power is either steam or water1 produced by water-wheels1 turbines1 steam-engines or gas-engines4 ,the economical way to furnish electric power is to establish central power plants1 and electricity may be conveyed from them for many miles4 ,an electric railway1 telegraph1 or telephone system many miles in length is operated from a single power plant4 ,electric light and power are transmitted all over the largest cities4 ,it is no longer necessary that a factory be of any specified size nor that it have any waste power4 ,if it be within reach of the electrical current it may use as much or as little as is needed4 ,the cheapness of electric power must always depend on nearness to the source of supply or to the market4 ,until a short time ago it was customary to locate electric power-houses near the market1 that is1 in cities4 ,but the benefits to be derived from having the electric plant near the source of power1 so that the cost of production is greatly lessened1 are becoming better recognized4 ,this will make water-power increasingly valuable4 ,it is even now practicable to develop water-power1 wherever located1 for the production of electricity4 ,although the lowest grade coals are used for electric power at the mines yet they can now be used for still other purposes4 ,coal or other fuel once used can not be replaced1 but when electricity is derived from water-power only energy otherwise wasted is used4 ,this energy1 if derived from water-power1 is all added to our assets instead of being lost4 ,for many years the amount of power used for manufacturing and other purposes has doubled about once in ten years1 and the steady pace kept by different lines of development shows how closely they are related4 ,our power1 our forest cut1 the use of our iron and other minerals1 our coal and petroleum1 the railroad earnings1 freight and passenger traffic1 and our agricultural products all double themselves every ten years4 ,this means that in ten years we shall require twice as much power as now1 but will have far less coal to use4 ,this raises the question1--have we available water-power to conserve our coal supply8 ,let us see4 ,it is estimated that we are now using #bf1jjj1jjj horse-power of energy derived from steam1 #c1jjj1jjj horse-power derived from water1 and #hjj1jjj from gas or oil1 a total of #bi1hjj1jjj horse-power4 ,it is also estimated that there is now running idly over dams1 falls1 and rapids #cj1jjj1jjj horse-power of energy4 ,in other words1 we are wasting every day enough water to run every factory and mill1 and to turn every wheel1 to move every electric car and to supply every electric light or power-station in the country4 ,the amount of water-power is gauged solely by the low-water stage of the stream4 ,a river is considered to produce only as much power as it can furnish at its season of lowest water4 ,at other times factories may be operated more actively1 but usually most of the extra power is wasted during a large part of the year4 ,if these storm or flood waters can be stored in reservoirs1 the stream-flow throughout the year can be made fairly uniform and the power possibilities greatly increased4 ,the ,geological ,survey believes that by storing the flood waters and regulating the flow of the streams1 the large rivers of the ,united ,states may be made to furnish #aej1jjj1jjj horse-power1 enough1 if it could be utilized1 to supply every power need of our country for many years to come without using a ton of our coal1 and without in any way decreasing the water4 ,of course this can never be practicable4 ,much power will always be needed where no stream for power is available4 ,but the lesson is plain that where water can be used it should be1 both in order to save the coal and because it can be produced more cheaply4 ,the #cj1jjj1jjj horse-power now available1 if produced in our most modern electric plants1 would require the burning of nearly #bbe1jjj1jjj tons of coal1 and if in the average plant run by steam-engines1 more than #fej1jjj1jjj tons of coal1 which is fifty per cent4 more than all the coal that is now produced in this country4 ,at three dollars per ton it would cost #b1jjj1jjj1jjj a year to supply the coal to furnish the power that we might have1 one might almost say1 as a by-product from the improving of the rivers for navigation4 ,the development of the water-power possibilities of the country is now going forward at a rapid rate1 however4 ,dams on the ,susquehanna ,river will soon make #cj1jjj horse-power available1 which could be increased to #bjj1jjj by building storage reservoirs4 ,a dam just begun at the rapids of the ,mississippi ,river at ,keokuk1 ,iowa1 will1 when completed1 furnish #bjj1jjj horse-power4 ,niagara is producing #ef1jjj horse-power on the ,united ,states side4 ,the ,muscle ,shoals ,falls rapids in the ,tennessee ,river is furnishing #ahh1jjj horse-power4 ,illinois will greatly increase its possibilities for offering cheap power to factories1 when the ,lakes to ,gulf ,canal with #agc1jjj1jjj horse-power worth #ab1gej1jjj yearly1 and the ,chicago ,drainage or ,sanitary ,canal1 which has nearly #fj1jjj horse-power1 are complete4 ,both of these projects were undertaken by the state4 ,in ,california #bej1jjj horse-power is now in operation1 and #e1jjj1jjj horse-power might easily be developed in that state alone1 which at the price of coal would be worth a billion dollars a year4 ,new ,england has the oldest system of water-power control1 because before the era of steam it was the chief manufacturing region of the country4 ,the ,merrimac1 flowing through ,new ,hampshire and ,massachusetts1 is the most carefully conserved river in the world1 and ,governor ,dingley of ,maine said that the water-power of ,maine is equal to the working energy of #ac1jjj1jjj men4 ,the money value is counted at twenty dollars a year per horse power1 but it frequently brings as high as one hundred or even one hundred and fifty dollars a year in a good manufacturing region1 so that the value of our water-power facilities can hardly be computed4 ,an ideal picture of the harmonious development of our water resources for all purposes is one that is not too difficult to realize4 ,it is the ideal that should be always before us in the improvement of our waterways1 and we should bear in mind that although the expense will be heavy1 it will not cost more than one-tenth as much to improve all the important waterways as to equip the railways to carry the traffic they will be called on to carry in the next ten years2 and also that in the past1 for every dollar that has been spent on waterways1 almost twenty-five dollars has been spent on railways4 ,the railways are a great and important part of our national development1 but the waterways should not be neglected4 ,rather1 the two should be so harmonized and adjusted as to make one great commercial system that will furnish cheap and abundant transportation for all our commerce4 ,the most complete plan for conserving our waters is as follows3 ,first1 build storage reservoirs along the upper stretches of the river to hold the overflow waters of the flood season which are to be turned into the main channel when the water becomes too low for ordinary navigation4 ,these storage reservoirs should be on the lowest grade of land1 that which would be least productive4 ,the reservoirs should be well stocked with the best varieties of fish to make them profitable4 ,the banks should be planted with forest trees and made as attractive as they can be made to form public parks and pleasure grounds for the people1 where boating1 fishing and bathing may be enjoyed4 ,the next point is to remove all obstructions from the river1 to canalize it at shallow places or rapids1 so that the whole river will be navigable1 and1 if necessary1 to deepen the channel so that it will carry large vessels between two important points4 ,dams should be built to take advantage of every opportunity for water-power4 ,one of the worst mistakes in the past has been the failure to use the power that might have been developed in improving the streams for navigation4 ,rivers should be made profitable still further by stocking with fish and should be kept clear of factory refuse and sewage4 ,soil-wash should be lessened by planting trees and shrubs along the banks2 and where overflow or erosion lowers the value of the land or repeatedly ruins the crops1 dykes and levees should be built4 ,the rivers most important commercially should be improved first4 ,canals should be cut between waterways where large benefits will result2 overflow and swamp land should be drained1 and in arid regions every particle of water conserved for irrigation purposes4 ,the irrigation canals may also be used to supply water-power1 and the canals may be used as are other canals for towing barges4 ,if electric power is produced1 electric towing is cheap and very desirable as a means of transportation4 ,in short1 our water supply should be as carefully used and with as little waste as the land of forests4 ,the most important improvements needed are1 a ,lakes to ,gulf ,waterway that shall be safe and practicable at least for vessels of moderate size2 the improvement of the ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,tennessee and ,upper ,mississippi ,rivers2 an inner coast passage from ,new ,england to ,florida1 and in navigable rivers dredging and deepening if necessary1 to make many outlets to the sea which will afford cheap transportation4 ,in the ,west1 the ,columbia1 ,san ,joaquin and ,sacramento ,rivers with their branches should be made navigable4 ,many western rivers have been almost ruined by filling with rocks in hydraulic mining1 but this is now prohibited by law and if the channels were cleared they would again become navigable4 ,appropriations for much of this work have already been made by ,congress1 but the work is not systematically planned4 ,the cost of all of it would be about sixty-two and a half cents a year for each man1 woman and child in the country and every one would receive some benefit4 ,the ,national ,conservation ,commission on ,waterways found that the average family pays for transportation or freight on all its food and clothing and the necessities of life1 nearly or quite one-third their actual cost4 ,it is estimated that the direct benefits would be a yearly saving in freight handling of #bej1jjj1jjj1 a yearly saving in flood damage of #aej1jjj1jjj1 a saving in forest fires of at least #be1jjj1jjj1 a benefit through cheapened power of fully #ge1jjj1jjj and a yearly saving in farm production of #ejj1jjj1jjj2 a total of #a1jjj1jjj1jjj1 or twelve dollars and fifty cents for each person--twenty times the cost6 ,and this does not take into account the benefits from irrigation1 drainage1 and the lessening of disease by a pure water supply4 ,,references ,waters4 ,report of the ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,report of ,inland ,waterways ,commission1 #aijh4 ,american ,inland ,waterways4 ,h4 ,quick4 ,waterways and ,water ,transportation4 ,j4 ,s4 ,jeans4 ,waterway ,transportation in ,europe4 ,l4 ,g4 ,mc,pherson4 ,highways of ,progress4 ,j4 ,j4 ,hill4 ,navigation ,resources of the ,united ,states4 7,johnson47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,conservation of ,power ,resources4 7,h4 ,st4 ,clair ,putnam47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,florida's ,waterways4 7,miles47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,our ,water ,resources4 7,lyman ,cooley47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,the ,lakes-to-,gulf ,waterway4 7,randolph47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,water ,resources4 7,kummel47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,necessity for ,waterway ,improvement4 7,austin47 ,report1 ,governor's ,conference4 ,report ,congressional ,committee on ,european ,waterways4 ,senate ,document1 #aiaj4 ,river and ,harbor ,bill4 ,senate ,document4 ,burton1 #aiaj4 ,forests1 ,water ,storage1 ,power and ,navigation4 7,taylor47 ,proceedings of the ,am4 ,hydrochemical ,society4 ,our ,inland ,waterways4 7,mc,gee47 ,outlines of ,hydrology4 7,mc,gee47 ,natural ,movement of ,water in ,semi-arid ,regions4 7,mc,gee47 ,irrigation in the ,united ,states4 ,dept4 ,commerce and ,labor ,census ,bureau4 ,irrigation ,projects of the ,u4 ,s4 ,reclamation ,service4 ,reports of ,irrigation in various states4 ,apply to ,governor4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,coal ,when we begin to study the mineral resources of the country we pass to conditions altogether different from those which we have been considering4 ,heretofore we have been dealing with resources that can be renewed1 the soil by proper management1 the forests by replanting1 the waters by nature's own processes2 but the fuels1 the iron and many other mineral resources once used are gone for ever4 ,as to their importance ,andrew ,carnegie says3 ,of all the world's metals iron is in our day the most useful4 ,the opening of the iron age marked the beginning of real industrial development4 ,to-day the position of nations may almost be measured by its production and use4 ,iron and coal form the foundation of our prosperity4 ,the value of each depends upon the amount and nearness of the other4 ,in modern times the manufacturing and transportation industries rest upon them1 and with sufficient land and a fertile soil1 these determine the progress of any people4 ,we are sometimes told that we need have no anxiety about the future1 that new discoveries and inventions will take the place of the present fuels1 and even substitutes for minerals will be devised long before the supply is exhausted4 ,this may be true1 and in a way the future must take care of itself1 but until new inventions have actually been made it is criminal to waste present resources and blindly trust that time will make our folly appear good judgment and foresight4 ,we have vast mineral resources unused2 the present generation1 even its children and its children's children need have no fear of a shortage4 ,but in the use of those resources that are steadily and for ever diminishing we must look a long way into the future4 ,we are under the most solemn obligation to take only our part of the store1 and leave the rest untouched and unspoiled for those who are to come after us4 ,when we consider what these mineral resources have done for our country in the last fifty years1 when we realize that it is only by having cheap and abundant coal1 iron1 and copper that our railroads1 our various electric systems1 and our great manufactories have been developed1 we can realize our duty to give the coming generations an equal opportunity to develop their ideas4 ,the yearly products of the mines of the ,united ,states are now valued at more than #b1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,sixty-five car-loads of freight out of every hundred carried by our railroads are made up of mineral products4 ,more than a million men are employed at the mines1 and more than twice that number in handling and transporting mine products4 ,of every one hundred tons of coal mined in the whole world1 the ,united ,states produces forty-three tons4 ,we supply forty-five tons out of every hundred of iron ore1 twenty-two tons of gold1 thirty tons of silver1 thirty-three tons of lead1 nearly twenty-eight tons of the zinc1 about fifty-five tons of the copper1 and sixty-three tons of the petroleum consumed by all civilized countries4 ,this would be a cause for great national pride if we did not need also to consider the shameful fact that our wastes or losses in the mining1 handling1 and use of our mineral products are estimated at more than #a1ejj1jjj per day1 or1 for the year1 the gigantic sum of #edg1ejj1jjj4 ,that is1 more than one-fourth of the entire output is wasted6 ,of all our minerals1 the fuels which supply heat1 light1 and power for domestic and manufacturing purposes1 are the most necessary and important4 ,other materials can not be manufactured without their aid4 ,almost every particular of modern life would be changed if we no longer had plenty of fuel4 ,its use means its immediate and complete destruction1 which is true of no other resource1 and the use of fuels is increasing and will increase so rapidly that their conservation is becoming a serious problem4 ,the principal fuels are coal1 gas1 oil1 peat1 alcohol1 and wood1 and of these1 coal is at present by far the most important4 ,the first record of coal mined in this country was in #ahad1 when twenty-two tons of anthracite1 or hard coal1 were mined in ,pennsylvania4 ,an increasing amount was mined each year1 but until #ahba the production was less than five hundred tons per year4 ,in #ahbb the production advanced to nearly #fj1jjj tons1 and since that time has increased by leaps and bounds4 ,during the seventy-five years from #ahbj to #ahie1 nearly #d1jjj1jjj1jjj tons were mined by methods so wasteful that #f1jjj1jjj1jjj tons were destroyed or allowed to remain in the ground so that it could never be recovered4 ,within the next ten years as much was produced as in the entire seventy-five preceding years1 and in this period #c1jjj1jjj1jjj tons were destroyed or left in the ground beyond the reach of future use4 ,up to this time the actual amount of coal used has been over #g1ejj1jjj1jjj tons2 the waste #i1jjj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,experts estimate that in the beginning there were somewhere about #b1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons of available coal1 so that we have now1 with all our wastefulness1 used less than two per cent4 of our original inheritance4 ,but we must remember that in the ten years closing with #aije1 we used as much as during the entire history of our country up to that time1 and the rate of consumption is still increasing4 ,in #aijg the amount mined was about #dej1jjj1jjj tons4 ,counting on a continuance of the same rate of increase1 in #aiag it will be #ijj1jjj1jjj tons a year1 and if the same conditions should continue for twenty years we should be using and wasting in one year as much as we have used in all our history up to the present time4 ,by that time more than one-eighth of our original supply will be gone1 and in less than two hundred years nearly all of it will have for ever disappeared4 ,that is a long time to look forward1 but a short time in looking backward4 ,it carries us back only to the childhood of ,benjamin ,franklin and others prominent in our early history2 and if this nation could look forward to only an equal period of prosperous development in the future the time would seem short indeed4 ,but the danger of our coal supply becoming exhausted lies not so much in its present use as in the rapid increase in its consumption4 ,fifty years ago 7about the time of the ,civil ,war7 we were using an amount equal to a little more than a quarter of a ton for every man1 woman and child then in the country4 ,now the rate is five tons1 or twenty times that amount1 for each person of all our greatly increased population4 ,the ,pittsburg ,coal ,company owns about one-seventh of the great ,pennsylvania anthracite fields4 ,from the amount it is now mining each year and judging from the amount of coal it is able1 with present methods1 to reclaim from an acre of coal land1 the estimate is made that this ,pittsburg field will be exhausted in ninety-three years4 ,a like comparison of all the eastern fields indicates that by the beginning of the next century there will be practically no cheap fuel left in the entire ,appalachian basin4 ,the ,geological ,survey reports that1 taking into account the available coal which can be reached and mined by present methods1 and supposing the present conditions of use1 waste1 and increase to continue1 the coal supply will be exhausted by the year #bjae ,a4 ,d41 but taking into account the probable improvements in its use1 the year #bjbg ,a4 ,d4 is estimated as the time when the present coal fields will be exhausted1 and the middle of that century as the time when all coal fields in the ,united ,states will be gone4 ,this true story well illustrates the need of conservation and the folly of careless waste4 ,high in the hills of the ,pittsburg region a thick bed of excellent coal was found by the early settlers4 ,it was impossible for them to build roads up the steep cliffs1 so some method of getting the coal down to the valleys had to be devised4 ,buffaloes roamed the western plains in countless millions1 and were so abundant about ,pittsburg that the supply seemed inexhaustible4 ,so the pioneers killed the buffaloes1 filled each skin with a few bushels of coal1 sewed it up1 and tumbled it down the mountain side4 ,this was the way they marketed their coal--by destroying their buffaloes4 ,for many years no one dreamed that there was any end to the supply of buffaloes4 ,and so both east and west they were killed for their skins1 which sold for a few cents1 for their horns1 for a supply of steak1 or for mere sport2 and then one day people woke up to find that the buffalo had disappeared1 not in one settlement only1 as they had supposed1 but everywhere4 ,there are a few remaining1 carefully cared for by the government4 ,they are among our most valued possessions1 and yet only a few years ago they were destroyed1 wasted1 by millions4 ,this passing of the buffalo1 the skins of which1 as common then as burlap bags are now1 were used to market our first coal1 carries with it a deep lesson as to what will happen to the coal itself1 even within the present century1 unless our people awake to the consequence of what they are doing and make a determined effort to stop all unnecessary waste4 ,let us see where and how these wastes occur4 ,the first serious loss of our coal occurs at the mines4 ,there are three great wastes in mining4 7#a7 ,a coal bed is not made up entirely of pure coal1 especially if it be very thick4 ,sometimes there are layers of shale or clay1 which makes a large amount of ash4 ,this can never be sold as regular marketable coal2 but it is rich in carbon1 and much of it might be used if it could be marketed near the mines and sold as low-grade coal4 ,in the past there has been almost no market for it1 and if it were either in the roof or bottom of the coal bed1 it has been left unmined4 ,if mixed with pure coal1 the low-grade coal was thrown into great heaps at the mouth of the mine4 ,this refuse coal is called culm4 ,the amount varies from one-tenth to one-half of the coal in nearly every coal bed1 and would probably average one-fourth in all the mines of the country4 ,this material is rich in carbon1 and when used in gas-engines will furnish more power than the best ,pocahontas coal when steam-engines are used4 ,thus one-fourth of all our coal is wasted at the mines simply because steam-engines instead of gas-producer engines have been employed4 ,if in the future installation of power this fact is taken into consideration1 it will make the cost less to the user1 and at the same time utilize a large proportion of our impure coal and save the higher grades for other purposes4 7#b7 ,in the mining of coal it was formerly the unfailing custom to leave supporting pillars of coal for the over-lying rocks to rest upon1 to make suitable working-rooms1 etc4 ,these pillars1 twelve to eighteen inches square1 and higher than a man's head1 are scattered throughout the entire mines and are usually of the highest grade coal4 ,in many mines1 also1 a roof of coal a foot or more in thickness must be left because the material above the coal is not solid enough to prevent cave-ins4 ,when the mine is abandoned and closed these pillars and roofings remain untouched1 because removing them constitutes one of the greatest dangers to life1 and is one of the frequent causes of mine accidents4 ,it is improbable that the coal thus left in abandoned mines will ever be reclaimed1 because not enough is left to make it profitable at present prices to re-open the mines2 and frequently the rocks cave in about these pillars and make the task almost impossible4 7#c7 ,by careless blasting an unnecessarily large amount of coal is blown into powder1--the slack which has not been marketed at all until within the last few years4 ,much of this slack1 which is the best grade of coal in a pulverized form1 is left inside the mines4 ,these wastes in abandoned roofing1 pillars1 and small-sized coal1 together make a total which for all the mines in the country will average fully one-fourth more of the coal that is in the ground4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that conditions are changing for the better4 ,the most modern mines use fewer supporting pillars of coal1 and these are of larger size1 so that there is less danger of accidents4 ,wherever possible they use timbers of wood instead of these smaller pillars of coal4 ,they also mine as near the top of the seam of coal as can be done safely1 and so regulate the blasting that much less slack is made than by the heavy discharges4 ,these changes in mining methods save a far larger proportion of coal1 and also prevent many accidents1 which are the most unfortunate feature of coal mining1 and the one which should receive most careful consideration4 7,see chapter on ,health47 ,one large mining company in ,kentucky raises its own timbers by planting trees in straight1 close rows on its coal land1 thus making the land produce its own mine timbers to conserve the coal below4 ,this company claims to have lost but one life in ten years1 and to save seventy-five per cent4 of its coal4 ,this is a striking illustration of what better mining methods will do for both the miner and the mine owner and of how forestry may be an aid to the conservation of coal and also of human life in the mines4 ,we have already shown how half of the coal is wasted1 but there still remains another source of waste at the mines4 ,this is a large but unknown quantity4 ,coal usually exists in beds or layers with shale or rock between1 much as a layer-cake is made1 the layers of cake being represented by the coal and the icing between by these rock-partings1 as they are called4 ,in rich fields1 there are from three to ten of these rich layers or beds of coal1 one above another4 ,it often happens that the thickest and best layer is the lowest1 and when this is the case1 it is usually mined first1 regardless of the fact that some1 and possibly all1 of the higher beds are dislocated and broken or filled with deadly gases4 ,nearly all this loss could be avoided by simply mining the upper stratum first4 ,so much for waste at the mines4 ,this is serious enough if it were all1 but it is not all1 it is only the beginning4 ,let us see now what becomes of the coal that is marketed4 ,the railroads are the largest single users of coal1 and here we are confronted with the surprising statement that our locomotives consume three tons of coal in doing the same work that is performed by ,english locomotives with one ton4 ,this difference is said to be due to different construction of the engines themselves1 and to more careful stoking1 or firing4 ,our locomotives use #ajj1jjj1jjj tons per year1 and by even the best methods known a large proportion of the heat units is wasted4 ,great effort should be made to improve the locomotives so that they will consume less coal2 but as long as the railroad companies own the coal mines1 as they do in many instances1 they can obtain coal so cheaply that the cost of the improved form of engine is greater than the amount saved4 ,another great use lies in the manufacture of coke1 which is used in the making of steel1 and here1 too1 we see where great wastes have existed4 ,the old form of coke-oven was called the bee-hive on account of its shape4 ,these old style ovens consume all the coal with the exception of the fixed carbon which is left behind as coke4 ,at the prices which prevailed in #aijg1 the value of the by-products wasted in bee-hive coke-ovens was a little over #ee1jjj1jjj--surely a loss worth considering4 ,a different form of coke-ovens is much used abroad and is coming into use in this country4 ,this is the retort or by-product oven1 sometimes called the recovery oven4 ,the bee-hive ovens are usually located near the mines where the cost of coal is low1 with small expense for transporting it4 ,on the other hand1 the by-product ovens are established near the larger cities in order to dispose of their gas and other by-products4 ,here the cost of transportation must be added to that of the coal1 but the products are marketed near by instead of at a distance1 as in the case of the bee-hive ovens4 ,the most improved by-product ovens produce not only coke and gas1 but coal-tar1 pitch1 ammonia1 and creosoting oils1 all extremely valuable and adding greatly to the value of the output of the ovens4 ,electricity is another form of light and power which involves a large waste of the energy of coal2 only one-fifth of one per cent41 that is1 one-five hundredth of the value of the coal is used in electricity1 and there is at present no known remedy for this4 ,there are methods1 however1 of lessening even this waste1 and these are constantly receiving more attention4 ,one is for the electric plants located in cities to sell their exhaust steam or water heated by the coal as it is converted into electric power1 as a by-product4 ,the electric power-house thus becomes a central heating plant to supply stores1 offices1 and residences4 ,another system being tried abroad1 though scarcely past the experimental stage in this country1 establishes great electric power-houses at the coal mines to use the culm1 low-grade slack1 and lignites1 the lowest form of coal1 in short1 all the waste of the mines4 ,still another plan is the manufacturing of electricity by water-power1 as we have seen in a previous chapter4 ,the manufacturing industries of the country waste a large amount of fuel annually1 but here the waste is mostly due to expensive methods of producing power1 and to careless stoking1 and is largely preventable4 ,as we have shown1 gas-engines are a far more economical form of producing power than are steam-engines4 ,steam uses from five to ten per cent4 of the heat-units of coal1 gas-producer engines use fifty per cent4 and burn a lower grade of coal4 ,one of the great problems of cities is the heavy volume of bituminous or soft coal smoke that hangs over the entire surrounding region1 levying a heavy tax in cleaning and laundry work1 making the air difficult to breathe1 and shutting out the daylight itself4 ,every residence adds its mite1 but the factories and public buildings are the worst offenders4 ,there are several good smoke-consuming devices on the market that have been thoroughly tested by the government1 which will furnish their names on application4 ,if factory owners who use steam power could realize that the gases1 the highest heat-producing part of the coal1 escape with the smoke1 and that by using smoke consumers they not only prevent all the evils of the smoke nuisance but save fully half of the value of their coal1 they would gladly put in this equipment4 ,what manufacturer would not eagerly welcome any device that would cut his fuel bills in half8 ,the other cause of waste of coal in the manufacturing industries is recklessness in the use of fuel1 filling the furnaces with the drafts so disposed that much of the heat is wasted4 ,every factory owner should learn 7from the government reports if he has no other means of learning7 the best methods of firing furnaces1 and should employ them in his factory4 ,the last great waste of coal is in households4 ,in stoves and furnaces1 and to a certain extent in kitchen ranges1 this waste is through carelessness in firing1 as it is in factories4 ,there still remains a large amount of wasted energy in cooking that is unavoidable4 ,the amount of coal consumed before certain articles can be cooked1 the heat remaining after the meal is prepared1 are wastes that it seems impossible to prevent1 though wise management will prevent undue waste even here4 ,fireless cookers1 an invention of recent years1 go far toward solving the problem of waste by long hours of cooking single articles1 and each year we see more prepared food bought in order to save the cost of heat4 ,housekeepers find that it does not pay to bake their bread themselves1 since a dozen loaves can be baked in a large oven with the fuel used in baking one at home4 ,briquettes are a new form of fuel made from coal1 principally for household use4 ,they are made from the low-grade coals1 culm1 slack and lignites1 blended with coal-tar pitch4 ,they are commonly used not only in households1 but for locomotives and ships1 in several ,european countries1 especially ,germany2 but in this country the cost of making them--about a dollar per ton--makes the retail price higher than the cheaper grades of coal1 and their