,the ,tribes and ,castes of the ,central ,provinces of ,india ,by ,r4,v4 ,russell ,of the ,indian ,civil ,service ,superintendent of ,ethnography1 ,central ,provinces ,assisted by ,rai ,bahadur ,hira ,lal ,extra ,assistant ,commissioner ,published ,under the ,orders of the ,central ,provinces ,administration ,in ,four ,volumes ,vol4 ,i4 ,macmillan and ,co41 ,limited ,st4 ,martin's ,street1 ,london4 #aiaf ,,preface ,this book is the result of the arrangement made by the ,government of ,india1 on the suggestion of the late ,sir ,herbert ,risley1 for the preparation of an ethnological account dealing with the inhabitants of each of the principal ,provinces of ,india4 ,the work for the ,central ,provinces was entrusted to the author1 and its preparation1 undertaken in addition to ordinary official duties1 has been spread over a number of years4 ,the prescribed plan was that a separate account should be written of each of the principal tribes and castes1 according to the method adopted in ,sir ,herbert ,risley's ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal4 ,this was considered to be desirable as the book is intended primarily as a work of reference for the officers of ,government1 who may desire to know something of the customs of the people among whom their work lies4 ,it has the disadvantage of involving a large amount of repetition of the same or very similar statements about different castes1 and the result is likely therefore to be somewhat distasteful to the ordinary reader4 ,on the other hand1 there is no doubt that this method of treatment1 if conscientiously followed out1 will produce more exhaustive results than a general account4 ,similar works for some other ,provinces have already appeared1 as ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke's ,castes and ,tribes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 ,mr4 ,edgar ,thurston's ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india1 and ,mr4 ,ananta ,krishna ,iyer's volumes on ,cochin1 while a ,glossary for the ,punjab by ,mr4 ,h4,a4 ,rose has been partly published4 ,the articles on ,religions and ,sects were not in the original scheme of the work1 but have been subsequently added as being necessary to render it a complete ethnological account of the population4 ,in several instances the adherents of the religion or sect are found only in very small numbers in the ,province1 and the articles have been compiled from standard works4 ,in the preparation of the book much use has necessarily been made of the standard ethnological accounts of other parts of ,india1 especially ,colonel ,tod's ,annals and ,antiquities of ,rajasthan1 ,mr4 ,j4,d4 ,forbes' ,rasmala or ,annals of ,gujarat1 ,colonel ,dalton's ,ethnology of ,bengal1 ,dr4 ,buchanan's ,eastern ,india1 ,sir ,denzil ,ibbetson's ,punjab ,census ,report for #ahha1 ,sir ,john ,malcolm's ,memoir of ,central ,india1 ,sir ,edward ,gait's ,bengal and ,india ,census ,reports and article on ,caste in ,dr4 ,hastings' ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,colonel 7,sir ,william7 ,sleeman's ,report on the ,badhaks and ,ramaseeana or ,vocabulary of the ,thugs1 ,mr4 ,kennedy's ,criminal ,classes of the ,bombay ,presidency1 ,major ,gunthorpe's ,criminal ,tribes of ,bombay1 ,berar and the ,central ,provinces1 the books of ,mr4 ,crooke and ,sir ,h4 ,risley already mentioned1 and the mass of valuable ethnological material contained in the ,bombay ,gazetteer 7,sir ,j4 ,campbell71 especially the admirable volumes on ,hindus of ,gujarat by ,mr4 ,bhimbhai ,kirparam1 and ,parsis and ,muhammadans of ,gujarat by ,khan ,bahadur ,fazlullah ,lutfullah ,faridi1 and ,mr4 ,kharsedji ,nasarvanji ,seervai1 ,j4,p41 and ,khan ,bahadur ,bamanji ,behramji ,patel4 ,other ,indian ethnological works from which ,i have made quotations are ,dr4 ,wilson's ,indian ,caste 7,times ,press and ,messrs4 ,blackwood74 ,bishop ,westcott's ,kabir and the ,kabirpanth 7,baptist ,mission ,press1 ,cawnpore71 ,mr4 ,rajendra ,lal ,mitra's ,indo-,aryans 7,newman ,co41 ,calcutta71 ,the ,jainas by ,dr4 ,j4,g4 ,bhler and ,mr4 ,j4 ,burgess1 ,dr4 ,j4,n4 ,bhattacharya's ,hindu ,castes and ,sects 7,thacker1 ,spink ,co41 ,calcutta71 ,professor ,oman's ,mystics1 ,ascetics and ,saints of ,india1 ,cults1 ,customs and ,superstitions of ,india1 and ,brahmans1 ,theists and ,muslims of ,india 7,t4 ,fisher ,unwin71 ,mr4 ,v4,a4 ,smith's ,early ,history of ,india 7,clarendon ,press71 the ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes' ,dictionary of ,islam 7,w4,h4 ,allen ,co41 and ,heffer ,sons1 ,cambridge71 ,mr4 ,l4,d4 ,barnett's ,antiquities of ,india1 ,m4 ,andr ,chevrillon's ,romantic ,india1 ,mr4 ,v4 ,ball's ,jungle ,life in ,india1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke's ,popular ,religion and ,folklore of ,northern ,india1 and ,things ,indian1 ,captain ,forsyth's ,highlands of ,central ,india 7,messrs4 ,chapman ,hall71 ,messrs4 ,yule and ,burnell's ,hobson-,jobson 7,mr4 ,crooke's edition71 ,professor ,hopkins' ,religions of ,india1 the ,rev4 ,e4,m4 ,gordon's ,indian ,folk-,tales 7,elliot ,stock71 ,messrs4 ,sewell and ,dikshit's ,indian ,calendar1 ,mr4 ,brennand's ,hindu ,astronomy1 and the late ,rev4 ,father ,p4 ,dehon's monograph on the ,oraons in the ,memoirs of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 ,ethnological works on the people of the ,central ,provinces are not numerous2 among those from which assistance has been obtained are ,sir ,c4 ,grant's ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer of #ahga1 ,rev4 ,stephen ,hislop's ,notes on the ,aboriginal ,tribes of the ,central ,provinces1 ,colonel ,bloomfield's ,notes on the ,baigas1 ,sir ,charles ,elliott's ,hoshangabad ,settlement ,report1 ,sir ,reginald ,craddock's ,nagpur ,settlement ,report1 ,colonel ,ward's ,mandla ,settlement ,report1 ,colonel ,lucie ,smith's ,chanda ,settlement ,report1 ,mr4 ,g4,w4 ,gayer's ,lectures on ,criminal ,tribes1 ,mr4 ,c4,w4 ,montgomerie's ,chhindwara ,settlement ,report1 ,mr4 ,c4,e4 ,low's ,balaghat ,district ,gazetteer1 ,mr4 ,e4,j4 ,kitts' ,berar ,census ,report of #ahha1 and the ,central ,provinces ,census ,reports of ,mr4 ,t4 ,drysdale1 ,sir ,benjamin ,robertson and ,mr4 ,j4,t4 ,marten4 ,the author is indebted to ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer for his kind permission to make quotations from ,the ,golden ,bough and ,totemism and ,exogamy 7,macmillan71 in which the best examples of almost all branches of primitive custom are to be found2 to ,dr4 ,edward ,westermarck for similar permission in respect of ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage1 and ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7,macmillan72 to ,messrs4 ,a4 ,c4 ,black in respect of the late ,professor ,robertson ,smith's ,religion of the ,semites2 to ,messrs4 ,heinemann for those from ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach's ,orpheus2 and to ,messrs4 ,hachette et ,cie and ,messrs4 ,parker of ,oxford for those from ,la ,cit ,antique of ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges4 ,much assistance has also been obtained from ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor's ,early ,history of ,mankind and ,primitive ,culture1 ,lord ,avebury's ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,sidney ,hartland's ,primitive ,paternity1 and ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach's ,cultes1 ,mythes et ,religions4 ,the labours of these eminent authors have made it possible for the student to obtain a practical knowledge of the ethnology of the world by the perusal of a small number of books2 and if any of the ideas put forward in these volumes should ultimately be so fortunate as to obtain acceptance1 it is to the above books that ,i am principally indebted for having been able to formulate them4 ,other works from which help has been obtained are ,m4 ,emile ,senart's ,les ,castes dans ,i',inde1 ,professor ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn's ,the ,aryan ,household1 and ,dr4 ,a4,h4 ,keane's ,the ,world's ,peoples4 ,sir ,george ,grierson's great work1 ,the ,linguistic ,survey of ,india1 has now given an accurate classification of the non-,aryan tribes according to their languages and has further thrown a considerable degree of light on the vexed question of their origin4 ,i have received from ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke of the ,indian ,civil ,service 7retired7 much kind help and advice during the final stages of the preparation of this work4 ,as will be seen from the articles1 resort has constantly been made to his ,tribes and ,castes for filling up gaps in the local information4 ,rai ,bahadur ,hira ,lal was my assistant for several years in the taking of the census of #aija and the preparation of the ,central ,provinces ,district ,gazetteers2 he has always given the most loyal and unselfish aid1 has personally collected a large part of the original information contained in the book1 and spent much time in collating the results4 ,the association of his name in the authorship is no more than his due1 though except where this has been specifically mentioned1 he is not responsible for the theories and deductions from the facts obtained4 ,mr4 ,pyare ,lal ,misra1 barrister1 ,chhindwara1 was my ethnographic clerk for some years1 and he and ,munshi ,kanhya ,lal1 late of the ,educational ,department1 and ,mr4 ,aduram ,chandhri1 ,tahsildar1 gave much assistance in the inquiries on different castes4 ,among others who have helped in the work1 ,rai ,bahadur ,panda ,baijnath1 ,diwan of the ,patna and ,bastar ,states1 should be mentioned first1 and ,babu ,kali ,prasanna ,mukerji1 pleader1 ,saugor1 ,mr4 ,gopal ,datta ,joshi1 ,district ,judge1 ,saugor1 ,mr4 ,jeorakhan ,lal1 ,deputy-,inspector of ,schools1 and ,mr4 ,gokul ,prasad1 ,tahsildar1 may be selected from the large number whose names are given in the footnotes to the articles4 ,among ,european officers whose assistance should be acknowledged are ,messrs4 ,c4,e4 ,low1 ,c4,w4 ,montgomerie1 ,a4,b4 ,napier1 ,a4,e4 ,nelson1 ,a4,k4 ,smith1 ,r4,h4 ,crosthwaite and ,h4,f4 ,hallifax1 of the ,civil ,service2 ,lt4-,col4 ,w4,d4 ,sutherland1 ,i4,m4,s41 ,surgeon-,major ,mitchell of ,bastar1 and ,mr4 ,d4 ,chisholm4 ,some photographs have been kindly contributed by ,mrs4 ,ashbrooke ,crump1 ,mrs4 ,mangabai ,kelkar1 ,mr4 ,g4,l4 ,corbett1 ,c4,s41 ,mr4 ,r4,l4 ,johnston1 ,a4,d4,s4,p41 ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,searle1 ,c4,s41 ,mr4 ,strachey1 ,mr4 ,h4,e4 ,bartlett1 ,professor ,l4 ,scherman of ,munich1 and the ,diwan of ,raigarh ,state4 ,bishop ,westcott kindly gave the photograph of ,kabir1 which appears in his own book4 ,finally ,i have to express my gratitude to the ,chief ,commissioner1 ,sir ,benjamin ,robertson1 for the liberal allotment made by the ,administration for the publication of the work2 and to the publishers1 ,messrs4 ,macmillan ,co41 and the printers1 ,messrs4 ,r4 ,r4 ,clark1 for their courtesy and assistance during its progress through the press4 ,september #aiae4 ,,contents ,part ,i--,volume ,i ,introductory ,essay on ,caste ,articles on the ,religions and ,sects of the ,people of the ,central ,provinces ,glossary of ,minor ,castes and ,other ,articles1 ,synonyms1 ,subcastes1 ,titles and ,names of ,exogamous ,septs or ,clans ,subject ,index ,part ,,ii--,volumes ,,ii1 ,,iii and ,,iv ,descriptive ,articles on the ,principal ,castes and ,tribes of the ,central ,provinces ,,detailed ,,list ,,of ,,contents ,part ,i ,articles on ,religions and ,sects ,the articles which are considered to be of most general interest are shown in capitals ,,arya ,,samaj ,,religion #bja ,,brahmo ,,samaj ,,religion #bjh ,dadupanthi ,sect #bae ,dhami ,sect #baf ,,jain ,,religion #bai ,,kabirpanthi ,,sect #bcb ,lingayat ,sect #bdd ,,muhammadan ,,religion #bdg ,nanakpanthi ,sect #bgg ,parmarthi ,sect #bha ,,parsi ,,or ,,zoroastrian ,,religion #bhd ,saiva ,sect #cjb ,sakta ,sect #cjd ,,satnami ,,sect #cjg ,sikh ,religion #cag ,smarta ,sect #cbe ,swami-,narayan ,sect #cbf ,,vaishnava ,,sect #ccj ,vam-,margi ,sect #ccc ,wahhabi ,sect #cce ,articles on ,minor ,castes and ,miscellaneous ,notices ,included in the ,glossary ,agamudayan4 ,alia4 ,arab4 ,are4 ,arora4 ,bahelia4 ,bahrupia4 ,banka4 ,bargah4 ,bayar4 ,belwar4 ,besta4 ,bhand4 ,bhatia4 ,bhima4 ,bhona4 ,bind4 ,birhor4 ,bopchi4 ,chenchuwar4 ,chero4 ,dangur4 ,daraihan4 ,dhalgar4 ,dhera4 ,dohor4 ,gandli4 ,girgira4 ,goyanda4 ,hatwa4 ,jasondhi4 ,jokhara4 ,kamad4 ,kamathi4 ,kamma4 ,kammala4 ,kandra4 ,kast4 ,khadal4 ,khadra4 ,kotwar4 ,kumrawat4 ,kundera4 ,londhari4 ,madgi4 ,malyar4 ,mangan4 ,marori4 ,medara4 ,mirdha4 ,mukeri4 ,mutrasi4 ,nagarchi4 ,otari4 ,pabia4 ,pahalwan4 ,panchal4 ,pandra4 ,parka4 ,periki4 ,redka4 ,rohilla4 ,sais4 ,santal4 ,satani4 ,segidi4 ,siddi4 ,sidhira4 ,sikligar4 ,solaha4 ,sonkar4 ,tanti4 ,tirmale4 ,tiyar4 ,vellala4 ,wakkaliga4 ,part ,,ii--,vol4 ,,ii ,articles on ,castes and ,tribes of the ,central ,provinces in ,alphabetical ,order ,agaria 7,iron-worker7 #c ,agharia 7,cultivator7 #h ,aghori 7,religious mendicant7 #ac ,ahir 7,herdsman and milkman7 #ah ,andh 7,tribe1 now cultivators7 #ch ,arakh 7,hunter7 #dj ,atari 7,scent-seller7 #db ,audhelia 7,labourer7 #de ,badhak 7,robber7 #di ,bahna 7,cotton-cleaner7 #fi ,baiga 7,forest tribe7 #gg ,bairagi 7,religious mendicants7 #ic ,balahi 7,labourer and village watchman7 #aje ,balija 7,cultivator7 #ajh ,bania 7,merchant and moneylender7 #aaa ,subcastes of ,bania ,agarwala4 ,agrahari4 ,ajudhiabasi4 ,asathi4 ,charnagri4 ,dhusar4 ,dosar4 ,gahoi4 ,golapurab4 ,kasarwani4 ,kasaundhan4 ,khandelwal4 ,lad4 ,lingayat4 ,maheshri4 ,nema4 ,oswal4 ,parwar4 ,srimali4 ,umre4 ,banjara 7,pack-carrier7 #afb ,barai 7,betel-vine grower and seller7 #aib ,barhai 7,carpenter7 #aii ,bari 7,maker of leaf-plates7 #bjb ,basdewa 7,cattle-dealer and religious mendicant7 #bjd ,basor 7,bamboo-worker7 #bjh ,bedar 7,soldier and public service7 #bab ,beldar 7,digger and navvy7 #bae ,beria 7,vagabond gipsy7 #bbj ,bhaina 7,forest tribe7 #bbe ,bhamta 7,criminal tribe and labourers7 #bcd ,bharbhunja 7,grain-parcher7 #bch ,bharia 7,forest tribe7 #bdb ,bhat 7,bard and genealogist7 #bea ,bhatra 7,forest tribe7 #bga ,bhil 7,forest tribe7 #bgh ,bhilala 7,landowner and cultivator7 #bic ,bhishti 7,water-man7 #bih ,bhoyar 7,cultivator7 #cja ,bhuiya 7,forest tribe7 #cje ,bhulia 7,weaver7 #cai ,bhunjia 7,forest tribe7 #cbb ,binjhwar 7,cultivator7 #cbi ,bishnoi 7,cultivator7 #ccg ,bohra 7,trader7 #cde ,brahman 7,priest7 #cea ,subcastes of ,brahman ,ahivasi4 ,jijhotia4 ,kanaujia1 ,kanyakubja4 ,khedawal4 ,maharashtra4 ,maithil4 ,malwi4 ,nagar4 ,naramdeo4 ,sanadhya4 ,sarwaria4 ,utkal4 ,chadar 7,village watchman and labourer7 #djj ,chamar 7,tanner and labourer7 #djc ,chasa 7,cultivator7 #dbd ,chauhan 7,village watchman and labourer7 #dbg ,chhipa 7,dyer and calico-printer7 #dbi ,chitari 7,painter7 #dcb ,chitrakathi 7,picture showman7 #dch ,cutchi 7,trader and shopkeeper7 #ddj ,dahait 7,village watchman and labourer7 #ddd ,daharia 7,cultivator7 #dec ,dangi 7,landowner and cultivator7 #deg ,dangri 7,vegetable-grower7 #dfc ,darzi 7,tailor7 #dff ,dewar 7,beggar and musician7 #dgb ,dhakar 7,illegitimate1 cultivator7 #dgg ,dhangar 7,shepherd7 #dhj ,dhanuk 7,bowman1 labourer7 #dhd ,dhanwar 7,forest tribe7 #dhh ,dhimar 7,fisherman1 water-carrier1 and household servant7 #ejb ,dhoba 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #eae ,dhobi 7,washerman7 #eai ,dhuri 7,grain-parcher7 #ebg ,dumal 7,cultivator7 #ecj ,fakir 7,religious mendicant7 #ecg ,part ,,ii--,vol4 ,,iii ,gadaria 7,shepherd7 #c ,gadba 7,forest tribe7 #i ,ganda 7,weaver and labourer7 #ad ,gandhmali 7,uriya village priests and temple servants7 #ag ,garpagari 7,averter of hailstorms7 #ai ,gauria 7,snake-charmer and juggler7 #bd ,ghasia 7,grass-cutter7 #bg ,ghosi 7,buffalo-herdsman7 #cb ,golar 7,herdsman7 #ce ,gond 7,forest tribe and cultivator7 #ci ,gond-,gowari 7,herdsman7 #adc ,gondhali 7,religious mendicant7 #add ,gopal 7,vagrant criminal caste7 #adg ,gosain 7,religious mendicant7 #aej ,gowari 7,herdsman7 #afj ,gujar 7,cultivator7 #aff ,gurao 7,village ,priest7 #age ,halba 7,forest tribe1 labourer7 #ahb ,halwai 7,confectioner7 #bja ,hatkar 7,soldier1 shepherd7 #bjd ,hijra 7,eunuch1 mendicant7 #bjf ,holia 7,labourer1 curing hides7 #bab ,injhwar 7,boatman and fisherman7 #bac ,jadam 7,cultivator7 #bag ,jadua 7,criminal caste7 #bai ,jangam 7,priest of the ,lingayat sect7 #bbb ,jat 7,landowner and cultivator7 #bbe ,jhadi ,telenga 7,illegitimate1 labourer7 #bch ,jogi 7,religious mendicant and pedlar7 #bdc ,joshi 7,astrologer and village priest7 #bee ,julaha 7,weaver7 #bgi ,kachera 7,maker of glass bangles7 #bha ,kachhi 7,vegetable-grower7 #bhe ,kadera 7,firework-maker7 #bhh ,kahar 7,palanquin-bearer and household servant7 #bia ,kaikari 7,basket-maker and vagrant7 #bif ,kalanga 7,soldier1 cultivator7 #cjb ,kalar 7,liquor vendor7 #cjf ,kamar 7,forest tribe7 #cbc ,kanjar 7,gipsies and prostitutes7 #cca ,kapewar 7,cultivator7 #cdb ,karan 7,writer and clerk7 #cdc ,kasai 7,butcher7 #cdf ,kasar 7,worker in brass7 #cfi ,kasbi 7,prostitute7 #cgc ,katia 7,cotton-spinner7 #chd ,kawar 7,forest tribe and cultivator7 #chi ,kayasth 7,village accountant1 writer and clerk7 #djd ,kewat 7,boatman and fisherman7 #dbb ,khairwar 7,forest tribe2 boilers of catechu7 #dbg ,khandait 7,soldier1 cultivator7 #dcf ,khangar 7,village watchman and labourer7 #dci ,kharia 7,forest tribe1 labourer7 #dde ,khatik 7,mutton-butcher7 #dec ,khatri 7,merchant7 #def ,khojah 7,trader and shopkeeper7 #dfa ,khond 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #dfd ,kir 7,cultivator7 #dha ,kirar 7,cultivator7 #dhe ,kohli 7,cultivator7 #dic ,kol 7,forest tribe1 labourer7 #ejj ,kolam 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #ebj ,kolhati 7,acrobat7 #ebg ,koli 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #ecb ,kolta 7,landowner and cultivator7 #ecg ,komti 7,merchant and shopkeeper7 #edb ,kori 7,weaver and labourer7 #ede ,korku 7,forest tribe1 labourer7 #eej ,korwa 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #ega ,koshti 7,weaver7 #eha ,part ,,ii--,vol4 ,,iv ,kumhar 7,potter7 #c ,kunbi 7,cultivator7 #af ,kunjra 7,greengrocer7 #ej ,kuramwar 7,shepherd7 #eb ,kurmi 7,cultivator7 #ee ,lakhera 7,worker in lac7 #ajd ,lodhi 7,landowner and cultivator7 #aab ,lohar 7,blacksmith7 #abj ,lorha 7,growers of san-hemp7 #abf ,mahar 7,weaver and labourer7 #abi ,mahli 7,forest tribe7 #adf ,majhwar 7,forest tribe7 #adi ,mal 7,forest tribe7 #aec ,mala 7,cotton-weaver and labourer7 #aef ,mali 7,gardener and vegetable-grower7 #aei ,mallah 7,boatman and fisherman7 #aga ,mana 7,forest tribe1 cultivator7 #agb ,manbhao 7,religious mendicant7 #agf ,mang 7,labourer and village musician7 #ahd ,mang-,garori 7,criminal caste7 #ahi ,manihar 7,pedlar7 #aic ,mannewar 7,forest tribe7 #aie ,maratha 7,soldier1 cultivator and service7 #aih ,mehtar 7,sweeper and scavenger7 #bae ,meo 7,tribe7 #bcc ,mina or ,deswali 7,non-,aryan tribe1 cultivator7 #bce ,mirasi 7,bard and genealogist7 #bdb ,mochi 7,shoemaker7 #bdd ,mowar 7,cultivator7 #bej ,murha 7,digger and navvy7 #beb ,nagasia 7,forest tribe7 #beg ,nahal 7,forest tribe7 #bei ,nai 7,barber7 #bfb ,naoda 7,boatman and fisherman7 #bhc ,nat 7,acrobat7 #bhf ,nunia 7,salt-refiner1 digger and navvy7 #bid ,ojha 7,augur and soothsayer7 #bif ,oraon 7,forest tribe7 #bii ,paik 7,soldier1 cultivator7 #cba ,panka 7,labourer and village watchman7 #cbd ,panwar ,rajput 7,landowner and cultivator7 #ccj ,pardhan 7,minstrel and priest7 #ceb ,pardhi 7,hunter and fowler7 #cei ,parja 7,forest tribe7 #cga ,pasi 7,toddy-drawer and labourer7 #chj ,patwa 7,maker of silk braid and thread7 #che ,pindari 7,freebooter7 #chh ,prabhu 7,writer and clerk7 #cii ,raghuvansi 7,cultivator7 #djc ,rajjhar 7,agricultural labourer7 #dje ,rajput 7,soldier and landowner7 #daj ,rajput ,clans ,baghel4 ,bagri4 ,bais4 ,baksaria4 ,banaphar4 ,bhadauria4 ,bisen4 ,bundela4 ,chandel4 ,chauban4 ,dhakar4 ,gaharwar4 ,gaur4 ,haihaya4 ,huna4 ,kachhwaha4 ,nagvansi4 ,nikumbh4 ,paik4 ,parihar4 ,rathor4 ,sesodia4 ,solankhi4 ,somvansi4 ,surajvansi4 ,tomara4 ,yadu4 ,rajwar 7,forest tribe7 #dgj ,ramosi 7,village watchmen and labourers1 formerly thieves7 #dgb ,rangrez 7,dyer7 #dgg ,rautia 7,forest tribe and cultivators1 formerly soldiers7 #dgi ,sanaurhia 7,criminal thieving caste7 #dhc ,sansia 7,vagrant criminal tribe7 #dhh ,sansia 7,uria7 7,mason and digger7 #dif ,savar 7,forest tribe7 #ejj ,sonjhara 7,gold-washer7 #eji ,sudh 7,cultivator7 #ead ,sunar 7,goldsmith and silversmith7 #eag ,sundi 7,liquor distiller7 #ecd ,tamera 7,coppersmith7 #ecf ,taonla 7,soldier and labourer7 #eci ,teli 7,oilman7 #edb ,thug 7,criminal community of murderers by strangulation7 #eeh ,turi 7,bamboo-worker7 #ehh ,velama 7,cultivator7 #eic ,vidur 7,village accountant1 clerk and writer7 #eif ,waghya 7,religious mendicant7 #fjc ,yerukala 7,criminal thieving caste7 #fjf ,note4--,the ,gonds are the most important of the non-,aryan or primitive tribes1 and their social customs are described in detail4 ,the ,baiga1 ,bhil1 ,kawar1 ,khond1 ,kol1 ,korku and ,korwa are other important tribes4 ,the two representative cultivating castes are the ,kurmis and ,kunbis1 and the articles on them include detailed descriptions of ,hindu social customs1 and some information on villages1 houses1 dress1 food and manner of life4 ,articles in which subjects of general interest are treated are ,darzi 7clothes71 ,sunar 7ornaments71 ,kachera and ,lakhera 7bangles71 ,nai 7hair71 ,kalar 7veneration of alcoholic liquor71 ,bania 7moneylending and interest71 ,kasai 7worship and sacrifice of domestic animals71 ,joshi 7the ,hindu calendar and personal names71 ,bhat 7suicide71 ,dahait 7significance of the umbrella71 and ,kanjar 7connection of ,indian and ,european gipsies74 ,the articles on ,badhak1 ,sansia and ,thug are compiled from ,sir ,william ,sleeman's reports on these communities of dacoits and murderers1 whose suppression he achieved4 ,for further information the ,subject ,index may be consulted4 ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations ,maps ,map of ,india ,frontispiece ,map of the ,central ,provinces ,map of the ,central ,provinces1 showing principal linguistic or racial divisions #f ,illustrations ,volume ,i #a4 ,hindu temple of the god ,siva #af #b4 ,hindu sculptures #bf #c4 ,peasant's hut #dj #d4 ,group of religious mendicants #ef #e4 ,drawing water from the village well #gb #f4 ,gayatri or sacred verse personified as a goddess #ajh #g4 ,image of the god ,jagannath1 a form of ,vishnu #aah #h4 ,the god ,rama1 an incarnation of ,vishnu1 with attendant deities #add #i4 ,hindu bathing party #aeh #aj4 ,pilgrims carrying ,ganges water #ahd #aa4 ,a meeting of the ,arya ,samaj for investing boys with the sacred thread #bjb #ab4 ,jain temples at ,muktagiri1 ,betul #bbj #ac4 ,jain ascetics with cloth before mouth and sweeping-brush #bbd #ad4 ,jain gods in attitude of contemplation #bbh #ae4 ,jain temple in ,seoni #bcj #af4 ,kabir #bcb #ag4 ,beggar on artificial horse at the ,muharram festival #bdh #ah4 ,carrying the horse-shoe at the ,muharram festival #beb #ai4 ,tazia or tombs of ,hussain at the ,muharram festival #bef #bj4 ,famous ,tazia at ,khandwa #bfj #ba4 ,representing a tiger at the ,muharram festival #bgb #bb4 ,temple of ,siva at ,bandakpur1 near ,damoh #cjb #bc4 ,images of ,siva and his consort ,devi1 or ,parvati1 with the bull and tiger #cjd #bd4 ,devotees1 possessed1 embracing each other1 while supported on tridents1 at ,siva's fair at ,pachmarhi #cjf #be4 ,image of the prophet ,swami ,narayan in the ,teli temple at ,burhanpur #cbf #bf4 ,images of ,rama1 ,lachman and ,sita1 with attendants #ccj #bg4 ,image of ,lakshmi1 the ,goddess of ,wealth1 the consort of ,vishnu1 with attendant #ccb #bh4 ,image of the boar incarnation of ,vishnu #ccd #bi4 ,bahrupia impersonating the goddess ,kali #cdd #cj4 ,dasari religious mendicant with discus and conch-shell of ,vishnu #djf ,volume ,,ii #ca4 ,aghori mendicant #ad #cb4 ,ahirs decorated with cowries for the ,stick ,dance at ,diwali #ah #cc4 ,image of ,krishna as ,murlidhar or the flute-player1 with attendant deities #bh #cd4 ,ahir dancers in ,diwali costume #cb #ce4 ,pinjara cleaning cotton #gb #cf4 ,baiga village1 ,balaghat ,district #hh #cg4 ,hindu mendicants with sect-marks #id #ch4 ,anchorite sitting on iron nails #ih #ci4 ,pilgrims carrying water of the river ,nerbudda #ajj #dj4 ,coloured ,plate3 ,examples of ,tilaks or sect-marks worn on the forehead #ajb #da4 ,group of ,marwari ,bania women #aab #db4 ,image of the god ,ganpati carried in procession #aaf #dc4 ,the elephant-headed god ,ganpati4 ,his conveyance is a rat1 which can be seen as a little blob between his feet #abj #dd4 ,mud images made and worshipped at the ,holi festival #abf #de4 ,bania's shop #abh #df4 ,banjara women with the singh or horn #ahd #dg4 ,group of ,banjara women #ahh #dh4 ,basors making baskets of bamboo #baj #di4 ,bhat with his putla or doll #bef #ej4 ,group of ,bhils #bgh #ea4 ,tantia ,bhil1 a famous dacoit #bhb #eb4 ,group of ,bohras at ,burhanpur 7,nimar7 #cdf #ec4 ,brahman worshipping his household gods #chj #ed4 ,brahman bathing party #chd #ee4 ,brahman ,pujaris or priests #cij #ef4 ,group of ,maratha ,brahman men #cib #eg4 ,group of ,naramdeo ,brahman women #cif #eh4 ,group of ,naramdeo ,brahman men #cih #ei4 ,chamars tanning and working in leather #daf #fj4 ,chamars cutting leather and making shoes #dah #fa4 ,chhipa or calico-printer at work #dcj #fb4 ,dhimar or fisherman's hut #ejb #fc4 ,fishermen in dug-outs or hollowed tree trunks #ejf #fd4 ,group of ,gurujwale ,fakirs #ech ,volume ,,iii #fe4 ,gond women grinding corn #db #ff4 ,palace of the ,gond kings of ,garha-,mandla at ,ramnagar #df #fg4 ,gonds on a journey #fb #fh4 ,killing of ,rawan1 the demon king of ,ceylon1 from whom the ,gonds are supposed to be descended #aad #fi4 ,woman about to be swung round the post called ,meghnath #aaf #gj4 ,climbing the pole for a bag of sugar #aah #ga4 ,gonds with their bamboo carts at market #abb #gb4 ,gond women1 showing tattooing on backs of legs #abf #gc4 ,maria ,gonds in dancing costume #acf #gd4 ,gondhali musicians and dancers #add #ge4 ,gosain mendicant #aej #gf4 ,alakhwale ,gosains with faces covered with ashes #aeb #gg4 ,gosain mendicants with long hair #aed #gh4 ,famous ,gosain ,mahant4 ,photograph taken after death #aef #gi4 ,gujar village proprietress and her land agent #afh #hj4 ,guraos with figures made at the ,holi festival called ,gangour #agf #ha4 ,group of ,gurao musicians with their instruments #ahj #hb4 ,ploughing with cows and buffaloes in ,chhattisgarh #ahb #hc4 ,halwai or confectioner's shop #bjb #hd4 ,jogi mendicants of the ,kanphata sect #bdd #he4 ,jogi musicians with sarangi or fiddle #bej #hf4 ,kaikaris making baskets #bih #hg4 ,kanjars making ropes #ccb #hh4 ,a group of ,kasars or brass-workers #cgj #hi4 ,dancing girls and musicians #cgd #ij4 ,girl in full dress and ornaments #cgh #ia4 ,old type of sugarcane mill #did #ib4 ,group of ,kol women #eab #ic4 ,group of ,kolams #ebj #id4 ,korkus of the ,melghat hills #eej #ie4 ,korku women in full dress #eef #if4 ,koshti men dancing a figure1 holding strings and beating sticks #ehb ,volume ,,iv #ig4 ,potter at his wheel #d #ih4 ,group of ,kunbis #af #ii4 ,figures of animals made for ,pola festival #dj #ajj4 ,hindu boys on stilts #db #aja4 ,throwing stilts into the water at the ,pola festival #df #ajb4 ,carrying out the dead #dh #ajc4 ,pounding rice #fj #ajd4 ,sowing #hd #aje4 ,threshing #hf #ajf4 ,winnowing #hh #ajg4 ,women grinding wheat and husking rice #ij #ajh4 ,group of women in ,hindustani dress #ib #aji4 ,coloured ,plate3 ,examples of spangles worn by women on the forehead #ajf #aaj4 ,weaving3 sizing the warp #adb #aaa4 ,winding thread #add #aab4 ,bride and bridegroom with marriage crowns #aff #aac4 ,bullocks drawing water with mot #agj #aad4 ,mang musicians with drums #ahf #aae4 ,statue of ,maratha leader1 ,bimbaji ,bhonsla1 in armour #bjj #aaf4 ,image of the god ,vishnu as ,vithoba #bdh #aag4 ,coolie women with babies slung at the side #bef #aah4 ,hindu men showing the choti or scalp-lock #bgb #aai4 ,snake-charmer with cobras #bib #abj4 ,transplanting rice #cdj #aba4 ,group of ,pardhans #cej #abb4 ,little girls playing #djj #abc4 ,gujarati girls doing figures with strings and sticks #djb #abd4 ,ornaments #ebd #abe4 ,teli's oil-press #edd #abf4 ,the ,goddess ,kali #egd #abg4 ,waghya mendicants #fjd ,,pronunciation a has the sound of u in but or murmur4 a has the sound of a in bath or tar4 e has the sound of in cart or ai in maid4 i has the sound of i in bit1 or 7as a final letter7 of y in sulky i has the sound of ee in beet4 o has the sound of o in bore or bowl4 u has the sound of u in put or bull4 u has the sound of oo in poor or boot4 ,the plural of caste names and a few common ,hindustani words is formed by adding s in the ,english manner according to ordinary usage1 though this is not1 of course1 the ,hindustani plural4 ,note4--,the rupee contains #af annas1 and an anna is of the same value as a penny4 ,a pice is a quarter of an anna1 or a farthing4 ,rs4 #a-h signifies one rupee and eight annas4 ,a lakh is a hundred thousand1 and a krore ten million4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introductory ,,essay ,,on ,,caste ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,the ,central ,provinces4 #b4 ,constitution of the population4 #c4 ,the word ',caste4' #d4 ,the meaning of the term ',caste4' #e4 ,the subcaste4 #f4 ,confusion of nomenclature4 #g4 ,tests of what a caste is4 #h4 ,the four traditional castes4 #i4 ,occupational theory of caste4 #aj4 ,racial theory4 #aa4 ,entry of the ,aryans into ,india4 ,the ,aryas and ,dasyus4 #ab4 ,the ,sudra4 #ac4 ,the ,vaishya4 #ad4 ,mistaken modern idea of the ,vaishyas4 #ae4 ,mixed unions of the four classes4 #af4 ,hypergamy4 #ag4 ,the mixed castes4 ,the village menials4 #ah4 ,social gradation of castes4 #ai4 ,castes ranking above the cultivators4 #bj4 ,castes from whom a ,brahman can take water4 ,higher agriculturists4 #ba4 ,status of the cultivator4 #bb4 ,the clan and the village4 #bc4 ,the ownership of land4 #bd4 ,the cultivating status that of the ,vaishya4 #be4 ,higher professional and artisan castes4 #bf4 ,castes from whom a ,brahman cannot take water2 the village menials4 #bg4 ,the village watchmen4 #bh4 ,the village priests4 ,the gardening castes4 #bi4 ,other village traders and menials4 #cj4 ,household servants4 #ca4 ,status of the village menials4 #cb4 ,origin of their status4 #cc4 ,other castes who rank with the village menials4 #cd4 ,the non-,aryan tribes4 #ce4 ,the ,kolarians and ,dravidians4 #cf4 ,kolarian tribes4 #cg4 ,dravidian tribes4 #ch4 ,origin of the ,kolarian tribes4 #ci4 ,of the ,dravidian tribes4 #dj4 ,origin of the impure castes4 #da4 ,derivation of the impure castes from the indigenous tribes4 #db4 ,occupation the basis of the caste-system4 #dc4 ,other agents in the formation of castes4 #dd4 ,caste occupations divinely ordained4 #de4 ,subcastes1 local type4 #df4 ,occupational subcastes4 #dg4 ,subcastes formed from social or religious differences1 or from mixed descent4 #dh4 ,exogamous groups4 #di4 ,totemistic clans4 #ej4 ,terms of relationship4 #ea4 ,clan kinship and totemism4 #eb4 ,animate ,creation4 #ec4 ,the distribution of life over the body4 #ed4 ,qualities associated with animals4 #ee4 ,primitive language4 #ef4 ,concrete nature of primitive ideas4 #eg4 ,words and names concrete4 #eh4 ,the soul or spirit4 #ei4 ,the transmission of qualities4 #fj4 ,the faculty of counting4 ,confusion of the individual and the species4 #fa4 ,similarity and identity4 #fb4 ,the recurrence of events4 #fc4 ,controlling the future4 #fd4 ,the common life4 #fe4 ,the common life of the clan4 #ff4 ,living and eating together4 #fg4 ,the origin of exogamy4 #fh4 ,promiscuity and female descent4 #fi4 ,exogamy with female descent4 #gj4 ,marriage4 #ga4 ,marriage by capture4 #gb4 ,transfer of the bride to her husband's clan4 #gc4 ,the exogamous clan with male descent and the village4 #gd4 ,the large exogamous clans of the ,brahmans and ,rajputs4 ,the ,sapindas1 the gens and the g'enoc4 #ge4 ,comparison of ,hindu society with that of ,greece and ,rome4 ,the gens4 #gf4 ,the clients4 #gg4 ,the plebeians4 #gh4 ,the binding social tie in the city-states4 #gi4 ,the ,suovetaurilia4 #hj4 ,the sacrifice of the domestic animal4 #ha4 ,sacrifices of the gens and phratry4 #hb4 ,the ,hindu caste-feasts4 #hc4 ,taking food at initiation4 #hd4 ,penalty feasts4 #he4 ,sanctity of grain-food4 #hf4 ,the corn-spirit4 #hg4 ,the king4 #hh4 ,other instances of the common meal as a sacrificial rite4 #hi4 ,funeral feasts4 #ij4 ,the ,hindu deities and the sacrificial meal4 #ia4 ,development of the occupational caste from the tribe4 #ib4 ,veneration of the caste implements4 #ic4 ,the caste panchayat and its code of offences4 #id4 ,the status of impurity4 #ie4 ,caste and ,hinduism4 #if4 ,the ,hindu reformers4 #ig4 ,decline of the caste system4 #a4 ,the ,central ,provinces4 ,the territory controlled by the ,chief ,commissioner of the ,central ,provinces and ,berar has an area of #aca1jjj square miles and a population of #af1jjj1jjj persons4 ,situated in the centre of the ,indian ,peninsula1 between latitudes #agdg' and #bdbg' north1 and longitudes #gf and #hd east1 it occupies about #g4c per cent of the total area of ,british ,india4 ,it adjoins the ,central ,india ,states and the ,united ,provinces to the north1 ,bombay to the west1 ,hyderabad ,state and the ,madras ,presidency to the south1 and the ,province of ,bihar and ,orissa to the east4 ,the ,province was constituted as a separate administrative unit in #ahfa from territories taken from the ,peshwa in #ahah and the ,maratha ,state of ,nagpur1 which had lapsed from failure of heirs in #ahec4 ,berar1 which for a considerable previous period had been held on a lease or assignment from the ,nizam of ,hyderabad1 was incorporated for administrative purposes with the ,central ,provinces in #aijc4 ,in #aije the bulk of the ,district of ,sambalpur1 with five ,feudatory ,states inhabited by an ,uriya-speaking population1 were transferred to ,bengal and afterwards to the new ,province of ,bihar and ,orissa1 while five ,feudatory ,states of ,chota ,nagpur were received from ,bengal4 ,the former territory had been for some years included in the scope of the ,ethnographic ,survey1 and is shown coloured in the annexed map of linguistic and racial divisions4 ,the main portion of the ,province may be divided1 from north-west to south-east1 into three tracts of upland1 alternating with two of plain country4 ,in the north-west the ,districts of ,sangor and ,damoh lie on the ,vindhyan or ,malwa plateau1 the southern face of which rises almost sheer from the valley of the ,nerbudda4 ,the general elevation of this plateau varies from #aejj to #bjjj feet4 ,the highest part is that immediately overhanging the ,nerbudda1 and the general slope is to the north1 the rivers of this area being tributaries of the ,jumna and ,ganges4 ,the surface of the country is undulating and broken by frequent low hills covered with a growth of poor and stunted forest4 ,the second division consists of the long and narrow valley of the ,nerbudda1 walled in by the ,vindhyan and ,satpura hills to the north and south1 and extending for a length of about #bjj miles from ,jubbulpore to ,handia1 with an average width of twenty miles4 ,the valley is situated to the south of the river1 and is formed of deep alluvial deposits of extreme richness1 excellently suited to the growth of wheat4 ,south of the valley the ,satpura range or third division stretches across the ,province1 from ,amarkantak in the east 7the sacred source of the ,nerbudda7 to ,asirgarh in the ,nimar ,district in the west1 where its two parallel ridges bound the narrow valley of the ,tapti river4 ,the greater part consists of an elevated plateau1 in some parts merely a rugged mass of hills hurled together by volcanic action1 in others a succession of bare stony ridges and narrow fertile valleys1 in which the soil has been deposited by drainage4 ,the general elevation of the plateau is #bjjj feet1 but several of the peaks rise to #cejj1 and a few to more than #djjj feet4 ,the ,satpuras form the most important watershed of the ,province1 and in addition to the ,nerbudda and ,tapti1 the ,wardha and ,wainganga rivers rise in these hills4 ,to the east a belt of hill country continues from the ,satpuras to the wild and rugged highlands of the ,chota ,nagpur plateau1 on which are situated the five ,states recently annexed to the ,province4 ,extending along the southern and eastern faces of the ,satpura range lies the fourth geographical division1 to the west the plain of ,berar and ,nagpur1 watered by the ,purna1 ,wardha and ,wainganga rivers1 and further east the ,chhattisgarh plain1 which forms the upper basin of the ,mahanadi4 ,the ,berar and ,nagpur plain contains towards the west the shallow black soil in which autumn crops1 like cotton and the large millet juari1 which do not require excessive moisture1 can be successfully cultivated4 ,this area is the great cotton-growing tract of the ,province1 and at present the most wealthy4 ,the valleys of the ,wainganga and ,mahanadi further east receive a heavier rainfall and are mainly cropped with rice4 ,many small irrigation tanks for rice have been built by the people themselves1 and large tank and canal works are now being undertaken by ,government to protect the tract from the uncertainty of the rainfall4 ,south of the plain lies another expanse of hill and plateau comprised in the zarmindari estates of ,chanda and the ,chhattisgarh ,division and the ,bastar and ,kanker ,feudatory ,states4 ,this vast area1 covering about #bd1jjj square miles1 the greater part of which consists of dense forests traversed by precipitous mountains and ravines1 which formerly rendered it impervious to ,hindu invasion or immigration1 producing only on isolated stretches of culturable land the poorer raincrops1 and sparsely peopled by primitive ,gonds and other forest tribes1 was probably1 until a comparatively short time ago1 the wildest and least-known part of the whole ,indian peninsula4 ,it is now being rapidly opened up by railways and good roads4 #b4 ,constitution of the population4 ,up to a few centuries ago the ,central ,provinces remained outside the sphere of ,hindu and ,muhammadan conquest4 ,to the people of northern ,india it was known as ,gondwana1 an unexplored country of inaccessible mountains and impenetrable forests1 inhabited by the savage tribes of ,gonds from whom it took its name4 ,hindu kingdoms were1 it is true1 established over a large part of its territory in the first centuries of our era1 but these were not accompanied by the settlement and opening out of the country1 and were subsequently subverted by the ,dravidian ,gonds1 who perhaps invaded the country in large numbers from the south between the ninth and twelfth centuries4 ,hindu immigration and colonisation from the surrounding provinces occurred at a later period1 largely under the encouragement and auspices of ,gond kings4 ,the consequence is that the existing population is very diverse1 and is made up of elements belonging to many parts of ,india4 ,the people of the northern ,districts came from ,bundelkhand and the ,gangetic plain1 and here are found the principal castes of the ,united ,provinces and the ,punjab4 ,the western end of the ,nerbudda valley and ,betul were colonised from ,malwa and ,central ,india4 ,berar and the ,nagpur plain fell to the ,marathas1 and one of the most important ,maratha ,states1 the ,bhonsla kingdom1 had its capital at ,nagpur4 ,cultivators from western ,india came and settled on the land1 and the existing population are of the same castes as the ,maratha country or ,bombay4 ,but prior to the ,maratha conquest ,berar and the ,nimar ,district of the ,central ,provinces had been included in the ,mughal empire1 and traces of ,mughal rule remain in a substantial ,muhammadan element in the population4 ,to the south the ,chanda ,district runs down to the ,godavari river1 and the southern tracts of ,chanda and ,bastar ,state are largely occupied by ,telugu immigrants from ,madras4 ,to the east of the ,nagpur plain the large landlocked area of ,chhattisgarh in the upper basin of the ,mahanadi was colonised at an early period by ,hindus from the east of the ,united ,provinces and ,oudh1 probably coming through ,jubbulpore4 ,a dynasty of the ,haihaivansi ,rajput clan established itself at ,ratanpur1 and owing to the inaccessible nature of the country1 protected as it is on all sides by a natural rampart of hill and forest1 was able to pursue a tranquil existence untroubled by the wars and political vicissitudes of northern ,india4 ,the population of ,chhattisgarh thus constitutes to some extent a distinct social organism1 which retained until quite recently many remnants of primitive custom4 ,the middle basin of the ,mahanadi to the east of ,chhattisgarh1 comprising the ,sambalpur ,district and adjoining ,states1 was peopled by ,uriyas from ,orissa1 and though this area has now been restored to its parent province1 notices of its principal castes have been included in these volumes4 ,finally1 the population contains a large element of the primitive or non-,aryan tribes1 rich in variety1 who have retired before the pressure of ,hindu cultivators to its extensive hills and forests4 ,the people of the ,central ,provinces may therefore not unjustly be considered as a microcosm of a great part of ,india1 and conclusions drawn from a consideration of their caste rules and status may claim with considerable probability of success to be applicable to those of the ,hindus generally4 ,for the same reason the standard ethnological works of other ,provinces necessarily rank as the best authorities on the castes of the ,central ,provinces1 and this fact may explain and excuse the copious resort which has been made to them in these volumes4 #c4 ,the word ',caste4' ,the word ',caste1' ,dr4 ,wilson states1 #a is not of ,indian origin1 but is derived from the ,portuguese casta1 signifying race1 mould or quality4 ,the ,indian word for caste is jat or jati1 which has the original meaning of birth or production of a child1 and hence denotes good birth or lineage1 respectability and rank4 ,jatha means well-born4 ,thus jat now signifies a caste1 as every ,hindu is born into a caste1 and his caste determines his social position through life4 #d4 ,the meaning of the term ',caste4' ,the two main ideas denoted by a caste are a community or persons following a common occupation1 and a community whose members marry only among themselves4 ,a third distinctive feature is that the members of a caste do not as a rule eat with outsiders with the exception of other ,hindu castes of a much higher social position than their own4 ,none of these will1 however1 serve as a definition of a caste4 ,in a number of castes the majority of members have abandoned their traditional occupation and taken to others4 ,less than a fifth of the ,brahmans of the ,central ,provinces are performing any priestly or religious functions1 and the remaining four-fifths are landholders or engaged in ,government service as magistrates1 clerks of public offices1 constables and orderlies1 or in railway service in different grades1 or in the professions as barristers and pleaders1 doctors1 engineers and so on4 ,the ,rajputs and ,marathas were originally soldiers1 but only an infinitely small proportion belong to the ,indian ,army1 and the remainder are ruling chiefs1 landholders1 cultivators1 labourers or in the various grades of ,government service and the police4 ,of the ,telis or oil-pressers only #i per cent are engaged in their traditional occupation1 and the remainder are landholders1 cultivators and shopkeepers4 ,of the ,ahirs or graziers only #bj per cent tend and breed cattle4 ,only #ab per cent of the ,chamars are supported by the tanning industry1 and so on4 ,the ,bahnas or cotton-cleaners have entirely lost their occupation1 as cotton is now cleaned in factories2 they are cartmen or cultivators1 but retain their caste name and organisation4 ,since the introduction of machine-made cloth has reduced the profits of hand-loom weaving1 large numbers of the weaving castes have been reduced to manual labour as a means of subsistence4 ,the abandonment of the traditional occupation has become a most marked feature of ,hindu society as a result of the equal opportunity and freedom in the choice of occupations afforded by the ,british ,government1 coupled with the rapid progress of industry and the spread of education4 ,so far it has had no very markedly disintegrating effect on the caste system1 and the status of a caste is still mainly fixed by its traditional occupation2 but signs are not wanting of a coming change4 ,again1 several castes have the same traditional occupation2 about forty of the castes of the ,central ,provinces are classified as agriculturists1 eleven as weavers1 seven as fishermen1 and so on4 ,distinctions of occupation therefore are not a sufficient basis for a classification of castes4 ,nor can a caste be simply defined as a body of persons who marry only among themselves1 or1 as it is termed1 an endogamous group2 for almost every important caste is divided into a number of subcastes which do not marry and frequently do not eat with each other4 ,but it is a distinctive and peculiar feature of caste as a social institution that it splits up the people into a multitude of these divisions and bars their intermarriage2 and the real unit of the system and the basis of the fabric of ,indian society is this endogamous group or subcaste4 #e4 ,the subcaste4 ,the subcastes1 however1 connote no real difference of status or occupation4 ,they are little known except within the caste itself1 and they consist of groups within the caste which marry among themselves1 and attend the communal feasts held on the occasions of marriages1 funerals and meetings of the caste panchayat or committee for the judgment of offences against the caste rules and their expiation by a penalty feast2 to these feasts all male adults of the community1 within a certain area1 are invited4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the #bej groups which have been classified as castes contain perhaps #bjjj subcastes4 ,except in some cases other ,hindus do not know a man's subcaste1 though they always know his caste2 among the ignorant lower castes men may often be found who do not know whether their caste contains any subcastes or whether they themselves belong to one4 ,that is1 they will eat and marry with all the members of their caste within a circle of villages1 but know nothing about the caste outside those villages1 or even whether it exists elsewhere4 ,one subdivision of a caste may look down upon another on the ground of some difference of occupation1 of origin1 or of abstaining from or partaking of some article of food1 but these distinctions are usually confined to their internal relations and seldom recognised by outsiders4 ,for social purposes the caste consisting of a number of these endogamous groups generally occupies the same position1 determined roughly according to the respectability of its traditional occupation or extraction4 #f4 ,confusion of nomenclature4 ,no adequate definition of caste can thus be obtained from community of occupation or intermarriage2 nor would it be accurate to say that every one must know his own caste and that all the different names returned at the census may be taken as distinct4 ,in the ,central ,provinces about #ijj caste-names were returned at the census of #aija1 and these were reduced in classification to about #bej proper castes4 ,in some cases synonyms are commonly used4 ,the caste of pan or betel-vine growers and sellers is known indifferently as ,barai1 ,pansari or ,tamboli4 ,the great caste of ,ahirs or herdsmen has several synonyms--as ,gaoli in the ,northern ,districts1 ,rawat or ,gahra in ,chhattisgarh1 ,gaur among the ,uriyas1 and ,golkar among ,telugus4 ,lohars are also called ,khati and ,kammari2 ,masons are called ,larhia1 ,raj and ,beldar4 ,the more distinctly occupational castes usually have different names in different parts of the country1 as ,dhobi1 ,warthi1 ,baretha1 ,chakla and ,parit for washermen2 ,basor1 ,burud1 ,kandra and ,dhulia for bamboo-workers1 and so on4 ,such names may show that the subdivisions to which they are applied have immigrated from different parts of ,india1 but the distinction is generally not now maintained1 and many persons will return one or other of them indifferently4 ,no object is gained1 therefore1 by distinguishing them in classification1 as they correspond to no differences of status or occupation1 and at most denote groups which do not intermarry1 and which may therefore more properly be considered as subcastes4 ,titles or names of offices are also not infrequently given as caste names4 ,members of the lowest or impure castes employed in the office of ,kotwar or village watchmen prefer to call themselves by this name1 as they thus obtain a certain rise in status1 or at least they think so4 ,in some localities the ,kotwars or village watchmen have begun to marry among themselves and try to form a separate caste4 ,chamars 7tanners7 or ,mahars 7weavers7 employed as grooms will call themselves ,sais and consider themselves superior to the rest of their caste4 ,the ,thethwar ,rawats or ,ahirs will not clean household cooking-vessels1 and therefore look down on the rest of the caste and prefer to call themselves by this designation1 as ',theth' means 'exact' or 'pure1' and ,thethwar is one who has not degenerated from the ancestral calling4 ,salewars are a subcaste of ,koshtis 7weavers71 who work only in silk and hence consider themselves as superior to the other ,koshtis and a separate caste4 ,the ,rathor subcaste of ,telis in ,mandla have abandoned the hereditary occupation of oil-pressing and become landed proprietors4 ,they now wish to drop their own caste and to be known only as ,rathor1 the name of one of the leading ,rajput clans1 in the hope that in time it will be forgotten that they ever were ,telis1 and they will be admitted into the community of ,rajputs4 ,it occurred to them that the census would be a good opportunity of advancing a step towards the desired end1 and accordingly they telegraphed to the ,commissioner of ,jubbulpore before the enumeration1 and petitioned the ,chief ,commissioner after it had been taken1 to the effect that they might be recorded and classified only as ,rathor and not as ,teli2 this method of obtaining recognition of their claims being1 as remarked by ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller1 a great deal cheaper than being weighed against gold4 ,on the other hand1 a common occupation may sometimes amalgamate castes originally distinct into one4 ,the sweeper's calling is well-defined and under the generific term of ,mehtar are included members of two or three distinct castes1 as ,dom1 ,bhangi and ,chuhra2 the word ,mehtar means a prince or headman1 and it is believed that its application to the sweeper by the other servants is ironical4 ,it has now1 however1 been generally adopted as a caste name4 ,similarly1 ,darzi1 a tailor1 was held by ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson to be simply the name of a profession and not that of a caste2 but it is certainly a true caste in the ,central ,provinces1 though probably of comparatively late origin4 ,a change of occupation may transfer a whole body of persons from one caste to another4 ,a large section of the ,banjara caste of carriers1 who have taken to cultivation1 have become included in the ,kunbi caste in ,berar and are known as ,wanjari ,kunbi4 ,another subcaste of the ,kunbis called ,manwa is derived from the ,mana tribe4 ,telis or oilmen1 who have taken to vending liquor1 now form a subcaste of the ,kalar caste called ,teli-,kalar2 those who have become shopkeepers are called ,teli-,bania and may in time become an inferior section of the ,bania caste4 ,other similar subcastes are the ,ahir-,sunars or herdsmen-goldsmiths1 the ,kayasth-,darzis or tailors1 the ,kori-,chamars or weaver-tanners1 the ,gondi ,lohars and ,barhais1 being ,gonds who have become carpenters and blacksmiths and been admitted to these castes2 the ,mahar ,mhalis or barbers1 and so on4 #g4 ,tests of what a caste is4 ,it would appear1 then1 that no precise definition of a caste can well be formulated to meet all difficulties4 ,in classification1 each doubtful case must be taken by itself1 and it must be determined1 on the information available1 whether any body of persons1 consisting of one or more endogamous groups1 and distinguished by one or more separate names1 can be recognised as holding1 either on account of its traditional occupation or descent1 such a distinctive position in the social system1 that it should be classified as a caste4 ,but not even the condition of endogamy can be accepted as of universal application2 for ,vidurs1 who are considered to be descended from ,brahman fathers and women of other castes1 will1 though marrying among themselves1 still receive the offspring of such mixed alliances into the community2 in the case of ,gosains and ,bairagis1 who1 from being religious orders1 have become castes1 admission is obtained by initiation as well as by birth1 and the same is the case with several other orders2 some of the lower castes will freely admit outsiders2 and in parts of ,chhattisgarh social ties are of the laxest description1 and the intermarriage of ,gonds1 ,chamars and other low castes are by no means infrequent4 ,but notwithstanding these instances1 the principle of the restriction of marriage to members of the caste is so nearly universal as to be capable of being adopted as a definition4 #h4 ,the four traditional castes4 ,the well-known traditional theory of caste is that the ,aryans were divided from the beginning of time into four castes3 ,brahmans or priests1 ,kshatriyas or warriors1 ,vaishyas or merchants and cultivators1 and ,sudras or menials and labourers1 all of whom had a divine origin1 being born from the body of ,brahma--the ,brahmans from his mouth1 the ,kshatriyas from his arms1 the ,vaishyas from his thighs1 and the ,sudras from his feet4 ,intermarriage between the four castes was not at first entirely prohibited1 and a man of any of the three higher ones1 provided that for his first wife he took a woman of his own caste1 could subsequently marry others of the divisions beneath his own4 ,in this manner the other castes originated4 ,thus the ,kaivarttas or ,kewats were the offspring of a ,kshatriya father and ,vaishya mother1 and so on4 ,mixed marriages in the opposite direction1 of a woman of a higher caste with a man of a lower one1 were reprobated as strongly as possible1 and the offspring of these were relegated to the lowest position in society2 thus the ,chandals1 or descendants of a ,sudra father and ,brahman mother1 were of all men the most base4 ,it has been recognised that this genealogy1 though in substance the formation of a number of new castes through mixed descent may have been correct1 is1 as regards the details1 an attempt made by a priestly law-giver to account1 on the lines of orthodox tradition1 for a state of society which had ceased to correspond to them4 #i4 ,occupational theory of caste4 ,in the ethnographic description of the people of the ,punjab1 which forms the ,caste chapter of ,sir ,denzil ,ibbetson's ,census ,report of #ahha1 it was pointed out that occupation was the chief basis of the division of castes1 and there is no doubt that this is true4 ,every separate occupation has produced a distinct caste1 and the status of the caste depends now mainly or almost entirely on its occupation4 ,the fact that there may be several castes practising such important callings as agriculture or weaving does not invalidate this in any way1 and instances of the manner in which such castes have been developed will be given subsequently4 ,if a caste changes its occupation it may1 in the course of time1 alter its status in a corresponding degree4 ,the important ,kayasth and ,gurao castes furnish instances of this4 ,castes1 in fact1 tend to rise or fall in social position with the acquisition of land or other forms of wealth or dignity much in the same manner as individuals do nowadays in ,european countries4 ,hitherto in ,india it has not been the individual who has undergone the process2 he inherits the social position of the caste in which he is born1 and1 as a rule1 retains it through life without the power of altering it4 ,it is the caste1 as a whole1 or at least one of its important sections or subcastes1 which gradually rises or falls in social position1 and the process may extend over generations or even centuries4 ,in the ,brief ,sketch of the ,caste ,system of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 ,mr4 ,j4,c4 ,nesfield puts forward the view that the whole basis of the caste system is the division of occupations1 and that the social gradation of castes corresponds precisely to the different periods of civilisation during which their traditional occupations originated4 ,thus the lowest castes are those allied to the primitive occupation of hunting1 ,pasi1 ,bhar1 ,bahelia1 because the pursuit of wild animals was the earliest stage in the development of human industry4 ,next above these come the fishing castes1 fishing being considered somewhat superior to hunting1 because water is a more sacred element among ,hindus than land1 and there is less apparent cruelty in the capturing of fish than the slaughtering of animals2 these are the ,kahars1 ,kewats1 ,dhimars and others4 ,above these come the pastoral castes--,ghosi1 ,gadaria1 ,gujar and ,ahir2 and above them the agricultural castes1 following the order in which these occupations were adopted during the progress of civilisation4 ,at the top of the system stands the ,rajput or ,chhatri1 the warrior1 whose duty is to protect all the lower castes1 and the ,brahman1 who is their priest and spiritual guide4 ,similarly1 the artisan castes are divided into two main groups2 the lower one consists of those whose occupations preceded the age of metallurgy1 as the ,chamars and ,mochis or tanners1 ,koris or weavers1 the ,telis or oil-pressers1 ,kalars or liquor-distillers1 ,kumhars or potters1 and ,lunias or salt-makers4 ,the higher group includes those castes whose occupations were coeval with the age of metallurgy1 that is1 those who work in stone1 wood and metals1 and who make clothing and ornaments1 as the ,barhai or worker in wood1 the ,lohar or worker in iron1 the ,kasera and ,thathera1 brass-workers1 and the ,sunar or worker in the precious metals1 ranking precisely in this order of precedence1 the ,sunar being the highest4 ,the theory is still further developed among the trading castes1 who are arranged in a similar manner1 beginning from the ,banjara or forest trader1 the ,kunjra or greengrocer1 and the ,bharbhunja or grain-parcher1 up to the classes of ,banias and ,khatris or shopkeepers and bankers4 ,it can hardly be supposed that the ,hindus either consciously or unconsciously arranged their gradation of society in a scientific order of precedence in the manner described4 ,the main divisions of social precedence are correctly stated by ,mr4 ,nesfield1 but it will be suggested in this essay that they arose naturally from the divisions of the principal social organism of ,india1 the village community4 ,nevertheless ,mr4 ,nesfield's book will always rank as a most interesting and original contribution to the literature of the subject1 and his work did much to stimulate inquiry into the origin of the caste system4 #aj4 ,racial ,theory4 ,in his ,introduction to the ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal ,sir ,herbert ,risley laid stress on the racial basis of caste1 showing that difference of race and difference of colour were the foundation of the ,indian caste system or division of the people into endogamous units4 ,there seems reason to suppose that the contact of the ,aryans with the indigenous people of ,india was1 to a large extent1 responsible for the growth of the caste system1 and the main racial divisions may perhaps even now be recognised1 though their racial basis has1 to a great extent1 vanished4 ,but when we come to individual castes and subcastes1 the scrutiny of their origin1 which has been made in the individual articles1 appears to indicate that caste distinctions cannot1 as a rule1 be based on supposed difference of race4 ,nevertheless ,sir ,h4 ,risley's ,castes and ,tribes of ,bengal and ,peoples of ,india will1 no doubt1 always be considered as standard authorities1 while as ,census ,commissioner for ,india and ,director of ,ethnography he probably did more to foster this branch of research in ,india generally than any other man has ever done4 #aa4 ,entry of the ,aryans into ,india4 ,the ,aryas and ,dasyus4 ,m4 ,emile ,senart1 in his work ,les ,castes dans l',inde1 gives an admirable sketch of the features marking the entry of the ,aryans into ,india and their acquisition of the country1 from which the following account is largely taken4 ,the institution of caste as it is understood at present did not exist among the ,aryans of the ,vedic period1 on their first entry into ,india4 ,the word varna1 literally 'colour1' which is afterwards used in speaking of the four castes1 distinguishes in the ,vedas two classes only3 there are the ,arya ,varna and the ,dasa ,varna--the ,aryan race and the race of enemies4 ,in other passages the ,dasyus are spoken of as black1 and ,indra is praised for protecting the ,aryan colour4 ,in later literature the black race1 ,krishna ,varna1 are opposed to the ,brahmans1 and the same word is used of the distinction between ,aryas and ,sudras4 ,the word varna was thus used1 in the first place1 not of four castes1 but of two hostile races1 one white and the other black4 ,it is said that ,indra divided the fields among his white-coloured people after destroying the ,dasyus1 by whom may be understood the indigenous barbarian races4 #b ,the word ,dasyu1 which frequently recurs in the ,vedas1 probably refers to the people of foreign countries or provinces like the ,goim or ,gentiles of the ,hebrews4 ,the ,dasyus were not altogether barbarians1 for they had cities and other institutions showing a partial civilisation1 though the ,aryas1 lately from more bracing climes than those which they inhabited1 proved too strong for them4 #c ,to the ,aryans the word ,dasyu had the meaning of one who not only did not perform religious rites1 but attempted to harass their performers4 ,another verse says1 ,distinguish1 ,o ,indra1 between the ,aryas and those who are ,dasyus3 punishing those who perform no religious rites2 compel them to submit to the sacrifices2 be thou the powerful1 the encourager of the sacrificer4 #d ,rakshasa was another designation given to the tribes with whom the ,aryans were in hostility4 ,its meaning is strong1 gigantic or powerful1 and among the modern ,hindus it is a word for a devil or demon4 ,in the ,satapatha ,brahmana of the white ,yajur-,veda the ,rakshasas are represented as 'prohibiters1' that is 'prohibiters of the sacrifice4' #e ,similarly1 at a later period1 ,manu describes ,aryavarrta1 or the abode of the ,aryas1 as the country between the eastern and western oceans1 and between the ,himalayas and the ,vindhyas1 that is ,hindustan1 the ,deccan being not then recognised as an abode of the ,aryans4 ,and he thus speaks of the country3 ,from a ,brahman born in ,aryavarrta let all men on earth learn their several usages4 ,that land on which the black antelope naturally grazes1 is held fit for the performance of sacrifices2 but the land of ,mlechchhas 7foreigners7 is beyond it4 ,let the three first classes 7,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas and ,vaishyas7 invariably dwell in the above-mentioned countries2 but a ,sudra distressed for subsistence may sojourn wherever he chooses4 #f ,another passage states3 ,if some pious king belonging to the ,kshatriya or some other caste should defeat the ,mlechchhas #g and establish a settlement of the four castes in their territories1 and accept the ,mlechchhas thus defeated as ,chandalas 7the most impure caste in ancient ,hindu society7 as is the case in ,aryavarrta1 then that country also becomes fit for sacrifice4 ,for no land is impure of itself4 ,a land becomes so only by contact4 ,this passage is quoted by a ,hindu writer with the same reference to the ,code of ,manu as the preceding one1 but it is not found there and appears to be a gloss by a later writer1 explaining how the country south of the ,vindhyas1 which is excluded by ,manu1 should be rendered fit for ,aryan settlement4 #h ,similarly in a reference in the ,brahmanas to the migration of the ,aryans eastward from the ,punjab it is stated that ,agni the fire-god flashed forth from the mouth of a priest invoking him at a sacrifice and burnt across all the five rivers1 and as far as he burnt ,brahmans could live4 ,agni1 as the god of fire by which the offerings were consumed1 was addressed as follows3 ,we kindle thee at the sacrifice1 ,o wise ,agni1 the sacrificer1 the luminous1 the mighty4 #i ,the sacrifices referred to were1 in the early period1 of domestic animals1 the horse1 ox or goat1 the flesh of which was partaken of by the worshippers1 and the sacred ,soma-liquor1 which was drunk by them2 the prohibition or discouragement of animal sacrifices for the higher castes gradually came about at a later time1 and was probably to a large extent due to the influence of ,buddhism4 ,the early sacrifice was in the nature of a communal sacred meal at which the worshippers partook of the animal or liquor offered to the god4 ,the ,dasyus or indigenous ,indian races could not worship the ,aryan gods nor join in the sacrifices offered to them1 which constituted the act of worship4 ,they were a hostile race1 but the hostility was felt and expressed on religious rather than racial grounds1 as the latter term is understood at present4 #ab4 ,the ,sudra4 ,m4 ,senart points out that the division of the four castes appearing in post-,vedic literature1 does not proceed on equal lines4 ,there were two groups1 one composed of the three higher castes1 and the other of the ,sudras or lowest4 ,the higher castes constituted a fraternity into which admission was obtained only by a religious ceremony of initiation and investment with the sacred thread4 ,the ,sudras were excluded and could take no part in sacrifices4 ,the punishment for the commission of the gravest offences by a ,brahman was that he became a ,sudra1 that is to say an outcast4 ,the killing of a ,sudra was an offence no more severe than that of killing certain animals4 ,a ,sudra was prohibited by the severest penalties from approaching within a certain distance of a member of any of the higher castes4 ,in the ,sutras #aj it is declared #aa that the ,sudra has not the right 7,adhikara7 of sacrifice enjoyed by the ,brahman1 ,kshatriya and ,vaishya4 ,he was not to be invested with the sacred thread1 nor permitted1 like them1 to hear1 commit to memory1 or recite ,vedic texts4 ,for listening to these texts he ought to have his ears shut up with melted lead or lac by way of punishment2 for pronouncing them1 his tongue cut out2 and for committing them to memory1 his body cut in two4 #ab ,the ,veda was never to be read in the presence of a ,sudra2 and no sacrifice was to be performed for him4 #ac ,the ,sudras1 it is stated in the ,harivansha1 are sprung from vacuity1 and are destitute of ceremonies1 and so are not entitled to the rites of initiation4 ,just as upon the friction of wood1 the cloud of smoke which issues from the fire and spreads around is of no service in the sacrificial rite1 so too the ,sudras spread over the earth are unserviceable1 owing to their birth1 to their want of initiatory rites1 and the ceremonies ordained by the ,vedas4 #ad ,again it is ordained that silence is to be observed by parties of the three sacrificial classes when a ,sudra enters to remove their natural defilements1 and thus the servile position of the ,sudra is recognised4 #ae ,here it appears that the ,sudra is identified with the sweeper or scavenger1 the most debased and impure of modern ,hindu castes4 #af ,in the ,dharmashastras or law-books it is laid down that a person taking a ,sudra's food for a month becomes a ,sudra and after death becomes a dog4 ,issue begotten after eating a ,sudra's food is of the ,sudra caste4 ,a person who dies with ,sudra's food in his stomach becomes a village pig1 or is reborn in a ,sudra's family4 #ag ,an ,arya who had sexual intimacy with a ,sudra woman was to be banished2 but a ,sudra having intimacy with an ,arya was to be killed4 ,if a ,sudra reproached a dutiful ,arya1 or put himself on equality with him on a road1 on a couch or on a seat1 he was to be beaten with a stick4 #ah ,a ,brahman might without hesitation take the property of a ,sudra2 he1 the ,sudra1 had indeed nothing of his own2 his master might1 doubtless1 take his property4 #ai ,according to the ,mahabharata the ,sudras are appointed servants to the ,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas and ,vaishyas4 #bj ,a ,brahman woman having connection with a ,sudra was to be devoured by dogs1 but one having connection with a ,kshatriya or ,vaishya was merely to have her head shaved and be carried round on an ass4 #ba ,when a ,brahman received a gift from another ,brahman he had to acknowledge it in a loud voice2 from a ,rajanya or ,kshatriya1 in a gentle voice2 from a ,vaishya1 in a whisper2 and from a ,sudra1 in his own mind4 ,to a ,brahman he commenced his thanks with the sacred syllable ,om2 to a king he gave thanks without the sacred ,om2 to a ,vaishya he whispered his thanks2 to a ,sudra he said nothing1 but thought in his own mind1 svasti1 or ',this is good4' #bb ,it would thus seem clear that the ,sudras were distinct from the ,aryas and were a separate and inferior race1 consisting of the indigenous people of ,india4 ,in the ,atharva-,veda the ,sudra is recognised as distinct from the ,arya1 and also the ,dasa from the ,arya1 as in the ,rig-,veda4 #bc ,dr4 ,wilson remarks1 ,the aboriginal inhabitants1 again1 who conformed to the ,brahmanic law1 received certain privileges1 and were constituted as a fourth caste under the name of ,sudras1 whereas all the rest who kept aloof were called ,dasyus1 whatever their language might be4 #bd ,the ,sudras1 though treated by ,manu and ,hindu legislation in general as a component1 if enslaved1 part of the ,indian community1 not entitled to the second or sacramental birth1 are not even once mentioned in the older parts of the ,vedas4 ,they are first locally brought to notice in the ,mahabharata1 along with the ,abhiras1 dwelling on the banks of the ,indus4 ,there are distinct classical notices of the ,sudras in this very locality and its neighbourhood4 ,in historical times1 says ,lassen1 their name reappears in that of the town ,sudros on the lower ,indus1 and1 what is especially worthy of notice1 in that of the people ,sudroi1 among the ,northern ,arachosians4 #be ,thus their existence as a distinct nation is established in the neighbourhood of the ,indus1 that is to say in the region in which1 in the oldest time1 the ,aryan ,indians dwelt4 ,the ,aryans probably conquered these indigenous inhabitants first2 and when the others in the interior of the country were subsequently subdued and enslaved1 the name ,sudra was extended to the whole servile caste4 ,there seems to have been some hesitation in the ,aryan community about the actual religious position to be given to the ,sudras4 ,in the time of the liturgical ,brahmanas of the ,vedas1 they were sometimes admitted to take part in the ,aryan sacrifices4 ,not long afterwards1 when the conquests of the ,aryans were greatly extended1 and they formed a settled state of society among the affluents of the ,jumna and ,ganges1 the ,sudras were degraded to the humiliating and painful position which they occupy in ,manu4 ,there is no mention of any of the ,sankara or mixed castes in the ,vedas4 #bf ,from the above evidence it seems clear that the ,sudras were really the indigenous inhabitants of ,india1 who were subdued by the ,aryans as they gradually penetrated into ,india4 ,when the conquering race began to settle in the land1 the indigenous tribes1 or such of them as did not retire before the invaders into the still unconquered interior1 became a class of menials and labourers1 as the ,amalekites were to the children of ,israel4 ,the ,sudras were the same people as the ,dasyus of the hymns1 after they had begun to live in villages with the ,aryans1 and had to be admitted1 though in the most humiliating fashion1 into the ,aryan polity4 ,but the hostility between the ,aryas and the ,dasyus or ,sudras1 though in reality racial1 was felt and expressed on religious grounds1 and probably the ,aryans had no real idea of what is now understood by difference of race or deterioration of type from mixture of races4 ,the ,sudras were despised and hated as worshippers of a hostile god4 ,they could not join in the sacrifices by which the ,aryans renewed and cemented their kinship with their god and with each other2 hence they were outlaws towards whom no social obligations existed4 ,it would have been quite right and proper that they should be utterly destroyed1 precisely as the ,israelites thought that ,jehovah had commanded them to destroy the ,canaanites4 ,but they were too numerous1 and hence they were regarded as impure and made to live apart1 so that they should not pollute the places of sacrifice1 which among the ,aryans included their dwelling-houses4 ,it does not seem to have been the case that the ,aryans had any regard for the preservation of the purity of their blood or colour4 ,from an early period men of the three higher castes might take a ,sudra woman in marriage1 and the ultimate result has been an almost complete fusion between the two races in the bulk of the population over the greater part of the country4 ,nevertheless the status of the ,sudra still remains attached to the large community of the impure castes formed from the indigenous tribes1 who have settled in ,hindu villages and entered the caste system4 ,these are relegated to the most degrading and menial occupations1 and their touch is regarded as conveying defilement like that of the ,sudras4 #bg ,the status of the ,sudras was not always considered so low1 and they were sometimes held to rank above the mixed castes4 ,and in modern times in ,bengal ,sudra is quite a respectable term applied to certain artisan castes which there have a fairly good position4 ,but neither were the indigenous tribes always reduced to the impure status4 ,their fortunes varied1 and those who resisted subjection were probably sometimes accepted as allies4 ,for instance1 some of the most prominent of the ,rajput clans are held to have been derived from the aboriginal #bh tribes4 ,on the ,aryan expedition to southern ,india1 which is preserved in the legend of ,rama1 as related in the ,ramayana1 it is stated that ,rama was assisted by ,hanuman with his army of apes4 ,the reference is generally held to be to the fact that the ,aryans had as auxiliaries some of the forest tribes1 and these were consequently allies1 and highly thought of1 as shown by the legend and by their identification with the mighty god ,hanuman4 ,and at the present time the forest tribes who live separately from the ,hindus in the jungle tracts are1 as a rule1 not regarded as impure4 ,but this does not impair the identification of the ,sudras with those tribes who were reduced to subjection and serfdom in the ,hindu villages1 as shown by the evidence here given4 ,the view has also been held that the ,sudras might have been a servile class already subject to the ,aryans1 who entered ,india with them4 ,and in the old ,parsi or ,persian community four classes existed1 the ,athornan or priest1 the ,rathestan or warrior1 the ,vasteriox or husbandman1 and the ,hutox or craftsman4 #bi ,the second and third of these names closely resemble those of the corresponding ,hindu classical castes1 the ,rajanya or ,kshatriya and the ,vaishya1 while ,athornan1 the name for a priest1 is the same as ,atharvan1 the ,hindu name for a ,brahman versed in the ,atharva-,veda4 ,possibly then ,hutox may be connected with ,sudra1 as h frequently changes into s4 ,but on the other hand the facts that the ,sudras are not mentioned in the ,vedas1 and that they succeeded to the position of the ,dasyus1 the black hostile ,indians1 as well as the important place they fill in the later literature1 seem to indicate clearly that they mainly consisted of the indigenous subject tribes4 ,whether the ,aryans applied a name already existing in a servile class among themselves to the indigenous population whom they subdued1 may be an uncertain point4 #ac4 ,the ,vaishya4 ,in the ,vedas1 moreover1 ,m4 ,senart shows that the three higher castes are not definitely distinguished2 but there are three classes--the priests1 the chiefs and the people1 among whom the ,aryans were comprised4 ,the people are spoken of in the plural as the clans who followed the chiefs to battle4 ,the word used is ,visha4 ,one verse speaks of the ,vishas 7clans7 bowing before the chief 7,rajan71 who was preceded by a priest 7,brahman74 ,another verse says3 ,favour the prayer 7,brahma71 favour the service2 kill the ,rakshasas1 drive away the evil2 favour the power 7khatra7 and favour the manly strength2 favour the cow 7dherm1 the representative of property7 and favour the people 7or house1 visha74 #cj ,similarly ,wilson states that in the time of the ,vedas1 visha 7related to vesha1 a house or district7 signified the people in general2 and ,vaishya1 its adjective1 was afterwards applied to a householder1 or that appertaining to an individual of the common people4 ,the ,latin vicus and the ,greek oikoc are the correspondents of vesha4 #ca ,the conclusion to be drawn is that the ,aryans in the ,vedas1 like other early communities1 were divided by rank or occupation into three classes--priests1 nobles and the body of the people4 ,the ,vishas or clans afterwards became the ,vaishyas or third classical caste4 ,before they entered ,india the ,aryans were a migratory pastoral people1 their domestic animals being the horse1 cow1 and perhaps the sheep and goat4 ,the horse and cow were especially venerated1 and hence were probably their chief means of support4 ,the ,vaishyas must therefore have been herdsmen and shepherds1 and when they entered ,india and took to agriculture1 the ,vaishyas must have become cultivators4 ,the word ,vaishya signifies a man who occupies the soil1 an agriculturist1 or merchant4 #cb ,the word ,vasteriox used by the ancestors of the ,parsis1 which appears to correspond to ,vaishya1 also signifies a husbandman1 as already seen4 ,dr4 ,max ,mller states3 ,the three occupations of the ,aryas in ,india were fighting1 cultivating the soil and worshipping the gods4 ,those who fought the battles of the people would naturally acquire influence and rank1 and their leaders appear in the ,veda as ,rajas or kings4 ,those who did not share in the fighting would occupy a more humble position2 they were called ,vish1 ,vaishyas or householders1 and would no doubt have to contribute towards the maintenance of the armies4 #cc ,according to ,manu1 ,god ordained the tending of cattle1 giving alms1 sacrifice1 study1 trade1 usury1 and also agriculture for a ,vaishya4 #cd ,the ,sutras state that agriculture1 the keeping of cattle1 and engaging in merchandise1 as well as learning the ,vedas1 sacrificing for himself and giving alms1 are the duties of a ,vaishya4 #ce ,in the ,mahabharata it is laid down that the ,vaishyas should devote themselves to agriculture1 the keeping of cattle and liberality4 #cf ,in the same work the god ,vayu says to ,bhishma3 ,and it was ,brahma's ordinance that the ,vaishya should sustain the three castes 7,brahman1 ,kshatriya and ,vaishya7 with money and corn2 and that the ,sudra should serve them4 #cg ,in a list of classes or occupations given in the ,white ,yajur-,veda1 and apparently referring to a comparatively advanced state of ,hindu society1 tillage is laid down as the calling of the ,vaishya1 and he is distinguished from the ,vani or merchant1 whose occupation is trade or weighing4 #ch ,manu states that a ,brahman should swear by truth2 a ,kshatriya by his steed and his weapons2 a ,vaishya by his cows1 his seed and his gold2 and a ,sudra by all wicked deeds4 #ci ,yellow is the colour of the ,vaishya1 and it must apparently be taken from the yellow corn1 and the yellow colour of ghi or butter1 the principal product of the sacred cow2 yellow is also the colour of the sacred metal gold1 but there can scarcely have been sufficient gold in the hands of the body of the people in those early times to enable it to be especially associated with them4 ,the ,vaishyas were thus1 as is shown by the above evidence1 the main body of the people referred to in the ,vedic hymns4 ,when these settled down into villages the ,vaishyas became the householders and cultivators1 among whom the village lands were divided2 the ,sudras or indigenous tribes1 who also lived in the villages or in hamlets adjoining them1 were labourers and given all the most disagreeable tasks in the village community1 as is the case with the impure castes at present4 #ad4 ,mistaken modern idea of the ,vaishyas4 ,the demonstration of the real position of the ,vaishyas is important1 because the ,hindus themselves no longer recognise this4 ,the name ,vaishya is now frequently restricted to the ,bania caste of bankers1 shopkeepers and moneylenders1 and hence the ,banias are often supposed to be the descendants and only modern representatives of the original ,vaishyas4 ,evidence has been given in the article on ,bania to show that the existing ,bania caste is mainly derived from the ,rajputs4 ,the name ,bani1 a merchant or trader1 is found at an early period1 but whether it denoted a regular ,bania caste may be considered as uncertain4 ,in any case it seems clear that this comparatively small caste1 chiefly coming from ,rajputana1 cannot represent the ,vaishyas1 who were the main body or people of the invading ,aryans4 ,at that time the ,vaishyas cannot possibly have been traders1 because they alone provided the means of subsistence of the community1 and if they produced nothing1 there could be no material for trade4 ,the ,vaishyas must1 therefore1 as already seen1 have been shepherds and cultivators1 since in early times wealth consisted almost solely of corn and cattle4 ,at a later period1 with the increased religious veneration for all kinds of life1 agriculture apparently fell into some kind of disrepute as involving the sacrifice of insect life1 and there was a tendency to emphasise trade as the ,vaishya's occupation in view of its greater respectability4 ,it is considered very derogatory for a ,brahman or ,rajput to touch the plough with his own hands1 and the act has hitherto involved a loss of status3 these castes1 however1 did not object to hold land1 but1 on the contrary1 ardently desired to do so like all other ,hindus4 ,ploughing was probably despised as a form of manual labour1 and hence an undignified action for a member of the aristocracy1 just as a squire or gentleman farmer in ,england might consider it beneath his dignity to drive the plough himself4 ,no doubt also1 as the fusion of races proceeded1 and bodies of the indigenous tribes who were cultivators adopted ,hinduism1 the status of a cultivator sank to some extent1 and his ,vaishyan ancestry was forgotten4 ,but though the ,vaishya himself has practically disappeared1 his status as a cultivator and member of the village community appears to remain in that of the modern cultivating castes1 as will be shown subsequently4 #ae4 ,mixed unions of the four classes4 ,the settlement of the ,aryans in ,india was in villages and not in towns1 and the ,hindus have ever since remained a rural people4 ,in #aiaa less than a tenth of the population of ,india was urban1 and nearly three-quarters of the total were directly supported by agriculture4 ,apparently1 therefore1 the basis or embryo of the gradation of ,hindu society or the caste system should be sought in the village4 ,two main divisions of the village community may be recognised in the ,vaishyas or cultivators and the ,sudras or impure serfs and labourers4 ,the exact position held by the ,kshatriyas and the constitution of their class are not quite clear1 but there is no doubt that the ,brahmans and ,kshatriyas formed the early aristocracy1 ranking above the cultivators1 and a few other castes have since attained to this position4 ,from early times1 as is shown by an ordinance of ,manu1 men of the higher castes or classes were permitted1 after taking a woman of their own class for the first wife1 to have second and subsequent wives from any of the classes beneath them4 ,this custom appears to have been largely prevalent4 ,no definite rule prescribed that the children of such unions should necessarily be illegitimate1 and in many cases no doubt seems to exist that1 if not they themselves1 their descendants at any rate ultimately became full members of the caste of the first ancestor4 ,according to ,manu1 if the child of a ,brahman by a ,sudra woman intermarried with ,brahmans and his descendants after him1 their progeny in the seventh generation would become full ,brahmans2 and the same was the case with the child of a ,kshatriya or a ,vaishya with a ,sudra woman4 ,a commentator remarks that the descendants of a ,brahman by a ,kshatriya woman could attain ,brahmanhood in the third generation1 and those by a ,vaishya woman in the fifth4 #dj ,such children also could inherit4 ,according to the ,mahabharata1 if a ,brahman had four wives of different castes1 the son by a ,brahman wife took four shares1 that by a ,kshatriya wife three1 by a ,vaishya wife two1 and by a ,sudra wife one share4 #da ,manu gives a slightly different distribution1 but also permits to the son by a ,sudra wife a share of the inheritance4 #db ,thus the fact is clear that the son of a ,brahman even by a ,sudra woman had a certain status of legitimacy in his father's caste1 as he could marry in it1 and must therefore have been permitted to partake of the sacrificial food at marriage2 #dc and he could also inherit a small share of the property4 #af4 ,hypergamy4 ,the detailed rules prescribed for the status of legitimacy and inheritance show that recognised unions of this kind between men of a higher class and women of a lower one were at one time fairly frequent1 though they were afterwards prohibited4 ,and they must necessarily have led to much mixture of blood in the different castes4 ,a trace of them seems to survive in the practice of hypergamy1 still widely prevalent in northern ,india1 by which men of the higher subcastes of a caste will take daughters in marriage from lower ones but will not give their daughters in return4 ,this custom prevails largely among the higher castes of the ,punjab1 as the ,rajputs and ,khatris1 and among the ,brahmans of ,bengal4 #dd ,only a few cases are found in the ,central ,provinces1 among ,brahmans1 ,sunars and other castes4 ,occasionally intermarriage between two castes takes place on a hypergamous basis2 thus ,rajputs are said to take daughters from the highest clans of the cultivating caste of ,dangis4 ,more commonly families of the lower subcastes or clans in the same caste consider the marriage of their daughters into a higher group a great honour and will give large sums of money for a bridegroom4 ,until quite recently a ,rajput was bound to marry his daughters into a clan of equal or higher rank than his own1 in order to maintain the position of his family4 ,it is not easy to see why so much importance should be attached to the marriage of a daughter1 since she passed into another clan and family1 to whom her offspring would belong4 ,on the other hand1 a son might take a wife from a lower group without loss of status1 though his children would be the future representatives of the family4 ,another point1 possibly connected with hypergamy1 is that a peculiar relation exists between a man and the family into which his daughter has married4 ,sometimes he will accept no food or even water in his son-in-law's village4 ,the word sala1 signifying wife's brother1 when addressed to a man1 is also a common and extremely offensive term of abuse4 ,the meaning is now perhaps supposed to be that one has violated the sister of the person spoken to1 but this can hardly have been the original significance as sasur or father-in-law is also considered in a minor degree an opprobrious term of address4 #ag4 ,the mixed castes4 ,the village menials4 ,but though among the four classical castes it was possible for the descendants of mixed unions between fathers of higher and mothers of lower caste to be admitted into their father's caste1 this would not have been the general rule4 ,such connections were very frequent and the ,hindu classics account through them for the multiplication of castes4 ,long lists are given of new castes formed by the children of mixed marriages4 ,the details of these genealogies seem to be destitute of any probability1 and perhaps1 therefore1 instances of them are unnecessary4 ,matches between a man of higher and a woman of lower caste were called anuloma1 or 'with the hair' or 'grain1' and were regarded as suitable and becoming4 ,those between a man of lower and a woman of higher caste were1 on the other hand1 known as pratiloma or 'against the hair1' and were considered as disgraceful and almost incestuous4 ,the offspring of such unions are held to have constituted the lowest and most impure castes of scavengers1 dog-eaters and so on4 ,this doctrine is to be accounted for by the necessity of safeguarding the morality of women in a state of society where kinship is reckoned solely by male descent4 ,the blood of the tribe and clan1 and hence the right to membership and participation in the communal sacrifices1 is then communicated to the child through the father2 hence if the women are unchaste1 children may be born into the family who have no such rights1 and the whole basis of society is destroyed4 ,for the same reason1 since the tribal blood and life is communicated through males1 the birth and standing of the mother are of little importance1 and children are1 as has been seen1 easily admitted to their father's rank4 ,but already in ,manu's time the later and present view that both the father and mother must be of full status in the clan1 tribe or caste in order to produce a legitimate child1 has begun to prevail1 and the children of all mixed marriages are relegated to a lower group4 ,the offspring of these mixed unions did probably give rise to a class of different status in the village community4 ,the lower-caste mother would usually have been taken into the father's house and her children would be brought up in it4 ,thus they would eat the food of the household1 even if they did not participate in the sacrificial feasts2 and a class of this kind would be very useful for the performance of menial duties in and about the household1 such as personal service1 bringing water1 and so on1 for which the ,sudras1 owing to their impurity1 would be unsuitable4 ,in the above manner a new grade of village menial might have arisen and have gradually been extended to the other village industries1 so that a third group would be formed in the village community ranking between the cultivators and labourers4 ,this gradation of the village community may perhaps still be discerned in the main social distinctions of the different ,hindu castes at present4 ,and an attempt will now be made to demonstrate this hypothesis in connection with a brief survey of the castes of the ,province4 #ah4 ,social gradation of castes4 ,an examination of the social status of the castes of the ,central ,provinces1 which1 as already seen1 are representative of a great part of ,india1 shows that they fall into five principal groups4 ,the highest consists of those castes who now claim to be directly descended from the ,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas or ,vaishyas1 the three higher of the four classical castes4 ,the second comprises what are generally known as pure or good castes4 ,the principal mark of their caste status is that a ,brahman will take water to drink from them1 and perform ceremonies in their houses4 ,they may be classified in three divisions3 the higher agricultural castes1 higher artisan castes1 and serving castes from whom a ,brahman will take water4 ,the third group contains those castes from whose hands a ,brahman will not take water2 but their touch does not convey impurity and they are permitted to enter ,hindu temples4 ,they consist mainly of certain cultivating castes of low status1 some of them recently derived from the indigenous tribes1 other functional castes formed from the forest tribes1 and a number of professional and menial castes1 whose occupations are mainly pursued in villages1 so that they formerly obtained their subsistence from grain-payments or annual allowances of grain from the cultivators at seedtime and harvest4 ,the group includes also some castes of village priests and mendicant religious orders1 who beg from the cultivators4 ,in the fourth group are placed the non-,aryan or indigenous tribes4 ,most of these cannot properly be said to form part of the ,hindu social system at all1 but for practical purposes they are admitted and are considered to rank below all castes except those who cannot be touched4 ,the lowest group consists of the impure castes whose touch is considered to defile the higher castes4 ,within each group there are minor differences of status some of which will be noticed1 but the broad divisions may be considered as representing approximately the facts4 ,the rule about ,brahmans taking water from the good agricultural and artisan castes obtains1 for instance1 only in northern ,india4 ,maratha ,brahmans will not take water from any but other ,brahmans1 and in ,chhattisgarh ,brahmans and other high castes will take water only from the hands of a ,rawat 7grazier71 and from no other caste4 ,but nevertheless the ,kunbis1 the great cultivating caste of the ,maratha country1 though ,brahmans do not take water from them1 are on the same level as the ,kurmis1 the cultivating caste of ,hindustan1 and in tracts where they meet ,kunbis and ,kurmis are often considered to be the same caste4 ,the evidence of the statements made as to the origin of different castes in the following account will be found in the articles on them in the body of the work4 #ai4 ,castes ranking above the cultivators4 ,the castes of the first group are noted below3 ,bania4 ,bhat4 ,brahman4 ,gurao4 ,karan4 ,kayasth and ,prabhu4 ,khatri4 ,rajput4 ,the ,brahmans are1 as they have always been1 the highest caste4 ,the ,rajputs are the representatives of the ancient ,kshatriyas or second caste1 though the existing ,rajput clans are probably derived from the ,hun1 ,gujar and other invaders of the period before and shortly after the commencement of the ,christian era1 and in some cases from the indigenous or non-,aryan tribes4 ,it does not seem possible to assert in the case of a single one of the present ,rajput clans that any substantial evidence is forthcoming in favour of their descent from the ,aryan ,kshatriyas1 and as regards most of the clans there are strong arguments against such a hypothesis4 ,nevertheless the ,rajputs have succeeded to the status of the ,kshatriyas1 and an alternative name for them1 ,chhatri1 is a corruption of the latter word4 ,they are commonly identified with the second of the four classical castes1 but a ,hindu law-book gives ,rajaputra as the offspring of a ,kshatriya father and a mother of the ,karan or writer caste4 #de ,this genealogy is absurd1 but may imply the opinion that the ,rajputs were not the same as the ,aryan ,kshatriyas4 ,the ,khatris are an important mercantile caste of the ,punjab1 who in the opinion of most authorities are derived from the ,rajputs4 ,the name is probably a corruption of ,kshatri or ,kshatriya4 ,the ,banias are the great mercantile1 banking and shopkeeping caste among the ,hindus and a large proportion of the trade in grain and ghi 7preserved butter7 is in their hands1 while they are also the chief moneylenders4 ,most of the important ,bania subcastes belonged originally to ,rajputana and ,central ,india1 which are also the homes of the ,rajputs1 and reasons have been given in the article on ,bania for holding that they are derived from the ,rajputs4 ,they1 however1 are now commonly called ,vaishyas by the ,hindus1 as1 ,i think1 under the mistaken impression that they are descended from the original ,vaishyas4 ,the ,bhats are the bards1 heralds and genealogists of ,india and include groups of very varying status4 ,the ,bhats who act as genealogists of the cultivating and other castes and accept cooked food from their clients may perhaps be held to rank with or even below them4 ,but the high-class ,bhats are undoubtedly derived from ,brahmans and ,rajputs1 and rank just below those castes4 ,the bard or herald had a sacred character1 and his person was inviolable like that of the herald elsewhere1 and this has given a special status to the whole caste4 #df ,the ,kayasths are the writer caste of ,hindustan1 and the ,karans and ,prabhus are the corresponding castes of ,orissa and ,bombay4 ,the position of the ,kayasths has greatly risen during the last century on account of their own ability and industry and the advantages they have obtained through their high level of education4 ,the original ,kayasths may have been village accountants and hence have occupied a lower position1 perhaps below the cultivators4 ,they are an instance of a caste whose social position has greatly improved on account of the wealth and importance of its members4 ,at present the ,kayasths may be said to rank next to ,brahmans and ,rajputs4 ,the origin of the ,prabhus and ,karans is uncertain1 but their recent social history appears to resemble that of the ,kayasths4 ,the ,guraos are another caste whose position has greatly improved4 ,they were priests of the village temples of ,siva1 and accepted the offerings of food which ,brahmans could not take4 ,but they also supplied leaf-plates for festivals1 and were village musicians and trumpeters in the ,maratha armies1 and hence probably ranked below the cultivators and were supported by contributions of grain from them4 ,their social position has been raised by their sacred character as priests of the god ,siva and they are now sometimes called ,shaiva ,brahmans4 ,but a distinct recollection of their former status exists4 ,thus all the castes of the first group are derived from the representatives of the ,brahmans and ,kshatriyas1 the two highest of the four classical castes1 except the ,guraos1 who have risen in status owing to special circumstances4 ,the origin of the ,kayasths is discussed in the article on that caste4 ,members of the above castes usually wear the sacred thread which is the mark of the ,dwija or twice-born1 the old ,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas and ,vaishyas4 ,the thread is not worn generally by the castes of the second group1 but the more wealthy and prominent sections of them frequently assume it4 #bj4 ,castes from whom a ,brahman can take water4 ,higher agriculturists4 ,the second group of good castes from whom a ,brahman can take water falls into three sections as already explained3 the higher agricultural castes1 the higher artisans1 and the serving or menial castes from whom a ,brahman takes water from motives of convenience4 ,these last do not properly belong to the second group but to the next lower one of village menials4 ,the higher agricultural castes or those of the first section are noted below3 ,agharia4 ,ahir4 ,bhilala4 ,bishnoi4 ,chasa4 ,daharia4 ,dangi4 ,dumal4 ,gujar4 ,jadum4 ,jat4 ,khandait4 ,kirar4 ,kolta4 ,kunbi4 ,kurmi4 ,lodhi4 ,mali4 ,maratha4 ,mina or ,deswali4 ,panwar ,rajput4 ,raghuvansi4 ,velama4 ,in this division the ,kurmis and ,kunbis are the typical agricultural castes of ,hindustan or the plains of northern ,india1 and the ,bombay or ,maratha ,deccan4 ,both are very numerous and appear to be purely occupational bodies4 ,the name ,kurmi perhaps signifies a cultivator or worker4 ,kunbi may mean a householder4 ,in both castes1 groups of diverse origin seem to have been amalgamated owing to their common calling4 ,thus the ,kunbis include a subcaste derived from the ,banjara 7carriers71 another from the ,dhangars or shepherds1 and a third from the ,manas1 a primitive tribe4 ,in ,bombay it is considered that the majority of the ,kunbi caste are sprung from the non-,aryan or indigenous tribes1 and this may be the reason why ,maratha ,brahmans do not take water from them4 ,but they have now become one caste with a status equal to that of the other good cultivating castes4 ,in many tracts of ,berar and elsewhere practically all the cultivators of the village belong to the ,kunbi caste1 and there is every reason to suppose that this was once the general rule and that the ,kunbis or 'householders' are simply the cultivators of the ,maratha country who lived in village communities4 ,similarly ,sir ,h4 ,risley considered that some ,kurmis of ,bihar were of the ,aryan type1 while others of ,chota ,nagpur are derived from the indigenous tribes4 ,the ,chasas are the cultivating caste of ,orissa and are a similar occupational group4 ,the word ,chasa has the generic meaning of a cultivator1 and the caste are said by ,sir ,h4 ,risley to be for the most part of non-,aryan origin1 the loose organisation of the caste system among the ,uriyas making it possible on the one hand for outsiders to be admitted into the caste1 and on the other for wealthy ,chasas1 who gave up ploughing with their own hands and assumed the respectable title of ,mahanti1 to raise themselves to membership among the lower classes of ,kayasths4 ,the ,koltas are another ,uriya caste1 probably an offshoot of the ,chasas1 whose name may be derived from the kulthi #dg pulse1 a favourite crop in that locality4 ,similarly the ,vellalas are the great cultivating caste of the ,tamil country1 to whom by general consent the first place in social esteem among the ,tamil ,sudra castes is awarded4 ,in the ,madras ,census ,report of #aija ,mr4 ,francis gives an interesting description of the structure of the caste and its numerous territorial1 occupational and other subdivisions4 ,he shows also how groups from lower castes continually succeed in obtaining admission into the ,vellala community in the following passage3 ,instances of members of other castes who have assumed the name and position of ,vellalas are the ,vettuva ,vellalas1 who are only ,puluvans2 the ,illam ,vellalas1 who are ,panikkans2 the ,karaiturai 7lord of the shore7 ,vellalas1 who are ,karaiyans2 the ,karukamattai 7palmyra leaf-stem7 ,vellalas1 who are ,balijas2 the ,guha 7,rama's boatmen7 ,vellalas1 who are ,sembadavans2 and the ,irkuli ,vellalas1 who are ,vannans4 ,the children of dancing-girls also often call themselves ,mudali1 and claim in time to be ,vellalas1 and even ,paraiyans assume the title of ,pillai and trust to its eventually enabling them to pass themselves off as members of the caste4 ,this is an excellent instance of the good status attaching to the chief cultivating caste of the locality and of the manner in which other groups1 when they obtain possession of the land1 strive to get themselves enrolled in it4 ,the ,jats are the representative cultivating caste of the ,punjab4 ,they are probably the descendants of one of the ,scythian invading hordes who entered ,india shortly before and after the commencement of the ,christian era4 ,the ,scythians1 as they were called by ,herodotus1 appear to have belonged to the ,mongolian racial family1 as also did the white ,huns who came subsequently4 ,the ,gujar and ,ahir castes1 as well as the ,jats1 and also the bulk of the existing ,rajput clans1 are believed to be descended from these invaders2 and since their residence in ,india has been comparatively short in comparison with their ,aryan predecessors1 they have undergone much less fusion with the general population1 and retain a lighter complexion and better features1 as is quite perceptible to the ordinary observer in the case of the ,jats and ,rajputs4 ,the ,jats have a somewhat higher status than other agricultural castes1 because in the ,punjab they were once dominant1 and one or two ruling chiefs belonged to the caste4 #dh ,the bulk of the ,sikhs were also ,jats4 ,but in the ,central ,provinces1 where they are not large landholders1 and have no traditions of former dominance1 there is little distinction between them and the ,kurmis4 ,the ,gujars for long remained a pastoral freebooting tribe1 and their community was naturally recruited from all classes of vagabonds and outlaws1 and hence the caste is now of a mixed character1 and their physical type is not noticeably distinct from that of other ,hindus4 ,sir ,g4 ,campbell derived the ,gujars from the ,khazars1 a tribe of the same race as the white ,huns and ,bulgars who from an early period had been settled in the neighbourhood of the ,caspian4 ,they are believed to have entered ,india during the fifth or sixth century4 ,several clans of ,rajputs1 as well as considerable sections of the ,ahir and ,kunbi castes were1 in his opinion1 derived from the ,gujars4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,gujars have now settled down into respectable cultivators4 ,the ,ahirs or cowherds and graziers probably take their name from the ,abhiras1 another of the ,scythian tribes4 ,but they have now become a purely occupational caste1 largely recruited from the indigenous ,gonds and ,kawars1 to whom the business of tending cattle in the jungles is habitually entrusted4 ,in the ,central ,provinces ,ahirs live in small forest villages with ,gonds1 and are sometimes scarcely considered as ,hindus4 ,on this account they have a character for bucolic stupidity1 as the proverb has it3 ',when he is asleep he is an ,ahir and when he is awake he is a fool4' ,but the ,ahir caste generally has a good status on account of its connection with the sacred cow and also with the god ,krishna1 the divine cowherd4 ,the ,marathas are the military caste of the ,maratha country1 formed into a caste from the cultivators1 shepherds and herdsmen1 who took service under ,sivaji and subsequent ,maratha leaders4 ,the higher clans may have been constituted from the aristocracy of the ,deccan states1 which was probably of ,rajput descent4 ,they have now become a single caste1 ranking somewhat higher than the ,kunbis1 from whom the bulk of them originated1 on account of their former military and dominant position4 ,their status was much the same as that of the ,jats in the ,punjab4 ,but the ordinary ,marathas are mainly engaged in the subordinate ,government and private service1 and there is very little distinction between them and the ,kunbis4 ,the ,khandaits or swordsmen 7from khanda1 a sword7 are an ,uriya caste1 which originated in military service1 and the members of which belonged for the most part to the non-,aryan ,bhuiya tribe4 ,they were a sort of rabble1 half military and half police1 ,sir ,h4 ,risley states1 who formed the levies of the ,uriya zamindars4 ,they have obtained grants of land1 and their status has improved4 ,in the social system of ,orissa the ,sreshta 7good7 ,khandaits rank next to the ,rajputs1 who are comparatively few in number1 and have not that intimate connection with the land which has helped to raise the ,khandaits to their present position4 #di ,the small ,rautia landholding caste of ,chota ,nagpur1 mainly derived from the ,kol tribe1 was formed from military service1 and obtained a higher status with the possession of the land exactly like the ,khandaits4 ,several ,rajput clans1 as the ,panwars of the ,wainganga ,valley1 the ,raghuvansis1 the ,jadums derived from the ,yadava clan1 and the ,daharias of ,chhattisgarh1 have formed distinct castes1 marrying among themselves4 ,a proper ,rajput should not marry in his own clan4 ,these groups have probably in the past taken wives from the surrounding population1 and they can no longer be held to belong to the ,rajput caste proper1 but rank as ordinary agricultural castes4 ,other agricultural castes have probably been formed through mixed descent from ,rajputs and the indigenous races4 ,the ,agharias of ,sambalpur say they are sprung from a clan of ,rajputs near ,agra1 who refused to bend their heads before the king of ,delhi4 ,he summoned all the ,agharias to appear before him1 and fixed a sword across the door at the height of a man's neck4 ,as the ,agharias would not bend their heads they were as a natural consequence all decapitated as they passed through the door4 ,only one escaped1 who had bribed a ,chamar to go instead of him4 ,he and his village fled from ,agra and came to ,chhattisgarh1 where they founded the ,agharia caste4 ,and1 in memory of this1 when an ,agharia makes a libation to his ancestors1 he first pours a little water on the ground in honour of the dead ,chamar4 ,such stories may be purely imaginary1 or may contain some substratum of truth1 as that the ancestors of the caste were ,rajputs1 who took wives from ,chamars and other low castes4 ,the ,kirars are another caste with more or less mixed descent from ,rajputs4 ,they are also called ,dhakar1 and this means one of illegitimate birth4 ,the ,bhilalas are a caste formed of the offspring of mixed alliances between ,rajputs and ,bhils4 ,in many cases in ,nimar ,rajput immigrants appear to have married the daughters of ,bhil chieftains and landholders1 and succeeded to their estates4 ,thus the ,bhilalas include a number of landed proprietors1 and the caste ranks as a good agricultural caste1 from whom ,brahmans will take water4 ,among the other indigenous tribes1 several of which have in the ,central ,provinces retained the possession of large areas of land and great estates in the wilder forest tracts1 a subcaste has been formed of the landholding members of the tribe4 ,such are the ,raj-,gonds among the ,gonds1 the ,binjhals among ,baigas1 and the ,tawar subtribe of the ,kawar tribe of ,bilaspur1 to which all the zamindars #ej belong4 ,these last now claim to be ,tomara ,rajputs1 on the basis of the similarity of the name4 ,these groups rank with the good agricultural castes1 and ,brahmans sometimes consent to take water from them4 ,the ,dangis of ,saugor appear to be the descendants of a set of freebooters in the ,vindhyan hills1 much like the ,gujars in northern ,india4 ,the legend of their origin is given in ,sir ,b4 ,robertson's ,census ,report of #ahia3 ,the chief of ,garhpahra or old ,saugor detained the palanquins of twenty-two married women and kept them as his wives4 ,the issue of the illicit intercourse were named ,dangis1 and there are thus twenty-two subdivisions of these people4 ,there are also three other subdivisions who claim descent from pure ,rajputs1 and who will take daughters in marriage from the remaining twenty-two1 but will not give their daughters to them4 ,thus the ,dangis appear to have been a mixed group1 recruiting their band from all classes of the population1 with some ,rajputs as leaders4 ,the name probably means hillman1 from dang1 a hill4 ,khet men bami1 gaon men ,dangi or ',a ,dangi in the village is like the hole of a snake in one's field1' is a proverb showing the estimation in which they were formerly held4 ,they obtained estates in ,saugor and a ,dangi dynasty formerly governed part of the ,district1 and they are now highly respectable cultivators4 ,the ,minas or ,deswalis belonged to the predatory ,mina tribe of ,rajputana1 but a section of them have obtained possession of the land in ,hoshangabad and rank as a good agricultural caste4 ,the ,lodhas of the ,united ,provinces are placed lowest among the agricultural castes by ,mr4 ,nesfield1 who describes them as little better than a forest tribe4 ,the name is perhaps derived from the bark of the lodh tree1 which was collected by the ,lodhas of northern ,india and sold for use as a dyeing agent4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the name has been changed to ,lodhi1 and they are said to have been brought into the ,district by a ,raja of the ,gond-,rajput dynasty of ,mandla in the seventeenth century1 and given large grants of waste land in the interior in order that they might clear it of forest4 ,they have thus become landholders1 and rank with the higher agricultural castes4 ,they are addressed as ,thakur1 a title applied to ,rajputs1 and ,lodhi landowners usually wear the sacred thread4 #ba4 ,status of the cultivator4 ,the above details have been given to show how the different agricultural castes originated4 ,though their origin is so diverse they have1 to a great extent1 the same status1 and it seems clear that this status is dependent on their possession of the land4 ,in the tracts where they reside they are commonly village proprietors and superior tenants4 ,those who rank a little higher than the others1 as the ,jats1 ,marathas1 ,dangis and ,lodhis1 include in their body some ruling chiefs or large landed proprietors1 and as a rule were formerly dominant in the territory in which they are found4 ,in primitive agricultural communities the land is the principal1 if not almost the sole1 source of wealth4 ,trade in the modern sense scarcely exists1 and what interchange of commodities there is affects1 as a rule1 only a trifling fraction of the population4 ,india's foreign trade is mainly the growth of the last century1 and the great bulk of the exports are of agricultural produce1 yet in proportion to the population the trading community is still extremely small4 ,it thus seems quite impossible that the ,aryans could have been a community of priests1 rulers and traders1 because such a community would not have had means of subsistence4 ,and if the whole production and control of the wealth and food of the community had been in the hands of the ,sudras1 they could not have been kept permanently in their subject1 degraded position4 ,the flocks and herds and the land1 which constituted the wealth of early ,india1 must thus have been in the possession of the ,vaishyas2 and grounds of general probability1 as well as the direct evidence already produced1 make it clear that they were the herdsmen and cultivators1 and the ,sudras the labourers4 ,the status of the modern cultivators seems to correspond to that of the ,vaishyas1 that is1 of the main body of the ,aryan people1 who were pure and permitted to join in sacrifices4 ,the status1 however1 no longer attaches to origin1 but to the possession of the land2 it is that of a constituent member of the village community1 corresponding to a citizen of the city states of ,greece and ,italy4 ,the original ,vaishyas have long disappeared2 the ,brahmans themselves say that there are no ,kshatriyas and no ,vaishyas left1 and this seems to be quite correct4 ,but the modern good cultivating castes retain the status of the ,vaishyas as the ,rajputs retain that of the ,kshatriyas4 ,the case of the ,jats and ,gujars supports this view4 ,these two castes are almost certainly derived from ,scythian nomad tribes1 who entered ,india long after the ,vedic ,aryans4 ,and there is good reason to suppose that a substantial proportion1 if not the majority1 of the existing ,rajput clans were the leaders or aristocracy of the ,jats and ,gujars4 ,thus it is found that in the case of these later tribes the main body were shepherds and cultivators1 and their descendants have the status of good cultivating castes at present1 while the leaders became the ,rajputs1 who have the status of the ,kshatriyas2 and it therefore seems a reasonable inference that the same had previously been the case with the ,aryans themselves4 ,it has been seen that the word ,visha or ,vaishya signified one of the people or a householder4 ,the name ,kunbi appears to have the same sense1 its older form being kutumbika1 which is a householder or one who has a family1 #ea a pater familias4 #bb4 ,the clan and the village4 ,it has been seen also that ,visha in the plural signified clans4 ,the clan was the small body which lived together1 and in the patriarchal stage was connected by a tie of kinship held to be derived from a common ancestor4 ,thus it is likely that the clans settled down in villages1 the cultivators of one village being of the same exogamous clan4 ,the existing system of exogamy affords evidence in favour of this view1 as will be seen4 ,all the families of the clan had cultivating rights in the land1 and were members of the village community2 and there were no other members1 unless possibly a ,kshatriya headman or leader4 ,the ,sudras were their labourers and serfs1 with no right to hold land1 and a third intermediate class of village menials gradually grew up4 ,the law of ,mirasi tenures in ,madras is perhaps a survival of the social system of the early village community4 ,under it only a few of the higher castes were allowed to hold land1 and the monopoly was preserved by the rule that the right of taking up waste lands belonged primarily to the cultivators of the adjacent holdings2 no one else could acquire land unless he first bought them out4 ,the pariahs or impure castes were not allowed to hold land at all4 ,this rule was pointed out by ,mr4 ,slocock1 and it is also noticed by ,sir ,henry ,maine3 ,there are in ,central and ,southern ,india certain villages to which a class of persons is hereditarily attached1 in such a manner that they form no part of the natural and organic aggregate to which the bulk of the villagers belong4 ,these persons are looked upon as essentially impure2 they never enter the village1 or only enter reserved portions of it2 and their touch is avoided as contaminating4 ,yet they bear extremely plain marks of their origin4 ,though they are not included in the village1 they are an appendage solidly connected with it2 they have definite village duties1 one of which is the settlement of boundaries1 on which their authority is allowed to be conclusive4 ,they evidently represent a population of alien blood whose lands have been occupied by the colonists or invaders forming the community4 #eb ,elsewhere1 ,sir ,henry ,maine points out that in many cases the outsiders were probably admitted to the possession of land1 but on an inferior tenure to the primary holders or freemen who formed the cultivating body of the village2 and suggests that this may have been the ground for the original distinction between occupancy and non-occupancy tenants4 ,the following extract from a description of the ,maratha villages by ,grant ,duff #ec may be subjoined to this passage3 ,the inhabitants are principally cultivators1 and are now either ,mirasidars or ,ooprees4 ,these names serve to distinguish the tenure by which they hold their lands4 ,the ,oopree is a mere tenant-at-will1 but the ,mirasidar is a hereditary occupant whom the ,government cannot displace so long as he pays the assessment on his field4 ,with various privileges and distinctions in his village of minor consequence1 the ,mirasidar has the important power of selling or transferring his right of occupancy at pleasure4 ,it is a current opinion in the ,maratha country that all the lands were originally of this description4 ,as regards the internal relations of clans and village groups1 ,sir ,h4 ,maine states3 ,the men who composed the primitive communities believed themselves to be kinsmen in the most literal sense of the word2 and1 surprising as it may seem1 there are a multitude of indications that in one stage of thought they must have regarded themselves as equals4 ,when these primitive bodies first make their appearance as landowners1 as claiming an exclusive enjoyment in a definite area of land1 not only do their shares of the soil appear to have been originally equal1 but a number of contrivances survive for preserving the equality1 of which the most frequent is the periodical redistribution of the tribal domain4 #ed ,similarly ,professor ,hearn states3 ,the settlement of ,europe was made by clans4 ,each clan occupied a certain territory--much1 ,i suppose1 as an ,australian squatter takes up new country4 ,the land thus occupied was distributed by metes and bounds to each branch of the clan2 the remainder1 if any1 continuing the property of the clan4 #ee ,and again3 ,in those cases where the land had been acquired by conquest there were generally some remains of the conquered population who retained more or less interest in the lands that had once been their own4 ,but as between the conquerors themselves it was the clansmen1 and the clansmen only1 who were entitled to derive any advantage from the land that the clan had acquired4 ,the outsiders1 the men who lived with the clan but were not of the clan1 were no part of the folk1 and had no share in the folkland4 ,no services rendered1 no participation in the common danger1 no endurance of the burden and heat of the day1 could create in an outsider any colour of right4 ,nothing short of admission to the clan1 and of initiation in its worship1 could enable him to demand as of right the grass of a single cow or the wood for a single fire4 #ef #bc4 ,the ownership of land4 ,thus it appears that the cultivating community of each village constituted an exogamous clan1 the members of which believed themselves to be kinsmen4 ,when some caste or tribe occupied a fresh area of land they were distributed by clans in villages1 over the area1 all the cultivators of a village being of one caste or tribe1 as is still the case with the ,kunbis in ,berar4 ,sometimes several alien castes or groups became amalgamated into a single caste1 such as the ,kurmis and ,kunbis2 in others they either remained as a separate caste or became one4 ,when the non-,aryan tribes retained possession of the land1 there is every reason to suppose that they also were admitted into ,hinduism1 and either constituted a fresh caste with the cultivating status1 or were absorbed into an existing one with a change of name4 ,individual ownership of land was probably unknown4 ,the patel or village headman1 on whom proprietary right was conferred by the ,british ,government1 certainly did not possess it previously4 ,he was simply the spokesman and representative of the village community in its dealings with the central or ruling authority4 ,but it seems scarcely likely either that the village community considered itself to own the land4 ,cases in which the community as a corporate body has exercised any function of ownership other than that of occupying and cultivating the soil1 if recorded at all1 must be extremely rare1 and ,i do not know that any instance is given by ,sir ,henry ,maine4 ,a tutelary village god is to be found as a rule in every ,hindu village4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the most common is ,khermata1 that is the goddess of the village itself or the village lands4 ,she is a form of ,devi1 the general earth-goddess4 ,when a village is founded the first thing to be done is to install the village god4 ,thus the soil of the village is venerated as a goddess1 and it seems doubtful whether the village community considered itself the owner4 ,in the ,maratha ,districts1 ,hanuman or ,mahabir1 the monkey god1 is the tutelary deity of the village4 ,his position seems to rest on the belief of the villagers that the monkeys were the lords and owners of the soil before their own arrival4 ,for the worship of these and the other village gods there is usually a village priest1 known as ,bhumka1 ,bhumia1 ,baiga or ,jhankar1 who is taken from the non-,aryan tribes4 ,the reason for his appointment seems to be that the ,hindus still look on themselves to some extent as strangers and interlopers in relation to the gods of the earth and the village1 and consider it necessary to approach these through the medium of one of their predecessors4 ,the words ,bhumka and ,bhumia both mean lord of the soil1 or belonging to the soil4 ,as already seen1 the authority of some menial official belonging to the indigenous tribes is accepted as final in cases of disputed boundaries1 the idea being apparently that as his ancestors first occupied the village1 he has inherited from them the knowledge of its true extent and limits4 ,all these points appear to tell strongly against the view that the ,hindu village community considered itself to own the village land as we understand the phrase4 ,they seem to have looked on the land as a god1 and often their own tutelary deity and protector4 ,what they held themselves to possess was a right of occupancy1 in virtue of prescriptive settlement1 not subject to removal or disturbance1 and transmitted by inheritance to persons born into the membership of the village community4 ,under the ,muhammadans the idea that the state ultimately owned the land may have been held1 but prior to them the existence of such a belief is doubtful4 ,the ,hindu king did not take rent for land1 but a share of the produce for the support of his establishments4 ,the ,rajput princes did not call themselves after the name of their country1 but of its capital town1 as if their own property consisted only in the town1 as ,jodhpur1 ,jaipur and ,udaipur1 instead of ,marwar1 ,dhundhar and ,mewar4 ,just as the village has a priest of the non-,aryan tribes for propitiating the local gods1 so the ,rajput chief at his accession was often inducted to the royal cushion by a ,bhil or ,mina1 and received the badge of investiture as if he had to obtain his title from these tribes4 ,indeed the right of the village community to the land was held sometimes superior to that of the state4 ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm relates that he was very anxious to get the village of ,bassi in ,indore ,state repopulated when it had lain waste for thirty-six years4 ,he had arranged with the ,bhil headman of a neighbouring village to bring it under cultivation on a favourable lease4 ,the plan had other advantages1 and ,holkar's minister was most anxious to put it into execution1 but said that this could not be done until every possible effort had been made to discover whether any descendant of the former patel or of any watandar or hereditary cultivator of ,bassi was still in existence2 for if such were found1 he said1 even we ,marathas1 bad as we are1 cannot do anything which interferes with their rights4 ,none such being found at the time1 the village was settled as proposed by ,malcolm2 but some time afterwards1 a boy was discovered who was descended from the old patel's family1 and he was invited to resume the office of headman of the village of his forefathers1 which even the ,bhil1 who had been nominated to it1 was forward to resign to the rightful inheritor4 #eg ,similarly the ,maratha princes1 ,sindhia1 ,holkar and others1 are recorded to have set more store by the headship of the insignificant ,deccan villages1 which were the hereditary offices of their families1 than by the great principalities which they had carved out for themselves with the sword4 ,the former defined and justified their position in the world as the living link and representative of the continuous family comprising all their ancestors and all their descendants2 the latter was at first regarded merely as a transient1 secular possession1 and a source of wealth and profit4 ,this powerful hereditary right probably rested on a religious basis4 ,the village community was considered to be bound up with its village god in one joint life1 and hence no one but they could in theory have the right to cultivate the lands of that village4 ,the very origin and nature of this right precluded any question of transfer or alienation4 ,the only lands in which any ownership1 corresponding to our conception of the term1 was held to exist1 were perhaps those granted free of revenue for the maintenance of temples1 which were held to be the property of the god4 ,in ,rome and other ,greek and ,latin cities the idea of private or family ownership of land also developed from a religious sentiment4 ,it was customary to bury the dead in the fields which they had held1 and here the belief was that their spirits remained and protected the interests of the family4 ,periodical sacrifices were made to them and they participated in all the family ceremonies4 ,hence the land in which the tombs of ancestors were situated was held to belong to the family1 and could not be separated from it4 #eh ,gradually1 as the veneration for the spirits of ancestors decayed1 the land came to be regarded as the private property of the family1 and when this idea had been realised it was made alienable1 though not with the same freedom as personal property4 ,but the word pecunia for money1 from pecus a flock1 like the ,hindi dhan1 which means wealth and also flocks of goats and sheep1 and feudal from the ,gaelic fiu1 cattle1 point to conditions of society in which land was not considered a form of private property or wealth4 ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges notices other primitive races who did not recognise property in land3 ,the ,tartars understand the term property as applying to cattle1 but not as applying to land4 ,according to some authors1 among the ancient ,germans there was no ownership of land2 every year each member of the tribe received a holding to cultivate1 and the holding was changed in the following year4 ,the ,german owned the crop2 he did not own the soil4 ,the same was the case among a part of the ,semitic race and certain of the ,slav peoples4 #ei ,in large areas of the ,nigeria ,protectorate at present1 land has no exchangeable value at all2 but by the native system of taxation a portion of the produce is taken in consideration of the right of use4 #fj ,in ancient ,arabia ',baal' meant the lord of some place or district1 that is1 a local deity1 and hence came to mean a god4 ,land naturally moist was considered as irrigated by a god and the special place or habitation of the god4 ,to the numerous ,canaanite ,baalims1 or local deities1 the ,israelites ascribed all the natural gifts of the land1 the corn1 the wine1 and the oil1 the wool and the flax1 the vines and fig trees4 ,pasture land was common property1 but a man acquired rights in the soil by building a house1 or1 by 'quickening' a waste place1 that is1 bringing it under cultivation4 #fa ,the ,israelites thought that they derived their title to the land of ,canaan from ,jehovah1 having received it as a gift from ,him4 ,the association of rights over the land with cultivation and building1 pointed out by ,professor ,robertson ,smith1 may perhaps explain the right over the village lands which was held to appertain to the village community4 ,they had quickened the land and built houses on it1 establishing the local village deity on their village sites1 and it was probably thought that their life was bound up with that of the village god1 and only they had a right to cultivate his land4 ,this would explain the great respect shown by the ,marathas for hereditary title to land1 as seen above2 a feeling which must certainly have been based on some religious belief1 and not on any moral idea of equity or justice2 no such deep moral principle was possible in the ,hindu community at the period in question4 ,the ,hindu religious conception of rights to land was thus poles apart from the secular ,english law of proprietary and transferable right1 and if the native feeling could have been1 understood by the early ,british administrators the latter would perhaps have been introduced only in a much modified form4 #bd4 ,the cultivating status that of the ,vaishya4 ,the suggested conclusion from the above argument is that the main body of the ,aryan immigrants1 that is the ,vaishyas1 settled down in villages by exogamous clans or septs4 ,the cultivators of each village believed themselves to be kinsmen descended from a common ancestor1 and also to be akin to the god of the village lands from which they drew their sustenance4 ,hence their order had an equal right to cultivate the village land and their children to inherit it1 though they did not conceive of the idea of ownership of land in the sense in which we understand this phrase4 ,the original status of the ,vaishya1 or a full member of the ,aryan community who could join in sacrifices and employ ,brahmans to perform them1 was gradually transferred to the cultivating member of the village communities4 ,in process of time1 as land was the chief source of wealth1 and was also regarded as sacred1 the old status became attached to castes or groups of persons who obtained or held land irrespective of their origin1 and these are what are now called the good cultivating castes4 ,they have now practically the same status1 though1 as has been seen1 they were originally of most diverse origin1 including bands of robbers and freebooters1 cattle-lifters1 non-,aryan tribes1 and sections of any castes which managed to get possession of an appreciable quantity of land4 #be4 ,higher professional and artisan castes4 ,the second division of the group of pure or good castes1 or those from whom a ,brahman can take water1 comprises the higher artisan castes3 ,barhai4 ,bharbhunja4 ,halwai4 ,kasar4 ,komti4 ,sansia4 ,sunar4 ,tamera4 ,vidur4 ,the most important of these are the ,sunar or goldsmith2 the ,kasar or worker in brass and bell-metal2 the ,tamera or coppersmith2 the ,barhai or carpenter2 and the ,halwai and ,bharbhunja or confectioner and grain-parcher4 ,the ,sansia or stone-mason of the ,uriya country may perhaps also be included4 ,these industries represent a higher degree of civilisation than the village trades1 and the workers may probably have been formed into castes at a later period1 when the practice of the handicrafts was no longer despised4 ,the metal-working castes are now usually urban1 and on the average their members are as well-to-do as the cultivators4 ,the ,sunars especially include a number of wealthy men1 and their importance is increased by their association with the sacred metal1 gold2 in some localities they now claim to be ,brahmans and refuse to take food from ,brahmans4 #fb ,the more ambitious members abjure all flesh-food and liquor and wear the sacred thread4 ,but in ,bombay the ,sunar was in former times one of the village menial castes1 and here1 before and during the time of the ,peshwas1 ,sunars were not allowed to wear the sacred thread1 and they were forbidden to hold their marriages in public1 as it was considered unlucky to see a ,sunar bridegroom4 ,sunar bridegrooms were not allowed to see the state umbrella or to ride in a palanquin1 and had to be married at night and in secluded places1 being subject to restrictions and annoyances from which even ,mahars were free4 ,thus the goldsmith's status appears to vary greatly according as his trade is a village or urban industry4 ,copper is also a sacred metal1 and the ,tameras rank next to the ,sunars among the artisan castes1 with the ,kasars or brass-workers a little below them2 both these castes sometimes wearing the sacred thread4 ,these classes of artisans generally live in towns4 ,the ,barhai or carpenter is sometimes a village menial1 but most carpenters live in towns1 the wooden implements of agriculture being made either by the blacksmith or by the cultivators themselves4 ,where the ,barhai is a village menial he is practically on an equality with the ,lohar or blacksmith2 but the better-class carpenters1 who generally live in towns1 rank higher4 ,the ,sansia or stone-mason of the ,uriya country works1 as a rule1 only in stone1 and in past times therefore his principal employment must have been to build temples4 ,he could not thus be a village menial1 and his status would be somewhat improved by the sanctity of his calling4 ,the ,halwai and ,bharbhunja or confectioner and grain-parcher are castes of comparatively low origin1 especially the latter2 but they have to be given the status of ceremonial purity in order that all ,hindus may be able to take sweets and parched grain from their hands4 ,their position resembles that of the barber and waterman1 the pure village menials1 which will be discussed later4 ,in ,bengal certain castes1 such as the ,tanti or weaver of fine muslin1 the ,teli or oil-presser1 and the ,kumhar or potter1 rank with the ceremonially pure castes4 ,their callings have there become important urban industries4 ,thus the ,tantis made the world-renowned fine muslins of ,dacca2 and the ,jagannathia ,kumhars of ,orissa provide the earthen vessels used for the distribution of rice to all pilgrims at the temple of ,jagannath4 ,these castes and certain others have a much higher rank than that of the corresponding castes in northern and ,central ,india1 and the special reasons indicated seem to account for this4 ,generally the artisan castes ranking on the same or a higher level than the cultivators are urban and not rural4 ,they were not placed in a position of inferiority to the cultivators by accepting contributions of grain and gifts from them1 and this perhaps accounts for their higher position4 ,one special caste may be noticed here1 the ,vidurs1 who are the descendants of ,brahman fathers by women of other castes4 ,these1 being of mixed origin1 formerly had a very low rank1 and worked as village accountants and patwaris4 ,owing to their connection with ,brahmans1 however1 they are a well-educated caste1 and since education has become the door to all grades of advancement in the public service1 the ,vidurs have taken advantage of it1 and many of them are clerks of offices or hold higher posts under ,government4 ,their social status has correspondingly improved2 they dress and behave like ,brahmans1 and in some localities it is said that even ,maratha ,brahmans will take water to drink from ,vidurs1 though they will not take it from the cultivating castes4 ,there are also several menial or serving castes from whom a ,brahman can take water1 forming the third class of this group1 but their real rank is much below that of the cultivators1 and they will be treated in the next group4 #bf4 ,castes from whom a ,brahman cannot take water2 the village menials4 ,the third main division consists of those castes from whom a ,brahman cannot take water1 though they are not regarded as impure and are permitted to enter ,hindu temples4 ,the typical castes of this group appear to be the village artisans and menials and the village priests4 ,the annexed list shows the principal of these4 ,village menials4 ,lohar--,blacksmith4 ,barhai--,carpenter4 ,kumhar--,potter4 ,nai--,barber4 ,dhimar--,waterman4 ,kahar--,palanquin-bearer4 ,bari--,leaf-plate maker4 ,bargah--,household servant4 ,dhobi--,washerman4 ,darzi--,tailor4 ,basor or ,dhulia--,village musician4 ,bhat and ,mirasi--,bard and genealogist4 ,halba--,house-servant and farm-servant4 ,castes of village watchmen4 ,khangar4 ,chadar4 ,chauhan4 ,dahait4 ,panka4 ,village priests and mendicants4 ,joshi--,astrologer4 ,garpagari--,hail-averter4 ,gondhali--,musician4 ,manbhao ,jangam ,basdewa ,wandering priests and mendicants4 ,satani ,waghya ,others4 ,mali--,gardener and maker of garlands4 ,barai--,betel-vine grower and seller4 ,other village traders and artisans4 ,kalar--,liquor-vendor4 ,teli--,oil-presser4 ,hatwa ,manihar ,pedlar4 ,banjara--,carrier4 ,bahelia ,pardhi ,fowlers and hunters4 ,bahna--,cotton-cleaner4 ,chhipa--,calico-printer and dyer4 ,chitrakathi--,painter and picture-maker4 ,kachera--,glass bangle-maker4 ,kadera--,fireworks-maker4 ,nat--,acrobat4 ,gadaria ,dhangar ,shepherds4 ,kuramwar ,beldar ,murha ,diggers1 navvies1 and salt-refiners4 ,nunia ,the essential fact which formerly governed the status of this group of castes appears to be that they performed various services for the cultivators according to their different vocations1 and were supported by contributions of grain made to them by the cultivators1 and by presents given to them at seed-time and harvest4 ,they were the clients of the cultivators and the latter were their patrons and supporters1 and hence ranked above them4 ,this condition of things survives only in the case of a few castes1 but prior to the introduction of a metal currency must apparently have been the method of remuneration of all the village industries4 ,the ,lohar or blacksmith makes and mends the iron implements of agriculture1 such as the ploughshare1 axe1 sickle and goad4 ,for this he is paid in ,saugor a yearly contribution of #bj lbs4 of grain per plough of land held by each cultivator1 together with a handful of grain at sowing-time and a sheaf at harvest from both the autumn and spring crops4 ,in ,wardha he gets #ej lbs4 of grain per plough of four bullocks or #dj acres4 ,for new implements he must either be paid separately or at least supplied with the iron and charcoal4 ,in ,districts where the ,barhai or carpenter is a village servant he is paid the same as the ,lohar and has practically an equal status4 ,the village barber receives in ,saugor #bj lbs4 of grain annually from each adult male in the family1 or #bb #a_/b lbs4 per plough of land besides the seasonal presents4 ,in return for this he shaves each cultivator over the head and face about once a