,,letters ,,lettering ,a ,,treatise ,,with #bjj ,,examples ,,frank ,,chouteau ,,brown ,illustration ,,boston ,,bates ,,guild ,,company ,,mcmxxi 99 99 99 99 99 ,copyright1 #aiba1 by ,,bates ,,guild ,,company ,printed by ,,perry ,,elliott ,,co ,,lynn ,,boston ,printed in the ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note ,this book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied collection of alphabets of standard forms1 arranged for convenient use4 ,the alphabets illustrated1 while primarily intended to exhibit the letter shapes1 have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters compose into words1 except in those instances where they are intended to be used only as initials4 ,the application of classic and medieval letters to modern usages has been1 as far as possible1 suggested by showing modern designs in which similar forms are employed4 ,in view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote space to the historical evolution of the letter forms4 ,to the artists1 ,american and ,european1 who have so kindly furnished him with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for them1 and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from their books and magazines1 the author wishes to express his sincere obligations4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations #a ,,and #b ,,alphabet ,,after ,,sebastian ,,serlio 7#adgc-aeed74 ,reconstructed by ,albert ,r4 ,ross4 #c ,,width ,,proportions ,,of ,,modern ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #d ,,drawing ,,for ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,for cutting in granite4 ,letter forms based upon those shown in figures #a and #b4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #e ,,photograph ,,of ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,cut in granite from drawing shown in figure #d #f ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,from the ,arch of ,constantine1 ,rome4 #cae ,a4,d4 ,from a photograph #g ,,model ,,for ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,used for inscriptions cut in granite on ,boston ,public ,library4 ,mc,kim1 ,mead ,white1 ,architects4 ,photographed from a cast #h ,,roman ,,incised ,,capitals4 ,from fragments in marble4 ,national ,museum1 ,naples4 ,rubbing #i ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,museo ,civico1 ,bologna4 ,from a photograph #aj ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,museo ,civico1 ,bologna4 ,from a photograph #aa ,,detail ,,from ,a ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,showing composition4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ab ,,rustic ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,of pen forms1 but cut in stone4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,from fragment in the ,national ,museum1 ,naples4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ac ,,roman ,,capitals ,,from ,,fragments ,,of ,,inscriptions4 ,showing various characteristic letter forms4 ,redrawn from rubbings4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ad ,,modern ,,roman ,,incised ,,capitals4 ,executed in sandstone4 ,from the ,harvard ,architectural ,building1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,mc,kim1 ,mead ,white1 ,architects #ae ,,letters ,,shown ,,in ,,alphabet #a ,,and #b1 ,,in ,,composition4 ,by ,albert ,r4 ,ross #af and #ag ,,classic ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,cut in marble4 ,redrawn from rubbings made in the ,forum1 ,rome4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4-#ba #ah and #ai ,,classic ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,late period4 ,cut in marble4 ,redrawn from rubbings4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bj ,,portion ,,of ,,roman ,,inscription4 ,with supplied letters4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ba ,,classic ,,roman ,,inscription4 ,incised in marble4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bb ,,classic ,,roman ,,inscription4 ,in stone4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bc ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,inscription4 ,square-sunk in marble4 ,from a photograph of a mortuary slab #bd ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,medal4 ,by ,vittore ,pisano4 #aeth ,century4 ,from a photograph #be ,,modern ,,french ,,medal4 ,by ,oscar ,roty4 ,from a photograph of the original in the ,luxembourg1 ,paris #bf ,,capitals ,,adapted ,,from ,,renaissance ,,medals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bg ,,spanish ,,renaissance ,,alphabet4 ,by ,juan de ,yciar4 ,from ,arte por la qual se esena a escrevir perfectamente4 7,saragossa1 #aeej7 #bh ,,renaissance ,,inlaid ,,medallion4 ,from a floor-slab in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bi ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,from an inlaid floor-slab in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 7,compare figure #bh47 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #cj ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,panel4 ,from ,raphael's tomb1 ,pantheon1 ,rome4 ,from a photograph #ca ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,from the ,marsuppini ,tomb1 ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 #adee4 ,rubbing #cb ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,from a floor-slab in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 ,early #aeth ,century4 ,rubbing #cc ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,redrawn from inscription on the ,marsuppini ,tomb1 ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 #adee4 7,compare figure #ca47 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #cd ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ce and #cf ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,by ,g4 ,a4 ,tagliente4 ,from ',la vera arte dello eccellento scrivere4' 7,venice1 #aebd7 #cg and #ch ,,german ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,by ,albrecht ,drer4 ,adapted from ',underweyssung der messung1 mit dem zirckel1 un richtscheyt1 in ,linien1 etc4' 7,nuremberg1 #aebe7 #ci and #dj ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,by ,sebastian ,serlio4 7#adgc-aeed47 ,compare figures #a and #b #da ,,german ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,by ,urbain ,wss4 ,from ',libellus valde doctus 444 scribendarum literarum genera complectens4' 7,zurich1 #aedi7 #db ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,panel4 ,above the door of the ,badia1 ,florence4 ,redrawn by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon4 ,from ',minor ,italian ,palaces4' 7,cutler ,manufacturing ,company1 ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 #ahih7 #dc ,,modern ,,title ,,in ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,capitals4 ,by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue4 7,compare figure #df47 ,from ',the ,quest of ,merlin4' 7,small1 ,maynard ,co41 ,boston1 #ahia7 #dd ,,modern ,,title ,,with ,,characteristics ,,of #af,,th ,,century ,,english ,,capitals4 ,by ,walter ,crane4 7,compare figure #di47 ,from ',the ,story of ,don ,quixote4' 7,john ,lane1 ,new ,york1 #aijj7 #de ,,title ,,in ,,early ,,english ,,capitals4 ,by ,w4 ,eden ,nesfield4 ,from ',specimens of ,medieval ,architecture4' 7,day ,sons1 ,london1 #ahfb7 #df ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,capitals4 #f,,th ,,century4 ,from ',the ,rule of ,st4 ,benedict4' ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford #dg ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,capitals4 #g,,th ,,century4 ,from ',the ,gospels of ,st4 ,cuthbert' #dh ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,capitals4 ,,early #aj,,th ,,century4 ,from an ,anglo-,saxon ,bible #di ,,early ,,english ,,capitals4 #afth ,century4 ,from tomb of ,henry ,,vii1 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,london #ej and #ea ,,scheme ,,for ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,roman ,,small ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #eb ,,spanish ,,roman ,,pen ,,drawn ,,letters4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #ec ,,spanish ,,roman ,,pen ,,drawn ,,letters4 ,showing use of above4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #ed ,,spanish ,,italic ,,pen ,,drawn ,,letters4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #ee ,,spanish ,,italic ,,pen ,,drawn ,,letters4 ,showing use of above4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #ef ,,italian ,,small ,,letters4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,cresci4 ,from ',perfetto ,scrittore4' 7,rome1 #aefj7 #eg ,,english #ag,,th ,,century ,,letters4 ,incised in slate4 ,from tombstones #eh ,,modern ,,small ,,letters4 ,after ,c4 ,hrachowina's ',initialen ,alphabete und ,randleisten verschiedener ,kunstepochen4' 7,vienna1 #ahhc7 #ei ,,modern ,,small ,,letters4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon4 ,based on ,venetian types cut by ,nicholas ,jenson1 #adga-ha #fj ,,inscription ,,from ,,english #ag,,th ,,century ,,tombstone4 ,from slate tombstone at ,chippenham1 ,england4 #afia4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #fa ,,roman ,,and ,,italic ,,type4 ,designed by ,william ,caslon4 ,from his ,specimen ,book4 7,london1 #agcd7 #fb ,,modern ,,roman ,,type1 ,,montaigne4 ,designed by ,bruce ,rogers for ,the ,riverside ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 #fc ,,modern ,,roman ,,type1 ,,renner4 ,designed by ,theo4 ,l4 ,de ,vinne for ,the ,de ,vinne ,press1 ,new ,york #fd ,,modern ,,roman ,,type1 ,,merrymount4 ,designed by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue for ,the ,merrymount ,press1 ,boston1 ,mass4 #fe ,,modern ,,roman ,,type1 ,,cheltenham ,,old ,,style4 ,designed by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue for ,the ,cheltenham ,press1 ,new ,york4 7,owned by ,american ,type ,founders ,company and ,linotype ,company7 #ff ,,modern ,,greek ,,type4 ,designed by ,selwyn ,image for ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,london #fg ,,modern ,,roman ,,type4 ,designed by ,c4 ,r4 ,ashbee for a ,prayerbook for the ,king of ,england #fh ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,j4 ,m4 ,olbrich #fi ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,by ,gustave ,lemmen4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunstlerische ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #gj ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,alois ,ludwig #ga ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,otto ,eckmann #gb ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,by ,otto ,hupp4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunstlerische ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #gc ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,by ,joseph ,plcnik4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunstlerische ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #gd ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,franz ,stuck #ge ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,arranged from originals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #gf ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,bernhard ,pankok #gg ,,modern ,,french ,,poster4 ',la ,libre ,esthtique4' ,by ,theo4 van ,rysselberghe #gh ,,modern ,,french ,,book-,,cover4 ,by ,m4 ,p4 ,verneuil4 ,from ',l',animal dans la dcoration4' 7,e4 ,lvy1 ,paris7 #gi ,,modern ,,french ,,letters4 ,after lettering by ,m4 ,p4 ,verneuil #hj ,,modern ,,french ,,poster4 ',la ,revue ,blanche4' ,by ,p4 ,bonnard #ha ,,modern ,,french ,,magazine ,,cover ,,design4 ,by ,george ,auriol4 ,from ',l',image4' 7,floury1 ,paris1 #ahig7 #hb ,,modern ,,french ,,capitals4 ,by ,alphons ,m4 ,mucha4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunstlerischer ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #hc ,,modern ,,french ,,lettered ,,page ,,in ,,cursive4 ,by ,george ,auriol4 ,from ',le ,premier ,livre des ,cachets1 etc4' 7,librairie ,centrale des ,beaux-,arts1 ,paris1 #aija7 #hd ,,modern ,,french ,,letters1 ,,cursive4 ,by ,george ,auriol #he ,,modern ,,french ,,cover ,,design4 ,by ,eugne ,grasset4 ,from ',art et ,dcoration4' 7,paris7 #hf ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,by ,walter ,crane4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunstlerischer ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #hg ,,modern ,,english ,,theatrical ,,poster4 ,by ,walter ,crane #hh ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,by ,walter ,crane4 ,from ',alphabets ,old and ,new4' 7,b4 ,t4 ,batsford1 ,london1 #ahii7 #hi ,,modern ,,english ,,letters4 ,by ,walter ,crane4 ,from ',beispiele ,kunsterischer ,schrift4' 7,a4 ,schroll ,co41 ,vienna7 #ij ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,by ,joseph ,w4 ,simpson4 ,from ',the ,book of ,book-plates4' 7,williams ,norgate1 ,edinburgh7 #ia ,,modern ,,english ,,poster4 ,by ,joseph ,w4 ,simpson #ib ,,modern ,,english ,,book-,,cover4 ,by ,william ,nicholson4 ,from ',london ,types4' 7,r4 ,h4 ,russell1 ,new ,york1 #ahih7 #ic ,,modern ,,english ,,magazine ,,cover4 ,by ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 ,from ',the ,art ,journal4' 7,h4 ,virtue ,co41 ,london7 #id ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,by ,gordon ,craig4 ,from ',the ,page' 7,the ,sign of the ,rose1 ,hackbridge1 ,surrey7 #ie ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,by ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 ,from ',alphabets ,old and ,new4' 7,b4 ,t4 ,batsford1 ,london1 #ahii7 #if ,,modern ,,english ,,title ,,page4 ,by ,robert ,anning ,bell4 ,from ',poems by ,john ,keats4' 7,george ,bell ,sons1 ,london1 #ahig7 #ig ,,modern ,,english ,,book-,,cover4 ,by ,edmund ,h4 ,new4 ,from ',the ,natural ,history of ,selborne4' 7,john ,lane1 ,london1 #aijj7 #ih ,,modern ,,english ,,book-,,cover4 ,by ,selwyn ,image4 ,from ',representative ,painters of the #aith ,century4' 7,sampson1 ,low1 ,marston ,co41 ,london1 #ahii7 #ii ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,anonymous4 ,from an advertisement #ajj ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,by ,charles ,ricketts4 ,from ',nimphidia and the ,muses ,elizium4' 7,the ,vale ,press1 ,london7 #aja ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey4 ,from ',selections from the ,poetry of ,robert ,herrick4' 7,harper ,brothers1 ,new ,york1 #ahii7 #ajb ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,anonymous4 ,from ',harper's ,weekly4' 7,new ,york7 #ajc ,,modern ,,american ,,magazine ,,cover4 ,by ,edward ,penfield4 ,from ',harper's ,weekly4' 7,new ,york7 #ajd ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,edward ,penfield #aje ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,by ,edward ,penfield #ajf ,,modern ,,american ,,cover ,,design4 ,by ,h4 ,van ,buren ,magonigle #ajg ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,h4 ,van ,buren ,magonigle #ajh ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue4 ,from ',masters in ,art4' 7,boston1 #aijj7 #aji ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,will ,bradley4 ,from ',the ,book ,list of ,dodd1 ,mead ,co4' 7,new ,york1 #ahii7 #aaj ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals ,,and ,,small ,,letters4 ,by ,will ,bradley4 ,from ',bradley1 ,his ,book4' 7,the ,wayside ,press1 ,springfield1 ,mass41 #ahif7 #aaa ,,modern ,,american ,,magazine ,,cover4 ,by ,will ,bradley4 ,from ',the ,international ,studio4' 7,new ,york7 #aab ,,modern ,,american ,,ticket4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,iorio #aac ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,will ,bradley #aad ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,maxfield ,parrish #aae ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,from ',knickerbocker's ,history of ,new ,york4' 7,r4 ,h4 ,russell1 ,new ,york1 #aijj7 #aaf ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,addison ,b4 ,le ,boutillier #aag ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,addison ,b4 ,le ,boutillier #aah ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,by ,addison ,b4 ,le ,boutillier #aai ,,modern ,,american ,,poster4 ,by ,addison ,b4 ,le ,boutillier #abj ,,modern ,,american ,,book-,,plate4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon #aba ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon4 ,from ',literature4' 7,new ,york7 #abb ,,modern ,,american ,,letter-,,heading4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon #abc ,,modern ,,american ,,advertisement4 ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,bridwell4 7,strowbridge ,lithographic ,co41 ,cincinnati7 #abd ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,bridwell #abe ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,by ,frank ,hazenplug #abf ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals1 ,,heavy ,,face4 ,by ,frank ,hazenplug #abg ,,modern ,,american ,,book-,,cover4 ,by ,frank ,hazenplug4 ,from '',ickery ,ann and other ,girls and ,boys4' 7,herbert ,s4 ,stone ,co41 ,chicago1 #ahii7 #abh ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,edward ,edwards4 ,from ',harper's ,pictorial ,history of the ,war with ,spain4' 7,harper ,brothers1 ,new ,york1 #ahii7 #abi ,,modern ,,american ,,catalogue ,,cover4 ,by ,frank ,hazenplug4 ,from the ,catalogue of the ,chicago ,arts and ,crafts ,society4 7,chicago7 #acj ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,guernsey ,moore4 ,from ',the ,saturday ,evening ,post4' 7,philadelphia7 #aca ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,harry ,everett ,townsend4 ,from ',the ,blue ,sky4' 7,langworthy ,stevens1 ,chicago1 #aija7 #acb ,,modern ,,american ,,heading4 ,by ,howard ,pyle4 ,from ',harper's ,magazine4' 7,new ,york7 #acc ,,modern ,,american ,,letters4 ,compiled from various sources4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #acd ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,orson ,lowell #ace ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #acf ,,modern ,,american ,,titles4 ,by ,orson ,lowell4 ,from ',truth4' 7,new ,york7 #acg ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,by ,orson ,lowell4 ,from ',truth4' 7,new ,york7 #ach ,,modern ,,american ,,letters4 ,for rapid use4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aci ,,modern ,,american ,,italic4 ,for use in lettering architects' plans1 etc4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon #adj ,,modern ,,american ,,letters1 ,,cursive4 ,for rapid use4 ,by ,maxfield ,parrish #ada ,,italian ,,round ,,gothic ,,small ,,letters4 ,after ,lucantonii ,giunta4 ,redrawn from ',graduale ,sanctae ,romanae ,ecclesiae4' 7,venice1 #aejj7 #adb ,,italian ,,round ,,gothic ,,small ,,letters4 #afth ,century4 ,redrawn from ,italian originals #adc ,,spanish ,,round ,,gothic ,,letters4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #add ,,german ,,blackletter ,,construction4 ,by ,albrecht ,drer4 ,from ',underweyssung der messung1 mit dem zirckel1 un richtscheyt1 in ,linien1 etc4' 7,nuremberg1 #aebe7 #ade ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,redrawn from manuscripts #adf ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,with rounded angles4 ,redrawn from manuscripts #adg ,,italian ,,blackletter ,,title-,,page4 ,by ,jacopus ,philippus ,foresti 7,bergomensis74 ,from ',de ,claris ,mulieribus1 etc4' 7,ferrara1 #adig7 #adh ,,german ,,blackletter ,,page4 ,by ,albrecht ,drer4 ,from the ,prayerbook designed by him for the ,emperor ,maximilian4 7,nuremberg1 #aeae7 #adi ,,german ,,memorial ,,brass ,,with ,,blackletter ,,inscription4 ,ascribed to ,albrecht ,drer4 ,cathedral of ,meissen1 #aeaj4 ,from ',fac-similes of ,monumental ,brasses on the ,continent of ,europe4' 7,w4 ,f4 ,creeney1 ,norwich1 #ahhd7 #aej ,,modern ,,american ,,calendar ,,cover ,,in ,,blackletter4 ,by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue4 ,from ',every ,day's ,date ,calendar4' 7,fleming1 ,schiller ,carnrick1 ,new ,york1 #ahig7 #aea ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,by ,walter ,puttner4 ,from ',jugend4' 7,munich7 #aeb ,,modern ,,german ,,title ,,in ,,blackletter4 ,by ,otto ,hupp4 ,from ',mnchener ,kalendar4' 7,munich1 #aijj7 #aec ,,modern ,,american ,,page ,,in ,,english ,,blackletter4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey4 ,from ',scribner's ,magazine4' 7,new ,york7 #aed ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,redrawn from #abth ,century examples4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aee ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,redrawn from #acth ,century examples4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aef ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,redrawn from #adth ,century examples4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aeg ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #adth ,century4 ,after ,j4 ,weale4 ,redrawn from ',portfolio of ,ancient ,capital ,letters4' 7,london1 #ahch-i7 #aeh ,,italian ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals1 ,,in ,,the ,,papal ,,hand4 ,from a ,florentine manuscript of #acae4 ,british ,museum1 ,london4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aei ,,spanish ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,by ,juan de ,yciar4 ,adapted from ',arte por la qual se esena escrevir perfectamente4' 7,saragossa1 #aeej7 #afj ,,venetian ,,wall ,,panel1 of ,marble1 ,inscribed with ,uncial ,gothic ,letters4 #aeth ,century4 ,from the ,church of ,s4 ,giovanni e ,paolo1 ,venice4 ,rubbing #afa ,,venetian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #aeth ,century4 ,redrawn from the rubbing shown in figure #afj4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #afb ,,german ,,uncial ,,capitals4 #acda4 ,redrawn from a memorial brass in the ,cathedral of ,lbeck #afc ,,french ,,and ,,spanish ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #adth ,century4 ,after ,w4 ,s4 ,weatherley #afd and #afe ,,italian ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,after ,g4 ,a4 ,tagliente1 in ',la vera arte dello eccellento scrivere4' 7,venice1 #aebd7 #aff ,,italian ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,by ,giovanni ,battista ,palatino4 ,from ',libro nel qual s'insegna a scrivere4' 7,rome1 #aedh7 #afg1 #afh and #afi ,,german ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,by ,p4 ,frank4 ,nuremberg1 #afja4 ,from ,petzendorfer's ',schriften-,atlas4' 7,stuttgart1 #ahhi7 #agj ,,italian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #afth ,century4 ,redrawn from old examples #aga ,,gothic ,,capitals ,,of ,,english ,,form4 #afth ,century4 ,redrawn from old examples #agb ,,italian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #agth ,century4 ,redrawn from various examples #agc ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #agth ,century4 ,redrawn from various manuscripts #agd ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,from manuscripts #age ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,from manuscripts #agf ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals1 ,,heavy ,,faced #agg ,,english ,,gothic ,,text1 ,,initials ,,and ,,blackletters4 #aeth ,century4 ,from manuscripts #agh ,,english ,,gothic ,,uncials ,,and ,,blackletters4 #aeth ,century4 ,from ,queen ,eleanor's tomb4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #agi ,,english ,,gothic ,,capitals ,,and ,,blackletters4 #aeth ,century4 ,from tomb of ,richard ,,ii1 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,london4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ahj ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,from a brass4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aha ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,with ,albrecht ,drer's initials4 #afth ,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ahb ,,italian ,,blackletters4 ,by ,g4 ,a4 ,tagliente4 ,from ',la vera arte dello eccellento scrivere4' 7,venice1 #aebd7 #ahc ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,after lettering by ,albrecht ,drer4 #afth ,century #ahd ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,after lettering by ,albrecht ,drer4 #afth ,century #ahe ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,by ,albrecht ,drer4 #afth ,century #ahf ,,english ,,gothic ,,blackletters4 ,late #aeth ,century4 ,redrawn from a brass4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ahg ,,italian ,,inlaid ,,blackletters4 ,from a marble slab in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 ,redrawn from a rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ahh and #ahi ,,modern ,,american ,,blackletters ,,with ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,by ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue #aij ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,after lettering by ,julius ,diez #aia ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletters1 ,,flourished4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aib ,,german ,,italic4 ,by ,gottlieb ,mnch4 ,from ',ordnung der ,schrift4' 7,munich1 #agdd7 #aic ,,spanish ,,script4 ,by ,torquato ,torio4 ,from ',arte de ,escribir4' 7,madrid1 #ahjb7 #aid ,,spanish ,,scripts4 ,by ,torquato ,torio4 ,from ',arte de ,escribir4' 7,madrid1 #ahjb7 #aie ,,spanish ,,script4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #aif ,,spanish ,,cursive4 ,by ,francisco ,lucas4 ,from ',arte de ,escrevirde4' 7,madrid1 #aegg7 #aig ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,title4 ,by ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon4 ,from an advertisement #aih ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,title4 ,by ,george ,wharton ,edwards4 ,from ',collier's ,weekly4' 7,new ,york7 #aii ,,french ,,script ,,capitals4 #ahth ,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjj ,,german ,,script4 #ahth ,century forms4 ,adapted from ,c4 ,hrachowina's ',initialen1 ,alphabete und ,randleisten verschiedener ,kunstepochen4' 7,vienna1 #ahhc7 #bja ,,spanish ,,script ,,capitals4 ,early #ahth ,century4 ,adapted from a ,spanish ,writing-book4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjb ,,spanish ,,script ,,alphabets4 ,late #agth ,century4 ,adapted from ,spanish ,writing-books4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjc ,,english ,,incised ,,script4 ,redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in ,westminster ,abbey1 ,london4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjd ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,book ,,title4 ,by ,bruce ,rogers4 ,from cover design of ',the ,house of the ,seven ,gables4' 7,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 #ahii7 #bje ,,modern ,,american ,,script4 ,by ,bruce ,rogers #bjf ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,capitals4 ,after lettering by ,frank ,hazenplug #bjg ,,modern ,,american ,,italic ,,capitals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjh ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,title4 ,anonymous4 ,from ',harper's ,weekly4' 7,new ,york7 #bji ,,modern ,,american ,,script ,,title4 ,by ,edward ,penfield4 ,from ',harper's ,weekly4' 7,new ,york7 #baj ,,diagram ,,to ,,show ,,method ,,of ,,enlarging ,a ,,panel1 from upper left corner #baa ,,diagram ,,to ,,show ,,method ,,of ,,enlarging ,a ,,panel1 from perpendicular center line ,,end ,,papers4 ,from an embroidered ,altar-cloth4 #agth ,century4 ,church of ,st4 ,mary1 ,soest1 ,westphalia1 ,germany4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,contents ,i4 ,,roman ,,capitals #a ,,ii4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,letters #eb ,,iii4 ,,gothic ,,letters #abg ,,iv4 ,,italic ,,and ,,script #ahb ,v4 ,,to ,,the ,,beginner #aii #a 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i ,,roman ,,capitals ,in speaking of the ,roman letter throughout this chapter its capital form--the form in monumental use among the ,romans--will always be implied4 ,the small or minuscule letters1 which present nomenclature includes under the general title of ,roman letters1 and which will be considered in the following chapter1 were of later formation than the capitals2 and indeed only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of printing from movable types4 ,the first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the ,roman capital is its characteristic squareness4 ,although the letter as used to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype1 its skeleton is still based on the square4 ,next to this typical squareness of outline1 the observer should note that the ,roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines4 ,at first sight it may seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be thick and which thin2 but closer investigation will discover that the alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically1 and that they exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and more decorative4 ,arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines1 differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples1 have1 #b indeed1 been often attempted2 but such rearrangements have never resulted in improvement1 and1 except in eccentric lettering1 have fallen into complete disuse4 ,the original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic ,roman capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen4 ,the early ,latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and at right angles to the writing surface1 so that a down stroke from left to right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the nib across the surface broadwise1 resulting in the widest line possible to the pen4 ,on the other hand1 a stroke drawn at right angles to this1 the pen being still held upright1 would be made with the thin edge of the nib1 and would result in the narrowest possible line4 ,from this method of handling the pen the variations of line width in the standard ,roman forms arose2 and we may therefore deduce three logical rules1 based upon pen use1 which will determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines3 ,i1 ,never accent horizontal lines4 ,,ii1 ,always accent the sloping down strokes which run from left to right1 including the so-called swash lines1 or flying tails1 of ,q and ,r2 but never weight those which1 contrariwise1 slope up from left to right1 with a single exception in the case of the letter ,z1 in which1 if rule ,i be followed1 the sloping line 7in this case made with a down stroke7 will be the only one possible to accent4 ,,iii1 ,always accent the directly perpendicular lines1 except in the ,n1 where these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen2 and the first line of the ,m1 where the perpendiculars originally sloped in towards the top of the letter 7see #b74 ,on the round letters #c the accents should occur at the sides of the circle1 as virtually provided in rule ,,iii1 or on the upper right and lower left quarters 7see #a-b71 where in pen-drawn letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur1 as virtually determined in rule ,,ii4 ,the serif--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines used in making a ,roman capital4 ,the value of the serif in stone-cut letters seems obvious4 ,to define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across it with the chisel1 and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line this cut extended beyond it4 ,serifs were added to the ends of the thick lines either for the sake of uniformity1 or may have been suggested by the chisel-marked guide lines themselves4 ,indeed in late stone-cut ,roman work the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs1 which extend farther than in earlier examples4 ,the serif was adopted in pen letters probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut letters1 namely1 that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,alphabet ,,after ,,serlio4 ,,reconstructed ,,by ,,albert ,r4 ,,ross ,illustration3 #b4 ,,alphabet ,,after ,,serlio4 ,,reconstructed ,,by ,,albert ,r4 ,,ross ,illustration3 #c4 ,,width ,,proportions ,,of ,,modern ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,an excellent model for constructing the ,roman capitals in a standard form will be found in the beautiful adaptation by ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,ross1 #a and #b1 from an alphabet of capitals drawn by ,sebastian ,serlio1 an ,italian architect1 engraver and painter of the sixteenth century1 who devised some of the most refined variants of the classic ,roman letter4 ,serlio's original forms1 which are shown in #ci and #dj1 were intended for pen or printed use2 but in altering ,serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that ,mr4 ,ross #f has partially adapted the letter for use in stone1 and has further varied it in details1 notably in serif treatment4 ,in most modern stone-cut letters1 however1 the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this example1 as in #ad4 ,mr4 ,ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square4 ,width proportions1 which may be found useful in laying out lettering for lines of a given length1 are shown in #c in a more modern style of the ,roman capital4 ,in the classic ,roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact center of the letter height1 but in #c the center line has been used as the bottom of the cross-bar in ,b1 ,e1 ,h1 ,p1 and ,r1 and as the top of the cross-bar in ,a2 and in letters like ,k1 ,y and ,x the waist lines1 as the meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called1 have been slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect4 ,the ,roman alphabet1 although the one most in use1 is unfortunately the most difficult to compose into words artistically1 as the spacing between the letters plays a great share in the result4 ,the effect of even color over a whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of white between each letter and its neighbor2 but the shape of this area will be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed4 ,individual letters may1 however1 be widened or condensed to help fill an awkward hole in a line of lettering2--the lower lobe of the ,b may be extended1 the center bar of the ,e pulled out 7in which case the ,f should be made to correspond71 the lower slant stroke of the ,k may be used as a swash tail1 and the ,r may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against the upright line1 and so on4 ,indeed1 each and #h every letter of the alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors4 ,observe1 for example1 the spacing of the word ,,meritae in #cd1 and notice how the tail of the ,r is lengthened to hold off the ,i because the ,t on the other side is perforce held away by its top4 ,in the page of capitals1 #abd1 by ,mr4 ,bridwell1 see also how the different spacing of the word ,,french in the first and second lines is managed4 ,in the advertisement1 #abc1 also by ,mr4 ,bridwell1 note how the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect4 ,the whole problem of spacing is1 however1 one of such subtle interrelation and composition1 that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic sense of the designer4 ,any rules which might be here formulated would prove more often a drawback than a help4 ,certain optical illusions of some of the ,roman letter forms should be briefly mentioned4 ,these illusions are caused by the failure of certain letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking top and bottom guide lines4 ,the round letters ,c1 ,g1 ,o and ,q often seem to be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines4 ,for the same reason ,s should be sometimes slightly increased in height1 though in this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary2 and ,j1 on account of its kern1 is governed by the same conditions as ,s1 save when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom4 ,theoretically the right side of ,d would require similar treatment1 but actually this is seldom found necessary4 ,the pointed ends of #i the letters ,v and ,w should1 for similar optical reasons1 be extended slightly below the bottom guide lines1 the amount of this extension being determined by the letters on each side of them4 ,in the ,a1 the ,roman letterer at first got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this letter also higher than its neighbors2 but he later solved the problem by shaping its apex as shown in ,i1 thus apparently getting the letter into line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to satisfy the eye4 ,because of its narrowness1 ,i should generally be allowed more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters4 ,some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the practice of type-founders4 ,in making the designs for a fount of type1 it has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size4 ,taking an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard1 the points of ,a and ,v were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the guides1 the letter ,o was run over about half an inch at both top and bottom1 and the points of the w were made to project about the same distance4 ,in pen lettering1 however1 it is possible and preferable to adapt each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules4 ,certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the ,roman letters and their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms1 or the opposite1 is possible4 ,when drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a #aj white ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying shadows4 ,in stone-cut letters1 on the other hand1 where the shadows rather than the outlines themselves reveal the forms1 different limitations govern the problem4 ,the thin lines of a letter to be ,v-sunk should generally be made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with the pen-drawn letter1 especially as the section is likely to be less deeply and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples1 for the workmanship of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable4 ,a slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the ,v-sunk section is a useful method of #aa partially atoning for modern shallow cutting1 as shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained4 ,the student should1 however1 be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less deceptive1 as all the accidental variations of the outlines are exaggerated1 and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually so cut4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,drawing ,,for ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals ,,in ,,granite4 ,f4,c4,b ,illustration3 #e4 ,,photograph ,,from ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals ,,shown ,,in #d ,illustration3 #f4 ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,,arch ,,of ,,constantine1 ,,rome ,the photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the ,arch of ,constantine1 ,rome1 shown in #f1 well indicates the effect of shadows in defining the classic ,roman letters2 and the effect of shadows on an incised letter may be clearly observed by comparing #d and #e1 the former showing a drawing for an inscription in which the ,serlio-,ross #ad alphabet was used as a basis for the letter forms1 and the latter being a photograph of the same inscription1 as cut in granite4 ,it will be noted how much narrower the thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing4 ,the model used for the lettering on the frieze of the ,boston ,public ,library1 #g1 which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite1 should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows2 while #ad1 a redrawing of inscriptions on the ,harvard ,architectural ,building1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting in sandstone4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,model ,,for ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals4 ,mc,k,i,m1 ,,mead ,,white ,illustration3 #h4 ,,roman ,,incised ,,capitals4 ,,from ,a ,,rubbing ,the special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or raised inscriptions are1 however1 quite apart from the subject of this book1 and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here4 ,it is important1 nevertheless1 that the designer should be reminded always to make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed4 ,otherwise1 if exactly copied in other materials1 he may find the result annoyingly unsatisfactory4 #ae ,illustration3 #i4 ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,,bologna ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,,bologna ,the examples of letters taken from ,roman and ,renaissance ,italian monuments1 shown in the pages of this chapter1 will illustrate the variety of individual letter forms used by the ,classic and ,renaissance designers4 ,the shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same inscription and even in apparently analogous cases4 ,the designers evidently had in mind more than the directly adjacent words1 and sometimes even considered #af the relation of their lettering to objects outside the panel altogether4 ,this is especially true in the work of the ,italian ,renaissance1 which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and arrangement4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,,detail ,,from ,a ,,roman ,,incised ,,inscription4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,,roman ,,capitals ,,of ,,pen ,,forms ,,cut ,,in ,,stone4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,figures #h to #bb show examples1 drawn from various sources1 which exhibit different treatments of the classic ,roman letter forms4 ,the differentiation will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves1 and in the treatment of the serifs1 angles1 and varying widths of line4 ,figures #aa to #ac and #af to #bb are redrawn from rubbings #ag of ,roman incised inscriptions4 ,figures #af and #ag show beautifully proportioned letters cut in marble with unusual care and refinement1 considering the large size of the originals4 ,a later ,roman form of less refinement but of greater strength and carrying power1 and for that reason better adapted to many modern uses1 is shown in #ah and #ai4 ,in this case the original letters were cut about seven and #bg one-half inches high4 ,the letters in #bj are curiously modern in character4 ,part of the panel of ,roman lettering shown in #ba exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in #ah and #ai4 ,figure #aa shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion2 while on the other hand figure #ab depicts a ,roman letter of quite unusual character1 and of a form evidently adapted from pen work1 in which the shapes are narrow and crowded1 while the lines are thickened as though they were of the classical square outline4 ,the bits of old ,roman inscriptions shown in #h to #aj and in #ac are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments of classic capitals4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,,roman ,,capitals ,,from ,,inscriptions4 ,,from ,,rubbings4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,,modern ,,incised ,,roman ,,capitals ,,in ,,sandstone4 ,,architectural ,,building1 ,,cambridge1 ,,mass4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,,letters ,,shown ,,in ,,alphabet #a-b1 ,,in ,,composition4 ,,albert ,r4 ,,ross ,illustration3 #af4 ,,classic ,,capitals ,,cut ,,in ,,marble4 ,,roman ,,forum4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,,classic ,,capitals ,,cut ,,in ,,marble4 ,,roman ,,forum4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,,classic ,,capitals ,,cut ,,in ,,marble4 ,,from ,,rubbings4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ai4 ,,classic ,,capitals ,,cut ,,in ,,marble4 ,,from ,,rubbings4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,,portion ,,of ,,roman ,,inscription ,,with ,,supplied ,,letters4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,,classic ,,roman ,,inscription ,,in ,,marble ,,from ,a ,,rubbing4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,,classic ,,roman ,,inscription ,,in ,,stone ,,from ,a ,,rubbing4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,after the fall of ,rome and during the ,dark ,ages the practice of lettering1 at least in so far as the ,roman form was concerned1 was distinctly retrograde4 ,with the advent of the ,renaissance1 however1 the purest classic forms were revived2 and indeed the ,italian ,renaissance seems to have been the golden age of lettering4 ,with the old ,roman fragments of the best period constantly before their eyes the ,renaissance artists of ,italy seem to have grasped the true spirit of classicism2 and their work somehow acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the ,roman examples4 ,as much of the ,italian ,renaissance lettering was intended for use on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range1 and was cut in fine marble1 the increased refinement may be due1 at least in part1 to different conditions4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,inscription ,,in ,,marble4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,medal4 ,,pisano4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,,modern ,,french ,,medal4 ,o ,,roty4 ,the panel from ,raphael's tomb in the ,pantheon1 ,rome1 #cj1 shows a beautiful and pure form of typical ,renaissance letter2 and the composition of the panel is as well worthy #bh of careful study as are the letter forms4 ,figure #cd1 devised from a tomb in ,santa ,croce1 portrays a letter not only beautiful in itself1 but one which1 with two minor changes 7for the top bar of the ,t might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set closer1 and the ,m might be finished at the top with a serif1 after the usual fashion71 is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern draughtsman4 ,this type of letter appears to best advantage when used in such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the ,marsuppini tomb1 #ca1 and in the floor slab from the same church1 #cb4 ,two very refined examples1 #bh and #bi1 also from slabs in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 date from about the same period4 ,the latter exhibits the alphabet itself1 and the former shows a similar letter form as actually used4 ,the letters in #cc1 redrawn from rubbings from the ,marsuppini tomb1 are shown for comparison with the rubbing itself1 which is reproduced in smaller size in #ca4 ,taken together1 plates #cj1 #ca and #cb will fairly represent not only the usual fashion of composing ,renaissance panels1 but capital forms which illustrate some of the most excellent work of this period4 #cj ,a very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the best medals of the ,italian ,renaissance 7see #bd71 which has been recently adapted and employed by modern medal designers in ,france1 as exhibited in figure #be4 ,although absolutely plain1 it is1 when properly composed1 much more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more elaborate and fussy form2 and although sometimes adapted with good results to other uses1 it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal4 ,similar forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in #bf4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,,capitals ,,adapted ,,from ,,renaissance ,,medals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,,spanish ,,renaissance ,,alphabet4 ,,juan ,de ,,yciar1 #aeej ,illustration3 #bh4 ,,renaissance ,,inlaid ,,medallion4 ,,from ,a ,,rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #bi4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,santa ,,croce4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,figures #bg1 and #ce to #da show various pen or printed forms of capital letters redrawn from the handiwork of ,renaissance masters4 ,the capital letters shown in #bg are unusually beautiful1 and their purity of form is well #ca displayed in the outline treatment4 ,perhaps the best known standard example of a ,renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by ,tagliente1 reproduced in #ce and #cf4 ,in spite of their familiarity it has seemed impossible to omit the set of capitals1 with variants1 by ,albrecht ,drer1 #cg and #ch2 for ,drer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such ,renaissance designers of lettering as ,geoffrey ,tory1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 etc4 ,it should be observed in the ,drer #cb alphabet that among the variant forms of individual letters shown1 one is usually intended for monumental use1 while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic swelling of the round letters1 etc4 ,illustration3 #cj4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,panel ,,from ,,raphael',s ,,tomb4 ,,pantheon ,,rome4 ,illustration3 #ca4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,inscription4 ,,marsuppini ,,tomb1 ,,florence4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,inscription ,,floor ,,slab ,,in ,,santa ,,croce1 ,,florence4 ,serlio's alphabet1 #ci and #dj1 should be compared with ,mr4 ,ross's modification of it1 reproduced in #a and #b4 ,the alphabet shown in #da is a somewhat expanded form of classic capital1 contrasting markedly in various respects with more typical forms4 ,illustration3 #cc4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,marsuppini ,,tomb4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals ,,from ,,rubbings4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ce4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,tagliente1 #aebd ,illustration3 #cf4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,tagliente1 #aebd ,illustration3 #cg4 ,,german ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #aebe ,illustration3 #ch4 ,,german ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #aebe ,illustration3 #ci4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,serlio1 #af,,th ,,century4 ,illustration3 #dj4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,serlio1 #af,,th ,,century4 ,illustration3 #da4 ,,german ,,renaissance ,,capitals4 ,,urbain ,w,,ss1 #afth ,,century4 #de ,a practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included to show various capital forms of ,renaissance letters2 but the specimens chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined types of the individual letters4 ,illustration3 #db4 ,,italian ,,renaissance ,,panel1 ,,florence4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,bragdon ,before1 during and after the ,renaissance movement many local and extraneous influences temporarily modified the forms of the ,roman letters4 ,there are1 for instance1 numerous examples of lettering in which ,byzantine and ,romanesque traits are strongly apparent1 such as the free manipulation of the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces4 ,the drawing of the panel over the doorway of the ,badia1 ,florence1 #db1 notable for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters1 will serve as a case in point4 ,this example is further interesting because it shows how the ,uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous1 for the ,uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form2 but it was discovered that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones which were likely to chip or sliver1 in carving which it was consequently desirable to avoid too acute angles4 ,the ,roman letter underwent various salient modifications #df at the hands of the scribes of extra-,italian nations4 ,we find very crude variants of the ,roman letter1 dating hundreds of years after the ,roman form had reached its highest development2 and1 on the other hand1 some very beautiful and individual national variants were produced4 ,the continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the continent of ,europe probably explains the more conventional character and strong general resemblance of most of the early ,continental work2 but the scribes of insular ,england1 less influenced by contemporary progress and examples1 produced forms of greater individuality 7see #df1 #dg1 #dh74 ,in ,ireland1 letter forms originally derived from early ,roman models were developed through many decades with no ulterior influences1 and resulted in some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the ,roman letters1 #dg though the beauty of these ,irish examples can only be faintly suggested by reproductions limited to black and white1 and without the decorations of the originals4 ,illustration3 #dc4 ,,modern ,,title 7compare #df74 ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,illustration3 #dd4 ,,modern ,,title 7compare #di74 ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration3 #de4 ,,title ,,in ,,early ,,english ,,capitals4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,nesfield ,figures #dc and #dd illustrate1 respectively1 modern employments of such strongly characteristic letters as those shown in #df and #di4 ,from these ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the character of their work4 ,in #dd ,mr4 ,crane has engrafted upon a form quite personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the letter shown in #di4 ,figure #de shows a similar and modernized employment of a standard form of ,uncial capital4 ,illustration3 #df4 ,,anglo ,,saxon ,,capitals4 #fth ,,century ,illustration3 #dg4 ,,anglo ,,saxon ,,capitals4 #gth ,,century ,illustration3 #dh4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,capitals4 ,,early #ajth ,,century ,illustration3 #di4 ,,early ,,english ,,capitals4 #afth ,,century #eb 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,modern ,,roman ,,letters ,the small or minuscule letter that we now use in all printed books attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of printing4 ,the first printed books were made to imitate1 as closely as possible1 the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth century1 and as printing was first done in ,germany1 the earliest book types were those modeled upon ,german scripts1 somewhat similar to that shown in #ada1 and their condensed or blackletter variants4 ,the ,italian printers1 of a more classical taste1 found the ,german types somewhat black and clumsy2 for though ,gothic characters were also used in ,italy1 they had become lighter and more refined there4 ,the ,italians1 therefore1 evolved a new form of type letter1 based upon the ,italian pen letters then in use1 which though fundamentally ,gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with an earlier letter known as the ,caroline1 from its origin under the direction of ,charlemagne4 ,the ,caroline was in its turn an imitation of the ,roman ,half-uncial4 ,the close relationship of the first small type letter forms in ,italy with the current writing hand of the best ,italian scribes is well indicated by the legend that the ,italic1 or sloped small letter1 was taken directly from the handwriting of ,petrarch4 ,the new ,italian types1 in which classic capitals were combined with the newly evolved minuscule #ec letters1 were called ,roman from the city of their origin1 and sprang into almost immediate popularity1 spreading from ,italy into ,england1 ,france and ,spain4 ,in ,germany1 on the other hand1 the national blackletter form persisted1 and is still in use to-day4 ,the minuscule ,roman letters thus evolved were developed to their most perfect individual forms by the master-printers of ,venice2 and it is to the models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form4 ,the modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind1 however1 that1 perfect as such forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer1 the limitations of type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and swash lines1 and that therefore1 though accepting their basic forms1 he need not be cramped by their restrictions1 nor imitate the unalterable and sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he finds precedents in the printed page4 ,indeed1 the same general rules for spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs1 kerns and swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the capital forms4 ,the only true path of progress lies in this freedom of treatment2 and if the same fertile artists of the ,renaissance who have bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the capital had used the minuscule also1 we should undoubtedly possess small letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now have4 ,illustration3 #ej4 ,,scheme ,,for ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,roman ,,small ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ea4 ,,scheme ,,for ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,roman ,,small ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,in #ej and #ea may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the reconstruction of an alphabet of ,roman small letters1 after somewhat the same fashion as #ef that devised for the ,roman capitals by ,mr4 ,ross1 in #a and #b4 ,a small-letter diagram must1 for obvious reasons1 be less exact and detailed than one for the more defined capital form2 but the diagram given will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions4 ,in their shapes