general introduction at the price of the higher grades is rather slow4 ,let it always be kept in mind that we must not check the careful use1 only the waste1 and the best way to avoid an unnecessary drain on the coal and at the same time increase our manufactures is to substitute other power4 ,coal is only a form of energy that came originally from the sun4 ,the same causes that produced coal still exist4 ,scientists tell us that coal is still being made1 but it will take thousands of years to perfect it4 ,if we could only learn to take the sun's heat directly and use it for our heat1 light1 and power1 it would be one of the greatest discoveries in the history of the world1 greater even than the discovery of electricity4 ,many attempts have been made to produce power directly from the sun through solar engines1 or by concentrating it in furnaces4 ,at the ,st4 ,louis ,exposition a few years ago1 a ,portuguese priest exhibited a solar engine called a heliophore1 in which1 by means of the sun's rays1 the temperature was raised to #fjjj degrees ,f41 and a cube of iron placed in it melted like a snowball4 ,the sun helps to raise the tides and some day they may be used to produce power4 ,many experiments are being made with both solar and tidal energy1 some of them successful in a small way1 but nothing that is ready to stand the test of every-day use has been devised4 ,doctor ,pritchell says that on a clear day when the sun is high1 it delivers upon each acre of the earth's surface exposed to its rays1 the equal of #g1ejj horse-power working continually4 ,if the extra energy not needed for the growth of plants and animals could be used1 all the work of the world could be done and the problem of fuel supply would be solved for ever4 ,but the greatest conservation of coal possible at present lies in the use of the water-power which now goes to waste1 and which1 if employed1 would1 as we have seen1 give us #cj1jjj1jjj horse-power1 or more than all that is now produced from fuel by all our engines combined4 ,alabama offers a striking illustration of this failure to take advantage of our opportunities1 for ,alabama has both coal and water-power4 ,engineers estimate that the three principal rivers have power equal to #dcf1jjj horse-power4 ,at ,muscle ,shoals1 on the ,tennessee ,river1 there is now developed #ahh1jjj horse-power1 second only to ,niagara--and if the waters were conserved1 the figures would reach #a1jhd1jjj horse-power on the three rivers4 ,this means that1 according to the amount of coal required to produce each horse-power of energy1 it would require #aa1bja1jjj tons of coal each year to produce by steam as much power as these streams might easily be made to produce4 ,alabama1 as we have said1 is also a great coal state4 ,it is now mining about #ad1jjj1jjj tons per year and only four states produce a larger amount4 ,it will be seen that four tons out of five mined in this state will be needed to produce by steam the power that is going to waste in its rivers4 ,the ,honorable ,w4 ,p4 ,lay1 of the ,alabama ,conservation ,commission1 in calling attention to this fact1 says3 ,suppose for a moment that the coal fields of ,alabama were sliding down an incline and pouring off over a precipice at the rate of #aa1bja1jjj tons per year1 how long would it take the people of the ,united ,states to do something to try to stop such a waste8 ,yet what else are we doing when we sit idly by and let the water of these streams go to waste over a precipice while we ourselves burn up the coal8 ,and what is true in ,alabama is true to a lesser extent in most of the states4 ,wherever water-power is going to waste1 coal is being used to take its place1 and that coal is needed in some place where there is no water-power4 ,on a certain stream in one of the central states was a fine waterfall4 ,the early settlers built a mill there4 ,the water turned the mill-wheel and then passed on to water the valley and turn other mill-wheels4 ,but one night the old mill was destroyed by fire4 ,it was not rebuilt1 but some distance from the stream a new steam mill was built1 the motive power of which was natural gas4 ,when1 after a few years1 the natural gas was all gone1 the miller began to use coal1 and he still uses coal--hundreds of tons of it--while the water which once turned the wheels1 runs idly over the falls4 ,this is an example of wholly useless waste of coal1 and just such waste is to be found in hundreds of places in our country4 ,if wise mining methods be put into operation1 if proper care be taken in its use1 particularly in manufacturing1 if the low-grade coals be utilized1 and if other power be substituted wherever practicable1 there need be no question of shortage4 ,there is enough coal in the ground1 if used rightly1 to last for ages to come4 ,but because we have wasted vast quantities of it in the past1 and are still wasting it1 so that if the same conditions continue we can distinctly see the end in sight1 it is important that every one understands what these conditions of use and waste are1 and how the abuse may be corrected1 so that mine owners and consumers may all work together to preserve this most necessary resource4 ,,references ,coal is ,king4 ,hewette4 ,economical ,burning of ,coal ,without ,smoke4 ,bement4 ,coal and ,coal ,mines4 ,h4 ,green4 ,international ,library of ,technology4 ,vols4 #cg and #ch4 ,reports of ,geological ,survey4 ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,conservation of ,mineral ,resources4 7,u4 ,s4 ,report47 ,production of ,coals in the ,u4 ,s4 in #aijh4 ,advance chapters available4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,other ,,fuels ,,wood ,wood1 which was formerly the only fuel used in this country1 has now largely given place to other fuels4 ,in rural districts and in lumber regions it is still used extensively2 but in the cities1 larger towns1 and manufacturing regions1 it is not used in commercial quantities4 ,its use for power production is limited to the wood-working factories which have a large amount of waste lumber and which employ this by-product to furnish heat for steam boilers4 ,the wood used for fuel or for power usually represents what would otherwise be lost1 the dead trees and the unmarketable timber of the farmer's wood-lot1 the refuse of lumber regions or the waste of wood-working factories4 ,so that the use of wood as fuel now generally means the conservation of our coal supply1 and a use for the low-grade parts of the forest4 ,in some cases1 however1 farmers cut for fuel fine young trees that would grow into excellent timber4 ,liberal planting of trees so that wood shall become plentiful in all parts of the country will tend to bring about again a larger use of wood as fuel1 which will thus once more become a factor in the saving of our coal4 ,every farmer should learn to save all valuable trees for lumber1 and to use only undesirable ones for fuel4 ,,peat ,peat is said by geologists to be only coal in the making1 carbon that is in the state of changing from vegetable matter to coal4 ,it is probable that in the course of centuries this would become coal1 and in its present state it has many of the properties of coal1 though it has not nearly so high a heating value4 ,in this country we have had such a wealth of fuel resources--coal1 wood1 oil1 and gas--that up to the present time we have done little to develop our peat beds1 although in ,european countries ten million tons are used annually for fuel1 as well as large quantities for other purposes4 ,from the earliest times peat has been the principal fuel of the common people of ,ireland and some of the countries of northern ,europe4 ,now1 however1 people are trying to make the best of many resources not heretofore developed1 coal prices are steadily advancing and the two causes combine to turn people's attention to the peat beds of ,america4 ,one point that is worthy of notice is that peat is found mostly in regions where there is no coal1 oil1 or natural gas4 ,the development of peat beds in those regions1 it will be seen1 would give them a great advantage in the matter of cheap fuel4 ,large peat beds are found in ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,england1 ,new ,jersey1 ,florida1 the ,dakotas1 northern ,iowa1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 eastern ,virginia1 the ,carolinas and ,georgia2 and near the coast in the gulf states1 and a narrow strip along the ,pacific coast1 from southern ,california to the ,canadian border4 ,they cover an area of about #aa1jjj square miles and are supposed to contain not less than #ad1jjj1jjj1jjj tons of air-dried peat4 ,at the rate of three dollars per ton1 which is a reasonable price in the states having no coal1 this peat would have a value of more than #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,peat is prepared for use as common fuel in two ways3 7#a7 ,by cutting it into blocks or bricks1 which are air-dried by exposure to sun and wind for a few weeks4 ,this is called cut peat1 is bulky and easily breakable1 and can be used only for local consumption4 7#b7 ,by digging either by hand or machine1 and grinding it in a mill4 ,it is put in wet1 ground1 cut with rapidly turning knives1 and passed out of the machine as a thick pulp that is cut into bricks as it comes out4 ,it is then stored several weeks until thoroughly dried4 ,this is called machine peat1 pressed peat1 or condensed peat4 ,peat is being used in many ways4 7#a7 ,air-dried peat is used for fuel only4 7#b7 ,dry peat without a binder1 or mixed with coal dust and tar or pitch is used for the same purpose4 7#c7 ,machine peat is used for many purposes1 among them making into briquettes1 peat charcoal1 and peat coke4 ,it has been found practical to make illuminating gas of peat1 but a far more general use is for running gas-engines and producer-gas furnaces4 ,this is a practical use for it1 since it will conserve the coal now used for that purpose1 furnish satisfactory power without smoke or dirt1 provide cheap power in regions that have no coal mines1 and lastly may be made to yield valuable by-products3 ammonia1 acetic acid1 paraffin1 tar1 creosote1 and wood-alcohol4 ,if all the peat in the ,united ,states could be used in producer-gas engines the ammonia yielded would alone have a value of #cf1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,peat is also used for packing material1 as a fertilizer1 for manufacturing paper1 for coarse cloth and mattress filling4 ,by mixing wet machine peat with cement it may be made into blocks for paving and other construction work4 ,the most promising uses are for fuel1 as bedding for stock1 as a disinfectant1 in briquettes for burning lime1 brick1 and pottery1 in which it is finding a large use1 and for which it is said to be particularly well fitted2 and most satisfactory of all1 its use in gas-producer engines4 ,in ,florida an immense plant is being built to manufacture electric power1 using air-dried peat as fuel1 the power to be transmitted to ,jacksonville4 ,machine peat is supposed to have sixty-five per cent4 the value of the same weight of ,pocahontas coal1 but on account of the lack of waste in peat its real value is higher than would appear from the comparison4 ,from two to two and a half pounds will produce one horse-power per hour in gas-producer engines4 ,by this estimate1 we can see that the peat beds of this country1 if properly used1 may be largely employed1 either now or in the future1 as a substitute for the vanishing coal4 ,,natural ,,gas ,of all the fuels1 natural gas may be said to be the ideal one4 ,coming from the ground1 it is piped a greater or less distance and distributed to the home or factory for light1 heat1 or power2 for all of which it is equally desirable4 ,it is ready for our use at the turn of a key1 is absolutely clean1 having neither dust1 ash1 nor unconsumed portions4 ,it requires no kindling other than a lighted match4 ,natural gas is found over an area which1 if combined1 would cover almost #aj1jjj square miles4 ,it exists in twenty-two states--,alabama1 ,california1 ,colorado1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,missouri1 ,montana1 ,new ,york1 ,kansas1 ,kentucky1 ,louisiana1 ,ohio1 ,oklahoma1 ,oregon1 ,pennsylvania1 ,south ,dakota1 ,texas1 ,utah1 ,washington1 ,west ,virginia1 ,wyoming4 ,in some of them the area has been large and the production very heavy1 in others the field is small and unproductive4 ,until the last two or three years there have been no statistics as to the quantity of gas piped1 but an account of its value has been kept for many years4 ,for the twenty years beginning with #ahhh the value is given at nearly #ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,it must be remembered that much of this represents extremely low prices1 only the amount actually paid for its use4 ,when gas is newly discovered in a region it is not considered an opportunity for the residents of the community to have cheap light1 power and fuel for themselves1 but instead as an opportunity to develop the country1 to increase the population and attract new factories4 ,in order to advertise and boom their communities free gas is usually offered to factories4 ,so in dozens of instances large factories have been operated for years without a cent having been paid for fuel4 ,for this reason no proper estimate can be made of the quantity of gas consumed1 nor of its value even at a nominal price4 ,in #aijg1 7the last year for which complete returns have been published in government reports7 the amount of gas consumed was given at #djd1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 which at present prices is valued at #fc1jjj1jjj4 ,it is impossible to determine in any way the future production of natural gas1 or to guess at the quantity remaining in the earth4 ,it may be much less or much more than present conditions would indicate2 but the present known fields are limited1 and the pressure is growing steadily less in all of them4 ,the ,conservation ,commission reports1 ,it is safe to predict that the known fields will be exhausted in twenty-five years4 ,the decrease of natural gas is strikingly illustrated in ,indiana4 ,this state1 perhaps more than any other1 profited directly by the discovery of its natural gas about twenty years ago4 ,here1 the mineral maps show1 is by far the greatest natural gas region in the ,united ,states4 ,with the discovery of natural gas1 established towns grew to ten times their former size and new ones sprang up everywhere4 ,indiana1 which had been chiefly an agricultural state1 bade fair to become one of the foremost manufacturing states on account of its cheap and abundant fuel4 ,in #aijb ,indiana produced nearly #h1jjj1jjj worth of natural gas1 but for #aijh the ,state ,geologist's report contained no figures for this product4 ,it had ceased to be a prominent factor in the wealth of the state6 ,there is no resource that has been so shamefully1 so hopelessly wasted as our natural gas4 ,with even more recklessness than characterizes the waste of our forests and our coal1 we have allowed this perfect fuel to escape4 ,to the dwellers in each region where natural gas is found1 it seems that the supply is inexhaustible4 ,the roar of the wells1 which makes the very earth tremble2 the flames springing high into the air2 the undiminished pressure after months of use1 appearing to indicate a boundless reservoir below2 the opportunity for whole communities to grow rich by its use2 all these things tend to promote recklessness on the part of all who handle it4 ,in the beginning the wells are usually not tightly cased1 and there is a considerable quantity of gas escaping about every well4 ,new wells are frequently lighted to show the volume of gas4 ,in some cases the well has become uncapped on account of heavy pressure and to prevent the escape of unconsumed gas into the air it is kept burning night and day4 ,the strongest wells are often kept burning for months in order to advertise a new gas field4 ,in this way immense quantities of the most perfect fuel in the world have been wantonly wasted4 ,from a single well in eastern ,kentucky there flowed a steady stream of gas for twenty years which at present prices would be worth #c1jjj1jjj1 and the same story of waste from burning wells comes from every natural gas field4 ,in a new region where gas is abundant there is also a great waste from leaking pipe lines laid on the surface of the ground1 from open flambeaux1 and from careless home and factory consumption4 ,in many communities the open flambeaux have been employed to light the streets1 and allowed to burn day and night to avoid the expense of a man to care for them4 ,where natural gas is abundant1 meters are not usually installed2 instead1 gas is sold by the month4 ,the consumer is under no obligation to save the gas1 in fact1 he usually acts on the common ,american principle of wanting to get all he can for the money and so burns his open tip lights1 and open burner stoves day and night4 ,the factories waste in the same way1 using open furnaces which are never banked during the season because it is easier and costs no more4 ,this1 it seems1 should be the whole history of natural gas waste1 but the greatest source of loss still remains to be spoken of4 ,in every gas region of any importance oil is found sooner or later1 usually after the heaviest gas pressure has been exhausted2 and the oil driller is the greatest of all foes to the life of a natural gas region4 ,he finds that the gas interferes with the flow of oil1 spraying it into the air and causing loss1 and that the danger of fire is much increased by its presence4 ,this frequently causes explosions1 tearing out the side of the well or blowing out the casing1 and making the oil-well useless4 ,the surplus gas is usually piped to one side out of the reach of danger1 and then burned to get rid of it4 ,drillers often try to force the gas out in the hope that it will be followed by a rush of oil4 ,this is the heaviest drain on the gas4 ,in the ,caddo field in ,louisiana alone the loss is seventy million cubic feet per day1 enough to light ten cities the size of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 and equal to ten thousand barrels of petroleum per day4 ,in ,indiana a few years ago fourteen wells1 all within a space of a few acres in extent1 were burned by oil drillers continuously for six months1 the light being visible twenty miles away4 ,greater care in the management of the wells and slight additional expense for casing are all that is required to stop the waste of gas from oil wells and heavy pressure gas wells4 ,all of these wastes taken together constitute a fearful loss4 ,in #aijg1 more than #djj1jjj1jjj cubic feet were used and an almost equal number wasted4 ,in other words1 the daily waste is over a billion cubic feet1 or enough to supply every city in the ,united ,states of over one hundred thousand population4 ,the heating value of a billion feet of gas is equal to a million bushels of coal4 ,if some great conflagration were sweeping away our coal fields steadily every day in the year1 and destroying our best coal at the rate of a million bushels per day1 how quickly we should all arise to aid in checking it6 ,and yet this imaginary case is actually true in regard to the best fuel in this country1 which is burning uselessly an equal value in coal1 and our coal must some day be used to supply the loss4 ,we are apt to ignore the greatness of this loss because the gas escapes into the air and we can not see it1 or it burns and we see only its effect1 not the loss of fuel1 but if we could see it in the form of oil we should find that a billion feet of gas is equal to more than a hundred and sixty thousand barrels of petroleum4 ,think of it1 the equivalent of one hundred and sixty thousand barrels of oil1 for which no price is paid and of which no use is made1 for ever destroyed every day in every year6 ,would the oil companies permit it8 ,would we not all assist them in saving their property from destruction1 and shall we not ask of them equal help in saving the fuel that in turn conserves our coal supply8 ,little objection can be made to the present method of using gas in the older regions4 ,the waste in domestic use is comparatively small4 ,much is used for lighting with incandescent burners1 and asbestos grates and gas ranges have replaced the open-burner stoves and grates4 ,these are all efficient methods of use1 and but little could be done in the way of further conservation4 ,in factories the gas-engine is in many instances replacing the open furnace1 which requires many times as much gas to produce an equal amount of power4 ,they should be used in every factory1 and gas companies should also require the use of the best devices for saving gas in places where meters are not used4 ,until last year but one state--,indiana--had an effective law preventing the waste of natural gas by oil companies4 ,this law says in substance that a man can not take the oil from the ground where nature has safely stored it1 unless he also provide a market for the gas which accompanies it4 ,it also says that neither the producer nor the consumer shall be allowed to waste this valuable fuel1 as such waste is against public policy4 ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,white1 of ,west ,virginia1 in discussing this question at the ,conservation ,congress said1 ,this ,indiana statute should be enacted into law in every state where these fuels exist4 ,since that time ,pennsylvania and ,ohio have passed laws1 which are said to be effective1 for the conservation of natural gas4 ,much has been accomplished by gas companies1 who1 since they became alive to the danger of loss of their investment1 have been extremely watchful of their property4 ,in ,west ,virginia the gas companies buy the gas which has been obtained in the drilling of oil wells1 thus providing a market for the waste gas and making it possible to continue the oil business and at the same time to furnish cheap gas4 ,another hopeful sign is the pumping of all of the product of a well4 ,formerly as soon as a well dropped greatly in production it was abandoned1 but now it is pumped until dry4 ,one method by which the gas from oil wells may be utilized consists in compressing it in steel cylinders for shipping4 ,this in a small way has been found to be successful4 ,experiments are being tried on a large scale in ,ohio to prove that gas may be returned to reservoirs within the earth which are tight enough to hold it under heavy pressure4 ,fuel gas made from low-grade coal is a satisfactory substitute for natural gas4 ,like the natural product it may be piped for long distances4 ,some natural gas companies have bought up the culm banks and heaps of refuse coal1 so that if the natural gas becomes exhausted they can manufacture cheap gas at the mines and pipe it to the cities they now serve4 ,,petroleum ,petroleum1 or rock oil1 is a dark greenish brown liquid which when refined yields gasolene1 naphtha1 benzine1 kerosene1 lubricating oils1 and paraffin4 ,the name petroleum applies only to the crude petroleum as it comes from the ground1 and the word oil is applied to the products obtained by refining4 ,the early history of the petroleum industry in this country is interesting as showing what great results spring from small beginnings4 ,from salt wells in ,pennsylvania there was an occasional flow of petroleum1 but it had had no commercial value4 ,samuel ,kier1 of ,pittsburg1 had salt wells at ,tarantum from which he had accumulated so much petroleum 7fifty barrels7 that he decided to try to dispose of it1 but there was no market4 ,no one knew what to do with it4 ,he then partly refined it1 making a poor quality of kerosene1 and introduced a lamp with a chimney4 ,this proved so popular that ,a4 ,c4 ,ferris1 also of ,pittsburg1 undertook to sell this in other cities1 and these two men not only sold the fifty barrels and the other petroleum that accumulated from the salt wells1 but they had created such a demand for the new light that they could not supply enough oil1 and in #ahei ,colonel ,drake drilled at ,titusville the first well solely for petroleum4 ,in the half-century since that time nearly two billion barrels1 or almost two hundred and fifty million tons1 worth one and three-quarter billion dollars1 have been produced4 ,petroleum is now mined1 or drilled1 in many countries besides the ,united ,states1 but the ,united ,states furnishes sixty-three barrels out of every hundred produced in the world4 ,russia produces twenty-one barrels1 ,austria four1 and the ,east ,indies three barrels1 ,roumania two1 ,india and ,mexico one each1 ,canada1 ,japan1 ,germany1 ,peru1 and ,italy each less than one barrel2 so we can see that the ,united ,states is the one great producer of petroleum1 and that it is to this country that we must look for the principal world supply for the present1 and as far as known1 for the future4 ,let us see1 then1 what we may expect the ,united ,states to do to supply this demand4 ,the known petroleum lands cover an area of about #h1ejj square miles and are in six large fields and several smaller ones4 ,the largest and best is the ,appalachian1 of which the best known is the ,pennsylvania field4 ,it has a grade of petroleum that differs from any other thus far found in the world4 ,it is most easily converted into kerosene or lamp oil1 and contains a larger proportion of such oil4 ,it is the finest petroleum in the world1 except that found in ,indiana and ,ohio1 and that costs more to refine4 ,the ,appalachian field includes1 besides ,pennsylvania1 western ,new ,york1 ,west ,virginia1 a narrow strip in eastern ,ohio1 ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,these southern oils are of a much lower grade1 but are better than the ,russian or other foreign oils4 ,the next great field is called the ,lima-,indiana1 and covers a considerable portion of northwestern ,ohio and eastern ,indiana4 ,this petroleum contains less gasolene and less lamp oils1 and more sulphur1 which makes refining difficult4 ,the ,illinois field lies next4 ,here1 in a strip about thirty miles long and six miles wide on an average1 an enormous quantity of petroleum is produced4 ,this oil is slightly lower in quality and contains considerable asphalt4 ,the mid-continent field lies in ,kansas and ,oklahoma4 ,this petroleum also contains asphalt and other chemical products4 ,such immense amounts are produced here that it has not been possible to care for all of it1 either in the matter of storage tanks or cars for transporting it1 and as a result large amounts have been wasted4 ,in ,oklahoma within a space of less than two square miles one million barrels of forty-two gallons each of petroleum were wasted in the year #aijf4 ,the ,gulf field lying in ,texas and ,louisiana has been developed entirely since #aija4 ,the first well was drilled near ,beaumont1 ,texas1 as an experiment to determine whether oil could be found4 ,small storage tanks were provided and it was hoped to find oil enough to make drilling profitable4 ,the well proved to be a gusher of such magnitude that before sufficient tanks could be provided1 or the flow checked1 more than half a million barrels were wasted on the ground4 ,the ,gulf petroleum contains a large amount of asphalt and a small amount of gasolene and lamp oil4 ,it has been used principally for burning as crude oil in locomotives and has sold as low as ten cents per barrel2 but lately methods of refining have been perfected which produce good lubricating oil and a gasolene of high value from these low-grade oils4 ,the last great field is found in ,california4 ,the oil is similar to the ,gulf oil1 and investigation has shown that the quantity is greater in this field than in any other4 ,it is used largely for fuel and power on account of lack of other fuels in that region4 ,in addition to these fields there are small ones in ,colorado and ,wyoming1 and promises of fields in ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 ,idaho1 ,montana1 ,oregon and ,washington4 ,estimates of the amounts of petroleum yielded are made by computing the amount usually produced per acre1 which varies from eight hundred barrels produced in ,pennsylvania1 to eight thousand barrels per acre produced in ,illinois4 ,in most of the fields it is about a thousand barrels per acre4 ,even then the amount is extremely difficult to estimate4 ,the ,geological ,survey concludes that the lowest probable calculation of the entire amount stored in the rocks of the ,united ,states is ten billion1 and the highest a little less than twenty-five billion barrels4 ,the last report officially published shows that we are producing one hundred and seventy million barrels per year4 ,if the same rate of production continues1 we might expect our petroleum to last from fifty-five to one hundred and thirty-five years1 according to the amount found2 but tables of statistics show that throughout the life of the petroleum industry1 as much has been produced each nine years as the entire product before that time4 ,for example1 up to the present1 we have produced one billion eight hundred million barrels and if the present rate continues1 in the next nine years alone we shall produce an equal quantity again4 ,the causes of such rapid growth are many4 ,one is the great increase in the use of some of the products1 such as gasolene1 which has increased many fold since the automobile became popular4 ,another1 and the greatest cause1 is the ease with which any quantity of oil can be sold for cash at any time1 and at prices much above the cost of production4 ,another reason is based upon the nature of the product4 ,in pumping from one well oil is apt to flow in from other leases1 under other farms1 and exhaust them without the holders of those leases having received any compensating benefit4 ,it is therefore necessary for each lessee to get his share before it flows away4 ,under these circumstances1 it is impossible to prevent an entire field from being drilled over very rapidly1 unless there is a combination of all the interests2 or unless the law limits the amount that each producer shall extract per acre within a given time4 ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york have declined to one-third their former value and yet it is only seventeen years since they reached their highest point4 ,this would seem to indicate that the life of that field will not exceed ten years4 ,west ,virginia is producing only a little more than half its former yield and is rapidly declining4 ,ohio and ,indiana are declining more rapidly than ,pennsylvania4 ,texas is also in the rapidly declining class1 and in ,kansas the production is only a fraction of what it was formerly4 ,on the other hand1 ,illinois1 ,oklahoma1 and ,california can be expected to increase steadily for several years4 ,taking into account all these factors1 it is estimated that the entire supply now known to exist would be exhausted before the middle of the present century4 ,it appears more probable1 however1 that increasing prices long before that time will help to conserve the supply2 and that petroleum will be produced for a long time to come1 though not in sufficient quantities for industrial and general use4 ,the principal uses of petroleum are for burning as crude oil in furnaces and under boilers1 particularly in locomotives4 ,the refined products have various uses4 ,probably the most important is the lubricating oil4 ,this is necessary in the development of all kinds of power4 ,at least one-half pint of lubricating oil is used for every ton of coal consumed for power4 ,all engines1 all street and steam railways1 steamships1 sewing-machines1 clocks1 watches1 and automobiles1 in fact all operating machinery requires its use2 so that a large amount of oil must always be conserved for lubricating purposes4 ,coal oil1 or kerosene1 may be regarded as absolutely necessary for the lighting of houses or other establishments not connected with gas or electric supply4 ,gasolene is sometimes used for lighting1 though such use is not common4 ,it is largely used for cooking1 and still more largely used in the various types of gasolene engines4 ,naphtha is used for power1 especially for motor-boats1 and for cleaning1 in which it is very valuable by reason of its power to dissolve dirt4 ,paraffin is used in polishing1 in laundry work1 for waxing floors1 and as a covering to exclude air in preserving articles4 ,waste has been markedly absent in the petroleum industry4 ,it is necessary that oil drilling outfits shall contain steel storage tanks for holding the oil when it is reached4 ,usually the supply is large enough1 but sometimes1 as in the case of the big well at ,beaumont1 ,texas1 the oil gushes forth in such volume that the drillers are not prepared to take care of the overflow1 and much