fortnight4 ,the ,dhobi or washerman gets half the annual contribution of the blacksmith and carpenter1 with the same presents1 and in return for this he washes the clothes of the family two or three times a month4 ,when he brings the clothes home he also receives a meal or a wheaten cake1 and well-to-do families give him their old clothes as a present4 ,the ,dhimar or waterman brings water to the house morning and evening1 and fills the earthen water-pots placed on a wooden stand or earthen platform outside it4 ,when the cultivators have marriages he performs the same duties for the whole wedding party1 and receives a present of money and clothes according to the means of the family1 and his food every day while the wedding is in progress4 ,he supplies water for drinking to the reapers1 receiving three sheaves a day as payment1 and takes sweet potatoes and boiled plums to the field and sells them4 ,the ,kumhar or potter is not now paid regularly by dues from the cultivators like other village menials1 as the ordinary system of sale has been found to be more convenient in his case4 ,but he sometimes takes for use the soiled grass from the stalls of the cattle and gives pots free to the cultivator in exchange4 ,on ,akti day1 at the beginning of the agricultural year1 the village ,kumhar in ,saugor presents five pots with covers on them to each cultivator and is given #b #a_/b lbs4 of grain4 ,he presents the bride with seven new pots at a wedding1 and these are filled with water and used in the ceremony1 being considered to represent the seven seas4 ,at a funeral he must supply thirteen vessels which are known as ghats1 and must replace the household earthen vessels1 which are rendered impure on the occurrence of a death in the house1 and are all broken and thrown away4 ,in the ,punjab and ,maratha country the ,kumhar was formerly an ordinary village menial4 #bg4 ,the village watchmen4 ,the office of village watchman is an important one1 and is usually held by a member of the indigenous tribes4 ,these formerly were the chief criminals1 and the village watchman1 in return for his pay1 was expected to detect the crimes of his tribesmen and to make good any losses of property caused by them4 ,the sections of the tribes who held this office have developed into special castes1 as the ,khangars1 ,chadars and ,chauhans of ,chhattisgarh4 ,these last are probably of mixed descent from ,rajputs and the higher castes of cultivators with the indigenous tribes4 ,the ,dahaits were a caste of gatekeepers and orderlies of native rulers who have now become village watchmen4 ,the ,pankas are a section of the impure ,ganda caste who have embraced the doctrines of the ,kabirpanthi sect and formed a separate caste4 ,they are now usually employed as village watchmen and are not regarded as impure4 ,similarly those members of the ,mahar servile caste who are village watchmen tend to marry among themselves and form a superior group to the others4 ,the village watchman now receives a remuneration fixed by ,government and is practically a rural policeman1 but in former times he was a village menial and was maintained by the cultivators in the same manner as the others4 #bh4 ,the village priests4 ,the gardening castes4 ,the village priests are another class of this group4 ,the regular village priest and astrologer1 the ,joshi or ,parsai1 is a ,brahman1 but the occupation has developed a separate caste4 ,the ,joshi officiates at weddings in the village1 selects auspicious names for children according to the constellations under which they were born1 and points out the auspicious moment or mahurat for weddings1 name-giving and other ceremonies1 and for the commencement of such agricultural operations as sowing1 reaping1 and threshing4 ,he is also sometimes in charge of the village temple4 ,he is supported by contributions of grain from the villagers and often has a plot of land rent-free from the proprietor4 ,the social position of the ,joshis is not very good1 and1 though ,brahmans1 they are considered to rank somewhat below the cultivating castes4 ,the ,gurao is another village priest1 whose fortune has been quite different4 ,the caste acted as priests of the temples of ,siva and were also musicians and supplied leaf-plates4 ,they were village menials of the ,maratha villages4 ,but owing to the sanctity of their calling1 and the fact that they have become literate and taken service under ,government1 the ,guraos now rank above the cultivators and are called ,shaiva ,brahmans4 ,the ,gondhalis are the village priests of ,devi1 the earth-goddess1 who is also frequently the tutelary goddess of the village4 ,they play the kettle-drum and perform dances in her honour1 and were formerly classed as one of the village menials of ,maratha villages1 though they now work for hire4 ,the ,garpagari1 or hail-averter1 is a regular village menial1 his duty being to avert hail-storms from the crops1 like the qalazof'ulax in ancient ,greece4 ,the ,garpagaris will accept cooked food from ,kunbis and celebrate their weddings with those of the ,kunbis4 ,the ,jogis1 ,manbhaos1 ,satanis1 and others1 are wandering religious mendicants1 who act as priests and spiritual preceptors to the lower classes of ,hindus4 ,with the village priests may be mentioned the ,mali or gardener4 ,the ,malis now grow vegetables with irrigation or ordinary crops1 but this was not apparently their original vocation4 ,the name is derived from mala1 a garland1 and it would appear that the ,mali was first employed to grow flowers for the garlands with which the gods and also their worshippers were adorned at religious ceremonies4 ,flowers were held sacred and were an essential adjunct to worship in ,india as in ,greece and ,rome4 ,the sacred flowers of ,india are the lotus1 the marigold and the champak #fc and from their use in religious worship is derived the custom of adorning the guests with garlands at all social functions1 just as in ,rome and ,greece they wore crowns on their heads4 ,it seems not unlikely that this was the purpose for which cultivated flowers were first grown1 at any rate in ,india4 ,the ,mali was thus a kind of assistant in the religious life of the village1 and he is still sometimes placed in charge of the village shrines and is employed as temple-servant in ,jain temples4 ,he would therefore have been supported by contributions from the cultivators like the other village menials and have ranked below them1 though on account of the purity and sanctity of his occupation ,brahmans would take water from him4 ,the ,mali has now become an ordinary cultivator1 but his status is still noticeably below that of the good cultivating castes and this seems to be the explanation4 ,with the ,mali may be classed the ,barai1 the grower and seller of the pan or betel-vine leaf4 ,this leaf1 growing on a kind of creeper1 like the vine1 in irrigated gardens roofed with thatch for protection from the sun1 is very highly prized by the ,hindus4 ,it is offered with areca-nut1 cloves1 cardamom and lime rolled up in a quid to the guests at all social functions4 ,it is endowed by them with great virtues1 being supposed to prevent heartburn1 indigestion1 and other stomachic and intestinal disorders1 and to preserve the teeth1 while taken with musk1 saffron and almonds1 the betel-leaf is held to be a strong aphrodisiac4 ,the juice of the leaf stains the teeth and mouth red1 and the effect1 though repulsive to ,europeans1 is an indispensable adjunct to a woman's beauty in ,hindu eyes4 ,this staining of the mouth red with betel-leaf is also said to distinguish a man from a dog4 ,the idea that betel preserves the teeth seems to be unfounded4 ,the teeth of ,hindus appear to be far less liable to decay than those of ,europeans1 but this is thought to be because they generally restrict themselves to a vegetable diet and always rinse out their mouths with water after taking food4 ,the betel-leaf is considered sacred2 a silver ornament is made in its shape and it is often invoked in spells and magic4 ,the original vine is held to have grown from a finger-joint of ,basuki1 the ,queen of the ,serpents1 and the cobra is worshipped as the tutelary deity of the pan-garden1 which this snake is accustomed to frequent1 attracted by the moist coolness and darkness4 ,the position of the ,barai is the same as that of the ,mali2 his is really a low caste1 sometimes coupled with the contemned ,telis or oil-pressers1 but he is considered ceremonially pure because the betel-leaf1 offered to gods and eaten by ,brahmans and all ,hindus1 is taken from him4 ,the ,barai or ,tamboli was formerly a village menial in the ,maratha villages4 #bi4 ,other village traders and menials4 ,the castes following other village trades mainly fall into this group1 though they may not now be village menials4 ,such are the ,kalar or liquor-vendor and ,teli or oil-presser1 who sell their goods for cash1 and having learnt to reckon and keep accounts1 have prospered in their dealings with the cultivators ignorant of this accomplishment4 ,formerly it is probable that the village ,teli had the right of pressing all the oil grown in the village1 and retaining a certain share for his remuneration4 ,the liquor-vendor can scarcely have been a village menial1 but since ,manu's time his trade has been regarded as a very impure one1 and has ranked with that of the ,teli4 ,both these castes have now become prosperous1 and include a number of landowners1 and their status is gradually improving4 ,the ,darzi or tailor is not usually attached to the village community2 sewn clothes have hitherto scarcely been worn among the rural population1 and the weaver provides the cloths which they drape on the body and round the head4 #fd ,the contempt with which the tailor is visited in ,english proverbial lore for working at a woman's occupation attaches in a precisely similar manner in ,india to the weaver4 #fe ,but in ,gujarat the ,darzi is found living in villages and here he is also a village menial4 ,the ,kachera or maker of the glass bangles which every ,hindu married woman wears as a sign of her estate1 ranks with the village artisans2 his is probably an urban trade1 but he has never become prosperous or important4 ,the ,banjaras or grain-carriers were originally ,rajputs1 but owing to the mixed character of the caste and the fact that they obtained their support from the cultivators1 they have come to rank below these latter4 ,the ,wanjari cultivators of ,berar have now discarded their ,banjara ancestry and claim to be ,kunbis4 ,the ,nat or rope-dancer and acrobat may formerly have had functions in the village in connection with the crops4 ,in ,kumaon #ff a ,nat still slides down a long rope from the summit of a cliff to the base as a rite for ensuring the success of the crops on the occasion of a festival of ,siva4 ,formerly if the ,nat or ,badi fell to the ground in his course1 he was immediately despatched with a sword by the surrounding spectators1 but this is now prohibited4 ,the rope on which he slid down the cliff is cut up and distributed among the inhabitants of the village1 who hang the pieces as charms on the eaves of their houses4 ,the hair of the ,nat is also taken and preserved as possessing similar virtues4 ,each ,district in ,kumaon has its hereditary ,nat or ,badi1 who is supported by annual contributions of grain from the inhabitants4 ,similarly in the ,central ,provinces it is not uncommon to find a deified ,nat1 called ,nat ,baba or ,father ,nat1 as a village god4 ,a ,natni1 or ,nat woman1 is sometimes worshipped2 and when two sharp peaks of hills are situated close to each other1 it is related that there was once a ,natni1 very skilful on the tight-rope1 who performed before the king2 and he promised her that if she would stretch a rope from the peak of one hill to that of the other1 and walk across it1 he would marry her and make her wealthy4 ,accordingly the rope was stretched1 but the queen from jealousy went and cut it nearly through in the night1 and when the ,natni started to walk1 the rope broke1 and she fell down and was killed4 ,having regard to the ,kumaon rite1 it may be surmised that these legends commemorate the death of a ,natni or acrobat during the performance of some feat of dancing or sliding on a rope for the magical benefit of the crops4 ,and it seems possible that acrobatic performances may have had their origin in this manner4 ,the point bearing on the present argument is1 however1 that the ,nat performed special functions for the success of the village crops1 and on this account was supported by contributions from the villagers1 and ranked with the village menials4 #cj4 ,household servants4 ,some of the castes already mentioned1 and one or two others having the same status1 work as household servants as well as village menials4 ,the ,dhimar is most commonly employed as an indoor servant in ,hindu households1 and is permitted to knead flour in water and make it into a cake1 which the ,brahman then takes and puts on the girdle with his own hands4 ,he can boil water and pour pulse into the cooking-pot from above1 so long as he does not touch the vessel after the food has been placed in it4 ,he will take any remains of food left in the cooking-pot1 as this is not considered to be polluted1 food only becoming polluted when the hand touches it on the dish after having touched the mouth4 ,when this happens1 all the food on the dish becomes jutha or leavings of food1 and as a general rule no caste except the sweepers will eat these leavings of food of another caste or of another person of their own4 ,only a wife1 whose meal follows her husband's1 will eat his leavings4 ,as a servant1 the ,dhimar is very familiar with his master2 he may enter any part of the house1 including the cooking-place and the women's rooms1 and he addresses his mistress as ',mother4' ,when he lights his master's pipe he takes the first pull himself1 to show that it has not been tampered with1 and then presents it to him with his left hand placed under his right elbow in token of respect4 ,maid-servants frequently belong also to the ,dhimar caste1 and it often happens that the master of the household has illicit intercourse with them4 ,hence there is a proverb3 ',the king's son draws water and the water-bearer's son sits on the throne1'--similar intrigues on the part of high-born women with their servants being not unknown4 ,the ,kahar or palanquin-bearer was probably the same caste as the ,dhimar4 ,landowners would maintain a gang of ,kahars to carry them on journeys1 allotting to such men plots of land rent-free4 ,our use of the word 'bearer' in the sense of a body-servant has developed from the palanquin-bearer who became a personal attendant on his master4 ,well-to-do families often have a ,nai or barber as a hereditary family servant1 the office descending in the barber's family4 ,such a man arranges the marriages of the children and takes a considerable part in conducting them1 and acts as escort to the women of the family when they go on a journey4 ,among his daily duties are to rub his master's body with oil1 massage his limbs1 prepare his bed1 tell him stories to send him to sleep1 and so on4 ,the barber's wife attends on women in childbirth after the days of pollution are over1 and rubs oil on the bodies of her clients1 pares their nails and paints their feet with red dye at marriages and on other festival occasions4 ,the ,bari or maker of leaf-plates is another household servant4 ,plates made of large leaves fastened together with little wooden pins and strips of fibre are commonly used by the ,hindus for eating food1 as are little leaf-cups for drinking2 glazed earthenware has hitherto not been commonly manufactured1 and that with a rougher surface becomes ceremonially impure by contact with any strange person or thing4 ,metal vessels and plates are the only alternative to those made of leaves1 and there are frequently not enough of them to go round for a party4 ,the ,baris also work as personal servants1 hand round water1 and light and carry torches at entertainments and on journeys4 ,their women are maids to high-caste ,hindu ladies1 and as they are always about the zenana are liable to lose their virtue4 #ca4 ,status of the village menials4 ,the castes of village and household menials form a large group between the cultivators on the one hand and the impure and servile labourers on the other4 ,their status is not exactly the same4 ,on the one hand1 the ,nai or barber1 the ,kahar and ,dhimar or watermen1 the household servants1 the ,bari1 ,ahir1 and others1 some of the village priests and the gardening castes1 are considered ceremonially pure and ,brahmans will take water from them4 ,but this is a matter of convenience1 as1 if they were not so held pure1 they would be quite useless in the household4 ,several of these castes1 as the ,dhimars1 ,baris and others1 are derived from the primitive tribes4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley considered the ,baris of ,bengal as probably an offshoot from the ,bhuiya or ,musahar tribe3 ,he still associates with the ,bhuiyas at times1 and if the demand for leaf-plates and cups is greater than he can cope with himself1 he gets them secretly made up by his ruder kinsfolk and passes them off as his own production4 ,instances of this sort1 in which a non-,aryan or mixed group is promoted on grounds of necessity or convenience to a higher status than their antecedents would entitle them to claim1 are not unknown in other castes1 and must have occurred frequently in outlying parts of the country1 where the ,aryan settlements were scanty and imperfectly supplied with the social apparatus demanded by the theory of ceremonial purity4 ,thus the undoubtedly non-,aryan ,bhuiyas have in parts of ,chota ,nagpur been recognised as ,jal-,acharani 7able to give water to the higher castes7 and it may be conjectured that the ,kahars themselves only attained this privilege in virtue of their employment as palanquin-bearers4 #fg ,the fact that ,brahmans will take water from these castes does not in any way place them on a level with the cultivators2 they remain menial servants1 ranking1 if anything1 below such castes as ,lohar1 ,teli and ,kalar1 from whom ,brahmans will not take water2 but these latter are1 as corporate bodies1 more important and prosperous than the household menial castes1 because their occupation confers a greater dignity and independence4 ,on the other hand1 one or two of the village menials1 such as the ,dhobi or washerman1 are considered to some extent impure4 ,this is due to specially degrading incidents attaching to their occupation1 as in the case of the ,dhobi1 the washing of the clothes of women in childbirth4 #fh ,and the ,sungaria subcaste of ,kumhars1 who keep pigs1 are not touched1 because the impurity of the animal is necessarily communicated to its owner's house and person4 ,still1 in the village society there is little real difference between the position of these castes and those of the other village menials4 #cb4 ,origin of their status ,the status of the village menial castes appears to be fixed by their dependent position on the cultivators4 ,the latter are their patrons and superiors1 to whom they look for a livelihood4 ,before the introduction of a currency in the rural tracts 7an event of the last fifty to a hundred years7 the village artisans and menials were supported by contributions of grain from the cultivators4 ,they still all receive presents1 consisting of a sowing-basketful of grain at seed-time and one or two sheaves at harvest4 ,the former is known as ,bij phutni1 or ',the breaking of the seed1' and the latter as ,khanvar1 or ',that which is left' ,sometimes1 after threshing1 the menials are each given as much grain as will fill a winnowing-fan4 ,when the peasant has harvested his grain1 all come and beg from him4 ,the ,dhimar brings some water-nut1 the ,kachhi or market-gardener some chillies1 the ,barai betel-leaf1 the ,teli oil and tobacco1 the ,kalar liquor 7if he drinks it71 the ,bania some sugar1 and all receive grain in excess of the value of their gifts4 ,the ,joshi or village priest1 the ,nat or acrobat1 the ,gosain or religious mendicant and the ,fakir or ,muhammadan beggar solicit alms4 ,on that day the cultivator is said to be like a little king in his fields1 and the village menials constitute his court4 ,in purely agricultural communities grain is the principal source of wealth1 and though the average ,hindu villager may appear to us to be typical of poverty rather than wealth1 such standards are purely relative4 ,the cultivator was thus the patron and supporter of the village artisans and menials1 and his social position was naturally superior to theirs4 ,among the ,hindus it is considered derogatory to accept a gift from another person1 the recipient being thereby placed in a position of inferiority to the donor4 ,some exception to this rule is made in the case of ,brahmans1 though even with them it partly applies4 ,generally the acceptance of a gift of any value among ,hindus is looked upon in the same manner as the taking of money in ,england1 being held to indicate that the recipient is in an inferior social position to the giver4 ,and the existence of this feeling seems to afford strong support to the reason suggested here for the relative status of the cultivating and village menial castes4 ,the group of village menial and artisan castes comes between the good cultivating castes who hold the status of the ,vaishyas or body of the ,aryans1 and the impure castes1 the subjected aborigines4 ,the most reasonable theory of their status seems to be that it originated in mixed descent4 ,as has already been seen1 it was the common practice of members of the higher classes to take lower-caste women either as wives or concubines1 and a large mixed class would naturally result4 ,such children1 born and brought up in the households of their fathers1 would not be full members of the family1 but would not be regarded as impure4 ,they would naturally be put to the performance of the menial household duties1 for which the servile castes were rendered unsuitable through their impure status4 ,this would correspond with the tradition of the large number of castes originating in mixed descent1 which is given in the ,hindu sacred books4 ,it has been seen that where menial castes are employed in the household1 classes of mixed descent do as a matter of fact arise4 ,and there are traces of a relationship between the cultivators and the menial castes1 which would be best explained by such an origin4 ,at a betrothal in the great ,kunbi cultivating caste of the ,marathas1 the services of the barber and washerman must be requisitioned4 ,the barber washes the feet of the boy and girl and places vermilion on the foreheads of the guests2 the washerman spreads a sheet on the ground on which the boy and girl sit4 ,at the end of the ceremony the barber and washerman take the bride and bridegroom on their shoulders and dance to music in the marriage-shed1 for which they receive small presents4 ,after a death has occurred at a ,kunbi's house1 the impurity is not removed until the barber and washerman have eaten in it4 ,at a ,kunbi's wedding the ,gurao or village priest brings the leafy branches of five trees and deposits them at ,maroti's #fi temple1 whence they are removed by the parents of the bride4 ,before a wedding1 again1 a ,kunbi bride must go to the potter's house and be seated on his wheel1 while it is turned round seven times for good luck4 ,similarly at a wedding among the ,hindustani cultivating castes the bride visits the potter's house and is seated on his wheel2 and the washerman's wife applies vermilion to her forehead4 ,the barber's wife puts red paint on her feet1 the gardener's wife presents her with a garland of flowers and the carpenter's wife gives her a new wooden doll4 ,at the wedding feast the barber1 the washerman and the ,bari or personal servant also eat with the guests1 though sitting apart from them4 ,sometimes members of the menial and serving castes are invited to the funeral feast as if they belonged to the dead man's caste4 ,in ,madras the barber and his wife1 and the washerman and his wife1 are known as the son and daughter of the village4 ,and among the families of ruling ,rajput chiefs1 when a daughter of the house is married1 it was customary to send with her a number of handmaidens taken from the menial and serving castes4 ,these became the concubines of the bridegroom and it seems clear that their progeny would be employed in similar capacities about the household and would follow the castes of their mothers4 ,the ,tamera caste of coppersmiths trace their origin from the girls so sent with the bride of ,dharam-,pal1 the ,haihaya ,rajput ,raja of ,ratanpur1 through the progeny of these girls by the ,raja4 #cc4 ,other castes who rank with the village menials4 ,many other castes belong to the group of those from whom a ,brahman cannot take water1 but who are not impure4 ,among these are several of the lower cultivating castes1 some of them growers of special products1 as the ,kachhis and ,mowars or market-gardeners1 the ,dangris or melon-growers1 and the ,kohlis and ,bhoyars who plant sugarcane4 ,these subsidiary kinds of agriculture were looked down upon by the cultivators proper2 they were probably carried out on the beds and banks of streams and other areas not included in the regular holdings of the village1 and were taken up by labourers and other landless persons4 ,the callings of these are allied to1 or developed from1 that of the ,mali or gardener1 and they rank on a level with him1 or perhaps a little below1 as no element of sanctity attaches to their products4 ,certain castes which were formerly labourers1 but have now sometimes obtained possession of the land1 are also in this group1 such as the ,rajbhars1 ,kirs1 ,manas1 and various ,madras castes of cultivators4 ,probably these were once not allowed to hold land1 but were afterwards admitted to do so4 ,the distinction between their position and that of the hereditary cultivators of the village community was perhaps the original basis of the different kinds of tenant-right recognised by our revenue law1 though these now1 of course1 depend solely on length of tenure and other incidents1 and make no distinction of castes4 ,the shepherd castes who tend sheep and goats 7the ,gadarias1 ,dhangars and ,kuramwars7 also fall into this group4 ,little sanctity attached to these animals as compared with the cow1 and the business of rearing them would be left to the labouring castes and non-,aryan tribes4 ,the names of all three castes denote their functional origin1 ,gadaria being from gadar1 a sheep1 ,dhangar from dhan or small-stock1 the word signifying a flock of sheep or goats and also wealth2 and ,kuramwar from kurri1 the ,telugu word for sheep4 ,others belonging to this group are the digging and earth-working castes1 the ,beldars1 ,murhas1 ,nunias and so on1 practically all derived from the indigenous tribes1 who wander about seeking employment from the cultivators in the construction and repair of field embankments and excavation of wells and tanks2 and various fishing and boating castes1 as the ,injhwars1 ,naodas1 ,murhas and ,kewats1 who rank as equal to the ,dhimars1 though they may not be employed in household or village service4 ,such castes1 almost entirely derived from the non-,aryan tribes1 may have come gradually into existence as the wants of society developed and new functions were specialised2 they would naturally be given the social status already attaching to the village menial castes4 #cd4 ,the non-,aryan tribes4 ,the fourth group in the scheme of precedence comprises the non-,aryan or indigenous tribes1 who are really outside the caste system when this is considered as the social organisation of the ,hindus1 so long at least as they continue to worship their own tribal deities1 and show no respect for ,brahmans nor for the cow4 ,these tribes have1 however1 entered the ,hindu polity in various positions4 ,the leaders of some of them who were dominant in the early period were admitted to the ,kshatriya or ,rajput caste1 and the origin of a few of the ,rajput clans can be traced to the old ,bhar and other tribes4 ,again1 the aristocratic or landholding sections of several existing tribes are at present1 as has been seen1 permitted to rank with the good ,hindu cultivating castes4 ,in a few cases1 as the ,andhs1 ,halbas and ,manas1 the tribe as a whole has become a ,hindu caste1 when it retained possession of the land in the centre of a ,hindu population4 ,these have now the same or a slightly higher position than the village menial castes4 ,on the other hand1 those tribes which were subjugated and permitted to live with a servile status in the ,hindu villages have developed into the existing impure castes of labourers1 weavers1 tanners and others1 who form the lowest social group4 ,the tribes which still retain their distinctive existence were not enslaved in this manner1 but lived apart in their own villages in the forest tracts and kept possession of the land4 ,this seems to be the reason why they rank somewhat higher than the impure castes1 even though they may utterly defile themselves according to ,hindu ideas by eating cow's flesh4 ,some tribes1 such as the ,gonds1 ,binjhwars and ,kawars1 counted amongst them the owners of large estates or even kingdoms1 and consequently had many ,hindu cultivators for their subjects4 ,and1 as the ,hindus themselves say1 they could not regard the ,gonds as impure when they had a ,gond king4 ,nevertheless1 the ,gond labourers in ,hindu villages in the plains are more despised than the ,gonds who live in their own villages in the hill country4 ,and the conversion of the tribes as a whole to ,hinduism goes steadily forward4 ,at each census the question arises which of them should be classed as ,hindus1 and which as ,animists or worshippers of their own tribal gods1 and though the classification is necessarily very arbitrary1 the process can be clearly observed4 ,thus the ,andhs1 ,kolis1 ,rautias and ,halbas are now all ,hindus1 and the same remark applies to the ,kols1 ,bhils and ,korkus in several ,districts4 ,by strict abstention from beef1 the adoption of ,hindu rites1 and to some extent of child-marriage1 they get admission to the third group of castes from whom a ,brahman cannot take water4 ,it will be desirable here to digress from the main argument by noticing briefly the origin and affinities of the principal forest tribes of the ,central ,provinces4 #ce4 ,the ,kolarians and ,dravidians4 ,these tribes are divided into two families1 the ,munda or ,kolarian1 named after the ,kol tribe1 and the ,dravidian1 of which the former are generally held to be the older and more primitive4 ,the word ,kol is probably the ,santali har1 a man4 ,this word is used under various forms1 such as har1 hara1 ho and koro by most ,munda tribes in order to denote themselves4 ,the change of r to l is familiar and presents no difficulty4 #gj ,the word is also found in the alternative name ,ho for the ,kol tribe1 and in the names of the cognate ,korwa and ,korku tribes4 ,the word ,munda is a ,sanskrit derivative meaning a head1 and1 as stated by ,sir ,h4 ,risley1 is the common term employed by the ,kols for the headman of a village1 whence it has been adopted as an honorific title for the tribe4 ,in ,chota ,nagpur those ,kols who have partly adopted ,hinduism and become to some degree civilised are called ,munda1 while the name ,ho or ,larka 7fighting7 ,kol is reserved for the wilder section of the tribe4 #cf4 ,kolarian tribes4 ,the principal tribes of the ,munda or ,kolarian family in the ,central ,provinces are shown below3 ,kol1 ,munda1 ,ho4 ,bhumij4 ,santal4 ,kharia4 ,korwa4 ,korku4 ,nahal ,savar or ,saonr4 ,mal1 ,male4 ,gadba4 ,khairwar4 ,baiga4 ,bhuiya4 ,bhaina4 ,bhunjia4 ,binjhwar4 ,probable3 ,bhar1 ,koli1 ,bhil1 ,chero4 ,one large group includes the ,kol1 ,munda or ,ho tribe itself and the ,bhumij and ,santals1 who appear to be local branches of the ,kols called by separate names by the ,hindus4 ,the ,kharias seem to be the earliest ,kol settlers in ,chota ,nagpur1 who were subjugated by the later comers4 ,the name ,kol1 as already seen1 is probably a form of the ,santali har1 a man4 ,similarly the name of the ,korku tribe is simply a corruption of ,koraku1 young men1 and that of the ,korwa tribe is from the same root4 ,the dialects of the ,korku and ,korwa tribes closely approximate to ,mundari4 ,hence it would seem that they were originally one tribe with the ,kols1 but have been separated for so long a period that their direct connection can no longer be proved4 ,the disintegrating causes which have split up what was originally one into a number of distinct tribes1 are probably no more than distance and settlement in different parts of the country1 leading to cessation of intermarriage and social intercourse4 ,the tribes have then obtained some variation in the original names or been given separate territorial or occupational designations by the ,hindus1 and their former identity has gradually been forgotten4 ,both the ,korwas of the ,chota ,nagpur plateau and the ,korkus of the ,satpura hills were known as ,muasi1 a term having the meaning of robber or raider4 ,the ,korwas have also a subtribe called ,koraku1 and ,mr4 ,crooke thinks that they were originally the same tribe4 ,sir ,g4 ,grierson states that the ,korwa dialect is closely allied to ,kharia4 ,similarly the resemblance of the name raises a presumption that the great ,koli tribe of ,gujarat and western ,india may be a branch of the ,kols who penetrated to the western coast along the ,satpulra and ,central ,india hill ranges4 ,the ,kolis and ,bhils are tribes of the same country and are commonly spoken of together4 ,both have entirely lost their own language and cannot therefore be classified definitely either as ,kolarian or ,dravidian1 but there is a probability that they are of the ,kolarian family4 ,the ,nahals1 another tribe of the western ,satpura range1 are an offshoot of the ,korkus4 ,they are coupled with the ,bhils and ,kolis in old ,hindu accounts4 ,the ,savars1 ,sawaras or ,saonrs are also a widely distributed tribe1 being found as far west as ,bundelkhand and east in ,orissa and ,ganjam4 ,in the ,central ,provinces they have lost their own language and speak ,hindi or ,uriya1 but in ,madras they still retain their original speech1 which is classified by ,sir ,g4 ,grierson with ,gadba as a ,munda or ,kolarian dialect4 ,the name occurs in ,vedic literature1 and the tribe is probably of great antiquity4 ,in the classical stories of their origin the first ancestor of the ,savars is sometimes described as a ,bhil4 ,the wide extension of the ,savar tribe east and west is favourable to the hypothesis of the identity of the ,kols and ,kolis1 who have a somewhat similar distribution4 ,the ,gadbas of ,ganjam1 and the ,mal or ,male ,paharia tribe of ,chota ,nagpur seem to be offshoots of the ,savars4 ,the ,khairwars or ,kharwars are an important tribe of ,mirzapur and ,chota ,nagpur4 ,there is some reason for supposing that they are an occupational offshoot of the ,kols and ,cheros1 who have become a distinct group through taking to the manufacture of edible catechu from the wood of the khair tree4 #ga ,another great branch of the ,kolarian family is that represented by the ,bhuiya and ,baiga tribes and their offshoots1 the ,bhunjias1 ,bhainas and ,binjhwars4 ,the ,kolarian origin of the ,bhuiyas has been discussed in the article on that tribe1 and it has also been suggested that the ,baiga tribe of the ,central ,provinces are an offshoot of the ,bhuiyas4 ,these tribes have all abandoned their own languages and adopted the local ,aryan vernaculars4 ,the name ,bhuiya is a ,sanskrit derivative from bhu1 earth1 and signifies 'belonging to the soil4' ,bhumij1 applied to a branch of the ,kol tribe1 has the same origin4 ,baiga is used in the sense of a village priest or a sorcerer in ,chota ,nagpur1 and the office is commonly held by members of the ,bhuiya tribe in that locality1 as being the oldest residents4 ,thus the section of the tribe in the ,central ,provinces appears to have adopted1 or been given1 the name of the office4 ,the ,bharias or ,bharia-,bhumias of ,jubbulpore seem to belong to the great ,bhar tribe1 once dominant over large areas of the ,united ,provinces4 ,they also hold the office of village priest1 which is there known as ,bhumia1 and in some tracts are scarcely distinguished from the ,baigas4 ,again1 in ,sambalpur the ,bhuiyas are known as ,bhumia ,kol1 and are commonly regarded as a branch of the ,kol tribe4 ,thus it would seem that two separate settlements of the ,kolarian races may have occurred2 the earlier one would be represented by the ,bhars1 ,bhuiyas1 ,baigas and kindred tribes who have entirely lost their own languages and identity1 and have names given to them by the ,hindus2 and a later one of the ,kols or ,mundas and their related tribes1 whose languages and tribal religion and organisation1 though in a decaying state1 can be fully recognised and recorded4 ,and the ,dravidian immigration would be subsequent to both of them4 ,to judge from the cases in which the fissure or subdivision of single tribes into two or more distinct ones can still be observed1 it seems quite a plausible hypothesis that the original immigrants may have consisted only of a single tribe on each occasion1 and that the formation of new ones may have occurred after settlement4 ,but the evidence does not warrant any definite assertion4 #cg4 ,dravidian tribes4 ,the principal ,dravidian tribes are the ,gonds1 ,khonds and ,oraons4 ,the ,gonds were once dominant over the greater part of the ,central ,provinces1 which was called ,gondwana after them4 ,the above three names have in each case been given to the tribes by the ,hindus4 ,the following tribes are found in the ,province3 ,gond1 ,oraon or ,kurukh1 ,khond1 ,kolam1 ,parja1 ,kamar4 ,tribal ,castes3 ,bhatra1 ,halba1 ,dhoba4 ,doubtful3 ,kawar1 ,dhanwar4 ,the ,gonds and ,khonds call themselves ,koi or ,koitur1 a word which seems to mean man or hillman4 ,the ,oraon tribe call themselves ,kurukh1 which has also been supposed to be connected with the ,kolarian horo1 man4 ,the name ,oraon1 given to them by the ,hindus1 may mean farmservant1 while ,dhangar1 an alternative name for the tribe1 has certainly this signification4 ,there seems good reason to suppose that the ,gonds and ,khonds were originally one tribe divided through migration4 #gb ,the ,kolams are a small tribe of the ,wardha ,valley1 whose dialect resembles those of the ,gonds and ,khonds4 ,they may have split off from the parent tribe in southern ,india and come northwards separately4 ,the ,parjas appear to represent the earliest ,gond settlers in ,bastar1 who were subjugated by later ,gond and ,raj-,gond immigrants4 ,the ,halbas and ,bhatras are mixed tribes or tribal castes1 descended from the unions of ,gonds and ,hindus4 #ch4 ,origin of the ,kolarian tribes ,the ,munda languages have been shown by ,sir ,g4 ,grierson to have originated from the same source as those spoken in the ,indo-,pacific islands and the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,the ,mundas1 the ,mon-,khmer1 the wild tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula and the ,nicobarese all use forms of speech which can be traced back to a common source though they mutually differ widely from each other4 #gc ,it would appear1 therefore1 that the ,mundas1 the oldest known inhabitants of ,india1 perhaps came originally from the south-east1 the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago and the ,malay ,peninsula1 unless ,india was their original home and these countries were colonised from it4 ,sir ,edward ,gait states3 ,geologists tell us that the ,indian ,peninsula was formerly cut off from the north of ,asia by sea1 while a land connection existed on the one side with ,madagascar and on the other with the ,malay ,archipelago2 and though there is nothing to show that ,india was then inhabited1 we know that it was so in palaeolithic times1 when communication was probably still easier with the countries to the north-east and south-west than with those beyond the ,himalayas4 #gd ,in the south of ,india1 however1 no traces of ,munda languages remain at present1 and it seems therefore necessary to conclude that the ,mundas of the ,central ,provinces and ,chota ,nagpur have been separated from the tribes of ,malaysia who speak cognate languages for an indefinitely long period2 or else that they did not come through southern ,india to these countries but by way of ,assam and ,bengal or by sea through ,orissa4 ,there is good reason to believe from the names of places and from local tradition that the ,munda tribes were once spread over ,bihar and parts of the ,ganges ,valley2 and if the ,kolis are an offshoot of the ,kols1 as is supposed1 they also penetrated across ,central ,india to the sea in ,gujarat and the hills of the western ,ghats4 ,the presumption is that the advance of the ,aryans or ,hindus drove the ,mundas from the open country to the seclusion of the hills and forests4 ,the ,munda and ,dravidian languages are shown by ,sir ,g4 ,grierson to be distinct groups without any real connection4 ,though the physical characteristics of the two sets of tribes display no marked points of difference1 the opinion has been generally held by ethnologists who know them that they represent two distinct waves of immigration1 and the absence of connection between their languages bears out this view4 ,it has always been supposed that the ,mundas were in the country of ,chota ,nagpur and the ,central ,provinces first1 and that the ,dravidians1 the ,gonds1 ,khonds and ,oraons came afterwards4 ,the grounds for this view are the more advanced culture of the ,dravidians2 the fact that where the two sets of tribes are in contact those of the ,munda group have been ousted from the more open and fertile country1 of which1 according to tradition1 they were formerly in possession2 and the practice of the ,gonds and other ,dravidian tribes of employing the ,baigas1 ,bhuiyas and other ,munda tribes for their village priests1 which is an acknowledgment that the latter as the earlier residents have a more familiar acquaintance with the local deities1 and can solicit their favour and protection with more prospect of success4 ,such a belief is the more easily understood when it is remembered that these deities are not infrequently either the human ancestors of the earliest residents or the local animals and plants from which they supposed themselves to be descended4 #ci4 ,of the ,dravidian tribes4 ,the ,dravidian languages1 ,gondi1 ,kurukh and ,khond1 are of one family with ,tamil1 ,telugu1 ,malayalam and ,canarese1 and their home is the south of ,india4 ,the word ,dravida comes from an older form ,damila or ,dramila1 and was used in ancient ,pali and ,jain literature as a name for the people of the ,tamil country4 #ge ,afterwards it came to signify generally the people of southern ,india as opposed to ,gaur or northern ,india4 ,as stated by ,sir ,edward ,gait there is at present no evidence to show that the ,dravidians came to southern ,india from any other part of the world1 and for anything that is known to the contrary the languages may have originated there4 ,the existence of the small ,brahui tribe in ,baluchistan who speak a ,dravidian language but have no physical resemblance to other ,dravidian races cannot be satisfactorily explained1 but1 as he points out1 this is no reason for holding that the whole body of speakers of ,dravidian languages entered ,india from the north-west1 and1 with the exception of this small group of ,brahuis1 penetrated to the south and settled there without leaving any traces of their passage4 ,the ,dravidian languages occupy a large area in ,madras1 ,mysore and ,hyderabad1 and they extend north into the ,central ,provinces and ,chota ,nagpur where they die out1 practically not being found west and north of this tract4 ,as the languages are more highly developed and the culture of their speakers is far more advanced in the south1 it is justifiable to suppose1 pending evidence to the contrary1 that the south is their home and that they have spread thence as far north as the ,central ,provinces4 ,the ,gonds and ,oraons1 too1 have stories to the effect that they came from the south4 ,the belief has hitherto been1 at least in the ,central ,provinces1 that both the ,gonds and ,baigas have been settled in this territory for an indefinite period1 that is1 from prior to any ,aryan or ,hindu immigration4 ,mr4 ,h4,a4 ,crump1 ,c4,s41 has however pointed out that if this was the case the ,munda or ,kolarian tribes1 which have lost their own languages1 should have adopted ,dravidian and not ,hindu forms of speech4 ,as already seen1 numerous ,kolarian tribes1 as the ,binjhwar1 ,bhaina1 ,bhuiya1 ,baiga1 ,bhumij1 ,chero1 ,khairwar and the ,kols themselves in the ,central ,provinces have entirely lost their own languages1 as well as the ,bhils and ,kolis1 if these are held to be ,kolarian tribes4 ,none of them have adopted a ,dravidian language1 but all speak corrupt forms of the ancient ,aryan vernaculars derived from ,sanskrit4 ,the fact seems to indicate that at the time when they abandoned their own languages these tribes were in contact with ,hindus1 and were not surrounded by ,gonds1 as several of them are at present4 ,the history of the ,central ,provinces affords considerable support to the view that the ,gond immigration occurred at a comparatively late period1 perhaps in the ninth or tenth century1 or even later1 after a considerable part of the ,province had been governed for some centuries by ,rajput dynasties4 #gf ,the ,gonds and ,oraons still have well-defined legends about their immigration1 which would scarcely be the case if it had occurred twenty centuries or more ago4 ,any further evidence or argument as to the date of the ,dravidian immigration would be of considerable interest4 #dj4 ,origin of the impure castes4 ,the fifth or lowest group in the scheme of precedence is that of the impure castes who cannot be touched4 ,if a high-caste ,hindu touches one of them he should bathe and have his clothes washed4 ,these castes are not usually allowed to live inside a ,hindu village1 but have a hamlet to themselves adjoining it4 ,the village barber will not shave them1 nor the washerman wash their clothes4 ,they usually have a separate well assigned to them from which to draw water1 and if the village has only one well1 one side of it is allotted to them and the ,hindus take water from the other side4 ,formerly they were subjected to more humiliating restrictions4 ,in ,bombay a ,mahar might not spit on the ground lest a ,hindu should be polluted by touching it with his foot1 but had to hang an earthen pot round his neck to hold his spittle4 ,he was made to drag a thorny branch with him to brush out his footsteps1 and when a ,brahman came by had to lie at a distance on his face lest his shadow might fall on the ,brahman4 #gg ,even if the shadow of a ,mahar or ,mang fell on a ,brahman he was polluted and dare not taste food and water until he had bathed and washed the impurity away4 ,in ,madras a ,paraiyan or ,pariah pollutes a high-caste ,hindu by approaching within a distance of #fd feet of him4 #gh ,the debased and servile position of the impure castes corresponds to that which1 as already seen1 attached to the ,sudras of the classical period4 ,the castes usually regarded as impure are the tanners1 bamboo-workers1 sweepers1 hunters and fowlers1 gipsies and vagrants1 village musicians and village weavers4 ,these castes1 the ,chamars1 ,basors1 ,mahars1 ,koris1 ,gandas and others are usually also employed as agricultural and casual labourers4 ,formerly1 as already seen1 they were not allowed to hold land4 ,there is no reason to doubt that the status of impurity1 like that of the ,sudra1 was originally the mark of a subjugated and inferior race1 and was practically equivalent to slavery4 ,this was the position of the indigenous ,indians who were subjugated by the ,aryan invaders and remained in the country occupied by them4 ,though they were of different races1 and the distinction was marked and brought home to themselves by the contrast in the colour of their skins1 it seems probable that the real basis for their antagonism was not social so much as religious4 ,the ,indians were hated and despised by the immigrants as the worshippers of a hostile god4 ,they could not join in the sacrifices by which the ,aryans held communion with their gods1 and the sacrifice itself could not even be held1 in theory at least1 except in those parts of ,india which were thoroughly subdued and held to have become the dwelling-place of the ,aryan gods4 ,the proper course prescribed by religion towards the indigenous residents was to exterminate them1 as the ,israelites should have exterminated the inhabitants of ,canaan4 ,but as this could not be done1 because their numbers were too great or the conquerors not sufficiently ruthless1 they were reduced to the servile condition of impurity and made the serfs of their masters like the ,amalekites and the plebeians and helots4 ,if the whole of ,india had been thoroughly subjugated and settled like the ,punjab and ,hindustan1 it may be supposed that the same status of impurity would have been imposed upon all the indigenous races2 but this was very far from being the case4 ,in central and southern ,india the ,aryans or subsequent immigrants from ,central ,asia came at first at any rate only in small parties1 and though they may have established territorial states1 did not regularly occupy the land nor reduce the indigenous population to a condition of servitude4 ,thus large bodies of these must have retained a free position1 and on their acceptance of the new religion and the development of the caste system1 became enrolled in it with a caste status on the basis of their occupation4 ,their leaders were sometimes admitted to rank as ,kshatriyas or ,rajputs1 as has been stated4 ,subsequently1 as the racial distinction disappeared1 the impure status came to attach to certain despised occupations and to customs abhorrent to ,hinduism1 such as that of eating beef4 ,but1 as already seen1 the tribes which have continued to live apart from the ,hindus are not usually regarded as impure1 though they may eat beef and even skin animals4 ,the ,dhimars1 who keep pigs1 still have a higher status than the impure castes because they are employed as water-bearers and household servants4 ,it is at least doubtful whether at the time when the stigma of impurity was first attached to the ,sudras the ,hindus themselves did not sacrifice cows and eat beef4 #gi ,the castes noted below are usually regarded as impure in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the ,dhobi 7washerman7 and ,kumhar 7potter7 are sometimes included among the impure castes1 but1 as already noted1 their status is higher than that of the castes in this list4 ,audhelia3 ,labouring caste of mixed descent who keep pigs4 ,balahi3 ,weavers and village messengers and watchmen4 ,basor3 ,bamboo basket-makers and village musicians4 ,chamar3 ,tanners and labourers4 ,ganda3 ,weavers and village musicians4 ,ghasia3 ,grass-cutters1 labourers and sweepers4 ,kaikari3 ,vagrant basket-makers4 ,kanjar1 ,beria1 ,sansia3 ,gipsies and thieves4 ,katia3 ,cotton-spinners4 ,kori3 ,weavers and labourers4 ,madgi3 ,telugu tanners and hide-curriers4 ,mahar3 ,weavers and labourers4 ,mala3 ,telugu weavers and labourers4 ,mang3 ,broom- and mat-makers and village musicians4 ,they also castrate cattle4 ,mehtar3 ,sweepers and scavengers4 ,certain occupations1 those of skinning cattle and curing hides1 weaving the coarse country cloth worn by the villagers1 making baskets from the rind of the bamboo1 playing on drums and tom-toms1 and scavenging generally are relegated to the lowest and impure castes4 ,the hides of domestic animals are exceedingly impure2 a ,hindu is defiled even by touching their dead bodies and far more so by removing the skins4 ,drums and tom-toms made from the hides of animals are also impure4 ,but in the case of weaving and basket-making the calling itself entails no defilement1 and it would appear simply that they were despised by the cultivators1 and as a considerable number of workers were required to satisfy the demand for baskets and cloth1 were adopted by the servile and labouring castes4 ,basket- and mat-making are callings naturally suited to the primitive tribes who would obtain the bamboos from the forests1 but weaving would not be associated with them unless cloth was first woven of tree-cotton4 ,the weavers of the finer cotton and silk cloths1 who live in towns1 rank much higher than the village weavers1 as in the case of the ,koshtis and ,tantis1 the latter of whom made the famous fine cotton cloth1 known as abrawan1 or 'running water1' which was supplied to the imperial ,zenana at ,delhi4 ,on one occasion a daughter of ,aurangzeb was reproached on entering the room for her immodest attire and excused herself by the plea that she had on seven folds of cloth over her body4 #hj ,in ,bengal ,brahmans will take water from ,tantis1 and it seems clear that their higher status is a consequence of the lucrative and important nature of their occupation4 ,the ,katias are a caste of cotton-spinners1 the name being derived from katna1 to cut or spin4 ,but hand-spinning is now practically an extinct industry and the ,katias have taken to weaving or ordinary manual labour for a subsistence4 ,the ,kanjars and ,berias are the gipsy castes of ,india4 ,they are accustomed to wander about carrying their grass-matting huts with them4 ,many of them live by petty thieving and cheating4 ,their women practise palmistry and retail charms for the cure of sickness and for exorcising evil spirits1 and love-philtres4 ,they do cupping and tattooing and also make reed mats1 cane baskets1 palm-leaf mats and fans1 ropes from grass- and tree-fibre1 brushes for the cotton-loom1 string-net purses and balls1 and so on2 and the women commonly dance and act as prostitutes4 ,there is good reason for thinking that the ,kanjars are the parents of the ,european gipsies1 while the ,thugs who formerly infested the high-roads of ,india1 murdering solitary travellers and small parties by strangulation1 may also have been largely derived from this caste4 #ha #da4 ,derivation of the impure castes from the indigenous tribes4 ,it can only be definitely shown in a few instances that the existing impure occupational castes were directly derived from the indigenous tribes4 ,the ,chamar and ,kori1 and the ,chuhra and ,bhangi1 or sweepers and scavengers of the ,punjab and ,united ,provinces1 are now purely occupational castes and their original tribal affinities have entirely disappeared4 ,the ,chamars and ,mehtars or sweepers are in some places of a superior physical type1 of comparatively good stature and light complexion2 #hb this may perhaps be due to a large admixture of ,hindu blood through their women1 during a social contact with the ,hindus extending over many centuries1 and also to the fact that they eat flesh when they can obtain it1 including carrion4 ,such types are1 however1 exceptional among the impure castes1 and there is no reason to doubt their general origin from the non-,aryan tribes1 which in a few instances can be directly traced4 ,thus it seems likely that the ,kanjars1 ,berias1 ,sansias and other gipsy groups1 as well as the ,mirasis1 the vagrant bards and genealogists of the lower classes of ,hindus1 are derived from the ,dom caste or tribe of ,bengal1 who are largely employed as sweepers and scavengers as well as on ordinary labour4 ,the evidence for the origin of the above groups from the ,doms is given in the article on ,kanjar4 ,sir ,h4,m4 ,elliot considered the ,doms to be one of the original tribes of ,india4 ,again1 there is no doubt that the impure ,ganda caste1 who are weavers1 labourers and village musicians in the ,uriya country and ,chhattisgarh ,districts of the ,central ,provinces1 are derived from the ,pan tribe of ,chota ,nagpur4 ,the ,pans or ,pabs are a regular forest tribe1 and are sometimes called ,ganda1 while the ,gandas may be alternatively known as ,pan4 ,but the section of the tribe who live among the ,hindus and are regarded as impure have now become a distinct caste with a separate name4 ,the ,bhuiya tribe were once the rulers of ,chota ,nagpur2 they still install the ,raja of ,keonjhar1 and have a traditional relation to other ruling families4 ,but in parts of ,chota ,nagpur and southern ,bihar the ,bhuiyas living in ,hindu villages have become a separate impure caste with the opprobrious designation of ,musahar or rat-eater4 ,the great ,mahar caste of the ,maratha country or ,bombay are weavers and labourers1 and formerly cured hides1 like the ,chamars and ,koris of northern ,india4 ,they are regarded as impure and were the serfs or villeins of the ,kunbis1 attached to the land4 ,an alternative name for them is ,dher1 and this is supposed to be a corruption of ,dharada a hillman1 a name applied in ,manu to all the indigenous races of ,india4 ,though the connection cannot be traced in all cases1 there is thus no reason to doubt that the existing impure castes represent the subjected or enslaved section of the primitive non-,aryan tribes4 #db4 ,occupation the basis of the caste system4 ,it has been seen that the old ,aryan polity comprised four classes3 the ,brahmans and ,kshatriyas or priestly and military aristocracy2 the ,vaishyas or body of the ,aryans1 who were ceremonially pure and could join in sacrifices2 and the ,sudras or servile and impure class of labourers4 ,the ,vaishyas became cultivators and herdsmen1 and their status of ceremonial purity was gradually transferred to the cultivating members of the village community1 because land was the main source of wealth4 ,between the last two there arose another class of village menials and craftsmen1 originating principally from the offspring of fathers of the ,aryan classes and ,sudra women1 to whom was left the practice of the village industries1 despised by the cultivators4 ,in spite of the almost complete fusion of races which the intercourse of centuries has effected1 and the multiplication and rearrangement of castes produced by the diversity of occupation and other social factors1 the divisions of the village community can still be recognised in the existing social gradation4 ,it has been seen also that occupation is the real basis of the division and social precedence of castes in ,india1 as in all communities which have made any substantial progress in civilisation and social development4 ,distinctions of race1 religion and family gradually disappear1 and are merged in the gradation according to wealth or profession4 ,the enormous majority of castes are occupational and their social position depends on their caste calling4 ,thus in the case of an important industry like weaving1 there are separate castes who weave the finer kinds of cloth1 as the ,tantis and ,koshtis1 while one subcaste of ,koshtis1 the ,salewars1 are distinguished as silk-weavers1 and a separate caste of ,patwas embroider silk and braid on cloth2 other castes1 as the ,mahars1 ,gandas and ,koris1 weave coarse cloth1 and a distinct caste of ,katias existed for the spinning of thread1 and the ,muhammadan caste of ,bahnas for cleaning cotton4 ,the workers in each kind of metal have formed a separate caste1 as the ,lohars or blacksmiths1 the ,kasars or brass-workers1 the ,tameras or coppersmiths1 and the ,sunars or gold- and silversmiths1 while the ,audhia subcaste of ,sunars #hc and the ,bharewas1 an inferior branch of the ,kasars1 work in bell-metal4 ,each of these castes makes ornaments of its own metal1 while the ,kachera caste #hd make glass bangles1 and the ,lakheras make bangles from lac and clay4 ,in the case of agriculture1 as has been seen1 there is usually a functional cultivating caste for each main tract of country1 as the ,jats in the ,punjab1 the ,kurmis in ,hindustan1 the ,kunbis in the ,deccan1 the ,chasas in ,orissa1 the ,kapus in the ,telugu country and the ,vellalas in the ,tamil country4 ,except the ,jats1 who were perhaps originally a racial caste1 the above castes appear to include a number of heterogeneous groups which have been welded into a single body through the acquisition of land and the status which it confers4 ,various other cultivating castes also exist1 whose origin can be traced to different sources2 on obtaining possession of the land they have acquired the cultivating status1 but retained their separate caste organisation and name4 ,other agricultural castes have been formed for the growing of special products4 ,thus the ,malis are gardeners1 and within the caste there exist such separate groups as the ,phulmalis who grow flowers1 the ,jire ,malis cumin and the ,halde ,malis turmeric4 #he ,hindus generally object to cultivate san-hemp1 #hf and some special castes have been formed from those who grew it and thus underwent some loss of status2 such are the ,lorhas and ,kumrawats and ,pathinas1 and the ,santora subcaste of ,kurmis4 ,the al #hg or ,indian madder-dye is another plant to which objection is felt1 and the ,alia subcastes of ,kachhis and ,banias consist of those who grow and sell it4 ,the ,dangris and ,kachhis are growers of melons and other vegetables on the sandy stretches in the beds of rivers and the alluvial land on their borders which is submerged in the monsoon floods4 ,the ,barais are the growers and sellers of the betel-vine4 ,several castes have been formed from military service1 as the ,marathas1 ,khandaits1 ,rautias1 ,taonlas and ,paiks4 ,all of these1 except the ,marathas1 are mainly derived from the non-,aryan tribes2 since they have abandoned military service and taken as a rule to agriculture1 their rank depends roughly on their position as regards the land4 ,thus the ,marathas and ,khandaits became landowners1 receiving grants of property as a reward for1 or on condition of1 military service like the old feudal tenures2 they rank with1 but somewhat above1 the cultivating castes4 ,the same is the case1 though to a less degree1 with the ,rautias of ,chota ,nagpur1 a military caste mainly formed from the ,kol tribe4 ,on the other hand1 the ,paiks or foot-soldiers and ,taonlas have not become landholders and rank below the cultivating castes4 ,the ,hatkars are a caste formed from ,dhangars or shepherds who entered the ,maratha armies4 ,they are now called ,bangi ,dhangars or shepherds with the spears1 and rank a little above other ,dhangars4 #dc4 ,other agents in the formation of castes4 ,the great majority of castes have been formed from occupation1 but other sources of origin can be traced4 ,several castes are of mixed descent1 as the ,vidurs1 the descendants of ,brahman fathers and mothers of other castes2 the ,bhilalas1 by ,rajput fathers and ,bhil mothers2 the ,chauhans1 ,audhelias1 ,khangars and ,dhakars of ,bastar1 probably by ,hindu fathers and women of various indigenous tribes2 the ,kirars of mixed ,rajput descent1 and others4 ,these also now generally take rank according to their occupation and position in the world4 ,the ,vidurs served as village accountants and ranked below the cultivators1 but since they are well educated and have done well in ,government service their status is rapidly improving4 ,the ,bhilalas are landholders and rank as a good cultivating caste4 ,the ,chauhans and ,khangars are village watchmen and rank as menials below the cultivators1 the ,dhakars are farmservants and labourers with a similar position1 while the ,audhelias are labourers who keep pigs and are hence regarded as impure4 ,the ,halbas or 'ploughmen' are another mixed caste1 probably the descendants of house-servants of the ,uriya ,rajas1 who1 like the ,khandaits1 formed a sort of militia for the maintenance of the chiefs authority4 ,they are now mainly farmservants1 as the name denotes1 but where they hold land1 as in ,bastar1 they rank higher1 almost as a good cultivating caste4 ,again1 very occasionally a caste may be formed from a religious sect or order4 ,the ,bishnois were originally a ,vaishnava sect1 worshipping ,vishnu as an unseen god1 and refusing to employ ,brahmans4 ,they have now become cultivators1 and though they retain their sectarian beliefs1 and have no ,brahman priests1 are generally regarded as a ,hindu cultivating caste4 ,the ,pankas are members of the impure ,ganda caste who adhered to the ,kabirpanthi sect4 ,they are now a separate caste and are usually employed as village watchmen1 ranking with menials above the ,gandas and other similar castes4 ,the ,lingayats are a large sect of southern ,india1 devoted to the worship of ,siva and called after the lingam or phallic emblem which they wear4 ,they have their own priests1 denying the authority of ,brahmans1 but the tendency now is for members of those castes which have become ,lingayats to marry among themselves and retain their relative social status1 thus forming a sort of inner microcosm of ,hinduism4 #dd4 ,caste occupations divinely ordained4 ,occupation is the real determining factor of social status in ,india as in all other societies of at all advanced organisation4 ,but though in reality the status of occupations and of castes depends roughly on the degree to which they are lucrative and respectable1 this is not ostensibly the case1 but their precedence1 as already seen1 is held to be regulated by the degree of ceremonial purity or impurity attaching to them4 ,the ,hindus have retained1 in form at any rate1 the religious constitution which is common or universal in primitive societies4 ,the majority of castes are provided with a legend devised by the ,brahmans to show that their first ancestor was especially created by a god to follow their caste calling1 or at least that this was assigned to him by a god4 ,the ancestors of the bearer-caste of ,kahars were created by ,siva or ,mahadeo from the dust to carry his consort ,parvati in a litter when she was tired2 the first ,mang was made by ,mahadeo from his own sweat to castrate the divine bull ,nandi when he was fractious1 and his descendants have ever since followed the same calling1 the impiety of mutilating the sacred bull in such a manner being thus excused by the divine sanction accorded to it4 ,the first ,mali or gardener gave a garland to ,krishna4 ,the first ,chamar or tanner made sandals for ,siva from a piece of his own skin2 the ancestor of the ,kayasth or writer caste1 ,chitragupta1 keeps the record of men's actions by which they are judged in the infernal regions after death2 and so on4 #de4 ,subcastes4 local type4 ,all important castes are divided into a number of subordinate groups or subcastes1 which as a rule marry and take food within their own circle only4 ,certain differences of status frequently exist among the subcastes of the occupational or social type1 but these are usually too minute to be recognised by outsiders4 ,the most common type of subcaste is the local1 named after the tract of country in which the members reside or whence they are supposed to have come4 ,thus the name ,kanaujia from the town of ,kanauj on the ,ganges1 famous in ancient ,indian history1 is borne by subcastes of many castes which have immigrated from northern ,india4 ,jaiswar1 from the old town of ,jais in the ,rai ,bareli ,district1 is almost equally common4 ,pardeshi or foreign1 and ,purabia or eastern1 are also subcaste names for groups coming from northern ,india or ,oudh4 ,mahobia is a common name derived from the town of ,mahoba in ,central ,india1 as are ,bundeli from ,bundelkhand1 ,narwaria from ,narwar and ,marwari from ,marwar in ,rajputana4 ,groups belonging to ,berar are called ,berari1 ,warade or ,baone2 those from ,gujarat are called ,lad1 the classical term for ,gujarat1 or ,gujarati1 and other names are ,deccani from the ,deccan1 ,nimari of ,nimar1 ,havelia1 the name of the wheat-growing tracts of ,jubbulpore and ,damoh2 ,chhattisgarhia1 ,kosaria1 ,ratanpuria 7from the old town of ,ratanpur in ,bilaspur71 and ,raipuria 7from ,raipur town71 all names for residents in ,chhattisgarh2 and so on4 ,brahmans are divided into ten main divisions1 named after different tracts in the north and south of ,india where they reside2 #hh and these are further subdivided1 as the ,maharashtra ,brahmans of the ,maratha country of ,bombay into the subcastes of ,deshasth 7belonging to the country7 applied to those of the ,poona country above the western ,ghats2 ,karhara or those of the ,satara ,district1 from ,karhar town2 and ,konkonasth or those of the ,concan1 the ,bombay coast2 similarly the ,kanaujia division of the ,panch-,gaur or northern ,brahmans has as subdivisions the ,kanaujia proper1 the ,jijhotia from ,jajhoti1 the old name of the ,lalitpur and ,saugor tract1 which is part of ,bundelkhand2 the ,sarwaria or those dwelling round the river ,sarju in the ,united ,provinces2 the ,mathuria from ,muttra2 and the ,prayagwals or those of ,allahabad 7,prayag71 who act as guides and priests to pilgrims who come to bathe in the ,ganges at the sacred city4 ,the creation of new local subcastes seems to arise in two ways3 when different groups of a caste settle in different tracts of country and are prevented from attending the caste feasts and assemblies1 the practice of intermarriage and taking food together gradually ceases1 they form separate endogamous groups and for purposes of distinction are named after the territory in which they reside2 this is what has happened in the case of ,brahmans and many other castes2 and1 secondly1 when a fresh body of a caste arrives and settles in a tract where some of its members already reside1 they do not amalgamate with the latter group1 but form a fresh one and are named after the territory from which they have come1 as in the case of such names as ,pardeshi1 ,purabia1 ,gangapari 7'from the other side of the ,ganges'71 and similar ones already cited4 ,in former times1 when the difficulties of communication were great1 these local subcastes readily multiplied2 thus the ,kanaujia ,brahmans of ,chhattisgarh are looked down upon by those of ,saugor and ,damoh1 as ,chhattisgarh has been for centuries a backward tract cut off from the rest of ,india1 and they may be suspected of having intermarried with the local people or otherwise derogated from the standard of strict ,hinduism4 ,similarly the ,kanaujia ,brahmans of ,bengal are split into several local subcastes named after tracts in ,bengal1 who marry among themselves and neither with other ,kanaujias of ,bengal nor with those of northern ,india4 ,since the opening of railways people can travel long distances to marriage and other ceremonies1 and the tendency to form new subcastes is somewhat checked2 a native gentleman said to me1 when speaking of his people1 that when a few families of ,khedawal ,brahmans from ,gujarat first settled in ,damoh they had the greatest difficulty in arranging their marriages2 they could not marry with their caste-fellows in ,gujarat because their sons and daughters could not establish themselves1 that is1 could not prove their identity as ,khedawal ,brahmans2 but since the railway has been opened intermarriage takes place freely with other ,khedawals in ,gujarat and ,benares4 ,proposals are on foot to authorise the intermarriage of the three great subcastes of ,maratha ,brahmans3 ,deshasth1 ,konkonasth and ,karhara4 ,as a rule1 there is no difference of status between the different local subcastes1 and a man's subcaste is often not known except to his own caste-fellows4 ,but occasionally a certain derogatory sense may be conveyed2 in several castes of the ,central ,provinces there is a subcaste called ,jharia or jungly1 a term applied to the oldest residents1 who are considered to have lapsed in a comparatively new and barbarous country from the orthodox practices of ,hinduism4 ,the subcaste called ,deshi1 or 'belonging to the country1' sometimes has the same signification4 ,the large majority of subcastes are of the local or territorial type4 #df4 ,occupational subcastes4 ,many subcastes are also formed from slight differences of occupation1 which are not of sufficient importance to create new castes4 ,some instances of subcastes formed from growing special plants or crops have been given4 ,audhia ,sunars 7goldsmiths7 work in brass and bell-metal1 which is less respectable than the sacred metal1 gold4 ,the ,ekbeile ,telis harness one bullock only to the oil-press and the ,dobeile two bullocks4 ,as it is thought sinful to use the sacred ox in this manner and to cover his eyes as the ,telis do1 it may be slightly more sinful to use two bullocks than one4 ,the ,udia ,ghasias 7grass-cutters7 cure raw hides and do scavengers' work1 and are hence looked down upon by the others2 the ,dingkuchia ,ghasias castrate cattle and horses1 and the ,dolboha carry dhoolies and palanquins4 ,the ,mangya ,chamars are beggars and rank below all other subcastes1 from whom they will accept cooked food4 ,frequently1 however1 subcastes are formed from a slight distinction of occupation1 which connotes no real difference in social status4 ,the ,hathgarhia ,kumhars 7potters7 are those who used to fashion the clay with their own hands1 and the ,chakarias those who turned it on a wheel4 ,and though the practice of hand pottery is now abandoned1 the divisions remain4 ,the ,shikari or sportsmen ,pardhis 7hunters7 are those who use firearms1 though far from being sportsmen in our sense of the term2 the ,phanse ,pardhis hunt with traps and snares2 the ,chitewale use a tame leopard to run down deer1 and the ,gayake stalk their prey behind a bullock4 ,among the subcastes of ,dhimars 7fishermen and watermen7 are the ,singaria1 who cultivate the singara or water-nut in tanks1 the ,tankiwalas or sharpeners of grindstones1 the ,jhingars or prawn-catchers1 the ,bansias and ,saraias or anglers 7from bansi or sarai1 a bamboo fishing-rod71 the ,kasdhonias who wash the sands of the sacred rivers to find the coins thrown or dropped into them by pious pilgrims1 and the ,sonjharas who wash the sands of auriferous streams for their particles of gold4 #hi ,the ,gariwan ,dangris have adopted the comparatively novel occupation of driving carts 7gari7 for a livelihood1 and the ,panibhar are water-carriers1 while the ordinary occupation of the ,dangris is to grow melons in river-beds4 ,it is unnecessary to multiply instances2 here1 as in the case of territorial subcastes1 the practice of subdivision appears to have been extended from motives of convenience1 and the slight difference of occupation is adopted as a distinguishing badge4 #dg4 ,subcastes formed from social or religious differences1 or from mixed descent4 ,subcastes are also occasionally formed from differences of social practice which produce some slight gain or loss of status4 ,thus the ,biyahut or ',married' ,kalars prohibit the remarriage of widows1 saying that a woman is married once for all1 and hence rank a little higher than the others4 ,the ,dosar ,banias1 on the other hand1 are said to take their name from dusra1 second1 because they allow a widow to marry a second time and are hence looked upon by the others as a second-class lot4 ,the ,khedawal ,brahmans are divided into the 'outer' and 'inner'3 the inner subdivision being said to exist of those who accepted presents from the ,raja of ,kaira and remained in his town1 while the outer refused the presents1 quitted the town and dwelt outside4 ,the latter rank a little higher than the former4 ,the ,suvarha ,dhimars keep pigs and the ,gadhewale donkeys1 and are considered to partake of the impure nature of these animals4 ,the ,gobardhua ,chamars wash out and eat the undigested grain from the droppings of cattle on the threshing-floors4 ,the ,chungia group of the ,satnami ,chamars are those who smoke the chongi or leaf-pipe1 though smoking is prohibited to the ,satnamis4 ,the ,nagle or 'naked' ,khonds have only a negligible amount of clothing and are looked down upon by the others4 ,the ,makaria ,kamars eat monkeys and are similarly despised4 ,subcastes are also formed from mixed descent4 ,the ,dauwa ,ahirs are held to be the offspring of ,ahir women who were employed as wet-nurses in the houses of ,bundela ,rajputs and bore children to their masters4 ,the ,halbas and ,rautias are divided into subcastes known as ,purait or 'pure1' and ,surait or of 'mixed' descent4 ,many castes have a subcaste to which the progeny of illicit unions is relegated1 such as the ,dogle ,kayasths1 and the ,lahuri ,sen subcaste of ,barais1 ,banias and other castes4 ,illegitimate children in the ,kasar 7brass-worker7 caste form a subcaste known as ,takle or 'thrown out1' ,vidur or 'illegitimate1' or ,laondi ,bachcha1 the issue of a kept wife4 ,in ,berar the ,mahadeo ,kolis1 called after the ,mahadeo or ,pachmarhi hills1 are divided into the ,khas1 or 'pure1' and the ,akaramase or 'mixed'2 this latter word means gold or silver composed of eleven parts pure metal and one part alloy4 ,many subcastes of ,bania have subcastes known as ,bisa or ,dasa1 that is ',twenty' or ',ten' groups1 the former being of pure descent or twenty-carat1 as it were1 and the latter the offspring of remarried widows or other illicit unions4 ,in the course of some generations such mixed groups frequently regain full status in the caste4 ,subcastes are also formed from members of other castes who have taken to the occupation of the caste in question and become amalgamated with it2 thus the ,korchamars are ,koris 7weavers7 adopted into the ,chamar 7tanner7 caste2 ,khatri ,chhipas are ,khatris who have become dyers and printers2 the small ,dangri caste has subcastes called ,teli1 ,kalar and ,kunbi1 apparently consisting of members of those castes who have become ,dangris2 the ,baman ,darzis or tailors will not take food from any one except ,brahmans and may perhaps be derived from them1 and the ,kaith ,darzis may be ,kayasths2 and so on4 ,occasionally subcastes may be formed from differences of religious belief or sectarian practice4 ,in northern ,india even such leading ,hindu castes as ,rajputs and ,jats have large ,muhammadan branches1 who as a rule do not intermarry with ,hindus4 ,the ordinary ,hindu sects seldom1 however1 operate as a bar to marriage1 ,hinduism being tolerant of all forms of religious belief4 ,those ,chamars of ,chhattisgarh who have embraced the doctrines of the ,satnami reforming sect form a separate endogamous subcaste1 and sometimes the members of the ,kabirpanthi sect within a caste marry among themselves4 ,statistics of the subcastes are not available1 but their numbers are very extensive in proportion to the population1 and even in the same subcaste the members living within a comparatively small local area often marry among themselves and attend exclusively at their own caste feasts1 though in the case of educated and well-to-do ,hindus the construction of railways has modified this rule and connections are kept up between distant groups of relatives4 ,clearly therefore differences of occupation or social status are not primarily responsible for the subcastes1 because in the majority of cases no such differences really exist4 ,i think the real reason for their multiplication was the necessity that the members of a subcaste should attend at the caste feasts on the occasion of marriages1 deaths and readmission of offenders1 these feasts being of the nature of a sacrificial or religious meal4 ,the grounds for this view will be given subsequently4 #dh4 ,exogamous groups4 ,the caste or subcaste forms the outer circle within which a man must marry4 ,inside it are a set of further subdivisions which prohibit the marriage of persons related through males4 ,these are called exogamous groups or clans1 and their name among the higher castes is gotra4 ,the theory is that all persons belonging to the same gotra are descended from the same male ancestor1 and so related4 ,the relationship in the gotra now only goes by the father's side2 when a woman marries she is taken into the clan of her husband and her children belong to it4 ,marriage is not allowed within the clan and in the course of a few generations the marriage of persons related through males or agnates is prohibited within a very wide circle4 ,but on the mother's side the gotra does not serve as a bar to marriage and the union of first cousins would be possible1 other than the children of two brothers4 ,according to ,hindu law1 intermarriage is prohibited within four degrees between persons related through females4 ,but generally the children of first cousins are allowed to marry1 when related partly through females4 ,and several castes allow the intermarriage of first cousins1 that of a brother's daughter to a sister's son and in a less degree of a brother's son to a sister's daughter being specially favoured4 ,one or two ,madras castes allow a man to marry his niece1 and the small ,dhoba caste of ,mandla permit the union of children of the same mother but different fathers4 ,sir ,herbert ,risley classed the names of exogamous divisions as eponymous1 territorial or local1 titular and totemistic4 ,in the body of this work the word clan is usually applied only to the large exogamous groups of the ,rajputs and one or two other military castes4 ,the small local or titular groups of ordinary ,hindu castes are called 'section1' and the totemic groups of the primitive tribes 'sept4' ,but perhaps it is simpler to use the word 'clan' throughout according to the practice of ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer4 ,the vernacular designations of the clans or sections are gotra1 which originally meant a stall or cow-pen2 khero1 a village2 dih1 a village site2 baink1 a title2 mul or mur1 literally a root1 hence an origin2 and kul or kuri1 a family4 ,the sections called eponymous are named after ,rishis or saints mentioned in the ,vedas and other scriptures and are found among the ,brahmans and a few of the higher castes1 such as ,vasishta1 ,garga1 ,bharadwaj1 ,vishvamitra1 ,kashyap and so on4 ,a few ,rajput clans are named after kings or heroes1 as the ,raghuvansis from king ,raghu of ,ajodhia and the ,tilokchandi ,bais from a famous king of that name4 ,the titular class of names comprise names of offices supposed to have been held by the founder of the clan1 or titles and names referring to a personal defect or quality1 and nicknames4 ,instances of the former are ,kotwar 7village watchman71 ,chaudhri1 ,meher or ,mahto 7caste headman71 ,bhagat 7saint71 ,thakuria and ,rawat 7lord or prince71 ,vaidya 7physician72 and of titular names and nicknames3 ,kuldip 7lamp of the family71 ,mohjaria 7one with a burnt mouth71 ,jachak 7beggar71 ,garkata 7cut-throat71 ,bhatpagar 7one serving on a pittance of boiled rice71 ,kangali 7poor71 ,chikat 7dirty71 ,petdukh 7stomach-ache71 ,ghunnere 7worm-eater7 and so on4 ,a special class of names are those of offices held at the caste feasts2 thus the clans of the ,chitrakathi caste are the ,atak or ,mankari1 who furnish the headman of the caste panchayat or committee2 the ,bhojin who serve the food at marriages and other ceremonies2 the ,kakra who arrange for the lighting2 the ,gotharya who keep the provisions1 and the ,ghorerao 7ghora1 a horse7 who have the duty of looking after the horses and bullock-carts of the caste-men who assemble4 ,similarly the five principal clans of the small ,turi caste are named after the five sons of ,singhbonga or the sun3 the eldest son was called ,mailuar and his descendants are the leaders or headmen of the caste2 the descendants of the second son1 ,chardhagia1 purify and readmit offenders to caste intercourse2 those of the third son1 ,suremar1 conduct the ceremonial shaving of such offenders1 and those of the fourth son bring water for the ceremony and are called ,tirkuar4 ,the youngest brother1 ,hasdagia1 is said to have committed some caste offence1 and the four other brothers took the parts which are still played by their descendants in his ceremony of purification4 ,in many cases exogamous clans are named after other castes or subcastes4 ,many low castes have adopted the names of the ,rajput clans1 either from simple vanity as people may take an aristocratic surname1 or because they were in the service of ,rajputs1 and have adopted the names of their masters or are partly descended from them4 ,other names of castes found among exogamous groups probably indicate that an ancestor belonging to that caste was taken into the one in which the group is found4 ,the ,bhaina tribe have clans named after the ,dhobi1 ,ahir1 ,gond1 ,mali and ,panka castes4 ,the members of such clans pay respect to any man belonging to the caste after which they are named and avoid picking a quarrel with him2 they also worship the family gods of the caste4 ,territorial names are very common1 and are taken from that of some town or village in which the ancestor of the clan or the members of the clan themselves resided4 #ij ,the names are frequently distorted1 and it seems probable that the majority of the large number of clan names for which no meaning can be discovered were those of villages4 ,these unknown names are probably more numerous than the total of all those classes of names to which a meaning can be assigned4 #di4 ,totemistic clans4 ,the last class of exogamous divisions are those called totemistic1 when the clan is named after a plant or animal or other natural object4 ,these are almost universal among the non-,aryan or primitive tribes1 but occur also in most ,hindu castes1 including some of the highest4 ,the commonest totem names are those of the prominent animals1 including several which are held sacred by the ,hindus1 as bagh or nahar1 the tiger2 bachas1 the calf2 morkuria1 the peacock2 kachhwaha or limuan1 the tortoise2 nagas1 the cobra2 hasti1 the elephant2 bandar1 the monkey2 bhainsa1 the buffalo2 richharia1 the bear2 kuliha1 the jackal2 kukura1 the dog2 karsayal1 the deer2 heran1 the black-buck1 and so on4 ,the utmost variety of names is found1 and numerous trees1 as well as rice1 kodon and other crops1 salt1 sandalwood1 cucumber1 pepper1 and some household implements1 such as the pestle and rolling-slab1 serve as names of clans4 ,names which may be held to have a totemistic origin occur even in the highest castes4 ,thus among the names of eponymous ,rishis or saints1 ,bharadwaj means a lark1 ,kaushik may be from the kusha grass1 ,agastya from the agasti flower1 ,kashyap from kachhap1 a tortoise2 ,taittiri from titar1 a partridge1 and so on4 ,similarly the origin of other ,rishis is attributed to animals1 as ,rishishringa to an antelope1 ,mandavya to a frog1 and ,kanada to an owl4 #ia ,an inferior ,rajput clan1 ,meshbansi1 signifies descendants of the sheep1 while the name of the ,baghel clan is derived from the tiger 7bagh71 that of the ,kachhwaha clan perhaps from kachhap1 a tortoise1 of the ,haihaivansi from the horse1 of the ,nagvansi from the cobra1 and of the ,tomara clan from tomar1 a club4 ,the ,karan or writer caste of ,orissa1 similarly1 have clans derived from the cobra1 tortoise and calf1 and most of the cultivating and other middle castes have clans with totemistic names4 ,the usual characteristics of totemism1 in its later and more common form at any rate1 are that members of a clan regard themselves as related to1 or descended from1 the animal or tree from which the clan takes its name1 and abstain from killing or eating it4 ,this was perhaps not the original relation of the clan to its clan totem in the hunting stage1 but it is the one commonly found in ,india1 where the settled agricultural stage has long been reached4 ,the ,bhaina tribe have among their totems the cobra1 tiger1 leopard1 vulture1 hawk1 monkey1 wild dog1 quail1 black ant1 and so on4 ,members of a clan will not injure the animal after which it is named1 and if they see the corpse of the animal or hear of its death they throw away an earthen cooking-pot1 and bathe and shave themselves as for one of the family4 ,at a wedding the bride's father makes an image in clay of the bird or animal of the groom's sept and places it beside the marriage-post4 ,the bridegroom worships the image1 lighting a sacrificial fire before it1 and offers to it the vermilion which he afterwards smears on the forehead of the bride4 ,women are often tattooed with representations of their totem animal1 and men swear by it as their most sacred oath4 ,a similar respect is paid to the inanimate objects after which certain septs are named4 ,thus members of the ,gawad or cowdung clan will not burn cowdung cakes for fuel2 and those of the ,mircha clan do not use chillies4 ,one clan is named after the sun1 and when an eclipse occurs they perform the same formal rites of mourning as others do on the death of their totem animal4 ,the ,baghani clan of ,majhwars1 named after the tiger1 think that a tiger will not attack any member of their clan unless he has committed an offence entailing temporary excommunication from caste4 ,until this offence has been expiated his relationship with the tiger as head of the clan is in abeyance1 and the tiger will eat him as he would any other stranger4 ,if a tiger meets a member of the clan who is free from sin1 he will run away4 ,members of the ,khoba or peg clan will not make a peg nor drive one into the ground4 ,those of the ,dumar or fig-tree clan say that their first ancestor was born under this tree4 ,they consider the tree to be sacred and never eat its fruit1 and worship it once a year4 ,sometimes the members of the clan do not revere the object after which it is named but some other important animal or plant4 ,thus the ,markam clan of ,gonds1 named after the mango-tree1 venerate the tortoise and do not kill it4 ,the ,kathotia clan of ,kols is named after kathota1 a bowl1 but they revere the tiger4 ,bagheshwar ,deo1 the tiger-god1 resides on a little platform in their verandas4 ,they may not join in a tiger-beat nor sit up for a tiger over a kill4 ,in the latter case they think that the tiger would not come and would be deprived of his food1 and all the members of their family would get ill4 ,the ,katharia clan take their name from kathri1 a mattress4 ,a member of this sept must never have a mattress in his house1 nor wear clothes sewn in crosspieces as mattresses are sewn4 ,the name of the ,mudia or ,mudmudia clan is said to mean shaven head1 but they apparently revere the white kumhra or gourd1 perhaps because it has some resemblance to a shaven head4 ,they give a white gourd to a woman on the day after she has borne a child1 and her family then do not eat this vegetable for three years4 ,the ,kumraya sept revere the brown kumhra or gourd4 ,they grow this vegetable on the thatch of their house-roof and from the time of planting it till the fruits have been plucked they do not touch it1 though of course they afterwards eat the fruits4 ,the ,bhuwar sept are named after bhu or bhumi1 the earth4 ,they must always sleep on the earth and not on cots4 ,the ,nun 7salt7 and ,dhan 7rice7 clans of ,oraons cannot dispense with eating their totems or titular ancestors4 ,but the ,dhan ,oraons content themselves with refusing to consume the scum which thickens on the surface of the boiled rice1 and the ,nun sept will not lick a plate in which salt and water have been mixed4 ,at the weddings of the ,vulture clan of the small ,bhona caste one member of the clan kills a small chicken by biting off the head and then eats it in imitation of a vulture4 ,definite instances of the sacrificial eating of the totem animal have not been found1 but it is said that the tiger and snake clans of the ,bhatra tribe formerly ate their totems at a sacrificial meal4 ,the ,gonds also worship the cobra as a household god1 and once a year they eat the flesh of the snake and think that by doing so they will be immune from snake-bite throughout the year4 ,on the festival of ,nag-,panchmi the ,mahars make an image of a snake with flour and sugar and eat it4 ,it is reported that the ,singrore ,dhimars who work on rivers and tanks must eat the flesh of a crocodile at their weddings1 while the ,sonjharas who wash the sands of rivers for gold should catch a live crocodile for the occasion of the wedding and afterwards put it back into the river4 ,these latter customs may probably have fallen into abeyance owing to the difficulty of catching a crocodile1 and in any case the animals are tribal gods rather than totems4 #ej4 ,terms of relationship4 ,exogamy and totemism are found not only in ,india1 but are the characteristics of primitive social groups over the greater part of the world4 ,totemism establishes a relation of kinship between persons belonging to one clan who are not related by blood1 and exogamy prescribes that the persons held to be so related shall not intermarry4 ,further1 when terms of relationship come into existence it is found that they are applied not to members of one family1 but to all the persons of the clan who might have stood in each particular relationship to the person addressing them4 ,thus a man will address as mother not only his own mother1 but all the women of his clan who might have stood to him in the relation of mother4 ,similarly he will address all the old men and women as grandfather or grandmother or aunt1 and the boys and girls of his own generation as brother and sister1 and so on4 ,with the development of the recognition of the consanguineous family1 the use of terms of relationship tends to be restricted to persons who have actual kinship2 thus a boy will address only his father's brothers as father1 and his cousins as brothers and sisters2 but sufficient traces of the older system of clan kinship remain to attest its former existence4 ,but it seems also clear that some1 at least1 of the terms of relationship were first used between persons really related2 thus the word for mother must have been taught by mothers to their own babies beginning to speak1 as it is a paramount necessity for a small child to have a name by which to call its mother when it is wholly dependent on her2 if the period of infancy is got over without the use of this term of address there is no reason why it should be introduced in later life1 when in the primitive clan the child quickly ceased to be dependent on its mother or to retain any strong affection for her4 ,similarly1 as shown by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,totemism and ,exogamy1 there is often a special name for the mother's brother when other uncles or aunts are addressed simply as father or mother4 ,this name must therefore have been brought into existence to distinguish the mother's brother at the time when1 under the system of female descent1 he stood in the relation of a protector and parent to the child4 ,where the names for grandfather and grandmother are a form of duplication of those for father and mother as in ,english1 they would appear to imply a definite recognition of the idea of family descent4 ,the majority of the special names for other relatives1 such as fraternal and maternal uncles and aunts1 must also have been devised to designate those relatives in particular1 and hence there is a probability that the terms for father and brother and sister1 which on a priori grounds may be considered doubtful1 were also first applied to real or putative fathers and brothers and sisters4 ,but1 as already seen1 under the classificatory system of relationship these same terms are addressed to members of the same clan who might by age and sex have stood in such a relationship to the person addressing them1 but are not actually akin to him at all4 ,and hence it seems a valid and necessary conclusion that at the time when the family terms of relationship came into existence1 the clan sentiment of kinship was stronger than the family sentiment2 that is1 a boy was taught or made to feel that all the women of the clan of about the same age as his mother were as nearly akin to him as his own mother1 and that he should regard them all in the same relation4 ,and similarly he looked on all the men of the clan of an age enabling them to be his fathers in the same light as his own father1 and all the children of or about his own age as his brothers and sisters4 ,the above seems a necessary conclusion from the existence of the classificatory system of relationship1 which is very widely spread among savages1 and if admitted1 it follows that the sentiment of kinship within the clan was already established when the family terms of relationship were devised1 and therefore that the clan was prior to the family as a social unit4 ,this conclusion is fortified by the rule of exogamy which prohibits marriage between persons of the same clan between whom no blood-relationship can be traced1 and therefore shows that some kind of kinship was believed to exist between them1 independent of and stronger than the link of consanguinity4 ,further1 ,mr4 ,hartland shows in ,primitive ,paternity #ib that during the period of female descent when physical paternity has been recognised1 but the father and mother belong to different clans1 the children1 being of the mother's clan1 will avenge a blood-feud of their clan upon their own father2 and this custom seems to show clearly that the sentiment of clan-kinship was prior to and stronger than that of family kinship4 #ea4 ,clan kinship and totemism4 ,the same argument seems to demonstrate that the idea of kinship within the clan was prior to the idea of descent from a common ancestor1 whether an animal or plant1 a god1 hero or nicknamed ancestor4 ,because it is obvious that a set of persons otherwise unconnected could not suddenly and without reason have believed themselves to be descended from a common ancestor and hence related4 ,if a number of persons not demonstrably connected by blood believe themselves to be akin simply on account of their descent from a common ancestor1 it can only be because they are an expanded family1 either actually or by fiction1 which really had or might have had a common ancestor4 ,that is1 the clan tracing its descent from a common ancestor1 if this was the primary type of clan1 must have been subsequent to the family as a social institution4 ,but as already seen the sentiment of kinship within the clan was prior to that within the family1 and therefore the genesis of the clan from an expanded family is an impossible hypothesis2 and it follows that the members of the clan must first have believed themselves to be bound together by some tie equivalent to or stronger than that of consanguineous kinship1 and afterwards1 when the primary belief was falling into abeyance1 that of descent from a common ancestor came into existence to account for the clan sentiment of kinship already existing4 ,if then the first form of association of human beings was in small groups1 which led a migratory life and subsisted mainly by hunting and the consumption of fruits and roots1 as the ,australian natives still do1 the sentiment of kinship must first have arisen1 as stated by ,mr4 ,m',lennan1 in that small body which lived and hunted together1 and was due simply to the fact that they were so associated1 that they obtained food for each other1 and on occasion protected and preserved each other's lives4 #ic ,these small bodies of persons were the first social units1 and according to our knowledge of the savage peoples who are nearest to the original migratory and hunting condition of life1 without settled habitations1 domestic animals or cultivated plants1 they first called themselves after some animal or plant1 usually1 as ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer has shown in ,totemism and ,exogamy1 #id after some edible animal or plant4 ,the most probable theory of totemism on a priori grounds seems therefore to be that the original small bodies who lived and hunted together1 or totem-clans1 called themselves after the edible animal or plant from which they principally derived their sustenance1 or that which gave them life4 ,while the real tie which connected them was that of living together1 they did not realise this1 and supposed themselves to be akin because they commonly ate this animal or plant together4 ,this theory of totemism was first promulgated by ,professor ,robertson ,smith and1 though much disputed1 appears to me to be the most probable4 ,it has also been advocated by ,dr4 ,a4,c4 ,haddon1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ie ,the ,gaelic names for family1 teadhloch and cuedichc or coedichc1 mean1 the first1 'having a common residence1' the second1 'those who eat together4' #if ,the detailed accounts of the totems of the ,australian1 ,red ,indian and ,african tribes1 now brought together by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,totemism and ,exogamy1 show a considerable amount of evidence that the early totems were not only as a rule edible animals1 but the animals eaten by the totem-clans which bore their names4 #ig ,but after the domestication of animals and the culture of plants had been attained to1 the totems ceased to be the chief means of subsistence4 ,hence the original tie of kinship was supplanted by another and wider one in the tribe1 and though the totem-clans remained and continued to fulfil an important purpose1 they were no longer the chief social group4 ,and in many cases1 as man had also by now begun to speculate on his origin1 the totems came to be regarded as ancestors1 and the totem-clans1 retaining their sentiment of kinship1 accounted for it by supposing themselves to be descended from a common ancestor4 ,they thus also came to base the belief in clan-kinship on the tie of consanguinity recognised in the family1 which had by now come into existence4 ,this late and secondary form of totemism is that which obtains in ,india1 where the migratory and hunting stage has long been passed4 ,the ,indian evidence is1 however1 of great value because we find here in the same community1 occasionally in the same caste1 exogamous clans which trace their descent sometimes from animals and plants1 or totems1 and sometimes from gods1 heroes1 or titular ancestors1 while many of the clans are named after villages or have names to which no meaning can be attached4 ,as has been seen1 there is good reason to suppose that all these forms of the exogamous clan are developed from the earliest form of the totem-clan2 and since this later type of clan has developed from the totem-clan in ,india1 it is a legitimate deduction that wherever elsewhere exogamous clans are found tracing their descent from a common ancestor or with unintelligible names1 probably derived from places1 they were probably also evolved from the totem-clan4 ,this type of clan is shown in ,professor ,hearn's ,aryan ,household to have been the common unit of society over much of ,europe1 where no traces of the existence of totemism are established4 #ih ,and from the ,indian analogy it is therefore legitimate to presume that the totem-clan may have been the original unit of society among several ,european races as well as in ,america1 ,africa1 ,australia and ,india4 ,similar exogamous clans exist in ,china1 and many of them have the names of plants and animals4 #ii #eb4 ,animate ,creation4 ,in order to render clear the manner in which the clan named after a totem animal 7or1 less frequently1 a plant7 came to hold its members akin both to each other and their totem animals1 an attempt may be made to indicate1 however briefly and imperfectly1 some features of primitive man's conception of nature and life4 ,apparently when they began dimly to observe and form conscious mental impressions of the world around them1 our first ancestors made some cardinal1 though natural and inevitable1 mistakes4 ,in the first place they thought that the whole of nature was animate1 and that every animal1 plant1 or natural object which they saw around them1 was alive and self-conscious like themselves4 ,they had1 of course1 no words or ideas connoting life or consciousness1 or distinguishing animals1 vegetables or lifeless objects1 and they were naturally quite incapable of distinguishing them4 ,they merely thought that everything they saw was like themselves1 would feel hurt and resentment if injured1 and would know what was done to it1 and by whom2 whenever they saw the movement of an animal1 plant1 or other object1 they thought it was volitional and self-conscious like their own movements4 ,if they saw a tree waving in the wind1 having no idea or conception of the wind1 they thought the tree was moving its branches about of its own accord2 if a stone fell1 they1 knowing nothing of the force of gravity1 thought the stone projected itself from one place to another because it wished to do so4 ,this is exactly the point of view taken by children when they first begin to observe4 ,they also think that everything they see is alive like themselves1 and that animals exercise volition and have a self-conscious intelligence like their own4 ,but they quickly learn their mistakes and adopt the point of view of their elders because they are taught4 ,primitive man had no one to teach him1 and as he did not co-ordinate or test his observations1 the traces of this first conception of the natural world remain clearly indicated by a vast assortment of primitive customs and beliefs to the present day4 ,all the most prominent natural objects1 the sun and moon1 the sky1 the sea1 high mountains1 rivers and springs1 the earth1 the fire1 became objects of veneration and were worshipped as gods1 and this could not possibly have happened unless they had been believed to have life4 ,stone images and idols are considered as living gods4 ,in ,india girls are married to flowers1 trees1 arrows1 swords1 and so on4 ,a bachelor is married to a ring or a plant before wedding a widow1 and the first ceremony is considered as his true marriage4 ,the ,saligram1 or ammonite stone1 is held to represent the god ,vishnu1 perhaps because it was thought to be a thunderbolt and to have fallen from heaven4 ,its marriage is celebrated with the tulsi or basil-plant1 which is considered the consort of ,vishnu4 ,trees are held to be animate and possessed by spirits1 and before a man climbs a tree he begs its pardon for the injury he is about to inflict on it4 ,when a tank is dug1 its marriage is celebrated4 ,to the ancient ,roman his hearth was a god2 the walls and doors and threshold of his house were gods2 the boundaries of his field were also gods4 #ajj ,it is precisely the same with the modern ,hindu2 he also venerates the threshold of his house1 the cooking-hearth1 the grinding-mill1 and the boundaries of his field4 ,the ,jains still think that all animals1 plants and inanimate objects have souls or spirits like human beings4 ,the belief in a soul or spirit is naturally not primitive1 as man could not at first conceive of anything he did not see or hear1 but plants and inanimate objects could not subsequently have been credited with the possession of souls or spirits unless they had previously been thought to be alive4 ,the ,fijians consider that if an animal or a plant dies its soul immediately goes to ,bolotoo2 if a stone or any other substance is broken1 immortality is equally its reward2 nay1 artificial bodies have equal good luck with men and hogs and yams4 ,if an axe or a chisel is worn out or broken up1 away flies its soul for the service of the gods4 ,if a house is taken down or any way destroyed1 its immortal part will find a situation on the plains of ,bolotoo4 ,the ,finns believed that all inanimate objects had their haltia or soul4 #aja ,the ,malays think that animals1 vegetables and minerals1 as well as human beings1 have souls4 #ajb ,the ,kawar tribe are reported to believe that all articles of furniture and property have souls or spirits1 and if any such is stolen the spirit will punish the thief4 ,theft is consequently almost unknown among them4 ,all the fables about animals and plants speaking and exercising volition2 the practice of ordeals1 resting on the belief that the sacred living elements1 fire and water1 will of themselves discriminate between the innocent and guilty2 the propitiatory offerings to the sea and to rivers1 such incidents as ,xerxes binding the sea with fetters1 ,ajax defying the lightning1 ,aaron's rod that budded1 the superstitions of sailors about ships3 all result from the same primitive belief4 ,many other instances of self-conscious life and volition being attributed to animals1 plants and natural objects are given by ,lord ,avebury in ,origin of ,civilisation1 by ,dr4 ,westermarck in ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1 #ajc and by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,the ,golden ,bough #ajd ,thus primitive man had no conception of inanimate matter1 and it seems probable that he did not either realise the idea of death4 ,though it may be doubtful whether any race exists at present which does not understand that death is the cessation of life in the body1 indications remain that this view was not primary and may not have been acquired for some time4 ,the ,gonds apparently once thought that people would not die unless they were killed by magic1 and similar beliefs are held by the ,australian and ,african savages4 ,several customs also point to the belief in the survival of some degree of life in the body after death1 apart from the idea of the soul4 #ec4 ,the distribution of life over the body4 ,primitive man further thought that life1 instead of being concentrated in certain organs1 was distributed equally over the whole of the body4 ,this mistake appears also to have been natural and inevitable when it is remembered that he had no name for the body1 the different limbs and the internal organs1 and no conception of their existence and distribution1 nor of the functions which they severally performed4 ,he perceived that sensation extended over all parts of the body1 and that when any part was hurt or wounded the blood flowed and life gradually declined in vigour and ebbed away4 ,for this reason the blood was subsequently often identified with the life4 ,during the progress of culture many divergent views have been held about the source and location of life and mental and physical qualities1 and the correct one that life is centred in the heart and brain1 and that the brain is the seat of intelligence and mental qualities has only recently been arrived at4 ,we still talk about people being hard-hearted1 kind-hearted and heartless1 and about a man's heart being in the right place1 as if we supposed that the qualities of kindness and courage were located in the heart1 and determined by the physical constitution and location of the heart4 ,the reason for this is perhaps that the soul was held to be the source of mental qualities1 and to be somewhere in the centre of the body1 and hence the heart came to be identified with it4 ,as shown by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,the ,golden ,bough many peoples or races have thought that the life and qualities were centred in the whole head1 not merely in the brain4 ,and this is the reason why ,hindus will not appear abroad with the head bare1 why it is a deadly insult to knock off a man's turban1 and why turbans or other head-gear were often exchanged as a solemn pledge of friendship4 ,the superstition against walking under a ladder may have originally been based on some idea of its being derogatory or dangerous to the head1 though not1 of course1 from the fear of being struck by a falling brick4 ,similarly1 as shown in the article on ,nai1 the belief that the bodily strength and vigour were located in the hair1 and to a less extent in the nails and teeth1 has had a world-wide prevalence4 ,but this cannot have been primary1 because the hair had first to be conceived of apart from the rest of the body1 and a separate name devised for it1 before the belief that the hair was the source of strength could gradually come into existence4 ,the evolution of these ideas may have extended over thousands of years4 ,the expression 'white-livered1' again1 seems to indicate that the quality of courage was once held to be located in the liver1 and the belief that the liver was the seat of life was perhaps held by the ,gonds4 ,but the primary idea seems necessarily to have been that the life was equally distributed all over the body4 ,and since1 as will be seen subsequently1 the savage was incapable of conceiving the abstract idea of life1 he thought of it in a concrete form as part of the substance of the flesh and blood4 ,and since primitive man had no conception of inanimate matter it followed that when any part of the body was severed from the whole1 he did not think of the separate fraction as merely lifeless matter1 but as still a part of the body to which it had originally belonged and retaining a share of its life4 ,for according to his view of the world and of animate nature1 which has been explained above1 he could not think of it as anything else4 ,thus the clippings of hair1 nails1 teeth1 the spittle and any other similar products all in his view remained part of the body from which they had been severed and retained part of its life4 ,in the case of the elements1 earth1 fire and water1 which he considered as living beings and subsequently worshipped as gods1 this view was correct4 ,fractional portions of earth1 fire and water1 when severed from the remainder1 retained their original nature and constitution1 and afforded some support to his generally erroneous belief4 ,and since he had observed that an injury done to any part of the body was an injury to the whole1 it followed that if one got possession of any part of the body1 such as the severed hair1 teeth or nails1 one could through them injure that body of which they still formed a part4 ,it is for this reason that savages think that if an enemy can obtain possession of any waste product of the body1 such as the severed hair or nails1 that he can injure the owner through them4 ,similarly the ,hindus thought that the clippings of the hair or nails1 if buried in fertile ground1 would grow into a plant1 through the life which they retained1 and as this plant waxed in size it would absorb more and more of the original owner's life1 which would consequently wane and decline4 ,the worship of relics1 such as the bones or hair of saints1 is based on the same belief that they retain a part of the divine life and virtue of him to whom they once belonged4 #ed4 ,qualities associated with animals4 ,it is probable that qualities were first conceived of by being observed in animals or natural objects4 ,prior to the introduction of personal names1 the individuality of human beings could neither be clearly realised nor remembered after they were dead4 ,but man must have perceived at an early period that certain animals were stronger or swifter than he was1 or more cunning1 and since the same quality was reproduced in every animal of the species1 it could easily become permanently associated with the animal4 ,but there were no names for qualities1 nor any independent conception of them apart from the animal or animals in which they were observed4 ,supposing that strength and swiftness were mainly associated with the horse1 as was often the case1 then they would be necessarily conceived of as a part or essence of the horse and his life1 not in the way we think of them1 as qualities appertaining to the horse on account of the strength of his muscles and the conformation of his limbs4 ,when names were devised for these qualities1 they would be something equivalent to horsey or horse-like4 ,the association of qualities with animals is still shown in such words as asinine1 owlish1 foxy1 leonine1 mulish1 dogged1 tigerish1 and so on2 but since the inferiority of animals to man has long been recognised1 most of the animal adjectives have a derogatory sense4 #aje ,it was far otherwise with primitive man1 who first recognised the existence of the qualities most necessary to him1 as strength1 courage1 swiftness1 sagacity1 cunning and endurance1 as being displayed by certain animals in a greater degree than he possessed them himself4 ,birds he admired and venerated as being able to rise and fly in the air1 which he could not do2 fish for swimming and remaining under water when he could not2 while at the same time he had not as yet perceived that the intelligence of animals was in any way inferior to his own1 and he credited many of them with the power of speech4 ,thus certain animals were venerated on account of the qualities associated with them1 and out of them in the course of time anthropomorphic gods personifying the qualities were evolved4 ,the ,australian aborigines of the kangaroo totem1 when they wish to multiply the number of kangaroos1 go to a certain place where two special blocks of stone project immediately one above the other from the hillside4 ,one is supposed to represent an 'old man' kangaroo and the other a female4 ,the stones are rubbed and then painted with alternate red and white stripes1 the red stripes representing the red fur of the kangaroos1 and the white ones its bones4 ,after doing this some of them open veins in their arms and allow the blood to spurt over the stones4 ,the other men sing chants referring to the increase in the numbers of the kangaroos1 and they suppose that this ceremony will actually result in producing an increased number of kangaroos and hence an additional supply of food4 #ajf ,here the inference seems to be that the stones represent the centre or focus of the life of kangaroos1 and when they are quickened by the painting1 and the supply of blood1 they will manifest their creative activity and increase the kangaroos4 ,if we suppose that some similar stone existed on the ,acropolis and was considered by the owl clan as the centre of the life of the owls which frequented the hill1 then when the art of sculpture had made some progress1 and the superiority of the human form and intellect began to be apprehended1 if a sculptor carved the stone into the semblance of a human being1 the goddess ,athena would be born4 #ee4 ,primitive language4 ,it has been seen that primitive man considered the life and qualities to be distributed equally over the body in a physical sense1 so that they formed part of the substance and flesh4 ,the same view extended even to instrumental qualities or functions1 since his mental powers and vision were necessarily limited by his language4 ,language must apparently have begun by pointing at animals or plants and making some sound1 probably at first an imitation of the cry or other characteristic of the animal1 which came to connote it4 ,we have to suppose that language was at the commencement a help in the struggle for life1 because otherwise men1 as yet barely emerged from the animal stage1 would never have made the painful mental efforts necessary to devise and remember the words4 ,words which would be distinctly advantageous in the struggle would be names for the animals and plants which they ate1 and for the animals which ate them4 ,by saying the name and pointing in any direction1 the presence of such animals or plants in the vicinity would be intimated more quickly and more accurately than by signs or actions4 ,such names were then1 it may be supposed1 the first words4 ,animals or plants of which they made no use nor from which they apprehended any danger1 would for long be simply disregarded1 as nothing was to be gained by inventing names for them4 ,the first words were all nouns and the names of visible objects1 and this state of things probably continued for a long period and was the cause of many erroneous primitive conceptions and ideas4 ,some traces of the earliest form of language can still be discerned4 ,thus of ,santali ,sir ,g4 ,grierson states3 ,every word can perform the function of a verb1 and every verbal form can1 according to circumstances1 be considered as a noun1 an adjective or a verb4 ,it is often simply a matter of convenience which word is considered as a noun and which as an adjective 444 ,strictly speaking1 in ,santali there is no real verb as distinct from the other classes of words4 ,every independent word can perform the function of a verb1 and every verbal form can in its turn be used as a noun or adjective4 #ajg ,and of the ,dravidian languages he says3 ,the genitive of ordinary nouns is in reality an adjective1 and the difference between nouns and adjectives is of no great importance 444 ,many cases are both nouns and verbs4 ,nouns of agency are very commonly used as verbs4 #ajh ,thus if it be admitted that nouns preceded verbs as parts of speech1 which will hardly be disputed1 these passages show how the semi-abstract adjectives and verbs were gradually formed from the names of concrete nouns4 ,of the language of the now extinct ,tasmanian aborigines it is stated3 ,their speech was so imperfectly constituted that there was no settled order or arrangement of words in the sentence1 the sense being eked out by face1 manner and gesture1 so that they could scarcely converse in the dark1 and all intercourse had to cease with nightfall4 ,abstract forms scarcely existed1 and while every gum-tree or wattle-tree had its name1 there was no word for 'tree' in general1 nor for qualities such as hard1 soft1 hot1 cold1 etc4 ,anything hard was 'like a stone1' anything round 'like the moon1' and so on1 the speaker suiting the action to the word1 and supplementing the meaning to be understood by some gesture4 #aji ,here the original concrete form of language can be clearly discerned4 ,they had a sufficiency of names for all the objects which were of use to them1 and apparently verbal ideas were largely conveyed by gesture4 ,captain ,forsyth states #aaj that though the ,korkus very seldom wash themselves1 there exist in their language eight words for washing1 one for washing the face1 another for the hands and others for different parts of the body4 ,thus we see that the verbal idea of washing was originally conceived not generally1 but separately with reference to each concrete object or noun1 for which a name existed and to which water was applied4 #ef4 ,concrete nature of primitive ideas4 ,the primitive languages consisted only of nouns or the names of visible objects1 possibly with the subsequent addition of a few names for such conceptions as the wind and the voice1 which could be heard1 but not seen4 ,there were no abstract nor semi-abstract terms nor parts of speech4 ,the resulting inability to realise any abstract conception and the tendency to make everything concrete is a principal and salient characteristic of ethnology and primitive religion4 #aaa ,all actions are judged by their concrete aspect or effects and not by the motives which prompted them1 nor the results which they produce4 ,for a ,hindu to let a cow die with a rope round its neck is a grave caste offence1 apparently because an indignity is thus offered to the sacred animal1 but it is no offence to let a cow starve to death4 ,a girl may be married to inanimate objects as already seen1 or to an old man or a relative without any intention that she shall live with him as a wife1 but simply so that she may be married before reaching puberty4 ,if she goes through the ceremony of marriage she is held to be married4 ,yet the motive for infant-marriage is held to be that a girl should begin to bear children as soon as she is physically capable of doing so1 and such a marriage is useless from this point of view4 ,some castes who cannot afford to burn a corpse hold a lighted brand to it or kindle a little fire on the grave and consider this equivalent to cremation4 ,promises are considered as concrete2 among some ,hindus promises are tied up in knots of cloth1 and when they are discharged the knots are untied4 ,mr4 ,s4,c4 ,roy says of the ,oraons3 ,contracts are even to this day generally not written but acted4 ,thus a lease of land is made by the lessor handing over a clod of earth 7which symbolises land7 to the lessee2 a contract of sale of cattle is entered into by handing over to the buyer a few blades of grass 7which symbolise so many heads of cattle72 a contract of payment of bride-price is made by the bridegroom's father or other relative handing over a number of baris or small cakes of pulse 7which symbolise so many rupees7 to the bride's father or other relative2 and a contract of service is made by the mistress of the house anointing the head of the intended servant with oil1 and making a present of a few pice1 and entertaining him to a feast1 thus signifying that he would receive food1 lodging and some pay4 #aab ,thus an abstract agreement is not considered sufficient for a contract2 in each case it must be ratified by a concrete act4 ,the divisions of time are considered in a concrete sense4 ,the fortnight or ,nakshatra is presided over by its constellation1 and this is held to be a nymph or goddess1 who controls events during its course4 ,similarly1 as shown in ,the ,golden ,bough1 #aac many kinds of new enterprises should be begun in the fortnight of the waxing moon1 not in that of the waning moon4 ,days are also thought to be concrete and governed by their planets1 and from this idea come all the superstitions about lucky and unlucky days4 ,if a day had been from the beginning realised as a simple division of time no such superstitions could exist4 ,events1 so far as they are conceived of1 are also considered in a concrete sense4 ,the reason why omens were so often drawn from birds #aad is perhaps that birds fly from a distance and hence are able to see coming events on their way2 and the hare and donkey were important animals of augury1 perhaps because1 on account of their long ears1 they were credited with abnormally acute hearing1 which would enable them to hear the sound of coming events before ordinary people4 ,the proverb ',coming events cast their shadows before1' appears to be a survival of this mode of belief1 as it is obvious that that which has no substance cannot cast a shadow4 ,the whole category of superstitions about the evil eye arises from the belief that the glance of the eye is a concrete thing which strikes the person or object towards which it is directed like a dart4 ,the theory that the injury is caused through the malice or envy of the person casting the evil eye seems to be derivative and explanatory4 ,if a stranger's glance falls on the food of a ,ramanuji ,brahman while it is being cooked1 the food becomes polluted and must be buried in the ground4 ,here it is clear that the glance of the eye is equivalent to real contact of some part of the stranger's body1 which would pollute the food4 ,in asking for leave in order to nurse his brother who was seriously ill but could obtain no advantage from medical treatment1 a ,hindu clerk explained that the sick man had been pierced by the evil glance of some woman4 #eg4 ,words and names concrete4 ,similarly words were considered to have a concrete force1 so that the mere repetition of words produced an effect analogous to their sense4 ,the purely mechanical repetition of prayers was held to be a virtuous act1 and this idea was carried to the most absurd length in the ,buddhist's praying-wheel1 where merit was acquired by causing the wheel with prayers inscribed on its surface to revolve in a waterfall4 ,the wearing of strips of paper1 containing sacred texts1 as amulets on the body is based on this belief1 and some ,muhammadans will wash off the ink from paper containing a verse of the ,koran and drink the mixture under the impression that it will do them good4 ,here the belief in the concrete virtue and substance of the written word is very clear4 ,the ,hindus think that the continued repetition of the ,gayatri or sacred prayer to the sun is a means of acquiring virtue1 and the prayer is personified as a goddess4 ,the enunciation of the sacred syllable ,aum or ,om is supposed to have the most powerful results4 ,homer's phrase 'winged words' perhaps recalls the period when the words were considered as physical entities which actually travelled through the air from the speaker to the hearer and were called winged because they went so fast4 ,a ,korku clan has the name lobo which means a piece of cloth4 ,but the word lobo also signifies 'to leak4' ,if a person says a sentence containing the word lobo in either signification before a member of the clan while he is eating1 he will throw away the food before him as if it were contaminated and prepare a meal afresh4 ,here it is clear that the ,korku pays no regard to the sense but solely to the word or sound4 ,this belief in the concrete force of words has had the most important effects both in law and religion4 ,the earliest codes of law were held to be commands of the god and claimed obedience on this ground4 ,the binding force of the law rested in the words and not in the sense because the words were held to be those of the god and to partake of his divine nature4 ,in ancient ,rome the citizen had to take care to know the words of the law and to state them exactly4 ,if he used one wrong word the law gave him no assistance4 ,gaius tells a story of a man whose neighbour had cut his vines2 the facts were clear2 he stated the law applying to his case1 but he said vines1 whereas the law said trees2 he lost his suit4 #aae ,the divine virtue attached to the sacred books of different religions rests on the same belief4 ,frequently the books themselves are worshipped1 and it was held that they could not be translated because the sanctity resided in the actual words and would be lost if other words were used4 ,the efficacy of spells and invocations seems to depend mainly on this belief in the concrete power of words4 ,if one knows an efficacious form of words connoting a state of physical facts and repeats it with the proper accessory conditions1 then that state of facts is actually caused to exist2 and if one knows a man's name and calls on him with a form of words efficacious to compel attendance1 he has to come and his spirit can similarly be summoned from the dead4 ,when a ,malay wishes to kill an enemy he makes an image of the man1 transfixes or otherwise injures it1 and buries it on the path over which the enemy will tread4 ,as he buries it with the impression that he will thereby cause the enemy to die and likewise be buried1 he says3 ,it is not ,i who am burying him1 ,it is ,gabriel who is burying him1 and thinks that the repetition of these words produces the state of facts which they denote so that the guilt of the murder is removed from his own shoulders to those of the archangel ,gabriel4 ,similarly when he has killed a deer and wishes to be free from the guilt of his action1 or as he calls it to cast out the mischief from the deer1 he says3 ,it is not ,i who cast out these mischiefs1 ,it is ,michael who casts them out4 ,it is not ,i who cast out these mischiefs1 ,it is ,israfel who casts them out1 and so on1 freeing himself in the same manner from responsibility for the death of the deer4 #aaf ,names also are regarded as concrete4 ,primitive man could not regard a name as an abstract appellation1 but thought of it as part of the person or thing to which it was applied and as containing part of his life1 like his hair1 spittle and the rest of his body4 ,he would have used names for a long period before he had any word for a name1 and his first idea of the name as a part of the substantive body to which it is applied has survived a more correct appreciation4 ,thus if one knew a person's name one could injure him by working evil on it and the part of his life contained in it1 just as one could injure him through the clippings of his hair1 his spittle1 clothes or the earth pressed by his foot4 ,this is the reason for the common custom of having two names1 one of which1 the true name1 is kept secret and only used on ceremonial occasions when it is essential1 as at a wedding1 while the other is employed for everyday life4 ,the latter1 not being the man's true name1 does not contain part of his life1 and hence there is no harm in letting an enemy know it4 ,similarly the ,hindus think that a child's name should not be repeated at night1 lest an owl might hear it1 when this bird could injure the child through its name1 just as if it got hold of a piece of cloth worn or soiled by the child4 ,the practice of euphemism rests on this belief1 as it was thought that if a person's name was said and a part of him was thus caused to be present the rest would probably follow4 ,hence the rule of avoiding the use of the names of persons or things of which one does not desire the presence4 ,thus ,sir ,e4,b4 ,tylor says3 ,the ,dayak will not speak of the smallpox by name1 but will call it ',the ,chief1' or ',jungle leaves1' or say1 ',has ,he left you8' ,the euphemism of calling the ,furies the ,eumenides1 or ',gracious ,ones1' is the stock illustration of this feeling1 and the euphemisms for fairies and for the devil are too familiar to quote4 #aag ,similarly the name of a god was considered as part of him and hence partaking of his divine nature4 ,it was thus so potent that it could not be mentioned on ordinary occasions or by common persons4 ,allah is only an epithet for the name of ,god among the ,muhammadans and his ,true or ,great ,name is secret4 ,those who know it have power over all created things4 ,clearly then the divine power is held to reside in the name itself4 ,the concealment of the name of the tutelary deity of ,rome1 for divulging which ,valerius ,soranus is said to have paid the penalty of death1 is a case in point4 #aah ,sir ,e4,b4 ,tylor gives many other interesting examples of the above ideas and points out the connection clearly existing in the savage mind between the name and the object to which it is applied4 ,the ,muhammadans think that ,solomon's name is very efficacious for casting out devils and evil spirits4 ,the practice of naming children after gods or by the epithets or titles applied to the divine being1 or after the names of saints1 appears to be due to the belief that such names1 by reason of their association with the god or saint1 acquire a part of his divine life and virtue1 which when given to children the names will in turn convey to them4 #aai ,on the other hand1 when a ,hindu mother is afraid lest her child may die1 she sometimes gives it an opprobrious name as dirt1 rubbish1 sweepings1 or sold for one or two cowries1 so that the evil spirits who take the lives of children may be deceived by the name and think that such a valueless child is not worth having4 ,the voice was also held to be concrete4 ,the position of the ,roman tribune was peculiar1 as he was not a magistrate chosen by divine authority and hence could not summon people to his court2 but the tribune had been dedicated to the city gods1 and his person was sacrosanct4 ,he could therefore lay hands on a man1 and once the tribune touched him1 the man was held to be in the magistrate's power1 and bound to obey him4 ,this rule extended even to those who were within hearing of his voice2 any one1 even a patrician or consul1 who heard the tribune's voice was compelled to obey him4 ,in this case it is clear that the voice and spoken words were held to be concrete1 and to share in the sanctity attaching to the body4 #abj ,when primitive man could not think of a name as an abstraction but had to think of it as an actual part of the body and life of the person or visible object to which it belonged1 it will be realised how impossible it was for him during a long period to conceive of any abstract idea1 which was only a word without visible or corporal reality4 #eh4 ,the soul or spirit4 ,thus he could not at first have had any conception of a soul or spirit1 which is an unseen thing4 ,savages generally may have evolved the conception of a soul or spirit as an explanation of dreams1 according to the view taken by ,mr4 ,e4 ,clodd in ,myths and ,dreams1 #aba ,mr4 ,clodd shows that dreams were necessarily and invariably considered as real events1 and it could not have been otherwise1 as primitive man would have been unable to conceive the abstract idea of a vision or fantasy4 ,and since during dreams the body remained immobile and quiescent1 it was thought that the spirit inside the body left it and travelled independently4 ,hence the reluctance often evinced to waking a sleeper suddenly from fear lest the absent spirit might not have time to return to the body before its awakening and hence the man might die4 ,savages1 not having the conception of likeness or similarity1 #abb would confuse death and sleep1 because the appearance of the body is similar in death and in sleep4 ,legends of the type of ,rip ,van ,winkle and the ,sleeping ,beauty1 and of heroes like ,king ,arthur and ,frederick ,barbarossa lying asleep through the centuries in some remote cave or other hiding-place1 from which they will one day issue forth to regenerate the world1 perpetuate the primitive identification of death and sleep4 ,and the belief long prevailed that after death the soul or spirit remained with the body in the place where it lay1 leaving the body and returning to it as the spirit was held to do in sleep4 ,the spirit was also thought to be able to quit the body and enter any other body1 both during life and after death2 most of the beliefs in spirit-possession and many of those about the power of witches arise from this view4 ,the soul or spirit was commonly conceived of in concrete form2 the ,egyptians1 ,greeks and ,hindus thought of it as a little mannikin inside the body4 ,after death the ,hindus often break the skull in order to allow the soul to escape4 ,often an insect or a stone is thought to harbour the spirit4 ,as shown by ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor in ,primitive ,culture1 #abc the breath1 the shadow and the pupil of the eye were sometimes held to be or to represent the soul or spirit4 ,disembodied spirits are imprisoned in a tree or hole by driving nails into the tree or ground to confine them and prevent their exit4 ,when a man died accidentally or a woman in childbirth and fear was felt that their spirits might annoy or injure the living1 a stake might be driven through the body or a cairn of stones piled over it in order to keep the ghost down and prevent it from rising and walking4 ,the genii of the ,arabian ,nights were imprisoned in sealed bottles1 and when the bottle was opened they appeared in a cloud of vapour4 ,there seems every reason to suppose1 as the same author suggests1 that man first thought he had a spirit himself and as a consequence held that animals1 plants and inanimate objects also contained spirits4 ,because the belief that the human body had a spirit can easily be accounted for1 but there seems to be no valid reason why man should have thought that all other visible objects also contained spirits1 except that at the period when he conceived of the existence of a soul or spirit he still held them to be possessed of life and self-conscious volition like himself4 ,but certain beliefs1 such as the universal existence of life1 and of its distribution all over the body and transmission by contact and eating1 the common life of the species1 and possibly totemism itself1 appear to have been pre-animistic or prior to any conception of or belief in a soul or spirit either in man himself or in nature4 #ei4 ,the tranmission of qualities4 ,primitive man thought that the life and all qualities1 mental and physical1 were equally distributed over the body as part of the substance of the flesh4 ,he thus came to think that they could be transferred from one body or substance to another in two ways3 either by contact of the two bodies or substances1 or by the eating or assimilation of one by the other4 ,the transmission of qualities by contact could be indicated through simply saying the two names of the objects in contact together1 and transmission by eating through saying the two names with a gesture of eating4 ,thus if one ate a piece of tiger's flesh1 one assimilated an equivalent amount of strength1 ferocity1 cruelty1 yellowness1 and any other qualities which might be attributed to the tiger4 ,warriors and youths are sometimes forbidden to eat deer's flesh because it will make them timid1 but they are encouraged to eat the flesh of tigers1 bears1 and other ferocious animals1 because it will make them brave4 ,the ,gonds1 if they wish a child to be a good dancer1 cause it to eat the flesh of a kind of hawk1 which hangs gracefully poised over the water1 with its wings continually flapping1 on the look-out for its prey4 ,they think that by eating the flesh the limbs of the child will become supple like the wings of the bird4 ,if a child is slow in learning to speak1 they give it to eat the leaves of the pipal tree1 which rustle continually in the wind and are hence supposed to have the quality of making a noise4 ,all qualities1 objective and instrumental1 were conceived of in the same manner1 because in the absence of verbs or abstract terms their proper relation to the subject and object could not be stated or understood4 ,thus if a woman's labour in child-birth is prolonged she is given to drink water in which the charred wood of a tree struck by lightning has been dipped4 ,here it is clear that the quality of swiftness is held to have been conveyed by the lightning to the wood1 by the wood to the water1 and by the water to the woman1 so as to give her a swift delivery4 ,by a similar train of reasoning she is given to drink the water of a swiftly-flowing stream which thus has the quality of swiftness1 or water poured through a gun-barrel in which the fouling of a bullet is left4 ,here the quality of swiftness appertaining to the bullet is conveyed by the soiling to the barrel and thence to the water and to the woman who drinks the water4 ,in the above cases all the transfers except that to the woman are by contact4 ,the belief in the transfer of qualities by contact may have arisen from the sensations of the body and skin1 to which heat1 cold and moisture are communicated by contact4 ,it was applied to every kind of quality4 ,a familiar instance is the worship of the marks on rocks or stone which are held to be the footprints left by a god4 ,here a part of the god's divine virtue and power has been communicated through the sole of his foot to the rock dented by the latter4 ,touching for the king's evil was another familiar case1 when it was thought that a fraction of the king's divine life and virtue was communicated by contact to the person touched and cured him of his ailment4 ,the wearing of amulets where these consist of parts of the bodies of animals is based on the same belief4 ,when a man wears on his person the claws of a tiger in an amulet1 he thinks that the claws being the tiger's principal weapon of offence contain a concentrated part of his strength1 and that the wearer of the claws will acquire some of this by contact4 ,the ,gonds carry the shoulder-bone of a tiger1 or eat the powdered bone-dust1 in order to acquire strength4 ,the same train of reasoning applies to the wearing of the hair of a bear1 a common amulet in ,india1 the hair being often considered as the special seat of strength4 #abd ,the whole practice of wearing ornaments of the precious metals and precious stones appears to have been originally due to the same motive1 as shown in the article on ,sunar4 ,if the ,gonds want a child to become fat1 they put it in a pigsty or a place where asses have rolled1 so that it may acquire by contact the quality of fatness belonging to the pigs or asses4 ,if they wish to breed quarrels in an enemy's house1 they put the seeds of the amaltas or the quills of the porcupine in the thatch of the roof4 ,the seeds in the dried pods of this tree rattle in the wind1 while the fretful porcupine raises its quills when angry4 ,hence the seeds will impart the quality of noise to the house1 so that its inmates will be noisy1 while the quills of the porcupine will similarly breed strife between them4 ,the effects produced by weapons and instruments are thought of in the same manner4 ,we say that an arrow is shot from a bow with such force as to penetrate the body and cause a wound4 ,the savage could not think or speak in this way1 because he had no verbs and could not think of nouns in the objective case4 ,he thought of the arrow as an animate thing having a cutting or piercing quality4 ,when placed in a suitable position to exercise its powers1 it flew1 of its own volition1 through the air to the target1 and communicated to it by contact some of the above quality4 ,the idea is more easily realised in the case of balls1 pieces of bone or other missiles thrown by magicians4 ,here the person whom it is intended to injure may be miles away1 so that the object could not possibly strike him merely through the force imparted to it by the thrower4 ,but when the magician has said charms over the missile1 communicating to it the power and desire to do his will1 he throws it in the proper direction and savages believe that it will go of its own accord to the person against whom it is aimed and penetrate his body4 ,to pretend to suck pieces of bone out of the body1 which are supposed to have been propelled into the victim by an enemy1 is one of the commonest magical methods of curing an illness4 ,the following instances of this idea are taken from the admirable collection in ,the ,golden ,bough #abe3 7,in ,suffolk7 if a man cuts himself with a bill-hook or a scythe he always takes care to keep the weapon bright1 and oils it to prevent the wound from festering4 ,if he runs a thorn or1 as he calls it1 a bush into his hand1 he oils or greases the extracted thorn4 ,a man came to a doctor with an inflamed hand1 having run a thorn into it while he was hedging4 ,on being told that the hand was festering1 he remarked3 ',that didn't ought to1 for ,i greased the bush well after ,i pulled it out' ,if a horse wounds its foot by treading on a nail1 a ,suffolk groom will invariably preserve the nail1 clean it and grease it every day to prevent the wound from festering4 ,here the heat and festering of the wounds are held to be qualities of the axe1 thorn or nail1 which have been communicated to the person or animal wounded by contact4 ,if these qualities of the instrument are reduced by cleaning and oiling it1 then that portion of them communicated to the wound1 which was originally held to be a severed part of the life and qualities of the instrument1 will similarly be made cool and easy4 ,it is not probable that the people of ,suffolk really believe this at present1 but they retain the method of treatment arising from the belief without being able to explain it4 ,similarly the ,hindus must have thought that the results produced by the tools of artisans working on materials1 and by the plough on the earth1 were communicated by these instruments volitionally through contact2 and this is why they worship once or twice a year the implements of their profession as the givers of the means of subsistence4 ,all the stories of magic swords1 axes1 impenetrable shields1 sandals1 lamps1 carpets and so on originally arose from the same belief4 #fj4 ,the faculty of counting4 ,confusion of the individual and the species4 ,but primitive man not only considered the body as a homogeneous mass with the life and qualities distributed equally over it4 ,he further1 it may be suggested1 did not distinguish between the individual and the species4 ,the reason for this was that he could not count1 and had no idea of numbers4 ,the faculty of counting appears to have been acquired very late4 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillan remark of the aborigines of ,central ,australia3 #abf ,while in matters such as tracking1 which are concerned with their everyday life1 and upon efficiency in which they actually depend for their livelihood1 the natives show conspicuous ability1 there are other directions in which they are as conspicuously deficient4 ,this is perhaps shown most clearly in the matter of counting4 ,at ,alice ,springs they occasionally count1 sometimes using their fingers in doing so1 up to five1 but frequently anything beyond four is indicated by the word oknira1 meaning 'much' or 'great4' ,one is nintha1 two thrama or thera1 three mapitcha1 four therankathera1 five therankathera-nintha4 ,the form of these words is interesting1 because it is clear that the word for four is two and two1 or twice two1 and the word for five is two and two and one4 ,these words indicate the prolonged and painful efforts which must have been necessary to count as far as five1 and this though in other respects the ,australian natives show substantial mental development1 having a most complicated system of exogamy1 and sometimes two personal names for each individual4 ,again1 the ,andamanese islanders1 despite the extraordinary complexity of their agglutinative language1 have no names for the numerals beyond two4 #abg ,it is said that the ,majhwar tribe can only count up to three1 while among the ,bhatras the qualification for being a village astrologer1 who foretells the character of the rainfall and gives auspicious days for sowing and harvest1 is the ability to count a certain number of posts4 ,the astrologer's title is ,meda ,gantia1 or ,counter of ,posts4 ,the above facts demonstrate that counting is a faculty acquired with difficulty after considerable mental progress1 and primitive man apparently did not feel the necessity for it4 #abh ,but if he could not count1 it seems a proper deduction that his eye would not distinguish a number of animals of the same species together1 because the ability to do this1 and to appraise distinct individuals of like appearance appears to depend ultimately on the faculty of counting4 ,major ,hendley1 a doctor and therefore a skilled observer1 states that the ,bhils were unable to distinguish colours or to count numbers1 apparently on account of their want of words to express themselves4 #abi ,now it seems clearly more easy for the eye to discriminate between opposing colours than to distinguish a number of individuals of the same species together4 ,there are a few things which we still cannot count1 such as the blades of grass1 the ears of corn1 drops of rain1 snowflakes1 and hailstones4 ,all of these things are still spoken of in the singular1 though this is well known to be scientifically incorrect4 ,we say an expanse of grass1 a field of corn1 and so on1 as if the grass and corn were all one plant instead of an innumerable quantity of plants4 ,apparently when primitive man saw a number of animals or trees of the same species together1 the effect on him must have been exactly the same as that of a field of grass or corn on us4 ,he could be conscious only of an indefinite sense of magnitude4 ,but he did not know1 as we do in the cases cited1 that the objects he saw were really a collection of distinct individuals4 ,he would naturally consider them as all one1 just as children would think a field of grass or corn to be one great plant until they were told otherwise4 ,but there was no one to tell him1 nor any means by which he could find out his mistake4 ,he had no plural number1 and no definite or indefinite articles4 ,whether he saw one or a hundred tigers together1 he could only describe them by the one word tiger4 ,it was a long time before he could even say 'much tiger1' as the ,australian natives still have to do if they see more animals than five together1 and the ,andamanese if they see more than two4 ,the hypothesis therefore seems reasonable that at first man considered each species of animals or plants which he distinguished to have a separate single life1 of which all the individuals were pieces or members4 ,the separation of different parts of one living body presented no difficulties to his mind1 since1 as already seen1 he believed the life to continue in severed fractions of the human body4 ,a connection between individuals1 apparently based on the idea that they have a common life1 has been noticed in other cases4 ,thus at the commencement of the patriarchal state of society1 when the child is believed to derive its life from its father1 any carelessness in the father's conduct may injuriously affect the child4 ,sir ,e4,b4 ,tylor notes this among the tribes of ,south ,america4 ,after the birth of a child among the ,indians of ,south ,america the father would eat no regular cooked food1 not suitable for children1 as he feared that if he did this his child would die4 #acj ,among the ,arawaks of ,surinam for some time after the birth of a child the father must fell no tree1 fire no gun1 hunt no large game2 he may stay near home1 shoot little birds with a bow and arrow1 and angle for little fish2 but his time hanging heavy on his hands the only comfortable thing he can do is to lounge in his hammock4 #aca ,on another occasion a savage who had lately become a father1 refused snuff1 of which he was very fond1 because his sneezing would endanger the life of his newly-born child4 ,they believed that any intemperance or carelessness of the father1 such as drinking1 eating large quantities of meat1 swimming in cold weather1 riding till he was tired and sweated1 would endanger the child's life1 and if the child died1 the father was bitterly reproached with having caused its death by some such indiscretion4 #acb ,here the idea clearly seems to be that the father's and child's life are one1 the latter being derived from and part of the former4 ,the custom of the ,couvade may therefore perhaps be assigned to the early patriarchal stage4 ,the first belief was that the child derived its life from its mother1 and apparently that the weakness and debility of the mother after childbirth were due to the fact that she had given up a part of her life to the child4 ,when the system of female descent changed to male descent1 the woman was taken from another clan into her husband's2 the child1 being born in its father's clan1 obviously could not draw its life from its mother1 who was originally of a different clan4 ,the inference was that it drew its life from its father2 consequently the father1 having parted with a part of his life to his child1 had to imitate the conduct of the mother after childbirth1 abstain from any violent exertion1 and sometimes feign weakness and lie up in the house1 so as not to place any undue strain on the severed fraction of his life in his child1 which would be simultaneously affected with his own1 but was much more fragile4 #fa4 ,similarity and identity4 ,again1 primitive man had no conception of likeness or similarity1 nor did he realise an imitation as distinct from the thing imitated4 ,likeness or similarity and imitation are abstract ideas1 for which he had no words1 and consequently did not conceive of them4 ,and clearly if one had absolutely no term signifying likeness or similarity1 and if one wished to indicate say1 that something resembled a goat1 all one could do would be to point at the goat and the object resembling it and say 'goat1' 'goat4' ,since the name was held to be part of the thing named1 such a method would strengthen the idea that resemblance was equivalent to identity4 ,this point of view can also be observed in children1 who have no difficulty in thinking that any imitation or toy model is just as good as the object or animal imitated1 and playing with it as such4 ,even to call a thing by the name of any object is sufficient with children to establish its identity with that object for the purposes of a game or mimicry1 and a large part of children's games are based on such pretensions4 ,they also have not yet clearly grasped the difference between likeness and identity1 and between an imitation of an object and the object itself4 ,a large part of the category of substituted ceremonies and sacrifices are based on this confusion between similarity and identity4 ,thus when the ,hindus put four pieces of stick into a pumpkin and call it a goat1 they do not mean to cheat the god to whom it is offered1 but fancy that when they have made a likeness of a goat and called it a goat1 it is a goat1 at any rate for the purpose of sacrifice4 ,and when the ,jains1 desiring to eat after sunset against the rule of their religion1 place a lamp under a sieve and call it the sun1 and eat by it1 they are acting on the same principle and think they have avoided committing a sin4 ,a ,baiga should go to his wedding on an elephant1 but as he cannot obtain a real elephant1 two wooden cots are lashed together and covered with blankets1 with a black cloth trunk in front1 and this arrangement passes muster for an elephant4 ,a small gold image of a cat is offered to a ,brahman in expiation for killing a cat1 silver eyes are offered to the goddess to save the eyes of a person suffering from smallpox1 a wisp of straw is burnt on a man's grave as a substitute for cremating the body1 a girl is married to an image of a man made of kusha grass1 and so on4 ,in rites where blood is required vermilion is used as a substitute for blood2 on the other hand castes which abstain from flesh sometimes also decline to eat red vegetables and fruits1 because the red colour is held to make them resemble and be equivalent to blood4 ,these beliefs survive in religious ceremonial long after the hard logic of facts has dispelled them from ordinary life4 #acc ,thus when an image of a god was made it was at once the god and contained part of his life4 ,primitive man had no idea of an imitation or an image nor of a lifeless object1 and therefore could not conceive of the representation being anything else than the god4 ,only in later times was some ceremony of conveying life to the image considered requisite4 ,the prohibition of sculpture among the ,jews and of painting among the ,muhammadans was based on this view1 #acd because sculptures and paintings were not considered as images or representations1 but as living beings or gods1 and consequently false gods4 ,the world-wide custom of making an image of a man with intent to injure him arises from the same belief4 ,since primitive man could conceive neither of an imitation nor of an inanimate object1 the image of a man was to his view the man2 there was nothing else which it could be4 ,and thus it contained part of the man's life1 just as every idol of a god was the god himself and contained part of the god's life4 ,since the man's life was common to himself and the image1 by injuring or destroying the image it was held that the man's life would similarly be injured or destroyed1 on the analogy already explained of injury to life being frequently observed to follow a hurt or wound of any part of the body4 ,afterwards the connection between the man and the image was strengthened by working into the material of the latter some fraction of his body1 such as severed hair or the earth pressed by his foot4 ,but this was not necessary to the original belief4 ,the objection often raised by savages to having their photographs taken or pictures painted may be explained in the same manner4 ,here the photograph or picture cannot be realised as a simple imitation2 it is held to be the man himself1 and must therefore contain part of his life4 ,hence any one in whose possession it is can do him harm by injuring or destroying the photograph or picture1 according to the method of reasoning already explained4 ,the superstitions against looking in a mirror1 especially after dark1 or seeing one's reflection in water1 are analogous cases4 ,here the reflection in the mirror or water is held to be the person himself1 because savages do not understand the nature of the reflected image4 ,it is the person himself1 but has no corporeal substance2 therefore the reflection must be his ghost or spirit4 ,but if the spirit appears once it is an omen that it will appear again2 and in order that it may do so the man will have to die so that the spirit may be set free from the body in order to appear4 ,the special reason for not looking into a mirror at night would thus be because the night is the usual time for the appearance of spirits4 ,the fable of ,narcissus1 who fell in love with his own image reflected in the water and was drowned1 probably arose from the superstition against seeing one's image reflected in water4 ,and similarly the belief was that a man's clothes and other possessions contained part of his life by contact2 this is the explanation of the custom of representing a person by some implement or article of clothing1 such as performing the marriage ceremony with the bridegroom's sword instead of himself1 and sending the bride's shoes home with the bridegroom to represent her4 ,a barren woman will try to obtain a piece of a pregnant woman's breast-cloth and will burn it and eat the ashes1 thinking thereby to transfer the pregnant woman's quality of fertility to herself4 ,when a ,hindu widow is remarried her clothes and ornaments are sometimes buried on the boundary of her second husband's village and she puts on new clothes1 because it is thought that her first husband's spirit will remain in the old clothes and give trouble4 #fb4 ,the recurrence of events4 ,a brief digression may be made here in order to suggest an explanation of another important class of primitive ideas4 ,these arise from the belief that when something has happened1 that same event1 or some other resembling it1 will again occur1 or1 more briefly1 the belief in the recurrence of events4 ,this view is the origin of a large class of omens1 and appears to have been originally evolved simply from the recurring phenomena of day and night and of the months and climatic seasons4 ,for suppose that one was in the position of primitive man1 knowing absolutely nothing of the nature and constitution of the earth and the heavenly bodies1 or of the most elementary facts of astronomy2 then1 if the question were asked why one expected the sun to rise to-morrow1 the only possible answer1 and the answer which one would give1 would be because it had risen to-day and every day as long as one could remember4 ,the reason so stated might have no scientific value1 but would at any rate establish a strong general probability4 ,but primitive man could not have given it in this form1 because he had no memory and could not count4 ,even now comparatively advanced tribes like the ,gonds have a hopelessly inaccurate memory for ordinary incidents2 and1 as suggested subsequently1 the faculty of memory was probably acquired very slowly with the development of language4 ,and since he could not count1 the continuous recurrence of natural phenomena had no cumulative force with him1 so that he might distinguish them from other events4 ,his argument was thus simply the sun will rise again because it rose before2 the moon will wax and wane again because she waxed and waned before2 grass and leaves and fruit would grow again because they did so before2 the animals which gave him food would come again as before2 and so on4 ,but these were the only events which his brain retained at all1 and that only because his existence depended upon them and they continually recurred4 ,the ordinary incidents of life which presented some variation passed without record in his mind1 as they still do very largely in those of primitive savages4 ,and since he made no distinction between the different classes of events1 holding them all to be the acts of volitional beings1 he applied this law of the recurrence of events to every incident of life1 and thought that whenever anything happened1 reason existed for supposing that the same thing or something like it would happen again4 ,it was sufficient that the second event should be like the first1 since1 as already seen1 he did not distinguish between similarity and identity4 ,thus1 to give instances1 the ,hindus think that if a man lies full length inside a bed1 he is lying as if on a bier and will consequently soon be dead on a real bier2 hence beds should be made so that one's feet project uncomfortably over the end4 ,by a similar reasoning he must not lie with his feet to the south because corpses are laid in this direction4 ,a ,hindu married woman always wears glass bangles as a sign of her state1 and a widow may not wear them4 ,a married woman must therefore never let her arms be without bangles or it is an omen that she will become a widow4 ,she must not wear wholly white clothes1 because a widow wears these4 ,if a man places one of his shoes over the other in the house1 it is an omen that he will go on a journey when the shoes will be in a similar position as he walks along4 ,a ,kolta woman who desires to ascertain whether she will have a son1 puts a fish into a pot full of water and spreads her cloth by it4 ,if the fish jumps into her lap1 it is thought that her lap will shortly hold another living being1 that is a son4 ,at a wedding1 in many ,hindu castes1 the bride and bridegroom perform the business of their caste or an imitation of it4 ,among the ,kuramwar shepherds the bride and bridegroom are seated with the shuttle which is used for weaving blankets between them4 ,a miniature swing is put up and a doll is placed in it in imitation of a child and swung to and fro4 ,the bride then takes the doll out and gives it to the bridegroom1 saying3--,here1 take care of it1 ,i am now going to cook food2 while1 after a time1 the boy returns the doll to the girl saying1 ,i must now weave the blanket and go to tend the flock4 ,thus1 having performed their life's business at their wedding1 it is thought that they will continue to do so happily as long as they live4 ,many castes1 before sowing the real crop1 make a pretence of sowing seed before the shrine of the god1 and hope thus to ensure that the subsequent sowing will be auspicious4 ,the common stories of the appearance of a ghost1 or other variety of apparition1 before the deaths of members of a particular family1 are based partly on the belief in the recurrence of associated events4 ,the well-known superstition about sitting down thirteen to dinner1 on the ground that one of the party may die shortly afterwards1 is an instance of the same belief1 being of course based on the ,last ,supper4 ,but the number thirteen is generally unlucky1 being held to be so by the ,hindus1 ,muhammadans and ,persians1 as well as ,europeans1 and the superstition perhaps arose from its being the number of the intercalary month in the soli-lunar calendar1 which is present one year and absent the next year4 ,thirteen is one more than twelve1 the auspicious number of the months of the year4 ,similarly seven was perhaps lucky or sacred as being the number of the planets which gave their names to the days of the week1 and three because it represented the sun1 moon and earth4 ,when a gambler stakes his money on a number such as the date of his birth or marriage1 he acts on the supposition that a number which has been propitious to him once will be so again1 and this appears to be a survival of the belief in the recurrence of events4 #fc4 ,controlling the future4 ,but primitive man was not actuated by any abstract love of knowledge1 and when he had observed what appeared to him to be a law of nature1 he proceeded to turn it to advantage in his efforts for the preservation of his life4 ,since events had the characteristic of recurrence1 all he had to do in order to produce the recurrence of any particular event which he desired1 was to cause it to happen in the first instance2 and since he did not distinguish between imitation and reality1 he thought that if he simply enacted the event he would thus ensure its being brought to pass4 ,and so he assiduously set himself to influence the course of nature to his own advantage4 ,when the ,australian aborigines are performing ceremonies for the increase of witchetty grubs1 a long narrow structure of boughs is made which represents the chrysalis of the grub4 ,the men of the witchetty grub totem enter the structure and sing songs about the production and growth of the witchetty grub4 ,then one after another they shuffle out of the chrysalis1 and glide slowly along for a distance of some yards1 imitating the emergence and movements of the witchetty grubs4 ,by thus enacting the production of the grubs they think to cause and multiply the real production4 #ace ,when the men of the emu totem wish to multiply the number of emus1 they allow blood from their arms1 that is emu blood1 to fall on the ground until a certain space is covered4 ,then on this space a picture is drawn representing the emu2 two large patches of yellow indicate lumps of its fat1 of which the natives are very fond1 but the greater part shows1 by means of circles and circular patches1 the eggs in various stages of development1 some before and some after laying4 ,then the men of the totem1 placing on their heads a stick with a tuft of feathers to represent the long neck and small head of the bird1 stand gazing about aimlessly after the manner of the emu4 ,here the picture itself is held to be a living emu1 perhaps the source or centre from which all emus will originate1 and the men1 pretending to be emus1 will cause numbers of actual emus to be produced4 #acf ,before sowing the crops1 a common practice is to sow small quantities of grain in baskets or pots in rich soil1 so that it will sprout and grow up quickly1 the idea being to ensure that the real crop will have a similarly successful growth4 ,these baskets are the well-known ,gardens of ,adonis fully described in ,the ,golden ,bough4 ,they are grown for nine days1 and on the tenth day are taken in procession by the women and deposited in a river4 ,the women may be seen carrying the baskets of wheat to the river after the nine days' fasts of ,chait and ,kunwar 7,march and ,september7 in many towns of the ,central ,provinces1 as the ,athenian women carried the ,gardens of ,adonis to the sea on the day that the expedition under ,nicias set sail for ,syracuse4 #acg ,the fire kindled at the ,holi festival in spring is meant1 as explained by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer1 to increase the power of the sun for the growth of vegetation4 ,by the production of fire the quantity and strength of the heavenly fire is increased4 ,he remarks3 #ach--,the custom of throwing blazing discs1 shaped like suns1 into the air1 is probably also a piece of imitative magic4 ,in these1 as in so many cases1 the magic force is supposed to take effect through mimicry or sympathy2 by imitating the desired result you actually produce it2 by counterfeiting the sun's progress through the heavens you really help the luminary to pursue his celestial journey with punctuality and despatch4 ,the name 'fire of heaven1' by which the midsummer fire is sometimes popularly known1 clearly indicates a consciousness of the connection between the earthly and the heavenly flame4 ,the obscene songs of the ,holi appear to be the relic of a former period of promiscuous sexual debauchery1 which1 through the multiplied act of reproduction1 was intended to ensure that nature should also reproduce on a generous scale4 ,the red powder thrown over everybody at the ,holi is said to represent the seed of life4 ,the gifts of ,easter eggs seem to be the vestige of a rite having the same object4 ,at a wedding in the ,lodhi caste the bride is seated before the family god while an old woman brings a stone rolling-pin wrapped up in a piece of cloth1 which is supposed to be a baby1 and the old woman imitates a baby crying4 ,she puts the roller in the bride's lap1 saying1 ,take this and give it milk4 ,the bride is abashed and throws it aside4 ,the old woman picks it up and shows it to the assembled women1 saying1 ,the bride has just had a baby1 amid loud laughter4 ,then she gives the stone to the bridegroom1 who also throws it aside4 ,this ceremony is meant to induce fertility1 and it is supposed that by making believe that the bride has had a baby she will quickly have one4 ,similar rites are performed in several other castes1 and when a girl becomes adult her lap is filled with fruits with the idea that this will cause it subsequently to be filled with the fruit of her womb4 ,the whole custom of giving dolls to girls to play with1 perhaps originated in the belief that by doing so they would afterwards come to play with children4 ,the dances of the ,kol tribe consist partly of symbolical enactments of events which they desired to be successfully accomplished4 ,some variations of the dance1 ,colonel ,dalton states1 represent the different seasons and the necessary acts of cultivation that each brings with it4 ,in one the dancers1 bending down1 make a motion with their hands1 as though they were sowing the grain1 keeping step with their feet all the time4 ,then comes the reaping of the crop and the binding of the sheaves1 all done in perfect time and rhythm1 and making1 with the continuous droning of the voices1 a quaint and picturesque performance4 #aci ,the ,karma dance of the ,gonds and ,oraons is also connected with the crops1 and probably was once an enactment of the work of cultivation4 #adj ,the ,bhils danced at their festivals and before battles4 ,the men danced in a ring1 holding sticks and striking them against one another4 ,before a battle they had a war-dance in which the performers were armed and imitated a combat4 ,to be carried on the shoulders of one of the combatants was a great honour1 perhaps because it symbolised being on horseback4 ,the object was to obtain success in battle by going through an imitation of a successful battle beforehand4 ,this was also the common custom of the ,red ,indians1 whose war-dances are well known2 they brandished their weapons and killed their foe in mimicry in order that they might soon do so in reality4 ,the ,sela dance of the ,gonds and ,baigas1 in which they perform the figure of the grand chain of the lancers1 only that they strike their sticks together instead of clasping hands as they pass1 was probably once an imitation of a combat4 ,it is still sometimes danced before their communal hunting and fishing parties4 ,in these mimetic rehearsals of events with the object of causing them to occur we may perhaps discern the origin of the arts both of acting and dancing4 ,another1 and perhaps later form1 was the reproduction of important events1 or those which had influenced history4 ,for to the primitive mind1 as already seen1 the results were not conceived of as instrumentally caused by the event1 but as part of the event itself and of its life and personality4 ,hence by the re-enactment of the event the beneficial results would be again obtained or at least preserved in undiminished potency and vigour4 ,this was perhaps the root idea of the drama and the representation of sacred or heroic episodes on the stage4 #fd4 ,the common life4 ,thus1 resuming from paragraph #fa1 primitive man had no difficulty in conceiving of a life as shared between two or more persons or objects1 and it does not seem impossible that he should have at first conceived it to extend through a whole species4 #ada ,a good instance of the common life is afforded by the gods of the ,hindu and other pantheons4 ,each god was conceived of as performing some divine function1 guiding the chariot of the sun1 manipulating the thunder and so on2 but at the same time thousands of temples existed throughout the country1 and in each of these the god was alive and present in his image or idol1 able to act independently1 receive and consume sacrifices and offerings1 protect suppliants and punish transgressors4 ,no doubt at all can be entertained that each idol was in itself held to be a living god4 ,in ,india food is offered to the idol1 it goes through its ablutions1 is fanned1 and so on1 exactly like a human king4 ,the ideas of sanctuary and sacrilege appear to depend primarily on the belief in the actual presence of the god in his shrine4 ,and in ,india no sanctity at all attaches to a temple from which the idol has been removed4 ,thus we see the life of the god distributed over a multitude of personalities4 ,again1 the same god1 as ,vishnu or the sun1 is held to have had a number of incarnations1 as the boar1 the tortoise1 a man-lion1 a dwarf1 ,rama and ,krishna1 and these are venerated simultaneously as distinct deities4 ,the whole ,brahman caste considered itself divine or as partaking in the life of the god1 the original reason for this perhaps being that the ,brahmans obtained the exclusive right to perform sacrifices1 and hence the life of the sacrificial animal or food passed to them1 as in other societies it passed to the king who performed the sacrifice4 ,a ,brahman further holds that the five gods1 ,indra1 ,brahma1 ,siva1 ,vishnu and ,ganesh1 are present in different parts of his body1 #adb and here again the life of the god is seen to be divided into innumerable fragments4 ,the priests of the ,vallabhacharya sect1 the ,gokulastha ,gosains1 were all held to be possessed by the god ,krishna1 so that it was esteemed a high privilege to perform the most menial offices for them1 because to touch them was equivalent to touching the god1 and perhaps assimilating by contact a fragment of his divine life and nature4 #adc ,the belief in a common life would also explain the veneration of domestic animals and the prohibition against killing them1 because to kill one would injure the whole life of the species1 from which the tribe drew its subsistence4 ,similarly in a number of cases the first idea of seasonal fasts is that the people abstain from the grain or fruit which is growing or sown in the ground4 ,thus in ,india during the rains the vegetables growing at this period are not eaten1 and are again partaken of for the first time after the sacrificial offering of the new crop4 ,this rule could not possibly be observed in the case of grain1 but instead certain single fast-days are prescribed1 and on these days no cultivated grain or fruit1 but only those growing wild1 should be eaten4 ,these rules seem to indicate that the original motive of the fast was to avoid injuring the common life of the grain or fruit1 which injury would be caused by a consumption of any part of it1 at a time when the whole of the common life and vigour was required for its reproduction and multiplication4 ,this idea may have operated to enable the savage to restrain himself from digging up and eating the grain sown in the ground1 or slaughtering his domestic animals for food1 and a taboo on the consumption of grain and fruits during their period of ripening may have first begun in their wild state4 ,the ,intichiuma ceremonies of the ,australian natives are carried out with the object of increasing the supply of the totem for food purposes4 ,in the ,ilpirla or ,manna totem the members of the clan go to a large boulder surrounded by stones1 which are held to represent masses of ,ilpirla or the manna of the mulga tree4 ,a ,churinga stone is dug up1 which is supposed to represent another mass of manna1 and this is rubbed over the boulder1 and the smaller stones are also rubbed over it4 ,while the leader does this1 the others sing a song which is an invitation to the dust produced by the rubbing of the stones to go out and produce a plentiful supply of ,ilpirla on the mulga trees4 #add ,then the dust is swept off the surface of the stones with twigs of the mulga tree4 ,here apparently the large boulder and other stones are held to be the centre or focus of the common life of the manna1 and from them the seed issues forth which will produce a crop of manna on all the mulga trees4 ,the deduction seems clear that the trees are not conceived of individually1 but are held to have a common life4 ,in the case of the hakea flower totem they go to a stone lying beneath an old tree1 and one of the members lets his blood flow on to the stone until it is covered1 while the others sing a song inciting the hakea tree to flower much and to the blossoms to be full of honey4 #ade ,the blood is said to represent a drink prepared from the hakea flowers1 but probably it was originally meant to quicken the stone with the blood of a member of the totem1 that is its own blood or life1 in order that it might produce abundance of flowers4 ,here again the stone seems to be the centre of the common life of the hakea flower4 ,the songs are sung with the idea that the repetition of words connoting a state of facts will have the effect of causing that state of facts to exist1 in accordance with the belief already explained in the concrete virtue of words4 ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor states3 ,in ,polynesia1 if a village god were accustomed to appear as an owl1 and one of his votaries found a dead owl by the roadside1 he would mourn over the sacred bird and bury it with much ceremony1 but the god himself would not be thought to be dead1 for he remains incarnate in all existing owls4 ,according to ,father ,geronimo ,boscana1 the ,acagchemen tribe of ,upper ,california furnish a curious parallel to this notion4 ,they worshipped the panes bird1 which seems to have been an eagle or vulture1 and each year1 in the temple of each village1 one of them was solemnly killed without shedding blood1 and the body buried4 ,yet the natives maintained and believed that it was the same individual bird they sacrificed each year1 and more than this1 that the same bird was slain by each of the villages4 #adf ,an account of the ,north ,american ,indians quoted by the same author states that they believe all the animals of each species to have an elder brother1 who is as it were the principle and origin of all the individuals1 and this elder brother is marvellously great and powerful4 ,according to another view each species has its archetype in the land of souls2 there exists1 for example1 a manitu or archetype of all oxen1 which animates all oxen4 #adg ,generally in the relations between the totem-clan and its totem-animal1 and in all the fables about animals1 one animal is taken as representing the species1 and it is tacitly assumed that all the animals of the species have the same knowledge and qualities and would behave in the same manner as the typical one4 ,thus when the ,majhwar says that the tiger would run away if he met a member of the tiger-clan who was free from sin1 but would devour any member who had been put out of caste for an offence1 he assumes that every tiger would know a member of the clan on meeting him1 and also whether that member was in or out of caste4 ,he therefore apparently supposes a common knowledge and intelligence to exist in all tigers as regards the clan1 as if they were parts of one mind or intelligence4 ,and since the tigers know instinctively when a member of the clan is out of caste1 the mind and intelligence of the tigers must be the same as that of the clan4 ,the ,kols of the tiger clan think that if they were to sit up for a tiger over a kill the tiger would not come and would be deprived of his food1 and that they themselves would fall ill4 ,here the evil effects of the want of food on one tiger are apparently held to extend to all tigers and also to all members of the tiger clan4 #fe4 ,the common life of the clan4 ,the totem-clan held itself to partake of the life of its totem1 and on the above hypothesis one common life would flow through all the animals and plants of the totem and all the members of the clan4 ,an ,australian calls his totem his ,wingong 7friend7 or ,tumang 7flesh71 and nowadays expresses his sorrow when he has to eat it4 #adh ,if a man wishes to injure any man of a certain totem1 he kills any animal of that man's totem4 #adi ,this clearly shows that one common life is held to bind together all the animals of the totem-species and all the members of the totem-clan1 and the belief seems to be inexplicable on any other hypothesis4 ,the same is the case with the sex-totems of the ,kurnai tribe4 ,in addition to the clan-totems all the boys have the ,superb ,warbler bird as a sex-totem1 and call it their elder brother2 and all the girls the ,emu-wren1 and call it their elder sister4 ,if the boys wish to annoy the girls1 or vice versa1 each kills or injures the other's totem-bird1 and such an act is always followed by a free fight between the boys and girls4 #aej ,sex-totems are a peculiar development which need not be discussed here1 but again it would appear that a common life runs through the birds of the totem and the members of the sex4 ,professor ,robertson ,smith describes the clan or kin as follows3 ,a kin was a group of persons whose lives were so bound up together1 in what must be called a physical unity1 that they could be treated as parts of one common life4 ,the members of one kindred looked on themselves as one living whole1 one single animated mass of blood1 flesh and bones1 of which no member could be touched without all the members suffering4 ,this point of view is expressed in the ,semitic tongue in many familiar forms of speech4 ,in case of homicide ,arabian tribesmen do not say1 ',the blood of ,m4 or ,n4 has been spilt' 7naming the man73 they say1 ',our blood has been spilt4' ,in ,hebrew the phrase by which one claims kinship is1 ',i am your bone and your flesh4' ,both in ,hebrew and in ,arabic flesh is synonymous with 'clan' or kindred group4 #aea ,the custom of the blood-feud appears to have arisen from the belief in a common life of the clan4 ,the blood-feud is an institution not peculiar to tribes reckoning descent through females2 and it is still in force4 ,by virtue of its requirements every member of a kin1 one of whom had suffered at the hands of a member of another kin1 was bound to avenge the wrong upon the latter kin4 ,such is the solidarity between members of a kin that vengeance might be taken upon any member of the offending kin1 though he might be personally quite innocent4 ,in the growth of civilisation vengeance has gradually come to be concentrated upon the offender only4 #aeb ,thus the blood-feud appears to have originated from the idea of primary retributive justice between clan and clan4 ,when a member of a clan had been killed1 one of the offending clan must be killed in return4 ,who he might be1 and whether the original homicide was justifiable or not1 were questions not regarded by primitive man2 motives were abstract ideas with which he had no concern2 he only knew that a piece of the common life had been lopped off1 and the instinct of self-preservation of the clan demanded that a piece of the life of the offending clan should be cut off in return4 ,and the tie which united the kin was eating and drinking together4 ,according to antique ideas those who eat and drink together are by this very act tied to one another by a bond of friendship and mutual obligation4 #aec ,this was the bond which first united the members of the totem-clan both among themselves and with their totem4 ,and the relationship with the totem could only have arisen from the fact that they ate it4 ,the belief in a common life could not possibly arise in the totem-clan towards any animal or plant which they did not eat or otherwise use4 ,these they would simply disregard4 ,nor would savages1 destitute at first of any moral ideas1 and frequently on the brink of starvation1 abstain from eating any edible animal from sentimental considerations2 and1 as already seen1 the first totems were generally edible4 ,they could not either have in the first place eaten the totem ceremonially1 as there would be no reason for such a custom4 ,but the ceremonial eating of the domestic animal1 which was the tie subsequently uniting the members of the tribe1 #aed cannot be satisfactorily explained except on the hypothesis that it was evolved from the customary eating of the totem-animal4 ,primitive savages would only feel affection towards the animals which they ate1 just as the affection of animals is gained by feeding them4 ,the objection might be made that savages could not feel affection and kinship for an animal which they killed and ate1 but no doubt exists that they do4 ,in ,british ,columbia1 when the fishing season commenced and the fish began coming up the rivers1 the ,indians used to meet them and speak to them4 ,they paid court to them and would address them thus3 ',you fish1 you fish2 you are all chiefs1 you are2 you are all chiefs4' ,among the ,northas when a bear is killed1 it is dressed in a bonnet1 covered with fine down1 and solemnly invited to the chiefs presence4 #aee ,and there are many other instances4 #aef ,savages had no clear realisation of death1 and they did not think that the life of the animal was extinguished but that it passed to them with the flesh4 ,moreover they only ate part of the life4 ,in many cases also the totem-animal only appeared at a certain season of the year1 in consequence of the habit of hibernation or migration in search of food1 while trees only bore fruit in their season4 ,the savage1 regarding all animals and plants as possessed of self-conscious life and volition1 would think that they came of their own accord to give him subsistence or life4 ,afterwards1 when they had obtained the idea of a soul or spirit1 and of the survival of the soul after death1 and when1 on the introduction of personal names1 the personality of individuals could be realised and remembered after death1 they frequently thought that the spirits of ancestors went back to the totem-animal1 whence they derived their life4 ,the idea of descent from the totem would thus naturally arise4 ,as the means of subsistence increased1 and especially in those communities which had domesticated animals or cultivated plants1 the conception of the totem as the chief source of life would gradually die away and be replaced by the belief in descent from it2 and when they also thought that the spirits of ancestors were in the totem1 they would naturally abstain from eating it4 ,perhaps also the ,australians consider that the members of the totem-clan should abstain from eating the totem for fear of injuring the common life1 as more advanced communities abstained from eating the flesh of domestic animals4 ,this may be the ground for the rule that they should only eat sparingly of the totem4 ,to the later period may be ascribed the adoption of carnivorous animals as totems2 when these animals came to be feared and also venerated for their qualities of strength1 ferocity and courage1 warriors would naturally wish to claim kinship with and descent from them4 #ff4 ,living and eating together4 ,when the members of the totem-clan who lived together recognised that they owed something to each other1 and that the gratification of the instincts and passions of the individual must to a certain degree be restrained if they endangered the lives and security of other members of the clan1 they had taken the first step on the long path of moral and social progress4 ,the tie by which they supposed themselves to be united was quite different from those which have constituted a bond of union between the communities who have subsequently lived together in the tribe1 the city-state and the country4 ,these have been a common religion1 common language1 race1 or loyalty to a common sovereign2 but the real bond has throughout been the common good or the public interest4 ,and the desire for this end on the part of the majority of the members of the community1 or the majority of those who were able to express their opinions1 though its action was until recently not overt nor direct1 and was not recognised1 has led to the gradual evolution of the whole fabric of law and moral feeling1 in order to govern and control the behaviour and conduct of the individual in his relations with his family1 neighbours and fellow-citizens for the public advantage4 ,the members of the totem-clan would have been quite unable to understand either the motives by which they were themselves actuated or the abstract ideas which have united more advanced communities2 but they devised an even stronger bond than these1 in supposing that they were parts or fractions of one common body or life4 ,this was the more necessary as their natural impulses were uncontrolled by moral feeling4 ,they conceived the bond of union in the concrete form of eating together4 ,as language improved and passing events were recorded in speech and in the mind1 the faculty of memory was perhaps concurrently developed4 ,then man began to realise the insecurity of his life1 the dangers and misfortunes to which he was subject1 the periodical failure or irregularity of the supply of food1 and the imminent risks of death4 ,memory of the past made him apprehensive for the future1 and holding that every event was the result of an act of volition1 he began to assume an attitude either of veneration1 gratitude1 or fear towards the strongest of the beings by whom he thought his destinies were controlled--the sun1 moon1 sky1 wind and rain1 the ocean and great rivers1 high mountains and trees1 and the most important animals of his environment1 whether they destroyed or assisted to preserve his life4 ,the ideas of propitiation1 atonement and purification were then imparted to the sacrifice1 and it became an offering to a god4 #aeg ,but the primary idea of eating or drinking together as a bond of union was preserved1 and can be recognised in religious and social custom to an advanced period of civilisation4 #fg4 ,the origin of exogamy4 ,again1 ,dr4 ,westermarck shows that the practice of exogamy or the avoidance of intermarriage did not at first arise between persons recognised as blood relations1 but between those who lived together4 ,facts show that the extent to which relatives are not allowed to intermarry is nearly connected with their close living together4 ,generally speaking the prohibited degrees are extended much further among savage and barbarous peoples than in civilised societies4 ,as a rule the former1 if they have not remained in the most primitive social condition of man1 live not in separate families but in large households or communities1 all the members of which dwell in very close contact with each other4 #aeh ,and later1 after adducing the evil results of self-fertilisation in plants and close interbreeding in animals1 ,dr4 ,westermarck continues3 ,taking all these facts into consideration1 ,i cannot but believe that consanguineous marriages1 in some way or other1 are more or less detrimental to the species4 ,and here ,i think we may find a quite sufficient explanation of the horror of incest2 not because man at an early stage recognised the injurious influence of close intermarriage1 but because the law of natural selection must inevitably have operated4 ,among the ancestors of man1 as among other animals1 there was no doubt a time when blood relationship was no bar to sexual intercourse4 ,but variations here1 as elsewhere1 would naturally present themselves2 and those of our ancestors who avoided in-and-in breeding would survive1 while the others would gradually decay and ultimately perish4 ,thus an instinct would be developed1 which would be powerful enough as a rule to prevent injurious unions4 ,of course it would display itself simply as an aversion on the part of individuals to union with others with whom they lived2 but these as a matter of fact would be blood relations1 so that the result would be the survival of the fittest4 #fh4 ,promiscuity and female descent4 ,the instinct of exogamy first developed in the totem-clan when it was migratory and lived by hunting1 at least among the ,australians and probably the ,american ,indians4 ,the first condition of the clan was one of sexual promiscuity1 and in ,totemism and ,exogamy ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer has adduced many instances of periodical promiscuous debauchery which probably recall this state of things4 #aei ,the evil results which would accrue from in-breeding in the condition of promiscuity may have been modified by such incidents as the expulsion of the young males through the spasmodic jealousy of the older ones1 the voluntary segregation of the old males1 fights and quarrels leading to the rearrangement of groups1 and the frequent partial destruction of a group1 when the survivors might attach themselves to a new group4 ,primitive peoples attached the utmost importance to the rule of exogamy1 and the punishments for the breach of it were generally more severe than those for the violation of the laws of affinity in civilised countries4 ,the ,australians say that the good spirit or the wise men prescribed to them the rule that the members of each totem-clan should not marry with each other4 #afj ,similarly the ,gonds say that their divine hero1 ,lingo1 introduced the rule of exogamy and the division into clans before he went to the gods4 ,at first1 however1 the exogamous clan was not constituted by descent through males1 but through females4 ,the hypothesis that female everywhere preceded male descent is strongly supported by natural probability4 ,in the first instance1 the parentage of children was no more observed and remembered than that of animals4 ,when first observed1 it was necessarily through the mother1 the identity of the father being wholly uncertain4 ,the mother would also be the first parent to remember her children1 her affection for them being based on one of the strongest natural instincts1 whereas the father neither knew nor cared for his children until long afterwards4 ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer has further shown that even now some of the ,australian aborigines are ignorant of the physical fact of paternity and its relation to sexual intercourse4 ,that such ignorance could have survived so long is the strongest evidence in favour of the universal priority of female to male descent4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether even the mother could remember her children after they had become adult1 prior to the introduction of personal names4 ,mr4 ,m',lennan states3 ,the tie between mother and child1 which exists as a matter of necessity during infancy1 is not infrequently found to be lost sight of among savages on the age of independence being reached4 #afa ,personal names were probably long subsequent to clan-names1 and when they were first introduced the name usually had some reference to the clan4 ,the ,red ,indians and other races have totem-names which are frequently some variant of the name of the totem4 #afb ,when personal names came to be generally introduced1 the genesis of the individual family might soon follow1 but the family could scarcely have come into existence in the absence of personal names4 ,as a rule1 in the exogamous clan with female descent no regard was paid to the chastity of women1 and they could select their partners as they pleased4 ,mr4 ,hartland has shown in ,primitive ,paternity that in a large number of primitive communities the chastity of women was neither enforced nor desired by the men1 this state of things being probably a relic of the period of female descent4 ,thus exogamy first arose through the women of the clan resorting to men outside it4 ,when we consider the extreme rigour of life and the frequent danger of starvation to which the small clans in the hunting stage must have been exposed1 it does not seem impossible that the evil effects of marriage within the clan may have been noticed4 ,at that time probably only a minority even of healthy children survived1 and the slight congenital weakness produced by in-breeding might apparently be fatal to a child's chance of life4 ,possibly some dim perception may have been obtained of the different fates of the children of women who restricted their sexual relations to men within the clan and those who resorted to strangers1 even though the nature of paternity may not have been understood4 ,the strength of the feeling and custom of exogamy seems to demand some such recognition for its satisfactory explanation1 though1 on the other hand1 the lateness of the recognition of the father's share in the production of children militates against this view4 ,the suggestion may be made also that the belief that the new life of a child must be produced by a spirit entering the woman1 or other extraneous source1 does not necessarily involve an ignorance of the physical fact of paternity2 the view that the spirits of ancestors are reborn in children is still firmly held by tribes who have long been wholly familiar with the results of the commerce of the sexes4 ,the practice of exogamy was no doubt1 as shown by ,dr4 ,westermarck1 favoured and supported by the influence of novelty in sexual attraction1 since according to common observation and experience sexual love or desire is more easily excited between strangers or slight acquaintances than between those who have long lived together in the same household or in familiar intercourse4 ,in the latter case the attraction is dulled by custom and familiarity4 #fi4 ,exogamy with female descent4 ,the exogamous clan1 with female descent1 was1 however1 an unstable social institution1 in that it had no regular provision for marriage nor for the incorporation of married couples4 ,the men who associated with the women of the clan were not necessarily1 nor as a rule1 admitted to it1 but remained in their own clans4 ,how this association took place is not altogether clear4 ,at a comparatively late period in ,arabia1 according to ,professor ,robertson ,smith1 #afc the woman would have a tent1 and could entertain outside men for a shorter or longer period according to her inclination4 ,the practice of serving for a wife also perhaps dates from the period of female descent4 ,the arrangement would have been that a man went and lived with a woman's family and gave his services in return for her conjugal society4 ,whether the residence with the wife's family was permanent or not is perhaps uncertain4 ,when ,jacob served for ,leah and ,rachel1 society seems to have been in the early patriarchal stage1 as ,laban was their father and he was ,laban's sister's son4 ,but it seems doubtful whether his right was then recognised to take his wives away with him1 for even after he had served fourteen years ,laban pursued him1 and would have taken them back if he had not been warned against doing so in a vision4 ,the episode of ,rachel's theft of the images also seems to indicate that she intended to take her own household gods with her and not to adopt those of her husband's house4 ,and ,laban's chief anxiety was for the recovery of the images4 ,a relic of the husband's residence with his wife's family during the period of female descent may perhaps be found in the ,banjara caste1 who oblige a man to go and live with his wife's father for a month without seeing her face4 ,under the patriarchal system this rule of the ,banjaras is meaningless1 though the general practice of serving for a wife survives as a method of purchase4 ,among the ,australian aborigines apparently the clans1 or sections of them1 wander about in search of food and game1 and meet each other for more or less promiscuous intercourse4 ,this may perhaps be supposed to have been the general primitive condition of society after the introduction of exogamy combined with female descent4 ,and its memory is possibly preserved in the tradition of the ,golden ,age1 golden only in the sense that man was not troubled either by memory or anticipation1 and lived only for the day4 ,the entire insecurity of life and its frequent end by starvation or a violent death did not therefore trouble him any more than is the case with animals4 ,he took no thought for the morrow1 nor did the ills of yesterday oppress his mind4 ,as when one of a herd of deer is shot by a hunter and the others stand by it pityingly as it lies dying on the ground1 uncertain of its mishap1 though they would help it if they could2 yet when they perceive the hunter they make quickly off and in a few minutes are again grazing happily a mile or two away3 little or no more than this can primitive man be supposed to have been affected by the deaths of his fellows4 ,but possibly1 since he was carnivorous1 the sick and old may have been killed for food1 as is still the practice among some tribes of savages4 ,in the natural course1 however1 more or less permanent unions1 though perhaps not regular marriages1 must have developed in the female exogamous clan1 which would thus usually have men of other clans living with it4 ,and since identification of individuals would be extremely difficult before the introduction of personal names1 there would be danger that when two clans met1 men and women belonging to the same totem-clan would have sexual intercourse4 ,this offence1 owing to the strength of the feeling for exogamy1 was frequently held to entail terrible evils for the community1 and was consequently sometimes punished with death as treason4 ,moreover1 if we suppose a number of small clans1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d and ,e1 to meet each other again and again1 and the men and women to unite promiscuously1 it is clear that the result would be a mixture of relationships of a very incestuous character4 ,the incest of brothers and sisters by the same father would be possible and of almost all other relations1 though that of brothers and sisters by the same mother would not be caused4 ,this may have been the reason for the introduction of the class system among the ,australians and ,red ,indians1 by which all the clans of a certain area were divided into two classes1 and the men of any clan of one class could only marry or have intercourse with the women of a clan of the other class4 ,by such a division the evil results of the mixture of totems in exogamous clans with female descent would be avoided4 ,the class system was sometimes further strengthened by the rule1 in ,australia1 that different classes should1 when they met1 encamp on opposite sides of a creek or other natural division #afd2 whilst among the ,red ,indians1 the classes camp on opposite sides of the road1 or live on different sides of the same house or street4 #afe ,in ,australia1 and very occasionally elsewhere1 the class system has been developed into four and eight sub-classes4 ,a man of one sub-class can only marry a woman of one other1 and their children belong to one of those different from either the father's or mother's4 ,this highly elaborate and artificial system was no doubt1 as stated by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 devised for the purpose of preventing the intermarriage of parents and children belonging to different clans where there are four sub-classes1 and of first cousins where there are eight sub-classes4 #aff ,the class system1 however1 would not appear to have been the earliest form of exogamy among the ,australian tribes4 ,its very complicated character1 and the fact that the two principal classes sometimes do not even have names1 seem to preclude the idea of its having been the first form of exogamy1 which is a strong natural feeling1 so much so that it may almost be described as an instinct1 though of course not a primitive animal instinct4 ,and just as the totem clan1 which establishes a sentiment of kinship between people who are not related by blood1 was prior to the individual family1 so exogamy1 which forbids the marriage of people who are not related by blood1 must apparently have been prior to the feeling simply against connections of persons related by blood or what we call incest4 ,if the two-class system was introduced in ,australia to prohibit the marriage of brothers and sisters at a time when they could not recognise each other in adult life1 then on the introduction of personal names which would enable brothers and sisters to recognise and remember each other1 the two-class system should have been succeeded by a modern table of prohibited degrees1 and not by clan exogamy at all4 ,it is suggested that the two-class system was a common and natural form of evolution of a society divided into exogamous totem clans with female descent1 when a man was not taken into the clan of the woman with whom he lived4 ,the further subdivision into four and eight sub-classes is almost peculiar to the ,australian tribes2 its development may perhaps be attributed to the fact that these tribes have retained the system of female descent and the migratory hunting method of life for an abnormally long period1 and have evolved this special institution to prevent the unions of near relatives which are likely to occur under such conditions4 ,the remains of a two-class system appear to be traceable among the ,gonds of the ,central ,provinces4 ,in one part of ,bastar all the ,gond clans are divided into two classes without names1 and a man cannot marry a woman belonging to any clan of his own class1 but must take one from a clan of the other class4 ,elsewhere the ,gonds are divided into two groups of six-god and seven-god worshippers among whom the same rule obtains4 ,formerly the ,gonds appear in some places to have had seven groups1 worshipping different numbers of gods from one to seven1 and each of these groups was exogamous4 ,but after the complete substitution of male for female kinship in the clan1 and the settlement of clans in different villages1 the classes cease to fulfil any useful purpose4 ,they are now disappearing1 and it is very difficult to obtain any reliable information about their rules4 ,the system of counting kinship through the mother1 or female descent1 has long been extinct in the ,central ,provinces and over most of ,india4 ,some survival of it1 or at least the custom of polyandry1 is found among the ,nairs of southern ,india and in ,thibet4 ,elsewhere scarcely a trace remains1 and this was also the condition of things with the classical races of antiquity2 so much so1 indeed1 that even great thinkers like ,sir ,henry ,maine and ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 with the examples only of ,india1 ,greece and ,rome before them1 did not recognise the system of female descent1 and thought that the exogamous clan with male descent was an extension of the patriarchal family1 this latter having been the original unit of society4 ,the wide distribution of exogamy and the probable priority of the system of female to that of male descent were first brought prominently to notice by ,mr4 ,m',lennan4 ,still a distinct trace of the prior form survives here in the special relationship sometimes found to exist between a man and his sister's children4 ,this is a survival of the period when a woman's children1 under the rule of female descent1 belonged to her own family and her husband or partner in sexual relations had no proprietary right or authority over them1 the place and authority of a father belonging in such a condition of society to the mother's brother or brothers4 ,among the ,halbas a marriage is commonly arranged when practicable between a brother's daughter and a sister's son4 ,and a man always shows a special regard and respect for his sister's son1 touching the latter's feet as to a superior1 while whenever he desires to make a gift as an offering of thanks and atonement1 or as a meritorious action1 the sister's son is the recipient4 ,at his death he usually leaves a substantial legacy1 such as one or two buffaloes1 to his sister's son1 the remainder of the property going to his own family4 ,similarly among the ,kamars the marriage of a man's children with his sister's children is considered the most suitable union4 ,if a man's sister is poor1 he will arrange for the weddings of her children4 ,he will never beat his sister's children however much they may deserve it1 and he will not permit his sister's son or daughter to eat from the dish from which he eats4 ,the last rule1 it is said1 also applies to the maternal aunt4 ,the ,kunbis1 and other ,maratha castes1 have a saying3 ',at the sister's house the brother's daughter is a daughter-in-law4' ,the ,gonds call the wedding of a brother's daughter to a sister's son ,dudh lautana1 or 'bringing back the milk4' ,the reason why a brother was formerly anxious to marry his daughter to his sister's son was that the latter would be his heir under the matriarchal system2 but now that inheritance is through males1 and girls are at a premium for marriage1 a brother is usually more anxious to get his sister's daughter for his son1 and on the analogy of the opposite union it is sometimes supposed1 as among the ,gonds1 that he also has a right to her4 ,many other instances of the special relation between a brother and his sister's children are given by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,totemism and ,exogamy4 ,in some localities also the ,korkus build their villages in two long lines of houses on each side of the road1 and it may be the case that this is a relic of the period when two or more clans with female descent lived in the same village1 and those belonging to each class who could not marry or have sexual relations among themselves occupied one side of the road4 #gj4 ,marriage4 ,the transfer of the reckoning of kinship and descent from the mother's to the father's side may perhaps be associated with the full recognition of the physical fact of paternity4 ,though they may not have been contemporaneous in all or even the majority of societies1 it would seem that the former was in most cases the logical outcome of the latter1 regard being had also to the man's natural function as protector of the family and provider of its sustenance4 ,but this transition from female to male kinship was a social revolution of the first importance4 ,under the system of female descent there had been generally no transfer of clanship2 both the woman and her partner or husband retained their own clans1 and the children belonged to their mother's clan4 ,in the totemic stage of society the totem-clan was the vital organism1 and the individual scarcely realised his own separate existence1 but regarded himself as a member of his totem-clan1 being a piece or fraction of a common life which extended through all the members of the clan and all the totem animals of the species4 ,they may have thought also that each species of animals and plants had a different kind of life1 and consequently also each clan whose life was derived from1 and linked to1 that of its totem-species4 ,for the name1 and life1 and qualities1 and flesh and blood were not separate conceptions1 but only one conception2 and since the name and qualities were part of the life1 the life of one species could not be the same as that of another1 and every species which had a separate name must have been thought to have a different kind of life4 ,nor would man have been regarded as a distinct species in the early totem-stage1 and there would be no word for man2 but each totem-clan would regard itself as having the same life as its totem-species4 ,with the introduction of the system of male kinship came also the practice of transferring a woman from her own clan to that of her husband4 ,it may be suggested that this was the origin of the social institution of marriage4 ,primitive society had no provision for such a procedure1 which was opposed to its one fundamental idea of its own constitution1 and involved a change of the life and personality of the woman transferred4 #ga4 ,marriage by capture4 ,the view seems to have been long held that this transfer could only be effected by violence or capture1 the manner in which presumably it was first practised4 ,marriage by capture is very widely prevalent among savage races1 as shown by ,mr4 ,m',lennan in ,primitive ,marriage1 and by ,dr4 ,westermarck in ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage4 ,where the custom has given place to more peaceable methods of procuring a wife1 survivals commonly occur4 ,in ,bastar the regular capture of the girl is still sometimes carried out1 though the business is usually arranged by the couple beforehand1 and the same is the case among the ,kolams of ,wardha4 ,a regular part of the marriage procedure among the ,gonds and other tribes is that the bride should weep formally for some hours1 or a day before the wedding1 and she is sometimes taught to cry in the proper note4 ,at the wedding the bride hides somewhere and has to be found or carried off by the bridegroom or his brother4 ,this ritualistic display of grief and coyness appears to be of considerable interest4 ,it cannot be explained by the girl's reluctance to marriage as involving the loss of her virginity1 inasmuch as she is still frequently not a virgin at her wedding1 and to judge from the analogy of other tribes1 could seldom or never have been one a few generations back4 ,nor is affection for her family or grief at the approaching separation from them a satisfactory motive4 ,this would not account for the hiding at all1 and not properly for the weeping1 since she will after all only live a few miles away and will often return home2 and sometimes she does not only weep at her own house but at all the houses of the village4 ,the suggestion may be made that the procedure really indicates the girl's reluctance to be severed from her own clan and transferred to another2 and that the sentiment is a survival of the resistance to marriage by capture which was at first imposed on the women by the men from loyalty to the clan totem and its common life1 and had nothing to do with the conjugal relationship of marriage4 ,but out of this feeling the sexual modesty of women1 which had been non-existent in the matriarchal condition of society1 was perhaps gradually developed4 ,the ,chamars of ,bilaspur have sham fights on the approach of the wedding party1 and in most ,hindu castes the bridegroom on his arrival performs some militant action1 such as striking the marriage-shed or breaking one of its festoons4 ,after the marriage the bride is nearly always sent home with the bridegroom's party for a few days1 even though she may be a child and the consummation of the marriage impossible4 ,this may be in memory of her having formerly been carried off1 and some analogous significance may attach to our honeymoon4 ,when the custom of capture had died down it was succeeded by the milder form of elopement1 or the bride was sold or exchanged against a girl from the bridegroom's family or clan1 but there is usually a relic of a formal transfer1 such as the ,hindu ,kanyadan or gift of the virgin1 the ,roman ,traditio in manum or her transfer from her father's to her husband's power1 and the giving away of the bride4 #gb4 ,transfer of the bride to her husband's clan4 ,these customs seem to mark the transfer of the woman from her father's to her husband's clan1 which was in the first instance effected forcibly and afterwards by the free gift of her father or guardian1 and the change of surname would be a relic of the change of clan4 ,among the ,hindus a girl is never called by her proper name in her husband's house1 but always by some other name or nickname4 ,this custom seems to be a relic of the period when the name denoted the clan1 though it no longer has any reference either to the girl's clan or family4 ,another rite portraying the transfer in ,india is the marking of the bride's forehead with vermilion1 which is no doubt a substitute for blood4 ,the ceremony would be a relic of participation in the clan sacrifice when the bride would in the first place drink the blood of the totem animal or tribal god with the bridegroom in sign of her admission to his clan and afterwards be marked with the blood as a substitute4 ,this smear of vermilion a married woman always continues to wear as a sign of her state1 unless she wears pink powder or a spangle as a substitute4 #afg ,where this pink powder 7kunku7 or spangles are used they must always be given by the bridegroom to the bride as part of the ,sohag or trousseau4 ,at a ,bhaina wedding the bride's father makes an image in clay of the bird or animal of the groom's sept and places it beside the marriage-post4 ,the bridegroom worships the image1 lighting a sacrificial fire before it1 or offers to it the vermilion which he afterwards smears upon the forehead of the bride4 ,the ,khadals at their marriages worship their totem animal or tree1 and offer to it flowers1 sandalwood1 vermilion1 uncooked rice1 and the new clothes and ornaments intended for the bride1 which she may not wear until this ceremony has been performed4 ,again1 the sacrament of the ,meher or marriage cakes is sometimes connected with the clan totem in ,india4 ,these cakes are cooked and eaten sacramentally by all the members of the family and their relatives1 the bride and bridegroom commencing first4 ,among the ,kols the relatives to whom these cakes are distributed cannot intermarry1 and this indicates that the eating of them was formerly a sacrament of the exogamous clan4 ,the association of the totem with the marriage cakes is sometimes clearly shown4 ,thus in the ,dahait caste members of the clans named after certain trees1 go to the tree at the time of their weddings and invite it to be present at the ceremony4 ,they offer the marriage cakes to the tree4 ,those of the ,nagotia or cobra clan deposit the cakes at a snake's hole4 ,members of the ,singh 7lion7 and ,bagh 7tiger7 clans draw images of these animals on the wall at the time of their weddings and offer the cakes to them4 ,the ,basors of the ,kulatia or somersault clan do somersaults at the time of eating the cakes2 those of the ,karai ,nor clan1 who venerate a well1 eat the cakes at a well and not at home4 ,basors of the ,lurhia clan1 who venerate a grinding-stone1 worship this implement at the time of eating the marriage cakes4 ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges states that the ,roman ,confarreatio1 or eating of a cake together by the bride and bridegroom in the presence of the family gods of the latter1 constituted their holy union or marriage4 ,by this act the wife was transferred to the gods and religion of her husband4 #afh ,here the gods referred to are clearly held to be the family gods1 and in the historical period it seems doubtful whether the ,roman gens was still exogamous4 ,but if the patriarchal family developed within the exogamous clan tracing descent through males1 and finally supplanted the clan as the most important social unit1 then it would follow that the family gods were only a substitute for the clan gods1 and the bride came to be transferred to her husband's family instead of to his clan4 ,the marriage ceremony in ,greece consisted of a common meal of a precisely similar character1 #afi and the ,english wedding cake seems to be a survival of such a rite4 ,at their weddings the ,bhils make cakes of the large millet juari1 calling it ,juari ,mata or ,mother ,juari4 ,these cakes are eaten at the houses of the bride and bridegroom by the members of their respective clans1 and the remains are buried inside the house as sacred food4 ,dr4 ,howitt states of the ,kurnai tribe3 ,by and by1 when the bruises and perhaps wounds received in these fights 7between the young men and women7 had healed1 a young man and a young woman might meet1 and he1 looking at her1 would say1 for instance1 ',djiitgun6 #agj ,what does the ,djiitgun eat8' ,the reply would be ',she eats kangaroo1 opossum1' or some other game4 ,this constituted a formal offer and acceptance1 and would be followed by the elopement of the couple as described in the chapter on ,marriage4 #aga ,there is no statement that the question about eating refers to the totem1 but this must apparently have been the original bearing of the question1 which otherwise would be meaningless4 ,since this proposal of marriage followed on a fight between the boys and girls arising from the fact that one party had injured the other party's sex-totem1 the fight may perhaps really have been a preliminary to the proposal and have represented a symbolic substitute for or survival of marriage by capture4 ,among the ,santals1 ,colonel ,dalton says1 the social meal that the boy and girl eat together is the most important part of the ceremony1 as by the act the girl ceases to belong to her father's tribe and becomes a member of the husband's family4 ,since the terms tribe and family are obviously used loosely in the above statement1 we may perhaps substitute clan in both cases4 ,many other instances of the rite of eating together at a wedding are given by ,dr4 ,westermarck4 #agb ,if1 therefore1 it be supposed that the wedding ceremony consisted originally of the formal transfer of the bride to the bridegroom's clan1 and further that the original tie which united the totem-clan was the common eating of the totem animal1 then the practice of the bride and bridegroom eating together as a symbol of marriage can be fully understood4 ,when the totem animal had ceased to be the principal means of subsistence1 bread1 which to a people in the agricultural stage had become the staff or chief support of life1 was substituted for it1 as argued by ,professor ,robertson ,smith in ,the ,religion of the ,semites4 ,if the institution of marriage was thus originally based on the forcible transfer of a woman from her own to her husband's clan1 certain ,indian customs become easily explicable in the light of this view4 ,we can understand why a ,brahman or ,rajput thought it essential to marry his daughter into a clan or family of higher status than his own2 because the disgrace of having his daughter taken from him by what had been originally an act of force1 was atoned for by the superior rank of the captor or abductor4 ,and similarly the terms father-in-law and brother-in-law would be regarded as opprobrious because they originally implied not merely that the speaker had married the sister or daughter of the person addressed1 but had married her forcibly1 thereby placing him in a position of inferiority4 ,a ,rajput formerly felt it derogatory that any man should address him either as father-or brother-in-law4 ,and the analogous custom of a man refusing to take food in the house of his son-in-law's family and sometimes even refusing to drink water in their village would be explicable on precisely the same grounds4 ,this view of marriage would also account for the wide prevalence of female infanticide4 ,because in the primitive condition of exogamy with male descent1 girls could not be married in their own clan1 as this would transgress the binding law of exogamy1 and they could not be transferred from their own totem-clan and married in another except by force and rape4 ,hence it was thought better to kill girl children than to suffer the ignominy of their being forcibly carried off4 ,both kinds of female infanticide as distinguished by ,sir ,h4 ,risley #agc would thus originally be due to the same belief4 ,the ,khond killed his daughter because she could not be married otherwise than by forcible abduction2 not necessarily because he was unable to protect her1 but because he could not conceive of her being transferred from one totem-clan to another by any other means2 and he was bound to resist the transfer because by acquiescing in it1 he would have been guilty of disloyalty to his own totem1 whose common life was injured by the loss of the girl4 ,the ,rajput killed his daughter because it was a disgrace to him to get her married at all outside his clan1 and she could not be married within it4 ,afterwards the disgrace was removed by marrying her into a higher clan than his own and by lavish expenditure on the wedding2 and the practice of female infanticide was continued to avoid the ruinous outlay which this primitive view of marriage had originally entailed4 ,the ,hindu custom of the ,swayamvara or armed contest for the hand of a ,rajput princess1 and the curious recognition by the ,hindu law-books of simple rape as a legitimate form of marriage would be explained on the same ground4 #gc4 ,the exogamous clan with male descent and the village4 ,it has been seen that the exogamous clan with female descent contained no married couples1 and therefore it was necessary either that outside men should live with it1 or that the clans should continually meet each other1 or that two or more should live in the same village4 ,with the change to male descent and the transfer of women to their husbands' clans1 this unstable characteristic was removed4 ,henceforth the clan was self-contained1 having its married couples1 both members of it1 whose children would also be born in and belong to it4 ,since the clan was originally a body of persons who wandered about and hunted together1 its character would be maintained by living together1 and there is reason to suppose that the ,indian exogamous clan with male descent took its special character because its members usually lived in one or more villages4 ,this fact would account for the large number and multiplication of clans in ,india as compared with other places4 ,as already seen one of the names of a clan is khera1 which also means a village1 and a large number of the clan names are derived from1 or the same1 as those of villages4 ,among the ,khonds all the members of one clan live in the same locality about some central village4 ,thus the ,tupa clan are collected about the village of ,teplagarh in ,patna ,state1 the ,loa clan round ,sindhekala1 the ,borga clan round ,bangomunda and so on4 ,the ,nunias of ,mirzapur1 ,mr4 ,crooke remarks1 #agd have a system of local subdivisions called dih1 each subdivision being named after the village which is supposed to be its home4 ,the word dih itself means a site or village4 ,those who have the same dih do not intermarry4 ,in the villages first settled by the ,oraons1 ,father ,dehon states1 #age the population is divided into three khunts or branches1 the founders of the three branches being held to have been sons of the first settler4 ,members of each branch belong to the same clan or got4 ,each khunt or branch has a share of the village lands4 ,the ,mochis or cobblers have forty exogamous sections or gotras1 mostly named after ,rajput clans1 and they also have an equal number of kheras or groups named after villages4 ,the limits of the two groups seem to be identical2 and members of each group have an ancestral village from which they are supposed to have come4 ,marriage is now regulated by the ,rajput sept-names1 but the probability is that the kheras were the original divisions1 and the ,rajput gotras have been more recently adopted in support of the claims already noticed4 ,the ,parjas have totemistic exogamous clans and marriage is prohibited in theory between members of the same clan4 ,but as the number of clans is rather small1 the rule is not adhered to1 and members of the same clan are permitted to marry so long as they do not come from the same village4 ,the ,minas of ,rajputana are divided into twelve exogamous pals or clans2 the original meaning of the word pal was a defile or valley suitable for defence1 where the members of the clan would live together as in a ,scotch glen4 ,thus among the cultivating castes apparently each exogamous clan consisted originally of the residents of one village1 though they afterwards spread to a number of villages4 ,the servile labouring castes may also have arranged their clans by villages as the primitive forest-tribes did4 ,how the menial castes formed exogamous clans is not altogether clear1 as the numbers in one village would be only small4 ,but it may be supposed that as they gradually increased1 clans came into existence either in one large village or a number of adjacent ones1 and sometimes traced their descent from a single family or from an ancestor with a nickname4 ,as a rule1 the artisan castes do not appear to have formed villages of their own in ,india1 as they did in ,russia1 though this may occasionally have happened4 ,when among the cultivating castes the lands were divided1 separate joint families would be constituted2 the head only of each family would be its representative in the clan1 as he would hold the share of the village land assigned to the family1 which was their joint means of subsistence1 and the family would live in one household4 ,thus perhaps the ,hindu joint family came into existence as a subdivision of the exogamous clan with male descent1 on which its constitution was modelled4 ,in ,chhattisgarh families still live together in large enclosures with separate huts for the married couples4 ,a human ancestor gradually took the place of the totem as the giver of life to the clan4 ,the members thought themselves bound together by the tie of his blood which flowed through all their veins1 and frequently1 as in ,athens1 ,rome and ,scotland1 every member of the clan bore his name4 ,in this capacity1 as the source of the clan's life1 the original ancestor was perhaps venerated1 and on the development of the family system within the clan1 the ancestors of the family were held in a similar regard1 and the feeling extended to the living ancestor or father1 who is treated with the greatest deference in the early patriarchal family4 ,even now ,hindu boys1 though they may be better educated and more intelligent than their father1 will not as a rule address him at meals unless he speaks to them first1 on account of their traditional respect for him4 ,the regard for the father may be strengthened by his position as the stay and support of the family1 but could scarcely have arisen solely from this cause4 ,dr4 ,westermarck's view that the origin of exogamy lay in the feeling against the marriage of persons who lived together1 receives support from the fact that a feeling of kinship still subsists between ,hindus living in the same village1 even though they may belong to different castes and clans4 ,it is commonly found that all the households of a village believe themselves in a manner related4 ,a man will address all the men of the generation above his own as uncle1 though they may be of different castes1 and the children of the generation below his own as niece and nephew4 ,when a girl is married1 all the old men of the village call her husband 'son-in-law4' ,this extends even to the impure castes who cannot be touched4 ,yet owing to the fact that they live together they are considered by fiction to be related4 ,the ,gowari caste do not employ ,brahmans for their weddings1 but the ceremony is performed by the bhanja or sister's son either of the girl's father or the boy's father4 ,if he is not available1 any one whom either the girl's father or the boy's father addresses as bhanja or nephew in the village1 even though he may be no relation and may belong to another caste1 may perform the ceremony as a substitute4 ,among the ,oraons and other tribes prenuptial intercourse between boys and girls of the same village is regularly allowed4 ,it is not considered right1 however1 that these unions should end in marriage1 for which partners should be sought from other villages4 #agf ,in the ,maratha country the villagers have a communal feast on the occasion of the ,dasahra festival1 the ,kunbis or cultivators eating first and the members of the menial and labouring castes afterwards4 #gd4 ,the large exogamous clans of the ,brahmans and ,rajputs4 ,the ,sapindas1 the gens and the g'enoc4 ,the ,brahmans and ,rajputs1 however1 and one or two other military castes1 as the ,marathas and ,lodhis1 do not have the small exogamous clans 7which probably1 as has been seen1 represented the persons who lived together in a village71 but large ones4 ,thus the ,rajputs were divided into thirty-six royal races1 and theoretically all these should have been exogamous1 marrying with each other4 ,each great clan was afterwards1 as a rule1 split into a number of branches1 and it is probable that these became exogamous2 while in cases where a community of ,rajputs have settled on the land and become ordinary cultivators1 they have developed into an endogamous subcaste containing small clans of the ordinary type4 ,it seems likely that the ,rajput clan originally consisted of those who followed the chief to battle and fought together1 and hence considered themselves to be related4 ,this was1 as a matter of fact1 the case4 ,colonel ,tod states that the great ,rathor clan1 who said that they could muster a hundred thousand swords1 spoke of themselves as the sons of one father4 ,the members of the ,scotch clans considered themselves related in the same manner1 and they were probably of similar character to the ,rajput clans4 #agg ,i do not know1 however1 that there is any definite evidence as to the exogamy of the ,scotch clans1 which would have disappeared with their conversion to ,christianity4 ,the original ,rajput clan may perhaps have lived round the chiefs castle or headquarters and been supported by the produce of his private fief or demesne4 ,the regular ,brahman gotras are also few in number1 possibly because they were limited by the paucity of eponymous saints of the first rank4 ,the word gotra means a stall or cow-pen1 and would thus originally signify those who lived together in one place like a herd of cattle4 ,but the gotras are now exceedingly large1 the same ones being found in most or all of the ,brahman subcastes1 and it is believed that they do not regulate marriage as a rule4 ,sometimes ordinary surnames have taken the place of clan names1 and persons with the same surname consider themselves related and do not marry4 ,but usually ,brahmans prohibit marriage between ,sapindas or persons related to each other within seven degrees from a common ancestor4 ,the word ,sapinda signifies those who partake together of the pindas or funeral cakes offered to the dead4 ,the ,sapindas are also a man's heirs in the absence of closer relations2 the group of the ,sapindas is thus an exact replica within the gotra of the primitive totem clan which was exogamous and constituted by the tie of living and eating together4 ,similarly marriage at ,rome was prohibited to seven degrees of relationship through males within the gens1 #agh and this exogamous group of kinsmen appear to have been the body of agnatic kinsmen within the gens who are referred to by ,sir ,h4 ,maine as a man's ultimate heirs4 #agi ,at ,athens1 when a contest arose upon a question of inheritance1 the proper legal evidence to establish kinship was the proof that the alleged ancestor and the alleged heir observed a common worship and shared in the same repast in honour of the dead4 #ahj ,the distant heirs were thus a group within the ,athenian g'enoc corresponding to the ,sapindas and bound by the same tie of eating together4 ,professor ,hearn states that there is no certain evidence that the ,roman gens and ,greek g'enoc were originally exogamous1 but we find that of the ,roman matrons whose names are known to us none married a husband with her own ,gentile name2 and further1 that ,plutarch1 in writing of the ,romans1 says that in former days men did not marry women of their own blood or1 as in the preceding sentence he calls them1 kinswomen suggen'idac1 just as in his own day they did not marry their aunts or sisters2 and he adds that it was long before they consented to wed with cousins4 #aha ,professor ,hearn's opinion was that the ,hindu gotra1 the ,roman gens and the ,greek g'enoc were originally the same institution1 the exogamous clan with male descent1 and all the evidence available1 as well as the close correspondence in other respects of early ,hindu institutions with those of the ,greek and ,latin cities would tend to support this view4 #ge4 ,comparison of ,hindu society with that of ,greece and ,rome4 ,the gens4 ,in the admirable account of the early constitution of the city-states of ,greece and ,italy contained in the work of ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 ,la ,cit ,antique1 a close resemblance may be traced with the main strata of ,hindu society given earlier in this essay4 ,the ,roman state was composed of a number of gentes or clans1 each gens tracing its descent from a common ancestor1 whose name it usually bore4 ,the termination of the ,gentile name in ius signified descendant1 as ,claudius1 ,fabius1 and so on4 ,similarly the names of the ,athenian g'enh or clans ended in ides or ades1 as ,butades1 ,phytalides1 which had the same signification4 #ahb ,the ,gentile or clan name was the nomen or principal name1 just as the personal names of the members of the totem-clans were at first connected with the totems4 ,the members of the gens lived together on a section of the city land and cultivated it under the control of the head of the gens4 ,the original ager ,romanus is held to have been #aae square miles or about #gd1jjj acres1 #ahc and this was divided up among the clans4 ,the heads of clans originally lived on their estates and went in to ,rome for the periodical feasts and other duties4 ,the principal family or eldest branch of the gens in the descent from a common ancestor ranked above the others1 and its head held the position of a petty king in the territory of the gens4 ,in ,greece he was called 'anax or basile'uc4 #ahd ,originally the ,roman ,senate consisted solely of the heads of gentes1 and the consuls1 flamens and augurs were also chosen exclusively from them2 they were known as patres2 after the expulsion of the kings1 fresh senators were added from the junior branches of the gentes1 of which there were at this period #afj1 and these were known as patres conscripti #ahe4 ,the distinction between the eldest and junior branches of the gentes may have corresponded to the distinction between the ,kshatriyas and ,vaishyas1 though as practically nothing is known of the constitution of the original ,kshatriyas1 this can only be hypothetical4 #gf4 ,the clients4 ,within the gens1 and living in the household or households of its members1 there existed a body of slaves1 and also another class of persons called clients4 #ahf ,the client was a servant and dependant2 he might be assigned a plot of land by his patron1 but at first could not transmit it nor hold it against his patron4 ,it is probable that originally he had no right of property of his own1 but he gradually acquired it4 ,first he obtained a right of occupancy in his land and of its devolution to his son if he had one4 ,finally he was given the power of making a will4 ,but he was still obliged to contribute to such expenses of the patron as ransom in war1 fines imposed by the courts1 or the dowry of a daughter4 #ahg ,the client was considered as a member of the family and bore its name4 #ahh ,but he was not a proper member of the family or gens1 because his pedigree never ascended to a pater or the head of a gens4 #ahi ,it was incumbent on the patron to protect the client1 and guard his interests both in peace and war4 ,the client participated in the household and ,gentile sacrifices and worshipped the gods of the gens4 #aij ,at first the people of ,rome consisted of three classes1 the patricians1 the clients and the plebeians4 ,in course of time1 as the rights and privileges of the plebeians increased after the appointment of tribunes1 their position1 from having originally been much inferior1 became superior to that of the clients1 and the latter preferred to throw off the tie uniting them to their patrons and become merged in the plebeians4 ,in this manner the intermediate class of clients at length entirely disappeared4 #aia ,these clients must not be confused with the subsequent class of the same name1 who are found during the later period of the republic and the empire1 and were the voluntary supporters or hangers-on of rich men4 ,it would appear that these early clients corresponded very closely to the household servants of the ,indian cultivators1 from whom the village menial castes were developed4 ,the ,roman client was sometimes a freed slave1 but this would not have made him a member of the family1 even in a subordinate position4 ,apparently the class of clients may have to a great extent originated in mixed descent1 as the ,indian household and village menials probably did4 ,this view would account satisfactorily for the client's position as a member of the family but not a proper one4 ,from the fact that they were considered one of the three principal divisions of the people it is clear that the clients must at one time have been numerous and important4 #gg4 ,the plebeians4 ,below the clients came the plebeians1 whose position1 as ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges himself points out1 corresponded very closely to that of the ,sudras4 ,the plebeians had no religion and no ancestors2 they did not belong to a family or a gens4 #aib ,they were a despised and abject class1 who lived like beasts outside the proper boundary of the city4 ,the touch of the plebeian was impure4 #aic ,when tribunes were created a special law was necessary to protect their life and liberty1 and it was promulgated as follows3 ',it is forbidden to strike or kill a tribune1 as if he was an ordinary plebeian4' ,it would appear then that a patrician had the right to strike or kill an ordinary plebeian1 or at least that he was amenable to no legal punishment for doing so4 #aid ,similarly in the ancient ,greek cities the citizens were known as agajo'i or good1 and the plebeians as kako'i or bad4 ,this latter class is described by the poet ,theognis as having had aforetime neither tribunals nor laws2 they were not allowed even to enter the town1 but lived outside like wild beasts4 ,they had no part in the religious feasts and could not intermarry with the proper citizens4 #aie ,this position corresponds exactly with that of the ,sudras and the existing impure castes1 who have to live outside the village and cannot enter or even approach ,hindu temples4 ,m4 de ,coulanges considers that the plebeians were to a large extent made up of conquered and subjected peoples4 ,an asylum was also established at ,rome for broken men and outlaws from other cities1 with a view to increasing the population and strength of the state4 ,subsequently the class of clients became absorbed among the plebeians4 #gh4 ,the binding social tie in the city-states4 ,thus the gradation of society in the city-states of ,greece and ,italy1 the account given above being typical of them all1 is seen to correspond fairly closely with that of the ,hindus1 as exemplified in the ,hindu classics and the microcosm of ,hindu society1 the village community4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 to inquire what was the tie which united the members of the gens1 the curia or phratry1 and the city1 and which distinguished the patricians from the plebeians4 ,on this point ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges leaves us in no doubt at all4 ,the bond of union among all these bodies was a common sacrifice or sacrificial meal1 at which all the members had to be present4 ,the principal ceremony of the religion of the household was a meal1 which was called a sacrifice4 ,to eat a meal prepared on an altar was1 according to all appearance1 the first form of religious worship4 #aif ,the principal ceremony of the religion of the city was also a public feast2 it had to be partaken of communally by all the citizens in honour of the tutelary deities4 ,the custom of holding these public feasts was universal in ,greece2 and it was believed that the safety of the city depended on their accomplishment4 #aig ,m4 de ,coulanges quotes from the ,odyssey an account of one of these sacred feasts at which nine long tables were set out for the people of ,pylos2 five hundred citizens were seated and nine bulls were slaughtered for each table4 ,when ,orestes arrived at ,athens after the murder of his mother1 he found the people1 assembled round their king1 about to hold the sacred feast4 ,similar feasts were held and numerous victims were slaughtered in ,xenophon's time4 #aih ,at these meals the guests were crowned with garlands and the vessels were of a special form and material1 such as copper or earthenware1 no doubt dating from the antique past4 #aii ,as regards the importance and necessity of being present at the ,gentile sacrificial feast1 the same author states3 ,the ,capitol was blockaded by the ,gauls2 but ,fabius left it and passed through the hostile lines1 clad in religious garb1 and carrying in his hand the sacred objects2 he was going to offer a sacrifice on the altar of his gens which was situated on the ,quirinal4 ,in the second ,punic war another ,fabius1 he who was called the buckler of ,rome1 was holding ,hannibal in check2 it was assuredly of the greatest importance to the ,republic that he should not leave his army2 he left it1 however1 in the hands of the imprudent ,minucius2 it was because the anniversary day of the sacrifice of his gens had come and it was necessary that he should hasten to ,rome to perform the sacred rite4 ,in ,greece the members of the gens were known by the fact that they performed communal sacrifices together from a remote period4 #bjj ,as already seen1 a communal sacrifice meant the eating together of the sacred food1 whether the flesh of a victim or grain4 #gi4 ,the ,suovetaurilia4 ,the ,roman city sacrifice of the ,suovetaurilia1 as described by ,m4 de ,coulanges1 is of the greatest interest4 ,the magistrate whose duty it was to accomplish it1 that is in the first place the king1 after him the consul1 and after him the censor1 had first to take the auspices and ascertain that the gods were favourable4 ,then he summoned the people through a herald by a consecrated form of words4 ,on the appointed day all the citizens assembled outside the walls2 and while they stood silent the magistrate proceeded three times round the assembly1 driving before him three victims--a pig1 a ram and a bull4 ,the combination of these three victims constituted with the ,greeks as well as the ,romans an expiatory sacrifice4 ,priests and attendants followed the procession3 when the third round had been accomplished1 the magistrate pronounced a prayer and slaughtered the victims4 ,from this moment all sins were expiated1 and neglect of religious duties effaced1 and the city was at peace with its gods4 ,there were two essential features of this ceremony3 the first1 that no stranger should be present at it2 and the second1 that no citizen should be absent from it4 ,in the latter case the whole city might not have been freed from impurity4 ,the ,suovetaurilia was therefore preceded by a census1 which was conducted with the greatest care both at ,rome and ,athens4 ,the citizen who was not enrolled and was not present at the sacrifice could no longer be a member of the city4 ,he could be beaten and sold as a slave1 this rule being relaxed only in the last two centuries of the ,republic4 ,only male citizens were present at the sacrifice1 but they gave a list of their families and belongings to the censor1 and these were considered to be purified through the head of the family4 #bja ,this sacrifice was called a lustratio or purification1 and in the historical period was considered to be expiatory4 ,but it does not seem probable that this was its original significance4 ,for there would not in that case have been the paramount necessity for every citizen to be present4 ,all females and children under power were purified through the list given to the censor1 and there seems no reason why absent citizens could not have been purified in the same manner4 ,but participation in this sacrifice was itself the very test and essence of citizenship4 ,and it has been seen that a public meal was the principal religious rite of the city4 ,the conclusion therefore seems reasonable that the ,suovetaurilia was originally also a sacrificial meal of which each citizen partook1 and that the eating of the deified domestic animals in common was the essence of the rite and the act which conferred the privilege of citizenship4 ,the driving of the sacrificial animals round the citizens three times might well be a substitute for the previous communal meal1 if for any reason1 such as the large number of citizens1 the practice of eating them had fallen into abeyance4 ,the original ground for the taking of a census was to ensure that all the citizens were present at the communal sacrifice2 and it was by the place which a man occupied on this day that his rank in the city was determined till the next sacrifice4 ,if the censor counted him among the senators1 he remained a senator2 if among the equites1 he remained a knight2 if as a simple member of a tribe1 he belonged henceforward to the tribe in which he was counted4 ,if the censor refused to enumerate him1 he was no longer a citizen4 #bjb ,such was the vital importance of the act of participation in the sacrifice4 #hj4 ,the sacrifice of the domestic animal4 ,the ,roman sacrifice of the ,suovetaurilia was in no way peculiar1 similar rites being found in other ,greek and ,latin cities4 ,some instances are recorded in the article on ,kasai1 and in ,themis #bjc ,miss ,jane ,harrison gives an account of a sacrifice at ,magnesia in which a bull1 ram and he- and she-goats were sacrificed to the gods and partaken of communally by the citizens4 ,as already seen1 the act of participation in the sacrifice conferred the status of citizenship4 ,the domestic animals were not as a rule eaten1 but their milk was drunk1 and they were used for transport1 and clothes were perhaps sometimes made from their hair and skins4 ,hence they were the principal source of life of the tribe1 as the totem had been of the clan1 and were venerated and deified4 ,one common life was held to run through all the members of the tribe and all the domestic animals of the species which was its principal means of support4 ,in the totem or hunting stage the clan had necessarily been small1 because a large collection of persons could not subsist together by hunting and the consumption of roots and fruits4 ,when an additional means of support was afforded by the domestication of an important animal1 a much larger number of persons could live together1 and apparently several clans became amalgamated into a tribe4 ,the sanctity of the domestic animals was much greater than that of the totem because they lived with man and partook of his food1 which was the strongest tie of kinship2 and since he still endowed them with self-consciousness and volition1 he thought they had come voluntarily to aid him in sustaining life4 ,both on this account and for fear of injuring the common life they were not usually killed4 ,but it was necessary to primitive man that the tie should take a concrete form and that he should actually assimilate the life of the sacred animal by eating its flesh1 and this was accordingly done at a ceremonial sacrifice1 which was held annually1 and often in the spring1 the season of the renewal and increase of life4 ,since this renewal of the communal life was the concrete tie which bound the tribe together1 any one who was absent from it could no longer be a member of the tribe4 ,the whole of this rite and the intense importance attached to it are inexplicable except on the supposition that the tie which had originally constituted the totem-clan was the eating of the totem-animal1 and that this tie was perpetuated in the tribe by the communal eating of the domestic animal4 ,the communal sacrifice of the domestic animal was1 as already seen1 typical of society in the tribal or pastoral stage4 ,but one very important case1 in addition to those given above and in the article on ,kasai1 remains for notice4 ,the ,id-ul-,zoha or ,bakr-,id festival of the ,muhammadans is such a rite4 ,in pre-,islamic times this sacrifice was held at ,mecca and all the ,arab tribes went to ,mecca to celebrate it4 ,the month in which the sacrifice was held was one of those of truce1 when the feuds between the different clans were in abeyance so that they could meet at ,mecca4 ,muhammad continued the sacrifice of the ,id-ul-,zoha and it is this sacrifice which a good ,muhammadan takes the pilgrimage to ,mecca to perform4 ,he must be at ,mecca on the tenth day of the month of ,z'ul ,hijjah and perform the sacrifice there1 and unless he does this there is no special merit in making the journey to ,mecca4 ,it is incumbent on every ,muhammadan who can afford it to make the pilgrimage to ,mecca or the ,hajj once in his life and perform the sacrifice there2 and though as a matter of fact only a very small minority of ,muhammadans now carry out the rule1 the pilgrimage and sacrifice may yet be looked upon as the central and principal rite of the ,muhammadan religion4 ,all ,muhammadans who cannot go to ,mecca nevertheless celebrate the sacrifice at home at the ,indian festival of the ,id-ul-,zoha and the ,turkish and ,egyptian ,idu-,bairam4 ,at the ,id-ul-,zoha any one of four domestic animals1 the camel1 the cow1 the sheep or the goat1 may be sacrificed2 and this rule makes it a connecting link between the two great ,semitic sacrifices described in the article on ,kasai1 the camel sacrifice of the ,arabs in pre-,islamic times and the ,passover of the ,jews4 ,at the present time one-third of the flesh of the sacrificial animal should be given to the poor1 one-third to relations1 and the remainder to the sacrificer's own family4 #bjd ,though it has now become a household sacrifice1 the communal character thus still partly survives4 #ha4 ,sacrifices of the gens and phratry4 ,both in ,athens and ,rome there was a division known as phratry or curia4 ,this apparently consisted of a collection of gentes1 g'enh1 or clans1 and would correspond roughly to a ,hindu subcaste4 ,the evidence does not show1 however1 that it was endogamous4 ,the bond which united the phratry or curia was precisely the same as that of the gens or clan and the city4 ,it consisted also in a common meal1 which was prepared on the altar1 and was eaten with the recitation of prayers1 a part being offered to the god1 who was held to be present4 ,at ,athens on feast-days the members of the phratry assembled round their altar4 ,a victim was sacrificed and its flesh cooked on the altar1 and divided among the members of the phratry1 great care being taken that no stranger should be present4 ,a young ,athenian was presented to the phratry by his father1 who swore that the boy was his son4 ,a victim was sacrificed and cooked on the altar in the presence of all the members of the phratry2 if they were doubtful of the boy's legitimacy1 and hence wished to refuse him admittance1 as they had the right to do1 they refused to remove the flesh from the altar4 ,if they did not do this1 but divided and partook of the flesh with the candidate1 he was finally and irrevocably admitted to the phratry4 ,the explanation of this custom1 ,m4 de ,coulanges states1 is that food prepared on an altar and eaten by a number of persons together1 was believed to establish between them a sacred tie which endured through life4 #bje ,even a slave was to a certain degree admitted into the family by the same tie of common eating of food4 ,at ,athens he was made to approach the hearth2 he was purified by pouring water on his head1 and ate some cakes and fruit with the members of the family4 ,this ceremony was analogous to those of marriage and adoption4 ,it signified that the new arrival1 hitherto a stranger1 was henceforth a member of the family and participated in the family worship4 #bjf #hb4 ,the ,hindu caste-feasts4 ,the analogy of ,greece and ,rome would suggest the probability that the tie uniting the members of the ,indian caste or subcaste is also participation in a common sacrificial meal1 and there is a considerable amount of evidence to support this view4 ,the ,confarreatio or eating together of the bride and bridegroom finds a close parallel in the family sacrament of the ,meher or marriage cakes1 which has already been described4 ,this would appear formerly to have been a clan rite1 and to have marked the admission of the bride to the bridegroom's clan4 ,it is obligatory on relations of the families to attend a wedding and they proceed from great distances to do so1 and clerks and other officials are much aggrieved if the exigencies of ,government business prevent them from obtaining leave4 ,the obligation seems to be of the same character as that which caused ,fabius to leave the army in order to attend his ,gentile sacrifice at ,rome4 ,if he did not attend the ,gentile sacrifice he was not a member of the gens1 and if a ,hindu did not attend the feast of his clan in past times perhaps he did not remain a member of the clan4 ,among the ,maratha ,brahmans the girl-bride eats with her husband's relations on this day only to mark her admission into their clan1 and among the ,bengali ,brahmans1 when the wedding guests are collected1 the bride comes and puts a little sugar on each of their leaf-plates1 which they eat in token of their recognition of her in her new status of married woman4 ,the members of the caste or subcaste also assemble and eat together on three occasions3 at a marriage1 which will have the effect of bringing new life into the community2 at a death1 when a life is lost2 and at the initiation of a new member or the readmission of an offender temporarily put out of caste4 ,it is a general rule of the caste feasts that all members of the subcaste in the locality must be invited1 and if any considerable number of them do not attend1 the host's position in the community is impugned4 ,for this reason he has to incur lavish expenditure on the feast1 so as to avoid criticism or dissatisfaction among his guests4 ,these consider themselves at liberty to comment freely on the character and quality of the provisions offered to them4 ,in most castes the feast cannot begin until all the guests have assembled2 the ,maheshri ,banias and one or two other castes are distinguished by the fact that they allow the guests at the pangat or caste feast to begin eating as they arrive4 ,those who bear the host a grudge purposely stay away1 and he has to run to their houses and beg them to come1 so that his feast can begin4 ,when the feast has begun it was formerly considered a great calamity if any accident should necessitate the rising of the guests before its conclusion4 ,even if a dog or other impure animal should enter the assembly they would not rise4 ,the explanation of this rule was that it would be disrespectful to ,um ,deo1 the food-god1 to interrupt the feast4 ,at the feast each man sits with his bare crossed knees actually touching those of the men on each side of him1 to show that they are one brotherhood and one body4 ,if a man sat even a few inches apart from his fellows1 people would say he was out of caste2 and in recent times1 since those out of caste have been allowed to attend the feasts1 they sit a little apart in this manner4 ,the ,gowaris fine a man who uses abusive language to a fellow-casteman at a caste feast1 and also one who gets up and leaves the feast without the permission of the caste headman4 ,the ,hatkars have as the names of two exogamous groups ,wakmar1 or one who left the ,pangat or caste feast while his fellows were eating2 and ,polya1 or one who did not take off his turban at the feast4 ,it has been seen also #bjg that in one or two castes the exogamous sections are named after the offices which their members hold or the duties they perform at the caste feast4 ,among the ,halbas the illegitimate subcaste ,surait is also known as ,chhoti ,pangat or the inferior feast1 with the implication that its members cannot be admitted to the proper feast of the caste1 but have an inferior one of their own4 #hc4 ,taking food at initiation4 ,when an outsider is admitted to the caste the rite is usually connected with food4 ,a man who is to be admitted to the ,dahait caste must clean his house1 break his earthen cooking-vessels and buy new ones1 and give a feast to the caste-fellows in his house4 ,he sits and takes food with them1 and when the meal is over he takes a grain of rice from the leaf-plate of each guest and eats it1 and drinks a drop of water from his leaf-cup4 ,after this he cannot be readmitted to his own caste4 ,a new ,mehtar or sweeper gives water to and takes bread from each casteman4 ,in ,mandla a new convert to the ,panka caste vacates his house and the caste panchayat or committee go and live in it1 in order to purify it4 ,he gives them a feast inside the house1 while he himself stays outside4 ,finally he is permitted to eat with the panchayat in his own house in order to mark his admission into the caste4 ,a candidate for admission in the ,mahli caste has to eat a little of the leavings of the food of each of the castemen at a feast4 ,the community of robbers known as ,badhak or ,baoria formerly dwelt in the ,oudh forests4 ,they were accustomed to take omens from the cry of the jackal1 and they may probably have venerated it as representing the spirit of the forest and as a fellow-hunter4 ,they were called jackal-eaters1 and it was said that when an outsider was admitted to one of their bands he was given jackal's flesh to eat4 ,again1 the rite of initiation or investiture with the sacred thread appears to be the occasion of the admission of a boy to the caste community4 ,before this he is not really a member of the caste and may eat any kind of food4 ,the initiation is called by the ,brahmans the second birth1 and appears to be the birth of the soul or spirit4 ,after it the boy will eat the sacrificial food at the caste feasts and be united with the members of the caste and their god4 ,the bodies of children who have not been initiated are buried and not burnt4 ,the reason seems to be that their spirits will not go to the god nor be united with the ancestors1 but will be born again4 ,formerly such children were often buried in the house or courtyard so that their spirits might be born again in the same family4 ,the lower castes sometimes consider the rite of ear-piercing as the initiation and sometimes marriage4 ,among the ,panwar ,rajputs a child is initiated when about two years old by being given cooked rice and milk to eat4 ,the initiation cannot for some reason be performed by the natural father1 but must be done by a guru or spiritual father1 who should thereafter be regarded with a reverence equal to or even exceeding that paid to the natural father4 #hd4 ,penalty feasts4 ,when a man is readmitted to caste after exclusion for some offence1 the principal feature of the rite is a feast at which he is again permitted to eat with his fellows4 ,there are commonly two feasts1 one known as the ,maili ,roti or impure meal1 and the other as ,chokhi or pure1 both being at the cost of the offender4 ,the former is eaten by the side of a stream or elsewhere on neutral ground1 and by it the offender is considered to be partly purified2 the latter is in his own house1 and by eating there the castemen demonstrate that no impurity attaches to him1 and he is again a full member4 ,some castes1 as the ,dhobas1 have three feasts3 the first is eaten at the bank of a stream1 and at this the offender's hair is shaved and thrown into the stream2 the second is in his yard2 and the third in his house4 ,the offender is not allowed to partake of the first two meals himself1 but he joins in the third1 and before it begins the head of the panchayat gives him water to drink in which gold has been dipped as a purificatory rite4 ,among the ,gonds the flesh of goats is provided at the first meal1 but at the second only grain cooked with water1 which they now1 in imitation of the ,hindus1 consider as the sacred sacrificial food4 ,frequently the view obtains that the head of the caste panchayat takes the offender's sins upon himself by commencing to eat1 and in return for this a present of some rupees is deposited beneath his plate4 ,similarly among some castes1 as the ,bahnas1 exclusion from caste is known as the stopping of food and water4 ,the ,gowaris readmit offenders by the joint drinking of opium and water4 ,one member is especially charged with the preparation of this1 and if there should not be enough for all the castemen to partake of it1 he is severely punished4 ,opium was also considered sacred by the ,rajputs1 and the chief and his kinsmen were accustomed to drink it together as a pledge of amity4 #bjh #he4 ,sanctity of grain-food4 ,grain cooked with water is considered as sacred food by the ,hindus4 ,it should be eaten only on a space within the house called chauka purified with cowdung1 and sometimes marked out with white quartz-powder or flour4 ,before taking his meal a member of the higher castes should bathe and worship the household gods4 ,at the meal he should wear no sewn clothes1 but only a waist-cloth made of silk or wool1 and not of cotton4 ,the lower castes will take food cooked with water outside the house in the fields1 and are looked down upon for doing this1 so that those who aspire to raise their social position abandon the practice1 or at least pretend to do so4 ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer quotes a passage showing that the ancient ,brahmans considered the sacrificial rice-cakes cooked with water to be transformed into human bodies4 #bji ,the ,urdu word bali means a sacrifice or offering1 and is applied to the portion of the daily meal which is offered to the gods and to the hearth-fire4 ,thus all grain cooked with water is apparently looked upon as sacred or sacramental food1 and it is for this reason that it can only be eaten after the purificatory rites already described4 ,the grain is venerated as the chief means of subsistence1 and the communal eating of it seems to be analogous to the sacrificial eating of the domestic animals1 such as the camel1 horse1 ox and sheep1 which is described above and in the article on ,kasai4 ,just as in the hunting stage the eating of the totem-animal1 which furnished the chief means of subsistence1 was the tie which united the totem-clan3 and in the pastoral stage the domestic animal which afforded to the tribe its principal support1 not usually as an article of food1 but through its milk and its use as a means of transport1 was yet eaten sacrificially owing to the persistence of the belief that the essential bond which united the tribe was the communal eating of the flesh of the animal from which the tribe obtained its subsistence3 so when the community reaches the agricultural stage the old communal feast is retained as the bond of union1 but it now consists of grain1 which is the principal support of life4 #hf4 ,the corn-sprit4 ,the totem-animal was regarded as a kinsman1 and the domestic animal often as a god4 #baj ,but in both these cases the life of the kinsman and god was sacrificed in order that the community might be bound together by eating the body and assimilating the life4 ,consequently1 when grain came to be the sacrificial food1 it was often held that an animal or human being must be sacrificed in the character of the corn-god or spirit1 whether his own flesh was eaten or the sacred grain was imagined to be his flesh4 ,numerous instances of the sacrifice of the corn-spirit have been adduced by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer in ,the ,golden ,bough1 and it was he who brought this custom prominently to notice4 ,one of the most important cases in ,india was the ,meriah-sacrifice of the ,khonds1 which is described in the article on that tribe4 ,two features of the ,khond sacrifice of a human victim as a corn-spirit appear to indicate its derivation from the sacrifice of the domestic animal and the eating of the totem-animal1 the ties uniting the clan and tribe3 first1 that the flesh was cut from the living victim1 and1 second1 that the sacrifice was communal4 ,when the ,meriah-victim was bound the ,khonds hacked at him with their knives while life remained1 leaving only the head and bowels untouched1 so that each man might secure a strip of flesh4 ,this rite appears to recall the earliest period when the members of the primitive group or clan tore their prey to pieces and ate and drank the raw flesh and blood4 ,the reason for its survival was apparently that it was the actual life of the divine victim1 existing in concrete form in the flesh and blood which they desired to obtain1 and they thought that this end was more certainly achieved by cutting the flesh off him while he was still alive4 ,in the sacrifice of the camel in ,arabia the same procedure was followed2 the camel was bound on an altar and the tribesmen cut the flesh from the body with their knives and swallowed it raw and bleeding4 #baa ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach shows how the memory of similar sacrifices in ,greece has been preserved in legend3 #bab ,actaeon was really a great stag sacrificed by women devotees1 who called themselves the great hind and the little hinds2 he became the rash hunter who surprised ,artemis at her bath and was transformed into a stag and devoured by his own dogs4 ,the dogs are a euphemism2 in the early legend they were the human devotees of the sacred stag who tore him to pieces and devoured him with their bare teeth4 ,these feasts of raw flesh survived in the secret religious cults of ,greece long after uncooked food had ceased to be consumed in ordinary life4 ,orpheus 7ophreus1 the haughty71 who appears in art with the skin of a fox on his head1 was originally a sacred fox devoured by the women of the fox totem-clan2 these women call themselves ,bassarides in the legend1 and bassareus is one of the old names of the fox4 ,hippolytus in the fable is the son of ,theseus who repels the advances of ,phaedra1 his stepmother1 and was killed by his runaway horses because ,theseus1 deceived by ,phaedra1 invoked the anger of a god upon him4 ,but ,hippolytus in ,greek means 'one torn to pieces by horses4' ,hippolytus is himself a horse whom the worshippers of the horse1 calling themselves horses and disguised as such1 tore to pieces and devoured4 ,all such sacrifices in which the flesh was taken from the living victim may thus perhaps be derived from the common origin of totemism4 ,the second point about the ,khond sacrifice is that it was communal2 every householder desired a piece of the flesh1 and for those who could not be present at the sacrifice relays of messengers were posted to carry it to them while it was still fresh and might be supposed to retain the life4 ,they did not eat the strips of flesh1 but each householder buried his piece in his field1 which they believed would thereby be fertilised and caused to produce the grain which they would eat4 ,the death of the victim was considered essential to the life of the tribe1 which would be renewed and strengthened by it as in the case of the sacrifice of the domestic animal4 ,lord ,avebury gives in ,the ,origin of ,civilisation #bac an almost exact parallel to the ,khond sacrifice in which the flesh of the victim actually was eaten4 ,this occurred among the ,marimos1 a tribe of ,south ,africa much resembling the ,bechuanas4 ,the ceremony was called 'the boiling of the corn4' ,a young man1 stout but of small stature1 was usually selected and secured by violence or by intoxicating him with yaala4 ,they then lead him into the fields1 and sacrifice him in the fields1 according to their own expression1 for seed4 ,his blood1 after having been coagulated by the rays of the sun1 is burned along with the frontal bone1 the flesh attached to it and the brain4 ,the ashes are then scattered over the fields to fertilise them and the remainder of the body is eaten4 ,in other cases quoted by the same author an image only was made of flour and eaten instead of a human being3 #bad ,in ,mexico at a certain period of the year the priest of ,quetzalcoatl made an image of the ,deity1 of meal mixed with infants' blood1 and then1 after many impressive ceremonies1 killed the image by shooting it with an arrow1 and tore out the heart1 which was eaten by the king1 while the rest of the body was distributed among the people1 every one of whom was anxious to procure a piece to eat1 however small4 ,here the communal sacrificial meal1 the remaining link necessary to connect the sacrifice of the corn-spirit with that of the domestic animal and clan totem1 is present4 ,among cases of animals sacrificed as the corn-spirit in ,india that of the buffalo at the ,dasahra festival is the most important4 ,the rite extends over most of ,india1 and a full and interesting account of it has recently been published by ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke4 #bae ,the buffalo is probably considered as the corn-spirit because it was the animal which mainly damaged the crops in past times4 ,where the sacrifice still survives the proprietor of the village usually makes the first cut in the buffalo and it is then killed and eaten by the inferior castes1 as ,hindus cannot now touch the flesh4 ,in the ,deccan after the buffalo is killed the ,mahars rush on the carcase and each one secures a piece of the flesh4 ,this done they go in procession round the walls1 calling on the spirits and demons1 and asking them to accept the pieces of meat as offerings1 which are then thrown to them backwards over the wall4 #baf ,the buffalo is now looked upon in the light of a scape-goat1 but the procedure described above cannot be satisfactorily explained on the scape-goat theory1 and would appear clearly to have been substituted for the former eating of the flesh4 ,in the ,maratha ,districts the lower castes have a periodical sacrifice of a pig to the sun2 they eat the flesh of the pig together1 and even the ,panwar ,rajputs of the ,waringanga ,valley join in the sacrifice and will allow the impure caste of ,mahars to enter their houses and eat of this sacrifice with them1 though at other times the entry of a ,mahar would defile a ,panwar's house4 #bag ,the pig is sacrificed either as the animal which now mainly injures the crops or because it was the principal sacrificial animal of the non-,aryan tribes1 or from a combination of both reasons4 ,probably it may be regarded as the corn-spirit because pigs are sacrificed to ,bhanisasur or the buffalo demon for the protection of the crops4 #hg4 ,the king4 ,when the community reached the national or agricultural stage some central executive authority became necessary for its preservation4 ,this authority usually fell into the hands of the priest who performed the sacrifice1 and he became a king4 ,since the priest killed the sacrificial animal in which the common life of the community was held to be centred1 it was thought that the life passed to him and centred in his person4 ,for the idea of the extinction of life was not properly understood1 and the life of a human being or animal might pass by contact1 according to primitive ideas1 to the person or even the weapon which killed it1 just as it could pass by assimilation to those who ate the flesh4 ,in most of the city-states of ,greece and ,italy the primary function of the kings was the performance of the communal or national sacrifices4 ,through this act they obtained political power as representing the common life of the people1 and its performance was sometimes left to them after their political power had been taken away4 #bah ,after the expulsion of the kings from ,rome the duty of performing the city sacrifices devolved on the consuls4 ,in ,india also the kings performed sacrifices4 ,when a king desired to be paramount over his neighbours he sent a horse to march through their territories4 ,if it passed through them without being captured they became subordinate to the king who owned the horse4 ,finally the horse was sacrificed at the ,ashva-medha1 the king paramount making the sacrifice1 while the other kings performed subordinate parts at it4 #bai ,similarly the ,raja of ,nagpur killed the sacrificial buffalo at the ,dasahra festival4 ,but the common life of the people was sometimes conveyed from the domestic animal to the king by other methods than the performance of a sacrifice4 ,the king of ,unyoro in ,africa might never eat vegetable food but must subsist on milk and beef4 ,mutton he might not touch1 though he could drink beer after partaking of meat4 ,a sacred herd was kept for the king's use1 and nine cows1 neither more nor less1 were daily brought to the royal enclosure to be milked for his majesty4 ,the boy who brought the cows from the pasture to the royal enclosure must be a member of a particular clan and under the age of puberty1 and was subject to other restrictions4 ,the milk for the king was drawn into a sacred pot which neither the milkman nor anybody else might touch4 ,the king drank the milk1 sitting on a sacred stool1 three times a day1 and any which was left over must be drunk by the boy who brought the cows from pasture4 ,numerous other rules and restrictions are detailed by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer1 and it may be suggested that their object was to ensure that the life of the domestic animal and with it the life of the people should be conveyed pure and undefiled to the king through the milk4 ,the kings of ,unyoro had to take their own lives while their bodily vigour was still unimpaired4 ,when the period for his death arrived the king asked his wife for a cup of poison and drank it4 ,the public announcement of the death was made by the chief milkman4 ,taking a pot of the sacred milk in his hands he mounted the house-top and cried1 ',who will drink the milk8' ,with these words he dashed the pot on the roof2 it rolled off and falling to the ground was broken in pieces4 ,that was the signal for war to the death between the princes who aspired to the throne4 ,they fought till only one was left alive4 ,he was the king4 #bbj ,after completing the above account1 of which only the principal points have been stated1 ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer remarks3 ,the rule which obliged the kings of ,unyoro to kill themselves or be killed before their strength of mind and body began to fail through disease or age is only a particular example of a custom which appears to have prevailed widely among barbarous tribes in ,africa and to some extent elsewhere4 ,apparently this curious practice rests on a belief that the welfare of the people is sympathetically bound up with the welfare of their king1 and that to suffer him to fall into bodily or mental decay would be to involve the whole kingdom in ruin4 #bba ,other instances connecting the life of the king with the ox or other domestic animal are given in ,totemism and ,exogamy and ,the ,golden ,bough #bbb ,among the ,hereros the body of a dead chief was wrapped up in the hide of an ox before being buried4 #bbc ,in the ,vedic horse-sacrifice in ,india the horse was stifled in robes4 ,the chief queen approached him2 a cloak having been thrown over them both1 she performed a repulsively obscene act symbolising the transmission to her of his fructifying powers4 #bbd ,in other cases the king was identified with the corn-spirit1 and in this manner he also1 it may be suggested1 represented the common life of the people4 ,the belief that the king was the incarnation of the common life of the people led to the most absurd restrictions on his liberty and conduct1 a few instances of which from the large collection in ,the ,golden ,bough have been quoted in the article on ,nai4 ,thus in an old account of the daily life of the ,mikado it is stated3 ,in ancient times he was obliged to sit on the throne for some hours every morning1 with the imperial crown on his head1 but to sit altogether like a statue1 without stirring either hands or feet1 head or eyes1 nor indeed any part of his body1 because1 by this means1 it was thought that he could preserve peace and tranquillity in his empire2 for if1 unfortunately1 he turned himself on one side or the other1 or if he looked a good while towards any part of his dominions1 it was apprehended that war1 famine1 fire or some great misfortune was near at hand to desolate the country4 #bbe ,here it would appear that by sitting absolutely immobile the king conferred the quality of tranquillity on the common life of his people incarnate in his person2 but by looking too long in any one direction he would cause a severe disturbance of the common life in the part to which he looked4 ,and when the ,israelites were fighting with the ,amalekites1 so long as ,moses held up his hands the ,israelites prevailed2 but when his hands hung down they gave way before the enemy4 ,here apparently the common life was held to be centred in ,moses1 and when he held his arms up it was vigorous1 but declined as he let them down4 ,similarly it was often thought that the king should be killed as soon as his bodily strength showed signs of waning1 so that the common life might be renewed and saved from a similar decay4 ,even the appearance of grey hair or the loss of a tooth were sometimes considered sufficient reasons for putting the king to death in ,africa4 #bbf ,another view was that any one who killed the king was entitled to succeed him1 because the life of the king1 and with it the common life of the people1 passed to the slayer1 just as it had previously passed from the domestic animal to the priest-king who sacrificed it4 ,one or two instances of succession by killing the king are given in the article on ,bhil4 ,sometimes the view was that the king should be sacrificed annually1 or at other intervals1 like the corn-spirit or domestic animal1 for the renewal of the common life4 ,and this practice1 as shown by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer1 tended to result in the substitution of a victim1 usually a criminal or slave1 who was identified with the king by being given royal honours for a short time before his death4 ,sometimes the king's son or daughter was offered as a substitute for him1 and such a sacrifice was occasionally made in time of peril1 apparently as a means of strengthening or preserving the common life4 ,when ,chitor1 the home of the ,sesodia clan of ,rajputs1 was besieged by the ,muhammadans1 the tradition is that the goddess of their house appeared and demanded the sacrifice of twelve chiefs as a condition of its preservation4 ,eleven of the chiefs sons were in turn crowned as king1 and each ruled for three days1 while on the fourth he sallied out and fell in battle4 ,lastly1 the ,rana offered himself in order that his favourite son1 ,ajeysi1 might be spared and might perpetuate the clan4 ,in reality the chief and his sons seem to have devoted themselves in the hope that the sacrifice of the king might bring strength and victory to the clan4 ,the sacrifice of ,iphigenia and possibly of ,jephthah's daughter appear to be parallel instances4 ,the story of ,alcestis may be an instance of the substitution of the king's wife4 ,the position of the king in early society and the peculiar practices and beliefs attaching to it were brought to notice and fully illustrated by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer4 ,the argument as to the clan and the veneration of the domestic animal follows that outlined by the late ,professor ,robertson ,smith in ,the ,religion of the ,semites4 #hh4 ,other instances of the common meal as a sacrificial rite4 ,some other instances of the communal eating of grain or other food as a sacramental rite and bond of union have been given in the articles4 ,thus at a ,kabirpanthi ,chauka or religious service the priest breaks a cocoanut on a stone1 and the flesh is cut up and distributed to the worshippers with betel-leaf and sugar4 ,each receives it on his knees1 taking the greatest care that none falls on the ground4 ,the cocoanut is commonly regarded by the ,hindus as a substituted offering for a human head4 ,the betel-leaves which are distributed have been specially consecrated by the head priest of the sect1 and are held to represent the body of ,kabir4 #bbg ,similarly1 ,guru ,govind ,singh instituted a prasad or communion among the ,sikhs1 in which cakes of flour1 butter and sugar are made and consecrated with certain ceremonies while the communicants sit round in prayer1 and are then distributed equally to all the faithful present1 to whatever caste they may belong4 ,at a ,guru-,mata or great council of the ,sikhs1 which was held at any great crisis in the affairs of the state1 these cakes were laid before the ,sikh scriptures and then eaten by all present1 who swore on the scriptures to forget their internal dissensions and be united4 ,among the ,rajputs the test of legitimacy of a member of the chief's family was held to depend on whether he had eaten of the chief's food4 ,the rice cooked at the temple of ,jagannath in ,orissa may be eaten there by all castes together1 and1 when partaken of by two men together1 is held to establish a bond of indissoluble friendship between them4 ,members of several low castes of mixed origin will only take food with their relatives1 and not with other families of the caste with whom they intermarry4 #bbh ,the ,chaukhutia ,bhunjias will not eat food cooked by other members of the same community1 and will not take it from their own daughters after the latter are married4 ,at a feast among the ,dewars uncooked food is distributed to the guests1 who cook it for themselves2 parents will not accept cooked food either from married sons or daughters1 and each family with its children forms a separate commensal group4 ,thus the taking of food together is a more important and sacred tie than intermarriage4 ,in most ,hindu castes a man is not put out of caste for committing adultery with a woman of low caste1 but for taking cooked food from her hands2 though it is assumed that if he lives with her openly he must necessarily have accepted cooked food from her4 ,opium and alcoholic liquor or wine1 being venerated on account of their intoxicating qualities1 were sometimes regarded as substitutes for the sacrificial food and partaken of sacramentally4 #bbi #hi4 ,funeral feasts4 ,an important class of communal meals remaining for discussion consists in the funeral feasts4 ,the funeral feast seems a peculiar and unseasonable observance1 but several circumstances point to the conclusion that it was originally held in the dead man's own interest4 ,he or his spirit was indeed held to participate in the feast1 and it seems to have been further thought that unless he did so and ate the sacred food1 his soul would not proceed to the heaven or god1 but would wander about as an unquiet spirit or meet with some other fate4 ,many of the lower ,hindu castes1 such as the ,kohlis and ,bishnois1 take food after a funeral1 seated by the side of the grave4 ,this custom is now considered somewhat derogatory1 perhaps in consequence of a truer realisation of the fact of death4 ,at a ,baiga funeral the mourners take one white and one black fowl to a stream and kill and eat them there1 setting aside a portion for the dead man4 ,the ,gonds also take their food and drink liquor at the grave4 ,the ,lohars think that the spirit of the dead man returns to join in the funeral feast4 ,among the ,telugu ,koshtis the funeral party go to the grave on the fifth day1 and after the priest has worshipped the image of ,vishnu on the grave1 the whole party take their food there4 ,after a ,panka funeral the mourners bathe and then break a cocoanut over the grave and distribute it among themselves4 ,on the tenth day they go again and break a cocoanut1 and each man buries a little piece of it in the earth over the grave4 ,among the ,tameras1 at the feast with which mourning is concluded1 a leaf-plate containing a portion for the deceased is placed outside the house with a pot of water and a burning lamp to guide his spirit to the food4 ,on the third day after death the ,kolhatis sometimes bring back the skull of a corpse and1 placing it on the bed1 offer to it powder1 dates and betel-leaves1 and after a feast lasting for three days it is again buried4 ,it is said that the members of the ,lingayat sect formerly set up the corpse in their midst at the funeral feast and sat round it1 taking their food1 but the custom is not known to exist at present4 ,among the ,bangalas1 an ,african negro tribe1 at a great funeral feast lasting for three days in honour of the chief's son1 the corpse was present at the festivities tied in a chair4 #bcj #ij4 ,the ,hindu deities and the sacrificial meal4 ,thus there seems reason to suppose that the caste-tie of the ,hindus is the same as that which united the members of the city-states of ,greece and ,italy1 that is the eating of a sacramental food together4 ,among the ,vedic ,aryans that country only was considered pure and fit for sacrifice in which the ,aryan gods had taken up their residence4 #bca ,hindustan was made a pure country in which ,aryans could offer sacrifices by the fact that ,agni1 the sacrificial god of fire1 spread himself over it4 ,but the gods have changed4 ,the old ,vedic deities ,indra1 the rain-god1 ,varuna1 the heaven-god1 the ,maruts or winds1 and ,soma1 the divine liquor1 have fallen into neglect4 ,these were the principal forces which controlled the existence of a nomad pastoral people1 dependent on rain to make the grass grow for their herds1 and guiding their course by the sun and stars4 ,the ,soma or liquor apparently had a warming1 exhilarating effect in the cold climate of the ,central ,asian steppes1 and was therefore venerated4 ,since in the hot plains of ,india abstinence from alcoholic liquor has become a principal religious tenet of high-caste ,hindus1 ,soma is naturally no more heard of4 ,agni1 the fire-god1 was also one of the greatest deities to the nomads of the cold uplands1 as the preserver of life against cold4 ,but in ,india1 except as represented by the hearth1 for cooking1 little regard is paid to him1 since fires are not required for warmth4 ,new gods have arisen in ,hinduism4 ,the sun was an important ,vedic deity1 both as ,mitra and under other names4 ,vishnu as the sun1 or the spirit of whom the sun is the visible embodiment1 has become the most important deity in his capacity of the universal giver and preserver of life4 ,he is also widely venerated in his anthropomorphic forms of ,rama1 the hero-prince of ,ajodhia and leader of the ,aryan expedition to ,ceylon1 and ,krishna1 the divine cowherd1 perhaps some fabled hero sprung from the indigenous tribes4 ,siva is the mountain-god of the ,himalayas and a moon-deity1 and in his character of god of destruction the lightning and cobra are associated with him4 ,but he is really worshipped in his beneficent form of the phallic emblem as the agent of life1 and the bull1 the fertiliser of the soil and provider of food4 ,devi1 the earth1 is the great mother goddess4 ,sprung from her are ,hanuman1 the monkey-god1 and ,ganpati1 the elephant-god1 and in one of her forms1 as the terrible goddess ,kali1 she is perhaps the deified tiger4 #bcb ,lachmi1 the goddess of wealth1 and held to have been evolved from the cow1 is the consort of ,vishnu4 ,it was thus not the god to whom the sacrifice was offered1 but the sacrifice itself that was the essential thing1 and participation in the common eating of the sacrifice constituted the bond of union4 ,in early times a sacrifice was the occasion for every important gathering or festivity1 as is shown both in ,indian history and legend4 ,and the caste feasts above described seem to be the continuation and modern form of the ancient sacrifice4 #ia4 ,development of the occupational caste from the tribe4 ,the ,roman population1 as already seen1 consisted of a set of clans or gentes4 ,the clans were collected in tribal groups such as the curia1 but it does not appear that these latter were endogamous4 ,the rite which constituted a ,roman citizen was participation in the ,suovetaurilia1 the communal sacrifice of the domestic animals1 the pig1 the ram1 and the bull4 ,since all the ,roman citizens at first lived in a comparatively small area1 they were all able to be present at the sacrifice4 ,the other states of ,greece and ,italy had an analogous constitution1 as stated by ,m4 ,fustel de ,coulanges4 ,it may be supposed that the ,aryans were similarly divided into clans and tribes4 ,the word visha1 the substantive root of ,vaishya1 originally meant a clan4 #bcc ,but as pointed out by ,m4 ,senart1 they did not form city-states in ,india1 but settled in villages over a large area of country4 ,their method of government was by small states under kings1 and probably they had a kind of national constitution1 of which the king was the centre and embodiment4 ,but these states gradually lost their individuality1 and were merged in large empires1 where the king could no longer be the centre of the state or of the common life of his people1 nor perform a sacrifice at which they could all be present1 as the ,roman kings did4 ,this religious idea of nationality1 based on participation in a common sacrifice1 was the only one which existed in early times4 ,thus apparently the ,aryans retained their tribal constitution instead of expanding it into a national one1 and the members of clans within a certain local area gathered for a communal sacrifice4 ,but there was a great class1 that of the ,sudras or indigenous inhabitants1 who could not join in the sacrifices at all4 ,and between the ,sudras and the ,vaishyas or main body of the ,aryans there gradually grew up another mixed class1 which also could not properly participate in them4 ,the priests and rulers1 ,brahmans and ,kshatriyas1 tended to form exclusive bodies1 and in this manner a classification by occupation gradually grew up1 the distinction being marked by participation in separate sacrificial feasts4 ,the cause which ultimately broke down the religious distinctions of the ,roman and ,greek states was the development of a feeling of nationality4 ,in the common struggle for the preservation of the city the prejudices of the patricians weakened1 and after a long internal conflict1 the plebeians were admitted to full rights of citizenship4 ,the plebeians were employed as infantry in the ,roman armies1 while the patricians rode1 and the increased importance of infantry in war was one great cause of the improvement in the position of the plebeians4 #bcd ,in ,india1 in the absence of any national feeling1 and with the growth of a large and powerful priestly order1 religious barriers and prejudices became accentuated rather than weakened4 ,the class distinctions grew more rigid1 and gradually1 as the original racial line of cleavage was fused by intermarriage and the production of groups of varying status1 these came to arrange themselves on a basis of occupation4 ,this is the inevitable and necessary rule in all societies whose activities and mode of life are at all complicated4 ,racial distinctions cannot be preserved unless in the most exceptional cases1 where they are accentuated by the difference of colour1 and such a moral and social gulf as that which exists between the whites and negroes in ,north ,america4 ,in primitive society there is no such mental cleavage to render the idea of fusion abhorrent to the superior race2 the bar is religious1 and while it places the inferior race in a despised and abject position1 there is no prohibition of illicit unions nor any such moral feeling or principle as would tend to restrict them4 ,the ideas of the responsibilities and duties of parentage in connection with heredity1 or the science of eugenics1 are entirely modern1 and have no place at all in ancient society4 ,as racial and religious distinctions fade away1 and social progress takes place1 a fresh set of divisions by wealth and occupation grows up4 ,but though this happened also in the ,greek and ,italian cities1 the old religious divisions were not transferred to the new occupational groups1 but fell slowly into abeyance1 and the latter assumed the simply social character which they have in modern communities4 ,the main reason for the obliteration of religious barriers1 as already stated1 was the growth of the idea of nationality and the public interest4 ,but in ,india the feeling of nationality never arose4 ,the ,hindu states and empires had no national basis1 since at the period in question the only way in which the idea of nationality could be conceived1 was by participation of the citizens in a common sacrifice1 and this participation is only possible to persons living in a small local area4 ,hence ,hindu society developed on its own lines independently of the form of government to which it was subject1 and in the new grouping by occupation the old communal sacrifices were preserved and adapted to the fresh divisions4 ,the result was the growth of the system of occupational castes which still exists4 ,but since the basis of society was the participation of each social group in a communal meal1 the group could not be extended to take in persons of the same occupation over a large area1 and as a result the widely ramified system of subcastes came into existence4 ,the subcaste or commensal group was the direct evolutionary product of the pre-existing tribe4 ,its size was limited by the fact that its members had to meet at the periodical sacrificial feasts1 by which their unity and the tie which bound them together was cemented and renewed4 ,as already seen1 when members of a subcaste migrated to a fresh local area1 and were cut off from communication with those remaining behind1 they tended as a rule to form a fresh endogamous and commensal group4 ,since the tie between the members of the subcaste was participation in a sacrificial meal of grain cooked with water1 and as this food was held to be sacred1 the members of the subcaste came to refuse to eat it except with those who could join in the communal feast2 and as the idea gradually gained acceptance1 that a legitimate child must be the offspring of a father and mother both belonging to the commensal group1 the practice of endogamy within the subcaste became a rule4 #ib4 ,veneration of the caste implements4 ,since all the citizens of the ,roman ,state participated in a common sacrifice1 they might be considered as a single caste1 or even a subcaste or commensal group4 ,the ,hindu castes have a common ceremony which presents some analogy to that of the ,roman state4 ,they worship or pay homage once or twice a year to the implements of their profession4 ,the occasions for this rite are usually the ,dasahra festival in ,september and the fast after the ,holi festival in ,march4 ,both these are festivals of the goddess ,devi or ,mother ,earth1 when a fast is observed in her honour1 first before sowing the spring crops and secondly before reaping them4 ,on each occasion the fast lasts for nine days and the ,jawaras or pots of wheat corresponding to the ,gardens of ,adonis are sown4 ,the fasts and festivals thus belong primarily to the agricultural castes1 and they worship the earth-mother1 who provides them with subsistence4 ,but the professional and artisan castes also take the occasion to venerate the implements of their profession4 ,thus among the ,kasars or brass-workers1 at the festival of ,mando ,amawas or the new moon of ,chait 7,march71 every ,kasar must return to the community of which he is a member and celebrate the feast with them4 ,and in default of this he will be expelled from the caste until the next ,amawas of ,chait comes round4 ,they close their shops and worship the implements of their profession on this day4 ,the rule is thus the same as that of the ,roman ,suovetaurilia4 ,he who does not join in the sacrificial feast ceases to be a member of the community4 ,and the object of veneration is the same2 the ,romans venerated and sacrificed the domestic animals which in the pastoral stage had been their means of subsistence4 ,the ,kasars and other occupational castes worship the implements of their profession which are also their means of livelihood1 or that which gives them life4 ,formerly all these implements were held to be animate1 and to produce their effect by their own power and volition4 ,the ,nats or acrobats of ,bombay say that their favourite and only living gods are those which give them their bread3 the drum1 the rope and the balancing-pole4 ,the ,murha or earth-digger invokes the implements of his trade as follows3 ,o1 my lord the basket1 my lord the pickaxe shaped like a snake1 and my lady the hod6 ,come and eat up those who do not pay me for my work6 ,similarly the ,dhimar venerates his fishing-net1 and will not wear shoes of sewn leather1 because he thinks that the sacred thread which makes his net is debased if used for shoes4 ,the ,chamar worships his currier's knife2 the ,ghasia or groom his horse and the peg to which the horse is secured in the stable2 the ,rajput his horse and sword and shield2 the writer his inkpot1 and so on4 ,the ,pola festival of the ,kunbis has a feature resembling the ,suovetaurilia4 ,on this occasion all the plough-bullocks of the cultivators are mustered and go in procession to a toran or arch constructed of branches and foliage4 ,the bullock of the village proprietor leads the way1 and has flaming torches tied to his horns4 ,the bullocks of the other cultivators follow according to the status of each cultivator in the village1 which depends upon hereditary right and antiquity of tenure1 and not on mere wealth4 ,a ,kunbi feels bitterly insulted if his bullocks are not awarded the proper place in the procession4 ,a string across the arch is broken by the leading bullock1 and the cattle are then all driven helter-skelter through the arch and back to the village4 ,the rite would appear to be a relic of the communal sacrifice of a bullock1 the torches tied to the proprietor's bullock signifying that he was formerly killed and roasted4 ,it is now said that this bullock is full of magic1 and that he will die within three years4 ,the rite may be compared to the needfire as practised in ,russia when all the horses of the village were driven between two fires1 or through fire1 and their bridles thrown into the fire and burnt4 ,the burning of the bridles would appear to be a substitute for the previous sacrifice of the horse4 #bce ,the ,pola ceremony of the ,kunbis resembles the ,roman ,suovetaurilia inasmuch as all the cultivators participate in it according to their status1 just as the rank of ,roman citizens was determined by their position at the ceremony4 ,formerly1 if a bull was sacrificed and eaten sacramentally it would have been practically an exact parallel to the ,roman rite4 #ic4 ,the caste panchayat and its code of offences4 ,the tribunal for the punishment of caste offences is known as the panchayat1 because it usually consists of five persons 7panch1 five74 ,as a rule a separate panchayat exists for every subcaste over an area not too large for all the members of it to meet4 ,in theory1 however1 the panchayat is only the mouthpiece of the assembly1 which should consist of all the members of the subcaste4 ,some castes fine a member who absents himself from the meeting4 ,the panchayat may perhaps be supposed to represent the hand acting on behalf of the subcaste1 which is considered the body4 ,the panchayat1 however1 was not the original judge4 ,it was at first the god before whom the parties pleaded their cause1 and the god who gave judgment by the method of trial by ordeal4 ,this was probably the general character of primitive justice1 and in some of the lower castes the ordeal is still resorted to for decisions4 ,the tribe or subcaste attended as jurors or assessors1 and carried out the proceedings1 perhaps after having united themselves to the god for the purpose by a sacrificial meal4 ,the panchayat1 having succeeded the god as the judge1 is held to give its decisions by divine inspiration1 according to the sayings3 ',god is on high and the panch on earth1' and ',the voice of the panchayat is the voice of ,god4' #bcf ,the headship of the panchayat and the subcaste commonly descends in one family1 or did so till recently1 and the utmost deference is shown to the person holding it1 even though he may be only a boy for the above reason4 ,the offences involving temporary or permanent excommunication from caste are of a somewhat peculiar kind4 ,in the case of both a man and woman1 to take food from a person of a caste from whom it is forbidden to do so1 and especially from one of an impure caste1 is a very serious offence1 as is also that of being beaten by a member of an impure caste1 especially with a shoe4 ,it is also a serious offence to be sent to jail1 because a man has to eat the impure jail food4 ,to be handcuffed is a minor offence1 perhaps by analogy with the major one of being sent to jail1 or else on account of the indignity involved by the touch of the police4 ,as regards sexual offences1 there is no direct punishment for a man as a rule1 but if he lives with a low-caste woman he is temporarily expelled because it is assumed that he has taken food from her hands4 ,sometimes a man and woman of the caste committing adultery together are both punished4 ,a married woman who commits adultery should in the higher and middle castes1 in theory at least1 be permanently expelled1 but if her husband does not put her away she is sometimes readmitted with a severe punishment4 ,a girl going wrong with an outsider is as a rule expelled unless the matter can be hushed up1 but if she becomes pregnant by a man of the caste1 she can often be readmitted with a penalty and married to him or to some other man4 ,there are also some religious crimes1 such as killing a cow or a cat or other sacred domestic animal2 and in the case of a woman it is a very serious offence to get the lobe of her ear torn apart at the large perforation usually made for earrings2 #bcg while for either a man or a woman to get vermin in a wound is an offence of the first magnitude1 entailing several months' exclusion and large expenditure on readmission4 ,offences against ordinary morality are scarcely found in the category of those entailing punishment4 ,murder must sometimes be expiated by a pilgrimage to the ,ganges1 but other criminal offences against the person and property are not taken cognisance of by the caste committee unless the offender is sent to jail4 ,both in its negative and positive aspects the category of offences affords interesting deductions on the basis of the explanation of the caste system already given4 ,the reason why there is scarcely any punishment for offences against ordinary morality is that the caste organisation has never developed any responsibility for the maintenance of social order and the protection of life and property4 ,it has never exercised the function of government1 because in the historical ,hindu period ,india was divided into large military states1 while since then it has been subject to foreign domination4 ,the social organisation has thus maintained its pristine form1 neither influenced by the government nor affording to it any co-operation or support4 ,and the aims of the caste tribunal have been restricted to preserving its own corporate existence free from injury or pollution1 which might arise mainly from two sources4 ,if a member's body was rendered impure either by eating impure food or by contact with a person of impure caste it became an unfit receptacle for the sacred food eaten at the caste feast1 which bound its members together in one body4 ,this appears to be the object of the rules about food4 ,and since the blood of the clan and of the caste is communicated by descent through the father under the patriarchal system1 adultery on the part of a married woman would bring a stranger into the group and undermine its corporate existence and unity4 ,hence the severity of the punishment for the adultery of a married woman1 which is a special feature of the patriarchal system4 ,it has already been seen that under the rule of female descent1 as shown by ,mr4 ,hartland in ,primitive ,paternity1 the chastity of women was as a rule scarcely regarded at all or even conceived of4 ,after the change to the patriarchal system a similar laxity seems to have prevailed for some period1 and it was thought that any child born to a man in his house or on his bed was his own1 even though he might not be the father4 ,this idea obtained among the ,arabs1 as pointed out by ,professor ,robertson ,smith in ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 and is also found in the ,hindu classics1 and to some extent even in modern practice4 ,it was perhaps based on the virtue assigned to concrete facts2 just as the ,hindus think that a girl is properly married by going through the ceremony with an arrow or a flower1 and that the fact of two children being suckled by the same woman1 though she is not their mother1 establishes a tie akin to consanguinity between them1 so they might have thought that the fact of a boy being born in a man's house constituted him the man's son4 ,subsequently1 however1 the view came to be held that the clan blood was communicated directly through the father1 to whom the life of the child was solely assigned in the early patriarchal period4 ,and the chastity of married women then became of vital importance to the community1 because the lack of it would cause strangers to be born into the clan1 which now based its tie of kinship on descent from a common male ancestor4 ,thus the adultery of women became a crime which would undermine the foundations of society and the state1 and as such was sometimes punished with death among communities in the early patriarchal stage4 ,it is this view1 and not simply moral principle1 which has led to the severe caste penalties for the offence4 ,some of the primitive tribes care nothing about the chastity of unmarried girls1 but punish unfaithful wives rigorously4 ,among the ,maria ,gonds a man will murder his wife for infidelity1 but girls are commonly unchaste4 ,another rule sometimes found is that an unmarried girl becoming with child by an outsider is put out of caste for the time4 ,when her child1 which does not belong to the caste1 has been born1 she must make it over to some outside family1 and she herself can then be readmitted to the community4 ,out of the view of adultery as a religious and social offence1 a moral regard for chastity is however developing among the ,hindus as it has in other societies4 #id4 ,the status of impurity4 ,it has been seen that the ,sudras as well as the plebeians were regarded as impure1 and the reason was perhaps that they were considered to belong to a hostile god4 ,by their participation in the sacrifice and partaking of the sacrificial food1 the ,indian ,aryans and other races considered that they were not only in fellowship with1 but actually a part of the god4 ,and similarly their enemies were part of the substance of a hostile god1 whose very existence and contact were abhorrent to their own4 ,hence their enemies should as far as possible be completely exterminated1 but when this was impossible they must dwell apart and not pollute by contact of their persons1 or in any other way1 the sacred soil on which the gods dwelt1 nor the persons of those who became part of the substance of the god by participation in the sacrificial meal4 ,for this reason the plebeians had to live outside the ,roman city1 which was all sacred ground1 and the ,sudras and modern impure castes have to live outside the village1 which is similarly sacred as the abode of the earth-goddess in her form of the goddess of the land of that village4 ,for the same reason their contact had to be avoided by those who belonged to the village and were united to the goddess by partaking of the crops which she brought forth on her land4 ,as already seen1 the belief existed that the life and qualities could be communicated by contact1 and in this case the worshippers would assimilate by contact the life of a god hostile to their own4 ,in the same manner1 as shown by ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach in ,cults1 ,myths and ,religions1 all the weapons1 clothes and material possessions of the enemy were considered as impure1 perhaps because they also contained part of the life of a hostile god4 ,as already seen1 #bch a man's clothing and weapons were considered to contain part of his life by contact1 and since the man was united to the god by partaking of the sacrificial feast1 all the possessions of the enemy might be held to participate in the life of the hostile god1 and hence they could not be preserved1 nor taken by the victors into their own houses or dwellings4 ,this was the offence which ,achan committed when he hid in his tent part of the spoils of ,jericho2 and in consequence ,jehovah ceased to be with the children of ,israel when they went up against ,ai1 that is ceased to be in them1 and they could not stand before the enemy4 ,achan and his family were stoned and his property destroyed by fire and the impurity was removed4 ,for the same reason the ancient ,gauls and ,germans destroyed all the spoils of war or burned them1 or buried them in lakes where they are still found4 ,at a later stage the ,romans1 instead of destroying the spoils of war1 dedicated them to their own gods1 perhaps as a visible sign of the conquest and subjection of the enemy's gods2 and they were hung in temples or on oak-trees1 where they could not be touched except in the very direst need1 as when ,rome was left without arms after ,cannae4 ,subsequently the spoils were permitted to decorate the houses of the victorious generals1 where they remained sacred and inviolable heirlooms4 #bci #ie4 ,caste and ,hinduism4 ,in ,the ,religions of ,india ,m4 ,barth defined a ,hindu as a man who has a caste3 ',the man who is a member of a caste is a ,hindu2 he who is not1 is not a ,hindu4' ,his definition remains perhaps the best4 ,there is practically no dogma which is essential to ,hinduism1 nor is the veneration of any deity or sacred object either necessary or heretical4 ,as has often been pointed out1 there is no assembly more catholic or less exclusive than the ,hindu pantheon4 ,another writer has said that the three essentials of a ,hindu are to be a member of a caste1 to venerate ,brahmans1 and to hold the cow sacred4 ,of the latter two1 the veneration of ,brahmans cannot be considered indispensable2 for there are several sects1 as the ,lingayats1 the ,bishnois1 the ,manbhaos1 the ,kabirpanthis and others1 who expressly disclaim any veneration for ,brahmans1 and1 in theory at least1 make no use of their services2 and yet the members of these sects are by common consent acknowledged as ,hindus4 ,the sanctity of the bull and cow is a more nearly universal dogma1 and extends practically to all ,hindus1 except the impure castes4 ,these latter should not correctly be classed as ,hindus2 the very origin of their status is1 as has been seen1 the belief that they are the worshippers of gods hostile to ,hinduism4 ,but still they must now practically be accounted as ,hindus4 ,they worship the ,hindu gods1 standing at a distance when they are not allowed to enter the temples1 perform their ceremonies by ,hindu rites1 and employ ,brahmans for fixing auspicious days1 writing the marriage invitation and other business1 which the ,brahman is willing to do for a consideration1 so long as he does not have to enter their houses4 ,some of the impure castes eat beef1 while others have abandoned it in order to improve their social position4 ,at the other end of the scale are many well-educated ,hindu gentlemen who have no objection to eat beef and may often have done so in ,england1 though in ,india they may abstain out of deference to the prejudices of their relatives1 especially the women4 ,and ,hindus of all castes are beginning to sell worn-out cattle to the butchers for slaughter without scruple--an offence which fifty years ago would have entailed permanent expulsion from caste4 ,the reverence for the cow is thus not an absolutely essential dogma of ,hinduism1 though it is the nearest approach to one4 ,as a definition or test of ,hinduism it is1 however1 obviously inadequate4 ,caste1 on the other hand1 regulates the whole of a ,hindu's life1 his social position and1 usually1 his occupation4 ,it is the only tribunal which punishes religious and social offences1 and when a man is out of caste he has1 for so long as this condition continues1 no place in ,hinduism4 ,theoretically he cannot eat with any other ,hindu nor marry his child to any ,hindu4 ,if he dies out of caste the caste-men will not bury or burn his body1 which is regarded as impure4 ,the binding tie of caste is1 according to the argument given above1 the communal meal or feast of grain cooked with water1 and this1 it would therefore seem1 may correctly be termed the chief religious function of ,hinduism4 ,caste also obtains among the ,jains and ,sikhs1 but ,sikhism is really little more than a ,hindu sect1 while the ,jains1 who are nearly all ,banias1 scarcely differ from ,vaishnava ,hindu ,banias1 and have accepted caste1 though it is not in accordance with the real tenets of their religion4 ,the lower industrial classes of ,muhammadans have also formed castes in imitation of the ,hindus4 ,many of these are however the descendants of converted ,hindus1 and nearly all of them have a number of ,hindu practices4 #if4 ,the ,hindu reformers4 ,there have not been wanting reformers in ,hinduism1 and the ultimate object of their preaching seems to have been the abolition of the caste system4 ,the totem-clans1 perhaps1 supposed that each species of animals and plants which they distinguished had a different kind of life1 the qualities of each species being considered as part of its life4 ,this belief may have been the original basis of the idea of difference of blood arising from nobility of lineage or descent1 and it may also have been that from which the theory of caste distinctions was derived4 ,though the sacrificial food of each caste is the same1 yet its members may have held themselves to be partaking of a different sacrificial feast and absorbing a different life2 just as the sacrificial feasts and the gods of the different ,greek and ,latin city-states were held to be distinct and hostile1 and a citizen of one state could not join in the sacrificial feast of another1 though the gods and sacrificial animals might be as a matter of fact the same4 ,and the earth-goddess of each village was a separate form or part of the goddess1 so that her land should only be tilled by the descendants of the cultivators who were in communion with her4 ,the severe caste penalties attached to getting vermin in a wound1 involving a long period of complete ostracism and the most elaborate ceremonies of purification1 may perhaps be explained by the idea that the man so afflicted has in his body an alien and hostile life which is incompatible with his forming part of the common life of the caste or subcaste4 ,the leading feature of the doctrines of the ,hindu reformers has been that there is only one kind of life1 which extends through the whole of creation and is all equally precious4 ,everything that lives has a spark of the divine life and hence should not be destroyed4 ,the belief did not extend to vegetable life1 perhaps because the true nature of the latter was by then partly realised1 while if the consumption of vegetable life had been prohibited the sect could not have existed4 ,the above doctrine will be recognised as a comparatively simple and natural expansion of the beliefs that animals have self-conscious volitional life and that each species of animals consists of one common life distributed through its members4 ,if the true nature of individual animals and plants had been recognised from the beginning1 it is difficult to see how the idea of one universal life running through them all could have been conceived and have obtained so large a degree of acceptance4 ,as the effect of such a doctrine was that all men were of the same blood and life1 its necessary consequence was the negation of caste distinctions4 ,the transmigration of souls followed as a moral rule apportioning reward and punishment for the actions of men4 ,the soul passed through a cycle of lives1 and the location or body of its next life1 whether an animal of varying importance or meanness1 or a human being in different classes of society1 was determined by its good or evil actions in previous lives4 ,finally1 those souls which had been purified of all the gross qualities appertaining to the body were released from the cycle of existence and reabsorbed into the divine centre or focus of life4 ,in the case of the ,buddhists and ,jains the divine centre of life seems to have been conceived of impersonally4 ,the leading authorities on ,buddhism state that its founder's doctrine was pure atheism1 but one may suggest that the view seems somewhat improbable in the case of a religion promulgated at so early a period4 ,and on such a hypothesis it is difficult to understand either the stress laid on the escape from life as the highest aim or the sanctity held to attach to all kinds of animal life4 ,but these doctrines follow naturally on the belief in a divine centre or focus of life from which all life emanates for a time1 to be ultimately reabsorbed4 ,the ,vaishnava reformers1 who arose subsequently1 took the sun or the spirit of the sun as the divine source of all life4 ,they also preached the sanctity of animal life1 the transmigration of souls1 and the final absorption of the purified soul into the divine centre of life4 ,the abolition of caste was generally a leading feature of their doctrine and may have been its principal social aim4 ,the survival of the individual soul was not a tenet of the earlier reformers1 though the later ones adopted it1 perhaps in response to the growing perception of individuality4 ,but even now it is doubtful how far the separate existence of the individual soul after it has finally left the world is a religious dogma of the ,hindus4 ,the basis of ,hindu asceticism is the necessity of completely freeing the soul or spirit from all the appetites and passions of the body before it can be reabsorbed into the god4 ,those who have so mortified the body that the life merely subsists in it1 almost unwillingly as it were1 and absolutely unaffected by human desires or affections or worldly events1 have rendered their individual spark of life capable of being at once absorbed into the divine life and equal in merit to it1 while still on earth4 ,thus ,hindu ascetics in the last or perfect stage say1 ',i am ,god1' or ',i am ,siva1' and are revered by their disciples and the people as divine4 ,both the ,buddhists and ,jains lay the same stress on the value of asceticism as enabling the soul to attain perfection through complete detachment from the appetites and passions of the body and the cares of the world2 and the deduction therefore seems warranted that the end of the perfect soul would be a similar reabsorption in the divine soul4 #ig4 ,decline of the caste system4 ,the caste system has maintained its vigour unimpaired either by the political vicissitudes and foreign invasions of ,india or by ,muhammadan persecution4 ,except where it has been affected by ,european education and inventions1 ,hindu society preserved until recently a remarkably close resemblance to that of ancient ,greece and ,rome in the classical period4 ,but several signs point to the conclusion that the decay of caste as the governing factor of ,indian society is in sight4 ,the freedom in selection of occupation which now obtains appears to strike at the root of the caste system1 because the relative social status and gradation of castes is based on their traditional occupations4 ,when in a large number of the principal castes the majority of the members have abandoned their traditional occupation and taken freely to others1 the relative status of castes becomes a fiction1 which1 though it has hitherto subsisted1 cannot apparently be indefinitely maintained4 ,the great extension of education undertaken by ,government and warmly advocated by the best ,indian opinion exercises an analogous influence4 ,education is free to all1 and1 similarly1 in the careers which it opens to the most successful boys there is no account of caste4 ,thus members of quite low castes obtain a good social position and1 as regards them personally1 the prejudices and contempt for their caste necessarily fall into abeyance4 ,the process must1 probably1 in time extend to general social toleration4 ,the educated classes are also coming to regard the restrictions on food and drink1 and on eating and drinking with others1 as an irksome and unnecessary bar to social intercourse1 and are gradually abandoning them4 ,this tendency is greatly strengthened by the example and social contact of ,europeans4 ,finally1 the facilities for travelling and the democratic nature of modern travel have a very powerful effect4 ,the great majority of ,hindus of all castes are obliged by their comparative poverty to avail themselves of the cheap third-class fares1 and have to rub shoulders together in packed railway carriages4 ,soon they begin to realise that this does them no harm1 and get accustomed to it1 with the result that the prejudices about bodily contact tend to disappear4 ,the opinion has been given that the decline of social exclusiveness in ,england was largely due to the introduction of railway travelling4 ,taking account of all these influences1 and assuming their continuance1 the inference may safely be drawn that the life of the ,indian caste system is limited1 though no attempt can be made to estimate the degree of its vitality1 nor to predict the form and constitution of the society which will arise on its decay4 ,,articles ,,on ,,religions ,,and ,,sects ,arya ,samaj ,bibliography3 ,sir ,e4,d4 ,maclagan's ,punjab ,census ,report of #ahia2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,burn's ,united ,provinces ,census ,report of #aija2 ,professor ,j4 ,c4 ,oman's ,cults1 ,customs and ,superstitions of ,india4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,the founder of the sect1 ,dayanand ,saraswati4 #b4 ,his methods and the scientific interpretation of the ,vedas4 #c4 ,tenets of the ,samaj4 #d4 ,modernising tendencies4 #e4 ,aims and educational institutions4 #f4 ,prospects of the sect4 #a4 ,the founder of the sect1 ,dayanand ,saraswati4 ,arya ,samaj ,religion4--,this important reforming sect of ,hinduism numbered nearly #bej1jjj persons in ,india in #aiaa1 as against #ib1jjj in #aija4 ,its adherents belong principally to the ,punjab and the ,united ,provinces4 ,in the ,central ,provinces #igd members were returned4 ,the sect was founded by ,pandit ,dayanand ,saraswati1 a ,gujarati ,brahman1 born in #ahbd4 ,according to his own narrative he had been carefully instructed in the ,vedas1 which means that he had been made to commit a great portion of them to memory1 and had been initiated at an early age into the ,saiva sect to which his family belonged2 but while still a mere boy his mind had revolted against the practices of idolatry4 ,he could not bring himself to acknowledge that the image of ,siva seated on his bull1 the helpless idol1 which1 as he himself observed in the watches of the night1 allowed the mice to run over it with impunity1 ought to be worshipped as the omnipotent deity4 #bdj ,he also conceived an intense aversion to marriage1 and fled from home in order to avoid the match which had been arranged for him4 ,he was attracted by the practice of ,yoga1 or ascetic philosophy1 and studied it with great ardour1 claiming to have been initiated into the highest secrets of ,yoga ,vidya4 ,he tells in one of his books of his many and extensive travels1 his profound researches in ,sanskritic lore1 his constant meditations and his ceaseless inquirings4 ,he tells how1 by dissecting in his own rough way a corpse which he found floating on a river1 he finally discerned the egregious errors of the ,hindu medical treatises1 and1 tearing up his books in disgust1 flung them into the river with the mutilated corpse4 ,by degrees he found reason to reject the authority of all the sacred books of the ,hindus subsequent to the ,vedas4 ,once convinced of this1 he braced himself to a wonderful course of missionary effort1 in which he formulated his new system and attacked the existing orthodox ,hinduism4 #bda ,he maintained that the ,vedas gave no countenance to idolatry1 but inculcated monotheism1 and that their contents could be reconciled with all the results of modern science1 which indeed he held to be indicated in them4 ,the ,arya ,samaj was founded in ,lahore in #ahgg1 and during the remainder of his life ,dayanand travelled over northern ,india continually preaching and disputing with the advocates of other religions1 and founding branches of his sect4 ,in #ahhc he died at ,ajmer1 according to the story of his followers1 from the effects of poison administered to him at the instigation of a prostitute against whose profession he had been lecturing4 #bdb #b4 ,his methods and the scientific interpretation of the ,vedas4 ,dayanand's attempt to found a sect which1 while not going entirely outside ,hinduism1 should prove acceptable to educated ,hindus desiring a purer faith1 appears to have been distinctly successful4 ,the leaders of the ,brahmo ,samaj were men of higher intelligence and ability than he1 and after scrupulously fair and impartial inquiry were led to deny the infallibility of the ,vedas1 while they also declined to recognise caste4 ,but by so doing they rendered it impossible for a man to become a ,brahmo and remain a ,hindu1 and their movement has made little headway4 ,by retaining the tenet of the divine authority of the ,vedas1 ,dayanand made it possible for educated ,hindus to join his sect without absolutely cutting themselves adrift from their old faith4 ,but ,dayanand's contention that the ,vedas should be figuratively interpreted1 and are so found to foreshadow the discoveries of modern science1 will naturally not bear examination4 ,the following instances of the method are given by ,professor ,oman3 ,at one of the anniversary meetings of the society a member gravely stated that the ,vedas mentioned pure fire1 and as pure fire was nothing but electricity1 it was evident that the ,indians of the ,vedic period were acquainted with electricity4 ,a leading member of the sect1 who had studied science in the ,government college1 discovered in two ,vedic texts1 made up of only eighteen words in all1 that oxygen and hydrogen with their characteristic properties were known to the writers of the ,rig ,veda1 who were also acquainted with the composition of water1 the constitution of the atmosphere1 and had anticipated the modern kinetic theory of gases4 #bdc ,mr4 ,burn gives the following parallel versions of a verse of the ,rig ,veda by ,professor ,max ,mller and the late ,pandit ,guru ,datt1 ,m4,a41 of the ,arya ,samaj3 ,professor ,max ,mller4--,may ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,aryaman1 ,ayu1 ,indra1 the ,lord of the ,ribhus1 and the ,maruts not rebuke us because we shall proclaim at the sacrifice the virtues of the swift horse sprung from the ,gods4 ,pandit ,guru ,datt4--,we shall describe the power-generating virtues of the energetic horses endowed with brilliant properties 7or the virtues of the vigorous force of heat7 which learned or scientific men can evoke to work for purposes of appliances4 ,let not philanthropists1 noble men1 judges1 learned men1 rulers1 wise men and practical mechanics ever disregard these properties4 ,in fact1 the learned ,pandit has interpreted horse as horse-power4 #c4 ,tenets of the ,samaj4 ,nevertheless the ,arya ,samaj does furnish a haven for educated ,hindus who can no longer credit ,hindu mythology1 but do not wish entirely to break away from their religion2 a step which1 involving also the abandonment of caste1 would in their case mean the cessation to a considerable extent of social and family intercourse4 ,the present tenets and position of the ,arya ,samaj as given to ,professor ,oman by ,lala ,lajpat ,rai #bdd indicate that1 while tending towards the complete removal of the over-swollen body of ,hindu ritual and the obstacles to social progress involved in the narrow restrictions of the caste system1 the sect at present permits a compromise and does not require of its proselytes a full abjuration4 ,in theory members of any religion may be admitted to the ,samaj1 and a few ,muhammadans have been initiated1 but unless they renounce ,islam do not usually participate in social intercourse4 ,sikhs are freely admitted1 and converts from any religion who accept the purified ,hinduism of the ,samaj are welcome4 ,such converts go through a simple ceremony of purification1 for which a ,brahman is usually engaged1 though not required by rule4 ,those who1 as ,hindus1 wore the sacred thread are again invested with it1 and it has also been conferred on converts1 but this has excited opposition4 ,a few marriages between members of different subcastes have been carried out1 and in the case of orphan girls adopted into the ,samaj caste1 rules have been set aside and they have been married to members of other castes4 ,lavish expenditure on weddings is discouraged4 ,vishnu and ,siva are accepted as alternative names of the one ,god2 but their reputed consorts ,kali1 ,durga1 ,devi1 and so on1 are not regarded as deities4 ,brahmans are usually employed for ceremonies1 but these may also1 especially birth and funeral ceremonies1 be performed by non-,brahmans4 ,in the ,punjab members of the ,samaj of different castes will take food together1 but rarely in the ,united ,provinces4 ,dissension has arisen on the question of the consumption of flesh1 and the ,samaj is split into two parties1 vegetarians and meat-eaters4 ,in the ,united ,provinces1 ,mr4 ,burn states1 the vegetarian party would not object to employ men of low caste as cooks1 excepting such impure castes as ,chamars1 ,doms and sweepers1 so long as they were also vegetarians4 ,the ,aryas still hold the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and venerate the cow1 but they do not regard the cow as divine4 ,in this respect their position has been somewhat modified from that of ,dayanand1 who was a vigorous supporter of the ,gaoraksha or cow-protection movement4 #d4 ,modernising tendencies4 ,again ,dayanand enunciated a very peculiar doctrine on ,niyoga or the custom of childless women1 either married or widows1 resorting to men other than their husbands for obtaining an heir4 ,this is permitted under certain circumstances by the ,hindu lawbooks4 ,dayanand laid down that a ,hindu widow might resort in succession to five men until she had borne each of them two children1 and a married woman might do the same with the consent of her husband1 or without his consent if he had been absent from home for a certain number of years1 varying according to the purpose for which he was absent4 #bde ,dayanand held that this rule would have beneficial results4 ,those who could restrain their impulses would still be considered as following the best way2 but for the majority who could not do so1 the authorised method and degree of intimacy laid down by him would prevent such evils as prostitution1 connubial unfaithfulness1 and the secret liaisons of widows1 resulting in practices like abortion4 ,the prevalence of such a custom would1 however1 certainly do more to injure social and family life than all the evils which it was designed to prevent1 and it is not surprising to find that the ,samaj does not now consider ,niyoga an essential doctrine2 instead of this they are trying in face of much opposition to introduce the natural and proper custom of the remarriage of widows4 ,the principal rite of the ,samaj is the old ,hom sacrifice of burning clarified butter1 grain1 and various fragrant gums and spices on the sacred fire1 with the repetition of ,sanskrit texts4 ,they now explain this by saying that it is a sanitary measure1 designed to purify the air4 ,the ,samaj does not believe in any literal heaven and hell1 but considers these as figurative expressions of the state of the soul1 whether in this life or the life to come4 ,the ,aryas therefore do not perform the shradhh ceremony nor offer oblations to the dead1 and in abolishing these they reduce enormously the power and influence of the priesthood4 #e4 ,aims and educational institutions4 ,the above account indicates that the ,arya ,samaj is tending to become a vaguely theistic sect4 ,its religious observances will probably fall more and more into the background1 and its members will aspire to observe in their conduct the code of social morality obtaining in ,europe1 and to regulate their habit of life by similar considerations of comfort and convenience4 ,already the principal aims of the ,samaj tend mainly to the social improvement of its members and their fellow-,indians4 ,it sets its face against child-marriage1 and encourages the remarriage of widows4 ,it busies itself with female education1 with orphanages and schools1 dispensaries and public libraries1 and philanthropic institutions of all sorts4 #bdf ,its avowed aim is to unite and regenerate the peoples of ,aryavarrta or ,india4 ,as one of its own poets has said3 #bdg ,ah6 long have ye slept1 ,sons of ,india1 too long6 ,your country degenerate1 your morals all wrong4 ,its principal educational institutions are the ,dayanand ,anglo-,vedic ,college at ,lahore and the ,anglo-,vedic ,school at ,meerut1 a large orphanage at ,bareilly1 smaller ones at ,allahabad and ,cawnpore1 and a number of primary schools4 ,it employs a body of travelling teachers or ,upadeshaks to make converts1 and in the famine of #aijj took charge of as many famine orphans as the ,local ,governments would entrust to it1 in order to prevent them from being handed over to ,christian missionaries4 ,all members of the ,samaj are expected to contribute one per cent of their incomes to the society1 and a large number of them do this4 ,the ,arya ,samaj has been accused of cherishing political aims and of anti-,british propaganda1 but the writers quoted in this article unite in acquitting it of such a charge as an institution1 though some of its members have been more or less identified with the ,extremist party4 ,from the beginning1 however1 and apparently up to the present time1 its religious teaching has been directed to social and not to political reform1 and so long as it adheres to this course its work must be considered to be useful and praiseworthy4 ,nevertheless some danger may perhaps exist lest the boys educated in its institutions may with youthful intemperance read into the instruction of their teachers more than it is meant to convey1 and divert exhortations for social improvement and progress to political ends4 #f4 ,prospects of the sect4 ,the census of #aiaa showed the ,arya ,samaj to be in a flourishing and progressive condition4 ,there seems good reason to suppose that its success may continue1 as it meets a distinct religious and social requirement of educated ,hindus4 ,narsinghpur is the principal centre of the sect in the ,central ,provinces1 and here an orphanage is maintained with about thirty inmates2 the local members have an ata fund1 to which they daily contribute a handful of flour1 and this accumulates and is periodically made over to the orphanage4 ,there is also a ,vedic school at ,narsinghpur1 and a ,sanskrit school has been started at ,drug4 #bdh ,brahmo ,samaj ,bibliography3 ,professor ,j4 ,c4 ,oman's ,brahmans1 ,theists and ,muslims of ,india 7#aijg72 ,cults1 ,customs and ,superstitions of ,india 7#aijh72 ,rev4 ,f4 ,lillingston's ,brahmo ,samaj and ,arya ,samaj 7#aija74 ,the following brief account is simply compiled from the above works and makes no pretence to be critical4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 founder of the sect4 #b4 ,much esteemed by the ,english4 #c4 ,foundation of the ,brahmo ,samaj4 #d4 ,debendra ,nath ,tagore4 #e4 ,keshub ,chandar ,sen4 #f4 ,the ,civil ,marriage ,act4 #g4 ,keshub ,chandar's relapse into mysticism4 #h4 ,recent history of the ,samaj4 #i4 ,character of the movement4 #a4 ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 founder of the sect4 ,brahmo ,samaj ,religion4--,this monotheistic sect of ,bengal numbered only thirty-two adherents in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa1 of whom all or nearly all were probably ,bengalis4 ,nevertheless its history is of great interest as representing an attempt at the reform and purification of ,hinduism under the influence of ,christianity4 ,the founder of the sect1 ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 a ,brahman1 was born in #aggb and died in ,england in #ahcc4 ,he was sent to school at ,patna1 where under the influence of ,muhammadan teachers he learnt to despise the extravagant stories of the ,puranas4 ,at the age of sixteen he composed a tract against idolatry1 which stirred up such a feeling of animosity against him that he had to leave his home4 ,he betook himself first to ,benares1 where he received instruction in the ,vedas from the ,brahmans4 ,from there he went to ,tibet1 that he might learn the tenets of ,buddhism from its adherents rather than its opponents2 his genuine desire to form a fair judgment of the merits of every creed being further evidenced by his learning the language in which each of these finds its expression3 thus he learnt ,sanskrit that he might rightly understand the ,vedas1 ,pali that he might read the ,buddhist ,tripitaka1 ,arabic as the key to the ,koran1 and ,hebrew and ,greek for the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 #bdi ,in #ahai1 after a diligent study of the ,bible1 he published a book entitled ,the ,precepts of ,jesus1 the ,guide to ,peace and ,happiness4 ,although this work was eminently appreciative of the character and teaching of ,christ1 it gave rise to an attack from the missionaries of ,serampore4 ,strange to say1 ,ram ,mohan ,roy so far converted his tutor ,mr4 ,adam 7himself a missionary7 to his own way of thinking that that gentleman relinquished his spiritual office1 became editor of the ,indian ,gazette1 and was generally known in ,calcutta as ',the second fallen ,adam4' #bej #b4 ,much esteemed by the ,english4 ,ram ,mohan ,roy was held in great esteem by his ,english contemporaries in ,india4 ,he dispensed in charities the bulk of his private means1 living himself with the strictest economy in order that he might have the more to give away4 ,it was to a considerable extent due to his efforts1 and more especially to his demonstration that the practice of ,sati found no sanction in the ,vedas1 that this abominable rite was declared illegal by ,lord ,william ,bentinck in #ahbi4 ,the titular emperor of ,delhi conferred the title of ,raja upon him in #ahcj and induced him to proceed to ,england on a mission to the ,home ,government4 ,he was the first ,brahman who had crossed the sea1 and his distinguished appearance1 agreeable manners1 and undoubtedly great ability1 coupled with his sympathy for ,christianity1 procured him a warm welcome in ,england1 where he died in #ahcc4 #bea #c4 ,foundation of the ,brahmo ,samaj4 ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 with the help of a few friends and disciples1 founded1 in #ahcj1 the ,brahmo ,samaj or ,society of ,god4 ,in the trust deed of the meeting-house it was laid down that the society was founded for the worship and adoration of the eternal1 unsearchable and immutable ,being who is the ,author and ,preserver of the ,universe1 but not by any other name1 designation or title peculiarly used by any men or set of men2 and that in conducting the said worship and adoration1 no object1 animate or inanimate1 that has been or is or shall hereafter become 444 an object of worship by any men or set of men1 shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously spoken of or alluded to either in preaching1 or in the hymns or other mode of worship that may be delivered or used in the said messuage or building4 #beb ,this well exemplifies the broad toleration and liberality of the sect4 ,the service in the new theistic church consisted in the recital of the ,vedas by two ,telugu ,brahmans1 the reading of texts from the ,upanishads1 and the expounding of the same in ,bengali4 ,the ,samaj1 thus constituted1 based its teaching on the ,vedas and was at this time1 though unorthodox1 still a ,hindu sect1 and made no attempt at the abolition of caste4 ,indeed1 in establishing this sect1 ,ram ,mohan ,roy professed to be leading his countrymen back to the pure1 uncorrupted1 monotheistic religion of their ,vedic ancestors2 but his monotheism1 based1 as it was1 essentially upon the ,vedanta philosophy1 was in reality but a disguised ,pantheism1 enriched as regards its ethics by ideas derived from ,muslim and ,christian literature and theology4 #bec #d4 ,debendra ,nath ,tagore4 ,after the death of its founder the sect languished for a period of ten years until it was taken in hand by ,debendra ,nath ,tagore1 whose father ,dwarka ,nath had been a friend and warm admirer of ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 and had practically maintained the society by paying its expenses during the interval4 ,in #ahdc ,debendra drew up a form of initiation which involved the renunciation of idolatry4 ,he established branches of the ,brahmo ,samaj in many towns and villages of ,bengal1 and in #ahde he sent four ,pandits to ,benares to copy out and make a special study of the ,vedas4 ,on their return to ,calcutta after two years ,debendra ,nath devoted himself with their aid to a diligent and critical study of the sacred books1 and eventually1 after much controversy and even danger of disruption1 the ,samaj1 under his guidance1 came to the important decision that the teaching of the ,vedas could not be reconciled with the conclusions of modern science or with the religious convictions of the ,brahmos1 a result which soon led to an open and public denial of the infallibility of the ,vedas4 ,there is nothing1 ,professor ,oman remarks1 in the ,brahmic movement more creditable to the parties concerned than this honest and careful inquiry into the nature of the doctrines and precepts of the ,vedas4 #bed #e4 ,keshub ,chandar ,sen4 ,the tenets of the ,brahmo ,samaj consisted at this time of a pure theism1 without special reliance on the ,hindu sacred books or recognition of such ,hindu doctrines as the transmigration of souls4 ,but in their ordinary lives its members still conformed generally to the caste practices and religious usages of their neighbours4 ,but a progressive party now arose under the leadership of ,keshub ,chandar ,sen1 a young man of the ,vaidya caste1 which desired to break altogether with ,hinduism1 abolish the use of sect marks and the prohibition of intermarriage between castes1 and to welcome into the community converts from all religions4 ,meanwhile ,debendra ,nath ,tagore had spent three years in seclusion in the ,himalayas1 occupied with meditation and prayer2 on his return he acceded so far to the views of ,keshub ,chandar ,sen as to celebrate the marriage of his daughter according to a reformed theistic ritual2 but when his friend pressed for the complete abolition of all caste restrictions1 ,debendra ,nath refused his consent and retired once more to the hills4 #bee ,the result was a schism in the community1 and in #ahff the progressive party seceded and set up a ,samaj of their own1 calling themselves the ,brahmo ,samaj of ,india1 while the conservative group under ,debendra ,nath ,tagore was named the ,adi or original ,samaj4 ,in #aije the latter was estimated to number only about #cjj persons4 #bef ,keshub ,chandar ,sen had been educated in the ,presidency ,college1 ,calcutta1 and being more familiar with ,english and the ,bible than with the ,sanskrit language and ,vedic literature1 he was filled with deep enthusiastic admiration of the beauty of ,christ's character and teaching4 #beg ,he had shown a strong passion for the stage and loved nothing better than the plays of ,shakespeare4 ,he was fond of performing himself1 and especially delighted in appearing in the role of a magician or conjurer before his family and friends4 ,the new sect took up the position that all religions were true and worthy of veneration4 ,at the inaugural meeting1 texts from the sacred scriptures of the ,christians1 ,hindus1 ,muhammadans1 ,parsis and ,chinese were publicly read1 in order to mark and to proclaim to the world the catholicity of spirit in which it was formed4 #beh ,keshub by his writings and public lectures kept himself prominently before the ,indian world1 enlisting the sympathies of the ,viceroy 7,sir ,john ,lawrence7 by his tendencies towards ,christianity4 #f4 ,the ,civil ,marriage ,act4 ,by this time several marriages had been performed according to the revised ritual of the ,brahmic ,church1 which had given great offence to orthodox ,hindus and exposed the participators in these novel rites to much obloquy4 ,the legality of marriages thus contracted had even been questioned4 ,to avoid this difficulty ,keshub induced ,government in #ahgb to pass the ,native ,marriage ,act1 introducing for the first time the institution of civil marriage into ,hindu society4 ,the ,act prescribed a form of marriage to be celebrated before the ,registrar for persons who did not profess either the ,hindu1 the ,muhammadan1 the ,parsi1 the ,sikh1 the ,jaina or the ,buddhist religion1 and who were neither ,christians nor ,jews2 and fixed the minimum age for a bridegroom at eighteen and for a bride at fourteen4 ,only six years later1 however1 ,keshub ,chandar ,sen committed the fatal mistake of ignoring the law which he had himself been instrumental in passing3 he permitted the marriage of his daughter1 below the age of fourteen1 to the young ,maharaja of ,kuch ,bihar1 who was not then sixteen years of age4 #bei ,this event led to a public censure of ,keshub ,chandar ,sen by his community and the secession of a section of the members1 who formed the ,sadharan or ,universal ,brahmo ,samaj4 ,the creed of this body consisted in the belief in an infinite ,creator1 the immortality of the soul1 the duty and necessity of the spiritual worship of ,god1 and disbelief in any infallible book or man as a means of salvation4 #bfj #g4 ,keshub ,chandar's relapse into mysticism4 ,from about this period1 or a little before1 ,keshub ,chandar ,sen appears to have attempted to make a wider appeal to ,indians by developing the emotional side of his religion4 ,and he gradually relapsed from a pure unitarian theism into what was practically ,hindu pantheism and the mysticism of the ,yogis4 ,at the same time he came to consider himself an inspired prophet1 and proclaimed himself as such4 ,the following instances of his extravagant conduct are given by ,professor ,oman4 #bfa ,in #ahgc he brought forward the doctrine of ,adesh or special inspiration1 declaring emphatically that inspiration is not only possible1 but a veritable fact in the lives of many devout souls in this age4 ,the following years witnessed a marked development of that essentially ,asiatic and perhaps more especially ,indian form of religious feeling1 which finds its natural satisfaction in solitary ecstatic contemplation4 ,as a necessary consequence an order of devotees was established in #ahgf1 divided into three main classes1 which in ascending gradation were designated ,shabaks1 ,bhaktas and ,yogis4 ,the lowest class1 divided into two sections1 is devoted to religious study and the practical performance of religious duties1 including doing good to others4 ,the aspiration of the ,bhakta is 444 ',inebriation in ,god4 ,he is most passionately fond of ,god and delights in loving ,him and all that pertains to ,him4444 ,the very utterance of the divine name causes his heart to overflow and brings tears of joy to his eyes4' ,as for the highest order of devotees1 the ,yogis1 ',they live in the spirit-world and readily commune with spiritual realities4 ,they welcome whatever is a help to the entire subjugation of the soul1 and are always employed in conquering selfishness1 carnality and worldliness4 ,they are happy in prayer and meditation and in the study of nature4' ,the new dispensation having come into the world to harmonise conflicting creeds and regenerate mankind1 must have its outward symbol1 its triumphal banner floating proudly on the joyful air of highly-favoured ,india4 ,a flag was therefore made and formally consecrated as ',the ,banner of the ,new ,dispensation4' ,this emblem of ',regenerated and saving theism' the new prophet himself formed with a yak's tail and kissed with his own inspired lips4 ,in orthodox ,hindu fashion his missionaries--apostles of the new ,dispensation--went round it with lights in their hands1 while his less privileged followers respectfully touched the sacred pole and humbly bowed down to it4 ,in a word1 the banner was worshipped as ,hindu idols are worshipped any day in ,india4 ,carried away by a spirit of innovation1 anxious to keep himself prominently before the world1 and realising no doubt that since churches and sects do not flourish on intellectual pabulum only1 certain mystic rites and gorgeous ceremonials were necessary to the success of the new ,dispensation1 ,keshub introduced into his ,church various observances which attracted a good deal of attention and did not escape criticism4 ,on one occasion he went with his disciples in procession1 singing hymns1 to a stagnant tank in ,calcutta1 and made believe that they were in ,palestine and on the side of the ,jordan4 ,standing near the tank ,keshub said1 ',beloved brethren1 we have come into the land of the ,jews1 and we are seated on the bank of the ,jordan4 ,let them that have eyes see4 ,verily1 verily1 here was the ,lord ,jesus baptised eighteen hundred years ago4 ,behold the holy waters wherein was the ,son of ,god immersed4' ,we learn also that ,keshub and his disciples attempted to hold communication with saints and prophets of the olden time1 upon whose works and teaching they had been pondering in retirement and solitude4 ,on this subject the following notice appeared in the ,sunday ,mirror3 ',it is proposed to promote communion with departed saints among the more advanced ,brahmos4 ,with a view to achieve this object successfully ancient prophets and saints will be taken one after another on special occasions and made the subject of close study1 meditation and prayer4 ,particular places will also be assigned to which the devotees will resort as pilgrims4 ,there for hours together they will try to draw inspiration from particular saints4 ,we believe a spiritual pilgrimage to ,moses will be shortly undertaken4 ,only earnest devotees ought to join4' #h4 ,recent history of the ,samaj4 ,keshub ,chandar ,sen died in #ahhd1 and the ,brahmo ,samaj seems subsequently to have returned more or less to its first position of pure theism coupled with ,hindu social reform4 ,his successor in the leadership of the sect was ,babu ,p4,c4 ,mazumdar1 who visited ,america and created a favourable impression at the ,parliament of ,religions at ,chicago4 ,under his guidance the ,samaj seems to have gradually drifted towards ,american ,unitarianism1 and to have been supported in no slight degree by funds from the ,united ,states of ,america4 #bfb ,he died in #aije1 and left no one of prominent character and attainments to succeed to the leadership4 ,in #aiaa the adherents of the different branches of the ,samaj numbered at the census only #eejj persons4 #i4 ,character of the movement4 ,the history of the ,brahmo ,samaj is of great interest1 because it was the first attempt at the reform and purification of ,hinduism made under the influence of ,christianity1 the long line of ,vaishnavite reformers who strove to abrogate ,hindu polytheism and the deadening restrictions of caste1 having probably been inspired by the contemplation of ,islam4 ,the ,samaj is further distinguished by the admirable toleration and broadness of view of its religious position1 and by having had for its leaders three men of exceptional character and attainments1 two of whom1 and especially ,keshub ,chandar ,sen1 made a profound impression in ,england among all classes of society4 ,but the failure of the ,samaj to attract any large number of converts from among the ,hindus was only what might have been expected4 ,for it requires its followers practically to cut themselves adrift from family and caste ties and offers nothing in return but an undefined theism1 not calculated to excite any enthusiasm or strong feeling in ordinary minds4 ,its efforts at social reform have probably1 however1 been of substantial value in weakening the rigidity of ,hindu rules on caste and marriage4 ,dadupanthi ,sect4 #bfc ,dadupanthi ,sect4--,one of the sects founded by ,vaishnava reformers of the school of ,kabir2 a few of its members are found in the western ,districts of the ,central ,provinces4 ,dadu was a ,pinjara or cotton-cleaner by caste4 ,he was born at ,ahmadabad in the sixteenth century1 and died at ,narayana in the ,jaipur ,state shortly after ,a4,d4 #afjj4 ,he is said to have been the fifth successor in spiritual inspiration from ,kabir1 or the sixth from ,ramanand4 ,dadu preached the unity of ,god and protested against the animistic abuses which had grown up in ,hinduism4 ,to this day1 writes ,mr4 ,coldstream1 the ,dadupanthis use the words ,sat ,ram1 the ,true ,god1 as a current phrase expressive of their creed4 ,dadu forbade the worship of idols1 and did not build temples2 now temples are built by his followers1 who say they worship in them the ,dadubani or ,sacred ,book4 ,this is what has been done by other sects such as the ,sikhs and ,dhamis1 whose founders eschewed the veneration of idols2 but their uneducated followers could not dispense with some visible symbol for their adoration1 and hence the sacred script has been enthroned in a temple4 ,the worship of the ,dadupanthis1 ,professor ,wilson says1 is addressed to ,rama1 but it is restricted to the ,japa or repetition of his name1 and the ,rama intended is the deity negatively described in the ,vedanta theology4 ,the chief place of worship of the sect is ,narayana1 where ,dadu died4 ,a small building on a hill marks the place of his disappearance1 and his bed and the sacred books are kept there as objects of veneration4 ,like other sects1 the ,dadupanthis are divided into celibate or priestly and lay or householder branches4 ,but they have also a third offshoot1 consisting in the ,naga ,gosains of ,jaipur1 nearly naked ascetics1 who constituted a valuable part of the troops of ,jaipur and other ,states4 ,it is said that the ,nagas always formed the van of the army of ,jaipur4 ,the sect have white caps with four corners and a flap hanging down at the back1 which each follower has to make for himself4 ,to prevent the destruction of animal life entailed by cremation1 the tenets of the sect enjoin that corpses should be laid in the forests to be devoured by birds and beasts4 ,this rule1 however1 is not observed1 and their dead are burnt at early dawn4 ,dhami1 ,prannathi ,sect4 ,dhami1 ,prannathi ,sect4--,a small religious sect or order1 having its headquarters in the ,panna ,state of ,bundelkhand4 ,a few members of the sect are found in the ,saugor and ,damoh ,districts of the ,central ,provinces4 ,the name ,dhami is simply a derivative from dham1 a monastery1 and in northern ,india they are called ,prannathi after their founder4 ,they are also known as ,sathi ,bhai1 brothers in religion1 or simply as ,bhai or brothers4 ,the sect takes its origin from one ,prannath1 a ,rajput who lived in the latter part of ,aurangzeb's reign towards the end of the seventeenth century4 ,he is said to have acquired great influence with ,chatra ,sal1 ,raja of ,panna1 by the discovery of a diamond mine there1 and on this account ,panna was made the home of the sect4 ,prannath was well acquainted with the sacred books of ,islam1 and1 like other ,hindu reformers1 he attempted to propagate a faith which should combine the two religions4 ,to this end he composed a work in ,gujarati called the ,kulzam ,sarup1 in which texts from the ,koran and the ,vedas are brought together and shown not to be incompatible4 ,his creed also proclaimed the abolition of the worship of idols1 and apparently of caste restrictions and the supremacy of ,brahmans4 ,as a test of a disciple's assent to the real identity of the ,hindu and ,muhammadan creeds1 the ceremony of initiation consists in eating in the society of the followers of both religions2 but the amalgamation appears to be carried no further1 and members of the sect continue to follow generally their own religious practices4 ,theoretically they should worship no material objects except the ,founder's ,book of ,faith1 which lies on a table covered with gold cloth in the principal temple at ,panna4 ,but in fact they adore the boy ,krishna as he was at ,mathura1 and in some temples there are images of ,radha and ,krishna1 while in others the decorations are so arranged as to look like an idol from a distance4 ,all temples1 however1 contain a copy of the sacred book1 round which a lighted lamp is waved in the morning and evening4 ,the ,dhamis now say also that their founder ,prannath was an incarnation of ,krishna1 and they observe the ,janam-,ashtami or ,krishna's birthday as their principal festival4 ,they wear the ,radha ,vallabhi tilak or sect-mark1 consisting of two white lines drawn down the forehead from the roots of the hair1 and curving to meet at the top of the nose1 with a small red dot between them4 ,on the cheeks and temples they make rosette-like marks by bunching up the five fingers1 dipping them in a solution of sandalwood and then applying them to the face4 #bfd ,they regard the ,jumna as a sacred river and its water as holy1 no doubt because ,mathura is on its banks1 but pay no reverence to the ,ganges4 ,their priests observe celibacy1 but do not practise asceticism1 and all the ,dhamis are strict vegetarians4 ,there is also a branch of the sect in ,gujarat1 where the founder is known as ,meheraj ,thakur4 ,he appears to have been identical with ,prannath1 and instituted a local headquarters at ,surat4 #bfe ,it is related by ,mr4 ,bhimbhai ,kirparam that ,meheraj ,thakur was himself the disciple of one ,deo ,chand1 a native of ,amarkot in ,sind4 ,the latter was devoted to the study of the ,bhagwat ,puran1 and came to ,jamnagar in ,kathiawar1 where he founded a temple to ,radha and ,krishna4 ,as there is a temple at ,panna consecrated to ,deo ,chand as the ,guru or preceptor of ,prannath1 and as the book of the faith is written in ,gujarati1 the above account would appear to be correct1 and it follows that the sect originated in the worship of ,krishna1 and was refined by ,prannath into a purer form of faith4 ,a number of ,cutchis in ,surat are adherents of the sect1 and usually visit the temple at ,panna on the full-moon day of ,kartik 7,october74 ,curiously enough the sect has also found a home in ,nepal1 having been preached there1 it is said1 by missionary ,dhamis in the time of ,raja ,ram ,bahadur ,shah of ,nepal1 about #aej years ago4 ,its members there are known as ,pranami or ,parnami1 a corruption of ,prannathi and they often come to ,panna to study the sacred book4 ,it is reported that there are usually about forty ,nepalis lodging in the premises of the great temple at ,panna4 #bff ,jain ,religion ,bibliography3 ,the ,jainas1 by ,dr4 ,j4,g4 ,bhler and ,j4 ,burgess1 ,london1 #aijc2 ,the ,religions of ,india1 ,professor ,e4,w4 ,hopkins2 ,the ,religions of ,india1 ,professor ,a4 ,barth2 ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahia71 ,sir ,e4,d4 ,maclagan2 article on ,jainism in ,dr4 ,hastings' ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,numbers and distribution4 #b4 ,the ,jain religion4 ,its connection with ,buddhism4 #c4 ,the ,jain tenets4 ,the ,tirthakars4 #d4 ,the transmigration of souls4 #e4 ,strict rules against taking life4 #f4 ,jain sects4 #g4 ,jain ascetics4 #h4 ,jain subcastes of ,banias4 #i4 ,rules and customs of the laity4 #aj4 ,connection with ,hinduism4 #aa4 ,temples and car festival4 #ab4 ,images of the ,tirthakars4 #ac4 ,religious observances4 #ad4 ,tenderness for animal life4 #ae4 ,social condition of the ,jains4 #a4 ,numbers and distribution4 ,jain4--,the total number of ,jains in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa was #ga1jjj persons4 ,they nearly all belong to the ,bania caste1 and are engaged in moneylending and trade like other ,banias4 ,they reside principally in the ,vindhyan ,districts1 ,saugor1 ,damoh and ,jubbulpore1 and in the principal towns of the ,nagpur country and ,berar4 #b4 ,the ,jain religion4 ,its connection with ,buddhism4 ,the ,jain tenets present marked features of resemblance to ,buddhism1 and it was for some time held that ,jainism was merely a later offshoot from that religion4 ,the more generally accepted view now1 however1 is that the ,jina or prophet of the ,jains was a real historical personage1 who lived in the sixth century ,b4,c41 being a contemporary of ,gautama1 the ,buddha4 ,vardhamana1 as he was commonly called1 is said to have been the younger son of a small chieftain in the province of ,videha or ,tirhut4 ,like ,sakya-,muni the ,buddha or enlightened1 ,vardhamana became an ascetic1 and after twelve years of a wandering life he appeared as a prophet1 proclaiming a modification of the doctrine of his own teacher ,parsva or ,parasnath4 ,from this time he was known as ,mahavira1 the great hero1 the same name which in its familiar form of ,mahabir is applied to the god ,hanuman4 ,the title of ,jina or victorious1 from which the ,jains take their name1 was subsequently conferred on him1 his sect at its first institution being called ,nirgrantha or ascetic4 ,there are very close resemblances in the traditions concerning the lives of ,vardhamana and ,gautama or ,buddha4 ,both were of royal birth2 the same names recur among their relatives and disciples2 and they lived and preached in the same part of the country1 ,bihar and ,tirhut4 #bfg ,vardhamana is said to have died during ,buddha's lifetime1 the date of the latter's death being about #dhj ,b4,c4 #bfh ,their doctrines also1 with some important differences1 present1 on the whole1 a close resemblance4 ,like the ,buddhists1 the ,jains claim to have been patronised by the ,maurya princes4 ,while ,asoka was mainly instrumental in the propagation of ,buddhism over ,india1 his grandfather ,chandragupta is stated to have been a ,jain1 and his grandson ,sampadi also figures in ,jain tradition4 ,a district which is a holy land for one is almost always a holy land for the other1 and their sacred places adjoin each other in ,bihar1 in the peninsula of ,gujarat1 on ,mount ,abu in ,rajputana and elsewhere4 #bfi ,the earliest of the ,jain books belongs to the sixth century ,a4,d41 the existence of the ,nirgrantha sect in ,buddha's lifetime being proved by the ,cingalese books of the ,buddhists1 and by references to it in the inscriptions of ,asoka and others4 #bgj ,while then ,m4 ,barth's theory that ,jainism was simply a later sect of ,buddhism has been discarded by subsequent scholars1 it seems likely that several of the details of ,vardhamana's life now recorded in the ,jain books are not really authentic1 but were taken from that of ,buddha with necessary alterations1 when the true facts about their own prophet had been irrevocably lost4 #c4 ,the ,jain tenets4 ,the ,tirthakars4 ,like the ,buddhists1 the ,jains recognise no creator of the world1 and suppose it to have existed from eternity4 ,similarly1 they had originally no real god1 but the ,jina or victor1 like the ,buddha or ,enlightened ,one1 was held to have been an ordinary mortal man1 who by his own power had attained to omniscience and freedom1 and out of pity for suffering mankind preached and declared the way of salvation which he had found4 #bga ,this doctrine1 however1 was too abstruse for the people1 and in both cases the prophet himself gradually came to be deified4 ,further1 in order perhaps to furnish objects of worship less distinctively human and to whom a larger share of the attributes of deity could be imputed1 in both religions a succession of mythical predecessors of the prophet was gradually brought into existence4 ,the ,buddhists recognise twenty-five ,buddhas or divine prophets1 who appeared at long epochs of time and taught the same system one after another2 and the ,jains have twenty-four ,tirthakars or ,tirthankars1 who similarly taught their religion4 ,of these only ,vardhamana1 its real founder1 who was the twenty-fourth1 and possibly ,parsva or ,parasnath1 the twenty-third and the founder's preceptor1 are or may be historical4 ,the other twenty-two ,tirthakars are purely mythical4 ,the first1 ,rishaba1 was born more than #ajj billion years ago1 as the son of a king of ,ajodhya2 he lived more than #h million years1 and was #ejj bow-lengths in height4 ,he therefore is as superhuman as any god1 and his date takes us back almost to eternity4 ,the others succeeded each other at shorter intervals of time1 and show a progressive decline in stature and length of life4 ,the images of the ,tirthakars are worshipped in the ,jain temples like those of the ,buddhas in ,buddhist temples4 ,as with ,buddhism also1 the main feature of ,jain belief is the transmigration of souls1 and each successive incarnation depends on the sum of good and bad actions or karman in the previous life4 ,they hold also the primitive animistic doctrine that souls exist not only in animals and plants but in stones1 lumps of earth1 drops of water1 fire and wind1 and the human soul may pass even into these if its sins condemn it to such a fate4 #bgb #d4 ,the transmigration of souls4 ,the aim which ,jainism1 like ,buddhism1 sets before its disciples is the escape from the endless round of successive existences1 known as ,samsara1 through the extinction of the karman or sum of actions4 ,this is attained by complete subjection of the passions and destruction of all desires and appetites of the body and mind1 that is1 by the most rigid asceticism1 as well as by observing all the moral rules prescribed by the religion4 ,it was the ,jina or prophet who showed this way of escape1 and hence he is called ,tirthakar or ',the ,finder of the ,ford1' through the ocean of existence4 #bgc ,but ,jainism differs from ,buddhism in that it holds that the soul1 when finally emancipated1 reaches a heaven and there continues for ever a separate intellectual existence1 and is not absorbed into ,nirvana or a state of blessed nothingness4 #e4 ,strict rules against taking life4 ,the moral precepts of the ,jains are of the same type as those of ,buddhism and ,vaishnavite ,hinduism1 but of an excessive rigidity1 at any rate in the case of the ,yatis or ,jatis1 the ascetics4 ,they promise not to hurt1 not to speak untruths1 to appropriate nothing to themselves without permission1 to preserve chastity and to practise self-sacrifice4 ,but these simple rules are extraordinarily expanded on the part of the ,jains4 ,thus1 concerning the oath not to hurt1 on which the ,jains lay most emphasis3 it prohibits not only the intentional killing or injuring of living beings1 plants or the souls existing in dead matter1 but requires also the utmost carefulness in the whole manner of life1 and a watchfulness also over all movements and functions of the body by which anything living might be hurt4 ,it demands1 finally1 strict watch over the heart and tongue1 and the avoidance of all thoughts and words which might lead to disputes and quarrels1 and thereby do harm4 ,in like manner the rule of sacrifice requires not only that the ascetic should have no houses or possessions1 but he must also acquire a complete unconcern towards agreeable or disagreeable impressions1 and destroy all feelings of attachment to anything living or dead4 #bgd ,similarly1 death by voluntary starvation is prescribed for those ascetics who have reached the ,kewalin or brightest stage of knowledge1 as the means of entering their heaven4 ,owing to the late date of the ,jain scriptures1 any or all of its doctrines may have been adopted from ,buddhism between the commencement of the two religions and the time when they were compiled4 ,the ,jains did not definitely abolish caste1 and hence escaped the persecution to which ,buddhism was subjected during the period of its decline from the fifth or sixth century ,a4,d4 ,on account of this trouble many ,buddhists became ,jains1 and hence a further fusion of the doctrines of the rival sects may have ensued4 ,the ,digambara sect of ,jains agree with the ,buddhists in holding that women cannot attain ,nirvana or heaven1 while the ,swetambara sect say that they can1 and also admit women as nuns into the ascetic order4 ,the ,jain scripture1 the ,yogashastra1 speaks of women as the lamps that burn on the road that leads to the gates of hell4 #f4 ,jain sects4 ,the ,jains are divided into the above two principal sects1 the ,digambara and the ,swetambara4 ,the ,digambara are the more numerous and the stricter sect4 ,according to their tenets death by voluntary starvation is necessary for ascetics who would attain heaven1 though of course the rule is not now observed4 ,the name ,digambara signifies sky-clad1 and ,swetambara white-clad4 ,formerly the ,digambara ascetics went naked1 and were the gymnosophists of the ,greek writers1 but now they take off their clothes1 if at all1 only at meals4 ,the theory of the origin of the two sects is that ,parasnath1 the twenty-third ,tirthakar1 wore clothes1 while ,mahavira the twenty-fourth did not1 and the two sects follow their respective examples4 ,the ,digambaras now wear ochre-coloured cloth1 and the ,swetambaras white4 ,the principal difference at present is that the images in ,digambara temples are naked and bare1 while those of the ,swetambaras are clothed1 presumably in white1 and also decorated with jewellery and ornaments4 ,the ,digambara ascetics may not use vessels for cooking or holding their food1 but must take it in their hands from their disciples and eat it thus2 while the ,swetambara ascetics may use vessels4 ,the ,digambara1 however1 do not consider the straining-cloth1 brush1 and gauze before the mouth essential to the character of an ascetic1 while the ,swetambara insist on them4 ,there is in the ,central ,provinces another small sect called ,channagri or ,samaiya1 and known elsewhere as ,dhundia4 ,these do not put images in their temples at all1 but only copies of the ,jain sacred books1 and pay reverence to them4 ,they will1 however1 worship in regular ,jain temples at places where there are none of their own4 #g4 ,jain ascetics4 ,the initiation of a ,yati or ,jati1 a ,jain ascetic1 is thus described3 ,it is frequent for ,banias who have no children to vow that their first-born shall be a ,yati4 ,such a boy serves a novitiate with a guru or preceptor1 and performs for him domestic offices2 and when he is old enough and has made progress in his studies he is initiated4 ,for this purpose the novice is carried out of the tower with music and rejoicing in procession1 followed by a crowd of ,sravakas or ,jain laymen1 and taken underneath the banyan1 or any other tree the juice of which is milky4 ,his hair is pulled out at the roots with five pulls2 camphor1 musk1 sandal1 saffron and sugar are applied to the scalp2 and he is then placed before his guru1 stripped of his clothes and with his hands joined4 ,a text is whispered in his ear by the guru1 and he is invested with the clothes peculiar to ,yatis2 two cloths1 a blanket and a staff2 a plate for his victuals and a cloth to tie them up in2 a piece of gauze to tie over his mouth to prevent the entry of insects2 a cloth through which to strain his drinking-water to the same end2 and a broom made of cotton threads or peacock feathers to sweep the ground before him as he walks1 so that his foot may not crush any living thing4 ,the duty of the ,yati is to read and explain the sacred books to the ,sravakas morning and evening1 such functions being known as ,sandhya4 ,his food consists of all kinds of grain1 vegetables and fruit produced above the earth2 but no roots such as yams or onions4 ,milk and ghi are permitted1 but butter and honey are prohibited4 ,some strict ,yatis drink no water but what has been first boiled1 lest they should inadvertently destroy any insect1 it being less criminal to boil them than to destroy them in the drinker's stomach4 ,a ,yati having renounced the world and all civil duties can have no family1 nor does he perform any office of mourning or rejoicing4 #bge ,a ,yati was directed to travel about begging and preaching for eight months in the year1 and during the four rainy months to reside in some village or town and observe a fast4 ,the rules of conduct to be observed by him were extremely strict1 as has already been seen4 ,those who observed them successfully were believed to acquire miraculous powers4 ,he who was a ,siddh or victor1 and had overcome his ,karma or the sum of his human actions and affections1 could read the thoughts of others and foretell the future4 ,he who had attained ,kewalgyan1 or the state of perfect knowledge which preceded the emancipation of the soul and its absorption into paradise1 was a god on earth1 and even the gods worshipped him4 ,wherever he went all plants burst into flower and brought forth fruit1 whether it was their season or not4 ,in his presence no animal bore enmity to another or tried to kill it1 but all animals lived peaceably together4 ,this was the state attained to by each ,tirthakar during his last sojourn on earth4 ,the number of ,jain ascetics seems now to be less than formerly and they are not often met with1 at least in the ,central ,provinces4 ,they do not usually perform the function of temple priest4 #h4 ,jain subcastes of ,banias4 ,practically all the ,jains in the ,central ,provinces are of the ,bania caste4 ,there is a small subcaste of ,jain ,kalars1 but these are said to have gone back to ,hinduism4 #bgf ,of the ,bania subcastes who are ,jains the principal are the ,parwar1 ,golapurab1 ,oswal and ,saitwal4 ,saraogi1 the name for a ,jain layman1 and ,charnagar1 a sect of ,jains1 are also returned as subcastes of ,jain ,banias4 ,other important subcastes of ,banias1 as the ,agarwal and ,maheshri1 have a ,jain section4 ,nearly all ,banias belong to the ,digambara sect1 but the ,oswal are ,swetambaras4 ,they are said to have been originally ,rajputs of ,os or ,osnagar in ,rajputana1 and while they were yet ,rajputs a ,swetambara ascetic sucked the poison from the wound of an ,oswal boy whom a snake had bitten1 and this induced the community to join the ,swetambara sect of the ,jains4 #bgg #i4 ,rules and customs of the laity4 ,the ,jain laity are known as ,shrawak or ,saraogi1 learners4 ,there is comparatively little to distinguish them from their ,hindu brethren4 ,their principal tenet is to avoid the destruction of all animal1 including insect life1 but the ,hindu ,banias are practically all ,vaishnavas1 and observe almost the same tenderness for animal life as the ,jains4 ,the ,jains are distinguished by their separate temples and method of worship1 and they do not recognise the authority of the ,vedas nor revere the lingam of ,siva4 ,consequently they do not use the ,hindu sacred texts at their weddings1 but repeat some verses from their own scriptures4 ,these weddings are said to be more in the nature of a civil contract than of a religious ceremony4 ,the bride and bridegroom walk seven times round the sacred post and are then seated on a platform and promise to observe certain rules of conduct towards each other and avoid offences4 ,it is said that formerly a ,jain bride was locked up in a temple for the first night and considered to be the bride of the god4 ,but as scandals arose from this custom1 she is now only locked up for a minute or two and then let out again4 ,jain boys are invested with the sacred thread on the occasion of their weddings or at twenty-one or twenty-two if they are still unmarried at that age4 ,the thread is renewed annually on the day before the full moon of ,bhadon 7,august71 after a ten days' fast in honour of ,anant ,nath ,tirthakar4 ,the thread is made by the ,jain priests of tree cotton and has three knots4 ,at their funerals the ,jains do not shave the moustaches off as a rule1 and they never shave the choti or scalp-lock1 which they wear like ,hindus4 ,they give a feast to the caste-fellows and distribute money in charity1 but do not perform the ,hindu shraddh or offering of sacrificial cakes to the dead4 ,the ,agarwal and ,khandelwal ,jains1 however1 invoke the spirits of their ancestors at weddings4 ,traces of an old hostility between ,jains and ,hindus survive in the ,hindu saying that one should not take refuge in a ,jain temple1 even to escape from a mad elephant2 and in the rule that a ,jain beggar will not take alms from a ,hindu unless he can perform some service in return1 though it may not equal the value of the alms4 #aj4 ,connection with ,hinduism4 ,in other respects the ,jains closely resemble the ,hindus4 ,brahmans are often employed at their weddings1 they reverence the cow1 worship sometimes in ,hindu temples1 go on pilgrimages to the ,hindu sacred places1 and follow the ,hindu law of inheritance4 ,the ,agarwal ,bania ,jains and ,hindus will take food cooked with water together and intermarry in ,bundelkhand1 although it is doubtful whether they do this in the ,central ,provinces4 ,in such a case each party pays a fine to the ,jain temple fund4 ,in respect of caste distinctions the ,jains are now scarcely less strict than the ,hindus4 ,the different ,jain subcastes of ,banias coming from ,bundelkhand will take food together as a rule1 and those from ,marwar will do the same4 ,the ,khandelwal and ,oswal ,jain ,banias will take food cooked with water together when it has been cooked by an old woman past the age of child-bearing1 but not that cooked by a young woman4 ,the spread of education has awakened an increased interest among the ,jains in their scriptures and the tenets of their religion1 and it is quite likely that the tendency to conform to ,hinduism in caste matters and ceremonies may receive a check on this account4 #bgh #aa4 ,temple and car festival4 ,the ,jains display great zeal in the construction of temples in which the images of the ,tirthakars are enshrined4 ,the temples are commonly of the same fashion as those of the ,hindus1 with a short1 roughly conical spire tapering to a point at the apex1 but they are frequently adorned with rich carved stone and woodwork4 ,there are fine collections of temples at ,muktagiri in ,betul1 ,kundalpur in ,damoh1 and at ,mount ,abu1 ,girnar1 the hill of ,parasnath in ,chota ,nagpur1 and other places in ,india4 ,the best ,jain temples are often found in very remote spots1 and it is suggested that they were built at times when the ,jains had to hide in such places to avoid ,hindu persecution4 ,and wherever a community of ,jain merchants of any size has been settled for a generation or more several fine temples will probably be found4 ,a ,jain ,bania who has grown rich considers the building of one or more temples to be the best method of expending his money and acquiring religious merit1 and some of them spend all their fortune in this manner before their death4 ,at the opening of a new temple the rath or chariot festival should be held4 ,wooden cars are made1 sometimes as much as five stories high1 and furnished with chambers for the images of the ,tirthakars4 ,in these the idols of the hosts and all the guests are placed4 ,each car should be drawn by two elephants1 and the procession of cars moves seven times round the temple or pavilion erected for the ceremony4 ,for building a temple and performing this ceremony honorary and hereditary titles are conferred4 ,those who do it once receive the designation of ,singhai2 for carrying it out twice they become ,sawai ,singhai2 and on a third occasion ,seth4 ,in such a ceremony performed at ,khurai in ,saugor one of the participators was already a ,seth1 and in recognition of his great liberality a new title was devised and he became ,srimant ,seth4 ,it is said1 however1 that if the car breaks and the elephants refuse to move1 the title becomes derisive and is either ',lule ,singhai1' the lame one1 or ',arku ,singhai1' the stumbler4 ,if no elephants are available and the car has to be dragged by men1 the title given is ,kadhore ,singhai4 #ab4 ,images of the ,tirthakars4 ,in the temples are placed the images of ,tirthakars1 either of brass1 marble1 silver or gold4 ,the images may be small or life-size or larger1 and the deities are represented in a sitting posture with their legs crossed and their hands lying upturned in front1 the right over the left1 in the final attitude of contemplation prior to escape from the body and attainment of paradise4 ,there may be several images in one temple1 but usually there is only one1 though a number of temples are built adjoining each other or round a courtyard4 ,the favourite ,tirthakars found in temples are ,rishab ,deva1 the first2 ,anantnath1 the fourteenth2 ,santnath1 the sixteenth2 ,nemnath1 the twenty-second2 ,parasnath1 the twenty-third2 and ,vardhamana or ,mahavira1 the twenty-fourth4 #bgi ,as already stated only ,mahavira and perhaps ,parasnath1 his preceptor1 were real historical personages1 and the remainder are mythical4 ,it is noticeable that to each of the ,tirthakars is attached a symbol1 usually in the shape of an animal1 and also a tree1 apparently that tree under which the ,tirthakar is held to have been seated at the time that he obtained release from the body4 ,and these animals and trees are in most cases those which are also revered and held sacred by the ,hindus4 ,thus the sacred animal of ,rishab ,deva is the bull1 and his tree the banyan2 that of ,anantnath is the falcon or bear1 and his tree the holy ,asoka2 #bhj that of ,santnath is the black-buck or ,indian antelope1 and his tree the tun or cedar2 #bha the symbol of ,nemnath is the conch shell 7sacred to ,vishnu71 but his tree1 the vetasa1 is not known2 the animal of ,parasnath is the serpent or cobra and his tree the dhataki2 #bhb and the animal of ,mahavira is the lion or tiger and his tree the teak tree4 ,among the symbols of the other ,tirthakars are the elephant1 horse1 rhinoceros1 boar1 ape1 the ,brahmani duck1 the moon1 the pipal tree1 the lotus and the swastik figure2 and among their trees the mango1 the jamun #bhc and the champak4 #bhd ,most of these animals and trees are sacred to the ,hindus1 and the elephant1 boar1 ape1 cobra and tiger were formerly worshipped themselves1 and are now attached to the principal ,hindu gods4 ,similarly the asoka1 pipal1 banyan and mango trees are sacred1 and also the ,brahmani duck and the swastik sign4 ,it cannot be supposed that the ,tirthakars simply represent the deified anthropomorphic emanations from these animals1 because the object of ,vardhamana's preaching was perhaps like that of ,buddha to do away with the promiscuous polytheism of the ,hindu religion4 ,but nevertheless the association of the sacred animals and trees with the ,tirthakars furnished a strong connecting link between them and the ,hindu gods1 and considerably lessens the opposition between the two systems of worship4 ,the god ,indra is also frequently found sculptured as an attendant guardian in the ,jain temples4 ,the fourteenth ,tirthakar1 ,anantnath1 is especially revered by the people because he is identified with ,gautama ,buddha4 #ac4 ,religious observances4 ,the priest of a ,jain temple is not usually a ,yati or ascetic1 but an ordinary member of the community4 ,he receives no remuneration and carries on his business at the same time4 ,he must know the ,jain scriptures1 and makes recitations from them when the worshippers are assembled4 ,the ,jain will ordinarily visit a temple and see the god every morning before taking his food1 and his wife often goes with him4 ,if there is no temple in their own town or village they will go to another1 provided that it is within a practicable distance4 ,the offerings made at the temple consist of rice1 almonds1 cocoanuts1 betel-leaves1 areca1 dates1 cardamoms1 cloves and similar articles4 ,these are appropriated by the ,hindu ,mali or gardener1 who is the menial servant employed to keep the temple and enclosures clean4 ,the ,jain will not take back or consume himself anything which has been offered to the god4 ,offerings of money are also made1 and these go into the bhandar or fund for maintenance of the temple4 ,the ,jains observe fasts for the last week before the new moon in the months of ,phagun 7,february71 ,asarh 7,june7 and ,kartik 7,october74 ,they also fast on the second1 fifth1 eighth1 eleventh and fourteenth days in each fortnight of the four months of the rains from ,asarh to ,kartik1 this being in lieu of the more rigorous fast of the ascetics during the rains4 ,on these days they eat only once1 and do not eat any green vegetables4 ,after the week's fast at the end of ,kartik1 at the commencement of the month of ,aghan1 the ,jains begin to eat all green vegetables4 #ad4 ,tenderness for animal life4 ,the great regard for animal life is the most marked feature of the ,jain religion among the laity as well as the clergy4 ,the former do not go to such extremes as the latter1 but make it a practice not to eat food after sunset or before sunrise1 owing to the danger of swallowing insects4 ,now that their beliefs are becoming more rational1 however1 and the irksome nature of this rule is felt1 they sometimes place a lamp with a sieve over it to produce rays of light1 and consider that this serves as a substitute for the sun4 ,formerly they maintained animal hospitals in which all kinds of animals and reptiles1 including monkeys1 poultry and other birds were kept and fed1 and any which had broken a limb or sustained other injuries were admitted and treated4 ,these were known as pinjrapol or places of protection4 #bhe ,a similar institution was named jivuti1 and consisted of a small domed building with a hole at the top large enough for a man to creep in1 and here weevils and other insects which the ,jains might find in their food were kept and provided with grain4 #bhf ,in ,rajputana1 where rich ,jains probably had much influence1 considerable deference was paid to their objections to the death of any living thing4 ,thus a ,mewar edict of ,a4,d4 #afic directed that no one might carry animals for slaughter past their temples or houses4 ,any man or animal led past a ,jain house for the purpose of being killed was thereby saved and set at liberty4 ,traitors1 robbers or escaped prisoners who fled for sanctuary to the dwelling of a ,jain ,yati or ascetic could not be seized there by the officers of the court4 ,and during the four rainy months1 when insects were most common1 the potter's wheel and ,teli's oil-press might not be worked on account of the number of insects which would be destroyed by them4 #bhg #ae4 ,social condition of the ,jains4 ,as they are nearly all of the ,bania caste the ,jains are usually prosperous1 and considering its small size1 the standard of wealth in the community is probably very high for ,india1 the total number of ,jains in the country being about half a million4 ,beggars are rare1 and1 like the ,parsis and ,europeans1 the ,jains feeling themselves a small isolated body in the midst of a large alien population1 have a special tenderness for their poorer members1 and help them in more than the ordinary degree4 ,most of the ,jain ,banias are grain-dealers and moneylenders like other ,banias4 ,cultivation is prohibited by their religion1 owing to the destruction of animal life which it involves1 but in ,saugor1 and also in the north of ,india1 many of them have now taken to it1 and some plough with their own hands4 ,mr4 ,marten notes #bhh that the ,jains are beginning to put their wealth to a more practical purpose than the lavish erection and adornment of temples4 ,schools and boarding-houses for boys and girls of their religion are being opened1 and they subscribe liberally for the building of medical institutions4 ,it may be hoped that this movement will continue and gather strength1 both for the advantage of the ,jains themselves and the country generally4 ,kabirpanthi ,bibliography3 ,right ,reverend ,g4 ,h4 ,westcott1 ,kabir and the ,kabirpanth1 ,cawnpore1 #aijg2 ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #ec-ge 7,wilson's ,hindu ,sects72 ,mr4 ,crooke's ,tribes and ,castes1 article ,kabirpanthi2 ,central ,provinces ,census ,report 7#ahia71 ,sir ,b4 ,robertson4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,life of ,kabir4 #b4 ,kabir's teachings4 #c4 ,his sayings4 #d4 ,the ,kabirpanthi sect in the ,central ,provinces4 #e4 ,the religious service4 #f4 ,initiation4 #g4 ,funeral rites4 #h4 ,idol worship4 #i4 ,statistics of the sect4 #a4 ,life of ,kabir4 ,kabirpanthi ,sect4--,a well-known religious sect founded by the reformer ,kabir1 who flourished in the fifteenth century1 and is called by ,dr4 ,hunter the ,luther of ,india4 ,the sect has now split into two branches1 the headquarters of one of these being at ,benares1 and of the other at ,kawardha1 or ,damakheda in ,raipur4 ,bishop ,westcott gives the date of ,kabir's life as ,a4,d4 #addj--aeah1 while ,mr4 ,crooke states that he flourished between #adhh and #aeab4 ,numerous legends are now told about him2 thus1 according to one of these1 he was the son of a virgin ,brahman widow1 who had been taken at her request to see the great reformer ,ramanand4 ,he1 unaware of her condition1 saluted her with the benediction which he thought acceptable to all women1 and wished her the conception of a son4 ,his words could not be recalled1 and the widow conceived1 but1 in order to escape the disgrace which would attach to her1 exposed the child1 who was ,kabir4 ,he was found by a ,julaha or ,muhammadan weaver and his wife1 and brought up by them4 ,the object of this story is probably to connect ,kabir with ,ramanand as his successor in reformation and spiritual heir2 because the ,ramanandis are an orthodox ,vaishnava sect1 while the ,kabirpanthis1 if they adhered to all ,kabir's preaching1 must be considered as quite outside the pale of ,hinduism4 ,to make out that ,kabir came into the world by ,ramanand's act provides him at any rate with an orthodox spiritual lineage4 ,for the same reason #bhi the date of ,kabir's birth is sometimes advanced as early as #acih in order to bring it within the period of ,ramanand's lifetime 7circa #acjj-adjj74 ,another story is that the deity took mortal shape as a child without birth1 and was found by a newly-married weaver's wife lying in a lotus flower on a tank1 like ,moses in the bulrushes4 ,bishop ,westcott thus describes the event3 ,a feeling of thirst overcame ,nima1 the newly-wedded wife of ,niru1 the weaver1 as after the marriage ceremony she was making her way to her husband's house4 ,she approached the tank1 but was much afraid when she there beheld the child4 ,she thought in her heart1 ',this is probably the living evidence of the shame of some virgin widow4' ,niru suggested that they might take the child to their house1 but ,nima at first demurred1 thinking that such action might give rise to scandal4 ,women would ask1 ',who is the mother of a child so beautiful that its eyes are like the lotus8' ,however1 laying aside all fears1 they took pity on the child4 ,on approaching the house they were welcomed with the songs of women1 but when the women saw the child dark thoughts arose in their heads1 and they began to ask1 ',how has she got this child8' ,nima replied that she had got the child without giving birth to it1 and the women then refrained from asking further questions4 ,it is at any rate a point generally agreed on that ,kabir was brought up in the house of a ,muhammadan weaver4 ,it is said that he became the chela or disciple of ,ramanand1 but this cannot be true1 as ,ramanand was dead before his birth4 ,it seems probable that he was married1 and had two children named ,kamal and ,kamali4 ,bishop ,westcott states #bij that the ,kabir ,kasauti explains the story of his supposed marriage by the fact that he had a girl disciple named ,loi1 a foundling brought up by a holy man2 she followed his precepts1 and coming to ,benares1 passed her time in the service of the saints4 ,afterwards ,kabir raised two children from the dead and gave them to ,loi to bring up1 and the ignorant suppose that these were his wife and children4 ,such a statement would appear to indicate that ,kabir was really married1 but after his sect had become important1 this fact was felt to be a blot on his claim to be a divine prophet1 and so was explained away in the above fashion4 ,the plain speaking of ,kabir and his general disregard for religious conventions excited the enmity of both ,hindus and ,muhammadans1 and he was accused before the ,emperor ,sikandar ,lodi1 by whose orders various attempts were made to kill him2 but he was miraculously preserved in each case1 until at last the ,emperor acknowledged his divine character1 asked his forgiveness1 and expressed his willingness to undergo any punishment that he might name4 ,to this ,kabir replied that a man should sow flowers for those who had sown him thorns4 ,bishop ,westcott continues3--,all accounts agree that the earthly life of ,kabir came to a close at ,maghar1 in the ,district of ,gorakhpur4 ,tradition relates that ,kabir died in extreme old age1 when his body had become infirm and his hands were no longer able to produce the music with which he had in younger days celebrated the praises of ,rama4 ,a difficulty arose with regard to the disposal of his body after death4 ,the ,muhammadans desired to bury it and the ,hindus to cremate it4 ,as the rival parties discussed the question with growing warmth ,kabir himself appeared and bade them raise the cloth in which the body lay enshrouded4 ,they did as he commanded1 and lo6 beneath the cloth there lay but a heap of flowers4 ,of these flowers the ,hindus removed half and burnt them at ,benares1 while what remained were buried at ,maghar by the ,muhammadans4 #b4 ,kabir's teachings4 ,the religion preached by ,kabir was of a lofty character4 ,he rejected the divine inspiration of the ,vedas and the whole ,hindu mythology4 ,he taught that there was no virtue in outward observances such as shaving the head1 ceremonial purity and impurity1 and circumcision among ,muhammadans4 ,he condemned the worship of idols and the use of sect-marks and religious amulets1 but in all ordinary matters allowed his followers to conform to usage in order to avoid giving offence4 ,he abolished distinctions of caste4 ,he enjoined a virtuous life1 just conduct and kindly behaviour and much meditation on the virtues of ,god4 ,he also condemned the love of money and gain4 ,in fact1 in many respects his creed resembles ,christianity1 just as the life of ,kabir contains one or two episodes parallel to that of ,christ4 ,he prescribed obedience to the ,guru or spiritual preceptor in all matters of faith and morals4 ,his religion appears to have been somewhat of a pantheistic character and his idea of the deity rather vague4 ,but he considered that the divine essence was present in all human beings1 and apparently that those who freed themselves from sin and the trammels of worldly desires would ultimately be absorbed into the godhead4 ,it does not seem that ,kabir made any exact pronouncement on the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and re-birth1 but as he laid great stress on avoiding the destruction of any animal life1 a precept which is to some extent the outcome of the belief in transmigration1 he may have concurred in this tenet4 ,some ,kabirpanthis1 however1 have discarded transmigration4 ,bishop ,westcott states that they do believe in the re-birth of the soul after an intervening period of reward or punishment1 but always apparently in a human body4 #c4 ,his sayings ,he would seem never to have promulgated any definite account of his own religion1 nor did he write anything himself4 ,he uttered a large number of ,sakhis or apothegms which were recorded by his disciples in the ,bijak1 ,sukhanidhan and other works1 and are very well known and often quoted by ,kabirpanthis and others4 ,the influence of ,kabir extended beyond his own sect4 ,nanak1 the founder of the ,nanakpanthis and ,sikhs1 was indebted to ,kabir for most of his doctrine1 and the ,adi-,granth or first sacred book of the ,sikhs is largely compiled from his sayings4 ,other sects such as the ,dadupanthis also owe much to him4 ,a small selection of his sayings from those recorded by ,bishop ,westcott may be given in illustration of their character3 #a4 ,adding cowrie to cowrie he brings together lakhs and crores4 ,at the time of his departure he gets nothing at all1 even his loin-cloth is plucked away4 #b4 ,fire does not burn it1 the wind does not carry it away1 no thief comes near it2 collect the wealth of the name of ,rama1 that wealth is never lost4 #c4 ,by force and love circumcision is made1 ,i shall not agree to it1 ,o brother4 ,if ,god will make me a ,turk by ,him will ,i be circumcised2 if a man becomes a ,turk by being circumcised what shall be done with a woman8 ,she must remain a ,hindu4 #d4 ,the rosaries are of wood1 the gods are of stone1 the ,ganges and ,jumna are water4 ,rama and ,krishna are dead4 ,the four ,vedas are fictitious stories4 #e4 ,if by worshipping stones one can find ,god1 ,i shall worship a mountain2 better than these stones 7idols7 are the stones of the flour-mill with which men grind their corn4 #f4 ,if by immersion in the water salvation be obtained1 the frogs bathe continually4 ,as the frogs so are these men1 again and again they fall into the womb4 #g4 ,as long as the sun does not rise the stars sparkle2 so long as perfect knowledge of ,god is not obtained1 men practise rites and ceremonies4 #h4 ,brahma is dead with ,siva who lived in ,kashi2 the immortals are dead4 ,in ,mathura1 ,krishna1 the cowherd1 died4 ,the ten incarnations 7of ,vishnu7 are dead4 ,machhandranath1 ,gorakhnath1 ,dattatreya and ,vyas are no longer living4 ,kabir cries with a loud voice1 ,all these have fallen into the slip-knot of death4 #i4 ,while dwelling in the womb there is no clan nor caste2 from the seed of ,brahm the whole of creation is made4 ,whose art thou the ,brahman8 ,whose am ,i the ,sudra8 ,whose blood am ,i8 ,whose milk art thou8 ,kabir says1 ',who reflects on ,brahm1 he by me is made a ,brahman4' #aj4 ,to be truthful is best of all if the heart be truthful4 ,a man may speak as much as he likes2 but there is no pleasure apart from truthfulness4 #aa4 ,if by wandering about naked union with ,hari be obtained2 then every deer of the forest will attain to ,god4 ,if by shaving the head perfection is achieved1 the sheep is saved1 no one is lost4 ,if salvation is got by celibacy1 a eunuch should be the first saved4 ,kabir says1 ',hear1 ,o ,man and ,brother2 without the name of ,rama no one has obtained salvation4' ,the resemblance of some of the above ideas to the teaching of the ,gospels is striking1 and1 as has been seen1 the story of ,kabir's birth might have been borrowed from the ,bible1 while the ,kabirpanthi ,chauka or religious service has one or two features in common with ,christianity4 ,these facts raise a probability1 at any rate1 that ,kabir or his disciples had some acquaintance with the ,bible or with the teaching of ,christian missionaries4 ,if such a supposition were correct1 it would follow that ,christianity had influenced the religious thought of ,india to a greater extent than is generally supposed4 ,because1 as has been seen1 the ,nanakpanthi and ,sikh sects are mainly based on the teaching of ,kabir4 ,another interesting though accidental resemblance is that the religion of ,kabir was handed down in the form of isolated texts and sayings like the ,logia of ,jesus1 and was first reduced to writing in a connected form by his disciples4 ,the fact that ,kabir called the deity by the name of ,rama apparently does not imply that he ascribed a unique and sole divinity to the hero king of ,ajodhia4 ,he had to have some name which might convey a definite image or conception to his uneducated followers1 and may have simply adopted that which was best known and most revered by them4 #d4 ,the ,kabirpanthi ,sect in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the two principal headquarters of the ,kabirpanthi sect are at ,benaires and at ,kawardha1 the capital of the ,state of that name1 or ,damakheda in the ,raipur ,district4 ,these appear to be practically independent of each other1 the head ,mahants exercising separate jurisdiction over members of the sect who acknowledge their authority4 ,the ,benares branch of the sect is known as ,bap 7father7 and the ,kawardha branch as ,mai 7mother74 ,in #aija out of #hej1jjj ,kabirpanthis in ,india #ejj1jjj belonged to the ,central ,provinces4 ,the following account of the practices of the sect in the ,province is partly compiled from local information1 and it differs in some minor1 though not in essential1 points from that given by ,bishop ,westcott4 ,the ,benares church is called the ,kabirchaura ,math and the ,kawardha one the ,dharam ,das ,math4 ,one of the converts to ,kabir's teaching was ,dharam ,das1 a ,kasaundhan ,bania1 who distributed the whole of his wealth1 eighteen lakhs of rupees1 in charity at his master's bidding and became a mendicant4 ,in reward for this ,kabir promised him that his family should endure for forty-two generations4 ,the ,mahants of ,kawardha claim to be the direct descendants of ,dharam ,das4 ,they marry among ,kasaundhan ,banias1 and their sons are initiated and succeed them4 ,the present ,mahants ,dayaram and ,ugranam are twelfth and thirteenth in descent from ,dharam ,das4 ,kabir not only promised that there should be forty-two ,mahants1 but gave the names of each of them1 so that the names of all future ,mahants are known4 #bia ,ugranam was born of a ,marar woman1 and1 though acclaimed as the successor of his father1 was challenged by ,dhirajnam1 whose parentage was legitimate4 ,their dispute led to a case in the ,bombay ,high ,court1 which was decided in favour of ,dhirajnam1 and he accordingly occupied the seat at ,kawardha4 ,dayaram is his successor4 ,but ,dhirajnam was unpopular1 and little attention was paid to him4 ,ugranam lives at ,damakheda1 near ,simga1 #bib and enjoys the real homage of the followers of the sect1 who say that ,dhiraj was the official ,mahant but ,ugra the people's ,mahant4 ,of the previous ,mahants1 four are buried at ,kawardha1 two at ,kudarmal in ,bilaspur1 the site of a ,kabirpanthi fair1 and two at ,mandla4 ,under the head ,mahant are a number of subordinate ,mahants or ,gurus1 each of whom has jurisdiction over the members of the sect in a certain area4 ,the ,guru pays so much a year to the head ,mahant for his letter of jurisdiction and takes all the offerings himself4 ,these subordinate ,mahants may be celibate or married1 and about two-thirds of them are married4 ,a dissenting branch called ,nadiapanthi has now arisen in ,raipur1 all of whom are celibate4 ,the ,mahants have a high peaked cap somewhat of the shape of a mitre1 a long sleeveless white robe1 a chauri or whisk1 chauba or silver stick1 and a staff called kuari or aska4 ,it is said that on one occasion there was a very high flood at ,puri and the sea threatened to submerge ,jagannath's temple1 but ,kabir planted a stick in the sand and said1 ',come thus far and no further1' and the flood was stayed4 ,in memory of this the ,mahants carry the crutched staff1 which also serves as a means of support4 ,when officiating they wear a small embroidered cap4 ,each ,mahant has a ,diwan or assistant1 and he travels about his charge during the open season1 visiting the members of the sect4 ,a ,mahant should not annoy any one by begging1 but rather than do so should remain hungry4 ,he must not touch any flesh1 fish or liquor4 ,and if any living thing is hungry he should give it of his own food4 #e4 ,the religious service4 ,a ,kabirpanthi religious service is called ,chauka1 the name given to the space marked out for it with lines of wheat-flour1 #e or #g #a_/b yards square4 #bic ,in the centre is made a pattern of nine lotus flowers to represent the sun1 moon and seven planets1 and over this a bunch of real flowers is laid4 ,at one corner is a small hollow pillar of dough serving as a candle-stick1 in which a stick covered with cotton-wool burns as a lamp1 being fed with butter4 ,the ,mahant sits at one end and the worshippers sit round4 ,bhajans or religious songs are sung to the music of cymbals by one or two1 and the others repeat the name of ,kabir counting on their kanthi or necklace of beads4 ,the ,mahant lights a piece of camphor and waves it backwards and forwards in a dish4 ,this is called ,arti1 a ,hindu rite4 ,he then breaks a cocoanut on a stone1 a thing which only a ,mahant may do4 ,the flesh of the cocoanut is cut up and distributed to the worshippers with betel-leaf and sugar4 ,each receives it on his knees1 taking the greatest care that none fall on the ground4 ,if any of the cocoanut remain1 it is kept by the ,mahant for another service4 ,the ,hindus think that the cocoanut is a substitute for a human head4 ,it is supposed to have been created by ,viswamitra and the buch or tuft of fibre at the end represents the hair4 ,the ,kabirpanthis will not eat any part of a cocoanut from other ,hindus from which this tuft has been removed1 as they fear that it may have been broken off in the name of some god or spirit4 ,once the buch is removed the cocoanut is not an acceptable offering1 as its likeness to a human head is considered to be destroyed4 ,after this the ,mahant gives an address and an interval occurs4 ,some little time afterwards the worshippers reassemble4 ,meanwhile1 a servant has taken the dough candle-stick and broken it up1 mixing it with fragments of the cocoanut1 butter and more flour4 ,it is then brought to the ,mahant1 who makes it into little puris or wafers4 ,the ,mahant has also a number of betel-leaves known as parwana or message1 which have been blessed by the head guru at ,kawardha or ,damakheda4 ,these are cut up into small pieces for delivery to each disciple and are supposed to represent the body of ,kabir4 ,he has also brought ,charan ,amrita or ,nectar of the ,feet1 consisting of water in which the feet of the head guru have been washed4 ,this is mixed with fine earth and made up into pills4 ,the worshippers reassemble1 any who may feel unworthy absenting themselves1 and each receives from the ,mahant1 with one hand folded beneath the other1 a wafer of the dough1 a piece of the parwana or betel-leaf1 and a pill of the foot-nectar4 ,after partaking of the sacred food they cleanse their hands1 and the proceedings conclude with a substantial meal defrayed either by subscription or by a well-to-do member4 ,bishop ,westcott states that the parwana or betel-leaf is held to represent ,kabir's body1 and the ,kabirpanthis say that the flame of the candle is the life or spirit of ,kabir1 so that the dough of the candle-stick might also be taken to symbolise his body4 ,the cocoanut eaten at the preliminary service is undoubtedly offered by ,hindus as a substitute for a human body1 though the ,kabirpanthis may now disclaim this idea4 ,and the foot-nectar of the guru might be looked upon as a substitute for the blood of ,kabir4 #f4 ,initiation4 ,the initiation of a proselyte is conducted at a similar service1 and he is given cocoanut and betel-leaf4 ,he solemnly vows to observe the rules of the sect1 and the ,mahant whispers a text into his ear and hangs a necklace of wooden beads of the wood of the tulsi or basil round his neck4 ,this kanthi or necklace is the mark of the ,kabirpanthi1 but if lost1 it can be replaced by any other necklace1 not necessarily of tulsi4 ,one man was observed with a necklace of pink beads bought at ,allahabad4 ,sometimes only a single tulsi bead is worn on a string4 ,the convert is also warned against eating the fruit of the gular #bid fig-tree1 as these small figs are always full of insects4 ,kabir condemned sect-marks1 but many ,kabirpanthis now have them1 the mark usually being a single broad streak of white sandalwood from the top of the forehead to the nose4 #g4 ,funeral rites4 ,the ,kabirpanthis are usually buried4 ,formerly1 the bodies of married people both male and female were buried inside the compound of the house1 but this is now prohibited on sanitary grounds4 ,a cloth is placed in the grave and the corpse laid on it and another cloth placed over it covering the face4 ,over the grave a little platform is made on which the ,mahant and two or three other persons can sit4 ,on the twenty-first day after the death1 if possible1 the ,mahant should hold a service for the dead4 ,the form of the service is that already described1 the ,mahant sitting on the grave and the chauka being made in front of it4 ,he lays a cocoanut and flowers on the grave and lights the lamp1 afterwards distributing the cocoanut4 ,the ,kabirpanthis think that the soul of the dead person remains in the grave up to this time1 but when the lamp is burnt the soul mingles with the flame1 which is the soul of ,kabir1 and is absorbed into the deity4 ,when breaking a cocoanut over the grave of the dead the ,kabirpanthis say1 ',i am breaking the skull of ,yama1' because they think that the soul of a ,kabirpanthi is absorbed into the deity and therefore is not liable to be taken down to hell and judged by ,chitragupta and punished by ,yama4 ,from this it would appear that some of them do not believe in the transmigration of souls4 #h4 ,idol worship4 ,ordinarily the ,kabirpanthis have no regular worship except on the occasion of a visit of the guru4 ,but sometimes in the morning they fold their hands and say ',sat ,sahib1' or the ',true ,god1' two or three times4 ,they also clean a space with cowdung and place a lighted lamp on it and say ',jai ,kabir ,ki1' or ',victory to ,kabir4' ,they conceive of the deity as consisting of light1 and therefore it seems probable that1 like the other ,vaishnava sects1 they really take him to be the ,sun4 ,kabir prohibited the worship of all idols and visible symbols1 but as might be expected the illiterate ,kabirpanthis cannot adhere strictly to this4 ,some of them worship the ,bijak1 the principal sacred book of their sect4 ,at ,rudri near ,dhamtari on the ,mahanadi one of the ,gurus is buried1 and a religious fair is held there4 ,recently a platform has been made with a footprint of ,kabir marked on it1 and this is venerated by the pilgrims4 ,similarly1 ,kudarmal is held to contain the grave of ,churaman1 the first guru after ,dharam ,das1 and a religious fair is held here at which the ,kabirpanthis attend and venerate the grave4 ,dharam ,das himself is said to be buried at ,puri1 the site of ,jagannath's temple1 but it seems doubtful whether this story may not have been devised in order to give the ,kabirpanthis a valid reason for going on pilgrimage to ,puri4 ,similarly1 an arch and platform in the court of the temple of ,rama at ,ramtek is considered to belong to the ,kabirpanthis1 though the ,brahmans of the temple say that the arch was really made by the daughter of a ,surajvansi king of the locality in order to fasten her swing to it4 ,once in three years the ,mahar ,kabirpanthis of ,mandla make a sacrificial offering of a goat to ,dulha ,deo1 the bridegroom god1 and eat the flesh1 burying the remains beneath the floor4 ,on this occasion they also drink liquor4 ,other ,kabirpanthis venerate ,brahma1 ,vishnu and ,siva1 and light a lamp and burn camphor in their names1 but do not make idols of them4 ,they will accept the cooked food offered to ,vishnu as ,satnarayan and a piece of the cocoanut kernel offered to ,devi1 but not the offerings to any other deities4 ,and a number even of illiterate ,kabirpanthis appear to abstain from any kind of idol-worship4 #i4 ,statistics of the sect4 ,about #fjj1jjj ,kabirpanthis were returned in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa1 this being equivalent to an increase of #ai per cent since the previous census4 ,as this was less than the increase in the total population the sect appears to be stationary or declining in numbers4 ,the weaving castes are usually ,kabirpanthis1 because ,kabir was a weaver4 ,the ,brahmans call it ',the weaver's religion4' ,of the ,panka caste #hd per cent were returned as members of the sect1 and this caste appears to be of sectarian formation1 consisting of ,pans or ,gandas who have become ,kabirpanthis4 ,other weaving castes such as ,balahis1 ,koris1 ,koshtis and ,mahars belong to the sect in considerable numbers1 and it is also largely professed by other low castes as the ,telis or oilmen1 of whom #af per cent adhere to it1 and by ,dhobis and ,chamars2 and by some castes from whom a ,brahman will take water1 as the ,ahirs1 ,kurmis1 ,lodhis and ,kachhis4 ,though there seems little doubt that one of the principal aims of ,kabir's preaching was the abolition of the social tyranny of the caste system1 which is the most real and to the lower classes the most hateful and burdensome feature of ,hinduism1 yet as in the case of so many other reformers his crusade has failed1 and a man who becomes a ,kabirpanthi does not cease to be a member of his caste or to conform to its observances4 ,and a few ,brahmans who have been converted1 though renounced by their own caste1 have1 it is said1 been compensated by receiving high posts in the hierarchy of the sect4 ,formerly all members of the sect took food together at the conclusion of each ,chauka or service conducted by a ,mahant4 ,but this is no longer the case1 and presumably different ,chaukas are now held for communities of different castes4 ,only on the #acth day of ,bhadon 7,august71 which was the birthday of ,kabir1 as many ,kabirpanthis as can meet at the headquarters of the ,guru take food together without distinction of caste in memory of their ,founder's doctrine4 ,otherwise the ,kabirpanthis of each caste make a separate group within it1 but among the lower castes they take food and marry with members of the caste who are not ,kabirpanthis4 ,these latter are commonly known as ,saktaha1 a term which in ,chhattisgarh signifies an eater of meat as opposed to a ,kabirpanthi who refrains from it4 ,the ,mahars and ,pankas permit intermarriage between ,kabirpanthi and ,saktaha families1 the wife in each case adopting the customs and beliefs of her husband4 ,kabirpanthis also wear the choti or scalp-lock and shave the head for the death of a relative1 in spite of ,kabir's contempt of the custom4 ,still1 the sect has in the past afforded to the uneducated classes a somewhat higher ideal of spiritual life than the chaotic medley of primitive superstitions and beliefs in witchcraft and devil worship1 from which the ,brahmans1 caring only for the recognition of their social supremacy1 made no attempt to raise them4 ,lingayat ,sect ,lingayat ,sect4--,a sect devoted to the worship of ,siva which has developed into a caste4 ,the ,lingayat sect is supposed #bie to have been founded in the twelfth century by one ,basava1 a ,brahman minister of the king of the ,carnatic4 ,he preached the equality of all men and of women also by birth1 and the equal treatment of all4 ,women were to be treated with the same respect as men1 and any neglect or incivility to a woman would be an insult to the god whose image she wore and with whom she was one4 ,caste distinctions were the invention of ,brahmans and consequently unworthy of acceptance4 ,the ,madras ,census ,report #bif of #ahga further states that ,basava preached the immortality of the soul1 and mentions a theory that some of the traditions concerning him might have been borrowed from the legends of the ,syrian ,christians1 who had obtained a settlement in ,madras at a period not later than the seventh century4 ,the founder of the sect thus took as his fundamental tenet the abolition of caste1 but1 as is usual in the history of similar movements1 the ultimate result has been that the ,lingayats have themselves become a caste4 ,in ,bombay they have two main divisions1 ,mr4 ,enthoven states3 #big the ,panchamsalis or descendants of the original converts from ,brahmanism and the non-,panchamsalis or later converts4 ,the latter are further subdivided into a number of groups1 apparently endogamous4 ,converts of each caste becoming ,lingayats form a separate group of their own1 as ,ahir ,lingayats1 ,bania ,lingayats and so on1 severing their connection with the parent caste4 ,a third division consists of members of unclean castes attached to the ,lingayat community by reason of performing to it menial service4 ,a marked tendency has recently been displayed by the community in ,bombay to revert to the original ,brahmanic configuration of society1 from which its founder sought to free it4 ,on the occasion of the census a complete scheme was supplied to the authorities professing to show the division of the ,lingayats into the four groups of ,brahman1 ,kshatriya1 ,vaishya and ,sudra4 ,in the ,central ,provinces ,lingayats were not shown as a separate caste1 and the only return of members of the sect is from the ,bania caste1 whose subcastes were abstracted4 ,lingayat was recorded as a subcaste by #hjjj ,banias1 and these form a separate endogamous group4 ,but members of other castes as ,gaolis1 ,malis1 ,patwas and the ,telugu ,balijas are also ,lingayats and marry among themselves4 ,a child becomes a ,lingayat by being invested with the lingam or phallic sign of ,siva1 seven days after its birth1 by the ,jangam priest4 ,this is afterwards carried round the neck in a small casket of silver1 brass or wood throughout life1 and is buried with the corpse at death4 ,the corpse of a ,lingayat cannot be burnt because it must not be separated from the lingam1 as this is considered to be the incarnation of ,siva and must not be destroyed in the fire4 ,if it is lost the owner must be invested with a fresh one by the ,jangam in the presence of the caste4 ,it is worshipped three times a day1 being washed in the morning with the ashes of cowdung cakes1 while in the afternoon leaves of the bel tree and food are offered to it4 ,when a man is initiated as a ,lingayat in after-life1 the ,jangam invests him with the lingam1 pours holy water on to his head and mutters in his ear the sacred text1 ',aham so aham1' or ',i and you are now one and the same4' ,the ,lingayats are strict vegetarians1 and will not expose their drinking water to the sun1 as they think that by doing this insects would be bred in it and that by subsequently swallowing them they would be guilty of the destruction of life4 ,they are careful to leave no remains of a meal uneaten4 ,their own priests1 the ,jangams1 officiate at their weddings1 and after the conclusion of the ceremony the bride and bridegroom break raw cakes of pulse placed on the other's back1 the bride with her foot and the bridegroom with his fist4 ,widow-marriage is allowed4 ,the dead are buried in a sitting posture with their faces turned towards the east4 ,water sanctified by the ,jangam having dipped his toe into it is placed in the mouth of the corpse4 ,the ,jangam presses down the earth over the grave and then stands on it and refuses to come off until he is paid a sum of money varying with the means of the man1 the minimum payment being ,rs4 #a-d4 ,in some cases a platform with an image of ,mahadeo is made over the grave4 ,when meeting each other the ,lingayats give the salutation ,sharnat1 or1 ',i prostrate myself before you4' ,they address the ,jangam as ,maharaj and touch his feet with their head4 ,the ,lingayat ,banias of the ,central ,provinces usually belong to ,madras and speak ,telugu in their houses4 ,as they deny the authority of ,brahmans1 the latter have naturally a great antipathy for them1 and make various statements to their discredit4 ,one of these is that after a death the ,lingayats have a feast1 and1 setting up the corpse in the centre1 arrange themselves round it and eat their food4 ,but this is not authenticated4 ,similarly the ,abbe ,dubois stated3 #bih ,they do not recognise the laws relating to defilement which are generally accepted by other castes1 such1 for instance1 as those occasioned by a woman's periodical ailments1 and by the death and funeral of relations4 ,their indifference to all such prescriptive customs relating to defilement and cleanliness has given rise to a ,hindu proverb which says1 ',there is no river for a ,lingayat1' meaning that the members of the sect do not recognise1 at all events on many occasions1 the virtues and merits of ablutions4 ,the same author also states that they entirely reject the doctrine of migration of souls1 and that1 in consequence of their peculiar views on this point1 they have no tithis or anniversary festivals to commemorate the dead4 ,a ,lingayat is no sooner buried than he is forgotten4 ,in view of these remarks it must be held to be doubtful whether the ,lingayats have the doctrine of the immortality of the soul4 ,muhammadan ,religion ,bibliography3 ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes1 ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 and ,dictionary of ,islam1 ,london1 ,w4,h4 ,allen1 #ahie2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 ,part ,,ii4 ,muhammadans of ,gujarat1 by ,khan ,bahadur ,fazalullah ,lutfullah ,faridi2 ,qaun-i-,islam1 ,g4,a4 ,herklots1 ,madras1 ,higginbotham1 reprint #ahie2 ,muhammadanism and ,early ,developments of ,muhammadanism1 by ,professor ,d4,s4 ,margoliouth2 ,life of ,mahomet1 by ,sir4 ,w4 ,muir2 ,mr4 ,j4,t4 ,marten's ,central ,provinces ,census ,report1 #aiaa4 ,this article is mainly compiled from the excellent accounts in the ,bombay ,gazetteer and the ,dictionary of ,islam4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,statistics and distribution4 #b4 ,occupations4 #c4 ,muhammadan castes4 #d4 ,the four tribal divisions4 #e4 ,marriage4 #f4 ,polygamy1 divorce and widow-remarriage4 #g4 ,devices for procuring children1 and beliefs about them4 #h4 ,pregnancy rites4 #i4 ,childbirth and naming children4 #aj4 ,the ,ukika sacrifice4 #aa4 ,shaving the hair and ear-piercing #ab4 ,birthdays4 #ac4 ,circumcision1 and maturity of girls4 #ad4 ,funeral rites4 #ae4 ,muhammadan sects4 ,shiah and ,sunni4 #af4 ,leading religious observations4 ,prayer4 #ag4 ,the fast ,ramazan4 #ah4 ,the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 #ai4 ,festivals4 ,the ,muharram4 #bj4 ,id-ul-,fitr4 #ba4 ,id-ul-,zoha4 #bb4 ,mosques4 #bb4 ,mosques #bc4 ,the ,friday service4 #bd4 ,priest4 ,mulla and ,maulvi4 #be4 ,the ,kazi4 #bf4 ,general features of ,islam4 #bg4 ,the ,koran4 #bh4 ,the ,traditions #bi4 ,the schools of law4 #cj4 ,food4 #ca4 ,dress4 #cb4 ,social rules4 ,salutations4 #cc4 ,customs4 #cd4 ,position of women4 #ce4 ,interest on money4 #cf4 ,muhammadan education4 #a4 ,statistics and distribution4 ,muhammadan ,religion4--,the ,muhammadans numbered nearly #fjj1jjj persons in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa1 or about #c per cent of the population4 ,of these about two-fifths belong to ,berar1 the ,amraoti and ,akola ,districts containing more than #gj1jjj each2 while of the #cej1jjj returned from the ,central ,provinces proper1 about #dj1jjj reside in each of the ,jubbulpore1 ,nagpur and ,nimar ,districts4 ,berar was for a long period governed by the ,muhammadan ,bahmani dynasty1 and afterwards formed part of the ,mughal empire1 passing to the ,mughal ,viceroy1 the ,nizam of ,hyderabad1 when he became an independent ruler4 ,though under ,british administration1 it is still legally a part of ,hyderabad territory1 and a large proportion of the official classes as well as many descendants of retired soldiers are ,muhammadans4 ,similarly ,nimar was held by the ,muhammadan ,faruki dynasty of ,khandesh for #bjj years1 and was then included in the ,mughal empire1 ,burhanpur being the seat of a viceroy4 ,at this period a good deal of forcible conversion probably took place1 and a considerable section of the ,bhils nominally became ,muhammadans4 ,when the ,gond ,raja of ,deogarh embraced ,islam after his visit to ,delhi1 members of this religion entered his service1 and he also brought back with him various artificers and craftsmen4 ,the cavalry of the ,bhonsla ,raja of ,nagpur was largely composed of ,muhammadans1 and in many cases their descendants have settled on the land4 ,in the ,chhattisgarh ,division and the ,feudatory ,states the number of ,muhammadans is extremely small1 constituting less than one per cent of the population4 #b4 ,occupations4 ,no less than #cg per cent of the total number of ,muhammadans live in towns1 though the general proportion of urban population in the ,provinces is only #g #a_/b per cent4 ,the number of ,muhammadans in ,government service excluding the police and army1 is quite disproportionate to their small numerical strength in the ,provinces1 being #bj per cent of all persons employed4 ,in the garrison they actually outnumber ,hindus1 while in the police they form #cg per cent of the whole force4 ,in the medical and teaching professions also the number of ,muhammadans is comparatively large1 while of persons of independent means a proportion of #bi per cent are of this religion4 ,of persons employed in domestic services nearly #ad per cent of the total are ,muhammadans1 and of beggars1 vagrants and prostitutes #bc per cent4 ,muhammadans are largely engaged in making and selling clothes1 outnumbering the ,hindus in this trade2 they consist of two entirely different classes1 the ,muhammadan tailors who work for hire1 and the ,bohra and ,khoja shopkeepers who sell all kinds of cloth2 but both live in towns4 ,of dealers in timber and furniture #cf per cent are ,muhammadans1 and they also engage in all branches of the retail trade in provisions4 ,the occupations of the lower-class ,muhammadans are the manufacture of glass bangles and slippers and the dyeing of cloth4 #bii #c4 ,muhammadan castes4 ,about #ad per cent of the ,muhammadans returned caste names4 ,the principal castes are the ,bohra and ,khoja merchants1 who are of the ,shiah sect1 and the ,cutchis or ,memans from ,gujarat1 who are also traders2 these classes are foreigners in the ,province1 and many of them do not bring their wives1 though they have now begun to settle here4 ,the resident castes of ,muhammadans are the ,bahnas or cotton-cleaners2 ,julahas1 weavers2 ,kacheras1 glass bangle-makers2 ,kunjras1 greengrocers2 ,kasais1 butchers2 and the ,rangrez caste of dyers who dye with safflower4 ,as already stated1 a section of the ,bhils are at least nominally ,muhammadans1 and the ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars are also considered a separate caste4 ,but no caste of good standing such as the ,rajput and ,jat includes any considerable number of ,muhammadans in the ,central ,provinces1 though in northern ,india large numbers of them belong to this religion1 while retaining substantially their caste usages4 ,the ,muhammadan castes in the ,central ,provinces probably consist to a large extent of the descendants of ,hindu converts4 ,their religious observances present a curious mixture of ,hindu and ,muhammadan rites1 as shown in the separate articles on these castes4 ,proper ,muhammadans look down on them and decline to take food or intermarry with them4 #d4 ,the four tribal divisions4 ,the ,muhammadans proper are usually divided into four classes1 ,shaikh1 ,saiyad1 ,mughal and ,pathan4 ,of these the ,shaikhs number nearly #cjj1jjj1 the ,pathans nearly #aej1jjj1 the ,saiyads under #ej1jjj1 and the ,pathans about #ijjj in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the term ,saiyad properly means a descendant of ,ali1 the son-in-law1 and the lady ,fatimah1 the daughter of the ,prophet4 ,they use the title ,saiyad or ,mir #cjj before1 and sometimes ,shah after1 their name1 while women employ that of ,begum4 ,many ,saiyads act as ,pirs or spiritual guides to other ,muhammadan families4 ,the external mark of a ,saiyad is the right to wear a green turban1 but this is of course no longer legally secured to them4 ,the title ,shaikh properly belongs only to three branches of the ,quraish tribe or that of ,muhammad3 the ,siddikis1 who claim descent from ,abu ,bakr ,siddik1 #cja the father-in-law of the ,prophet and the second ,caliph2 the ,farukis claiming it from ,umar ul ,faruk1 the third ,caliph1 and also the father-in-law of the ,prophet2 and the ,abbasis1 descended from ,abbas1 one of the ,prophet's nine uncles4 ,the ,farukis are divided into two families1 the ,chistis and ,faridis4 ,both these titles1 however1 and especially ,shaikh1 are now arrogated by large numbers of persons who cannot have any pretence to the above descent4 ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson quotes a proverb1 ',last year ,i was a butcher2 this year ,i am a ,shaikh2 next year if prices rise ,i shall become a ,saiyad4' ,and ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot relates that much amusement was caused in #ahfj at ,gujarat by the ,sherishtadar or principal officer of the judicial department describing himself in an official return as ,saiyad ,hashimi ,quraishi1 that is1 of the family and lineage of the ,prophet4 ,his father1 who was living in obscurity in his native town1 was discovered to be a ,lohar or blacksmith4 #cjb ,the term ,shaikh means properly an elder1 and is freely taken by persons of respectable position4 ,shaikhs commonly use either ,shaikh or ,muhammad as their first names4 ,the ,pathans were originally the descendants of ,afghan immigrants4 ,the name is probably the ,indian form of the word ,pushtun 7plural ,pushtanah71 now given to themselves by speakers of the ,pushtu language4 #cjc ,the men add ,khan to their names and the women ,khatun or ,khatu4 ,it is not at all likely either that the bulk of the ,muhammadans who returned themselves as ,pathans in the ,central ,provinces are really of ,afghan descent4 ,the ,mughals proper are of two classes1 ,irani or ,persian1 who belong to the ,shiah sect1 and ,turani1 ,turkish or ,tartar1 who are ,sunnis4 ,mughals use the title ,mirza 7short for ,amirzada1 son of a prince7 before their names1 and add ,beg after them4 ,it is said that the ,prophet addressed a ,mughal by the title of ,beg after winning a victory1 and since then it has always been used4 ,mughal women have the designation ,khanum after their names4 #cjd ,formerly the ,saiyads and ,mughals constituted the superior class of ,muhammadan gentry1 and never touched a plough themselves1 like the ,hindu ,brahmans and ,rajputs4 ,these four divisions are not proper subcastes as they are not endogamous4 ,a man of one group can marry a woman of any other and she becomes a member of her husband's group2 but the daughters of ,saiyads do not usually marry others than ,saiyads4 ,nor is there any real distinction of occupation between them1 the men following any occupation indifferently4 ,in fact1 the divisions are now little more than titular1 a certain distinction attaching to the titles ,saiyad and ,shaikh when borne by families who have a hereditary or prescriptive right to use them4 #e4 ,marriage4 ,the census returns of #aiaa show that three-fourths of ,muhammadan boys now remain unmarried till the age of #bj2 while of girls #ca per cent are unmarried between #ae and #bj1 but only #ac per cent above that age4 ,the age of marriage of boys may therefore be taken at #ah to #be or later1 and that of girls at #aj to #bj4 ,the age of marriage both of girls and boys is probably getting later1 especially among the better classes4 ,marriage is prohibited to the ordinary near relatives1 but not between first cousins4 ,a man cannot marry his foster-mother or foster-sister1 unless the foster-brother and sister were nursed by the same woman at intervals widely separated4 ,a man may not marry his wife's sister during his wife's lifetime unless she has been divorced4 ,a ,muhammadan cannot marry a polytheist1 but he may marry a ,jewess or a ,christian4 ,no specific religious ceremony is appointed1 nor are any rites essential for the contraction of a valid marriage4 ,if both persons are legally competent1 and contract marriage with each other in the presence of two male or one male and two female witnesses1 it is sufficient4 ,and the ,shiah law even dispenses with witnesses4 ,as a rule the ,kazi performs the ceremony1 and reads four chapters of the ,koran with the profession of belief1 the bridegroom repeating them after him4 ,the parties then express their mutual consent1 and the ,kazi1 raising his hands1 says1 ,the great ,god grant that mutual love may reign between this couple as it existed between ,adam and ,eve1 ,abraham and ,sarah1 ,joseph and ,zuleika1 ,moses and ,zipporah1 ,his ,highness ,muhammad and ,ayesha1 and ,his ,highness ,ali and ,fatimah4 #cje ,a dowry or meher must be paid to the wife1 which under the law must not be less than ten silver dirhams or drachmas2 but it is customary to fix it at ,rs4 #ag1 the dowry of ,fatimah1 the ,prophet's favourite daughter1 or at ,rs4 #gej1 that of the ,prophet's wife1 ,ayesha4 #cjf ,the wedding is1 however1 usually accompanied by feasts and celebrations not less elaborate or costly than those of the ,hindus4 ,several ,hindu ceremonies are also included1 such as the anointing of the bride and bridegroom with oil and turmeric1 and setting out earthen vessels1 which are meant to afford a dwelling-place for the spirits of ancestors1 at least among the lower classes4 #cjg ,another essential rite is the rubbing of the hands and feet of the bridegroom with mehndi or red henna4 ,the marriage is usually arranged and a ceremony of betrothal held at least a year before it actually takes place4 #f4 ,polygamy1 divorce and widow-remarriage4 ,a husband can divorce his wife at pleasure by merely repeating the prescribed sentences4 ,a wife can obtain divorce from her husband for impotence1 madness1 leprosy or non-payment of the dowry4 ,a woman who is divorced can claim her dowry if it has not been paid4 ,polygamy is permitted among ,muhammadans to the number of four wives1 but it is very rare in the ,central ,provinces4 ,owing to the fact that members of the immigrant trading castes leave their wives at home in ,gujarat1 the number of married women returned at the census was substantially less than that of married men4 ,a feeling in favour of the legal prohibition of polygamy is growing up among educated ,muhammadans1 and many of them sign a contract at marriage not to take a second wife during the lifetime of the first4 ,there is no prohibition on the remarriage of widows in ,muhammadan law1 but the ,hindu rule on the subject has had considerable influence1 and some ,muhammadans of good position object to the marriage of widows in their family4 ,the custom of the seclusion of women also1 as ,mr4 ,marten points out1 operates as a bar to a widow finding a husband for herself4 #g4 ,devices for procuring children1 and beliefs about them4 ,women who desire children resort to the shrines of saints1 who are supposed to be able to induce fertility4 ,blochmann notes that the tomb of ,saint ,salim-i-,chishti at ,fatehpur-,sikri1 in whose house the ,emperor ,jahangir was born1 is up to the present day visited by childless ,hindu and ,musalman women4 ,a tree in the compound of the saint ,shaih ,alam of ,ahmedabad yields a peculiar acorn-like fruit1 which is sought after far and wide by those desiring children2 the woman is believed to conceive from the moment of eating the fruit4 ,if the birth of a child follows the eating of the acorn1 the man and woman who took it from the tree should for a certain number of years come at every anniversary of the saint and nourish the tree with a supply of milk4 ,in addition to this1 jasmine and rose-bushes at the shrines of certain saints are supposed to possess issue-giving properties4 ,to draw virtue from the saint's jasmine the woman who yearns for a child bathes and purifies herself and goes to the shrine1 and seats herself under or near the jasmine bush with her skirt spread out4 ,as many flowers as fall into her lap1 so many children will she have4 ,in some localities if after the birth of one child no other son is born1 or being born does not live1 it is supposed that the first-born child is possessed by a malignant spirit who destroys the young lives of the new-born brothers and sisters4 ,so at the mother's next confinement sugar and sesame-seed are passed seven or nine times over the new-born infant from head to foot1 and the elder boy or girl is given them to eat4 ,the sugar represents the life of the young one given to the spirit who possesses the first-born4 ,a child born with teeth already visible is believed to exercise a very malignant influence over its parents1 and to render the early death of one of them almost certain4 #cjh #h4 ,pregnancy rites4 ,in the seventh or ninth month of pregnancy a fertility rite is performed as among the ,hindus4 ,the woman is dressed in new clothes1 and her lap is filled with fruit and vegetables by her friends4 ,in some localities a large number of pots are obtained1 and a little water is placed in each of them by a fertile married woman who has never lost a child4 ,prayers are repeated over the pots in the names of the male and female ancestors of the family1 and especially of the women who have died in childbirth4 ,this appears to be a propitiation of the spirits of ancestors4 #cji #i4 ,childbirth and naming children4 ,a woman goes to her parents' home after the last pregnancy rite and stays there till her confinement is over4 ,the rites performed by the midwife at birth resemble those of the ,hindus4 ,when the child is born the azan or summons to prayer is uttered aloud in his right ear1 and the takbir or ,muhammadan creed in his left4 ,the child is named on the sixth or seventh day4 ,sometimes the name of an ancestor is given1 or the initial letter is selected from the ,koran at a venture and a name beginning with that letter is chosen4 ,some common names are those of the hundred titles of ,god combined with the prefix abd or servant4 ,such are ,abdul ,aziz1 servant of the all-honoured2 ,ghani1 the everlasting2 ,karim1 the gracious2 ,rahim1 the pitiful2 ,rahman1 the merciful2 ,razzak1 the bread-giver2 ,sattar1 the concealer2 and so on1 with the prefix ,abdul1 or servant of1 in each case4 ,similarly ,abdullah1 or servant of ,god1 was the name of ,muhammad's father1 and is a very favourite one4 ,other names end with ,baksh or 'given by1' as ,haidar ,baksh1 given by the lion 7,ali72 these are similar to the ,hindu names ending in ,prasad4 ,the prefix ,ghulam1 or slave of1 is also used1 as ,ghulam ,hussain1 slave of ,hussain2 and names of ,hebrew patriarchs mentioned in the ,koran are not uncommon1 as ,ayub ,job1 ,harun ,aaron1 ,ishaq ,isaac1 ,musa ,moses1 ,yakub ,jacob1 ,yusaf ,joseph1 and so on4 #caj #aj4 ,the ,ukika sacrifice4 ,after childbirth the mother must not pray or fast1 touch the ,koran or enter a mosque for forty days2 on the expiry of this period she is bathed and dressed in good clothes1 and her relatives bring presents for the child4 ,some people do not let her oil or comb her hair during these days4 ,the custom would seem to be a relic of the period of impurity of women after childbirth4 ,on the fortieth day the child is placed in a cradle for the first time4 ,in some localities a rite called ,ukika is performed after the birth of a child4 ,it consists of a sacrifice in the name of the child of two he-goats for a boy and one for a girl4 ,the goats must be above a year old1 and without spot or blemish4 ,the meat must be separated from the bones so that not a bone is broken1 and the bones1 skin1 feet and head are afterwards buried in the earth4 ,when the flesh is served the following prayer is said by the father3 ,o1 ,almighty ,god1 ,i offer in the stead of my own offspring life for life1 blood for blood1 head for head1 bone for bone1 hair for hair1 and skin for skin4 ,in the name of ,god do ,i sacrifice this he-goat4 ,this is apparently a relic of the substitution of a goat for ,ishmael when ,abraham was offering him as a sacrifice4 ,the ,muhammadans say that it was ,ishmael instead of ,isaac who was thus offered1 and they think that ,ishmael or ,ismail was the ancestor of all the ,arabs4 #caa #aa4 ,shaving the hair and ear-piercing4 ,either on the same day as the ,ukika sacrifice or soon afterwards the child's hair is shaved for the first time4 ,by the rich the hair is weighed against silver and this sum is distributed to beggars4 ,it is then tied up in a piece of cloth and either buried or thrown into a river1 or sometimes set afloat on a little toy raft in the name of a saint4 ,occasionally tufts of hair or even the whole head may be left unshaven in the name of a saint1 and after one or more years the child is taken to the saint's tomb and the hair shaved there2 or if this cannot be done it is cut off at home in the name of the saint4 #cab ,when a girl is one or two years old the lobes of her ears are bored4 ,by degrees other holes are bored along the edge of the ear and even in the centre1 till by the time she has attained the age of two or three years she has thirteen holes in the right ear and twelve in the left4 ,little silver rings and various kinds of earrings are inserted and worn in the holes4 ,but the practice of boring so many holes has now been abandoned by the better-class ,muhammadans4 #ab4 ,birthdays4 ,the child's birthday is known as sal-girah and is celebrated by a feast4 ,a knot is tied in a red thread and annually thereafter a fresh knot to mark his age1 and prayers are offered in the child's name to the patriarch ,noah1 who is believed to have lived to five hundred or a thousand years1 and hence to have the power of conferring longevity on the child4 ,when a child is four years1 four months and four days old the ceremony of ,bismillah or taking the name of ,god is held1 which is obligatory on all ,muhammadans4 ,friends are invited1 and the child is dressed in a flowered robe 7sahra7 and repeats the first chapters of the ,koran after his or her tutor4 #cac #ac4 ,circumcision1 and maturity of girls4 ,a boy is usually circumcised at the age of six or seven1 but among some classes of ,shiahs and the ,arabs the operation is performed a few days after birth4 ,the barber operates and the child is usually given a little bhang or other opiate4 ,some ,muhammadans leave circumcision till an age bordering on puberty1 and then perform it with a pomp and ceremony almost equalling those of a marriage4 ,when a girl arrives at the age of puberty she is secluded for seven days1 and for this period eats only butter1 bread and sugar1 all fish1 flesh1 salt and acid food being prohibited4 ,in the evening she is bathed1 warm water is poured on her head1 and among the lower classes an entertainment is given to friends4 #cad #ad4 ,funeral rites4 ,the same word janazah is used for the corpse1 the bier and the funeral4 ,when a man is at the point of death a chapter of the ,koran1 telling of the happiness awaiting the true believer in the future life1 is read1 and some money or sherbet is dropped into his mouth4 ,after death the body is carefully washed and wrapped in three or five cloths for a male or female respectively4 ,some camphor or other sweet-smelling stuff is placed on the bier4 ,women do not usually attend funerals1 and the friends and relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier4 ,there is a tradition among some ,muhammadans that no one should precede the corpse1 as the angels go before4 ,to carry a bier is considered a very meritorious act1 and four of the relations1 relieving each other in turn1 bear it on their shoulders4 ,muhammadans carry their dead quickly to the place of interment1 for ,muhammad is stated to have said that it is good to carry the dead quickly to the grave1 so as to cause the righteous person to attain the sooner to bliss2 and1 on the other hand1 in the case of a bad man it is well to put wickedness away from one's shoulders4 ,funerals should always be attended on foot1 for it is said that ,muhammad once rebuked people who were following a bier on horseback1 saying1 ,have you no shame1 since ,god's angels go on foot and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds8 ,it is a highly meritorious act to attend a funeral whether it be that of a ,muslim1 a ,jew or a ,christian4 ,the funeral service is not recited in the cemetery1 this being too polluted a place for so sacred an office1 but either in a mosque or in some open space close to the dwelling of the deceased person or to the graveyard4 ,the nearest relative is the proper person to recite the service1 but it is usually said by the family priest or the village ,kazi4 ,the grave sometimes has a recess at the side1 in which the body is laid to prevent the earth falling upon it1 or planks may be laid over the body slantwise or supported on bricks for the same purpose4 ,coffins are only used by the rich4 ,when the body has been placed in the grave each person takes up a clod of earth and pronouncing over it a verse of the ,koran1 ',from earth we made you1 to earth we return you and out of earth we shall raise you on the resurrection day1' places it gently in the grave over the corpse4 #cae ,the building of stone or brick tombs and writing verses of the ,koran on them is prohibited by the ,traditions1 but large masonry tombs are common in all ,muhammadan countries and very frequently they bear inscriptions4 ,on the third day a feast is given in the morning and after it trays of flowers with a vessel containing scented oil are handed round and the guests pick flowers and dip them into the oil4 ,they then proceed to the grave1 where the oil and flowers are placed4 ,maulvis are employed to read the whole of the ,koran over the grave1 which they accomplish by dividing it into sections and reading them at the same time4 ,rich people sometimes have the whole ,koran read several times over in this manner4 ,a sheet of white or red cloth is spread over the grave1 green being usually reserved for ,fakirs or saints4 ,on the evening of the ninth day another feast is given1 to which friends and neighbours1 and religious and ordinary beggars are invited1 and a portion is sent to the ,fakir or mendicant in charge of the burying-ground4 ,some people will not eat any food from this feast in their houses but take it outside4 #caf ,on the morning of the tenth day they go again to the grave and repeat the offering of flowers and scented oil as before4 ,other feasts are given on the fortieth day1 and at the expiration of four1 six and nine months1 and one year from the date of the death1 and the rich sometimes spend large sums on them4 ,none of these observances are prescribed by the ,koran but have either been retained from pre-,islamic times or adopted in imitation of the ,hindus4 ,for forty days all furniture is removed from the rooms and the whole family sleep on the bare ground4 ,sometimes a cup of water and a wheaten cake are placed nightly for forty days on the spot where the deceased died1 and a similar provision is sent to the mosque4 ,when a man dies his mother and widow break their glass bangles4 ,the mother can get new ones1 but the widow does not wear glass bangles or a nose-ring again unless she takes a second husband4 ,for four months and ten days the widow is strictly secluded and does not leave the house4 ,prayers for ancestors are offered annually at the ,shab-i-,barat or ,bakr-,id festival4 #cag ,the property of a deceased ,muhammadan is applicable in the first place to the payment of his funeral expenses2 secondly1 to the discharge of his debts2 and thirdly1 to the payment of legacies up to one-third of the residue4 ,if the legacies exceed this amount they are proportionately reduced4 ,the remainder of the property is distributed by a complicated system of shares to those of the deceased's relatives who rank as sharers and residuaries1 legacies to any of them in excess of the amount of their shares being void4 ,the consequence of this law is that most ,muhammadans die intestate4 #cah #ae4 ,muhammadan sects4 ,shiah and ,sunni4 ,of the two main sects of ,islam1 ninety-four per cent of the ,muhammadans in the ,central ,province were returned as being ,sunnis in #aiaa and three per cent as ,shiahs1 while the remainder gave no sect4 ,only the ,cutchi1 ,bohra and ,khoja immigrants from ,gujarat are ,shiahs and practically all other ,muhammadans are ,sunnis4 ,with the exception of ,persia1 ,oudh and part of ,gujarat1 the inhabitants of which are ,shiahs1 the ,sunni sect is generally prevalent in the ,muhammadan world4 ,the main difference between the ,sunnis and ,shiahs is that the latter think that according to the ,koran the ,caliphate or spiritual headship of the ,muhammadans had to descend in the ,prophet's family and therefore necessarily devolved on the ,lady ,fatimah1 the only one of his children who survived him1 and on her husband ,ali the fourth ,caliph4 ,they therefore reject the first three ,caliphs after ,muhammad1 that is ,abu ,bakr1 ,omar and ,othman4 ,after ,ali they also hold that the ,caliphate descended in his family to his two sons ,hasan and ,hussain1 and the descendants of ,hussain4 ,consequently they reject all the subsequent ,caliphs of the ,muhammadan world1 as ,hussain and his children did not occupy this position4 ,they say that there are only twelve ,caliphs1 or ,imams1 as they now prefer to call them1 and that the twelfth has never really died and will return again as the ,messiah of whom ,muhammad spoke1 at the end of the world4 ,he is known as the ,mahdi1 and the well-known pretender of the ,soudan1 as well as others elsewhere1 have claimed to be this twelfth or unrevealed ,imam4 ,other sects of the ,shiahs1 as the ,zaidiyah and ,ismailia1 make a difference in the succession of the ,imamate among ,hussain's descendants4 ,the central incident of the ,shiah faith is the slaughter of ,hussain1 the son of ,ali1 with his family1 on the plain of ,karbala in ,persia by the sons of ,yazid1 the second ,caliph of the ,umaiyad dynasty of ,damascus1 on the #ajth day of the month ,muharram1 in the #fast year of the ,hijra or ,a4,d4 #fhj4 ,the martyrdom of ,hussain and his family at ,karbala is celebrated annually for the first ten days of the month of ,muharram by the ,shiahs4 ,properly the ,sunnis should take no part in this1 and should observe only the tenth day of ,muharram as that on which ,adam and ,eve and heaven and hell were created4 ,but in the ,central ,provinces the ,sunnis participate in all the ,muharram celebrations1 which now have rather the character of a festival than of a season of mourning4 ,the ,shiahs also reject the four great schools of tradition of the ,sunnis1 and have separate traditional authorities of their own4 ,they count the month to begin from the full moon instead of the new moon1 pray three instead of five times a day1 and in praying hold their hands open by their sides instead of folding them below the breast4 ,the word ,shiah means a follower1 and ,sunni one proceeding on the sunnah1 the path or way1 a term applied to the traditions of the ,prophet4 ,the two words have thus almost the same signification4 ,except when otherwise stated1 the information in this article relates to the ,sunnis4 #af4 ,leading religious observances4 ,prayer4 ,the five standard observances of the ,muhammadan religion are the ,kalima1 or creed2 ,sula1 or the five daily prayers2 ,roza1 or the thirty-day fast of ,ramazan2 ,zakab1 the legal alms2 and ,hajj1 the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 which should be performed once in a lifetime4 ,the ,kalima1 or creed1 consists simply in the sentence1 ',there is but one ,god and ,muhammad is ,his prophet1' which is frequently on the lips of ,muhammadans4 ,the five periods for prayer are ,fajr ki namaz1 in the morning before sunrise2 ,zohar1 or the midday prayer1 after the sun has begun to decline2 ,asur1 or the afternoon prayer1 about four2 ,maghrib1 or the evening prayer1 immediately after sunset2 and ,aysha1 or the evening prayer1 after the night has closed in4 ,these prayers are repeated in ,arabic1 and before saying them the face1 hands and feet should be washed1 and1 correctly speaking1 the teeth should also be cleaned4 ,at the times of prayer the ,azan or call to prayer is repeated from the mosque by the muezzan or crier in the following terms3 ,god is great1 ,god is great1 ,god is great1 ,god is great6 ,i bear witness that there is no ,god but ,god6 7twice74 ,i bear witness that ,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god6 7twice74 ,come to prayers6 ,come to prayers6 ,come to salvation6 ,come to salvation6 ,god is great6 ,there is no other ,god but ,god4 ,in the early morning the following sentence is added1 ',prayers are better than sleep4' #cai #ag4 ,the fast of ,ramazan4 ,the third necessary observance is the fast in the month of ,ramazan1 the ninth month of the ,muhammadan year4 ,the fast begins when the new moon is seen1 or if the sky is clouded1 after thirty days from the beginning of the previous month4 ,during its continuance no food or water must be taken between sunrise and sunset1 and betel-leaf1 tobacco and conjugal intercourse must be abjured for the whole period4 ,the abstention from water is a very severe penance during the long days of the hot weather when ,ramazan falls at this season4 ,mr4 ,hughes thinks that the ,prophet took the thirty days' fast from the ,christian ,lent1 which was observed very strictly in the ,eastern ,church during the nights as well as days4 ,in ordaining the fast he said that ,god 'would make it an ease and not a difficulty1' but he may not have reflected that his own action in discarding the intercalary month adopted by the ,arabs and reverting to the simple lunar months would cause the fast to revolve round the whole year4 ,during the fast people eat before sunrise and after sunset1 and dinner-parties are held lasting far into the night4 ,it is a divine command to give alms annually of money1 cattle1 grain1 fruit and merchandise4 ,if a man has as much as eighty rupees1 or forty sheep and goats1 or five camels1 he should give alms at specified rates amounting roughly to two and a half per cent of his property4 ,in the case of fruit and grain the rate is one-tenth of the harvest for unirrigated1 and a twentieth for irrigated crops4 ,these alms should be given to pilgrims who desire to go to ,mecca but have not the means2 and to religious and other beggars if they are very poor1 debtors who have not the means to discharge their debts1 champions of the cause of ,god1 travellers without food and proselytes to ,islam4 ,religious mendicants consider it unlawful to accept the zakat or legal alms unless they are very poor1 and they may not be given to ,saiyads or descendants of the ,prophet4 #ah4 ,the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,the ,hajj or pilgrimage to ,mecca is incumbent on all men and women who have sufficient means to meet the expenses of the journey and to maintain their families at home during their absence4 ,only a very small proportion of ,indian ,muhammadans1 however1 now undertake it4 ,mecca is the capital of ,arabia and about seventy miles from the ,red ,sea4 ,the pilgrimage must be performed during the month ,zu'l ,hijjah1 so that the pilgrim may be at ,mecca on the festival of ,id-ul-,zoha or the ,bakr-,id4 ,at the last stage near ,mecca the pilgrims assume a special dress1 consisting of two seamless wrappers1 one round the waist and the other over the shoulders4 ,sandals of wood may also be worn4 ,formerly the pilgrim would take with him a little compass in which the needle in the shape of a dove pointed continually towards ,mecca in the west4 ,on arrival at ,mecca he performs the legal ablutions1 proceeds to the sacred mosque1 kisses the black stone1 and encompasses the ,kaaba seven times4 ,the ,kaaba or ',cube' is a large stone building and the black stone is let into one of its walls4 ,he drinks the water of the sacred well ,zem-,zem from which ,hagar and ,ishmael obtained water when they were dying of thirst in the wilderness1 and goes through various other rites up to the day of ,id-ul-,zoha1 when he performs the sacrifice or kurban1 offering a ram or he-goat for every member of his family1 or for every seven persons a female camel or cow4 ,the flesh is distributed in the same manner as that of the ordinary ,bakr-,id sacrifice4 #cbj ,he then gets himself shaved and his nails pared1 which he has not done since he assumed the pilgrim's garb1 and buries the cuttings and parings at the place of the sacrifice4 ,the pilgrimage is concluded after another circuit of the ,kaaba1 but before his departure the pilgrim should visit the tomb of ,muhammad at ,medina4 ,one who has performed the pilgrimage to ,mecca thereafter has the title of ,haji4 #ai4 ,festivals4 ,the ,muharram4 ,the principal festivals are the ,muharram and the two ,ids4 ,the month of ,muharram is the first of the year1 and the first ten days1 as already stated1 are devoted to mourning for the death of ,hussain and his family4 ,this is observed indifferently by ,sunnis and ,shiahs in the ,central ,provinces1 and the proceedings with the ,sunnis at any rate have now rather the character of a festival than a time of sorrow4 ,models of the tomb of ,hussain1 called tazia1 are made of bamboo and pasteboard and decorated with tinsel4 ,wealthy ,shiahs have expensive models1 richly decorated1 which are permanently kept in a chamber of the house called the ,imambara or ,imam's place1 but this is scarcely ever done in the ,central ,provinces4 ,as a rule the tazias are taken in procession and deposited in a river on the last and great day of the ,muharram4 ,women who have made vows for the recovery of their children from an illness dress them in green and send them to beg2 and men and boys of the lower classes have themselves painted as tigers and go about mimicking a tiger for what they can get from the spectators4 ,it seems likely that the representations of tigers may be in memory of the lion which is said to have kept watch over the body of ,hussain after he had been buried4 ,in ,persia a man disguised as a tiger appears on the tomb of ,hussain in the drama of his murder at ,karbala1 which is enacted at the ,muharram4 ,in ,hindu mythology the lion and tiger appear to be interchangeable4 ,during the tragedy at ,karbala1 ,kasim1 a young nephew of ,hussain1 was married to his little daughter ,sakinah1 ,kasim being very shortly afterwards killed4 ,it is supposed that the cast shoe of ,kasim's horse was brought to ,india1 and at the ,muharram models of horse-shoes are made and carried fixed on poles4 ,men who feel so impelled and think that they will be possessed by the spirit of ,kasim make these horse-shoes and carry them1 and frequently they believe themselves to be possessed by the spirit1 exhibiting the usual symptoms of a kind of frenzy1 and women apply to them for children or for having evil spirits cast out4 #cba #bj4 ,id-ul-,fitr4 ,the ,id-ul-,fitr1 or the breaking of the fast1 is held on the first day of the tenth month1 ,shawwal1 on the day after the end of the fast of ,ramazan4 ,on this day the people assemble dressed in their best clothes and proceed to the ,id-,gah1 a building erected outside the town and consisting of a platform with a wall at the western end in the direction of ,mecca4 ,here prayers are offered1 concluding with one for the ,king-,emperor1 and a sermon is given1 and the people then return escorting the ,kazi or other leading member of the community and sometimes paying their respects in a body to ,european officers4 ,they return to their homes and spend the rest of the day in feasting and merriment1 a kind of vermicelli being a special dish eaten on this day4 #ba4 ,id-ul-,zoha ,the ,idu-l-,azha or ,id-ul-,zoha1 the feast of sacrifice1 also called the ,bakr-,id or cow-festival1 is held on the tenth day of the last month1 ,zu'l ,hijjah4 ,it is the principal day of the ,muhammadan year1 and pilgrims going to ,mecca keep it there4 #cbb ,at this time also the ,arabs were accustomed to go to ,mecca and offer animal sacrifices there to the local deities4 ,according to tradition1 when ,abraham 7,ibrahim7 founded ,mecca the ,lord desired him to prepare a feast and to offer his son ,ishmael 7,ismail74 ,but when he had drawn the knife across his son's throat the angel ,gabriel substituted a ram and ,ishmael was saved1 and the festival commemorates this4 ,as already stated1 the ,arabs believe themselves to be descended from ,ishmael or ,ismail4 ,according to a remarkable ,hadis or tradition1 related by ,ayesha1 ,muhammad said3 ,man hath not done anything on the ,id-ul-,zoha more pleasing to ,god than spilling blood in sacrifice2 for1 verily1 its blood reacheth the acceptance of ,god before it falleth upon the ground1 therefore be joyful in it4 #cbc ,on this day1 as on the other ,id1 the people assemble for prayers at the ,id-,gah4 ,on returning home the head of a family takes a sheep1 cow or camel to the entrance of his house and sacrifices it1 repeating the formula1 ',in the name of ,god1 ,god is great1' as he cuts its throat4 ,the flesh is divided1 two-thirds being kept by the family and one-third given to the poor in the name of ,god4 ,this is the occasion on which ,muhammadans offend ,hindu feeling by their desire to sacrifice cows1 as camels are unobtainable or too valuable1 and the sacrifice of a cow has probably more religious merit than that of a sheep or goat4 ,but in many cases they abandon their right to kill a cow in order to avoid stirring up enmity4 #bb4 ,mosques4 ,the entrance to a ,muhammadan mosque consists of a stone gateway1 bearing in verse the date of its building2 this leads into a paved courtyard1 which in a large mosque may be #dj or #ej yards long and about #bj wide4 ,the courtyard often contains a small tank or cistern about #bj feet square1 its sides lined with stone seats4 ,beyond this lies the building itself1 open towards the courtyard1 which is on its eastern side1 and closed in on the other three sides1 with a roof4 ,the floor is raised about a foot above the level of the courtyard4 ,in the back wall1 which is opposite the courtyard to the west in the direction of ,mecca1 is an arched niche1 and close by a wooden or masonry pulpit raised four or five feet from the ground4 ,against the wall is a wooden staff1 which the preacher holds in his hand or leans upon according to ancient custom4 #cbd ,the walls are bare of decorations1 images and pictures having been strictly prohibited by ,muhammad1 and no windows are necessary2 but along the walls are scrolls bearing in golden letters the name of the ,prophet and the first four ,caliphs1 or a chapter of the ,koran1 the ,arabic script being especially suitable for this kind of ornamental writing4 #cbe ,the severe plainness of the interior of a mosque demonstrates the strict monotheism of ,islam1 and is in contrast to the temples and shrines of most other religions4 ,the courtyard of a mosque is often used as a place of resort1 and travellers also stay in it4 #bc4 ,the ,friday service4 ,a service is held in the principal mosque on ,fridays about midday1 at which public prayers are held and a sermon or khutbak is preached or recited4 ,friday is known as ,jumah1 or the day of assembly4 ,friday was said by ,muhammad to have been the day on which ,adam was taken into paradise and turned out of it1 the day on which he repented and on which he died4 ,it will also be the day of ,resurrection4 ,the ,prophet considered that the ,jews and ,christians had erred in transferring their ,sabbath from ,friday to ,saturday and ,sunday respectively4 #cbf #bd4 ,priests1 ,mulla and ,maulvi4 ,the priest in charge of a mosque is known as ,mulla4 ,any one can be a ,mulla who can read the ,koran and say the prayers1 and the post is very poorly paid4 ,the ,mulla proclaims the call to prayer five times a day1 acts as ,imam or leader of the public prayers1 and if there is no menial servant keeps the mosque clean4 ,he sometimes has a little school in the courtyard in which he teaches children the ,koran4 ,he also sells charms1 consisting of verses of the ,koran written on paper1 to be tied round the arm or hung on the neck4 ,these have the effect of curing disease and keeping off evil spirits or the evil eye4 ,sometimes there is a mosque servant who also acts as sexton of the local cemetery4 ,the funds of the mosque and any endowment attached to it are in charge of some respectable resident1 who is known as ,mutawalli or churchwarden4 ,the principal religious officer is the ,maulvi1 who corresponds to the ,hindu ,guru or preceptor4 ,these men are frequently intelligent and well-educated4 ,they are also doctors of law1 as all ,muhammadan law is based on the ,koran and ,traditions and the deductions drawn from them by the great commentators4 ,the ,maulvi thus acts as a teacher of religious doctrine and also of law4 ,he is not permanently attached to a mosque1 but travels about during the open season1 visiting his disciples in villages1 teaching and preaching to them1 and also treating the sick4 ,if he knows the whole of the ,koran by heart he has the title of ,hafiz1 and is much honoured1 as it is thought that a man who has earned the title of ,hafiz frees twenty generations of his ancestors and descendants from the fires of hell4 ,such a man is much in request during the month of ,ramazan1 when the leader of the long night prayers is expected to recite nightly one of the thirty sections of the ,koran1 so as to complete them within the month4 #cbg #be4 ,the ,kazi4 ,the ,kazi was under ,muhammadan rule the civil and criminal judge1 having jurisdiction over a definite local area1 and he also acted as a registrar of deeds4 ,now he only leads the public prayers at the ,id festivals and keeps registers of marriages and divorces4 ,he does not usually attend marriages himself unless he receives a special fee1 but pays a deputy or naib to do so4 #cbh ,the ,kazi is still1 however1 as a rule the leading member of the local ,muhammadan community1 the office being sometimes elective and sometimes hereditary4 #bf4 ,general features of ,islam4 ,in proclaiming one unseen ,god as the sole supernatural being1 ,muhammad adopted the religion of the ,jews of ,arabia1 with whose sacred books he was clearly familiar4 ,he looked on the ,jewish prophets as his predecessors1 he himself being the last and greatest4 ,the ,koran says1 ,we believe in ,god1 and that which hath been sent down to us1 and that which was sent down unto ,abraham1 and ,ishmael and ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and the tribes1 and that which was delivered unto ,moses1 and ,jesus and the prophets from the ,lord1 and we make no distinction between any of them4 ,thus ,muhammad accepted the bulk of the ,old but not of the ,new ,testament1 which the ,jews also do not receive4 ,his deity was the ,jewish ,jehovah of the ,old ,testament1 though called ,allah after the name of a god worshipped at ,mecca4 ,the six prophets who brought new laws were ,adam1 the chosen of ,god2 ,noah1 the preacher of ,god2 ,abraham1 the friend of ,god2 ,moses1 one who conversed with ,god2 ,jesus1 the ,spirit of ,god2 and ,muhammad1 the ,messenger of ,god4 ,his seven heavens and his prophecy of a ,messiah and ,day of ,judgment were ,jewish beliefs1 though it is supposed that he took the idea of the ,sirat or narrow bridge over the midst of hell1 sharper than the edge of a sword1 over which all must pass1 while the wicked fall from it into hell1 from ,zoroastrianism4 ,muhammad recognised a devil1 known as ,iblis1 while the ,jinns or ,genii of pagan ,arabia became bad angels4 ,the great difference between ,islam and ,judaism arose from ,muhammad's position in being obliged continually to fight for his own existence and the preservation of his sect ,this circumstance coloured the later parts of the ,koran and gave ,islam the character of a religious and political crusade1 a kind of faith eminently fitted to the ,arab nature and training4 ,and to this character may be assigned its extraordinary success1 but1 at the same time1 probably the religion itself might have been of a somewhat purer and higher tenor if its birth and infancy had not had place in a constant state of war4 ,muhammad accomplished most beneficent reforms in abolishing polytheism and such abuses as female infanticide1 and at least regulating polygamy4 ,in forbidding both gambling and the use of alcohol he set a very high standard to his disciples1 which if adhered to would remove two of the main sources of vice4 ,his religion retained fewer relics of the pre-existing animism and spirit-worship than almost any other1 though in practice uneducated ,indian ,muhammadans1 at least1 preserve them in a large measure4 ,and owing to the fact that the ,muhammadan months revolve round the year1 its festivals have been dissociated from the old pagan observances of the changes of the sun and seasons and the growth of vegetation4 ,at the same time the religious sanction given to polygamy and slavery1 and the sensual nature of the heaven promised to true believers after death1 must be condemned as debasing features2 and the divine authority and completeness ascribed to the ,koran and the utterances of the ,prophet1 which were beyond criticism or question1 as well as the hostility towards all other forms of religion and philosophy1 have necessarily had a very narrowing influence on ,muhammadan thought4 ,while the formal and lifeless precision of the religious services and prayers1 as well as the belief in divine interference in the concerns of everyday life1 have produced a strong spirit of fatalism and resignation to events4 #bg4 ,the ,koran4 ,the word ,kuran is derived from kuraa1 to recite or proclaim4 ,the ,muhammadans look upon the ,koran as the direct word of ,god sent down by ,him to the seventh or lowest heaven1 and then revealed from time to time to the ,prophet by the angel ,gabriel4 ,a few chapters are supposed to have been delivered entire1 but the greater part of the book was given piecemeal during a period of twenty-three years4 ,the ,koran is written in ,arabic prose1 but its sentences generally conclude in a long-continued rhyme4 ,the language is considered to be of the utmost elegance and purity1 and it has become the standard of the ,arabic tongue4 ,muhammadans pay it the greatest reverence1 and their most solemn oath is taken with the ,koran placed on the head4 ,formerly the sacred book could only be touched by a ,saiyad or a ,mulla1 and an assembly always rose when it was brought to them4 ,the book is kept on a high shelf in the house1 so as to avoid any risk of contamination1 and nothing is placed over it4 ,every chapter in the ,koran except one begins with the invocation1 ',bismillah-nirrahman-nirrahim1' or ',in the name of ,god1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful'2 and nearly all ,muhammadan prayers and religious writings also begin with this4 ,as the ,koran is the direct word of ,god1 any statement in it has the unquestioned and complete force of law4 ,on some points1 however1 separate utterances in the work itself are contradictory1 and the necessity then arises of determining which is the later and more authoritative statement4 #cbi #bh4 ,the ,traditions4 ,next to the ,koran in point of authority come the ,traditions of the sayings and actions of the ,prophet1 which are known as ,hadis or ,sunnah4 ,these were eagerly collected as the jurisdiction of ,islam was extended1 and numerous cases arose for decision in which no ruling was provided by the ,koran4 ,for some time it was held necessary that a tradition should be oral and not have been reduced to writing4 ,when the necessity of collecting and searching for the ,traditions became paramount1 indefatigable research was displayed in the work4 ,the most trustworthy collection of traditions was compiled by ,abu ,abdullah ,muhammad1 a native of ,bokhara1 who died in the ,hijra year #bef1 or nearly #bej years after ,muhammad4 ,he succeeded in amassing no fewer than #fjj1jjj traditions1 of which he selected only #gbge as trustworthy4 ,the authentic traditions of what the ,prophet said and did were considered practically as binding as the ,koran1 and any case might be decided by a tradition bearing on it4 ,the development of ,moslem jurisdiction was thus based not on the elucidation and exposition of broad principles of law and equity1 but on the record of the words and actions of one man who had lived in a substantially less civilised society than that existing in the countries to which ,muhammadan law now came to be applied4 ,such a state of things inevitably exercised a cramping effect on the ,moslem lawyers and acted as a bar to improvement4 ,thus1 because the ,koran charged the ,jews and ,christians with having corrupted the text of their sacred books1 it was laid down that no ,jew or ,christian could be accepted as a credible witness in a ,moslem lawsuit2 and since the ,prophet had forbidden the keeping of dogs except for certain necessary purposes1 it was ruled by one school that there was no property in dogs1 and that if a man killed a dog its owner had no right to compensation4 #ccj #bi4 ,the schools of law4 ,after the ,koran and ,traditions the decisions of certain lawyers during the early period of ,islam were accepted as authoritative4 ,of them four schools are recognised by the ,sunnis in different countries1 those of the ,imams ,abu ,hanifa1 ,shafei1 ,malik1 and ,hambal4 ,in northern ,india the school of ,abu ,hanifa is followed4 ,he was born at ,kufa1 the capital of ,irak1 in the ,hijra year #hj1 when four of the ,prophet's ,companions were still alive4 ,he is the great oracle of jurisprudence1 and with his two pupils was the founder of the ,hanifi code of law4 ,in southern ,india the ,shafei school is followed4 #cca ,the ,shiahs have separate collections of traditions and schools of law1 and they say that a ,mujtahid or doctor of the law can still give decisions of binding authority1 which the ,sunnis deny4 ,except as regards marriage1 divorce and inheritance and other personal matters1 ,muhammadan law is of course now superseded by the general law of ,india4 #cj4 ,food4 ,an animal only becomes lawful food for ,muhammadans if it is killed by cutting the throat and repeating at the time the words1 ',bismillah ,allaho ,akbar1' or ',in the name of ,god1 ,god is great4' ,but in shooting wild animals1 if the invocation is repeated at the time of discharging the arrow or firing the gun1 the carcase becomes lawful food4 ,this last rule of ,sunni law is1 however1 not known to1 or not observed by1 many ,muhammadans in the ,central ,provinces1 who do not eat an animal unless its throat is cut before death4 ,fish and locusts may be eaten without being killed in this manner4 ,the animal so killed by ,zabh is lawful food when slain by a ,moslem1 ,jew or ,christian1 but not if slaughtered by an idolater or an apostate from ,islam4 ,cloven-footed animals1 birds that pick up food with their bills1 and fish with scales are lawful1 but not birds or beasts of prey4 ,it is doubtful whether the horse is lawful4 ,elephants1 mules1 asses1 alligators1 turtles1 crabs1 snakes and frogs are unlawful1 and swine's flesh is especially prohibited4 ,muhammadans eat freely of mutton and fish when they can afford it1 but some of them abstain from chickens in imitation of the ,hindus4 ,their favourite drink is sherbet1 or sugar and water with cream or the juice of some fruit4 ,wine is forbidden in the ,koran1 and the prohibition is held to include intoxicating drugs1 but this latter rule is by no means observed4 ,according to his religion a ,muhammadan need have no objection to eat with a ,christian if the food eaten is of a lawful kind2 but he should not eat with ,hindus1 as they are idolaters4 ,in practice1 however1 many ,muhammadans have adopted the ,hindu rule against eating food touched by ,christians1 while owing to long association together they will partake of it when cooked by ,hindus4 #ccb #ca4 ,dress4 ,the most distinctive feature of ,muhammadan dress is that the men always wear trousers or pyjamas of cotton1 silk or chintz cloth1 usually white4 ,they may be either tight or loose below the knee1 and are secured by a string round the waist4 ,a ,muhammadan never wears the ,hindu dhoti or loin-cloth4 ,he has a white1 sleeved muslin shirt1 made much like an ,english soft-fronted shirt1 but usually without a collar1 the ends of which hang down outside the trousers4 ,over these the well-to-do have a waistcoat of velvet1 brocade or broadcloth4 ,on going out he puts on a long coat1 tight over the chest1 and with rather full skirts hanging below the knee1 of cotton cloth or muslin1 or sometimes broadcloth or velvet4 ,in the house he wears a small cap1 and on going out puts on a turban or loose headcloth4 ,but the fashion of wearing the small red fez with a tassel is now increasing among educated ,muhammadans1 and this serves as a distinctive mark in their dress1 which trousers no longer do1 as the ,hindus have also adopted them4 ,the removal of the shoes either on entering a house or mosque is not prescribed by ,muhammadan law1 though it has become customary in imitation of the ,hindus4 ,the ,prophet in fact said1 ',act the reverse of the ,jews in your prayers1 for they do not pray in boots or shoes4' ,but he himself sometimes took his shoes off to pray and sometimes not4 ,the following are some of the sayings of the ,prophet with regard to dress3 ',whoever wears a silk garment in this world shall not wear it in the next4' ',god will not have compassion on him who wears long trousers 7below the ankle7 from pride4' ',it is lawful for the women of my people to wear silks and gold ornaments1 but it is unlawful for the men4' ',wear white clothes1 because they are the cleanest and the most agreeable1 and bury your dead in white clothes4' ,men are prohibited from wearing gold ornaments and also silver ones other than a signet ring4 ,a silver ring1 of value sufficient to produce a day's food in case of need1 should always be worn4 ,the rule against ornaments has been generally disregarded1 and gold and silver ornaments have been regularly worn by men1 but the fashion of wearing ornaments is now going out1 both among ,muhammadan and ,hindu men4 ,a rich ,muhammadan woman has a long shirt of muslin or net in different colours1 embroidered on the neck and shoulders with gold lace1 and draping down to the ankles4 ,under it she wears silk pyjamas1 and over it an angia or breast-cloth of silk1 brocade or cloth of gold1 bordered with gold and silver lace4 ,on the head she has a shawl or square kerchief bordered with lace4 ,a poor woman has simply a bodice and pyjamas1 with a cloth round the waist to cover their ends4 ,women as a rule always wear shoes1 even though they do not go out1 and they have a profusion of ornaments of much the same character as ,hindu women4 #ccc #cb4 ,social rules4 ,salutations4 ,there are certain social obligations known as ,farz or imperative1 but if one person in eight or ten perform them it is as if all had done so4 ,these are1 to return a salutation2 to visit the sick and inquire after their welfare2 to follow a bier on foot to the grave2 to accept an invitation2 and that when a person sneezes and says immediately1 ',alhamd ul lillah' or ',god be praised1' one of the party must reply1 ',yar hamak ,allah' or ',god have mercy on you4' ,the ,muhammadan form of salutation is ',salam u alaikum' or ',the peace of ,god be with you1' and the reply is ',wo alaikum as salam' or ',and on you also be peace4' #ccd ,from this form has come the common ,anglo-,indian use of the word ,salaam4 ,when invitations are to be sent for any important function1 such as a wedding1 some woman who does not observe parda is employed to carry them4 ,she is dressed in good clothes and provided with a tray containing betel-leaf biras or packets1 cardamoms wrapped in red paper1 sandalwood and sugar4 ,she approaches any lady invited with great respect1 and says3 ,so-and-so sends her best compliments to you and embraces you1 and says that 'as to-morrow there is a little gaiety about to take place in my house1 and ,i wish all my female friends by their presence to grace and ornament with their feet the home of this poor individual1 and thereby make it a garden of roses1 you must also positively come1 and by remaining a couple of hours honour my humble dwelling with your company4' ,if the invitation is accepted the woman carrying it applies a little sandalwood to the neck1 breast and back of the guest1 puts sugar and cardamoms into her mouth1 and gives her a betel-leaf4 ,if it is declined1 only sandalwood is applied and a betel-leaf given4 #cce ,next day dhoolies or litters are sent for the guests1 or if the hostess is poor she sends women to escort them to the house before daybreak4 ,the guests are expected to bring presents4 ,if any ceremony connected with a child is to be performed they give it clothes or sweets1 and similar articles of higher value to the bride and bridegroom in the case of a wedding4 #cc4 ,customs4 ,certain customs known as ,fitrah are supposed to have existed among the ,arabs before the time of the ,prophet1 and to have been confirmed by him4 ,these are3 ,to keep the moustache clipped short so that food or drink cannot touch them when entering the mouth2 not to cut or shave the beard2 to clean the teeth with a mismak or wooden toothbrush2 this should really be done at all prayers1 but presumably once or twice a day are held sufficient2 to clean the nostrils and mouth with water at the time of the usual ablutions2 to cut the nails and clean the finger-joints2 and to pull out the hair from under the armpits and the pubic hair4 ,it is noticeable that though elaborate directions are given for washing the face1 hands and feet before each prayer1 there is no order to bathe the whole body daily1 and this may probably not have been customary in ,arabia owing to the scarcity of water4 #ccf ,and while many ,muhammadans have adopted the ,hindu custom of daily bathing1 yet others in quite a respectable position have not1 and only bathe once a week before going to the mosque4 ,gambling as well as the drinking of wine is prohibited in the ,koran according to the text3 ,o believers6 ,surely wine and games of chance and statues and the divining-arrows are an abomination of ,satan's work4 ,statues as well as pictures were prohibited1 because at this time they were probably made only as idols to be worshipped1 the prohibition being exactly analogous to that contained in the ,second ,commandment4 ,the ,koran enjoins a belief in the existence of magic1 but forbids its practice4 ,magic is considered to be of two kinds1 that accomplished with the help of the ,koran and the names of prophets and saints1 which is divine or good1 and evil magic practised with the aid of genii and evil spirits which is strongly condemned4 ,divining-rods apparently belong to the latter class4 ,perfection in divine magic consists in the knowledge of the ,ismi ,aazam or ,great ,name1 a knowledge first possessed by the prophet ,sulaiman or ,solomon1 and since ,solomon transmitted only to those who are highly favoured by ,providence4 ,this appears to be the true name of ,god1 which is too awful and potent to be known or used by the commonalty2 hence ,allah1 really an epithet1 is used instead4 ,it was in virtue of engraving the great name on his ring that ,solomon possessed dominion over men and genii1 and over the winds and birds and beasts4 ,the uttering of ,solomon's own name casts out demons1 cures the sick1 and raises the dead4 ,the names of certain prophets and holy men have also a special virtue1 and written charms of mysterious numerical combinations and diagrams have power for good4 #ccg ,both kinds of magic are largely practised by ,muhammadans4 ,muhammad disapproved of whistling1 apparently because whistling and clapping the hands were part of the heathen ritual at ,mecca4 ,hence it is considered wrong for good ,muhammadans to whistle4 #cch #cd4 ,position of women4 ,the inferior status of women in ,islam is inherited from ,arabian society before the time of ,muhammad4 ,among the pagan ,arabs a woman was a mere chattel1 and descended by inheritance4 ,hence the union of men with their step-mothers and mothers-in-law was common4 ,muhammad forbade these incestuous marriages1 and also the prevalent practice of female infanticide4 ,he legalised polygamy1 but limited it to four wives1 and taught that women as well as men could enter paradise4 ,it would have been quite impossible to abolish polygamy in ,arabia at the time when he lived1 nor could he strike at the practice of secluding women even if he had wished to do so4 ,this last custom has shown an unfortunate persistence1 and is in full force among ,indian ,muhammadans1 from whom the higher castes of ,hindus in northern ,india have perhaps imitated it4 ,nor can it be said to show much sign of weakening at present4 ,it is not universal over the ,islamic world1 as in ,afghanistan women are not usually secluded4 ,as a matter of fact both polygamy and divorce are very rare among ,indian ,muhammadans4 ,mr4 ,hughes quotes an interesting passage against polygamy from a ,persian book on marriage customs3 ,that man is to be praised who confines himself to one wife1 for if he takes two it is wrong and he will certainly repent of his folly4 ,thus say the seven wise women3 ,be that man's life immersed in gloom ,who weds more wives than one1 ,with one his cheeks retain their bloom1 ,his voice a cheerful tone2 ,these speak his honest heart at rest1 ,and he and she are always blest2 ,but when with two he seeks his joy1 ,together they his soul annoy2 ,with two no sunbeam of delight ,can make his day of misery bright4 ,adultery was punished by stoning to death in accordance with the ,jewish custom4 #ce4 ,interest on money4 ,usury or the taking of interest on loans was prohibited by the ,prophet4 ,this precept was adopted from the ,mosaic law and emphasised1 and while it has to all appearance been discarded by the ,jews1 it is still largely adhered to by ,moslems4 ,in both cases the prohibition was addressed to a people in the pastoral stage of culture when loans were probably very rare and no profit could as a rule be made by taking a loan1 as it would not lead to any increase4 ,loans would only be made for subsistence1 and as the borrower was probably always poor1 he would frequently be unable to pay the principal much less the interest1 and would ultimately become the slave of the creditor in lieu of his debt4 ,usury would thus result in the enslavement of a large section of the free community1 and would be looked upon as an abuse and instrument of tyranny4 ,as soon as the agricultural stage is reached usury stands on a different footing4 ,loans of seed for sowing the land and of cattle or money for ploughing it then become frequent and necessary1 and the borrower can afford to pay interest from the profit of the harvest4 ,it is clearly right and proper also that the lender should receive a return for the risk involved in the loan and the capacity of gain thus conferred on the borrower1 and usury becomes a properly legitimate and necessary institution1 though the rate1 being probably based on the return yielded by the earth to the seed1 has a tendency to be very excessive in primitive societies4 ,the prohibition of interest among ,muhammadans is thus now a hopeless anachronism1 which has closed to those who observe it some of the most important professions4 ,a tendency is happily visible towards the abrogation of the rule1 and ,mr4 ,marten notes that the ,berar ,muhammadan ,council has set an example by putting out its own money at interest4 #cci #cf4 ,muhammadan education4 ,the ,indian ,muhammadans have generally been considered to be at a disadvantage in modern ,india as compared with the ,hindus1 owing to their unwillingness to accept regular ,english education for their sons1 and their adherence to the simply religious teaching of their own ,maulvis4 ,however this may have been in the past1 it is doubtful whether it is at all true of the present generation4 ,while there is no doubt that ,muhammadans consider it of the first importance that their sons should learn ,urdu and be able to read the ,koran1 there are no signs of ,muhammadan boys being kept away from the ,government schools1 at least in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the rationalising spirit of ,sir ,saiyad ,ahmad1 the founder of the ,aligarh ,college1 and the general educational conference for ,indian ,muhammadans has1 through the excellent training given by the ,college1 borne continually increasing fruit4 ,a new class of educated and liberal-minded ,muhammadan gentlemen has grown up whose influence on the aims and prejudices of the whole ,muhammadan community is gradually becoming manifest4 ,the statistics of occupation given at the commencement of this article show that the ,muhammadans have a much larger share of all classes of administrative posts under ,government than they would obtain if these were awarded on a basis of population4 ,presumably when it is asserted that ,muhammadans are less successful than ,hindus under the ,british ,government1 what is meant is that they have partly lost their former position of the sole governing class over large areas of the country4 ,the community are now fully awake to the advantages of education1 and their ,anjumans or associations have started high schools which educate students up to the entrance of the university on the same lines as the ,government schools4 ,where these special schools do not exist1 ,muhammadan boys freely enter the ordinary schools1 and their standard of intelligence and application is in no way inferior to that of ,hindu boys4 ,nanakpanthi #a4 ,account of the sect4 ,nanakpanthi #cdj ,sect1 ,nanakshahi1 ,udasi1 ,suthra ,shahi4--,the ,nanakpanthi sect was founded by the well-known ,baba ,nanak1 a ,khatri of the ,lahore ,district1 who lived between #adfi and #aech-ci4 ,he is the real founder of ,sikhism1 but this development of his followers into a military and political organisation was the work of his successors1 ,har ,govind and ,govind ,singh4 ,nanak himself was a religious reformer of the same type as ,kabir and others1 who tried to abolish the worship of idols and all the body of ,hindu superstition1 and substitute a belief in a single unseen deity without form or special name4 ,as with most of the other ,vaishnava reformers1 ,nanak's creed was largely an outcome of his observation of ,islam4 ,there is nothing in his doctrine1 ,sir ,e4,d4 ,maclagan says1 to distinguish it in any marked way from that of the other saints who taught the higher forms of ,hinduism in northern ,india4 ,the unity of ,god1 the absence of any real distinction between ,hindus and ,musalmans1 the uselessness of ceremonial1 the vanity of earthly wishes1 even the equality of castes1 are topics common to ,nanak and the ,bhagats2 and the ,adi-,granth or sacred book compiled by ,nanak is full of quotations from elder or contemporary teachers1 who taught essentially the same doctrine as ,nanak himself4 ,it was partly1 he explains1 because ,nanak was the first reformer in the ,punjab1 and thus had the field practically to himself1 and partly in consequence of the subsequent development of ,sikhism1 that his movement has been so successful and his adherents now outnumber those of any other reformer of the same period4 ,nanak's doctrines were also of a very liberal character4 ,the burden of his teaching was that there is no ,hindu and no ,muhammadan4 ,he believed in transmigration1 but held that the successive stages were but purifications1 and that at last the soul1 cleansed from sin1 went to dwell with its maker4 ,he prescribed no caste rules or ceremonial observances1 and indeed condemned them as unnecessary and even harmful2 but he made no violent attack on them1 he insisted on no alteration in existing civil and social institutions1 and was content to leave the doctrine of the equality of all men in the sight of ,god to work in the minds of his followers4 ,he respected the ,hindu veneration of the cow and the ,muhammadan abhorrence of the hog1 but recommended as a higher rule than either total abstinence from flesh4 ,nothing could have been gentler or less aggressive than his doctrine1 nothing more unlike the teaching of his great successor ,govind4 #cda ,two other causes contributed to swell the numbers of the ,nanakpanthis4 ,the first of these was that during the late ,mughal ,empire the ,hindus of the frontier tracts of the ,punjab were debarred by the fanaticism of their ,muhammadan neighbours from the worship of idols2 and they therefore found it convenient to profess the faith of ,nanak which permitted them to declare themselves as worshippers of one ,god1 while not forcing them definitely to break with caste and ,hinduism4 ,the second was that ,guru ,govind ,singh required the absolute abandonment of caste as a condition of the initiation of a ,sikh2 and hence many who would not consent to this remained ,nanakpanthis without adopting ,sikhism4 ,the ,nanakpanthis of the present day are roughly classified as ,sikhs who have not adopted the term ,singh1 which is attached to the names of all true ,sikhs2 they also do not forbid smoking or insist on the adoption of the five ,kakkas or ,k's which are in theory the distinguishing marks of the ,sikh2 the ,kes or uncut hair and unshaven beard2 the ,kachh or short drawers ending above the knee2 the ,kara or iron bangle2 the ,khanda or steel knife2 and the ,kanga or comb4 ,the ,nanakpanthi retains the ,hindu custom of shaving the whole head except the choti or scalp-lock1 and hence is often known as a ,munda or shaven ,sikh4 #cdb ,the sect do not prohibit the consumption of meat and liquor1 but some of them eat only the flesh of animals killed by the ,sikh method of ,jatka1 or cutting off the head by a blow on the back of the neck4 ,their only form of initiation is the ordinary ,hindu practice of drinking the foot-nectar or sugar and water in which the toe of the guru has been dipped1 and this is not very common4 ,it is known as the ,charan ka pahul or foot-baptism1 as opposed to the ,khande ka pahul or sword-baptism of the ,govindi ,sikhs4 #cdc ,baba ,nanak himself1 ,sir ,e4 ,maclagan states1 is a very favourite object of veneration among ,sikhs of all kinds1 and the picture of the guru with his long white beard and benevolent countenance is constantly met with in the sacred places of the ,punjab4 #b4 ,nanakpanthis in the ,central ,provinces4 ,in #aija about #ac1jjj persons returned themselves as ,nanakpanthis in the ,central ,provinces1 of whom #gjjj were ,banjaras and the remainder principally ,kunbis1 ,ahirs and ,telis4 ,the ,banjaras generally revere ,nanak1 as shown in the article on that caste4 ,a certain number of ,mehtars or sweepers also profess the sect1 being attached to it1 as to the ,sikh religion1 by the abolition of caste restrictions and prejudices advocated by their founders2 but this tolerance has not been perpetuated1 and the unclean classes1 such as the ,mazbi or scavenger ,sikhs1 are as scrupulously avoided and kept at a distance by the ,sikh as by the ,hindu1 and are even excluded from communion1 and from the rites and holy places of their religion4 #cdd #c4 ,udasis4 ,the ,udasis are a class of ascetics of the ,nanakpanthi or ,sikh faith1 whose order was founded by ,sri ,chand1 the younger son of ,nanak4 ,they are recruited from all castes and will eat food from any ,hindu4 ,they are almost all celibates1 and pay special reverence to the ,adi-,granth of ,nanak1 but also respect the ,granth of ,govind ,singh and attend the same shrines as the ,sikhs generally4 ,their service consists of a ringing of bells and blare of instruments1 and they chant hymns and wave lights before the ,adi-,granth and the picture of ,baba ,nanak4 ,in the ,central ,provinces members of several orders which have branched off from the main ,nanakpanthi community are known as ,udasi4 ,thus some of them say they do not go to any temples and worship ,nirankal or the deity without shape or form1 a name given to the supreme ,god by ,nanak4 ,in the ,punjab the ,nirankaris constitute a separate order from the ,udasis4 #cde ,these ,udasis wear a long rope of sheep's wool round the neck and iron chains round the wrist and waist4 ,they carry half a cocoanut shell as a begging-bowl and have the chameta or iron tongs1 which can also be closed and used as a poker4 ,their form of salutation is ',matha ,tek1' or ',i put my head at your feet4' ,they never cut their hair and have a long string of wool attached to the choti or scalp-lock1 which is coiled up under a little cap4 ,they say that they worship ,nirankal without going to temples1 and when they sit down to pray they make a little fire and place ghi or sweetmeats upon it as an offering4 ,when begging they say ',alakh1' and they accept any kind of uncooked and cooked food from ,brahmans4 #d4 ,suthra ,shahis4 ,another mendicant ,nanakpanthi order1 whose members visit the ,central ,provinces1 is that of the ,suthra ,shahis4 ,here1 however1 they often drop the special name1 and call themselves simply ,nanakshahi4 ,the origin of the order is uncertain1 and ,sir ,e4 ,maclagan gives various accounts4 ,here they say that their founder was a disciple of ,nanak1 who visited ,mecca and brought back the ,seli and ,syahi which are their distinctive badges4 ,the ,seli is a rope of black wool which they tie round their heads like a turban1 and ,syahi the ink with which they draw a black line on their foreheads1 though this is in fact usually made with charcoal4 ,they carry a wallet in which these articles are kept1 and also the two small ebony sticks which they strike against each other as an accompaniment to their begging-songs4 ,the larger stick is dedicated to ,nanak and the smaller to the ,goddess ,kali4 ,they are most importunate beggars1 and say that the privilege of levying a pice 7farthing7 was given to them by ,aurangzeb4 ,they were accustomed in former times to burn their clothes and stand naked at the door of any person who refused to give them alms4 ,they also have a bahi or account-book in which the gifts they receive1 especially from ,banias1 are recorded4 ,mr4 ,crooke states that ,they indulge freely in intoxicants and seldom cease from smoking4 ,their profligacy is notorious1 and they are said to be composed mainly of spendthrifts who have lost their wealth in gambling4 ,they are recruited from all castes and always add the title ,shah to their names4 ,a proverb says in allusion to their rapacity3 ,kehu mare1 ,kehu jiye1 ,suthra gur batasa piye2 or1 ',others may live or die1 but the ,suthra ,shahi must have his drink of sugar and water4' #cdf ,parmarthi ,sect ,parmarthi ,sect4--,a ,vishnuite sect of which #bf1jjj persons were returned as members in the census of #aija4 ,nearly all of these belonged to the ,uriya ,state of ,kalahandi1 since transferred to ,bihar and ,orissa4 ,the following account of the sect has been furnished by ,rai ,bahadur ,panda ,baijnath1 formerly ,diwan of ,kalahandi ,state4 ,this sect penetrated the ,state from the ,orissa side1 and seems to belong to ,bengal4 ,in the beginning it consisted only in pure devotion to the worship of ,krishna1 but later it has been degraded by sexual indulgence and immorality1 and this appears to be the main basis of its ritual at present4 ,outwardly its followers recite the ,bhagavad ,gita and pretend to be persons of very high morals4 ,their secret practices were obtained from one of his officials who had entered the sect in the lowest grade4 ,on the day of initiation there is a great meeting of members at the cost of the neophyte4 ,a text is taught to him1 and the initiation is completed by all the members partaking together of a feast without distinction of caste4 ,the food eaten at this is considered to be ,mahaprasad1 or as if offered to ,vishnu in his form of ,jagannath at ,puri1 and to be therefore incapable of defilement4 ,the mantra or text taught to the disciple is as follows3 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,krishna1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,krishna1 ,o ,krishna1 ,o ,krishna1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,ramo1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,ramo1 ,o ,ramo1 ,o ,ramo1 ,o ,hari1 ,o ,hari4 ,the disciple is enjoined to repeat this text a prescribed number of times1 #ajh or more1 every day4 ,to those pupils who show their devotional ardour by continual repetition of the first text others are taught4 ,the next step is that the disciple should associate himself or herself with some other ,parmarthi of the opposite sex and tend and serve them4 ,this relation1 which is known as ,asra-patro1 cannot exist between husband and wife1 some other person having to be chosen in each case1 and it results of course in an immoral connection4 ,following this is the further rite of ,almo-,samarpana or offering of oneself1 in which the disciple is required to give his wife to the ,guru or preceptor as the acme of self-sacrifice4 ,the guru calls the disciple by a female name of one of the milkmaids of ,brindaban to indicate that the disciple regards ,krishna with the same devotion as they did4 ,sometimes the guru and a woman personate ,krishna and ,radha1 but reverse the names1 the guru calling himself ,radha and the woman ,krishna4 ,the other disciples wait upon and serve them1 and they perform an immoral act in public4 ,parmarthi women sometimes have the mantra or text1 ',o ,hari1 ,o ,krishna1' tattooed on their breasts4 ,the ,parmarthis often deny the accusation of immorality1 and the above statements may not be true of all of them2 but they are believed to be true as regards a considerable part of the sect at any rate4 ,with all his cleanliness1 vegetarianism and teetotalism1 one writer remarks1 the ,vaishnava is perhaps the most dangerous in the whole list of ,hindu sects4 ,he has done very good service in civilising the lower classes to some extent and in suppressing the horrors of the ,tantric worship4 ,but the moral laxity which the ,vaishnava encourages by the stories of the illicit loves between the ,god and ,goddess1 and by the strong tendency to imitate them which his teachings generate1 outweigh the good done by him4 ,this statement applies1 however1 principally to one or two sects devoted to ,krishna1 and by no means to all nor to the majority of the ,vaishnava sects4 ,parsi or ,zoroastrian ,religion ,bibliography of works quoted3 ,dr4 ,martin ,haug's ,essays on the ,parsis1 ,trbner's ,oriental ,series2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat4 by the late ,mr4 ,kharsedji ,nasarvanji ,seervai1 ,j4,p41 and ,khan ,bahadur ,bamanji ,behramji ,patel2 ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach's ,orphus2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,murray ,mitchell's ,great ,religions of ,india4 ,the whole account of the customs and social life of the ,parsis is taken from the excellent description in the ,bombay ,gazetteer4 ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,introductory4 #b4 ,the ,zoroastrian religion4 #c4 ,the ,zend-,avesta4 #d4 ,the ,zend-,avesta and the ,vedas4 #e4 ,reasons for the schism between the ,persian and ,indian ,aryans4 #f4 ,the dual principle and the conflict between good and evil4 #g4 ,the dual principle derived from the antagonism of light and darkness4 #h4 ,the ,zoroastrians in ,persia4 #i4 ,their migration to ,india and settlement there4 #aj4 ,their wealth and prosperity4 #aa4 ,marriage customs4 #ab4 ,religion4 ,worship of fire4 #ac4 ,the ,homa liquor4 #ad4 ,parsi priests4 #ae4 ,the sacred shirt and cord4 #af4 ,disposal of the dead4 #ag4 ,previous exposure of the dead1 and migration of souls4 #ah4 ,clothes1 food and ceremonial observances4 #a4 ,introductory4 ,the number of ,parsis in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa was about #ahjj4 ,they are immigrants from ,bombay1 and usually reside in large towns1 where they are engaged in different branches of trade1 especially in the manufacture and vend of liquor and the management of cotton mills and factories4 #cdg ,the word ,parsi means a resident of the province of ,fars or ,pars in ,persia1 from which the name of the country is also derived4 #b4 ,the ,zoroastrian religion4 ,also known as ,mazdaism1 the ,zoroastrian religion was that of the ancient ,magi or fire-worshippers of ,persia1 mentioned in ,scripture4 ,it is supposed that ,zoroaster or ,spitama ,zarathustra1 if he was a historical personage1 effected a reformation of this religion and placed it on a new basis at some time about #aajj ,b4,c4 ,it is suggested by ,haug #cdh that ,zarathustra was the designation of the high priests of the cult1 and ,spitama the proper name of that high priest who carried out its distinctive reformation1 and perhaps separated the religion of the ,persian from the ,indian ,aryans4 ,this would account for the fact that the sacred writings1 which1 according to the testimony of ,greek and ,roman authors1 were of great extent1 their compilation probably extending over several centuries1 were subsequently all ascribed to one man1 or to ,zarathustra alone4 ,the ,zend-,avesta or sacred book of the ,parsis does not mention the fire priests under the name of ,magi1 but calls them ,athravan1 the same word as the ,sanskrit ,atharva-,veda4 ,the reason for this1 ,m4 ,reinach suggests1 is that the ,magi had rebelled against ,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus1 in the sixth century ,b4,c41 during his absence in ,egypt1 and placed a rival creature of their own on the throne4 ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 overthrew him and re-established the ,persian kingdom in #ebc ,b4,c41 and this may have discredited the ,magian priests and caused those of the reformed religion to adopt a new name4 #cdi ,it is certain that ,cyrus conformed to the precept of the ,avesta against the pollution of the sacred element water1 when he diverted the course of the river ,gyndanes in order to recover the body of a horse which had been drowned in it1 and that ,darius ,i4 invokes in his inscriptions ,ormazd or ,ahura ,mazda1 the deity of the ,avesta4 #cej ,on the subversion of the ,persian empire by ,alexander1 and the subsequent conquest of ,persia by the ,arsacid ,parthian dynasty1 the religion of the fire-worshippers fell into neglect1 but was revived on the establishment of the ,sassanian dynasty of ,ardeshir ,babegan or ,artaxerxes in ,a4,d4 #bbf1 and became the state religion1 warmly supported by its rulers1 until the ,arab conquest in ,a4,d4 #feb4 ,it was at the beginning of this second period of prosperity that the ,zend-,avesta as it still exists was collected and reduced to writing1 but it is thought that the greater part of the remains of the ancient texts recovered at the time were again lost during the ,arab invasion1 as the original literature is believed to have been very extensive4 #c4 ,the ,zend-,avesta4 ,the language of the ,zend-,avesta is the ancient east ,iranian or ,bactrian dialect1 which probably died out finally in the third century ,b4,c41 modern ,persian being descended from the west ,iranian or ,median tongue4 ,the ,bactrian language of the ,zend-,avesta is1 ,haug states1 a genuine sister of ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 ,latin and ,gothic4 ,the relationship of the ,avesta language to the most ancient ,sanskrit1 the so-called ,vedic dialect1 is as close as that of the different dialects of the ,greek language1 ,aeolic1 ,ionic1 ,doric or ,attic1 to each other4 ,the languages of the sacred hymns of the ,brahmans1 and of those of the ,parsis1 are only the two dialects of two separate tribes of one and the same nation4 ,as the ,ionians1 ,dorians1 ,aetolians1 etc41 were different tribes of the ,greek nation whose general name was ,hellenes1 so the ancient ,brahmans and ,parsis were two tribes of the nation which is called ,aryas both in the ,veda and ,zend-,avesta4 #cea ,the sections of the ,zend-,avesta which remain are about equal in size to the ,bible4 ,they consist of sacrificial hymns1 prayers and accounts of the making of the world1 in the form of conversations between ,ahura ,mazda and ,zoroaster4 ,the whole arrangement is1 however1 very fragmentary and chaotic1 and much of the matter is of a trivial character4 ,it cannot be compared in merit with the ,old ,testament4 #d4 ,the ,zend ,avesta and the ,vedas4 ,a cuneiform inscription discovered in the centre of ,asia ,minor at ,ptorium proves that about #adjj ,b4,c4 certain tribes who had relations with the ,hittite empire had for their deities ,mitra1 ,indra1 ,varuna and the ,nasatyas4 ,the first two names are common to the ,persian and ,indian ,aryans1 while the last two are found only in ,india4 ,it appears then that at this time the ancestors of the ,hindus and ,iranians were not yet separated4 #ceb ,certain important contrasts between the ancient ,zoroastrian and ,vedic religions have led to the theory that the separation was the result of a religious and political schism4 ,the words ,deva and ,asura have an exactly opposite significance in the two religions4 ,deva #cec is the term invariably used for the gods of the ,hindus in the whole ,vedic and ,brahmanical literature4 ,in the ,zend-,avesta1 on the other hand1 ,deva 7,pers4 div7 is the general name of an evil spirit1 a fiend1 demon or devil1 who is inimical to all that is good and comes from ,god4 ,the part of the ,avesta called the ,vendidad1 consisting of a collection of spells and incantations1 means vi-daevo-data or given against the ,devas or demons4 ,the ,devas1 ,dr4 ,haug states1 are the originators of all that is bad1 of every impurity1 of death2 and are constantly thinking of causing the destruction of the fields and trees1 and of the houses of religious men4 ,asura1 occurring as ,ahura in the first part of ,ahura-,mazda 7,hormazd71 is the name of ,god among the ,parsis2 and the ,zoroastrian religion is distinctly called the ,ahura religion1 in strict opposition to the ,deva religion4 ,but among the ,hindus ,asura has assumed a bad meaning1 and is applied to the bitterest enemies of their ,devas 7gods71 with whom the ,asuras are constantly waging war4 ,this is the case throughout the whole ,puranic literature and as far back as the later parts of the ,vedas2 but in the older parts of the ,rig-,veda ,sanhita we find the word ,asura used in as good and elevated a sense as in the ,zend-,avesta4 ,the chief gods1 such as ,indra1 ,varuna1 ,agni1 ,savitri1 ,rudra or ,siva1 are honoured with the epithet ',asura1' which means 'living1 spiritual1' and signifies the divine in its opposition to human nature4 ,in a bad sense we find ,asura only twice in the older parts of the ,rig-,veda1 in which passages the defeat of the 'sons or men of the ,asura' is ordered or spoken of2 but we find the word more frequently in this sense in the last book of the ,rig-,veda 7which is only an appendix to the whole made in later times71 and in the ,atharva-,veda1 where the ,rishis are said to have frustrated the tricks of the ,asuras and to have the power of putting them down4 ,in the ,brahmanas or sacrificial books belonging to each of the ,vedas we find the ,devas always fighting with the ,asuras4 ,the latter are the constant enemies of the ,hindu gods1 and always make attacks upon the sacrifices offered by devotees4 ,to defeat them1 all the craft and cunning of the ,devas were required2 and the means of checking them was generally found in a new sacrificial rite4 #ced ,professor ,haug adduces other arguments in this connection from resemblance of metres4 ,again the principal ,vedic ,god1 ,indra1 is included in the list of ,devas or demons in the ,zoroastrian scripture1 the ,vendidad4 ,siva and the ,nasatyas or ,ashvins1 the divine horsemen of the ,vedas1 are also said to be found in the list of ,devas or demons4 ,others of the ,vedic gods as ,mitra the sun1 ,aryaman1 either another name for the sun or his constant associate and representative1 ,vayu the wind1 and one or two more are found as ,yazatas or angels in the ,zend-,avesta4 #cee #e4 ,reasons for the schism between the ,persian and ,indian ,aryans4 ,professor ,haug's suggestion as to the cause of the schism between the ,iranian and ,indian branches of the ,aryans is very interesting4 ,he thinks that the ,aryan tribes after they had left their original home1 which was in all likelihood a cold country1 led mainly a pastoral life1 and cultivated only occasionally some patches of land for their own support4 ,but when they arrived in the tract between the ,oxus and ,jaxartes rivers1 and the highlands of ,bactria1 which were suitable for permanent settlement1 certain of them1 who were the ancestors of the ,iranian branch1 forsook the pastoral life of their ancestors and became agriculturists4 ,others1 the ancestors of the ,indian ,aryans1 retained their nomadic habits1 and took to the practice of making predatory incursions into the territories of the settled communities4 ,hence arose a bitter hostility between them2 and as the success of the raiders was attributed to their religious spells and incantations1 and especially to the consumption of the ,soma liquor under the auspices of the ,god ,indra1 this part of their joint religion became hateful to the ,iranians and led to the founding of the reformed ,zoroastrian religion1 in which special stress is laid on the virtue obtained from bringing land under cultivation1 making enclosures and permanent settlements and protecting agricultural cattle4 ,this is forcibly expressed in the saying1 ',he who cultivates barley cultivates righteousness1' and others4 #cef ,finally the nomadic tribes left the common residence in the ,central ,asian highlands and migrated into ,india4 ,it is not certain that scholars generally accept the above hypothesis4 #f4 ,the dual principles and the conflict between good and evil4 ,the most prominent feature of the religion of ,zarathustra is the dual principle of good and evil and the conflict between them4 ,ahura ,mazda is the supreme deity1 the creator of the world1 and ,ahriman or ,angro ,mainyush is the evil one1 his constant opponent4 ,a perpetual struggle proceeds between them1 extending over the whole of creation1 and will continue for a period of #ab1jjj years4 ,the virtuous lives and prayers and sacrifices of men help the cause of ,ahura ,mazda1 while every bad action and all kinds of ceremonial impurity constitute an assistance rendered by them to ,ahriman4 ,not only virtue1 courage1 charity humility and kindness to animals1 when displayed by men1 are held to reinforce ,ahura ,mazda1 but also such useful acts as cleaning a field for cultivation1 digging a canal or building a bridge4 ,the animals are also divided into good and bad1 the latter being considered the creation of ,ahriman and designated the seed of the serpent4 ,the bad animals include tigers1 snakes1 cats1 wolves1 frogs1 mice1 ants and others1 and to kill them is to perform a virtuous act in the cause of ,ahura ,mazda4 ,among good animals dogs and agricultural cattle appear to be the chief4 ,the division is very imperfect1 and it would seem that the classification does not extend to birds and fish4 ,most trees are good1 but their bark is evil4 ,hail1 snow and all kinds of diseases are believed to be the work of ,ahriman and his evil spirits4 #ceg ,as all ceremonial impurity renders assistance to the evil one1 the ,parsis are very careful in such matters1 as will be noticed subsequently4 ,ahura ,mazda is assisted in his struggle for the good by six ,amesha-,spentas or good spirits1 who are something like archangels4 ,they consist of the spirits of cattle1 fire1 metals1 the earth1 health and immortality4 ,with the first four of these some moral quality or attribute as truth1 wisdom and the curing of diseases is now associated4 ,another great spirit ,sraosha is the judge of the dead4 ,similarly ,ahriman is assisted by six arch-fiends and a whole host of evil spirits 7,deva and ,druj7 of all kinds1 against whom men have to be perpetually on their guard4 ,one of the principal bad spirits is ,aeshma ,deva1 the roaring demon1 who appears to be the ,asmodeus mentioned in the ,apocrypha4 ,at the end of the period of struggle ,ahura ,mazda will engage in a final contest with ,ahriman and will conquer with the help of the ,archangel ,sraosha1 who will overcome the demon ,aeshma4 ,a virgin will then conceive and bring forth the second ,zoroaster as a ,messiah1 who will cause the resurrection of the dead4 ,the good will be separated from the bad1 but the punishment of the latter will not be eternal2 and after the purification of the world by a general conflagration all humanity will unite in the adoration of ,ahura ,mazda4 #ceh ,meanwhile after death the souls of all men are weighed and have to pass over a narrow bridge called ,chinvad4 ,the good souls1 lightened by the absence of sin1 find it a broad and easy path to heaven1 while to the bad ones1 weighed down with their sins1 it becomes narrow as a razor's edge1 and they fall over into hell4 ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach points out that their beliefs have several points of resemblance with those of ,judaism1 but it is not easy to say which religion has borrowed from the other4 #cei ,the word paradise1 according to ,dr4 ,haug1 comes from pairidaesa in the ,zend-,avesta and means a park or beautiful garden protected by a fence4 #g4 ,the dual principle derived from the antagonism of light and darkness4 ,it is noticeable that ,ahura ,mazda is considered as luminous and good1 and ,ahriman as gloomy and bad4 ,ahura ,mazda1 according to ,darmesteter1 can be traced back to ,asura1 the supreme god of ,indo-,iranian times1 and is the representative of ,varuna1 ,zeus or ,jupiter1 that is the sky or heavens4 ,similarly ,ahura ,mazda is described in the ,zend-,avesta as righteous1 brilliant1 glorious1 the originator of the spirit of nature1 of the luminaries and of the self-shining brightness which is in the luminaries4 ,again he is the author of all that is bright and shining1 good and useful in nature1 while ,ahriman called into existence all that is dark and apparently noxious4 ,both are complementary as day and night1 and though opposed to each other1 are indispensable for the preservation of creation4 ,the beneficent spirit appears in the blazing flame1 the presence of the hurtful one is marked by the wood converted into charcoal4 ,ahura ,mazda created the light of day and ,ahriman the darkness of night2 the former awakens men to their duties and the latter lulls them to sleep4 ,these features of the good and evil spirits seem to point to the conclusion that the original antithesis which is portrayed in the conflict between the principles of good and evil is that of night and day or darkness and light4 ,the light of day and all that belongs to it is good1 and the darkness of night and that which belongs to it evil4 ,as already seen1 ,ahura ,mazda is considered to be equivalent to ,varuna or ,zeus1 that is the god of the sky or heavens4 ,originally it seems likely that this deity also comprised the sun1 but afterwards the sun was specialised1 so to speak1 into a separate god1 perhaps in consequence of a clearer recognition of his distinctive attributes and functions in nature4 ,thus in the ,zoroastrian religion ,mithra became the special sun-god1 and may be compared with ,vishnu and ,surya in ,india and ,apollo in ,greece4 ,in the ,avesta the sun is addressed as the king4 #cfj ,ahura ,mazda speaks of the sun-deity ,mithra as follows to ,zoroaster3 ,i created ,mithra1 who rules over large fields1 to be of the same rank and dignity as ,i myself am 7for purposes of worship74 ,the only visible emblem of ,ahura ,mazda worshipped by the ,parsis is fire1 and it would seem that the earthly fire1 which is called ,ahura ,mazda's son1 is venerated as the offspring and representative of the heavenly fire or the sun4 ,thus ,ahura ,mazda may have been originally an old god of the heavens1 and may have become the abstract spirit of light from whom the sun in turn was derived4 ,if1 as is now supposed1 the original home of the ,aryan race was somewhere in northern ,europe1 whence the ,iranian and ,indian branches migrated to the east1 the religious tenets of the ,parsis may perhaps have arisen from the memory of this journey4 ,their veneration of fire would be more easily understood if it was based on the fact that they owed their lives to this element during their wanderings across the steppes of eastern ,europe4 ,the association of cold1 darkness and snow with ,ahriman or the evil one supports this hypothesis4 ,similarly among the ,indian ,aryans the god of fire was one of the greatest ,vedic gods1 and fire was essential to the preservation of life in the cold hilly regions beyond the north-west of ,india4 ,but in ,india itself fire is of far less importance and ,agiri has fallen into the background in modern ,hinduism1 except for the domestic reverence of the hearth-fire4 ,but ,zoroastrianism has preserved the old form of its religion without change4 ,the narrow bridge which spans the gulf leading to heaven and from which the wicked fall into hell1 may have originally been suggested by the steep and narrow passes by which their ancestors must have crossed the mountain ranges lying on their long journey1 and where1 no doubt1 large numbers had miserably perished2 while their paradise1 as already seen1 was the comparatively warm and fertile country to which they had so hardly attained1 where they had learnt to grow corn and where they wanted to stay thenceforth and for ever4 #h4 ,the ,zoroastrians in ,persia4 ,in ,persia itself the ,zoroastrian faith is now almost extinct1 but small colonies still survive in the towns of ,yezd and ,kerman4 ,they are in a miserable and oppressed condition and are subjected to various irritating restrictions1 as being forbidden to make wind towers to their houses for coolness1 to wear spectacles or to ride horses4 ,in #aijd their number was estimated at #ijjj persons4 #cfa #i4 ,their migration to ,india and settlement there4 ,the migration of the ,parsis to ,india dates from the ,arab conquest of ,persia in ,a4,d4 #fch-fda4 ,the refugees at first fled to the hills1 and after passing through a period of hardship moved down to the coast and settled in the city of ,ormuz4 ,being again persecuted1 a party of them set sail for ,india and landed in ,gujarat4 ,there were probably two migrations1 one immediately after the ,arab conquest in #fda1 and the second from ,ormuz as described above in ,a4,d4 #gej4 ,their first settlement was at ,sanjan in ,gujarat1 and from here they spread to various other cities along the coast4 ,during their period of prosperity at ,sanjan they would seem to have converted a large section of the ,hindu population near ,thana4 ,the first settlers in ,gujarat apparently took to tapping palm trees for toddy1 and the ,parsis have ever since been closely connected with the liquor traffic4 ,the ,portuguese writer ,garcia d',orta 7,a4,d4 #aece7 notices a curious class of merchants and shopkeepers1 who were called ,coaris1 that is ,gaurs1 in ,bassein1 and ,esparis or ,parsis in ,cambay4 ,the ,portuguese called them ,jews2 but they were no ,jews1 for they were uncircumcised and ate pork4 ,besides they came from ,persia and had a curious written character1 strange oaths and many foolish superstitions1 taking their dead out by a special door and exposing the bodies till they were destroyed4 ,in #aegh1 at the request of the ,emperor ,akbar1 the ,parsis sent learned priests to explain to him the ,zoroastrian faith4 ,they found ,akbar a ready listener and taught him their peculiar rites and ceremonies4 ,akbar issued orders that the sacred fire should be made over to the charge of ,abul ,fazl1 and that after the manner of the kings of ,persia1 in whose temples blazed perpetual fires1 ,abul ,fazl should take care that the sacred fire was never allowed to go out either by night or day1 for that it was one of the signs of god and one light from among the many lights of his creation4 ,akbar1 according to ,portuguese accounts1 was invested with the sacred shirt and girdle1 and in return granted the ,gujarat priest ,meherji ,rana an estate near ,naosari1 where his descendants have ever since been chief priests4 #cfb #aj4 ,their wealth and prosperity4 ,the ,parsis had begun to settle in ,bombay under the ,portuguese 7,a4,d4 #aecj-afff74 ,one of them1 ,dorabji ,nanabhai1 held a high position in the island before its transfer to the ,british in the latter year1 and before the end of the seventeenth century several more families1 of whom the ,modis1 ,pandes1 ,banajis1 ,dadiseths and ,vadias were among the earliest1 settled in the island4 ,to the ,gujarat ,parsis more than to any class of native merchants was due the development of the trade of ,bombay1 especially with ,china4 ,though many ,parsis came to ,bombay1 almost all continued to consider ,surat or ,naosari their home2 and after its transfer to the ,british in #agei the ,surat ,parsis rose greatly in wealth and position4 ,they became the chief merchants of ,surat1 and their leading men were the ,english1 ,portuguese and ,dutch brokers4 ,shortly afterwards1 owing to the great development of the opium and cotton trade with ,china1 the ,parsis made large profits in commerce both at ,surat and ,bombay4 ,after the great fire at ,surat in #aheg ,bombay became the headquarters of the ,parsis1 and since then has had as permanent settlers the largest section of the community4 ,the bulk of the native foreign trade fell into their hands1 and the very great liberality of some of the leading ,parsis has made their name honourable4 ,they secured a large share of the wealth that was poured into western ,india by the ,american ,war and the making of railways1 and have played a leading part in starting and developing the great factory industry of ,bombay4 ,many of the largest and best managed mills belong to ,parsis1 and numbers of them find highly paid employment as mechanical engineers1 and weaving1 carding and spinning masters4 ,broach ranks next to ,bombay in the prosperity of its ,parsis2 they deal extensively in cotton1 timber1 fuel and the manufacture of spirit from the flowers of the mahua tree4 #cfc ,from the ,bombay ,presidency the ,parsis have spread to other parts of ,india1 following the same avocations2 they are liquor and timber contractors1 own and manage weaving mills and ginning factories1 and keep shops for retailing ,european stores1 and are the most prosperous and enterprising section of the native population4 ,two ,parsis have become members of ,parliament1 and others have risen to distinction in ,government service1 business and the professions4 ,the sea-face road in ,bombay in the evening1 thronged with the carriages and motor-cars of ,parsi men and ladies1 is strong testimony to the success which the ability and industry of this race have achieved under the encouragement of peace1 the protection of property and the liberty to trade4 ,though they have a common ,aryan ancestry and their religion is so closely connected with ,hinduism1 the ,parsis feel themselves a race alien to the ,hindus and probably have no great sympathy with them4 ,their wealth and position have been mainly obtained under ,british rule1 and the bulk of them are believed to be its warm adherents4 ,the ,parsis now make no proselytes1 and no regular provision exists for admitting outsiders to their religion1 though it is believed that1 in one or two cases1 wives taken from outside the community have been admitted4 ,they object strongly to the adoption of any other religion1 such as ,christianity1 by members of their body4 ,the ,parsis are notable for the fact that their women are very well educated and appear quite freely in society4 ,this is a comparatively recent reform and may be ascribed to the ,english example1 though the credit they deserve for having broken through prejudice and tradition is in no way diminished on that account4 ,the total number of ,parsis in ,india in #aiaa was just #ajj1jjj persons4 #aa4 ,marriage customs4 ,polygamy among the ,parsis has been forbidden by the ,parsi ,marriage and ,divorce ,act of #ahfe4 ,the remarriage of widows is allowed but is celebrated at midnight4 ,if a bachelor is to marry a widow1 he first goes through a sham rite with the branch of a tree1 as among the ,hindus4 ,similarly before the wedding the bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric1 and for the ceremony a marriage-shed is erected4 ,at a feast before the wedding one of the women beats a copper dish and asks the ancestral spirits to attend1 calling them by name4 ,another woman comes running in1 barking like a dog4 ,the women drive her away1 and with fun and laughing eat all the things they can lay their hands on4 ,prior to the rite the bride and bridegroom are purified in the same manner as when invested with the sacred shirt and cord4 ,the bridegroom wears a long white robe reaching to his ankles and a white sash round his waist2 he has a garland of flowers round his neck1 a red mark on his forehead1 and carries a bunch of flowers and a cocoanut in his right hand4 ,at every street corner on his way to the bride's home a cocoanut is waved round his head1 broken and thrown away4 ,he sets his right foot in the house first1 and as he enters rice and water are thrown under his feet and an egg and cocoanut are broken4 ,at the wedding the couple throw rice on each other1 and it is supposed that whoever is quickest in throwing the rice will rule the other4 ,they are then seated side by side1 and two priests stand before them with a witness on each side1 holding brass plates full of rice4 ,the two priests pronounce the marriage blessing in old ,persian and ,sanskrit1 at each sentence throwing rice on the bride's and bridegroom's heads4 ,at intervals in the midst of the blessing the bridegroom and bride are asked in ,persian1 ',have you chosen her8' and ',have you chosen him8' ,they answer in ,persian1 or if they are too young their mothers answer for them1 ',i have chosen4' #cfd #ab4 ,religion4 ,worship of fire4 ,the religious ritual of the ,parsis consists of the worship of fire4 ,the fire temples are of a single storey and contain three rooms4 ,on reaching the outer hall the worshipper washes his face1 hands and feet1 and recites a prayer4 ,then1 carrying a piece of sandalwood and some money for the officiating priest1 he passes to the inner hall1 in which a carpet is spread4 ,he takes off his shoes and rings one of four brass bells hanging at the corners of the room4 ,the priest also rings one of these bells at each watch when he performs worship4 ,he then proceeds to the threshold of the central fire-room1 kneels there1 and again standing begins to recite prayers4 ,none may enter the fire-room except the priests4 ,here the fire is kept always blazing in a silver or copper urn on a solid stone pedestal1 and is fed day and night with sandal and other commoner woods4 ,a priest is always present1 dressed in long white robes1 his hands covered with white cloths and his face veiled4 ,the worshipper lays down his offering of sandalwood at the entrance1 and the priest takes it up with a pair of tongs1 and gives him some ashes from the urn in a silver or brass ladle4 ,these the worshipper rubs on his forehead and eyebrows4 ,on concluding his prayers1 which are in the ,avesta language1 he walks backward to where he left his shoes and goes home4 ,a ,parsi man never allows his hearth fire to go out1 and if he changes his residence he carries it with him to the next place of abode4 #ac4 ,the ,homa liquor4 ,like the ,hindus1 the ,iranian ancestors of the ,parsis revered the sacred liquor made from the ,soma or ,homa plant4 ,it was considered a panacea for all diseases1 and many stories about the miraculous effects obtained from drinking the juice are contained in a hymn of the ,zend-,avesta composed in its honour4 ,according to ,dr4 ,mitchell #cfe the offering of ,homa is still made at ,parsi temples1 though apparently some substitute must have been obtained for the original plant1 which does not grow in the plains of ,india4 ,at any rate the offering and sacrificial drinking of the liquor were probably continued so long as the ,parsis remained in ,persia4 ,as this is a comparatively cool country1 the bad effects of alcohol did not perhaps become apparent to the ,parsis as they did to the ,hindus in the plains of ,india1 and hence the sanctity attaching to the liquor underwent no similar decline4 ,from this it perhaps results that the ,parsis have no feeling at all against alcohol1 and drink it for pleasure1 like ,europeans4 ,both the toddy of the date-palm and mahua spirit are freely consumed at their feasts1 while the rich members of the community drink ,european wines and spirits4 ,as any dealing in alcohol is practically prohibited to high-caste ,hindus and also to ,muhammadans1 and low-caste ,hindus have hitherto scarcely ever been literate1 the ,parsis on account of this peculiarity have found a profitable opening in the wholesale liquor trade1 and until recently have had very little effective competition to face4 ,this is perhaps a reason for their special addiction to it1 and also for their engaging in the sale of ,european stores and wines4 #ad4 ,parsi priests4 ,the ,parsi priests form a hereditary caste1 and are all supposed to be descended from one ,shapur ,sheheriar1 who with his sons and grandsons1 one of whom translated the ,zend-,avesta into ,sanskrit1 are believed to have been among the first ,parsi settlers of the priestly caste at ,sanjan in north ,thana4 ,the training of a priest consists of learning substantial portions of the ,zend-,avesta by heart1 and in going through elaborate ceremonies of purification1 in which the drinking of nerang and nerangdin1 or cow's and bull's urine1 being bathed1 chewing pomegranate leaves and rubbing the same urine and sand on his body are leading features4 ,priests always dress in white and wear a full beard4 ,they must never shave the head or face1 and never allow the head to be bare nor wear coloured clothes4 ,if a priest's turban happens to fall off1 or if he travels by rail or sea1 his state of purity ends1 and he must go through the whole ceremony of purification again and pass nine days in retreat at a temple4 #cff ,the principal business of a priest1 as already seen1 is the tending of the sacred fire in the temples1 and he also conducts marriage and other ceremonies4 #ae4 ,the sacred shirt and cord4 ,parsi boys and girls are received into the ,zoroastrian faith between the ages of seven and nine4 ,the child is purified by being bathed1 sipping bull's urine and chewing a pomegranate leaf1 and makes the profession of belief in the faith4 ,he or she is then invested with the sacred shirt1 sadra1 and the sacred cord or thread called kusti4 ,the shirt is of thin muslin1 with short sleeves and falling a little below the hip4 ,the sacred cord is of wool1 and can be made only by the wives and daughters of ,parsi priests4 #cfg #af4 ,disposal of the dead4 ,the ,parsi method of exposing the dead in ,dakhmas or towers of silence to be devoured by vultures has often been described4 ,it has objectionable features1 and the smaller communities in the interior of ,india do not as a rule erect towers of silence1 and are content simply to bury the dead4 ,it seems probable that the original custom was simply to expose the dead on waste land1 the towers of silence being a substitute which became necessary when the ,parsis began to live in towns4 ,this hypothesis would explain some points in their funeral customs recorded in the ,bombay ,gazetteer4 ,the dead body is washed1 dressed in an old clean cloth and laid on the floor of the house1 the space being marked off4 ,if the floor is of earth the surface of this enclosed space is broken up4 ,if the floor is of cement or stone one or two stone slabs are set on it and the body laid on them2 it is never laid on a wooden floor1 nor on stone slabs placed on such a floor4 ,the space where the body was laid is marked off1 and is not used for a month if the death occurs between the eighth and twelfth months of the year1 and for ten days if the death occurs between the first and seventh months4 ,the last are said to be the hottest months4 #cfh ,it would appear that these rules are a reminiscence of the time when the body was simply exposed4 ,it was then naturally always laid on earth or rock1 and never on wood1 hence the prohibition of a wooden floor4 ,the fact that the spot where the body is now laid in the house is held impure for a shorter period during the summer months may be explained on the ground that all traces of the decaying corpse1 after it had been devoured by wild animals and vultures1 would have been dried up by the sun more quickly at this time than during the winter months4 ,in the latter period1 as the process would take longer1 the place in the home is similarly held impure for a month1 as against ten days in summer1 though at present neither the sun nor weather can possibly affect a site inside the house4 ,the fact that when the floor is of earth the site for the corpse is broken up may indicate that it was formerly laid on rough waste ground1 and not on a floor beaten smooth1 though it might also be simply a means of avoiding contamination of the floor4 ,but if this was the object it would be simpler to avoid letting the body come into contact with the floor at all4 ,the corpse may still be wrapped in an old cloth because it was originally exposed in the cloth worn at death4 ,the body is carried to the tower on an iron bier by special bearers2 if the journey is a long one a bullock cart may be used1 but in this case the cart must be broken up and the pieces buried near the tower4 ,before the funeral starts a number of priests attend at the house and recite the prayers for the dead4 ,during the service a dog is brought in to look on the face of the dead4 ,the mourners follow in the usual manner1 and on arrival at the tower the bearers alone take the corpse inside and lay it naked on one of the slabs1 which are built in circular terraces in the interior4 ,the mourners must be purified at the tower by pouring a little cow's urine into their hands1 and on returning home they wash their face and hands1 and recite a prayer before entering the house4 ,they must bathe and have their clothes washed before these are again used4 ,when a married man dies his widow breaks her glass bangles and wears only metal bracelets1 and so long as she remains a widow she takes no part in any festal celebrations4 ,every morning for three days after a death rice is cooked and laid in the veranda for dogs to eat4 ,no other food is cooked in the house of death1 the family being supplied by their friends4 ,during these three days prayers are said for the dead several times a day by priests1 and kinsmen pay short visits of condolence4 ,on the third day a meeting is held in the house and prayers are said for the dead2 trays of flowers and burning incense are placed before the spot where the body lay1 and a list of charitable gifts made by the family in memory of the dead man is read4 ,on the fourth day a feast is held specially for priests1 and friends are also asked to join in it4 ,a little of the food cooked on this day is sent to all relations and friends1 who make a point of eating or at least of tasting it4 ,on the tenth and thirtieth days after death1 and on monthly anniversaries for the first year1 and subsequently on annual anniversaries1 ceremonies in honour of the dead are performed4 #cfi #ag4 ,previous exposure of the dead1 and migration of souls4 ,some of these customs are peculiar and interesting4 ,it has been seen that for three days the home is impure1 and no food is cooked in it except what is given to dogs2 and since on the third day offerings are made on the spot where the body lay1 it seems to be supposed that the dead man's spirit is still there4 ,on the fourth day is the funeral feast1 in which all relations and friends join1 and after this the house becomes pure1 it being presumably held that the dead man's spirit has taken its departure4 ,for these three days food is cooked in the house and given to dogs1 and immediately after the man is dead a dog is brought in to look at his face4 ,it has been suggested that the manner of laying out the body recalls the time when it was simply exposed4 ,but when it was exposed the body would have been devoured principally by dogs and vultures1 and the customs connected with dogs seem to arise from this4 ,the cooked food given to dogs for three days is perhaps a substitute for the flesh of the dead man which they would have eaten1 and the display of the body to a dog is in substitution for its being devoured by these animals1 who now that it is exposed in a tower of silence no longer have access to it4 ,it has further been seen how during the marriage rites1 after an invitation has been issued to the ancestors to attend1 a woman comes in barking like a dog4 ,the other women drive her away and laughingly eat everything they can lay their hands on1 perhaps in imitation of the way dogs devour their food4 ,this custom seems to indicate that the ,parsis formerly believed that the spirits of their ancestors went into the dogs which devoured their bodies1 a belief which would be quite natural to primitive people4 ,such a hypothesis would explain the peculiar customs mentioned1 and also the great sanctity which the ,parsis attach to dogs4 ,on the same analogy they should apparently also have believed that the spirits of ancestors went into vultures2 but it is not recorded that they show any special veneration for these birds1 though it must be almost certain that they do not kill them4 ,the explanation given for the custom of the exposure of the dead is that none of the holy elements1 earth1 fire or water1 can be polluted by receiving dead bodies4 ,but1 as already stated1 towers of silence cannot be a primitive institution1 and the bodies in all probability were previously exposed on the ground4 ,the custom of exposure probably dates from a period prior to the belief in the extreme sanctity of the earth4 ,it may have been retained in order that the spirits of ancestors might find a fresh home in the animals which devoured their bodies2 and some platform1 from which the towers of silence subsequently developed1 may have been made to avoid defilement of the earth2 while in after times this necessity of not defiling the earth and other elements might be advanced as a reason justifying the custom of exposure4 #ah4 ,clothes1 food and ceremonial observances4 ,parsi men usually wear a turban of dark cloth spotted with white1 folded to stand up straight from the forehead1 and looking somewhat as if it was made of pasteboard4 ,this is very unbecoming1 and younger men often abandon it and simply wear the now common felt cap4 ,they usually have long coats1 white or dark1 and white cotton trousers4 ,well-to-do ,parsi women dress very prettily in silks of various colours4 ,the men formerly shaved the head1 either entirely1 or leaving a scalp-lock and two ear-locks4 ,but now many of them simply cut their hair short like the ,english4 ,they wear whiskers and moustaches1 but with the exception of the priests1 not usually beards4 ,neither men nor women ever put off the sacred shirt or the thread4 ,they eat the flesh only of goats and sheep among animals1 and also consume fish1 fowls and other birds2 but they do not eat a cock after it has begun to crow1 holding the bird sacred1 because they think that its crowing drives away evil spirits4 ,if ,ahura ,mazda represented the sun and the light of day1 the cock1 the herald of the dawn1 might be regarded as his sacred bird4 ,sometimes when a cock or parrot dies the body is wrapped in a sacred shirt or thread and carefully buried4 ,palm-juice toddy is a favourite drink at almost all meals in ,gujarat1 and mahua spirit is also taken4 ,parsis must never smoke1 as this would be derogatory to the sacred element fire4 #cgj ,saiva1 ,shaiva1 ,sivite ,sect ,saiva1 ,shaiva1 ,sivite ,sect4--,the name given to ,hindus who venerate ,siva as their special god4 ,siva1 whose name signifies ',the ,propitious1' is held to have succeeded to the ,vedic god ,rudra1 apparently a storm-god4 ,siva is a highly composite deity1 having the double attributes of destroyer and creator of new life4 ,his heaven1 ,kailas1 is in the ,himalayas according to popular belief4 ,he carries the moon on his forehead1 and from the central one of his three eyes the lightning flashes forth4 ,he has a necklace of skulls1 and snakes are intertwined round his waist and arms4 ,and he has long matted hair 7jata71 from which the ,ganges flows4 ,it seems likely that the matted locks of the god represent the snow on the ,himalayas1 as the snow is in reality the source of the ,ganges2 the snow falling through the air and covering the peaks of the mountains might well suggest the hair of a mountain-god2 and this interpretation seems to be accepted in ,mr4 ,bain's ,in the ,great ,god's ,hair4 ,siva has thus three components from which the idea of death might be derived3 ,first1 his residence on the ,himalaya mountains1 the barren1 lifeless region of ice and snow1 and the cause of death to many pilgrims and travellers who ventured into it4 ,secondly1 he is the god of the moon1 and hence of darkness and night1 which are always associated with death4 ,in this light he might well be opposed to ,vishnu1 the god of the sun and day1 and the source of growth and life2 their association as the two supreme deities representing the preservation and destruction of life1 would thus1 to some extent1 correspond to the conflict of good and bad deities representing light and darkness among the ,zoroastrians4 ,thirdly1 ,siva is a snake-god1 and the sudden death dealt out by the poisonous snake has always excited the greatest awe among primitive people4 ,the cobra is widely revered in ,india1 and it is probably this snake which is associated with the god4 ,in addition the lightning1 a swift1 death-dealing power1 is ascribed to ,siva1 and this may have been one of his earliest attributes1 as it was probably associated with his ,vedic prototype ,rudra4 ,whether ,siva obtained his character as a god of destruction from one only of the above associations1 or from a combination of them1 is probably not known4 ,two great forces lend the deity his character of a god of reproduction1 the bull and the phallic emblem4 ,the bull tills the soil and renders it fertile and capable of bringing forth the crops which form the sustenance of mankind2 while the phallic emblem is worshipped as the instrument of generation4 ,it is believed that there is a natural tendency to associate these two objects1 and to ascribe to the bull the capacity of inducing human fertility as well as the increase of the earth4 ,it is in these two attributes that ,siva is worshipped in the rural tract2 he is represented by the emblem referred to standing on a circular grooved stone1 which is the yoni1 and in front of him is a stone bull4 ,and he is revered almost solely as a beneficent deity under the name of ,mahadeo or the ,great ,god4 ,thus his dual qualities of destruction and reproduction appear to be produced by the combination in him of different objects of worship2 the ,himalayas1 the moon1 the cobra and the lightning on the one hand1 and the bull and the emblem of regeneration on the other4 ,other interesting characteristics of ,siva are that he is the first and greatest of ascetics and that he is immoderately addicted to the intoxicating drugs ganja and bhang1 the preparations of ,indian hemp4 ,it may be supposed that the god was given his character as an ascetic in order to extend divine sanction and example to the practice of asceticism when it came into favour4 ,and the drugs1 #cga first revered themselves for their intoxicating properties1 were afterwards perpetuated in a sacred character by being associated with the god4 ,siva's throat is blue1 and it is sometimes said that this is on account of his immoderate consumption of bhang4 ,the nilkanth or blue-jay1 which was probably venerated for its striking plumage1 and is considered to be a bird of very good omen1 has become ,siva's bird because its blue throat resembles his4 ,his principal sacred tree is the bel tree1 #cgb which has trifoliate leaves1 and may have been held sacred on this account4 ,the practice of ,sati or the self-immolation of widows has also been given divine authority by the story that ,sati was ,siva's first wife1 and that she committed suicide because she and her husband were not invited to ,daksha's sacrifice4 #cgc ,siva's famous consort is the multiform ,devi1 ,kali or ,parvati1 of whom some notice is given elsewhere4 #cgd ,the cult of ,siva has produced the important ,sakta sect1 who1 however1 venerate more especially the female principle of energy as exemplified in his consort4 #cge ,another great sect of southern ,india1 the ,lingayats1 worship him in the character of the lingam or phallic emblem1 and are noticeable as being a ,sivite sect who have abolished caste4 ,the ,sivite orders of ,gosains or ,dasnamis and ,jogis also constitute an important feature of ,hinduism4 ,all these are separately described4 ,apart from them the ,hindus who call themselves ,saivas because they principally venerate ,siva1 do not appear to have any very special characteristics1 nor to be markedly distinguished from the ,vaishnavas4 ,they abstain from the consumption of flesh and liquor1 and think it objectionable to take life4 ,their offerings to the god consist of flowers1 the leaves of the bel tree which is sacred to him1 and ripe ears of corn1 these last being perhaps intended especially for the divine bull4 ,the sect-mark of the ,saivas consists of three curved lines horizontally drawn across the forehead1 which are said to represent the tirsul or trident of the god4 ,a half-moon may also be drawn4 ,the mark is made with ,ganges clay1 sandalwood1 or cowdung cakes1 these last being considered to represent the disintegrating force of the deity4 #cgf ,sakta1 ,shakta ,sect ,sakta1 ,shakta ,sect4--,the name of a ,hindu sect1 whose members worship the female principle of energy1 which is the counterpart of the god ,siva4 ,the metaphysical ideas of ,saktism are thus described by ,sir ,edward ,gait3 #cgg ,saktism is based on the worship of the active producing principle1 ,prakriti1 as manifested in one or other of the goddess wives of ,siva 7,durga1 ,kali1 ,parvati7 the female energy or ,sakti of the primordial male1 ,purusha or ,siva4 ,in this cult the various forces of nature are deified under separate personalities1 which are known as the divine mothers or ,matrigan4 ,the ritual to be observed1 the sacrifices to be offered1 and the mantras or magic texts to be uttered1 in order to secure the efficacy of the worship and to procure the fulfilment of the worshipper's desire1 are laid down in a series of religious writings known as ,tantras4 ,the cult is supposed to have originated in ,east ,bengal or ,assam about the fifth century4 ,dr4 ,bhattacharya states #cgh that the practical essence of the ,sakta cult is the worship of the female organ of generation4 ,according to a text of the ,tantras the best form of ,sakti worship is to adore a naked woman1 and it is said that some ,tantrics actually perform their daily worship in their private chapels by placing before them such a woman4 ,a triangular plate of brass or copper may be taken as a substitute1 and such plates are usually kept in the houses of ,tantric ,brahmans4 ,in the absence of a plate of the proper shape a triangle may be painted on a copper dish4 ,in public the veneration of the ,saktas is paid to the goddess ,kali4 ,she is represented as a woman with four arms4 ,in one hand she has a weapon1 in a second the hand of the giant she has slain1 and with the two others she is encouraging her worshippers4 ,for earrings she has two dead bodies1 she wears a necklace of skulls1 and her only clothing is a garland made of men's skulls4 ,in the ,kalika ,puran #cgi the immolation of human beings is recommended1 and numerous animals are catalogued as suitable for sacrifice4 ,at the present time pigeons1 goats1 and more rarely buffaloes1 are the usual victims at the shrine of the goddess4 ,the ceremony commences with the adoration of the sacrificial axe2 various mantras are recited1 and the animal is then decapitated at one stroke4 ,as soon as the head falls to the ground the votaries rush forward and smear their foreheads with the blood of the victim4 ,it is of the utmost importance that the ceremony should pass off without any hitch or misadventure1 #chj and special services are held to supplicate the goddess to permit of this4 ,if in spite of them the executioner fails to sever the head of the animal at one stroke1 it is thought that the goddess is angry and that some great calamity will befall the family in the next year4 ,if a death should occur within the period1 they attribute it to the miscarriage of the sacrifice1 that is to the animal not having been killed with a single blow4 ,if any such misfortune should happen1 ,dr4 ,bhattacharya states1 the family generally determine never to offer animal sacrifices again2 and in this way the slaughter of animals1 as part of the religious ceremony in private houses1 is becoming more and more rare4 ,if a goat is sacrificed1 the head is placed before the goddess and the flesh cooked and served to the invited guests2 but in the case of a buffalo1 as respectable ,hindus do not eat the flesh of this animal1 it is given to the low-caste musicians employed for the occasion4 ,wine is also offered to the goddess1 and after being consecrated is sprinkled on every kind of uncooked food brought before her4 ,but the worshipper and his family often drink only a few drops4 ,the ,saktas are divided into the ,dakshinacharis and ,bamacharis1 or followers of the right- and left-handed paths respectively4 ,the ,dakshinacharis have largely abandoned animal sacrifices1 and many of them substitute red flowers or red sandalwood as offerings1 to represent blood4 ,an account of those ,bamacharis who carry sexual practices to extreme lengths1 has been given in the article on ,vam-,margi4 ,the sect-mark of the ,saktas is three horizontal lines on the forehead made with a mixture of charcoal and butter4 ,some of them have a single vertical line of charcoal or sandalwood4 ,in the ,central ,provinces ,sakta is a general term for a ,hindu who eats meat1 as opposed to the ,vaishnavas and ,kabirpanthis1 who abjure it4 ,the animals eaten are goats and chickens1 and they are usually sacrificed to the goddess ,devi prior to being consumed by the worshippers4 ,satnami ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,origin of the sect4 #b4 ,ghasi ,das1 founder of the ,satnami sect4 #c4 ,the message of ,ghasi ,das4 #d4 ,subsequent history of the ,satnamis4 #e4 ,social profligacy4 #f4 ,divisions of the ,satnamis4 #g4 ,customs of the ,satnamis4 #h4 ,character of the ,satnami movement4 #a4 ,origin of the sect4 ,satnami ,sect #cha 7,a worshipper of the true name of ,god74--,a dissenting sect founded by a ,chamar reformer in the ,chhattisgarh country of the ,central ,provinces4 ,it is practically confined to members of the ,chamar caste1 about half of whom belong to it4 ,in #aija nearly #djj1jjj persons returned themselves as adherents of the ,satnami sect1 of whom all but #bjjj were ,chamars4 ,the ,satnami sect of the ,central ,provinces1 which is here described1 is practically confined to the ,chhattisgarh plain1 and the handful of persons who returned themselves as ,satnamis from the northern ,districts are believed to be adherents of the older persuasion of the same name in ,northern ,india4 ,the ,satnami movement in ,chhattisgarh was originated by one ,ghasi ,das1 a native of the ,bilaspur ,district1 between ,a4,d4 #ahbj and #ahcj4 ,but it is probable that ,ghasi ,das1 as suggested by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal1 got his inspiration from a follower of the older ,satnami sect of northern ,india4 ,this was inaugurated by a ,rajput1 ,jagjiwan ,das of the ,bara ,banki ,district1 who died in #agfa4 ,he preached the worship of the ,true ,name of the one ,god1 the cause and creator of all things1 void of sensible qualities and without beginning or end4 ,he prohibited the use of meat1 lentils 7on account of their red colour suggesting blood7 of the brinjal or eggplant1 which was considered1 probably on account of its shape1 to resemble flesh1 and of intoxicating liquors4 ,the creed of ,ghasi ,das enunciated subsequently was nearly identical with that of ,jagjiwan ,das1 and was no doubt derived from it1 though ,ghasi ,das never acknowledged the source of his inspiration4 #b4 ,ghasi ,das1 founder of the ,satnami sect4 ,ghasi ,das was a poor farmservant in ,girod1 a village formerly in ,bilaspur and now in ,raipur1 near the ,sonakan forests4 ,on one occasion he and his brother started on a pilgrimage to the temple at ,puri1 but only got as far as ,sarangarh1 whence they returned ejaculating ',satnam1 ,satnam4' ,from this time ,ghasi ,das began to adopt the life of an ascetic1 retiring all day to the forest to meditate4 ,on a rocky hillock about a mile from ,girod is a large tendu tree 7,diospyros tomentosa7 under which it is said that he was accustomed to sit4 ,this is a favourite place of pilgrimage of the ,chamars1 and two ,satnami temples have been built near it1 which contain no idols4 ,once these temples were annually visited by the successors of ,ghasi ,das4 ,but at present the head of the sect only proceeds to them1 like the ,greeks to ,delphi1 in circumstances of special difficulty4 ,in the course of time ,ghasi ,das became venerated as a saintly character1 and on some miracles1 such as the curing of snake-bite1 being attributed to him1 his fame rapidly spread4 ,the ,chamars began to travel from long distances to venerate him1 and those who entertained desires1 such as for the birth of a child1 believed that he could fulfil them4 ,the pilgrims were accustomed to carry away with them the water in which he had washed his feet1 in hollow bamboos1 and their relatives at home drank this1 considering it was nectar4 ,finally1 ,ghasi ,das retired to the forests for a period1 and emerged with what he called a new ,gospel for the ,chamars2 but this really consisted of a repetition of the tenets of ,jagjiwan ,das1 the founder of the ,satnami sect of ,upper ,india1 with a few additions4 ,mr4 ,chisholm #chb gave a graphic account of the retirement of ,ghasi ,das to the ,sonakan forests for a period of six months1 and of his reappearance and proclamation of his revelation on a fixed date before a great multitude of ,chamars1 who had gathered from all parts to hear him4 ,an inquiry conducted locally by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal in #aijc indicates that this story is of doubtful authenticity1 though it must be remembered that ,mr4 ,chisholm wrote only forty years after the event1 and forty more had elapsed at the time of ,mr4 ,hira ,lal's investigation4 #chc ,of the ,chamar ,reformer himself ,mr4 ,chisholm writes3 #chd ,ghasi ,das1 like the rest of his community1 was unlettered4 ,he was a man of unusually fair complexion and rather imposing appearance1 sensitive1 silent1 given to seeing visions1 and deeply resenting the harsh treatment of his brotherhood by the ,hindus4 ,he was well known to the whole community1 having travelled much among them2 had the reputation of being exceptionally sagacious and was universally respected4 #c4 ,the message of ,ghasi ,das4 ,the seven precepts of ,ghasi ,das included abstinence from liquor1 meat and certain red vegetables1 such as lentils chillies and tomatoes1 because they have the colour of blood1 the abolition of idol worship1 the prohibition of the employment of cows for cultivation1 and of ploughing after midday or taking food to the fields1 and the worship of the name of one solitary and supreme ,god4 ,the use of taroi #che is said to have been forbidden on account of its fancied resemblance to the horn of the buffalo1 and of the brinjal #chf from its likeness to the scrotum of the same animal4 ,the prohibition against ploughing after the midday meal was probably promulgated out of compassion for animals and was already in force among the ,gonds of ,bastar4 ,this precept is still observed by many ,satnamis1 and in case of necessity they will continue ploughing from early morning until the late afternoon without taking food1 in order not to violate it4 ,the injunction against the use of the cow for ploughing was probably a sop to the ,brahmans1 the name of ,gondwana having been historically associated with this practice to its disgrace among ,hindus4 #chg ,the ,satnamis were bidden to cast all idols from their homes1 but they were permitted to reverence the sun1 as representing the deity1 every morning and evening1 with the ejaculation ',lord1 protect me4' ,caste was abolished and all men were to be socially equal except the family of ,ghasi ,das1 in which the priesthood of the cult was to remain hereditary4 #d4 ,subsequent history of the ,satnamis4 ,the creed enunciated by their prophet was of a creditable simplicity and purity1 of too elevated a nature for the ,chamars of ,chhattisgarh4 ,the crude myths which are now associated with the story of ,ghasi ,das and the obscenity which distinguishes the ritual of the sect furnish a good instance of the way in which a religion1 originally of a high order of morality1 will be rapidly degraded to their own level when adopted by a people who are incapable of living up to it4 ,it is related that one day his son brought ,ghasi ,das a fish to eat4 ,he was about to consume it when the fish spoke and forbade him to do so4 ,ghasi ,das then refrained1 but his wife and two sons insisted on eating the fish and shortly afterwards they died4 #chh ,overcome with grief ,ghasi ,das tried to commit suicide by throwing himself down from a tree in the forest1 but the boughs of the tree bent with him and he could not fall4 ,finally the deity appeared1 bringing his two sons1 and commended ,ghasi ,das for his piety1 at the same time bidding him go and proclaim the ,satnami doctrine to the world4 ,ghasi ,das thereupon went and dug up the body of his wife1 who arose saying ',satnam4' ,ghasi ,das lived till he was eighty years old and died in #ahej1 the number of his disciples being then more than a quarter of a million4 ,he was succeeded in the office of high priest by his eldest son ,balak ,das4 ,this man soon outraged the feelings of the ,hindus by assuming the sacred thread and parading it ostentatiously on public occasions4 ,so bitter was the hostility aroused by him1 that he was finally assassinated at night by a party of ,rajputs at the rest-house of ,amabandha as he was travelling to ,raipur4 ,the murder was committed in #ahfj and its perpetrators were never discovered4 ,balak ,das had fallen in love with the daughter of a ,chitari 7painter7 and married her1 proclaiming a revelation to the effect that the next ,chamar ,guru should be the offspring of a ,chitari girl4 ,accordingly his son by her1 ,sahib ,das1 succeeded to the office1 but the real power remained in the hands of ,agar ,das1 brother of ,balak ,das1 who married his ,chitari widow4 ,by her ,agar ,das had a son ,ajab ,das2 but he also had another son ,agarman ,das by a legitimate wife1 and both claimed the succession4 ,they became joint high priests1 and the property has been partitioned between them4 ,the chief guru formerly obtained a large income by the contributions of the ,chamars on his tours1 as he received a rupee from each household in the villages which he visited on tour4 ,he had a deputy1 known as ,bhandar1 in many villages1 who brought the commission of social offences to his notice1 when fines were imposed4 ,he built a house in the village of ,bhandar of the ,raipur ,district1 having golden pinnacles1 and also owned the village4 ,but he has been extravagant and become involved in debt1 and both house and village have been foreclosed by his creditor1 though it is believed that a wealthy disciple has repurchased the house for him4 ,the golden pinnacles were recently stolen4 ,the contributions have also greatly fallen off4 ,formerly an annual fair was held at ,bhandar to which all the ,satnamis went and drank the water in which the guru had dipped his big toe4 ,each man gave him not less than a rupee and sometimes as much as fifty rupees4 ,but the fair is no longer held and now the ,satnamis only give the guru a cocoanut when he goes on tour4 ,the ,satnamis also have a fair in ,ratanpur1 a sacred place of the ,hindus1 where they assemble and bathe in a tank of their own1 as they are not allowed to bathe in the ,hindu tanks4 #e4 ,social profligacy4 ,formerly1 when a ,satnami ,chamar was married1 a ceremony called ,satlok took place within three years of the wedding1 or after the birth of the first son1 which ,mr4 ,durga ,prasad ,pande describes as follows3 it was considered to be the initiatory rite of a ,satnami1 so that prior to its performance he and his wife were not proper members of the sect4 ,when the occasion was considered ripe1 a committee of men in the village would propose the holding of the ceremony to the bridegroom2 the elderly members of his family would also exert their influence upon him1 because it was believed that if they died prior to its performance their disembodied spirits would continue a comfortless existence about the scene of their mortal habitation1 but if afterwards that they would go straight to heaven4 ,when the rite was to be held a feast was given1 the villagers sitting round a lighted lamp placed on a water-pot in the centre of the sacred chauk or square made with lines of wheat-flour2 and from evening until midnight they would sing and dance4 ,in the meantime the newly married wife would be lying alone in a room in the house4 ,at midnight her husband went in to her and asked her whom he should revere as his guru or preceptor4 ,she named a man and the husband went out and bowed to him and he then went in to the woman and lay with her4 ,the process would be repeated1 the woman naming different men until she was exhausted4 ,sometimes1 if the head priest of the sect was present1 he would nominate the favoured men1 who were known as gurus4 ,next morning the married couple were seated together in the courtyard1 and the head priest or his representative tied a kanthi or necklace of wooden beads round their necks1 repeating an initiatory text4 #chi ,this silly doggerel1 as shown in the footnote1 is a good criterion of the intellectual capacity of the ,satnamis4 ,it is also said that during his annual progresses it was the custom for the chief priest to be allowed access to any of the wives of the ,satnamis whom he might select1 and that this was considered rather an honour than otherwise by the husband4 ,but the ,satnamis have now become ashamed of such practices1 and1 except in a few isolated localities1 they have been abandoned4 #f4 ,divisions of the ,satnamis4 ,ghasi ,das or his disciples seem to have felt the want of a more ancient and dignified origin for the sect than one dating only from living memory4 ,they therefore say that it is a branch of that founded by ,rohi ,das1 a ,chamar disciple of the great liberal and ,vaishnavite reformer ,ramanand1 who flourished at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,the ,satnamis commonly call themselves ,rohidasi as a synonym for their name1 but there is no evidence that ,rohi ,das ever came to ,chhattisgarh1 and there is practically no doubt1 as already pointed out1 that ,ghasi ,das simply appropriated the doctrine of the ,satnami sect of northern ,india4 ,one of the precepts of ,ghasi ,das was the prohibition of the use of tobacco1 and this has led to a split in the sect1 as many of his disciples found the rule too hard for them4 ,they returned to their chongis or leaf-pipes1 and are hence called ,chungias2 they say that in his later years ,ghasi ,das withdrew the prohibition4 ,the ,chungias have also taken to idolatry1 and their villages contain stones covered with vermilion1 the representations of the village deities1 which the true ,satnamis eschew4 ,they are considered lower than the ,satnamis1 and intermarriage between the two sections is largely1 though not entirely1 prohibited4 ,a ,chungia can always become a ,satnami if he ceases to smoke by breaking a cocoanut in the presence of his guru or preceptor or giving him a present4 ,among the ,satnamis there is also a particularly select class who follow the straitest sect of the creed and are called ,jaharia from jahar1 an essence4 ,these never sleep on a bed but always on the ground1 and are said to wear coarse uncoloured clothes and to eat no food but pulse or rice4 #g4 ,customs of the ,satnamis4 ,the social customs of the ,satnamis resemble generally those of other ,chamars4 ,they will admit into the community all except members of the impure castes1 as ,dhobis 7washermen71 ,ghasias 7grass-cutters7 and ,mehtars 7sweepers71 whom they regard as inferior to themselves4 ,their weddings must be celebrated only during the months of ,magh 7,january71 ,phagun 7,february71 the light half of ,chait 7,march7 and ,baisakh 7,april74 ,no betrothal ceremony can take place during the months of ,shrawan 7,august7 and ,pus 7,january74 ,they always bury the dead1 laying the body with the face downwards1 and spread clothes in the grave above and below it1 so that it may be warm and comfortable during the last long sleep4 ,they observe mourning for three days and have their heads shaved on the third day with the exception of the upper lip1 which is never touched by the razor4 ,the ,satnamis as well as the ,kabirpanthis in ,chhattisgarh abstain from spirituous liquor1 and ordinary ,hindus who do not do so are known as ,saktaha or ,sakta 7a follower of ,devi7 in contradistinction to them4 ,a ,satnami is put out of caste if he is beaten by a man of another caste1 however high1 and if he is touched by a sweeper1 ,ghasia or ,mahar4 ,their women wear nose-rings1 simply to show their contempt for the ,hindu social order1 as this ornament was formerly forbidden to the lower castes4 ,under native dynasties any violation of a rule of this kind would have been severely punished by the executive ,government1 but in ,british ,india the ,chamar women can indulge their whim with impunity4 ,it was also a rule of the sect not to accept cooked food from the hands of any other caste1 whether ,hindu or ,muhammadan1 but this has fallen into abeyance since the famines4 ,another method by which the ,satnamis show their contempt for the ,hindu religion is by throwing milk and curds at each other in sport and trampling it under foot4 ,this is a parody of the ,hindu celebration of the ,janam-,ashtami or ,krishna's birthday1 when vessels of milk and curds are broken over the heads of the worshippers and caught and eaten by all castes indiscriminately in token of amity4 ,they will get into railway carriages and push up purposely against the ,hindus1 saying that they have paid for their tickets and have an equal right to a place4 ,then the ,hindus are defiled and have to bathe in order to become clean4 #h4 ,character of the ,satnami movement4 ,several points in the above description point to the conclusion that the ,satnami movement is in essence a social revolt on the part of the despised ,chamars or tanners4 ,the fundamental tenet of the gospel of ,ghasi ,das1 as in the case of so many other dissenting sects1 appears to have been the abolition of caste1 and with it of the authority of the ,brahmans2 and this it was which provoked the bitter hostility of the priestly order4 ,it has been seen that ,ghasi ,das himself had been deeply impressed by the misery and debasement of the ,chamar community2 how his successor ,balak ,das was murdered for the assumption of the sacred thread2 and how in other ways the ,satnamis try to show their contempt for the social order which brands them as helot outcastes4 ,a large proportion of the ,satnami ,chamars are owners or tenants of land1 and this fact may be surmised to have intensified their feeling of revolt against the degraded position to which they were relegated by the ,hindus4 ,though slovenly cultivators and with little energy or forethought1 the ,chamars have the utmost fondness for land and an ardent ambition to obtain a holding1 however small4 ,the possession of land is a hall-mark of respectability in ,india1 as elsewhere1 and the low castes were formerly incapable of holding it2 and it may be surmised that the ,chamar feels himself to be raised by his tenant-right above the hereditary condition of village drudge and menial4 ,but for the restraining influence of the ,british power1 the ,satnami movement might by now have developed in ,chhattisgarh into a social war4 ,over most of ,india the term ,hindu is contrasted with ,muhammadan1 but in ,chhattisgarh to call a man a ,hindu conveys primarily that he is not a ,chamar1 or ,chamara according to the contemptuous abbreviation in common use4 ,a bitter and permanent antagonism exists between the two classes1 and this the ,chamar cultivators carry into their relations with their ,hindu landlords by refusing to pay rent4 ,the records of the criminal courts contain many cases arising from collisions between ,chamars and ,hindus1 several of which have resulted in riot and murder4 ,faults no doubt exist on both sides1 and ,mr4 ,hemingway1 ,settlement ,officer1 quotes an instance of a ,hindu proprietor who made his ,chamar tenants cart timber and bricks to ,rajim1 many miles from his village1 to build a house for him during the season of cultivation1 their fields consequently remaining untilled4 ,but if a proprietor once arouses the hostility of his ,chamar tenants he may as well abandon his village for all the profit he is likely to obtain from it4 ,generally the ,chamars are to blame1 as pointed out by ,mr4 ,blenkinsop who knows them well1 and many of them are dangerous criminals1 restrained only by their cowardice from the worst outrages against person and property4 ,it may be noted in conclusion that the spread of ,christianity among the ,chamars is in one respect a replica of the ,satnami movement1 because by becoming a ,christian the ,chamar hopes also to throw off the social bondage of ,hinduism4 ,a missionary gentleman told the writer that one of the converted ,chamars1 on being directed to perform some menial duty of the village1 replied3 ',no1 ,i have become a ,christian and am one of the ,sahibs2 ,i shall do no more bigar 7forced labour74' ,sikh ,religion ,list of ,paragraphs #a4 ,foundation of ,sikhism--,baba ,nanak4 #b4 ,the earlier ,gurus4 #c4 ,guru ,govind ,singh4 #d4 ,sikh initiation and rules4 #e4 ,character of the ,nanakpanthis and ,sikh sects4 #f4 ,the ,akalis4 #g4 ,the ,sikh ,council or ,guru-,mata4 ,their communal meal4 #a4 ,foundation of ,sikhism--,baba ,nanak4 ,sikh1 ,akali4--,the ,sikh religion and the history of the ,sikhs have been fully described by several writers1 and all that is intended in this article is a brief outline of the main tenets of the sect for the benefit of those to whom the more important works of reference may not be available4 ,the ,central ,provinces contained only #bccg ,sikhs in #aiaa1 of whom the majority were soldiers and the remainder probably timber or other merchants or members of the subordinate engineering service in which ,punjabis are largely employed4 ,the following account is taken from ,sir ,denzil ,ibbetson's ,census ,report of the ,punjab for #ahha3 ,sikhism was founded by ,baba ,nanak1 a ,khatri of the ,punjab1 who lived in the fifteenth century4 ,but ,nanak was not more than a religious reformer like ,kabir1 ,ramanand1 and the other ,vaishnava apostles4 ,he preached the unity of ,god1 the abolition of idols1 and the disregard of caste distinctions4 #cij ,his doctrine and life were eminently gentle and unaggressive4 ,he was succeeded by nine gurus1 the last and most famous of whom1 ,govind ,singh1 died in #agjh4 ,the names of the gurus were as follows3 #a4 ,baba ,nanak #adfi-aech-i #b4 ,angad #aeci-aeeb #c4 ,amar ,das #aeeb-aegd #d4 ,ram ,das #aegd-aeha #e4 ,arjun #aeha-afjf #f4 ,har ,govind #afjf-afde #g4 ,har ,rai #afde-affa #h4 ,har ,kishen #affa-affd #i4 ,teg ,bahadur #affd-afge #aj4 ,govind ,singh #afge-agjh #b4 ,the earlier ,gurus4 ,under the second ,guru ,angad an intolerant and ascetic spirit began to spring up among the followers of the new tenets2 and had it not been for the good sense and firmness displayed by his successor1 ,amar ,das1 who excommunicated the ,udasis and recalled his followers to the mildness and tolerance of ,nanak1 ,sikhism would probably have merely added one more to the countless orders of ascetics or devotees which are wholly unrepresented in the life of the people4 ,the fourth guru1 ,ram ,das1 founded ,amritsar2 but it was his successor1 ,arjun1 that first organised his following4 ,he gave them a written rule of faith in the ,granth or ,sikh scripture which he compiled1 he provided a common rallying-point in the city of ,amritsar which he made their religious centre1 and he reduced their voluntary contributions to a systematic levy which accustomed them to discipline and paved the way for further organisation4 ,he was a great trader1 he utilised the services and money of his disciples in mercantile transactions which extended far beyond the confines of ,india1 and he thus accumulated wealth for his ,church4 ,unfortunately he was unable wholly to abstain from politics2 and having become a political partisan of the rebel prince ,khusru1 he was summoned to ,delhi and there imprisoned1 and the treatment he received while in confinement hastened1 if it did not cause1 his death4 ,and thus began that ,muhammadan persecution which was so mightily to change the spirit of the new faith4 ,this was the first turning-point in ,sikh history2 and the effects of the persecution were immediately apparent4 ,arjun was a priest and a merchant2 his successor1 ,har ,govind1 was a warrior4 ,he abandoned the gentle and spiritual teaching of ,nanak for the use of arms and the love of adventure4 ,he encouraged his followers to eat flesh1 as giving them strength and daring2 he substituted zeal in the cause for saintliness of life as the price of salvation2 and he developed the organised discipline which ,arjun had initiated4 ,he was1 however1 a military adventurer rather than an enthusiastic zealot1 and fought either for or against the ,muhammadan empire as the hope of immediate gain dictated4 ,his policy was followed by his two successors2 and under ,teg ,bahadur the ,sikhs degenerated into little better than a band of plundering marauders1 whose internal factions aided to make them disturbers of the public peace4 ,moreover1 ,teg ,bahadur was a bigot1 while the fanatical ,aurangzeb had mounted the throne of ,delhi4 ,him therefore ,aurangzeb captured and executed as an infidel1 a robber and a rebel1 while he cruelly persecuted his followers in common with all who did not accept ,islam4 #c4 ,guru ,govind ,singh4 ,teg ,bahadur was succeeded by the last and greatest guru1 his son ,govind ,singh2 and it was under him that what had sprung into existence as a quietist sect of a purely religious nature1 and had become a military society of by no means high character1 developed into the political organisation which was to rule the whole of north-western ,india1 and to furnish the ,british arms their stoutest and most worthy opponents4 ,for some years after his father's execution ,govind ,singh lived in retirement1 and brooded over his personal wrongs and over the persecutions of the ,musalman fanatic which bathed the country in blood4 ,his soul was filled with the longing for revenge2 but he felt the necessity for a larger following and a stronger organisation1 and1 following the example of his ,muhammadan enemies1 he used his religion as the basis of political power4 ,emerging from his retirement he preached the ,khalsa1 the pure1 the elect1 the liberated4 ,he openly attacked all distinctions of caste1 and taught the equality of all men who would join him2 and instituting a ceremony of initiation1 he proclaimed it as the pahul or 'gate' by which all might enter the society1 while he gave to its members the prasad or communion as a sacrament of union in which the four castes should eat of one dish4 ,the higher castes murmured and many of them left him1 for he taught that the ,brahman's thread must be broken2 but the lower orders rejoiced and flocked in numbers to his standard4 ,these he inspired with military ardour1 with the hope of social freedom and of national independence1 and with abhorrence of the hated ,muhammadan4 ,he gave them outward signs of their faith in the unshorn hair1 the short drawers1 and the blue dress2 he marked the military nature of their calling by the title of ,singh or 'lion1' by the wearing of steel1 and by the initiation by sprinkling of water with a two-edged dagger2 and he gave them a feeling of personal superiority in their abstinence from the unclean tobacco4 ,the ,muhammadans promptly responded to the challenge1 for the danger was too serious to be neglected2 the ,sikh army was dispersed1 and ,govind's mother1 wife and children were murdered at ,sirhind by ,aurangzeb's orders4 ,the death of the emperor brought a temporary lull1 and a year later ,govind himself was assassinated while fighting the ,marathas as an ally of ,aurangzeb's successor4 ,he did not live to see his ends accomplished1 but he had roused the dormant spirit of the people1 and the fire which he lit was only damped for a while4 ,his chosen disciple ,banda succeeded him in the leadership1 though never recognised as guru4 ,the internal commotions which followed upon the death of the emperor1 ,bahadur ,shah1 and the attacks of the ,marathas weakened the power of ,delhi1 and for a time ,banda carried all before him2 but he was eventually conquered and captured in ,a4,d4 #agaf1 and a period of persecution followed so sanguinary and so terrible that for a generation nothing more was heard of the ,sikhs4 ,how the troubles of the ,delhi empire thickened1 how the ,sikhs again rose to prominence1 how they disputed the possession of the ,punjab with the ,mughals1 the ,marathas and the ,durani1 and were at length completely successful1 how they divided into societies under their several chiefs and portioned out the ,province among them1 and how the genius of ,ranjit ,singh raised him to supremacy and extended his rule beyond the limits of the ,punjab1 are matters of political and not of religious history4 ,no formal alteration has been made in the ,sikh religion since ,govind ,singh gave it its military shape2 and though changes have taken place1 they have been merely the natural result of time and external influences4 #d4 ,sikh initiation and rules4 ,the word ,sikh is said to be derived from the common ,hindu term ,sewak and to mean simply a disciple2 it may be applied therefore to the followers of ,nanak who held aloof from ,govind ,singh1 but in practice it is perhaps understood to mean only the latter1 while the ,nanakpanthis are considered as ,hindus4 ,a true ,sikh always takes the termination ,singh to his name on initiation1 and hence they are sometimes known as ,singhs in distinction to the ,nanakpanthis4 ,a man is also not born a ,sikh1 but must always be initiated1 and the pahul or rite of baptism cannot take place until he is old enough to understand it1 the earliest age being seven1 while it is often postponed till manhood4 ,five ,sikhs must be present at the ceremony1 when the novice repeats the articles of the faith and drinks sugar and water stirred up with a two-edged dagger4 ,at the initiation of women a one-edged dagger is used1 but this is seldom done4 ,thus most of the wives of ,sikhs have never been initiated1 nor is it necessary that their children should become ,sikhs when they grow up4 ,the faith is unattractive to women owing to the simplicity of its ritual and the absence of the feasts and ceremonies so abundant in ,hinduism2 formerly the ,sikhs were accustomed to capture their wives in forays1 and hence perhaps it was considered of no consequence that the husband and wife should be of different faith4 ,the distinguishing marks of a true ,sikh are the five ,kakkas or ,k's which he is bound to carry about his person3 the ,kes or uncut hair and unshaven beard2 the ,kachh or short drawers ending above the knee2 the ,kasa or iron bangle2 the ,khanda or steel knife2 and the ,kanga or comb4 ,the other rules of conduct laid down by ,guru ,govind ,singh for his followers were to dress in blue clothes and especially eschew red or saffron-coloured garments and caps of all sorts1 to observe personal cleanliness1 especially in the hair1 and practise ablutions1 to eat the flesh of such animals only as had been killed by jatka or decapitation1 to abstain from tobacco in all its forms1 never to blow out flame nor extinguish it with drinking-water1 to eat with the head covered1 pray and recite passages of the ,granth morning and evening and before all meals1 reverence the cow1 abstain from the worship of saints and idols and avoid mosques and temples1 and worship the one ,god only1 neglecting ,brahmans and ,mullas1 and their scriptures1 teaching1 rites and religious symbols4 ,caste distinctions he positively condemned and instituted the prasad or communion1 in which cakes of flour1 butter and sugar are made and consecrated with certain ceremonies while the communicants sit round in prayer1 and then distributed equally to all the faithful present1 to whatever caste they may belong4 ,the above rules1 so far as they enjoin ceremonial observances1 are still very generally obeyed4 ,but the daily reading and recital of the ,granth is discontinued1 for the ,sikhs are the most uneducated class in the ,punjab1 and an occasional visit to the ,sikh temple where the ,granth is read aloud is all that the villager thinks necessary4 ,blue clothes have been discontinued save by the fanatical ,akali sect1 as have been very generally the short drawers or ,kachh4 ,the prohibition of tobacco has had the unfortunate effect of inducing the ,sikhs to take to hemp and opium1 both of which are far more injurious than tobacco4 ,the precepts which forbid the ,sikh to venerate ,brahmans or to associate himself with ,hindu worship are entirely neglected2 and in the matter of the worship of local saints and deities1 and of the employment of and reverence for ,brahmans1 there is little1 while in current superstitions and superstitious practices there is no difference between the ,sikh villager and his ,hindu brother4 #cia #e4 ,character of the ,nanakpanthis and ,sikh sects4 ,it seems thus clear that if it had not been for the political and military development of the ,sikh movement1 it would in time have lost most of its distinctive features and have come to be considered as a ,hindu sect of the same character1 if somewhat more distinctive than those of the ,nanakpanthis and ,kabirpanthis4 ,but this development and the founding of the ,sikh ,state of ,lahore created a breach between the ,sikhs and ordinary ,hindus wider than that caused by their religious differences1 as was sufficiently demonstrated during the ,mutiny4 ,in their origin both the ,sikh and ,nanakpanthi sects appear to have been mainly a revolt against the caste system1 the supremacy of ,brahmans and the degrading mass of superstitions and reverence of idols and spirit-worship which the ,brahmans encouraged for their own profit4 ,but while ,nanak1 influenced by the observation of ,islamic monotheism1 attempted to introduce a pure religion only1 the aim of ,govind was perhaps political1 and he saw in the caste system an obstacle to the national movement which he desired to excite against the ,muhammadans4 ,so far as the abolition of caste was concerned1 both reformers have1 as has been seen1 largely failed1 the two sects now recognising caste1 while their members revere ,brahmans like ordinary ,hindus4 #f4 ,the ,akalis4 ,the ,akalis or ,nihangs are a fanatical order of ,sikh ascetics4 ,the following extract is taken from ,sir ,e4 ,maclagan's account of them3 #cib ,the ,akalis came into prominence very early by their stout resistance to the innovations introduced by the ,bairagi ,banda after the death of ,guru ,govind2 but they do not appear to have had much influence during the following century until the days of ,maharaja ,ranjit ,singh4 ,they constituted at once the most unruly and the bravest portion of the very unruly and brave ,sikh army4 ,their headquarters were at ,amritsar1 where they constituted themselves the guardians of the faith and assumed the right to convoke synods4 ,they levied offerings by force and were the terror of the ,sikh chiefs4 ,their good qualities were1 however1 well appreciated by the ,maharaja1 and when there were specially fierce foes to meet1 such as the ,pathans beyond the ,indus1 the ,akalis were always to the front4 ,the ,akali is distinguished very conspicuously by his dark-blue and checked dress1 his peaked turban1 often surmounted with steel quoits1 and by the fact of his strutting about like ,ali ,baba's prince with his 'thorax and abdomen festooned with curious cutlery4' ,he is most particular in retaining the five ,kakkas1 and in preserving every outward form prescribed by ,guru ,govind ,singh4 ,some of the ,akalis wear a yellow turban underneath the blue one1 leaving a yellow band across the forehead4 ,the yellow turban is worn by many ,sikhs at the ,basant ,panchmi1 and the ,akalis are fond of wearing it at all times4 ,there is a couplet by ,bhai ,gurdas which says3 ,siah1 ,sufed1 ,surkh1 ,zardae1 ,jo pahne1 sot ,gurbhai2 or1 ',those that wear black 7the ,akalis71 white 7the ,nirmalas71 red 7the ,udasis7 or yellow1 are all members of the brotherhood of the ,sikhs4' ,the ,akalis do not1 it is true1 drink spirits or eat meat as other ,sikhs do1 but they are immoderate in the consumption of bhang4 ,they are in other respects such purists that they will avoid ,hindu rites even in their marriage ceremonies4 ,the ,akali is full of memories of the glorious day of the ,khalsa2 and he is nothing if he is not a soldier1 a soldier of the ,guru4 ,he dreams of armies1 and he thinks in lakhs4 ,if he wishes to imply that five ,akalis are present1 he will say that 'five lakhs are before you'2 or if he would explain he is alone1 he will say that he is with 'one and a quarter lakhs of the ,khalsa4' ,you ask him how he is1 and he replies that ',the army is well'2 you inquire where he has come from1 and he says1 ',the troops marched from ,lahore4' ,the name ,akali means 'immortal4' ,when ,sikhism was politically dominant1 the ,akalis were accustomed to extort alms by accusing the principal chiefs of crimes1 imposing fines upon them1 and in the event of their refusing to pay1 preventing them from performing their ablutions or going through any of the religious ceremonies at ,amritsar4 #g4 ,the ,sikh ,council or ,guru-,mata4 ,their communal meal4 ,the following account was given by ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm of the ,guru-,mata or great ,council of the ,sikhs and their religious meal3 #cic ,when a ,guru-,mata or great national ,council is called on the occasion of any danger to the country1 all the ,sikh chiefs assemble at ,amritsar4 ,the assembly is convened by the ,akalis2 and when the chiefs meet upon this solemn occasion it is concluded that all private animosities cease1 and that every man sacrifices his personal feelings at the shrine of the general good4 ,when the chiefs and principal leaders are seated1 the ,adi-,granth and ,dasama ,padshah ,ka ,granth #cid are placed before them4 ,they all bend their heads before the ,scriptures and exclaim1 ',wah ,guruji ka ,khalsa6 wah ,guruji ka ,fateh6' #cie ,a great quantity of cakes made of wheat1 butter and sugar are then placed before the volumes of their sacred writings and covered with a cloth4 ,these holy cakes1 which are in commemoration of the injunction of ,nanak to eat and to give to others to eat next receive the salutation of the assembly1 who then rise1 while the ,akalis pray aloud and the musicians play4 ,the ,akalis1 when the prayers are finished1 desire the ,council to be seated4 ,they sit down1 and the cakes are uncovered and eaten by all classes of the ,sikhs1 those distinctions of tribe and caste which are on other occasions kept up being now laid aside in token of their general and complete union in one cause4 ,the ,akalis proclaim the ,guru-,mata1 and prayers are again said aloud4 ,the chiefs after this sit closer and say to each other1 ',the sacred ,granth is between us1 let us swear by our ,scriptures to forget all internal disputes and to be united4' ,this moment of religious fervour is taken to reconcile all animosities4 ,they then proceed to consider the danger with which they are threatened1 to devise the best plans for averting it and to choose the generals who are to lead their armies against the common enemy4 ,the first ,guru-,mata was assembled by ,guru ,govind1 and the latest was called in #ahje1 when the ,british ,army pursued ,holkar into the ,punjab4 ,the ,sikh ,army was known as ,dal ,khalsa1 or the ,army of ,god1 khalsa being an ,arabic word meaning one's own4 #cif ,at the height of the ,sikh power the followers of this religion only numbered a small fraction of the population of the ,punjab1 and its strength is now declining4 ,in #aiaa the ,sikhs were only three millions in the ,punjab population of twenty-four millions4 ,smarta ,sect ,smarta ,sect4--,this is an orthodox ,hindu sect1 the members of which are largely ,brahmans4 ,the name is derived from ,smriti or tradition1 a name given to the ,hindu sacred writings1 with the exception of the ,vedas1 which last are regarded as a divine revelation4 ,members of the sect worship the five deities1 ,siva1 ,vishnu1 ,suraj or the sun1 ,ganpati and ,sakti1 the divine principle of female energy corresponding to ,siva4 ,they say that their sect was founded by ,shankar ,acharya1 the great ,sivite reformer and opponent of ,buddhism1 but this appears to be incorrect4 ,shankar ,acharya himself is said to have believed in one unseen ,god1 who was the first cause and sole ruler of the universe2 but he countenanced for the sake of the weaker brethren the worship of orthodox ,hindu deities and of their idols4 ,swami-,narayan ,sect #a4 ,the founder4 ,swami-,narayan ,sect4 #cig--,this1 one of the most modern ,vaishnava sects1 was founded by ,sahajanand ,swami1 a ,sarwaria ,brahman1 born near ,ajodhia in the ,united ,provinces in ,a4,d4 #aghj4 ,at an early age he became a religious mendicant1 and wandered all over ,india1 visiting the principal shrines4 ,when twenty years old he was made a ,sadhu of the ,ramanandi order1 and soon nominated as his successor by the head of the order4 ,he preached with great success in ,gujarat1 and though his tenets do not seem to have differed much from the ,ramanandi creed1 his personal influence was such that his followers founded a new sect and called it after him4 ,he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity1 ,krishna or ,narayana1 whom he identified with the sun1 and apparently his followers held1 and he inclined to believe himself1 that he was a fresh incarnation of ,vishnu4 ,it is said that he displayed miraculous powers before his disciples1 entrancing whomsoever he cast his eyes upon1 and causing them in this mesmeric state 7,samadhi7 to imagine they saw ,sahajanand as ,krishna with yellow robes1 weapons of war1 and other characteristics of the ,god1 and to behold him seated as chief in an assembly of divine beings4 #b4 ,tenets of the sect4 ,his creed prohibited the destruction of animal life2 the use of animal food and intoxicating liquors or drugs on any occasion2 promiscuous intercourse with the other sex2 suicide1 theft and robbery1 and false accusations4 ,much good was done1 the ,collector testified1 by his preaching among the wild ,kolis of ,gujarat2 #cih his morality was said to be far better than any which could be learned from the ,shastras2 he condemned theft and bloodshed2 and those villages and ,districts which had received him1 from being among the worst1 were now among the best and most orderly in the ,province of ,bombay4 ,his success was great among the lower castes1 as the ,kolis1 ,bhils and ,kathis4 ,he was regarded by his disciples as the surety of sinners1 his position in this respect resembling that of the ,founder of ,christianity4 ,to ,bishop ,heber he said that while he permitted members of different castes to eat separately here below1 in the future life there would be no distinction of castes4 #cii ,his rules for the conduct of the sexes towards each other were especially severe4 ,no ,sadhu of the ,swami-,narayan sect might ever touch a woman1 even the accidental touching of any woman other than a mother having to be expiated by a whole-day fast4 ,similarly1 should a widow-disciple touch even a boy who was not her son1 she had to undergo the same penalty4 ,there were separate passages for women in their large temples1 and separate reading and preaching halls for women1 attended by wives of the ,acharyas or heads of the sect4 ,these could apparently be married1 but other members of the priestly order must remain single2 while the lay followers lived among their fellows1 pursuing their ordinary lives and avocations4 ,the strictness of the ,swami on sexual matters was directed against the licentious practices of the ,maharaj or ,vallabhacharya order4 ,he boldly denounced the irregularities they had introduced into their forms of worship1 and exposed the vices which characterised the lives of their clergy4 ,this attitude1 as well as the prohibition of the worship of idols1 earned for him the hostility of the ,peshwa and the ,maratha ,brahmans1 and he was subjected to a considerable degree of persecution2 his followers were taught the ,christian doctrine of suffering injury without retaliation1 and the devotees of hostile sects took advantage of this to beat them unmercifully1 some being even put to death4 #c4 ,meeting with ,bishop ,heber4 ,in order to protect the ,swami1 his followers constituted from themselves an armed guard1 as shown by ,bishop ,heber's account of their meeting3 ,about eleven o'clock ,i had the expected visit from ,swami-,narayan4 ,he came in a somewhat different guise from all which ,i expected1 having with him near #bjj horsemen1 mostly well-armed with matchlocks and swords1 and several of them with coats of mail and spears4 ,besides them he had a large rabble on foot with bows and arrows1 and when ,i considered that ,i had myself an escort of more than fifty horses and fifty muskets and bayonets1 ,i could not help smiling1 though my sensations were in some degree painful and humiliating1 at the idea of two religious teachers meeting at the head of little armies1 and filling the city which was the scene of their interview with the rattling of gunners1 the clash of shields and the tramp of the war-horse4 ,had our troops been opposed to each other1 mine1 though less numerous1 would have been doubtless far more effective from the superiority of arms and discipline4 ,but in moral grandeur what a difference was there between his troop and mine4 ,mine neither knew me nor cared for me2 they escorted me faithfully and would have defended me bravely1 because they were ordered by their superiors to do so4 ,the guards of ,swami-,narayan were his own disciples and enthusiastic admirers1 men who had voluntarily repaired to hear his lessons1 who now took a pride in doing him honour1 and would cheerfully fight to the last drop of blood rather than suffer a fringe of his garment to be handled roughly4444 ,the holy man himself was a middle-aged1 thin and plain-looking person1 about my own age1 with a mild expression of countenance1 but nothing about him indicative of any extraordinary talent4 ,i seated him on a chair at my right hand and offered two more to the ,thakur and his son1 of which1 however1 they did not avail themselves without first placing their hands under the feet of their spiritual guide and then pressing them reverently to their foreheads4 #d4 ,meeting with ,governor of ,bombay4 ,owing1 apparently1 to the high moral character of his preaching and his success in reducing to order and tranquillity the turbulent ,kolis and ,bhils who accepted his doctrines1 ,swami-,narayan enjoyed a large measure of esteem and regard from the officers of ,government4 ,this will be evidenced from the following account of his meeting with the ,governor of ,bombay3 #djj ,on the receipt of the above two letters1 ,swami-,narayan ,maharaj proceeded to ,rajkote to visit the ,right ,honourable the ,governor1 and on the #bfth ,february #ahcj was escorted as a mark of honourable reception by a party of troops and military foot-soldiers to the ,political ,agent's bungalow1 when ,his ,excellency the ,governor1 the ,secretary1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,williamson1 six other ,european gentlemen1 and the ,political ,agent1 ,mr4 ,blane1 having come out of the bungalow to meet the ,swami-,narayan1 ,his ,excellency conducted the ,swami1 hand in hand1 to a hall in the bungalow and made him sit on a chair4 ,his ,excellency afterwards with pleasure enquired about the principles of his religion1 which were communicated accordingly4 ,his ,excellency also made a present to ,swami-,narayan of a pair of shawls and other piece-goods4 ,swami-,narayan was asked by the ,governor whether he and his disciples have had any harm under ,british rule2 and ,his ,excellency was informed in reply that there was nothing of the sort1 but that on the contrary every protection was given them by all the officers in authority4 ,his ,excellency then asked for a code of the religion of ,swami-,narayan1 and the book called the ,shiksapatri was presented to him accordingly4 ,thus after a visit extending to an hour ,swami-,narayan asked permission to depart1 when he was sent back with the same honours with which he had been received1 all the ,european officers accompanying him out of the door from the bungalow4 #e4 ,conclusion4 ,the author of the above account is not given1 and it apparently emanates from a follower of the saint1 but there seems little reason to doubt its substantial accuracy1 and it certainly demonstrates the high estimation in which he was held4 ,after his death his disciples erected ,chauras or resthouses and monuments to his memory in all the villages and beneath all the trees where he had at any time made any stay in ,gujarat2 and here he is worshipped by the sect4 ,in #aija the sect had about #cjj1jjj adherents in ,gujarat4 ,in the ,central ,provinces a number of persons belong to it in ,nimar1 principally of the ,teli caste4 ,the ,telis of ,nimar are anxious to improve their social position1 which is very low1 and have probably joined the sect on account of its liberal principles on the question of caste4 ,vaishnava1 ,vishnuite ,sect #a4 ,vishnu as representing the sun4 ,vaishnava1 ,vishnuite ,sect4--,the name given to ,hindus whose special deity is the god ,vishnu1 and to a number of sects which have adopted various special doctrines based on the worship of ,vishnu or of one of his two great incarnations1 ,rama and ,krishna4 ,vishnu was a personification of the sun1 though in ancient literature the sun is more often referred to under another name1 as ,savitri1 ,surya and ,aditya4 ,it may perhaps be the case that when the original sun-god develops into a supreme deity with the whole heavens as his sphere1 the sun itself comes to be regarded as a separate and minor deity4 ,his weapon of the chakra or discus1 which was probably meant to resemble the sun1 supports the view of ,vishnu as a sun-god1 and also his vahan1 the bird ,garuda1 on which he rides4 ,this is the ,brahminy kite1 a fine bird with chestnut plumage and white head and breast1 which has been considered a sea-eagle4 ,mr4 ,dewar states that it remains almost motionless at a great height in the air for long periods2 and it is easy to understand how in these circumstances primitive people mistook it for the spirit of the sky1 or the vehicle of the sun-god4 ,it is propitious for a ,hindu to see a ,brahminy kite1 especially on ,sunday1 the sun's day1 for it is believed that the bird is then returning from ,vishnu1 whom it has gone to see on the previous evening4 #dja ,a similar belief has probably led to the veneration of the eagle in other countries and its association with the god of the sky or heavens1 as in the case of ,zeus4 ,similarly the ,gayatri1 the most sacred ,hindu prayer1 is addressed to the sun1 and it could hardly have been considered so important unless the luminary was identified with one of the greatest ,hindu gods4 ,every ,brahman prays to the sun daily when he bathes in the morning4 ,vishnu's character as the preserver and fosterer of life is probably derived from the sun's generative power1 so conspicuous in ,india4 ,as the sun is seen to sink every night into the earth1 so it was thought that he could come down to earth1 and ,vishnu has done this in many forms for the preservation of mankind4 #b4 ,his incarnations4 ,he is generally considered to have had ten incarnations1 of which nine are past and one is still to come4 ,the incarnations were as follows3 #a4 ,as a great fish he guided the ark in which ,manu the primeval man escaped from the deluge4 #b4 ,as a tortoise he supported the earth and poised it in its present position2 or according to another version he lay at the bottom of the sea while the mountain ,meru was set on its peak on his back1 and with the serpent ,vasuki as a rope round the mountain the ocean was churned by the gods for making the divine ,amrit or nectar which gives immortality4 #c4 ,as a boar he dived under the sea and raised the earth on his tusks after it had been submerged by a demon4 #d4 ,as ,narsingh1 the man-lion1 he delivered the world from the tyranny of another demon4 #e4 ,as ,waman or a dwarf he tricked the ,king ,bali1 who had gained possession over the earth and nether world and was threatening the heavens1 by asking for as much ground as he could cover in three steps4 ,when his request was derisively granted he covered heaven and earth in two steps1 but on ,bali's intercession left him the nether regions and refrained from making the third step which would have covered them4 #f4 ,as ,parasurama #djb he cleared the earth of the ,kshatriyas1 who had oppressed the ,brahman hermits and stolen the sacred cow1 by a slaughter of them thrice seven times repeated4 #g4 ,as ,rama1 the divine king of ,ajodhia or ,oudh1 he led an expedition to ,ceylon for the recovery of his wife ,sita1 who had been abducted by ,rawan1 the demon king of ,ceylon4 ,this story probably refers to an early expedition of the ,aryans to southern ,india1 in which they may have obtained the assistance of the ,munda tribes1 represented by ,hanuman and his army of apes4 #h4 ,as ,krishna he supported the ,pandavas in their war against the ,kauravas1 and at the head of the ,yadava clan founded the city of ,dwarka in ,gujarat1 where he was afterwards killed4 ,the popular group of legends about ,krishna in his capacity of a cowherd in the forests of ,mathura was perhaps at first distinct and afterwards combined with the story of the ,yadava prince4 #djc ,but it is in this latter character as the divine cowherd that ,krishna is most generally known and worshipped4 #i4 ,as ,buddha he was the great founder of the religion known by his name2 the ,brahmans1 by making ,buddha an incarnation of ,vishnu1 have thus provided a connecting link between ,buddhism and ,hinduism4 ,in his tenth incarnation he will come again as ,nishka-lanki or the stainless one for the final regeneration of the world1 and his advent is expected by some ,hindus1 who worship him in this form4 #c4 ,worship of ,vishnu and ,vaishnava doctrines4 ,in the ,central ,provinces ,vishnu is worshipped as ,narayan ,deo1 who is identified with the sun1 or as ,parmeshwar1 the supreme beneficent god4 ,he is also much worshipped in his incarnations as ,rama and ,krishna1 and their images1 with those of their consorts1 ,sita and ,radha1 are often to be found in his temples as well as in their own4 ,these images are supposed to be subject to all the conditions and necessities incident to living humanity4 ,hence in the daily ritual they are washed1 dressed1 adorned and even fed like human beings1 food being daily placed before them1 and its aroma1 according to popular belief1 nourishing the god present in the image4 ,the principal ,vishnuite sects are described in the article on ,bairagi1 and the dissenting sects which have branched off from these in special articles4 #djd ,the cult of ,vishnu and his two main incarnations is the most prominent feature of modern ,hinduism4 ,the orthodox ,vaishnava sects mainly differed on the point whether the human soul or spirit was a part of the divine soul or separate from it1 and whether it would be reabsorbed into the divine soul1 or have a separate existence after death4 ,but they generally regarded all human souls as of one quality1 and hence were opposed to distinctions of caste4 ,animals also have souls or spirits1 and the ,vishnuite doctrine is opposed to the destruction of animal life in any form4 ,in the ,bania caste the practices of ,vaishnava ,hindus and ,jains present so little difference that they can take food together1 and even intermarry4 ,the creed is also opposed to suicide4 ,faithful worshippers of ,vishnu will after his death be transported to his heaven1 ,vaikuntha1 or to ,golaka1 the heaven of ,krishna4 ,the sect-mark of the ,vaishnavas usually consists of three lines down the forehead1 meeting at the root of the nose or below it4 ,all three lines may be white1 or the centre one black or red1 and the outside ones white4 ,they are made with a kind of clay called ,gopichandan1 and are sometimes held to be the impress of ,vishnu's foot4 ,to put on the sect-mark in the morning is to secure the god's favour and protection during the day4 ,vam-,margi1 ,bam-,margi1 ,vama-,chari ,sect4 ,vam-,margi1 ,bam-,margi1 ,vama-,chari ,sect4 #dje--;,a sect who follow the worship of the female principle in nature and indulge in sensuality at their rites according to the precepts of the ,tantras4 ,the name signifies 'the followers of the crooked or left-handed path4' ,their principal sacred text is the ,rudra-,yamal-,damru ,tantra1 which is said to have been promulgated by ,rudra or ,siva through his ,damru or drum at the end of his dance in ,kailas1 his heaven in the ,himalayas4 ,the ,tantras1 according to ,professor ,monier-,williams1 inculcate an exclusive worship of ,siva's wife as the source of every kind of supernatural faculty and mystic craft4 ,the principle of female energy is known as ,sakti1 and is personified in the female counterparts of all the ,gods of the ,hindu triad1 but is practically concentrated in ,devi or ,kali4 ,the five requisites for ,tantra worship are said to be the five ,makaras or words beginning with ,m3 ,madya1 wine2 ,mansa1 flesh2 ,matsya1 fish2 ,mudra1 parched grain and mystic gesticulation2 and ,maithuna1 sexual indulgence4 ,among the ,vam-,margis both men and women are said to assemble at a secret meeting-place1 and their rite consists in the adoration of a naked woman who stands in the centre of the room with a drawn sword in her hand4 ,the worshippers then eat fish1 meat and grain1 and drink liquor1 and thereafter indulge in promiscuous debauchery4 ,the followers of the sect are mainly ,brahmans1 though other castes may be admitted4 ,the ,vam-,margis usually keep their membership of the sect a secret1 but their special mark is said to be a semicircular line or lines of red powder or vermilion on the forehead1 with a red streak half-way up the centre1 and a circular spot of red at the root of the nose4 ,they use a rosary of rudraksha or of coral beads1 but of no greater length than can be concealed in the hand1 or they keep it in a small purse or bag of red cloth4 ,during worship they wear a piece of red silk round the loins and decorate themselves with garlands of crimson flowers4 ,in their houses they worship a figure of the double triangle drawn on the ground or on a metal plate and make offerings of liquor to it4 ,they practise various magical charms by which they think they can kill their enemies4 ,thus fire is brought from the pyre on which a corpse has been burnt1 and on this the operator pours water1 and with the charcoal so obtained he makes a figure of his enemy in a lonely place under a pipal tree or on the bank of a river4 ,he then takes an iron bar1 twelve finger-joints long1 and after repeating his charms pierces the figure with it4 ,when all the limbs have been pierced the man whose effigy has been so treated will die4 ,other methods will procure the death of an enemy in a certain number of months or cause him to lose a limb4 ,sometimes they make a rosary of #ajh fruits of the dhatura #djf and pierce the figure of the enemy through the neck after repeating charms1 and it is supposed that this will kill him at once4 ,wahhabi ,sect ,wahhabi ,sect4 #djg--;,a puritan sect of ,muhammadans4 ,the sect was not recorded at the census1 but it is probable that it has a few adherents in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the ,wahhabi sect is named after its founder1 ,muhammad ,abdul ,wahhab1 who was born in ,arabia in ,a4,d4 #afia4 ,he set his face against all developments of ,islam not warranted by the ,koran and the traditional utterances of the ,companions of the ,prophet1 and against the belief in omens and worship at the shrines of saints1 and condemned as well all display of wealth and luxury and the use of intoxicating drugs and tobacco4 ,he denied any authority to ,islamic doctrines other than the ,koran itself and the utterances of the ,companions of the ,prophet who had received instruction from his lips1 and held that in the interpretation and application of them ,moslems must exercise the right of private judgment4 ,the sect met with considerable military success in ,arabia and ,persia1 and at one time threatened to spread over the ,islamic world4 ,the following is an account of the taking of ,mecca by ,saud1 the grandson of the founder1 in #ahjc3 ,the sanctity of the place subdued the barbarous spirit of the conquerors1 and not the slightest excesses were committed against the people4 ,the stern principles of the reformed doctrines were1 however1 strictly enforced4 ,piles of green huqqas and ,persian pipes were collected1 rosaries and amulets were forcibly taken from the devotees1 silk and satin dresses were demanded from the wealthy and worldly1 and the whole1 piled up into a heterogeneous mass1 were burnt by the infuriated reformers4 ,so strong was the feeling against the pipes and so necessary did a public example seem to be1 that a respectable lady1 whose delinquency had well-nigh escaped the vigilant eye of the ,muhtasib1 was seized and placed on an ass1 with a green pipe suspended from her neck1 and paraded through the public streets--a terrible warning to all of her sex who might be inclined to indulge in forbidden luxuries4 ,when the usual hour of prayer arrived the myrmidons of the law sallied forth1 and with leathern whips drove all slothful ,moslems to their devotions4 ,the mosques were filled4 ,never since the days of the ,prophet had the sacred city witnessed so much piety and devotion4 ,not one pipe1 not a single tobacco-stopper1 was to be seen in the streets or found in the houses1 and the whole population of ,mecca prostrated themselves at least five times a day in solemn adoration4 ,the apprehensions of the ,sultan of ,turkey were aroused and an army was despatched against the ,wahhabis1 which broke their political power1 their leader1 ,saud's son1 being executed in ,constantinople in #ahah4 ,but the tenets of the sect continued to be maintained in ,arabia1 and in #ahbb one ,saiyad ,ahmad1 a freebooter and bandit from ,rai ,bareli1 was converted to it on a pilgrimage to ,mecca and returned to preach its doctrines in ,india4 ,being a ,saiyad and thus a descendant of the ,prophet1 he was accepted by the ,muhammadans of ,india as the true ,khalifa or ,mahdi1 awaited by the ,shiahs4 ,unheeded by the ,british ,government1 he traversed our provinces with a numerous retinue of devoted disciples and converted the populace to his reformed doctrine by thousands1 ,patna becoming a centre of the sect4 ,in #ahbf he declared a jihad or religious war against the ,sikhs1 but after a four years' struggle was defeated and killed4 ,the sect gave some trouble in the ,mutiny1 but has not since taken any part in politics4 ,its reformed doctrines1 however1 have obtained a considerable vogue1 and still exercise a powerful influence on ,muhammadan thought4 ,the ,wahhabis deny the authority of ,islamic tradition after the deaths of the ,companions of the ,prophet1 do not illuminate or pay reverence to the shrines of departed saints1 do not celebrate the birthday of ,muhammad1 count the ninety-nine names of ,god on their fingers and not on a rosary1 and do not smoke4 ,,part ,i ,glossary of ,minor ,castes and ,other ,articles1 ,synonyms1 ,subcastes1 ,titles and ,names of ,exogamous ,septs or ,clans ,note4--,in this ,glossary the references under each heading are to the detailed articles on castes1 religions and sects1 in ,part ,i4 and ,part ,,ii4 of the work4 ,the synonyms1 subcastes and titles have been taken from the main articles and are arranged here in index form as an aid to identification4 ,section or clan names1 however1 will not usually be found in the main articles4 ,they have been selected from an alphabetical list prepared separately1 and are included as being of some interest1 in addition to those contained in the articles4 ,the ,glossary also serves the purpose of indicating how subcaste and clan names are common to several castes and tribes4 ,,glossary ,abhimanchkul4--,a section of ,komti in ,chanda4 ,they abstain from using a preparation of lead which is generally ground to powder and applied to wounds4 ,abhira4--,an immigrant nomad tribe from which the modern ,ahir caste is believed to have originated4 ,a division of ,maratha and ,gujarati ,brahmans1 so called because they are priests of the ,abhiras or the modern ,ahirs4 ,abdhut4--,name for a religious mendicant4 ,applied to ,gosains1 q4v4 ,acharya1 ,acharaj4--7,superintendent of ceremonies47 ,title of the heads of the ,swami-,narayan sect4 ,a surname of ,adi ,gaur ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,adhia4--7,half47 ,a subcaste of ,telis considered to be illegitimate in ,betul4 ,adhaighar1 ,arhaighar4--7#b #a_/b houses47 ,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahmans4 ,adhali4--,a name given to ,malyars by outsiders4 ,adigaur4--,a subdivision of ,brahman1 probably a branch of the ,gaur ,brahmans1 though in ,saugor they are considered to be ,kanaujias4 ,adkandh1 ,adikandh4--7,superior ,khonds47 ,a subcaste of ,khonds1 being the most ,hinduised section of this tribe4 ,a title of ,khond4 ,adnath1 ,adinath4--,a subdivision of ,jogi4 ,adinath was the father of ,matsyendranath and grandfather of ,gorakhnath1 the first great ,jogi4 ,agamudayan4--,a large ,tamil cultivating caste1 of which a few members reside in the ,central ,provinces in ,jubbulpore and ,raipur4 ,they are the families of ,madras sepoys who have retired from regiments stationed in these places4 ,the ,agamudayans sometimes call themselves by the title of ,pillai1 which means ',son of a god' and was formerly reserved to ,brahmans4 ,agarwala1 ,agarwal4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see ,bania-,agarwala4 ,agastya4--,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,aghorpanthi4--,synonym for ,aghori4 ,agnihotri4--,a surname of ,kanaujia and ,jijhotia ,brahmans in ,saugor4 7,one who performs the sacrifice to ,agni or the god of fire47 ,agnikula4--,a name given to four clans of ,rajputs said to have been born from the fire-pit on ,mount ,abu4 ,see article ,panwar ,rajput4 ,agrahari4--,a subcaste of ,bania found chiefly in ,jubbulpore ,district and ,raigarh ,state4 ,their name has been connected with the cities of ,agra and ,agroha4 ,agrajanma4--7,first-born47 ,a synonym for ,brahmans4 ,aharia4--,clan of ,rajput4 ,synonym for ,sesodia4 ,ahir4--,the professional caste of herdsmen4 ,a clan of ,maratha4 ,a subcaste of ,rawat and ,salewar ,koshti in ,nimar4 ,a subcaste of ,bishnoi1 ,gurao1 and ,sunar4 ,ahirwar4--,a resident of the old town of ,ahar in the ,bulandshahr district4 ,subcaste of ,kori4 ,ahivasi1 ,ahiwasi4--7,from ,ahiwas1 ',the abode of the dragon1' the hermitage of ,sanbhari ,rishi in ,mathura47 ,a ,brahmanical or pseudo-,brahmanical tribe4 ,they are said to be sprung from a ,brahman father and a ,kshatriya mother1 and were formerly pack-carriers4 ,found in ,jubbulpore and the ,nerbudda ,valley4 ,ahke4--7,seduced47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they are said to be so named because their priests once seduced a ,dhurwa girl1 and her son was given this name4 ,aithana4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,ajodhia4--,subcaste of ,jadam4 ,ajudhiabasi4--,see ,audhia4 ,akali4--,order of ,sikh devotees4 ,see article ,sikh4 ,akhadewale4--,a class of ,bairagis who do not marry4 ,also known as ,nihang4 ,akhroti4--,a subdivision of ,pathans4 7,from akhrot1 walnut47 ,akre4--,a bastard ,khatik4 ,title of a child a ,khatik gets by a woman of another caste4 ,alia4--,a grower of the al plant4 ,a subcaste of ,bania and ,kachhi1 a synonym of ,chasa4 ,alia1 ,alkari4--,these terms are derived from the al or ,indian mulberry 7,morinda citrifolia74 ,the ,alias are members of the ,kachhi caste who formerly grew the al plant in ,nimar for sale to the dyers4 ,its cultivation then yielded a large profit and the ,alias devoted themselves solely to it1 while they excommunicated any of their members who were guilty of selling or giving away the seed4 ,the imported alizarin has now almost entirely superseded the indigenous dye1 and al as a commercial product has been driven from the market4 ,alkari is a term applied to ,banias and others in the ,damoh ,district who were formerly engaged in the cultivation of the al plant4 ,the members of each caste which took to the cultivation of this plant were somewhat looked down upon by the others and hence became a distinct group4 ,the explanation generally given of the distaste for the crop is that in the process of boiling the roots to extract the dye a number of insects have to be killed4 ,a further reason is that the red dye is considered to resemble or be equivalent to blood1 the second idea being a necessary consequence of the first in primitive modes of thought1 and hence to cause a certain degree of pollution to those who prepare it4 ,a similar objection is held to the purveying of lac-dye as shown in the article on ,lakhera4 ,notwithstanding this1 clothes dyed red are considered lucky1 and the al dye was far more commonly used by ,hindus than any other1 prior to the introduction of aniline dyes4 ,tents were also coloured red with this dye4 ,the tents of the ,mughal ,emperors and royal princes were of red cloth dyed with the roots of the al plant4 #djh ,similarly ,nadir ,shah1 the victor of ,panipat1 had his field headquarters and lived in one small red tent4 ,in these cases the original reason for colouring the tents red may probably have been that it was a lucky colour for battles1 and the same belief may have led to the adoption of red as a royal and imperial colour4 ,alkari4--,synonym for ,alia4 ,alua4--,a subcaste of ,uriya ,brahmans1 so named because their forefathers grew the alu or potato4 ,amal4--,a section of ,komti4 ,the members of this section do not eat the plantain4 ,ambadar4--7,mango-branch47 ,a section of ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,ambashta4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,amethia4--7,from ,amethi1 a pargana in ,lucknow ,district47 ,a sept of ,rajputs1 who are ,chauhans according to ,sir ,h4,m4 ,elliott1 but others say they are a branch of the ,chamar ,gaur4 ,amisht4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,amnait4--,subcaste of ,bhatra4 ,amrite4--7,from ,amrit nectar47 ,a section of ,kirar4 ,anapa4--7,leather-dealers47 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,anavala4--,a subdivision of ,gujarati or ,khedawal ,brahmans4 ,they derive their name from the village ,anaval in ,baroda4 ,they are otherwise known as ,bhatela1 ,desai or ,mastan4 ,andhra1 ,tailanga4--,one of the five orders of the ,panch ,dravid ,brahmans inhabiting the ,telugu country4 ,antarvedi4--,a resident of ,antarved or the ,doab1 the tract of land between the ,ganges and the ,jumna rivers4 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,apastambha4--,a ,sutra of the ,vedas4 ,a subdivision of ,brahmans following that ,sutra and forming a caste subdivision4 ,but they marry with ,rig-,vedis1 though the ,sutra belongs to the ,black ,yajur-,vedi4 ,atharvarvedi1 ,antharwarvedi4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans who follow the ,atharvar-,veda and are very rarely met with4 ,arab4--,this designation is sometimes returned by the descendants of the ,arab mercenaries of the ,bhonsla kings4 ,these were at one time largely employed by the different rulers of southern ,india and made the best of soldiers4 ,in the ,maratha armies #dji their rate of pay was ,rs4 #ab a month1 while the ordinary infantry received only ,rs4 #e4 ,general ,hislop stated their character as follows3 #daj ,there are perhaps no troops in the world that will make a stouter or more determined stand at their posts than the ,arabs4 ,they are entirely unacquainted with military evolutions1 and undisciplined2 but every ,arab has a pride and heart of his own that never forsakes him as long as he has legs to stand on4 ,they are naturally brave and possess the greatest coolness and quickness of sight3 hardy and fierce through habit1 and bred to the use of the matchlock from their boyhood3 and they attain a precision and skill in the use of it that would almost exceed belief1 bringing down or wounding the smallest object at a considerable distance1 and not unfrequently birds with a single bullet4 ,they are generally armed with a matchlock1 a couple of swords1 with three or four small daggers stuck in front of their belts1 and a shield4 ,on common occasions of attack and defence they fire but one bullet1 but when hard pressed at the breach they drop in two1 three1 and four at a time1 from their mouths1 always carrying in them from eight to ten bullets1 which are of a small size4 ,we may calculate the whole number of ,arabs in the service of the ,peshwa and the ,berar ,raja at #fjjj men1 a loose and undisciplined body1 but every man of them a tough and hardy soldier4 ,it was to the ,arabs alone those ,provinces looked1 and placed their dependence on4 ,their own troops fled and abandoned them1 seldom or never daring to meet our smallest detachment4 ,nothing can exceed the horror and atarm with which some of our native troops view the ,arab4 ,at ,nagpur in ,november #ahag the ,arabs alone attacked us on the defence and reduced us to the last extremity1 when we were saved by ,captain ,fitzgerald's charge4 ,the ,arabs attacked us at ,koregaon and would have certainly destroyed us had not the ,peshwa withdrawn his troops on ,general ,smith's approach4 ,the ,arabs kept ,general ,doveton at bay with his whole army at ,nagpur for several days1 repulsing our attack at the breach1 and they gained their fullest terms4 ,the ,arabs worsted us for a month at ,malegaon and saved their credit4 ,they terrified the ,surat authorities by their fame alone4 ,they gained their terms of money from ,sir ,john ,malcolm at ,asirgarh4 ,they maintained to the last for their prince their post at ,alamner and nobly refused to be bought over there4 ,they attacked us bravely1 but unfortunately at ,talner4 ,they attacked ,captain ,spark's detachment on the defence and destroyed it4 ,they attacked a battalion of the #adth ,madras ,infantry with #bf-pounders and compelled them to seek shelter in a village2 and they gave us a furious wind-up at ,asirgarh4 ,yet the whole of these ,arabs were not #fjjj4 ,there is no doubt that the ,arabs are one of the finest fighting races of the world4 ,their ancestors were the ,saracens who gained a great empire in ,europe and ,asia4 ,their hardihood and powers of endurance are brought to the highest pitch by the rigours of desert life1 while owing to their lack of nervous sensibility the shock and pain of wounds affect them less than civilised troops4 ,and in addition their religion teaches that all who die in battle against the infidel are transported straight to a paradise teeming with material and sensual delights4 ,arab troops are still employed in ,hyderabad ,state4 ,mr4 ,stevens notices them as follows in his book ,in ,india3 ,a gang of half-a-dozen1 brilliantly dishevelled1 a faggot of daggers with an antique pistol or two in each belt1 and a six-foot matchlock on each shoulder4 ,they serve as irregular troops there1 and it must be owned that if irregularity is what you want1 no man on earth can supply it better4 ,the ,arab irregulars are brought over to serve their time and then sent back to ,arabia2 there is one at this moment1 who is a subaltern in ,hyderabad1 but as soon as he crosses the ,british border gets a salute of nine guns2 he is a ,sheikh in his own country near ,aden4 ,the ,arabs who have been long resident here have adopted the ways and manners of other ,musalmans4 ,their marriages are in the ,nikah form and are marked by only one #daa dinner1 following the example of the ,prophet1 who gave a dinner at the marriage of his daughter the ,lady ,fatimah and ,ali4 ,in obedience to the order of the ,prophet a death is followed by no signs of mourning4 ,arabs marry freely with other ,sunni ,muhammadans and have no special social or religious organisation4 ,the battle-cry of the ,arabs at ,sitabaldi and ,nagpur was ',din1 ,din1 ,muhammad4' ,arakh4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,dahait1 ,gond and ,pasi4 ,aranya4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,are4--,a cultivating caste of the ,chanda ,district1 where they numbered #bjjj persons in #aiaa4 ,the caste are also found in ,madras and ,bombay1 where they commonly return themselves under the name of ,marathi2 this name is apparently used in the south as a generic term for immigrants from the north1 just as in the ,central ,provinces people coming from northern ,india are called ,pardeshi4 ,mr4 7,sir ,h47 ,stuart says #dab that ,are is a synonym for ,arya1 and is used as an equivalent of a ,maratha and sometimes in a still wider sense1 apparently to designate an immigrant ,aryan into the ,dravidian country of the south4 ,the ,ares of the ,central ,provinces appear to be ,kunbis who have migrated into the ,telugu country4 ,the names of their subcastes are those of the ,kunbis1 as ,khaire1 ,tirelle1 a form of ,tirole1 and ,dhanoj for ,dhanoje4 ,other subdivisions are called ,kayat and ,kattri1 and these seem to be the descendants of ,kayasth and ,khatri ancestors4 ,the caste admit ,brahmans1 ,banias1 and ,komtis into the community and seem to be1 as shown by ,mr4 ,stuart1 a mixed group of immigrants from ,maharashtra into the ,telugu country4 ,some of them wear the sacred thread and others do not4 ,some of their family names are taken from those of animals and plants1 and they bury persons who die unmarried1 placing their feet towards the north like the forest tribes4 ,arka4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,chanda who worship the saras crane4 ,armachi4--7,the dhaura tree47 ,a totemistic sept of ,gonds4 ,arora1 ,rora4--,an important trading and mercantile caste of the ,punjab1 of which a few persons were returned from the ,nimar ,district in #aija4 ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson was of opinion that the ,aroras were the ,khatris of ,aror1 the ancient capital of ,scinde1 represented by the modern ,rori4 ,he described the ,arora as follows3 #dac ,like the ,khatri and unlike the ,bania he is no mere trader2 but his social position is far inferior to theirs1 partly no doubt because he is looked down upon simply as being a ,hindu in the portions of the ,province which are his special habitat4 ,he is commonly known as a ,kirar1 a word almost synonymous with coward1 and even more contemptuous than is the name ,bania in the east of the province4 ,the ,arora is active and enterprising1 industrious and thrifty4444 ',when an ,arora girds up his loins he makes it only two miles from ,jhang to ,lahore4' ,he will turn his hand to any work1 he makes a most admirable cultivator1 and a large proportion of the ,aroras of the lower ,chenab are purely agricultural in their avocations4 ,he is found throughout ,afghanistan and even ,turkistan and is the ,hindu trader of those countries2 while in the western ,punjab he will sew clothes1 weave matting and baskets1 make vessels of brass and copper and do goldsmith's work4 ,but he is a terrible coward1 and is so branded in the proverbs of the countryside3 ,the thieves were four and we eighty-four2 the thieves came on and we ran away2 and again3 ,to meet a ,rathi armed with a hoe makes a company of nine ,kirars 7,aroras7 feel alone4 ,yet the peasant has a wholesome dread of the ,kirar when in his proper place3 ,vex not the ,jat in his jungle1 nor the ,kirar at his shop1 nor the boatman at his ferry2 for if you do they will break your head4 ,again3 ,trust not a crow1 a dog or a ,kirar1 even when asleep4 ,so again3 ,you can't make a friend of a ,kirar any more than a sati of a prostitute4 ,asathi4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,they are both ,jains and ,hindus4 ,ashram4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,ashthana4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,atharadesia4--7,a man of eighteen districts47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,athbhaiya4--7,eight brothers47 ,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahman in ,hoshangabad4 ,an ,athbhaiya cannot take a wife from the ,chaubhaiya subdivision1 to whom the former give their daughters in marriage4 ,athia4--,a subcaste of ,chadar1 so named because they worship their goddess ,devi on the #hth day 7,athain7 of ,kunwar 7,september71 and correspond to the ,brahmanical ,sakta sect1 as opposed to the other ,chadar subcaste ,parmasuria1 who correspond to the ,vaishnavas4 ,audhalia4--,synonym for ,audhelia4 ,audhia1 ,ajudhiabasi4--,a resident of ,oudh4 ,subcaste of ,bania and of ,kasar and ,sunar4 ,audichya4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans coming from ,oudh4 ,aughad4--,a subdivision of ,jogi4 ,they resemble the ,aghoris with the difference that they may not eat human flesh4 ,aughar4--,a subdivision of ,jogi4 ,aukule4--,a subcaste of ,koshtis4 ,they are also called ,vidurs1 being of mixed descent from ,koshtas and other castes4 ,aulia4--7,a favourite of ,god47 ,title of ,muhammadan saints4 ,baba4--,synonym of ,gosain4 ,babhan4--,synonym for ,bhuinhar1 being the name of a landholding caste in ,bengal4 ,used as a title by ,bhuiyas4 ,babuan4--,title for the descendants of the former ruling families of the ,chero tribe4 ,bachhalya1 ,bachhap1 ,bachhilia4--7,from bachha1 a calf47 ,a section of ,bania1 ,chadar and ,khangar4 ,a section of ,patwa in ,raipur4 ,they do not castrate bullocks4 ,bad4--7,high or great47 ,subcaste of ,agharia and ,sudh4 ,bad or ,bhand4--,a caste4 ,title of ,khatik4 ,bad4--7,banyan tree47 ,a section of ,joshi4 ,badaria4--7,from badar1 cloud47 ,a section of ,kandera4 ,badgainya4--7,from ,badgaon 7bara gaon71 a large village47 ,a surname of ,sarwaria ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,basdewa1 ,gadaria and ,kurmi4 ,badgujar4--7,from bada1 great47 ,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,gujar1 also of ,gaur ,brahman4 ,a section of ,mehtar4 ,badhaiya4--7,barhai1 carpenter47 ,a subcaste of ,lohar and ,kol4 ,a sept of ,savar4 ,badharia4--,a resident of ,badhas in ,mirzapur4 ,subcaste of ,bahna and ,dhuri4 ,badi4--7,a rope-walker47 ,synonym of ,nat4 ,badkur4--,title used in the ,dhobi caste4 ,badwaik4--7,the great ones47 ,a subcaste of ,mana4 ,a title of ,dhobi and ,pan or ,ganda4 ,bagaria4--7,a young buffalo47 ,a sept of ,dhanwar and ,sonkar4 ,bagh1 ,baghwa4--7,tiger47 ,a totemistic sept of ,ahir1 ,bhatra1 ,kawar1 ,munda1 ,oraon1 ,sonkar1 ,teli and ,turi4 ,baghel1 ,baghela4--7,a tiger or tiger-cub47 ,a clan of ,rajputs which has given its name to ,baghelkhand4 ,a subcaste of ,audhia ,sunar and ,chamar4 ,a section of ,bhilala1 ,dhanwar1 ,gond1 ,lodhi1 ,mali1 and ,panwar ,rajput4 ,baghmar1 ,baghmarya1 ,bagmar4--7,a tiger-slayer47 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania1 ,basor1 ,chamar1 ,dhimar1 ,koilabhuti ,gond1 and ,teli4 ,a subsept of ,nika ,gonds in ,betul1 who abstain from killing tigers4 ,bagri4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,jat4 ,one of the #gb #a_/b sections of ,maheshri ,banias4 ,people belonging to the ,badhak or ,bawaria1 and ,pardhi castes are sometimes known by this name4 ,bahargainyan4--7,from ,bahar gaon1 outside the village47 ,a subcaste of ,kurmi4 ,baharketu4--7,bush-cutter47 ,a subcaste of ,korwa4 ,bahelia4--,the caste of fowlers and hunters in northern ,india4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,bahelias are not to be distinguished from the ,pardhis1 as they have the same set of exogamous groups named after the ,rajput clans1 and resemble them in all other respects4 ,the word ,bahelia is derived from the ,sanskrit ,vyadha1 'one who pierces or wounds1' hence a hunter4 ,pardhi is derived from the ,marathi paradh1 hunting4 ,the latter term is more commonly used in the ,central ,provinces1 and has therefore been chosen as the title of the article on the caste4 ,bahre4--7,outside the walls47 ,a subdivision of ,khedawal ,brahmans4 ,bahrup4--,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,bahrupia4--,a small class of mendicant actors and quick-change artists4 ,they are recruited from all classes of the population1 and though a distinct caste of ,bahrupias appears to exist1 people of various castes also call themselves ,bahrupia when they take to this occupation4 ,in ,berar the ,mahar1 ,mang and ,maratha divisions of the ,bahrupias are the most common3 #dad the former two begging only from the castes from which they take their name4 ,in ,gujarat they appear to be principally ,muhammadans4 ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson says of them3 #dae ,the name is derived from the ,sanskrit bahu1 many1 and rupa1 form1 and denotes an actor1 a mimic or one who assumes many forms or characters4 ,one of their favourite devices is to ask for money1 and when it is refused to ask that it may be given if the ,bahrupia succeeds in deceiving the person who refused it4 ,some days later the ,bahrupia will again visit the house in the disguise of a pedlar1 a milkman or what not1 sell his goods without being detected1 throw off his disguise and claim the stipulated reward4 ,in ,gujarat they are ventriloquists and actors with a special skill of dressing one side of their face like a man and the other side like a woman1 and moving their head about so sharply that they seem to be two persons4 #daf ,mr4 ,kitts states that the men are by profession story-tellers and mimics1 imitating the voices of men and the notes of animals2 their male children are also trained to dance4 ,in payment for their entertainment they are frequently content with cast-off clothes1 which will of course be of use to them in assuming other characters4 #dag ,occasionally also they dress up in ,european clothes and can successfully assume the character of a ,eurasian4 ,baid4--7,physician47 ,a surname of ,sanadhia and ,maratha ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania1 and ,darzi4 ,bairagi4--,a caste or religious order4 ,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,bais4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,bajania4--7,one who plays on musical instruments47 ,subcaste of ,panka4 ,bajanya4--7,drummer47 ,a subcaste of ,panka in ,balaghat4 ,bajarha4--7,bazar47 ,a section of ,daraiha in ,bilaspur4 ,bajna1 ,bajgari4--7,musicians at feasts and marriages47 ,subcaste of ,ganda4 ,bajpai4--7,a priest officiating at the horse sacrifice47 ,a surname of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,brahmans4 ,title of some old families whose ancestors were sacrificial priests4 ,bakar ,kasai4--7,goat-butcher47 ,a subcaste of ,khatik4 ,bakra4--7,goat47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhatra and ,halba4 ,baksaria4--,from ,buxar in ,bengal4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a section of ,daraiha and ,lodhi4 ,balla4--,one of the #cf ,rajkuls or royal clans of ,rajputs noted in ,tod's ,rajasthan4 ,balnik4--,subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,balusudia4--7,shaven47 ,title of ,khond4 ,balutedar4--,name for a village menial in ,berar4 ,title of ,dhobi4 ,balwanda4--7,quarrelsome47 ,a section of ,teli4 ,bam-,margi4--,synonym for the ,vam-,margi sect4 ,baman or ,brahman4 ,subcaste of ,bishnoi1 ,darzi and ,gondhali4 ,bamania4--7,from ,brahman47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,they do not touch the pipal tree4 ,a section of ,mahar and of ,rajjhar in ,hoshangabad4 ,bamhan ,gour or ,brahman ,gour4--,a clan of ,rajputs in ,saugor and ,narsinghpur4 ,bamhania4--,a subcaste of ,kasar1 from ,bamhan or ,brahman4 ,a section of ,katia4 ,bamnaiha4--7,belonging to a ,brahman47 ,a section of ,basor4 ,banaphar1 ,banafar4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a section of ,daharia4 ,banbhainsa4--7,wild buffalo47 ,a section of ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,banda4--7,tailless47 ,a section of ,kirar4 ,banda ,bagh4--7,tailless tiger47 ,a section of ,teli4 ,bandar4--7,a rocket-thrower47 ,synonym of ,kadera4 ,bandarwale4--7,one who catches monkeys47--,subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,bandesia4--7,a man of #eb districts47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,bandhaiya4--,a subcaste of ,nunia who confine themselves to the excavation of tanks and wells4 ,also a subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,bandhaiya4--7,from ,bandhogarh47 ,subcaste of ,nai4 ,bandhia--7,from bandh1 an embankment47 ,a subcaste of ,darzi and ,dhimar4 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,bandrele4--7,monkey47 ,a section of ,basor1 and ,barai4 ,banghore4--7,wild horses47 ,a section of ,dom 7,mehtar74 ,bania4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,bishnoi4 ,a synonym of ,sunar in ,sambalpur4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara4 ,a section of ,nandvansi ,gauli4 ,banka4--,a small caste found principally in the ,kalahandi ,state which now forms part of ,bengal4 ,the caste was formed from military service like the ,khandaits1 ,paiks and ,marathas1 and some families bear the names of different castes1 as ,brahman ,banka1 ,kumhar ,banka1 and so on4 ,they were formerly notorious freebooters1 but have now settled down to cultivation4 ,each man1 however1 still carries a sword or knife on his person1 and in ,kalahandi they are permitted to do this without taking out a licence4 ,banku4--7,one who frequents sequestered parts of forests47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,bansberia4--7,one who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo47 ,synonym of ,kolhati4 ,bansia4--7,angler47 ,from bansi1 a fishing-hook4 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,bansphor4--7,a breaker of bamboos47 ,synonym of ,basor4 ,subcaste of ,mehtar and ,mahli4 ,banstalai4--7,a tank with bamboo trees on its bank47 ,a section of ,teli4 ,bant4--,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,bantia4--7,from banat1 a red woollen blanket47 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania4 ,baone or ,baonia4--,from the phrase ,bawan ,berar1 a term applied to the ,province by the ,mughals1 because it paid fifty-two lakhs of revenue1 as against only eight lakhs realised from the adjoining ,jhadi or hilly country in the ,central ,provinces4 ,subcaste of ,kunbi1 ,mahar and ,mali4 ,baoria4--,synonym of ,badhak4 ,bara-hazar4--7,twelve thousand47 ,subcaste of ,chero4 ,barade1 ,berari4--,a resident of ,berar4 ,subcaste of ,bahna1 ,barhai1 ,chamar1 ,dhangar1 ,dhobi1 ,khatik1 ,mang and ,nai4 ,baram or ,birm4--,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,barapatre4--7,a large leaf-plate47 ,a section of ,koshti4 ,baraua4--7,a fisherman47 ,synonym of ,dhimar2 title of ,dhimar4 ,bardhia4--7,from bardh1 a term for the edge of a weapon47 ,synonym of ,sikligar4 ,bardia4--,one who uses bullocks for transport4 ,subcaste of ,kumhar4 ,baretha4--7,a washerman47 ,synonym for ,dhobi4 ,barga4--,subcaste of ,oraon4 ,bargah1 #dah ,bargaha1 ,barghat4--,a small caste of cultivators belonging principally to the ,bilaspur ,district4 ,they appear to be immigrants from ,rewah1 where the caste is numerically strong1 and they are also found in the adjacent ,districts of the ,united ,provinces and ,bengal4 ,in the ,united ,provinces they are employed as higher domestic servants and make leaf-plates1 while their women act as midwives4 #dai ,here they claim kinship with the ,goala ,ahirs1 but in the ,central ,provinces and ,bengal they advance pretensions to be ,rajputs4 ,they have a story1 however1 which shows their connection with the ,ahirs1 to the effect that on one occasion ,brahma stole ,krishna's cows and cowherds4 ,krishna created new ones to replace them1 exactly similar to those lost1 but ,brahma subsequently returned the originals1 and the ,bargahas are the descendants of the artificial cowherds created by ,krishna4 ,in ,sarguja1 ,bargaha is used as a title by ,ahirs1 while in ,rewah the ,bargahs are looked on as the bastard offspring of ,baghel ,rajputs4 ,dr4 ,buchanan writes of them as follows3 #dbj ,in ,gorakhpur the ,rajput chiefs have certain families of ,ahirs1 the women of which act as wet-nurses to their children1 while the men attend to their persons4 ,these families are called ,bargaha2 they have received1 of course1 great favours and many of them are very rich1 but others look down upon them as having admitted their women to too great familiarity with their chiefs4 ,in the ,united ,provinces they also claim to be ,rajputs1 as they returned themselves as a clan of ,rajputs in #ahha4 #dba ,their position as described by ,buchanan is precisely the same as that of the ,dauwa ,ahirs1 who are the household servants of ,bundela ,rajputs in ,bundelkhand1 and the facts set forth above leave little or no doubt that the ,bargahs are a mixed caste1 arising from the connection of ,rajputs with the ,ahir women who were their personal servants4 ,in the ,central ,provinces no subdivisions of the caste exist at present1 but a separate and inferior subcaste is in process of formation from those who have been turned out of caste4 ,they are divided for the purpose of marriage into exogamous gotras or clans1 the names of which correspond to those of ,rajputs1 as ,kaunsil1 ,chandel1 ,rana1 ,bundela1 ,rathor1 ,baghel1 ,chauhan and others4 ,marriage between members of the same clan and also between first cousins is prohibited4 ,the custom of guranwat or exchanging girls in marriage between families is very prevalent1 and as there is a scarcity of girls in the caste1 a man who has not got a daughter must pay ,rs4 #ajj to ,rs4 #bjj to obtain a bride for his son4 ,on the arrival of the marriage procession the bridegroom touches with a dagger a grass mat hung in front of the marriage-shed4 ,during the marriage the bridegroom's father presents him with a grass ring1 which he places on his wrist4 ,the hands of the bridegroom and bride are tied one over the other with a piece of thread1 and the bride's parents catching the hands say to the bridegroom1 ',we have given you our daughter2 protect her4' ,the couple then walk seven times round a sacrificial fire and a pestle and slab containing seven pieces of turmeric1 nuts and heaps of coloured rice1 the bride leading and kicking over a heap of rice from the slab at each turn4 ,the other common ceremonies are also performed4 ,the ,bargahs do not tolerate sexual offences and expel a girl or married woman who goes wrong4 ,the ,bargahs are usually cultivators in the ,central ,provinces1 but they consider it beneath their dignity to touch the plough with their own hands4 ,many of them are mlguzrs or village proprietors4 ,they take food cooked without water from a ,brahman1 and water only from a ,rajput4 ,rajputs take water from their hands1 and their social position is fairly high4 ,bargandi1--,synonym for ,kaikari4 ,barghat4--,synonym of ,bargah4 ,barki4--,high4 ,subcaste of ,rautia4 ,barkia4--7,a spinner of fine thread47 ,subcaste of ,mahar4 ,barmaiyan1 ,barmian1 ,malaiya4--,subcaste of ,basor1 ,dhimar and ,gadaria4 ,baroni4--,title of a female ,dhimar4 ,barora or ,warkara4--7,wild cat47 ,a subsept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,barpaihi4--7,bar1 banyan tree47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul1 so named because their priest offered food to their gods on the leaves of a banyan tree4 ,barwa4--,synonym for ,garpagari4 ,one who wards off hailstones from the standing crops4 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,bashishta4--,see ,vasishta4 ,a section of ,vidur4 ,bastarha4--,a resident of ,bastar ,state4 ,subcaste of ,halba4 ,bathri4--7,from batkur1 a vegetable47 ,a subcaste of ,dhobi and ,teli4 ,bathudia4--,subcaste of ,bhuiya4 ,batri4--,a grower of batar1 a kind of pea4 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,batti4--7,a ball47 ,a subsept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul1 so named because their priest stole balls of cooked mahua4 ,they do not kill or eat goats or sheep1 and throw away anything smelt by them4 ,bawan1 ,bawanjaye4--7,bawan-#eb47 ,a subcaste of ,saraswat ,brahmans4 ,bawaria4--,a dweller of ,bhanwargarh tract in ,betul district4 ,subcaste of ,korku4 ,bawisa4--7,twenty-two47 ,a subcaste of ,gujarati ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad and ,makrai ,state4 ,bayar1 ,biyar1 ,biar4--,a small caste of labourers belonging to the eastern ,districts of the ,united ,provinces1 of whom about #bjj persons were returned from ,bilaspur in #ahia4 ,they are found in the ,korba zamindari1 and are professional diggers or navvies1 like the ,murhas4 ,they are apparently a mixed caste derived from the primitive tribes with some ,hindu blood4 ,they eat fowls and pork1 but will not take food from any other caste4 ,they work by contract on the dangri system of measurement1 a dangri being a piece of bamboo five cubits long4 ,for one rupee they dig a patch #h dangris long by one broad and a cubit in depth1 or #fge cubic feet4 ,but this rate does not allow for lift or lead4 ,bazigar4--7,an acrobat47 ,synonym of ,nat4 ,behar4--7,cat47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,behera4--,a subcaste of ,taonla4 ,a section of ,tiyar4 ,a title of ,khadal4 ,belwar1 ,bilwar4--,a small caste of carriers and cattle-dealers belonging to ,oudh1 whose members occasionally visit the northern ,districts of the ,central ,provinces4 ,they say that their ancestors were ,sanadhya ,brahmans1 who employed bullocks as pack-animals1 and hence1 being looked down on by the rest of the caste1 became a separate body1 marrying among themselves4 ,benaika1 ,binaika4--,a subcaste of ,parwar ,bania1 consisting of the offspring of remarried widows or illegitimate unions4 ,probably also found among other subcastes of ,bania4 ,benatia4--,a subcaste of ,sansia in ,sambalpur4 ,bendiwala4--,name of a minor ,vishnuite order4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,benetiya1 ,benatia4--,subcaste of ,chasa and ,sansia4 ,bengali4--,bengali immigrants are usually ,brahmans or ,kayasths4 ,bengani4--7,brinjal47 ,one of the #addd sections of ,oswal ,bania4 ,benglah4--,an immigrant from ,bengal4 ,subcaste of ,bharbhunja4 ,beora ,basia4--7,hawk47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhatra4 ,beraria1 ,beradia4--7,belonging to ,berar47 ,a subcaste of ,bahna1 ,barai1 ,barhai1 ,chamar1 ,dhangar1 ,dhimar1 ,kasar and ,kunbi4 ,beria4--,a caste of gipsies and vagrants1 whose women are prostitutes4 ,hence sometimes used generally to signify a prostitute4 ,a subcaste of ,nat4 ,besra4--7,hawk47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhatra and ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,besta4--,a ,telugu caste of fishermen4 ,they are also called ,bhoi and ,machchnaik1 and correspond to the ,dhimars4 ,they are found only in the ,chanda ,district1 where they numbered #gjj persons in #aiaa1 and their proper home is ,mysore4 ,they are a low caste and rear pigs and eat pork1 crocodiles1 rats and fowls4 ,they are stout and strong and dark in colour4 ,like the ,dhimars they also act as palanquin-bearers1 and hence has arisen a saying about them1 ',the ,besta is a great man when he carries shoes1' because the head of a gang of palanquin-bearers carries the shoes of the person who sits in it4 ,at their marriages the couple place a mixture of cummin and jaggery on each other's heads1 and then gently press their feet on those of the other seven times4 ,drums are beaten1 and the bridegroom places rings on the toes of the bride and ties the mangal-sutram or necklace of black beads round her neck4 ,they are seated side by side on a plough-yoke1 and the ends of their cloths are tied together4 ,they are then taken outside and shown the ,great ,bear1 the stars of which are considered to be the spirits of the seven principal ,hindu ,saints1 and the pole-star1 ,arundhati1 who represents the wife of ,vasishtha and is the pattern of feminine virtue4 ,on the following two days the couple throw flowers at each other for some time in the morning and evening4 ,before the marriage the bridegroom's toe-nails are cut by the barber as an act of purification4 ,this custom1 ,mr4 ,thurston #dbb states1 corresponds among the ,sudras to the shaving of the head among the ,brahmans4 ,the ,bestas usually take as their principal deity the nearest large river and call it by the generic term of ,ganga4 ,on the fifth day after a death they offer cooked food1 water and sesamum to the crows1 in whose bodies the souls of the dead are believed to reside4 ,the food and water are given to satisfy the hunger and thirst of the soul1 while the sesamum is supposed to give it coolness and quench its heat4 ,on the tenth day the ashes are thrown into a river4 ,the beard of a boy whose father is alive is shaved for the first time before his marriage4 ,children are tattooed with a mark on the forehead within three months of birth1 and this serves as a sect mark4 ,a child is named on the eleventh day after birth1 and if it is subsequently found to be continually ailing and sickly1 the name is changed under the belief that it exercises an evil influence on the child4 ,betala4--7,goblin47 ,one of the #addd sections of ,oswal ,bania4 ,bhadauria4--7,from ,bhadawar in ,gwalior ,state47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a clan of ,dangi in ,saugor from whom ,rajputs take daughters in marriage1 but do not give daughters to them4 ,a surname of ,sanadhia ,brahman4 ,bhadonia4--,subcaste of ,dangi4 ,bhadoria4--7,a drum-beater47 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,bhadri1 ,bhaddari4--,a synonym for ,joshi1 having a derogatory sense1 as of one who begs with deceit or fraud4 ,bhadune4--7,from the month ,bhadon47 ,a section of ,kalar4 ,bhagat4--7,devotee47 ,a section of ,ahir or ,gaoli1 ,barai and ,panwar ,rajput4 ,bhains-,mara4--7,killer of the buffalo47 ,a section of ,kanjar4 ,bhainsa4--7,buffalo47 ,a section of ,chamar1 ,dhanwar1 ,ganda1 ,kawar1 ,kanjar1 ,mali1 ,panka and ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,bhairon4--7,the god ,bhairon47 ,a section of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,bhaiya4--7,brother47 ,one of the #gb #a_/b sections of ,maheshri ,bania4 ,bhala4--7,spear47 ,one of the #gb #a_/b sections of ,maheshri ,bania4 ,bhaldar4--7,a spear-man47 ,a class of ,dahaits1 who have commonly been employed as village watchmen4 ,bhale ,sultan4--7,lords of the spear47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,bhamti1 ,bhamtia4--,synonyms of ,bhamta4 ,bhanare4--,named after the town of ,bhandara in the ,central ,provinces4 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,bhand1 ,bhanr4 #dbc--;,a small caste of story-tellers and buffoons4 ,the name is derived from the ,sanskrit ,bhanda1 a jester1 and the caste are also known as ,naqqal or actor4 ,only a trifling number of ,bhands are shown by the census as belonging to the ,central ,provinces4 ,mr4 ,crooke remarks3 ,the ,bhand is sometimes employed in the courts of ,rajas and native gentlemen of rank1 where he amuses the company at entertainments with buffoonery and a burlesque of ,european and native manners1 much of which is of a very coarse nature4 ,the ,bhand is quite separate from and of a lower professional rank than the ,bahrupia4 ,the bulk of the caste are ,muhammadans1 but they have exogamous sections1 some of which1 as ,kaithela 7,kayasth71 ,bamhaniya 7,brahman71 ,gujartha 7,gujar71 ,nonela 7,lunia71 and so on1 are derived from those of ,hindu castes1 and indicate that the caste is a heterogeneous community recruited from different sources4 ,there are two recognised endogamous subcastes--the ,chenr1 which seems to mean little 7,hindi1 ,chenra71 and the ,kashmiri4 ,the former trace their origin to the time of ,tamarlane1 who1 on the death of his son1 gave himself over to mourning for twelve years4 ,then one ,sayyid ,hasan1 a courtier of the ,emperor1 composed a humorous poem in ,arabic1 which gained him the title of ,bhanr4 ,sayyid ,hasan is regarded as the founder of the caste4 ,though he was a ,sayyid the present ,bhanrs are either ,shaikhs or ,mughals2 and the difference of faith1 ,sunni and ,shiah1 is a bar to intermarriage4 ,the ,kashmiri ,bhanrs are said to be of quite recent origin1 having been invited from ,kashmir by ,nasir-ud-,din ,haidar1 king of ,oudh4 ,the ,bhands perform their marriages by the ,nikah form1 in which a ,kazi officiates4 ,in virtue of being ,muhammadans they abstain from pork and liquor4 ,dr4 ,buchanan #dbd quaintly described them as ,impudent fellows1 who make long faces1 squeak like pigs1 bark like dogs1 and perform many other ludicrous feats4 ,they also dance and sing1 mimicking and turning into ridicule the dancing boys and girls1 on whom they likewise pass many jokes1 and are employed on great occasions4 ,the ,bhand1 in fact1 seems to correspond very nearly to the court jester of the ,middle ,ages4 ,bhandari4--7,a barber1 also a cook in the ,uriya country47 ,a synonym for ,nai4 ,a subcaste of ,gondhali4 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania and ,halba4 ,title of the deputies of the chief guru of the ,satnami sect4 ,bhangi4--7,hemp-smoker47 ,synonym of ,mehtar4 ,bhanr4--,synonym of ,bhand1 a story-teller4 ,bhanwar4--7,a bee1 also honey47 ,a section of ,gadaria and ,kawar4 ,bhaosar4--,synonym of ,chhipa4 ,bharadwaj4--7,a skylark4 ,name of a great ,brahman ,rishi or saint47 ,one of the common eponymous sections of ,brahmans4 ,also a section of ,joshi1 ,lohar1 ,prabhu1 ,sunar1 and of several clans of ,rajputs4 ,bharewa4--7,from bharat1 a mixture of copper and lead47 ,a group of brass or bell-metal workers classed with the ,kasar caste1 but of lower social standing than the ,kasars4 ,a subcaste of ,sunar in ,raipur4 ,bhargava4--7,born of ,bhrigu ,rishi47 ,a subcaste of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,bhargava ,dhusar is a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see ,bania-,dhusar4 ,bharia4--7,from the ,bhar tribe47 ,a tribe4 ,a subcaste of ,baiga in ,mandla1 and of ,kol4 ,bharia-,bhumia4--,synonym of ,bharia4 ,bharotia or ,mudia4--7,shaven47 ,subcaste of ,baiga1 also of ,ahir4 ,bharthi4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,bhatia4--,a commercial caste of ,sind and ,gujarat1 a few of whom settle temporarily in the ,central ,provinces4 ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson writes of them3 #dbe ,the ,bhatias are a class of ,rajputs1 originally coming from ,bhatner1 ,jaisalmer and the ,rajputana desert1 who have taken to domestic pursuits4 ,the name would seem to show that they were ,bhatis 7called ,bhatti in the ,punjab72 but be that as it may1 their ,rajput origin seems to be unquestioned4 ,they stand distinctly below the ,khatri1 and perhaps below the ,arora1 and are for the most part engaged in petty shopkeeping1 though the ,bhatias of ,dera ,ismail ,khan are described as belonging to a widely-spread and enterprising mercantile community4 ,they are very strict ,hindus1 far more so than the other trading classes of the western ,punjab2 and eschew meat and liquor4 ,they do not practise widow-marriage4 ,mr4 ,crooke's account #dbf leaves little doubt that the ,bhatias are a branch of the ,bhatti or ,yaduvansi ,rajputs of ,jaisalmer who have gone into trade2 and ,colonel ,tod expresses the same view3 ,the ,bhattiah is also one of the equestrian order converted into the commercial1 and the exchange has been to his advantage4 ,his habits are like those of the ,arora1 next to whom he ranks as to activity and wealth4 #dbg ,the chief occupation of the ,bhatias1 ,mr4 ,crooke states1 is moneylending1 and to this they add trade of all kinds1 agriculture1 landholding and ,government service4 ,many of them go on expeditions to ,arabia1 ,kabul1 ,bokhara and other distant places of business4 ,many in ,bombay carry on trade with ,zanzibar1 ,java and the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,bhatnagar4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,bhatpagar4--7,wage of rice47 ,a section of ,katia4 ,bhikshakunti4--7,bhiksha1 begging2 kunti1 lame47 ,a subcaste of ,kapewar who are the ,bhats or bards of the caste4 ,bhil4--,a tribe4 ,a subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,bhilaophod4--7,those who extract oil from the bhilawa nut1 ,semecarpus anacardium47 ,subcaste of ,kol4 ,bhilsaiyan1 ,bhilsia1 ,bhilasia4--7,from ,bhilsa1 a town in ,gwalior ,state47 ,a section and surname of ,jijhotia ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,purania ,sunar and of ,rathor ,teli and ,teli4 ,bhima4--,a small caste belonging to the ,mandla and ,seoni ,districts4 ,they are musicians of the ,gond tribe and dance and beg at their weddings4 ,the caste are an offshoot of the ,gonds1 their exogamous septs having ,gond names1 as ,marabi1 ,markam1 ,dhurwa1 ,parteti1 ,tekam and so on2 but they now marry among themselves4 ,they worship the ,gond god1 ,bura ,deo1 their own elders serving as priests4 ,at their performances the men play and dance1 wearing hollow anklets of metal with little balls of iron inside to make them tinkle4 ,the women are dressed like ,hindu women and dance without ornaments4 ,their instrument is called ,tuma or gourd4 ,it consists of a hollow piece of bamboo fixed horizontally over a gourd4 ,over the bamboo a string is stretched secured to a peg at one end and passing over a bridge at the other4 ,little knobs of wax are made on the bamboo so that the string touches them during its vibrations4 ,the gourd acts as a sounding-board4 ,bhogta4--,subcaste of ,khairwar4 ,bhoi4--7,one who carries litters or palanquins47 ,synonym of ,dhimar and ,kahar4 ,a title or honorific name for ,gonds and one by which they are often known4 ,see article ,kahar4 ,a section of ,binjhal4 ,bhoir4--,synonym for ,bhoyar4 ,bhojni4--,subcaste of ,chitrakathi4 ,they serve the food at marriage and other ceremonies4 ,bholia4--7,from bhulna1 to forget47 ,synonym of ,bhulia4 ,bhona4--,a small caste of labourers in the ,mandla ,district4 ,they are practically all employed by the local ,pansaris 7,barai7 or pan-growers in tending their barejas or betel-vine gardens4 ,there is some ground for supposing that the ,bhonas are an offshoot of the ,bharia or ,bharia-,bhumia tribe of ,jubbulpore1 which is itself derived from the ,bhars4 ,one of the sections of the ,bhonas is named after the vulture1 and at their weddings a man of this section catches a young chicken and bites off the head in imitation of a vulture4 ,bhondih4--7,from bhond1 dung-beetle47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,bhonsla4--,a clan of ,marathas to which the ,rajas of ,nagpur belong4 ,bhope or ,bhoall4--,subcaste of ,manbhao4 ,bhoriya4--,synonym of ,bhulia4 ,bhoyar4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,koshti and ,marar4 ,bhudes4--7,the gods on earth47 ,title of ,brahmans4 ,bhuinhar4--,name of a landholding caste in ,benares and ,bengal who claim to be ,brahmans or ,rajputs4 ,they are also known as ,babhan4 ,a title of the ,bhuiya tribe4 ,see article ,bhuiya4 ,a title of the ,bhaina tribe4 ,bhumia4--7,born from the land1 or aboriginal47 ,a title of the ,bharia tribe in ,jubbulpore1 also a title of ,baiga and ,korku4 ,a synonym of ,bhuiya4 ,a subdivision of ,gond4 ,a section of ,kurmi4 ,bhura4--7,grey47 ,one of the sections of ,oswal ,bania4 ,a proper name4 ,bhusar4--7,lord of the earth47 ,a title of ,brahman4 ,bhusarjin4--7,from bhusa1 the chaff of wheat47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,bhuskate4--7,from bhusa1 fodder1 one who supplies fodder47 ,a family name4 ,bhuta4--,a subtribe of ,gond in ,betul1 the same as ,koilabhuta4 ,they are said to be of immoral character4 ,biar4--,synonym of ,bayar4 ,bichhuwa1 ,bichhi4--7,from bichhu1 scorpion47 ,a section of ,dhobi and ,kawar4 ,bidur4--,synonym of the ,vidur caste4 ,biloria4--7,from bilori1 marble stone47 ,a section of ,chhipa4 ,bilwar4--,synonym of ,belwar1 a carrier and cattle-dealer4 ,bind4--,a large non-,aryan caste of ,bihar and the ,united ,provinces1 of which #chj persons were returned in #aiaa4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley says of them3 #dbh ,they are a tribe employed in agriculture1 earthwork1 fishing1 hunting1 making saltpetre and collecting indigenous drugs4 ,traditions current among the caste profess to trace their origin to the ,vindhya hills1 and one of these legends tells how a traveller1 passing by the foot of the hills1 heard a strange flute-like sound coming out of a clump of bamboos4 ,he cut a shoot and took from it a fleshy substance which afterwards grew into a man1 the supposed ancestor of the ,binds4 ,another story says that the ,binds and ,nunias were formerly all ,binds and that the present ,nunias are the descendants of a ,bind who consented to dig a grave for a ,muhammadan king and was outcasted for doing so4 ,a third legend tells how in the beginning of all things ,mahadeo made a lump of earth and endowed it with life4 ,the creature thus produced asked ,mahadeo what he should eat4 ,the god pointed to a tank and told him to eat the fish in it and the wild rice which grew near the banks4 ,mr4 ,crooke #dbi says that they use fish largely except in the fortnight 7,pitripaksh7 sacred to the dead in the month of ,kunwar1 and ,sir ,h4 ,risley notes that after the rice harvest the ,binds wander about the country digging up the stores of rice accumulated by field rats in their burrows4 ,from four to six pounds of grain are usually found1 but even this quantity is sometimes exceeded4 ,the ,binds also feast on the rats1 but they deny this1 saying that to do so would be to their own injury1 as a reduction of the next year's find of grain would thus be caused4 ,binjhal4--,synonym of ,binjhwar4 ,binjhwar4--,a caste derived from the ,baiga tribe4 ,a subtribe of ,baiga and ,gond4 ,a subcaste of ,gowari4 ,birchheya4--7,a dweller in the forest47 ,subcaste of ,ghosi4 ,birchkia4--7,from birchka1 a tree47 ,a subcaste of ,ghosi4 ,birhor4--,a small ,kolarian tribe of whom about #aej persons were returned in #aiaa from the ,chota ,nagpur ,states4 ,the name means a dweller in the forest4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley states that the ,birhors live in tiny huts made of branches of trees and leaves1 and eke out a miserable living by snaring hares and monkeys1 and collecting jungle products1 especially the bark of the chob creeper1 #dcj from which a coarse kind of rope is made4 ,they are great adepts at ensnaring monkeys and other small animals1 and sell them alive or eat them4 ,colonel ,dalton described them as1 #dca ,a small1 dirty1 miserable-looking race1 who have the credit of devouring their parents1 and when ,i taxed them with it they did not deny that such a custom had once obtained among them4 ,but they declared they never shortened lives to provide such feasts and shrank with horror from the idea of any bodies but those of their own blood-relatives being served up to them4 ,it would appear that this custom may be partly ceremonial1 and have some object1 such as ensuring that the dead person should be born again in the family or that the survivors should not be haunted by his ghost4 ,it has been recorded of the ,bhunjias that they ate a small part of the flesh of their dead parents4 #dcb ,colonel ,dalton considered the ,birhors to be a branch of the ,kharia tribe1 and this is borne out by ,dr4 ,grierson's statement that the specimen of the ,birhor dialect returned from the ,jashpur ,state was really ,kharia4 #dcc ,elsewhere the ,birhor dialect resembles ,mundari4 ,birjhia1 ,birjia4 7,one who practises bewar or shifting cultivation in a forest47 ,subcaste of ,binjhwar1 ,baiga and ,korwa4 ,birkhandia4--,from ,birkhand 7,sand of heroes71 a name for ,rajputana4 ,a section of ,teli4 ,birtiya4 ,title of ,nai or barber4 ,bisen1 ,bisan4--,a clan of ,rajput4 ,a section of ,daharia and of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,a section of ,marar4 ,bobaiaya4--7,from ,bobbili1 a town in ,madras47 ,a section of ,teli in ,chanda4 ,bogam4--,a name for ,madrasi prostitutes1 perhaps a separate caste4 ,their honorific title is ,sani4 ,bohra4--,a ,muhammadan caste4 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania4 ,bombay4--,a subdivision of ,valmiki ,kayasth4 ,bondoya--,a resident of ,jitgarh and the ,pachmarhi tract of the ,central ,provinces4 ,subcaste of ,korku4 ,bopchi4--,a section of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,bopchi--,a small caste in the ,wardha ,district numbering a few hundred persons4 ,they are in reality ,korkus1 the name being a corruption of that of the ,bendoya subtribe1 but they have discarded their proper tribal name and formed a separate caste4 ,they retain some of the ,korku sept names1 while others are derived from the ,marathi words or from the names of other castes1 and these facts indicate that the ,bopchis are of mixed descent from ,korkus and other low ,maratha castes with which unions have taken place4 ,as might be expected1 they are very tolerant of sexual and social offences1 and do not expel a woman who has a liaison with a man of another caste or takes food from him4 ,she is readmitted to caste intercourse1 but has to undergo the penalty of washing her body with cowdung and having a lock of her hair cut off4 ,a man committing a similar offence has his upper lip shaved4 ,they employ ,gosains for their gurus and their social position is very low4 ,borakar47,a mat-maker47 ,synonym of ,gopal4 ,borjharia4--7,bor-plum47 ,a sept of ,halba4 ,brahmachare4--7,a celibate47 ,subcaste of ,manbhao4 ,brahman ,gaur1 or ,bamhan ,gaur4--,a branch of the ,gaur clan of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,bhat4 ,brid-dhari4--,begging ,bhats4 ,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,brihaspati1 ,brahaspati4--,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,buchar4--,a corruption of the ,english word 'butcher4' ,subcaste of ,khatik in ,agra4 ,budalgir4--7,from budla1 a leathern bag made for the transport and storage of oil and ghi 7butter747 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,bukekari4--7,a seller of scented powder 7bukka747 ,synonym of ,atari4 ,bundela4--,a clan of ,rajputs of mixed descent4 ,name probably from the ,vindhya hills4 ,a subcaste of ,basor4 ,a sept of ,manihar and ,rawat4 ,bundelkhandi4--,a resident of ,bundelkhand4 ,subcaste of ,basdewa1 ,barai1 ,basor1 ,chamar1 ,darzi1 ,dhobi1 ,kumhar1 ,lohar1 ,nai and ,sunar4 ,bundhrajia4--,subcaste of ,kamar4 ,bunkar4--7,a weaver47 ,title of ,balahi4 ,burad4--,a synonym for the ,basor caste of bamboo-workers4 ,a section of ,koshti and ,oswal ,bania4 ,burthia4--,subcaste of ,charan ,banjara4 ,burud4--7,a bamboo-worker47 ,synonym for ,basor in the ,maratha country4 ,butka4--7,one who brings leaves47 ,subcaste of ,chasa4 ,byahut4--7,married47 ,subcaste of ,kalar4 ,chadar4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,kori4 ,chakere4--7,one who uses the potter's wheel in localities where other ,kumhars do not use it47 ,subcaste of ,kumhar4 ,chakla4--7,a professional washerman47 ,synonym for ,dhobi4 ,chalukya4--,a synonym for ,solanki ,rajputs4 7,perhaps from chhullu or challu1 hollow of the hand47 ,a subcaste of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,chamar1 ,chamara4--7,from chamra1 a hide47 ,the well-known caste of tanners4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara1 ,barhai and ,darzi4 ,chamar ,gaur4--7,chamar and ,gaur47 ,a well-known clan of ,rajputs4 ,see ,rajput-,gaur4 ,chambhar4--,name of the ,chamar caste in ,berar4 ,chamra4--,a contemptuous diminutive for the ,chamar caste in ,chhattisgarh4 ,chandan1 ,chandania4--7,sandalwood47 ,a section of ,chamar1 ,kawar1 ,khangar and ,kurmi4 ,chandel4--,a famous clan of ,rajputs4 ,see ,rajput-,chandel4 ,chandewar4--7,belonging to ,chanda47 ,subcaste of ,injhwar4 ,chandi4--7,one who hides behind a fishing-net47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,chandra1 ,chandraha4 7,from chanda1 the moon47 ,a section of ,gujar and ,teli4 ,chandravansi or ,somvansi4--7,descended from the moon47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,chandravedi4--,synonym of ,sanaurhia1 meaning ',one who observes the moon4' ,chankhatia4--,a subcaste of ,bhuiya and ,chamar4 ,channagri4--,a small ,jain sect4 ,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,chanti4--,name derived from chiti1 an ant4 ,subcaste of ,kawar4 ,a section of ,kumhar4 ,chanwar4--7,whisk47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar and ,pabia4 ,charak4--,a subdivision of ,maratha ,brahman2 a section of ,brahman4 ,charan4--,subcaste of ,banjara and ,bhat4 ,title of ,bhat in ,rajputana4 ,chardeve4--,a clan of ,gonds worshiping four gods and paying special reverence to the tortoise4 ,charghar4--7,four houses47 ,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahmans4 ,charnagri4--,a ,jain sect or subcaste of ,bania4 ,chatrapati4--7,lord of the umbrella47 ,title of the ancient ,indian kings4 ,chatri1 ,chhatri4--,a common synonym for a ,rajput4 ,a subcaste of ,bhamta4 ,chaturbhuji4--7,four-armed47 ,an epithet of ,vishnu4 ,a title of the ,chauhan clan of ,rajputs4 ,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,chaube1 ,chaturvedi4--7,from ,chaturvedi1 or one learned in the four ,vedas47 ,a surname for ,kanaujia1 ,jijhotia and other ,hindustani ,brahmans4 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,chaubhaiya4--7,four brothers47 ,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahmans4 ,they take wives from the ,athbhaiya subdivision1 but do not give girls to them in marriage4 ,chaudhri1 ,chaudhari1 ,choudhri4--7,a headman1 the first person47 ,title of ,kalar ,panwar1 ,rajput and other castes2 title of ,dhobi1 vice-president of the caste committee4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,maheshri ,bania1 ,gadaria1 ,gujar1 ,halba and ,marar 7,mali74 ,a subdivision of ,kapewar4 ,chauhan4--,a famous clan of ,rajputs4 ,name of a low caste of village watchmen in ,chhattisgarh1 perhaps the illegitimate descendants of ,panwar ,rajputs4 ,chauka4--,title of the ,kabirpanthi religious service4 ,the chauk is a sanctified place on the floor of the house or yard1 plastered with cowdung and marked out with lines of wheat-flour or quartz-dust within which ceremonies are performed4 ,chaukhutia4--,a term which signifies a bastard in ,chhattisgarh4 ,subcaste of ,bhunjia4 ,chauske4--,subcaste of ,kalar4 ,they are so called because they prohibit the marriage of persons having a common ancestor up to four generations4 ,chaurasia4--,resident of a ,chaurasi or estate of eighty-four villages4 ,subcaste of ,barai and ,bhoyar4 ,a section of ,dhimar and ,kumhar4 ,many estates are called by this name1 grants of eighty-four villages having been commonly made under native rule4 ,chawara1 ,chaura4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,chenchuwar1 ,chenchuwad or ,chenchu--,a forest tribe of the ,telugu country of whom a few persons were returned from the ,chanda ,district in #aiaa4 ,in ,madras the tribe is known as ,chenchu1 and the affix wad or wadu merely signifies person or man4 #dcd ,the marriage ceremony of the ,chenchus may be mentioned on account of its simplicity4 ,the couple sometimes simply run away together at night and return next day as husband and wife1 or1 if they perform a rite1 walk round and round a bow and arrow stuck into the ground1 while their relations bless them and throw rice on their heads4 ,each party to a marriage can terminate it at will without assigning any reason or observing any formality4 ,the bodies of the dead are washed and then buried with their weapons4 ,chenr4--7,little47 ,subcaste of ,bhand4 ,cheorakuta4--7,one who prepares cheora or pounded rice47 ,subcaste of ,dhuri4 ,chero4 #dce--;,a well-known tribe of the ,munda or ,kolarian family1 found in small numbers in the ,chota ,nagpur ,feudatory ,states4 ,they are believed to have been at one time the rulers of ,bihar1 where numerous monuments are attributed1 according to the inquiries of ,buchanan and ,dalton1 to the ,kols and ,cheros4 ,in ,shahabad #dcf also most of the ancient monuments are ascribed to the ,cheros1 and it is traditionally asserted that the whole country belonged to them in sovereignty4 ,an inscription at ,budh ,gaya mentions one ,phudi ,chandra who is traditionally said to have been a ,chero4 ,the ,cheros were expelled from ,shahabad1 some say by the ,sawaras 7,saonrs71 some say by a tribe called ,hariha2 and the date of their expulsion is conjectured to be between the fifth and sixth centuries of the ,christian era4 ,both ,cheros and ,sawaras were considered by the ,brahmans of ,shahabad as impure or ,mlechchas1 but the ,harihas are reported good ,kshatriyas4 ,the overthrow of the ,cheros in ,mithila and ,magadha seems to have been complete4 ,once lords of the ,gangetic provinces1 they are now found in ,shahabad and other ,bihar ,districts only holding the meanest offices or concealing themselves in the woods skirting the hills occupied by their cousins1 the ,kharwars2 but in ,palamau they retained till a recent period the position they had lost elsewhere4 ,a ,chero family maintained almost an independent rule in that pargana till the accession of the ,british ,government2 they even attempted to hold their castles and strong places against that power1 but were speedily subjugated1 forced to pay revenue and submit to the laws4 ,they were1 however1 allowed to retain their estates2 and though the rights of the last ,raja of the race were purchased by ,government in #ahac1 in consequence of his falling into arrears1 the collateral branches of the family have extensive estates there still4 ,according to their own traditions 7they have no trustworthy annals7 they have not been many generations in ,palamau4 ,they invaded that country from ,rohtas1 and with the aid of ,rajput chiefs1 the ancestors of the ,thakurais of ,ranka and ,chainpur drove out and supplanted a ,rajput ,raja of the ,raksel family1 who retreated into ,sarguja and established himself there4 ,all the ,cheros of note who assisted in the expedition obtained military service grants of land1 which they still retain4 ,the ,kharwars were then the people of most consideration in ,palamau1 and they allowed the ,cheros to remain in peaceful possession of the hill tracts bordering on ,sarguja4 ,it is popularly asserted that at the commencement of the ,chero rule in ,palamau they numbered twelve thousand families1 and the ,kharwars eighteen thousand2 and if an individual of one or the other is asked to what tribe he belongs1 he will say1 not that he is a ,chero or a ,kharwar1 but that he belongs to the twelve thousand or to the eighteen thousand1 as the case may be4 ,the ,palamau ,cheros now live strictly as ,rajputs and wear the paita or caste thread4 ,it has been suggested in the article on ,khairwar that the close connection between the two tribes may arise from the ,kharwars or ,khairwars having been an occupational offshoot of the ,cheros and ,santals4 ,in ,palamau #dcg the ,cheros are now divided into two subcastes1 the ,bara-hazar or twelve thousand1 and the ,terah-hazar or thirteen thousand1 who are also known as ,birbandhi4 ,the former are the higher in rank and include most of the descendants of former ruling families1 who assume the title ,babuan4 ,the ,terah-hazar are supposed to be the illegitimate offspring of the ,bara-hazar4 ,the distinctive physical traits of the ,cheros1 ,colonel ,dalton states1 have been considerably softened by the alliances with pure ,hindu families1 which their ancient power and large possessions enabled them to secure2 but they appear to me still to exhibit an unmistakable ,mongolian physiognomy4 ,they vary in colour1 but are usually of a light brown4 ,they have1 as a rule1 high cheek-bones1 small eyes obliquely set1 and eyebrows to correspond1 low broad noses1 and large mouths with protuberant lips4 ,cherwa4--,subcaste of ,kawar4 ,chetti4--,subcaste of ,gandli4 ,chhachan4--7,a hawk47 ,a section of ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,chhadesia4--7,a man of six districts47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,chhadidar or ,darwan4--,title of the ,dahaits1 who were door-keepers of the ,rajas of ,mahoba in former times4 ,chhanava ,kule4--7,the ninety-six houses47 ,a subcaste of ,maratha4 ,chhatakia4--,an illegitimate group of the ,kumhar caste4 ,chhattisgarhi1 ,chhattisgarhia4--,resident of ,chhattisgarh or the region of the thirty-six forts1 a name given to the eastern tract of the ,central ,provinces4 ,subcaste of ,bahna1 ,darzi and ,halba4 ,chhehghar 7,chhenghar74--7,members of the six houses47 ,a hypergamous division of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,they take daughters from the other two divisions1 but do not give their daughters to them4 ,chhipa4--7,a dyer47 ,synonym of ,darzi4 ,chhoha or ,saroria4--,a subcaste of ,agharia of mixed descent4 ,chholia4--7,rubbish47 ,a section of ,rajjhar4 ,chhote4--7,inferior47 ,subcaste of ,agharia and ,teli4 ,chhoti ,pangat4--,a subcaste of ,halba1 ,synonym ,surait4 ,chhoti ,pangat signifies the inferior caste feast1 and the implication is that these members cannot join in the proper feast4 ,chhotki ,bhir or ,gorhi4--7,low47 ,subcaste of ,rautia4 ,chhura1--7,razor47 ,a section of ,panka4 ,it was their business to shave other members of the caste after a death2 ,chicham4--7,hawk47--,a sept of ,gonds4 ,chicheria4--7,from church1 forelock1 which the children of this sept wear47 ,a sept of ,dhimar4 ,chika4--,subcaste of ,majhwar4 ,chikwa4--,synonym of ,khatik4 ,chinchkul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they abstain from the use of ginger and from the juice of the bhilawa or marking-nut tree4 ,chita ,purdhi1 ,chilewala4--7,leopard-hunter47 ,a subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,chiturkar1 ,chitrakar4--7,a painter47 ,synonym for ,chitari4 ,chiter4--7,a painter47 ,see ,chitari4 ,chitevari4--7,one who makes clay idols47 ,synonym for ,mochi4 ,chitpawan4--7,the pure in heart47 ,a synonym for ,konkanasth ,brahman4 ,chitragupta ,vansi4--7,descendants of ,chitragupta47 ,a name for ,kayasths4 ,chobdar4--7,a mace-bearer47 ,title of ,dahait4 ,chorbans4--7,family of thieves47 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,chourdhar4--7,a whisk-carrier47 ,a section of ,sunar4 ,chuhra4--,subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,name for the sweeper caste in the ,punjab4 ,chungia4--7,one who smokes a leaf-pipe47 ,subcaste of ,chamar and ,satnami4 ,chunwiha4--7,from chunri1 a coloured sheet worn by women47 ,a section of ,tamera4 ,churha4--7,thief47 ,a subcaste of ,sunar4 ,a section of ,chhipa4 ,cutchwaha4--,clan of ,rajput4 ,synonym for ,kachhwaha4 ,daharia4--7,from ,dahar1 the old name of the ,jubbulpore country47 ,a clan of ,rajputs which has developed into a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,bhoyar1 ,kalar1 ,mahar1 ,maratha and ,teli4 ,a section of ,chadar1 ,chamar and ,katia4 ,dahat4--,a variant for ,dahait4 ,a subcaste of ,khangar4 ,dahia4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,daijanya4--,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,they are so called because their women act as dai or midwives4 ,dakhne1 ,dakshne1 ,dakshni1 ,dakshini4--7,belonging to the ,deccan47 ,subcaste of ,bahna1 ,chamar1 ,gondhali1 ,gurao1 ,kunbi1 ,mahar1 ,mang and ,nai4 ,dakochia4--,a synonym for ,bhadri1 an astrologer4 ,dal4--7,from dal1 an army47 ,subcaste of ,khond4 ,dalboha1 ,dalbuha4--7,one who carries dhoolies or palanquins47 ,subcaste of ,ghasia and ,katia4 ,dalia4--7,from dal or the pulse of ,burhanpur which had a great reputation74 ,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,dal ,khalsa4--7,army of ,god47 ,title of the ,sikh army4 ,dandewala4--7,one who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo47 ,synonym for ,kolhati4 ,dandi4--7,one who carries a stick47 ,name of a class of religious mendicants4 ,see article ,gosain4 ,dandsena4--7,one who carries a stick47 ,subcaste of ,kalar4 ,dang-charha4--7,a rope-climber47 ,synonym of ,nut4 ,dangiwara4--,name of part of the ,saugor ,district1 which is called after the ,dangi caste4 ,subcaste of ,kadera4 ,dangua4--7,a hill-dweller47 ,subcaste of ,taonla4 ,dangur4--,a small caste of hemp weavers numbering about #ajj persons1 and residing almost entirely in the village of ,masod in ,betul ,district4 ,they are of the same standing as the caste of ,kumrawat or ,patbina which pursues this occupation in other ,districts1 but acknowledge no connection with them and are probably an occupational offshoot of the ,kunbi caste1 from whose members they readily accept any kind of cooked food4 ,like many other small occupational castes with no definite traditions1 they profess to have a ,kshatriya origin1 calling themselves ,bhagore ,rajputs1 while their families are known by such high-sounding titles as ,rathor1 ,chauhan1 ,gaur1 ,solanki and other well-known ,rajput names4 ,these pretensions have no foundation in fact1 and the ,dangurs formerly did not abjure pork1 while they still eat fowls and drink liquor4 ,they neither bathe nor clean their kitchens daily4 ,they may eat food taken from one place to another1 but not if they are wearing shoes1 this being only permissible in the case when the bridegroom takes his food wearing his marriage shoes4 ,dantele4--7,with teeth47 ,a section of ,purania ,sunars in ,saugor4 ,daraihan4--,a small caste of debased ,rajputs found in the ,bilaspur ,district of ,chhattisgarh and numbering some #bjjj persons in #aija4 ,they say that their ancestors were ,rajputs from ,upper ,india who settled in ,chhattisgarh some generations back in the village of ,dargaon in ,raipur ,district4 ,thence they were given the name of ,dargaihan1 which has been corrupted into ,daraihan4 ,others say that the name is derived from dari1 a prostitute1 but this is perhaps a libel4 ,in any case they do not care about the name ,daraihan and prefer to call themselves ,kshatriyas4 ,they have now no connection with the ,rajputs of ,upper ,india1 and have developed into an endogamous group who marry among themselves4 ,it seems likely that the caste are an inferior branch of the ,daharia cultivating caste of ,chhattisgarh1 which is derived from the ,daharia clan of ,rajputs4 #dch ,like other ,rajputs the ,daraihans have an elaborate system of septs and subsepts1 the former having the names of ,rajput clans1 while the latter are taken from the eponymous gotras of the ,brahmans4 ,there are fourteen septs1 named as a rule after the principal ,rajput clans1 of whom four1 the ,chandel1 ,kachhwaha1 ,dhandhul and ,sakrawara1 rank higher than the other ten1 and will take daughters from these in marriage1 but not give their daughters in return4 ,besides the septs they have the standard ,brahmanical gotras1 as ,kausilya1 ,bharadwaj1 ,vasishtha and so on to the number of seven1 and the members of each sept are divided into these gotras4 ,theoretically a man should not take a wife whose sept or gotra is the same as his own4 ,the marriage of first cousins is forbidden1 and while the grandchildren of two sisters may intermarry1 for the descendants of a brother and a sister the affinity is a bar till the third generation4 ,but the small numbers of the caste must make the arrangement of matches very difficult1 and it is doubtful whether these rules are strictly observed4 ,they permit the practice of ,gunravat or giving a bride for a bride4 ,in other respects the social customs of the caste resemble those of their neighbours1 the ,daharias1 and their rules as to the conduct of women are strict4 ,the men are well built and have regular features and fair complexions1 from which their ,rajput ancestry may still be recognised4 ,they wear the sacred thread4 ,the ,daraihans are good and intelligent cultivators1 many of them being proprietors or large tenants1 and unlike the ,daharias they do not object to driving the plough with their own hands4 ,in the poorer families even the women work in the fields4 ,they have a strong clannish feeling and will readily combine for the support or protection of any member of the caste who may be in need of it4 ,darbania4--7,door-keeper47 ,title of ,khangur4 ,darshani4--,title of the most holy members of the ,kanphata ,jogis4 ,darshni4--7,from darshan1 seeing1 beholding1 as of a god47 ,a sub-division of ,jogi4 ,darwan4--7,a door-keeper47 ,title of ,dahait4 ,darwe or ,dalwe4--,a subcaste of ,gonds in ,chanda2 the ,darwes are also called ,naik4 ,darwesh4--,persian name for a ,muhammadan ,fakir or religious mendicant4 ,darzi4--,a caste of tailors4 ,subcaste of ,ghasia4 ,das4--7,servant47 ,used as the termination of their names by ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,a term applied by ,pankas and other ,kabirpanthis to themselves4 ,dasa4--7,ten47 ,a subdivision of ,agarwala and other subcastes of ,bania1 meaning those of pure blood4 ,dasghar4--7,ten houses47 ,one of the three subdivisions of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,they give their daughters to members of the ,chheghar or six houses and receive them from the ,panchghar or five houses4 ,dasnami4--,a member of the ten orders4 ,synonym for ,gosain4 ,datta or ,dutt4--,surname of ,bengali ,kayasths4 ,daune4--,a subdivision of ,prabhu or ,parbhu in ,nagpur1 so called on account of their living in the island of ,diu1 a ,portuguese possession4 ,deccani4--,see ,dakhne4 ,dehalwi4--7,from ,delhi47 ,a subdivision of ,gaur ,kayasths4 ,dehri4--7,a worshipper47 ,subcaste of ,sudh4 ,dekkala4--7,a genealogist47 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,delki4--,subcaste of ,kharia4 ,deo4--7,god47 ,a hereditary title borne by certain ,feudatory ,chiefs4 ,a surname of ,karhara ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a subcaste of ,gandli in ,chanda4 ,deobansi4--7,a descendant of a god47 ,subcaste of ,patwa4 ,deogarhia or ,rajkunwar4--7,from ,deogarh47 ,a subcaste of ,pardhan4 ,a subcaste of ,audhelia made up of prostitutes4 ,a sept of ,dhimar4 ,deokia4--,title used in the ,bedar caste4 ,deoputra4--7,son of god47 ,synonym of ,charan4 ,desa or ,kota4--,subcaste of ,balija4 ,desai4--,a variant for ,deshmukh or a ,maratha revenue officer4 ,title of the ,pardhan caste4 ,desawal4--,a subdivision of ,brahman in ,jubbulpore4 ,they take their name from ,disa1 a town in ,palanpur ,state in ,bombay ,presidency4 ,desha1 ,desaha4--7,belonging to the home country47 ,the name is usually applied to immigrants from ,malwa or ,hindustan4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,bargah1 ,bari1 ,chamar1 ,dhuri1 ,gadaria1 ,kalar1 ,kol1 ,kurmi1 ,lakhera1 ,lohar1 ,mahar1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,deshastha4--,a subcaste of ,maratha ,brahmans inhabiting the country 7,desh7 above the ,western ,ghats4 ,a subcaste of ,gurao4 ,deshkar4--7,one belonging to the country47 ,a subcaste of ,gondhali1 ,gurao1 ,kasar1 ,koshti1 ,kunbi1 ,mahar1 ,mali1 ,maratha1 ,nai1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,deshmukh4--,under ,maratha rule the ,deshmukh was a ,pargana officer who collected the revenue of the ,pargana or small subdivision1 and other taxes1 receiving a certain share4 ,the office of ,deshmukh was generally held by a leading ,kunbi of the neighbourhood4 ,he also held revenue-free land in virtue of his position4 ,the ,deshmukh families now tend to form a separate subcaste of ,kunbis and marry among themselves4 ,deshpande4--,the ,deshpande was the ,pargana accountant4 ,he was generally a ,brahman and the right-hand man of the ,deshmukh1 and having the advantage of education he became powerful like the ,deshmukh4 ,now used as a surname by ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,deswali4--,synonym for ,mina4 ,devadasi4--7,handmaidens of the gods47 ,synonym for ,kasbi4 ,devarukhe4--,a subdivision of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,the word is derived from ,devarishi1 a ,shakha 7branch7 of the ,atharva ,veda1 or from ,devarukh1 a town in ,ratnagiri ,district of ,bombay ,presidency4 ,among ,brahmans they hold rather a low position4 ,dewangan4--7,from the old town of this name on the ,wardha river47 ,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,dhaighar4--7#b #a_/b houses47 ,a subcaste of ,khatri4 ,dhakan4--7,a witch47 ,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,dhakar4--,name of a caste in ,bastar4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a subcase of ,barai1 ,bania and ,kirar4 ,a sept of ,halba4 ,dhalgar4--,a small occupational caste who made leather shields1 and are now almost extinct as the use of shields has gone out of fashion4 ,they are ,muhammadans1 but ,mr4 ,crooke #dci considers them to be allied to the ,dabgars1 who make leather vessels for holding oil and ghi and are also known as ,kuppesaz4 ,the ,dabgars are a ,hindu caste whose place in the ,central ,provinces is taken by the ,budalgir ,chamars4 ,these receive their designation from budla1 the name of the leather bag which they make4 ,budlas were formerly employed for holding ghi or melted butter1 oil and the liquid extract of sugarcane1 but vegetable oil is now generally carried in earthen vessels slung in baskets1 and ghi in empty kerosene tins4 ,small bottles of very thin leather are still used by scent-sellers for holding their scents1 though they also have glass bottles4 ,the song of the ,leather ,bottl recalls the fact that vessels for holding liquids were made of leather in ,europe prior to the introduction of glass4 ,the ,dhalgars also made targets for archery practice from the hides of buffaloes2 and the similar use of the hides of cattle in ,europe survives in our phrase of the bull's eye for the centre of the target4 ,dhamonia4--7,from ,dhamoni1 a town in ,saugor47 ,a subcaste of ,sonkar4 ,a territorial sept of ,darzi and ,dhobi4 ,dhanak ,sammani4--7,one who reverences the bow47 ,a section of ,barai4 ,dhandere4--7,probably from ,dhundhar1 an old name of ,jaipur or ,amber ,state47 ,a sept of ,rajputs4 ,dhangar4--7,a farmservant47 ,synonym of ,oraon4 ,dhanka4--,perhaps a variant for ,dhangar4 ,subcaste of ,oraon4 ,dhanoj1 ,dhanoje4--7,from dhangar1 a shepherd47 ,subcaste of ,are and ,kunbi4 ,dhanpagar4--7,one serving for a pittance of paddy47 ,a section of ,teli4 ,dhanuhar4--7,a corrupt form of ,dhanusdhar or a holder of a bow47 ,synonym of ,dhanwar4 ,dhanuk4--7,a bowman47 ,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,dhanushban4--7,bow and arrow47 ,a sept of ,kawar4 ,dharampuria4--7,resident of ,dharampur47 ,subcaste of ,dhobi4 ,dhare4--,title of ,gowari4 ,dhari4--,a subcaste of ,banjara4 ,they are the bards of the caste4 ,dharkar4--,subcaste of ,basor4 ,dharmik4--7,religious or virtuous47 ,a subcaste of ,mahar and ,maratha4 ,dhed4--,synonym for ,mahar4 ,dhengar4--,a subcaste of ,bharewa 7,kasar7 and ,gadaria4 ,dhera4 #ddj--;,a small ,telugu caste of weavers1 the bulk of whom reside in the ,sonpur ,state1 transferred to ,bengal in #aije4 ,the ,dheras were brought from ,orissa by the ,raja of ,sonpur to make clothes for the images of the gods1 which they also claim to be their privilege in ,puri4 ,their exogamous groups are named after animals1 plants or other objects1 and they practise totemism4 ,the members of the ,surya or sun group will not eat during an eclipse4 ,those of the ,nalla 7black7 sept will not wear black clothes4 ,those of the ,bansethi and ,bhanala septs will not use the bandi1 a kind of cart from which they consider their name to be derived4 ,the ,otals take their name from utti1 a net1 from which pots are hung1 and they will not use this net4 ,those of the ,gunda sept1 who take their name from gunda1 a bullet1 will not eat any game shot with a gun4 ,marriage within the sept is prohibited1 but the ,dheras always1 where practicable1 arrange the marriage of a boy with his maternal uncle's daughter4 ,even in childhood the members of such families address each other as brother-in-law and sister-in-law4 ,when the bridegroom and bride go home after the marriage ceremony1 the bridegroom's sister bars the door of the house and will not let them in until they have severally promised to give her their daughter for her son4 ,a girl must be married before arriving at adolescence on pain of permanent exclusion from the caste4 ,if a suitable husband has not therefore been found when the period approaches1 the parents marry the girl to her elder sister's husband or any other married man4 ,she is not bound to enter into conjugal relations with the man to whom she is thus united1 and with his consent she may be consequently married to any other man in the guise of a widow4 ,if a bachelor takes such a girl to wife1 he must first be married to a sahara tree 7,streblus asper74 ,when a betrothal is arranged1 an elderly member of the bridegroom's family proceeds to the bride's house and asks her people three times in succession whether the betrothal is arranged1 and at each reply in the affirmative ties a knot in his cloth4 ,he then goes home and in the bridegroom's house solemnly unties the knots over another cloth which is spread on the ground4 ,this cloth is then considered to contain the promises and it is wrapped up and carefully put away to keep them as if they were material objects4 ,dherha4--7,brother-in-law or paternal aunt's husband47 ,title of ,kharia4 ,dhimar4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,kori4 ,dhimra4--,synonym for ,dhimar4 ,dhobi4--,the caste of washermen4 ,a sept of ,bharia and ,bhaina4 ,dhokhede4--,one of doubtful parentage4 ,a sept of ,teli4 ,dholewar4--7,from dhola1 a drum47 ,a subcaste of ,bhoyar and ,gaoli4 ,a section of ,basor4 ,dholi4--7,a minstrel47 ,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,dhubela4--,origin perhaps from the ,dhobi caste4 ,subcaste of ,basor4 ,dhulbajia4--7,from dhol1 a drum47 ,a subcaste of ,chamar1 also known as ,daijania4 ,dhulia1 ,dholin1 ,dholi4--7,a player on a dhol or drum47 ,synonym for the ,basor caste4 ,a subcaste of ,gond in ,chanda and ,betul4 ,a subcaste of ,mahar4 ,dhunak ,pathan4--,synonym for ,bahna4 ,dhunia4--7,from dhunna1 to card cotton47 ,synonym for ,bahna4 ,dhunka4--7,a cotton-cleaner47 ,subcaste of ,kadera4 ,dhur ,gond4--7,from dhur1 dust47 ,a subcaste of ,gonds4 ,they are also known as ,rawanvansi or descendants of ,rawan4 ,dhuri4--,a caste of grain-parchers4 ,a subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,dhuria4--,subcaste of ,nagasia and ,dhimar4 ,they are so called because they mark the forehead of the bride with dust 7dhur7 taken from the sole of the bridegroom's foot4 ,dhurwa4--,the word may be derived from dhur1 dust4 ,dhur is a name given to the body of ,gonds as opposed to the ,raj-,gonds4 ,one of the commonest septs of ,gonds4 ,a sept of ,baiga1 ,kolta1 ,kalar and ,nat4 ,a title of ,parja4 ,dhusar4--,subcaste of ,bania4 ,dhusia4--,subcaste of ,murha4 ,digambari4--,a sect of ,jain ,banias who do not clothe their idols and apply saffron to their feet4 ,also a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,diharia or ,kisan4--7,one who lives in a village or a cultivator474 ,subcaste of ,korwa4 ,dikhit1 ,dikshit1 ,dixit4--7,the ,initiator47 ,a subcaste of ,brahman4 ,a clan of ,rajputs of the solar race formerly dominant in the ,united ,provinces4 ,dila4--7,a pointed stick tied to a calf's mouth to prevent him from sucking47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,they do not use a stick in this manner4 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,dillawal4--,a subcaste of ,kasar4 ,those belonging to or coming from ,delhi4 ,dingkuchia4--7,one who castrates cattle and ponies47 ,subcaste of ,ghasia4 ,dipawalia4--7,one who supplies oil for the lamps at ,diwali47 ,a sept of ,teli4 ,dipbans4--7,son of the lamp47 ,title of ,teli4 ,diwan4--,title of the members of the ,dahait caste committee4 ,dixit4--,see ,dikhit4 ,dobaile4--7,one who yokes two bullocks to the oil-press47 ,subcaste of ,telis in the ,nagpur country4 ,dobisya4--7,two score47 ,subcaste of ,halwai4 ,doda or ,dor4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,dogle4--,name applied to ,kayasths of illegitimate descent4 ,dohor4 #dda--;,a small caste of ,berar1 who are really ,chamars2 in the ,central ,provinces the ,dohors are a well-known subcaste of ,chamars1 but in ,berar they appear to have obtained a separate name1 under which about #fjjj persons were returned in #aiaa4 ,they work in leather like the ,chamars or ,mochis4 ,with the ambition of bettering their social status among the ,hindus the caste strictly observe the sanctity of animal life4 ,no ,dohor may molest an animal or even pelt it with stones4 ,a man who sells a cow or bullock to butchers is put out of caste1 but if he repents and gets the animal back before it is slaughtered1 a fine of ,rs4 #e only is imposed4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the animal is killed1 the culprit must give his daughter in marriage without taking any price from the bridegroom1 and must feed the whole caste and pay a fine of ,rs4 #ej1 which is expended on liquor4 ,failing this he is expelled from the community4 ,similarly the ,pardeshi ,dohors rigidly enforce infant-marriage4 ,if a girl is not married before she is ten her family are fined and put out of caste until the fine is paid4 ,and if the girl has leprosy or any other disease1 which prevents her from getting married1 a similar penalty is imposed on the family4 ,nevertheless the ,dohors are considered to be impure and are not allowed to enter ,hindu temples2 the village barber does not shave them nor the washerman wash their clothes4 ,a bachelor desiring to marry a widow must first perform the ceremony with a rui or cotton-tree4 ,but such a union is considered disgraceful2 the man himself must pay a heavy fine to get back into caste1 and his children are considered as partly illegitimate and must marry with the progeny of similar unions4 ,either husband or wife can obtain a divorce by a simple application to the caste panchayat1 and a divorced woman can marry again as a widow4 ,the caste offer sheep and goats to their deities and worship the animals before killing them4 ,at ,dasahra they also pay reverence to the skinning-knife1 and the needle with which shoes are sewn4 ,the caste burn the bodies of those who die married and bury the unmarried4 ,before setting out for a funeral they drink liquor and again on their return1 and a little liquor is sprinkled over the grave4 ,when a man has been cremated his ashes are taken and thrown into a river on the third day4 ,the chief mourner1 after being shaved by his brother-in-law1 takes the hair with some copper coins in his hand and1 diving into the river1 leaves them there as an offering to the dead man's spirit4 ,dolia4--7,palanquin-bearer47 ,a section of ,dhimar4 ,dom4--,an important caste in ,bengal4 ,see article ,kanjar4 ,used as a synonym for ,ganda in the ,uriya country4 ,domra4--,subcaste of ,turi4 ,dongaria1 ,dongarwar4--7,from dongar1 a hill47 ,a sept of ,bhil1 ,dhobi1 ,mali1 ,mang and ,sonkar4 ,a surname of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,dora4--7,sahib or ,lord47 ,title of the ,mutrasi caste4 ,dosar4--,subcaste of ,bania4 ,dravida4--7,southern47 ,see ,panch-,dravida4 ,dube4--7,a teacher and a man learned in two ,vedas47 ,a common surname of ,hindustani ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara4 ,dudh4--7,milk47 ,dudh-,barai1 a subcaste of ,barai2 ,dudh-,gowari1 a subcaste of ,ahir or ,gowari2 ,dudh-,kawar1 a subcaste of ,kawar4 ,dudh ,bhai4--7,milk-brothers47 ,a fraternity of ,gonds in ,betul1 who are apparently foster-brothers4 ,they do not marry1 though they have different septs4 ,dukar4--,a subcaste of ,kolhati4 ,from dukar1 hog1 because they are accustomed to hunt the wild pig with dogs and spears when these animals become too numerous and damage the crops of the villagers4 ,dukaria4--,title of the officer of the ,andh caste who constitutes the caste committee4 ,dulha4--7,bridegroom47 ,a section of ,chadar4 ,dumar or ,dom4--,a low caste of sweepers in ,bengal4 ,see ,kanjar4 ,subcaste of ,basor1 ,ganda1 ,panka and ,turi4 ,synonym and subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,a section of ,kawar4 ,durgbansi4--,a clan of ,rajputs in ,ragnandgaon4 ,dusre4--7,second47 ,a subdivision of ,shrivastab1 ,gaur and ,saksena ,kayasths1 meaning those of inferior or mixed origin as opposed to ,khare or those of pure origin4 ,dwarka4--,one of the most holy places in ,india1 situated on or near the sea in ,gujarat4 ,it is supposed to have been founded by ,krishna4 ,site of one of the monasteries 7,ashram7 of ,sankaracharya1 the founder of the non-dualistic or ,vedanta philosophy4 ,dwija4--7,twice-born47 ,a title applied to the three higher classical castes1 ,brahman1 ,kshatriya and ,vaishya1 and now especially to ,brahmans4 ,ekbahia4--7,one-armed47 ,subcaste of ,teli1 so called because their women wear glass bangles only on one arm4 ,ekbaile4--,one who yokes one bullock only to the oil-press4 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,elama1 ,elma4--,synonym for ,velama4 ,a subcaste of ,kapewar or ,kapu4 ,erenga4--,subcaste of ,kharia in ,bengal4 ,erna4--7,from ,eran1 in ,saugor district47 ,a section of ,teli4 ,fakir4--,a ,muhammadan mendicant4 ,synonym ,sain4 ,see article4 ,farid4--,sheikh ,farid was a well-known ,muhammadan saint4 ,a section of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,farsi4--,persian4 ,from the ,province of ,fars4 ,the term ,farsi is also used by the ,hindus to signify foreign or non-,aryan languages like ,gondi4 ,fidawi4--7,a disciple47 ,an order of devotees of the ,khojah sect known to the ,crusaders as ,assassins4 ,title of ,khojah4 ,gadaba4--,synonym of ,gadba4 ,gadaria4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,ahir4 ,gadha4--7,an ass47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul1 so named because their priest rode on an ass in crossing a river4 ,gadhao4--7,from gadha1 an ass47 ,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,gadhewal1 ,gadhere1 ,gadhwe1 ,gadhilla4--7,one who keeps donkeys4 ,from gadha1 an ass47 ,a subcaste of ,dhimar1 ,katia1 ,koshti1 ,kumhar and ,sonkar4 ,a sept of ,gond and ,pardhan4 ,gadhwana4--7,from ,garha1 near ,jubbulpore47 ,subcaste of ,nai4 ,gadiwan4--7,a cart-driver47 ,subcaste of ,dangri4 ,gadri4--7,from gadar1 a sheep47 ,a synonym of ,gadaria4 ,a subcaste of ,dhangar4 ,gaharwar1 ,gaharval1 ,gherwal4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs chiefly found in ,bilaspur and ,khairagarh4 ,a section of ,patwas4 ,gahbainya or ,gahboniya4--7,those who hid in a village when called by a king to his presence47 ,a subcaste of ,kurmi4 ,a section of ,kurmi4 ,gahlot or ,sesodia4--,a famous clan of ,rajputs4 ,a section of ,daraiha and ,joshi4 ,gahoi4--,subcaste of ,bania4 ,see article ,bania-,gahoi4 ,gahra4--,synonym for ,ahir or herdsman in the ,uriya country4 ,gai-,gowari4--,subcaste of ,gowari4 ,gaiki4--,a cowherd4 7,a subcaste of ,gond in ,betul47 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,gaikwar or ,gaika4--7,a cowherd47 ,a clan of ,maratha4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,bhil1 ,kunbi and ,mahar4 ,gaita4--,subcaste of ,gond4 ,gaiwale4--7,cow-keeper47 ,a subcaste of ,moghia4 ,gajarha4--7,gajar1 a carrot47 ,a section of ,teli in ,mandla4 ,gajjam4--,a sept of the ,dhurwa clan of ,gonds in ,betul named after ,gajjami4 7,bow and arrows in ,gondi47 ,ganda4--7,a messenger47 ,a low caste of village watchmen4 ,in the ,uriya country the ,gandas are known as ,dom4 ,a subcaste of ,pardhan4 ,title of ,kharia4 ,gandhi4--,a scent-seller4 7,from gandh1 a ,sanskrit word for scent47 ,synonym of ,atari4 ,a section of ,maheshir ,bania4 ,gandli4--,the ,telugu caste of oil-pressers1 numbering about #cjjj persons in the ,central ,provinces1 in the ,chanda1 ,nagpur and ,bhandara ,districts4 ,they are immigrants from the ,godavari ,district of ,madras and have been settled in the ,central ,provinces for some generations4 ,here many of them have prospered so that they have abandoned the hereditary calling and become landowners1 traders and moneylenders4 ,like the well-to-do ,telis they are keenly desirous of bettering their social position and now repudiate any connection with what may be known as 'the shop1' or the profession of oil-pressing4 ,as this ranks very low1 among the more despised village handicrafts1 the progress of the ,gandlis and ,telis to the social standing of ,banias1 to which they generally aspire1 is beset with difficulties2 but the ,gandlis1 in virtue of having migrated to what is practically a foreign country so far as they are concerned1 have achieved a considerable measure of success1 and may be said to enjoy a better position than any ,telis4 ,a few of them wear the sacred thread1 and though they eat flesh1 they have abjured liquor except in ,chanda1 where they are most numerous and the proportion of wealthy members is smallest4 ,here also they are said to eat pork4 ,others eat flesh and fowls4 ,the ,gandlis are divided into the ,reddi1 ,chetti and ,telkala subcastes1 and the last are generally oil-pressers4 ,it is probable that the ,reddis are the same as the ,redu-eddu or ,rendu-eddu subcaste of ,madras1 who derive their name from the custom of using two bullocks to turn the oil-press1 like the ,do-baile ,telis of the ,central ,provinces4 ,but it has been changed to ,reddi1 a more respectable name1 as being a synonym for the ,kapu cultivating caste4 ,chetti really means a trader1 and is1 ,mr4 ,francis says1 #ddb ,one of those occupational or titular terms1 which are largely employed as caste names4 ,the weavers1 oil-pressers and others use it as a title1 and many more tack it on to their names to denote that trade is their occupation4 ,marriage is regulated by exogamous groups1 the names of which are said to be derived from those of villages4 ,girls are generally married during childhood4 ,a noticeable point is that the ceremony is celebrated at the bridegroom's house1 to which the bride goes1 accompanied by her party1 including the women of her family4 ,the ceremony follows the ,maratha form of throwing fried rice over the bridal couple1 and ,brahman priests are employed to officiate4 ,widow-marriage is permitted4 ,the dead are both buried and burnt1 and during mourning the ,gandlis refrain from eating khichri or mixed rice and pulse1 and do not take their food off plantain leaves1 in addition to the other usual observances4 ,they have the shantik ceremony or the seclusion of a girl on the first appearance of the signs of adolescence1 which is in vogue among the higher ,maratha castes1 and is followed by a feast and the consummation of her marriage4 ,they now speak ,marathi fluently1 but still use ,telugu in their houses and wear their head-cloths tied after the ,tulugu fashion4 #ddc ,gangabalu4--7,sand of the ,ganges47 ,a family name of ,ganda4 ,gangabasia4--7,living on the banks of the ,ganges47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,gangapari4--7,one coming from the further side of the ,ganges47 ,subcaste of ,barai1 ,barhai1 ,chamar1 ,dhobi1 ,gondhali1 ,kumhar and ,umre ,bania4 ,gangasagar4--7,sea of the ,ganges47 ,a section of ,chitari and ,kawar4 ,gangavansi4--7,descended from the ,ganges47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,the chief of ,bamra ,state is a ,gangavansi4 ,gangthade4--,dwellers on the banks of the ,godavari and ,wainganga4 ,these rivers are sometimes called ,ganga or ,ganges1 which is used as a general term for a great river4 ,a subcaste of ,maratha4 ,gannore4--,name of a minor ,rajput clan4 ,subcaste of ,balahi4 ,ganth-chor4--7,a bundle-thief47 ,title of ,bhamta4 ,gaolan4--,a synonym of ,ahir or ,gaoli1 applied to an inferior section of the caste4 ,gaoli1 ,gauli4--7,a milkman47 ,synonym for ,ahir4 ,subcaste of ,hatkar4 ,gaontia4--7,a village headman47 ,title of the head of the ,kol caste committee4 ,title of ,kol4 ,garde4--7,dusty47 ,a surname of ,karhara ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,garg or ,gargya4--,the name of a famous ,rishi or saint4 ,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,agarwala ,banias4 ,gargabansi is a clan of ,rajputs4 ,garhawala1 ,garhewala1 ,garhewar4--,a resident of ,garha1 an old town near ,jubbulpore which gave its name to the ,garha-,mandla dynasty1 and is a centre of weaving4 ,a subcaste of ,katia1 ,koshti and ,mahar1 all weaving castes4 ,a subcaste of ,binjhal4 ,garkata4--7,cut-throat47 ,a section of ,koshti4 ,garpagari4--,a body of ,jogis or ,naths who avert hailstorms and are considered a separate caste4 ,see article4 ,from gar1 hail4 ,a subcaste of ,koshta and ,kumhar4 ,a section of ,ghasia4 ,gate4--7,a bastard47 ,subcaste of ,naoda4 ,gaur4--,the ancient name of part of ,bengal and perhaps applied also to the tract in the ,united ,provinces round about the modern ,gonda ,district4 ,a subcaste of ,brahman and ,kayasth4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,see articles4 ,gauria1 ,gauriya4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,dhimar1 ,khond1 ,kumhar and ,uriya ,sansia4 ,gauriputra4--,a son of ,gauri1 the wife of ,mahadeo4 ,title of ,balija4 ,gautam4--,a name of a famous ,rishi or saint4 ,a common eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a section of ,agharia1 ,ahir1 ,maratha1 ,panwar ,rajput1 ,rangari and ,jangam4 ,gayake4--,subcaste of ,pardhi1 meaning a man who stalks deer behind a bullock4 ,gayawal4--7,from the town of ,gaya on the ,ganges1 a favourite place for performing the obsequies of the dead47 ,a subcaste of ,brahmans who act as emissaries for the owners of the shrines at ,gaya and wander about the country inducing villagers to undertake the pilgrimage and personally conducting their constituents4 ,gazulu4--7,a bangle-seller47 ,subcaste of ,balija4 ,gedam4--,a sept of ,gonds4 ,a sept of ,baigas4 ,ghadyachi ,tong4--7,the rim of the pitcher47 ,a section of ,kirar4 ,ghanta4--7,bell47 ,a section of ,kumhar4 ,ghantra4--,name of a caste of ,lohars or blacksmiths in the ,uriya country4 ,gharbari4--,one who while leading a mendicant life is permitted to marry with the permission of his guru4 ,a householder1 synonym ,grihastha4 ,the married groups of the ,gosain1 ,bairagi and ,manbhao orders as distinguished from the ,nihang or celibate section4 ,ghasi ,mali4--,subcaste of ,mali4 ,ghatole1 ,ghatode4--,those who dwell on the ghats or passes of the ,sainhyadri ,hills to the south of the ,berar plain4 ,subcaste of ,bahna1 ,gondhali and ,kunbi4 ,ghatmathe4--7,residents of the ,mahadeo plateau in ,berar47 ,subcaste of ,maratha4 ,gherwal4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,synonym for ,gaharwar4 ,ghidoda4--7,giver of ghi47 ,a section of ,telis so named because their first ancestors presented ghi to the king ,bhoramdeo4 ,ghisadi1 ,ghisari4--,a group of wandering ,lohars or blacksmiths4 ,synonym for ,lohar4 ,ghoderao4--7,ghoda1 a horse47 ,subcaste of ,chitrakathi4 ,they have the duty of looking after the horses and bullock-carts of the castemen who assemble for marriage or other ceremonies4 ,ghodke4--,those who tend horses4 ,subcaste of ,mang4 ,ghodmaria4--7,horse-killer47 ,a sept of ,binjhwar4 ,ghopi4--7,wild jamun tree47 ,a sept of ,gonds4 ,ghosi4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,ghudchoda4--,a subcaste of ,pasi1 who have become grooms4 7,from ghora1 a horse47 ,ghughu1 ,ghughwa4--7,owl47 ,a section of ,ganda1 ,kawar1 ,kewat and ,panka4 ,pankas of the ,ghughu sept are said to have eaten the leavings of their caste-fellows4 ,ghunnere4--7,worm-eater47 ,a section of ,teli in ,betul and ,rathor ,teli4 ,ghura or ,gura4--7,dunghill47 ,a section of ,chadar and ,sunar4 ,ghuttin4--,a sept of ,bhils4 ,they reverence the gular1 or fig tree4 ,gingra4--,a subcaste of ,tiyar4 ,girgira4--,a small caste found in ,sonpur ,state and ,sambalpur district4 ,they are fishermen1 and also parch rice4 ,they are perhaps an offshoot of the ,kewat caste4 ,giri or ,gir4--7,gir1 mountain47 ,an order of ,gosains4 ,girnara4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans in ,jubbulpore4 ,they are said to take their name from ,girnar in ,kathiawar1 where they were settled by ,krishna after he rose from the ,damodar reservoir in the bed of the ,sonrekha river at ,junagarh4 ,they have the monopoly of the office of priests to pilgrims visiting ,girnar4 7,bombay ,gazetteer1 ix47 ,goal or ,gowala1 ,guala4--7,sanskrit ,gopal1 a cowherd47 ,synonym of ,ahir1 also subcaste of ,ahir4 ,gaoli4--7,a cowherd47 ,synonym for ,ahir4 ,subcaste of ,maratha4 ,gobardhua4--7,from gobar1 cowdung47 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,gohia1 ,gohi4--7,from goh or gohi1 a large lizard47 ,a section of ,jain ,bania or ,khatik4 ,a sept of ,bhatra and ,parja4 ,gohil4--,a well-known clan of ,rajputs in the ,united ,provinces4 ,goia4--7,from gohi1 a mango-stone47 ,a section of ,chadar4 ,they draw a picture of the mango-stone at the ,maihar or distribution of sacrificial cakes4 ,gola4--,synonym of ,golar4 ,golak4--,synonym ,govardhan or ,gaomukh4 ,an illegitimate group of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,golalare4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,golandaz4--7,an artilleryman47 ,synonym of ,kadera4 ,golapurab4--,a subcaste of ,bania1 ,darzi and ,kalar4 ,golkar4--,synonym of ,golar and ,ahir4 ,golia4--,one who dyes cloth with goli ka rang1 the fugitive aniline dyes4 ,subcaste of ,chhipa4 ,golla4--,synonym of ,golar4 ,gollam4--,synonym of ,golar4 ,gondadya4--7,gond47 ,subcaste of ,otari4 ,gondi4--7,from the ,gonds47 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,binjhwar and ,lohar4 ,gondia4--,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,gondi-,lohar4--,a ,gond who works as a blacksmith4 ,subcaste of ,lohar4 ,gondvansi4--7,descendants of ,gonds47 ,a section of ,ghasia4 ,gondwaina4--,subcaste of ,baiga4 ,gopal4--,a caste4 ,synonym of ,ahir in ,rajputana4 ,goranda4--,synonym of ,goyanda4 ,gorakhnath4--,a sect of ,jogis4 ,from ,guru ,gorakhnath1 a great ,jogi4 ,gorasia4--7,from goras1 milk47 ,a section of ,lonare ,mali4 ,gorigawar1 ,gaigowal4--7,a cowherd47 ,a section of ,otari and ,panka4 ,gosain1 ,goswami4--,a caste4 ,a surname of ,sanadhya ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,gotte4--,a subcaste of ,gond4 ,they are also called ,made in ,chanda4 ,goundia4--,a class of ,bairagi4 ,synonym ,madhavachari4 ,a section of ,bharia-,bhumia4 ,gowalvansi4--,subcaste of ,ahir4 ,goyanda1 ,goranda4--,a name applied to a small class of persons in ,jubbulpore1 who are descendants of ,thug approvers1 formerly confined there4 ,the name is said to mean1 ',one who speaks1' and to have been applied to those ,thugs who escaped capital punishment by giving information against their confederates4 ,goranda is said to be a corruption of ,goyanda4 ,the ,goyandas are both ,hindus and ,muhammadans4 ,the latter commonly call themselves ,deccani ,musalmans as a more respectable designation4 ,they are said to be a gipsy class of ,muhammadans resembling the ,kanjars4 ,the ,hindus are of different castes1 but are also believed to include some ,beria gipsies4 ,the ,goyandas are employed in making gloves1 socks and strings for pyjamas1 having probably taken to this kind of work because the ,thug approvers were employed in the manufacture of tents4 ,their women are quarrelsome1 and wrangle over payment when selling their wares4 ,this calling resembles that of the ,kanjar women1 who also make articles of net and string1 and sell them in villages4 ,some of the ,goyandas are employed in ,government and railway service1 and ,mr4 ,gayer notes that the latter are given to opium smuggling1 and carry opium on their railway engines4 #ddd ,grihastha1 ,gharbari4--7,a householder47 ,a name given to those divisions of the religious mendicant orders who marry and have families4 ,guar4--7,from guara or gwala1 a milkman47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,gudarh or ,gudar4--7,from gudra1 a rag47 ,a sect of the ,bairagi1 ,gosain and ,jogi orders of mendicants4 ,gudha or ,gurha4--7,from gudh1 a pigsty47 ,subcaste of ,basor4 ,gugaria4--,one who trades in gugar1 a kind of gum4 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,gujar4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,darzi1 ,koshti and ,pasi4 ,a clan of ,maratha4 ,a section of ,khatik4 ,gujarati4--7,from ,gujarat47 ,a territorial subcaste of ,bahelia1 ,bania1 ,barhai1 ,chhipa1 ,darzi1 ,gopal1 ,nai1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,gurasthulu4--,a synonym for the ,balija caste4 ,gurbhelia4--7,a ball of molasses47 ,a section of ,gohira ,ahirs in ,chanda4 ,guria4--7,a preparer of gur or unrefined sugar47 ,synonym of ,halwai in the ,uriya country4 ,gurujwale4--,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,guru-,mata4--,title of the great council of the ,sikhs and their religious meal4 ,guru4--7,a preacher or teacher or spiritual guide47 ,brahmans and members of the religious orders1 ,bairagis and ,gosains1 are the ,gurus of ordinary ,hindus4 ,most ,hindu men and also women of the higher and middle castes have a ,guru1 whose functions are1 however1 generally confined to whispering a sacred verse into the ear of the disciple on initiation1 and paying him a visit about once a year2 it is not clear what happens on these occasions1 but the ,guru is entertained by this disciple1 and a little moral exhortation may be given4 ,gurusthulu4--,synonym of ,balija4 ,guthau4--,title of ,gadba4 ,gwalbansi1 ,gokulbansi1 ,goalbansi4--7,descended from a cowherd47 ,a subcaste of ,ahir or ,gaoli1 ,a subcaste of ,khairwar4 ,gwalhare4--7,cowherd47 ,a subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,habshi4--,synonym of ,siddi4 ,an ,abyssinian4 ,hadi4--7,sweeper or scavenger47 ,one of the #gb #a_/b gotras of ,meheshri ,bania4 ,a synonym for ,mangan4 ,hadia4--7,from hadi1 bone47 ,a section of ,raghuvansi4 ,haihaya1 ,haihaivansi4--7,race of the horse47 ,a clan of ,rajputs of the lunar race4 ,hajjam4--,muhammadan name for ,nai or barber4 ,hakkya4--,title of ,hatkar4 ,halai4--,subcaste of ,cutchi4 ,halbi4--,synonym of ,halba4 ,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,haldia1 ,hardiya1 ,hardiha1 ,halde4--7,a grower of haldi1 or turmeric47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi1 ,lodhi1 ,mali1 ,rajjhar and ,teli4 ,a section of ,rajjhar4 ,halia4--7,ploughman47 ,a subcaste of ,teli in ,nandgaon ,state4 ,halua4--,a subcaste of ,uriya ,brahmans1 so called because they use the plough 7hal74 ,hans1 ,hansi1 ,hansa1--7,the swan47 ,a section of ,agharia1 ,ahir1 ,mali and ,savar4 ,hansele4--7,hansna1 to laugh47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,hanuman1 ,hanumanta4--7,the monkey-god ,hanuman47 ,a section of ,bhatra1 ,mahar and ,mowar4 ,hara4--,a clan of ,rajputs1 a branch of the ,chauhans4 ,harbola4--,derived from ,hari1 a name of ,vishnu or ,krishna1 and bolna to speak4 ,synonym of ,basdewa and also subcaste of ,basdewa4 ,hardas4--,a religious mendicant who travels about and tells stories about heroes and gods accompanied with music4 ,synonym of ,chitrakathi4 ,hari4--7,a bone-gatherer47 ,synonym of ,mehtar and subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,haria4--7,hal1 plough47 ,a subcaste of ,mahar4 ,harial4--7,green pigeon47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,harshe4--7,glad47 ,surname of ,karhara ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,hatgar4--,synonym of ,hatkar4 ,hatghar4--,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,hathgarhia4--,subcaste of ,kumhar1 meaning one who moulds vessels with his hands only1 without using the wheel as an implement4 ,hathia1 ,hasti4--7,from hathi1 elephant47 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,chasa1 ,mehra and ,mowar4 ,hatkar1 ,hatgar4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,koshta and ,maratha4 ,hatwa4--,a small caste of pedlars and hawkers in the ,uriya country1 who perambulate the village bazars or hats1 from which word their name is derived4 ,they sell tobacco1 turmeric1 salt1 and other commodities4 ,the caste are in reality a branch of the ,kewats1 and are also called ,semli ,kewat1 because their ancestors travelled on the ,mahanadi and other rivers in canoes made from the bark of the semal tree 7,bombax ,malabaricum74 ,they were thus ,kewats or boatmen who adopted the practice of carrying small articles up and down the river for sale in their canoes1 and then beginning to travel on land as well as on water1 became regular pedlars1 and were differentiated into a separate caste4 ,the caste originated in ,orissa where river travelling has until lately been much in vogue1 and in ,sambalpur they are also known as ,uriyas1 because of their recent immigration into this part of the country4 ,the ,hatwas consider themselves to be descended from the ,nag or cobra1 and say that they all belong to the ,nag gotra4 ,they will not kill a cobra1 and will save it from death at the hands of others if they have the opportunity1 and they sometimes pay the snake-charmers to set free captive snakes4 ,the oath on the snake is their most solemn form of affirmation4 ,for the purposes of marriage they have a number of exogamous sections or vargas1 the names of which in some cases indicate a military calling1 as ,dalai1 from ,dalpati1 commander of an army1 and ,senapati1 commander-in-chief2 while others are occupational1 as ,maharana 7painter71 ,dwari 7gatekeeper7 and ,mangual 7steersman of a boat74 ,the latter names show1 as might be expected1 that the caste is partly of functional origin1 while as regards the military names1 the ,hatwas say that they formerly fought against the ,bhonslas1 under one of the ,uriya chiefs4 ,they say that they have the perpetual privilege of contributing sixteen poles1 called ,naikas1 for the car of ,jagannath1 and that in lieu of this they hold seven villages in ,orissa revenue-free4 ,those of them who use pack-bullocks for carrying their wares worship ,banjari ,devi1 a deity who is held to reside in the sacks used for loading the bullocks2 to her they offer sweetmeats and grain boiled with sugar4 ,havelia4--7,resident of a ,haveli or fertile wheat tract47 ,subcaste of ,ghosi and ,kurmi4 ,hawaidar4--7,a maker of fireworks47 ,synonym of ,kadera4 ,hela4--7,from hela1 a cry47 ,subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,hichami4--7,a comb47 ,a sept of ,maria ,gonds4 ,hijra4--7,a eunuch47 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,gondhali4 ,hindustani4--,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,hira1 ,hirani4--7,diamond47 ,a section of ,bhulia and of ,uriya ,sansia4 ,hirangotri4--7,hiran1 deer47 ,a section of ,agarwal ,bania4 ,ho4--,synonym of ,kol4 ,holer4--7,a hide-curer47 ,subcaste of ,mang4 ,holia1 ,holer4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,golar4 ,holer1 perhaps from ,holia1 a subcaste of ,mang4 ,hudila4--7,wolf47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,hulhulia ,sahu4--,a section of ,chasa so named1 because as a mark of respect they make the noise ',hulhuli1' when a king passes through the village4 ,huna1 ,hoon or ,hun4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,probably descendants of the ,hun invaders of the fifth century4 ,see articles ,rajput and ,panwar ,rajput4 ,husaini4--,subcaste of ,brahman4 ,ikbainha4--,a subcaste of ,kurmi1 so called because their women put bangles on one arm only4 ,iksha ,kul or ,ikshawap ,kul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they abstain from using the sugarcane and the sendia flower4 ,ilakeband4--7,from ilaqa or alaqa1 meaning connection1 and bandhna1 to bind47 ,synonym of ,patwa4 ,inga4--,subcaste of ,gowari4 ,irpachi4--7,mahua flowers47 ,a sept of ,dhurwa ,gonds in ,betul4 ,ivna ,inde4--7,inde1 chicken47 ,a sept of ,dhurwa ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they offer chickens to their gods4 ,ivna ,jagleya4--7,jagna1 to be awake47 ,a sept of the ,dhurwa clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they are so named because they kept awake to worship their gods at night4 ,jadam1 ,jaduvansi1 ,yadava4--,an important clan of ,rajputs now become a caste4 ,name derived from ,yadu or ,yadava4 ,a subcaste of ,gujar4 ,a subcaste and section of ,ahir2 a section of ,rathor ,rajputs in ,betul4 ,jadia1 ,jaria4--7,an enameller47 ,a subcaste of ,sunar4 ,they practise hypergamy by taking wives from the ,pitariye and ,sudihe subdivisions1 and giving daughters to the ,sri ,nagariye and ,banjar ,mahuwe subdivisions4 ,also an occupational term meaning one who sets precious stones in rings4 ,jadubansi1 ,yadubansi4--,see ,jadum4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,jaga4--7,awakener47 ,synonym of ,basdewa4 ,jagat4--7,an awakener or sorcerer47 ,a sept of ,gond in many localities4 ,a section of ,nat and ,kasar4 ,jaharia4--7,from jahar1 an essence47 ,subcaste of ,satnami4 ,jain4--,name of a religion4 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,kalar1 ,kumbar and ,simpi 7,darzi74 ,jaina4--7,one who follows the ,jain faith47 ,subcaste of ,komti1 ,gurao4 ,jain ,koshti4--,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,jaipuria4--7,a resident of ,jaipur47 ,subcaste of ,mali4 ,jaiswar4--7,from the old town of ,jais in ,rai ,bareli ,district47 ,a subcaste of ,chamars1 who usually call themselves ,jaiswara in preference to their caste name4 ,a subcaste of ,barai1 ,kunbi and ,kalar4 ,jalalia4--,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,jaitwa or ,kamari4--,a clan of ,rajputs2 one of the thirty-six royal races mentioned by ,colonel ,tod4 ,jallad4--7,an executioner47 ,subcaste of ,kanjar4 ,jamadagni4--,an eponymous section of ,karhare ,brahman and ,agharia4 ,jambu4--7,from the jaman tree47 ,a subcaste of ,brahman and ,marar4 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,jambu ,dalia4--7,born in a shed made of jaman branches47 ,a section of ,ghasia4 ,jamnabasi4--7,residing on the banks of the ,jumna47 ,a subcaste of ,dhobi4 ,jangam4--,a caste of ,saiva mendicants1 who call themselves ,vir ,shaiva1 and are priests of the ,lingayat sect2 a subcaste of ,jogi4 ,jangra4--7,perhaps the same as ,jharia or jungly47 ,a subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,a section of ,dhimar1 ,mali and ,sunar4 ,jani4--,a wise man2 an exorciser4 ,janta4--7,flour grinding-mill47 ,a section of ,panka1 a sept of ,kawar4 ,janughanta4--,mendicants who tie bells to their thighs2 a kind of ,jogis4 ,jaria4--,a totemistic section of ,basor1 who worship the ber or wild plum tree4 ,jasondhi1 ,dasaundhi4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,bhat4 ,jasondhi1 ,karohla4--,a small caste of the ,narsinghpur ,district1 who were employed at the ,gond and ,maratha courts to sing the jas or hymns in praise of the chiefs4 ,they may be considered as a branch of the ,bhat caste1 and some of them are said to be addicted to petty theft4 ,some ,jasondhis1 who are also known as ,karohla1 now wander about as religious mendicants1 singing the praises of ,devi4 ,they carry an image of the goddess suspended by a chain round the neck and ask for gifts of tilli 7sesamum7 or other vegetable oil1 which they pour over their heads and over the image4 ,their clothes and bodies are consequently always saturated with this oil4 ,they also have a little cup of vermilion which they smear on the goddess and on their own bodies after receiving an offering4 ,they call on ,devi1 saying1 ',maiji1 ,maiji ,mata meri1 kahe ko janam diya' or ',mother1 mother1 why did you bring me into the world8' ,women who have no children sometimes vow to dedicate their first-born son as a ,karohla1 and it is said that such children were bound to sacrifice themselves to the goddess on attaining manhood in one of three ways4 ,either they went to ,benares and were cut in two by a sword1 or else to ,badrinarayan1 a shrine on the summit of the ,himalayas1 where they were frozen to death1 or to ,dhaolagiri1 where they threw themselves down from a rock1 and one might occasionally escape death4 ,their melancholy refrain may thus be explained by the fate in store for them4 ,the headquaters of the order is the shrine of the ,bindhyachal ,devi in the ,vindhyan ,hills4 ,jat4--,a caste4 ,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,barhai1 ,bishnoi and ,kumhar4 ,jatadhari4--7,with matted hair47 ,a sect of celibate ,manbhaos4 ,jati4--,name of ,jain mendicant ascetics4 ,jaunpuri4--7,from ,jaunpur47 ,a subcaste of ,halwai and ,lohar4 ,jemadar4--,honorific title of ,khangar and ,mehtar4 ,jemadarin4--,title of the female leaders of the ,yerukala communities of thieves4 ,jera4--7,a forked stick for collecting thorny wood47 ,a section of ,dangi4 ,jhadi1 ,jhade1 ,jharia1 ,jharkua4 7,jungly47--,a name often applied to the oldest residents of a caste in any locality of the ,central ,provinces4 ,in ,berar it is used to designate the ,wainganga ,valley and adjacent hill ranges4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,barai1 ,barhai1 ,chamar1 ,dhangar1 ,dhanwar1 ,dhobi1 ,gadaria1 ,gurao1 ,kapewar1 ,kasar1 ,katia1 ,kewat1 ,khatik1 ,khond1 ,kirar1 ,kumhar1 ,kunbi1 ,kurmi1 ,mahar1 ,mali1 ,nai1 ,sunar1 ,teli and ,turi4 ,jhadukar4--7,from jhadu1 a broom47 ,a synonym of ,mehtar4 ,jhal or ,jhala4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,raj-,gond4 ,jhankar4--,name of a village priest in the ,uriya country4 ,the ,jhankar is usually a ,binjhwar or member of another primitive tribe4 ,jhara1 ,jhira1 ,jhora4--,synonym of ,sonjhara4 ,jharha4--subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,jharia4--7,jungly47 ,see ,jhadi4 ,jharola4--7,perhaps from the town of ,jhalor in ,marwar47 ,a subcaste of ,brahmans in ,jubbulpore4 ,jhinga4--7,a prawn-catcher47 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,jijhotia or ,jujhotia4--7,from ,jajhoti1 the old name of the country of ,lalitpur and ,saugor47 ,a subcaste of ,brahmans of the ,kanaujia division4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir2 a section of ,joshi and ,kumhar4 ,jildgar4--7,a bookbinder47 ,a class of ,mochi4 ,jingar4--7,a saddlemaker47 ,a class of ,mochi4 ,a subcaste of ,chamar and of ,simpi 7,darzi74 ,jirayat4--,synonym for ,mochis in ,berar who have taken up the finer kinds of ironwork1 such as mending guns1 etc4 ,jire-,mali4--,formerly was the only subcaste of ,mali who would grow cumin or jira4 ,jiria4--7,from jira1 or cumin47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,jogi1 ,jugi4 ,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,dewar4 ,a section of ,chamar1 ,chhipa and ,lohar4 ,joharia4--7,from johar1 a form of salutation47 ,subcaste of ,dahaits in ,bilaspur4 ,johri4--,a subcaste of ,rajput4 ,jokhara4--,a small class of ,muhammadans who breed leeches and apply them to patients1 the name being derived from jonk1 a leech4 ,they were not separately classified at the census1 but a few families of them are found in ,burhanpur1 and they marry among themselves1 because no other ,muhammadans will marry with them4 ,in other parts of ,india leeches are kept and applied by sweepers and sometimes by their women4 #dde ,people suffering from boils1 toothache1 swellings of the face1 piles and other diseases have leeches applied to them4 ,for toothache the leeches are placed inside the mouth on the gum for two days in succession4 ,there are two kinds of leeches known as ,bhainsa-jonk1 the large or buffalo-leech1 and ,rai-jonk1 the small leech4 ,they are found in the mud of stagnant tanks and in broken-down wells1 and are kept in earthen vessels in a mixture of black soil and water2 and in this condition they will go without food for months and also breed4 ,some patients object to having their blood taken out of the house1 and in such cases powdered turmeric is given to the leeches to make them disgorge1 and the blood of the patient is buried inside the house4 ,the same means is adopted to prevent the leeches from dying of repletion4 ,in ,gujarat the ,jokharas are a branch of the ,hajjam or ,muhammadan barber caste1 #ddf and this recalls the fact that the barber chirurgeon or surgeon in medival ,england was also known as the leech4 ,it would be natural to suppose that he was named after the insect which he applied1 but ,murray's ,dictionary holds that the two words were derived from separate early ,english roots1 and were subsequently identified by popular etymology4 ,jondhara4--7,indian millet47 ,a totemistic sept of ,korku and ,halba4 ,joshi4--7,an astrologer47 ,a caste4 ,a surname of ,karhara ,brahmans4 ,juthia4--7,one who eats the leavings of others47 ,subcaste of ,basor4 ,jyotishi4--,a synonym for ,joshi2 an astrologer4 ,kabiraya4--7,followers of ,kabir47 ,a subcaste of ,kori4 ,a section of ,koshti4 ,kabirpanthi4--,a member of the ,kabirpanthi sect4 ,a subcaste of ,panka and ,agharia4 ,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,kabra4--7,spotted47 ,one of the #gb #a_/b sections of ,maheshri ,bania4 ,kabutari4--7,pigeon47 ,a synonym for ,kolhati4 ,a name given to female dancers of the ,nat caste4 ,kabutkunia4--7,those who find place at the corner of the door47 ,a subcaste of ,sudh in ,sambalpur1 being the illegitimate issues of the ,baro ,sudh subcaste4 ,kachara4--,synonym of ,kachera4 ,kachchhi4--7,from ,cutch in ,gujarat47 ,a subdivision of ,balmiki ,kayasths and ,mathur ,kayasths4 ,kachhap4--7,tortoise47 ,a totemistic sept of ,agharia1 ,sudh1 ,bhulia1 ,chasa1 ,kamar and ,khandait4 ,kachhotia4--,subcaste of ,jadam4 ,kachhutva4--7,the tortoise47 ,a totemistic sept of several groups of ,gonds1 also of ,darzi1 ,halba1 ,kol1 ,rawat1 ,munda1 ,jat1 ,kachhi and ,lohar4 ,kachhwaha4--7,the tortoise47 ,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs1 the princes of ,jaipur or ,amber being of this clan4 ,they derive the name from ,cutch1 or from ,kush1 an eponymous ancestor4 ,a section of ,nandbansi ,ahir1 ,gadaria1 ,kachhi and ,nat4 ,the ,kachhwaha section of ,gadarias worship the tortoise4 ,kada-kalle-bhallavi4--,one who uses donkeys for pack-carriage 7bhallavi71 but stole a horse 7kalle-kada74 ,a sept of the ,dhurwa clan of ,satdeve ,gonds in ,betul4 ,kagar4--,synonym of ,dhimar4 ,kagwaria4--,from kagwar1 an offering made to the ancestors in the month of ,kunwar4 ,subcaste of ,kol4 ,kaibartta4--,synonym of ,kewat4 ,kaikadi4--,synonym of ,kaikari4 ,kainthwans4--,a subcaste of ,pasi in ,saugor and ,betul1 said to have originated in a cross between a ,badhak or ,baori1 and a ,kayasth woman4 ,kaith4--,synonym for ,kayasth4 ,kaitha1 ,kaithia4--,subcaste of ,bharbhunja and ,darzi4 ,kakra4--,one who arranges for the lighting at the marriage and other ceremonies4 ,subcaste of ,chitrakathi4 ,kala4--7,black47 ,a subcaste of ,golkar 7,ahir4 ,kalachuri4--,synonym for the ,haihaya clan of ,rajputs4 ,kalanga4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,gond4 ,kalanki4--,a subdivision of ,maharashtra ,brahmans found in ,nagpur4 ,they are considered degraded1 as their name indicates4 ,they are said to have cut up a cow made of flour to please a ,muhammadan governor1 and to follow some other ,muhammadan practices4 ,kalapithia1--7,having black backs47 ,a subcaste of ,savars in ,puri of ,orissa4 ,they have the right of dragging the car of ,jagannath4 ,kalawant4--,title of ,mirasi4 ,kalbelia4--7,catcher of snakes47 ,a subcaste of ,nat4 ,kalibelia4--7,bel1 an ox47 ,a section of ,chadar4 ,they draw a picture of an ox at their weddings4 ,kalihari4--7,bridle47 ,a section of ,teli in ,nandgaon1 so named because they presented a bridle to their king4 ,kalkhor4--7,castor-oil plant47 ,a totemistic sept of the ,audhalia caste4 ,kalutia1 ,kalota4--,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,chanda and ,betul4 ,kalwar4--,synonym of ,kalar4 ,kamad4 #ddg--;,a small caste of jugglers1 who come from ,rajputana and travel about in the ,hoshangabad and ,nimar ,districts4 ,they were not returned at the census1 and appear to belong to ,rajputana4 ,their special entertainment consists in playing with cymbals1 and women are the chief performers4 ,the woman has eight or nine cymbals secured to her legs before and behind1 and she strikes these rapidly in turn with another held in her hand1 twisting her body skilfully so as to reach all of them1 and keeping time with the music played on guitar-like instruments by the men who accompany her4 ,if the woman is especially skilful1 she will also hold a naked sword in her mouth1 so as to increase the difficulty of the performance4 ,the ,kamads dress after the ,rajputana fashion1 and wear yellow ochre-coloured clothes4 ,their exogamous sections have ,rajput names1 as ,chauhan1 ,panwar1 ,gudesar1 ,jogpal and so on1 and like the ,rajputs they send a cocoanut-core to signify a proposal for marriage4 ,but the fact that they have a special aversion to ,dhobis and will not touch them makes it possible that they originated from the ,dom caste1 who share this prejudice4 #ddh ,reason has been found to suppose that the ,kanjars1 ,kolhatis and other migrant groups of entertainers are sprung from the ,doms1 and the ,kamads may be connected with these4 ,no caste1 not even the sweepers1 will accept food from the ,kamads4 ,they employ a ,brahman1 however1 to officiate at their marriage and death ceremonies4 ,like the ,gosains the ,kamads bury their dead in a sitting posture1 a niche being hollowed out at the side of the grave in which the corpse is placed4 ,crushed bread 7malida7 and a gourd full of water are laid beside the corpse4 ,the caste worship the footprints of ,ramdeo1 a saint of ,marwar1 and pay special reverence to the goddess ,hinglaj1 who is a deity of several castes in ,rajputana4 ,kamalbansi4--7,stock of the lotus47 ,subcaste of ,kawar4 ,kamal ,kul4--7,lotus47 ,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use lotus roots nor yams4 ,kamari1 ,kailwa4--,one of the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,kamaria4--7,from kambal1 blanket47 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,a section of ,dhimar and ,sonkar4 ,kamathi1 ,kamati4--,a term applied in the ,maratha ,districts to immigrants from ,madras4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,kamathis have become a caste1 but about #aej persons returned this name as their caste in the ,central ,provinces and ,berar in #aiaa1 and there are about #gjjj in ,india1 none1 however1 being recorded from the ,madras ,presidency4 ,it is stated that the word ,kamathi means 'fool' in ,tamil1 and that in ,bombay all ,telugus are called ,kamathis1 to whatever caste they may belong4 ,similarly1 ,maratha immigrants into ,madras are known by the generic name of ,arya1 #ddi and those coming from ,hindustan into the ,nerbudda valley as ,pardeshi1 while in the same locality the ,brahmans and ,rajputs of ,central ,india are designated by the ,marathas as ,rangra4 ,this term has the signification of rustic or boorish1 and is therefore a fairly close parallel to ,kamathi1 if the latter word has the meaning given above4 ,in the ,thana ,district of ,bombay #dej people of many classes are included under the name of ,kamathi4 ,though they do not marry or even eat together1 the different classes of ,kamathis have a strong feeling of fellowship1 and generally live in the same quarter of the town4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,kamathis are usually masons and house-builders or labourers4 ,they speak ,telugu in their houses and ,marathi to outsiders4 ,in ,sholapur #dea the ,kamathis dress like ,kunbis4 ,they are bound together by a strong caste feeling1 and appear to have become a regular caste4 ,their priests are ,telugu ,brahmans1 and their ceremonies resemble those of ,kunbis4 ,on the third day after a child is born the midwife lifts it up for the first time1 and it is given a few light blows on the back4 ,for three days the child sucks one end of a rag the other end of which rests in a saucer of honey1 and the mother is fed on rice and clarified butter4 ,on the fourth day the mother begins to suckle the child4 ,until the mother is pregnant a second time1 no choti or scalp-lock is allowed to grow on the child's head4 ,when she becomes pregnant1 she is taken with the child before the village god1 and a tuft of hair is thereafter left to grow on the crown of its head4 ,kamma4--,a large cultivating caste of the ,madras ,presidency1 of which a few representatives were returned from the ,chanda ,district in #aiaa4 ,they are derived from the same ,dravidian stock as the other great cultivating castes of ,madras1 and1 originally soldiers by profession1 have now settled down to agriculture4 ,no description of the caste need be given here1 but the following interesting particulars may be recorded4 ,the word ,kamma means an ear ornament1 and according to tradition a valuable jewel of this kind belonging to a ,raja of ,warangal fell into the hands of his enemies4 ,one section of the great ,kapu caste1 boldly attacking the foe and recovering the jewel1 were hence called ,kamma1 while another section1 which ran away1 received the derogatory title of ,velama 7veli1 away74 ,another story says that the ,kammas and ,velamas were originally one caste1 and had adopted the ,muhammadan system of gosha or purda4 ,but finding that they were thus handicapped in competition with the other cultivating castes1 it was proposed that the new custom should be abandoned4 ,those who agreed to this signed a bond1 which was written on a palm-leaf 7kamma71 and hence received their new name4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,kammas are divided into three subcastes1 the ,illuvellani or those who do not go out of the house1 the ,tadakchatu or those who live within tadaks or mat screens1 and the ,polumtir or those who go into the fields4 ,these names are derived from the degrees in which the different subdivisions seclude their women1 the ,illuvellani observing strict purda and the ,polumtir none whatever1 while the ,tadakchatu follow a middle course4 ,on this account some social difference exists between the three subcastes1 and when the ,illuvellani dine with either of the other two they will not eat from the plates of their hosts1 but take their food separately on a leaf4 ,and the ,tadakchatu practise a similar distinction with the ,polumtir1 but the two latter divisions do not decline to eat from plates or vessels belonging to an ,illuvellani4 ,the ,kammas forbid a man to marry in the gotra or family group to which he belongs1 but a wife from the same gotra as his mother's is considered a most desirable match1 and if his maternal uncle has a daughter he should always take her in marriage4 ,a man is even permitted to marry his own sister's daughter1 but he may not wed his mother's sister's daughter1 who is regarded as his own sister4 ,among the ,kammas of the ,tamil country ,mr4 7,sir ,h47 ,stuart #deb states that a bride is often much older than her husband1 and a case is cited in which a wife of twenty-two years of age used to carry her boy-husband on her hip as a mother carries her child4 ,one other curious custom recorded of the caste may be noticed4 ,a woman dying within the lifetime of her husband is worshipped by her daughters1 granddaughters or daughters-in-law1 and in their absence by her husband's second wife if he has one4 ,the ceremony is performed on some festival such as ,dasahra or ,til-,sankrant1 when a ,brahman lady1 who must not be a widow1 is invited and considered to represent the deceased ancestor4 ,she is anointed and washed with turmeric and saffron1 and decorated with sandal-paste and flowers2 a new cloth and breast-cloth are then presented to her which she puts on2 sweets1 fruit and betel-leaf are offered to her1 and the women of the family bow down before her and receive her benediction1 believing that it comes from their dead relative4 ,kammala4--,a small ,telugu caste in the ,chanda ,district4 ,the name ,kammala is really a generic term applied to the five artisan castes of ,kamsala or goldsmith1 ,kanchara or brazier1 ,kammara or blacksmith1 ,vadra or carpenter1 and ,silpi or stone-mason4 ,these are in reality distinct castes1 but they are all known as ,kammalas4 ,the ,kammalas assert that they are descended from ,visva ,karma1 the architect of the gods1 and in the ,telugu country they claim equality with ,brahmans1 calling themselves ,visva ,brahmans4 ,but inscriptions show that as late as the year ,a4,d4 #ajcc they were considered a very inferior caste and confined to the village site4 #dec ,mr4 7,sir ,h47 ,stuart writes in the ,madras ,census ,report that it is not difficult to account for the low position formerly held by the ,kammalas1 for it must be remembered that in early times the military castes in ,india as elsewhere looked down upon all engaged in labour1 whether skilled or otherwise4 ,with the decline of military power1 however1 it was natural that a useful caste like the ,kammalas should gradually improve its position1 and the reaction from this long oppression has led them to make the exaggerated claims described above1 which are ridiculed by every other caste1 high or low4 ,the five main subdivisions of the caste do not intermarry4 ,they have priests of their own and do not allow even ,brahmans to officiate for them1 but they invite ,brahmans to their ceremonies4 ,girls must be married before puberty4 ,the binding ceremony of the marriage consists in the tying of a circular piece of gold on a thread of black beads round the bride's neck by the bridegroom4 ,widow-marriage is prohibited4 ,kammari4--,telugu ,lohars or blacksmiths4 ,kamsala4--7,a goldsmith47 ,subcaste of ,kammala4 ,kanalsia4--7,kanelu1 a tile47 ,a section of ,ahir in ,nimar who do not live in tiled huts4 ,kanare4--7,a resident of ,canara47 ,a subcaste of ,dhangar4 ,kanaujia1 ,kankubja4--,a very common subcaste name1 indicating persons whose ancestors are supposed to have come from the town of ,kanauj in northern ,india1 into the ,central ,provinces4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,bahna1 ,bharbhunja1 ,bhat1 ,brahman1 ,dahait1 ,darzi1 ,dhobi1 ,halwai1 ,lohar1 ,mali1 ,nai1 ,patwa1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,kanbajia or ,ahirwar4--,same as ,kanaujia4 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,kanchara4--7,a brassworker47 ,subcaste of ,kammala4 ,kand4--7,roots or tubers of wild plants47 ,a section of ,raghuvansi ,rajputs in ,hoshangabad4 ,kanda ,potel4--7,one who grows roots47 ,a section of ,mali4 ,kande4--,subcaste of ,bedar4 ,kandera4--,synonym for ,kadera4 ,subcaste of ,bahna4 ,kandh4--,synonym of ,khond4 ,a subcaste of ,taonla in ,sambalpur4 ,kandhana4--,subcaste of ,khond4 ,kandhia4--7,a big-beaked vulture47 ,a sept of ,dhanwar4 ,kandia4--7,kandi1 a shell1 also a snake47 ,a section of ,teli in ,betul4 ,kandol4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans1 who take their name from the village ,kandol1 in ,kathiawar4 ,kandra4--,a small caste of bamboo-workers in the ,uriya country1 akin to the ,basors elsewhere4 ,members of the caste are found in small numbers in the ,raipur and ,balaghat ,districts4 ,the word ,kandra may be derived from kand1 an arrow1 just as ,dhanuk1 often a synonym for ,basor1 has the meaning of an archer4 ,it is not improbable that among the first articles made of bamboo were the bow and arrow of the forest tribes1 and that the bow-maker was the parent of the modern ,basor or basket-maker1 bows being a requisite of an earlier stage of civilisation than baskets4 ,in ,bhandara the ,kandras are an offshoot of ,gonds4 ,their women do not wear their cloths over the head1 and knot their hair behind without plaiting it4 ,they talk a ,gondi dialect and are considered an impure caste4 ,kandu4--7,a grain-parcher47 ,a synonym and subcaste of ,bharbhunja4 ,a subcaste of ,halwai4 ,kandua4--7,from kand1 onion1 as they eat onions47 ,a subcaste of ,bharbhunja4 ,kanera4--7,from the kaner tree47 ,a totemistic section of ,ganda and ,khangar4 ,kangali4--7,poor47 ,a common sept of ,gonds4 ,kanhejin4--,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,kanhpuria4--7,from ,cawnpore1 which was founded by their eponymous hero ,kanh47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,kanjar4--,a caste of gipsies4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara4 ,kankubja4--,see ,kanaujia4 ,kannow4--,a sectarian division of ,brahmans4 ,kanphata4--7,one who has his ears bored or pierced47 ,a class of ,jogi mendicants4 ,kansari4--,synonym of ,kasar4 ,kanwar4--,synonym of ,kawar4 ,kanwarbansi4--,a subtribe of ,khairwar4 ,kaonra or ,kora4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,kaore4--,a sept of ,gonds4 ,a surname of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,kapalia4--7,covered with skulls47 ,a section of ,telis in ,betul4 ,kaparia4--7,from kapra cloth1 owing to their wearing several dresses1 which they change rapidly like the ,bahrupia47 ,synonym of ,basdewa4 ,kapasia4--7,from kapas1 cotton47 ,a section of ,mahar4 ,kapdi4--,synonym of ,basdewa4 ,kapur4--7,camphor47 ,a section of ,khatri4 ,kapuria4--,a subdivision of ,arhaighar ,saraswat ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad1 probably deriving their title from being the priests of the ,kapur section of ,khatris4 ,karai ,nor4--,a section of ,basor4 ,they perform the ,meher ceremony of eating the marriage cakes near a well and not in the house4 ,karait4--7,a poisonous snake47 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,halba and ,panka4 ,karan 7,mahanti74--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,an eponymous section of ,binjhwar and ,tanti4 ,karaola4--7,one who pours sesamum oil on his clothes and begs47 ,synonym for ,jasondhi and ,bhat4 ,karbal4--,subcaste of ,khangar4 ,karchuli4--,a clan of ,rajputs1 formerly a ruling race in the ,jubbulpore country4 ,see ,rajput-,haihaya4 ,a section of ,joshi and ,mochi4 ,kare1 ,karia4--7,black47 ,a subcaste of ,marar4 ,a section of ,binjhwar1 ,ahir1 ,chhipa and ,lodhi4 ,karela4--7,bitter gourd47 ,a section of ,sonkar4 ,karhada4--,a subcaste of ,maharashtra ,brahmans deriving their name from ,karhad1 near the junction of the ,krishna and ,koyana rivers1 about fifteen miles from ,satara4 ,karhaiya4--7,frying-pan47 ,a section of ,raghuvansi4 ,karigar4--7,a workman47 ,an honorific title of ,barhai and ,lohar4 ,a subcaste and synonym of ,beldar4 ,karijat4--,subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,the members of this subcaste only kill birds of a black colour4 ,karkarkadhe4--7,stone-diggers47 ,subcaste of ,mang4 ,karnam4--,synonym of ,karan1 a palm-leaf writer4 ,karnata1 ,karnataka4--,one of the five orders of ,panch ,dravida or southern ,brahmans1 inhabiting the ,canarese country4 ,karnati4--7,from the ,carnatic47 ,synonym for a class of ,nats or acrobats4 ,karohla4--,a religious mendicant who wanders about singing praises of ,devi4 ,see ,jasondhi4 ,karpachor4--7,stealer of straw47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,karsayal4--7,a deer47 ,a sept of the ,kawar tribe4 ,also a sept of ,ahir1 ,bhaina1 ,dhobi in ,chhattisgarh1 ,kewat1 ,lohar and ,turi4 ,karsi4--7,from kalas1 a pitcher47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,they do not drink water from a red jar on the ,akti festival4 ,karwa4--,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,karwar4--7,an oar47 ,a section of ,dangi in ,damoh4 ,a section of ,kawar4 ,kasai4--,a caste of butchers4 ,name applied to ,banjaras4 ,kasar4--,a caste4 ,a subdivision of ,audhia ,sunar4 ,a section of ,kewat4 ,kasarwani4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,kasaundhan4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,kasda4--7,one who hides himself in the bed of the river47 ,a sept of ,korku2 a man of this sept has the privilege of directing the ceremony for the readmission of an outcaste4 ,kasdhonia4--,a subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,they wash the sand in the sacred rivers for coins thrown there by pilgrims1 and dive into water to find lost ornaments or gold4 ,kasera4--,synonym of ,kasar4 ,kashi4--7,benares47 ,a section of ,agharia1 ,ahir1 ,dhuri1 ,kewat1 ,kurmi and ,mali4 ,kashyap4--,name of a famous ,rishi or saint4 ,the name may perhaps be really derived from kachhap1 a tortoise4 ,one of the common eponymous sections of ,brahmans4 ,also a section of ,barai1 ,bari1 ,beldar1 ,bharbhunja1 ,bhulia1 ,binjhwar1 ,chandnahu ,kurmi1 ,gond1 ,jangam1 ,joshi1 ,kalar1 ,kasar1 ,kasarwani ,bania1 ,khangar1 ,nai1 ,rajput1 ,sunar4 ,some castes say that they are all of the ,kashyap gotra or section1 the tortoise being considered a common ancestor of mankind1 because it supports the world4 ,kasia4--7,kansa1 or bell-metal47 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,they draw a picture of a bell-metal dish at their weddings4 ,kasondhi4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,kassab1 ,kassia4--7,a butcher47 ,synonym of ,kasai4 ,kast4--,a small caste found in the ,maratha ,districts and ,bombay1 who appear to be a separate or inferior group of the ,kayasths4 ,in ,chanda they work as patwaris and clerks to moneylenders1 while some are merchants and landholders4 ,like the ,kayasths1 they wash their pens and inkstands on the ,dasahra festival and worship them4 ,their principal deity is the god ,venkatesh1 a ,maratha incarnation of ,vishnu4 ,in ,bombay the ,kasts claim to be ,yajur-,vedi ,brahmans1 dress like them and keep the regular ,brahman ceremonies4 #ded ,but they are considered to be half ,marathas and half ,brahmans1 and strict ,deshasth and ,kokanasth ,brahmans hold their touch unclean4 #dee ,katare4--7,katar1 dagger47 ,a surname of ,sanadhya ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a section of ,agarwal and ,oswal ,bania1 ,chhattisgarhi ,ahir or ,rawat1 ,chadar and ,basor4 ,the ,katare sept of ,basors worship a dagger4 ,katharia4--7,from ,kathibar1 the old name of eastern ,rohilkhand47 ,a section of ,gadaria and ,kasar4 ,kathbhaina2--,subcaste of ,baiga in ,bilaspur4 ,kathi4--,a ,rajput clan included in the thirty-six royal races of ,rajputs4 ,originally an indigenous tribe of ,gujarat1 who gave their name to ,kathiawar4 ,kathia4--,name of an ,akhara or school of ,bairagi religious mendicants4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,kathotia4--7,kathotia1 a wooden bowl47 ,a section of ,darzi4 ,kati or ,khatti4--,subcaste of ,bhuiya4 ,katia4--,a cast of spinners4 ,a subcaste of ,balahi and ,mahar4 ,kattri4--,subcaste of ,are4 ,katwa4--7,from ,katna1 to cut47 ,synonym of ,katia and ,chamar4 ,kaur4--,synonym of ,kawar4 ,kaushalya4--7,from ,koshal1 the name of a famous ,rishi or saint47 ,a section of ,agarwal ,bania1 ,darzi1 ,lodhi and ,khatri ,sunar4 ,kaushik4--,the name of a ,rishi or saint4 ,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,dhobi1 ,rajput1 ,sunar and other castes4 ,kaviraj4--,title of a ,bhat who has the qualification of literacy1 and can therefore read the old ,sanskrit medical works4 ,a physician4 ,kayasth ,patwa4--,a subcaste of ,patwa in ,hoshangabad and ,saugor4 ,kekre4--,subcaste of ,gujar4 ,kesaria4--7,from kesar1 saffron47 ,a section of ,ahir and ,gadaria4 ,kewat4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,dhimar and ,mallah4 ,khad4--,subcaste of ,mana4 ,khadal4--,a caste of palanquin-carriers4 ,khadal #def 7honorific titles ,nayak and ,behera74--,a small ,dravidian caste of labourers in the ,uriya country4 ,in #aija they numbered #abjj persons and resided principally in the ,patna and ,sonpur ,states now transferred to ,bengal4 ,the ,khadals are probably an offshoot of the great ,bauri caste of ,bengal1 with which the members of the caste in ,patna admitted their identity1 though elsewhere they deny it4 ,their traditional occupations of palanquin-bearing and field labour are identical with those of the ,bauris1 as stated by ,sir ,h4 ,risley4 #deg ,the name ,khadal is a functional one1 denoting persons who work with a hoe4 ,the ,khadals have totemistic exogamous groups1 the ,kilasi sept worshipping a tree1 the ,julsi and ,kandualsi sept a snake-hole1 and ,balunasi a stone and others the sun4 ,each sept salutes the revered object or totem on seeing it1 and those who worship trees will not burn them or stand in their shade4 ,when a marriage takes place they worship the totem and offer to it flowers1 sandalwood1 vermilion1 uncooked rice1 and the new clothes and ornaments intended for the bride1 which she may not wear until this ceremony has been performed4 ,another curious custom adopted by the ,khadals in imitation of the ,hindus is that of marrying adult boys and girls1 for whom a partner has not been found1 to a tree4 ,but this does not occur when they arrive at puberty as among ,hindu castes1 but when a boy still unmarried becomes thirty years old and a girl twenty4 ,in such a case he or she is married to a mango1 cotton or jamun tree1 and after this no second ceremony need be performed on subsequent union with a wife or husband4 ,a widower must pay ,rs4 #aj1 or double the usual price1 for a second wife1 owing to the risk of her death being caused by the machinations of the first wife's spirit4 ,when a corpse has been buried or burnt the mourners each take a twig of mango and beat about in the grass to start a grasshopper4 ,having captured one they wrap it in a piece of new cloth1 and coming home place it beside the family god4 ,this they call bringing back the life of the soul1 and consider that the ceremony procures salvation for the dead4 ,the ,khadals are usually considered as impure1 but those of ,sonpur have attained a somewhat higher status4 ,khadia4--7,a kind of snake47 ,a section of ,ahir and ,raghuvansi4 ,a sept of ,nahal4 ,khadra1 #deh ,khadura or ,kharura4--,a small ,uriya caste whose occupation is to make brass ornaments4 ,they are immigrants from ,cuttack and say that they are called there ,sankhari1 so that the ,khadras may not improbably be an offshoot of the ,sankhari caste of shell-cutters of ,bengal4 ,according to their traditions their original ancestor was created by ,viswakarma1 the celestial architect1 for the business of making a pinnacle for the temple of ,jagannath at ,puri1 in which eight metals had to be combined4 ,he left two sons1 one of whom became the ancestor of the ,khadras1 and the other of the ,kasars1 with whom the ,khadras thus claim affinity4 ,they have no subcastes but four gotras or clans called after the ,nag or cobra1 the ,singh or lion1 and ,kasyap and ,kachchap1 both derived from the tortoise4 ,they also have four bargas or family names1 which are ,patra 7a term of respect71 ,das 7slave71 ,sao 7banker7 and ,maharana 7artificer74 ,the groups are supposed to be descended from four families who migrated from ,curtack4 ,neither bargas nor gotras are now considered in the arrangement of marriages1 which are prohibited between blood relatives for three generations4 ,marriage is infant1 and a girl arriving at puberty while still unwed is permanently expelled from the caste4 ,the ,khadras still follow the old rule of writing the lagun or date of the marriage on a palm-leaf1 with which they send ,rs4 #aj-d as a bride-price to the girl's father1 the acceptance of this constituting a confirmation of the betrothal4 ,the marriage ceremony resembles that of the other ,uriya castes1 and the ,khadras have the rite called badapani or breaking the bachelorhood4 ,a little water brought from seven houses is sprinkled over the bridegroom and his loin-cloth is then snatched away1 leaving him naked4 ,in this state he runs towards his own house1 but some boys are posted at a little distance who give him a new cloth4 ,widow-marriage and divorce are permitted1 but the hand of a widow must not be sought so long as she remains in her late husband's house1 and does not return to her father4 ,when a bachelor marries a widow he must first perform the regular ceremony with a leaf-cup filled with flowers1 after which he can take the widow as his second wife4 ,all important agreements are confirmed by a peculiar custom called heskani4 ,a deer-skin is spread on the ground before the caste committee1 and the person making the agreement bows before it a number of times4 ,to break an agreement made by the heskani rite is believed to involve terrible calamities4 ,the ,khadras eat the flesh of animals and fish but not that of birds1 and they do not drink country liquor4 ,when an estate is to be partitioned the eldest son first takes a tenth of the whole in right of primogeniture and the remainder is then divided equally4 ,the ,khadras rank as an artisan caste of somewhat low status4 ,khadura4--,synonym of ,khadra4 ,khaijraha4--7,a resident of ,khaira1 a town in ,central ,india47 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,khair1 ,khaira4--7,from khair1 catechu or the catechu tree4 ,a maker of catechu47 ,synonym for ,khairwar4 ,khairchura4--7,carechu preparer47 ,a subcaste of ,khairwar4 ,khaire4--,a subcaste of ,are 7,gondhali71 ,kanbi and ,oraon4 ,khairwar4--,a catechu-making caste4 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,khaiyaware4--7,khai1 ditch2 owing to their houses having been originally built on the ditch of ,hatta fort47 ,a section of ,beldar ,sonkars in ,damoh4 ,khaki4--7,from khak1 ashes47 ,a class of ,bairagi1 or religious mendicants4 ,khalifa4--7,lord47 ,an honorific title for ,darzis or tailors1 and ,muhammadan barbers4 ,khaltaha4--,subcaste of ,ghasia4 ,khaltati4--7,illegitimate47 ,subcaste of ,andh4 ,khaltia4--,subcaste of ,basdewa4 ,khamari4--7,farmservant47 ,a section of ,kolta4 ,khambi4--7,one who hides behind the graveyard47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,khanda4--7,a sword47 ,a section of ,panka and ,mahar4 ,khandait4--7,a swordsman47 ,an ,uriya caste4 ,a subcaste of ,sansia1 ,taonla and ,chasa4 ,also a name of ,koltas in ,cuttack4 ,khandapatra4--7,one who cleans swords47 ,a section of ,khandwal4 ,khandapi4--7,khanda1 a sword47 ,a sept of the ,dhurwa clan of ,sahdeve or six-god ,gonds in ,betul1 named after the sword of ,raja ,durga ,shah by which a victory was gained over the ,muhammadans4 ,khandele4--7,from khanda1 sword47 ,a section of ,raghuvansi ,rajputs in ,hoshangabad4 ,khandelwal4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,khandeshi4--7,a resident of ,khandesh47 ,a territorial subcaste of ,darzi1 ,joshi1 ,mahar and ,mang4 ,khanne1 ,khanna4--,a subdivision of ,chargarh ,saraswat ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad1 probably deriving their name from being priests of the ,khanna section of ,khatris4 ,a section of ,khatri4 ,khanonkha4--7,a kind of basket to catch birds with47 ,a totemistic sept of ,rautia ,kawars in ,bilaspur4 ,kharadi4--7,a turner1 one who turns woodwork on a lathe47 ,a synonym of ,kundera and ,barhai4 ,kharchi4--,bastard ,marathas forming a separate division as distinguished from the ,khasi or pure ,marathas4 ,khare4--,a subdivision of ,srivastab1 ,gaur and ,saksena ,kayasths1 meaning those of pure descent4 ,khari ,bind ,kewat4--,title of the ,murha caste4 ,kharodia4--7,a resident of ,kharod in ,bilaspur47 ,a subcaste of ,nunia4 ,kharsisjha4--7,maker of cowdung cakes47 ,a section of ,mali4 ,kharwade4--7,refuse47 ,a subcaste of ,simpi or ,maratha ,darzi 7tailor7 originally formed of excommunicated members of the caste1 but now occupying a position equal to other subcastes in ,nagpur4 ,kharwar4--,synonym of the ,khairwar tribe4 ,subcaste of ,chero and ,kol4 ,khasi4--,a subdivision of ,marathas1 meaning those born in wedlock4 ,khasua4--7,a eunuch47 ,synonym of ,hijra4 ,khati4--7,from the ,sanskrit kskatri1 one who cuts47 ,a subcaste of ,barhai and ,lohar4 ,khatik4--,a caste4 ,synonym of ,chikwa4 ,a subcaste of ,pasi in ,saugor1 said to have originated in a cross between a ,bauri and a ,khatik woman4 ,khatkudia4--7,illegitimate47 ,a section of ,teli in ,betul4 ,khatri4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,chhipa and of ,sunar in ,narsinghpur4 ,khatua4--7,having a cot47 ,a section of the ,hatwa caste4 ,khatulha or ,khatola4--,a subtribe of ,gond4 ,khatulwar4--,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,chanda1 the same as the ,khatulha of the northern ,districts4 ,khawas4--,a title of ,nai or barber4 ,a subcaste of ,dhuri4 ,a section of ,halba4 ,khedawal4--,a subcaste of ,gujarati ,brahmans4 ,they take their name from ,kheda or ,kaira1 a town in ,gujarat4 ,khedule4--,from kheda1 a village4 ,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,khendro4--,subcaste of ,oraon4 ,kheralawala4--,an immigrant from ,kherala in ,malwa4 ,subcaste of ,rangrez4 ,kherawal4--,see ,khedawal4 ,kheti4--7,cultivation47 ,a section of ,dumal4 ,khewat4--,synonym of ,kewat4 ,khichi4--,a clan of ,rajputs1 a branch of the ,sesodia clan4 ,khoba4--7,sticks for fencing the grain-store47 ,a sept of ,kawar2 they abstain from using these sticks4 ,khoksa4--7,a kind of fish47 ,a totemistic sept of ,rautia ,kawar in ,bilaspur4 ,khuntia4--,a subcaste of ,agaria4 ,one who uses a khunti or peg to fix the bellows in the ground for smelting iron4 ,a sept of ,savars4 7,those who bury their dead on a high place47 ,khursam4--,a sept of ,pardhan and ,dhur ,gond4 ,khutha4--7,impure47 ,a section of ,tamera in ,mandla4 ,khyaurokar4--7,one who shaves1 from kshaur1 to shave47 ,a synonym of ,nai or ,bhandari4 ,kilanaya4--7,kilna1 a dog-house47 ,a nickname section of ,ahir4 ,kilkila4--7,the kingfisher47 ,a sept of ,khairwar4 ,killibusum4--7,one who eats dead animals47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,kindra4--7,one who hides behind a tree47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,kirachi or ,karachi4--,a sept of ,gonds of ,raipur and ,betul4 ,kirad4--,synonym of ,kirar4 ,kirahiboijir4--7,a kind of fruit47 ,a section of ,teli in ,nandgaon4 ,kirar4--,a caste4 ,synonym ,dhakar4 ,a subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,a section of ,khatik4 ,kirnakha4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,chanda4 ,kirvant or ,kilvant4--,a subdivision of ,maharashtra ,brahmans in ,khairagarh4 ,the name is said to be derived from kira1 an insect1 because they kill insects in working their betel-vine gardens4 ,another explanation is that the name is really ,kriyavant1 and that they are so called because they conducted kriya or funeral services1 an occupation which degraded them4 ,a third form of the name is ,kramwant or reciters of the ,veda4 ,kisan4--7,a cultivator47 ,oraons are commonly known by this name in ,chota ,nagpur and ,gonds in ,mandla and other ,districts4 ,a section of ,marar1 ,rawat or ,ahir1 and ,savar4 ,koathia4--,a section of ,bais ,rajputs4 ,kochia4--,perhaps a name for ,bahnas or cotton cleaners4 ,kodjet4--7,a conqueror of crores of people47 ,a section of ,bhulia4 ,kohistani4--7,a dweller on mountains47 ,a section of ,pathan4 ,kohkatta4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,kohri4--,a synonym for the ,kohli caste4 ,koi4--,a class of ,gonds4 ,koikopal4--,a subcaste of ,gond4 ,koilabhut or ,koilabhuti4--,a subtribe of ,gonds4 ,their women are prostitutes4 ,koiri4--,a synonym of the ,murao caste4 ,koitur4--,a synonym for ,gond4 ,the name by which the ,gonds call themselves in many ,districts4 ,kokonasth or ,chitpavan4--,a subcaste of ,maharashtra ,brahmans inhabiting the ,konkan country4 ,chitpavan means the pure in heart4 ,koksinghia4--7,koka1 the ,brahmani duck47 ,a subsection of the ,pardhan section of ,koltas4 ,kol4--,a tribe4 ,subcaste of ,dahait4 ,kolabhut4--,a name for ,gonds4 ,kolam4--,a tribe4 ,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,chanda4 ,kolchar4--,a clan of ,maratha4 ,kolia4--7,from kolu1 oil-press47 ,a section of ,teli in ,betul4 ,koliha4--7,jackal47 ,a section of ,panwar ,rajput1 ,chamar and ,kawar4 ,kolita1 ,kulta4--,synonyms of ,kolta4 ,kolta4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,chasa4 ,kolya4--7,one who hides behind a jackal-hole47 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,komalwar4--7,komal1 soft47 ,a section of ,kurumwar4 ,komati4--,synonym of ,komti4 ,kommu4--7,a story-teller47 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,kondawar4--7,konda1 a mountain47 ,a section of ,palewar ,dhimar and ,koshti in ,chanda4 ,kondwan or ,kundi4--,a name of a tract south of the ,mahanadi which is called after the ,khond tribe1 and was formerly owned by them4 ,subcaste of ,baiga4 ,korai4--,a subcaste of ,ahir or ,rawat in ,bilaspur4 ,koraku4--7,young men47 ,subcaste of ,korwa4 ,koratkul4--,a section of ,komti2 they do not eat the kumhra or pumpkin4 ,korava4--,synonym of ,yerukala4 ,korchamar4--,a descendant of alliances between ,chamars and ,koris or weavers4 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,kori4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,balahi1 ,jaiswara ,chamar and ,katia4 ,korku4--,a tribe4 ,a subtribe of ,nahal4 ,korre4--7,residents of the ,korai hill-tract in ,seoni47 ,subcaste of ,injhwar4 ,kosaria4--,a subcaste of ,rawat or ,ahir1 ,barai1 ,dhobi1 ,kalar1 ,mali1 ,panka and ,teli2 a section of ,chamar and ,gond4 ,koshti1 ,koshta4--,a caste of weavers4 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,katia and ,bhulia4 ,koskati4--,a subcaste of ,koshti4 ,kothari--7,a store-keeper1 from kotha1 a store-room47 ,a section of ,oswal and ,maheshri ,banias4 ,kotharya4--7,a store-keeper47 ,subcaste of ,chitrakathi4 ,kotwal4--7,keeper of a castle1 or a village watchman47 ,honorific title of the ,khangar caste4 ,a surname of ,yajurvedi ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a section of ,halba4 ,kotwar4--,a person holding the office of village watchman4 ,this post is usually assigned to members of the lowest or impure castes derived from the aboriginal tribes1 such as the ,mahars1 ,ramosis1 ,gandas1 ,pankas1 ,minas and ,khangars4 ,some of these were or still are much addicted to crime4 ,the name kotwar appears to be a corruption of kotwal1 the keeper or guardian of a kot or castle4 ,under native rule the kotwal was the chief of police in important towns1 and the central police office in some towns is still called the kotwali after him4 ,in some villages there are still to be found both a kotwal and a kotwar2 in this case the former performs the duties of watch and ward of the village1 and the latter has the menial work of carrying messages1 collecting supplies and so on4 ,both are paid by fixed annual contributions of grain from the cultivators4 ,in ,hoshangabad the kotwar is allowed to glean for a day in the fields of each tenant after the crop has been removed4 ,it would appear that the kotwar was chosen from the criminal castes as a method of insurance4 ,the kotwar was held responsible for the good behaviour of his caste-fellows1 and was often under the obligation of making good any property stolen by them4 ,and if a theft occurred in another village and the thief was traced into the borders of the kotwar's village he was bound to take up the pursuit and show that the thief had passed beyond his village1 or to pay for the stolen property4 ,thieves were sometimes tracked by the kotwar1 and sometimes in ,gujarat and ,central ,india by a special official called ,paggal1 #dei who measured their footprints with a string1 and in this way often followed them successfully from village to village4 #dfj ,the rule that the kotwar had to make good all thefts occurring in his village or perpetrated by criminals belonging to it1 can only have been enforced to a very partial extent1 as unless he could trace the property he would be unable to pay any substantial sum out of his own means4 ,still1 it apparently had a considerable effect in the protection of property in the rural area1 for which the regular police probably did very little4 ,it was similarly the custom to employ a chaukidar or night-watchman to guard private houses when the owners could afford it1 and this man was taken from a criminal caste on the same principle4 ,the kotwar was also the guardian of the village boundaries1 and his opinion was often taken as authoritative in all cases of disputes about land4 ,this position he perhaps occupied as a representative of the pre-,aryan tribes1 the oldest residents of the country1 and his appointment may have also been partly based on the idea that it was proper to employ one of them as the guardian of the village lands1 just as the priest of the village gods of the earth and fields was usually taken from these tribes4 ,in some localities those members of an impure caste such as the ,mahars1 who hold the office of village watchman1 obtain a certain rise in status on account of the office1 and show a tendency to marry among themselves4 ,similarly persons of the impure ,ganda caste1 who joined the ,kabirpanthi sect and now form a separate and somewhat higher caste under the name of ,panka1 usually work as village watchmen in preference to the ,gandas4 ,under ,british rule the kotwar has been retained as a village policeman1 and his pay increased and generally fixed in cash4 ,besides patrolling the village1 he has to report all cognisable crime at the nearest police post as well as births and deaths occurring in the village1 and must give general assistance to the regular police in the detection of crime4 ,kotwar is used in ,saugor as a synonym for the ,chadar caste4 ,it is also a subcaste of the ,kori caste4 ,kowa4--7,a crow47 ,a section of ,tamera and of ,gond in ,chanda4 ,koya ,a subtribe of ,gond in ,bastar4 ,koyudu4--,a synonym of ,gond in ,chanda used by ,telugus4 ,kramikul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use the black radish4 ,kshatriya4--,name of the second ,hindu classical caste or the warrior caste4 ,synonym for ,rajput4 ,kshirsagar4--7,ocean of ,milk47 ,a section of ,panwar ,rajput1 and a proper name of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,kuch4--7,a weaver's brush47 ,a section of ,raghuvansi ,rajputs in ,hoshangabad4 ,kuchbandhia1 ,kunchbandhia4--7,a maker of weavers' brushes47 ,synonym and subcaste of ,beldar in ,chhattisgarh4 ,kudaiya4--7,kodon1 a small millet47 ,a section of ,ahir4 ,kudappa4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,raipur and ,khairagarh4 ,kudarbohna4--,a ,hindu ,bhana4 ,kudaria4--7,kudali1 a pickaxe47 ,a section of the ,bharia tribe4 ,kukra4--7,a dog47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhatra ,gonds4 ,a section of ,kumhar4 ,kukuta4--7,cock47 ,a sept of ,gonds in ,raipur4 ,kulatia4--,a section of ,basor4 ,from kulara1 a somersault1 because they perform somersaults at the time of the maihir ceremony1 or eating the marriage cakes4 ,kuldip4--7,the lamp of the family47 ,a section of ,panka in ,raipur4 ,kuldiya4--7,those who stop eating if the lamp goes out at supper47 ,a section of ,ghasia4 ,kulin4--7,of high caste47 ,a well-known class of ,bengali ,brahmans4 ,a subdivision of ,uriya ,mahantis4 ,a section of ,panka4 ,kulshreshta4--7,of good family47 ,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,kuman4--,subcaste of ,barai4 ,kumarrha or ,kumarra4--7,a bird47 ,a sept of ,sahdeve or six-god ,gonds4 ,in ,betul the members of this sept do not eat or kill a goat or sheep1 and throw away any article smelt by one4 ,kumarshishta4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use mehndi or henna leaves4 ,kumbhar4--7,potter47 ,marathi synonym for ,kumhar4 ,a section of ,ganda and ,bhulia4 ,kumbhoj4--7,born of a pitcher1 a ,rishi or saint47 ,an eponymous section of ,agharia4 ,kumbhira4--7,crocodile47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhulia4 ,kumbhwar4--7,kumbh1 a pot47 ,a surname of ,gandli in ,chanda4 ,kumharbans4--7,descended from a potter47 ,a section of ,ghasia4 ,kumrayete4--7,yete1 a goat47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,sahdeve or six-god ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they do not eat goats1 and are said to have offered human sacrifices in ancient times4 ,kunbi4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,dangri1 ,gondhali and ,maratha4 ,kumrawat1 #dfa ,patbina1 ,dangur4--,a small caste of san-hemp growers and weavers of sacking4 ,they are called ,kumrawat in the northern ,districts and ,patbina 7pat patti1 sacking1 and binna1 to weave7 in ,chhattisgarh4 ,a small colony of hemp-growers in the ,betul ,district are known as ,dangur1 probably from the dang or wooden steelyard which they use for weighing hemp4 ,both the ,kumrawats and ,dangurs claim ,rajput origin1 and may be classed together4 ,the caste of ,barais or betel-vine growers have a subcaste called ,kumrawat1 and the ,kumrawats may be an offshoot of the ,barais1 who split off from the parent body on taking to the cultivation of hemp4 ,as most ,hindu castes have until recently refused to grow hemp1 the ,kumrawats are often found concentrated in single villages4 ,thus a number of ,patbinas reside in ,darri1 a village in the ,khujji zamindari of ,raipur1 while the ,dangurs are almost all found in the village of ,masod in ,betul2 in ,jubbulpore ,khapa is their principal centre1 and in ,seoni the village of ,deori4 ,the three divisions of the caste known by the names given above marry1 as a rule1 among themselves4 ,for their exogamous groups the ,dangurs have usually the names of different ,rajput septs1 the ,kumrawats have territorial names1 and those of the ,patbinas are derived from inanimate objects1 though they have no totemistic practices4 ,the number of girls in the caste is usually insufficient1 and hence they are married at a very early age4 ,the boy's father1 accompanied by a few friends1 goes to the girl's father and addresses a proposal for marriage to him in the following terms3 ,you have planted a tamarind tree which has borne fruit4 ,i don't know whether you will catch the fruit before it falls to the ground if ,i strike it with my stick4 ,the girl's father1 if he approves of the match1 says in reply1 ',why should ,i not catch it8' and the proposal for the marriage is then made4 ,the ceremony follows the customary ritual in the northern ,districts4 ,when the family gods are worshipped1 the women sit round a grinding-stone and invite the ancestors of the family by name to attend the wedding1 at the same time placing a little cowdung in one of the interstices of the stone4 ,when they have invited all the names they can remember they plaster up the remaining holes1 saying1 ',we can't recollect any more names4' ,this appears to be a precaution intended to imprison any spirits which may have been forgotten1 and to prevent them from exercising an evil influence on the marriage in revenge for not having been invited4 ,among the ,dangurs the bride and bridegroom go to worship at ,hanuman's shrine after the ceremony1 and all along the way the bride beats the bridegroom with a tamarind twig4 ,the dead are both buried and burnt1 and mourning is observed during a period of ten days for adults and of three days for children4 ,but if another child has been born to the mother after the one who has died1 the full period of mourning must be observed for the latter2 because it is said that in this case the mother does not tear off her sari or body-cloth to make a winding-sheet for the child as she does when her latest baby dies4 ,the ,kumrawats both grow and weave hemp1 though they have no longer anything like a monopoly of its cultivation4 ,they make the gons or double bags used for carrying grain on bullocks4 ,in ,chhattisgarh the status of the ,patbinas is low1 and no castes except the most debased will take food or water from them4 ,the ,kumrawats of ,jubbulpore occupy a somewhat more respectable position and take rank with ,kachhis1 though below the good cultivating castes4 ,the ,dangurs of ,betul will take food from the hands of the ,kunbis4 ,kumrayete4--7,yete1 a goat47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,sahdeve or six-god ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they do not eat goats1 and are said to have offered human sacrifices in ancient times4 ,kunbi4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,dangri1 ,gondhali and ,maratha4 ,kundera4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of the ,larhia ,beldars4 ,kundera1 ,kharadi4--,a small caste of wood-turners akin to the ,barhais or carpenters4 ,in #aiaa the caste numbered #abj persons1 principally in ,saugor4 ,when asked for the name of their caste they not infrequently say that they are ,rajputs2 but they allow widows to remarry1 and their social customs and position are generally the same as those of the ,barhais4 ,both names of the caste are functional1 being derived from the ,hindi kund1 and the ,arabic kharat1 a lathe4 ,some of them abstain from flesh and liquor1 and wear the sacred thread1 merely with a view to improve their social position4 ,the ,kunderas make toys from the dudhi 7,holarrhena antidysenterica7 and huqqa stems from the wood of the khair or catechu tree4 ,the toys are commonly lacquered1 and the surface is smoothed with a dried leaf of the kevara tree4 #dfb ,they also make chessmen1 wooden flutes and other articles4 ,kundgolakar4--,a subdivision of degraded ,maratha ,brahmans1 the offspring of adulterous connections4 ,kunjam4--,a sept of ,solaha in ,raipur4 ,a section of ,basor and ,bhunjia4 ,a sept of ,gond and ,pardhan4 ,kunnatya--7,rope-dancer47 ,a name applied to ,nats4 ,kunti or ,kunte4--7,kunti1 lame47 ,a subcaste of ,kapewar1 synonym ,bhiksha ,kunti or lame beggars4 ,kunwar4--7,prince47 ,a title of ,rajput ruling families4 ,a section of ,rajput and ,kawar4 ,kura ,sasura4--,husband's elder brother4 ,title of ,kharia4 ,kurathiya1 ,kuratia4--7,from kur1 a fowl1 which they have given up eating47 ,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,kurha or ,sethia4--,title of the ,sonkar caste headman4 ,kurkere4--,one who moulds his vessels on a stone slab revolving on a stick and not on a wheel4 ,subcaste of ,kumhar4 ,kurmeta4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,chanda4 ,kurmgutia4--7,from kurm1 tortoise47 ,a section of ,mahar4 ,kurmi4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,agharia in the ,uriya country4 ,a subcaste of ,barai4 ,a sept of ,pardhan4 ,a section of ,mahar4 ,kurochi4--7,kur1 hen47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,sahdeve or six-god ,gonds in ,betul1 so named because their priest once stole a hen4 ,kurpachi4--7,kur1 hen47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul1 so named because their priest offered the contents of a hen's intestines to the gods4 ,kurru or ,kura4--,title of ,yerukala4 ,kusangia4--7,of bad company47 ,a section of ,lohar4 ,kushbansi4--,a subcaste of ,ahir4 7,descendants of ,kush1 one of the two sons of ,rama47 ,kush ,ranjan4--,a section of ,brahman1 ,barai1 ,chamar1 ,chandnahu ,kurmi1 ,rawat 7,ahir71 ,marar and ,rajbhar4 ,kushta1 ,koshta4--,subcaste of ,kori4 ,kuslia4--7,kusli1 boat47 ,a subcaste of ,mali4 ,kusram4--7,kusri1 pulse47 ,a sept of the ,uika ,gonds in ,betul and ,chanda4 ,labhana4--,synonym and subcaste of ,banjara4 ,lad4--,the old name for the territory of ,gujarat4 ,a subcaste of ,bania1 ,kalar1 ,koshti and ,sunar4 ,ladaimar4--,one who hunts jackals and sells and eats their flesh4 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,ladele4--7,quarrelsome47 ,a section of ,shribathri ,teli4 ,ladjin4--,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,ladse or ,ladvi4--,subcaste of ,chamar and ,dhangar4 ,ladwan1 ,ladvan4--,a subcaste of ,mahar4 ,perhaps from ,lad1 the old name of ,gujarat4 ,laheri4--,synonym of ,lakhera4 ,laheria4--,subcaste of ,brahman4 ,lahgera or ,lahugera4--7,lahanga1 weaver47 ,a subcaste of ,kori4 ,lahuri ,sen4--,a subcaste of ,barai in the northern ,districts who are formed of excommunicated members of the caste4 ,lahuria4--7,from ,lahore47 ,a section of ,rathor and ,chauhan ,banjaras4 ,lajjhar4--,synonym of ,rajjhar4 ,lakariha4--,a subdivision of ,pardhan in ,kawardha4 ,while begging they play a musical instrument1 hence the name from lakri1 a stick4 ,lala4--7,a term of endearment47 ,synonym for ,kayasth4 ,a subcaste of ,chamar4 ,lalbegi4--,a follower of ,lalbeg1 patron saint of the sweepers4 ,synonym of ,mehtar4 ,lal ,padri4--,red priests1 because they rub geru or red ochre on their bodies4 ,title of ,jogi4 ,lamechu4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,langoti4--,subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,they wear only a narrow strip of cloth called langoti round the loins4 ,lanjia4--,a subcaste of ,lohar and ,nai1 from ,lanji in ,balaghat4 ,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,lanjiwar4--7,one living round ,lanji in ,balaghat47 ,subcaste of ,injhwar4 ,laphangia4--7,upstart47 ,a section of ,kolta4 ,laria1 ,larhia4--7,belonging to ,chhattisgarh47 ,a synonym of ,beldar4 ,a subcaste of ,bhaina1 ,binjhwar1 ,chamar1 ,ganda1 ,ghasia1 ,gond1 ,gosain1 ,kalar1 ,kewat1 ,koshti1 ,mahar1 ,marar1 ,mowar1 ,panka1 ,savar1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,lasgaria4--,a class of ,bairagi mendicants4 ,lasukar4--,a subcaste of ,gondhalis who sell books and calendars4 ,lat4--,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,lave4--,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,laya4--7,bird47 ,a section of ,binjhwar1 ,mahar1 and ,panka4 ,lekha4--,subcaste of ,gujar4 ,lemuan1 ,limuan4--7,tortoise47 ,a totemistic sept of ,audhelia1 ,munda and ,oraon4 ,lidha4--7,excrement of swine47 ,subcaste of ,khatik in ,jubbulpore4 ,lilia4--7,from lil or nil1 the indigo plant47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,lilorhia4--,subcaste of ,gujar4 ,limba4--7,nim tree47 ,a totemistic section of ,dumals4 ,lingayat4--,a religious order which has become a caste4 ,see article and subordinate article to ,bania4 ,a subcaste of ,bania and ,kumhar4 ,lodha4--,synonym of ,lodhi4 ,subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,lohar4--,a caste of blacksmiths1 synonym ,luhura4 ,a section of ,binjhwar and ,ganda4 ,lohar ,barhai4--,a subcaste of ,barhai in ,bundelkhand4 ,loharia4--,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,lonaria4--,a salt-maker4 ,subcaste of ,mahar4 ,lonchatia4--7,salt-licker47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds4 ,the members of this sept lick salt on the death of their relatives4 ,another account from ,betul says that they spread salt on a platform raised in honour of the dead and make cattle lick it up4 ,londhari4--,a small caste of cultivators found in the ,bhandara ,district4 ,they appear to be immigrants from northern ,india1 as their women wear the ,hindustani dress and they speak ,hindi at home4 ,at their weddings the bridal couple walk round the sacred post according to the northern custom4 ,when a widow marries again the couple worship a sword before the ceremony4 ,if a man is convicted of an intrigue with a low-caste woman1 he has to submit to a symbolical purification by fire4 ,a heap of juari-stalks is piled all round him and set alight1 but as soon as the fire begins to burn he is permitted to escape from it4 ,this rite is known as ,agnikasht4 ,the ,londharis appear to be distinct from the ,lonhare ,kunbis of ,betul1 with whom ,i was formerly inclined to connect them4 ,these latter derive their name from the ,lonar ,mehkar salt lake in the ,buldana ,district1 and are probably so called because they once collected the salt evaporated from the lake4 ,they thus belong to the ,maratha country1 whereas the ,londharis probably came from northern ,india4 ,the name ,lonhare is also found as a subdivision of one or two other castes living in the neighbourhood of the ,lonar ,mehkar lake4 ,londhe1 ,londe4--7,one who hides himself behind cloth47 ,a section of ,kohli4 ,a sept of ,korku4 ,londibacha4--,a subcaste of ,kasar1 including persons of illegitimate descent4 ,lonhare1 ,lonare4--7,from ,lonar-,mehkar1 the well-known salt lake of the ,buldana ,district47 ,a subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,a section of ,arakh and ,ahir4 ,ludhela4--,a section of ,basor who worship the ludhia1 a round stone for pounding food1 at the ,maihar ceremony4 ,luhura4--7,one who works in iron47 ,synonym of ,lohar4 ,subcaste of ,sidhira4 ,lunia4--,synonym of ,murha1 ,nunia4 ,machhandar4--7,one who catches fish47 ,synonym of ,dhimar4 ,machhandra ,nath4--,a subdivision of ,jogi4 ,machhia4--7,from machhi1 fish47 ,a section of ,dhimar and ,lodhi4 ,machhri4--7,fish47 ,a sept of ,oraon4 ,mada ,kukuria4--7,dead dog47 ,a subsection of the ,viswal section of ,koltas4 ,madankul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use red clothes1 nor the wood of the swallow-wort tree4 ,madari4--,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,made4--,a resident of the ,mad country in ,chanda and ,bastar4 ,subcaste of ,pardhan4 ,madgi1 ,madiga4 #dfc--,the ,telugu caste of workers in leather corresponding to the ,chamars1 which numbers nearly #a #a_/b millions in ,madras1 ,mysore and ,hyderabad4 ,in #aiaa there were nearly #fjjj ,madgis in the ,central ,provinces and #cjjj in ,berar4 ,according to tradition1 the ,madigas derive their name from that of a sage called ,matanga ,muni1 and it is said that a dynasty belonging to the caste once ruled in the ,canarese country4 ,the following legend of their origin comes from ,mysore3 #dfd ,in former times the sage ,jambava ,rishi was habitually late in attending at ,siva's court4 ,siva asked him why this happened1 and he replied that he was occupied in tending his children4 ,on this ,siva took pity on him and gave him the sacred cow1 ,kamdhenu1 from which all the needs of the children could be satisfied4 ,but one day while ,jambava was absent at ,siva's court1 another sage1 ,sankhya1 visited his hermitage and was hospitably entertained by his son1 ,yugamuni4 ,the cream which ,sankhya was given was so good that he desired to kill the cow1 ,kamdhenu1 thinking that her flesh would taste even better4 ,in spite of ,yugamuni's objections ,sankhya killed the cow and distributed the meat to various persons4 ,while this was in progress ,jambava returned1 and1 on hearing what had been done1 dragged ,sankhya and ,yugamuni before ,siva's judgment seat4 ,the two offenders did not enter the court but stood outside the doorway1 ,sankhya on the right side and ,yugamuni on the left4 ,siva condemned them to become ,chandalas or outcastes1 and the descendants of ,sankhya have become the right-hand ,holias1 while those of ,yugamuni and his wife ,matangi are the left-hand caste of ,madigas4 ,the latter were set to make shoes to expiate the sin committed by their ancestor in killing a cow4 ,another story given in the ,central ,provinces is that the ,golla caste of cowherds1 corresponding to the ,ahirs and the ,madgis1 are the descendants of two brothers4 ,the brothers had a large herd of cattle and wanted to divide them4 ,at this time1 however1 cattle disease was prevalent1 and many of the herd were affected4 ,the younger brother did not know of this1 and seeing that most of the herd were lying on the ground1 he proposed to the elder brother that he himself should take all the cattle lying on the ground1 and the elder brother all those which were standing up1 as a suitable method of division4 ,the elder brother agreed1 but when the younger came to take his cattle which were on the ground he found that they were all dead1 and hence he had no alternative but to take off the hides and cure and sell them4 ,his descendants continued his degraded profession and became the ,madgi caste4 ,in ,chanda the following six subcastes of ,madgis are reported3 ,the ,nulka ,chandriah or caste priests2 the ,anapa or leather dealers2 the ,sindhi who are supposed to have been performers of dramas2 the ,masti or dancers2 the ,kommu or tellers of stories2 and the ,dekkala or genealogists of the caste4 ,it is said that ,kommu really means a horn and ,dekka a hoof4 ,these last two are the lowest subdivisions1 and occupy a most degraded position4 ,in theory they should not sleep on cots1 pluck the leaves of trees1 carry loads on any animal other than a donkey1 or even cook food for themselves1 but should obtain their subsistence by eating the leavings of other ,madgis or members of different castes4 ,the ,nulka ,chandriah or priests are the highest subdivision and will not take food or water from any of the others1 while the four remaining subcastes eat and drink together1 but do not intermarry4 ,there are also a number of exogamous groups1 most of which have territorial names2 but a few are titular or totemistic1 as--,mukkidi1 noseless2 ,kumawar1 a potter2 ,nagarwar1 a citizen2 ,dobbulwar1 one who possesses a dobbulu or copper coin2 ,ippawar1 from the mahua tree2 ,itkalwar from itkal a brick1 and so on4 ,the caste customs of the ,madigas need not be recorded in detail4 ,they are an impure caste and eat all kinds of food1 and the leavings of others1 though the higher subdivisions refuse to accept these4 ,they live outside the village1 and their touch is considered to convey pollution4 ,madhavacharya4--,a ,vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,madhyanjan1 ,madhyandina4--,a class of ,brahmans1 the same as the ,yajur-,vedis1 or a section of them4 ,madia4--,a class of ,gonds in ,bastar4 ,madpotwa4--7,one who distils liquor47 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,madrasi4--,subcaste of ,dhobi4 ,magadha4--,a subcaste of ,ahir or ,rawat in ,chhattisgarh1 who ask for food from others and do not cook for themselves4 ,magar1 ,magra4--,a sept of ,khangar1 ,ahir or ,rawat1 ,gond and ,chadar4 ,magida4--,synonym of ,madgi4 ,mahabrahman4--,a degraded class of ,brahmans who accept gifts for the dead4 ,mahadeva ,thakur4--7,lord ,mahadeo47 ,a section of ,mali4 ,mahajalia4--7,deceitful47 ,a section of ,lohar4 ,mahajan4--,a banker4 ,title of the ,bania caste4 ,mahakul4--,synonym for ,ahir4 ,mahalodhi4--7,great ,lodhi47 ,subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,mahanadiya4--7,those who came from the ,mahanadi river47 ,a subcaste of ,lodhi4 ,a section of ,ganda1 ,ghasia and ,panka4 ,mahant4--,chief of a math or monastery4 ,a superior class of priest4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,panka1 ,chamar and ,koshta4 ,mahanti4--,a synonym for the ,karan or writer caste of ,orissa4 ,a section of ,chasa4 ,mahapatra4--,a subdivision of degraded ,brahmans who take funeral gifts4 ,an honorific title of ,thanapati and of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,bhat4 ,mahar4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,balahi and ,gondhali4 ,a section of ,rawat in ,raigarh4 ,maharaj4--7,great king47 ,a title of ,brahmans4 ,mahurana4--,synonym of ,chitari4 ,maharashtra or ,marathe4--,one of the five orders of ,panch ,dravida ,brahmans inhabiting the ,maratha country4 ,they are also called ,dakshini ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,kumhar1 ,kasar and ,lohar4 ,mahedia4--,a section of ,basors who worship pounded rice mixed with curds4 ,mahenga4--7,an elephant47 ,a totemistic sept of ,rautia and ,kawar in ,bilaspur4 ,maheshri4--,subcaste of ,baina4 ,mahili4--,synonym for ,mahli4 ,mahipia4--7,a drinker of curds47 ,a subsection of the ,viswal section of ,koltas4 ,mahisur4--7,lord of the earth47 ,a synonym of ,brahmans4 ,mahli-,munda4--,subcaste of ,mahli4 ,mahobia4--7,from the town of ,mahoba in ,central ,india47 ,a subcaste of ,barai1 ,chamar1 ,dangi1 ,ghasia1 ,khangar and ,mahar4 ,a section of ,dangi1 ,kumhar and ,kori4 ,mahoda4--,a subdivision of ,brahmans in ,jubbulpore4 ,mahore1 ,mahure4--,a subcaste of ,bania1 ,kori1 ,kumhar and ,kalar4 ,mahratta4--,synonym of ,maratha4 ,mahto1 ,mahton4--,a chief or village headman4 ,subcaste and title of ,teli and ,khairwar2 title of the leader of the ,bhuiya caste4 ,a section of ,ganda and ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,mahur4--7,poison47 ,a subcaste of ,sunars in ,chhindwara4 ,mahure1 ,mahuria4--7,from ,mahur1 a town in ,hyderabad47 ,subcaste of ,barhai and ,dhangar4 ,mai4--7,mother47 ,a division of the ,kabirpanthi sect4 ,maichhor4--,a small clan of ,rajputs4 ,perhaps from ,maichuri in ,jaipur4 ,mailwar4--7,dirty47 ,a group of ,sunars in ,raipur4 ,maina4--,synonym of ,mina4 ,mair4--,a subcaste of ,sunar named after ,mair1 their original ancestor1 who melted down a golden demon4 ,maithil4--,one of the five divisions of ,panch ,gaur ,brahmans inhabiting the province of ,maithil or ,bihar and ,tirhut4 ,majarewar4--,a territorial section of ,binjhwar 7from ,majare in ,balaghat74 ,majhi4--7,a village headman47 ,title of ,bhatra4 ,majhia4--,synonym of ,majhwar4 ,majhli4--7,middle47 ,subcaste of ,rautia4 ,makaria4--7,from makad1 monkey47 ,a subcaste of ,kamar1 so called because they eat monkeys4 ,makhia4--,subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,malaiya4--,an immigrant from ,malwa4 ,subcaste of ,chhipa4 ,male1 ,maler4--,synonyms of ,mal4 ,malha4--,a boatman4 ,synonym of ,mallah4 ,malhar4--,subcaste of ,koli4 ,mali4--7,a caste47 ,a section of ,kalar4 ,mal-,paharia4--,synonym of ,mal4 ,malvi1 ,malwi4--7,from ,malwa47 ,a subdivision of ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad and ,betul4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,barhai1 ,darzi1 ,dhobi1 ,gadaria1 ,kalar1 ,koshti1 ,kumhar1 ,nai and ,sunar4 ,malyar4 #dfe--;,a small and curious caste of workers in gold and silver in ,bastar ,state4 ,they are known alternatively as ,marhatia ,sunar or ,panchal1 and outsiders call them ,adhali4 ,the name ,malyar is said to be derived from mal1 dirt1 and jar or jalna1 to burn1 the ,malyars having originally been employed by ,sunars or goldsmiths to clean and polish their ornaments4 ,no doubt can be entertained that the ,malyars are in reality ,gonds1 as they have a set of exogamous septs all of which belong to the ,gonds1 and have ,gondi names4 ,so far as possible1 however1 they try to disguise this fact and perform their marriages by walking round the sacred post like the ,hindustani castes4 ,they will take food cooked without water from ,brahmans1 ,rajputs and ,banias1 but will not eat katcha 7or food cooked with water7 from anybody1 and not even from members of their own caste unless they are relatives4 ,this custom is common to some other castes of mixed descent1 and indicates that illicit connections are frequent among the ,malyars1 as indeed would necessarily be the case owing to the paucity of their numbers4 ,but their memories are short1 and the offspring of such irregular unions are recognised as belonging to the caste after one or two generations4 ,an outsider belonging to any higher caste may be admitted to the community4 ,the caste worship ,mata ,devi or the goddess of smallpox1 and revere the spirit of a ,malyar woman who became a ,sati4 ,they have learned as servants of the ,sunars the rudiments of their art1 and manufacture rough ornaments for the primitive people of ,bastar4 ,mana ,ojha4--,subcaste of ,ojha4 ,mandal4--7,a name for a prosperous cultivator in ,chhattisgarh47 ,a section of ,chamar and ,panka4 ,see article ,kurmi4 ,mandilwar4--,name derived from ,mandla4 ,subcaste of ,katia4 ,mandkul4--,a section of ,komti who do not eat mangoes4 ,mandlaha4--7,from ,mandla town47 ,subtribe of ,gond4 ,mane ,kunbi4--,subcaste of ,gondhali4 ,mang or ,mangia4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,ganda1 ,gondhali1 ,bahrupia4 ,mangan4--7,from ,manghunia1 beggar47 ,a caste4 ,mangan4 #dff--;,a small caste found in ,chhattisgarh and ,sambalpur who are the musicians and genealogists of the ,ghasias4 ,the term is considered opprobrious1 as it means 'beggar1' and many ,mangans probably return themselves as ,ghasias4 ,they are despised by the ,ghasias1 who will not take food or water from them4 ,at the marriages of the former the ,mangans play on a drum called ghunghru1 which they consider as the badge of the caste1 their cattle being branded with a representation of it4 ,the only point worth notice about the caste is that they are admittedly of mixed descent from the unions of members of other castes with ,ghasia prostitutes4 ,they have five totemistic exogamous sections1 about each of which a song is sung relating its origin4 ,the ,sunani sept1 which worships gold as its totem and occupies the highest position1 is said to be descended from a ,brahman father and a ,ghasia mother2 the ,sendaria sept1 worshipping vermilion1 from a ,kewat ancestor and a ,ghasia woman2 the ,bhainsa sept1 worshipping a buffalo1 from a ,gaur or ,ahir and a ,ghasia2 the ,mahanadia sept1 having the ,mahanadi for their totem1 from a ,gond and a ,ghasia woman2 while the ,bagh sept1 who revere the tiger1 say that a cow once gave birth to two young1 one in the form of a tiger and the other of a human being2 the latter on growing up took a ,ghasia woman to himself and became the ancestor of the sept4 ,as might be expected from their ancestry1 the ,mangan women are generally of loose character4 ,the ,mangans sometimes act as sweepers4 ,mangta4--7,a beggar47 ,a subcaste of ,pasi in ,sangor1 who beg from their caste-fellows4 ,maniara4--7,a ,pedlar47 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,manihar4--,a caste4 ,the ,manihars are also known as ,bisati4 ,an occupational name of ,jogis4 ,manikpuria4--7,a resident ,manikpur47 ,subcaste of ,panka4 ,manjhi4--7,headman47 ,a synonym of ,santal and ,kewat4 ,a section of ,chasa1 ,dhanuhar and ,kolta4 ,a title of ,chasa4 ,manjur4--7,peacock47 ,a totemistic sept of ,munda4 ,manjmar4--,term for a boatman4 ,included in ,kewat4 ,mankar4--,name of a superior class of village watchmen in ,nimar ,district4 ,see article ,bhil4 ,a subcaste of ,mana and ,halba4 ,mannepuwar4--,a subcaste of ,mala4 ,synonym1 ,teluga ,bhoi4 ,manwa4--,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,marabi4--,a common sept of ,gond4 ,a section of ,nat4 ,marai4--7,a name for the goddess of cholera1 who is called ,marai ,mata47 ,a common sept of ,gond4 ,also a sept of ,baiga1 ,pasor and ,bhunjia4 ,a subcaste of ,majhwar4 ,maral4--,synonym of ,mali4 ,marapa4--,a sept of ,gonds in ,betul1 who abstain from killing or eating a goat or sheep and throw away any article smelt by them4 ,marar4--,synonym for ,mali1 a gardener4 ,also a subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,maratha1 ,marathe4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,barhai1 ,bedar1 ,chamar1 ,dhimar1 ,gadaria1 ,kumhar1 ,mahar1 ,mali1 ,mang1 ,nai and ,teli4 ,marathi1 ,maratha1 ,marthe1 ,marathe4--7,a resident of the ,maratha country47 ,subcaste of ,bahrupia1 ,chamar1 ,dhargar1 ,gundhali1 ,gopal1 ,injhwar1 ,kaikari1 ,kasar1 ,koshti1 ,nahal1 ,otari4 ,marathia4--,resident of ,bhandara or another ,maratha ,district4 ,subcaste of ,halba4 ,maria4--,a well-known tribe of ,gonds in ,bastar and ,chanda4 ,see article ,gond4 ,a subcaste of ,gowari4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,chamar and ,kumhar4 ,markam4--7,marka1 mango47 ,one of the principal septs of ,gonds4 ,also a sept of ,baiga1 ,basor1 ,bhumjia1 ,pardhan and ,solaha4 ,marori4 #dfg--;,a small caste of degraded ,rajputs from ,marwar found in the ,bhandara and ,chhindwara ,districts and also in ,berar4 ,the name is a local corruption of ,marwari1 and is applied to them by their neighbours1 though many of the caste do not accept it and call themselves ,rajputs4 ,in ,chhindwara they go by the name of ,chhatri1 and in the ,tirora ,tahsil they are known as ,alkari1 because they formerly grew the al or ,indian madder for a dye1 though it has now been driven out of the market4 ,they have been in the ,central ,provinces for some generations1 and though retaining certain peculiarities of dress1 which show their northern origin1 have abandoned in many respects the caste usages of ,rajputs4 ,their women wear the ,hindustani angia tied with string behind in place of the ,maratha choli or breast-cloth1 and drape their saris after the northern fashion4 ,they wear ornaments of the ,rajputans shape on their arms1 and at their weddings they sing ,marwari songs4 ,they have ,rajput sept names1 as ,parihar1 ,rathor1 ,solanki1 ,sesodia and others1 which constitute exogamous groups and are called kulis4 ,some of these have split up into two or three subdivisions1 as1 for instance1 the ,pathar 7stone7 ,panwars1 the ,pandhre or white ,panwars and the ,dhatura or thorn-apple ,panwars2 and members of these different groups may intermarry4 ,the reason seems to be that it was recognised that people belonged to the same ,panwar sept who were not blood kin to each other1 and the prohibition of marriage between them was a serious inconvenience in a small community4 ,they also have eponymous gotras1 as ,vasishtha1 ,batsa and others of the ,brahmanical type1 but these do not influence exogamy4 ,the paucity of their numbers and the influence of local usage have caused them to relax the marriage rules adhered to by ,rajputs4 ,women are very scarce1 and a price varying from forty to a hundred rupees is commonly paid for a bride1 though they feel keenly the degradation attaching to the acceptance of a bride-price4 ,widow-marriage is permitted1 no doubt for the same reasons1 and a girl going wrong with a man of another caste may be readmitted to the community4 ,divorce is not permitted1 and an unfaithful wife may be abandoned2 she cannot then marry again in the caste4 ,formerly1 on the arrival of the marriage procession1 the bride's and bridegroom's parties let off fireworks1 aiming them against each other1 but this practice is now discontinued4 ,when the bridegroom approaches the marriage-shed the bride comes out and strikes him on the breast or forehead with a ball of dough1 a sheet being held between them2 the bridegroom throws a handful of rice over her and strikes the festoons of the shed with a naked sword4 ,a bachelor espousing a widow must first be married to a ring1 which he thereafter carries in his ear1 and if it is lost funeral ceremonies must be performed as for a real wife4 ,women are tattooed on the arms only4 ,children have as many as five names1 one for ordinary use1 and the others for ceremonial purposes and the arrangement of marriages4 ,if a man kills a cow or a cat he must have a miniature figure of the animal made of gold and give it to a ,brahman in expiation of his sin4 ,marskola4--7,from markets1 an axe47 ,a common sept of ,gonds and ,pardhans4 ,maru4--,subcaste of ,charan ,bhats4 ,marwari4--,a resident of ,marwar or the desert tract of ,rajputana2 ,marwar is also used as a name for ,jodhpur ,state4 ,see subordinate article ,rajput-,rathor4 ,the name ,marwari is commonly applied to ,banias coming from ,marwar4 ,see article ,bania4 ,a subcaste of ,bahna1 ,gurao1 ,kumhar1 ,nai1 ,sunar and ,teli4 ,masania4--7,from masin1 straw or grass mats1 or masina1 thatched roof47 ,a section of ,lohar4 ,a synonym for ,san ,bhatras in ,bastar4 ,mashki4--7,a water-bearer47 ,synonym of ,bhishti4 ,masram4--,a common sept of ,gonds4 ,masti4--7,dancer47 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,mastram4--7,mastra1 brass bangles47 ,a sept of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,the women of this sept wear brass bangles4 ,masuria4--,a subcaste of ,kurmi4 ,from masur1 lentil4 ,a section of ,rajput4 ,mathadhari4--7,living in a monastery47 ,a celibate clan of ,manbhao mendicants4 ,mathpati4--7,lord of the hermitage47 ,a subcaste of ,jangam4 ,mathur1 ,mathuria4--7,from ,mathura or ,muttra47 ,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,a subdivision of ,brahman4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara1 ,darzi and ,nai4 ,matkuda1 ,matkora4--7,earth-digger47 ,a subcaste and synonym of ,beldar4 ,a name for ,gonds and ,pardhans who take to earthwork4 ,mattha4--,corruption of ,maratha4 ,a subcaste of ,koshti1 ,mahar and ,teli1 and a title of ,teli4 ,matti4--,a subdivision of low-class ,brahmans returned from ,khairagarh4 ,also a class of ,kashmiri ,brahmans4 ,matwala4--7,a drinker of country liquor47 ,subcaste of ,kadera4 ,mawasi1 ,mirdhan4--,subcaste of ,dahait4 ,title of the headman of the ,dahait caste committee4 ,mayaluar4--7,chief man of the caste47 ,a subcaste of ,turi4 ,mayur4--7,peacock47 ,a totemistic section of the ,ahir1 ,hatwa1 ,gond1 ,sonjhara and ,sundi castes4 ,mayurmara4--7,killer of peacock47 ,a section of ,bahelia4 ,meda ,gantia4--7,counter of posts47 ,title of ,bhatra4 ,official who fixes date and hour for wedding4 ,medara1 ,medari4--,the ,telugu caste of bamboo-workers and mat-makers1 corresponding to the ,basors4 ,they have the same story as the ,basors of the first bamboo having been grown from the snake worn by ,siva round his neck1 which was planted head downwards in the ground4 ,the customs of the ,medaras1 ,mr4 ,francis says1 #dfh differ from place to place4 ,in one they will employ ,brahman purohits 7priests71 and prohibit widow-marriage1 while in the next they will do neither1 and will even eat rats and vermin4 ,the better classes among them are taking to calling themselves ,balijas or ,baljis1 and affixing the title of ,chetti to their names4 ,medari4--,synonym of ,medara4 ,mehar4--,synonym of ,bhulia4 ,meher4--,a section of ,malwi ,ahir1 a synonym for ,bhulia4 ,a title of ,chamar4 ,mehra4--,synonym for ,mahar4 ,a subcaste of ,katia and ,kori4 ,mehta4--,a group of ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania4 ,mehtar4--7,a prince or leader47 ,common name for the sweeper caste4 ,title of the president of the ,dhobi caste committee4 ,meman4--,synonym of ,cutchi4 ,meshbansi4--7,descendant of a sheep47 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,mewada1 ,mewari4--7,from ,mewar47 ,a division of ,gujarati or ,khedawal ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,chhipa1 ,darzi1 ,mali and ,sunar4 ,mewati4--,synonym of ,meo4 ,see article4 ,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,mhali4--,synonym of ,nai4 ,mhasia1 ,mhashi4--7,mhas1 buffalo47 ,a sept of ,halba4 ,a section of ,kohli4 ,mihir4--,synonym of ,bhulia4 ,mina4--,a caste4 ,a section of ,raghuvansis4 ,mirdaha4--,a subcaste of ,dahait1 ,khangar1 and ,nat4 ,a section of ,raghuvansi4 ,name used for the mate of a gang of coolies4 ,mir-,dahait4--,title of the ,mirdha caste4 ,mirdha4--,a small caste found only in the ,narsinghpur ,district4 ,they are a branch of the ,khangar or ,dahait caste of ,saugor and ,damoh4 ,the names of their exogamous sections tally with those of the ,khangars1 and they have the same story of their ancestors having been massacred at a fort in ,orchha ,state and of one pregnant woman escaping and hiding under a kusum tree 7,schleichera trijuga71 which consequently they revere4 ,like ,khangars they regard ,muhammadan eunuchs and ,fakirs 7beggars7 with special friendship1 on the ground that it was a ,fakir who sheltered their ancestress when the rest of the caste were massacred by ,rajputs1 and ,fakirs do not beg at their weddings4 ,one explanation of the name is that this section of the caste were born from a ,muhammadan father and a ,dahait woman1 and hence were called ,mir-,dahaits or ,mirdaha1 ,mir being a ,muhammadan title4 ,mirdha is1 however1 as noted by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal1 the name of the head of the caste committee among the ,dahaits2 and in ,hoshangabad he is a servant of the village proprietor and acts as assistant to the ,kotwar or village watchman2 he realises the rents from the tenants1 and sometimes works as a night guard4 ,in ,gujarat the name is said to be a corruption of mir-deh or 'mason of the village4' #dfi ,here it is said that the ,mirdhas are held to be of part foreign1 part ,rajput origin1 and were originally official spies of the ,gujarat sultans4 ,they are now employed as messengers and constables1 and therefore seem to be analogous to the same class of persons in the ,central ,provinces4 ,mirshikar4--,synonym of ,pardhi4 ,misra or ,misar4--,a surname of ,kanaujia1 ,jijhotia1 ,sarwaria and ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,mistri4--7,corruption of the ,english ,mister47 ,a master carpenter or mate of a gang4 ,title of ,barhai1 ,beldar and ,lohar4 ,mithia4--7,a preparer of sweets47 ,synonym of ,halwai4 ,mochi4--7,a shoemaker47 ,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,modh4--,a subdivision of ,khedawal or ,gujarati ,brahmans who take their name from ,modhera1 an ancient place in ,gujarat4 ,a subcaste of ,gujarati ,bania4 ,modh-,ghaneli4--,subcaste of ,teli in ,gujarat4 ,moghia4--,synonym of ,pardhi4 ,mohania4--7,captivator47 ,a section of ,rajjhar and ,kirar4 ,mohtaria4--,title of the headman of the ,andh caste committee4 ,mohtera4--,one who fixes the auspicious moment1 hence the headman of the caste4 ,a titular section of ,basor4 ,monas4--,a subdivision of ,brahmans4 ,mongre1 ,mongri1 ,mongrekair4--7,a club or mallet47 ,a section of ,ahir or ,rawat in ,chhattisgarh1 and of ,chamar1 ,ganda1 and ,panka4 ,mori4--,a branch of the ,panwar ,rajputs4 ,mor ,kachhi4--,one who prepares the maur or marriage-crown for weddings4 ,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,morkul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use asafoetida 7hing7 nor the fruit of the umar fig-tree4 ,motate4--7,from mot1 water-bag47 ,a subcaste of ,kapewar4 ,moujikul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use pepper4 ,mowar4--,subcaste of ,rajwar4 ,mowasi4--,a resident of the forests of ,kalibhit and ,melghat known as the ,mowas4 ,subcaste of ,korku4 ,muamin4--,synonym of ,cutchi4 ,muasi4--,title of ,korku2 subcaste of ,korwa4 ,muchi4--,synonym of ,mochi4 ,mudara4--,subcaste of ,parja4 ,mudgalia4--7,from mudgal1 ,indian club--an athlete47 ,a surname of ,adi ,gaur ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,mudha4--,synonym for ,munda4 ,mudotia4--7,from mudha1 a cheat47 ,a surname of ,sanadhia ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,mughal4--,a tribal division of ,muhammadans4 ,see article ,muhammadan ,religion4 ,muhammadan4--,subcaste of ,koli4 ,muhjaria4--7,burnt mouth47 ,a section of ,lodhi4 ,mukeri4--,or ,kasai1 a small ,muhammadan caste of traders in cattle and butchers4 ,in #ahia more than #ijj were returned from the ,saugor ,district4 ,their former occupation was to trade in cattle like the ,banjaras1 but they have now adopted the more profitable trade of slaughtering them for the export of meat2 and as this occupation is not considered very reputable1 they have perhaps thought it desirable to abandon their caste name4 ,the derivation of the term ,mukeri is uncertain4 ,according to one account they are a class of ,banjaras1 and derive their name from ,mecca1 on the ground that one of their ,naiks or headmen was camping in the neighbourhood of this town1 at the time when ,abraham was building it1 and assisted him in the work4 ,when they emigrated from ,mecca their illustrious name of ,makkai was corrupted into ,mukeri4 #dgj ,a variant of this story is that their ancestor was one ,makka ,banjara1 who also assisted in the building of ,mecca1 and that they came to ,india with the early ,muhammadan invaders4 #dga ,the ,mukeris form a caste and marry among themselves4 ,in their marriage ceremony they have adopted some ,hindu observances1 such as the anointing of the bride and bridegroom with turmeric and the erection of a marriage-shed4 ,they take food from the higher ,hindu castes1 but will not eat with a ,kayasth1 though there is no objection to this on the score of their religion4 ,they will admit an outsider1 if he becomes a ,muhammadan1 but will not give their daughters to him in marriage1 at any rate until he has been for some years a member of the caste4 ,in other matters they follow ,muhammadan law4 ,mullaji4--,title of the priests of the ,bohra caste4 ,multani4--,subcaste and synonym of ,banjara4 ,munda4--7,a village headman1 from munda1 the head47 ,title and synonym of ,kol4 ,a subcaste of ,kharia and ,oraon4 ,mundela4--7,bald-headed47 ,a surname of ,jijhotia ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,mundle4--7,shaven ones47 ,subcaste of ,gujar4 ,munikul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use munga beans4 ,munjia4--,name of an ,akhara or school of ,bairagi religious mendicants4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,munurwar4--,synonym of ,kapewar4 ,murai1 ,murao4--7,from muli1 or radish47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,murchulia4--7,one who puts rings on the fingers of the caste47 ,a section of ,ganda and ,panka in ,raipur4 ,muria4--,a well-known subtribe of ,gonds in ,bastar and ,chanda4 ,murli4--,synonym of ,waghya4 ,musabir4--,synonym of ,mochi4 ,musahar4--7,a rat-eater47 ,subcaste and title of ,bhuiya4 ,musare4--7,musar1 a pestle47 ,a section of ,mali4 ,mussali4--,title of ,mehtar4 ,mutracha4--,synonym of ,mutrasi4 ,mutrasa4--,synonym of ,mutrasi4 ,mutrasi1 ,mutrasa1 ,muthrasi1 ,mutracha4--7,from the ,dravidian roots mudi1 old1 and racha1 a king1 or from ,mutu ,raja1 a sovereign of some part of the ,telugu country47 #dgb ,a caste which is numerous in ,hyderabad and ,madras1 and of which a few persons are found in the ,chanda ,district of the ,central ,provinces4 ,the ,mutrasis are the village watchmen proper of ,telingana or the ,telugu country4 #dgc ,they were employed by the ,vijayanagar kings to defend the frontier of their country1 and were honoured with the title of ,paligar4 ,their usual honorific titles at present are ,dora 7,sahib or ,lord7 and ,naidu4 ,as servants they are considered very faithful and courageous4 ,some of them have taken to masonry in ,chanda1 and are considered good stone-carvers4 ,they are a comparatively low caste1 and eat fowls and drink liquor1 but they do not eat beef or pork4 ,it is compulsory among them to marry a girl before she arrives at adolescence1 and if this is not done her parents are put out of caste1 and only readmitted on payment of a penalty4 ,nabadia4--7,boatman or sailor47 ,a synonym for ,kewat4 ,naddaf4--,a synonym for ,bahna or ,pinjara4 ,nadha4--7,those who live on the banks of streams47 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,nadia4--,a clan of ,dangi4 ,nag1 ,nagesh4--7,cobra47 ,a sept of the ,ahir or ,rawat1 ,binjhal1 ,bhatia1 ,chasa1 ,hatwa1 ,halba1 ,khadal1 ,kawar1 ,khangar1 ,karan1 ,katia1 ,kolta1 ,lohar1 ,mahar1 ,mali1 ,mowar1 ,parja1 ,redka1 ,sulia1 ,sundi and ,taonla castes4 ,most of these castes belong to ,chhattisgarh and the ,uriya country4 ,naga4--,a clan of ,gosains or mendicants4 ,see ,gosain4 ,nagar4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans belonging to ,gujarat2 a subcaste of ,bania2 a section of ,teli4 ,nagarchi4--7,a drum-beater47 ,a class of ,gonds4 ,a subcaste of ,ganda and ,ghasia4 ,nagarchi4--,the ,nagarchis appear to be a class of ,gonds1 whose special business was to beat the nakkara or kettledrums at the gates of forts and palaces4 ,in some ,districts they now form a special community1 marrying among themselves1 and numbered about #fjjj persons in #aiaa4 ,the nagara or nakkara is known in ,persia as well as in ,india4 ,here the drum is made of earthenware1 of a tapering shape covered at both ends with camel-hide for the zir or treble1 and with cowhide for the bam or bass4 ,it is beaten at the broader end4 ,in ,persia the drums were played from the ,nakkara-khana or gateway1 which still exists as an appanage of royalty in the chief cities of ,iran4 ,they were beaten to greet the rising and to usher out the setting sun4 ,during the months of mourning1 ,safar and ,muharram1 they were silent4 #dgd ,in ,india the nagara were a pair of large kettledrums bound with iron hoops and twice as large as those used in ,europe4 ,they were a mark of royalty and were carried on one of the state elephants1 the royal animal1 in the prince's sowari or cavalcade1 immediately preceding him on the line of march4 ,the right of displaying a banner and beating kettledrums was one of the highest marks of distinction which could be conferred on a ,rajput noble4 ,when the titular ,maratha ,raja had retired to ,satara and any of the ,maratha princes entered his territory1 all marks of royalty were laid aside by the latter and his nagara or great drum of empire ceased to be beaten4 #dge ,the stick with which the kettledrum was struck was called danka1 and the king's jurisdiction was metaphorically held to extend so far as his kettledrums were beaten4 ,angrezi raj ka danka bajta hai or ',where the ,english drum is beaten1' means ',so far as the ,english empire extends4' ,in ,egypt the kettledrums were carried on camels4 #dgf ,nagaria4--7,a drum-player47 ,a section of ,jasondhi ,bhat and ,teli4 ,nagbans4--7,descended from the cobra47 ,a totemistic sept of ,gadba1 ,ghasia1 and ,gond4 ,nagla4--7,naked47 ,subcaste of ,khond4 ,nagpure4--7,from ,nagpur47 ,a section of ,lodhi and ,kohli4 ,nagvansi4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,see article ,rajput-,nagvansi4 ,a subcaste and section of ,sunar4 ,a section of ,daharia or ,daraiha and ,gond4 ,nahar4--7,tiger47 ,a subtribe of ,baiga4 ,a section of ,rajputs in ,saugor4 ,nahonia4--,a clan of ,dangi in ,damoh and ,saugor4 ,they were formerly ,kachhwaha ,rajputs from ,narwar1 but being cut off from their own domicile they married with ,dangis4 ,rajputs accept daughters from them but do not give their daughters to ,nahonias4 ,naidu4--,title of the ,balija1 ,mutrasi and ,velama castes4 ,often used by ,balijas as their caste name4 ,naik4--7,leader47 ,a subdivision of ,gond1 also known as ,darwe4 ,a title of ,banjara headmen4 ,a title of ,teli and ,kolta4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,chamar1 ,chasa1 ,gadaria1 ,halba1 ,kewat1 ,khond1 ,mali1 ,sudh4 ,nakib4--,mace-bearer or flag-bearer in a procession4 ,subcaste of ,jasondhi ,bhat and ,khangar4 ,nakshbandia4--,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,naksia4--,synonym of ,nagasia4 ,namdeo4--,a religious sect confined to members of the ,chhipa and ,darzi castes1 which has become a subcaste4 ,nanakshahi4--,synonym of ,nanakpanthi4 ,nandia4--7,one who leads about with him a performing bullock74 ,from ,nandi1 the bull on which ,mahadeo rides4 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,nandvansi4--,subcaste of ,ahir4 ,nanghana4--,a name given to the ,kol tribe in ,hoshangabad4 ,napita4--,sanskrit name for ,nai or barber4 ,naqqal4--,title of ,bhand4 ,naraina4--,subcaste of ,patwa4 ,naramdeo4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans belonging to the ,gaur branch4 ,they take their name from the river ,nerbudda4 ,narbadi1 ,narmada4--7,from the river ,nerbudda47 ,a subdivision of ,maharashtra ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,yajur-,vedi ,brahmans4 ,a synonym for ,naramdeo ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,agharia1 ,binjhal and ,chamar4 ,narnolia4--7,from a place called ,narnol in the ,punjab47 ,subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,narwaria4--,a clan of ,dangi4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,nata4--7,a young bullock47 ,a section of ,ahir and ,oswal ,bania4 ,nathunia4--7,nose-ring47 ,a subcaste of ,pasi4 ,navadesia4--7,a man of nine districts47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,nawaria4--,a subcaste of ,barhai1 ,lohar1 ,kachera or ,sisgar1 ,nai and ,tamera4 ,nazir4--7,a cashier or usher47 ,subcaste of ,jasondhi ,bhat4 ,negi4--,a vice-president of the caste committee in the ,kharia caste4 ,nema or ,nima4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see article ,bania1 ,nema4 ,netam4--7,the dog in ,gondi47 ,one of the common septs of ,gond4 ,also a sept of ,basor1 ,bhatra1 ,bhuiya1 ,dewar1 ,kawar and ,parja4 ,nawari4--7,from newar1 thick tape used for webbing of beds47 ,subcaste of ,bahna4 ,niaria4--,an occupational term applied to persons who take the refuse and sweepings from a ,sunar's shop and wash out the particles of gold and silver4 ,see article ,sunar4 ,nigam1 ,nigum4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,nihal4--,synonym of ,nahal4 ,nihang4--,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants1 who remain celibate4 ,nikhar4--,a subcaste of ,ahir1 ,bharewa 7,kasar71 ,gadaria4 ,a clan of ,rajput4 ,a section of ,koshti4 ,nikumbh4--,a clan of ,rajputs included in the thirty-six royal races4 ,a section of ,joshi4 ,nilgar4--,synonym of ,chhipa4 ,nilkar4--7,from nil1 indigo47 ,a subcaste of ,darzi or ,simpi 7tailors7 in ,naagpur1 so named because they took up the work of dyeing in addition to their own and formed a new subcaste4 ,nimanandi4--,a ,vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,nimari1 ,nimadi1 ,nimaria4--7,a resident of ,nimar47 ,a subcaste of ,balahi1 ,bania1 ,dhobi1 ,mahar and ,nai4 ,nimawal4--,a class of ,bairagi4 ,nirali4--,synonym of ,chhipa4 ,niranjani4--,name of an ,akhara or school of ,bairagis4 ,see ,bairagi4 ,nirbani4--7,nir1 without2 bani1 speech47 ,a class of ,bairagis who refrain from speech as far as possible4 ,nirmohi4--,a class of ,bairagis4 ,nona or ,lona4--,name derived from ,nona or ,lona ,chamarin1 a well-known witch4 ,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,nulkachandriah4--,caste priests4 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,nun4--7,salt47 ,a sept of ,oraon4 ,nunia1 ,nonia1 ,lunia4--7,saltmaker47 ,a synonym of ,beldar4 ,a section of ,binjhwar and ,koli4 ,od4--,synonym of ,beldar4 ,odde1 ,ud4--7,from ,odra the old name of ,orissa47 ,term for a digger or navvy4 ,a group of ,beldars4 ,odhia4--,synonym for ,audhia ,bania4 ,odia or ,uriya4--,subcaste of ,beldar in ,chhattisgarh4 ,oiku4--,subtribe of ,majhwar4 ,ojha4--7,from ,ojh1 entrails47 ,a caste of ,gond augurs1 see article4 ,a title of ,maithil ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,lohar1 ,nat and ,savar4 ,okkilyan4--,synonym of ,wakkaliga4 ,omre1 ,umre4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see ,bania ,umre4--,a subcaste of ,teli4 ,onkar ,nath4--,a subdivision of ,jogis4 ,onkule4--,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,orha4--,subcaste of ,chasa4 ,oswal4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see subordinate article to ,bania4 ,ota4--7,one who recites the ,vedas aloud in sacrifices47 ,an honorific title of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,otari1 ,watkari4--,a low caste of workers in brass in the ,maratha country4 ,the name is derived from the ,marathi verb otne1 to pour or smelt4 ,they number about #bfjj persons in the ,bhandara and ,chanda ,districts1 and in ,berar4 ,the caste have two subcastes1 ,gondadya and ,maratha1 or the ,gond and ,maratha ,otaris4 ,the latter are no doubt members of other castes who have taken to brass-working4 ,members of the two subcastes do not eat with each other4 ,their family names are of different kinds1 and some of them are totemistic4 ,they employ ,brahmans for their ceremonies1 and otherwise their customs are like those of the lower artisan castes4 ,but it is reported that they have a survival of marriage by capture1 and if a man refuses to give his daughter in marriage after being asked twice or thrice1 they abduct the girl and afterwards pay some compensation to the father4 ,they make and sell ornaments of brass and bell-metal1 such as are worn by the lower castes1 and travel from village to village1 hawking their toe-rings and anklets4 ,there is also an ,otari subcaste of ,kasars4 ,pabaiya4--7,from ,pabai in ,bundelkhand47 ,a clan of ,rajputs in ,hoshangabad4 ,pabia4--,a small caste in the zamindaris of the ,bilaspur ,district1 and some of the ,feudatory ,states1 who numbered about #ijjj persons in #aiaa4 ,they appear to be ,pans or ,gandas1 who also bear the name of ,pab1 and this has been corrupted into ,pabia1 perhaps with a view to hiding their origin4 ,they are wretchedly poor and ignorant4 ,they say that they have never been to a ,government dispensary1 and would be afraid that medicine obtained from it would kill them4 ,their only remedies for diseases are branding the part affected or calling in a magician4 ,they never send their children to school1 as they hold that educated children are of no value to their parents1 and that the object of ,government in opening schools is only to obtain literate persons to carry on its business4 ,one curious custom may be noticed4 ,when any one dies in a family1 all the members1 as soon as the breath leaves his body1 go into another room of the house2 and across the door they lay a net opened into the room where the corpse lies4 ,they think that the spirit of the dead man will follow them1 and will be caught in the net4 ,then the net is carried away and burnt or buried with the corpse1 and thus they think that the spirit is removed and prevented from remaining about the house and troubling the survivors4 ,pabeha4--,synonym for ,dhimar4 ,pabudia or ,madhai4--,a subcaste of ,bhuiya4 ,pachadhe4--7,western47--,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahman4 ,pachbhaiya4--7,five ,brothers47 ,a section of ,ahir and ,audhelia4 ,pada4--7,a pig-eater47 ,a section of ,muria ,gonds and ,pardhans4 ,padhan4--7,an ,uriya name for a chief or headman of a village47 ,a section of ,bhuiya1 ,chasa1 ,dumal1 ,hatwa1 ,kolta1 ,tiyar and other ,uriya castes4 ,a title of ,chasa and ,kolta4 ,padmasale4--,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,padyal4--,a subtribe of ,gond in ,chanda4 ,a section of ,marori4 ,pahalwan4--,a small community numbering about #fjj persons in the ,bilaspur ,district and surrounding tracts of ,chhattisgarh4 ,the word ,pahalwan means a wrestler1 but ,sir ,b4 ,robertson states #dgg that they are a small caste of singing beggars and have no connection with wrestling4 ,they appear1 however1 to belong to the ,gopal caste1 who have a branch of ,pahalwans in their community4 ,and the men returned from ,bilaspur may have abandoned wrestling in favour of singing and begging from trees1 which is also a calling of the ,gopals4 ,they themselves say that their ancestors were ,gopals and lived somewhere towards ,berar1 and that they came to ,bilaspur with the ,maratha leader ,chimnaji ,bhonsla4 ,pahar4--,subcaste of ,mahli4 ,paharia or ,benwaria4--,subcaste of ,korwa4 ,paik4--7,a foot-soldier47 ,see ,rajput-,paik4 ,paikaha4--7,one who follows the calling of curing hides47 ,synonym for ,chamar4 ,paikara4--7,from ,paik1 a foot-soldier47 ,subcaste of ,kawar4 ,pailagia4--7,pailagi or ',i fall at your feet1' is a common term of greeting from an inferior to a superior47 ,subcaste of ,dahait4 ,paiyam4--7,from paiya1 a calf47 ,a sept of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,pajania4--7,paijana1 tinkling anklets47 ,a section of ,kurmi4 ,pakhali4--7,from pakhali1 a leathern water-bag47 ,synonym of ,bhishti4 ,pakhawaji4--7,one who plays on the pakhawaj or timbrel47 ,title of ,mirasi4 ,pakhia4--7,they are so called because they eat the flesh of the por or buffalo47 ,subcaste of ,khond4 ,palas4--7,from the palas tree1 ,butea frondosa47 ,a totemistic sept of ,gonds4 ,palewar4--,a gotra of ,binjhwar2 a subcaste of ,dhimar found in the ,telugu country4 ,they are also called ,bhoi in ,chanda4 ,a name for ,telugu ,dhimars or watermen4 ,a section of ,binjhwar4 ,palgaria4--7,sleeping on a palang or cot47 ,a sept of ,bhunjia4 ,palliwal4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans belonging to the ,kanaujia division4 ,they take their name from ,pali1 a trading town of ,marwar4 ,a subcaste of ,bania1 whose name is derived from the same place4 ,palsa-gacha4--7,palas tree1 ,butea frondosa47 ,a totemistic sept of ,pans4 ,palshe4--,a subcaste of ,maratha ,brahmans4 ,they derive their name from ,palsaoli village in ,kalyan 7,bombay ,presidency74 ,pampatra4--7,those who use their hands as pots47 ,a section of ,khandwal4 ,pan4--7,name of a forest tribe47 ,synonym for ,ganda4 ,panch1 ,panchayat4--7,a caste committee1 so called because it is supposed to consist of five 7panch7 persons47 ,a section of ,marar4 ,panchal4--,an indeterminate group of artisans engaged in any of the following five trades3 ,workers in iron1 known as ,manu2 workers in copper or brass called ,twashtik2 workers in stone or ,shilpik2 workers in wood or ,maya2 and workers in gold and silver designated as ,daivagnya4 #dgh ,the caste appear to be of ,telugu origin1 and in ,madras they are also known as ,kammala4 ,in the ,central ,provinces they were amalgamated with the ,sunars in #aija1 but in #ahia a total of #gjjj were returned1 belonging to the southern ,districts2 while #bgjj members of the caste are shown in ,berar4 ,the name is variously derived1 but the principal root is no doubt panch or five4 ,captain ,glasfurd writes it ,panchyanun4 #dgi ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,panchals appear generally to work in gold or brass1 while in ,berar they are blacksmiths4 ,the gold-workers are an intelligent and fairly prosperous class1 and devote themselves to engraving1 inlaying1 and making gold beads4 ,they are usually hired by ,sunars and paid by the piece4 #dhj ,they are intent on improving their social position and now claim to be ,vishwa ,brahmans1 presumably in virtue of their descent from ,viswa ,karma1 the celestial architect4 ,at the census they submitted a petition begging to be classified as ,brahmans1 and to support their claim they employ members of their own caste to serve them as priests4 ,but the majority of them permit the remarriage of widows1 and do not wear the sacred thread4 ,in other respects their customs resemble those of the ,sunars4 ,the ,berar ,panchals1 on the other hand1 appear to be a much lower group4 ,mr4 ,kitts describes #dha them as a wandering caste of smiths living in grass-mat huts and using as fuel the roots of thorn bushes1 which they batter out of the ground with the back of a short-handled axe peculiar to themselves4 ,the ,berari ,panchals1 he continues1 who differ from the ,dakhani division in the custom of shaving their heads and beards on the death of a parent1 have been in the ,provinces for some generations4 ,they live in small pals or tents1 and move from place to place with buffaloes1 donkeys1 and occasionally ponies to carry their kit4 ,the women of the ,berari division may be distinguished from those of the ,dakhani ,panchals by their wearing their lugras or body-cloths tucked in at the back1 in the fashion known as kasote4 ,it is no doubt from the desire to dissociate themselves from the wandering blacksmiths of ,berar that the ,panchals of the ,central ,provinces desire to drop their caste name4 ,pancham4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,a subcaste of ,barai1 the same as ,beraria4 ,panchbhai4--7,five brothers47 ,a surname of ,bhanara ,dhimars1 a section of ,ghasia4 ,panchdeve4--,a subdivision of ,gonds1 worshipping five gods and paying special reverence to the saras crane4 ,panch ,dravid4--,one of the two primary divisions of ,brahmans1 inhabiting the country south of the ,vindhya hills and ,nerbudda river1 and including the following five orders3 viz41 ,karnata 7,carnatic71 ,dravid 7,madras71 ,tailanga 7,telugu country71 ,maharashtra 7,bombay7 and ,gurjara 7,gujarat74 ,panch ,gaur4--,one of the two primary divisions of ,brahmans inhabiting the country north of the ,vindhya hills and ,nerbudda river2 it includes the following five orders3 ,saraswat 7,punjab71 ,kanaujia 7,hindustan71 ,gaur 7,bengal71 ,utkal 7,orissa7 and ,maithil 7,bihar or ,tirhut74 ,panchghar4--,one of the three subdivisions of ,kanaujia ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad4 ,panda4--7,a priest of ,devi1 a wise man47 ,a subcaste or title of ,mali4 ,a subcaste and surname of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,jasondhi ,bhats4 ,pandaram4--,a class of ,brahman priests4 ,pande4--7,a wise man47 ,a surname of ,kanaujia and ,gaur ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,agharia1 ,barhai1 ,kewat and ,marar4 ,a title of ,joshi and ,kumhar4 ,pandhare4--7,white47 ,subcaste of ,sunar4 ,pandit4--7,a learned man47 ,a title of ,brahmans4 ,pandki4--7,dove47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhatra1 ,kawar and ,parja4 ,pandra4--,a small caste of cultivators in the ,uriya country4 ,it is said that one of the ,rajas of ,patna had an illegitimate son to whom he gave the village of ,pandri4 ,his descendants were the ,pandras4 ,pandwar or ,padwar4--,a section of ,panka in ,raipur4 ,they are said to be so named because they washed the feet of others4 ,pangal4--,subcaste of ,gopal4 ,they make mats1 but in addition to this they are mendicants begging from trees4 ,panhara4--,an occupational term meaning a seller of pan or betel-leaf4 ,panibhar4--7,a waterman47 ,subcaste of ,dangri4 ,panigrahi4--7,husband47 ,an honorific title of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,panjha4--7,paw of an animal47 ,a sept of ,gond4 ,panka4--,a weaver caste derived from the ,gandas1 being ,gandas who follow the ,kabirpanthi sect4 ,see article4 ,in ,chhattisgarh ,pankas sometimes call themselves ,das1 as servants of ,kabir4 ,panka is also a subcaste of ,ganda4 ,pansari4--7,a druggist47 ,synonym for ,barai4 ,panwar4--,a clan of ,rajput4 ,see article ,panwar ,rajput4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara and ,bhoyar4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,bhilala1 ,koshti1 ,maratha and ,marori4 ,parasar1 ,parashar4--7,name of a ,brahmanical saint47 ,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,a surname of ,sanadhya and ,gaur ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,basdeva1 ,rangari1 ,sunar and ,vidur4 ,parauha4--7,from para1 a male buffalo calf47 ,a subcaste of ,basdewa who deal in buffaloes4 ,parbat4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosain4 ,parbhu4--,synonym of ,prabhu4 ,pardeshi4--7,a foreigner47 ,the name is sometimes applied to immigrants from ,malwa1 and also to those coming from northern ,india4 ,a subcaste of the ,bahna1 ,barai1 ,barhai1 ,chamar1 ,dhimar1 ,dhobi1 ,garpagari1 ,kimbi1 ,kasar1 ,kumhar1 ,lohar1 ,nai1 ,rangari1 ,sunar and ,teli castes4 ,pardhan4--7,a chief47 ,a caste who are priests of the ,gonds4 ,see article4 ,a section of ,chhattisgarhi ,ahir or ,rawat1 ,halba and ,pabia4 ,title of caste headman of the ,kharia tribe4 ,pardhi4--7,a hunter47 ,a caste4 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,khatik4 ,a section of ,kunbi and ,panwar ,rajput4 ,parewa4--7,a pigeon47 ,a section of ,chhattisgarhi ,ahir or ,rawat1 and ,panka4 ,parganiha4--,a synonym of ,pardhan 7,gond priests7 in ,kawardha4 ,parihar4--,an important clan of ,rajputs4 ,see ,rajput ,parihar4 ,a section of ,daharia and ,daraiha1 of ,panwar ,rajput and ,pardhi4 ,parit4--,synonym for ,dhobi in the ,maratha districts4 ,parka4 #dhb--;,a small caste of labourers belonging to the ,jubbulpore ,district and adjoining tracts1 whose strength was something over #bjjj persons in #aija4 ,sir ,b4 ,robertson wrote #dhc in #ahia that the ,parkas of the three northern ,districts had been kept separate from the ,panka caste in the census tables1 but that they were in all probability the same4 ,mr4 ,hira ,lal points out that several of the names of septs as ,padwar1 ,sanwani1 ,gullia and ,dharwa are the same in the two castes1 and that in the ,districts where ,parkas are found there are no ,pankas4 ,the ,panka caste was probably formed in ,chhattisgarh by the separation of those ,gandas or ,pans who had embraced the doctrines of ,kabir from their parent caste1 and the name is a variant of ,pan4 ,in ,jubbulpore the name ,panka has no understood meaning1 and it may have been corrupted into ,pandka 7a dove7 and thence to ,parka4 ,like the ,pankas the ,parkas often act as village watchmen4 ,many of the ,parkas are also ,kabirpanthis and1 as with the ,pankas1 those who are not ,kabirpanthis and do not abstain from flesh and liquor are called ,saktahas4 ,intermarriage is not prohibited between the ,parka ,kabirpanthis and ,saktahas4 ,some of the ,parkas play on drums and act as village musicians1 which is a regular occupation of the ,pankas and ,gandas4 ,it may also be noted that the ,parkas will take food cooked with water from a ,gond and that they worship ,bura ,deo1 the great god of the ,gonds4 ,perhaps the most probable surmise as to their origin is that they are a small mixed group made up of ,pankas and ,gonds4 ,a proverbial saying about the caste is ',gond ,raja1 ,parka ,pardhan1' or ',the ,gond is the master and the ,parka the servant1' and this also points to their connection with the ,gonds4 ,several of their section names indicate their mixed origin1 as ,kumharia from ,kumhar a potter1 ,gullia ,from ,gaolia or milkman1 ,bhullia from ,bhulia an ,uriya weaver1 ,andwan a subcaste of the ,mahar caste1 ,tilasia a sept of the ,kawars1 and so on4 ,if a ,parka man forms a connection with any woman of higher caste she will be admitted into the community1 and the same privilege is accorded to a man of any equal or higher caste who may desire to marry a ,parka girl4 ,a girl is only cast out when she is discovered to have been living with a man of lower caste than the ,parkas4 ,all these facts indicate their mixed origin4 ,as already seen1 the caste are labourers1 village watchmen-and musicians1 and their customs resemble those of low-caste ,hindus1 but they rank above the impure castes4 ,they will eat food cooked with water from ,lodhis1 many of whom are landowners in ,jubbulpore1 and as such no doubt stand to the ,parka in the relation of employer to servant4 ,every year on the second day of ,bhadon 7,august7 they worship a four-sided iron plate and a spear1 which latter is perhaps the emblem of the village watchman4 ,fines imposed for caste offences are sometimes expended in the purchase of vessels which thereafter become common property and are lent to any one who requires them4 ,parnami4--7,a follower of ,prannath of ,panna47 ,subcaste of ,dangi4 ,parsai4--7,village priest47 ,synonym for ,joshi4 ,parsoli4--7parsa1 an axe47 ,a section of ,ahir or ,rawat in ,chhattisgarh4 ,parwar4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see article ,bania-,parwar4 ,a subcaste of ,kumhar4 ,passi4--,synonym of ,pasi4 ,patadhari4--7,one occupying the seat of instruction47 ,a section of celibate ,manbhaos4 ,patane4--,a subcaste of ,prabhu1 so called on account of their living near ,patan in ,gujarat4 ,patbina4--7,from patti1 sacking1 and binna1 to weave47 ,synonym of ,kumrawat4 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,patel4--7,headman of a village47 ,a subcaste and title of ,mali4 ,a surname of ,gaur ,brahmans in ,saugor and of ,parsis4 ,a surname or section of ,agharia1 ,mahar and ,kachhi4 ,a title of the ,ahir and ,bhoyar castes4 ,pathak4--7,teacher47 ,a surname of ,kanaujia and other classes of ,brahmans4 ,pathan4--,one of the four tribes of ,muhammadans4 ,see article ,muhammadan ,religion4 ,pathari4--7,a hillman47 ,synonym of ,pardhan4 ,subcaste of ,katia4 ,patharia4--,a subcaste of ,katia1 ,kurmi and ,mahar4 ,a section of ,halba4 ,a subcaste of ,agaria1 who place a stone on the mouth of the bellows to fix them in the ground for smelting iron4 ,pathmukh4--,a subsept of the ,dhurwa ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they offer a young goat to their gods and do not kill bears4 ,pathrot1 ,pathrawat4--7,one who makes and sharpens millstones and grindstones47 ,synonym of ,beldar4 ,pati4--7,lord47 ,an honorific title of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,patkar4--7,from pat1 widow-marriage47 ,a subcaste of ,sunar in ,wardha4 ,a section of ,rangari4 ,patlia4--7,from patel47 ,title of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,patnaik4--,a surname of ,karan or ,mahanti1 the ,uriya writer caste4 ,patra4--7,an ,uriya word meaning councillor47 ,a subcaste of ,kolta and ,chasa1 and title of several ,uriya castes4 ,also a synonym for the ,patwa caste4 ,patti4--7,a thread-seller47 ,subcaste of ,kaikari4 ,patwa4--,a caste4 ,see article4 ,in ,seoni tahsil of ,hoshangabad ,district ,patwa and ,lakhera appear to be synonymous terms4 ,a section of ,oswal ,bania4 ,patwari4--7,name of the village accountant and surveyor1 who is now a salaried ,government official47 ,the ,kayasth caste were formerly patwaris by profession4 ,see article4 ,patwi4--7,a dyer who colours the silk thread which weavers use to border their cotton cloth47 ,synonym of ,patwa4 ,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,from pata1 a woven cloth4 ,pawanbans4--7,the children of the wind47 ,synonym for ,bhuiya4 ,pendhari4--,synonym of ,pindari4 ,peng4--,subcaste of ,parja4 ,penthi4--7,sheep47 ,a totemistic sept of ,bhulia4 ,periki1 ,perki1 ,perka4--,the ,perikis are really a subcaste of the great ,balija or ,balji caste1 but they have a lower position and are considered as a distinct group4 ,about #djjj ,perikis were returned in the ,central ,provinces in #aiaa from the ,nagpur1 ,wardha and ,chanda ,districts4 ,they derive their names from the perike or panniers in which they carried salt and grain on bullocks and donkeys4 ,they were thus formerly a nomadic group1 and like the ,banjaras and ,bhamtas they also made gunny-bags and sacking4 ,most of them have now taken to cultivation1 and in ,madras some ,perikis have become large landholders and claim ,rajput rank4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,balijas and ,naidus deny that the ,perikis have any connection with the ,balija caste4 ,peta4--7,a trading ,balija47 ,subcaste of ,balija4 ,phal ,barhai4--7,a carpenter who only works on one side of the wood47 ,synonym for ,chitari in the ,uriya country4 ,phanse4--7,a ,pardhi who hunts with traps and snares47 ,subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,phansigar4--7,a strangler47 ,synonym of ,thug4 ,pharsi4--7,axe47 ,a section of ,uriya1 ,ahir or ,gahara4 ,phopatia4--,title of the officer of the ,andh caste who summons the caste committee4 ,phulia1 ,phulmali4--7,a flower-gardener47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi and ,mali4 ,phuljharia4--7,from ,phuljhar zamindari in ,raipur47 ,a territorial subcaste of ,ahir or ,rawat1 ,ghasia and ,panka4 ,phul ,kunwar4--,a section of ,kawar4 ,they use the akre or swallow-wort flower for their marriage-crown4 ,phulsunga4--,a totemistic section of ,gadaria4 ,they abstain from smelling or touching a flower called gadha4 ,phurasti4--7,a wanderer47 ,subcaste of ,kaikari4 ,pindara4--,synonym of ,pindari4 ,pindari4--,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,mang4 ,pinjara4--7,one who cards cotton47 ,synonym of ,bahna4 ,pipar4--7,a tree47 ,a section of ,khatik and ,kalar4 ,pipariya4--7,from the pipal tree1 or from ,piparia1 a common place-name derived from the tree47 ,a clan of ,rajputs in ,saugor4 ,a section of ,sunars in ,saugor4 ,piria4--,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,from piria1 the basket in which they carry earth4 ,pit4--,subcaste of ,bhatra4 ,pitariya4--7,from pital1 brass47 ,a subdivision of ,pardeshi ,sunars in ,nagpur4 ,they practise hypergamy1 taking wives from the ,sadihe subcaste1 and giving daughters to the ,srinagariye1 ,bangar1 ,mahuwe and ,jadiye subcastes4 ,pohni4--,subcaste of ,jhadi ,telenga4 ,poiya1--,subcaste of ,majhwar4 ,polya4--7,one who did not take off his turban at the feast47 ,title of ,hatkar4 ,pondro4--7,a tree47 ,one of the six subsepts of the ,marai clan of ,pathari ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,ponwar4--,synonym of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,portai4--7,basket47 ,a subsept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,they do not kill the tiger or crocodile4 ,a sept of ,dhur ,gonds4 ,potdar4--7,a money-tester47 ,synonym and title of ,sunar4 ,a surname of ,karhara ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,potdukh4--7,stomach-ache47 ,a section of ,teli in ,chanda4 ,potharia4--7,one to whom a certain dirty habit is imputed47 ,subcaste of ,korku4 ,potwa4--7,a worker in tasar silk47 ,synonym for ,darzi2 a subcaste of ,darzi4 ,poyam4--7,worshipper of eight gods47 ,a sept of ,pardhan and of ,maria ,gonds4 ,prajapati4--,title of ,kumhar4 ,pramara4--,synonym for ,panwar ,rajput4 ,prannathi4--,a follower of ,prannath of ,panna4 ,synonym for ,dhami4 ,pravar4--,a term for the ancestors sharing in a sacrificial invocation1 particularly that of the ,horn or fire-sacrifice4 ,prayagwal4--7,from ,prayag-,allahabad47 ,a subcaste of ,brahmans who preside at the ceremonial bathing in the ,ganges at ,allahabad4 ,puar4--,synonym of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,pujari4--7,a worshipper47 ,name for the priest in charge of a temple4 ,a title of ,bhatra4 ,purad4--,a small mixed caste in ,nagpur4 ,they say that their ancestor was a ,brahman1 who was crossing a river and lost his sacred thread1 on being carried down in a flood 7pur74 ,therefore he was put out of caste because the sacred thread must be changed before swallowing the spittle1 and he had no other thread ready4 ,at the census the ,purads were amalgamated with ,vidurs4 ,they are shopkeepers by profession4 ,purait4--7,one who is of pure blood47 ,a subdivision of ,jharia ,rawat 7,ahir7 in ,chhattisgarh4 ,a subcaste of ,dhakar1 ,halba and ,marar4 ,purania4--7,old47 ,a subcaste of ,kachera or ,sisgar in ,saugor4 ,the ,puranias are the ,muhammadan bangle-makers who originally practised this calling4 ,a subcaste of ,barai1 ,basor1 ,nai and ,sunar4 ,a section of ,chamar and ,darzi4 ,purbia4--,this term1 which means eastern or coming from the east1 is used in ,hoshangabad and other ,districts to designate ,rajputs from ,oudh and the adjoining tracts1 especially retired sepoys from the ,bengal army4 ,they appear to belong to different clans1 but many of them are ,bais ,rajputs4 ,some of the ,purbias say that their king1 somewhere in northern ,india1 heard that cows were being killed in the ,central ,provinces1 so he sent them to stop the practice and they came and stopped it and settled there4 ,in ,gujarat this name appears to be applied to ,brahmans4 ,a subcaste of ,barhai and ,gadaria4 ,a section of ,nat and ,sunar4 ,purkam4--7,purka-pumpkin47 ,a sept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,purohit4--7,family priest47 ,a common title of ,brahmans4 ,purouti or ,pudoti4--7,bowels47 ,a sept of ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,pusam4--7,worshipper of five gods47 ,a sept of ,raj-,gond and ,dhur ,gond1 and of ,baiga and ,pardhan4 ,putka4--,a subcaste of ,sudh1 being the illegitimate issue of the ,dehri ,sudhs4 ,qawwal4--7,one who speaks fluently47 ,title of ,mirasi4 ,rachhbandia4--7,comb-makers47 ,a subcaste of ,kuchhbandia 7,kanjar74 ,raghunathia4--,a small group of ,brahmans1 so called because their ancestors are said to have received a grant of five villages from ,raghunath ,deo of ,hindoli4 ,raghuvansi4--,a caste formed from a ,rajput clan4 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,ahir2 a section of ,mali and ,gond4 ,raghvi4--,synonym of ,raghuvansi4 ,rahmat4--7,compassion47 ,a section of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,a ,muhammadan proper name4 ,rai or ,raj4--,subcaste of ,darzi1 ,kalar1 ,khangar4 ,rai-bhaina4--,subcaste of ,baiga in ,balaghat4 ,raipuria4--7,from ,raipur47 ,a subcaste of ,dhimars who do not wear gold ornaments4 ,a subcaste of ,dewar in ,bilaspur4 ,raj or ,rai4--,from ,raja1 a king4 ,this term designates the landholding division of certain tribes1 as the ,raj-,gonds1 the ,raj-,korkus1 the ,raj-,khonds and the ,rajbhars4 ,the ,raj-,bhats1 ,raj-,dhuris and ,rai-,darzis are similarly subcastes of good position in their respective castes4 ,raj is also used as a synonym for ,beldar1 meaning a mason4 ,raja4--7,a king47 ,title of a ruling chief1 and occasionally conferred on prominent ,indian gentlemen4 ,rajak4--7,a washerman47 ,synonym for ,dhobi4 ,rajbhar4--7,a landowning ,bhar47 ,synonym for ,rajjhar4 ,raj-,bhat4--,subcaste of ,bhat4 ,raj-,dhuri4--,a subcaste of ,dhuri1 said to be descendants of personal servants in ,rajput families4 ,raj-,gond4--,the landholding subdivision of the ,gond tribe2 a section of ,chamar and ,kachhi4 ,raj-,khond4--,subcaste of ,khond4 ,raj-,kunwar1 ,raj-,pardhan4--,a subcaste of ,pardhan in ,balaghat4 ,rajoria4--7,kingly47 ,a section of ,barhai1 ,dangi1 ,khatik and ,sanadhya ,brahman4 ,raj-,pardhan4--,a subcaste of ,pardhan4 ,they are said to be also known as ,kunwar ,pardhan or ,gond ,bhat and to be beggars and bards of the ,gonds4 ,raj-,pasi4--,subcaste of ,pasi4 ,rajput4--7,son of a king47 ,a caste1 representing the ancient ,kshatriya caste4 ,see article4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara1 ,kadera1 ,kumhar and ,patwa4 ,rajwaria4--,from the ,rajwar caste4 ,subcaste of ,dahait4 ,subdivision of ,kol in ,mirzapur4 ,rakaseya4--7,from ,rakas1 a devil47 ,a section of ,katia4 ,rakhotia4--,an illegitimate section of ,kumhar4 ,rakhwaldar4--7,village watchman47 ,title of ,ramosi4 ,raksa4--7,demoniac47 ,a section of ,kumhar and ,kawar4 ,ramanandi4--,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,see article ,bairagi4 ,ramanuja4--,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,see article ,bairagi4 ,ramgarhia4--7,a resident of ,ramgarh in ,mandla47 ,subcaste of ,ghasia4 ,ramoshi4--,synonym of ,ramosi4 ,rana4--,a title of ,sesodia ,rajputs4 ,a section of ,halba and ,panwar4 ,randgolak4--,a subdivision of degraded ,maharashtra ,brahmans1 the offspring of illicit unions or remarried widows4 ,rangari4--7,one who works in indigo 7nil747 ,synonym for ,chhipa4 ,rao4--,synonym for ,bhat4 ,a section of ,chamar and ,lohar4 ,a title of the ,bhilala caste4 ,ratanpuria4--7,a resident of ,ratanpur in ,bilaspur47 ,subcaste of ,nunia and ,dewar4 ,ratha4--7,a car for carrying a god47 ,honorific title of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,rathia4--,subcaste of ,kawar4 ,rathor1 ,rathaur4--,a famous ,rajput clan4 ,see article ,rajput-,rathor4 ,a subcaste of ,banjara1 ,bari and of ,teli in ,mandla1 ,betul1 ,nimar and other ,districts4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,bhilala1 ,mochi1 ,nahal and ,pardhi4 ,ratna ,banik4--7,dealer in jewels47 ,a synonym of ,sunar in ,sambalpur4 ,rautadi4--,subcaste of ,bhuiya4 ,rautele4--,a subcaste of ,kol4 ,a section of ,barai1 ,bhat1 ,gadaria and of ,sunar in ,saugor4 ,rautia4--,a subcaste of ,kol in several ,districts4 ,a subcaste of ,dahait4 ,a subcaste of ,kawar4 ,a section of ,chamar and ,rawat 7,ahir74 ,rawal4--,title borne by some ,rajput chieftains in ,western ,india4 ,probably a diminutive of ,rao1 the ,marathi form of ,raj or ,raja4 ,a section of ,chasa1 ,mali and ,garpagari4 ,rawanbansi4--,descendants of ,rawan1 the demon king of ,ceylon4 ,a name applied to the ,gonds generally1 and now used as a subtribal designation to distinguish them from ,raj-,gonds4 ,rawanvansi4--,name of a clan of ,gosain mendicants4 ,rawat4--,a title borne by some minor ,rajput chiefs4 ,probably a diminutive of ,rajputra1 the original form of the term ,rajput4 ,an honorific title of ,gonds and ,savars in ,saugor and ,damoh4 ,the name by which the ,ahir caste is generally known in ,chhattisgarh4 ,a subcaste and title of ,khairwar4 ,a title sometimes used by ,sunars and ,brahmans in ,bundelkhand and by ,lodhis4 ,a subcaste of ,mehtar and ,mali4 ,a section of ,arakh1 ,banjara1 ,binjhwar1 ,dhanwar1 ,kawar1 ,khairwar1 ,kunbi1 ,nat1 ,patwa1 ,panwar ,rajput1 and ,sudh4 ,reddi4--,a synonym for the ,kapewar or ,kapu caste2 a subcaste of ,kapewar and ,gandli4 ,redka4--,a small labouring caste of ,sambalpur4 ,they are apparently the result of intermarriages between some members of the ,reddi or ,kapu cultivating caste of ,telingana1 who came to ,sambalpur during the ,orissa famine of #ahff1 with low-class ,uriya women4 ,they still speak ,telugu among themselves1 using ,uriya to outsiders4 ,only one curious feature of the marriage ceremony of the ,redkas need be noticed here4 ,this is that the officiating ,brahman actually places a red-hot copper seal on the arms of the bride and bridegroom as a symbol of sealing the marriage bond4 ,in other respects their customs resemble those of low-caste ,uriyas4 ,rekwar4--,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,rig-,vedi4--,sectarian division of ,brahmans4 ,rikhiasan ,mahatwar4--,subcaste of ,bhuiya4 ,ritha ,biknath4--,one who prepares and sells soap-nuts for washing clothes4 ,subcaste of ,jogi4 ,rohidasi4--,honorific term for a ,chamar4 ,it signifies a follower of the sect of ,rohidas in ,northern ,india4 ,the ,chamars often describe themselves by this name instead of their caste name4 ,rohilla4--,a ,pathan tribe who have settled in ,rohilkhand or the ,bareilly tract of the ,united ,provinces4 ,they derive their name from ,roh1 the designation given to the country where the ,pushto language is spoken by residents of ,hindustan4 ,the word ,roh1 like ,koh1 means a mountain1 and ,rohilla therefore signifies a highlander4 #dhd ,the ,rohilla ,pathans occupied ,rohilkhand in the eighteenth century4 ,their name first attracted attention when ,warren ,hastings was charged with hiring out ,british troops for their suppression4 ,the ,rohillas say that they are of ,coptic origin1 and that driven out of ,egypt by one of the ,pharaohs they wandered westward till they arrived under that part of the mountains of ,afghanistan known as ,sulaimani ,koh4 #dhe ,parties of ,rohillas visit the ,central ,provinces bringing woollen cloths and dried fruits for sale4 ,here they formerly bore a bad character1 being accustomed to press the sale of their merchandise on the villagers on credit at exorbitant interest2 and when the time for realisation came1 to extort their money by threats of violence1 or actual assault1 or1 if this was not practicable1 by defiling the graves of their debtors' ancestors4 ,these practices have now1 however1 been largely suppressed4 ,romya or ,haralya4--,subcaste of ,chamar4 ,ror4--,subcaste of ,khatri4 ,rora4--,synonym of ,arora4 ,ruma4--,a resident of ,basim and ,gangra in ,amraoti ,district4 ,subcaste of ,korku4 ,ruthia4--,a name formed from the noise rut1 rut made by the oil-mill in turning4 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,sabara4--,synonym for the ,savar tribe4 ,a section of ,kawar and ,teli4 ,sabat4--7,from saot1 co-wife47 ,an honorific title of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,sadaphal4--7,a fruit47 ,a section of ,chandnahu ,kurmi and ,sonkar4 ,sada-,sohagal4--,a class of ,fakirs or ,muhammadan beggars4 ,sadhu4--7,a religious mendicant47 ,synonym for ,bairagis or ,gosains4 ,sagar4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,sagunsale4--,a group of illegitimate descent4 ,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,sahadeve4--,a clan of ,gonds worshipping six gods and paying special reverence to the tiger4 ,sahani4--7,from siahi1 ink47 ,an honorific title of ,karan or ,mahanti4 ,a subcaste of ,paik4 ,sahara4--,synonym for the ,savar tribe4 ,sahasra ,audichya4--7,a thousand men of the north47 ,a subdivision of ,gujarati ,brahmans who are said to have accepted presents from ,raja ,mulraj of ,anhalwara ,patan at a sacrifice1 and hence to have suffered some degradation in rank4 ,audichya probably signifies coming from ,oudh4 ,sahra4--,synonym of ,savar4 ,sahu4--7,a trader47 ,an honorific title of ,bania4 ,a synonym for ,sunar in ,sambalpur4 ,a subdivision of ,uriya ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,khadra1 ,kolta1 ,sundi and ,teli4 ,sahukar4--,title of ,bania4 ,see ,sahu4 ,sain4--,synonym for ,fakir4 ,saiqalgar4--,from ,arabic saiqal1 a polisher4 ,synonym for ,sikligar4 ,sais4--,the title by which grooms or horse-keepers are usually known4 ,the word ,sais1 ,colonel ,temple states1 #dhf is ,arabic and signifies a nobleman2 it is applied to grooms as an honorific title1 in accordance with the common method of address among the lower castes4 ,other honorific designations for grooms1 as given by ,colonel ,temple1 are ,bhagat or ',saint1' and ,panch1 ',arbitrator1' but neither of these is generally used in the ,central ,provinces4 ,another name for ,saises is ,thanwar1 which means a person in charge of a stable or place where a horse is kept4 ,grooms from ,northern ,india are usually of the ,jaiswara division of ,chamars1 who take their name from the old town of ,jais in ,oudh2 but they drop the ,chamar and give ,jaiswara as their caste4 ,these men are thin and wiry and can run behind their horses for long distances4 ,the grooms indigenous to the ,central ,provinces are as a rule promoted grass-cutters and are either of the ,ghasia 7grass-cutter7 or the ,kori and ,mahar 7weaver7 castes4 ,they cannot usually run at all well4 ,it is believed that both the ,jaiswaras and ,mahars who work as grooms have taken to marrying among themselves and tend to form separate endogamous groups1 because they consider themselves superior to the remainder of the caste4 ,a ,sais will frequently refuse to tie up a dog with a rope or lead him with one because he uses a rope for leading his horses4 ,this taboo is noticed by ,sir ,b4 ,fuller as follows3 ,horses in ,india are led not by the bridle but by a thick cotton leading-rope which is passed over the headstall1 and such a rope is carried by every ,indian groom4 ,i asked my groom one day to tie up with his leading rope a dog that would not follow4 ,he absolutely refused1 and ,i discovered that the rope was the fetish of his caste and was formerly adored and propitiated in the course of an annual caste festival4 ,to touch a dog with it would have been sacrilege4 #dhg ,saitwal4--,a subcaste of ,jain ,banias4 ,saiyad4--,one of the four ,muhammadan tribes1 which is supposed to comprise the descendants of the ,prophet4 ,sakadwipi4--,a tribe of ,brahmans taking their name from ,sakadwipa1 the country of the ,sakas4 ,the ,sakas were a ,central ,asian tribe who invaded ,india before the commencement of the ,christian era1 and ,sakadwipa is said to be the valley of the ,kabul river4 ,sakarwal1 ,sikarwar4--,a clan of ,rajputs whose name is said to be derived from ,fatehpur ,sikri4 ,saksena4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth1 also called ,sukhsena4 ,a subcaste of ,bharbhunja and ,kachhi4 ,saktaha4--,a synonym for ,shakta1 a worshipper of ,devi in ,chhattisgarh4 ,saktaha practically means a person who eats flesh1 as opposed to a ,kabirpanthi who abstains from it4 ,a subcaste of ,panka1 who are not ,kabirpanthis4 ,sakum4--,a sept of ,korku4 7,one who hides behind a teak tree47 ,salam4--7,worshipper of six gods47 ,a clan of ,gond4 ,a section of ,dewar4 ,salewar4--,a name for ,telugu ,koshtis4 ,a subcaste of ,koshti4 ,samaiya4--,a sect of ,jains4 ,san4--,a subcaste of ,bhatra4 ,sanadhya4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans belonging to the ,gaur division4 ,sanak-kul4--,a section of ,komti4 ,they do not use jaiphal or nutmeg4 ,sanaurhia4--,subcaste of ,brahman4 ,synonym for ,sanadhya4 ,sanbagh4--7,a little tiger47 ,a section of ,bhulia4 ,sand4--7,the bull47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,they do not use bullocks for ploughing1 or are supposed not to4 ,a section of ,khangar4 ,they do not give a present of a bull at weddings4 ,a section of ,mali4 ,sania4--7,a grower of san-hemp47 ,subcaste of ,kachhi4 ,saniasi4--,name for a religious mendicant4 ,synonym for ,gosain4 ,sanjogi4--,a class of ,bairagis or mendicants who marry1 also called ,grihastha4 ,sankrita4--,an eponymous section of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,sanp4--7,snake47 ,a sept of ,gond and ,kawar4 ,santal1 ,saonta1 ,sonthal4--,an important tribe of ,bengal1 belonging to the ,munda family4 ,the transfer of five of the ,chota ,nagpur ,states has brought more than #aj1jjj ,santals into the ,central ,provinces4 ,they belong principally to the ,sarguja ,state and a few are returned from ,udaipur ,state and from the ,bilaspur ,district1 but in all those tracts they are known as ,saonta and appear to have been cut off from the main tribe for a considerable period4 ,according to ,mr4 ,skrefsrud the name ,santal is a corruption of ,saontar and was given to the tribe by the ,bengalis because they lived in the country about ,saont in ,midnapur4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley held that the tribe might equally well have given its name to the locality1 and there was no means of ascertaining which theory was correct4 ,the forms ,santal and ,sonthal are only used by natives who have come into contact with ,europeans4 ,santals call themselves 'harko1' men1 or 'harhapan1' man-child4 #dhh ,at the present day when a ,santal is asked to what caste he belongs he will almost invariably reply ,manjhi1 which means a village headman1 and is the common title of the tribe2 if further explanation is demanded1 he will add ,santal ,manjhi4 ,whether the term ,santal was derived from the ,saont pargana or not1 it is therefore at any rate a name conferred by the ,hindus and affords no evidence in favour of a separate origin of the tribe4 ,there seems good reason to hold that the ,santals are only a branch of the ,kols or ,mundas1 who have been given a distinct designation by their ,hindu neighbours1 while their customs and traditions have been modified either by long separation from the ,mundas of ,chota ,nagpur or by contact with ,hindu influences4 ,sir ,g4 ,grierson's account of the two dialects ,santali and ,mundari shows that they closely resemble each other and differ only in minor particulars4 ,the difference is mainly to be found in the vocabulary borrowed from ,aryan neighbours1 and in the grammatical modifications occasioned by the neighbouring ,aryan forms of speech4 #dhi ,of ,mundari he says3 ,aspirated letters are used as in ,santali1 the semi-consonants are apparently pronounced in the same way as in ,santali2 genders and numbers are the same1 the personal pronouns are the same1 the inflexion of verbs is mainly the same4 #dij ,some points of difference are mentioned by ,sir ,g4 ,grierson1 but they appear to be of minor importance4 ,the ,mundas1 like the ,santals1 call themselves hara-ko or men4 ,in the vocabulary of common words of ,mundari and ,santali given by ,colonel ,dalton #dia a large proportion of the words are the same4 ,similarly in the list of sept-names of the tribes given by ,sir ,h4 ,risley #dib several coincide4 ,among the #ae names of main septs of the ,santals1 ,besra1 a hawk1 ,murmu nilgai1 or stag1 and ,aind1 eel1 are also the names of ,munda septs4 ,the ,santal sept ,hansda1 a wild goose1 is nearly identical with the ,munda sept ,hansa1 a swan2 the ,santal septs ,kisku and ,tudu are sept-names of the ,hos1 a branch of the ,mundas2 and in one or two other names there is a great resemblance4 ,the principal deity of the ,santals1 ,marang ,buru1 is a ,munda god4 ,in the inheritance of property both tribes have the same rule of the exclusion of daughters4 ,in his article on ,ho1 ,sir ,h4 ,risley indeed states that the ,santals1 ,hos and ,mundas are local branches of the same tribe4 ,the ,saontas of ,sarguja and ,bilaspur appear to have been separated from the parent tribe for some generations and to have assimilated some of the customs of the ,gonds4 ,they have some ,gond sept-names1 as ,markam and ,dhurwa4 ,those of ,pendra zamindari have no traditions of their origin beyond saying that the adjoining ,kenda zamindari was their original home4 ,they profess to revere only the sun1 fire and water4 ,in order to worship the ,jal-deota or water-god they pour water round the fire and then throw a little butter on the fire in his name4 ,mr4 ,c4,u4 ,wills1 ,settlement ,officer1 records of them the following curious custom3 ,when a man is at the point of death or actually dead1 they sometimes set fire to the hut in which his body is lying and run away1 no doubt to save themselves from being haunted and troubled by his spirit1 to the attainment of which end so large a part of funeral ritual is everywhere directed4 ,the following short account of them by ,colonel ,dalton may be reproduced for reference3 #dic ,the name ,saont or ,saonta directs us to the ,santal branch of the ,kols1 and1 as ,i have already noticed1 there is in ,sarguja a small tribe so called4 ,they are the sole inhabitants of the magnificent tableland forming the southern barrier of ,sarguja1 called the ,mainpat or more correctly perhaps the ,manipat4 ,they are a small tribe living scattered over the vast area of the plateau in about a dozen hamlets1 and they are strong in the belief that they were especially created to dwell there1 or that they and the plateau somehow sprang into existence together1 and cannot be separated4 ,i saw a number of them when ,i was last in ,sarguja1 and from their features ,i should be inclined to class them as ,kols1 but they have some customs and notions which they must have derived from the ,dravidian ,gonds4 ,they acknowledge ,dulha ,deo as a household god1 and follow the customs of the ,gonds and other southerners in their marriage ceremonies4 ,they worship the sun as ,bhagwan1 and like the ,kharias offer sacrifices to that luminary in an open place with an ant-hill for an altar4 ,the ,mainpat is their ,marang ,buru1 and as it is #af miles long1 #ab miles broad1 and rises #chej feet above the sea-level1 it is not unworthy of the name1 but they do not use that or any other ,kol term4 ,the great ,mainpat is their fatherland and their god4 ,they have it all to themselves except during the summer months1 when it becomes a vast grazing field for the cattle of ,mirzapur and ,bihar4 ,the ,saonts are armed like the ,korwas with bows and arrows1 and the peculiar battle-axe of the country1 but it is against the beasts of the forest that these weapons are used4 ,formerly the ,mainpat was a magnificent hunting field1 especially noted for its herds of antelope and gaur4 ,the late ,maharaja of ,sarguja strictly preserved it1 but on his death it fell into the hands of his widow1 a very money-loving old lady1 who allowed it to become one of the great grazing tracts1 and the pasturage alone gives her an income of #bej a year2 but the wild animals have in consequence withdrawn from it4 ,the position of the ,saonts is altogether very curious1 and though they now speak no language but a rude ,hindi1 the evidence is1 on the whole1 favourable to their being a remnant of the ancient ,kol aborigines of ,sarguja1 cut off from connection with those people by successive inroads of other races or tribes4 ,their substitution of a ,hindi dialect for their own language seems to indicate that they were first subjugated by ,aryans4 ,the ,gond chiefs only count about twenty-four generations in ,sarguja1 and they have all adopted the ,hindi language4 ,sanyasi4--7,a religious recluse47 ,synonym for ,gosain4 ,sao4--7,for sahu1 a banker1 a rich man47 ,a subcaste of ,kalar and ,teli4 ,an honorific title of ,chhipa or ,rangari4 ,a sept of ,gond4 ,saojin4--7,from sao1 a banker47 ,subcaste of ,banjara4 ,saonr4--,synonym of ,savar4 ,saonta4--,name by which the ,santal tribe is known in ,bilaspur4 ,a subcaste of ,dhanwar4 ,sapera4--7,a snake-charmer47 ,name of a clan of ,nats1 who exhibit snakes4 ,a section of ,basor and ,khatik4 ,saraf4--7,a money-changer and tester47 ,a synonym of ,sunar4 ,saraia 7,angler47 ,from sarai1 a bamboo fishing-rod4 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,sarangarhia4--7,from ,sarangarh47 ,a subtribe of ,gonds in ,khairagarh4 ,a subcaste of ,dewar4 ,saraogi4--,a name by which ,jain laymen are known4 ,subcaste of ,bania4 ,saras4--7,a large crane47 ,a section of ,chamar4 ,saraswat4--,one of the five orders of ,panch ,gaur ,brahmans inhabiting the country of the river ,saraswati4 ,one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,sarati4--,a sept of ,gond and ,pardhan4 ,sariyam4--,a subsept of the ,dhurwa clan of ,gonds in ,betul1 said to be so called because the road to the place of the gods was swept by their priests4 ,sarolia or ,sarwaria4--7,inferior or mixed47 ,subcaste of ,agharia4 ,saroti4--,a sept of ,pardhans said to be named after sarra1 a whip1 because their priest once struck a man with a whip4 ,sarsatia4--7,from the ,saraswati river47 ,subcaste of ,bahna4 ,satani4 #did--;,a ,telugu caste of priests and mendicants of which #ijj persons were returned1 principally from the ,chanda ,district1 in #aiaa4 ,in the ,central ,provinces1 ,ayawar1 ,satani and ,dasari have been taken as one caste1 but elsewhere they are considered as distinct4 ,ayawar is a term of respect analogous to the ,hindustani ,maharaj1 and is applied to the ,satanis and other religious orders4 ,the ,satanis and ,dasaris are distinguished in ,madras2 ,satani is stated #die to be a corruption of ,sattadavan1 which means ',one who does not wear' 7e4g4 the sacred thread and scalp-lock74 ,it is a mixed religious order recruited from any caste except the ,pariahs1 leather-workers and ,muhammadans4 ,the ,dasaris #dif are said to be the reputed descendants of a wealthy ,sudra of one of the northern ,districts1 who1 being childless1 vowed that if offspring should be granted to him he would devote a son to the service of the god4 ,after this he had several children1 one of whom he consecrated to the deity1 calling him ,dasan 7the obedient servant74 ,dasan and his offspring made their livelihood by begging4 ,this order1 like that of the ,satanis1 is reinforced by idle members of the lower ,sudra castes1 who become ,dasaris by being branded by the ,guru of ,tirupatti and other shrines4 ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,dasaris are stated to be recruited from the impure ,mala caste of the ,telugu country1 and hence to rank below the ,satanis4 ,many of the ,madrasi servants in ,european households call themselves ,dasaris4 ,members of the agricultural castes are usually admitted into the ,satani order and its status is almost equal to theirs4 ,the caste1 in spite of its small numbers1 has several subdivisions1 as the ,sale ,satanis1 who are weavers1 the ,bukkas1 who are sellers of kunku or red powder1 and five other subdivisions who are all beggars4 ,some of these eat together but do not intermarry4 ,they have exogamous family groups1 usually named after sacred places in ,madras or celebrated ,gurus 7spiritual preceptors7 or deities1 as ,tirupatti1 ,ramanujamwar1 ,shaligramwar and so on4 ,the caste marry in the ordinary way and do not observe celibacy4 ,widow-marriage is allowed1 but a widow must marry a widower1 and the officiating priest at the ceremony must also be a widower4 ,the ,satanis principally revere ,vishnu1 whom they worship on ,fridays4 ,their priests are taken from their own order and form a separate subcaste under the name of ,parmastwar4 ,a novice1 on being initiated to the order1 is branded with the figures of a ,sankha 7conch-shell7 and ,chakra 7discus74 ,they both burn and bury the dead1 and the spirits of female as well as of male ancestors are propitiated4 ,this is done by calling a married woman by the name of the dead female1 putting red powder on her forehead and worshipping her4 ,among the ,satanis a widow accompanies the corpse of her husband to the grave4 ,they officiate at funerals1 and a ,satani priest applies the caste-mark to the body of the corpse and also to that of the four persons who are to carry it4 ,he receives presents in the name of the dead man1 and takes the red cloth with which the corpse is covered4 ,at the funeral feast the ,satani offers cooked food1 including flesh and also liquor1 to the god1 and the assembled guests then partake of them4 ,the ,satani drinks liquor only and does not eat the food1 and since he must stay to the end of the feast he sometimes becomes intoxicated4 ,the ,satanis are priests and mendicants4 ,though they do not wear the sacred thread themselves1 the manufacture of it is one of their hereditary occupations4 ,they collect alms in a lota or brass vessel1 on which representations of the conch and discus are drawn4 ,the ,dasaris wander about1 singing hymns to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather instrument called tappai 7perhaps a tabor74 ,they are engaged by some ,sudra castes to sing their chants in front of the corpse at funerals4 ,others exhibit what is called the ,panda sewai1 that is1 they become possessed by the deity and beat themselves over the body with a flaming torch4 ,a few train young bulls to perform tricks and travel about exhibiting them4 ,some have become masons and goldsmiths4 ,men have the mark of the trident on the forehead1 the two outer lines being white and the middle one red or yellow4 ,they shave the head and face clean1 not retaining the scalp-lock4 ,women have a vertical streak on the forehead and do not wear glass bangles nor the necklace of black beads4 ,neither men nor women are tattooed4 ,the ,satanis have a fairly good social position and the lower castes will take food from them4 ,satbhuiyan or ,utar4--,subcaste of ,khond4 ,satdeve4--,a clan of ,gonds worshipping seven gods and paying special reverence to the porcupine4 ,satghare4--7,seven houses47 ,a division of the ,maratha caste1 consisting of seven of the highest clans who marry among themselves and sometimes take daughters from the other ninety-six clans4 ,satnami4--,a religious sect1 which now practically forms a subcaste of ,chamar4 ,satputia4--7,having seven sons47 ,a section of ,lonare ,mali4 ,satyanath4 ,a subcaste of ,jogi or ,nath4 ,savar1 ,savara4--,a tribe4 ,sawalakh4--7#a #a_/d lakhs47 ,a section of ,dhobi4 ,sawara4--,synonym for ,savar4 ,subcaste of ,kol4 ,segidi1 #dig ,shegadi4--,the ,telugu caste of toddy-drawers and distillers1 of which a few representatives were returned from the ,nagpur ,district in #aija4 ,they will draw tari or palm-juice only from the sindi palm 7,phoenix sylvestris7 and not from the palmyra palm 7,borassics flabelliformis74 ,this is the occupation of a separate caste1 the ,yatas1 from whom the ,segidis will not even take water4 ,at a ,segidi marriage the bride is shown the polar star1 which is believed to be the wife of ,rishi ,vasishtha1 the model of conjugal excellence4 ,she is then made to step on to a stone slab to remind her how ,ahalya1 the beautiful wife of ,rishi ,gautama1 was turned to a stone for committing adultery4 ,widow-marriage is permitted1 and1 by a very curious exception to the ordinary rule1 a widow may marry her deceased husband's elder brother but not his younger one4 ,the usual prohibition on a widow marrying her husband's elder brother is based on the ground that he is looked on as her father2 the ,segidis say1 on the other hand1 that his younger brother is as her son4 ,if an unmarried adult male dies1 the ceremony of marriage is performed between the corpse and a plantain tree2 and if an unmarried woman dies she is married to a sword4 ,a corpse is always buried with the head to the east and the feet to the west4 ,this peculiar practice may be a reminiscence of ,vedic times1 when the west was considered to be the abode of the departed1 the sun being the first mortal who died and went to the west as recorded in the ,rig-,veda4 ,the ,segidis are also cultivators1 traders or soldiers4 ,they have a method of divining a boy's proper calling in his infancy4 ,when his mouth is touched with grain as food for the first time1 they put a sword1 a pen1 a book1 food and other articles1 being the symbols of different professions1 on the ground and place the child in front of them4 ,and his vocation in life is held to be determined by the article which he touches first4 ,senapati4--7,general47 ,honorific title of ,sundi4 ,sendia4--,title of caste headman of ,panwar ,rajput4 ,sendur4--,a section of ,ahir or ,rawat4 ,senduria4--,subcaste of ,nagasia4 ,they mark the forehead of the bride with vermilion 7sendur74 ,sengar4--,a clan of ,rajputs belonging to ,saugor and ,jubbulpore4 ,sesodia4--,a famous clan of ,rajputs4 ,seth4--7,banker or moneylender47 ,a title of ,bania4 ,setti4--,a corruption of the ,sanskrit ,shreshta1 good4 ,title of ,komti caste4 ,sewak4--7,servant47 ,the name given to an inferior class of ,brahmans who serve in ,vaishnava temples4 ,shaikh1 ,sheikh4--,one of the four tribes of ,muhammadans4 ,a subcaste of ,mehtar4 ,shaiva1 ,saiva4--7,a worshipper of ,siva47 ,the term ,shaiva ,brahman is applied to ,guraos4 ,shandilya1 ,sandilya4--,an eponymous gotra or section of ,brahmans4 ,a section of ,darzi1 ,raj-,gond1 ,rawat 7,ahir7 and ,sunar4 ,shegudi4--,see ,segidi4 ,shendia4--,a section of ,teli and ,otari 7,kasar74 ,shenvi4--,a subcaste of ,maratha ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad4 ,sheohare or ,sivahare4--,subcaste of ,kalar4 ,shiah4--,one of the two great sects of ,muhammadans4 ,shikari4--7,a hunter47 ,a synonym for ,pardhi or ,bahelia4 ,shimpi4--7,a tailor47 ,synonym for ,darzi in the ,maratha country4 ,shishi ke ,telwale4--,subcaste of ,pardhi4 ,they sell oil obtained from the bodies of crocodiles4 ,siddi1 ,sidi1 ,habshi4--,the name given to ,africans1 whether ,abyssinians or ,negroes4 ,habshi means one coming from ,el ,habish1 the ,arabic name for ,north-,east ,africa4 ,siddi is a corruption of ,saiyad1 the designation of a descendant of the ,prophet1 and is commonly used as a term of respectful address in ,north ,africa1 like ,sahib in ,india4 ,the ,bombay ,gazetteer states #dih that about the middle of the fifteenth century1 when the ,bahmani dynasty became independent of ,delhi and intercourse with ,northern ,india ceased1 the fashion arose of bringing to ,western ,india large numbers of ,abyssinians and other ,east ,africans4 ,though most of the ,habshis came to ,india as slaves1 their faithfulness1 courage and energy often raised them to positions of high trust in the ,bahmani court4 ,according to ,orme1 the successful ,abyssinians gathered round them all of their countrymen whom they could procure either by purchase or invitation1 including negroes from other parts of ,africa1 as well as ,abyssinians4 ,from their marriages1 first with natives of ,india and afterwards among their own families1 there arose a separate community1 distinct from other ,muhammadans in figure1 colour and character4 ,as soon as they were strong enough they formed themselves into an aristocratic republic and produced some of the most skilful and daring soldiers and sailors of ,western ,india4 ,the rulers of ,janjira and ,sachin ,states in ,bombay are ,siddis by descent4 ,they are now employed as stokers and firemen on steamers and as fitters and mechanics in the dockyards of ,bombay1 and are described #dii as ,a hardy race with muscular frames1 thick lips and crisp black hair--the very last men whom you would wish to meet in a rough-and-tumble1 and yet withal a jovial people1 well-disposed and hospitable to any one whom they regard as a friend4 ,in other parts of ,india the ,siddis are usually beggars and are described as ',fond of intoxicating drinks1 quarrelsome1 dirty1 unthrifty and pleasure-loving1 obstinacy being their leading trait4' ,they worship ,baba ,ghor1 an ,abyssinian saint4 #ejj ,it is recorded that the medicine called ,silajit1 a nervine tonic for the generative power1 was formerly believed to be prepared from the flesh of ,abyssinian boys4 ,mr4 ,hooper writes3 ,silajit is allied to another ancient drug named ,momiayi which has long been employed in the ,east4 ,the original drug is said to have been made from ,egyptian mummies1 and subsequently to have been prepared by boiling down and extracting the essence of ,abyssinian boys4 ,since the last source of supply has become scarce1 several bituminous exudations are reported to have been substituted4 #eja ,the drug is now said to be made from the gum of some stone in ,hardwar1 and this must be the bitumen referred to by ,mr4 ,hooper4 ,the virtue ascribed to the flesh of ,abyssinian boys was no doubt based on their superior bodily strength and perhaps partly on the prolificacy of the negroes4 ,in the case of mummies1 as the body of the mummy was believed to have retained life or the capacity of life for many ages1 its material would naturally possess extraordinary vitality and should be capable of imparting this quality to others when assimilated into their bodies4 ,sidhira1 ,sithira4--,a small occupational caste of ,sambalpur and the ,uriya ,states4 ,the caste is not found elsewhere in ,india4 ,they are braziers by trade1 and in spite of their small numbers say they have three subcastes1 one of which1 the ,luhura1 works in iron4 ,they are an impure caste1 whose touch conveys pollution in ,sambalpur4 ,they accept alms from a ,munda or ,oraon on the occasion of a death in the latter's family1 and have totemistic septs4 ,they eat fowls and rats and consume much liquor4 ,they also admit outsiders into the caste4 ,it may be concluded1 therefore1 that they are an occupational caste formed from the tribes above mentioned or others1 through adopting the calling of brass-workers4 ,the adultery of a ,sidhira woman with a man of any higher caste is looked upon as an absolutely trifling offence1 and this is a common feature of low castes of mixed origin4 ,as among many primitive tribes1 one particular sept performs the ceremony of readmitting offenders to caste intercourse by sprinkling a little ,ganges water over them4 ,the man fulfilling this office is known as the ,baikar1 and after a wedding the bridal pair go to the ,baikar's house and he pours two jars full of water over their heads and bodies4 ,they go inside the house1 and the bridegroom then comes out and gives the wet clothes to the ,baikar with a small present4 ,this appears to be a sort of purificatory ceremony at marriage4 ,sidi4--,synonym of ,siddi4 ,silpi4--7,a stone-mason47 ,subcaste of ,kammala4 ,sindhi4--7,performers of dramas47 ,subcaste of ,madgi4 ,sindhupushkar4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans in ,khairagarh ,state1 perhaps the same as the ,marwari ,pushkama ,brahmans4 ,it is said that ,sindhu has the meaning of a lake4 ,singade4--7,from singh1 horn1 and gadna1 to bury47 ,subcaste of ,koli4 ,the members of this group1 when their buffaloes die1 bury the horns in their compound4 ,singar4--7,a fish47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,a section of ,agharia4 ,singaria4--,those who cultivate the ,singara nut4 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,singh4--7,a lion47 ,the usual suffix to the names of ,rajputs1 ,sikhs and castes which claim ,rajput rank1 such as ,lodhis4 ,singh1 ,singhi4--7,horn47 ,a totemistic sept of ,dhanwar4 ,a section of ,kurmi1 and of ,oswal and ,maheshri ,bania4 ,singhal4--7,ceylon47 ,a section of ,brahmans in ,damoh4 ,singrore4--,subcaste of ,kunbi and ,lodhi4 ,sikligar1 ,bardhia1 ,saiqalgar4 #ejb--;,a small caste of armourers and knife-grinders4 ,the name ,saiqalgar comes from the ,arabic saiqal1 a polisher1 and ,bardhia is from bardh1 the term for the edge of a weapon4 ,they number only about #dej persons in the ,central ,provinces and ,berar1 and reside mainly in the large towns1 as ,jubbulpore and ,nagpur4 ,the caste is partly ,hindu and partly ,muhammadan1 but very few members of it in the ,central ,provinces profess the latter religion4 ,in ,bombay #ejc the ,muhammadan ,sikligars are said to be ,ghisaris or tinkers who were forcibly converted by ,aurangzeb4 ,the writer of the ,belgaum ,gazetteer #ejd says that they are scarcely more than ,muhammadans in name1 as they practically never go to the mosque1 keep ,hindu gods in their houses1 eschew beef1 and observe no special ,muhammadan rites other than circumcision4 ,the ,hindu ,sikligars claim to be ,rajputs and have ,rajput sept names1 and it is not unlikely that in old times the armourer's calling should have been adopted by the lower classes of ,rajputs4 ,the headquarters of the caste is in ,gwalior1 where there is probably still some scope for their ancient trade4 ,but in ,british territory the ,sikligar has degenerated into a needy knife-grinder4 ,mr4 ,crooke #eje describes him as ,a trader of no worth4 ,his whole stock-in-trade is a circular whetstone worked by a strap between two posts fixed in the ground4 ,he sharpens knives1 razors1 scissors and sometimes swords4 ,sirdar4--,title of the ,kawar caste4 ,siriswar4--7,from siris1 a tree47 ,a section of ,gadaria4 ,sirnet4--,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,sirwa4--7,a resident of the ancient city of ,sravasti in ,gonda district47 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,sita ,padri4--,title of ,vaishnava mendicants4 ,sithira4--,synonym of ,sidhira4 ,solaha4 #ejf--;,a very small caste numbering less than a hundred persons in the ,raipur ,district4 ,the caste only deserves mention as affording an instance of an attempt to rise in the social scale4 ,the ,solahas are certainly of ,gond origin4 ,their name appears to be a corruption of ,tolaha1 from tol1 which means leather in ,gondi or ,telugu4 ,their exogamous sections1 as ,markam1 ,warai1 ,wika1 ,sori1 ,kunjam1 are also ,gond names1 and like the ,agarias they are an occupational offshoot of that great tribe1 who have taken to the special profession of leather-curing and primitive carpentry4 ,but they claim to belong to the ,barhai caste and say that their ancestors immigrated from ,benares at the time of a great famine there4 ,in pursuance of the claim some of them employ inferior ,brahmans as their priests4 ,they also say that they accept food only from ,brahmans and ,rajputs1 though they eat fowls1 pork and even rats4 ,women of any other caste can be admitted into the community1 but not men4 ,the fact that they are not ,barhais is sufficiently shown by their ignorance of carpentering tools4 ,they do not even know the use of a rope for turning the drill and do it by hand with a pointed nail4 ,they have no planes1 and smooth wood with a chisel4 ,their business is to make musical instruments for the ,gonds1 which consist of hollow pieces of wood covered with skin to act as single or double drums4 ,they use sheep and goat-skins1 and after letting them dry scrape off the hair and rub them with a paste of boiled rice and powdered iron filings and glass4 ,solanki1 ,solankhi4--,a well-known clan of ,rajputs1 also called ,chalukya4 ,the name is perhaps derived from ,sulakshana1 one bearing an auspicious mark4 ,a section of ,pardhi and ,gujar4 ,sompura4--,a subdivision of ,gujarati ,brahmans in ,jubbulpore4 ,they take their name from ,somnath in ,kathiawar4 ,somvansi4--7,children of the ,moon47 ,subcaste of ,mahar4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,sonar4--,synonym for ,sunar in the ,maratha country4 ,sonbarha4--7,gold pig47 ,a section of ,teli in ,khairagarh1 so named as they presented a golden pig to their king ,bharam ,deo4 ,sonboyir4--7,gold plum47 ,a section of ,teli in ,nandgaon1 so called because their ancestor presented a gold plum to their ,raja4 ,sonbukra4--7,yellow goat47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,sondi4--7,sondi1 tiger47 ,a sept of ,gonds in ,raipur4 ,it is said to be of mixed descent from all the septs1 and can intermarry with any other4 ,sondhi4--,synonym for ,sundi4 ,songainda4--7,gold unicorn47 ,a section of ,teli in ,khairagarh1 so named because they presented a golden unicorn to their king ,bharam ,deo4 ,sonha2 ,sonkutta4--7,wild dog47 ,a sept of ,dhanwar1 ,kawar1 ,saonta or ,santal1 and ,chero4 ,soni4--,synonym for ,sunar4 ,sonjhara1 ,sonjharia4--7,one who washes for gold in the beds of streams47 ,a caste4 ,subcaste of ,binjhwar1 ,injhwar and ,dhimar4 ,sonkar4--,a small caste found in the ,chhattisgarh country1 and also in ,saugor and ,damoh4 ,the name ,sonkar is said to be a corruption of ,chunkar or lime-dealer1 and the ,sonkars of ,saugor make their living by carrying clay and lime on donkeys for building and whitewashing walls4 ,in ,saugor they are also known as ,beldar 7navvy7 and ,gadhera 7donkey-driver71 and occupy a despised position4 ,possibly on this account a few of them in the northern ,districts and the whole community in ,chhattisgarh have abandoned their traditional calling1 and have taken to growing vegetables like the ,malis and ,marars4 ,here their status is better1 and they rank as a gardening caste4 ,their customs resemble those of the lower castes of ,chhattisgarh4 ,they obtain auspicious dates for their marriages and different ceremonies from ,brahmans1 but otherwise these are not employed1 and the caste headman1 known as ,kurha or ,sethia1 officiates as priest4 ,at their weddings the sacred post round which the couple walk must consist of a forked bough of the mahua tree divided in a ,v shape1 and they take much trouble to find and cut a suitable bough4 ,they will not take cooked food from the hands of any other caste1 even from ,brahmans4 ,sonkarasaria4--7,impure gold47 ,a section of ,bhona or ,bhulia4 ,sonkutri4--7,bitch of the wild dog47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar4 ,sonpakar4--7,a tree47 ,a totemistic sept of ,kawar and ,chero4 ,sonratan4--7,gold jewel47 ,a section of ,chandnahu ,kurmi4 ,sonthaga4--7,gold-cheat47 ,a subdivision of ,pardhans in ,kawardha4 ,they cheated people by passing false gold1 and hence were so named4 ,sonthal4--,synonym for ,santal4 ,sonwani4--7,sona-pani1 gold-water47 ,this is a common sept among the primitive tribes and castes derived from them4 ,the members of this sept occupy a quasi-priestly position1 and readmit offenders into caste by giving them water to drink in which gold has been dipped4 ,they also purify those who have got vermin in a wound by sprinkling this water over them4 ,a section of ,ahir and of ,rawat or ,chhattisgarhi ,ahir2 a sept of ,dhoba1 ,dhanwar1 ,gond and ,kawar2 a section of ,kalanga1 ,kumhar1 ,panka and ,teli4 ,sori4--,a sept of ,gond and ,pardhan4 ,sori and ,khusro are the two subsepts of the ,markam sept4 ,soyam4--7,worshipper of seven gods47 ,a division of ,gond in ,chanda4 ,sravaka4--,a ,jain layman4 ,sri ,gaur ,mala4--7,a resident of ,malwa47 ,subcaste of ,barhai4 ,srimali4--7,from the old city of ,srimal in ,rajputana47 ,a subcaste of ,gujarati ,brahman and ,bania4 ,srivastab1 ,sriwastab4--7,from the old city of ,sravasti in the north of ,oudh47 ,a well-known subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,a subcaste of ,bharbhunja1 ,darzi and ,teli4 ,sua4--7,parrot47 ,a section of ,chadar1 ,khangar and ,kasar4 ,a sept of ,bhatra and ,kawar4 ,suda4--,synonym of ,sudh4 ,sudh4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,kolta and ,lohar4 ,sudha4--,synonym of ,sudh4 ,sudho4--,synonym of ,sudh4 ,sudra4--,the lowest of the four traditional castes4 ,see ,introduction4 ,there is no ,sudra caste at present in the ,central ,provinces4 ,a subcaste of ,barai4 ,suibadiwa4--7,sui1 porcupine47 ,a totemistic sept of the ,dhurwa ,gonds in ,betul4 ,suji4--7,from sui1 a needle47 ,synonym for ,darzi4 ,sukul1 ,shukul4--7,white47 ,a surname of ,kanaujia ,brahmans4 ,sulankhi4--,subcaste of ,mahli4 ,sunar4--,a caste of goldsmiths4 ,subcaste of ,bishnoi4 ,sundhi4--,synonym of ,sundi4 ,sungaria4--7,one who keeps pigs47 ,subcaste of ,kumhar4 ,sunni4--,one of the two principal sects of ,muhammadans who follow the orthodox traditions1 ,sunni meaning traditionist4 ,sunri4--,synonym of ,sundi4 ,surait4--,a name signifying persons of impure or mixed descent4 ,a subcaste of ,dhakar and ,halba4 ,a subcaste of ,jharia ,rawat 7,ahir7 in ,bastar1 being the offspring of ,jharia ,rawat fathers by women of other ,rawat subcastes4 ,a subcaste of ,sonkar in ,kanker1 consisting of the offspring of illegitimate unions4 ,a subcaste of ,jhadi ,telenga1 ,kumhar and ,marar 7,mali74 ,suraj1 ,surya4--7,the sun47 ,a section of ,binjhwar1 ,gond1 ,khangar1 ,marar1 ,mowar1 ,rawat 7,ahir7 and ,sansia 7in ,sambalpur74 ,surajdhwaja4--,a subcaste of ,kayasth4 ,surajvansi4--7,descendants of the ,sun47 ,name of one of the two great divisions of ,rajputs4 ,a clan of ,rajputs4 ,a subcaste of ,barai1 ,khairwar and ,kalar4 ,a section of ,chamar1 ,dhanwar1 ,gond and ,koli4 ,suratha4--,a subdivision of ,valmiki ,kayasth4 ,sureyam4--,a ,gond sept named after the sui or porcupine1 because1 it is said1 a porcupine passed by when they were worshipping their god4 ,surkhi4--7,red47 ,a clan of ,surajvansi ,rajputs4 ,sutar4--,the name of a carpenter in the ,maratha ,districts4 ,synonym of ,barhai4 ,suthra ,shahi4--,synonym for ,nanakpanthi4 ,sutsale4--7,a thread-weaver47 ,subcaste of ,koshti4 ,suvarha4--,named after the suar or pig4 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,swami or ,aiya 7,iyer74--7,master47 ,a title given to leaders of the religious orders4 ,a title of ,sanadhya ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a subcaste of ,jangam4 ,swetambari4--,a sect of ,jains who put clothes on their images4 ,tadvi4--,a name for ,muhammadan ,bhils4 ,tak1 ,takshac4--,a clan of ,rajputs1 now extinct4 ,takankar1 ,takari4--7,from takna1 to tap1 to roughen the face of a mill-stone47 ,a synonym or subcaste of ,pardbi4 ,a synonym for the ,pathrot or ,pathrawat stone-workers in ,berar1 who are classed with ,beldars4 ,takle4--7,fallen47 ,a subcaste of ,kasar1 said to consist of the descendants of persons excommunicated for sexual offences4 ,tamashawala4--7,showman47 ,a name given to ,nats4 ,tambatkar4--7,a coppersmith47 ,synonym for ,tamera4 ,tamboli1 ,tamoli4--7,a seller of the prepared betel-leaves47 ,synonym for ,barai4 ,tandan4--,a subdivision of ,saraswat ,brahmans in ,hoshangabad1 perhaps so called from their being priests of the ,tandan ,khatris4 ,tankiwala4--7,a sharpener of grindstones47 ,subcaste of ,dhimar4 ,tanti4--7,tanta1 weaver's loom47 ,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,bhulia and ,mahli4 ,tanti1 ,tatwa 7from ,sanskrit tantu1 a fibre74--,the great weaver caste of ,bengal and ,bihar4 ,a few ,tantis were enumerated in ,raipur ,district in #aiaa4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley is of opinion that the ,tantis are probably a functional group developed under the pressure of the natural demand for fine woven cloth4 #ejg ,one tradition of their origin is that the first ancestor of the caste was begotten by the celestial architect ,viswakarma on a low ,sudra woman4 ,viswakarma is regarded as the tutelary deity of the caste1 and is worshipped twice a year with offerings of flowers1 rice and sugar4 ,images are sometimes made of him1 but more commonly the weaver's loom or some of the tools of the craft are regarded as the dwelling-place or symbol of the god4 ,in past times the ,tantis made the famous fine cotton cloth1 known as abrawan or 'running water1' which was supplied only to the imperial zenana at ,delhi4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley relates the following stories illustrating its gossamer texture4 ,on one occasion a daughter of ,aurangzeb was reproached on entering the room for her immodest attire1 through which her limbs could be seen1 and excused herself by the plea that she had on seven folds of cloth over her body4 ,again in the reign of ,alivardi ,khan 7#agdb-ef71 a ,dacca ,tanti was flogged and banished from the city for not preventing his cow from eating up a piece of abrawan cloth which had been laid out to bleach on the grass4 ,the famous female spinners who used to wind the fine native thread were still to be found in #ahgc1 but their art has now died out4 ,in illustration of their delicate touch it is told that one of them wound #hh yards of thread on a reel1 and the whole weight of the thread was only one rati or two grains4 ,nowadays the finest thread spun weighs #gj yards to the rati4 ,the best cloths were woven by the ,dacca ,tantis1 to whom the ,koshtis of ,burhanpur in the ,central ,provinces stood second4 ,the ,bamanmara tank in the old village of ,dhanpur in ,pendra zamindari of ,bilaspur is so named from the fact that about a century ago some ,brahman traders were murdered on its bank for the sake of the fine cloths they were carrying rolled up in hollow bamboo sticks4 ,in ,bengal the ,tantis are included among the castes from whom a ,brahman can take water4 ,sir ,h4 ,risley is of opinion that they have to some extent raised themselves to this position by their own influence1 their trade being prosperous and lucrative1 and having long ago attained to the development of an urban industry4 ,the ordinary status of the weaving castes being at the bottom of the social scale1 the superior position of the ,bengal ,tantis is an interesting exception4 ,it is analogous to that of the ,koshtis in the ,central ,provinces1 also a class of urban weavers1 who rank above the impure castes1 though they have not attained to the position of the ,tantis1 as ,brahmans will not take water from them4 ,tanwar4--,a subcaste of ,kawar1 to which zamindars belong4 ,tanwat1 ,tanwatkari4--,a synonym for ,panchal ,sunar4 ,tarane4--,synonym of ,dobaile ,teli4 ,tasa4--,synonym of ,chasa4 ,tatwa4--,synonym for ,tanti4 7,from ,sanskrit tantu1 a fibre47 ,tawaif4--7,a prostitute47 ,synonym for ,kasbi4 ,tekam4--7,the teak tree47 ,one of the commonest clans of ,gonds4 ,a sept of ,baiga1 ,bharewa1 ,binjhwar and ,pardhan4 ,a subdivision of ,majhwar4 ,telenga ,dora4--7,telugu ,lord47 ,a designation used by the ,velama caste4 ,telenge4--,a ,telugu name used by ,balijas and other ,telugu castes4 ,subcaste of ,nai4 ,telha4--,subcaste of ,nagasia4 ,the members of this subcaste mark the forehead of the bride with tel or oil at the marriage ceremony4 ,teli4--,a caste of oil-pressers4 ,subcaste of ,barhai1 ,dangri and ,gondhali4 ,teli-,bania4--,a group of the ,teli caste who have taken to shopkeeping4 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,teli-,kalar4--,a mixed group of the ,kalar and ,teli castes4 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,teli-,marar4--,a subcaste of ,marar4 ,telkala4--,subcaste of ,gandli4 ,terah-hazar or ,birbandhi4--7,thirteen thousand47 ,subcaste of ,chero4 ,thakur4--7,lord47 ,the common title of ,rajputs4 ,this title is also used by ,lodhis1 ,raj-,gonds and other landowning castes4 ,a surname of ,karhara ,brahmans in ,saugor4 ,a section of ,ahir1 ,marar 7,mali71 ,panwar ,rajput and ,sudh4 ,thakuria4--7,lordling47 ,a subcaste of ,murao4 ,a subcaste of ,kol and ,parja4 ,a section of ,darzi and ,katia4 ,thanapati4--7,master of the sacred place47 ,synonym for ,gandhmali4 ,thapak4--,a surname of ,sanadhia ,brahmans in ,saugor4 7,from ,sthapak1 the consecrator of idols47 ,thapatkari4--,synonym of ,beldar4 ,thathari4--,a caste of coppersmiths in ,sambalpur4 ,thatia4--,a subtribe of ,gonds1 also called ,gaiki or ,mahato in ,betul4 ,thethwar4--7,one who follows the straight path47 ,a subcaste of ,rawat 7,ahir7 in ,chhattisgarh4 ,thotia1 ,thothia4--7,maimed47 ,a subdivision of ,gonds and ,pardhans1 who live by begging from the ,gonds4 ,thuria4--,subcaste of ,banjara in ,sambalpur4 ,tilokchandi4--7,bais47 ,a subdivision of the ,bais clan of ,rajputs4 ,tirelle4--7,tirole47 ,subcaste of ,are4 ,tirgam4--,a subsept of the ,uika clan of ,gonds in ,betul4 ,a sept of ,pardhan4 ,tirmale1 ,tirmalle4--,a small caste of wandering ,telugu beggars4 ,nearly #djj were returned in the ,central ,provinces and ,berar in #aiaa4 ,tirmales take about performing bulls4 ,the animal is decorated with brass ornaments and bells1 and his back is covered with a patched quilt of different colours4 ,the ,tirmale has a red turban with a scarf round his neck1 and a follower carries a drum4 ,the bull is cleverly trained and performs various tricks4 ,the caste do this in the mornings1 but in the afternoon they appear as ,bairagis or ordinary beggars1 and in the evening as sellers of various sacred articles1 such as sandalwood1 ,ganges water and rudraksha beads4 ,they take water from the ,ganges in small phials and go down to the south of ,india selling it4 ,on this account they are known in ,poona as ,kashi ,kawadi or those who carry banghys from ,kashi 7,benares74 ,in ,telugu they are called ,gangeddulu and in ,tamil ,endandi1 both words meaning people who beg with bulls4 ,they may properly be considered as a subcaste of ,dasaris4 #ejh ,the ,tirmales travel with their families like the ,banjaras1 and live in tents or sheds outside the village4 ,their marriages are generally celebrated in the month of ,shrawan in the rains1 when they return from their wanderings4 ,they speak a corrupt ,telugu among themselves1 but ,marathi to outsiders4 ,they eat flesh and drink liquor4 ,the dead are buried4 ,tirmalle4--,synonym of ,tirmale4 ,tirtha4--,name of one of the ten orders of ,gosains4 ,titha4--7,from titahri1 a sandpiper47 ,a section of ,basor4 ,tiwari4--7,learned in three ,vedas47 ,a family name of ,kanaujia and ,gaur ,brahmans4 ,tiyar4--,a boating and fishing caste of ,sambalpur and ,bengal4 ,in the ,central ,provinces they numbered #gjj in #aiaa4 ,the caste is a numerous one in ,bengal and has been fully described by ,sir ,h4 ,risley1 #eji so that no detailed notice of it is necessary here4 ,the name is derived from the ,sanskrit tivara1 a hunter1 the ,tiyars styling themselves the hunters of the sea4 ,they came to the ,central ,provinces from ,angul in ,orissa1 and they offer to the goddess ,durga in ,angul an oblation of #fj to #ajj jian fish and a headload of lotus flowers on her special festival4 ,in honour of ,durga they observe a fast on the four ,tuesdays of the months of ,chait and ,kunwar 7,march and ,september74 ,in ,chait they also worship their hooks and nets4 ,at their marriages when a father has selected a bride for his son he consults an astrologer to compare their horoscopes4 ,if the conjunction is unsatisfactory he will change the boy's name to suit the astrological calculations4 ,the wedding is celebrated in the common fashion of the ,uriya castes4 ,if a bachelor marries a widow he first goes through the form of wedlock with a bunch of flowers4 ,among their caste penalties1 that imposed for the killing of a cow may be mentioned4 ,it is called the ,gocharan ,brit1 and the offender is required to consort with cows for twenty-one days4 ,he must mix and take his meals in the cowshed1 and must copy the behaviour of the cows1 lying down when they lie down1 standing up when they stand up1 following them when they walk about1 and so on4 ,at the expiration of this period he makes a pilgrimage to a certain village1 and on his return partakes of the five products of the sacred cow and gives a feast to the caste4 ,the ,tiyars are a low caste1 and eat fowls and drink liquor4 ,they will admit a member of any higher caste on his giving a feast to the community4 ,in the ,central ,provinces they have exogamous sections within which marriage is prohibited2 these generally have titular names1 as ,padhan chief1 ,das slave1 ,guru preceptor1 and so on4 ,they catch fish with the ghani benda1 a large bamboo basket covered with palm-tree bark1 which is sunk under water and secured in the bed of the stream4 ,todasai4--7,worshipper of six gods47 ,a section of ,raj-,gond4 ,tomara1 ,tuar1 ,tawar4--7,tomar1 a club47 ,a well-known clan of ,rajputs4 ,a sept of ,gond4 ,toriya4--,a name given to ,gonds who worship twelve gods in ,chanda4 ,tumram4--7,tumria1 a pumpkin47 ,a clan of ,gond1 said to be those who worship six gods4 ,turi4--,a caste4 ,a synonym for ,basors or bamboo-workers4 ,a section of ,kalanga4 ,turk4--7,muhammadan47 ,a section of ,panwa ,rajput in ,balaghat4 ,turkan4--,a subcaste of ,bahna1 so called because their forefathers are said to have been soldiers in the army of the king of ,delhi4 ,turkia1 ,kurkanya4--,a ,muhammadan group4 ,subcaste of ,banjara1 ,chamar4 ,uchla4--7,a lifter47 ,title for ,bharota4 ,uchle4--7,pickpocket47 ,subcaste of ,mang4 ,uchodia4--,a subcaste of ,bhand4 ,ud4--,subcaste of ,chasa4 ,see ,odde4 ,udainath4--,a subdivision of ,jogi4 ,udaiputria4--7,one belonging to ,udaipur47 ,subcaste of ,dhobi4 ,udasi4--,a class of religious mendicants4 ,see ,nanakpanthi4 ,uika1 ,oika4--,a very common clan of ,gonds1 who are said to be worshippers of six gods4 ,ukas4--,a subcaste of ,barhai4 ,ulluka4--7,an owl47 ,a totemistic sept of ,sudh and ,dumal4 ,umre4--,a subcaste of ,bania4 ,see subordinate article to ,bania4 ,a subcaste of ,kalar1 ,nai and ,teli4 ,unayo1 ,unnaya4--7,from ,unan in ,oudh47 ,a subdivision of ,nigam ,kayasth4 ,it is also sometimes considered as a half subcaste1 in addition to the twelve proper subcastes4 ,unewal4--,a subdivision of ,rhedawal ,brahmans found in ,jubbulpore4 ,they take their name from ,una1 a village in ,kathiawar4 ,upadhya4--7,a teacher47 ,a surname of ,kananjia and ,sanadhya ,brahmans4 ,a title of ,manbhao4 ,upmanyu4--,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,uraon4--,synonym of ,oraon4 ,uriya1--7,a native of ,orissa47 ,a synonym for the ,sansia caste of masons in ,sambalpur4 ,a subcaste of ,ganda1 ,ghasia1 ,gond1 ,karan1 ,kewat1 ,koshti1 ,savar1 ,sundi and ,sunar4 ,urkara1 ,urkare4--7,from ,warkora1 a wild cat in ,gondi47 ,a section of ,sunar and ,gond4 ,usrete4--,a subcaste of ,kurmi and ,nai4 ,uthaigira4--7,a picker-up of that which has fallen47 ,synonym of ,sanaurhia4 ,utkala4--7,a resident of ,orissa47 ,one of the five orders of ,panch ,gaur ,brahmans inhabiting ,orissa4 ,vadar or ,wadewar4--7,a stone-cutter47 ,synonym of ,beldar4 ,vade1 ,wade4--7,a carpenter47 ,a sept of ,maria ,gonds4 ,vadra4--7,a carpenter47 ,subcaste of ,kammala4 ,vaghe4--7,from vagh1 a tiger47 ,see ,waghya4 ,vaidika4--7,reciter of the ,vedas47 ,a title of ,brahmans4 ,vaishnava4--7,a worshipper of ,vishnu47 ,a name for the mendicant orders of ,vishnuite devotees and ,bairagis4 ,vaishnava ,sunar4--,a group of ,sunars who claim to be ,brahmans4 ,see ,panchal4 ,vaishya4--,name of the third of the four classical castes4 ,see ,introduction4 ,there is no ,vaishya caste at present1 but the ,bania caste are considered1 perhaps incorrectly1 to be descended from the ,vaishyas4 ,vajantri1 ,wajantri4--7,musician47 ,a subcaste of ,gurao4 ,a synonym and section of ,mang4 ,vallabkacharya4--,a ,vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants4 ,see article ,bairagi4 ,valmika1 ,valmiki4--,a subdivision of ,khedawal ,brahmans who take their name from the sage ,valmika4 ,a subcaste of ,kayasths4 ,vamachari ,sect4--,synonym for ,vam-,margi4 ,vani4--,synonym for ,bania4 ,varade1 ,warade4--7,a resident of ,berar1 a variant of ,berari1 q4v47 ,a subcaste of ,simpi or ,maratha ,darzi4 ,a subcaste of ,dhangar and ,nai4 ,varendra or ,barendra4--,a subcaste of ,bengali ,brahmans4 ,vartati4--7,pure47 ,subcaste of ,andh4 ,vasishta or ,vashishta4--,name of a famous saint in classical literature4 ,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,vellala4--,the great cultivating caste of the ,tamil country1 to whom by general consent the first place in social esteem among the ,tamil ,sudra castes is awarded4 ,they have a strength of more than #b #a_/b millions in ,india2 in the ,central ,provinces there were in #aiaa about #gjj in ,chanda1 ,nagpur and other ,districts4 ,in the ,madras ,census ,report of #aija1 ,mr4 ,francis gives an interesting description of the structure of the caste and its numerous territorial1 occupational and other subdivisions4 ,he shows also how groups from lower castes continually succeed in obtaining admission into the ,vellala community in the following passage3 ,instances of members of other castes who have assumed the name and position of ,vellalas are the ,vettuva ,vellalas1 who are really ,vettuvans2 the ,puluva ,vellalas1 who are only ,puluvans2 the ,illam ,vellalas1 who are ,panikkans2 the ,karaiturai 7lord of the shore7 ,vellalas1 who are ,karaiyans2 the ,karukamattai 7palmyra leaf stem7 ,vellalas1 who are ,balijas2 the ,guha 7,rama's boatman7 ,vellalas1 who are ,sembadavans2 and the ,irkuli ,vellalas1 who are ,vannans4 ,the children of dancing girls also often call themselves ,mudali1 and claim in time to be ,vellalas1 and even ,paraiyans assume the title of ,pillai1 and trust to its eventually enabling them to pass themselves off as members of the caste4 ,the ,vellalas will not touch the plough with their own hands4 ,some of them abstain from flesh and liquor1 and prohibit the remarriage of widows with a view to raising their social status4 ,vidur4--,a caste4 ,a subcaste of ,gondhali1 ,kasar1 ,komti1 ,kunbi1 and ,lohar1 comprising persons of illegitimate descent4 ,vir4--,subcaste of ,gopal4 ,virmushti4--,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,vishnu ,swami4--,a class of ,bairagis or religious mendicants4 ,vishwamitra4--,name of a famous saint in classical literature4 ,an eponymous section of ,brahmans4 ,vyas4--,a section of ,brahmans and of ,agharia4 ,waddar4--,a name for ,telugu ,oddes or navvies in ,chanda4 ,a subcaste of ,beldar4 ,wadewar4--,synonym of ,odde or ,beldar in ,chanda4 ,waghe4--7,wagh or bagh1 a tiger47 ,a section of ,koshti and ,mana1 a clan of ,maratha4 ,waghmare4--7,tiger-killer47 ,a clan of ,arakh1 ,gopal and ,mahar4 ,wakkaliga1 ,okkiliyan4--,a ,canarese caste of cultivators1 of which a few representatives were returned from ,nagpur4 ,they reside mainly in the ,madura and ,coimbatore ,districts4 ,the name is derived from the ,canarese okkalu1 #eaj which means cultivation or agriculture4 ,wakmar4--7,one who left the pangat or caste feast while his fellows were eating47 ,title of ,hatkar4 ,wandhekar4--,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,wanjari4--,synonym for ,banjara4 ,subcaste of ,kunbi4 ,warade4--7,a resident of ,berar47 ,subcaste of ,gurao4 ,wartki4--7,a washerman47 ,synonym for ,dhobi in the ,maratha country4 ,wasudeo1 ,wasdeo4--,the name of the father of ,krishna1 the ,hindu god4 ,synonym of ,basdewa4 ,a subcaste of ,joshi4 ,watkari4 ,see ,otari4 ,wika4--,synonym for ,uika1 a well-known clan of ,gonds4 ,yadu1 ,yadava4--,a well-known clan of ,rajputs4 ,yadubansi4--7,of the ,yadu race47 ,a subcaste of ,ahir4 ,yadu-,bhatti4--,clan of ,rajputs4 ,synonym for ,yadu4 ,yajur-,vedi4--,a subcaste of ,brahmans who follow the ,yajur-,veda4 ,they are also known as ,madhyandan and ,apastambha4 ,yarande4--7,one who presses the erandi or castor-oil seed47 ,subcaste of ,teli4 ,yati4--7,for ,jati74 ,a ,jain ascetic4 ,yelama4--,synonym of ,velama4 ,yogi4--,synonym of ,jogi4 ,yojna4--,subcaste of ,komti4 ,,subject ,,index ,this ,index contains references to general ethnological and other subjects referred to in the articles1 either those on main castes and tribes in ,part ,,ii41 or those on religions and sects in ,part ,i4 ,these latter are usually distinguished by the letters ,r4 for religion or ,s4 for sect4 ,very occasionally a reference is made to one of the minor articles in the ,glossary4 ,the reference numbers are to the paragraphs of the articles4 ,in the few cases where no reference number is given the subject is either treated generally in the article referred to1 or the article itself is so short that further indication is unnecessary4 ,abhiras1 the--,ahir1 #b ,aboriginal tribes1 position of1 in ,hindu society--,bhuiya1 #c ,acrobatic performances--,nat1 #d1 #e ,address1 methods of--,bairagi #aa1 ,brahman1 #ah1 ,gond1 #gb1 ,gosain1 #e1 ,lodhi1 #aj1 ,muhammadan ,r41 #cb ,admission of outsiders--,arya ,samaj ,r41 #c1 ,bhaina1 #f1 ,bhamta1 #c1 ,bhil1 #aa1 ,dahait1 #c1 ,dhanwar1 #aa1 ,gond1 #gj1 ,injhwar1 #d1 ,jhadi ,telenga1 #c1 ,kaikari1 #d1 ,kanjar1 #h1 ,khond1 #i1 ,mahli1 #b1 ,mehtar1 #e1 ,panka1 #e1 ,turi1 #f1 ,vellala1 ,adoption--,bhamta1 #c ,agricultural rites--,gond' #dh1 ,kohli1 #d1 ,kurmi1 #cb1 ,oraon1 #ba1 #bb ,agricultural superstitions--,kurmi1 #cc ,akali sect1 the--,sikh ,r41 #f ,akti or ,akshit tritiya festival--,chitari1 #f1 ,chitrakathi ,alcohol1 prohibition of--,kalar #f ,ambagarhia ,deo1 worship of--,koshti1 #c ,amulets--,bhil1 #i1 ,sunar1 #ab ,ancestors1 reincarnation of--,chamar1 #g1 ,dhakar1 #b1 ,gond1 #cg1 #ci1 ,khond1 #e4 ,oraon1 #aj ,ancestors1 worship of--,badhak1 #i1 ,gond1 #ch1 #db1 ,gowari1 #e1 ,koshti1 #d1 ,oraon1 #ad1 ,sansia1 #c1 ,sundi1 ,thug1 #ag1 ,turi1 #d ,angad ,guru--,sikh ,r41 #b ,animal hospitals--,jain ,r41 #ad ,animal sacrifices1 in ,greece--,kasai1 #ag sacrifice of buffalo--,mahar1 #b ,animals1 kindness to--,bishnoi1 #c1 ,dohor ,animals1 veneration for--,bhil1 #h1 ,gowari1 #e1 ,jain ,r41 #ad1 ,kasai1 ,oraon1 #bj ,animism--,kasai1 #d ,anniversaries of the dead--,kurmi1 #bh ,appearance and mode of life--,baiga1 #g1 #h1 ,beria1 #a1 ,bhil1 #ab1 ,bhishti1 ,bhuiya1 #ad1 ,chamar1 #a1 ,khatri1 #a1 ,kirar1 #d1 ,kohli1 #e1 ,kol1 #af1 ,korku1 #aj1 ,korwa1 #b1 ,oraon1 #bc1 ,panwar ,rajput1 #ac1 ,velama1 #a ,arjun ,guru--,sikh ,r41 #b ,arts1 origin of the--,mochi1 #c ,arya ,samaj ,r41 prospects of--,arya ,samaj ,r41 #f ,assassination1 methods of--,thug1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h ,astronomical beliefs and stories--,bhatra1 #d1 ,dhuri1 #c1 ,dumal1 #d1 ,jadua ,brahman1 ,joshi1 #a-af1 ,mahar1 #aa1 ,turi1 #d ,baigas1 a branch of the ,bhuiyas--,bhuiya1 #f ,balak ,das--,satnami ,s41 #d ,banda1 worship of--,kharia1 #h ,banjari ,devi1 worship of--,banjara1 #aj ,bankrupt1 going 7or ,diwala ,nikalna7--,bhat1 #af ,barber4 ,see article ,nai ,barber-surgeon--,nai1 #f ,bathing--,gond1 #fd1 ,kurmi1 #ci ,beard1 the--,nai1 #aa ,beggars or religious mendicants4 ,see articles ,bairagi1 ,fakir1 ,gosain1 etc4 ,begging1 mode of--,aghori1 #a1 ,basdewa1 ,gopal1 ,jogi1 #aa1 ,waghya ,bell-metal--,kasar1 #d ,betel-vine1 account of--,barai1 #e ,betrothal--,passim4 ,see especially ,banjara1 #f1 ,gadaria1 #c1 ,gond1 ,kawar1 #d1 ,kolta1 #c1 ,korku1 #d1 ,kunbi1 #g1 ,kurmi1 #e1 ,prabhu1 #a1 ,rajput1 ,turi1 #c ,bhang--,kalar1 #aj ,bhanwar ceremony 7walking round the sacred post at marriage7--,kirar1 #b1 ,kurmi1 #i ,bhats and ,charans--,bhat #b ,birth ceremonies--,passim1 ,see especially ,ahir #aj1 ,chamur #h1 ,gond #bh1 #bi1 ,halba #ae1 ,jat #aa1 ,kawar #f1 ,kunbi #aj1 #aa1 ,kurmi #ae-ag1 ,mehtar #h-aa1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #g-i1 ,sonjhara #d2 ceremony of second birth--,korku #aj ,birthdays--,muhammadan ,r4 #ab ,blacksmiths--,lohar #e ,blanket-weaving--,gadaria #g ,blood1 smeared on images of gods--,lakhera #e ,blood-covenant--,kewat #b1 ,khairwar #e ,brahmo ,samaj ,r41 veneration of1 foundation of1 progress of--,brahmo ,samaj ,religion #b1 #c1 #i ,branding the body--,gond #fg1 ,oraon #aa ,bride1 purchase of--,agaria #b1 ,audhelia #b1 ,banjara #f1 ,dahait #c1 ,dangi #c1 ,kawar #d1 ,khadra1 ,kharia #e1 ,khond #d1 ,kir #b1 ,kohli #b1 ,kol #aj1 ,panwar ,rajput #g1 ,pardhi #c1 ,rajjhar #c ,bridegroom1 dress of a--,daharia #c1 ,khangar #c1 ,sansia 7,uria7 #b ,buddhism compared with ,jainism--,jain ,r4 #b ,buffalo1 as a corn god--,kumhar #i1 ,mahar #b ,bullocks1 veneration for--,kunbi #bd ,buradeo1 worship of--,bhunjia #a1 ,gond #ch1 #de1 ,pardhan #d ,burial--,kurmi #bc ,calendar1 the ,hindu--,joshi #a-ae ,camel1 sacrifice of the--,kasai #ae ,cannibalism--,aghori #b1 ,birhor1 ,gond #eb ,car ,festival--,jain ,r4 #aa ,carpentering and woodwork--,barhai #f ,caste customs--,badhak #h1 ,balahi #c1 ,banjara #ai1 ,chasa #c1 ,kabirpanthi ,s4 #i1 ,panwar ,rajput #ac1 ,satnami ,s4 #h4 ,see also ,admission of ,outsiders4 ,caste feasts--,kurmi #da1 ,intro4 #hb1 #hd ,caste ,panchayat or committee--,alur #ag1 ,brahman #bj1 ,dhoba #e1 ,gond #gc1 ,gowari #g1 ,halba #ah1 ,kadera #c1 ,kawar #ab1 ,kol #ai1 ,oraon #bg1 ,pardhan #f1 ,intro4 #ic ,caste rules and penalties--,passim4 ,see especially ,bharia #g1 ,brahman #bj1 ,dhanwar #aa1 ,dhimar #ab1 ,dohor1 ,gond #gc1 #gd1 ,gowari #g1 ,jat #ac1 ,kamar #i1 ,kawar #ab1 ,kol #ah1 ,kurmi #dd1 ,mahar #ab1 ,mehtar #d1 ,panwar ,rajput #ab1 ,pardhi #d1 ,teli #aa ,caste structure--,mehtar #c2 origin of--,intro4 #c1 #d ,cattle1 castration of--,chamar #ae2 slaughter of--,kasai #b2 worship of--,banjara #ac1 ,hatkar #b ,character4 ,see ,moral ,character ,charans--,banjara #b1 ,bhat #i1 #ab ,children1 devices for procuring--,kunbi #ab1 ,mehtar #h1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #g2 superstitions about--,gond #ca2 traffic in--,ganda #b ,choti or scalp-lock--,nai #i ,circumcision--,muhammadan ,r4 #ac ,civil marriage act--,brahmo ,samaj ,religion #f ,clothes4 ,see ,dress ,cocoanut1 legends about--,kabirpanthi ,s4 #e ,conception1 miraculous1 of children--,dhanwar #a ,coppersmiths--,tamera ,counting1 official counter or ,medha ,gantia--,bhatra #d1 ,parja #g1 ,intro4 #fj ,courtesans1 education of--,kasbi #d ,couvade1 practice of--,oraon #i1 ,sonjhara #d1 ,verukala1 ,intro4 #fj ,cow-killing1 penalty for--,tiyar ,cradle songs--,chitari #e ,criminal practices--,badhak #ag1 ,banjara #ba1 ,beldar #f1 ,beria #b1 ,bharota #a1 ,chamar #af1 ,kanjar #e1 ,pardhan #f1 ,pasi #g4 ,see also ,theft ,crows1 beliefs about--,kunbi #ae ,cultivating status--,jat #e1 ,kunbi #d1 ,kurmi #de1 ,intro4 #ba ,cultivation--,gond #gi2 patch cultivation #hj ,dacoity--,badhak #b1 #c1 #d1 ,korwa #aj1 ,mang ,garori1 ,mina #c1 ,pardhi #ab1 ,pindari #d1 #e1 #f1 ,ramosi #b1 ,sansia #d1 #e ,daily life--,maratha #h ,dancing--,gond #gf1 ,gondhali1 ,kashi #c1 #h1 ,kharia #ab1 ,kol #ag1 ,korwa #h1 ,majhwar #g1 ,oraon #be1 #bf1 ,parja #d ,dasahra festival--,kumhar #aj1 ,mahar #b1 ,sunar #d ,dauwa or wet-nurse--,ahir #g ,dayanand ,saraswati--,arya ,samaj ,r4 #a1 #b ,days--,joshi #i1 #af2 omens from--,kawar #aj1 ,parja #g ,dead1 beliefs about the--,kurmi #bi ,death ceremonies--,passim4 ,see especially ,bedar #c1 ,binjhwar #f1 ,bishnoi #h1 ,brahman #ad1 ,chamar #g1 ,dhakar #c1 ,gond #cb-ch1 ,gosain #aj1 ,gujar #f1 ,gurao #f1 ,halba #ab1 ,kabirpanthi ,s4 #g1 ,katia #d1 ,kawar #g1 #h1 ,kharia #i1 ,khatri #d1 ,khojah1 ,khond #f1 ,kirar #c1 ,kol #ad1 ,koli #f1 ,korku #i1 ,kunbi #ad1 ,kunjra1 ,kurmi #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bf1 ,lingayat1 ,mahar #f1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #ad1 ,panwar ,rajput #aa1 ,parsi ,r4 #af1 #ag1 ,rajput #f1 ,sonjhara #e1 ,intro4 #hi ,dehendra ,nath ,tagore--,brahmo ,samaj ,religion #d ,deo ,brahman1 ceremony of--,bedar #b ,demeter1 the goddess--,kumhar #g ,deshmukh and ,deshpandia1 offices of--,kunbi1 #b ,devi1 the goddess--,kumhar1 #aa ,dhar and ,ujjain--,panwar ,rajput1 #c ,dharam ,das1 legend of--,kabirpanthi ,s41 #d ,dharna1 sitting--,aghori1 #b1 ,bhat1 #ad1 ,maratha1 #ad ,dhatura--,kalar1 #aj ,digging earth for oven at wedding--,kirar1 #b ,diseases--,mehtar1 #ac magical cure for--,koshti1 #f ,disguises--,badhak1 #e1 ,bhamta1 #a1 ,jadua ,brahman1 ,thug1 #g ,divorce--,binjhwar1 #e1 ,chamar1 #f1 ,dewar1 #c1 ,dhanwar1 #f1 ,dhimar1 #d1 ,gadba1 #b1 ,gond1 #be1 ,halba1 #aj1 ,katia1 #c1 ,kohli1 #b1 ,koli1 #d1 ,korku1 #aj1 ,koshti1 #c1 ,kunbi1 #h1 ,mahar1 #e1 ,mina1 #d1 ,muhammadan ,r41 #f1 ,panwar ,rajput1 #h1 ,savar1 #d1 ,taonla ,diwali ,festival1 the--,ahir1 #ae1 ,bania1 #ae ,dog--,banjara1 #bj2 associated with the god ,khandoba--,maratha1 #g ,domestic animals1 taboos about--,dhangar1 #d1 ,mang1 #g1 ,naoda1 ,sonjhara1 #f ,doms1 the--,kanjar1 #d ,donkey1 the--,dhobi1 #g ,dravidian tribes1 their origin and immigration--,kol1 #d1 #e1 ,intro41 #cg1 #ci ,dress--,banjara1 #ah1 ,bharia1 #g1 ,bohra1 #g1 ,brahman1 #bb1 ,darzi1 #d1 ,gadba1 #e1 ,gond1 #fa1 ,gosain1 #d1 ,halba1 #ai1 ,jogi1 #g1 ,kasbi1 #h1 ,kawar1 #aa1 ,kol1 #af1 ,korku1 #aj1 ,koshti1 #g1 ,kunbi1 #bb1 ,kurmi1 #cg1 #ch1 ,mahar1 #ab1 ,muhammadan ,r41 #ca1 ,oraon1 #bc1 #bd1 ,pardhi1 #e1 ,parsi ,r41 #ah1 ,rajput #aa ,dyeing clothes--,rangrez1 ,chhipa ,ear1 tearing the--,sunar1 #aj ,ear-piercing--,gond1 #fb1 ,kachhi1 #e1 ,muhammadan ,r41 #aa1 ,sunar1 #aj1 #aa ,earth1 beliefs about the--,bhunjia1 #d ,earth-eating--,chitari1 #c1 ,kurmi1 #ad ,earth-goddess--,kumhar1 #aa ,eating with relatives1 taboos on--,gauria ,eclipse1 legends about--,mehtar1 #ai1 ,teli1 #h ,emasculation4 ,see article ,hijra ,eunuchs4 ,see article ,hijra ,evil eye--,bhatra1 #h1 ,chitari1 #d1 ,khangar1 #c1 ,mahar1 #aa ,exogamous septs or clans--,passim4 ,see especially ,bhaina1 #c1 ,brahman1 #h1 ,chadar1 #a1 ,dahait1 #b1 ,dangi1 #b1 ,gond1 #ab1 ,gowari1 #c1 ,halba1 #d1 ,jhadi ,telenga1 #b1 ,karan1 ,katia1 #b1 ,kawar1 #c1 ,kewat1 #b1 ,khond1 #c1 ,korku1 #c1 ,kunbi1 #e1 ,kurmi1 #d and ,appendix1 ,lodhi1 #d1 ,mahar1 #e1 ,maratha1 #d1 ,panwar ,rajput1 #f1 ,rajput1 #d1 ,savar1 #c1 ,intro41 #dh1 #fi ,extortionate practices of ,bards--,bhat1 #g ,false bride1 custom of--,dhobi1 #b ,fasting for the crops--,kunbi1 #g1 ,oraon1 #bb2 other fasts--,jain ,r41 #ac1 ,thug1 #ah ,female palanquin bearers--,kahar1 #c ,festivals--,gadba1 #c1 ,gond1 #ec1 ,khond1 #aj1 ,maratha1 #g1 ,oraon1 #bj1 #ba1 ,parja1 #g ,fighting1 methods of--,gosain1 #i1 ,khond1 #g1 #h ,fights of animals--,kasai1 #ba ,fishing--,dhimar1 #h ,flowers--,mali1 #c1 #d1 #aj ,folktales--,korwa1 #aa ,food--,baiga1 #h1 ,bania1 #ag1 ,bharia1 #g1 ,brahman1 #ba1 ,gadba1 #e1 ,gond1 #fh1 ,kawar1 #ab1 ,khond1 #i1 ,kol1 #ah1 ,kolta1 #d1 ,korku1 #aj1 ,kunbi1 #ba1 ,kurmi1 #dj1 ,lodhi1 #i1 ,mina 7or ,deswali71 #d1 ,muhammadan ,r41 #cj1 ,parsi ,r41 #ah1 ,rajput1 #h1 ,tiyar1 ,intro41 #he1 #hh2 leavings of food--,dhimar1 #aj ,foreign religions1 adoption of--,mahar1 #aj1 ,mehtar1 #af ,forest ascetics--,jogi1 #e ,fosterage--,ahir1 #g ,funeral priest--,kurmi1 #bf ,furniture--,baiga1 #g1 ,kunbi1 #bj1 ,kurmi1 #cf ,games and pastimes--,kamar1 ,mal1 ,pardhi1 #g1 #aa ,ganja 7,indian hemp7--,kalar1 #aj1 #aa ,ganpati1 worship of--,bania1 #ad1 ,koshti1 #e2 legend about--,kunbi1 #af ,gardening--,mali1 #aj1 ,intro41 #bh ,ghasi ,das 7legends and teachings of7--,satnami ,s41 #b1 #c1 #d ,ghosts1 beliefs about--,bhat1 #aj1 #aa ,gipsies1 origin of--,kanjar1 #b ,girls dedicated to temples--,kashi1 #b1 ,waghya ,goats and sheep--,dhangar1 #e1 ,gadaria1 #f ,gods1 attitude towards the--,garpagari1 #d2 making contracts with the--,mehtar1 #h ,going away ceremony 7or ,gauna7--,halba1 #i1 ,katia1 #c1 ,lodhi1 #f1 ,panwar ,rajput1 #h ,gold1 sanctity of--,sunar1 #g2 washing for--,sonjhara1 #h ,gondwana--,gond1 #b ,govind ,singh1 ,guru--,sikh ,r41 #c ,graveyards--,bohra1 #d1 ,kurmi1 #bc ,grazing cattle--,ahir1 #ai ,greeting--,see ,address1 methods of ,grinding grain--,kanjar1 #i ,gur or sugar1 the sacred--,thug1 #af ,guru or spiritual preceptor--,bairagi1 #ac1 ,daharia1 #c ,hailstorms1 averting--,garpagari1 #a1 #d ,hair--,gond1 #fc1 ,jogi #g1 ,manbhao #c1 ,nai passim ,hair-cutting--,nai #c ,halal 7sacrifice7 rites of ,muhammadan1--,atari #d1 ,kasai #c ,hanuman1 the god--,garpagari #c1 #d1 ,kunbi #ab ,haveli1 meaning of--,kurmi1 #c ,heber1 ,bishop--,swami ,narayan ,s4 #c ,hindu ,r41 aversion to--,satnami ,s4 #g4 ,see ,religious ,beliefs ,holi ,festival--,bania #af1 ,gond #ed1 ,khairwar #i1 ,mannewar ,homosexual practices--,hijra ,horoscopes--,prabhu #a ,horse--,maratha #g ,houses--,banjara #ai1 ,bohra #g1 ,gond #fj1 ,kunbi #ai1 ,kurmi #cd1 ,sonjhara #g2 superstitions about--,gond #cf1 ,kurmi #ce1 ,parja #g ,human corpse1 eating of--,aghori #b ,human sacrifices--,banjara #af1 ,gond #ea1 ,khond #ab1 ,oraon #ag ,hun immigration1 the--,gujar #a1 #b1 ,panwar ,rajput #a1 #b ,hunting1 methods of--,gond #ha1 ,kolhati #f1 ,mal1 ,pardhi #h1 #i1 #aj2 ceremonial hunting--,bhatra #g1 and ,gond ,hypergamy--,brahman #aj1 ,dangi #b1 ,daraihan1 ,lodhi #c1 ,mina #d1 ,murha #b1 ,intro4 #af ,id festivals--,muhammadan ,r4 #bj1 #ba ,illegitimacy--,khatri #c1 ,vidur #c1 ,dhakar ,immorality of girls--,oraon #d ,impure castes--,intro4 #dj1 #id ,incest1 legend of--,lohar #a ,indoor servants--,dhimar #aj1 ,kahar1 #d ,infant-marriage--,dhuri #b1 ,khandait1 ,kir #b ,infanticide--,rajput #d ,inheritance--,kamar #f1 ,kawar #ab1 ,khairwar #h1 ,kol #ae1 ,korku #ab1 ,kunbi #f1 ,rautia #e ,initiation1 rites of--,bairagi #aa1 ,bishnoi #d1 ,gosain #c1 ,kabirpanthi ,s4 #f1 ,manbhao #b1 ,parmarthi ,s41 ,satnami ,s4 #e1 ,sikh ,r4 #d1 ,thug #ai1 ,waghya1 ,intro4 #hc ,interest on money--,bania1 #bc1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #ce ,iron-working industry--,lohar #e2 superstitions about iron--,lohar #b ,jain ,banias--,bania1 #i1 and ,bania1 ,parwar subcaste2 ,jain ,guraos--,gurao #h ,jasondhis1 the--,bhat #h ,jawaras or ,gardens of ,adonis--,kurmi #ca ,jhambaji--,bishnoi #b ,juari as a food--,kunbi #ba ,juggling--,jadua ,brahman ,kabir1 legend and teachings of--,kabirpanthi ,s4 #a1 #b1 #c ,kali1 worship of--,sakta ,s41 ,thug1 #ad2 derived from the tiger--,thug1 #ad1 #af1 #bb ,karan1 legend of--,basdewa ,karma festival--,baiga #h1 ,binjhwar #h1 ,gond #ef1 ,majhwar #g1 ,oraon #ai ,kayasths1 aversion to--,ghasia #h ,kazi--,muhammadan ,r4 #be ,keshub ,chandar ,sen--,brahmo ,samaj ,r4 #e4 #g ,kettle-drum--,ganda #e1 ,nagarchi ,khandoba1 worship of--,bhil #h1 ,maratha #g1 ,waghya ,khatpati--,bhat #af ,khonds1 rebellion of the--,khond #ad ,kidnapping children--,banjara #ag ,king1 legend of killing--,bhil #b ,kinship1 basis of--,kasai #i1 #aj1 #aa ,kolarians and ,dravidians1 the--,kol #d1 ,intro4 #ce-ci ,koli caste2 derived from ,kol tribes--,kohli1 #a ,koran--,muhammadan ,r4 #bg ,krishna1 the god--,ahir1 #d1 #ab2 worship of ,krishna--,bairagi #g ,lac 7bangles and toys7--,lakhera1 #d1 #i2 industry--,lakhera #c ,lalbeg1 worship of--,mehtar #ae ,land1 rules for occupation of--,khond #g2 rights in--,bania #bd2 ownership of--,intro4 #bc ,language--,ahir #c1 ,baiga #aj1 ,bhil #ad1 ,gond #gh1 ,halba #e1 ,kharia #ad1 ,kol #e1 #bb1 ,kolam #a1 ,korku #ad ,leather--,chamar #aa1 #ab1 #ac ,leather-workers--,mochi #d ,legends of origin--,passim4 ,see especially ,agharia1 ,baiga1 ,balahi1 ,bhat1 ,bhoyar1 ,bhunjia1 ,brahman 7,kanaujia and ,nagar sub-castes71 ,chamar1 ,daharia1 ,dangi1 ,dhanwar1 ,dhimar1 ,halba1 ,holia1 ,jat1 ,kalar1 ,kasar1 ,kharia1 ,khatri1 ,kol1 ,komti1 ,korku1 ,lohar1 ,mali1 ,mang1 ,panwar ,rajput1 ,parja1 ,sanaurhia1 ,sunar1 ,sundi1 ,teli ,levirate1 the--,mang #d1 ,mina 7or ,deswali7 #d1 ,parja #f1 ,sunar #c1 ,turi #c ,lingo1 ,gond hero1 legend of--,gond #e-aj ,liquor1 drinking--,gond #fi1 ,kalar #d1 #g2 and preparation of--,kalar #ac2 rice-beer--,kol #g1 ,oraon #bf2 toddy or date-palm liquor--,pasi #f ,liquor1 sanctity of--,kalar #h1 #i ,lizard hunting--,badhak#ae ,love charms--,kunbi #ac ,lukman ,hakim1 worship of--,kadera #d ,madak or opium smoking--,kalar #aa ,magic--,banjara #ae1 ,bharia #f1 ,bhat #aa1 ,bhatra #h1 ,dhanwar #aj1 ,gauria1 ,gond #df1 #di1 ,jhadi ,telenga #g1 ,kawar #f1 #aj1 ,kol #ac1 ,korku #h1 ,teli #ad1 ,vam-,margi ,s4 ,maha-,brahman1 presents to--,kurmi #bf ,manasa ,devi--,nat #f ,maratha1 derivation of name--,mahar #a1 ,maratha #b ,maratha immigration into the ,central ,provinces--,kunbi #b1 #c ,maratha soldiers--,maratha #ac1 #ae1 #af ,marriage1 barber's duties at--,nai #e ,marriage between relations1 restrictions on--,balahi #b1 ,brahman #i1 ,dangi #c1 ,dhoba #b1 ,gond #ae1 ,injhwar #c1 ,kai-kari #b1 ,kunbi #f1 ,murha #b1 ,panka #d1 ,tamera #b ,marriage by capture--,gond #bb1 ,kolam #b1 ,oraon #f1 ,intro4 #ga1 #gb ,marriage cakes1 the--,kurmi #g ,marriage crowns--,chitari #f ,marriage customs--,passim4 ,see especially ,baiga #d1 ,bania #aa1 ,banjara #g1 ,bhatra #e1 ,binjhwar #c1 #d1 ,brahman #aa1 ,chamar #e1 ,daharia #c1 ,gadaria #c1 ,ganda #c1 ,gond #ae-bc1 ,halba #f1 #h1 ,jat #h1 ,jhadi ,telenga #d1 ,kachera #c1 ,kachhi #c1 ,kapewar1 ,kasbi #e1 ,kawar #d1 ,kayasth #h1 ,kharia #e1 ,khatri #d1 ,khond #d1 ,kol #aj1 ,kolam #b1 ,kolta #c1 ,komti1 ,korku #e1 ,koshti #c1 ,kunbi #g1 ,kunjra1 ,kurmi1 ,lodhi #e1 ,mahar #e1 ,mali #f1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #e1 ,oraon #f1 ,panwar ,rajput #g1 ,parja #c1 #d1 #e1 ,prabhu #a1 ,raghuvansi #b1 ,rajput #e1 ,sansia #b1 ,teli #e1 ,turi #c ,masan ,baba1 worship of--,teli #g ,massage--,nai #d ,mecca1 pilgrimage to--,muhammadan ,r4 #ah ,meghnath rites--,gond #ee ,menstruation--,dhanwar #b1 ,gond #bg1 ,halba #ad1 ,kamar #d1 ,kunbi #aj1 ,kurmi #ab1 #ae ,migration--,bhuiya #e1 ,kirar1 ,kohli #a1 ,kol #e1 ,kunbi #b ,military system--,arab1 ,maratha #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #af ,milk--,ahir #bj ,miscarriage--,kurmi #ab ,monasteries--,bairagi #ad1 ,gosain #h ,moneychangers and testers--,sunar #ad ,moneylenders--,bania #ah-bd ,months1 the ,hindu--,joshi #aa1 #ac ,moon1 legends about--,bharia #f1 ,kunbi #af1 ,turi #d2 the moon's path and daily mansions--,joshi #d1 #h1 #aj1 #ae ,moral character1 disposition1 or conduct--,badhak #af1 ,banjara #bb1 ,bhil #c1 #ab1 ,bhilala #e1 ,brahman #be1 ,chamar #ag1 ,dangi #e1 ,gond #eh1 #ei1 ,gujar #c1 ,hijra1 ,jat #d1 ,kohli #e1 ,kunbi #aa1 #bc1 #bd1 ,kunjra1 ,manbhao #b1 ,oraon #bh1 ,panwar ,rajput #ac1 ,pardhan #e1 ,parja #a1 ,pindari #g1 ,rajput #i1 #aj1 #ad1 ,thug #aa1 ,turi #f ,mosques--,muhammadan ,r4 #bb ,mourning--,bania #ac1 ,brahman #ad1 ,chauhan1 ,dumal #d1 ,ganda #d1 ,gond #cd1 ,kawar #g1 ,khatri #d1 ,kirar #c1 ,kunbi #ae1 ,kurmi #be1 #bg2 shaving hair for--,nai #ae ,muhammadan and ,hindu rites1 mixture of--,bishnoi #e1 ,kunbi #ah1 ,kunjra1 ,meo1 ,mukeri1 ,sikligar1 ,teli #h ,muhammadan castes--,muhammadan ,r4 #c ,muhammadan tribal divisions1 families and names--,muhammadan ,r4 #d1 #i ,muharram rites--,kunbi #ah1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #ai ,mulla1 the--,bohra #c1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #bd ,music1 in connection with dancing--,kasbi #c ,musical instruments--,mochi ,nails1 superstitions about--,nai #af ,nakshatras1 the--,joshi #g1 #h1 #ad ,namdeo ,sect--,darzi #e ,names--,agaria #d1 ,baiga #e1 ,bhatra #aj1 ,bhoyar #c1 ,chamar #h1 ,dhanwar #ac1 ,gond #cj1 ,halba #af1 ,jhadi ,telenga #f1 ,joshi #ah-ba1 ,khond #e1 ,kol #bj1 ,kolhati #e1 ,mahar #h1 ,sunar #b1 ,vidur #f ,naming of a child--,oraon #aj1 ,vidur #f ,naming relations1 taboos on--,bhatra #aj1 ,dhanwar #ac1 ,gond #gb1 ,khond #i1 ,lodhi #aj ,nanak--,nanakpanthi ,s4 #a1 ,sikh ,r4 #a ,nanakpanthi and ,sikh sects1 distinction between--,sikh ,r4 #e ,narayandeo1 worship of--,koshti #e1 ,panwar ,rajput #i ,nudity of women--,garpagari #d ,numbers1 superstitions about--,joshi #ab ,oaths--,mahar #ab ,oil-pressing--,teli #ae ,omens1 beliefs about--,ahir #af1 ,badhak #ab1 ,baiga #f1 ,gond #ba1 #dg1 ,kawar #aj1 ,koli #c1 ,korku #h1 ,mang-,garori1 ,mina #c1 ,pardhi #d1 ,parja #g1 ,sansia #f1 ,thug #bb1 #bc1 #bd ,opium--,kalar #aj1 #aa1 ,rajput #i ,ordeals--,bharia #f1 ,kaikari #d1 ,kolhati #e1 ,pardhi #f1 ,sansia #g ,ornaments--,ahir #ah1 ,gond #fa1 ,kunbi #bb1 ,sunar #f1 #h1 #i ,outram1 ,sir ,james--,bhil #d ,paida ceremony--,jat #aj ,palanquin or ,doli--,kahar #b ,parasurama1 legend of--,panwar ,rajput #b ,passover1 the--,kasai #ah ,pavilion or the marriage-shed--,kurmi #f ,pearls--,sunar #i ,physical type4 ,see ,appearance ,pickaxe1 the ,sacred--,thug #ae ,pigs1 breeding for sacrifice and estimation of--,kumhar #f1 #h ,pipal tree1 beliefs about--,kunbi #ab ,pledge1 or covenant1 between married couple--,bhatra #e2 with the gods--,bhat #ad4 ,see also ,dharna ,pola festival--,kunbi #ag ,polyandry1 survivals of fraternal--,bhuiya #aj1 ,khond #d1 ,korku #e1 ,oraon #g4 ,see also ,gowari #c ,polygamy--,agharia #c1 ,andh1 ,bania #ab1 ,barai #c1 ,dangri1 ,dhuri #b1 ,gond #bf1 ,kaikari #b1 ,kohli #b1 ,korwa #d1 ,kunbi #h1 ,kurmi #aa1 ,mali #g1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #f ,prannath--,dhami ,s4 ,pregnancy1 rites during--,chitari #c1 ,gond #bh1 ,halba #ae1 ,kasbi #f1 ,kunbi #aj1 ,kurmi #ac1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #h ,priests1 tribal--,koshti #e ,prostitution--,beria #c1 ,kasbi #b1 #g ,proverbs--,arora1 ,bahna #e1 ,bharbhunja #c1 ,dhobi #g1 ,jogi #ad1 ,julaha ,puberty rites--,gurao #c1 ,kaikari #c1 ,lodhi #g ,rajput and ,jat1 relations of--,jat #c ,rakshabandhan festival--,patwa ,ramazan1 fast of--,muhammadan ,r4 #ag ,ram ,das1 ,guru--,sikh ,r4 #b ,ram ,mohan ,roy--,brahmo ,samaj ,r4 #a1 #b ,red a lucky colour--,lakhera #e ,red dye on the feet--,lakhera #g ,red threads1 custom of wearing--,lakhera #h ,relatives1 taboos between--,kanjar #h1 ,kharia #f4 ,see also ,marriages between ,relatives1 and ,naming ,relatives ,religious beliefs--,passim4 ,see especially collection of articles on ,religions and ,sects1 and caste articles on ,bishnoi1 ,manbhao1 ,bairagi and ,gosain4 ,also articles ,baiga #f1 ,banjara #aj1 ,brahman #ae1 #af1 ,chamar #i1 ,gond #dj-ef1 ,khond #aa1 ,korku #f1 ,koshti #e1 ,kunbi #af1 ,kurmi #cj1 ,mahar #i1 ,oraon #ae1 #af1 ,thug #ab2 ,hinduism1 ,intro4 #ij1 #ie1 #if ,sacred thread1 the--,brahman #ag1 ,gurao #e1 ,kunbi #af1 ,lodhi #aa2 of the ,jains--,jain ,r4 #i2 the sacred cord of the ,parsis--,parsi ,r4 #ae ,sacrifices1 beliefs about and method of--,kasai #bb1 #bc ,sacrificial meal1 the--,kasai #h1 ,kurmi #g1 ,lakhera #e1 #f ,sacrificial method of slaughter--,kasai #bb ,sacrificial slaughter for food--,kasai #bj ,sahajanand ,swami--,swami-,narayan ,s4 #a ,sal flower festival--,oraon #bj ,san-hemp--,lorha ,sankrants--,joshi #f ,sati or burning of widows--,brahman #ac ,scent--,atari #d ,sculpture1 ,hindu--,mochi #c ,sects4 ,for individual sects see articles in section on ,religions and ,sects4 ,for right-hand and left-hand sects see articles ,mala and ,vam-,margi ,s4 ,self-torture--,jogi #d ,sewn clothes1 wearing of--,darzi #c ,sexual morality--,gosain #aa1 ,khond #d1 ,mali #f1 ,oraon #d1 #ba ,shankar ,acharya--,gosain #b1 ,smarta ,s4 ,shantik ceremony--,gurao #c1 ,maratha #f ,sheep--,gadaria #f1 ,dhangar #e ,shoes--,chamar #ab1 #ad1 ,mochi #g ,sikh ,council 7,guru-,mata7--,sikh ,r4 #g ,silajit--,siddi ,singaji1 deified ,ahir--,ahir #ab ,singara or waternut--,dhimar #h ,sister's son1 importance of--,bhamta #b1 ,dhera1 ,gowari #d1 ,gurao #e1 ,halba #g1 ,kamar #c1 ,pasi #e2 marriage to maternal uncle's daughter-- ,bhatra #e1 ,parja #c2 connection with uncle--,mehtar #ac ,siva1 the god4 ,see article ,saiva ,sect ,sleeping-place or common dormitory--,bhuiya #i1 ,gond #ga1 ,oraon #d2 dormitory discipline--,oraon #ab ,snake-bite1 cure for--,gauria1 ,kir #c1 ,nat #f ,snake-worship and snake-charmers--,gond #dc1 ,nat #f1 ,panwar ,rajput #aj ,social extravagance--,jat #aj1 ,kirar #b1 ,kurmi #e1 ,maratha #h ,social life--,kunbi #ai1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #cb ,social status and customs--,barhai #e1 ,basor #e1 ,bhat #d1 ,bhilala #a1 ,bhunjia #e1 ,brahman #ah1 ,chamar #af1 ,dangi #d1 ,dewar #d1 ,halwai1 ,jat #e1 ,kahar #a1 ,kalar #d1 ,kolam #e1 ,koshti #h1 ,kumhar #c1 ,kunbi #e1 ,lodhi #b1 #i1 ,lohar #b1 ,mahar #ac1 #ad1 ,mali #a1 ,mehtar #ag1 ,mina 7or ,deswali7 #a1 #d1 ,nat #c1 ,oraon #bf1 ,pardhi #e1 ,sunar #e1 ,tanti1 ,teli #aj1 #ac1 ,velama1 ,vidur #f ,soldiers4 ,see articles ,arab1 ,bhil1 ,khandait1 ,maratha1 ,paik1 ,rajput1 ,taonla ,soma1 sacred liquor--,kalar #e2 ,homa liquor--,parsi ,r4 #ac ,songs--,bhat #ag1 ,bhunjia #a1 ,chitari #e1 ,dhanwar #d1 ,gond #gg1 ,gondhali1 ,kayasth #i1 ,murha #e1 ,panwar ,rajput #g1 ,parja #d ,souls of the dead recalled--,ahir #aa1 ,gond #cg1 ,kharia #aj1 ,khond #f1 ,kurmi #bd1 ,lohar #d1 ,oraon #ac1 ,taonla ,spangles for the forehead--,lakhera #f ,spells--,lohar #d ,spirits1 beliefs in--,badhak #aj1 ,bhat #ae1 ,halba #ac1 ,kalanga #c1 ,mahar #aa1 ,panwar ,rajput #aj ,spirits-laying--,kawar #h 7of persons killed by tiger7 ,subcastes--,passim4 ,see especially ,brahman #e1 #f1 #g1 ,chamaar #b1 #c1 ,dhimar #b1 ,gond #aa1 ,halba #c1 ,kalar #b1 1#c1 ,kanjar #a-f1 ,kawar #b1 ,kayasth #g1 ,khond #b1 ,kol #b1 #h1 ,korku #c1 ,kunbi #c1 ,kurmi #c1 ,lodhi #c1 ,lohar #c1 ,mali #e1 ,mehtar #b1 ,sunar #b1 ,intro4 #e1 #de-dg ,suckling children--,kurmi #ah ,sudra--,intro4 #ab ,suicide--,bhat #aj1 #ac1 ,jasondhi1 ,rajput #ad2 burning of widows--,brahman #ac ,suthra ,shahi--,nanakpanthi ,s4 #d ,sweetmeats1 preparation of--,halwai ,swindling practices--,jadua ,brahman1 ,jogi #ac1 ,sunar #ae1 ,yerukala ,taboos1 on food--,dhakar #c1 ,kharia #f2 of relationship--,sansia #c2 general--,jat #ac1 ,thug #bc ,tank building--,kohli #c1 ,sansia 7,uria7 #d ,tanning--,chamaar #aa ,tattooing--,bharia #g1 ,binjhwar #i1 ,brahman #bc1 ,dhanwar #ab1 ,gond #fe1 #ff1 ,gowari #h1 ,halba #bj1 ,kamar #aj1 ,mahar #ab1 ,oraon #aa2 suggested origin of--,sunar #aa ,teeth1 disposal of--,kaikari #c1 ,kunbi #aj1 ,nai #af ,theft1 and detection of--,bhamta #a1 ,bharia #f1 ,mang-,garori1 ,ramosi #c1 ,sanaurhia #c1 ,yerukala4 ,see also ,criminal practices ,threads as amulets--,lakhera #h1 ,patwa ,thugs derived from ,kanjars and ,doms--,thug #c ,tiger1 worship of--,koshti #a1 ,panwar ,rajput #aj ,tirthakars of ,jains--,jain ,r4 #c1 #ab ,tobacco--,kalar #ab ,tomb-stones--,gond #ce ,totem1 worship of--,kewat #a ,totemism--,agharia #b1 ,andh1 ,audhelia #b1 ,barai #b1 ,basor #c1 ,bhaina #c1 ,bharia #b1 ,bhil #f1 ,bhoyar #b1 ,bhulia1 ,chadar1 ,chasa #b1 ,chauhan1 ,dahait #b1 ,dhanwar #b1 ,dumal #b1 ,gadba #a1 ,gond #ac1 #ad1 ,kalanga #b1 ,kawar #c1 ,kewat #b1 ,khadal1 ,khadra1 ,khangar #b1 ,kharia #d1 ,khond #c1 ,kol #i1 ,kurmi #d1 ,lodhi #d1 ,majhwar #d1 ,oraon #c1 ,parja #b1 ,rautia #b1 ,savar #c1 ,sudh1 ,intro4 #di1 #ea ,traps for animals--,gond #ha ,trees1 spirits in--,kunbi #ab ,turmeric--,mali #e ,twins1 beliefs about--,kurmi #ai ,udasi--,nanakpanthi ,s4 #c ,ukika sacrifice1 the--,muhammadan ,r4 #aj ,umbrella--,dahait #f1 #g ,vaishnava1 sect--,kasbi #g ,vaishya--,intro4 #ac ,valmiki1 legend of--,mehtar #ad ,vermilion and spangles1 meaning of1 substitutes for blood--,lakhera #e1 #f ,village community--,intro4 #bb1 #bc1 #gc ,village gods--,banjara ,devi in ,banjara #aj1 ,chordewa in ,oraon #af1 ,khermata in ,baiga #f1 ,kurmi #cj1 ,maiya ,andhiyari in ,dhanwar #i1 ,mithu ,bhukia in ,banjara #aa ,village menials--,chamaar #ae1 ,dhimar #ab1 ,gurao #a1 ,kahar #a1 ,kumhar #d1 ,mang #f ,village--priests 7,bhumka ,jhankar7--,binjhwar #i1 ,korku #g1 ,intro4 #bh ,villages--,gond #fj1 ,korku #aj1 ,kunbi #ai ,vishnu1 the god4 ,see article ,vaishnava ,sect ,washerman--,dhobi #h ,washing clothes1 method of--,dhobi #e1 #f1 ,gond #fd ,watchman1 village--,kotwar1 ,ramosi #c1 ,intro4 #bg ,weapons--,khond #g ,weeping1 custom of--,bharia #c1 ,chauhan1 ,gond #bb ,widow-marriage--,passim4 ,see especially ,bania #ab1 ,banjara #h1 ,brahman #ab1 ,chamaar #f1 ,gauria 7disposal of first husband's children71 ,gond #bd1 ,gujar #e1 ,halba #aj1 ,kirar #b1 ,kohli #b1 ,kori #b1 ,koshti #c1 ,kunbi #i1 ,kurmi #aa1 ,mahar #e1 ,mali #g1 ,muhammadan ,r4 #f1 ,panwar ,rajput #h1 ,teli #f2 sale of widows--,panwar ,rajput #h2 ,sati or burning of widows--,brahman #ac ,wine-drinking1 legend of--,kalar #g4 ,see ,liquor ,witchcraft--,bhatra #h1 ,bhil #i1 ,gond #ej1 ,kawar #aj1 ,oraon #af ,women1 sexual morality of--,gond1 ,gowari2 seclusion of--,rajput1 #ac ,wool1 sanctity of--,gadaria1 #h2 shearing and weaving--,gadaria1 #g ,yadava tribe1 the--,ahir1 #d ,yawning--,chitari1 #d ,yoga philosophy--,jogi1 #a ,zend-,avesta--,parsi ,r41 #c1 #d ,zodiac1 the--,joshi1 #b-g ,end of ,vol4 ,i ,,notes #a ,indian ,caste1 p4 #ab4 #b ,dr4 ,wilson's ,indian ,caste 7,times ,press and ,messrs4 ,blackwood71 #ahge1 p4 #hh1 quoting from ,rig-,veda4 #c ,dr4 ,wilson's ,indian ,caste 7,times ,press and ,messrs4 ,blackwood71 #ahge1 p4 #hh1 quoting from ,rig-,veda4 #d ,rig-,veda1 i4 #aa4 ,wilson1 ibidem1 p4 #id4 #e ,wilson1 ibidem1 p4 #ii4 #f ,manu1 ii4 #ag1 #bd4 #g ,barbarians or foreigners4 #h ,see ,burnett and ,hopkins1 ,ordinances of ,manu1 s4v4 #i ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 p4 #agj1 quoting ,weber1 ,indische ,studien1 i4 #agj4 #aj ,a collection of rules for sacrifices and other rites1 coming between the ,vedas and the law-books1 and dated by ,max ,mller between #fjj-bjj ,b4,c4 #aa ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 p4 #ahb4 #ab ,wilson1 p4 #ahd1 quoting from ,shrauta-sutra of ,katyayana1 #a4 #a4 #f4 #ac ,manu1 iv4 #ii2 iii4 #agh4 #ad ,wilson1 pp4 #dba1 #dbb4 #ae ,wilson1 p4 #ahg1 quoting from ,hiranyakeshi ,sutra4 #af ,see article ,mehtar in text4 #ag ,wilson1 p4 #cfc1 quoting from ,smriti of ,angira4 #ah ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 p4 #aie1 from ,hiranyakeshi ,sutra4 #ai ,manu1 viii4 #dag4 #bj ,wilson1 p4 #bfj1 quoting ,mahabharata1 viii4 #acfg et seq4 #ba ,wilson1 p4 #djc1 quoting from ,vyavahara ,mayukha4 #bb ,wilson1 p4 #djj1 from ,parashara ,smriti4 #bc ,wilson1 p4 #adj1 quoting from ,atharva ,veda1 iv4 #cb4 #a4 #bd ,wilson1 p4 #baa4 #be ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 referring to ,ptolemy1 vii4 #a4 #fa and vi4 #abj4 #c4 #bf ,wilson1 pp4 #aac1 #aad4 #bg ,see for the impure castes para4 #dj post4 #bh ,the word aboriginal is used here for convenience and not as conveying any assertion as to the origin of the pre-,aryan population4 #bi ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 p4 #bac4 #cj ,rig-,veda1 #f4 #c4 #af1 quoted by ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 p4 #aaj4 #ca ,wilson1 p4 #aji4 #cb ,monier-,williams1 ,sanskrit ,dictionary1 pointed out by ,mr4 ,crooke4 #cc ,quoted by ,wilson1 p4 #bji4 ,it would seem probable1 however1 that the ,vaishyas must themselves have formed the rank and file of the fighting force1 at least in the early period4 #cd ,manu1 i4 #ij4 #ce ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 p4 #aic1 quoting from ,hiranyakeshi ,sutra4 #cf ,wilson1 p4 #bfj1 quoting ,mahabharata1 viii4 #acfg et seq4 #cg ,mahabharata1 xii4 #bgdi et seq4 #ch ,list of classes of ,indian society given in the ,purusha-,medha of the ,white ,yajur-,veda1 ,wilson1 pp4 #abf-ace4 #ci ,manu1 viii4 #aac4 #dj ,hopkin's and ,burnett's ,code of ,manu1 x4 #fd1 #fe1 and footnotes4 #da ,mahabharata1 xiii4 #beaj et4 seq41 quoted by ,wilson1 p4 #bgb4 #db ,manu1 ix4 #adi1 #aeg4 #dc ,manu indeed declares that such children could not be initiated 7x4 #fh71 but it is clear that they must1 as a matter of fact1 have been capable of initiation or they could not possibly have been married in the father's caste4 #dd ,see article on ,brahman for some further details4 #de ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 i4 #ddj1 quoting ,brahma ,vaivarrta ,purana4 #df ,see article ,bhat for further discussion of this point4 #dg ,dolichos uniflorus4 #dh ,see article ,jat for a more detailed discussion of their status4 #di ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,khandait4 #ej ,proprietors of large landed estates4 #ea ,see article on ,kunbi1 para4 #a4 #eb ,village ,communities1 p4 #abg4 #ec ,history of the ,marathas1 vol4 i4 p4 #be4 #ed ,village ,communities1 pp4 #bbf1 #bbg4 #ee ,the ,aryan ,household1 ed4 #ahia1 p4 #aij4 #ef ,ibidem1 p4 #bbh4 ,professor ,hearn followed ,sir ,henry ,maine in thinking that the clan was an expansion of the patriarchal joint family2 but the reasons against this view are given subsequently4 #eg ,memoir of ,central ,india1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bb4 #eh ,la ,cit antique1 #bast ed4 pp4 #ff1 #fh4 #ei ,la ,cit antique1 #ba st ed4 pp4 #ff1 #fh4 #fj ,nigeria1 quoted in ,saturday ,review1 #fth ,april #aiab4 #fa ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #if4 #fb ,see article ,sunar for a discussion of the sanctity of gold and silver1 and the ornaments made from them4 #fc ,michelia champaka1 a variety of the jack or bread-fruit tree4 #fd ,see article ,darzi for further discussion of the use of sewn clothes in ,india4 #fe ,see articles on ,bhulia1 ,panka1 ,kori and ,julaha4 #ff ,traill's ,account of ,kumaon1 ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 xvi4 7#ahbh7 p4 #bac4 #fg ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,bari4 #fh ,pointed out by ,mr4 ,crooke4 #fi ,the ,marathi name for the god ,hanuman4 #gj ,linguistic ,survey1 vol4 iv41 ,munda and ,dravidian ,languages1 p4 #g4 #ga ,acacia catechu4 #gb ,see article on ,gond4 #gc ,linguistic ,survey1 p4 #ae4 #gd ,introduction to ,the ,mundas and their ,country1 p4 #i4 #ge ,linguistic ,survey1 p4 #bgg4 #gf ,see for this the article on ,kol1 from which the above passage is abridged4 #gg ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 xii4 p4 #age4 #gh ,cochin ,census ,report1 #aija1 quoted in ,sir ,h4 ,risley's ,peoples of ,india1 #bnd ed4 p4 #aae4 #gi ,this was permissible in the time of ,asoka1 circa #bej ,b4,c4 ,mr4 ,v4,a4 ,smith's ,asoka1 pp4 #ef1 #eh4 #hj ,sir ,h4 ,risley's ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,tanti4 #ha ,see article ,kanjar for a discussion of the connection of the gipsies and ,thugs with the ,kanjars4 #hb ,see article ,chamar1 para4 #a4 #hc ,loha1 iron2 tamba1 copper2 kansa1 brass or bell-metal2 sona1 gold4 #hd ,kanch1 glass4 #he ,phul1 flower2 haldi1turmeric2 jira1 cumin4 #hf ,crotalaria juncea4 ,see article ,lorha for a discussion of the objections to this plant4 #hg ,morinda citrifolia4 ,the taboo against the plant is either because the red dye resembles blood1 or because a number of insects are destroyed in boiling the roots to extract the dye4 #hh ,see article on ,brahman4 #hi ,sonjhara is a separate caste as well as a subcaste of ,dhimar4 #ij ,see article ,kurmi1 appendix1 for some instances of territorial names4 #ia ,wilson's ,indian ,caste1 p4 #dci4 #ib ,vol4 i4 pp4 #bgb1 #bgf4 #ic ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #abc4 #id ,see lists of totems of ,australian and ,red ,indian tribes4 ,sir ,j4,g4 ,frazer notes that the majority are edible animals or plants4 #ie ,address to the ,british ,association1 #aijb4 ,i had not had the advantage of reading the address prior to the completion of this work4 #if ,m',lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #abc1 quoting from ,grant's ,origin and ,descent of the ,gael4 #ig ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 pp4 #aab1 #abj1 ii4 p4 #ecf1 iii4 pp4 #ajj1 #afb2 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bji-aj2 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia p4 #ade2 ,native ,tribes of ,northern ,australia 7,professor ,baldwin ,spencer71 pp4 #ba1 #aig2 ,j4,h4 ,weeks1 ,among the ,primitive ,bakongo1 p4 #ii4 #ih ,see pp4 ,,ii1 #ach1 #aij 7,edition #ahia74 #ii ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 pp4 #cch1 #cci4 #ajj ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #bed4 #aja ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 #gth ed4 p4 #bdf4 #ajb ,w4,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #eb1 #ec4 #ajc ,i4 p4 #bec4 #ajd #bnd ed4 vol4 i4 pp4 #afi1 #agd4 ,see also ,sir ,e4,b4 ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture1 i4 pp4 #bhb1 #bhf1 #bie2 ii4 pp4 #agj1 #aha1 etc4 #aje ,see also ,primitive ,culture1 i4 pp4 #aai1 #aba1 #dab1 #dac1 #ead4 #ajf ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillan1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 ,macmillan71 p4 #bja4 #ajg ,linguistic ,survey of ,india1 vol4 iv41 ,munda and ,dravidian ,languages1 pp4 #dj1 #da1 #de4 #ajh ,linguistic ,survey of ,india1 vol4 iv41 ,munda and ,dravidian ,languages1 pp4 #bib1 #bid4 #aji ,dr4 ,a4,h4 ,keane1 ,the ,world's ,peoples1 ,london1 ,hutchinson1 #aijh1 p4 #ej4 #aaj ,nimar ,settlement ,report4 #aaa ,see also ,primitive ,culture1 i4 p4 #djh4 #aab ,the ,oraons1 pp4 #djh1 #dji4 #aac #bnd ed4 vol4 ii4 p4 #deg et seq4 #aad ,for instances of omens see article ,thug and ,index4 ,also ,miss ,harrison's ,themis1 pp4 #ih1 #ii4 #aae ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #bbe4 #aaf ,w4,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #agh1 #ega4 #aag ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #crd ed4 p4 #adc4 #aah ,ibidem1 p4 #abe4 #aai ,see article ,joshi for examples of ,hindu names4 #abj ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #ceg4 #aba p4 #ahb1 et seq4 #abb ,see para4 #fa4 #abc ,i4 p4 #dcj4 #abd ,see article on ,nai4 #abe #bnd ed4 vol4 i4 p4 #eg4 #abf ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 ,introduction1 p4 #be4 #abg ,dr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 ,the ,worlds ,peoples1 p4 #fb4 #abh ,for counting1 see ,primitive ,culture1 #eth ed4 pp4 #bdj1 #bed1 #bfe1 #bff4 #abi ,account of the ,mewar ,bhils1 ,j4,a4,s4,b41 vol4 xxiv4 7#ahge7 p4 #cfi4 #acj ,early ,history of ,mankind1 p4 #bic4 #aca ,ibidem1 p4 #bid4 #acb ,ibidem1 p4 #bie4 #acc ,see also ,primitive ,culture1 i4 p4 #dic1 ii4 p4 #dca4 #acd ,see article on ,mochi for the ,muhammadan reference4 ,the ,jewish reference is of course to the ,second ,commandment4 #ace ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #agf4 #acf ,ibidem1 pp4 #aha1 #ahb4 #acg ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed4 ii4 p4 #abj4 #ach ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed4 iii4 p4 #cja4 #aci ,section on the ,kol tribe in ,dalton's ,ethnology of ,bengal4 #adj ,mr4 ,s4,c4 ,roy1 ,the ,oraons1 p4 #bfb4 #ada ,see also ,primitive ,culture1 #eth ed4 ii4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdf4 #adb ,see article on ,brahman4 #adc ,see article ,bairagi4 #add ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ahe1 #ahf4 #ade ,ibidem1 pp4 #aed1 #aee4 #adf ,primitive ,culture1 #eth ed4 ii4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd4 #adg ,primitive ,culture1 #eth ed4 ii4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd4 #adh ,dr4 ,a4,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #adf4 ,in this case the reference seems to be to any one of several totems of a sub-class4 #adi ,dr4 ,a4,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #ade4 #aej ,ibidem1 pp4 #adh1 #adi4 #aea ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 pp4 #bgc1 #bgd4 #aeb ,primitive ,paternity1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bgb1 #bgc4 #aec ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 p4 #bfe4 #aed ,see paragraph #hj below and the article on ,kasai4 #aee ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 p4 #bdj4 #aef ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ii4 p4 #cif et seq4 #aeg ,this view of sacrifice was first enunciated by ,professor ,robertson ,smith in the article on ,sacrifice in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 and ,the ,religion of the ,semites4 #aeh ,history of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #cbd4 #aei ,many instances are also given by ,mr4 ,hartland in ,primitive ,paternity4 #afj ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #dha4 #afa ,primitive ,marriage1 p4 #ace1 footnote4 #afb ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 p4 #dgc1 iii4 pp4 #cd1 #gf1 #aja1 #bbe1 #bgb1 #cjh1 #cfj4 ,the ,australians have secret ,churinga names1 the ,churingas apparently representing the spirits of ancestors which have returned to the totem4 7,spencer and ,gillan1 ibidem1 ,appendix ,a47 #afc ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 pp4 #aih1 #bjj4 #afd ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #gj2 ,natives of ,australia1 ,mr4 ,n4,w4 ,thomas1 p4 #ge4 #afe ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iii4 pp4 #ic1 #abj1 #abb1 #abd1 #bbf1 ii4 p4 #f4 #aff ,totemism and ,exogamy1 vol4 iv4 #afg ,see article ,lakhera for further discussion of the marking with vermilion and its substitutes4 #afh ,la ,cit ,antique1 ,paris1 ,librairie ,hachette1 #bast ed4 p4 #d4 #afi ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #de4 #agj ,this word seems to mean elder sister1 and is applied by the girls to their sex-totem1 the emu-wren4 #aga ,native ,tribes of ,s4-,e4 ,australia1 p4 #adi4 #agb ,history of ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #dah-dbj4 #agc ,the ,people of ,india 7,thacker ,co471 pp4 #aga1 #agc4 #agd ,tribes and ,castes of the ,n4-,w4,p4 and ,oudh1 art4 ,nunia4 #age ,religion and ,customs of the ,oraons1 ,memoirs1 ,as4 ,socy4 of ,bengal1 vol4 i4 ,no4 #i4 #agf ,mr4 ,s4,c4 ,roy1 ,the ,oraons1 p4 #bdg4 #agg ,see article on ,rajput1 para4 #i4 #agh ,professor ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn's ,aryan ,household 7,london1 ,longmans1 ,green ,co471 p4 #afj4 #agi ,at first the whole gens were the heirs1 ,ancient ,law1 p4 #bba4 ,the group of agnatic kinsmen are mentioned in ,early ,law and ,custom1 pp4 #bch1 #bci1 but not directly as heirs4 #ahj ,aryan ,household1 p4 #bh1 quoting ,becker's ,charicles1 p4 #cid4 #aha ,aryan ,household1 p4 #afj1 quoting ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 c4 #f4 #ahb ,la ,cit ,antique1 #bast ed4 ,paris1 ,hachette et ,cie4 #ahc ,aryan ,household1 p4 #bae4 #ahd ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #bii4 #ahe ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #cjd4 #ahf ,ibidem1 pp4 #abh1 #abi4 #ahg ,ibidem1 p4 #cah4 #ahh ,ibidem1 p4 #abi4 #ahi ,ibidem1 p4 #bgc4 #aij ,ibidem1 p4 #abi4 #aia ,ibidem1 p4 #cbj4 #aib ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #bgi4 #aic ,ibidem1 pp4 #bha1 #bhb4 #aid ,ibidem1 p4 #bha4 #aie ,ibidem1 p4 #cbj4 #aif ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #agi4 #aig ,ibidem4 #aih ,ibidem4 #aii ,ibidem1 p4 #aha4 #bjj ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #aac4 #bja ,ibidem1 pp4 #ahf-ahh4 #bjb ,la ,cit ,antique1 ibidem4 #bjc ,pp4 #aea1 #aed4 #bjd ,the above account of the festival and pilgrimage is taken from the ,rev4 ,t4,p4 ,hughes' ,dictionary of ,islam1 articles ,idu-l-,azha and ,hajj4 #bje ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #acd4 #bjf ,ibidem1 p4 #abg4 #bjg ,para4 #dh above4 #bjh ,see article on ,rajput1 para4 #i4 #bji ,the ,magic ,art1 ii4 p4 #hi1 quoting ,satapatha ,brahmana4 #baj ,see article on ,kasai4 #baa ,see account in article on ,kasai4 #bab ,orpheus1 pp4 #abc1 #abe4 #bac #gth ed4 p4 #cjj4 #bad ,origin of ,civilisation1 #gth ed4 p4 #bii4 #bae ,the ,dasahra3 an ,autumn ,festival of the ,hindus1 ,folk-lore1 ,march #aiae4 ,some notice of the ,dasahra in the ,central ,provinces is contained in the article on ,kumhar4 #baf ,crooke1 loc4 cit4 p4 #da4 #bag ,see also article ,mahar4 #bah ,la ,cit ,antique1 pp4 #bjb1 #bjd4 #bai ,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india1 ii4 p4 #cab4 #bbj ,totemism and ,exogamy1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ebh1 #ecj4 #bba ,ibidem4 #bbb ,totemism and ,exogamy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fjh2 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed4 vol4 iii4 p4 #djg4 #bbc ,dr4 ,a4,h4 ,keane1 ,the ,world's ,peoples1 p4 #ach4 #bbd ,mr4 ,l4,d4 ,barnett's ,antiquities of ,india1 p4 #aga4 #bbe ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed4 vol4 i4 pp4 #bcd1 #bce4 #bbf ,ibidem1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #bbg ,other features of the sacramental rite1 strengthening this hypothesis1 are given in the article ,kabirpanthi ,sect4 ,the account is taken from ,bishop ,westcott's ,kabir and the ,kabirpanth4 #bbh ,see articles ,dewar1 ,bhunjia1 ,gauria1 ,sonjhara1 ,malyar4 #bbi ,some instances are given in the article on ,kalar and on ,rajput1 para4 #i4 #bcj ,dr4 ,a4,h4 ,keane1 ,the ,world's ,peoples1 pp4 #abi1 #acj4 #bca ,para4 #aa4 #bcb ,for further notice of ,vishnu and ,siva see articles ,vaishnava and ,saiva sects2 for ,devi see article ,kumhar1 and for ,kali1 article ,thug2 for ,krishna1 article ,ahir2 for ,ganpati1 article ,bania4 #bcc ,see above1 para4 #ac4 #bcd ,la ,cit ,antique1 p4 #cda4 #bce ,early ,history of ,mankind1 pp4 #bei1 #bfj4 ,the needfire1 as described by ,sir ,e4,b4 ,tylor1 had the character of a purificatory rite1 but it may be doubted whether this was its original form1 any more than in the case of the ,suovetaurilia or ,pola ceremonies4 #bcf ,mr4 ,j4,t4 ,marten's ,central ,provinces ,census ,report1 p4 #bch4 #bcg ,for further notice of this offence see article ,sunar under ,ear-piercing4 #bch ,para4 #fa4 #bci ,tarpeia in ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach's ,cults1 ,myths and ,religions 7,english edition1 ,london1 ,david ,nutt1 #aiab74 #bdj ,cults1 ,customs1 p4 #acj4 #bda ,maclagan1 ,punjab ,census ,report1 p4 #agd4 #bdb ,burn1 ,united ,provinces ,census ,report1 p4 #hb4 #bdc ,cults1 ,customs1 p4 #add4 #bdd ,ibidem1 pp4 #agf1 #agg4 #bde ,cults1 ,customs1 pp4 #adh1 #adi4 #bdf ,maclagan1 l4c4 #bdg ,ibidem4 #bdh ,j4 ,t4 ,marten1 ,census ,report 7#aiaa74 #bdi ,lillingston1 p4 #de1 on the authority of ,max ,mullet4 ,professor ,oman states1 however1 that he had but little acquaintance with the ,vedas 7,brahmans1 ,tkeists1 p4 #ajc71 and if this was so it would seem likely that his knowledge of the other ancient languages was not very profound4 ,but he published a book in ,persian and knew ,english well4 #bej ,oman1 quoting from ,dr4 ,george ,smith's ,life of ,dr4 ,alexander ,duff1 vol4 i4 p4 #aah4 #bea ,oman1 quoting ,mary ,carpenter's ,last ,days in ,england of the ,raja ,ram ,mohan ,roy1 p4 #fg4 #beb ,lillingston1 p4 #ea4 #bec ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #aje4 #bed ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #aaa4 #bee ,lillingston1 p4 #gc4 #bef ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #aaf4 #beg ,ibidem1 p4 #aac4 #beh ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #aah4 #bei ,lillingston1 p4 #if4 #bfj ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #acc4 #bfa ,brahmans1 ,theists1 pp4 #aca1 #aci1 #adj4 #bfb ,brahmans1 ,theists1 p4 #adh4 #bfc ,this article is compiled from the notices in ,wilson's ,hindu ,sects1 ,as4 ,res4 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #gi-ha2 ,sir ,e4 ,maclagan's ,punjab ,census ,report1 #ahia2 and ,mr4 ,bhimbhai ,kirparam's ,hindus of ,gujarat1 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 #bfd ,captain ,c4,e4 ,luard1 in ,central ,india ,census ,report 7#aija71 p4 #hh4 #bfe ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,hindus of ,gujarat 7,mr4 ,bhimbhai ,kirparam71 p4 #ede4 #bff ,this information was kindly furnished by the ,diwan of ,panna1 through the ,political ,agent at ,bundelkhand4 #bfg ,barth1 p4 #adh4 #bfh ,hopkins1 p4 #caj1 and ,the ,jains1 p4 #dj4 #bfi ,barth1 p4 #adi4 #bgj ,the ,jainas1 pp4 #ch-dg4 #bga ,the writer is inclined to doubt whether either ,buddhism or ,jainism were really atheistic1 and to think that they were perhaps rather forms of pantheism2 but the above is the view of the best authorities4 #bgb ,the ,jainas1 p4 #aj4 #bgc ,the ,jainas1 p4 #f4 #bgd ,ibidem1 p4 #aj4 #bge ,moor's ,hindu ,infanticide1 pp4 #age-agf4 #bgf ,marten1 ,c4,p4 ,census ,report 7#aiaa71 p4 #fg4 #bgg ,maclagan1 ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #ahc4 #bgh ,mr4 ,marten's ,central ,provinces ,census ,report1 #aiaa4 #bgi ,the particulars about the ,tirthakars and the animals and trees associated with them are taken from ,the ,jainas4 #bhj ,jonesia ,asoka4 #bha ,cedrela toona4 #bhb ,grislea tomentosa4 #bhc ,eugenia jambolana4 #bhd ,michelia champaka4 #bhe ,crooke1 ,things ,indian1 art4 ,pinjrapol4 #bhf ,moor1 ,hindu ,infanticide1 p4 #ahd4 #bhg ,rajasthan1 vol4 i4 p4 #ddi1 and pp4 #fif1 #fig1 ,app4 #bhh ,central ,provinces ,census ,report1 #aiaa4 #bhi ,westcott1 ,op4 cit4 p4 #c4 #bij ,op4 cit4 p4 #ab4 #bia ,kabir and the ,kabirpanth1 pp4 #aae and #aaf4 #bib ,raipur ,district4 #bic ,the description of the ,chauka service is mainly taken from ,bishop ,westcott's full and detailed account4 #bid ,ficus glomerata4 #bie ,sherring1 ,hindu ,castes and ,tribes1 iii4 pp4 #if1 #abc4 #bif ,by ,surgeon-,major ,cornish4 #big ,bombay ,census ,report1 #aija1 pp4 #aha-ahc4 #bih ,hindu ,manners1 ,customs and ,ceremonies1 p4 #aag4 #bii ,mr4 ,marten's ,c4,p4 ,census ,report 7#aiaa71 ,subsidiary ,table1 ix41 ,occupation1 p4 #bgf4 #cjj ,short for ,amir or ,prince4 #cja ,siddik means veracious or truthful1 and he was given the name on account of his straightforward character 7,bombay ,gazetteer47 #cjb ,supplemental ,glossary1 vol4 i4 p4 #aie4 #cjc ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,t4 ,jackson in ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj21 p4 #aj4 #cjd ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ibidem4 #cje ,hughes' ,dictionary of ,islam1 s4 v4 ,marriage4 #cjf ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 p4 #aff4 #cjg ,ibidem1 p4 #ff4 #cjh ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 pp4 #adg1adh1 from which the whole paragraph is taken4 #cji ,bomb4 ,gas4 ,muh4 ,guj4 p4 #aej4 #caj ,temple's ,proper ,names of the ,punjabis1 pp4 #da1 #dc4 #caa ,qanun-,islam1 p4 #bj4 #cab ,ibidem4 #cac ,qanun-i-,islam1 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 #cad ,ibidem1 pp4 #cj1 #ce4 #cae ,hughes1 ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 pp4 #abb1 #aca4 #caf ,qanun-i-,islam1 p4 #bhf4 #cag ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 pp4 #afh1 #agj4 #cah ,dictionary of ,islam1 art4 ,inheritance4 #cai ,hughes1 ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 pp4 #fc1 #ge4 #cbj ,see post4 ,the account is compiled mainly from the ,dictionary of ,islam1 articles ,idu-l-,azha and ,hajj4 #cba ,bomb4 ,gas4 ,muh4 ,guj4 p4 #ach4 #cbb ,hughes1 ,dictionary of ,islam1 s4v4 ,idu-l-,azha4 #cbc ,hughes1 ibidem4 #cbd ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 p4 #aca4 #cbe ,professor ,margoliouth's ,muhammadanism4 #cbf ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 p4 #aca4 #cbg ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 pp4 #acb1 #ace4 #cbh ,bomb4 ,gaz41 ibidem4 #cbi ,professor ,margoliouth's ,muhammadanism and the ,dictionary of ,islam4 #ccj ,early ,developments of ,muhammadanism1 pp4 #hg1 #ig4 #cca ,notes on ,muhammadanism1 p4 #afh4 #ccb ,dictionary of ,islam1 s4v4 ,food4 #ccc ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 pp4 #ajj-ajc1 and ,dictionary of ,islam1 art4 ,dress and ,ornaments4 #ccd ,hughes1 ,notes on ,muhammadanism4 #cce ,qanun-i-,islam1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 ,this account is a very old one1 and the elaborate procedure may now have been abandoned4 #ccf ,hughes1 ,dictionary of ,islam1 s4v4 ,fitrah4 #ccg ,bomb4 ,gaz4 ,muh4 ,guj4 pp4 #adc1 #add4 #cch ,hughes1 ,dictionary of ,islam1 s4v4 ,whistling4 #cci ,c4,p4 ,census ,report1 #aiaa1 p4 #ff4 #cdj ,this article is compiled from ,sir ,denzil ,ibbetson's ,punjab ,census ,report of #ahha1 and ,sir ,e4,d4 ,maclagan's ,punjab ,census ,report of #ahia4 #cda ,ibbetson1 para4 #bfj4 #cdb ,maclagan1 para4 #hh4 #cdc ,maclagan1 loc4 cit4 #cdd ,ibbetson1 para4 #bfe4 #cde ,maclagan1 para4 #ie4 #cdf ,tribes and ,castes1 article ,suthra ,shahi4 #cdg ,c4,p4 ,census ,report 7#aiaa71 p4 #fi4 #cdh ,p4 #bgf4 #cdi ,orphus1 p4 #id4 #cej ,ibidem4 #cea ,haug1 loc4 cit4 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 #ceb ,orphus1 pp4 #ia1 #ib4 #cec ,haug1 pp4 #bfg1 #bfh4 #ced ,haug1 p4 #bfi4 #cee ,haug1 pp4 #bgb1 #bgc4 #cef ,great ,religions of ,india4 #ceg ,great ,religions of ,india4 #ceh ,orphus1 p4 #if4 #cei ,ibidem1 p4 #ih4 #cfj ,haug1 p4 #aii4 #cfa ,sykes' ,persia and its ,people1 p4 #ahj2 ,great ,religions of ,india1 p4 #agc4 #cfb ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat p4 #aij4 #cfc ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ibidem4 #cfd ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 pp4 #bcc1 #bcg4 #cfe ,p4 #acc4 #cff ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 pp4 #bba-bbf4 #cfg ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 p4 #bca4 #cfh ,ibidem1 pp4 #bci-bdb4 #cfi ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii41 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 pp4 #bda1 #bdc4 #cgj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,parsis of ,gujarat1 pp4 #bje1 #bjg1 #bai1 #bbj4 #cga ,see also article on ,kalar4 #cgb ,aegle marmelos4 #cgc ,dr4 ,bhattacharya's ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 p4 #cga4 #cgd ,see articles ,kumhar1 ,thug and ,sakta sect4 #cge ,see art4 ,sakta ,sect4 #cgf ,mr4 ,marten's ,c4 ,p4 ,census ,report1 #aiaa4 #cgg ,india ,census ,report 7#aija71 p4 #cfj4 #cgh ,hindu ,castes and ,sects 7,thacker1 ,spink ,co41 ,calcutta71 pp4 #djg-dac4 #cgi ,sir ,e4 ,gait's note1 ,india ,census ,report4 #chj ,hindu ,castes and ,sects4 #cha ,this article is based principally on a paper by ,mr4 ,durga ,prasad ,pande1 ,tahsildar1 ,raipur4 #chb ,bilaspur ,settlement ,report 7#ahhh71 p4 #de4 #chc ,some of ,mr4 ,chisholm's statements are undoubtedly inaccurate4 ,for instance1 he says that ,ghasi ,das decided on a temporary withdrawal into the wilderness1 and proceeded for this purpose to a small village called ,girod near the junction of the ,jonk and ,mahanadi rivers4 ,but it is an undoubted fact1 as shown by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal and others1 that ,ghasi ,das was born in ,girod and had lived there all his life up to the time of his proclamation of his gospel4 #chd ,ibidem4 #che ,luffa acutangula4 #chf ,solanum melangenum4 #chg ,some of the ,bundela raids in the north of the ,province were made on the pretext of being crusades for the protection of the sacred animal4 #chh ,from ,mr4 ,durga ,prasad ,pande's paper4 #chi ,this text is recorded by ,mr4 ,durga ,prasad ,pande as follows3 ,bhaji chhurai bhanta chhurdi ,gondli karat chhonka ,lai bhaji ke chhurawate ,gaon la marai chauka4 ,sahib ke ,satnamia2 ',thonka4' ,or ,we have given up eating vegetables1 we eat no brinjals3 we eat onions with more relish2 we eat no more red vegetables4 ,the chauka has been placed in the village4 ,the true name is of ,god2 7to which the pair replied7 ',amen4' #cij ,see article ,nanakpanthi for an account of ,nanak's creed4 #cia ,here again1 ,sir ,d4 ,ibbetson notes1 it is often the women who are the original offenders3 ,i have often asked ,sikhs how it is that1 believing as they do in only one ,god1 they can put any faith in and render any obedience to ,brahmans who acknowledge a large number of deities1 and their answer in every case has been that they do not themselves believe in them2 but their women do1 and to please them they are obliged to pay attention to what the ,brahmans say4 #cib ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahia71 para4 #ajg4 #cic ,account of the ,sikhs1 ,asiatic ,researches4 #cid ,apparently the ,scripture of ,govind1 the tenth guru4 #cie ',hurrah for the ,guru's ,khalsa1 ,victory to the ,guru4' #cif ,sir ,lepel ,griffin's ,life of ,ranjit ,singh4 #cig ,based on the account of the sect in the volume1 ,hindus of ,gujarat1 of the ,bombay ,gazetteer1 and ,the ,swami-,narayan ,sect pamphlet1 printed at the ,education ,society's ,press1 ,bombay1 #ahhg4 #cih ,bishop ,heber's ,narrative of a ,journey through the ,upper ,provinces1 pp4 #adc1 #aec4 #cii ,the ,swami-,narayan ,sect1 pp4 #d1 #bb4 ,the above details are given1 because in the ,bombay ,gazetteer the ,swami is said to have prohibited the taking of food with low-caste people1 and caste pollution2 and this appears incorrect4 #djj ,the ,swami-,narayan ,sect1 p4 #be4 #dja ,bombay ,ducks1 p4 #aid4 #djb ,for a suggested explanation of the myth of ,parasurama see article ,panwar ,rajput4 #djc ,see also article ,ahir4 #djd ,kabirpanthi1 ,nanakpanthi1 ,dadupanthi1 ,swami-,narayan1 etc4 #dje ,this article is based on ,professor ,wilson's ,hindu ,sects1 ,m4 ,chevrillon's ,romantic ,india1 and some notes collected by ,munshi ,kanhya ,lal of the ,gazetteer ,office4 #djf ,dhatura alba1 a plant sacred to ,siva1 whose seed is a powerful narcotic1 and is used to poison travellers4 #djg ,this article consists entirely of extracts from the article on the ,wahhabi sect in the ,rev4 ,t4 ,p4 ,hughes' ,dictionary of ,islam4 #djh ,irvine1 ,army of the ,mughals1 p4 #aih4 #dji ,irvine1 ,army of the ,mughals1 p4 #bcb4 #daj ,summary of the ,maratha and ,pindari ,campaigns1 p4 #bfd4 #daa ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii4 p4 #af4 #dab ,madras ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #bba4 #dac ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahha71 para4 #edc4 #dad ,berar ,census ,report 7#ahha71 p4 #abh4 #dae ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahha71 para4 #ebi4 #daf ,khan ,bahadur ,lutfullah ,faridi in ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,muh4 ,guj4 #dag ,berar ,census ,report1 ibidem4 #dah ,in #aiaa about #cjjj persons belonging to the caste were returned1 mainly from ,bilaspur ,district1 and the ,korea and ,sarguja ,states4 #dai ,crooke1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahd4 #dbj ,eastern ,india1 ii4 p4 #dfg4 #dba ,north-,west ,provinces ,gazetteer1 vol4 xiv41 ,mirzapur1 p4 #cfe4 #dbb ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india1 page #gb4 #dbc ,this article consists of extracts from ,mr4 ,crooke's account of the caste in his ,tribes and ,castes4 #dbd ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #bdh4 #dbe ,punjab ,census ,report 7#ahha71 para4 #edb4 #dbf ,tribes and ,castes1 art4 ,bhatia4 #dbg ,rajasthan1 ii4 p4 #bib4 #dbh ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,bind4 #dbi ,tribes and ,castes of the ,n4,w4,p4 and ,oudh1 art4 ,bind4 #dcj ,bauhinia scandens4 #dca ,ethnology of ,bengal4 pp4 #aeh1 #bba4 #dcb ,see art4 ,bhunjia4 #dcc ,linguistic ,survey of ,india1 vol4 iv41 ,munda and ,dravidian ,dialects1 p4 #ajb4 #dcd ,caldwell's ,dravidian ,grammar1 pp4 #abc and #acd4 ,captain ,glasfurd says3 ',the termination war is a ,telugu affix signifying person or man' 7,settlement ,report of the ,upper ,godavari ,district 7#ahfh71 p4 #bf74 #dce ,this article consists only of extracts from the accounts of ,colonel ,dalton and ,sir ,h4 ,risley4 #dcf ,dalton's ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #abf1 #abg4 #dcg ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,chero4 #dch ,see also art4 ,daharia for a discussion of the origin of that caste4 #dci ,tribes and ,castes1 art4 ,dhalgar4 #ddj ,from a paper by ,narayan ,bohidar1 ,schoolmaster1 ,sonpur ,state4 #dda ,this article is based on papers by ,mr4 ,d4,p4 ,kshirsagar1 ,naib-,tahsildar1 ,buldana1 and ,mr4 ,khandekar1 ,headmaster1 ,nandura4 #ddb ,madras ,census ,report 7#aija71 p4 #adi4 #ddc ,bhandara ,settlement ,report 7,mr4 ,a4,b4 ,napier71 p4 #h4 #ddd ,criminal ,tribes of the ,c4,p41 p4 #fa4 #dde ,buchanan1 i4 p4 #cca4 #ddf ,b4,g4 ,muh4 ,guj41 p4 #hd4 #ddg ,this article is based on information collected by ,mr4 ,hira ,lai in ,betul4 #ddh ,art4 ,dom4 in ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 and of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh4 #ddi ,see article ,are4 #dej ,thana ,gazetteer1 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 #dea ,sholapur ,gazetteer1 p4 #aeh4 #deb ,madras ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #bch4 #dec ,ibidem1 p4 #bhj4 #ded ,satara ,gazetteer1 p1 #da4 #dee ,nasik ,gazetteer1 p4 #ed4 #def ,this account is taken from inquiries made by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal in ,patna4 #deg ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,bauri4 #deh ,from a paper by ,mr4 ,kripasindh ,tripathi1 ,headmaster1 ,saria ,middle ,school1 ,sarangarh ,state4 #dei ,from pag1 a foot4 #dfj ,malcolm1 ,memoir of ,central ,india1 ii4 p4 #ba4 #dfa ,this paper is compiled from notes taken by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal at ,raj-,nandgaon and ,betul4 #dfb ,perhaps ,pandanus fascicularis4 #dfc ,this article is compiled from papers by ,c4 ,ramiah1 ,kanungo1 ,sironcha1 and ,w4,g4 ,padaya ,naidu1 clerk1 ,district ,office1 ,chanda4 #dfd ,mysore ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #bje4 #dfe ,this article is compiled from a paper by ,mr4 ,ghasinam ,dani1 ,deputy ,inspector of ,schools1 ,bastar ,state4 #dff ,the caste numbered #he persons in #aiaa4 ,the above notice is compiled from a paper by ,mr4 ,krishna ,sewak1 ,naib-,tahsildar1 ,bargarh4 #dfg ,based on inquiries made by ,mr4 ,hira ,lal1 ,assistant ,gazetteer ,superintendent in ,bhandara4 #dfh ,madras ,census ,report 7#aija71 p4 #afh4 #dfi ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,guj4 ,mukh4 p4 #ah4 #dgj ,elliott's ,memoirs1 vol4 i4 p4 #ed4 #dga ,crooke's ,tribes and ,castes1 vol4 i4 p4 #afa4 #dgb ,madras ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #cjc4 #dgc ,india ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #bjj4 #dgd ,man1 ,november #aiji4 #dge ,tone1 ,letter on the ,marathas 7#agih71 ,india ,office ,tracts1 p4 #be4 #dgf ,lane1 ,modern ,egyptians1 p4 #cgc4 #dgg ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #baa4 #dgh ,from a paper by ,mr4 ,rajaram ,gangadhar ,deshpande1 ,tahsildar1 ,wardha4 #dgi ,settlement ,report of the ,upper ,godavari ,district 7#ahfh71 quoted in ,mr4 ,nunn's ,monograph on the ,gold and ,silver ,industries of the ,central provinces4 #dhj ,monograph on the ,gold and ,silver ,industries1 loc4 cit4 #dha ,berar ,census ,report 7#ahha71 p4 #bai4 #dhb ,based on a paper by ,mr4 ,ali ,mustafa1 ,naib-,tahsildar1 ,hatta4 #dhc ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #agi4 #dhd ,in the introduction to ,firishta's ,history 7,elliot1 vi4 p4 #efh71 it is stated that ,roh is the name of a particular mountain 7country7 which extends in length from ,swat and ,bajaur to the town of ,siwi belonging to ,bhakar4 ,in breadth it stretches from ,hasan ,abdul to ,kabul4 ,kandahar is situated in this country4 7,crooke's ,hobson-,jobson1 p4 #gff47 #dhe ,mr4 ,crooke's ,tribes and ,castes1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #afe1 #aff4 #dhf ,proper ,names of the ,punjabis1 p4 #gd4 #dhg ,indian ,life and ,sentiment1 p4 #ii4 #dhh ,linguistic ,survey1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cj4 #dhi ,linguistic ,survey1 vol4 iv41 ,munda and ,dravidian ,languages1 p4 #gi4 #dij ,ibidem1 pp4 #hd1 #he4 #dia ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bce et seq4 #dib ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 ,app4 ,i4 #dic ,ibidem1 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc4 #did ,this article is written from papers by ,mr4 ,g4,a4 ,khan1 ,assistant ,commissioner1 ,venkatesh ,tumaiya ,ayawar1 ,schoolmaster1 ,chanda1 and ,mr4 ,g4 ,padaya ,naidu1 ,district ,officer1 ,chanda4 #die ,north ,arcot ,manual1 i4 p4 #bjj4 #dif ,north ,arcot ,manual1 i4 p4 #bdb4 #dig ,based on a paper by ,g4 ,pydiah ,naidu of the ,gazetteer ,office4 #dih ,vol4 xi4 p4 #dcc4 #dii ,mr4 ,edwardes1 ,byways of ,bombay1 p4 #gi4 #ejj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ibidem4 #eja ,j4,a4,s4,b41 ,no4 #c of #aijc1 p4 #ajc4 #ejb ,partly based on a note by ,mr4 ,c4,j4 ,irwin1 ,assistant ,commissioner1 ,jubbulpore4 #ejc ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 xvii4 7,sholapur71 p4 #bcd4 #ejd ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ,belgaum1 p4 #bej4 #eje ,tribes and ,castes1 art4 ,sikligar4 #ejf ,based on a paper by ,mr4 ,gokul ,prasad1 ,naib-,tahsildar1 ,dhamtari4 #ejg ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 art4 ,tanti4 #ejh ,madras ,census ,report 7#aija71 p4 #aec4 #eji ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 s4v4 #eaj ,madras ,census ,report 7#ahia71 p4 #bdc4