the letters shown in #ej and #ea adhere fairly closely to the best type forms of the small letter2 and the drawing will serve1 further1 to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one lower-case letter and another when set into type words4 ,this spacing is based on the m of the fount employed4 ,the open space between all but k1 w and y 7in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further away from their neighbors7 and the round letters being the space between the upright strokes of the m2 an interval represented in the diagram by a square and a half4 ,the round letters1 as has already been said in speaking of the capital forms1 should be spaced nearer together2 and it will be observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram4 ,although suggestive1 the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to be blindly followed by the pen letterer4 ,in type1 for instance1 it would be impossible1 for mechanical reasons1 to allow the kerns of the f1 j and y to project far over the body of the next letter1 and in these letters the kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced farther apart4 ,in pen lettering1 however1 the designer is not restrained by such limitations1 and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by the effect4 ,the disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same general rules that govern those of the capitals 7see page #b72 the only deviation being in the case of #eg the g1 in which the shading of the bottom seems to have been determined largely by the effect upon the eye4 ,it will be noticed in the diagram that the ascenders of the smaller letters rise about three squares to their extreme top points above the body of the letter2 that the body of each letter is inclosed in a square that is three units high1 and that the descenders fall but two squares below the letter body4 ,these proportions are not by any means invariable1 however1 and indeed there is no fixed rule by which the proportions of ascenders and descenders to the body of the ,roman minuscule may be determined4 ,in some forms of the letter both are of the same length1 and sometimes that length is the same as the body height of the letter4 ,in general a better result is obtained by making both ascenders and descenders of less than the length of the body1 and keeping the descenders shorter than the ascenders in about the proportion of two-fifths to three-fifths4 ,parallel lines of small letters cannot be spaced closer to each other than the ascenders and descenders will allow2 the projections above and below the line are awkward1 and interrupt the definite lines of demarkation at the top and bottom of the letter-bodies2 the capitals necessarily used in connection with the small letters add to the irregularity of the line--all of which reasons combine to limit the employment of minuscule for formal or monumental uses4 ,on the other hand1 the small letter form is excellently adapted for the printed page1 where the occasional capitals but tend to break the monotony1 while the ascenders and descenders strongly characterize and increase the legibility of the letter forms4 ,illustration3 #eb4 ,,spanish ,,roman ,,letters4 ,,pen ,,drawn4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #ec4 ,,spanish ,,roman ,,letters4 ,,pen ,,drawn4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #ed4 ,,spanish ,,italic ,,letters4 ,,pen ,,drawn4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #ee4 ,,spanish ,,italic ,,letters4 ,,pen ,,drawn4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #ef4 ,,italian ,,small ,,letters4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,cresci1 #aefj ,illustration3 #eg4 ,,english #ag,,th ,,century ,,incised ,,letters4 ,,from ,,tombstones ,illustration3 #eh4 ,,modern ,,small ,,letters4 ,,after ,,hrachowina ,illustration3 #ei4 ,,modern ,,small ,,letters4 ,,claude ,,fayette ,,bragdon #fd ,figures #eb to #ei show several forms of small letter alphabets2 those shown in #eb to #ef being taken from ,writing books by ,spanish and ,italian writing masters4 ,these writing masters often chose to show their skill by imitating type forms of letters with the pen1 but though similar in the individual forms of the letters the written examples exhibit a freedom and harmony in composition impossible for type to equal1 and therefore are immeasurably more interesting to the modern penman4 ,figure #fa illustrates a type form of minuscule which may be commended for study4 ,other examples of small letters by modern designers will be found in #aje1 #aaj1 #aah and #aca1 where they are used in connection with their capital forms4 ,illustration3 #fj4 ,,inscription ,,from ,,english ,,slate ,,tombstones1 #afia4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #fa4 ,,roman ,,and ,,italic ,,type4 ,,from ,,the ,,specimen ,,book ,,of ,,william ,,caslon1 #agcd ,the minuscule alphabet by ,mr4 ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon1 #ei1 is a carefully worked-out form which in its lines closely follows a type face devised by ,jenson1 the celebrated ,venetian printer who flourished toward the end of the sixteenth century4 ,this example together with those shown in #ej1 #ea and #ef exhibits some conservative variations of the standard models for minuscule letters2 and the same may be said of the modern type faces shown in #fb1 #fc and #fd4 ,the various other examples of the small-letter forms illustrated evidence how original and interesting modifications of conservative shapes may be evolved without appreciable loss of legibility4 ,illustration3 #fb4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,type ,,montaigne4 ,,bruce ,,rogers ,illustration3 #fc4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,type ,,renner4 ,,theo4 ,l4 ,,de ,,vinne ,illustration3 #fd4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,type ,,merrymount ,,by ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,illustration3 #fe4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,type ,,cheltenham ,,by ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,figure #fa shows the capital1 small letter and italic forms of a type based on old ,venetian models1 cut by ,william ,caslon in the early part of the eighteenth century1 and ever #fi since known by his name4 ,this face has comparatively recently been revived by modern type-founders2 and though this revival has provided us with a text letter far superior to the forms previously in use1 the modern imitation falls short of the beauty of ,caslon's original1 as may be seen by comparing the letters shown in #fa1 which are reproduced from ,caslon's specimen-book1 issued by him about the middle of the eighteenth century1 with the type used in printing this volume1 which is a good modern ,caslon4 ,figures #fb to #fg show some newly devised type faces1 all designed by artists of reputation4 ,figure #fb illustrates a fount called the ,montaigne which has been recently completed by ,mr4 ,bruce ,rogers for the ,riverside ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 and cut under his immediate direction1 with especial insistance upon an unmechanical treatment of serifs1 etc4 ,as a result the ,montaigne is1 for type1 remarkable in its artistic freedom1 and its forms are well worthy the study of the designer4 ,both its capitals and small letters suggest the purity of the ,italian ,renaissance shapes4 ,the letters space rather farther apart than in most types1 and the result makes for legibility4 ,although several other modern faces of type have been designed on much the same lines1 notably one for ,the ,dove's ,press in ,england1 the ,montaigne seems the best of them all1 because of its freedom1 and its absolute divorce from the overdone1 exaggerated1 heavy-faced effects of the ,morris styles of type4 ,mr4 ,de ,vinne of the ,de ,vinne ,press1 ,new ,york ,city1 has introduced a new type called the ,renner1 #fc1 which was originally cut for some of the ,grolier ,club's publications4 ,the letters were first photographed from a selected page of ,renner's ,quadrigesimale1 then #ga carefully studied and redrawn before the punches were cut4 ,mr4 ,de ,vinne has added small capitals and italics to the fount1 as well as dotted letters to serve as substitutes for the italic for those who prefer them4 ,the ,renner type would have been more effective on a larger body2 but for commercial usefulness it is generally deemed expedient to employ as small a body as the face of a type will allow4 ,mr4 ,de ,vinne notes1 in this connection1 that all the important types of the early printers were large1 and that a fount designed to-day with regard only to its artistic effectiveness would be cast upon a large body and be of good size4 ,mr4 ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue has designed two founts of ,roman type1 and is now at work on a ,blackletter face4 ,his first fount1 cut for ,mr4 ,d4 ,b4 ,updike1 of the ,merrymount ,press1 ,boston1 and known as the ,merrymount1 is shown in #fd4 ,intended for large pages and rough paper it necessarily shows to disadvantage in the example given1 where the blackness and weight of the letters makes them seem clumsy1 despite the refinement of their forms4 ,illustration3 #ff4 ,,modern ,,greek ,,type4 ,,selwyn ,,image ,illustration3 #fg4 ,,modern ,,roman ,,type4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,ashbee ,the ,cheltenham ,old ,style1 #fe1 is the other ,roman face recently designed by the same artist4 ,it was cut for the ,cheltenham ,press of ,new ,york ,city2 and embodies in its present form many ideas suggested by ,mr4 ,ingalls ,kimball of that press4 ,observe especially the excess in length of the ascenders over the descenders1 and that the serifs have been reduced to the minimum4 ,contrary to the usual custom in type cutting1 the round letters do not run above or below the guide lines4 ,the capitals compose excellently2 but the small letters are too closely spaced and seem too square for the best effect1 and weight has been obtained by so thickening the lines that much delicacy and variety has been lost4 #gb ,the ,cheltenham ,old ,style is1 however1 very legible when composed into words1 and is effective on the page4 ,any attempt to get the effect of ,blackletter with the ,roman form is likely to result clumsily4 ,the celebrated ,roman faces designed by ,william ,morris 7too familiar to require reproduction here7 are1 despite their real beauty1 over-black on the page1 and awkward when examined in detail4 ,while the stimulus ,morris's work gave to typography was much needed at that time1 the present reaction toward more refined faces is most gratifying4 ,by precept and example ,mr4 ,morris produced a salutary revolt against the too thin and light and mechanical type faces before in use1 but he went too far in the opposite direction1 and we are now certainly falling back upon a more desirable mean4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,p4 ,horne is at present designing a new fount of type for the ,merrymount ,press1 ,boston1 to be #gc known as the ,mont' ,allegro1 which seems1 from the designs so far as at present completed1 likely to prove in some respects the most scholarly and severe of modern faces4 ,the ,greek type designed for the ,macmillan ,company of ,england1 by ,mr4 ,selwyn ,image1 #ff1 is of sufficient interest to be shown here1 despite the fact that it is not strictly germane to our subject4 ,in this face ,mr4 ,image has #gd returned to the more classic ,greek form1 although the result may at first glance seem illegible to the reader familiar with the more common cursive letters4 ,the type shown in #fg is a new ,english face designed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,ashbee for a prayerbook for the ,king4 ,interesting as it is1 it seems in many ways too extreme and eccentric to be wholly satisfactory3 the very metal of type would seem to postulate a less tricky treatment4 ,it is interesting to attempt a discrimination between the various national styles of pen letters which the recently revived interest in the art of lettering is producing2 and it is especially worth while to note that the activity seems1 even in ,germany1 to be devoted almost exclusively to the development and variation of the ,roman forms4 ,it is noteworthy1 too1 after so long a period of the dull copying of bad forms1 and particularly of bad type forms1 that the modern trend is distinctly in the direction of freedom2 though this freedom is more marked in ,french and ,german #ge than in ,english or ,american work4 ,hand in hand with this increased freedom of treatment has naturally come a clearer disclosure of the mediums employed2 and indeed in much of the best modern work the designer has so far lent himself to his tools that the tools themselves have1 in great measure1 become responsible for the resulting letter forms4 #gf ,moreover modern designers are showing a welcome attention to minuscule letters1 and it even seems possible that before long some small letter forms that shall be distinctively of the pen may be developed1 and that the use of type models for minuscule pen letters will no longer be found necessary or commendable4 ,illustration3 #fh4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,after ,j4 ,m4 ,,olbrich ,illustration3 #fi4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,gustave ,,lemmen ,illustration3 #gj4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,alois ,,ludwig ,illustration3 #ga4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,otto ,,eckmann ,another noticeable tendency in modern lettering seems to be the gradual promotion of small letter forms to the dignity of capitals1 7see #gi and #ih for examples7 in much the same way as the ,uncial letter and its immediate derivatives produced the present small letter4 ,it is surely to be hoped that this movement may not lose vitality before it has had time to enrich us with some new and excellent forms4 ,illustration3 #gb4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,otto ,,hupp ,illustration3 #gc4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,joseph ,,pl,,cnik ,illustration3 #gd4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,franz ,,stuck #hb ,illustration3 #ge4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #gf4 ,,modern ,,german ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,bernhard ,,pankok ,illustration3 #gg4 ,,modern ,,french ,,poster4 ,,theo4 ,,van ,,rysselberghe ,illustration3 #gh4 ,,modern ,,french ,,cover4 ,m4 ,p4 ,,verneuil ,the influence of nationality is strongly shown in the modern lettering of all countries2 and it is generally as easy to recognize a specimen as the work of a ,german1 ,french1 ,english1 or ,american artist1 respectively1 no matter how individual he may be1 as it is to tell the difference between the work of two different designers4 ,the modern ,german seems to have an undeniable freshness of outlook on the ,roman alphabet4 ,he treats it with a freedom and variety and a certain disregard of precedent--induced1 perhaps1 by his schooling in ,blackletter--that often produces delightful1 though sometimes1 be it added1 direful results4 ,but if the extreme and bizarre forms be thrown aside the designer may obtain suggestions of great benefit and value from the more restrained examples of ,german work4 ,many eminent ,german draughtsmen1 whose work is all too little known in this country1 are #hd using letters with the same distinction that has of late years marked their purely decorative work1 as the specimens shown in #fh to #gf will evidence4 ,figures #fh and #ge show forms which are perhaps especially representative of the general modern tendency in ,german work and many ,german artists are using letters of very similar general forms to these although1 of course1 with individual variations4 ,figures #gj and #gc show two very original and pleasing styles1 also markedly ,german4 ,in spite of the national drift toward the ,roman1 much modern ,german lettering still takes the ,gothic and ,blackletter forms2 and the specimen reproduced in #ga shows a curious combination of the ,gothic1 ,uncial and ,roman forms pervaded by the ,german spirit4 ,the beautiful lettering in #gb seems to have been inspired from a stone-cut ,uncial4 ,figure #gd shows an almost strictly ,roman letter1 and yet is as unmistakably ,german in handling as any of the other examples shown4 ,illustration3 #gi4 ,,modern ,,french ,,letters4 ,,after ,m4 ,p4 ,,verneuil ,illustration3 #hj4 ,,modern ,,french ,,poster4 ,p4 ,,bonnard ,illustration3 #ha4 ,,modern ,,french ,,cover4 ,,george ,,auriol ,illustration3 #hb4 ,,modern ,,french ,,capitals4 ,,alphons ,m4 ,,mucha #hf ,among the examples of modern ,french lettering1 those shown in #gh and #gi are perhaps the most typical of the modern school4 ,this style of letter was given its most consistent form by the joint efforts of ,m4 ,p4 ,verneuil and some of the pupils of ,eugne ,grasset1 after whose letter it was originally modeled4 ,grasset freely varies his use of this form in his different designs1 as in #he1 but founds many of his best specimens upon the earlier ,french models4 ,illustration3 #hc4 ,,modern ,,french ,,lettered ,,page4 ,,george ,,auriol ,illustration3 #hd4 ,,modern ,,french ,,letters ,,cursive4 ,,george ,,auriol ,illustration3 #he4 ,,modern ,,french ,,cover ,,design4 ,,eug,,ne ,,grasset ,illustration3 #hf4 ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,,walter ,,crane #hh ,m4 ,george ,auriol has extended the modern use of drawn letters by publishing a number of small books which he has handwritten throughout1 although the form of letter he generally uses for this purpose is purely modern and not at all like the texts of the medieval scribes4 ,m4 ,auriol's letter is beautifully clear1 readable and original2 brushy in its technique1 yet suitable for rapid writing4 ,he calls #ia it a ,cursive letter1 and has recently made designs for its use in type4 ,the page shown in #hc is from the preface to a book of his well-known designs for monograms1 and the entire text is written in this cursive form4 ,the individual letters of this ,cursive may be more easily studied in #hd4 ,the cover for ,l',image1 #ha1 shows the same designer's use of a more conventional ,roman form4 ,the poster by ,m4 ,theo4 van ,rysselberghe shown in #gg exhibits two interesting forms of ,french small letters that are worthy of study and suggestive for development4 ,m4 ,alphons ,mucha employs a distinctive letter1 especially fitted to his technique1 which he uses almost invariably1 #hb4 ,much recent ,french lettering inclines toward a certain formlessness1 that1 although sometimes admirable when regarded merely from the point of view of harmony with the design1 has little value otherwise4 ,a typical specimen of such formless lettering is that shown in the very charming #ib ,revue ,blanche poster1 #hj4 ,excellent when considered with the design1 the lettering alone makes but an indifferent showing4 ,the ,italian designers of letters have not yet evolved any very distinctive national forms4 ,in many ways ,italian work resembles the ,german4 ,it has less originality1 but greater subtlety and refinement4 ,illustration3 #hg4 ,,modern ,,english ,,poster4 ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration3 #hh4 ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration3 #hi4 ,,modern ,,english ,,letters4 ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration3 #ij4 ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,,joseph ,w4 ,,simpson ,the strongest personality among modern ,british letterers is ,mr4 ,walter ,crane4 ,characteristic examples of his work are shown in #hf1 #hg1 #hh and #hi4 ,although sometimes apparently careless and too often rough1 his lettering has the merit and charm of invariably disclosing the instrument and the material employed4 ,mr4 ,crane is especially fond of an ,uncial pen form1 which he varies with masterful freedom4 ,it may be mentioned in passing that he is perhaps the only designer who has been able to make the wrongly accented ,q seem consistent 7compare #hf71 or who has conquered its swash tail when the letter is accented in this unusual way4 #ic ,mr4 ,lewis ,f4 ,day has become a recognized authority on lettering1 both through his writings and his handiwork4 ,his great versatility makes it difficult to select a specimen which may be taken as characteristic of his work2 but perhaps the lettering shown in #ie is as representative as any that could be chosen4 ,among his designs the magazine cover1 #ic1 is an unusually free and effective composition1 and its letter forms possess the variety required to satisfy the eye when so much of the whole effect of the design depends upon them4 ,illustration3 #ia4 ,,modern ,,english ,,poster4 ,,joseph ,w4 ,,simpson ,illustration3 #ib4 ,,modern ,,english ,,cover4 ,,william ,,nicholson ,illustration3 #ic4 ,,modern ,,english ,,cover4 ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day ,illustration3 #id4 ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,,gordon ,,craig ,the style of lettering ordinarily employed by ,mr4 ,selwyn ,image--a style of marked originality and distinction--is well exhibited in the design for a book cover1 #ih4 ,the name of ,mr4 ,charles ,ricketts is intimately associated with the ,vale ,press4 ,the detail of the title-page reproduced in #ajj shows a characteristic bit of his work4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,simpson1 one of the younger ,british draughtsmen1 uses a graceful and interestingly linked ,roman form shown in the panel from a title-page1 #ij4 ,the bizarre #ie letter by the same artist1 #ia1 is fairly representative of a style recently come into vogue among the younger ,british draughtsmen1 which is related to a form of letter brought into fashion by the new ,english school of designers on wood1 among whom may be mentioned ,mr4 ,william ,nicholson and ,mr4 ,gordon ,craig1 both of whom have done lettering distinguished by its indication of the medium employed4 ,figure #ib shows ,mr4 ,nicholson's favorite type of letter #if fairly1 and the style of ,mr4 ,craig's work is suggested by the title for a book cover in #id4 ,the book cover1 #ig1 by ,mr4 ,edmund ,h4 ,new1 shows variants of the ,roman capital and minuscule forms1 which closely adhere to classic models4 ,mr4 ,robert ,anning ,bell has done much distinctive lettering in intimate association with design4 ,figure #if is fairly representative of his style of work4 ,illustration3 #ie4 ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day ,illustration3 #if4 ,,modern ,,english ,,title4 ,,robert ,,anning ,,bell ,illustration3 #ig4 ,,modern ,,english ,,cover4 ,,edmund ,h4 ,,new ,illustration3 #ih4 ,,modern ,,english ,,cover4 ,,selwyn ,,image ,such other ,british artists as ,messrs4 ,alfred ,parsons1 ,james ,f4 ,sullivan1 ,hugh ,thompson1 ,herbert ,railton1 ,byam ,shaw1 ,h4 ,granville ,fell and ,a4 ,garth ,jones1 although much better known for their designs than for their letters1 #ig occasionally give us bits of lettering which are both unusual and excellent2 but these bits are commonly so subordinated to the designs in which they are used and so involved with them as to be beyond the scope of the present book4 ,illustration3 #ii4 ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,,anonymous ,illustration3 #ajj4 ,,modern ,,english ,,capitals4 ,,charles ,,ricketts ,in illustrating the lettering of ,american artists it has been unfortunately found necessary to omit the work of many well-known designers1 either because their usual style of lettering is too similar in fundamental forms to the work of some other draughtsman1 or because the letters they commonly employ are not distinctive or individual4 ,illustration3 #aja4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,edwin ,a4 ,,abbey ,illustration3 #ajb4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,anonymous ,illustration3 #ajc4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover4 ,,edward ,,penfield ,mr4 ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey is a notable example of an artist who has not disdained to expend both time and practice on such a minor art as lettering #ajj that he might be able to letter his own designs1 as the beautiful page1 shown in #aec in the succeeding chapter1 will sufficiently prove4 ,the lettering of the title-page for ,herrick's poems1 #aja1 by the same draughtsman1 is likewise excellent1 being both original and appropriate4 ,the letters in both these examples are modeled after old work1 and both display an unusually keen grasp of the limitations and possibilities of the forms employed1 especially in the former1 #aec1 where the use of capitals to form words is particularly noteworthy1 while in general composition and spacing the spirit of the letter used 7compare #agi7 has been perfectly preserved4 ,illustration3 #ajd4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,edward ,,penfield ,illustration3 #aje4 ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,,edward ,,penfield ,illustration3 #ajf4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover ,,design4 ,h4 ,,van ,b4 ,,magonigle ,illustration3 #ajg4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,h4 ,,van ,b4 ,,magonigle ,mr4 ,edward ,penfield's work first attracted attention through the series of posters which he designed for ',harper's ,magazine' with unfailing fertility of invention for several years4 ,during this time he evolved a style of letter which exactly fitted the character of his work4 ,the cover design shown in #ajc displays his characteristic letter in actual use2 while the two interesting pages of large and small letter alphabets by him1 #ajd and #aje1 show the latest and best development of these letter forms4 ,the heading #ajb shown in #ajb exhibits a slightly different letter1 evidently based upon that used by ,mr4 ,penfield4 ,the capitals by ,mr4 ,h4 ,van ,b4 ,magonigle1 shown in #ajg1 are derived from classic ,roman forms but treated with a modern freedom that makes them unusually attractive4 ,they appear1 however1 to better advantage in actual use in conjunction with a design1 #ajf1 than when shown in the necessarily restricted form of an alphabetical page panel4 ,illustration3 #ajh4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,mr4 ,bertram ,g4 ,goodhue1 whose designs for type have already been mentioned1 is a #ajd most facile and careful letterer4 ,although his name is more intimately associated with ,blackletter 7examples of his work in that style are shown in the following chapter71 he has devised some very interesting variations of the ,roman forms1 such as that used in #ajh1 as an example4 ,illustration3 #aji4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,will ,,bradley ,mr4 ,will ,bradley uses a very individual style of the ,roman capital1 often marked by a peculiar exaggeration in the width of the round letters1 contrasted with narrow tall forms in such letters as ,e1 ,f and ,l4 ,mr4 ,bradley has become more free and unconventional in his later work1 but his specimens have always been noteworthy for beauty of line and spacing2 see #aaa4 ,figure #aji shows his employment of a brush-made variant of the ,roman form2 #ajg and #aaj shows both capitals and small letters drawn in his earlier and less distinctive style4 ,illustration3 #aaj4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals ,,and ,,small ,,letters4 ,,will ,,bradley 7#ahif7 ,illustration3 #aaa4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover4 ,,will ,,bradley ,illustration3 #aab4 ,,modern ,,american ,,ticket4 ,a4 ,j4 ,,iorio ,the ticket1 #aab1 designed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,iorio1 suggests what our theatre tickets might be made4 ,in spacing and general arrangement of the letters and the freedom of treatment1 ,mr4 ,iorio's work may be compared with much of the #aaj work of ,mr4 ,bradley4 ,figure #aac shows a modern ,roman capital form modeled upon the work of ,mr4 ,bradley4 ,illustration3 #aac4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,will ,,bradley ,illustration3 #aad4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,maxfield ,,parrish ,illustration3 #aae4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,maxfield ,,parrish ,illustration3 #aaf4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,a4 ,b4 ,le ,,boutillier ,mr4 ,maxfield ,parrish commonly employs a widely spaced letter1 fashioned closely after the old ,german models1 beautiful in its forms1 and displaying the individuality of the artist in its composition4 ,the form and use of ,mr4 ,parrish's usual letter is well shown in #aad2 and the title from a book cover design1 #aae1 shows yet another example of the letter in service4 ,the lettering of ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,le ,boutillier is always notable for spacing and composition4 ,figures #aag and #aah exhibit excellent capital and small-letter forms 7which1 by the way1 were drawn at the same size as the reproductions72 and #aaa the two other specimens of ,mr4 ,le ,boutillier's work1 #aaf and #aai1 which are reproduced to show his letters in use1 will be found exemplars for spacing1 composition1 balance of weight and color1 and1 in the latter drawing1 for harmony between the lettering and the treatment of the design4 ,illustration3 #aag4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,a4 ,b4 ,le ,,boutillier ,illustration3 #aah4 ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,a4 ,b4 ,le ,,boutillier ,illustration3 #aai4 ,,modern ,,american ,,poster4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,le ,,bouttillier ,illustration3 #abj4 ,,american ,,book-,,plate4 ,,claude ,,fayette ,,bragdon ,the form of letter preferred by ,mr4 ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon is represented by the page of small letters1 #ei1 which1 as we have already said1 are closely modeled on the type alphabet designed by ,jenson4 ,in ,mr4 ,bragdon's version they represent an excellently useful and conservative style of small letter4 ,they are shown in use1 with harmonious capitals and italics1 in the ',literature' cover design1 #aba4 ,in the small book-plate1 reproduced in #abj1 ,mr4 #aab ,bragdon has used a very graceful variant1 especially noteworthy for its freedom of serif treatment2 and in the letter-heading1 #abb1 he has employed an attractive capital of still different character4 ,illustration3 #aba4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,bragdon ,illustration3 #abb4 ,,modern ,,american ,,letter-,,head4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,bragdon ,mr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,bridwell has originated the singularly excellent letter shown in #abd1 which is founded upon some of the modern ,french architectural forms4 ,he uses it with great freedom and variety in spacing according to the effect that he desires to produce4 ,in one instance he will jam the letters together in an oddly crowded line1 while in another we find them spread far apart1 but always with excellent results as regards the design as a whole4 ,something of this variation of spacing is shown in #abc4 ,in the numerous theatrical posters which ,mr4 ,bridwell has designed--and which too seldom bear his signature--he employs a great variety of lettering4 ,sometimes1 of course1 the freedom of his work is restricted by the conservatism of clients2 but often the letter forms here illustrated add to the style and distinction of his designs4 ,illustration3 #abc4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,bridwell ,illustration3 #abd4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,bridwell ,illustration3 #abe4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,frank ,,hazenplug ,illustration3 #abf4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,frank ,,hazenplug #aaf ,illustration3 #abg4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover4 ,,frank ,,hazenplug ,mr4 ,frank ,hazenplug1 the author of much clever decorative lettering1 has evolved a very black and striking style of capital that still retains grace4 ,figures #abe and #abf show two sets of ,mr4 ,hazenplug's capitals4 ,a book cover on which he has used small letters in an original way is reproduced in #abg4 ,figure #abi shows the employment of a heavy-faced letter similar to that exhibited in alphabet #abf1 but suggestive in its serif treatment of ,mr4 ,penfield's letter4 ,illustration3 #abh4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,edward ,,edwards ,mr4 ,edward ,edwards employs a letter1 #abh1 which1 though rather conventional in its lines1 is noteworthy for its treatment of serifs and its spacing4 ,mr4 ,guernsey ,moore's letters shown in #acj are naturally better both in intrinsic form1 spacing and composition than the widely used ,post ,old ,style types which were based upon them4 ,the large and small letters displayed in #acc show a form that1 at the present writing1 seems to be in considerable favor4 ,it is1 however1 too extreme1 and its peculiarities are too exaggerated to allow it to become a permanent style4 ,but like the extravagant ,german forms #aag already referred to1 it has also apparent advantages2 and a few of its characteristics are not unlikely to survive in some more conservative adaptation4 ,illustration3 #abi4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover4 ,,frank ,,hazenplug ,illustration3 #acj4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,guernsey ,,moore ,illustration3 #aca4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,harry ,e4 ,,townsend ,the letter by ,mr4 ,harry ,everett ,townsend shown in #aca is most distinctive in effect--a more refined form of the rapidly drawn character shown in #ach4 ,mr4 ,howard ,pyle often gives us charming bits of lettering in connection with his illustrations4 ,the heading1 #acb1 shows a characteristic line4 ,most of ,mr4 ,pyle's lettering is ,colonial or ,georgian in style1 though the initials he uses with it are generally rendered in the fashions of the early ,german woodcuts1 somewhat similar to ,holbein's initials for the ,dance of ,death4 ,illustration3 #acb4 ,,modern ,,american ,,heading4 ,,howard ,,pyle ,one of the most original of ,american letterers is ,mr4 ,orson ,lowell4 ,usually closely conjoined with design1 his lettering does not show to its full value when reproduced apart from its surroundings1 for much of its charm depends #aah upon its harmony in line and color with the accompanying drawing ,mr4 ,lowell has taken the same basic forms as those used by ,mr4 ,penfield1 and has played with them until he has developed a series of most ingenious and fanciful letters4 ,the examples reproduced in #acf and #acg but inadequately show a few of the many forms that ,mr4 ,lowell employs with remarkable fertility of invention and delightfully decorative effect of line4 ,the small letters1 #ace1 shown opposite his capitals1 #acd1 are not by ,mr4 ,lowell1 nor are they in any way equal to his own small letters1 of which regrettably few appear in his published work2 but they may serve to exhibit a similar method of treating a much more conventional form of minuscule than ,mr4 #abb ,lowell would himself use for the same purpose4 ,despite its unconventionally1 however1 an examination of ,mr4 ,lowell's work will show that each letter has been developed to fit the space between its neighbors and to balance and relieve their forms2 and that1 fanciful as some of the shapes may appear1 they have invariably been knowingly worked out1 and always appear harmonious and fit4 ,illustration3 #acc4 ,,modern ,,american ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #acd4 ,,modern ,,american ,,capitals4 ,,after ,,orson ,,lowell ,illustration3 #ace4 ,,modern ,,american ,,small ,,letters4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #acf4 ,,modern ,,american ,,titles4 ,,orson ,,lowell ,the pages of letters shown in #ach1 #aci and #adj are intended to suggest forms which1 while suitable for rapid use1 yet possess some individuality and character4 ,the so-called ,cursive letter by ,mr4 ,maxfield ,parrish1 #adj1 is particularly effective for such informal use--in fact1 its very charm lies in its informality--and is quite as distinctively pen-ny as any of ,mr4 ,crane's work of the same kind4 ,a glance over the field of modern examples will disclose1 first1 a general tendency to break away from the older type models in pen-drawn forms2 second1 a growing partiality for the small letter1 and third1 a sporadic disposition to use capital and minuscule forms interchangeably4 ,the first #abc trend may be noticed by comparing the letter shown in #acb1 which is closely modeled after type1 with that shown in #acf1 in which an opposite method is followed1 and the letters are so treated in handling form and color as to best harmonize with the design itself4 ,the possibilities latent in the small letter are indicated by such interesting uses as those shown in figures #gg1 #hi1 #ih1 #aja1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aba1 #abg1 #acj and #aca4 ,american designers seem to be especially interested in the development of the small letter4 ,of the intermingling of the capital and small letter shapes examples may be found in figures #ga1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #ih1 #abg and #acd4 ,in these examples it will be noted that the minuscules seem to be more easily transformed into capitals than do the capitals into minuscules2 only a few of the latter appearing to lend themselves harmoniously to the small letter guise4 ,illustration3 #acg4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,orson ,,lowell ,illustration3 #ach4 ,,modern ,,american ,,letters1 ,,for ,,rapid ,,use4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aci4 ,,modern ,,american ,,italic1 ,,for ,,plans1 ,,etc4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,bragdon ,illustration3 #adj4 ,,modern ,,american ,,letters4 ,,maxfield ,,parrish ,such tendencies as these1 if allowed to develop slowly and naturally1 are certain to evolve new forms--a process of modification which it should be fully as instructive and entertaining to observe as any of the historical changes that have already become