is wasted before the well can be capped4 ,in general there is no waste in storage in this country4 ,in ,european countries where there is oil1 the loss through lack of tanks and by using wooden tanks which leak1 is very great4 ,another form of waste which is common in foreign countries1 but which has been avoided in the ,united ,states1 is evaporation of gasolene and similar light products when the petroleum is exposed to the air in open tanks4 ,this is the most valuable part of petroleum1 and if it be exposed to the sun a single day it loses greatly in value4 ,the refining processes of the petroleum industry are probably carried out with better system and less waste than in any other resource1 owing to the fact that the business is controlled by large companies4 ,there is no waste material in its manufacture1 except some slight residue that might be used for oiling roads1 instead of using the crude oil4 ,the principal waste lies in its use4 ,in view of the fact that the supply is not unending1 is1 indeed1 rapidly disappearing1 the uses should be confined only to the necessary lines for which there are no substitutes at similar prices4 ,these are for lubricating oils and for the lighting of homes4 ,the unnecessary uses are for burning in locomotives and for the development of power4 ,whenever new petroleum fields are opened up1 there is a corresponding drop in price4 ,in order to dispose of it quickly such petroleum is usually sold for the lowest grade uses1 and the price for this crude petroleum is not more than one hundredth as much as for high grade petroleum products4 ,the report of the ,national ,conservation ,commission is so excellent that it is quoted almost word for word4 ,at present more petroleum is being produced than is necessary for the demands of the industry4 ,within ten years the present fields will be unable profitably to produce enough for these requirements4 ,the only direction in which production can be checked is with the petroleum contained in public lands4 ,offering such public lands for entry at a low price is nothing more than temptation to the private citizen to waste petroleum by over production1 since lands yielding hundreds of dollars per acre in this product can be obtained for a small sum4 ,every acre of public land1 believed to contain petroleum or natural gas1 should be withdrawn from public sale and leased under conditions that regulate production4 ,its use for power is justified on the ,pacific coast1 if used in gas-producer engines4 ,,alcohol ,as a substitute for other fuels1 wood1 or denaturated alcohol1 will probably come into greater use each year1 and is regarded by many as the great fuel of the future1 because the materials of which it is made are waste vegetable products and will always be plentiful4 ,it is made from cellulose1 the woody part of plants1 and may be manufactured from sawdust when freshly cut from live trees1 from small1 and refuse potatoes1 from inferior grain that is not worth marketing1 and from low-grade fruits and vegetables of all kinds4 ,it is even said that the hundreds of acres of sage-brush in the ,west that have always been considered worse than useless can be made into wood-alcohol and thus become a valuable product4 ,it can be used for any purpose that gasolene can1 although a different style burner is required4 ,it must be made much hotter before it is changed into vapor1 and on account of this it has been difficult to make satisfactory burners for all the kinds of heating1 lighting1 and power work2 the machinery being far from perfect as yet4 ,wood-alcohol can not yet be made cheaper than gasolene1 and is not so easy to burn1 so that it is slow in reaching an important place in the industrial world2 but gas and gasolene prices will advance1 and better methods of manufacturing and burning alcohol will be found1 and then we shall have a fuel that can take the place of either coal or petroleum for lighting or power4 ,it is thought that wood-alcohol will be of especial use to the farmer1 since he has so many waste vegetable products1 has so much need of power in small quantities and is far from the sources of public service power1 such as electric and gas plants4 ,alcohol-driven motors can be used to take the place of the labor of both horses and men on the farm4 ,on level farms they can run the heavy machines1 such as mowers1 reapers1 and binders1 plows and cultivators4 ,on any farm they may be used to run stationary engines1 to chop and grind food for live stock1 to pump water1 churn1 run sewing-machines1 operate fans1 drive carriages and wagons and do many other things4 ,wood-alcohol produces ammonia as a by-product1 is used in the manufacture of dyes and coal-tar products1 of smokeless powder1 of varnishes1 and of imitation silks made from cotton4 ,,references ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,reports of ,geological ,survey4 ,conservation of ,ores and ,related ,minerals4 7,carnegie47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,conservation of ,mineral ,resources4 7,u4 ,s4 ,government ,report47 ,industrial ,alcohol and ,its ,uses4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wiley4 ,bulletin1 #bfi4 ,production of ,peat in the ,u4 ,s4 in #aijh4 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,reports4 ,production of ,oil in the ,u4 ,s4 in #aijh4 ,production of ,gas in the ,u4 ,s4 in #aijh4 ,waste of ,our ,fuel ,resources4 7,white47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,iron ,we have already stated the importance of iron in our modern life4 ,it can not be overestimated4 ,all the many articles of iron and steel1 our tools1 our machinery1 our vehicles1 our bridges1 our steel buildings1 and a thousand and one other things are dependent on our iron supply4 ,of all the elements that make up the earth's surface only three are more plentiful than iron1 so that we might think that we should always have an abundant supply of it2 but when it occurs in small quantities1 as is usually the case1 it can not of course be profitably mined4 ,it is only when enough of it is found together to permit it to be mined to advantage that it is called iron ore4 ,iron ore is found in only twenty-nine states of the ,union1 and eighty per cent4 of the present production is in two states1 ,minnesota and ,michigan4 ,we can see that iron is very unevenly distributed1 and it is on a few regions that we must depend for all the future4 ,before we can calculate how much iron we have we must understand that it is not found in pure form1 but mixed with various other substances3 clay1 shale1 slate1 quartz1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 etc4 ,these must all be removed1 some by washing1 but most of them by roasting1 or smelting1 in blast furnaces1 after which it is called pig iron4 ,this of course requires large quantities of fuel4 ,it is these things and also the position of the ore that must be taken into consideration in estimating the amount of iron in the country4 ,if ore yields a large per cent4 of iron in smelting1 with a small amount of waste1 it is1 of course1 far more valuable than if the amount of iron in every ton of material taken from the ground is small4 ,in all minerals1 the relation of supply to price is marked4 ,the cost of labor and of power is exactly the same whether ore yields fifty-five tons of pure iron to the hundred1 or whether it yields only thirty tons1 but the price received is little more than half4 ,so if the price is low1 it may cost more to mine and smelt the one hundred tons of earth than will be paid for the thirty tons of iron that the low-grade ore would yield4 ,so the lands that produce only thirty tons to the hundred will never be mined till the price of iron is so high that it is above the cost of producing--that is1 till it can be worked at a profit4 ,the ,lake ,superior iron found in ,minnesota is usually more than fifty-five per cent4 pure iron4 ,that is1 if a hundred tons of earth be mined1 more than fifty-five tons of pure iron would be obtained from it4 ,this is the highest grade of ore4 ,some ore is mined that yields only forty tons or less4 ,there are vast quantities1 billions of tons1 of iron ore in the ,united ,states1 that would yield less than thirty tons of iron to the hundred4 ,these low-grade ores and the ones known to lie so deep in the earth that the cost of mining them is more than the finished products of iron1 are classed as not available1 that is1 they can never be profitably mined under present conditions4 ,but we must remember that as the higher grade ores are exhausted it will become necessary to use the lower grades1 and that prices will steadily advance as a result4 ,iron is sometimes found almost directly under the ground1 at other times deep in the earth4 ,that which is found just below the surface is1 of course1 mined much more easily1 more safely1 more cheaply1 and with far less loss than that which requires deep mining4 ,such conditions are found in the ,lake ,superior region1 and there is almost no loss at all1 the low-grade ores being piled up at one side where they can be easily reached in case of need4 ,on the other hand some iron mines now in operation are as much as two thousand feet in depth4 ,in these mines1 as in coal mines1 pillars are left to support the rock above4 ,a roof of the iron ore is often left also4 ,the low-grade ore is left in the ground and no effort is made to preserve it for future use4 ,these constitute the principal waste in iron mining4 ,the pure iron of the ore is separated by washing out the clays and soft elements1 but the harder substances must be smelted by means of heat4 ,in the beginning this was done by charcoal1 which is still used in ,sweden4 ,the latest method is to employ electricity manufactured by water-power1 but most of the iron smelting in this country has been done by coal4 ,every ton of iron smelted requires its portion of coal for firing4 ,if low-grade fuels in gas-producer engines1 or water-power can be used it will be a great aid in conserving coal4 ,if a limited supply of rather low-grade iron exists near a coal region1 it can often be mined profitably1 when1 if it be far from an abundant fuel supply1 it must be shipped to distant blast furnaces4 ,the cost of shipping causes ore containing a small percentage of iron to be classed as not available4 ,sometimes a large company with many mines has several varieties of ore of different strength and hardness4 ,if these can be mixed to produce a medium grade by adding a small amount of high-grade ore to a large amount of lower grade1 the value of the product will be doubled4 ,sometimes1 too1 the by-products can be made extremely profitable by manufacturing large amounts when the expense of undertaking the work is too great to be attempted with a small amount4 ,so if iron mines are owned by a small company much ore may be classed as not available that could be used by a large company4 ,all these things must be considered in estimating the iron resources4 ,the first smelting of iron ore in this country was done at ,lynn1 ,massachusetts1 in #afde1 using the low-grade bog-ores and smelting with charcoal from the surrounding forest4 ,now if we look over an iron map of the ,united ,states we shall find that there are four hundred and eighty blast furnaces1 but that only nine of them are west of the ,mississippi ,river and most of these are in ,missouri4 ,the greatest of all the iron regions now lies in upper ,michigan and ,minnesota4 ,this furnishes eighty tons out of every one hundred mined in the ,united ,states1 but the smelting is done along the southern shores of ,lake ,michigan4 ,the reason for this is that the iron region itself is far distant from a cheap fuel supply4 ,pittsburg1 ,pennsylvania1 has been the great iron city of the ,united ,states on account of its nearness to great supplies of both coal and iron4 ,birmingham1 ,alabama1 is the heart of the great smelting region of the ,south4 ,the iron is divided into districts as follows3 7#a7 ,the ,northeastern1 comprising the states of ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 and ,ohio1 supplies a little more than five per cent4 of the iron mined in the ,united ,states4 7#b7 ,the ,southeastern1 containing ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1 eastern ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,alabama1 gives us twelve per cent4 of our iron4 7#c7 ,the ,lake ,superior district1 containing the northern parts of ,michigan1 ,minnesota and ,wisconsin1 supplies more than eighty per cent4 7#d7 ,the ,mississippi ,valley district contains western ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee1 ,iowa1 ,missouri1 ,arkansas and ,texas4 ,this region furnishes less than half of one per cent4 of the total supply4 7#e7 ,the ,rocky ,mountain district contains ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 ,nevada1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 western ,texas1 ,washington1 ,oregon and ,california2 and all this great region now supplies but a little more than one per cent4 ,the official report1 which is as thorough as can be made but is naturally subject to mistakes1 gives the amount of available iron1 that is1 that which can be mined under present conditions1 as nearly five billion tons4 ,let us see how long this may be expected to supply the demand4 ,before #ahaj the amount of iron ore produced was so small as to be scarcely worth considering4 ,from #ahaj to #ahgj a little less than fifty million tons were mined1 from #ahgj to #ahhi nearly #aed1jjj1jjj tons1 and from #ahhi to #aijg1 #dge1jjj1jjj tons1 or altogether nearly #fhj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the production has been found to double itself about every nine years4 ,in #aijg alone it was #eb1jjj1jjj tons or about one-thirteenth of all that has been mined4 ,in #ahhj we used #bjj pounds of pig-iron for every man1 woman1 and child in the country2 in #ahij1 #cbj pounds2 in #aijj1 #cij pounds1 and in #aijg1 #fif pounds4 ,according to the rule of increase1 by #aiaf we shall be using #ajd1jjj1jjj tons a year2 by #aibe1 #bjh1jjj1jjj1 and by #aicd1 #daf1jjj1jjj tons1 and if the same rate of increase should continue1 by #aidj we should have required for our use in the meantime1 six billion tons4 ,but we have less than five billion tons of what is now classed as available ore1 which means that before that time 7when the school-boys of to-day are business men7 we should have exhausted all our good and cheap ore1 and be obliged to depend only on the low-grade ores1 the cost of which will be very great4 ,unlike coal1 the forests1 and the soil1 there is no great and entirely useless waste of iron4 ,but the uses of iron are so many and so varied1 and the supply of high-grade ores which can be cheaply mined is so small in proportion to the needs of the future1 that we should in all ways lessen the drain on it by substituting other cheaper and more plentiful materials when possible4 ,the chief use of iron is for the carrying of freight4 ,here are some figures given by ,mr4 ,carnegie4 ,moving one thousand tons of freight by rail requires an eighty-ton locomotive and twenty-five twenty-ton steel cars1 or five hundred and eighty tons of iron and steel to draw it over--say an average of ten miles of double track with switches1 frogs1 spikes1 etc41 which will weigh more than four hundred tons4 ,thus we see that to move a thousand tons of freight requires the use of an equal weight of iron4 ,the same freight may be moved by water by means of from one hundred to two hundred and fifty tons of metal1 so that if freight were sent by water instead of by rail the amount of iron needed for this service would be reduced at least three-fourths1 the amount of coal would be reduced not less than half1 and at the same time the coal used in extra smelting would be saved4 ,no single step open to us to-day would do more to check the drain on both iron and coal than the use of our rivers for carrying heavy freight4 ,the next great use of iron is for buildings and bridges4 ,the greatly increasing use of cement and concrete is reducing this and will reduce it still further4 ,cement is made from slag1 or the refuse of iron ore--the clays and shales--and the cost of this valuable product is little more than the former cost of piling it away4 ,by making the useless slag into cement the cost of iron production is lowered and at the same time the drain on the iron is lessened4 ,a large use of steel of the highest quality is for battleships1 cannon1 and war supplies4 ,if the great nations of the world would agree to reduce their armament1 one of the great drains on the world's iron1 coal1 and wood supply would cease1 and these materials be put to improving the world4 ,the worst feature of it is that these war supplies are continually changing4 ,they must be of the latest pattern1 or they are of small value for fighting purposes4 ,the construction of battleships differs greatly year by year1 and the older ships are discarded to make place for newer and larger ones4 ,it is said that our newest battleship alone could with a few shots destroy all of ,admiral ,dewey's fleet4 ,the following is from a recent magazine article3 ,it is admitted by naval officers that the ships of ten years ago are of obsolete type and would be useless against the new vessels4 ,it is admitted that within ten years or less the new types will in turn become obsolete1 and will be useless against the type of vessel certain to be evolved4 ,that is1 as soon as a vessel costing millions of dollars leaves the docks1 she enters into active competition for a place on the junk pile4 ,the greatest improvement that can be imagined in the iron situation will be in the discovery and use of alloys or mixtures of iron with other materials4 ,steel1 the strongest of all forms of iron1 is an alloy of iron and carbon1 and for various purposes these are further mixed with nickel and silicas4 ,many other alloys have been discovered within the last few years1 and each makes possible new uses for iron requiring greater strength4 ,one of the best of these is a mixture of iron and silicon1 called ferro-silicon4 ,silica is one of the cheapest and most abundant materials of all the earth's products1 so its combination with iron will greatly lengthen the life of the iron supply2 and it is probable that in the future combinations of other materials will yield better and cheaper metals than any thus far produced4 ,the amount of metal which can be reworked is constantly increasing4 ,most of the iron factories remelt large quantities of old iron1 to be used with the new1 and this will lessen each year the demand on the ores4 ,it is also possible that new deposits of iron ore will be found and these will greatly increase the supply4 ,but from the whole iron situation we may draw the following conclusions3 ,first1 the amount of iron remaining in the ground is very uncertain4 ,it may be more1 or it may be less1 than the present estimate4 ,second1 if the estimates are nearly correct1 and if the present rate of increase continues1 all the high-grade ores will be exhausted by the time the small boys of to-day are the business men of the nation4 ,third1 the best methods of reducing the drain on the supply are1 7a7 ,the use of old iron as a mixture2 7b7 ,carrying a part of the freight by water to reduce the amount of iron required by the railroads2 7c7 ,the larger use of concrete and cement to take the place of steel in buildings2 7d7 ,lessening the amount used for war2 7e7 ,the use of alloys4 ,this opens a large and promising field for invention4 7f7 ,more care in preserving articles made of iron4 ,this is a practical thing for every person in our country to do4 ,every farm implement1 or tool1 that stands out in the rain or is left without shelter during the winter1 every article carelessly lost or broken1 has its part in making conditions worse4 ,all that are well cared for help to make the iron supply last a little longer4 ,,references ,iron and ,steel at ,home and ,abroad4 7,andrew ,carnegie47 ,conservation of ,ores and ,related ,minerals4 7,carnegie47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,reports ,geological ,survey4 ,mineral ,resources of the ,u4 ,s4 in #aijh4 ,advance chapters available4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,other ,,minerals ,,gold ,iron1 in its usefulness to man1 stands in a class to itself2 but there are dozens of other minerals that have their part in the comfort and convenience of our daily life4 ,most of these1 however1 are found in comparatively small quantities and have few uses4 ,the minerals which are in constant use by nearly all people and that are found abundantly in the ,united ,states1 are gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 zinc1 and the elements used in manufacturing building materials4 ,gold is valuable chiefly because it has been made the standard of money value of the world4 ,africa produces one-third of the world's supply1 next come the ,united ,states and ,australia1 producing almost equal amounts1 ,russia and ,canada each produce a limited amount1 and various other countries together produce about one-sixteenth of the whole4 7,in the statements of the gold supply of the ,united ,states the territory of ,alaska is included47 ,gold is not found alone but contained in quartz rock or sand4 ,the method of taking gold from the rock is first by blasting1 and afterward grinding the rock in a stamp mill1 which reduces it to powder1 after which the gold is separated by refining processes4 ,the gold which occurs in the sand1 gravel1 or clay soil1 is washed out4 ,when done on a small scale this is called panning4 ,the larger operations of this kind are called placer and dredge mining4 ,there is also a considerable amount of gold obtained as a by-product from copper mining4 ,generally speaking1 quartz mines are in the mountains and placer mines in the river valleys4 ,placer mining by powerful water pressure1 called hydraulic mining1 destroys the banks1 and also fills up the river beds with masses of rock and gravel4 ,some of the large rivers of ,california have been made unfit for steamboat traffic1 and serious damage has been done to the harbor of ,san ,francisco4 ,for this reason hydraulic placer mining has been stopped by law4 ,this has greatly lessened the gold production of ,california4 ,in #aijg1 the ,united ,states produced #id1jjj1jjj worth of gold4 ,of this1 ,colorado produced more than any other state4 ,next in their order come ,alaska1 ,california and ,nevada4 ,each produced from #ae1jjj1jjj to #bj1jjj1jjj worth4 ,together they furnished nearly four-fifths of the entire supply4 ,the remaining one-fifth comes from ,utah1 ,south ,dakota1 ,montana1 ,arizona1 ,idaho1 and ,oregon1 with very small amounts from the southeastern states1 the two ,carolinas and ,georgia1 ,new ,mexico1 ,washington1 and ,wyoming4 ,south ,dakota has the most profitable single gold mine in the ,united ,states4 ,it has produced nearly #fj1jjj1jjj in gold1 and is now turning out about #e1jjj1jjj worth a year4 ,the ,united ,states has many unworked gold mines1 gold reserves they are called1 whose value can not in any way be exactly estimated4 ,the value of the placer mines can be better judged than that of the lode or quartz mines4 ,the placer mines are chiefly in ,alaska and ,california4 ,these mines may yield gold to the amount of a billion dollars4 ,there are lesser1 but important resources of placer gold in ,montana1 ,idaho1 and ,oregon4 ,the placer gold mined in #aijg was valued at #bd1jjj1jjj1 and it is thought that about this quantity can be supplied for a long time4 ,the amount of gold yielded in the reduction of copper ores was about #e1ejj1jjj4 ,it is probable that this amount will be gradually increased1 and can be relied on to last many years4 ,from the lead ores a little over #b1jjj1jjj worth of gold was taken4 ,this will probably slowly decrease for the next ten or twenty years4 ,from gold and silver-bearing quartz mines #ee1jjj1jjj was taken4 ,no calculation can be made as to the amount of gold contained in quartz mines4 ,new discoveries are always probable and many new mines are opened up each year1 but their value can only be estimated as the work in them progresses4 ,just how long they will last nobody knows1 but it would seem that their decline is far off4 ,the government report says1 ,unless very important new discoveries are made it is thought unlikely that the production of gold in the ,united ,states will rise much above #aaj1jjj1jjj2 nor is it likely that it will sink below #fj1jjj1jjj within a long period of years4 ,the amount of gold used in the ,united ,states is about equal to the production4 ,nearly #hj1jjj1jjj is coined into money1 and about half as much is used in the arts1--that is1 for jewelry1 tableware1 in dentistry1 in bookbinding1 and various chemical processes4 ,the quantity used in the arts has doubled since #aijj4 ,in #aijg the stock of gold coin in the ,united ,states1 according to the ,director of the ,mint1 was #a1fjj1jjj1jjj1 which is almost exactly one-fifth of the gold coin of the world4 ,the production of gold is rapidly increasing4 ,since #ahej we have mined three times as much gold as in all the previous time since the discovery of ,america4 ,such rapid production greatly shortens the life of the gold supply4 ,when the gold fields of southern ,africa were first opened they were said to be inexhaustible2 but they have been mined so rapidly1 and the supply has proved so far short of the first excited estimates that experts say that the entire region will be almost exhausted within twenty years4 ,the loss of gold in mining and refining is comparatively small4 ,in extracting gold from the cheaper ores the percentage of loss is large2 but as only a small part of the gold is gained in this way the total loss is relatively small4 ,by other methods ninety-five per cent4 or more is saved4 ,in many cases the loss is too small to be considered4 ,unlike other minerals little gold is destroyed by use4 ,it is melted and remelted1 all scraps are used1 even the sweepings from the mint and from manufacturing goldsmiths' shops are saved and the gold used4 ,the waste of the world's gold and silver would be much greater but for the use of paper money1 bank checks1 and notes4 ,their very general use keeps the gold as a reserve1 held in banks and storage vaults much of the time4 ,if it were in constant use1 the continual rubbing together of the coins would mean a no less steady1 though slight1 wearing away of their surface4 ,this is very noticeable in old silver coins1 which are kept in more constant circulation4 ,,silver ,the conditions in regard to silver are entirely different from those of the other resources4 ,the production of silver is not increasing1 in fact1 the mining of silver alone is decreasing and the reason is not because the supply is lessening1 but because the price is too low to make a larger working of the mines profitable1 and the supply is kept down to the level of the demand4 ,a great number of silver mines have been closed for the last few years4 ,the production could be greatly increased at any time to meet an increased demand4 ,the highest production was in #aijb1 but there have been only slight changes since #ahie2 the production being a little less than #fj1jjj1jjj ounces1 or about one-third of the world's supply--,mexico being the only other great producer4 ,in many countries with a small supply the output is growing less each year on account of the low price1 and the difficulty of competing with the ,united ,states4 ,the states now producing the most silver are ,colorado1 ,montana1 and ,utah2 each of these produces about one ounce out of every five ounces mined4 ,most of the remainder was produced by ,nevada1 ,idaho1 ,arizona1 and ,california4 ,although nearly #fj1jjj1jjj ounces were mined in #aijg only one and a half million ounces were mined for the sake of the silver alone4 ,the rest was obtained as a by-product in the mining of gold1 lead1 copper and zinc1 or1 as is often the case1 it was distinctively silver ore1 but could not be profitably mined unless some other ore could be obtained at the same time4 ,the richer regions seem to have been exhausted1 and as the process of extracting the ore is expensive the lower grade ores will probably be held for several years till prices advance4 ,a great silver region has recently been opened in northern ,canada4 ,this contains immense quantities of very rich ore1 and will probably keep the price down for many years4 ,so the care and conservation of silver is not an important issue for the people of the present generation4 ,as silver is now obtained largely as a by-product1 there is almost no waste4 ,the ,united ,states sends considerably more than half of its silver to other countries1 principally to ,india and ,china1 which use much silver coin1 but have little in the way of silver resources4 ,the amount used at home is divided between coinage and manufacture4 ,the quantity coined varies greatly from year to year1 eight million ounces being about the average4 ,for manufacturing1 jewelry1 tableware1 chemicals1 etc41 about twenty million ounces1 of which one-fifth is remelted silver1 are used4 ,the demand for silver in manufacturing has doubled since #ahih1 and may lead before many years to the reopening of the silver mines4 ,,copper ,the conditions of copper mining are exactly opposite from those of silver4 ,the ,indians used almost no metal except copper1 and for three hundred years white men used the old ,indian mines and refined the copper by ,indian methods4 ,better methods of mining copper and extracting it from the ores have been employed for the last fifty years1 but within a dozen years the refining of copper has been revolutionized by electric methods4 ,an enormous amount has been produced1 but production has been kept down on account of the high prices4 ,it is said that if the price could be reduced one-half1 ten times as much copper would be used4 ,most of the uses of copper have arisen in the last twenty-five years4 ,its greatest use is for electric wiring4 ,nothing can take its place1 and the use is increasing astonishingly4 ,copper is used largely in alloys4 ,bronze is an alloy of copper and tin1 and its use has greatly increased in castings1 fittings for buildings1 tablets1 and statues4 ,a much more useful alloy is brass1 made from copper and zinc4 ,brass is very extensively used for parts of machinery1 engines1 automobiles1 and also for fittings for buildings4 ,sheet copper is used for sheathing for ships1 for boilers1 and for various chemical processes carried on by electricity or by acids4 ,very many of these processes have been discovered within ten or fifteen years1 and have largely increased the uses for copper4 ,one of the older uses of copper which is less common now was for cooking utensils4 ,copper is used by the government for coining one-cent pieces4 ,no single country compares at present with the ,united ,states in the production of copper1 but if reports be correct there is enough copper in central ,africa to supply the world for years to come4 ,next to the ,united ,states1 ,spain mines the largest amount at present1 and ,japan ranks next4 ,for many years the rate of increase was enormous4 ,in #ahde1 #bbd1jjj pounds were mined2 in #ahhh1 #bbf1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,eight years later1 in #ahif1 it had doubled2 after another ten years1 in #aijf1 it had doubled that quantity1 and reached #iah1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,in #ahij we were using three pounds of copper for every man1 woman and child in the country4 ,and in #aijg1 six and one-half pounds4 ,michigan1 ,montana1 and ,arizona produce the bulk of the copper4 ,utah1 ,california1 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 ,wyoming1 and ,nevada each produce copper in amounts ranging from the #ff1jjj1jjj pounds mined in ,utah to the #b1jjj1jjj pounds mined in ,nevada4 ,it is probable that the use will not increase so rapidly in the near future4 ,much old copper will be remelted4 ,there are large areas of copper lands which are now classed as available with copper at about its present price of thirteen cents a pound4 ,if the world production should grow so great as to cause a decided drop in the price1 much that is now considered available could not be mined at a profit1 and the copper supply from this country would be greatly reduced4 ,if1 on the other hand1 copper should rise to fifteen or twenty cents or higher1 the amount of available copper land would be vastly increased4 ,the report on the ,conservation of ,mineral ,resources says in effect3 ,the copper resources of the ,united ,states are believed to be large enough to allow for a number of years for a demand increasing at the rate of #cj1jjj1jjj pounds a year4 ,should this demand continue for a long period the scarcity would be felt and result in a rising price1 which would open up a market for these low-grade ores and also cause the use of other metals1 like aluminum1 to take the place of copper whenever possible4 ,there is no great waste in the mining of copper1 but in the extraction of copper from the ore the waste is often as much as thirty per cent41 and it is not easy to avoid this on account of the chemical changes that take place4 ,,lead ,the ,united ,states produces about one-third of the lead in the world4 ,the remainder comes from ,spain1 where the production remains about the same from year to year2 from ,germany1 where in spite of higher prices production is growing less2 and from ,australia and ,mexico1 in both of which the supply is rapidly decreasing4 ,these facts show that the lead resources of the ,united ,states will be drawn on heavily in the future4 ,the production of the ,united ,states increased from about #gj1jjj tons in #ahhj to #cfe1jjj tons seventeen years later1 and if continued the yearly production by #aibj will amount to #ehj1jjj tons1 or more than a billion pounds4 ,the principal lead-producing states are ,missouri1 ,idaho1 ,utah1 and ,colorado4 ,in ,missouri it is probable that the present rate of increase could be kept up for at least fifty years4 ,the other states could keep up the present production for many years but could not greatly increase it without exhausting the supply4 ,as with most mineral resources in the ,united ,states1 it is only the richest ores that are now drawn upon 7except where lead is a by-product extracted with some other ore74 ,if prices would advance1 so as to make the low-grade ores profitable1 the amount of our resources would be greatly increased4 ,there is little waste in the mining or smelting of lead ores1 and the slag1 the waste1 is always ready to be used again4 ,in the refining and concentrating of lead the loss often amounts to as much as fifteen per cent4 or twenty per cent4 ,the best way to prevent final loss is to store all refuse until such time as the reworking becomes profitable4 ,improvement in methods has been great in the last fifteen years but more economical methods everywhere will be one of the necessities of the future4 ,we can see that the lead resources of the ,united ,states are not large and that when our own supply is exhausted we can not turn to the rest of the world4 ,the waste in mining is not large1 and most of it can not be avoided at present prices2 so that for the conservation1 which we see is so important1 we must turn to the uses of lead4 ,the most necessary of these is for lead pipes in plumbing4 ,another use is for war supplies1 which not only makes heavy drains on our stores of coal and iron1 but also on lead1 which is much less plentiful4 ,one ton out of every three produced in the ,united ,states is used in the manufacture of white lead and consumed as paint4 ,this1 of course1 is entirely lost1 and it seems that some other material might be used1 instead of so valuable a mineral1 especially when the resource is not abundant4 ,white lead is used more than any other substance for paint1 although zinc white has come into considerable use in the last few years4 ,no other nation uses lead paint to such an extent as does the ,united ,states1 partly because no other nation could afford so general a use of such an expensive material1 and partly because so many wooden buildings are erected4 ,by using brick1 stone1 or cement1 of which we have practically an unending supply1 to take the place of wood1 our store of which is rapidly disappearing1 we could avoid much of the drain on our mineral resources which are used for paint4 ,as production and price advance a greater quantity of lead is remelted4 ,about #be1jjj tons are returned to use each year4 ,,zinc ,zinc is a whitish metal4 ,it is used in galvanizing iron to prevent its rusting4 ,it is used also in the manufacture of white paint1 which consumes about one ton out of every six tons mined4 ,this1 of course1 is permanently lost1 but the price and its value as a resource is much lower than lead4 ,this takes more than half of the entire product4 ,the remainder of the output is about equally divided between brass and sheet zinc4 ,all these uses are extremely necessary and it is believed that the production of zinc will rapidly increase for many years4 ,the ,united ,states is the largest producer1 ,germany ranks second4 ,large amounts are mined in ,australia1 and very large deposits1 entirely undeveloped1 are said to exist in ,africa4 ,in #ahhj1 the ,united ,states produced #bc1jjj tons of zinc2 in #aijg1 #bhj1jjj tons4 ,this indicates the rapid rate at which we are increasing our use of zinc4 ,if the same rate should continue1 in #aibj we should be using #dge1jjj tons1 or almost a billion pounds1 and if zinc oxide should take the place of white lead in painting to the extent that now seems probable1 the quantity would be still further increased4 ,missouri is by far the heaviest producer of zinc1 having a little more than half of the output4 ,new ,jersey ranks next1 then ,colorado1 ,wisconsin and ,kansas4 ,some of the other western states each produce small amounts4 ,most of the pure zinc ore is mined at a depth of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty feet and occurs in sheets1 but a large part of the ore is a by-product obtained from the reduction of other ores4 ,in ,new ,jersey the zinc alone is found in a single region1 where it was estimated a few years ago that there were eight million tons1 of which two and a half million tons have been mined since #aijd4 ,the zinc in ,missouri1 ,wisconsin and ,kansas is found alone or underlying lead deposits1 while that of the western states is almost always found in limestone1 and is mixed with silver1 copper1 lead1 and1 more rarely1 gold4 ,in these states there has been little attempt to discover zinc2 in fact1 ores containing zinc have been rather shunned because of the difficulty in extracting them4 ,it is thought that our resources of zinc1 especially in the ,west1 have just begun to be developed1 and that the supply1 even at the present rate of increase and at present prices1 will last many years4 ,however1 with increasing use for the product1 we can not be sure of supplies for more than a generation2 and in view of the importance of zinc it becomes necessary to inquire into its wastes4 ,in no mineral is the waste more startling than in zinc4 ,in ,missouri it is necessary to leave supporting pillars as in coal mining4 ,this can not be remedied1 as the use of timbers is too expensive1 but it causes a heavy loss4 ,in the ,west1 owing to the expensive treatment and shipment1 much of the low-grade ore is left in the ground4 ,in refining the loss is enormous1 often as much as forty per cent4 ,in order to produce zinc at a low cost there must be a heavy loss of metal4 ,better plants and equipment for refining1 and the saving of all refuse for later use will be necessary if we are to conserve the zinc supply for future generations4 ,,miscellaneous ,the supplies of many of the materials used in buildings and bridges1 such as stone1 gravel1 clay1 cement and lime are so great that they appear inexhaustible1 and need of care in their use is not so much to be considered as is their development to take the place of other resources4 ,in the past they have not been used freely because wooden buildings have been so much cheaper2 but cement1 concrete and brick are now manufactured much more cheaply1 on account of improved methods1 while the price of lumber has been increasing rapidly4 ,within the last ten years1 the value of cement manufactures has increased nearly six times4 ,in #aijj we used seventy pounds of cement for each person2 in #aijg1 two hundred and twenty-eight pounds4 ,the value of brick and other products made from clay has doubled in the same period and is now #afj1jjj1jjj1 while the value of building-stone quarries is three times as great as it was ten years ago4 ,there are many reasons why these materials should take the place of wood2 as they are stronger1 more durable1 do not require paint1 and are so much less liable to loss by fire4 ,the waste of minerals used in building is due to improper and reckless methods of taking them from the ground and preparing them for market and in careless methods in manufacturing4 ,of such minerals as quartz1 grindstone1 millstone1 emery stone1 mineral paints1 talc and salt1 there seems to be enough to meet the needs of the future as well as the present4 ,such supplies as sulphur1 asphalt1 magnesia1 borax1 and asbestos1 as well as coal and iron1 are not very plentiful4 ,if used carelessly1 they will be exhausted in a few years2 if wisely1 they may be expected to last beyond the limits of the present century4 ,our supplies of quicksilver1 antimony1 graphite1 mica1 tin1 nickel1 platinum1 and many minerals less well known1 as well as our petroleum1 natural gas1 copper1 gold1 silver1 lead1 zinc1 and phosphate rock will be almost exhausted well within the present century unless large new deposits are discovered4 ,,references ,report of ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,the ,conservation of ,mineral ,resources4 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,reports4 ,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,production of ,gold in #aijh4 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,reports4 ,production of ,silver in #aijh4 ,production of ,lead in #aijh4 ,production of ,zinc in #aijh4 ,production of ,structural ,materials4 ,about twenty pamphlets on other minerals4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,animal ,,foods ,,grazing ,food is of two classes3 vegetable1 which comes directly from the earth1 and animal1 which has fed on vegetable life4 ,this is1 of course1 a more concentrated form of food1 and much less of it is needed to sustain life4 ,for the plentiful supply of vegetable food we must depend upon the fertility of the soil1 as we have seen4 ,our animal food can not be classed among our natural resources1 but as a product of them1 and requires the same care and wise use4 ,in the early history of our country natural animal food was abundant4 ,fishes swarmed in the sea1 lakes1 and streams4 ,wild turkeys and other game birds1 deer1 and bison formed a large part of the food of our forefathers4 ,but these have been gradually disappearing4 ,we have caught and destroyed so many fish that we have only a fraction of our former number4 ,the game birds have disappeared either because they have been killed in great numbers or because their nesting-places have been destroyed4 ,of the big game nothing is now left except in a few remote regions1 and it is growing less plentiful each year4 ,although large quantities of fish and game are marketed every year at certain seasons1 they form a small fraction of the animal food required in the country1 and we must now depend for most of our animal food1 not on that which was at first given us for a natural resource but on that raised by man4 ,the poultry--the chickens1 ducks1 geese and turkeys2 the cattle1 beef and dairy1 the hogs and the sheep that are raised in such vast numbers have taken the place of wild game4 ,the cultivated varieties have higher food value1 and are far more satisfactory1 since they are ready for use at any time4 ,the conservation of our animal food resources presents a different problem from any other4 ,it is true that we have wasted and exhausted our natural food supplies1 but we must remember that to a certain extent their preservation was neither possible nor desirable4 ,they have been driven out by advancing civilization4 ,wild birds and animals leave as the forests are cut out1 destroying their natural homes4 ,many of them can not be kept in captivity1 so this supply never could have been regulated4 ,it was necessary to destroy some of them to insure man's safety1 and others were needed for his use4 ,but we can take their places with other animals which are better fitted for our food1 and it is the task of keeping up a sufficient supply of these on the most suitable land and under conditions that will yield the best results1 that constitutes the problem of the conservation of our animal food resources4 ,the raising of poultry and live stock on a large scale is a separate occupation1 usually followed in a scientific manner and it is not of that industry that we need to speak1 but rather of the benefit to every farmer and to the dwellers in small communities1 of raising at least a part of the animal food used by the family4 ,every farm has some bits of unoccupied land that can be fenced off for poultry4 ,the gleanings from the fields will supply their food1 and they will furnish meat and eggs for the family throughout the year1 with enough left to sell to provide other comforts4 ,live stock1 cattle1 sheep and hogs1 as well as goats1 horses and mules1 are profitable to every farmer4 ,many farms have woodland2 land that overflows at some seasons1 and so is unfit for raising crops2 or some rocky unproductive land where stock can be raised more profitably than anything else1 and if every farmer would use all the land not suitable for farm crops for pasture land the problem of an abundant meat supply1 of dairy products and of fertilizers to enrich the soil would be largely solved4 ,some farming experts advocate letting each field in turn be used for pasture every five years1 because the stock raised on it is equal in value to any other farm crop1 and because the rest and fertilization almost double the value of the succeeding year's crop4 ,in the ,west and ,southwest there are large tracts of public land untilled4 ,much of the land can never be used for agricultural purposes1 because it is arid or mountainous4 ,this land is well adapted to grazing and the government has allowed free use of it to stockmen as pasture lands4 ,these public pasture lands are called ranges4 ,in the early years when this part of the country belonged to ,mexico1 the ranges were traversed by ,indians and ,mexicans who tended the herds of wild cattle and horses1 raised mostly for their hides4 ,but in the last quarter of a century the business has fallen into the hands of ,americans who have introduced better breeds of higher value4 ,in ,california1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico there are now on the open ranges eight million sheep1 nearly three million cattle and nearly a million horses1 worth much more than one hundred million dollars4 ,wyoming and ,utah have great sheep ranges and do much to keep up the wool supply4 ,on ,texas1 with its great cattle ranges1 we depend for a large part of our beef and leather4 ,in all these states where stock is fed on public land1 there are many questions as to ownership of animals1 rights of rival rangers1 and other points to settle4 ,in some of these states the government has set aside national forest reserves4 ,within these is much good grazing land4 ,in order that the government may have some revenue from the land1 a regular price has been set on these forest lands4 ,the charge is forty cents a year each for horses1 thirty-five cents a year for cattle1 and twelve cents for sheep4 ,the land is properly divided1 so that each kind of stock has suitable pasture4 ,each person who pays this tax is given a certain range and no one else is allowed to use it4 ,there is sufficient pasture for each so that it need not be too closely cropped4 ,a man may lease the same range year after year1 may put down wells to supply his stock1 live on it1 and do many things to improve it4 ,the forest rangers who patrol the forest to watch for fires or for timber thieves also protect these stockmen in their rights and prevent trouble about grazing privileges4 ,outside the forest reserves the grazing is free1 but the advantages offered by this system are so great that nearly all rangers now wish to use the forest reserves4 ,as each ranger has his land assigned to him and no one else can use it1 the grass is not overcropped as it often is in regions outside the forests4 ,if pasture is good1 so many herds are pastured there that soon the grass is all trampled down and eaten off4 ,large areas are so badly injured that it will not naturally resod itself4 ,cattle men are asking that the same rules that apply to the national forests be applied to other public lands1 so that the pasturage may be improved and each man may have protection in his rights4 ,if all grazing lands could be thus leased1 it would give the business a far more permanent character1 better breeds of stock would be raised1 and individual owners would direct their efforts to improving both stock and pasture1 after the manner of stock raisers on private lands4 ,so large a part of our animal food1 our wool1 our leather and many smaller needs depend on this industry1 that every effort should be made to encourage it1 and to provide the wisest laws and best methods both for conserving and developing it4 ,in conclusion it is interesting to note that the ,department of ,agriculture is making a study of food birds and animals in various parts of the world1 and trying to domesticate them1 to add to the variety of our food supply4 ,the quail1 the golden pheasant and some species of grouse among birds1 and two or three species of deer1 including the reindeer1 appear to be adapted to domestic life in this country1 and may1 before many years1 become a part of the animal industry of the ,united ,states4 ,,fisheries ,one who has never seen the big catches of fish brought in by a mackerel fleet or visited a wholesale fish market can have little idea of the importance of that industry1 nor of the immense amount of food that is taken from the waters of the ,united ,states every year4 ,the word fish is made to include not only fish proper1 but oysters1 clams1 scallops1 lobsters1 crabs1 shrimps1 and turtles4 ,fish is liked by most persons1 is more easily digested than meat and is nourishing4 ,as a food resource1 it is different in many respects from any other4 ,it does not exhaust the soil1 nor take from the earth anything of value1 the food of fishes consisting of water plants and animals that are not used by man in any other way4 ,fish also purify the water in which they live1 and so cause a great1 though indirect1 benefit4 ,it is so plainly the wise thing1 then1 to keep our rivers stocked with fish and to use them for food only1 that it seems that this valuable resource has been more seriously and unnecessarily wasted than any other4 ,fish are wasted on inland streams in the following ways3 7#a7 ,by dynamiting4 ,if a charge of dynamite be exploded on the bed of the river1 great numbers of fish1 killed by the shock1 rise to the top of the water and can be taken4 ,this practice was quite common at one time1 but is now prohibited by law in several states4 7#b7 ,by seining4 ,a seine or net is placed entirely across the stream1 and all the fish which come down the stream are caught4 ,in several states seining is not allowed at all4 ,in others it is allowed only at certain seasons4 ,and in still others the meshes of the seine must be large enough to allow all fish below a certain size to slip through4 7#c7 ,by catching with a hook1 7angling7 more fish than can be used or catching small fish and then throwing them away4 ,this is a very common custom among sportsmen1 but should be prohibited by law4 ,from a certain small inland lake1 it is said that during the entire season an average of five thousand fish a day is taken4 ,these are almost all caught by summer residents1 and it is unlikely that a large per cent4 of them are eaten4 ,in a few years the lake will be exhausted1 and will cease to furnish fish for the people of the community1 and there will1 of course1 be no more fishing for the sportsmen4 ,equal waste is going on all through the summer at every resort where good fishing is to be had4 ,some states have laws regulating the size of the fish that may be caught and the number that one person may take in one day1 and all states should have such laws4 7#d7 ,the worst waste of our fish is caused by turning large quantities of sewage or refuse from factories into streams4 ,all the fish for miles up and down a river are often destroyed in this way4 ,as we have seen1 this is only one of the bad results of allowing such refuse to drain into streams2 every state should have strict laws prohibiting it4 ,from the waters of the ,new ,england states more than five hundred and twenty-eight millions of fish are taken each year4 ,here are the great cod1 mackerel1 and herring fisheries4 ,from the ,middle ,atlantic states1 the great region for oysters1 lobsters and other sea food1 come eight hundred and twenty million more2 one hundred and six million come from the ,south ,atlantic states2 one hundred and thirteen million1 including the much sought tarpon and red snappers1 come from the ,gulf states2 two hundred and seventeen million are caught in the ,pacific states1 including the great salmon catches2 ninety-six millions are taken from the ,mississippi ,river and its tributaries1 and one hundred and sixty-six millions1 largely salmon1 from ,alaska4 ,the ,great ,lakes1 with their pickerel1 and other fine fresh-water fish furnish one hundred and thirteen millions and the small inland waters at least five millions more4 ,when they are taken from the waters the #b1afi1jjj1jjj pounds of fish caught in the ,united ,states are worth #eh1jjj1jjj1 but by canning1 salting1 and other processes of preserving1 the value is greatly increased4 ,fortunately1 there is a method of conserving our supply of fish and not only preventing it from growing less1 but of greatly increasing the number and improving the quality4 ,the ,united ,states government has a thoroughly well organized fish commission1 and many states and counties and even private clubs carry on the same work1 which is a general supervision of the fish supply4 ,the government maintains stations which are regularly engaged in hatching fish1 keeping them until the greatest danger of their being destroyed is past1 and then placing them in various streams all over the country4 ,these fish are always of good food varieties1 and are carefully selected to insure the kind best suited to the stream1 as to whether it is warm or cold1 deep or shallow1 clear or muddy1 fresh or salt1 slow and placid1 or swift and turbulent1 for each kind of stream has certain varieties of fish that are especially adapted to it4 ,with all these things taken into account1 stocking only with the best food varieties1 if a state has laws which require that a stream be kept free from sewage and refuse1 that no tiny fish be taken from the water1 and that only a stated number can be taken in a day by a single person1 hundreds of small streams1 ponds and reservoirs all over the country may be made to yield food supplies for the entire community near by4 ,governor ,deneen1 of ,illinois1 in urging that streams be improved for navigation1 says1 ,no estimate of the benefits to flow from stream development would be complete without allusion to the fisheries which have been established on the ,illinois ,river1 largely by restocking with fish from hatcheries4 ,the fisheries located on that stream are second in value only to those of the ,columbia ,river4 ,our experience thus far indicates that the food resources of the water may be brought up in value to those of the land4 ,the ,illinois valley contains #hj1jjj acres of water area and yields a fish product worth ten dollars an acre each year1 very nearly all profit4 ,the average value of the land product near by is a little less than twelve dollars an acre1 and the labor1 cost of seeding1 and exhaustion of fertilization of the land must all be counted before there can be a profit4 ,in #aijh the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission distributed nearly two and a half billion of young fish and half a million fish eggs4 ,these were such excellent varieties as salmon1 shad1 trout1 bass1 white fish1 perch1 cod1 flat fish and lobsters4 ,the ,bureau of ,fisheries has its fish-hatching stations1 its boats for catching fish in nets and its tank cars for carrying the young fish and eggs to the streams that are to be stocked4 ,some of the most important work is interestingly described in a history of the ,bureau of ,fisheries issued in #aijh4 ,among other things it tells of the lobster industry in both the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans4 ,lobsters are not found naturally in the ,pacific1 but shipments of lobsters have been made from the ,atlantic coast4 ,at the last shipment1 after carrying them across the continent packed in seaweed1 more than a thousand lobsters were safely placed on the bed of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,on the ,atlantic coast the lobsters were rapidly disappearing when the work of artificial planting of young lobsters and eggs began4 ,the results can be seen now1 for more lobsters are being caught each year1 and the price to users is growing less as the supply becomes more plentiful4 ,the shad and the salmon are considered the finest of all fish for eating4 ,both are salt-water fish and both have the habit of going some distance up fresh-water rivers to lay their eggs4 ,no eggs are ever laid in salt water4 ,the mother fish goes up beyond where the tide comes in1 so that the baby fish may have fresh water1 which is necessary for them4 ,salmon and shad are never caught in the sea1 but in the rivers1 where they go in large numbers to lay their eggs in the spring4 ,this1 of course1 means the destruction of both fish and eggs1--the present and future supply4 ,shad eggs1 or roe are sold in large quantities4 ,the ,bureau of ,fisheries has planted three thousand millions of young shad in streams along the coast1 and the eggs from which these fish were hatched were all taken from fish that had been caught for market1 and would have been totally lost if the ,bureau had not collected them from the fishermen4 ,shad have been planted in the ,sacramento and ,columbia ,rivers flowing into the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,from these two sources they have spread until now they are found as far south as ,los ,angeles1 and as far north as ,alaska1 a coast line of #d1jjj miles1 and it is said that more shad could now be caught in the ,sacramento and ,columbia ,rivers than in any other water courses4 ,in addition to supplying the streams with young fish1 it is necessary to leave a part of each river clear so that some of the fish may find their way up-stream to deposit their eggs4 ,the salmon have been almost driven out from the waters of ,new ,england1 except in the ,penobscot ,river1 where they have been kept by the watchfulness of the ,fisheries ,bureau4 ,it is believed that the entire salmon industry in ,maine would be wiped out in five years if fish culture should cease1 and in the ,west1 where the drain on the salmon for canning purposes is so heavy1 artificial planting is used very largely to keep up the supply4 ,the experiments with oysters are full of interest4 ,in ,chesapeake ,bay1 where the best natural oyster beds were found1 the demands on them were so great that the supply began to fail4 ,in #aijd only a little more than one-fourth as many were produced as in #ahhj4 ,the natural oyster beds were then marked and set aside as public fishing grounds4 ,these are to be used by whoever wishes but under strict protective rules4 ,all other ocean beds may be planted with oysters by any one who leases the privilege from the state1 and the right to collect the oysters from a certain bed belongs to the person who leases it as fully as does property on land4 ,louisiana had a small number of natural beds4 ,about ten years ago the planting of oyster beds began1 and soon #bj1jjj acres had been planted4 ,conditions were particularly favorable1 and within two years after the eggs or spawn were placed it was found that oysters three and a half to four inches in size had grown in quantities of #a1jjj to #b1jjj bushels per acre4 ,for a long time it has been the custom of fishermen to fatten their oysters by transplanting them to new beds where the food is abundant1 and in a short time the oysters are much plumper1 it takes fewer of them to make a quart and they also sell at a higher price1 because they are of the finest quality4 ,these rich food beds are not plentiful1 and many dealers are compelled to put small oysters on the market4 ,the ,bureau of ,fisheries has made a study of these food beds1 and by using fertilizer1 such as farmers use on their land1 have been able to make such beds of sea-plants grow where they do not naturally exist4 ,these experiments have been tried only a short time1 but the results have been entirely satisfactory1 and it is hoped that before long1 rich oyster beds may be made to grow in any part of the ocean where oysters will thrive4 ,in the ,great ,lakes the fishing is so heavy that it is probable that the supply of perch and white fish would be very low by this time if fish-culture had not been carried on to so great an extent4 ,white fish1 lake trout1 pike and perch may be hatched in such large numbers as to keep the fisheries up to their present yield4 ,another important work of the ,fisheries ,bureau is to keep up the supply of cod for the great fisheries on the ,new ,england coast4 ,for the last twenty years profitable shore cod fishery has been kept up on grounds that had been entirely exhausted before and also where cod had never been found before4 ,at the wharves1 government officers from the ,fisheries ,bureau board the fishing boats when they come in and take the eggs from the fish4 ,these are taken to the government hatchery and either the eggs or the young fish are put back into the sea1 and so keep up an unending supply4 ,alaska is one of the most important fishing regions of the world4 ,for this entire ,territory1 the ,united ,states paid ,russia #g1bjj1jjj and many thought that the money was practically thrown away1 since it apparently bought for us nothing but barren1 ice-bound shores4 ,but since it became a part of the ,united ,states1 ,alaska has yielded fishery products alone amounting in value to #aeh1jjj1jjj--twenty-two and a half times the price paid4 ,of this1 #di1jjj1jjj came from the fur seal fishery1 #hf1jjj1jjj from salmon and #bc1jjj1jjj from other fish4 ,about #a1ejj1jjj worth of sponges are now taken from ,florida waters each year4 ,naturally the failure of the industry would be a serious loss to the state4 ,but the natural sponge beds are being rapidly exhausted1 and the ,bureau of ,fisheries is convinced that the continuation of the sponge fisheries must depend on artificial planting4 ,sponges can be produced from cuttings at a cost much less than that of taking them from the natural beds4 ,rhode ,island has been successful in cultivating soft-shell clams and in increasing the area of its clam beds4 ,the ,mississippi and its branches are subject to great floods in the early spring and occasionally in summer4 ,after these floods millions of fishes are left in small pools some distance back from the river4 ,these pools gradually dry up2 the larger fishes are caught and the smaller ones die4 ,the state and ,national ,fish ,commissions are now collecting these fishes in large numbers1 and using them to stock ponds and rivers in other parts of the country4 ,they are used to supply many parts of the ,west and ,south and there is much greater demand for them than the ,commissions can meet4 ,not that there is a lack of fish1 for millions are left to waste because the ,commissions can not distribute them rapidly enough to save them4 ,if large storage ponds could be established to collect and keep the fish during the flood season1 so that all the time might be spent in collecting fish during the overflow1 and they could be sent out later1 the amount of fish saved would be increased many fold4 ,the fish thus saved are being made to serve another useful purpose4 ,pearl buttons are made from the shells of mussels or fresh-water clams4 ,this business1 which is now worth #e1jjj1jjj1 can not last many years unless some means of increasing the supply of mussels can be devised4 ,now these men1 who are always studying new plans1 have thought of a wonderful way in which to let the fish help in carrying on this work4 ,they obtain the mussel eggs1 and when they are hatched place them in the pools with the fish from the overflowed lands4 ,the tiny mussel larv attach themselves to the fish and are carried to the rivers and ponds with the fish4 ,soon they are ready to drop to the bottom and find food for themselves4 ,in this way #be1jjj1jjj mussels were carried last year to streams where mussels are known to thrive4 ,if these mussel-bearing fish can be obtained by farmers having private fish ponds1 the ponds can be drained each year and the mussels gathered1 thus adding considerably to the owner's income1 and also keeping up the pearl button industry1 in addition to the food supply which he gains from the fish4 ,enough has been said to show clearly how desirable and how possible it is to conserve and increase our fish supplies4 ,with the coperation of all who waste the fish at present1 and those who might aid in stocking the streams1 we could add greatly to the food supply of the nation at a less cost than in any other way4 ,,references ,grazing ,lands4 ,report ,national ,conservation ,commission4 ,grazing on the ,public ,lands4 7,jastro47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,the ,grazing ,lands and ,public ,forests of ,arizona4 7,heard47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,grazing ,problems in the ,southwest and ,how to ,meet ,them4 ,bulletin1 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 #e;c4 ,reports of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,distribution of ,fish and ,fish ,eggs4 ,dept4 ,commerce and ,labor4,b ,footnote ,b3 ,all ,bureau and ,commission reports are free4 ,reports of the ,commission of ,fisheries4 ,national ,fisheries ,congress4 ,,chapter ,x ,,insects ,if we look at a watch1 we see that one wheel can not move until the one next in order to it moves1 and that1 in turn1 must be set in motion by another wheel4 ,in the same way nature adjusts itself in its various parts4 ,before man enters a region1 the balance is perfect4 ,plants crowd each other out of the way1 the weaker giving place to the stronger2 then insects come to destroy them4 ,these insects are destroyed by birds1 small mammals or other insects4 ,the birds are killed by animals and other birds1 which in turn are the food of larger animals4 ,and so through all nature runs this law of balance2 nothing increases in too great a proportion4 ,but when man comes1 he thinks only of his own needs and wishes and begins at once to upset the delicate balance4 ,year after year1 he plants large fields of a single crop1 and1 calling other plants weeds1 because they hinder the growth of his grain1 he drives them out entirely4 ,the insects that feed on these plants1 finding no food1 soon disappear1 while the ones which feed on the farmers' crops1 finding food so plentiful1 are able to increase in great numbers4 ,they increase all the more rapidly because man1 not knowing or not caring to know who his real helpers are1 has killed and driven away the birds that would feed on them4 ,in order to readjust matters1 he must learn how to destroy the insects1 or he can not have crops4 ,both the plant enemies1 the weeds1 and the insects are always trying to bring about nature's balance again by driving out the over-abundant field crop1 so he must constantly fight them in order to secure his harvest4 ,in no country is more harm done by insects than in the ,united ,states4 ,the losses to live stock and to plants1 both growing and stored1 resulting from insects are greater than all the expenses of the ,national ,government1 including the pension roll and the yearly maintenance of the army and navy4 ,immense as is the value of our farm products1 it would be much greater if it were not for the work of these insects4 ,careful calculations indicate that this loss will amount to not less than the enormous sum of #a1ajj1jjj1jjj annually and probably far more4 ,the loss is usually estimated at ten per cent4 of the crop1 but often is much heavier than this1 and many indirect losses are not taken into account in this table1 though we shall speak of them later4 ,most insects pass through four stages3 7#a7 the egg2 7#b7 the worm or larv2 7#c7 the chrysalis1 cocoon1 or pupa2 7#d7 the full-grown insect or imago4 ,butterflies1 moths and beetles are examples of insects in this last stage4 ,as eggs1 they are1 of course1 harmless1 and during the chrysalis state they lie perfectly inactive and are harmless1 but many of them are very destructive when they are worms or larv1 others do most injury in the full-grown state4 ,the insects that man has most reason to dread are3 7#a7 ,plant-lice1 tiny insects with soft bodies1 usually green4 ,they attach themselves to the stems and leaves of plants and suck their juices1 leaving them to wilt and die4 ,they are found on many kinds of plants--on corn1 wheat and other grains4 ,they also flourish on garden vegetables and flowers4 7#b7 ,scale insects4 ,these are flat and appear to be only a scale on the stem or fruit4 ,they are usually covered with a hard crust-like covering and are found on trees and bushes4 ,they are usually the color of the bark on which they are found4 7#c7 ,worms and caterpillars are soft-bodied1 the bodies being in segments1 and either smooth or covered with short bristly hair4 ,they spend nearly all their time in eating1 and do immense damage to the foliage of trees and vegetables and to fruit4 ,the adult is a moth or caterpillar4 ,this class is among the farmer's worst insect enemies4 7#d7 ,borers attack trees and tough-stemmed plants4 ,the eggs are laid on the stems1 and after hatching1 the larv bore into the stem or under the bark1 causing the foliage to wilt and die4 ,we are all familiar with what we call worm-eaten wood1 with canals that have been eaten by these borers running through it in all directions4 ,this completely ruins some of the best forest trees for lumber1 and makes one of the greatest losses of the forests4 7#e7 ,beetles are insects in the adult state4 ,they have hard1 shiny wing-covers4 ,many of the borers are beetles1 and there are other varieties which do great damage1 though other kinds are useful to man in destroying harmful insects4 7#f7 ,bugs have their mouth parts prolonged into a sharp beak with which they puncture the skin or bark1 instead of chewing the leaves1 as do beetles4 ,flies1 gnats1 and other similar insects do not usually injure vegetation so much as do some other classes of insects1 the principal damage being done to fruits2 but they have been found to be the cause of some of the most serious diseases in both man and the lower animals4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture divides the injuries done by insects into classes according to the products injured1 and in the list they place first the injury done to cereal crops4 ,the insects which damage the corn crop most seriously are the corn-root worm1 which feeds on the roots of young corn1 causing it to fall over and die1 and which sometimes takes the whole corn crop of a large region4 ,the next most important is the boll-worm or ear-worm4 ,most persons have seen this worm in the ears of sweet corn2 ninety ears out of every hundred contain a worm which destroys from one-tenth to one-half the corn4 ,some years every ear in large regions is infested4 ,in the ,south the field corn is attacked as badly as the sweet corn1 but in the great corn states the injury is much less4 ,even here1 however1 the total loss is very great4 ,almost equally important is the damage wrought by the chinch-bug1 which is also one of the greatest pests in wheat and oats4 ,every year in different sections of the country1 bill-bugs1 wire-worms1 cutworms1 cornstalk borers1 locusts1 grasshoppers1 corn plant-lice and other insects1 destroy millions of bushels of corn4 ,of the cereal crops1 wheat suffers most from insects4 ,of the large number of insects that attack wheat1 the three important species are the ,hessian fly1 the chinch-bug and the grain plant-louse or green-bug4 ,the ,hessian fly has been known to destroy as much as sixty per cent4 of all the wheat acreage of a state4 ,fortunately1 this damage is done early in the year1 so that when whole fields are destroyed they can be replanted with other crops and only the cost of seed and labor is to be counted as a loss4 ,but more often the field is only partly destroyed by the fly2 it is not necessary to replant1 but the yield is small1 often not more than one-third4 ,some years the loss from the ,hessian fly is very heavy1 at other times comparatively light1 yet there are few years when the loss is less than ten per cent4 of the total crop from this insect alone1--which meant last year a loss of #gb1ejj1jjj bushels4 ,the chinch-bug is responsible for the loss of five per cent41 or one bushel out of every twenty4 ,it attacks the straw1 causing the heads of wheat to fall over and wither away4 ,the injury done by the green-bug comes just as the wheat begins to ripen1 the tiny green creatures attaching themselves in great numbers to the heads of the wheat4 ,other insects which prey on the wheat crop are grasshoppers1 the wheat midge1 cutworms and army-worms4 ,if it were not for the attacks of these various pests the wheat crop would be at least one-fifth larger than it is4 ,instead of #gbe1jjj1jjj bushels1 it would be #hgj1jjj1jjj2 which1 with wheat at a dollar a bushel1 amounts to a loss of nearly #aej1jjj1jjj4 ,further1 the world loses all this valuable bread-stuff4 ,oats1 rye and barley suffer far less than wheat from insect ravages but they are all attacked by the same insects1 and on the whole1 much damage is done to them each year4 ,hay1 clover1 and alfalfa have their enemies which destroy a considerable part of the crops4 ,the locusts and caterpillars1 the army-worms and cutworms are the best known1 but the tiny leaf-hoppers1 which spring up at every step as we walk across the path or lawn1 and the web-worms and grass-worms and grubs which work about the roots of the plants all do their part in lowering the production4 ,the principal insect enemies of cotton are the cotton boll-weevil1 the boll-worm1 the cotton red spider1 and the cotton-leaf worm4 ,the control of the boll-weevil is considered one of the most serious problems confronting the agricultural men of the country4 ,in the first years after its introduction1 it reduced the cotton crop fully fifty per cent41 and was the cause1 not only of serious loss to the farmers1 but of the closing of the cotton mills in ,new ,england1 of a scarcity of cotton cloth and a decided rise in its price4 ,the boll-weevil is a beetle about a quarter of an inch in length4 ,this little beetle eats into the heart of each boll1 which soon falls to the ground4 ,the cotton-leaf worm formerly caused heavy damage1 as much as #bj1jjj1jjj to #cj1jjj1jjj a year1 but the loss has been greatly reduced by the war which farmers have waged against it4 ,it is still estimated at from #e1jjj1jjj to #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the boll-worm is chiefly destructive in the ,southwest and does damage to the extent of #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,all in all no article of commerce is more seriously affected by insect ravages than cotton1 on account of its necessity1 and the fact that it can be raised only in certain regions4 ,tobacco is one of the principal crops in several states and it suffers heavily from insect damage4 ,the large1 showy tobacco-worm and the tiny tobacco-thrips cause serious injury to the leaves4 ,sugar-cane has its insect enemies which take on an average one stalk out of every ten raised in this country1 and reduce the crop in the same proportion4 ,the cranberry is another valuable commercial plant that has been greatly affected by an insect known as the cranberry fruit worm1 but by spraying1 growers have been able to reduce the damage from sixty per cent4 down to fourteen per cent4 ,garden vegetables suffer more than anything else from insects4 ,potatoes are attacked by two species of insects1 both destructive unless held in check4 ,one is the reddish brown blister-beetle4 ,the eggs are laid on the ground1 and do not become adult insects until the second year4 ,the other is the striped ,colorado beetle1 the eggs of which are laid on the under side of the leaves1 and develop into adults in a short time4 ,two broods of this beetle develop in a single season4 ,thus it may be seen that the two are entirely different1 though they are often supposed to be the same4 ,the ,colorado beetle1 by the immense damage it was doing to a necessary food crop1 first led to a regular method of fighting insects in this country4 ,this potato-bug is not feared as it was in the past1 since farmers have learned to control it in a great measure1 but they have only been able to lessen the evil1 never to drive it out completely4 ,other insects that destroy garden vegetables are the well-known green cabbage-worm1 the harlequin cabbage-bug1 the cabbage hairworm1 the asparagus-beetle1 the squash-bug1 the squash-vine borer1 the striped cucumber or melon beetle1 the melon aphis1 the corn boll-worm1 the cornstalk borer and many others4 ,in addition to these insects that attack special plants1 all vegetables are preyed on by the grub-worm1 the cutworm1 the aphis and various tiny hoppers4 ,the grub-worms which work about the roots of plants are1 in the adult state1 the ,june-bugs or cock-chafers which fly about our lights in the spring and early summer1 and which themselves do considerable damage by eating leaves of trees and bushes4 ,orchards and small fruits suffer heavily from insect pests1 both on account of the direct loss and on account of the expensive treatment4 ,there are several hundred insects which ravage fruit trees1 attacking the roots1 trunk1 foliage and fruit4 ,among these are the scales1 of which there are many species1 but of which the most widely known and dreaded is the ,san ,jose scale1 so called because ,san ,jose1 ,california1 was its starting place in ,america4 ,it is the only one of the scales which1 if not checked1 will1 in two or three years1 completely destroy the tree on which it feeds4 ,it attacks the citrus fruits1 orange1 lemon1 grape-fruit1 and the apple1 pear1 and peach as well as small fruits1 particularly currants4 ,among the many varieties that do serious damage are the black olive scale1 plum scale1 hickory scale1 locust scale1 frosted black scale1 red oak scale1 the cottony maple scale1 greedy scale and oyster shell scale4 ,the woolly aphis injures the roots of our fruit trees2 the trunk and limb borers1 the peach tree borer1 the apple borer1 all stand ready to assail the life of the entire tree4 ,the various leaf worms attack the life of the tree also4 ,the grape-leaf skeletonizer eats every particle of green from the leaves1 leaving only the veins4 ,the canker-worms and the destructive tent-caterpillars also cause the death of many fruit trees4 ,of insects which attack the fruit1 the list is long4 ,the codling-moth of the apple causes a greater money loss than any other enemy of fruits4 ,various estimates of the loss have been made1 and in general it is believed that it causes the loss of one-fourth to one-half of the apple crop of the ,united ,states each year4 ,the plum-curculio attacks nearly all stone fruits4 ,its natural food plant is probably the native wild plum1 and the plum continues to be its favorite food1 consequently this fruit suffers most from the attacks of the insect4 ,in years of short crops very little fruit remains on the tree to ripen4 ,but peaches1 apricots and cherries also suffer heavily1 and apples and pears in a less degree4 ,the insects which injure the hardwood forest trees are principally the leaf-eaters1 such as the gypsy and brown tail moths1 which have almost stripped the ,new ,england shade trees1 and done great damage to the forests2 the elm leaf beetles and the numerous borers1 both beetles and grubs1 which from eggs laid in or just beneath the bark1 hatch into larv which burrow into the wood1 destroying its usefulness for lumber4 ,among the borers which do most injury in destroying valuable timber are the hickory-bark beetle1 the bark-boring grubs which kill oak1 chestnut1 birch and poplar trees1 the locust borer1 the chestnut timber-worm and the ,columbian timber beetle4 ,all these represent the loss from insects to the growing product2 but when it is stored1 there is seemingly no less danger of attack by a different class of insects4 ,these include grain weevils and beetles1 flour-moths1 the small fruit and vinegar flies1 buffalo-moths and dozens of others4 ,after these comes the loss to man and animals from insects4 ,the cattle tick alone1 through the dreaded ,texas fever1 causes a loss of from #aj1jjj1jjj to #ce1jjj1jjj in various years4 ,the ox warble also preys on cattle and causes a loss of probably #c1jjj1jjj more4 ,the buffalo-gnats1 gadflies1 and other flies do on the whole a large amount of damage each year4 ,man has only discovered in recent years how serious a factor in his own health as well as comfort1 is the insect life about him4 ,this subject is more fully treated under the subject of health1 so for the present we need only say that flies1 mosquitos and other insects are supposed to cause some of our most serious diseases1 and to be the indirect cause of the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars and many human lives each year4 ,having thus summed up the damage done by insects1 let us see what may be done to prevent their spread and if possible drive out the most harmful species entirely4 ,unfortunately1 that seems almost impossible2 so far all man's efforts have only resulted in saving a larger or smaller proportion of the various crops each year4 ,in insect control we turn first to the natural means of destruction4 ,chief among these means are birds1--of which we will speak in another chapter1--snakes and toads4 ,toads live entirely on insects and catch large quantities of them4 ,it is estimated that a single toad is worth almost twenty dollars a year in a field or garden4 ,english gardeners are said to pay high prices for them and to keep as many as possible in their gardens4 ,toads will eat almost any kind of insect1 are absolutely harmless1 and should be carefully protected4 ,there is one class of insects which1 so far from being an enemy to man1 combines with him to kill the harmful insects4 ,among these are the black beetles which feed on cutworms and other larv which injure the roots of plants4 ,lady-bird beetles destroy large numbers of plant-lice1 and the ,asiatic lady-bird has been found to be the natural destroyer of the ,san ,jose scale4 ,these little insects are now being hatched in this country1 and it is hoped through them to stamp out the pest4 ,a number of larger insects prey on the smaller ones4 ,other insects1 such as the ,hessian fly1 the green-bug or spring grain aphis1 the army-worm and various species of grasshoppers are killed by tiny parasitic insects whose eggs are laid in the bodies of the larger insects1 but which1 after being hatched1 feed on them4 ,to these natural methods of control man has added others4 ,cultivation is one of these methods4 ,as insects flourish when given an unusually large amount of food of a particular kind1 and starve when that food is taken away from them1 so rotation of crops proves to be one of the best means of getting rid of those insects which can not travel far for their food4 ,farmers who practise rotation of crops are much less troubled with insects that injure the roots of plants than those who do not4 ,one of the best means of preventing damage from the ,hessian fly is to sow a narrow strip of wheat all around the edges of the field several weeks before the main crop is to be sowed4 ,the flies will gather in this strip and lay all their eggs in the early wheat4 ,just before the main crop is sowed1 the narrow strip is plowed up and thoroughly harrowed and the larv perish for want of food4 ,the best known means of getting rid of grasshoppers is to destroy the eggs4 ,this should be done by plowing and harrowing all roadsides1 ditch banks1 uncultivated fields and grassy margins around fields in the fall or winter4 ,fall harrowing and deep spring plowing will prevent many of the bugs and beetles which spend the larval state in the ground from hatching4 ,this method will also destroy the plum-curculio in orchards4 ,in attempting to control the boll-weevil of the cotton fields1 it has been found that the best method to pursue is the simple one of planting the crop very early1 so that the cotton passes the danger stage before the insects emerge1 and removing all the plants in the fall4 ,worms that infest fruit can be checked for the following year by fall plowing in the orchard and by destroying the decayed fruit as it falls4 ,the farmer who lets his decayed fruit lie on the ground is preparing for a heavy crop of insects to eat his fruit the following summer4 ,fruit and forest trees are both protected by a burlap band or a band of sticky fly-paper placed around the tree1 to prevent insects from crawling up4 ,the use of poison in destroying insects is now the one most generally and successfully employed by farmers and fruit growers4 ,poisons may be liquid or dry4 ,the liquid is made by mixing with water1 and for large plants and trees is put on with a spray or force-pump that carries the poison to every part of the plant4 ,some insects1 such as beetles1 caterpillars and grasshoppers1 chew the leaves or stems of plants1 and the poison may be applied to their food2 but others1 such as plant-lice1 scale insects and all bugs suck the juice1 usually from the stem or bark4 ,poisons must be applied to the insect itself to be effectual in this case4 ,these are some of the insect poisons most in use3 ,paris green1 which will kill all insects that chew the leaves1 may be used in small quantities in gardens by mixing one-half teaspoonful to a gallon of water1 or in large quantities with one pound to one hundred and fifty or two hundred gallons of water4 ,white hellebore is used to destroy currant worms and is usually dusted on dry4 ,pyrethrum is used as a spray1 mixing one ounce to two gallons of water1 to destroy cabbage-worms and many other garden insects4 ,if the dry pyrethrum powder is blown from a bellows into a tightly closed room1 it is said to destroy all the flies4 ,bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four pounds of copper sulphate in hot water and mixing with an equal quantity of a solution made by mixing four pounds of lime with water4 ,this is then mixed with fifty gallons of water4 ,paris green is sometimes added4 ,this mixture is largely used in orchards and for destroying insects on a large scale4 ,it is also useful for curing diseases of plants4 ,an excellent spray for orchards both for removing fungous diseases and scale insects is a home-made lime-and-sulphur solution4 ,enough for spraying a large orchard is prepared as follows3 ,add three gallons of boiling water to fifteen pounds of lime4 ,then add ten pounds of sulphur and three gallons more of hot water4 ,allow this to boil about twenty minutes in its own heat1 then add enough water to make fifty gallons of the mixture4 ,dilute with water in the proportion of one part of the solution to seventy-five of water4 ,small quantities are made by using a fractional part of this recipe4 ,whale-oil soap dissolved in water and used as a spray is an effective remedy for the ,san ,jose scale4 ,kerosene emulsion is used to kill the insects which suck the juices of plants and trees4 ,it is made by mixing a half-pound of hard soap with one gallon of hot water and stirring into it1 so as to mix thoroughly1 two gallons of kerosene oil4 ,this may be kept on hand for use1 and is mixed with ten parts of water to one of the emulsion4 ,for use in large orchards force-pumps operated by compressed air and drawn by two horses are used4 ,the spraying should be done as soon as the blossoms drop1 and many orchards are sprayed three times in a season1 but the work should never be done while the trees are in blossom4 ,vegetables should be sprayed many times through the season4 ,a careful study of these methods of control1 adapted to the various plants and the insects which prey on them1 with the natural enemies of insects encouraged and protected1 would go far to prevent the wide-spread and serious damage now affecting our crops1 our vegetables1 our orchards1 and our forests4 ,,references ,circulars of the ,bureau of ,entomology4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,list furnished on application4 ,annual ,loss ,occasioned by ,destructive ,insects4 ,yearbook #aijd4;,c ,footnote ,c3 ,some of the ,yearbooks of the ,dept4 of ,agriculture contain very instructive reports on ,insects and on ,birds4 ,reprints on various subjects have been made from them which are available in pamphlet form1 or the entire ,yearbook may be had in many cases4 ,value of ,insect ,parasitism to the ,american ,farmer4 ,yearbook #aijg4 ,house ,flies4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,bulletin #ga4 ,the ,grasshopper ,problem4 ,bulletin #hd4 ,the ,boll-,weevil ,problem4 ,bulletin #cdd4 ,the ,most ,important ,step in the ,control of the ,boll-,weevil4 ,bulletin #ie4 ,the ,san ,jose ,scale4 ,yearbook #aijb4 ,the ,plum-,curculio4 ,bulletin #gc4 ,the ,apple ,codling-,moth4 ,bulletin #da4 ,price #bj;c4 ,the ,gipsy ,moth and ,how to ,control ,it4 ,bulletin #bge4 ,the ,brown-tail ,moth and ,how to ,control ,it4 ,bulletin #bfd4 ,the ,spring ,grain ,aphis or ,green-,bug4 ,bulletin #ic4 ,the ,army-,worm4 ,bulletin #d4 ,the ,hessian ,fly4 ,bulletin #gj4 ,the ,chinch-,bug4 ,bulletin #ag4 ,the ,principal ,household ,insects of the ,u4 ,s4 ,bulletin #d4 ,insects ,affecting ,domestic ,animals4 ,bulletin #e4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,birds ,birds give us pleasure in three ways3 by their beauty1 by their song and by their usefulness in destroying animals1 insects or plants which are harmful to man4 ,but although they are among man's best friends they have been greatly misunderstood1 so that to the many natural enemies that are constantly preying on birds1 we must add the warfare that man himself wages on them1 and the cutting down of their forest homes4 ,this work of bird destruction has gone on until all the best species are greatly reduced in numbers and some species have been almost entirely driven out4 ,to see how serious a matter this is we must study the food habits of birds1 and we shall find that although the different species eat a large variety of food1 in almost every case their natural food is something harmful to man4 ,the large ,american birds1 the eagles1 hawks1 owls and similar kinds1 are called birds of prey because they feed on small birds and animals4 ,some of these are of the greatest benefit to the farmer1 while others are altogether harmful4 ,another large class of birds lives almost entirely on injurious insects and this class is entitled to the fullest care and protection from the farmer4 ,still another class lives largely on fruits1 wild or cultivated1 and on seeds1 which may be either the farmer's most valuable grains1 or seeds of the weeds that would choke out the grain4 ,it can not be denied that birds often do serious damage through their food habits2 but the great mistake that has been made in man's treatment of birds has been in hastily deciding that if birds are seen flitting about fields of grain they are destroying the crop4 ,a better knowledge of their food habits will lead to proper measures for destroying the harmful kinds and protecting the useful ones4 ,successful agriculture could hardly be practised without birds1 and the benefit to man1 though amounting each year to millions of dollars1 can hardly be estimated in dollars and cents1 since it affects so closely the size of our crops1 the amount of timber saved for use in manufactures1 and even the health of the people4 ,here again we see the careful balancing that runs through nature2 how carefully each thing is adjusted to its work4 ,naturally the balance between birds1 insects and plants would remain true1 no one increasing beyond its proper amount4 ,but when man begins to destroy certain things1 and to cultivate others1 this balance is seriously disturbed4 ,the birds that destroy weed seeds being killed1 weeds flourish in such vast numbers as to drive out the cultivated crops4 ,the birds which destroy mice1 moles1 gophers1 etc41 being killed1 these animals become a nuisance and cause serious losses4 ,if insect-destroying birds are driven out1 the farmer will be at the mercy of the insects unless he employs troublesome and expensive methods of getting rid of them4 ,certain favorable conditions cause large numbers of birds to gather in a small region and they become a pest4 ,very careful observation has shown that in nearly every case the favorite food of the birds is something which is not valued by man1 and if this food is provided1 the farm grains and fruits will not be seriously molested4 ,few birds are altogether good1 still fewer are altogether bad2 most species are of great benefit1 even if at the same time they do some harm4 ,some birds do serious damage at one season1 and much good at another4 ,the most notable example of this is the bobolink1 which in northern wheat fields is loved no less for his merry song than for the thousands of weed seeds and insects he destroys2 while in the ,south he is known as the reed-bird or rice-bird1 the most dreaded of all foes to the rice crop4 ,flying down on the fields by hundreds of thousands these birds often take almost the entire crop of a district4 ,the yearly loss to rice-growers from bobolinks has been estimated at two million dollars4 ,if crows or blackbirds are seen in large numbers about fields of grain they are generally accused of robbing the farmer1 but more often they are busily engaged in hunting the insects that without their help would soon have destroyed his crop2 and even if they do considerable damage at one season they often pay for it many times over4 ,whether a bird is helpful or the reverse1 in fact1 depends entirely on the food it eats and often even farmers who have been familiar with birds all their lives do not know what food a bird really eats4 ,as an example of the misunderstanding that is often found in regard to birds1 when hawks are seen searching the fields and meadows1 or owls flying about the orchards in the evening1 the farmer always supposes that his poultry is in danger1 when in reality the birds are quite as likely to be hunting for the animals which destroy grain1 produce1 young trees1 and eggs of birds4 ,in order to correct such mistaken ideas the ,department of ,agriculture has made a most careful and accurate study of the habits of birds1 and it is the results of these observations that are recorded here4 ,field workers from this ,department who have observed the habits of the principal birds that live among men1 have watched them all day and from one day to another as they fed their little ones1 and1 to be more certain of their facts1 they have examined the stomachs of hundreds of birds1 both old and young1 to learn exactly what each bird had eaten4 ,in this way they have proved absolutely that many species that are supposed to eat chickens1 or fruit or grain1 in reality never touch them1 but are among the farmer's best friends4 ,among other things they have learned that while they are feeding their young1 birds are especially valuable on a farm4 ,baby birds require food with a large amount of nourishment in it that can be easily digested4 ,almost all young birds have soft1 tender stomachs1 and must be fed on insects2 as they grow older1 the stomach or gizzard hardens and is capable of grinding hard grain or seeds4 ,the amount of food required by the baby birds is astonishing4 ,at certain stages of their growth they require more than their own weight in insects4 ,and the young birds are to be fed just at the season that insects do the most injury to growing crops of grain and young fruit and vegetables4 ,birds vary so much in the kind of food eaten1 not only by different varieties of the same species1 but by the same birds at different seasons1 that it is necessary to make a careful study of each bird to know whether1 if he is sometimes caught eating cultivated fruit and grains1 he helps in other ways enough to pay for it4 ,when insects are unusually abundant1 birds eat more than at other times and confine themselves more strictly to an insect diet1 so that at such times the good they do is particularly valuable4 ,birds of prey may do harm in a particular place1 because in that region mice1 rabbits and other natural food are scarce1 and they are driven to feed on things that are useful to man1 while in places where their natural food is plentiful the same birds are altogether helpful4 ,in the same way1 birds which naturally eat weed seeds frequently find these almost altogether lacking where the farms are most carefully cultivated1 but in their place are fields of grain whose seed also furnishes them desirable food4 ,is it any wonder1 then1 that1 their natural food being taken from them1 they turn to the cultivated crops8 ,the fruit eating birds seem always to choose the wild fruits1 but where these are not to be had they enter the orchards and soon become known as enemies of the farmer4 ,a careful examination of the harm done by birds leads to the belief that the damage is usually caused by a very large number of one species of birds living in a small area4 ,in such cases so great is the demand for food of a particular kind that the supply is soon exhausted1 and the birds turn to the products of the field or orchard4 ,the best conditions exist when there are many varieties of birds in a region1 but no one variety in great numbers1 for then they eat many kinds of insects and weeds1 and do not exhaust all the food supply of one kind4 ,under such circumstances1 too1 the insect-eating birds would find plenty of insects without preying on useful products1 and the insects would be held in check1 so that the damage to crops would be slight4 ,the following are examples of the food eaten by birds and the good that they thus accomplish to man3 ,during the outbreak of ,rocky ,mountain locusts in ,nebraska1 a scientific observer watched a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to her young in an hour and the same number was kept up regularly4 ,at this rate1 for seven hours a day1 a nest-ful of young wrens would eat two hundred and ten locusts a day4 ,from this he calculated that the birds of eastern ,nebraska would destroy daily nearly #afc1jjj locusts4 ,a locust eats its own weight in grain a day4 ,the locusts eaten by the baby birds would therefore be able to destroy one hundred and seventy-five tons of crops1 worth at least ten dollars a ton1 or one thousand seven hundred and fifty dollars4 ,so we see that birds have an actual cash value on the farm4 ,the value of the hay crop saved by meadow-larks in destroying grasshoppers has been estimated at three hundred and fifty-six dollars on every township thirty-six miles square4 ,an article contributed to the ,new ,york ,tribune by an official in the ,department of ,agriculture estimated the amount of weed seeds annually destroyed by the tree sparrow in the state of ,iowa on the basis of one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird4 ,supposing there were ten birds to each mile1 in the two hundred days that they remain in the region1 we should have a total of #a1gej1jjj pounds1 or eight hundred and seventy-five tons1 of weed seed consumed in a single season by this one species in the one state4 ,in a thicket near ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 was a large patch of weeds where sparrows fed during the winter4 ,the ground was literally black with the seeds in the spring but on examining them it was found that nearly all had been cracked and the kernels eaten4 ,a search was made for seeds of various weeds but not more than half a dozen could be found1 while many thousands of empty seed-pods showed how the birds had lived during the winter4 ,in no place are birds more important than in the forests1 where they save hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of valuable timber each year4 ,in forests there can be no rotation of crops and no cultivation1 and spraying1 which keeps down the insect pests in the orchard1 is impossible here because of the expense4 ,it would not pay to spray two or three times a year a crop of timber that requires a lifetime to grow4 ,so in the forests the owner must depend entirely on birds for his protection4 ,how great the destruction of our forests would be is shown by the fact that the damage at present is estimated at #ajj1jjj1jjj1 in spite of the fact that a vast army of birds is working tirelessly1 summer and winter1 to devour the insects6 ,the debt of the forester to the birds can hardly be estimated4 ,a full variety of birds will thoroughly protect a farm and orchard4 ,the sparrows will destroy the weed seeds2 the hawks and kites1 flying by day1 will catch the meadow mice and other small mammals1 and the owls will pounce on those that venture forth at night4 ,of the insect-eating birds1 the larks1 wrens1 thrushes and sparrows search the ground for worms1 eggs and insects under leaves and logs everywhere4 ,the nuthatches1 vireos1 warblers and creepers search every part of the tree1 while the woodpeckers tap beneath the bark for grubs and worms4 ,the fly-catching birds catch their insect food on the wing among the trees and branches1 and1 last of all1 the swallows skim high in the air and catch the few insects that rise high above the tree-tops4 ,thus each family has its part of the work and the good they do is almost too great to calculate4 ,without this check it would be impossible for any green thing to flourish4 ,so vast an amount of food is required to feed the great army of insects that the task would be impossible in any other way4 ,a brief description of some of the common birds and their food habits is given here that farmers may know their friends1 and that people everywhere may learn to protect the useful birds and drive out the few that do the mischief4 ,all of these observations have been made by field workers from the ,department of ,agriculture1 and no statement has been made that has not been proved by the examination of many bird stomachs at different seasons4 ,highest of all in the list come the bluebirds4 ,they are among the most beautiful of our native birds1 with their bright blue coats and soft red breasts4 ,they are sweet singers1 and are among the first to return in the spring to tell us of the return of summer4 ,in addition to this they have many good habits and absolutely no bad ones4 ,more than three-fourths of their food consists of insects1--beetles1 grasshoppers and caterpillars4 ,the remainder is weed seeds and fruit1 but there were no reports of cultivated fruits being eaten by bluebirds4 ,on the contrary they eat the most undesirable of the wild fruit1 chokeberry1 pokeberry1 ,virginia creeper1 bitter-sweet and sumac1 as well as large quantities of ragweed seeds4 ,other birds are equally useful but none combines usefulness with so much beauty and sweetness of song4 ,the tiny wrens are another class of wholly useful birds4 ,their food consists almost entirely of insects with a very little grass-seed4 ,they search every tree1 shrub1 and vine for caterpillars1 spiders and grasshoppers4 ,sparrows are almost equally useful4 ,the tree sparrow1 song sparrow1 chipping sparrow1 field sparrow and snowbird or junco are all great weed-seed destroyers4 ,many of them remain throughout the winter1 when they feed entirely on the seeds of weeds4 ,each bird eats at least a quarter of an ounce of seeds per day1 and they are often found by thousands in a region4 ,at least a half dozen varieties of birds are feeding in the same ratio all over the country1 reducing the crop of next year's weeds4 ,during the summer they turn to a diet composed partly of insects and here again they help the farmer by eating the weevils1 leaf-beetles1 grasshoppers1 bugs and wasps that infest his crops4 ,the various species of swallows rank high as insect-eating birds4 ,the tree1 bank1 cliff and barn swallows and the purple martins all eat small beetles1 mosquitoes1 flying ants and other high-flying insects1 and the number destroyed is almost beyond our power to imagine4 ,the most important service performed by swallows1 however1 is in the ,south1 where they migrate for the winter4 ,there they feed largely on the cotton boll-weevil1 one of the most destructive of all insects1 as we have seen4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture is urging strongly that farmers in the ,north protect the swallows so that they may winter in the ,south in large numbers to feed on the boll-weevil1 which1 if allowed to flourish1 will affect not only the southern planters1 but every user of cotton goods1 and every one who profits in any way by the sale and manufacture of cotton goods4 ,among swallows1 the beautiful and graceful purple martin is most worthy of protection4 ,both ,north and ,south1 the swallows are among the most useful of all birds to the farmer and fruit grower1 and should be protected from ,english sparrows and encouraged in every possible way4 ,the seventeen species of titmice which inhabit the ,united ,states1 and many of which remain all winter1 are all insect eaters to a great extent1 eating large quantities of tent-caterpillars1 moths and their eggs1 weevils1 including the cotton boll-weevil1 plum-curculio1 ants1 spiders1 plant-lice1 bugs and beetles4 ,they also eat small seeds1 particularly those of the poison ivy4 ,the bush-tit feeds largely on insects that destroy grape-vines and on the black olive scale4 ,other species eat most of the scales which infest fruit and forest trees4 ,the rose-breasted grosbeak1 while it eats a few green peas1 is to be classed among the wholly beneficial birds1 for it is the great natural destroyer of the ,colorado potato beetle4 ,in fact1 it eats enough potato-bugs at a single meal to pay for all the peas eaten in a whole season4 ,one family of grosbeaks1 nesting near the field1 will keep an entire patch cleared of potato-bugs throughout the season4 ,in some parts of the country the grosbeak feeds largely on the plum scale1 the hickory scale1 the locust and oak scales and on the tulip scale1 which is very destructive to shade trees4 ,the black grosbeak is another variety that deserves encouragement in every way1 for it eats the chrysalis of the codling-moth that is so serious a foe to our apple crop4 ,it eats also many other injurious insects1 such as wire-worms1 many of the most harmful of beetles1 caterpillars1 and scales4 ,among the most useful birds1 we must mention the phoebe1 which nests near houses and lives almost entirely on harmful insects which it catches on the wing4 ,night hawks eat flying ants in great numbers1 as many as eighteen hundred having been found in a single stomach4 ,they eat insects that fly by night and are classed among our most useful birds4 ,quails are almost unequalled as weed-destroyers4 ,throughout the fall and winter they spend the time destroying weed seeds4 ,in summer they eat ,colorado potato beetles1 chinch-bugs1 cotton boll-weevils1 squash-beetles1 grasshoppers and cutworms4 ,the mother quail1 with her family of twelve to twenty little ones1 patrols the fields thoroughly for insects4 ,quails should be prized as among a farmer's most valuable helpers and protected at all seasons4 ,similar in the good work it does is the meadow-lark4 ,grasshoppers1 caterpillars and cutworms form a large part of its diet1 and its vegetable food consists of weed seeds or waste grain4 ,king-birds are useful in protecting poultry and song birds from hawks1 and are also great fly catchers1 taking many beetles on the wing4 ,doves eat great quantities of seeds of harmful weeds4 ,they also eat some grain1 but almost altogether after the crop has been gathered4 ,old damaged corn and single grains scattered along the roads are eaten1 but there is no complaint of doves doing injury to fields of growing grain4 ,the orioles are beautiful1 are sweet singers1 and no exception can be taken to their food habits4 ,caterpillars are their principal article of food1 but plant-and bark-lice1 spiders and other insects are also eaten4 ,orioles do not eat much vegetable food4 ,they have been accused of eating peas and grapes1 but there seems no evidence to show that this habit is general4 ,the food habits of cuckoos render them very desirable1 since they eat hairy caterpillars1 particularly tent-caterpillars1 for which they seem to have an especial fondness1 fall web-worms and locusts1 besides other injurious insects1 but they are accused of bad habits in relation to other birds1 and can therefore hardly be classed among the wholly useful birds4 ,warblers and vireos are among the most helpful birds in an orchard1 devouring large quantities of insects4 ,there is no class of birds concerning which it is more necessary that the farmer should be well informed1 than the hawks and owls1 since some of them are wholly good1 and of the greatest possible benefit to him and the fruit grower1 while others are extremely harmful in their food habits4 ,the harmful varieties live almost entirely on poultry and wild birds1 and include the goshawk or partridge hawk and the ,cooper hawk1 which is a true chicken-hawk and should be recognized by all farmers at sight4 ,the goshawk and chicken-hawk1 in the amount of damage done1 far exceed all other birds of prey4 ,the sharp-shinned hawk rarely attacks full-grown poultry1 but preys heavily on young chickens and song birds4 ,in fact1 it is known to eat nearly fifty species of our most useful birds4 ,there is no question that these birds are a serious pest and should be destroyed1 but they should not be confused with other members of the family which are among the best friends that a farmer has in keeping his farm clear of small enemies4 ,owls and hawks eat the same class of food1 the hawks flying by day and the owls by night4 ,owls remain ,north in winter1 while hawks fly farther south4 ,the small species of both eat large quantities of insects1 such as grasshoppers1 locusts and beetles4 ,the larger ones are the farmer's great protection against the meadow-mouse1 the most destructive of all animals to farm crops4 ,it tunnels under fields and eats the roots of grass1 grain and potatoes1 eats large amounts of grain and does even more damage by girdling young trees in orchards4 ,rabbits injure trees in the same way1 often during the winter ruining an entire orchard in this manner4 ,squirrels1 ground-squirrels1 gophers1 prairie-dogs1 and other small animals do serious damage in the course of a year on almost every farm4 ,the rough-leg hawk feeds entirely on meadow-mice1 but if the supply fails1 it eats mice1 rabbits and ground-squirrels1 but in no instance attacks birds4 ,its cousin1 the ferruginous rough-leg1 lives largely on ground-squirrels1 rabbits1 prairie-dogs and pouched gophers4 ,this species also never attacks birds1 and neither do any of the four members of the kite family4 ,another large class of birds1--the marsh-hawk1 ,harris hawk1 red-tailed hawk1 red-shouldered hawk1 short-tailed hawk1 white-tailed hawk1 ,swainson hawk1 short-winged hawk1 broad-winged hawk1 ,mexican black hawk1 ,mexican goshawk1 sparrow-hawk1 barn-owl1 long-eared owl1 short-eared owl1 great gray owl1 barred owl1 western owl1 ,richardson owl1 screech-owl1 snowy owl1 hawk-owl1 burrowing owl1 pigmy owl and elf owl--live mostly on destructive mammals1 insects1 frogs and snakes1 but they eat some birds and some of them occasionally catch poultry4 ,young ones do much more harm than the full-grown ones1 probably because they find poultry and birds easier to obtain than other food4 ,these species all do great good on the farm and in the orchard and if their natural food is plentiful and the number of the birds of prey limited1 they should be allowed to remain1 even though they occasionally do harm2 but they can not be allowed to increase greatly in a region without becoming a nuisance4 ,in another class the golden and bald eagles1 pigeon and ,richardson hawks1 prairie falcon and great horned owl do considerable harm1 and the good and bad qualities about balance4 ,in a poorly settled region1 where there is plenty of natural food1 a few of these birds will bring forth little complaint1 but in a section where there are few ground-squirrels1 prairie-dogs1 gophers1 rabbits and woodchucks1 where poultry is raised extensively1 and useful birds are numerous they will do great harm and farmers will usually want to keep them down entirely4 ,the gyrfalcons1 duck-hawks1 sharp-shinned hawk1 ,cooper hawk and goshawk live almost entirely on food that is desired by man1--poultry1 game birds and many varieties of our best insect-destroying birds1 and they eat almost nothing that is harmful to man4 ,the numbers of these birds should be reduced as much as possible3 but in general it may be said that the birds of prey--the hawks and owls--are among the most1 if not the most1 valuable birds that are engaged in helping the farmer by destroying the natural enemies of agriculture4 ,among the smaller birds which do much good1 but of which complaints are made because they eat some fruit and grain are the woodpeckers1 including the flickers1 cedar-birds1 robins1 cat-birds1 thrashers1 crows and blackbirds4 ,the woodpeckers are the great natural protection of the forests by waging constant warfare on the wood-boring insects and ants beneath the bark where no other birds can reach them4 ,they are equally useful in an orchard except that here man may only at great trouble and expense partly hold them in check4 ,downy woodpeckers are also great eaters of scales1 and the fruit grower need not begrudge the red-headed woodpecker a meal of cherries or apples1 especially as it will usually be found that it is the wormy fruit that is attacked4 ,the flicker or gold-winged woodpecker lives largely on ants1 of which he eats immense quantities1 seeking them not only in the trees but on the ground4 ,robins are so well loved for their cheery song1 for their friendliness to man1 and their red breasts coming as a touch of color in returning spring1 that except where they are present in great numbers1 there is little complaint of the fruit they eat1 even without taking into account the good work they accomplish as insect eaters4 ,in fact only four per cent4 of a robin's food is cultivated and a little less than half of it is wild fruit not prized by man4 ,the remaining half consists of caterpillars1 beetles1 spiders1 snails and earth-worms4 ,the cat-bird is also known as a cherry-eater and he frequently helps himself from strawberry and raspberry patches4 ,he eats a larger proportion of cultivated fruit than the robin1 but about twice as much wild fruit1 including the sumac and poison ivy4 ,the cat-bird eats many injurious insects1 which constitute only a little less than half of his food4 ,the cedar-bird is sometimes called the cherry bird1 and is accused of being a great cherry-stealer1 but an examination of stomachs showed that only nine birds out of one hundred and fifty-two had eaten any cherries and that cherries formed only five per cent4 of the food of these few4 ,there is even evidence that this bird prefers wild fruits1 which form its principal food though it eats a few insects4 ,the crows and blackbirds are accused of many bad habits1 such as pulling up young corn1 destroying large quantities of grain and injuring much fruit by pecking holes in it which are later entered by insects4 ,crows eat fruit to some extent1 but the greater part of it is wild4 ,both crows and blackbirds are accused of robbing the nests of other birds4 ,blackbirds are injurious chiefly because they gather in such large flocks that when they descend on a field they can eat a large amount of grain in a short space of time4 ,the greatest good accomplished by the blackbird is in the spring when it follows the plow in search of grub-worms1 of which it is extremely fond4 ,it also does much good in destroying insects in the early summer1 the young birds being fed almost entirely on insect food until they are grown4 ,of the crow1 ,doctor ,merriam1 who is at the head of this branch of work in the ,department of ,agriculture1 says1 ,instead of being an enemy of the farmer1 as is generally believed1 the crow is one of his best friends and the protector of his crops4 ,true1 during corn-planting time1 the crow's bill is turned against the farmer during one month1 and one month only is he his enemy4 ,but during the other eleven months the crow is really working overtime for him4 ,it eats thousands upon thousands of destructive insects and bugs every week1 and when it comes to feeding its young1 gives them a diet composed almost entirely of worms and insects that prey upon the crops4 ,another government report says1 ,the crow should receive much credit for the insects which it destroys4 ,in the more thickly settled parts of the country it probably does more good than harm1 at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn from it4 ,it is probable that in many parts of the country some farmers will find it desirable to reduce the number of crows and blackbirds on their farms4 ,the brown thrasher is a beautiful singer and eats many insects1 mostly injurious4 ,it eats some cultivated fruits4 ,it also eats a small amount of newly planted corn1 but at the same time clears the field of ,may beetles4 ,altogether it is a useful bird but not one of the highest benefit4 ,there are a few species of birds of which but little good can be said1 and which it may be desirable to attempt to drive out in many parts of the ,united ,states4 ,chief of these is the ,english sparrow4 ,it is of a quarrelsome disposition and is much given to driving other birds from their nests4 ,in some districts it has completely expelled some of the most useful kinds of birds4 ,it exists everywhere in such numbers as to render it a nuisance1 and it may be said to be the greatest pest among ,american birds4 ,its favorite food is dandelion seeds1 and it destroys many thousands of seeds1 but as the dandelion does no real injury this habit does not offset all the harm done4 ,it also eats other weed seeds but the greatest thing to be said in its favor is that it feeds on the cottony maple scale4 ,it is probable that in small numbers the ,english sparrow might be classed among the useful1 or1 at least1 one of the only partly harmful birds1 but there is no bird whose numbers it is more desirable to reduce4 ,the common blue-jay is accused of some very bad habits1 among them eating the eggs and young of small birds4 ,it is a fruit eater and also a grain eater and frequently robs corn-cribs and injures newly planted fields4 ,however1 it eats some insects1 mice and other small enemies of the farmer and as it is nowhere very plentiful1 and does not live in flocks1 there is not much cause for complaint4 ,however1 its cousin1 the ,california jay1 has an extremely bad record4 ,it is a great fruit eater1 and devastates prune1 apricot1 and cherry orchards4 ,it is a serious robber of the nests of small birds and hens1 and though it eats some grasshoppers and a very few weed seeds1 it is thoroughly disliked by western fruit growers4 ,it should be greatly reduced in numbers4 ,another ,california bird that has gained a bad reputation is the house finch or linnet4 ,it does serious harm in the cherry and apricot orchards1 not so much by eating as by pecking at the fruit4 ,it probably pecks1 and thus destroys1 five times as much fruit as it eats4 ,as the bird is very abundant1 it sometimes causes the loss of almost the entire crop of a small fruit grower4 ,it does not deserve protection1 for it eats the buds and blossoms of fruit trees and does little to compensate for all the harm done4 ,its best habit is eating woolly plant-lice4 ,no article on birds would be complete that does not dwell on the enormous destruction of birds for trimming hats4 ,as one writer puts it1 we pay eight hundred million dollars a year for hat trimmings1 assuming the insect ravages to be due to the killing of our birds for millinery purposes4 ,while this is exaggerated1 it is undoubtedly true that this is the largest cause of the destruction of the birds of ,america4 ,the ,audubon society says that we1 as a nation1 use #aej1jjj1jjj birds a year for trimming hats alone and that this single item would save our crops from insect destruction and largely rid our fields of weeds4 ,if a few hundred dollars are stolen from a bank1 the greatest efforts are made to catch the thief1 and if possible to get the money back2 but the great army of insects destroy each year1 almost as much in money value as all the national banks in the country have on deposit1 and this wholesale destruction might largely be prevented if every woman and girl took 7and kept7 a pledge not to use wings1 breasts1 or birds on her hats4 ,there is no objection to the use of ostrich feathers1 which are carefully plucked from the live birds4 ,the feathers grow again1 just as the wool grows on sheep that have been sheared4 ,neither is there any objection to using the feathers of the barn-yard fowls which are killed for food4 ,only a little less is the loss caused by so-called sportsmen1 men who kill only for the pleasure of shooting1 or who1 because they like the taste of quail1 shoot as many as they can in a day instead of only enough to satisfy hunger4 ,often a farmer sells for a very small amount the privilege of hunting on his farm1 thinking he is making money when in fact he is losing ten dollars for every one he makes4 ,the quail1 sparrows and other birds on the farm are destroyed4 ,as a result the weed seeds are not eaten and a big crop comes up in the spring4 ,in the summer there are no quail on the farm to destroy insects4 ,the insects and the weeds together make the crop poorer1 and the owner feels that farming is growing less profitable1 when in fact he has failed to take ordinary precautions to obtain a good crop by protecting the birds4 ,with the huntsman and his bag of birds we may class the small boy with his rifle or sling-shot4 ,a single boy does little harm but all the boys in the country taken together do a grave amount of damage4 ,last in the list comes the egg hunters1 who by robbing nests can kill four or five birds at a time1 simply for mischief4 ,a party of boys can1 by a day's sport1 make a serious difference in the number of birds in a region where they are not plentiful and thus have a large share in damaging the crops4 ,if1 then1 birds play so large a part in the welfare of the farm and in turn in the prices of farm crops1 fruit1 lumber and cotton cloth1 it is most desirable that every effort be made to reduce the numbers of harmful birds and to encourage the useful species4 ,many of the states now have excellent laws for the protection of birds2 but without a large number of game wardens1 it is difficult to enforce the laws closely unless the public sentiment is strongly against the killing of birds4 ,laws should be made to protect birds against the egg hunter1 7except for the purpose of study1 and then a license should be required71 sling-shots should be prohibited1 as they already are in many places4 ,all hunters should be required to have a license1 the number of birds killed by a single person in a single day should be limited1 and certain birds should always be protected by law4 ,these laws should be as nearly uniform as possible in all the states and there must be a desire on the part of all the people to see these laws obeyed4 ,the boys and girls should be banded together in the schools or in societies and pledged to protect birds and not to destroy them4 ,the girls should pledge themselves not to wear birds for ornament4 ,women's clubs might do much to popularize the movement for the protection of birds1 and to that end should try to establish a sentiment among their members against their use for millinery4 ,all these agencies working together will make a vast difference in the number of birds1 and as a result1 in the good that they do1 but the great work must be done by farmers themselves4 ,they will need to protect themselves in certain ways against the harm done by many of the birds that on the whole are extremely useful4 ,to protect poultry from owls do not allow it to roost in the trees2 to protect from hawks1 keep the young ones near the house1 and if possible cover their runways with wire netting4 ,to protect against grain eating1 use scarecrows or put up a dead crow as a warning4 ,mixing seed corn with tar so as to coat it will prevent crows from pulling it up at planting time4 ,to protect against fruit eating1 plant wild fruits4 ,the best of all trees for this purpose is the ,russian mulberry1 which ripens at the same time that cherries do and is particularly relished by all fruit-eating birds4 ,if planted in barn-lots1 chickens and hogs will eat all the fruit that falls to the ground1 making it serve a double purpose4 ,the fruit of wild cherry1 elder1 dogwood1 haws1 and mountain-ash are eaten by birds1 and if a farm be planted with such trees and bushes in the barn-yard1 along the lanes or in some of those unproductive spots that are to be found on every farm1 birds will be attracted to the farm and will pay well for themselves1 and the farmer's crop of cultivated fruit will be protected4 ,birds themselves distribute many seeds1 particularly of wild fruits4 ,the farmer who keeps several cats must pay for it in the loss of birds1 for birds will not nest where they are constantly watched by cats4 ,boxes for martins and other birds1 bits of hay1 horse-hair and string scattered about will often encourage birds to build about an orchard or farm4 ,a wood-lot1 besides paying in other ways1 will afford nesting places for a large number of birds4 ,to place a drinking and bathing place near the house is one of the best methods of attracting birds1 which will use it constantly4 ,by all these methods and a little winter feeding with crumbs1 apple peelings or waste fruit and grain1 the farmer will be able to induce a good variety of birds to nest on his farm1 and will receive in return great protection from the small mammals1 insects and weeds that would lessen the amount of his harvests4 ,,references ,relation ,between ,birds and ,insects4 ,yearbook #dhf4 ,annual ,reports of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,annual ,reports of the ,national ,audubon ,society4 ,bird ,day4 ,how to ,prepare ,for ,it4 ,c4 ,c4 ,babcock4 ,bird ,neighbors4 ,john ,burroughs4 ,bird enemies4 ,john ,burroughs4 ,how to ,attract the ,birds4 ,n4 ,b4 ,doubleday4 ,the ,food of ,nestling ,birds4 ,yearbook #aijj4 ,does ,it ,pay the ,farmer to ,protect ,birds8 ,yearbook #aijg4 ,birds as ,weed ,destroyers4 ,yearbook #ahih4 ,how ,birds ,affect the ,orchard4 ,yearbook #aijj4 ,value of ,swallows as ,insect ,destroyers4 ,yearbook ,reprint4 ,birds ,that ,eat ,scale ,insects4 ,yearbook ,reprint4 ,birds ,useful for the ,destruction of the ,cotton ,boll-,weevil4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletins #eg1 #fd4 ,hawks and ,owls ,from the ,standpoint of the ,farmer4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin #fa4 ,some ,common ,birds in ,their ,relation to ,agriculture4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,bulletin #ed4 ,four ,common ,birds of the ,farm and ,garden4 ,yearbook #ahie4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,health ,when we have improved our soil and replanted our forests and learned the most economical methods of mining our great deposits of coal1 iron1 and other minerals2 when we have made the waters do our work and carry our freight and water our waste places2 when we have learned to care for our birds and our fishes1 and taken measures to stop the ravages of insects2 when we have preserved our natural beauties and increased them by planting trees1 shrubs1 and flowers1 and filling unsightly corners2 there still remains to be considered the greatest subject of all1--the people who are to enjoy this wonderful inheritance4 ,if they were to be weak and sick1 suffering from all kinds of diseases1 dying in great numbers1 all these things would count for little4 ,but men and women1 as they are learning how to conserve their natural resources1 are thinking far more than ever before of health and how to keep it4 ,it is necessary to think of these things1 for as people crowd into cities1 where they live a life different from that which nature intended1 sickness and the death-rate increase greatly4 ,health1 by which we mean the possession of a strong1 well body1 free from pain1 should bring with it great power to work and to think and to benefit the world2 and should also bring great happiness and enjoyment to the person who possesses it1 for though sick people may be happy1 and well people unhappy1 yet it is a general rule that to be strong and well is the first great step toward being happy4 ,the question1 ,is life worth living8 was once happily answered1 ,it depends upon the liver2 and it is true in both senses1 for not only does happiness depend on what one gets out of life1 but on good digestion4 ,it is only the person who feels well who really enjoys life4 ,the person who can get up each morning able to do a day's work or have a day's enjoyment1 is the one on whom we must depend for the world's work and invention4 ,we seldom find a strong1 vigorous mind in a weak body4 ,on the other hand1 the invalid is the idle member of the family or the community4 ,he can not find pleasure for himself nor do anything to help others1 and not only that1 but he must be cared for by others1 thus taking the labor of the sick person himself and of his nurse4 ,it is coming to be seen that this is a great waste of time1 of money1 of work1 and of happiness1 and people are determining that if these wastes can be stopped1 it is well worth all the time and thought and money necessary to bring about the change4 ,people everywhere are thinking about health1 and because of this1 ,christian ,science1 the ,emmanuel ,movement and the various sects which practise faith or mental healing have sprung up4 ,hospitals and health officers are doing much for the public health4 ,doctors themselves are changing their ideas and are teaching us not only how to cure but how to prevent disease4 ,doctors are also seeking not only to prevent disease but to find new ways of treating it4 ,they are discarding drugs in as many cases as possible1 frequently using serums in which cultures from the disease itself are used for its cure4 ,health means more ability to work1 more means of learning1 of accomplishing great things1 more pleasures in every day that is lived2 and so it is as important to preserve health1 in order to enjoy life1 as it is to prevent death4 ,we can realize how few persons have perfect health by noting the common salutation ,how do you do8 or ,how are you8 ,serious sickness is such as renders a person entirely unable to work4 ,benefit societies have found that the average number of days of sickness per year from each person under seventy years of age is ten1 of which at least two are spent in bed4 ,about a million and a half people die each year in the ,united ,states1 and it is estimated that twice that number1 or three million persons1 are constantly unable even to care for themselves4 ,the effect of this is felt on the patient himself1 in suffering1 in loss of time in which he is unable to earn money1 and in the amount spent for doctors1 medicine1 and nursing4 ,it is felt on the family1 in which the household machinery is thrown out while the wife and mother nurses the sick members of the family1 or is herself too ill to work1 or when the father's income stops on account of sickness4 ,the entire community suffers from the constant idleness of three million persons1 as well as from the deaths which withdraw a still larger number of persons from actual work for a period of two to five days during the time of death and burial of the bodies of members of the family4 ,then there is all the long train of small ailments1 which do not make us seriously ill1 often do not even keep us from work1 but which do take away from the pleasure and enjoyment of life1 which render work a burden instead of a delight1 and lessen our ability to work by many degrees4 ,not only this1 but they all have within them the possibility of developing into serious diseases4 ,such lesser troubles are colds1 headache1 catarrh1 dyspepsia1 nervousness1 neuralgia1 sore throat1 skin eruptions1 rheumatism1 toothache1 earache1 affections of the eyes1 lameness1 sprains1 bruises1 cuts1 and burns4 ,civilization has brought us great blessings but it has also brought with it many dangers to health4 ,professor ,irving ,fisher of ,yale says3 ,the invention of houses has made it possible for mankind to spread all over the globe but it is responsible for tuberculosis or consumption4 ,the invention of cooking has widened the variety of man's diet but has led to the decay of his teeth4 ,the invention of the alphabet and printing has produced eye strain with all its attendant evils4 ,the invention of chairs has led to spinal curvature1 etc41 etc4 ,yet it would be foolish even if it were possible to attempt to return to nature in the sense of abolishing civilization4 ,the cure for eye strain is not in disregarding the invention of reading1 but in introducing the invention of glasses4 ,the cure for tuberculosis is not in the destruction of houses but in ventilation4 ,it is a little knowledge that is dangerous4 ,civilization can1 with fuller knowledge1 bring its own cure1 and make the 'kingdom of man' far larger than the 'nature' people can ever dream of4 ,until within the last few years1 sickness and death were regarded from a religious standpoint4 ,all sickness was to be borne with patience and resignation because all our sufferings were sent by an all-wise ,providence4 ,but since science has clearly proved that typhoid fever is usually caused by an impure water supply1 and that boiling the water would prevent the suffering1 expense and possible death2 that the dreaded yellow fever can be banished from communities that destroy the eggs of certain mosquitoes2 and many other facts in regard to health have been learned1 a great change has come over the popular belief4 ,it is seen that1 to a great extent1 man holds his own fate and is responsible for his own suffering1 and people are eager to learn more about their own bodies1 how to cure them and how to keep them well4 ,this knowledge has already done much to prolong life4 ,the average length of life in ,india1 where no attempt is made to check disease1 is twenty-five years4 ,in ,england the length of life has doubled in a few generations4 ,in ,sweden1 where the people live a sanitary life1 the average is over fifty years1 in this country1 forty-five years4 ,insurance companies and benefit societies keep close watch of their members and they report that a person ten years old may now count on living to be sixty years of age4 ,that is the average age1 whereas a hundred years ago the average expectation of life at that age was only fifty-three years4 ,and this is true in spite of the fact that people have been crowding into cities1 that they are living on richer foods1 taking less exercise in the open air1 living in houses which shut out the fresh air1 and doing dozens of other things that have tended to lower rather than to raise the average4 ,we can scarcely realize the possibilities of life if1 with all the present scientific knowledge of disease and health1 we could have a generation of people living according to nature's laws4 ,life can be not only lengthened but strengthened4 ,there are many instances of frail1 feeble children who have developed into exceptionally strong men and women4 ,one of the most noted is ,von ,humboldt1 the great scientist1 who as a child was very weak physically1 and1 he himself says1 was mentally below the average1 but who lived to the age of ninety1 and developed one of the greatest minds of his century4 ,doctor ,horace ,fletcher1 noted for his theories in regard to eating1 was rejected at the age of forty-six for life insurance but so strengthened his constitution by careful living that by the time he was fifty he not only obtained his life insurance but celebrated his birthday by riding one hundred and ninety miles on his bicycle4 ,if we could imagine a person who all his life had lived in a locality where the air was pure2 in a house where fresh air entered day and night1 and which was heated to a uniform temperature2 whose food had always consisted of the most pure and nutritious material prepared in the most wholesome way1 eaten slowly and in proper quantity2 if bathing1 sleep1 rest1 exercise1 brain work and pleasure had each its due proportion2 if he could be always guarded from contagion and accidents1 we can imagine that such a person would be free from disease and that death might be long deferred4 ,of course1 death can not be prevented1 only postponed1 but disease can be prevented1 and so we can increase the chances of postponing death4 ,doctors tell us that under ideal conditions there would be only one cause of death--old age4 ,there is no question that under such conditions life could be prolonged far beyond what is now usually considered its span4 ,one hundred years or more might easily1 we imagine1 become the average of life1 instead of the great exception4 ,we can hope for these things in the future though it will take several generations at least to bring them all about1 but we need not wait so long for some of the best results4 ,there are many things that can be done at once to prolong life and prevent illness4 ,since we know that many diseases are preventable and we know the suffering and sorrow1 as well as expense1 that come from sickness and premature death1 we should all eagerly unite in doing all that we can to stop these ravages4 ,there are two agencies that will help to bring this about3 individual or private means1 and general or public means4 ,both are absolutely necessary if we are to be successful in stamping out disease4 ,professor ,fisher says3 ,personal hygiene means the strengthening of our defenses against disease4 ,public hygiene seeks to destroy the germs before they reach our bodily defenses4 ,in the first place1 in order to learn what we may do to lengthen the span of life we must learn something of the nature of disease4 ,doctors tell us that diseases are of two classes4 ,the first are hereditary1 or inherited2 those which pass from parents to their children and often run through an entire family4 ,it is more often the tendency to disease that is inherited1 rather than the disease itself1 and so even these inherited diseases may often be prevented by careful living4 ,diseases which may be inherited include rheumatism1 gout1 scrofula1 diabetes1 cancer and insanity4 ,this class of diseases is the most difficult to prevent and to cure4 ,for some of them no cure has been found4 ,the other class comprises the diseases of environment1 or personal surroundings1--that is1 our manner of living both as regards our private life and our relations to other people4 ,these diseases are largely preventable and it is with them that most of the work of prevention is to be carried on4 ,a disease is considered preventable if1 by using the best known means of treatment1 it might be prevented or cured1 so that either the disease or the death usually resulting from it would be avoided4 ,of course1 not all deaths from a given disease could be prevented even with the best known means4 ,infant diseases constitute one class which is considered most hopeful of betterment through a pure milk supply and better hygiene2 and yet many authorities believe that not more than half the deaths could be prevented owing to the large part played by weather conditions1 feeble constitutions1 and other unchangeable conditions4 ,preventable diseases may be divided into six classes3 7#a7 ,diseases caused by lack of proper hygiene4 7#b7 ,diseases caused by bad habits4 7#c7 ,contagious diseases4 7#d7 ,diseases caused by insects4 7#e7 ,accidents1 wounds1 or operations and their resulting diseases4 7#f7 ,diseases remedied by slight means4 ,we will treat each of these in turn4 7#a7 ,by proper hygiene is meant the proper treatment of the body as to breathing1 eating1 drinking1 sleeping1 bathing and rest4 ,this treatment includes plenty of fresh air1 both day and night1 keeping outdoors as much as possible1 and in well-aired houses the rest of the time4 ,vigorous but not violent exercise1 brisk walking1 regular physical exercise1 such as is practised in gymnasiums1 will go far toward keeping the body in good condition4 ,the question of fresh air in the home is one of the most important points to be considered4 ,the bedrooms1 the living-rooms1 and the kitchen should have the air changed constantly1 not once or twice a day4 ,in order to prevent drafts1 and that the house may not be kept at too low a temperature in winter1 a board1 eight to twelve inches in height1 may be placed across the bottom of a window that is raised4 ,many diseases1 not only of the throat and lungs1 but of the other organs1 may be prevented by the constant introduction of fresh air into our rooms day and night4 ,tuberculosis causes more deaths than any other single disease in ,america1 and the sickness and disability continue longer than with most diseases4 ,it is extremely contagious1 being a germ disease1 and not an inherited one1 as was formerly supposed4 ,it increased very rapidly for a few years but is now slightly decreasing1 owing to better knowledge of its cause and cure4 ,its prevention and its cure both lie largely in fresh air4 ,physicians say that no one who lives an open-air life with plenty of fresh air night and day will contract it4 ,the cure which is restoring hundreds to health is to find a place where the air is pure1 and live and sleep practically outdoors2 to eat as much milk1 raw eggs1 and meat as can be digested and to observe the other rules of hygiene4 ,incipient cases1 those in the earliest stages1 may sometimes be cured while continuing at work by following the other rules as nearly as possible4 ,on account of the extremely contagious nature of tuberculosis1 special care should be taken to prevent its spread4 ,the sputum coughed up from the lungs is the principal carrier of the disease1 and the person who1 having tuberculosis1 even in its earliest stages1 spits in a public place1 is an enemy of mankind1 for he endangers the lives of hundreds of others4 ,the only excuse for this is that he usually does it through ignorance1 but the knowledge of the danger should be so impressed on all the people that no one could plead ignorance1 and for a consumptive to spit on the street should be counted as much a crime morally as for a smallpox patient deliberately to expose others to the disease4 ,great care should of course be taken in the home of a consumptive patient to prevent the infection from spreading through the family4 ,separate sleeping-rooms1 thorough disinfection1 and the use of paper napkins which are burned at once1 to take the place of handkerchiefs1 should be some of the means employed4 ,pneumonia1 pleurisy1 bronchitis1 grip1 colds1 and catarrh are some of the other ailments which may be largely banished by living the outdoor life4 ,the method of treatment is medical1 is different in each case1 and should be decided by the family physician4 ,the constant habit of breathing impurities1 day after day and year after year1 brings about a gradual change in the tissue of the lungs4 ,in the same way1 simple food to take the place of the rich1 heavy foods eaten in large quantities1 will prevent many of the diseases of the stomach1 liver1 and kidneys1 and improve the general health and strength4 ,a diet of less meat and more eggs has been tried by football teams in training and found to give an equal amount of strength with greater endurance4 ,a diet of milk1 cereals1 vegetables1 nuts1 and fruits1 raw or simply cooked1 with a small amount of animal foods1 will perhaps give the best results in this climate4 ,food fried in fats1 rich pastries and gravies are the hardest to digest1 and better health will usually follow discontinuing them4 ,the purity of the food eaten should receive careful consideration4 ,artificially preserved foods are usually more or less dangerous1 for although dealers urge that the poison contained in them is too small to do harm we must remember that it is not the single dose that does harm1 but the many foods each containing a very small amount of poison1 taken day after day4 ,pure food laws1 national and state1 have done great good in driving adulterated and impure foods out of the markets by requiring all foods to be properly labeled4 ,thorough mastication or chewing of the food is only a little less important than the character of the food itself4 ,rapid swallowing without chewing in childhood lays the foundation for many of the digestive diseases of later life4 ,if food be thoroughly masticated much that would otherwise be hard to digest can be eaten without bad results4 ,one of the best known examples of this is meat1 which1 while full of nourishment1 sets up in the large intestine a condition known as auto-intoxication1 a species of digestive poison4 ,if meat be eaten slowly and chewed thoroughly1 this condition is almost entirely absent4 ,pure drinking water is almost as necessary as pure food4 ,we take water into the body for three principal purposes3 first1 it is needed to dissolve and dilute various substances and carry them from one part of the body to another2 second1 it forms a large part of the blood and other important fluids of the body1 and is a part of many substances formed in the body2 third1 it serves to carry from the body the worn-out and useless tissues1 the waste products of the body4 ,these are extremely poisonous and must be promptly disposed of to prevent sickness4 ,this can not be done except by an ample supply of water4 ,few persons1 especially grown persons1 drink enough water4 ,ten glasses of pure water are needed properly to supply the body4 ,insufficient water drinking is perhaps the commonest cause of the interruption of the normal life processes1 says ,doctor ,theron ,c4 ,stearns4 ,but the common drinking cup in public places probably causes far more disease than the drinking itself prevents4 ,particles of dead skin and disease-germs are left in the cup by each drinker4 ,some of the most serious diseases may be carried in this way4 ,a cup made of heavy waterproof paper1 cheap enough to be thrown away after being used once1 is a recent invention that is highly recommended for use by school children and those who are obliged to drink away from home4 ,the water in a public drinking-fountain should come out in a small steady stream so that those who have no cups may drink from the stream itself as it rises4 ,many school-houses are so equipped4 ,sleep is a necessary part of good hygiene4 ,it promotes health and prevents disease4 ,it is largely in sleep that the system renews itself1 that growth takes place1 that waste products are thrown off1 and the body repairs its wastes4 ,no less than eight hours for grown persons and ten for children should be employed in sleep4 ,late hours and sleepless nights are the frequent cause of nervousness1 eye strain1 nervous prostration1 and the beginning of brain troubles and insanity4 ,bathing is also necessary to good health4 ,the pores of the skin play a large part in carrying off the wastes of the body1 through the perspiration1 and if these become clogged1 this poisonous material remains in the system4 ,we have all noticed how a bath refreshes and gives tone to the entire body by opening the pores4 ,the skin is composed of minute scales1 arranged in layers like fish scales4 ,the tiny crevices between these form a lodging place for dirt and germs4 ,if these remain1 our own bodies are constantly exposed to their infection1 if they drop off1 as some are constantly doing1 we may spread the contagion to others4 ,this is strikingly illustrated by scarlet fever1 smallpox1 and similar diseases where these minute scales are the sole source of contagion4 ,exercise is another necessity of health4 ,regular physical culture in a gymnasium will develop any muscle or part of the body almost at will1 but if this be not possible much can be accomplished in developing the body by simple work4 ,gladstone found health in chopping wood1 ,roosevelt in a daily tennis game1 and ,president ,taft in golf4 ,many find it in gardening or farming4 ,these all help to develop vigorous bodies4 ,anything which brings into moderate play any set of muscles1 which increases the circulation1 or stimulates the secretion is beneficial4 ,house-work1 which1 in its various forms1 brings into use all the muscles of the body1 is a wholesome exercise for women4 ,those who do no house-work seldom substitute for it any other active exercise1 and many diseases which are caused by deposits of waste tissues that are not thrown off by the body1 are the result4 ,rest--recreation--pleasure--these are as necessary to health as anything else1 but the ,american people are slow to learn the need of them4 ,we hear much of nervous prostration as an ,american disease4 ,it is due to a variety of causes1--high living1 late hours1 ill-ventilated rooms1 and climate2 but chief of all the causes is the long hours of work under strong pressure4 ,work done in a hurry and without rest may accomplish many things1 but it invariably causes a corresponding loss of nerve force4 ,fatigue1 by checking bodily resistance1 gives rise to all kinds of poisons in the system4 ,every part of the body feels the ill effect of continued exhaustion4 ,of the diseases caused by bad habits1 it can only be said that all the evils they cause1 directly and indirectly1 are entirely preventable2 that they are usually wrong morally1 and that the suffering which results is sure4 ,under this head come the effects of drinking1 of the use of tobacco and drugs1 and of bad personal and social habits4 ,it is only necessary to refrain from these bad habits to prevent all the diseases that arise from them1 with all their train of suffering1 poverty and crime4 ,it is not the province of this book to deal with scientific temperance1 but merely to state a few of the most serious results of the use of alcohol and other poisons4 ,the white corpuscles of the blood have been called our standing army1 because they are natural germ-destroyers4 ,one class of the white cells has the power of motion1 and another class has the power of absorbing outside matter1 such as disease-germs4 ,one destroys the germs and the other moves them through the blood and carries them off with the waste products of the body4 ,the white corpuscles thus stand as the defenders of the body1 ready to destroy the germs as they enter1 and are1 for each individual1 the best of all preventives of germ diseases4 ,the person whose blood is lacking in white cells is always liable to catch contagious or infectious diseases1 and the one who has that element of the blood in proper proportion is best fitted to withstand disease4 ,leading physicians believe that the greatest harm that comes from the use of alcohol lies in the fact that nothing else so weakens the resistance of the white corpuscles1 and that therefore the person who is an habitual user of alcohol lacks the power to repel all classes of disease4 ,english and ,american life insurance companies give us almost exactly the same figures1 which show that of insured persons1 the death rate is twenty-three per cent4 higher among those who use alcohol than among total abstainers4 ,it is probable that the proportion of persons carrying life insurance is much less among the drinking classes and that if we had complete statistics the difference would be far greater than appears in the life insurance tables4 ,of time lost by sickness1 directly and through other diseases caused by alcoholism1 drugs and other bad habits1 the percentage is very great1 according to all hospital records4 ,the number of prominent persons who have died of tobacco heart indicates that the rate of those whose heart action is weakened by the use of tobacco is probably very large4 ,doctor ,morrow says that if we could put an end at once to diseases caused by bad habits it would result in closing at least one-half of our institutions for defective persons1 and almost all of our penal institutions4 ,there is another long list of diseases which are contagious1 that is1 which one person may transmit to another4 ,these are usually serious but their spread may be largely prevented by keeping the sick person alone1 except for the necessary nurses1 quarantining the house and disinfecting everything when the period of infection is past4 ,in this class are smallpox1 diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 measles1 mumps1 chicken-pox and whooping-cough4 ,these latter are the so-called childish diseases which it was formerly considered impossible to escape1 and little attempt was made to guard against them4 ,now they are recognized as serious1 whooping-cough for its close relation to brain and spinal trouble2 measles for their effect on the eyes and lungs2 chicken-pox for its similarity to smallpox1 and mumps for its general lowering of the tone of the system1 allowing other diseases to gain a foothold4 ,special serum treatment for diphtheria and vaccination for smallpox have greatly reduced the danger from these once greatly dreaded diseases4 ,of preventable diseases none should receive more attention than typhoid fever1 because it is a great scourge and yet it can be prevented by simple means4 ,if we understand that typhoid is a dirt disease1 that it comes only from dirt1 we shall feel it a disgrace to have an epidemic of typhoid1 though one of the saddest features about it is that we must suffer for the sins of others4 ,the one who is attacked by typhoid fever may not be the one who has left dirt for the disease to breed in4 ,typhoid fever germs are bred chiefly in manure piles1 sewers1 or cess-pools1 and would not be transmitted to man directly1 but there are several indirect ways in which they may be carried4 ,flies also breed in the same places4 ,their legs become covered with typhoid germs1 and then they fly into houses directly on the food and cooking utensils4 ,this is one of the most common ways in which the disease is carried1 and doctors tell us that the common house-fly should be known as the typhoid fly so that people may know the serious danger that lurks in what was formerly considered as nothing worse than an annoying foe to clean housekeeping4 ,if houses are thoroughly screened1 if cess-pools1 manure piles and garbage are kept tightly covered1 screened1 or1 still better1 disinfected with chloride of lime1 there will be no breeding-places left for flies and this will remove one of the greatest dangers4 ,the other danger lies in a polluted water or milk supply4 ,every sewer that is carried into a stream1 every manure pile that drains into a water course is a menace to health4 ,very frequently the farm well for watering stock is near the barn1--near the manure pile1 which1 as it drains1 carries down millions of typhoid germs to the water-level below4 ,the well becomes infected1 the family drink from it1 and soon there may be several cases of typhoid fever in the home4 ,worst of all1 the milk pails are rinsed at the well1 and all the milk that is poured into them spreads the germs wherever the milk may be sold4 ,in this way an epidemic may be carried to an entire town1 and to persons who themselves have taken every precaution against the disease4 ,drinking water should be boiled unless one is sure of the water-supply1 and surface wells are never safe unless we know that they drain only from clean sources1 and then the water should be analyzed frequently4 ,boiling absolutely destroys typhoid and other germs1 and well repays the extra work it makes4 ,one case of typhoid fever causes more work than boiling the water for years1 if we consider the work only4 ,if you can not buy pasteurized milk1 and are not sure of conditions about the dairy1 your milk should be boiled1 or1 still better1 sterilized at home by putting it in bottles or other containers1 and placing in a vessel of hot water1 keeping the milk for several hours about half-way to the boiling point1 then cooling gradually4 ,all these means of prevention are troublesome and require time and work1 but as the result in health for the family is sure1 every housekeeper should gladly take this extra burden on herself if it be necessary4 ,in some states and many cities1 the laws governing dairies are now so strict that there is no need of doing this work in the home4 ,this care in the dairies should be insisted on everywhere1 even if it raises the price of milk1 because it means the saving of many doctor and drug bills and also raises the standard of public health4 ,yellow fever was formerly dreaded more than any other single disease because it was so wide-spread1 so fatal1 and was thought to be violently contagious1 but during the ,spanish-,american ,war it was proved that it is not contagious at all1 but comes only from the bite of a certain mosquito1 the stegomia1 which is usually found only in hot climates4 ,it is conveyed in this way3 the mosquito bites a yellow fever patient2 for twelve days it is harmless1 but after that time it may infect every person that it bites4 ,if every yellow fever patient could be screened with netting to prevent his being bitten1 we could prevent the yellow fever mosquito from becoming infected4 ,further1 if we can prevent healthy people from being bitten by fever-infected mosquitoes1 they will escape the disease1 and still further1 if we can destroy the eggs of mosquitoes1 we can entirely obviate all danger of yellow fever in a community4 ,the mosquito breeds only in water2 by having all cisterns1 rain-water barrels1 and other water containers carefully covered1 and by spreading the surface of pools of standing water1 especially dirty water1 covered with greenish scum1 with a thick coating of kerosene oil1 we can prevent the eggs from hatching4 ,this has been done in many communities in ,cuba and the southern part of the ,united ,states1 and has resulted in completely stamping out the disease in those places4 ,malaria is caused by another mosquito1 called the anopheles and while malaria is seldom fatal as is yellow fever1 it causes much suffering and loss of time1 and strong efforts should be made to prevent it4 ,the same measures that are used to prevent yellow fever will banish malaria from any community4 ,they are the screening of patients to prevent spreading the disease2 screening all houses closely and keeping close watch for mosquitoes in the house1 and covering all ponds in the neighborhood with oil4 ,new ,jersey mosquitoes were formerly known far and wide1 but such an active campaign has been waged against them1 that they have been almost completely driven from the state4 ,the ordinary mosquito has never been found to do any harm beyond the discomfort of its bite4 ,of other diseases caused by insects1 an affection of the eyes called pink-eye is carried by very tiny flies1 and the dreaded bubonic plague is supposed to be transferred from sick people to well ones by the bites of fleas1 which in turn are brought to this country by rats4 ,the hook-worm which affects so many persons in the ,south is often called the lazy disease since the persons afflicted with it are not totally disabled1 but are lacking in energy and vigor because the small insects take from the blood the red corpuscles which should carry the digested food all over the body4 ,these insects can be destroyed by medicine1 of which only a few cents worth is required to cure a case and make the patient fit for work and enjoyment4 ,in ,porto ,rico almost #cjj1jjj cases have been treated by the ,united ,states government in the last six years4 ,another matter which should receive careful consideration is the large number of preventable accidents4 ,mining accidents come in a few cases from failure to provide the best appliances in the mines1 but in many cases are due to carelessness or ignorance of the operators themselves4 ,there still remain a large number of accidents which occur in the best regulated mines1 and when no instance of special carelessness can be traced4 ,for years these disasters have puzzled mining engineers1 but within the last few months it has been discovered that the minute particles of coal dust in a dry mine completely fill the air1 so that the air itself is ready to burn4 ,when a light is taken into this coal-filled atmosphere1 it bursts into flame1 causing a violent explosion4 ,sprinkling the mines1 forcing a fine spray of water through the air of every part of the mines1 it is thought1 will prevent this class of accidents1 which have furnished long lists of killed and injured each year4 ,reports show that one miner is killed and several injured for every one hundred thousand tons of coal mined4 ,the mining accidents of one year total #b1ejj killed and #f1jjj seriously injured4 ,other industries do not cause such wholesale injuries1 but there are thousands of individual accidents each year where the injury varies from mangled fingers to death4 ,when the cause is failure to provide suitable safeguards to machinery1 or to warn employees of danger1 the penalty to the employers should be made severe1 so that no consideration of money will prevent them from taking precautions4 ,more often1 however1 the injury is due to the carelessness of the men or to the fact that they try to run machines with which they are unfamiliar4 ,manual training schools1 night schools for working-men1 with a short apprenticeship in the running of machinery and an explanation of the dangers1 will go far to prevent this class of accidents1 but the fact will still remain1 that often those who are most familiar with machinery become careless and are more liable to injury than beginners4 ,the number of accidents that have been added to the world's list by automobiles1 both to those riding and to persons who are run over by them1 is great and is in a large measure due to carelessness in handling the machine or to reckless driving4 ,the entire number of accidents in the ,united ,states1 including railway accidents1 reaches the immense total of sixty thousand killed and many times that number injured4 ,a most appalling waste of life and labor value6 ,professor ,ditman says1 ,of #bi1jjj1jjj workers in the ,united ,states over #ejj1jjj are yearly killed or crippled as a direct result of the occupations in which they are engaged--more than were killed and wounded throughout the whole ,russo-,japanese ,war4 ,more than one-half this tremendous sacrifice of life is needless4 ,until the last quarter of a century there was a large addition to the death rate each year from the blood poisoning following operations and injuries making open wounds4 ,it was not until the discovery of the germs which cause septic poisoning that deaths from these causes could be checked4 ,the use of antiseptics1 such as carbolic acid1 alcohol1 and various other preparations1 the boiling of all surgical instruments1 and the boiling or baking of all articles used in the treatment of open wounds and sores has reduced the death rate at least one-half4 ,the rate could be lowered much more if all sores were treated as surgical cases and carefully sterilized from the beginning4 ,about eighty-five deaths out of every hundred from these causes might be prevented4 ,every ,fourth of ,july a great many entirely preventable deaths and minor accidents occur4 ,the toy pistol has come to be considered almost as deadly as the larger variety4 ,the tiny caps that are used in them are fired back into the hand of the person shooting them1 tiny particles of powder enter the skin1 burrowing into the flesh1 and the skin closes over them1 shutting out the air4 ,if these particles carry with them tetanus germs1 as is often the case1 because these germs are found chiefly in the dirt of the street where most of this shooting is done1 lock-jaw or tetanus1 a severe form of blood-poisoning1 results1 and is usually fatal4 ,the same results come less frequently from fire-crackers and other explosives1 and in addition many accidents which injure hands1 eyes1 and other parts of the body1 are the result of the use of the heavier explosives4 ,the ,pasteur ,treatment is saving many lives each year by treating cases of infection from mad dogs and other animals affected with hydrophobia4 ,among the diseases which can be remedied by slight means are enlarged tonsils and adenoid growths back of the nose1 both of which can be removed by a slight and almost painless operation1 but which1 if allowed to develop1 often cause serious throat and lung troubles1 deafness1 and weakened minds4 ,slight defects of the eyes can be remedied by the wearing of glasses1 but which if unchecked give rise to various nerve and spinal diseases as well as more serious eye troubles4 ,it is believed now that most of the blindness of later life could be prevented by proper care of the eyes in early life and by prompt attention to slight defects of the eyes when they begin4 ,doctor ,walter ,cornell1 who has made a study of eye strain says1 ,eye strain is the chief cause of functional diseases4 ,it is almost the sole cause of headache1 is the frequent cause of digestive diseases1 of spinal curvatures1 and indirectly of neurasthenia and hysteria4 ,decayed teeth in children1 slight in themselves1 give rise to more serious troubles in later life1--ill-shaped mouths and jaws and crooked teeth result from teeth that have been drawn too early in life4 ,decayed teeth lead also to many stomach and digestive troubles4 ,medical inspection in the schools shows a surprising number of children suffering from these minor troubles4 ,about #hj1jjj children were examined1 and the records show that out of every one hundred children examined sixty-six needed the services of a doctor1 surgeon1 or dentist1 and some needed all three4 ,forty out of each hundred had badly neglected teeth4 ,thirty-eight had enlarged glands of the neck4 ,eighteen had enlarged tonsils4 ,ten had growths of the nose4 ,thirty-one needed glasses4 ,six needed more nourishing food4 ,this meant that more than #eb1jjj of the number needed some medical care that they would not have received at home because their parents had never noticed the need of it4 ,every one of them could by prompt attention1 a small dentist's bill1 a slight operation of the throat or nose1 or the use of glasses1 7almost #be1jjj needed glasses7 be saved great suffering or inability to work in later life4 ,as we learn more of disease1 and especially of germ diseases1 we are oppressed by the feeling that we are in constant danger1 but we must bear in mind that it is the weak and unfit that are attacked1 and that fitness1 while partly inherited1 is almost altogether a matter of proper hygiene4 ,keeping our bodily defenses in good condition against disease is as much a matter of necessity and good policy as keeping the defenses of a city in fighting condition in time of war4 ,that life may be prolonged and so strengthened that the average height1 weight1 and endurance will be increased1 admits of no doubt4 ,the same rule of cultivation runs through all nature4 ,the original or natural apple was a small1 sour1 bitter crab4 ,the difference between that and the finest products of western orchards1 is altogether a matter of cultivation1 selection1 and proper treatment4 ,in #agaj the average weight of dressed cattle did not exceed three hundred and seventy pounds4 ,now it is not far from one thousand pounds4 ,an equal change could be made in the human race1 but because we believe so fully in personal liberty to live our lives as we choose1 little has actually been done to raise the human standard4 ,the care and hygiene of children is receiving universal attention1 with the result of a wonderful reduction in the sickness and death of children1 but as yet comparatively few grown persons apply these lessons to their own lives1 and the rates for older persons remain almost unchanged4 ,when individuals have done all that they can1 there still remains much that must be done by the city1 the state1 and the nation4 ,boards of health can do much toward controlling epidemics by placing infected households under quarantine1 by compelling householders who are ignorant or careless to clean their premises and to take other precautions for the public health4 ,hospitals1 both public and private1 have done excellent work1 not only in curing disease but in gaining more definite knowledge of the nature of diseases through the study of large numbers of cases4 ,the cleaning of streets and the removal of garbage regularly are among the great factors in keeping a city in a sanitary condition4 ,new ,orleans and some of the cities of ,cuba and ,porto ,rico show strikingly what may be done in that direction4 ,medical inspection of schools is a new and valuable aid to health4 ,epidemics of childish diseases which sweep through the schools with a fearful record of illness and a lesser one of death1 may often be checked entirely by the close watch of the medical inspector1 who removes the first patients from the schools when the disease is in its beginning4 ,public playgrounds for children in cities have an influence that it is as good for health as it is for morals1 providing1 as it does1 fresh air and active exercise for children4 ,open air schools for tubercular children are being operated in several cities with excellent results in health and school work4 ,many states are making an organized effort to fight tuberculosis by establishing fresh-air colonies where1 with pure air1 rest and plenty of the most nourishing food1 patients are restored to health4 ,care of epileptics and the insane by the state1 with proper hygiene and treatment1 accomplishes many cures4 ,the nation is doing excellent work in a few lines1 notably the ,pure ,food ,bureau and the ,marine ,hospital ,corps1 but perfected organization of all the forces is lacking4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture has done a wonderful work in investigating and curbing insect pests that injure farm crops and trees1 and in stamping out disease among live stock4 ,forty-six million dollars have been spent and well spent in the work in the last few years1 but it is a matter of reproach that more pains are taken to save the lives of cattle and farm crops than human lives4 ,there should be a strong central ,bureau of ,health with power and money scientifically to investigate disease1 to distribute information as the ,department of ,agriculture does to farmers1 and to carry out their ideas1 as do state and city boards of health4 ,we have dealt with only one side of the question--the suffering and sorrow2 but in a work on conservation1 we must consider also the money question1 the loss to the nation in time and money of these great wastes of health and life4 ,there are no trustworthy statistics as to wages4 ,the average yearly earnings of all persons1 from day laborers to presidents1 is estimated at seven hundred dollars2 but as not more than three-fourths of the people are actual workers1 three-fourths of this amount1 or five hundred and twenty-five dollars is taken as the average wage4 ,from these figures the money value of a person under five years is given at ninety-five dollars2 from five to ten years1 at nine hundred and fifty dollars2 from ten to twenty years at #b1jjj2 from twenty to thirty at #d1jjj2 thirty to fifty years at #d1jjj2 fifty to eighty at #b1ijj and over eighty at #gjj or less4 ,the average value of life at all ages is #b1ijj and the #ic1jjj1jjj persons living in this country would be worth in earning power the vast sum of #bgj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,this is probably a low estimate but is more than double all our other wealth combined4 ,now let us see how much of this vital wealth is wasted4 ,as the average death rate is at least eighteen out of each thousand1 we have #a1ejj1jjj as the number of deaths in the ,united ,states each year4 ,of these1 forty-two per cent41 or #fcj1jjj are classed as preventable--so that a number equal to the entire population of the city of ,boston die each year whose deaths are as unnecessary as is the waste of our forests by fire4 ,if some great plague should carry off all the people of ,boston1 not the people of the ,united ,states only1 but of the whole world would be roused by the appalling calamity and every possible means would be employed to prevent other cities from sharing such a fate2 but because these preventable deaths are not in one city1 but are widely scattered1 we have long remained indifferent to this terrible and needless waste4 ,then there are always #c1jjj1jjj persons ill1 #a1jjj1jjj of whom are of working age4 ,if1 as before1 we count only three-fourths of them as actual workers1 we find a yearly direct loss from sickness of #ejj1jjj1jjj in wages4 ,the daily cost of nursing1 doctor bills1 and medicine is counted at one dollar and fifty cents1 which makes for the #c1jjj1jjj sick1 a yearly cost for these items of more than #a1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,what should we think if nearly all of the people of the city of ,new ,york were constantly sick1 and were spending for doctors1 nurses1 and medicine as much money as ,congress appropriates to run every department of the government6 ,it is estimated that sickness and death cost the ,united ,states #c1jjj1jjj1jjj annually1 of which at least a third1 probably one-half1 is preventable4 ,is it not well worth while1 then1 from a money standpoint alone1 to use every effort to conserve our national health8 ,conservation of health and life1 going hand in hand with conservation of national resources1 will give us not only a better ,america1 but better1 stronger1 happier1 more enlightened ,americans4 ,what a new world would be opened to us if we could have a nation with no sickness or suffering6 ,that is the ideal1 and everything that we can do toward realizing that ideal is a great step in human progress4 ,,references ,report on ,national ,vitality4 ,committee of ,one ,hundred4 7,fisher47 ,the ,nature of ,man4 ,metchnikoff4 ,the ,prolongation of ,life4 ,metchnikoff4 ,the ,new ,hygiene4 ,metchnikoff4 ,vital ,statistics4 ,farr4 ,the ,kingdom of ,man4 ,lankester4 ,cost of ,tuberculosis4 ,fisher4 ,school ,hygiene4 ,keating4 ,economic ,loss ,through ,insects ,that ,carry ,disease4 ,howard4 ,report of ,associated ,fraternities on ,infectious1 ,contagious1 and ,hereditary ,diseases4 ,conservation of ,life and ,health by ,improved ,water ,supply4 ,kober4 ,backward ,children in the ,public ,schools4 ,davis4 ,dangers to ,mine ,workers4 7,mitchell47 ,report ,governor's ,conference4 ,tuberculosis in the ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,report #aijh4 ,industrial ,accidents4 ,bureau of ,labor ,pamphlet1 #aijf4 ,factory ,sanitation and ,labor ,protection4 ,dept4 of ,labor1 ,no4 #dd4 ,how ,insects ,affect ,health in ,rural ,districts4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,bulletin #aee4 ,public ,health and ,water ,pollution4 ,bulletin #ic4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,beauty ,america has another resource that differs from all the others1 and yet is no less valuable to us as a nation1 for it is upon natural beauty that we must depend to attract visitors and settlers from other countries1 and also to develop love of country in our own people1 and to arouse in them all the higher sentiments and ideals4 ,the love of romance and poetry is awakened only by the sight of beautiful objects1 and that nation will produce the highest class of citizens which has most within it to kindle these lofty ideas4 ,the savage cares only for the comfort of his body1 but as civilization advances1 man devotes more and more thought to those pleasures that come only through his mind and the cultivation of his tastes4 ,the ,united ,states is particularly fortunate in this respect1 for here is everything to inspire a love of beauty4 ,there is the beauty of changing seasons1 of our wonderful autumn forest coloring1 of rivers1 mountains1 lakes1 sea1 and shore4 ,in addition to the beauty of our landscapes1 which is everywhere to be found1 there are many special beauties which are among the world's wonder-places1 and which are visited yearly by thousands of sight-seers1 and each year they attract a greater number of visitors from other lands4 ,some of the most remarkable of these are ,niagara ,falls1 the ,yosemite ,valley1 with its crowning glory1 the ,yosemite ,falls1 the ,hetch-,hetchy ,falls1 ,mammoth ,cave1 the ,garden of the ,gods1 the ,grand ,caon of the ,colorado1 the ,agatized ,forests of ,arizona1 ,yellowstone ,park1 ,the ,natural ,bridge of ,virginia1 ,great ,salt ,lake1 and dozens of others1 less wonderful1 but scarcely less beautiful1 and equal to the most talked-of beauties of ,europe1 such as the ,palisades of the ,hudson1 ,lake ,champlain1 the ,shenandoah ,valley1 the ,dalles of ,oregon1 ,pike's ,peak1 ,mount ,rainier1 ,lookout ,mountain1 the ,adirondacks1 and the entire ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,to these must be added the relics of ancient civilization1 the homes of the ,cliff ,dwellers1 the work of the ,mound ,builders1 and such fragments as still remain of the occupation in various times and places of certain ,indian tribes1 and of the ,norsemen and the ,spaniards4 ,all these are to be valued for their beauty or historic interest1 and are also valuable as a source of wealth to the community4 ,the money spent on tourist-travel in ,europe is said to be more than half a billion dollars a year4 ,this vast amount is spent because in ,europe there is so much to delight the eye1 because the cities are made beautiful with artistic buildings filled with art treasures1 because historic places are carefully preserved1 because the villages are neat and well-kept1 and the intensive farming which is practised almost everywhere leaves no waste places to grow up with weeds1 and lie neglected4 ,there are parts of ,europe1 of course1 where this is not true1 but they are not included in the line of tourist-travel1 and in general it may be said that ,europe is visited almost solely because of its beauty3--the natural beauty that man has preserved1 the beauty that he has created1 or the relics of past greatness4 ,modern ,greece would attract few visitors for its own sake4 ,it is the ruins of a mighty past1--the ,acropolis at ,athens and the places made famous in mythology and literature draw thousands to its shores every year1 and add greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the country4 ,the same thing is true of ,america wherever we have preserved and made beautiful our natural scenery4 ,during three months in the summer1 the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad derives about #bjj1jjj in fares from its ,niagara business alone4 ,since it became a state reservation in #ahhe1 more than seventeen million persons have visited ,niagara1 and the amount of money that has been spent there at hotels1 for carriages1 automobiles1 side-trips1 souvenirs1 etc41 is almost beyond calculation4 ,in the ,adirondack ,park there is between #aj1jjj1jjj and #ae1jjj1jjj invested in hotels and cottages4 ,the #ae1jjj clerks and helpers receive about #a1jjj1jjj in wages1 the railroads receive another #a1jjj1jjj in fares1 and hotel guests spend between #e1jjj1jjj and #f1jjj1jjj4 ,all of these advantages to the region are entirely apart from the practical uses of the forest4 ,these are examples which show the great amount of wealth which can come from preserving our natural beauties1 and the same conditions exist everywhere1 not only in the state and national parks1 but wherever some beautiful spot has been set aside by a city1 a railroad company1 or some private enterprise4 ,people flock to these resorts in large numbers for rest or recreation1 and to satisfy their love for the beautiful1 and the result is a gain in health and morals1 more desire on the part of those who visit them to make their own surroundings beautiful1 and at the same time a great gain in money value to the city or company that promotes such an enterprise4 ,most of the larger cities of the ,united ,states have given particular attention to the subject of public parks during recent years4 ,they are the breathing places for the dwellers in the city1 often the only place where children can have fresh air and plenty of exercise1 and the parks constitute one of the greatest attractions to draw summer visitors to the city4 ,nearly all steam and electric railway companies own some park or pleasure resort from which they derive a large income in fares1 and many steamboat companies find their largest profit from their excursion boats4 ,all these facts show clearly that if we consider only the gain in money1 it is altogether a wise policy to include natural beauty among our national resources1 and to conserve it carefully1 while if we look at it from the larger standpoint of preserving for future generations the same beauties that we enjoy1 the need of such conservation is still more urgent4 ,in our future development the ,united ,states will largely be made over4 ,we shall no longer have the same natural conditions that we have had in the early years of our history1 and the physical appearance of the country will grow better or worse each generation4 ,it is possible for us to make ,america the most beautiful land the world has ever seen1 for we have the natural beauty1 and greater knowledge in setting about the work of building than has ever been possessed by any other nation during its time of greatest growth4 ,we shall go far toward realizing our ideal of a beautiful ,america if we understand that the conservation of our resources means beauty1 and that waste means ugliness4 ,proper conservation of our mineral resources will include the removal of the ugly1 unsightly piles of culm1 slag1 and other refuse that lie about the mouth of the mines1 and disfigure some of our most beautiful mountain scenery1 for1 as we have shown elsewhere1 this should be used and not wasted4 ,the proper use of coal would solve the smoke problem of cities1 one of the worst foes of cleanliness and beauty1 and the use of water-power would serve the same purpose4 ,the complete utilization of our water resources that has been suggested would make all our waterways contribute greatly to the beauty and attractiveness of the landscape4 ,in conserving our forests we not only increase our timber supply1 but add one of the greatest of all beauties1 the trees which give variety and tone to every picture that our eyes rest upon4 ,we shall have the shady roads1 the long green hill-slopes1 the quiet woodlands1 the glory of autumn coloring1 the delight of blossoming orchards4 ,conservation of the soil1 and utilization of every part of the land mean even more4 ,picture the contrast between a country where the hillsides are worn into gullies1 where rocks are everywhere to be seen cropping above the barren soil1 where the crops are scanty1 the vegetation stunted2 and one where every field yields a rich harvest1 where the grain hangs heavy and golden1 where every wayside nook holds a flower1 where there are no neglected fence-corners1 no piles of rubbish1--what we truly call a smiling landscape4 ,lastly1 in conserving health1 we do more toward promoting personal beauty and advancing the standard of the race than in any other way4 ,we should not be content1 however1 with the beauty that comes only from the conservation of our other resources1 but should have a definite plan for the conservation of beauty as a valuable resource in itself4 ,the city of ,washington should be made the center of this movement toward national beauty4 ,there is now an organized effort on the part of those in charge of the erection of public buildings1 to make ,washington the most beautiful capital in the world1 and a model for other cities4 ,the federal government should set aside as national parks all of our greatest natural wonders1 as ,yellowstone ,park is now held4 ,the states should follow the same line and set apart in the same way those objects of lesser interest1 either natural or historic1 which are to be found in every state--those that are not of sufficient importance to merit national recognition1 but that will add interest to the state as a place for tourists to visit4 ,few states are visited in this way more than is ,massachusetts1 and it is largely because not only the state1 but the various communities have preserved historical places1 buildings and objects so carefully1 have erected monuments to commemorate them2 and have thrown these various objects of interest open to the public free of charge4 ,these communities in turn have gained the original expenditure many times over from the money spent by the steady stream of visitors4 ,there has been a great movement toward the beautifying of cities and villages in the past few years4 ,besides the good work done by park boards in cities there has been a great improvement in the matter of cleaner streets1 better sidewalks1 the planting of more shade trees1 and a far greater attention to the beautifying of private grounds4 ,the adorning of front yards and porches with vines and flowers is increasing enormously every year4 ,many causes have been at work to produce this result3 the broadening influence of travel1 which brings people in touch with what is being done in other places to promote public beauty1 the work of schools1 newspaper and magazine articles1 and more time and money to spend on luxuries1--even the post-card1 which makes a souvenir view of every spot of local beauty or interest2 but probably no other one agency has produced such good results in public beauty as has the woman's club which has taken up this line of work4 ,the cleaning-up movement1 with a public house-cleaning day twice a year when all refuse is carted away1 and streets1 alleys and back-yards cleaned1 had its origin in this way4 ,the care and beautifying of cemeteries is another branch of the work4 ,in many places1 flower and vegetable seeds are distributed free or at a nominal cost among the school children1 prizes are offered for the best garden1 the largest vegetables1 the most attractive back-yard1 the best arranged flower-bed1 and other good results2 the work is examined by a committee1 and the prizes awarded at the end of the season either by the club or by merchants who have become interested in the contest4 ,this provides the children wholesome outdoor work and exercise throughout the summer1 and promotes a pleasant rivalry among them1 besides increasing their knowledge of plants1 and the results have been found to be far-reaching1 for not only the pupils1 but their parents as well1 are interested in neater1 more orderly methods of living1 and in beautifying their homes4 ,in the movement for public beauty1 as in all other progress1 it is the work of individuals that counts most4 ,every house that is built with a thought for its beauty1 every home1 farm-building and fence kept in good repair1 every neat back-yard and flower-surrounded home has its part in making ,america more beautiful1 and this influence in countless homes is certain to count in the making of better citizens4 ,a country where beauty meets the eye at every turn will invite the tourist and the home-seeker1 will be deeply loved by its own people1 and will be an inspiration to poetry and art4 ,it rests largely with the people of to-day to decide whether we shall make of our own land such an ideal place4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,in ,,conclusion ,no one can read the record of facts presented in this book without being impressed by two things3 7#a7 ,how these resources depend on one another and that proper care of one results in the saving of another1 and1 7#b7 the fact that every one of our most valued resources is decreasing so rapidly that its end is in sight1 even though far in the distance4 ,when the end comes we know that it will mean the end of progress for our country in that direction4 ,it is also plain that the great1 in fact the only1 reason for this scarcity lies not in use but in waste4 ,and lastly we see that there is yet time to prevent serious shortage in most directions if we set about a general system of good management and thrift4 ,in the meantime we are sure to have higher prices1 for the supply is growing less and the demand greater for almost every material4 ,in many lines1 unless something be done to check this shortage1 prices will rise so high that only the rich can afford what are now considered the necessities of life1 and the lives of the poorer classes will become like those of the peasants of ,europe3--a scanty living on the plainest food1 poor homes1 hard work1 less opportunity to develop mind and body4 ,let us sum up how the various resources may be used to conserve one another4 ,the soil is saved from erosion by the planting of forests1 and by the storing of the flood waters of rivers4 ,waste land is made fertile by proper control of the rivers through drainage1 storage and irrigation4 ,farm crops and also the forests are increased in value by insect control4 ,the insects are largely kept in check by encouraging the nesting and increase of certain birds4 ,birds play a large part in the conservation of the crops1 by destroying insects1 weeds1 and small mammals4 ,the birds themselves are sheltered and thrive only where trees are abundant4 ,the grazing lands are conserved by proper forest control1 and the supply of animal food depends largely on the grazing lands4 ,fisheries are dependent on proper care of the waters1 which in turn depend on forest control1 and on proper care of the by-products of factories4 ,coal is conserved by the use of lower-grade fuels1 by using waste from the forests1 and by substituting water-power4 ,gas and oil will also be saved by the greater use of water-power4 ,coal-mining is made safer to human life and much saving in coal is effected by the use of mine-timbers1 which involves the planting of forests4 ,forests regulate to a great extent the stream-flow of rivers4 ,beauty can only be conserved by the planting of trees1 by keeping the waters pure and clear1 by using waste products so that there will be no unsightly piles of refuse4 ,health depends1 among other things1 on pure water1 air unpolluted by coal smoke and poisonous gases which should be used as factory by-products4 ,and lastly1 the life1 happiness1 and prosperity of man is conserved by all of these things4 ,the first step in this system of conservation must be education on this subject1 education not only of the children but of the men and women also1 on the need and methods of saving4 ,there would be no danger of a scarcity of coal if manufacturers all knew the value and economy of electric water-power or low-grade fuels1 and of smoke-consuming devices4 ,there is no reason why insect destruction should cost the nation so dearly if the birds were protected1 and a few simple methods of prevention understood4 ,all the various water problems could be met and solved if one general plan were adopted and carried out1 and so all along the line4 ,we have taken note of the great natural wastes3 how two-thirds of the wood cut is wasted1 and how insects and fire destroy the standing timber2 how the soil is washed down into the valleys1 taking the best from the farms2 how we are steadily robbing the soil of its most necessary elements2 how our waters are unused and we pay for this non-use by the use of other resources that we can ill afford to spare2 how millions of acres of land which might be profitably farmed lie useless for lack of water and other millions are useless because they are covered with water4 ,consumers pay high freight rates and the railroads are so overcrowded that they are unable to care for all the business1 while the rivers1 the cheapest of all carriers1 flow idly to the sea4 ,we have seen how one-fourth of the coal is left in the mines1 and how small a part of that which is mined is actually turned into heat1 how gas is allowed to escape unchecked into the air4 ,and greatest and most serious of all1 the useless waste of human life and health4 ,but there are scores of other wastes and extravagances that all growing boys and girls should think of1 so that when they enter active life1 they may do their part to prevent them4 ,it is going to be necessary to learn to economize in every department of life as all the ,european peoples do4 ,we must learn1 in this new country1 to do things more with the idea of the future in mind4 ,in all ,european cities1 there are hundreds of houses that have lasted many centuries1 but there are few houses in ,america that are built in an enduring way4 ,this building up and tearing down taxes not one1 but many1 resources heavily4 ,as the housewife learns that a good kettle that costs a dollar and lasts five years is cheaper than a poor one which costs fifty cents but will wear out in one year1 so people must learn the lesson that in building poor light houses of wood which will last a comparatively short time1 they are really paying the higher price2 that in putting in poor roads1 cheap bridges1 badly-constructed public buildings1 that cost less heavily in the first place but that will need to be renewed in a few years1 they are really paying much more than if these had been substantially built in the beginning4 ,the fire loss of the ,united ,states amounts to over half a million dollars a day1 and all insurance men agree that most of this might be prevented4 ,the remedies are to build fewer wooden houses1 especially in crowded districts1 to exercise greater care in the building and management of chimneys1 greater care in electric wiring1 and general watchfulness in handling matches and lighted cigars4 ,for the forest fires which mean so much to all of us the remedy lies in forest patrol4 ,the amount usually set aside for fighting fires was not allowed by some states in #aiaj1 and the fires which cost hundreds of millions of property and many lives were the result4 ,much of the most fertile land in our country is used for raising tobacco1 and grains that are made into alcoholic liquors4 ,as these can never be considered necessities it is well to think to what better uses the land might be put4 ,the yearly bill of the ,united ,states for pleasure is gigantic1 and a large proportion of the pleasure tends to lower rather than raise the standard of ,american life and morals4 ,the greatest of all wastes is the waste of time and labor4 ,the waste of time by drunkenness1 by poor work that must be done over1 and by idleness1 makes a large item of loss in every line of business4 ,proper education will teach every child to work neatly and with perfect accuracy1 will teach eye1 hand and brain1 will teach the value and pleasure of work1 careful management and economy and a regard for the general good4 ,a study of the great facts of our national possibilities that have been gathered together in this book should arouse in the heart of every ,american1 old and young1 the feeling that here is a work for every hand and every brain1 not only to save1 but to use wisely2 to develop all the possibilities of our great resources no less than to conserve them4 ,in searching for new by-products or machinery for checking the waste and adding to the usefulness of these resources there is a field for invention that will not only bring wealth to the inventor1 but prosperity and length of life to the nation4 ,,the ,,end