incorporated into our present letter shapes4 #abg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,gothic ,,letters ,the name ,gothic applies rather to the spirit than to the exact letter forms of the style4 ,the same spirit of freedom and restlessness characterises the architecture of the period wherein this style of letter was developed2 and ,gothic letters are in many ways akin to the fundamental forms of ,gothic architecture4 ,their effect is often tiring and confusing to the eye because of the constant recurrence of very similar forms with different letter meanings2 yet this very similarity is the main cause of the pleasing aspect of a page of ,gothic lettering4 ,unlike the ,roman letters1 which attained a complete and final development1 ,gothic letters never reached authoritative and definitive forms1 any more than did ,gothic architecture4 ,every individual ,gothic letter has several quasi-authoritative shapes1 and all of these variants may be accepted1 as long as they display an intelligent conception of the spirit of the style as a whole4 ,because of this lack of finality1 however1 it is impossible to analyze each of the letter forms as we were able to do with the ,roman alphabet in ,chapter ,i2 yet this very variability and variety constitute at once the peculiar beauty of ,gothic and the great difficulty of so drawing it as to preserve its distinctive character4 ,any letter of ,gothic form is usually called either ,gothic or ,blackletter indiscriminately1 but this use is inexact #abh and confusing4 ,the term ,blackletter should1 strictly1 be applied only to letters in which the amount of black in the line overbalances the white2 and the proper application of the title should be determined rather by this balance or weight of the letter than by its form4 ,illustration3 #ada4 ,,italian ,,round ,,gothic ,,small ,,letters4 #aejj ,the original ,gothic letter was a gradual outgrowth from the round ,roman ,uncial4 ,its early forms retained all the roundness of its ,uncial parent2 but as the advantages of a condensed form of letter for the saving of space became manifest1 7parchment was expensive and bulky7 and the #aca beauty of the resulting blacker page was noticed1 the round ,gothic forms were written closer and narrower1 the ascenders and descenders were shortened1 with marked loss of legibilty1 that the lines of lettering might be brought closer together1 until a form was evolved in which the black overbalanced the white--the ,blackletter which still survives in the common ,german text of to-day4 ,thus1 though a ,gothic letter may not be a ,blackletter1 a ,blackletter is always ,gothic1 because it is constructed upon ,gothic lines4 ,on the other hand1 a ,roman ,blackletter would be an obvious impossibility4 ,the very essential and fundamental quality of a ,roman letter lies in the squareness or circularity of its skeleton form4 ,for clearness and convenience1 then1 the following discrimination between the terms ,gothic and ,blackletter will be adopted in this treatise3 ,when a letter is ,gothic but not a ,blackletter it will be called ,round ,gothic2 when it is primarily a ,blackletter it will be termed ,blackletter1 the latter name being restricted to such compressed1 narrow or angular forms as the small letters shown in #add1 #adg and #adh4 ,the name ,round ,gothic will be applied only to the earlier forms1 such as those shown in #ada and #adb4 ,such a distinction has not1 ,i believe1 hitherto been attempted2 but the confusion which otherwise results makes the discrimination seem advisable4 ,the three pages of examples1 figures #ada1 #adb and #adc1 exhibit the characteristic forms and standard variations of the ,round ,gothic4 ,in lieu of any detailed analysis of these letter shapes1 it may perhaps be sufficient to say that they were wholly and exactly determined by the position of the quill1 which was held rigidly upright1 after the fashion #acb already described in speaking of ,roman lettering2 and that the letters were always formed with a round swinging motion of hand and arm1 as their forms and accented lines clearly evidence2 for the medieval scribes used the ,round ,gothic as an easy and legible handwritten form1 and linked many of the letters4 ,illustration3 #adb4 ,,italian ,,round ,,gothic ,,small ,,letters4 #afth ,,century ,illustration3 #adc4 ,,spanish ,,round ,,gothic ,,letters4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #add4 ,,german ,,blackletter ,,construction4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer ,figures #aeh1 #agj1 #agb and #agc show some capitals adapted for use with these ,round ,gothic letters2 but the beginner should be extremely wary of attempting to use any ,gothic capitals alone to form words1 as their outlines are not suited for inter-juxtaposition4 ,occasionally they may thus be used1 and used effectively1 as is shown1 for instance1 in the beautiful page of lettering by ,mr4 ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey1 #aec2 but so successful a solution is rare1 and implies an intimate knowledge of the historic examples and use of ,gothic lettering4 ,the late ,gothic or ,blackletter is condensed and narrowed in the extreme4 ,no circles are employed in the construction of the small letters1 which have angular and generally acute corners4 ,as in all pen-drawn letters1 the broad lines are made on the down right-sloping strokes1 and the narrow lines are at right angles to these4 ,blackletter shapes1 like those of the ,round ,gothic1 cannot1 as has been said1 be defined by any set of general rules2 the intrinsic quality of all ,gothic letters almost demands a certain freedom of treatment that would transgress any laws that could be formulated4 ,indeed the individual forms should always be subservient to the effect of the line or page4 ,observe in almost every example shown how the form of the same letter constantly varies in some minor detail4 ,the drawing by ,albrecht ,drer1 reproduced in #add1 will1 #acd however1 serve to show the construction of an excellent ,blackletter1 which may fairly be considered as typical4 ,illustration3 #ade4 ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,,from ,,manuscripts ,illustration3 #adf4 ,,german ,,blackletters ,,with ,,rounded ,,angles ,the first essential of a good ,blackletter line or page is that it shall be of a uniform color4 ,unlike the ,roman1 the ,blackletter form does not permit that one word be wider spaced than others in the same panel4 ,the amount of white left between the several letters should be as nearly as possible the same throughout1 approximately the same as the space between the perpendicular strokes of the minuscule letters themselves4 ,usually1 the less the white space the better will be the general effect of the page1 for its beauty depends much upon a general blackness of aspect2--and let it be noted in passing that1 for this reason1 it is doubly difficult to judge of the final effect of a ,blackletter page from any outlined pencil sketch4 ,even in the cases of those capital letters that extend both above and below the guide lines it will be found possible to so adjust the spaces #ace and blacks as not to interrupt the general uniformity of color1 and it is sometimes advisable to fill awkward blanks by flourishes2 although flourishing1 even in ,blackletter1 is an amusement that should be indulged in cautiously4 ,as a general rule the more solidly black a panel of ,blackletter is the better 7a principle too often disregarded in the modern use of the form72 though on the other hand1 the less legible the individual letters will become4 ,the designer should therefore endeavor to steer a middle course1 making his panel as black as he can without rendering the individual letters illegible4 ,no style permits more of liberty in the treatment of its separate letter forms than the ,blackletter4 ,the same letter may require a different outline at the beginning of a word than in the middle or at the end4 ,the ascenders and descenders may be drawn so short as hardly to transcend the guide lines of the minuscules1 or may grow into #acf flourishes up and down1 to the right or to the left1 to fill awkward blanks4 ,indeed so variable are these forms that in ancient examples it is often difficult to recognize an individual letter apart from its context4 ,the two pages drawn by ,mr4 ,goodhue1 #ahh and #ahi1 deserve careful study as examples of modern use of the ,blackletter4 ,it will be observed that almost as many variants of each letter are employed as the number used would permit1 thus giving the panel variety and preventing any appearance of monotony or rigidity4 ,notice the freedom and variety of the swash lines in the capitals1 and yet that each version is quite as graceful1 logical and original as any of its variants4 ,the examples of old lettering reproduced in figures #adg1 #adh and #adi1 together with the drawings by ,mr4 ,goodhue1 will indicate the proper spacing of ,blackletter2 but in most of the pages here devoted to illustrating the individual forms the letters have been spaced too wide for their proper effect that each separate shape might be shown distinctly4 ,the style appears at its best in compositions which fill a panel of more or less geometrical form1 as1 for example1 the beautiful title-page reproduced in #adg4 ,could anything be more delightful to the eye than its rich blackness1 energetic lines1 and refreshing virility8 ,in this design surely we have a specimen that1 from the proportion and balance of its blacks1 is more effective than anything which could have been accomplished by the use of the more rigid ,roman letter2 but despite its many beauties it suffers from the inherent weakness of the individual letter forms1--it is more effective than readable6 ,illustration3 #adg4 ,,italian ,,blackletter ,,title-,,page4 ,,jacopus ,,foresti1 #adig ,illustration3 #adh4 ,,german ,,blackletter ,,page4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #aeae ,illustration3 #adi4 ,,german ,,memorial ,,brass4 ,,meissen1 #aeaj ,illustration3 #aej4 ,,modern ,,american ,,cover ,,in ,,blackletter4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,another excellent example of the old use of ,blackletter is the page from the prayerbook of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 #ach shown in #adh1 in which observe again the variety of the individual letter forms4 ,figure #adi shows the use of a ,blackletter on an admirable monumental brass1 which is reputed to have been designed by ,albrecht ,drer4 ,a similar ,blackletter form1 also from a brass1 is shown at larger scale in #ahf4 #aci ,any of the minuscule forms of ,blackletter which have been illustrated may be used with the ,gothic capitals of figures #afd-e1 #aff1 #agg1 #agi1 #ahe1 #ahh-i2 or with such ,uncial capitals as are illustrated in #aee to #afb2 care being taken1 of course1 that these capitals are made to agree in style and weight with the small letters chosen4 ,although ,uncial capitals are historically more closely allied with the ,round ,gothic1 we have abundant precedent for their use with the minuscule ,blackletter in many of the best medieval specimens4 ,when the ,gothic ,uncial capitals were cut in stone and marble there was naturally a corresponding change in character1 as is shown in the ,italian examples illustrated in #afj #adj and #afa4 ,these examples1 which are reproduced from rubbings1 exhibit the characteristic stone cut forms very clearly4 ,a ,gothic ,uncial alphabet redrawn from a ,german brass is illustrated in #afb4 ,the group of specimens from #aed to #aei exhibit the chronological growth of the ,uncial capitals1 which were used1 as has been said1 with the various small ,blackletter forms1 though they were also used alone to form words1 as is shown in #afj4 ,the historical progression in these ,uncial examples is most interesting2 and1 allowing for the variations of national temperament1 traces itself connectedly enough4 ,figures #aed to #aei are pen forms1 while #afj to #afc are from stone or metal-cut letters4 ,figures #afd to #aff show alphabets of ,gothic pen-drawn capitals that will serve as a basis for such adaptations as are shown in the modern examples #aeb and #aec4 ,figures #afg to #afi show a more elaborate but an excellent and typical variety of this form of capital1 which is one of the most beautiful and distinctive of ,gothic letters4 ,shorn of its fussy small lines the main skeleton is eminently virile2 and1 though extremely difficult to draw1 it cannot be surpassed for certain limited uses4 ,figures #agj to #agc exhibit a group of ,gothic capitals more or less allied in character and all pen letters4 ,figures #agd to #agf show forms similar to those of the previous group1 but adapted for use in various materials4 ,illustration3 #aea4 ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletter4 ,,walter ,,puttner ,illustration3 #aeb4 ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletter4 ,,otto ,,hupp ,illustration3 #aec4 ,,modern ,,blackletter4 ,,edwin ,a4 ,,abbey ,figures #agg to #agi show some ,english ,gothic letters1 the last being that employed so effectively in the pen-drawn page by ,mr4 ,abbey1 #aec4 ,figures #ahj to #ahd illustrate various forms of ,blackletter3 #ahj is from a ,german brass1 #ahb illustrates an ,italian pen form1 and #ahc and #ahd show #ada ,blackletters drawn by ,albrecht ,drer1 the latter being the simplest and strongest variant in this style4 ,it is the same letter that is employed to show ,blackletter construction in diagram #add4 ,figure #ahe shows the well-known and unusually beautiful initials designed by ,drer4 ,figure #ahf is a ,blackletter from an ,english brass1 although the letter forms in this example1 as well as those of many other ,english brasses1 may perhaps have been derived from ,flanders1 as many of the finest early ,continental brasses were imported from the ,netherlands4 ,the ,italian forms of ,gothic ,blackletters are generally too fussy and finikin to be of practical value for modern use1 though they often possess suggestive value4 ,the letters shown in #ahb are fairly typical of the characteristic ,blackletter minuscules of ,italy4 ,figure #ahg exhibits an example of beautiful lettering in the ,italian style1 redrawn from a rubbing of an inlaid floor-slab in ,santa ,croce1 ,florence4 ,the omission of capitals in long1 confined lines is typical of many ,blackletter inscriptions1 as may be seen in #adi1 as well as in the plate just mentioned4 ,in view of the number of fine specimens of ,blackletter which have been handed down to us1 it has been deemed #adb unnecessary to reproduce many examples of its employment by modern draughtsmen4 ,the pages by ,mr4 ,goodhue1 #ahh-i1 have already been referred to2 and figure #aej shows a very consistent and representative use of similar letter forms by the same designer4 ,figures #aij and #aia illustrate two modern varieties of ,blackletter1 one very simple and the other very ornate4 ,the small cuts1 #aea and #aeb1 show excellent modern ,blackletters2 the first1 of unusually narrow form1 being by ,herr ,walter ,puttner1 and the second1 with its flourished initials1 by ,herr ,otto ,hupp4 ,illustration3 #aed4 ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,initials4 #ab,,th ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aee4 ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,initials4 #ac,,th ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aef4 ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aeg4 ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aeh4 ,,italian ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aei4 ,,spanish ,,uncial ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,,juan ,,de ,,yciar1 #aeej ,illustration3 #afj4 ,,venetian ,,wall ,,panel1 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,,from ,,rubbing ,illustration3 #afa4 ,,venetian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,f4,c4,b4 ,illustration3 #afb4 ,,german ,,uncial ,,capitals1 ,,from ,a ,,brass4 #ad,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #afc4 ,,french ,,and ,,spanish ,,uncial ,,capitals4 #ad,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #afd4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,tagliente1 #af,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #afe4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,tagliente1 #af,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #aff4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,,giov4 ,,palatino1 #af,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #afg4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,p4 ,,frank1 #afja ,illustration3 #afh4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,p4 ,,frank1 #afja ,illustration3 #afi4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,initials4 ,p4 ,,frank1 #afja ,illustration3 #agj4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #af,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #aga4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #af,,th ,,century ,illustration3 #agb4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #agth ,,century ,illustration3 #agc4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 #agth ,,century ,illustration3 #agd4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,,from ,,manuscripts ,illustration3 #age4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,,from ,,manuscripts ,illustration3 #agf4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,,from ,,manuscripts ,illustration3 #agg4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,text ,,letters4 ,,from ,,manuscripts ,illustration3 #agh4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,letters4 #aeth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #agi4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,letters4 #aeth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ahj4 ,,german ,,blackletters ,,from ,a ,,brass4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #aha4 ,,german ,,blackletters4 #afth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ahb4 ,,italian ,,blackletters4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,tagliente1 #afth ,,century ,illustration3 #ahc4 ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #afth ,,century ,illustration3 #ahd4 ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #afth ,,century ,illustration3 #ahe4 ,,german ,,gothic ,,capitals4 ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 #afth ,,century ,illustration3 #ahf4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,blackletters4 #aeth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ahg4 ,,italian ,,inlaid ,,blackletters4 ,,from ,a ,,rubbing4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #ahh4 ,,modern ,,american ,,blackletters4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,illustration3 #ahi4 ,,modern ,,american ,,blackletters4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,goodhue ,illustration3 #aij4 ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletters4 ,,after ,,julius ,,diez ,illustration3 #aia4 ,,modern ,,german ,,blackletters1 ,,flourished4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #ahb 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,italic ,,and ,,script ,the regrettable modern neglect of those free and very interesting forms of the ,roman letter1 ,italic and ,script1 seem to authorize consideration of them in a separate chapter1 even at the risk of appearing to give them undue importance4 ,illustration3 #aib4 ,,german ,,italic4 ,,gottlieb ,,munch1 #agdd ,the first ,italic type letter was derived1 it is said1 from the handwriting of ,petrarch1 and several admirable examples of the style1 variously treated1 have come down to us4 ,as far as construction goes ,italic is1 theoretically1 only the exact ,roman form sloped1 and with such changes as are necessitated by the sloping of the letters4 ,practically1 however1 it will be found that certain alterations in the outlines of the ,roman letters must be made after giving them a slope in order to adapt them to their new requirements of inter-juxtaposition2 and1 by a reflex action1 when words in ,italic capitals are used in the same panel with upright ,roman letters1 certain variations must be made in the latter1 such as accenting the ,roman ,o in the same fashion as the ,italic ,o is accented1 an altered treatment of serifs1 and other changes in detail4 ,the ,script form of letter was developed out of the running or writing hand1 and still retains a cursive tendency in the linking together of its letters2 although in some forms it so closely approximates to ,italic as to be almost #ahc indistinguishable from it4 ,script lettering came into its greatest vogue during the ,georgian period in ,england and at the same time in ,france2 and was extensively employed1 usually in conjunction with the upright ,roman1 in carved panels of stone or wood1 and in engraving4 ,the ,script forms are well worthy of the attention of modern designers since they offer unusual opportunities for freedom and individuality of treatment2 and because of this vitality and adaptility to modern uses the present chapter will be devoted largely to the illustration of ,script examples4 ,the old ,spanish and ,italian writing-books 7referred to in a previous chapter71 which in a measure took the place filled so much less artistically to-day by our modern school copybooks1 contain many specimens of beautiful ,script1 both capitals and small letters4 ,figures #aic to #aif show pages from such books published in ,spain4 ,illustration3 #aic4 ,,spanish ,,script4 ,,torquato ,,torio1 #ahjb ,illustration3 #aid4 ,,spanish ,,scripts4 ,,torquato ,,torio1 #ahjb ,illustration3 #aie4 ,,spanish ,,script4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg ,illustration3 #aif4 ,,spanish ,,cursive4 ,,francisco ,,lucas1 #aegg #ahh ,a simple type of ,spanish capital ,script letter is shown in #bja1 while a corresponding small letter1 redrawn from a ,spanish source1 is illustrated in #bjb4 ,it should be noted in the latter figure that the three lower lines are further removed from the ordinary writing hand and are more interesting than the letters in the three upper lines4 ,illustration3 #aig4 ,,modern ,,american ,,titles4 ,,claude ,,fayette ,,bragdon ,illustration3 #aih4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,george ,,wharton ,,edwards ,the ,french artists and engravers were1 as has been said1 among the first to appreciate the qualities of ,script1 and used it in many of their engraved title-pages1 especially during the reigns of ,louis xv4 and xvi4 ,figure #aii shows a set of ,french ,script capitals of the time of ,louis ,,xv41 highly flourished but more formal than those shown in #bja4 ,a form of ,script very nearly allied to the ,italic was frequently used for the lettering on headstones and wall tombs in the churches and churchyards of ,england4 ,figure #bjc1 in which the lettering is taken from a tomb in ,westminster ,abbey1 illustrates this style of ,script4 ,a set of ,script small letters with some unusual characteristics1 adapted by ,hrachowina from the ,german ,renaissance form shown in outline in #aib1 is exhibited as a solid letter in figure #bjj4 ,illustration3 #aii4 ,,french ,,script ,,capitals4 #ahth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #bjj4 ,,german ,,script ,,after ,,hrachowina4 #ahth ,,century4 ,illustration3 #bja4 ,,spanish ,,script ,,capitals4 ,,early #ahth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #bjb4 ,,spanish ,,script ,,alphabets4 ,,late #agth ,,century4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,illustration3 #bjc4 ,,english ,,incised ,,script4 ,,from ,,inscriptions4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aid ,illustration3 #bjd4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,bruce ,,rogers ,illustration3 #bje4 ,,modern ,,american ,,script4 ,,bruce ,,rogers ,illustration3 #bjf4 ,,modern ,,american ,,script4 ,,after ,,frank ,,hazenplug ,illustration3 #bjg4 ,,modern ,,american ,,italic ,,capitals4 ,f4 ,c4 ,b4 ,among modern ,american designers1 ,mr4 ,bruce ,rogers has admirably succeeded in catching the ,french and ,georgian spirit in his treatment of the ,script characters2 yet1 nevertheless1 his lettering in this style is still modern in feeling4 ,in the title from a book cover1 #bjd1 ,mr4 ,rogers has allowed himself just the proper amount of interlacement and flourishing--both of which require the restraint of a subtle taste or the result may prove to be over-elaborate4 ,the page of lettering by the same designer1 shown in #bje1 is a successful solution of a difficult problem1 and1 together with the book cover1 will serve to exhibit the possibilities of this style of ,script4 ,mr4 ,george ,wharton ,edwards is another modern designer who has a penchant for the ,script form4 ,he uses one distinctive and personal style of it in which the larger letters are formed by two black lines separated by a narrow white space1 as exhibited in #aih4 ,the lines from an advertisement1 #aig1 by ,mr4 ,claude ,fayette ,bragdon1 in which ,script1 ,italic and ,roman letters are combined1 are of especial interest from the easy manner in which the three different styles have been adapted to each other and made to harmonize in one small panel1 #aih while still preserving an appropriate ,georgian aspect4 ,the interlacement and flourishing1 too1 are handled with commendable restraint4 ,few modern artists have so successfully treated ,italic capitals with ,script freedom as ,mr4 ,will ,bradley4 ,sometimes employing forms of ,italic capitals and small letters little removed from type1 he will again give us an example of his handiwork in which ,italic is used with examplary freedom1 as is shown in the specimen from a book catalogue1 #aji4 ,the modern trick of wide spacing often lends itself aptly to the swing and freedom of the swashed and flourished lines of ,script1 as may be seen in figure #bjg4 ,an excellent modern ,script letter1 adapted from a design by ,mr4 ,frank ,hazenplug1 is shown in #bjf4 ,its heavy face and originality of form make it a useful and pleasing variant4 ,illustration3 #bjh4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,anonymous ,illustration3 #bji4 ,,modern ,,american ,,title4 ,,edward ,,penfield ,the magazine heading1 by an anonymous designer1 #bjh1 and the line from the pen of ,mr4 ,edward ,penfield1 #bji1 suggest still other useful varieties of the ,script form4 #aii 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v ,,to ,,the ,,beginner ,the beginner in any art or craft is likely to have an undue respect for the mere instruments of his trade4 ,he will eventually learn that tools play a much less important part in his work than he at first thinks2 but1 as it is unlikely that any sudden change in human nature will occur1 it seems as well to devote here some consideration to the tools which the student will always believe to be an important part of his equipment4 ,he will ultimately ascertain for himself what is best adapted to his own individual needs4 ,though every draughtsman will recommend a pen that he has discovered to be especially suitable for his own use1 few will be found to agree4 ,perhaps it is safe to say1 however1 that the best all-round pen for lettering is the ,gillot ,no4 #cjc4 ,it is not too sharp1 and when broken in is flexible and easy4 ,the crowquill pen will be found of little use4 ,it is an advantage to have at hand a large coarse pen of little flexibility and smooth point for drawing heavy lines of even width4 ,in using water-color in place of ink such a pen will be found more satisfactory than the ,gillot #cjc1 as the thinness of the fluid causes the line to spread whenever pressure is applied to a limber and finely pointed pen1 with the result that the line is not only broadened1 but when dry shows darker than was intended1 as more color is deposited than in a narrow line4 ,when a #bjj narrow line of even width and sharpness is desired it is best to use a new pen2 an older pen will1 on the other hand1 allow of more ease in swelling and broadening the line under pressure4 ,a thin dry line may be obtained by turning the pen over and drawing with the back of the nib1 although if the pen so used be worn it is apt to have a burr over the point that may prevent its working satisfactorily in this way4 ,a new hard pen is likely to be the cause of a niggling line2 a too limber one of a careless or undesirably broad line4 ,on rare occasions1 and for obtaining certain effects1 a stub pen may be found of value1 but it cannot be recommended to the beginner1 as it is very difficult to find one that has sufficient flexibility of nib4 ,quill pens are undoubtedly useful in drawing a few types of letters 7see some of the designs by ,mr4 ,walter ,crane shown in previous pages1 for examples7 but1 not to allude to the difficulty of properly pointing a quill1 which seems to be a well-nigh lost art nowadays1 the instrument possesses so many annoying peculiarities that it is as well to avoid its use until a satisfactory command over the more dependable steel pens has been obtained4 ,a pencil is1 of course1 a necessity in laying out the first scheme for lettering4 ,the softer the pencil the more felicitous will the composition seem2 but the beginner should guard against being too easily pleased with the effect thus obtained1 as it is often due to the deceptive indefiniteness of line and pleasant gray tone4 ,when inked-in1 in uncompromising black against the white paper1 the draughtsman is apt to find that his sketch has developed many an imperfection1 both in composition and in individual letter shapes1 that the vague pencil lines did not reveal4 #bja ,as to paper1 ,bristol-board has the best smooth surface for lettering4 ,the ,english board is in some ways better than the ,american1 but has the disadvantage of being made in smaller sheets4 ,the difficulty with any smooth board is that erasures1 even of pencil lines1 are likely to spoil its surface4 ,the rough ,strathmore ,american board has a very grateful surface upon which the pen may be used with almost as much freedom as the pencil4 ,all rough surfaces1 however1 while tending to promote interesting lines1 are not suited for careful lettering1 and the classic and ,italian forms especially require to be drawn upon the smoothest possible surface4 ,the ,american ,strathmore board may also be obtained in smooth finish2 and1 indeed1 is less injured by erasures than most ,bristol-boards4 ,the prepared ,india or carbon inks such as ,higgin's or ,carter's are best for the beginner2 although all prepared inks have a tendency to get muddy if allowed to stand open1 and the so-called waterproof inks are easily smudged4 ,in devising a panel of lettering1 such as a title-page for example1 the draughtsman's first step would naturally be to sketch out the whole design at a very small size1 say an inch and a half high1 in pencil4 ,this small sketch should determine1 first1 the general balance of the page2 second1 the inter-relations and spacings of the various lines and words and their relative importance and sizes4 ,from this thumb-nail sketch the design should be drawn out at full size in pencil1 and much more carefully4 ,in this redrawing the separate letter shapes and their harmonious relations to each other should be determined1 and such deviations made from the smaller sketch as seem to benefit the effect4 #bjb ,some draughtsmen sketch out each line of lettering separately on thin paper1 and then1 after blackening the back of this sheet1 lay each line over the place where it is needed in the design1 tracing the outlines of the letters with a hard point1 and thus transferring them to the design beneath4 ,in this way a page of lettering may be studied out line by line1 and accurately placed or centered2 but the process is tedious1 and there is always danger of losing sight of the effect as a whole4 ,in outlining letters which are ultimately intended to be solidly blacked-in1 the beginner should guard against making his outlines too wide1 especially as regards the thin lines1 for the eye in judging an outline sketch follows the insides of the bounding lines rather than the outsides which will really be the outlines of the blacked-in letter1 so that when finished the letter is likely to look heavier and more clumsy than in the sketch4 ,when the entire pencil scheme seems satisfactory in every detail1 and each line has been exactly determined1 the whole should be carefully inked-in4 ,in inking-in letters the swing of the arm should be as free and unobstructed as possible4 ,for the best result it is absolutely necessary to work at a wide board on a solid table of convenient height and angle4 ,it is impossible to letter well in a cramped or unsteady position4 ,one thing cannot be too strongly urged upon the beginner4 ,never use a ,t-square1 triangle or ruling pen in inking-in lettering4 ,it will be found ultimately much easier to train hand and eye to make a straight and true line free-hand than to attempt to satisfactorily combine a ruled and free-hand line4 ,the free-hand method is1 be it acknowledged1 both more lengthy and #bjc difficult at first1 but when the draughtsman does finally gain a mastery over his line he has achieved something which he will find of the greatest value4 ,in a drawing to be reproduced by mechanical processes1 the proportions of the design are1 of course1 unalterably determined by the required panel or page2 but the size of the drawing may be such as best suits the inclination and convenience of the draughtsman4 ,if the drawing is to be reduced in size 7and that is the usual method1 because1 in general1 it is easier to draw large rather than small71 the draughtsman must first decide on the amount of reduction to which his style of rendering and the subject itself are best adapted1 remembering1 however1 that a drawing is sure to suffer from excessive reduction1 not only in general effect but in interest1 for the quality of the line is sure in a measure to disappear4 ,a reduction of height or width by one-third is the usual amount2 but many of our modern designers obtain their best effects by making their drawings but a trifle larger than the required reproduction4 ,some even make their drawings of the same size2 others only from a twelfth to a sixth larger4 ,as a rule1 the less the reduction the less the departure from the effect of the original1 and the more certainly satisfactory the result1 although more careful drawing and greater exactness of line are necessary4 ,illustration3 #baj4 ,,diagram ,,to ,,show ,,method ,,of ,,enlarging ,a ,,panel ,to keep the outlines of a panel in the same proportion while enlarging its area for the purpose of making a drawing for reproduction1 lay out the required finished size of the panel near the upper left hand corner of the paper1 and draw a diagonal line through the upper left hand and lower right hand corner of this panel1 extending it beyond the panel #bjd boundaries4 ,from any given point along this diagonal1 lines drawn parallel to the side and top lines of the original panel1 and extended till they intersect the extended left side line and top line of the original panel1 will give an outline of the same proportions as the required panel4 ,by taking various points on the diagonal1 panels of any height or width but still of the proper proportions may be obtained 7see diagram #baj74 ,diagram #baa illustrates a variation of the previous method of enlarging the proportions of a panel1 in which1 by the use of two diagonals1 both perpendicular and horizontal center lines are retained4 ,when it is necessary to lay out a border of a predetermined width within the required panel1 the foregoing method can only be used to determine the outside lines of such a border1 and it becomes necessary to make the drawing some numerical proportion1 say1 one-half as large again1 or twice as large as the finished panel4 ,the width of the border will then be of the same proportionate width4 ,the beginner will find it always wise to base his lettering on penciled top and bottom guide lines1 and occasionally to add waist guide lines1 as in #aic4 ,indeed1 it is rare that even accomplished letterers dispense with these simple aids4 ,these guide lines should invariably be laid-in with the #bje ,t-square and triangle4 ,after drawing the horizontal guides1 it is often advisable to run a few perpendicular lines up and down the paper1 which will serve to guard against the very common likelihood of the letters acquiring a tilt4 ,in drawing ,italic1 ,script1 and all sloping letters numerous sloping guide lines are especially necessary2 see #aic4 ,perpendicular guide lines will be found of marked assistance1 also in drawing ,gothic small letters1 which1 as they do not come against the top and bottom guide lines squarely1 but at an angle1 are often deceptive4 ,illustration3 #baa4 ,,diagram ,,to ,,show ,,method ,,of ,,enlarging ,a ,,panel ,if it is desirable to make two lines of lettering of the same length1 although they contain an unequal number of letters1 this may be effected--provided1 of course1 that the number of letters does not vary too greatly--by broadening or narrowing the letters that occur in one line but not in the other1 and by varying the spacings about the ,i's and the open letters4 ,note1 for example1 the spacing of the upper lines in the poster by ,mr4 ,crane1 #hg4 ,it is by no means essential to draw the same letter always exactly alike even in the same line2 in fact1 variation is generally demanded by the different surroundings and neighboring letters4 ,so long as the general character of the letter remains unchanged in its distinctive features1 such as weight1 #bjf treatment of serifs1 angles1 height of waist and cross lines1 etc41 its width and outlines may be varied and arranged to help out the spacing without interfering1 to any noticeable extent1 with the uniform appearance of the line4 ,in ,roman lettering emphasis may be obtained for any special word by spacing its letters farther apart4 ,this has something of the same emphasizing effect as the use of ,italic1 without so greatly breaking the harmony of the line4 ,much of the lettering of the ,italian ,renaissance shows a very subtle appreciation of this use1 and in some of the most beautiful inscriptions the important words are often so differentiated1 while others are emphasized by slightly larger characters4 ,as a general rule1 and within certain limits1 the wider a letter the more legible it is likely to be4 ,blackness and boldness of stem alone will not make a letter readable4 ,width1 boldness of hair lines and serifs1 and a proper amount of surrounding white space are more essential4 ,the ,roman letter is more legible than the ,blackletter mainly because it is black against a roomy white ground2 while ,blackletter1 on the contrary1 is really defined by small interrupted areas of whites upon a black ground4 ,a common limitation of many draughtsmen is that they become accomplished in the rendering of but one style of letter1 and find themselves obliged to use it on all occasions1 whether it be suited to the work in hand or not1 because they can command no other4 ,in the case of certain designers1 of course1 the individuality of their work is strong enough to bind both lettering and design so closely together that they can never seem at dissonance2 but1 speaking generally1 the adherance to the use of but #bjg one type of letter can be but narrowing4 ,the beginner is urged1 therefore1 to practice the use of many styles1 even at the expense of gaining an immediate mastery over no one form4 ,he will find himself amply repaid in the end by the increase in freedom and variety4 ,while the student should possess enough knowledge of the historic styles and examples of lettering to prevent him from using incongruous or anachronous forms in the same design1 historic accuracy need not prevent him from engrafting the characteristics of dissimilar styles upon one another1 provided that the results prove harmonious and appropriate4 ,finally1 the draughtsman's first aim should be to make his lettering readable3 after this has been accomplished he should strive to give it beauty4 ,art in lettering is only to be attained by solving the problem of legibility in the way most pleasing to the eye4 ,good lettering should appeal both to the eye and to the mind4 ,only when it combines legibility with beauty can it be excellent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,a41 #f1 #i4 ,abbey1 ,edwin ,a41 #ig1 #acb1 #adj4 ,accenting1 of ,blackletters1 #acb2 of ,roman ,capitals1 #b2 of ,minuscules1 #ef2 of ,round ,gothic1 #acb2 of ,italic and ,script1 #ahb4 ,american ,lettering1 ,modern ,roman1 #ec1 #fd1 #ge1 #hb1 #ig2 ,classic ,roman1 #c1 #ad2 ,gothic1 #acb1 #acf1 #adj1 #adb2 ,italic1 #aid1 #aih2 ,script1 #aid1 #aih4 ,anglo-,saxon ,letters1 #df1 #dg2 modern use of1 #df4 ,ascenders1 height above body1 #eg2 in ,cheltenham ,old ,style type1 #ga2 in ,gothic1 #aca2 in ,blackletters1 #ace4 ,ashbee1 ,c4 ,r41 #gd4 ,auriol1 ,george1 #hh4 ,b41 #f4 ,badia1 ,florence1 lettering from1 #de4 ,bell1 ,robert ,anning1 #if4 ,blacked-in letters1 #bjb4 ,blackletters1 #abg1 #aca1 #acb1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb2 accents of1 #acb2 ascenders and descenders of1 #ace2 capitals for use with1 #acd1 #acf1 #aci2 a condensed form of ,gothic1 #abh2 construction of1 #acb1 #ada2 definition of1 #abh1 #aca2 effect of page of1 #acb2 with ,roman letters1 #gb2 even color of1 #acd2 flourishes1 #ace2 individual letter forms1 #acb1 #acf2 illegibility of1 #ace1 #acf1 #bjf2 a part-,roman form1 #hd2 a narrow form1 #acb2 old examples of1 #acf2 in panel forms1 #acf2 used solidly1 #acd1 #ace2 spacing of1 #acd1 #acf2 variety of1 #hb1 #acb1 #ace1 #acf4 ,bonnard1 ,pierre1 #ia1 #ib4 ,border1 to lay out a1 #bjd4 ,boston ,public ,library1 #ad4 ,bragdon1 ,claude ,fayette1 #fd1 #aaa1 #aid4 ,brasses1 ,blackletters from1 #ach1 #adj4 ,bridwell1 ,h4 ,l41 #h1 #aab4 ,bristol-board1 #bja4 ,byzantine influence on ,italian lettering1 #de4 ,c41 #h4 ,capitals1 used with ,roman minuscules1 #eg2 with ,round ,gothic1 #acb2 with ,blackletters1 #acf1 #aci2 7see also under ,blackletter1 ,roman1 ,gothic1 ,italic1 ,modern ,roman ,capitals1 ,script1 ,round ,gothic1 ,uncial74 ,caroline ,text1 #eb4 ,caslon1 ,william1 #fd2 his type1 #fi4 ,centering lines of lettering1 #bjb4 ,charlemagne1 #eb4 ,cheltenham ,old ,style type1 #ga4 ,cheltenham ,press1 ,the1 #ga4 ,chisel-cut guide lines1 #c4 ,classic ,capitals1 see ,roman ,capitals4 ,classic forms of letters1 to draw1 #c1 #f1 #bja2 composition of1 #f2 ,italian ,renaissance1 #ae1 #bg1 #cj4 ,colonial lettering1 #aag4 ,constantine1 ,arch of1 lettering from1 #aa4 ,construction1 of ,blackletters1 #acb2 of ,roman ,capitals1 #c1 #f2 of ,roman ,minuscules1 #ec1 #ef4 ,craig1 ,gordon1 #ie1 #if4 ,crane1 ,walter1 #dg1 #ib1 #bjj1 #bje4 ,cross-bar in ,roman ,capitals1 #f4 ,cursive ,letters1 #ia1 #abb4 ,cursive tendency in ,script lettering1 #ahb4 ,d41 #h4 ',dance of ,death1' ,holbein's1 #aag4 ,day1 ,lewis ,f41 #ic4 ,descenders1 7see ,ascenders74 ,de ,vinne1 ,theo4 ,l41 #fi4 ,dove's ,press1 ,the1 #fi4 ,drawing of letters1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bje2 for reproduction1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,drer1 ,albrecht1 #ca1 #acb1 #ach1 #ada4 ,e41 #f1 #ajd4 ,early ,gothic1 7see ,round ,gothic74 ,early ,printing1 #eb1 #fd1 #ga4 ,edwards1 ,edward ,b41 #aaf4 ,edwards1 ,george ,wharton1 #aid4 ,emphasis in lettering1 placing of1 #bjf 7see also ,accenting74 ,english ,brasses derived from ,flanders1 #ada4 ,english ,gothic1 #adj1 #ada4 ,english lettering1 modern1 #ge1 #hb1 #ib4 ,english1 ,letters1 #dg2 ,script1 #ahh1 7see also ,anglo-,saxon74 ,engraved ,title-pages1 ,french1 #ahh4 ,enlarging ,drawings1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,f41 #f1 #ajd4 f41 #ef4 ,fell1 ,h4 ,granville1 #if4 ,flanders1 ,brasses from1 #ada4 ,flourishing1 of ,blackletters1 #ace2 of ,script1 #aid1 #aih4 ,free-hand lines1 #bjb4 ,french1 modern lettering1 #gd1 #hb1 #hf2 ,script1 #ahh1 #aid4 ,freedom1 in lettering1 #ec1 #gd1 #hb1 #ib1 #ajb1 #aah1 #abb1 #bja2 in ,blackletters1 #acf2 in ,gothic1 #abg2 in ,italic1 #aih2 in kerns1 serifs and swash-lines1 etc41 #ec2 in ,roman letters1 #hb2 in ,script1 #ahc4 ,g41 #h4 g41 #eg4 ,georgian ,english lettering1 #aag1 #ahc1 #aid1 #aih4 ,german lettering1 modern1 #gd1 #hb1 #hd1 #ib2 early1 #aaj1 #aag2 ,script1 #eb1 #ahh2 types1 #eb4 ,goodhue1 ,bertram ,grosvenor1 #ga1 #ajb1 #acf1 #adb4 ,gothic ,capitals1 for use with ,blackletters1 #aci2 pen drawn1 #adj2 not to be used to form words1 #acb4 ,gothic1 ,english1 7see ,english ,gothic74 ,gothic lettering1 #abg1 #aca1 #acd1 #bje2 cut in stone1 #adj2 7see also ,blackletters and ,uncial74 ,granite1 letters cut in1 #aa1 #ad1 7see also ,stone-cut1 ,v-sunk and ,incised74 ,grasset1 ,eugne1 #hf4 ,greek type1 #gc4 ,grolier ,club1 #fi4 ,guide-lines1 #c1 #bjd4 ,h41 #f4 ,half-,uncial1 #eb4 ,harvard ,architectural ,building1 lettering on1 #ad4 ,hazenplug1 ,frank1 #aaf1 #aih4 ,historic styles of lettering1 knowledge of1 #bjg4 ,holbein's ',dance of ,death' initials1 #aag4 ,horne1 ,herbert ,p41 #gb4 ,hrachowina1 ,c41 #ahh4 ,hupp1 ,otto1 #adb4 ,i41 #h1 #i2 space around1 #bje4 ,illegibility of ,blackletters1 #ace1 #acf4 ,image1 ,selwyn1 #gc1 #ic4 ,incised letters in stone1 ,gothic1 #aci1 #adj2 ,classic ,roman1 #i1 #ad1 #de2 7see also ,granite1 ,inlaid1 ,marble1 ,sandstone1 ,v-sunk and ,stone-cut74 ,ink1 #bja4 ,inking-in lettering1 #bjj1 #bjb4 ,inlaid lettering1 ,gothic1 #ada4 ,interlacement of ,script letters1 #aid4 ,inter-relation of letters1 #f1 #ace1 #bja4 ,iorio1 ,adrian ,j41 #ajg4 ,irish letters1 7see ,anglo-,saxon74 ,italian1 ,blackletters1 #aci1 #ada2 modern lettering1 #ib2 ,renaissance 7see ,renaissance72 ,roman small letters1 #fd2 types1 #eb2 writing-books1 #fd1 #ahc2 letters1 drawing of1 #bja4 ,italic1 #eb1 #ahb1 #ahh1 #aid1 #aih2 capitals1 #ahb1 #aih2 drawing of1 #bje2 emphasis of1 #bjf4 ,j41 #h4 j41 #ef4 ,jenson1 ,nicholas1 #fd4 ,jones1 ,a4 ,garth1 #if4 ,k41 #f4 k41 #ef4 ,kerns1 #ec1 #ef4 ,kimball1 ,h4 ,ingalls1 #ga4 ,l41 #ajd4 ,late ,gothic1 7see ,blackletter74 ,laying out1 lettering1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje2 a border1 #bjd4 ,le ,boutillier1 ,addison ,b41 #aaj4 ,legibility of lettering1 #bjf1 #bjg2 of ,round ,gothic1 #acb4 ,letters1 outlines of1 #bjb1 #bjf2 widths of1 #bjf2 to lay out1 #bje2 execution of in various materials1 #ad2 7see also ,brasses1 ,inlaid1 ,marble1 ,granite1 ,pen and ,printed forms1 ,sandstone1 ,type74 ,lines1 heavy1 #aii2 narrow1 #aii2 thin1 #bjj2 in water-color1 #bjj2 freehand1 #bjb1 #bjc2 ruled1 #bjb4 ,linking1 of ,blackletters1 #acf2 of ,round ,gothic1 #acb2 of ,roman ,capitals1 #de2 of ,script1 #ahb4 ,lowell1 ,orson1 #aag4 ,m41 #b1 #bh4 m41 #ef4 ,marble1 letters cut in1 #ag1 #bg1 7see also ,incised1 ,inlaid74 ,marsuppini tomb1 ,florence1 #bh4 ,magonigle1 ,h4 ,van ,buren1 #ajb4 ,mc,kim1 ,mead ,white1 architects1 #ad4 ,medals1 lettering on1 #cj4 ,merrymount ,press1 ,the1 #ga1 #gb4 ,merrymount type1 #ga4 ,minuscule1 #a2 modern ,roman1 #eb1 #ec1 #ef1 #eg1 #fd2 monumental uses1 #eg2 composition of1 #fd2 growing use of1 #gf1 #abb2 spacing of1 #eg2 7see also1 ,roman1 ,gothic1 ,italic1 ,script74 ,modern lettering1 7see under countries1 ,american1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian74 ,modern ,roman ,capitals1 #f2 7see ,chapter ,,ii74 ,modern type1 7see ,type74 ,montaigne type1 #fi4 ,mont' ,allegro type1 #gc4 ,moore1 ,guernsey1 #aaf4 ,morris1 ,william1 #gb2 types of1 #fi4 ,mucha1 ,alphons ,m41 #ia4 ,n41 #b4 ,netherlands1 brasses from1 #ada4 ,new1 ,edmund ,h41 #if4 ,nicholson1 ,william1 #ie4 ,o41 #h1 #ahb4 o41 #ahb ,optical ,illusions in ,roman ,capitals1 #h4 ,outline letters1 #bjb4 ,p41 #f4 ,pantheon1 ,rome1 ,raphael's tomb1 #bg4 ,papers1 drawing1 #bja4 ,parchment1 #abh4 ,parrish1 ,maxfield1 #aaj1 #abb4 ,parsons1 ,alfred1 #if4 ,pens1 #aii1 #bja2 crowquill1 #aii2 reed1 #b2 ruling1 #bjb2 stub1 #bjj2 quill1 #bjj4 ,pen drawn forms of letters1 #i1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #de1 #ef1 #fd1 #gd1 #gf1 #abb1 #adj1 #ahb1 #aii1 #bjb4 ,pencils1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,penfield1 ,edward1 #ajj1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aih4 ,petrarch1 #eb2 handwriting of1 #ahb4 ,pisano1 ,vittore1 #cj4 ,post ,old ,style type1 #aaf4 ,presses1 7see ,merrymount1 ,vale1 ,riverside1 ,cheltenham1 ,dove's1 and ,de ,vinne74 ,printed forms of ,roman letters1 #i1 #cj1 #eb1 #ec1 #ef1 #fd1 #fi1 #abb4 ,printers1 ,german1 #eb2 ,italian1 #eb1 #fd2 ,american1 #fi2 ,english1 #fd1 #fi1 #gb1 #gc2 ,venetian1 #ec1 #fd4 ,proportions of a design1 #bjc4 ,puttner1 ,walter1 #adb4 ,pyle1 ,howard1 #aag4 ,q41 #b1 #h1 #ib4 ,quadrigesimale1 #fi4 ,quill pens1 #bjj2 method of holding1 #b1 #aca4 ,r41 #b1 #f1 #h4 ,railton1 ,herbert1 #if4 ,raphael's tomb1 lettering from1 #bg4 ,reduction of drawings1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,renaissance1 letters1 #ae1 #bg1 #cj2 artists of the1 #ec2 lettering of the ,italian1 #bjf2 medals1 #cj2 purity of letter shapes1 #fi4 ,renner1 #fi4 ,renner type1 #fi4 ,reproduction of drawings1 #bjc4 ,ricketts1 ,charles1 #ic4 ,riverside ,press1 ,the1 #fi4 ,rogers1 ,bruce1 #fi1 #aid4 ,roman ,capitals1 #a1 #bg2 7see also ,modern ,roman72 thick and thin lines of1 #a1 #f2 model for1 #c2 rules for1 #b2 squareness of1 #a1 #f1 #aca2 peculiarities of1 #f1 #h4 ,roman letters1 #abg1 #acf2 with ,italic1 #ahb2 combined with ,script and ,italic1 #aid2 cross bars of1 #f2 definition of1 #a2 legibility of1 #bjf2 waist lines of1 #f2 width proportions of1 #f4 ,roman minuscules1 7see ,minuscule74 ,roman forms1 ,gothic ,spirit in1 #hd2 ,uncial1 #abh4 ,romanesque influence on ,italian lettering1 #de4 ,ross1 ,albert ,r41 #c1 #aa1 #cb1 #ef4 ,roty1 ,o41 #cj4 ,round ,gothic1 analysis of1 #aca2 definition of1 #aca2 capitals to use with1 #acb1 #aci4 ,round letters1 capitals1 #b1 #c2 ,minuscules1 #ef1 #ga2 stone-cut1 #c1 #i4 ,rubbings1 from inscriptions1 #aa1 #af4 ,ruling pen1 #bjb4 ,s41 #h4 ,sandstone1 letters cut in1 #ad4 ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 lettering from1 #bh1 #ada4 ,script1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahh1 #aid1 #aih2 capitals1 #ahh2 cursive tendency in1 #ahb2 developed from writing hands1 #ahb2 drawing of1 #bje2 ,french1 #ahh2 ,german1 #ahh2 on ,english headstones and wall tombs1 #ahh2 ,spanish1 #ahh2 used in engravings1 #ahh2 used with upright ,roman1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,serifs1 #h1 #af2 definition of1 #c2 in ,minuscule letters1 #ec1 #fi1 #ga2 in ,italic letters1 #ahb2 treatment of1 #bjf4 ,serlio1 ,sebastian1 #c1 #aa1 #cb4 ,shadows in ,v-sunk letters1 #aj1 #aa1 #ad4 ,shaw1 ,byam1 #if4 ,simpson1 ,joseph ,w41 #ic4 ,small letters1 7see ,minuscule1 also ,modern ,roman1 ,gothic1 ,script and ,italic74 ,spacing1 of ,classic ,roman letters1 #f1 #h2 of ,blackletters1 #abh1 #acd1 #acf2 of ,minuscules1 #ec1 #ef1 #eg2 of type1 #ef2 of ,montaigne type1 #fi2 of ,cheltenham type1 #ga2 of letters and words1 #bja1 #bje2 emphasis obtained by1 #bjf4 ,spanish1 ,script1 #ahh2 ,roman letters1 #fd2 writing-books1 #fd1 #ahc4 ,stone-cut letters1 ,roman1 #c1 #i1 #ad2 7see also ,incised1 ,v-sunk1 ,granite1 ,marble1 ,sandstone74 ,sullivan1 ,james ,f41 #if4 ,swash lines1 #b1 #ec1 #acf4 ,t41 #h1 #bh4 ,tagliente1 ,g4 ,a41 #ca4 ,thompson1 ,hugh1 #if4 ,tory1 ,geoffrey1 #ca4 ,townsend1 ,harry ,everett1 #aag4 ,transferring of lettering1 #bjb4 ,type1 #i1 #eb1 #fd1 #gd4 ,type-founders1 #i1 #ef1 #fd4 ,type models for pen lettering1 use of1 #gd1 #gf1 #abb4 ,uncial letters1 #de1 #gf1 #hd1 #ib1 #abh2 ,gothic1 #aci2 meta forms of1 #adj2 pen forms of1 #adj2 stone-cut1 #adj2 stone and marble1 #aci4 ,updike1 ,d4 ,berkeley1 #ga4 ,v41 #i4 ,vale ,press1 ,the1 #ic4 ,van ,rysselberghe1 ,theo41 #ia4 ,venetian printers1 #ec1 #fd4 ,verneuil1 ,m4 ,p41 #hf4 ,vinci1 ,leonardo da1 #ca4 ,v-sunk ,roman lettering1 #i1 #aj1 #ad2 7see also ,incised74 ,w41 #i4 w41 #ef4 ,waist lines1 #f1 #bjd2 of ,roman letters1 #f1 #bjd1 #bjf4 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,england1 #ahh4 ,width proportions1 of ,roman ,capital letters1 #f4 ,writing-books1 #fd1 #ahc4 ,writing hand1 #ahh2 of ,petrarch1 #ahb2 ,script developed from1 #ahb4 ,x41 #f4 ,y41 #f4 y41 #ef4 ,z41 #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bates ,,guild ,,company',s ,,publications ,,pen ,,drawing ,by ,,charles ,d4 ,,maginnis ,an illustrated treatise1 with many examples of the work of all the more eminent modern pen draughtsmen4 ,a practical text-book1 which aims to put the student in the most direct way of attaining successful proficiency in the art of drawing4 ,the book is very useful2 all the features are good4--,,john ,p4 ,,kuhl1 ,carlstadt1 ,n4 ,j4 ,i have learned a great deal in a short time from ,mr4 ,maginnis's treatise4--,h4 ,e4 ,,hunt1 ,ambridge1 ,pa4 ,i have found it a great help in pen drawing1 and consider it a most instructive book4--,,wm4 ,e4 ,,mevins1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,would recommend it to any one wishing to do pen drawing or to a student wishing to take up the work as ,i did4--,e4 ,e4 ,,christopher1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,i find it a most delightful little book1 valuable for the student1 as also for those desirous of gaining some insight into this art4--,,chas4 ,j4 ,,fellger1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,the illustrations are excellent1 and the instructions clear and to the point4 ,it is a guide to the beginner and material help to the experienced4 ,i am very pleased with it4--,a4 ,e4 ,,buckler1 ,niagara ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4 ',pen ,drawing' has benefited me a great deal1 as it would anybody who made a proper use of it4 ,its many illustrations1 together with their descriptive text1 make the book what ,i think it was intended for1 a good teacher4--,h4 ,w4 ,,bonnah1 ,port ,huron1 ,mich4 ,i think it a most excellent little book1 well worth careful reading by any artist or draughtsman4 ,everything seems to me clearly stated and all points aptly illustrated with good examples4 ,i do not see how it could be much better for the price4--,s4 ,,gifford ,,slocum1 ,architect1 ,new ,york ,city ,,price1 ,,postage ,,prepaid1 #a4ej #add ,,congress ,,street1 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bates ,,guild ,,company',s ,,publications ,,details ,,of ,building ,construction ,by ,,clarence ,a4 ,,martin ,a collection or #cc plates1 #aj #ab inches1 giving over #cjj separate details covering all the ordinary methods of building1 and in many cases showing alternative methods4 ,the plates are models of detail drawing1 and the text is in the form of notes lettered on the drawings4 ,i think it a valuable book to have near one in the draughting-room4--,c4 ,a4 ,,mcgreen1 ,columbus1 ,o4 ,i have studied all the details and ,i have found them very profitable to me4--,,ernest ,h4 ,,downing1 ,new ,york ,city ,this book and ',kidder's' are two that ,i could hardly get along without4--,,loren ,o4 ,,kirk1 ,minneapolis1 ,minn4 ,the best book of its kind on the market4 ,it is concise1 practical1 saves time and gives new ideas4--,s4 ,r4 ,,quick1 ,fort ,collins1 ,col4 ,it saves me considerable time1 is twice worth the price ,i paid for it1 and also gives me endless number of new ideas4--,,john ,,schier1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,has saved me time1 labor and trouble4 ,a good book for ready reference in the draughting-room4--,a4 ,c4 ,,storch1 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 ,the work has proven to be very useful to me1 and ,i do not hesitate to recommend it highly1 especially to students4--,w4 ,r4 ,,trowbridge1 ,altoona1 ,pa4 ,during the last few years ,i have purchased from you at least #be or #cj copies4 ,my customers are well pleased with it4--,,thomas ,,henry1 ,book ,dealer1 ,toronto1 ,ont4 ,the most practical work on the subject there is1 or at least that ,i have seen4 ,i have never regretted the money ,i paid for it1 and the book is always near at hand4--,h4 ,a4 ,,goodspeed1 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,price1 ,,postage ,,prepaid1 #b4ej #add ,,congress ,,street1 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bates ,,guild ,,company',s ,,publications ,,architectural ,,shades ,,shadows ,by ,,henry ,mc,g,o,o,d,w,i,n ,the purpose and usefulness of this book is twofold3 it is intended1 first1 as a practical reference hand-book for the architect's office--a dictionary1 as it were1 of all the shades and shadows of those architectural forms and details which are used in rendering drawings2 and second1 as a clear and accurate course of study in the methods of determining shadows1 for use in schools1 offices1 and ateliers4 ,as a text-book for draughtsmen it is the clearest and most thorough work that has ever been written on the subject4 ,the study is approached from the standpoint and in the language of the architect rather than of the geometrician2 and great pains have been taken to demonstrate every problem in the simplest terms and by the simplest methods4 ,the book measures #i #ab inches1 and is substantially bound in cloth4 ,,price1 ,,express ,,paid1 #d4jj #add ,,congress ,,street1 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration